file which includes the original illustrations4 ,see #ddcia-;h4htm or #ddcia-;h4zip3 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/cache_/epu b_/#ddcia_/pg#ddcia-;images4html7 or 7https3_/_/www4gutenberg4org_/files_/#dd cia_/ddcia-;h4zip7 ,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,the ligature oe is represented by oe4 ,the signs cross and dagger have been marked as cross and dagger4 ,a carat character is used to denote superscription4 ,a single character following the carat is superscripted 7,compa74 ,illustration3 ,frontispiece ,,reja ,,of ,,the ,,choir 7,seville ,cathedral7 ,the ,world of ,art ,series ,,the ,,arts ,,and ,,crafts ,,of ,,older ,,spain by ,,leonard ,,williams ,corresponding ,member of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy1 of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy of ,history1 and of the ,royal ,spanish ,academy of ,fine ,arts2 ,author of ,the ,land of the ,dons2 ,toledo and ,madrid2 ,granada1 etc4 ,in ,three ,volumes1 ,illustrated ,,volume ,i ,chicago ,a4 ,c4 ,mc,clurg ,co4 ,edinburgh3 ,t4 ,n4 ,foulis #aijh ,american ,edition ,published ,october #aj1 #aijh ,dedicated ,,by ,,special ,,permission ,,to ,,their ,,majesties ,,king ,,alfonso ,,the ,,thirteenth ,,and ,,queen ,,victoria ,,of ,,spain ,,preface ,in preparing these volumes1 it has been my aim to give a clear and fairly complete account of the arts and crafts of older ,spain4 ,it seems to me that there is room for a work of this design and scope1 and that there is no reason why so attractive a subject--or rather1 group of subjects--should be perpetually ignored by persons who travel through1 or who profess to feel an interest in1 the country of the ,cid and of ,don ,quixote4 ,my account of ,spanish pottery is guarded1 and yet ,i trust acceptable4 ,the study of this craft in ,spain is far from definite1 and fresh researches and discoveries may be hoped for at some future time4 ,the history of ,spanish arms has also suffered from unjust neglect4 ,perhaps my sketch of them may slightly compensate for this deficiency4 ,for the rest1 my book1 which represents the well-meant assiduity of several years1 shall speak for itself4 ,although ,i was embarrassed by too much material1 the illustrations have been chosen with great care1 and not1 ,i think1 inadequately4 ,some of the photographs were taken specially for this work4 ,for the loan of others1 or for kind assistance generally1 ,i am indebted to ,excmo4 ,seor ,don ,guillermo ,j4 de ,osma1 ,excmo4 ,seor ,don ,jos ,villegas1 and ,excmo4 ,seor ,don ,jos ,moreno ,carbonero2 to ,seores ,gngora and ,valladar1 of ,granada2 and to ,messrs ,hauser and ,menet1 and ,mons4 ,lacoste1 of ,madrid4 ,august1 #aijg4 ,,contents ,,of ,,volume ,,one ,,pages ,,gold1 ,,silver1 ,,and ,,jewel ,,work #a-aai ,,iron-,,work #abj-aei ,,bronzes #afj-aia ,,arms #aib-bhi ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,volume ,,one ,,gold ,,and ,,silver ,,plate ,,page ,reja of the ,choir2 ,seville ,cathedral ,frontispiece ,i4 ,treasure of ,guarrazar2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bb ,,ii4 ,the ,cross of ,angels2 ,oviedo ,cathedral #cf ,,iii4 ,the ,cross of ,victory2 ,oviedo ,cathedral #dc ,,iv4 ,moorish ,casket2 ,gerona ,cathedral #df ,v4 ,altar-,front in enamelled ,bronze2 ,museum of ,burgos #ej ,,vi4 ,the ,crucifix of the ,cid2 ,salamanca ,cathedral #eb ,,vii4 ,the ,virgen de la ,vega2 ,san ,esteban1 ,salamanca #ed ,,viii4 ,saint ,james in ,pilgrim's ,dress2 ,santiago ,cathedral #eg ,,ix4 ,mudejar ,triptych2 ,royal ,academy of ,history1 ,madrid #fj ,x4 ,the ,tablas ,alfonsinas2 ,seville ,cathedral #fb ,,xi4 ,the ,cup of ,saint ,ferdinand2 ,seville ,cathedral #fd ,,xii4 ,ship2 ,zaragoza ,cathedral #fe ,,xiii4 ,moorish ,bracelets #gg ,,xiv4 ,morisco ,jewellery #hc ,,xv4 ,silver-,gilt ,processional ,cross #he ,,xvi4 ,gothic ,custodia #ie ,,xvii4 ,the ,custodia of ,seville ,cathedral #ajj ,,xviii4 ,early ,chalice and ,cross in ,filigree ,gold #aad ,,iron-,,work ,,xix4 ,old ,keys2 ,seville ,cathedral #aca ,,xixa4 ,decorative ,nail-,heads2 ,convent of ,san ,antonio1 ,toledo #acd ,,xx4 ,door-,knockers #acf ,,xxi4 ,ceremonial ,maces and ,lantern #ach ,,xxii4 ,iron ,pulpit2 ,avila ,cathedral #adj ,,xxiii4 ,reja of ,chapel ,royal2 ,granada ,cathedral #adh ,,xxiv4 ,the same 7,view from ,interior7 #adi ,,xxv4 ,reja2 ,casa de ,pilatos1 ,seville #aee ,,xxvi4 ,reja of the ,casa de las ,conchas1 ,salamanca #aef ,,bronzes ,,xxvii4 ,meleager's ,hunt #afd ,,xxviii4 ,a ,candil #aff ,,xxix4 ,a ,veln #afh ,,xxx4 ,bronze ,lion #aga ,,xxxi4 ,bronze ,stag2 ,museum of ,cordova #agc ,,xxxii4 ,bronze ,temple2 ,museum of ,granada #agd ,,xxxiii4 ,moorish ,lamp and ,mortar2 ,museum of ,granada #agf ,,xxxiv4 ,lamp of ,mohammed the ,third2 ,madrid ,museum #agh ,,xxxv4 ,abbot ,samson's ,bell2 ,museum of ,cordova #ahj ,,xxxvi4 ,bronze ,crucifix #ahb ,,xxxvii4 ,the ,puerta del ,perdn2 ,seville ,cathedral #ahd ,,xxxviii4 ,the ,weathercock of the ,giralda ,tower #ahf ,,arms ,,xxxix4 ,crest of ,jousting ,helmet2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #aih ,,xl4 ,spanish ,crossbowman2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bjb ,,xli4 ,the ,battle of ,la ,higueruela2 ,el ,escorial #bjf ,,xlii4 ,parade ,harness of ,philip the ,third2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #baj ,,xliii4 ,moorish ,crossbow and ,stirrup2 ,museum of ,granada #bad ,,xliv4 ,moorish ,sword2 ,casa de los ,tiros1 ,granada #bah ,,xlv4 ,sword of ,boabdil el ,chico2 ,museum of ,artillery1 ,madrid #bbb ,,xlvi4 ,dagger of ,boabdil el ,chico2 ,museum of ,artillery1 ,madrid #bbf ,,xlvii4 ,moorish ,sword #bcj ,,xlviii4 ,war ,harness of ,charles the ,fifth2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bcd ,,xlix4 ,jousting ,harness of ,charles the ,fifth2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bch ,l4 ,jousting ,harness of ,philip the ,handsome2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bdb ,,li4 ,moorish ,buckler2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bdf ,,lii4 ,armour made at ,pamplona2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bej ,,liii4 ,adarga2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bed ,,liv4 ,spanish ,swords2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #beh ,,lv4 ,spanish ,sword2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bfb ,,lvi4 ,spanish ,sword #bff ,,lvii4 ,spanish ,swords2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bgj ,,lviii4 ,sword ,marks #bgb ,,lix4 ,bridona ,saddle2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bgd ,,lx4 ,hanging ,jaeces for ,horses #bgh ,,lxi4 ,travelling ,litter attributed to ,charles the ,fifth2 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid #bhb ,,gold1 ,,silver1 ,,and ,,jewel ,,work ,the hyperbolic language of the ancients spoke of ,spain as filled throughout1 upon her surface and beneath her soil1 with precious stones and precious metals4 ,old writers--,strabo1 ,pliny1 ,aristoteles1 ,pomponius ,mela1 and ,diodorus ,siculus--declare that once upon a time a mountain fire1 lighted by shepherds in the ,pyrenees and fanned into a conflagration by the wind1 heated the earth until the ore within her entrails came bubbling to the top and ran away in rivulets of molten gold and silver1 spreading all over ,spain4 ,the indigens of ,lusitania as they dug their fields were said to strike their implements on nuggets half a pound in weight4 ,the heart of the ,peninsula1 between the ,boetis and the ,annas rivers--that is1 the country of the ,oretani and the ,bastitani--was fabled to abound in mines of gold4 ,the traders from ,phoenicia1 we are told1 discovered silver to be so abundant with the ,turdetani that the vilest utensils of this people were composed thereof1 even to their barrels and their pots4 ,accordingly these shrewd ,phoenicians1 offering worthless trinkets in exchange1 loaded their ships with silver to the water's edge1 and even1 when their cargo was complete1 fashioned their chains and anchors of the residue4 ,in spite of their extravagance1 upon the whole these legends are not utterly devoid of truth4 ,tradition1 said so careful an authority as ,symonds1 when not positively disproved should be allowed to have its full value2 and a sounder historic sense is exercised in adopting its testimony with due caution1 than in recklessly rejecting it and substituting guesses which the lack of knowledge renders insubstantial4 ,so with the legends of the gold and silver treasure of the old-time ,spaniards4 ,besides1 it seems unquestionable that those fanciful assertions had their origin in fact4 ,spain stood upon the western border of the ancient world4 ,year in1 year out1 the sanguine sun went seething down into the waters at her western marge4 ,mariners from distant countries viewed those sunsets and associated them with ,spain herself4 ,thus1 hereabouts in the unclouded south1 would gold and silver be suggested by the solar orb2 or emerald and jacinth1 pearl and amethyst and ruby1 by the matchless colours of the seldom-failing sunset4 ,then1 too1 though not of course in fabulous amount1 the precious metals actually existed in this land4 ,various of her rivers1 such as the ,calom or ,darro of ,granada1 the ,tagus1 the ,agneda1 and the ,sil1 rolled down1 together with their current1 grains of gold4 ,les ,mores1 wrote ,bertaut de ,rouen of the first of these rivers1 en tiroient beaucoup autrefois2 mais cela a est discontinu depuis cause de la trop grande dpense qu'il y faloit faire4 ,il est certain que souvent on prend dans le ,darro de petits morceaux d'or1 et il y a des gens qui sont accotumez d'y en chercher4 ,centuries before this abbot wrote his book1 the ,arab author of the geographical dictionary known as the ,marasid ,ithila had made a similar remark upon this gold-producing stream2 and in the sixteenth century ,i find an ,ordinance of ,granada city prohibiting the townspeople from digging up the river-bed unless it were to look for gold4#a ,probably1 however1 and in spite of what some chroniclers suppose1 the title ,darro is not in any way connected with the ,latin words dat aurum4 #a ,ordenanza de la ,limpieza 7#aecg71 ,tit4 #i3 ,we command that nobody remove sand from the aforesaid river ,darro unless to extract gold1 in which case he shall fill up the holes he made1 or pay a fine of fifty maravedis for damaging the watercourses that enter this city and the buildings of the ,alhambra4 ,two leagues from ,guadarrama1 wrote the mineralogist ,william ,bowles1 about the middle of the eighteenth century1 opposite the town and in the direction of ,san ,ildefonso1 is a deep valley where one notices a vein of common quartz containing some iron4 ,here1 without the use of glasses1 ,i perceived a good many grains of gold4444 ,in ,galicia grains of gold are found on sandy hills1 and one is astonished to observe the wonderful works carried out by the ,romans to bring the sands together1 wash them1 and extract the precious metal4 ,local tradition affirms that this precious sand was destined for the purses of three ,roman empresses--,livia1 ,agrippina1 and ,faustina4444 ,i know a ,german minister who employed his spare time in washing these sands and collecting the gold4 ,the ,romans1 it is true1 profited very greatly by the native wealth of the ,peninsula4 ,helvius enriched the treasury with #ad1gcb pounds of ,spanish silver bars and #ag1jbc pounds of silver money2 ,cornelius ,lentulus1 with #aeae pounds of gold1 #bj1jjj pounds of bar-silver1 and #cd1eej pounds in coin4 ,cato came back from his pro-consulship with five-and-twenty thousand pounds of silver bars1 twelve thousand pounds of silver money1 and four hundred pounds of gold4 ,seventy thousand pounds of coined silver fell to the share of ,flaccus1 while ,minutius exhibited at his triumph eight thousand pounds of silver bars1 and three hundred thousand pounds of silver coin4 ,mines of silver1#b gold1 and precious stones were also fairly numerous in ,spain4 ,moorish authors wrote enthusiastically of the mines of precious metals in or close to the ,sierra ,nevada4 ,even at this day1 said ,bowles1 the ,moorish mines may be distinguished from the ,roman4 ,the ,romans made the towers of their fortresses of a round shape1 in order to avoid as far as possible the blows of the battering-ram2 and their miners1 whether from habit or intentionally1 made the mouths of their mines round also4 ,the ,moors1 as strangers to this engine1 built their towers square and gave a square shape also to the mouths of their mines4 ,the round mouths of ,roman mines are yet to be seen at ,riotinto and other places1 and the square mouths of ,moorish mines in the neighbourhood of ,linares4 #b ,i am not aware of any ,spanish mine containing silver in a state of absolute purity2 though some1 ,i think1 would be discovered if they were searched for4--,bowles3 ,historia ,natural de ,espaa4 ,emeralds were formerly extracted from a mine at ,moron1 in the ,sierra de ,leyta2 white sapphires and agates at ,cape de ,gata1#c at the eastern extremity of the ,gulf of ,almeria2 amethysts at ,monte de las ,guardas1 near the port of ,plata1 in a precipice 7sic7 about twenty feet in depth4 ,according to ,laborde1 garnets have been discovered down to modern times in a plain half-way on the road from ,almeria to ,motril4 ,they are very abundant there1 particularly in the bed of a ravine1 formed by rain-torrents1 at the foot of a little hill1 upon which a great number of them are likewise found4 ,the emeralds are in the kingdom of ,seville1 all the others in that of ,granada4 ,it has been said for some time that a pit in the mountain of ,bujo1 at ,cape de ,gata1 contains a great many precious stones2 but none could be found there1 notwithstanding the prolonged and careful searches that were lately made4 #c ,possibly1 as ,bowles suggests1 for ,cabo de ,agata--,agate ,cape4 ,it would not be strange1 he adds1 if diamonds were found at this cape1 since there are signs of their presence4 ,i found white sapphires1 slightly clouded1 together with cornelians1 jaspers1 agates1 and garnets4 ,silver mines exist1 or have existed1 at ,benasque1 ,calzena1 and ,bielza1 in ,aragon2 at ,cuevas1 near ,almeria2 at ,almodovar del ,campo2 at ,zalamea1 in ,extremadura2 at ,puerto ,blanco1 in ,seville province2 in the ,sierra de ,guadalupe2 at ,fuente de la ,mina1 near ,constantina2 and near ,almazarron1 in the province of ,carthagena4 ,not far from this latter city was another mine1 that sent to ,rome a daily yield of five-and-twenty thousand drachmas1 and was worked by forty thousand men4 ,twenty thousand pounds in weight of pure silver proceeded yearly from ,asturias1 ,lusitania1 and ,galicia4 ,hannibal extracted from a ,pyrenean mine three hundred pounds a day4 ,the fair ,himilca1 wife of ,hasdrubal1 was owner of a silver mine at two leagues' distance from ,linares4 ,laborde wrote of this mine3 ,it was reopened in the seventeenth century1 when a vein five feet in breadth was found1 from which many pieces of silver were taken2 the working of it1 however1 has been neglected4 ,it belongs to the town of ,baeza4 ,the same author1 who wrote about one hundred years ago1 gives curious and instructive notices of several other ,spanish silver mines4 ,the mountains of the kingdom of ,seville1 on the confines of ,extremadura1 towards ,guadalcanal1 ,alanis1 ,puerto ,blanco1 and ,cazalla1 which form a part of the extremity of the chain of ,sierra ,morena1 contain several silver mines1 which have been worked4 ,there is one of these in the ,sierra ,morena1 three miles from ,guadalcanal1 which to all appearance must have been very rich3 there were three shafts for descending1 the mouths of which are still to be seen3 it was worked in the seventeenth century1 and given up in #afec4 ,it is believed that it was inundated by the workmen1 in revenge for a new tax that was laid upon them4 ,another silver mine was also worked formerly1 a league and a half from the other2 it has a shaft1 and a gallery of ancient construction2 the vein is six feet in circumference1 and is composed of spar and quartz4 ,there is also a third mine1 a league and a half from ,guadalcanal1 and half a league south-east of the village of ,alanis1 in the middle of a field2 it is two feet wide2 the ,romans constructed a gallery in it1 from south to north2 a branch of it running eastward has been worked since their time3 it originally contained pyrites and quartz1 but it is by no means rich2 there is lead at the bottom4 ,gold mines1 or traces of them1 have been found in the neighbourhood of ,molina in ,aragon1 ,san ,ildefonso in ,old ,castile1 and ,alocer in ,extremadura2 in the ,sierra de ,leyta2 in the valley of ,hecho in ,aragon2 and at ,paradeseca and ,ponferrada--this latter town the ,interamnium ,flavium of the ,romans4 ,it is said that the chieftains of the ancient ,spaniards adorned their robes with rude embroidery worked in gold1 and that the men and women of all ranks wore gold and silver bracelets4 ,these statements cannot now be either proved or controverted4 ,gold or silver objects older than the ,roman domination have not been found abundantly in ,spain4 ,riao describes a silver bowl1 conical in shape and evidently fashioned on the wheel1 engraved with ,iberian characters on one of its sides4 ,a similar bowl was found in ,andalusia in the seventeenth century1 full of ,iberian coins and weighing ten ounces4 ,gold ornaments1 such as earrings1 and torques or collars for the neck1 have been discovered in ,galicia less infrequently than in the other ,spanish regions1 and may be seen to-day in private collections1 in the ,royal ,academy of ,history at ,madrid1 and in the ,national ,museum of ,archology4#d ,villa-amil y ,castro has written fully of these torques 7,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades1 ,adornos de oro encontrados en ,galicia74 ,in nearly every case1 he says1 they consist of a plain gold bar1 ,c-shaped and therefore not completely closed into a ring1 and with a knob at each extremity1 as though their pattern were suggested by the yoke of cattle4 ,one or two are decorated with a somewhat rude design extending through a portion of their length4 #d ,a fresh find of torques and fibul has occurred in the spring of this year at ,la ,moureta1 near ,ferrol4 ,on one of these occasions a pair of curious1 kidney-shaped earrings was found1 together with a torque4 ,these earrings1 apparently of later workmanship than the other ornament1 are decorated over all their surface1 partly with a filigree design1 and partly with a fine1 beadlike pattern executed with a small chisel or graving tool in the manner known in ,french as fus1 guilloch1 or hachi4 ,their material is hollow gold1 and when discovered they were filled with a substance resembling powdered charcoal1 mixed with a metallic clay4 ,these ornaments are ascribed by most authorities to an undetermined period somewhere previous to the ,roman domination4 ,i think1 however1 that less improbably they were produced by ,spanish craftsmen in imitation of the ,roman manner1 and during the time of ,roman rule in the ,peninsula4 ,this would account for their deficiencies of execution1 and also for certain characteristics which they evidently share with ,roman work4 ,we know that ,rome imposed her usages on all the peoples whom she subjugated4 ,consequently1 following this universal law1 the ,spaniards would adopt1 together with the lavish luxury of ,rome1 the ,roman ornaments and articles of jewellery4 ,such were the annulus or finger-ring2 the fibula1 a brooch or clasp for securing the cloak2 the torques or neck-ring1 more or less resembling those in use among the ,persians2 and the phalera1 a round plate of gold1 silver1 or other metal1 engraved with any one of a variety of emblems1 worn upon the breast or stomach by the persons of either sex1 and very commonly bestowed upon the ,roman soldiers in reward of military service4 ,then there were several kinds of earrings--the variously-designed stalagmium or pendant1 the inaures1 or the crotalium1 hung with pearls that brushed together as their wearer walked1 and gratified her vanity by their rustling2 and also several kinds of bracelets--the gold or bronze armilla1 principally worn by men2 the periscelis1 the spathalium1 and the dextrale1 worn round the fleshy part of the right arm4#e #e ,these ornaments were retained in use by the ,visigoths1 and find their due description in the ,etymologies of ,saint ,isidore2 e4g43-- ,inaures ab aurium foraminibus nuncupatae1 quibus pretiosa genera lapidum dependuntur4 ,tourques sunt circuli aurei a collo ad pectus usque dependentes4 ,torques autem et bullae a viris geruntur2 a foeminis vero monilia et catellae4 ,fibul sunt quibus pectus foeminarum ornatur1 vel pallium tenetur3 viris in humeris1 seu cingulum in lumbris4 ,discoveries of ,roman jewellery and gold and silver work have occurred from time to time in the ,peninsula2 for example1 at ,espinosa de ,henares and 7in #ahdj7 near ,atarfe1 on the southern side of the volcanic-looking ,sierra ,elvira1 a few miles from ,granada4 ,riao describes a ,roman silver dish found in a stone quarry at ,otaez1 in the north of ,spain4 ,it weighs thirty-three ounces1 and is covered with an ornamentation of figures in relief1 some of which are gilt1 representing an allegorical subject of the source of medicinal waters4 ,in the upper part is a nymph who pours water from an urn over rocks2 a youth collects it in a vessel2 another gives a cup of it to a sick man2 another fills with it a barrel which is placed in a four-wheeled car to which are yoked two mules4 ,on each side of the fountain are altars on which sacrifices and libations are offered4 ,round it is the inscription3 ,,salvs ,,vmeritana1 and at the back are engraved1 in confused characters1 the words3 ,l4 ,p4 ,,corneliani4 ,,piii4444 ,the same author is of opinion that in the time of the ,romans objects of all kinds in gold and silver were used in ,spain to a very great extent1 for1 notwithstanding the destruction of ages1 we still possess inscriptions which allude to silver statues1 and a large number of objects in the precious metals exist in museums and private collections4 ,doubtless1 in the case of articles and household utensils of smaller size--bowls1 dishes1 and the like1 or ornaments for the person--the precious metals were made use of freely2 but when we hear of mighty objects as also made of silver1 e4g4 principal portions of a building1 we might do well to bear in mind a couple of old columns that were standing once not far from ,cadiz1 on a spot where in the days preceding history a temple sacred to the ,spanish ,hercules is rumoured to have been4 ,philostratus affirmed these columns to be wrought of solid gold and silver1 mixed together yet in themselves without alloy4 ,strabo reduced them modestly to brass2 but it was reserved for a curious ,frenchman1 the ,pre ,labat1 who travelled in ,spain in #agje1 to warn us what they really were4 ,elles sont sur cette langue de terre1 qui joint l',isle de ,lon celle de ,cadix2 car il faut se souvenir que c'est ainsi qu'on appelle la partie ,orientale1 et la partie ,occidentale de la mme ,isle4 ,il y a environ une lieue de la porte de ,terre ces vnrables restes de l'antiquit4 ,nous nous en approchames1 croyant justifier les contes que les ,espagnols en dbitent4 ,mais nous fmes trangement surpris de ne pas rencontrer la moindre chose qui pt nous faire seulement souponner qu'elles fussent d'une antiquit un peu considrable4 ,nous vimes que ces deux tours rondes1 qui n'ont prsent qu'environ vingt pieds de hauteur sur douze quinze pieds de diamtre1 toient d'une maonnerie fort commune4 ,leurs portes toient bouches1 et nous convinmes tous qu'elles avoient t dans leur jeune tems des moulins vent qu'on avoit abandonns2 il n'y a ni inscriptions1 ni bas-reliefs1 ni reste de figures quelconques4 ,en un mot1 rien qui mritt notre attention1 ni qui recompenst la moindre partie de la peine que nous avions prise pour les aller voir de prs4 ,car je les avois vue plus d'une fois du grand chemin1 o j'avois pass1 et je devois me contenter4 ,mais que ne fait-on pas quand on est curieux1 et aussi desoeuvr que je l'tois alors4 ,many of the usages of ,roman ,spain descended to the ,visigoths4 ,the jewels of this people manifest the double influence of ,rome and of ,byzantium1 and the latter influenced in its turn from ,eastern sources4 ,we learn from that extraordinary encyclopdia of early medival ,spanish lore--the ,etymologies of ,isidore of ,beja--that the ,visigothic women decked themselves with earrings1 necklaces1 and bracelets1 set with precious stones of fabulous price4 ,leovigild is stated by the same writer to have been the first of the ,visigothic princes to use the insignia of royalty4 ,one of his coins 7engraved in ,florez7 represents him with an imperial crown surmounted by a cross resembling that of the ,byzantines4 ,coins of a similar design1 and also bearing the imperial crown1 were minted at ,toledo1 ,cordova1 or ,merida1 in the reigns of ,chindaswint1 ,wamba1 ,ervigius1 and ,egica4 ,but the true fountain-head of all our modern knowledge respecting the jewellery of ,visigothic ,spain is in the wonderful crosses1 crowns1 and other ornaments discovered in #aheh upon the site of some old ,christian temple1 two leagues distant from ,toledo4 ,these objects1 known collectively as the treasure of ,guarrazar1 were stumbled on by certain peasants after a heavy storm had washed away a quantity of earth4 ,some were destroyed upon the spot2 others were sold to the ,toledo silversmiths and melted down by these barbarians of our day2 but fortunately the greater part remained intact1 or very nearly so4 ,there were in all1 composed exclusively of gold and precious stones1 eleven crowns1 two crosses containing legible inscriptions1 fragments such as the arms of a processional cross1 and many single stones which time had doubtless separated from the crosses or the crowns4#f #f ,there is also in the ,archological ,museum at ,madrid a small collection of what has been described as ,visigothic jewellery1 consisting of a handsome phalera1 necklaces1 finger-rings1 and earrings4 ,most of these objects were found at ,elche in #aggf4 ,the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades published a full description by ,florencio ,janer4 ,their interest is by no means as great as that of the treasure of ,guarrazar1 nor is the date of their production definitely ascertained4 ,from various details ,i suspect that many of them may be purely ,roman4 ,part of this treasure passed in some mysterious way to ,france1 and is now in the ,cluny ,museum at ,paris4 ,the rest is in the ,royal ,armoury at ,madrid4 ,paris can boast possession of nine of the crowns2 ,madrid1 of two1 together with a fragment of a third--this latter of a balustrade or basket pattern4 ,five of the nine crowns preserved at ,paris are fashioned of simple hoops of gold4 ,the most important of the five1 the crown of ,recceswinth1 who ruled in ,spain from #fej to #fgb ,a4,d41 consists of two hinged semicircles of hollow gold1 about a finger's-breadth across the interspace4 ,it measures just over eight inches in diameter and four inches in depth4 ,both the upper and the lower rims are decorated to the depth of nearly half an inch with a design of four-pointed floral or semi-floral figures within minute circles4 ,amador de los ,ros has recognized this same design in the frieze of certain buildings at ,toledo1 and in the edges of mosaic discovered at ,italica and ,lugo1 as well as in the ,balearic ,islands4 ,the interstices of this design upon the crown are filled with a kind of red enamel or glaze1 the true nature of which has not been definitely ascertained4 ,riao calls it a delicate ornamentation of cloisonn work1 which encloses a substance resembling red glass4 ,the centre of the crown is filled with three rows of large stones1 principally pearls and sapphires4 ,there are also several onyxes1 a stone which in those days was held in great esteem4 ,the spaces between the rows of stones are ornamented with a somewhat rudimentary design of palm branches1 the leaves of which appear to have been filled or outlined with the kind of red enamel ,i have spoken of4 ,this crown is suspended by four gold chains containing each of them five leaf-shaped links1 perces jour4 ,the chains unite at a gold rosette in the form of a double lily1 terminated by a stoutish capital of rock-crystal4 ,this in its turn is capped by another piece of crystal holding the final stem of gold which served as a hook for hanging up the crown4 ,suspended from the gold rosette by a long chain is a handsome cross1 undoubtedly of more elaborate workmanship1 studded with union pearls and monster sapphires4 ,amador believed this ornament to be a brooch4 ,if this were so it is1 of course1 improperly appended here4 ,twenty-four gold chains hang from the lower border of the crown1 concluding in pyriform sapphires of large size4 ,each sapphire is surmounted by a small1 square frame of gold containing coloured glass1 and above this1 in each of three-and-twenty of the chains1 is one of the golden letters forming the inscription1 cross ,,reccesvinthvs ,,rex ,,offeret4 ,besides this crown there are at ,paris-- 7#a7 ,a similar though slighter crown1 the body of which is studded with fifty-four magnificent stones4 ,a cross1 now kept apart in the same collection1 is thought by ,spanish experts to have once been pendent from the crown4 ,if so1 the latter was perhaps presented to the sanctuary by one ,sonnica1 probably a ,visigothic magnate1 and not a woman1 as the termination of the name induced some foreign antiquaries to suppose4 ,the cross is thus inscribed3-- ,,in ,,di ,,nom ,,ine ,,offeret ,,sonnica ,,sce ,,ma ,,rie ,,ins ,,orba ,,ces#g #g ,the last word is commonly believed to be the name of a place--,sorbaces4 ,there has been much discussion as to its meaning4 7#b7 ,three crowns of plain design consisting of hoops of gold with primitive repouss decoration1 and1 in the case of one1 with precious stones4 7#c7 ,four crowns1 each with a pendent cross4 ,the pattern is a basket-work or set of balustrades of thin gold hollow plates 7not1 as ,riao stated1 massive7 with precious stones about the intersections of the bars or meshes1 and others hanging from the lower rim4 ,three of these crowns have three rows or tiers of what ,i call the balustrade2 the other crown has four4 ,the custom of offering votive crowns to ,christian temples was taken by the emperors of ,constantinople from heathen peoples of the eastern world4 ,in ,spain this custom1 introduced by ,recared1 outlived by many years the ruin of the ,visigothic monarchy--survived1 in fact1 until the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,thus in #hia ,alfonso the ,third presented to the monastery of ,san ,adrian and ,santa ,natalia four crowns of gold and three of silver1 while just a hundred years afterwards ,ordoo the ,second presented three silver crowns to the monastery of ,samos4 ,other crowns were offered by the prelates and the secular nobility4 ,returning to the crowns of ,guarrazar1 there has been great controversy as to whether these were worn upon the head4 ,some experts think they must have been so worn2 and in this case the rings upon the rim1 through which the chains are passed1 would seem to have been added on the presentation of these objects to the sanctuary4 ,lasteyrie1 on the other hand1 considered that the crowns were merely votive and were never meant for personal use1 arguing that the rings were fixed about the border from the very moment when the crowns were made2#h but ,amador ingeniously replied to this by pointing out that in a few of the old ,castilian coins--for instance1 one of ,sancho the ,third--the crown1 with rings about its rim1 is actually upon the monarch's head4 ,it is possible1 adds the same authority1 that these were old votive crowns proceeding from some church1 although he thinks it still more likely that they were fashioned with the rings attached to them4 ,we should remember1 too1 the hinge which serves to open and close the body of these crowns4 ,it is difficult to guess the purpose of this hinge1 unless it were to fit the crown more comfortably on the head4 #h ,description du trsor de ,guarrazar4 ,of that portion of the treasure of ,guarrazar which has remained at ,madrid 7,plate i471 the most important object is the votive crown of ,king ,swinthila1 son of ,recared1 and described as one of the most illustrious and unlucky princes that ever occupied the throne of ,atawulf4 ,this crown measures nine inches in diameter by two and a half in height4 ,it consists of thin gold plates united at the edge1 leaving1 between the inner and the outer side1 a hollow space about a quarter of an inch across4 ,the exterior is divided into a central horizontal hoop or band between two others1 somewhat narrower1 at the top and bottom1 these last being slightly raised above the level of the third4 ,a triple row of precious stones1 amounting to one hundred and twenty-five pearls and sapphires in the entire crown1 surrounds the outer surface of the same1 the central band or zone of which contains besides1 wrought in repouss on the hoop1 a simple circular device wherein each centre is a sapphire or a pearl1 though many of these have fallen from their setting4 ,the spaces which describe these circles are superposed on what looks like a red enamel retaining at this moment all or nearly all its pristine brightness of twelve hundred years ago4 ,this substance was believed by ,french investigators to be a coloured glass or paste1#i but ,amador1 after protracted chemical experiments1 declared it to be layers of cornelian4 ,some of these layers have fallen from their grip1 and if the crown be stirred are heard to move within4 ,it is worth remarking1 too1 that the fillets which form the setting of the precious stones were made apart and welded afterwards2 nor are these settings uniform in shape1 but tally in each instance with the outline of the gem4 #i ,ce que je puis affirmer1 aprs l'examen le plus minutieux1 c'est que la matire qui fait le fond de cette riche ornementation est rellement du verre4--,lasteyrie1 supported by ,sommerard4 ,illustration3 ,i ,,treasure ,,of ,,guarrazar 7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,the chains which served for hanging up the crown are four in number4 ,as in the crown of ,recceswinth1 each of them is composed of four repouss cinquefoil links adorned along their edge with small gold beads minutely threaded on a wire and fastened on by fusing4 ,the chains converge into an ornament shaped like two lilies pointing stem to stem1 so that the lower is inverted1 although they are divided by a piece of faceted rock crystal4#aj ,four gems are hung from either lily1 and issuing from the uppermost of these a strong gold hook attaches to the final length of chain4 #aj ,in ,spain1 said ,bowles 7,hist4 ,nat4 de ,esp41 p4 #dih71 are found two species of rock crystal4 ,the one1 occurring in clusters1 are transparent1 six-sided1 and always have their source in rocks4 ,there are great quantities all over the kingdom1 and at ,madrid they are found near the hills of ,san ,isidro4 ,the other species are found singly1 and are rounded like a pebble4 ,i have seen them from the size of a filbert to that of my fist4 ,some were covered with a thin1 opaque integument4444 ,the river ,henares abounds with these crystals1 and as it passes ,san ,fernando1 at two leagues' distance from ,madrid1 sweeps some of them along which are the size of the largest ones at ,strasburg1 though very few are perfect4 ,possibly the chain and cross now hanging through the circuit of the crown were not originally part of it4 ,this cross is most remarkable4 ,it has four arms of equal length1 gracefully curved1 and is wrought of plates of gold in duplicate1 fastened back to back by straps of gold along the edges4 ,the centre holds a piece of crystal in the midst of pearls and gold bead work threaded on a wire of the same metal and attached by fusion4 ,several fairly large stones are hung from the lateral and lower arms of the cross by small gold chains4 ,the letters hanging from ,swinthila's crown are cut and punched from thin gold plates4 ,their decoration is a zigzag ornament backed by the same mysterious crimson substance as the circular devices on the hoop4 ,hanging from the letters are pearls1 sapphires1 and several imitation stones--particularly imitation emeralds--in paste4 ,the cross before the letters points to a custom of that period4 ,we find it also on ,swinthila's coins1 and those of other ,visigothic kings4 ,of the letters themselves twelve have been recovered1 thus3-- cross ,,sv ,,ti ,,nv ,,rex ,,off ,t ,the chains1 however1 or fragments of them1 amount to twenty-three--precisely 7if we count the cross7 the number needed to complete the dedication4#aa #aa ,a veritable cryptogram awaited the decipherers of these legends4 ,when ,king ,swinthila's crown was brought to light1 four of the letters only were in place1 thus3-- cross 444444 ,i 444 ,v 4 ,r 4444 ,f 4444 ,eight of the others were recovered shortly after2 two more1 an ,e and ,l1 appeared at a later date1 and eight continued to be missing4 ,the inscription dangling from the crown of ,recceswinth arrived at ,paris in this eloquent form3-- cross ,,rrcceefevinstvsetorhfex ,the ,royal ,armoury contains another crown1 a great deal smaller and less ornamented than ,swinthila's4 ,the body of this crown1 which was presented by the finder to the late ,queen ,isabella the ,second1 is just a hoop of gold1 two inches deep and five across1 hinged like the more elaborate and larger crowns1 but merely decorated with a fine gold spiral at the rims1 a zigzag pattern in repouss1 and a rudely executed scale-work4 ,the dedication on this cross is in the centre of the hoop1 and says-- cross ,,offeret ,,mvnvscvlvm ,,sco ,,stefano ,,theodosivs ,,abba ,we do not know who ,theodosius was1 but ,amador1 judging from the simple decoration of this crown1 believes him to have been a priest of lower rank1 and by no means a dignitary of the ,visigothic church4 ,a votive cross also forms part of this collection1 which has a simple sunk device along the edges and seven pendent stones1 two of these hanging from each of the lateral arms1 and three1 a little larger1 from the lower arm4 ,the inscription1 which is rough in the extreme1 appears to be the work of some illiterate craftsman1 and has been interpreted with difficulty3-- ,,in ,,nomine ,,dei3 ,,in ,,nomine ,,sci ,,offeret ,,lucetius ,e ,this reading gives an extra letter at the end1 which may be construed as ,episcopus--or anything else1 according to the student's fancy4 ,i may close my notice of this collection in the ,royal ,armoury at ,madrid by drawing attention to a greenish1 semi-opaque stone1 three-quarters of an inch in height4 ,it is engraved en creux upon two facets with the scene of the ,annunciation4 ,the gem itself is commonly taken for an emerald1 of which1 referring to the glyptic art among the ,visigoths1 the learned ,isidore remarked that ,sculpentibus quoque gemmas nulla gratior oculorum refectio est4 ,i shall insert a sketch of the cutting on this stone as a tailpiece to the chapter1 and here append a full description4 ,the ,virgin listens standing to the ,archangel ,gabriel1 who communicates to her the will of the ,almighty4 ,before her is a jar1 from which projects the stem of a lily1 emblematic of the chaste and pure1 that reaches to her breast4 ,her figure is completely out of measurement4 ,upon her head appears to be a nimbus or amiculum2 her breast is covered with a broad and folded fascia1 enveloping her arms1 while her tunic1 reaching to the ground1 conceals one of her feet4 ,the angel in the cutting on the stone is at the ,virgin's right4 ,his attitude is that of one who is conveying tidings4 ,large wings folded upon his shoulders and extending nearly to the ground are fitted to his form1 better drawn and livelier than the ,virgin's4 ,he executes his holy mission with his right hand lifted4 ,his dress is a tunic in small folds1 over which is a cloak fastened by a brooch and fitting closely4 ,upon his head he wears a kind of helmet4#ab #ab ,amador de los ,ros1 ,el ,arte latino-bizantino en ,espaa y las ,coronas ,visigodas de ,guarrazar1 p4 #aba4 ,the drawing of this design upon the stone is most bizarre and barbarous2 for the ,virgin's head is so completely disproportioned that it forms the one-third part of her entire person4 ,the merit of all this ,visigothic gem or gold and silver work has been extolled too highly by the ,french and ,spanish archologists4#ac ,it is1 however1 greatly interesting4 ,rudely and ponderously magnificent1 it tells us of a people who as yet were almost wholly strangers to the true artistic sense4 ,such were the ,visigoths and the ,spaniards of the ,visigothic era1 of all of whom ,i have observed elsewhere that serfdom was the distinguishing mark of the commons2 arrogance1 of the nobility2 avarice1 and ambition of temporal and political power1 of the clergy2 regicide and tumult1 of the crown4#ad ,these crowns of ,guarrazar proclaim to us in plainest language that the volume of the stones1 and showiness and glitter of the precious metal were accorded preference of every other factor--the pondus auri preference of the manus artificis4 ,we gather1 too1 from documents and chronicles and popular tradition1 that the ,visigothic princes1 as they set apart their stores of treasure in secluded caves or in the strong rooms of their palaces1 were ever captivated and corrupted by the mere intrinsic worth in opposition to the nobler and sthetic value of the craftsmanship4 #ac ,e4g4 ,sommerard3 ,une collection sans gale de joyaux les plus prcieux qui1 par la splendeur de la matire1 le mrite de l'excution1 et plus encore1 peut tre1 par leur origine incontestable et par leur tonnante conservation1 surpassent tout ce qui possdent d'analogue les collections publiques de l',europe et les trsors les plus renomms de l',italie4 #ad ,toledo and ,madrid2 p4 #af4 ,thus we are told that ,sisenand owned a plate of gold 7no word is said of its design or style7 five hundred pounds in weight1 proceeding from the royal treasure of his race1 and which1 long years before1 had been presented by the nobleman ,accio to ,king ,turismund4 ,when ,sisenand was conspiring to dethrone ,swinthila1 he called on ,dagobert the king of ,france to come to his support1 and promised him1 as recompense1 this golden plate4 ,the ,french king lent his help forthwith1 and then1 as soon as ,turismund was seated on the throne of ,spain1 despatched an embassy to bring the coveted vessel to his court4 ,sisenand fulfilled his word and placed the envoys in possession of the plate1 but since his subjects1 rising in rebellion1 wrenched it from their power and kept it under custody1 he compensated ,dagobert by a money payment of two hundred thousand sueldos4#ae #ae ,ajbar ,machmua4 ,lafuente y ,alcntara's edition2 p4 #bg1 note4 ,innumerable narratives and legends dwell upon the treasure taken by the ,moors on entering ,spain4 ,such as relate the battle of the ,guadalete1 or the ,lake of ,janda 7as it is also called by some authorities71 agree that when the fatal day was at an end the riderless steed of ,roderick was found imbedded in the mire1 wearing a saddle of massive gold adorned with emeralds and rubies4 ,according to ,al-,makkari1 that luckless monarch's boots were also made of gold studded with precious stones1 while the ,muslim victors1 stripping the ,visigothic dead1 identified the nobles by the golden rings upon their fingers1 those of a less exalted rank by their silver rings1 and the slaves by their rings of copper4 ,the widow of the fallen king was also famous for her stores of jewellery4 ,her name was ,eila or ,egilona 7,umm-,asim of the ,moors71 but she was known besides as the lady of the beautiful necklaces4 ,after being made a prisoner she was given in marriage to the young prince ,abd-al-,azis1 who grew to love her very greatly1 and received from her1 seeing that she still retained sufficient of her royal wealth1 the present of a crown4 ,muza1 on returning to the ,east1 is said to have drawn near to ,damascus with a train of thirty waggons full of ,spanish silver1 gold1 and precious stones4 ,tarik ben ,ziyed1 marching in triumph through the land1 secured at ,cordova1 ,amaya1 and other towns and capitals1 enormous store of pearls1 arms1 dishes1 silver1 gold1 and other jewels in unprecedented number4 ,one object1 in particular1 is mentioned with insistency by nearly all the chronicles1 both ,mussulman and ,christian4 ,quoting from the ,pearl of ,marvels of ,ibn ,alwardi1 this was the table which had belonged to ,god's prophet1 ,solomon 7health be to both of them74 ,it was of green emeralds1 and nothing fairer had been ever seen before4 ,its cups were golden and its plates of precious jewels1 one of them specked with black and white4 ,all manner of strange things are said about this table1 though most accounts describe it as consisting of a single emerald4 ,perhaps it was of malachite1 or of the bright green serpentine stone extracted formerly as well as nowadays from the ,barranco de ,san ,juan at ,granada1 and several other spots in ,spain4 ,bayan ,almoghreb says it was of gold mixed with a little silver and surrounded by three gold rings or collars2 the first containing pearls1 the second rubies1 and the third emeralds4 ,al-,makkari describes it as green1 with its #cfe feet and borders of a single emerald4 ,nor is it known for certain where this table fell into the hands of ,tarik4 ,probably he found it in the principal ,christian temple at ,toledo--that is to say1 the ,basilica of ,santa ,mara4 ,ibn ,alwardi says that in the aula regia1 or palace of the ,visigothic kings1 the lancers of the ,moorish general broke down a certain door1 discovering a matchless quantity of gold and silver plate1 together with the table4 ,doubtless this strong room was the same referred to in the following lines4 ,it was for ever closed2 and each time that a ,christian king began to reign he added to its door a new and powerful fastening4 ,in this way as many as four and twenty padlocks were gathered on the door4 ,however1 the most explicit and informative of all these ancient authors is ,ibn ,hayyan1 who says2 ,the table had its origin in the days of ,christian rulers4 ,it was the custom in those times that when a rich man died he should bequeath a legacy to the churches4 ,proceeding from the value of these gifts were fashioned tables1 thrones1 and other articles of gold and silver1 whereon the clergy bore the volumes of their gospel when they showed them at their ceremonies4 ,these objects they would also set upon their altars to invest them with a further splendour by the ornament thereof4 ,for this cause was the table at ,toledo1 and the ,visigothic monarchs vied with one another in enriching it1 each of them adding somewhat to the offerings of his predecessor1 till it surpassed all other jewels of its kind and grew to be renowned exceedingly4 ,it was of fine gold studded with emeralds1 pearls1 and rubies1 in such wise that nothing similar had ever been beheld4 ,so did the kings endeavour to increase its richness1 seeing that this city was their capital1 nor did they wish another to contain more splendid ornaments or furniture4 ,thus was the table resting on an altar of the church1 and here the ,muslims came upon it1 and the fame of its magnificence spread far abroad4 ,another chronicle affirms that ,tarik found the table at a city called ,almeida1 now perhaps ,olmedo4 ,he reached ,toledo1 and leaving a detachment there1 advanced to ,guadalajara and the ,guadarrama mountains4 ,these he crossed by the pass which took his name1 and reached1 upon the other side1 a city called ,almeida or ,the ,table1 for there had been discovered the table of ,solomon the son of ,david1 and the feet and borders of it1 numbering three hundred and sixty-five1 were of green emerald4 ,in any case this venerated jewel gave considerable trouble to its captors4 ,when envious ,muza followed up the march of ,tarik1 his lieutenant1 he demanded from him all the spoil1 and in particular the ever-famous table4 ,tarik surrendered this forthwith1 but after slyly wrenching off a leg4 ,muza perceived the breakage1 and inquired for the missing piece4 ,i know not1 said the other2 'twas thus that ,i discovered it4 ,muza then ordered a new leg of gold to be made for the table1 as well as a box of palm leaves1 in which it was deposited4 ,this1 says ,ibn ,hayyan1 is known to be one of the reasons why ,tarik worsted ,muza in the dispute they had before the ,caliph as to their respective conquests4 ,so it proved4 ,ibn ,abdo-l-,haquem#af relates that ,muza appeared before the ,caliph ,al-,walid and produced the table4 ,tarik interposed and said that he himself had taken it1 and not the other leader4 ,give it into my hands1 the ,caliph answered1 that ,i may see if any piece of it be wanting1 and found1 indeed1 that one of its feet was different from the rest4 ,ask ,muza1 interrupted ,tarik1 for the missing foot1 and if he answer from his heart1 then shall his words be truth4 ,accordingly ,al-,walid inquired for the foot1 and ,muza made reply that he had found the table as it now appeared2 but ,tarik with an air of triumph drew forth the missing piece which he himself had broken off1 and said3 ,by this shall the ,emir of the ,faithful recognize that ,i am speaking truth2 that ,i it was who found the table4 ,and thereupon ,al-,walid credited his words and loaded him with gifts4 #af ,account of the ,conquest of ,spain1 published1 with an ,english translation and notes1 by ,john ,harris ,jones4 ,london1 #aheh4 ,comparing the statements of these writers1 we may be certain that the table was a kind of desk of ,visigothic or1 more probably1 ,byzantine workmanship1 for holding the gospels on the feast-days of the national church4 ,probably1 too1 seeing that a palm-leaf box was strong enough to keep it in1 its size was inconsiderable4 ,its value1 on the statement of ,ibn ,abdo-l-,haquem1 was two hundred thousand dinares4 ,the sum of my remarks upon the ,visigothic jewel-work is this4 ,distinguished by a coarse though costly splendour1 we find in it a mingled ,roman and ,byzantine source1 although it was upon the whole inferior to these styles1 being essentially1 as ,amador observes1 an imitative and decadent art4 ,yet it did not succumb before the ,moors1 but lurked for refuge in the small ,asturian monarchy1 and later1 issuing thence1 extended through the kingdom of ,len into ,castile4 ,we find its clearest characteristics in such objects as the ,cross of ,angels and the ,cross of ,victory4 ,then1 later still1 it is affected and regenerated by the purely oriental art of the invader2 and lastly1 till the wave of the ,renaissance floods the western world1 by ,gothic influences from across the ,pyrenees4 ,a similar sketch may be applied to other arts and crafts of ,spain--particularly furniture and architecture4 ,illustration3 ,,ii ,,the ,,cross ,,of ,,angels 7,oviedo ,cathedral7 ,the pious or superstitious kings and magnates of this land have always taken pride in adding 7at the instigation of the clergy7 to the treasure of her churches and cathedrals4 ,such gifts include all kinds of sumptuous apparel for the priesthood2 chasubles and dalmatics heavily embroidered with the precious metals1 gold or silver crowns and crosses1 paxes1#ag chalices and patines1 paraments and baldaquinos1 reliquaries in every shape and style and size1 and figures of the ,virgin--such as those of ,lugo1 ,seville1 ,astorga1 and ,pamplona--consisting of elaborate silver-work upon a wooden frame4 ,visitors to ,spain1 from leisurely ,rosmithal five hundred years ago to time-economizing tourists of our century1 have been continually astonished at the prodigal richness of her sanctuaries4 ,upon this point ,i quote a typical extract from the narrative of ,bertaut de ,rouen4 ,the treasure of this church1 he said of ,montserrat1 is wonderfully precious1 and particularly so by reason of two objects that belong to it4 ,the first is a crown of massive gold of twenty pounds in weight1 covered with pearls1 with ten stars radiating from it also loaded with large pearls and diamonds of extraordinary value4 ,this crown took forty years to make1 and is valued at two millions of gold money4 ,the second object is a gold crown entirely covered with emeralds1 most of them of an amazing size4 ,many are worth five thousand crowns apiece4 ,the reliquary1 too1 is of extraordinary richness1 as also a service of gold plate studded with pearls1 donated by the late emperor for use in celebrating ,mass4 #ag ,the pax or osculatory used in celebrating ,high ,mass is commonly1 says ,rosell de ,torres1 a plate of gold or ivory1 or other metal or material1 according to the time and circumstances of its manufacture4 ,the priest who celebrates the ,mass kisses it after the ,agnus ,dei and the prayer ad petendam pacem1 and the acolytes present it1 as a sign of peace and brotherly union1 to all the other priests who may be present4 ,this usage springs from the kiss of peace which was exchanged1 prior to receiving the communion1 between the early ,christians in their churches4 ,the pax has commonly borne an image of the ,virgin with the ,holy ,infant1 the face of ,christ1 or else the ,agnus ,dei4 ,its ,latin name was the deosculatorium4 ,similar accounts to the above exist in quantities1 relating to every part of ,spain and every period of her history4 ,reverting to the earlier ,middle ,ages1 a few conspicuous objects thus presented to the ,spanish ,church require to be briefly noted here4 ,famous chalices are those of ,santo ,domingo de ,silos 7eleventh century71 made to the order of ,abbot ,domingo in honour of ,san ,sebastian1 and showing the characteristic ,asturian filigree-work2 and of ,san ,isidoro of ,len1 made in #aaja by order of ,urraca ,fernandez1 sister of the fourth ,alfonso4 ,the latter vessel1 inscribed with the dedication of ,urraca ,fredinandi1 has an agate cup and foot4 ,a remarkably handsome silver-gilt chalice and patine 7thirteenth century7 belong to ,toledo cathedral4 ,the height of this chalice is thirteen inches1 and the diameter of its bowl1 which has a conical shape1 eight and a half inches4 ,inside and out the bowl is smooth1 but midway between the bowl and the foot is a massive knot or swelling in the stem1 and on the knot the emblematic lion1 eagle1 bull1 and angel are chiselled in high relief4 ,below the knot is a ring of graceful rosettes4 ,the patine which accompanies this chalice measures twelve inches in diameter4 ,it has upon it1 thinly engraved within a slightly sunk centre with a scalloped edge1 the figure of ,christ upon the cross1 between the ,virgin and ,st ,john4 ,this central group of figures and the border of the plate are each surrounded with a narrow strip of decoration4 ,the cathedral of ,valencia has a beautiful and early cup asserted to be the veritable ,holy ,grail 7greal1 garal1 or gradal1 in the old ,castilian71 of which1 wrote ,ford with his accustomed irony1 so many are shown in different orthodox relicarios4 ,however this may be1 the chalice of ,valencia is particularly handsome4 ,according to ,riao it consists of a fine brown sardonyx which is tastefully moulded round the lip4 ,the base is formed of another inverted sardonyx4 ,these are united by straps of pure gold4 ,the stem is flanked by handles1 which are inlaid with delicate arabesque in black enamel4 ,oriental pearls are set round the base and stem1 which alternate with rubies1 sapphires1 and emeralds4 ,this chalice is a work of the ,roman imperial epoch1 and the mounts are of a later date4 ,a series of ,spanish chalices1 beginning chronologically with specimens which date from the early ,middle ,ages1 and terminating with the chalice1 made in #agab1 of ,santa ,mara la ,blanca of ,seville1 was shown in #ahib at the ,exposicin ,histrico-,europea of ,madrid4 ,among the finer or most curious were chalices proceeding from the parish church of ,jtiva1 ,las ,huelgas1 and ,seville cathedral1 and the ,plateresque chalices of ,calatayud1 ,granada1 and ,alcal de ,henares4 ,another chalice which is greatly interesting because of the date inscribed on it1 is one which was presented to ,lugo cathedral by a bishop of that diocese1 ,don ,garcia ,martinez de ,bahamonde 7#adda-adgj74 ,the workmanship1 though prior to the sixteenth century1 is partly ,gothic4 ,an article by ,jos ,villa-amil y ,castro1 dealing with all these chalices1 will be found in the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones for ,april1 #ahic4 ,a small exhibition was held at ,lugo in ,august #ahif4 ,here were shown sixteen chalices1 nearly all of them of merit from the point of view of history or art4 ,such are the chalice of ,san ,rosendo1 proceeding from the old monastery of ,celanova2 the ,gothic chalices of ,tuy cathedral1 ,lugo cathedral1 ,santa ,mara del ,lucio1 ,santa ,eulalia de ,guilfrei1 ,san ,pedro de ,puertomarn1 and the ,franciscan friars of ,santiago2 and the chalice and patine of ,cebrero 7twelfth century71 in which it is said that on a certain occasion in the fifteenth century the wine miraculously turned to actual blood1 and the ,host to actual flesh1 in order to convince a doubting priest who celebrated service4 ,the ,cross of ,angels and the ,cross of ,victory--presents1 respectively1 from ,alfonso the ,chaste and ,alfonso the ,great--are now preserved at ,oviedo1 in the ,camara ,santa of that stately temple4 ,the former of these crosses1 fancied by credulous people to be the handiwork of angels--whence its title#ah--was made in ,a4,d4 #hjh4 ,it consists of four arms of equal length1 radiating from a central rosette 7,pl4 ii474 ,the core or alma is of wood covered with a double plate of richly decorated gold1 chased in the finest filigree 7indicative already of the influence of ,cordova7 and thickly strewn with sapphires1 amethysts1 topazes1 and cornelians4 ,other stones hung formerly from six small rings upon the lower border of the arms4 ,the cross is thus inscribed3-- ,susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore ,dei ,offeret ,adefonsus humilis servus ,xti ,hoc signo tuetur pius ,hoc signo vincitur inimicus4 ,quisquis auferre presumpserit mihi ,fulmine divino intereat ipse ,nisi libens ubi voluntas dederit mea ,hoc opus perfectum est in ,era ,,dccxlvi4 #ah ,this marvel is related by the ,monk of ,silos4 ,a quotation from another of my books is applicable here4 ,last year1 ,i wrote in #aijb--7pp4 #fd1 #fe of ,toledo and ,madrid3 ,their ,records and ,romances7--the young ,king ,alfonso the ,thirteenth paid a visit to ,oviedo cathedral1 and was duly shown the relics and the jewels4 ,among these latter was the ',cross of the ,angels4' ',why is it so called8' inquired the king4 ',because1' replied the bishop of the diocese1 'it is said that the angels made it to reward ,king ,alfonso the ,chaste4' ',well1 but1' insisted the young monarch1 'what ground is there for thinking so8' ',seor1' replied the prelate1 'none whatever4 ,the time for traditions is passing away4' ,illustration3 ,,iii ,,the ,,cross ,,of ,,victory 7,oviedo ,cathedral7 ,the other cross 7,pl4 iii47 is more than twice as large1 and measures just one yard in height by two feet four and a half inches in width4 ,tradition says that the primitive1 undecorated wooden core of this cross was carried against the ,moors by ,king ,pelayo4 ,the ornate casing1 similar to that upon the ,cross of ,angels1 was added later1 and contains #aeb gems and imitation gems4 ,the following inscription tells us that this casing was made at the ,castle of ,gauzon in ,asturias1 in the year #hbh3-- ,susceptum placide maneat hoc in honore ,dei1 quod offerent ,famuli ,christi ,adefonsus princeps et ,scemaena ,regina2 ,quisquis auferre hoc donoria nostra presumpserit ,fulmine divino intereat ipse4 ,hoc opus perfectum et concessum est ,santo ,salvatori ,oventense sedis4 ,hoc signo tuetur pius1 hoc vincitur inimicus ,et operatum est in castello ,gauzon anno regni nostri4 ,,xlii4 discurrente ,era ,,dccclxvi4 ,these crosses are processional4 ,others which were used for the same purpose are those of ,san ,sebastin de ,serrano 7,galicia71 ,san ,munio de ,veiga1 ,santa ,mara de ,guillar 7,lugo71 ,san ,mamed de ,fisteos1 and ,santa ,mara de ,arcos4 ,the five preceding crosses are of bronze2 those of ,baamorto and ,san ,adriano de ,lorenzana are respectively of silver1 and of wood covered with silver plates1 and all were shown at the ,lugo exhibition ,i have spoken of4 ,besides the ,cross of ,victory or ,pelayo1 and the ,cross of ,angels1 interesting objects preserved at ,oviedo are a small diptych presented by ,bishop ,don ,gonzalo 7,a4,d4 #aafb-aage71 and the ,arca ,santa used for storing saintly relics4 ,this beautiful chest1 measuring three feet nine inches and a half in length by twenty-eight inches and a half in height1 is considered by ,riao to be of ,italian origin1 and to date from between the tenth and twelfth centuries4 ,another handsome box belonging to the cathedral of ,astorga was once upon a time the property of ,alfonso the ,third and his queen ,jimena1 whose names it bears--,,adefonsvs ,,rex3 ,,scemena ,,regina4 ,the workmanship is consequently of the close of the ninth or the beginning of the tenth century4 ,the material is wood covered with repouss silver plates on which are figured angels and birds1 together with the eagle and the ox as emblems of the evangelists ,john and ,luke1 whose names are also to be read upon the casket4 ,next to the sword1 no object in the history of medival ,spain was more profoundly popular or venerated than the relicario4 ,this in its primitive form was just a small receptacle1 such as a vase or urn of gold or silver1 ivory or crystal1 used by the laity or clergy for treasuring bones1 or hairs1 or other relics of the ,virgin1 or the ,saviour1 or the saints4 ,in private families a holy tooth1 or toe1 or finger thus preserved would often1 as though it were some ,eastern talisman1 accompany its credulous possessor to the battlefield4 ,as time went on1 the urn or vase was commonly replaced by chests or caskets made by ,moorish captives1 or by tranquil and respected ,moorish residents within the territory of the ,christian1#ai or wrested from the infidel in war and offered by the ,spanish kings or nobles to their churches4 ,here they were kept on brackets1 or suspended near the altar by a chain#bj of silver1 gold1 or iron4 ,among the ,moors themselves such chests and caskets served1 according to their richness or capacity1 for storing perfumes1 clothes1 or jewels1 or as a present from a bridegroom to his bride2 and since the sparsely-furnished ,oriental room contains no kind of wardrobe1 cabinet1 or chest of drawers1 their use in ,moorish parts of ,spain was universal4 #ai ,in many towns a hearty friendship sprang up between the ,spaniard and the ,moor4 ,this was a natural consequence in places where the vanquished had a better education than the victor4 ,the warrior population of both races might be struggling on the field at the same moment that their craftsmen were fraternizing in the workshop4 ,ferdinand the ,first and ,alfonso the ,sixth were particularly lenient in their usage of the dominated ,muslim4 ,thus1 the former of these princes recognised the ,moorish townspeople of ,sena as his vassals1 while those of ,toledo were freely allowed by ,alfonso to retain their worship and their mosque4 #bj ,fallaron ay de marfil arquetas muy preiadas ,con tantas de noblezas que non podrian ser contadas ,fueron para ,san ,pedro las arquetas donadas2 ,estn en este dia en el su altar asentadas4 ,poem of ,,ferran ,,gonzalvez 7#acth century74 ,a typical ,moorish casket of this kind 7,plate iv47 is now in the cathedral of ,gerona4 ,it measures fifteen inches in length by nine across1 fastens with a finely ornamented band and clasp of bronze1 and is covered with thin silver-gilt plates profusely decorated with a bead and floral pattern superposed upon a box of non-decaying wood--possibly larch or cedar4 ,a ,cufic inscription along the lower part of the lid was formerly interpreted as follows3-- ,in the name of ,god4 7,may7 the blessing of ,god1 prosperity and fortune and perpetual felicity be 7destined7 for the servant of ,god1 ,alhakem1 ,emir of the ,faithful1 because he ordered 7this casket7 to be made for ,abdul ,walid ,hischem1 heir to the throne of the ,muslims4 ,it was finished by the hands of ,hudzen1 son of ,bothla4 ,illustration3 ,,iv ,,moorish ,,casket 7,gerona ,cathedral7 ,it is supposed1 however1 that the part of this inscription which contains the maker's name was rendered incorrectly by ,riao1 who followed1 on this point1 ,saavedra1 ,fita1 and other archologists2 and that the casket was made to the order of ,djaudar1 as a gift to the heir to the throne1 ,abulwalid ,hischem1 the actual workmen being two slaves1 ,bedr and ,tarif4 ,that is to say1 the name ,hudzen is now replaced by ,djaudar1 whom ,dozy mentions in his history of the ,mussulman domination in ,spain1 and who is known to have been a eunuch high in favour with ,alhakem1 ,hischem's father4 ,these princes ruled at ,cordova in the latter half of the tenth century and the beginning of the eleventh4 ,spanish-,moorish caskets 7arquetas7 of ivory1 silver1 or inlaid work1 are also preserved in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 the ,archological ,museum at ,madrid1 and the cathedrals of ,braga1 ,tortosa1 and ,oviedo4 ,there is no reason to doubt that all these boxes were made in ,spain1 although an ,eastern and particularly ,persian influence is very noticeable in their scheme of decoration4 ,two silver caskets which were once in the church of ,san ,isidoro at ,len are now in the ,madrid ,museum4 ,the smaller and plainer of the two1 elliptical in shape and measuring five inches in length by two inches and a half in depth1 is covered with a leaf and stem device outlined in black enamel4 ,a ,cufic inscription of a private and domestic import1 also picked out with black enamel1 runs along the top4 ,the lid is ornamented1 like the body of the box1 with leaves and stems surrounded by a ,grecian border1 and fastens with a heart-shaped clasp secured by a ring4 ,the other1 more elaborate1 and larger box measures eight inches long by five in height4 ,in shape it is a parallelogram1 with a deeply bevelled rather than--as ,amador describes it--a five-sided top4 ,bands of a simple winding pattern outlined in black enamel on a ground of delicate niello-work run round the top and body of the casket4 ,the central band upon the lower part contains a ,cufic inscription of slight interest4 ,some of the letters terminate in leaves4 ,the bevelled lid is covered with groups of peacocks--symbolic1 among ,mohammedans1 of eternal life--outlined in black enamel4 ,these birds are eight in all1 gathered in two groups of four about the large and overlapping hinges4 ,four leaves1 trifoliate1 in repouss1 one beneath the other1 decorate the clasp1 which opens out into a heart containing1 also in repouss1 two inverted peacocks looking face to face4 ,between the birds this heart extremity is pierced for the passage of a ring4 ,amador de los ,ros considers that both caskets were made between the years #ajdh and #ajhi4 ,the use of coloured enamel in the manufacture of these boxes dates1 or generally so1 from somewhat later4 ,although the history of enamelling in ,spain is nebulous and contradictory in the extreme1 we know that caskets in champlev enamel on a copper ground1 with figures either flat or hammered in a bold relief1 became abundant here4 ,two1 from the convent of ,san ,marcos at ,len1 and dating from the thirteenth century1 are now in the ,madrid ,museum4 ,labarte says that the lids of these enamelled reliquaries were flat until the twelfth century1 and of a gable form thenceforward4 ,illustration3 ,v ,,altar-,,front ,,in ,,enamelled ,,bronze 7#aath ,century4 ,museum of ,burgos7 ,other old objects--boxes1 triptyches1 statuettes1 incensories1 book-covers1 crucifixes1 and processional crosses--partly or wholly covered with enamel1 belong or recently belonged to the ,marquises of ,castrillo and ,casa-,torres1 the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan1 and ,seor ,escanciano4 ,all1 or nearly all1 of these are thought to have proceeded from ,limoges 7,pl4 v474 ,champlev enamel is also on the tiny ,crucifix of the ,cid 7,pl4 vi47 at ,salamanca1 as well as on the ,virgin's throne in the gilt bronze statuette of the ,virgin de la ,vega at ,san ,esteban in the same city4#ba ,of this image1 although it properly belongs to another heading of my book1 ,i think it well to give a reproduction here 7,plate vii474 ,i will also mention1 in spite of its presumably foreign origin1 the enamelled altar-front of ,san ,miguel de ,excelsis in ,navarre--a small sanctuary constructed by a medival cavalier who1 by an accident occasioned by the dark1 murdered his father and mother in lieu of his wife4#bb ,this altar-front1 conspicuously ,byzantine in its style1 measures four feet three inches high by seven feet five inches long1 and is now employed as the retablo of the little church which stands in solitary picturesqueness on the lofty mountain-top of ,aralar4 ,the figures1 coloured in relief upon a yellowish enamel ground1 are those of saints1 and of a monarch and his queen--possibly ,king ,sancho the ,great1 who is believed to have been the donor of the ornament4 ,if this surmise be accurate1 the front would date from the eleventh century4 #ba ,together with the statuette of ,uju in ,navarre1 the ,virgen de la ,vega of ,salamanca may be classed as one of the earliest local ,virgins of this country4 ,sometimes these images are of wood alone1 sometimes of wood beneath a silver covering1 sometimes1 as that of the ,claustro de ,len1 of stone4 ,but whatever may be the substance1 the characteristics are the same3--,byzantine rigidness and disproportion1 the crude and primitive anatomy of artists only just emerging from the dark4 ,the ,virgin and ,child of ,santa ,mara la ,real of ,hirache in ,navarra may be instanced as another of the series4 ,this image dates from late in the twelfth or early in the thirteenth century1 although a crown and nimbus have been added subsequently4 ,it measures rather more than a yard in height1 and consists of wood covered with silver plates1 except the hands and face1 which are painted4 ,the ,virgin1 seated1 holds the ,infant with her left arm2 in her right hand is an apple4 ,a kind of stole bearing the following inscription in ,gothic letter falls upon the ,infant's breast2 ,puer natus est nobis1 venite adoremus4 ,ego sum alpha et omega1 primus et novissimus ,dominus4 ,before this statuette the ,king ,don ,sancho is stated to have offered his devotion4 #bb ,i quote this legend in ,appendix ,a4 ,i have said that the history of ,spanish enamel-work is both confused and scanty4 ,the subject in its general aspects has been studied by ,m4 ,roulin1 whose judgments will be found in the ,revue de l',art ,ancien et ,moderne1 and in his article1 ,mobilier liturgique d',espagne1 published in the ,revue de l',art ,chrtien for #aijc4 ,m4 ,roulin believes the altar-front of ,san ,miguel in ,excelsis to be a ,limoges product1 not earlier than the first half of the thirteenth century4 ,ramrez de ,arellano declares that no enamelling at all was done in ,spain before the invasion of the ,almohades4 ,lpez ,ferreiro1 who as a priest had access to the jealously secreted archives of ,santiago cathedral1 gives us the names of ,arias ,perez1 ,pedro ,martinez1 ,fernan ,perez1 and ,pedro ,pelaez1 ,galician enamellers who worked at ,santiago in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries4 ,martin ,minguez says that enamelling was done at ,gerona in the fourteenth century1 and ,moorish enamels were certainly produced at ,cordova and ,cuenca from comparatively early in the ,middle ,ages4 ,a few obscure workers in enamel are mentioned by ,gestoso1 in his ,diccionario de ,artistas ,sevillanos1 as living at ,seville in the fifteenth century1 though1 in the entries which refer to them1 little is told us of their lives and nothing of their labours4 ,in the sixteenth century we obtain a glimpse of two enamellers of ,toledo--,lorenzo ,marqus and ,andrs ,ordoez1 and dating from the same period the ,chapter of the ,military ,orders of ,ciudad ,real possesses a silver-gilt porta-paz with enamelling done at ,cuenca4 ,however1 our notices of this branch of ,spanish art have yet to be completed4 ,illustration3 ,,vi ,,the ,,crucifix ,,of ,,the ,,cid 7,salamanca ,cathedral7 ,a long array of royal gifts caused1 in the olden time1 the treasure of ,santiago cathedral to be the richest and most varied in the whole ,peninsula1 although at first this see was merely suffragan to ,merida4 ,but early in the twelfth century a scheming bishop1 by name ,diego ,gelmirez1 intrigued at ,rome to raise his diocese to the dignity of an archbishopric4 ,the means by which he proved successful in the end were far from irreproachable4 ,gelmirez1 says ,ford 7vol4 ii4 p4 #fff7 was a cunning prelate1 and well knew how to carry his point2 he put ,santiago's images and plate into the crucible1 and sent the ingots to the ,pope4 ,the original altar-front or parament 7aurea tabula7 was made of solid gold4 ,this altar-front ,gelmirez melted down to steal from it some hundred ounces of the precious metal for the ,pope1 donating in its stead another front of gold and silver mixed1 wrought from the remaining treasure of the sanctuary4 ,aymerich tells us that the primitive frontal bore the figure of the ,saviour seated on a throne supported by the four evangelists1 blessing with his right hand1 and holding in his left the ,book of ,life4 ,the four-and-twenty elders 7called by quaint ,morales gentlemen7 of the apocalypse were also gathered round the throne1 with musical instruments in their hands1 and golden goblets filled with fragrant essences4 ,at either end of the frontal were six of the apostles1 three above and three beneath1 separated by beautiful columns and surrounded by floral decoration4 ,the upper part was thus inscribed3-- ,,hanc ,,tabulam ,,didacus ,,pr,,sul ,,jacobita ,,secundus ,,tempore ,,quinquenni ,,fecit ,,episcopi ,,marcas ,,argenti ,,de ,,thesauro ,,jacobensi ,,hic ,,octoginta ,,quinque ,,minus ,,numera4 ,and the lower part3-- ,,rex ,,erat ,,anfonsus ,,gener ,,ejus ,,dux ,,raimundus ,,pr,,sul ,,pr,,fatus ,,quando ,,peregit ,,opus4 ,this early altar-front has disappeared like its predecessor2 it is not known precisely at what time2 but both ,morales and ,medina saw and wrote about it in the sixteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,vii ,,the ,,virgen ,,de ,,la ,,vega 7,salamanca7 ,another ornament which ,aymerich describes1 namely1 the baldaquino or cimborius1 has likewise faded from the eyes of the profane1 together with three bronze caskets covered with enamel1 and stated by ,morales to have contained the bones of ,saints ,silvestre1 ,cucufate1 and ,fructuoso4 ,one of these caskets was existing in the seventeenth century4 ,the silver lamps were greatly celebrated4 ,ambrosio de ,morales counted twenty or more2 but ,zepedano made their total mount to fifty-one4 ,the ,french invasion brought their number down to three4 ,three of the oldest of these lamps had been of huge dimensions1 particularly one1 a present from ,alfonso of ,aragon1 which occupied the centre4 ,the shape of it1 says ,aymerich1 was like a mighty mortar4 ,seven was the number of its beaks1 symbolic of the seven gifts of the ,holy ,ghost2 and each beak contained a lamplet fed with oil of myrtles1 acorns1 or olives4 ,all kinds of robberies and pilferings have thus been perpetrated with the once abundant wealth of ,santiago4#bc ,the jealous care which keeps the copious archives inaccessible to all the outside world is in itself of sinister significance4 ,it has transpired1 furthermore1 that many of the bishops have exchanged1 or simply stolen1 portions of the holy property4 ,besides these clerical dilapidations1 a cartload1 weighing half a ton1 was carried off by ,marshal ,ney1 though some was subsequently handed back1 because the spoilers feared the hostility of the ,plateros1 the silversmiths who live close to the cathedral1 and by whom many workmen were employed in making little graven images1 teraphims and lares1 as well as medallions of ,santiago1 which pilgrims purchase4#bd #bc ,a recent instance1 not devoid of humour1 is as follows4 ,about three years ago1 a silly rogue removed and carried off the crown from ,santiago's head2 but since the actual jewel is only worn on solemn festivals1 his prize turned out to be a worthless piece of tin4 ,an odd removal of the treasure of another ,spanish church was noted by the traveller ,bowles4 ,the curate of the place1 a worthy fellow who put me up in his house1 assured me that a detachment of a legion of locusts entered the church1 ate up the silk clothes upon the images1 and gnawed the varnish on the altars4 ,perhaps these adamantine-stomached insects have assailed1 from time to time1 the gold and silver plate of ,santiago4 #bd ,ford1 ,handbook1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fga4 ,i briefly notice1 in ,appendix ,b1 the ,santiago jet-work1 also practised by these craftsmen4 ,illustration3 ,,viii ,,saint ,,james ,,in ,,pilgrim',s ,,dress 7,silver-gilt statuette2 #aeth ,century4 ,santiago ,cathedral7 ,among the gifts of value which this temple yet preserves are the ancient processional cross presented by the third ,alfonso in the year of grace #hgd1be and the hideous fourteenth-century reliquary shaped to represent the head of ,james ,alfeo1 and containing 7as it is believed7 this very relic 7,pl4 viii474 ,i make a reservation here1 because the ,chapter have forbidden the reliquary to be opened4 ,in either case1 whether the head be there or not1 heads of the same apostle are affirmed to be at ,chartres1 ,toulouse1 and other places4 ,similarly1 discussing these ,hydra-headed beings of the ,bible and the hagiology1 ,villa-amil y ,castro 7,el ,tesoro de la ,catedral de ,santiago1 published in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades7 recalls to us the ten authenticated and indubitable mazzards of ,saint ,john the ,baptist4 #be ,to lend my censures further cogency1 ,i leave this statement as ,i set it down some weeks ago2 since when1 on picking up a ,spanish newspaper1 ,i read the following telegram3-- ,,theft ,,in ,,santiago ,,cathedral ,,santiago1 ,may #gth1 #aijf 7#i4ae p4m474 ,this morning1 when the canon in charge of the ,chapel of the ,relics unlocked the door1 he was surprised to observe that some of these were lying in confusion on the floor4 ,fearing that a theft had been committed1 he sent for the dean and others of the clergy1 who had examination made1 and found the following objects to be missing3-- ,a gold cross1 presented by ,king ,alfonso the ,great1 when he attended the consecration of this temple in the year #hgd4 ,another cross1 of silver1 dating from the fifteenth century--a present from ,archbishop ,spinola4 ,an aureole of the fifteenth century1 studded with precious stones belonging to a statuette of the apostle ,santiago4 ,the authorities were summoned and at once began their search4 ,they find that two of the thick iron bars of the skylight in the ceiling of the cloister have been filed through4 ,this cloister has a skylight which opens upon the chapel4 ,they have also found1 upon the roof1 a knotted rope4 ,this rope was only long enough to reach a cornice in the chapel wall4 ,the wall itself affords no sign that anybody has attempted to descend by it4 ,the head-shaped reliquary is of beaten silver with enamelled visage1 and the hair and beard gilt4#bf ,the workmanship is ,french4 ,the cross1 which hung till recently above the altar of the ,relicario1 but which now requires to be placed upon the lengthy list of stolen wealth1 was not unlike the ,cross of ,angels in the ,camara ,santa at ,oviedo1 and had a wooden body covered with gold plates in finely executed filigree1 studded with precious stones and cameos4 ,not many days ago1 the wooden core1 divested of the precious metal and the precious stones1 was found abandoned in a field4 #bf ,this form of reliquary was not uncommon4 ,morales1 in his ,viaje ,sacro1 describes another one1 also preserved at ,santiago1 saying that it was a bust of silver1 life-size and gilded to the breast1 with a large diadem of rays and many stones1 both small and great1 all or most of them of fine quality1 though not of the most precious4 ,other bust-reliquaries belong1 or have belonged1 to the ,cathedrals of ,burgos and ,toledo4 ,visitors to the shrine of ,santiago seldom fail to have their curiosity excited by the monster smoke-thrower 7bota-fumeiro7 or incensory1 lowered 7much like the deadly sword in ,poe's exciting tale7 on each fiesta by a batch of vigorous ,gallegos from an iron frame fixed into the pendentives of the dome4 ,the calmest heart1 says ,villa-amil1 grows agitated to behold this giant vessel descending from the apex of the nave until it almost sweeps the ground1 wreathed in dense smoke and spewing flame4 ,ford seems to have been unaware that the real purpose of this metal monster was not to simply scent the holy precincts1 but to cover up the pestilential atmosphere created by a horde of verminous1 diseased1 and evil-smelling pilgrims1 who1 by a usage which is now suppressed1 were authorized to pass the night before the services within the actual cathedral wall4 ,the original bota-fumeiro1 resembling1 in ,oxea's words1 a silver boiler of gigantic bulk1 was lost or stolen in the ,war of ,spanish ,independence4 ,it was replaced by another of iron1 and this1 in #ahea1 by the present apparatus of white metal4 ,striking objects of ecclesiastical orfebrera were produced in ,spain throughout the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries4 ,among the finest are the triptych-reliquary of ,seville cathedral known as the ,alfonsine ,tables2 the retablo and baldaquino of the cathedral of ,gerona2 the silver throne1 preserved in ,barcelona cathedral1 of ,don ,martin of ,aragon2 and the guin1 at ,toledo1 of ,cardinal ,mendoza4 ,illustration3 ,,ix ,,mudejar ,,triptych 7,interior of one leaf of the door4 #adth ,century4 ,royal ,academy of ,history1 ,madrid7 ,triptych-reliquaries1 which had gradually expanded from the diptych form--three leaves or panels thus replacing two1--were generally used in ,spain from the eleventh century1 and varied in dimensions from a few inches in height and width to several yards4 ,we find them in the ,gothic1 ,mudejar1#bg ,romanic1 or ,renaissance styles--wrought either in a single style of these1 or in effective combination of some two or more4 ,the ,academy of ,history at ,madrid possesses a richly ornamented ,mudejar triptych 7,plate ix47 proceeding from the ,monasterio de ,piedra4 ,it is inferior1 notwithstanding1 to the ,tablas ,alfonsinas1#bh a specimen of ,spanish silversmiths' work which illustrates the transition to the new style1 and the progress in the design of the figures owing to the ,italian ,renaissance4#bi ,in or about the year #abgd1 this splendid piece of sacred furniture was made by order of the learned king1 to hold the relics of certain saints and of the ,virgin ,mary4 ,the maker is thought by ,amador to have been one ,master ,george1 a craftsman held in high esteem by the father of ,alfonso and the conqueror of ,seville1 ,ferdinand the ,third4 ,romanic influence is abundant in this triptych1 showing that1 although exposed to constant changes from abroad1 the ,spanish medival crafts adhered upon the whole with singular tenacity to primitive tradition4 #bg ,the ,mudejares were the ,mussulmans who submitted1 in the conquered cities1 to the ,spanish-,christian rule4 ,the word ,mudejar is of modern growth1 nor can its derivation be resolved with certainty4 ,from the thirteenth century onwards1 and formed by the fusion of the ,christian and the ,saracenic elements1 we find ,mudejar influence copiously distributed through every phase of ,spanish life and art1 and even literature4 #bh ,amador prefers to call these ,tables the triptych of the learned king1 in order to distinguish them by this explicit title from the ,astronomical ,tables prepared by order of the same monarch4 #bi ,riao1 ,spanish ,arts1 p4 #af4 ,the triptych is of larch1 or some such undecaying wood1 and measures1 when the leaves are opened wide1 forty inches over its entire breadth1 by twenty-two in height4 ,linen is stretched upon the wood1 and over that the silver-gilt repouss plates which form the principal adornment of the reliquary4 ,the outside is decorated with twelve medallions containing the arms of ,castile and ,aragon1 and forty-eight others in which are repeated alternately the subjects of the ,adoration of the ,magi and the ,annunciation of the ,virgin1 also in repouss4 ,in the centres are eagles1 allusive1 it is possible1 to ,don ,alfonso's claim to be crowned ,emperor4444 ,the ornamentation which surrounds the panels belongs to the sixteenth century 7,riao74 ,the arms here spoken of contain the crowned lion and the castle of three towers2 and the interesting fact is pointed out by ,amador that the diminutive doors and windows of these castles show a strongly pointed ,gothic arch4 ,the sixteenth-century bordering to the panels is in the manner known as ,plateresque4#cj ,the clasps are also ,plateresque1 and prove1 together with the border1 that the triptych was restored about this time4 #cj ,so named because the silversmiths 7plateros7 of this country used it in their monstrances 7custodias7 and in many other objects or utensils of religious worship4 ,the most refined and erudite of ,spanish silver-workers1 ,juan de ,arfe1 thus referred to it in rhyme3-- ,usaron desta obra los plateros ,guardando sus preceptos con zelo2 ,pusironle en los puntos postrimeros ,de perfeccin mi abuelo4 ,illustration3 ,x ,,the ,,tablas ,,alfonsinas 7,view of ,interior2 #acth ,century4 ,seville ,cathedral7 ,inside 7,plate x471 it consists of fifteen compartments1 full of minute ornamentation1 among which are set a large number of capsules covered with rock crystal containing relics1 each one with an inscription of enamelled gold1 cloisonn4 ,several good cameos with sacred subjects appear near the edge of the side leaves 7,riao74 ,these cameos1 handsomely engraved with figures of the ,virgin and other subjects of religious character1 are fairly well preserved2 but the designs upon enamel are almost obliterated4 ,eight precious stones1 set in as rude a style as those upon the ancient crowns and crosses of the ,visigoths1 have also fallen out1 or been removed1 from the interior4 ,the retablo of ,gerona cathedral and its baldachin date from the fourteenth century4 ,the ,retablo is of wood entirely covered with silver plates1 and divided vertically into three series of niches and canopies2 each division has a subject1 and a good deal of enamelling is introduced in various parts of the canopies and grounds of the panels4 ,each panel has a cinq-foiled arch with a crocketed gablet and pinnacles on either side4 ,the straight line of the top is broken by three niches1 which rise in the centre and at either end4 ,in the centre is the ,blessed ,virgin with our ,lord2 on the right1 ,san ,narciso2 and on the left1 ,st ,filia4 ,the three tiers of subjects contain figures of saints1 subjects from the life of the ,blessed ,virgin1 and subjects from the life of our ,lord4#ca #ca ,street1 ,gothic ,architecture in ,spain4 ,san ,narciso is patron of the city of ,gerona2 which explains the presence of his image here4 ,from the treasury of the same cathedral was stolen1 during the ,war of ,spanish ,independence1 a magnificent altar-front of wrought gold and mosaic1 a gift of ,countess ,gisla1 wife of ,ramn ,berenguer1 count-king of ,barcelona4 ,it had in the centre a bas-relief medallion representing the ,virgin1 another medallion with a portrait of the donor1 and various saints in niches1 interworked with precious stones4 ,the great armchair of ,don ,martin1 called by ,baron ,davillier a beau faudesteuil gothique1 which possibly served that monarch as a throne1 and was presented by him to the cathedral of ,barcelona1 dates from the year #adaj4 ,the wooden frame is covered with elaborately chiselled plates in silver-gilt4 ,this most imposing object is carried in procession through the streets upon the yearly festival of ,corpus ,christi4 ,illustration3 ,,xi ,,the ,,cup ,,of ,,san ,,fernando 7#acth ,century4 ,seville ,cathedral7 ,illustration3 ,,xii ,,ship 7#aeth ,century4 ,zaragoza ,cathedral7 ,the guin de ,mendoza1 now in ,toledo cathedral1 is a handsome later-,gothic silver-gilt cross1 and is the same which was raised upon the ,torre de la ,vela at ,granada on ,january #bnd1 #adib1 when the fairest and most storied city in all ,spain surrendered formally to ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,many other interesting crosses1 of the character known as processional1 are still preserved in various parts of the ,peninsula1 at ,south ,kensington1 and elsewhere4 ,the more remarkable are noticed under various headings of this book4 ,their workmanship is generally of the fifteenth or the sixteenth century4 ,the ,seo or cathedral of ,zaragoza possesses a handsome ship 7,plate xii471 presented to this temple1 towards the end of the fifteenth century1 by the ,valencian corsair1 ,mosn ,juan de ,torrellas4 ,the hull is a large shell resting on a silver-gilt dragon of good design1 with a large emerald set in the middle of its forehead1 and a ruby for each eye4 ,ships of this kind were not uncommon on a ,spanish dining table of the time1 or in the treasuries of churches and cathedrals4 ,toledo owns another of these vessels 7in both senses of the word71 which once belonged to ,doa ,juana1 daughter of ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,hitherto ,i have confined my notice almost wholly to the treasure of the ,spanish temples4 ,turning from ecclesiastical to secular life1 we find1 all through the ,middle ,ages1 the humbler classes kept by constant penury and war aloof from every form of luxury4 ,jewellery and gold and silver work were thus essentially the perquisite or1 so to speak1 the privilege of princes1 nobles1 and the ,church4 ,the medival kings and magnates of this land were smitten inveterately with a passion for display1 and chronicles and inventories of the time contain instructive details of the quantities of gems and precious metals employed by them to decorate their persons and their palaces4 ,the richness of their bedsteads will be noticed under ,furniture4 ,quantities of jewellery and plate belonged to every noble household4 ,for instance1 the testament of the ,countess of ,castaeda 7,a4,d4 #addc7 includes the mention of a gilded cup and cover to the same2 a silver vessel and its lid1 the edges gilt1 and in the centre of both lid and vessel the arms of the said count1 my lord2 a silver vessel with a foot to it2 a diamond ring2 a silver vessel with gilt edges and the arms of the count1 companion to the other vessels2 a jasper sweetmeat-tray with silver-gilt handles and feet2 four coral spoons2 a gilt enamelled cup and lid2 a small gilt cup and lid2 two large silver porringers2 two ,french cups of white silver2 two large plates of eight marks apiece2 two middling-sized silver vessels2 two silver-gilt barrels with silver-gilt chains4#cb #cb ,count of ,clonard4 ,on each occasion of a court or national festivity1 the apparel of the great was ponderous with gold and silver fringe1 or thickly strewn with pearls--the characteristic aljofar or aljofar-work 7,arabic chawar1 small pearls71 for which the ,moors were widely famed4 ,towards the thirteenth century unmarried ,spanish women of high rank possessed abundant stores of bracelets1 earrings1 necklaces1 gold chains1 rings1 and gem-embroidered pouches for their money4 ,their waist-belts1 too1 were heavy with gold and silver1 and aljofar4#cc ,the poem of the ,archpriest of ,hita 7#acdc7 mentions two articles of jewellery for female wear called the broncha and the pancha4 ,the former was an ornament for the throat2 the other1 a plate or medal which hung to below the waist4 ,an ,arabic document quoted by ,casiri1 and dating from the reign of ,henry the ,first of ,castile1 specifies as belonging to an aristocratic lady of that time1 ,egyptian shirts of silk and linen1 embroidered shirts1 ,persian shirts with silk embroidery1 ,murcian gold necklaces1 ear-pendants of the same metal1 set with gems2 finger-rings and bracelets1 waist-belts of skins1 embroidered with silk and precious stones2 cloaks of cloth of gold1 embroidered mantles of the same1 coverings for the head1 and kerchiefs4 #cc ,ibid4 ,for all the frequency with which they framed and iterated sterile and exasperating sumptuary pragmatics for their people1 the ,spanish kings themselves went even beyond the nobles in their craze for ostentatious luxury4 ,upon the day when he was crowned at ,burgos1 ,alfonso the ,eleventh arrayed himself in gold and silver cloth bearing devices of the castle and the lion1 in which was much aljofar-work1 as well as precious stones innumerable2 rubies1 emeralds1 and sapphires4 ,even the bit and saddle of the monarch's charger were exceeding precious on this day1 for gems and gold and silver covered all the saddle-bows1 and the sides of the saddle and its girths1 together with the headstall1 were curiously wrought of gold and silver thread4 ,similar relations may be found at every moment of the history of medival ,spain4 ,another instance may be quoted from the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,when these sovereigns visited ,barcelona in #adha1 the queen was dressed as follows3--,she advanced riding upon a fine mule1 and seated on cushions covered with brocade1 rising high above the saddle4 ,her robe was of gold thread and jewel-work1 with a rich brocade skirt4 ,upon her head she wore a crown of gold adorned with richest diamonds1 pearls1 rubies1 balas rubies1 and other stones of passing price4 ,during the same visit1 a royal tournament was given in the ,plaza del ,born1 in presence of the aristocracy and wealthy townspeople1 the counts1 viscounts1 deputies1 councillors1 caballeros1 gentiles hombres1 burgesses1 and others without number4 ,ferdinand1 who with virtue and benignity had deigned to break a lance or two in tourneying with the ,duke of ,alburquerque1 the ,count of ,benavente1 and several gentlemen of ,catalua1 was wearing over his harness a jacket all of gold brocade4 ,his horse's coverings and poitral also were of thread of gold1 richly devised and wrought1 and of exceeding majesty and beauty4 ,and on his helm he wore a crown of gold1 embellished with many pearls and other stones2 and above the crown a figure of a large gold bat1 which is the emblem of the kings of ,aragon and counts of ,barcelona1 with white and sanguine bars upon the scutcheon4#cd ,the queen and the cardinal of ,spain were in a window of the house of ,mossen ,guillem ,pujades1 conservator of the realm of ,sicily4 ,her highness wore a robe of rich gold thread with a collar of beautiful pearls2 and the trappings of her mule were of brocade4#ce #cd ,four pallets gules1 on a field or2 which were the arms of ,catalua and subsequently of ,aragon4 #ce ,archives of the ,crown of ,aragon4 ,eleven years later the youthful prince1 ,don ,juan1 son of these rulers1 appeared before the citizens of ,barcelona dressed in a robe of beautiful brocade that almost swept the ground1 and a doublet of the same material2 the sleeves of the robe thickly adorned with fine pearls of large size4 ,he carried1 too1 a gold collar of great size and beauty1 wrought of large diamonds1 pearls1 and other stones4#cf #cf ,ibid4 ,it was an ancient usage with the people of ,barcelona to present a silver service to any member of the royal family who paid a visit to their capital4 ,the service so presented to ,ferdinand the ,catholic cost the corporation a sum of more than twelve hundred pounds of ,catalan money1 and included a saltcellar made upon a rock4 ,upon the rock is a castle1 the tower of which contains the salt4444 ,two silver ewers1 gilt within and containing on the outside various enamelled devices in the centre1 together with the city arms4 ,also a silver-gilt lion upon a rustic palisade of tree-trunks1 holding an inscription in his right paw1 with the arms of the city1 a flag1 and a crown upon his head4 ,this object weighs thirty-four marks4#cg ,the service offered on the same occasion to ,isabella1 though less in weight1 was more elaborately wrought1 and cost on this account considerably more4 ,it included two silver ewers1 gilt within and enamelled without1 bearing the city arms1 and chiselled in the centre with various designs of foliage4 ,also a silver saltcellar1 with six small towers1 containing at the foot three pieces of enamel-work with the arms of the city in relief4 ,this saltcellar has its lid and case1 with a pinnacle upon the lid1 and is of silver-gilt inside and out4#ch #cg ,sanpere y ,miquel1 ,revista de ,ciencias ,histricas1 art4 ,la ,platera catalana en los siglos ,,xiv4 y ,,xv41 vol4 i4 p4 #dda4 #ch ,ibid4 ,from about the fifteenth century the goldsmiths and the silversmiths of ,barcelona enjoyed considerable fame4 ,among their names are those of ,lobarolla1 ,roig1 ,berni1 ,belloch1 ,planes1 ,mellar1 ,corda1 ,fbregues1 ,farrn1 ,perot ,ximenis1 ,rafel ,ximenis1 ,balagu1 and ,antonio de ,valds4 ,riao quotes the names of many more from ,cean's dictionary4 ,the most important facts relating to these artists were brought to light some years ago by ,baron ,davillier1 who based the greater part of his research upon the ,libros de ,pasanta or silversmiths' examination-books 7filled with excellent designs for jewel-work7 of ,barcelona4 ,these volumes1 formerly kept in the college of ,san ,eloy1 are now the property of the ,provincial ,deputation of this city4 ,the goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of ,seville also possesses four of its old examination-books1 of which the earliest dates from #afjj4 ,gestoso1 in his ,dictionary of ,sevillian ,artificers describes the actual ceremony of examination for a silversmith or goldsmith4 ,once in every year the members of the guild assembled in their chapel of the convent of ,san ,francisco4 ,here and upon this day the candidate was closely questioned1 to begin with1 as to his purity of blood--that is1 his freedom from contamination by relationship with any ,moor or ,hebrew4 ,when it was duly and precisely ascertained that he1 his parents1 and his grandparents were uniformly old ,christians1 untainted with the wicked race of ,moors1 ,jews1 heretics1 mulattoes1 and renegades1 and that neither he nor his ancestors had ever been put on trial by the ,inquisition or by any other tribunal1 whether publicly or secretly1 he was permitted to proceed to his examination proper4#ci ,the formula of this was simple4 ,the candidate was summoned before the board of examiners1 consisting of the ,padre ,mayor or patriarch of the guild1 and the two veedores or inspectors1 the one of gold-work1 the other of silver-work4 ,the book of drawings was then placed upon the table1 and a ruler was thrust at haphazard among its leaves4 ,where the ruler chanced to fall1 the candidate was called upon to execute the corresponding drawing to the satisfaction of his judges4 #ci ,gestoso mentions that ,juan de ,luna1 a silversmith of ,seville1 was turned into the gutter from the workshop where he was employed1 solely because his father had been punished as a ,morisco by the ,inquisition 7,diccionario de ,artfices ,sevillanos1 vol4 i4 p4 lvi474 ,riao lays too slight a stress upon the ,moorish and ,morisco jewellery of ,spain4 ,although the use of gold and silver ornaments is forbidden by the ,koran1 the ,muslim1 wherever his vanity or his bodily comfort is involved1 tramples his ,bible underfoot almost as regularly1 tranquilly1 and radically as the ,christians do their own4 ,the ,moors of ,spain were not at all behind their oriental brethren in displaying precious stones and metals on their persons or about their homes4 ,al-,jattib tells us that the third ,mohammed offered to the mosque of the ,alhambra columns with capitals and bases of pure silver4 ,or who does not recall the ,caliphate of ,cordova2 the silver lamp that measured fifty palms across1 fitted with a thousand and fifty-four glass lamplets1 and swinging by a golden chain from the cupola of the entrance to the mirhab in the vast mezquita2 the silver candlesticks and perfume-burners in the same extraordinary temple2 the precious stones and metals employed in mighty quantities to decorate the palaces of ,az-zahyra and ,az-zahra8-- ,a wilderness of building1 sinking far ,and self-withdrawn into a wondrous depth1 ,far sinking into splendour without end6 ,fabric it seemed of diamond and of gold1 ,with alabaster domes and silver spires1 ,and blazing terrace upon terrace1 high ,uplifted4 ,in brief1 just as the prelates of the ,christian ,church habitually precede the ,christian laity in trampling underfoot the elemental doctrine of ,our ,lord1 so were the most exalted and responsible of all the ,mussulmans--that is1 their sultans--indefatigably foremost in neglect of the ,koranic law4 ,the ,spanish sultans wore a ring of gold containing one large stone 7such as an emerald1 or ruby1 or turquoise71 on which was cut the royal seal and signature4 ,such was the ring belonging to ,boabdil el ,chico1 worn by him on the very day of the surrender of his capital1 and by his hand presented to a ,spanish nobleman1 the ,count of ,tendilla1 governor-elect of the ,alhambra4 ,according to ,rodriguez de ,ardila1 the following inscription was upon the stone3--,la ,ala ile ,ala1 abahu ,tabiu4 ,aben ,abi ,abdal1 meaning1 ,there is no ,god but ,god2 this is the seal of ,aben ,abi ,abdal4 ,ardila1 who was the author of a history of the ,counts of ,tendilla 7which still remains in manuscript71 adds that he saw the ring1 although1 as ,eguilaz observes1 two words of the inscription are inaccurately rendered4 ,among the ,moors of ,spain the use of signet rings was general4 ,the stone employed was commonly cornelian1 richly mounted and inscribed in various ways1 as with the owner's name1 his name together with a date1 or the name of the town of which he was a native4 ,in other instances we meet with pious phrases or quotations from the ,koran2 or perhaps a talismanic figure1 such as the open eye to guard the wearer from the dreaded mal de ojo2 or the open hand that still surmounts the gateway of the ,tower of ,justice at ,granada4#dj #dj ,an article by ,seor ,saavedra on these inscribed jewels and signets of ,mohammedan ,spain will be found in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades4 ,undoubtedly1 too1 the ,moorish sultans of this country owned enormous hoards of silver1 gold1 and precious stones4 ,al-,makkari says that the treasure of the ,nasrite rulers of ,granada included quantities of pearls1 turquoises1 and rubies2 pearl necklets2 earrings surpassing those of ,mary the ,copt 7,mohammed's concubine72 swords of the finest temper1 embellished with pure gold2 helmets with gilded borders1 studded with emeralds1 pearls1 and rubies2 and silvered and enamelled belts4 ,illustration3 ,,xiii ,,moorish ,,bracelets ,the ,moorish women of this country1 and in particular the ,granadinas1#da were passionately fond of jewellery4 ,ornaments which once belonged to them are sometimes brought to light in ,andalusia1 ,murcia1 or ,valencia1 including pendants1 rings1 necklaces1 and axorcas or bangles for the ankle or the wrist1 and bracelets for the upper portion of the arm4 ,the ,national ,museum contains a small collection of these objects1 dating from the time of the ,moriscos1 and including a handsome necklace terminating in a double chain1 with ball and pyramid shaped ornaments about the centre1 a square-headed finger-ring with four green stones and a garnet1 and a hollow bracelet filled with a substance that appears to be mastic1 similar to those which are reproduced in ,plate xiii4 #da ,as to the ornaments and jewels of the ladies of ,granada1 these wear at present necklaces of rich design1 bracelets1 rings 7upon their ankles71 and earrings of pure gold2 together with quantities of silver and of precious stones upon their shoes4 ,i say this of the middle class2 for ladies of the aristocracy and of the older noble families display a vast variety of gems1 such as rubies1 chrysolites1 emeralds1 and pearls of great value4 ,the ladies of ,granada are commonly fair to look upon1 shapely1 of good stature1 with long hair1 teeth of a shining white1 and perfumed breath1 gracefully alert in their movements1 and witty and agreeable in conversation4 ,but unfortunately at this time their passion for painting themselves and for arraying themselves in every kind of jewellery and costly stuffs has reached a pitch that is no longer tolerable4--,al-,jattib1 in ,the ,splendour of the ,new ,moon concerning the ,nasrite ,sultans of ,granada4 ,these jewels1 ,i repeat1 are of ,morisco workmanship1 and therefore date from later than the independent empire of the ,spanish ,moors4 ,nevertheless1 the geometrical or filigree design was common both to ,moorish and ,morisco art4 ,as ,i observed in my description of the casket-reliquaries1 we note continually the influence of these motives on the arts of ,christian ,spain4 ,the ,ordinances relative to the goldsmiths and the silversmiths of ,granada1 cried at various times between #aebi and #aech1 whether in the silversmiths' street of the ,alcaycera1 that has its opening over against the scriveners'2 or in the street of the ,puente del ,carbon1 before the goldsmiths' shops2 or in the street of the ,zacatin1 where dwell the silversmiths1 prove also that for many years after the ,reconquest the character and nomenclature of this kind of work continued to be principally and traditionally ,moorish4 ,firstly1 the ,ordinances complain that the goldsmiths of ,granada now employ a base and detrimental standard of the precious metals1 especially in the bracelets or manillas of the women4 ,the goldsmiths answer in their vindication that equally as poor a standard is employed at ,seville1 ,cordova1 and ,toledo4 ,these city laws herewith establish twenty carats as a minimum fineness for the gold employed in making ornaments4 ,the makers1 also1 are ordered to impress their private stamp or seal on every article1 or in default to pay a fine of ten thousand maravedis4 ,a copy of each stamp or seal to be deposited in the city chest4 ,the alamn or inspector of this trade to test and weigh all gold and silver work before it is exposed for sale4 ,we learn from the same source that the gold bracelets were sometimes smooth1 and sometimes covered over with devices 7cubiertos de estampas por cima74 ,the technical name of these was albordados4 ,the silver bracelets were also either smooth1 or stamped1 or twisted in a cord 7encordados74 ,bangles for the ankle1 upper arm1 and wrist are mentioned as continuing to be generally worn1 while one of the ,ordinances complains that ,moorish axorcas are often sold that are hollow1 and filled with chalk and mastic1 so that before they can be weighed it is necessary to rid them of such substances by submitting them to fire1 albeit the fire turns them black4 ,the weapons and war-harness of the ,spanish ,moors were often exquisitely decorated with the precious stones or metals4 ,splendid objects of this kind have been preserved1 and will be noticed in their proper chapter4 ,the ruinous and reckless measure known to ,spain's eternal shame as the ,expulsion of the ,moriscos1 deprived this country of a great--perhaps the greatest--part of her resources4 ,fonseca estimates this loss1 solely in the quantity of coin conveyed away1 at two million and eight hundred thousand escudos1 adding that a single ,morisco1 ,alami ,delascar de ,aberique1 bore off with him one hundred thousand ducats4#db ,to make this matter worse1 the ,moriscos1 just before they went on board their ships1 fashioned from scraps of tin1 old nails1 and other refuse1 enormous stores of counterfeit coin1 and slyly sold this rubbish to the simple ,spaniards in return for lawful money of the land4 ,in the course of a few days1 and in a single quarter of ,valencia1 more than three hundred thousand ducats of false coin were thus passed off upon the ,christians4 ,besides this exportation of good ,spanish money1 the cunning fugitives removed huge quantities of jewellery and plate4 ,chains1 axorcas1 rings1 zarcillos1 and gold escudos were taken from the bodies of many of the ,morisco women who were murdered by the ,spanish soldiery2 but the greater part of all this treasure found its way to ,africa4 ,in his work ,expulsin justificada de los ,moriscos 7#afab71 ,aznar de ,cardona says that the ,morisco women carried divers plates upon the breast1 together with necklaces and collars1 earrings and bracelets4 ,it is recorded1 too1 that the ,moriscos1 as they struggled in the country regions to avenge themselves upon their persecutors1 did unlimited damage to the ornaments and fittings of the churches4 ,this people1 says ,fonseca1 respected not our temples or the holy images that in them were2 nor yet the chalices and other objects they encountered in our sacristies4 ,upon the contrary1 they smashed the crosses1 burned the saints1 profaned the sacred vestments1 and committed such acts of sacrilege as though they had been ,algerian ,moors1 or ,turks of ,constantinople4 #db ,there was1 however1 from long before this time a prohibition to export from ,spain the precious metals1 in any form1 whether as objects of plate or as coined money4 ,the penalty for a repetition of this offence was death4 ,another law prohibited all foreigners who were resident in ,spain1 not excluding the ,moriscos1 from buying gold or silver in the bar 7,suma de ,leyes1 p4 #df74 ,it was also forbidden to sell the jewels or other objects of value belonging to a place of worship 7ibid4 p4 #hg74 ,legends of hidden ,moorish and ,morisco wealth are still extant in many parts of ,spain4 ,the ,abb ,bertaut de ,rouen#dc and ,swinburne among foreigners1 or ,spaniards such as the gossiping priest ,echeverra1 who provided ,washington ,irving with the pick of his ,tales of the ,alhambra1 have treated copiously of this fascinating and mysterious theme4 ,the ,siete ,suelos ,tower at ,granada is particularly favoured with traditions of this kind4 ,peasants of the ,alpujarras still declare that piles of ,moorish money lie secreted in the lofty buttresses of ,mulhacen and the ,veleta1 while yet another summit of this snowy range bears the suggestive title of the ,cerro del ,tesoro1 where1 almost within the memory of living men1 a numerous party1 fitted and commissioned by the ,state1 explored with feverish though unlucky zeal the naked cliffs and sterile crannies of the lonely mountain4#dd #dc ,this entertaining and inquisitive tourist describes1 in #afei1 a wondrous cavern in the south of ,spain1 ou l'on conte que les ,mores ont cach leurs trsors en s'en retournant en ,afrique1 et ou personne n'ose aborder de peur des esprits que l'on dit que l'on y voit souvent4 ,mais comme il commencait a se faire nuit1 je n'eus pas le loisir de m'y amuser beaucoup4 ,with this our author shelved his curiosity1 and prudently retired4 #dd ,leonard ,williams4 ,granada3 ,memories1 ,adventures1 ,studies1 and ,impressions1 p4 #ij4 ,reducing all these fables to the terms of truth1 ,moorish and ,morisco jewellery and coin are sometimes brought to light on ,spanish soil4 ,such finds occur1 less seldom than elsewhere1 within the provinces of ,seville1 ,cordova1 ,granada1 and ,almeria 7,plate xiv471 but since they are neither frequent nor considerable1 although the likeliest ground for them is being disturbed continually1 we may conclude that nearly all the ,muslim wealth accumulated here slipped from the clumsy if ferocious fingers of the mother-country1 and found its way1 concealed upon the bodies of her persecuted offspring1 to the shores of ,africa4#de #de ,ford was more hopeful as to the preservation of this wealth in ,spain4 ,no doubt much coin is buried in the ,peninsula1 since the country has always been invaded and torn by civil wars1 and there never has been much confidence between ,spaniard and ,spaniard2 accordingly the only sure1 although unproductive1 investment for those who had money1 was gold or silver1 and the only resource to preserve that1 was to hide it4--,handbook1 vol4 ii4 p4 #fhb4 ,illustration3 ,,xiv ,,morisco ,,jewellery 7,found in the ,province of ,granada7 ,sometimes1 too1 an early gold or silver object would be melted down and modernized into another and a newer piece of plate4 ,this was a fairly common usage with the silversmiths themselves1 or with an ignorant or stingy brotherhood or chapter4 ,thus1 the following entry occurs in the ,libro de ,visita de ,fbrica belonging to the parish church of ,santa ,ana1 ,triana1 ,seville4 ,in the year #aeii the large cross of silver-gilt1 together with its manana and all the silver attaching thereto1 was taken to the house of ,zubieta the silversmith1 and pulled to pieces4 ,it weighed #be marks and #d ochavas of silver1 besides #e marks and #b ounces and #d ochavas of silver which was the weight of the three lamps delivered to ,zubieta in the time of ,juan de ,mirando1 aforetime steward of this church4 ,it is now made into a silver-gilt cross4#df #df ,gestoso1 ,diccionario de ,artfices ,sevillanos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #cfj4 ,a similar instance may be quoted from a document of ,cordova1 published by ,ramrez de ,arellano in his relation of a visit to the monastery of ,san ,jernimo de ,valparaiso4 ,in the year #afjg ,gernimo de la ,cruz1 a ,cordovese silversmith1 agreed with the prior of this monastery to make for the community a silver-gilt custodia4 ,for this purpose he received from the prior1 doubtless a man of parsimonious spirit and a boor in his appreciativeness of art1 eight pairs of vinegar cruets1 four of whose tops were missing2 a silver-gilt chalice and its patine2 a viril with two angels and four pieces on the crown of it2 a small communion cup2 some silver candlesticks2 four spoons and a fork1 also of silver2 and a silver-gilt salt-cellar4 ,the total value of these objects was #ahbf reales2 and all of them were tossed1 in ,ford's indignant phrase1 into the sacrilegious melting-pot1 in order to provide material for the new custodia4 ,illustration3 ,,xv ,,silver-,,gilt ,,processional ,,cross 7,made by ,juan de ,arfe in #aeib4 ,burgos ,cathedral7 ,the gold and silver work of ,christian ,spain attained1 throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries1 a high degree of excellence 7,plates xv41 xvi41 etc474 ,the best of it was made at ,seville1 ,barcelona1 ,toledo1 and ,valladolid4 ,objects of great artistic worth were also produced at ,burgos1 ,palencia1 ,len1 ,cuenca1 ,cordova1 and ,salamanca4 ,i have already mentioned some of the principal orfebreros of ,barcelona4 ,juan ,ruiz of ,cordova1 whom ,juan de ,arfe applauds as the first silversmith who taught the way to do good work in ,andalusia1 was also1 in this region1 the first to turn the precious metals on the lathe4 ,a famous silversmith of ,seville was ,diego de ,vozmediano1 whom we find living there in #aebe4 ,toledo1 too1 could boast1 among an army of distinguished gold and silver smiths 7,riao gives the names of no fewer than seventy-seven71 ,cristbal de ,ordas1 ,juan ,rodrguez de ,babria1 and ,pedro ,hernandez1 plateros1 respectively1 to ,charles the ,fifth1 to ,philip the ,second1 and to the queen-dowager of ,portugal2 and also the silversmith and engraver upon metals1 ,pedro ,angel1 whose praise is sung by ,lope de ,vega in the prologue to his auto called ,the ,voyage of the ,soul3-- ,y es hoy ,pedro ,angel un divino artfice con el buril en oro1 plata1 cobre4 ,by far the greater part of all ,toledo's gold and silver work was made for service in her mighty temple4 ,such were the statue of ,saint ,helen1 presented by ,philip the ,second2 the crown of the ,virgen del ,sagrario1 wrought by ,hernando de ,carrin and ,alejo de ,montoya2 the bracelets or ajorcas made for the image of the same ,madonna by ,julin ,honrado2 and the exquisite chests carved in #aefi and #aeih by ,francisco ,merino from designs by the two ,vergaras1 father and son1 as reliquaries for the bones of ,san ,eugenio and ,santa ,leocadia1 patrons of this ancient capital4#dg ,a magnificent silver lamp was also1 in #aefe1 offered by the chapter of the cathedral to the church of ,saint ,denis in ,france1 in gratitude for the surrender of the bones of ,san ,eugenio to the city of his birth4 ,these and other objects of ,toledan gold and silver work are stated to be worthy of comparison with the very best of what was then produced in ,germany1 ,italy1 and ,france4#dh #dg ,a full description of these chests will be found in ,cean ,bermudez1 vol4 iii4 pp4 #ace-acg4 #dh ,rada y ,delgado1 in his reply to the ,count of ,cedillo's address in the ,royal ,academy of ,history4 ,for particulars of the silver lamp1 which was made by ,marcos and ,gonzalo ,hernandez1 ,toledanos1 and by ,diego ,dvila1 see ,zarco del ,valle1 ,documentos ,inditos para la ,historia de las ,bellas ,artes en ,espaa1 vol4 lv4 p4 #ehj4 ,baron ,davillier also held a high opinion of the ,spanish orfebreros of this time4 ,after remarking that the ,italian influence was powerful among the ,spaniards in the sixteenth century1 and more particularly for some fifty years at ,barcelona1 he says3 ,a cette poque les plateros espagnols pouvaient rivaliser sans dsavantage avec les ,italiens1 les ,franais1 les ,flamands1 et les ,allemands4 ,the same authority also says that the ,spanish plateros of this period were skilled enamellers on gold and silver1 and quotes some entries from ,french inventories of the time in which we read of cups1 salt-cellars1 washing-basins1 and other objects executed or enamelled la mode d',espagne4#di #di ,recherches sur l',orfvrerie en ,espagne1 pp4 #fa et seq4 ,as we have seen1 the exodus of the ,moriscos lost to ,spain a great proportion of her total wealth1 although1 conjointly with this loss1 new wealth flowed into her in marvellous abundance from the ,new ,world4#ej ,thus1 the silver-mines of ,potosi1 discovered in #aede1 sent over to the mother-country1 between that year and #afcc1 no less than eight hundred and forty-five millions of pesos4 ,and yet this mighty influx of new riches cannot be said1 except in the artistic sense1 to have enriched the nation4 ,she had renounced the service of the most industrious and1 in many instances1 the most ingenious of her native craftsmen2 while on the other hand the ,christians1 with but limited exceptions1 were far too proud and far too indolent to set their hand to any form of manual exercise2 just as 7,i much regret to add7 a great proportion of them are this very day4 ,foreign artificers in consequence 7particularly after the royal pragmatic of #afbc encouraging their immigration71 attracted by the treasure fleets that anchored in the bay of ,cadiz1 came trooping into ,spain and filled their pockets from the national purse1 fashioning1 in return for money which they husbanded and sent abroad1 luxurious gold and silver objects that were merely destined to stagnate within her churches and cathedrals4 #ej ,ulloa1 ,memorias ,sevillanas1 vol4 i4 p4 #aii4 ,riao and ,baron de la ,vega de ,hoz extract from ,cean ,bermudez a copious list of silversmiths who worked in ,spain all through the ,middle ,ages4 ,this long array of isolated names and dates is neither interesting nor informative4 ,newer and more attractive notices have been discovered subsequently4 ,thus1 in the ,national ,library at ,madrid1 ,don ,manuel ,g4 ,simancas has disinterred quite recently the copy made by a ,jesuit of a series of thirteenth-century accounts relating to various craftsmen of the reign of ,sancho the ,fourth 7the ,brave74 ,two of them are concerning early orfebreros3-- ,juan ,yanez4 ,by letters of the king and queen to ,johan ,yanez1 goldsmith1 brother of ,ferran ,garca1 scrivener to the king2 for three chalices received from him by the king1 ,,cccclxxviii maravedis4 ,the second entry says3-- ,bartolom ,rinalt4 ,and he paid ,bartolom ,rinalt for jewels which the queen bought from him to present to ,doa ,marina ,suarez1 nurse of the ,infante ,don ,pedro1 ,,mcccl maravedis4#ea #ea ,libro de diferentes ,cuentas y gasto de la ,casa ,real en el ,reynado de ,don ,sancho ,,iv4 ,sacado de un tomo original en folio que se guarda en la ,librera de la ,santa ,iglesia de ,toledo4 ,aos de #abic-abid4 ,por el ,p4 ,andres ,marcos ,burriel de la ,compa de ,jesus4 ,among ,spain's gold and silver craftsmen of the fifteenth century we find the names of ,juan de ,castelnou1 together with his son ,jaime1 who worked at ,valencia2 of ,lope ,rodrguez de ,villareal1 ,ruby1 and ,juan ,gonzalez1 all three of whom worked at ,toledo2 and of ,juan de ,segovia1 a friar of ,guadalupe4 ,papers concerning ,juan ,gonzalez1 and dated #adbe1 #adbg1 and #adca1 are published among the ,documentos ,inditos of ,zarco del ,valle4 ,one of ,segovia's masterpieces was a silver salt-cellar in the form of a lion tearing open a pomegranate--clearly allusive to the conquest of ,granada from the ,moors4 ,upon their visiting the monastery1 ,ferdinand and ,isabella saw and1 as was natural1 conceived a fancy for this salt-cellar2 and so1 whether from inclination or necessity1 the brotherhood induced them to accept it4 ,sixteenth-century plateros of renown were ,juan ,donante1 ,mateo and ,nicols 7whose surnames are unknown7--all three of whom worked at ,seville2 and ,duarte ,rodrguez and ,fernando ,ballesteros1 natives of that city4 ,in or about the year #aebd were working at ,toledo the silversmiths ,pedro ,herreros and ,hernando de ,valles1 together with ,diego ,vazquez1 ,andres ,ordoez1 ,hernando de ,carrin1 ,diego de ,valdivieso1 ,juan ,domingo de ,villanueva1 ,diego ,abedo de ,villandrando1 ,juan ,tello de ,morata1 ,francisco de ,reinalte1 ,hans ,belta1 and ,francisco ,merino4 ,several of these men were natives of ,toledo4 ,among the silversmiths of sixteenth-century ,cordova were ,diego de ,alfaro and his son ,francisco1 ,francisco de ,baena1 ,alonso ,casas1 ,alonso del ,castillo1 ,luis de ,cordoba1 ,sebastin de ,cordoba1 ,cristbal de ,escalante1 ,juan ,gonzalez1 ,diego ,fernandez1 ,diego ,hernandez ,rubio 7son of ,sebastin de ,cordoba71 ,rodrigo de ,len1 ,gmez ,luque1 ,gins ,martinez1 ,melchor de los ,reyes 7silversmith and enameller71 ,andrs de ,roa1 ,pedro de ,roa1 ,alonso ,sanchez1 ,jernimo ,sanchez de la ,cruz1 ,martin ,sanchez de la ,cruz 7,jernimo's son71 ,pedro ,sanchez de ,luque1 ,alonso de ,sevilla1 ,juan ,urbano1 and ,lucas de ,valds4 ,not much is told us of the lives and labours of these artists4 ,the best reputed of them as a craftsman was ,rodrigo de ,len1 who stood next after ,juan ,ruiz1 el ,sandolino4 ,ramrez de ,arellano1 from whom ,i have collected these data1 publishes a number of ,len's agreements or contracts1 which from their length and dryness ,i do not here repeat4 ,in #afjc we find him official silversmith to the cathedral1 under the title of platero de martillo 7silversmith of hammered work7 de la obra de la catedral desta ciudad4 ,francisco de ,alfaro1 although a ,cordovese by birth1 resided commonly at ,seville4 ,in #aegh he received #ddf1afc maravedis for making four silver candlesticks for use in celebrating divine service4 ,these candlesticks are still in the cathedral4 ,sebastin de ,cordoba was one of the foremost artists of his age4 ,he died in #aehg1 leaving1 together with other children1 a son1 ,diego1 who also won some reputation as a silversmith4 ,ramrez de ,arellano publishes a full relation of the property which ,sebastin de ,cordoba bequeathed at his decease1 as well as of the money which was owing to him4 ,among the former1 or the movable effects1 we read of ,isabel1 a ,morisco woman1 native of the kingdom of ,granada2 her age thirty-four years1 a little less or more4 ,the same inventory includes a curious and complete account of all the tools and apparatus in ,sebastin's workshop4 ,but the quaintest notice of them all1 though it does not apprise us of his merit as a silversmith1 is that concerning ,cristbal de ,escalante4 ,cristbal suffered1 we are told1 from certain sores produced by humours in his left leg2 wherefore the said leg undergoes a change and swells4 ,he therefore makes a contract with one ,juan ,jimnez1 servant in the ,royal ,stables of ,his ,majesty the ,king1 and duly examined as a herbalist 7licensed1 in the actual phrase1 to remedy this kind of ailments71 who is to heal his leg by means of the divine will of the cure4 ,as soon as ,cristbal shall be thoroughly well1 in so much that his ailing leg shall be the other's equal in the fatness and the form thereof1 he is to pay ,jimnez five-and-fifty reales1 having already given him ten reales on account4 ,probably1 as ,seor ,ramrez de ,arellano facetiously supposes1 ,cristbal1 after such a course of treatment1 would be lame for all his life4 ,at any rate1 he died in #afje1 though whether from the gentle handling of the stableman and herbalist is not recorded in these entries4 ,still keeping to the sixteenth century1 in other parts of ,spain we find the silversmiths ,baltasar ,alvarez and ,juan de ,benavente1 working at ,palencia2 ,alonso de ,dueas at ,salamanca2 and ,juan de ,orna at ,burgos1 about the same time that the foreigners ,jacomi de ,trezzo and ,leo ,leoni were engaged at the ,escorial4 ,cuenca1 too1 boasted three excellent silver-workers in the family of ,becerril1 mentioned by ,juan de ,arfe in company with other craftsmen of the time of the ,renaissance4#eb ,stirling says of ,cuenca and the ,becerriles3 ,they made for the cathedral its great custodia1 which was one of the most costly and celebrated pieces of church plate in ,spain4 ,they began it in #aebh1 and1 though ready for use in #aedf1 it was not finished till #aegc4 ,it was a three-storied edifice1 of a florid classical design1 crowned with a dome1 and enriched with numberless groups and statues1 and an inner shrine of jewelled gold2 it contained #faf marks of silver1 and cost #ag1gbe-a_/b ducats1 a sum which can barely have paid the ingenious artists for the labour of forty-five years4 ,in the ,war of ,independence1 this splendid prize fell into the hands of the ,french ,general ,caulaincourt1 by whom it was forthwith turned into five-franc pieces1 bearing the image and superscription of ,napoleon4#ec #eb ,con estos fu mi padre en seguimiento ,joan ,alvarez tambien el ,salmantino1 ,becerril1 que tambien fu deste cuento1 ,juan de ,orna1 y ,juan ,ruiz el ,vandolino4 #ec ,annals of the ,artists of ,spain1 vol4 i4 pp4 #afa1 #afb4 ,a more reliable notice says that this custodia was begun by ,alonso ,becerril and finished by his brother ,francisco4 ,the third member of this family of artists1 ,cristbal1 who flourished towards the end of the sixteenth century1 was ,francisco's son4 ,illustration3 ,,xvi ,,gothic ,,custodia 7#aeth ,century7 ,towards the close of the ,gothic and during the earlier phases of the ,renaissance movement in this country1 enormous quantities of gold and silver began to be employed in making these custodias or monstrances of her temples2 so that the fifteenth century may well be called1 in ,spanish craftsmanship1 the age of the custodia4 ,a century ago the reverend ,townsend1 loyal to the ,low ,church prejudices of his day1 spoke of this object with something of a sneer as the depository of the ,host1 or1 according to the ideas of a ,catholic1 the throne of the ,most ,high1 when1 upon solemn festivals1 ,he appears to command the adoration of mankind4 ,riao's description is more technical4 ,the name of custodia1 he says1 is given in ,spain1 not only to the monstrance or ostensoir where the ,blessed ,sacrament is exposed1 but also to a sort of temple or tabernacle1 of large size1 made also of silver1 inside which is placed the monstrance1 which is carried in procession on ,corpus ,christi day 7,plate xvi474 ,in order to distinguish these objects one from another1 the name of viril is given to the object which holds the consecrated ,host2 it is generally made of rock crystal1 with a gold stem and mount ornamented with precious stones4 ,the small tabernacles are generally objects of the greatest importance1 both from their artistic and intrinsic value4 ,a third description of the monstrance1 written in quaint and antiquated ,spanish verse by ,juan de ,arfe1 is truthfully if not melodiously translated into ,english rhyme by ,stirling3-- ,custodia is a temple of rich plate1 ,wrought for the glory of our ,saviour true1 ,where1 into wafer transubstantiate1 ,he shows his ,godhead and his ,manhood too1 ,that holiest ark of old to imitate1 ,fashioned by ,bezaleel1 the cunning ,jew1 ,chosen of ,god to work ,his sov'ran will1 ,and greatly gifted with celestial skill4#ed #ed ,op4 cit41 p4 #aei1 note4 ,notwithstanding that the monstrance of ,toledo1 surmounted by a cross of solid gold1 turns the scale at ten thousand nine hundred ounces1 and that of ,avila at one hundred and forty pounds1 the weight of nearly all of these custodias is far exceeded by the value of their workmanship4 ,the style employed in their construction is the ,gothic1 the ,renaissance1 or the two combined4 ,custodias of the eastern parts of ,spain are more affected than the others by ,italian influence1 noticeable both in decorative motives which recall the ,florentine1 and in the use1 together with the silver-work1 of painting and enamels4 ,in other parts of ,spain the dominating influence is the later ,gothic4 ,among the former or ,levantine class of monstrances1 the most important are those of ,barcelona1 ,vich1 ,gerona1 and ,palma de ,mallorca2 and of the others1 those of ,cordova1 ,cadiz1 ,sahagn1 ,zamora1 ,salamanca1 and ,toledo--this last1 according to ,bertaut de ,rouen1 la manire d'un clocher perc jour1 d'ouvrage de filigrane1 et plein de figures4 ,custodias in the purest classic or ,renaissance style are those of ,seville1 ,valladolid1 ,palencia1 ,avila1 ,jaen1 ,madrid1 ,segovia1 ,zaragoza1 ,santiago1 and ,orense4 ,juan de ,arfe y ,villafae1 who may be called the ,cellini of ,spain's custodia-makers1 was born at ,len in #aece4 ,he was the son of ,antonio de ,arfe1 and grandson of ,enrique de ,arfe1 a ,german who had married a ,spanish wife and made his home in ,spain4 ,the family of ,juan1 including his brother ,antonio1 were all distinguished craftsmen1 and he himself informs us that his grandfather excelled in ,gothic platera1 as may be judged from the custodias1 by ,enrique's hand1 of ,cordova1 ,len1 ,toledo1 and ,sahagn1 and many smaller objects1 such as incensories1 crosiers1 and paxes4 ,the father of ,juan1 ,antonio de ,arfe1 worked in silver in the ,renaissance or ,plateresque styles1 and executed in the florid manner the custodias of ,santiago de ,galicia and ,medina de ,rioseco2 but the training and tastes of ,juan himself were sternly classical4 ,his work in consequence has a certain coldness1 largely atoned for by its exquisite correctness of design and unimpeachable proportions4 ,arfe's ideal in these matters may readily be judged of from his written verdict on the ,greco-,roman architecture4 ,the ,escorial1 he says1 in the preface to his description of the custodia of ,seville cathedral1 because it follows the rules of ancient art1 competes in general perfection1 size1 or splendour with the most distinguished buildings of the ,asiatics1 ,greeks1 and ,romans1 and displays magnificence and truth in all its detail4 ,in point of versatility ,juan de ,arfe was a kind of ,spanish ,leonardo4 ,his book1 ,de ,varia ,conmensuracin1 etc41 published in #aehe1 is divided into four parts1 and deals1 the first part with the practice of geometry1 the second with human anatomy1 the third with animals1 and the fourth with architecture and silver-work for use in churches4 ,illustration3 ,,ioan ,,de ,,arfe ,this book is prefaced by the portrait of the author1 given above4 ,it shows us--what he really was--a quiet1 cultured1 gentle-hearted man4 ,indeed1 while ,arfe was studying anatomy at ,salamanca1 it gave him pain to lacerate the bodies even of the dead4 ,i was witness1 he records1 to the flaying of several pauper men and women whom the law had executed2 but these experiments1 besides being horrible and cruel1 ,i saw to be of little service to my studies in anatomy4 ,arfe's workmanship of the custodia of ,avila cathedral1 which he began in #aefd and terminated in #aega1 won for him an early and extended fame4 ,he also made the custodia of ,burgos 7brutally melted during the ,spanish ,war of ,independence71 and those of ,valladolid 7finished in #aeij71 ,lugo1 ,osma1 and the ,hermandad del ,santsimo at ,madrid4 ,the custodia of ,palencia is also thought by some to be his handiwork4 ,but ,arfe's crowning labour was the ,greco-,roman custodia of ,seville cathedral 7,plate xvii474 ,the chapter of this temple selected his design in #aehj1 and nominated the licentiate ,pacheco to assist him with the statuettes4 ,pacheco also carried out his portion of the task with skill and judgment4 ,a rare pamphlet1 written by ,arfe and published at ,seville in #aehg1 gives a minute description of the whole custodia4 ,in ,appendix ,c1 ,i render this description into ,english1 together with a similarly detailed notice of the custodia 7#aeac ,a4,d47 of ,cordova4 ,this last1 which we have seen to be the work of ,juan de ,arfe's grandfather1 ,enrique1 is not to be surpassed for fairy grace and lightness1 seeming1 in the eloquent metaphor of a modern writer1 to have been conceived in a dream1 and executed with the breath4 ,illustration3 ,,xvii ,,custodia ,,of ,,seville ,,cathedral 7,by ,juan de ,arfe4 ,late #afth ,century7 ,spain in the seventeenth century had reached the lowest depth of her decadence and impoverishment2 and yet we find that century an age--to quote a ,spanish term--of gallantries and pearls1 in which a craze for reckless luxury continued to prevail in every quarter4 ,narratives innumerable inform us of the life and doings of that prodigal court and prodigal aristocracy2 their ruinous and incessant festivals2 the fortunes that were thrown away on furniture1 and jewels1 and costume4 ,true1 we are told by ,bertaut de ,rouen that1 except upon their numerous holidays1 the costume of the ,spanish men was plain enough4 ,this author1 who calls them otherwise debauched and ignorant1 says that their clothes were all of mchante frise1 and adds that they continually took snuff1 dont ils ont toujours les narines pleines1 ce qui fait qu'ils n'ont que des mouchoirs de laine1 de toile grise1 et peinte comme de la toile de la ,chine4 ,the same traveller1 attending an ordinary reception in the royal palace at ,madrid1 was unable to distinguish the nobles from the lower orders1 except that1 by the privilege peculiar to this country1 the former kept their hats on in the presence of the sovereign4 ,even of ,philip himself he says3 ,le ,roy d',espagne estoit debout avec un habit fort simple et fort ressemblant tous ses portraits2 alluding1 probably1 to those of ,philip the ,fourth by ,velazquez1 in which the monarch wears a plain cloth doublet4 ,but when the ,spaniard dressed himself for any scene of gala show1 his spendthrift inclinations swelled into a positive disease4 ,the women1 too1 squandered enormous sums on finery4 ,the ,marchioness of ,liche1 said to have been the loveliest ,espaola of that day1 is spoken of by ,bertaut as wearing un corps de brocard d'argent avec de grandes basques leur mode1 la jupe d'une autre toffe avec grand nombre de pierreries1 et cela luy fetoit fort bien4 ,an anonymous manuscript of the period1 published by ,gayangos in the ,revista de ,espaa for #ahhd1 describes the fiestas celebrated at ,valladolid in #afje1 in honour of the ,english ambassador and his retinue4 ,in this relation the ,duke of ,lerma is quoted as possessing a yearly income of three hundred thousand cruzados1 besides as much again in jewellery and furniture1 and gold and silver services4 ,at the state banquets which were given at that wasteful court1 even the pies and tarts were washed with gold or silver2 and at a single feast the dishes of various kinds of fare amounted to two thousand and two hundred4 ,at the banquet given by the ,duke of ,lerma1 three special sideboards were constructed to sustain the weight of four hundred pieces of silver1 all of them of delicate design and exquisitely wrought of silver1 gold1 and enamel1 together with innumerable objects of glass and crystal of capricious form1 with handles1 lids1 and feet of finest gold4 ,the whole of ,spain's nobility was congregated at these festivals1 richly attired with quantities of pearls and oriental gems1 while everybody1 young and old alike1 wore diamond buttons and brooches on cloaks and doublets1 feather plumes with costly medals1 gold chains with emeralds1 and other ornaments4 ,the ladies of the aristocracy were also clothed in costliest style1 as well as loaded with diamonds and pearls and hair-ornaments of pearls and gold1 such as the women of ,castile lay by for these solemnities4 ,the ,spanish churches1 too1 continued to be veritable storehouses of treasure4 ,the manuscript published by ,gayangos says that in #afje the church of ,la ,merced at ,valladolid had its altars covered with beautiful gold and silver vessels1 of which there are a great many in the whole of ,castilla la ,vieja1 and particularly here at ,valladolid4 ,bertaut de ,rouen's notice of the shrine of ,montserrat in ,catalua has been inserted previously4 ,in #agge ,swinburne wrote of the same temple3--,in the sacristy and passages leading to it are presses and cupboards full of relics and ornaments of gold1 silver1 and precious stones2 they pointed out to us1 as the most remarkable1 two crowns for the ,virgin and her ,son1 of inestimable value1 some large diamond rings1 an excellent cameo of ,medusa's head1 the ,roman emperors in alabaster1 the sword of ,saint ,ignatius1 and the chest that contains the ashes of a famous brother1 ,john ,guarin1 of whom they relate the same story as that given in the ,spectator of a ,turkish santon and the ,sultan's daughter4444 ,immense is the quantity of votive offerings to this miraculous statue2 and as nothing can be rejected or otherwise disposed of1 the shelves are crowded with the most whimsical ex votos1 viz41 silver legs1 fingers1 breasts1 earrings1 watches1 two-wheeled chaises1 boats1 carts1 and such-like trumpery4 ,many pragmatics from the ,crown vainly endeavoured to suppress or mitigate the popular extravagance4 ,such was the royal letter of #afaa1 which forbade1 among the laity1 the wearing of gold jewels with decoration or enamel in relief1 or points with pearls or other stones4 ,smaller jewels1 of the kind known as joyeles and brincos1#ee were limited to a single stone1 together with its pearl pendant4 ,the jewellery of the women was exempted from these laws1 though even here were certain limitations4 ,rings for the finger might1 however1 bear enamel-work1 or any kind of stone4 ,enamel was also allowed in gold buttons and chains for the men's caps1 as well as in the badges worn by the knights of the military orders4 #ee ,brinco 7brincar1 to jump or spring74 ,these jewels were so called from their vibrating as the wearer walked4 ,the ,balearic ,islands were famous for their manufacture2 and the late ,marquis of ,arcicollar possessed a case of valuable examples1 most of which proceeded from this locality4 ,it is forbidden1 continues this pragmatic1 to make any object of gold1 silver1 or other metal with work in relief1 or the likeness of a person2 nor shall any object be gilt1 excepting drinking vessels1 and the weight of these shall not exceed three marks4 ,all other silver shall be flat and plain1 without gilding2 but this does not apply to objects intended for religious worship4 ,all niello-work is prohibited1 as are silver brasiers and buffets4#ef #ef ,suma de ,leyes1 #afbh1 p4 #aaf 7#b74 ,what ,i may call the private jewel-work of ,spain1 largely retains throughout its history the characteristic lack of finish of all the ,visigothic treasure found at ,guarrazar4 ,from first to last1 until extinguished or absorbed by foreign influences two centuries ago1 it strives to compensate in ponderous and bulky splendour for what it lacks in delicacy1 elegance1 and taste4 ,it is just the jewellery we should expect to find among a military people who once upon a time possessed great riches simultaneously with little education1 and who1 from this and other causes1 such as the strenuous opposition of the national church to pagan sentiments expressed in fleshly form1 were never genuinely or profoundly art-loving4 ,long residence and observation in their midst induce me to affirm that as a race the ,spaniards are and always have been hostile1 or at least indifferent1 to the arts2 and that their most illustrious artists have made their power manifest and raised themselves to eminence despite the people--not1 as in ,italy1 on the supporting shoulders of the people4 ,dazzle and show monopolized1 and to a great extent monopolize still1 the preference of this race4 ,the ,spanish breast-ornaments of the seventeenth century1 preserved at ,south ,kensington and reproduced by ,riao on pages #cg and #ci of his handbook1 are strongly reminiscent of the ,visigothic ornaments4 ,who would imagine that a thousand years had come and gone between the execution of the new and of the old8 ,as late as the reign of ,charles the ,second the culture of a ,spanish lady of high birth was little1 if at all1 superior to a savage's4 ,false stones enchant them1 wrote ,countess d',aulnoy4 ,although they possess many jewels of considerable value and the finest quality1 it is their whim to carry on their person wretched bits of glass cut in the coarsest fashion1 just like those which pedlars in my country sell to country girls who have seen nobody but the village curate1 and nothing but their flocks of sheep4 ,dames of the aristocracy adorn themselves with these pieces of glass1 that are worth nothing at all2 yet they purchase them at high prices4 ,when ,i asked them why they like false diamonds1 they told me they prefer them to the genuine as being larger4 ,indeed1 they sometimes wear them of the bigness of an egg4 ,even where the stones were real1 the ,spanish taste in setting and in wearing them was no less execrable4 ,the ,countess says3 the ladies here possess great stores of beautiful precious stones1 and do not wear1 like ,frenchwomen1 a single article of jewellery1 but nine or ten together1 some of diamonds1 others of rubies1 pearls1 emeralds1 and turquoises1 wretchedly mounted1 since they are almost wholly covered with the gold4 ,when ,i inquired the cause of this1 they told me the jewels were so made because the gold was as beautiful as the gems4 ,i suppose1 however1 the real reason is the backwardness of the craftsmen1 who can do no better work than this1 excepting ,verbec1 who has no lack of skill1 and would turn out excellent jewels if he took the trouble to finish them4 ,in the neck of their bodices the ladies fasten pins profusely set with precious stones4 ,hanging from the pin1 and fastened at the lower end to the side of their dress1 is a string of pearls or diamonds4 ,they wear no necklace1 but bracelets on their wrists and rings on their fingers1 as well as long earrings of so great a weight that ,i know not how they can support them4 ,hanging from these earrings they display whatever finery they may fancy4 ,i have seen some ladies who wore good-sized watches hanging from their ears1 strings of precious stones1 ,english keys of dainty make1 and little bells4 ,they also wear the agnus1 together with little images about their neck and arms1 or in their hair4 ,they dress their hair in various ways1 and always go with it uncovered1 using many hairpins in the form of coloured flies or butterflies of diamonds1 emeralds1 and rubies4 ,book-worm authorities1 addicted to dry bones of letters1 are prone just now to doubt this visit of ,countess d',aulnoy to the capital of ,spain4 ,but if such patient doubters will compare her narrative with those of other foreigners1 e4g4 ,bertaut de ,rouen1 or the manuscript description of ,valladolid1 written by a ,portuguese1 and now in the ,british ,museum library1 their scepticism will--or should--be done away with on the moment4 ,the letters of the countess make it plain by copious inner testimony that she actually performed her ,spanish visit2 and though from time to time she over-colours or misreads the truth1 it was the very usages of ,spain that were absurd and out of joint1 and not1 except in isolated instances1 the sprightly and observant ,frenchwoman's account of them4#eg #eg ,but on the other hand ,i much suspect that the following passage in ,alvarez de ,colmenar's ,annales d',espagne et de ,portugal 7vol4 iii4 p4 #cbf7 is stolen from ,countess d',aulnoy4 ,elles ne portent point de colier1 mais en change elles ont des bracelets1 des bagues1 et des pendans d'oreille1 plus gros que tous ceux qu'on voit en ,hollande4 ,telle est la diversit des gouts des nations diffrentes1 en matire de beaut4 ,il y en a mme quelques-unes1 qui attachent quelque beau joli bijou leurs pendans d'oreilles1 quelque ornement de pierreries1 par exemple1 ou d'autres choses semblables1 selon leur quantit ou leur pouvoir4 ,elsewhere the ,countess says3 ,utensils of common metal are not employed here1 but only those of silver or of ware4 ,i hear that a little while ago1 upon the death of the ,duke of ,alburquerque1 six weeks were needed to make out an inventory of his gold and silver services4 ,his house contained fourteen hundred dozen plates1 five hundred large dishes1 and seven hundred of a smaller size1 with all the other pieces in proportion1 and forty silver ladders for climbing his sideboard1 made in grades like an altar in a spacious hall4 ,these statements have been proved in later years4 ,dating from #aefj1 an inventory of the ducal house of ,alburquerque was found not many years ago4 ,in it we find the detailed list of gold and silver2 cups and dishes1 bowls and basins1 plates and salt-cellars1 trenchers1 wine and water flagons1 sauce-spoons1 salad-spoons1 conserve-spoons1 and innumerable other articles4 ,here1 too1 we find1 upon the mighty sideboard mounted by its forty silver stairs1 such objects as the following3-- ,a gold cup with festoon-work above and beneath1 wrought with leaves in relief4 ,at the top of the foot there issue some leaves that fall down over a small gold staple1 and below this1 about the narrowest part of the foot1 are leaves in relief and several dolphins4 ,the broad part of the foot is decorated with festoons4 ,the lid of this cup is wrought with leaves in relief1 and on the crest thereof is a lion1 crowned4 ,the cup weighs three hundred and fifty-one castellanos and a half4 ,a ,castilian jar from which my lord the duke was wont to drink1 weighing two marks and five ounces4#eh #eh ,the mark was a standard of eight ounces1 and was divided into fifty castellanos4 ,a cup with a high foot1 gilt all over1 with the figure of a woman in its midst1 and decorated in four places in the ,roman manner4 ,a flagon of white silver1 flat beneath the stem1 with a screw-top surmounted by a small lion2 for cooling water4 ,a small silver dish1 of the kind they call meat-warmers4 ,a large silver seal for sealing provisions1 with the arms of my lord the duke1 ,don ,francisco4 ,a large silver vessel1 embossed1 with a savage on top4 ,a gold horse1 enamelled in white upon a gold plate enamelled in green and open at the top2 also a wolf1 upon another gold plate enamelled in green1 with lettering round about it2 also a green enamelled lizard upon blue enamel2 and a gold toothpick with four pieces enamelled in green1 white1 and rose2 also a small gold column enamelled in black and rose4 ,a silver lemon-squeezer1 gilt and chiselled1 with white scroll-work about the mesh thereof1 through which the lemon-juice is strained4 ,a large round silver salt-cellar1 in two halves1 gilt all over1 with scales about the body1 and two thick twisted threads about the flat part4 ,one side of it is perforated4 ,among the property of the duchess1 ,doa ,menca ,enriquez1 we find a small gold padlock1 which opens and closes by means of letters2 two gold bangles2 a gold necklace consisting of forty-two pieces enamelled with some ,b's2#ei a gold signet ring with the duchess's arms2 and a gold and niello box with relics1 for wearing round the neck4 ,also1 resting on a table covered with silver plates1 a box of combs2 the said box wrought in gold upon blue leather1 containing five combs1 a looking-glass1 a little brush1 and other fittings2 girt with a cord in gold and blue silk4 #ei ,for ,beltran de la ,cueva1 ancestor of this family4 ,the seventeenth century and a race of native ,spanish kings declined and passed away together4 ,a dynasty of ,france succeeded to the throne of ,spain1 and with the foreigner came a fresh reactionary movement towards the neo-classic art1 coupled with the canons of ,french taste4 ,henceforth a century of slow political reform goes hand in hand with slow suppression of the salient parts of ,spanish character4 ,madrid transforms or travesties herself into a miniature ,versailles1 and national arts and crafts belong henceforward to a ,frenchified society which found its painter in ,goya1 just as the preceding and eminently ,spanish society had found its painter in ,velazquez4 ,another of the causes of the falling-off in ,spanish orfebrera at this time1 is stated to have been the craftsmen's overwhelming tendency to substitute the slighter though venerable and beautiful gold or silver filigree 7,plate xviii471 for more artistic and ambitious1 if less showy work in massive metal4 ,thus1 in #afii1 a supplementary chapter of the ,ordinances of ,seville complained in bitter phrases of this tendency1 denouncing it as a source of fraud and detriment to the republic1 and deploring that of the last few years we have forsaken our goodly usages of older times1 in the matter of the drawings entrusted to the candidates who come before us for examination4 ,in the same year the goldsmiths' and the silversmiths' guild of ,seville enacted that none of its members were to work in filigree1 unless they were qualified to execute the other work as well4 ,such efforts to suppress this evil were not new4 ,more than a century before1 on ,april #aeth1 #aefg1 the inspectors of the guild had entered the shop of ,luis de ,alvarado1 silversmith1 and seized some filigree earrings of the work that is forbidden1 breaking these objects on the spot1 and imposing a fine of half-a-dozen ducats on the peccant or oblivious ,alvarado4#fj #fj ,gestoso1 ,diccionario de ,artfices ,sevillanos1 vol4 ii4 p4 #acd4 ,the modern gold and silver work of ,spain is thus exempted from a lengthy notice1 seeing that its typical and national characteristics have succumbed1 or very nearly so4 ,i may1 however1 mention the giant silver candelabra in the cathedral of ,palma de ,mallorca1 which were made at ,barcelona1 between #agjd and #agah1 by ,juan ,matons and three of his assistants4 ,they measure eight feet high by four feet and a quarter across1 weigh more than eight thousand ounces1 and cost #ba1idb pounds1 #ae sueldos1 and #aa dineros of ,majorcan money4 ,the ,state seized them during the ,napoleonic wars1 in order to melt them down for money2 but the chapter of the cathedral bought them back for eleven thousand dollars4 ,illustration3 ,,xviii ,,early ,,chalice ,,and ,,cross ,,in ,,filigree ,,gold-,,work 7,church of ,saint ,isidore1 ,len7 ,during this century ,riao mentions several factories of silver articles established at ,madrid1 including that of ,isaac and ,michael ,naudin 7#aggb7 and the ,escuela de ,platera 7#aggh71 protected by ,charles the ,third2 but since the work of these was purely in the ,french or ,english manner1 they call for no particular notice4 ,the principal objects they produced were inkstands1 dishes1 dinner-services1 chocolate-stands1 cruets1 knives and forks1 together with buckles1 needle-cases1 brooches1 snuff-boxes1 frames for miniatures1 and similar trinkets4 ,early in the nineteenth century ,laborde wrote that the fabrication of articles of gold and silver might become an important object in a country where these metals abound2 but it is neglected1 and the demand is almost entirely supplied from foreign markets4 ,what little they do in this branch at home is usually very ill executed1 and exorbitantly dear4 ,madrid1 however1 begins to possess some good workmen2 encouragement would increase their number and facilitate the means of improvement2 but manual labour is there excessively dear4 ,hence the ,spaniards prefer foreign articles of this kind1 which1 notwithstanding the expense of carriage1 the enormous duties that they pay1 and the profits of the merchants1 are still cheaper than those made at home4 ,several of the inherent characteristics of the national orfebrera may yet be noticed somewhat faintly in the ornaments and jewels of the ,spanish peasants1 though even these are being discarded4 ,a century ago ,laborde described the dress of the ,mauregata women1 near ,astorga1 in the kingdom of ,len4 ,they wear large earrings1 a kind of white turban1 flat and widened like a hat1 and their hair parted on the forehead4 ,they have a chemise closed over the chest1 and a brown corset buttoned1 with large sleeves opening behind4 ,their petticoats and veils are also brown4 ,over all they wear immense coral necklaces1 which descend from the neck to the knee2 they twist them several times round the neck1 pass them over the shoulders1 where a row is fastened1 forming a kind of bandage over the bosom4 ,then another row lower than this2 in short1 a third and fourth row at some distance from each other4 ,the last falls over the knee1 with a large cross on the right side4 ,these necklaces or chaplets are ornamented with a great many silver medals1 stamped with the figure of saints4 ,they only wear these decorations when not working1 or on festivals4 ,i have a manuscript account in ,french of ,spanish regional costumes at the same period4 ,the dress of the peasant women of ,valencia is thus described3 ,elle se coiffe toujours en cheveux1 de la manire appele castaa1 et elle y passe une aiguille en argent que l'on nomme rascamoo2 quelque fois elle se pare d'un grand peigne 7peineta7 en argent dor4 ,son cou este orn d'une chaine d'or ou d'argent 7cadena del cuello7 laquelle est suspendue une croix ou un reliquaire4 ,this was the ,valencian peasant's dress for every day4 ,on festivals the same woman would adorn her ears with pendants 7arracadas7 de pierres fausses2 mais lorsque la jardinire est riche1 elles sont fines4 ,une relique 7relicario7 dans un petit mdaillon en argent1 est suspendue son cou2 ainsi qu'un chapelet trs mince 7rosario7 en argent dor4 ,the peasant women of ,iviza1 in the ,balearics1 are described in the same manuscript as wearing un collier en verre1 quelque fois en argent1 et rarement en or2 while ,laborde wrote of ,minorca1 another of these islands1 that the ladies are always elegantly adorned2 their ornaments consist of necklaces1 earrings1 bracelets1 rings1 and chaplets4 ,the peasants wear these also4 ,of the women of ,barcelona he said3 ,silk stockings are very common in every class2 and their shoes are embroidered with silk1 gold1 silver1 pearls1 and spangles4 ,but ,spain1 like ,italy or ,switzerland1 or many another country1 is throwing off her regional costumes1 of which these various jewels form a prominent and even an essential feature4 ,more rarely now we come across the gold and seed-pearl necklaces of ,salamanca1 the ,moorish filigree silver-work of ,cordova1 the silver-gilt necklaces of ,santiago1 and the heavy arracadas1 hung with emeralds and sapphires1 of ,catalua4 ,murcia1 nevertheless1 retains her ,platera1 a street of venerable aspect and associations1 where to this hour the oriental-looking silver pendants of the neighbourhood are made and trafficked in4 ,illustration ,,iron-,,work ,the ancient iron mines of ,spain were no less celebrated than her mines of silver and of gold4 ,nevertheless1 the history of ,spanish iron-work begins comparatively late4 ,excepting certain swords and other weapons which require to be noticed under ,arms1 and owing to the commonness and cheapness of this metal1 as well as to the ease with which it decomposes under damp1 few of the earliest ,spanish objects made of iron have descended to our time4#fa ,even ,riao pays but little notice to this craft in the ,peninsula before the second half of the fifteenth century4 ,henceforth1 he says1 it continued to progress in the sixteenth1 and produced1 undoubtedly1 at that period works which were unrivalled in ,europe4 #fa ,a small collection1 formed by ,don ,emilio ,rotondo1 of primitive iron rings1 bracelets1 brooches1 and other ornaments1 is preserved in the ,schools of ,aguirre at ,madrid4 ,villa-amil y ,castro 7,antigedades prehistricas y clticas1 and ,castros y ,mamoas de ,galicia1 published in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades71 describes some iron objects of uncertain use discovered in ,galicia1 together with spear-heads and other weapons or pieces of weapons which will be noticed under ,arms1 and also an object which he says may once have been a candlestick1 or else a kind of flute4 ,all these are probably pre-,roman4 ,dating from the ,roman period are an iron ploughshare and some sickles1 discovered at ,ronda in ,andalusia1 and now in the ,madrid ,museum4 ,gngora1 however 7,antigedades prehistricas de ,andaluca71 inclines to think that previous to the ,roman conquest the occupants of ,betica were ignorant of this metal1 though not of gold1 from which they fashioned diadems and other articles of wear4 ,see also ,caballero ,infante1 ,aureos y barras de oro y plata encontrados en el pueblo de ,santiponce1 ,seville1 #ahih4 ,the decorative iron-work of ,spain may suitably be dealt with in three classes3 railings1 screens1 or pulpits of churches1 chapels1 and cathedrals2 balconies and other parts or fittings applied to public or private buildings of a non-ecclesiastical character2 and smaller1 though not necessarily less attractive or important objects1 such as knockers1 locks and keys1 and nail-heads4 ,the last of these divisions1 as embracing ,spanish-,moorish craftsmanship1 shall have1 as far as order is concerned1 our preferential notice4 ,surely1 in the whole domain of history1 no object has a grander symbolism than the key4 ,in medival times the keys of cities1 castles1 towns1 and fortresses were held to be significant of ownership1 or vigilance1 or conquest4 ,especially was this the case in ,spain--a nation incessantly engaged in war4 ,probably in no country in the world has the ceremony of delivering up this mark of tenure of a guarded and defended place occurred so often as here4 ,do we not read of it in stirring stanzas of her literature8 ,do we not find it in her paintings1 on her stone and metal rilievi1 or carved in wood upon the stalls of her cathedrals8 ,therefore the key1 just like the sword1 seemed1 in the warm imagination of the ,spaniards1 to be something almost sacred4 ,the legislative codes of ,old ,castile are most minute in their relation of its venerated attributes4 ,nor were the ,spanish ,muslims less alive to its importance than their foe1 taking it also for an emblem of their own1 and planting it in lordly eminence upon their gates and towers of ,cordova1 and ,seville1 and ,granada4 ,for what was ,tarik's ,mountain but the key of the narrow gate that led to their enchanted land1 as sunny as1 and yet less sultry than1 their sandy home2 truly a land of promise to the fiery children of the desert1 panting for the paradise that smiled at them across the storied strip of emerald and sapphire water8 ,so was it that both ,moors and ,spaniards made their keys of fortresses and citadels almost into an object of their worship4 ,in hearing or in reading of such keys1 the mind at once recurs to those of ,seville 7,plate xix471 two in number1 famed throughout the world of medival art1 and stored among the holiest relics in the sacristy of her cathedral4 ,the larger is of silver1 in the style now known as ,mudejar1 and dates from the second half of the thirteenth century4 ,the length is rather more than eight inches1 and the whole key is divided into five compartments1 ornamented in enamels and in gold4 ,castles1 ships1 and lions adorn the thicker portion of the stem between the barrel proper and the handle2 and on the rim of the latter is this inscription1 in ,hebrew characters3-- ,the ,king of ,kings will open2 the king of all the land shall enter4#fb #fb ,riao's reading was1 the ,king of the whole ,earth will enter4 ,but is not this contradicted by the other inscription on the same key8 ,the wards are also beautifully carved into the following legend1 distributed in two rows1 one superposed upon the other1 of two words and of ten letters apiece3-- ,dios abrir2 ,rey entrar4 ,god will open2 the king shall enter4 ,the iron key is purely ,moorish1 smaller than its fellow1 and measures just over six inches4 ,like the other1 it consists of five divisions1 and the wards are in the form of an inscription in ,african ,cufic characters1 which ,gayangos and other ,arabists have variously interpreted4 ,five of the commonest readings are as follows3-- 7#a7 ,may ,allah permit that the rule 7of ,islam7 last for ever in this city4 7#b7 ,by the grace of ,god may 7this key7 last for ever4 7#c7 ,may peace be in the ,king's mansion4 7#d7 ,may ,god grant us the boon of the preservation of the city4 7#e7 ,to ,god 7belongs7 all the empire and the power4 ,our earliest tidings of this iron key are from the ,jesuit ,bernal1 who wrote in the seventeenth century4 ,it was not then the property of the cathedral chapter1 for ,ortiz de ,ziga says that it belonged1 in the same century1 to a gentleman of ,seville named ,don ,antonio ,lopez de ,mesa1 who had inherited it from his father4 ,tradition declares that both this key and its companion were laid at the feet of ,ferdinand the ,third by ,axataf1 governor of ,seville1 when the city capitulated to the ,christian prince on ,november #bcrd1 #abdh4 ,but ,ortiz is careful to inform us that he neither countenances nor rejects the popular notion that the iron key was thus delivered as the token of surrender1 although1 he says1 the owners of it are strongly of this judgment4 ,what we do know is that on ,june #afth1 #afih1 the iron key was presented to the cathedral by ,doa ,catalina ,basilia ,domonte y ,pinto1 niece of the ,seor ,lopez de ,mesa aforesaid2 and that the chapter forthwith accepted it with solemn gratitude as one of the keys delivered by the ,moors to the ,rey ,santo on the conquest of the city1 ordering it to be guarded in a special box4 ,such is the popular fancy still accepted by the ,sevillanos4 ,however1 ,amador de los ,ros has sifted out a good deal of the truth1 showing that the iron and the silver key are wrought in different styles1 and were intended for a different purpose4 ,he places the iron instrument among the keys of conquered cities1 and its silver neighbour among the keys of honour1 or of dedication2 and he declares as certain 7although the reasons he adduces do not quite convince me7 that this iron key is actually the one which figured in the ceremony of surrender4 ,the other he considers to have been a gift from the ,sevillians to the tenth ,alfonso1 son of ,ferdinand the saint and conqueror1 as a loyal and a grateful offering in return for his protection of their industries and commerce4 ,however this may be1 the decorative aspect of the larger key1 together with the choice material of which it is made1 appears to prove that it was not associated with the rigours of a siege1 but served in some way as a symbol of prosperity and peace4 ,it was a common custom at a later age for ,spanish cities to present their sovereign1 when he came among them1 with a richly ornamented key4 ,such keys were offered to ,charles the ,fifth and ,philip the ,second when1 in #aebf and #aegj1 respectively1 they visited ,seville2 while ,riao reminds us that even in the present day the ceremony is still kept up of offering a key to the foreign princes who stay at the royal palace of ,madrid4 ,similarly1 as an ordinary form of salutation1 does the well-bred ,spaniard place his house at your disposal4 ,five ,moorish keys--one of bronze and four of iron--are in the ,museum of ,segovia1 and bear1 as ,amador observes1 a general resemblance to the iron key of ,seville4 ,the wards of four of them are shaped into the following inscriptions3 the first key1 ,in ,secovia 7,segovia72 the second1 7,this7 key was curiously wrought at ,medina ,huelma1 ,god protect her2 the third1 ,open2 and the fourth1 ,this work is by ,abdallah4 ,the first and smallest of these keys informs us1 therefore1 that it was manufactured at ,segovia4 ,the third key is that which is of bronze1 and bears the word ,open1 probably addressed to ,allah4 ,the second1 which is also the largest and the most artistic and ornate1 belonged1 we read upon its wards1 to ,huelma1 a fortress-town upon the frontiers of the kingdom of ,granada4 ,this town was wrested from the ,moors on ,april #bjth1 #adch1 by ,iigo ,lopez de ,mendoza1 first ,marquis of ,santillana1 who possibly sent this key to ,castile as a present to his sovereign1 ,juan the ,second1 in company with the usual papers of capitulation4 ,other ,moorish keys are scattered over ,spain in various of her public and private collections1 though none are so remarkable as those of ,seville and ,segovia4 ,the town of ,seplveda possesses seven early iron keys1 several of which are ,moorish4 ,others are at ,burgos1 ,valencia1 ,palma1 ,jaen1 and ,granada4 ,at the last-named city the following key1 dating undoubtedly from the period of the ,muslim domination1 was discovered1 in #aija1 among the dbris of the ,palace of ,seti ,meriem4#fc #fc ,la ,alhambra 7from which this sketch is taken7 for ,september #cjth1 #aija2 article on the ,palace of ,seti ,meriem1 by ,f4 de ,paula ,valladar4 ,illustration ,keys of awe-inspiring magnitude are still preferred among the ,spaniards to a handier and slighter instrument1 this people seeming to believe that the bigger the key the more inviolable is the custody which it affords--a theory not at all upheld by modern experts in this venerable craft4 ,perhaps this singular and local preference is derived from ,barbary4 ,at any rate it still obtains across the ,strait4 ,our host1 wrote ,mr ,cunninghame ,graham in ,mogreb-,el-,acksa1 knocks off great pieces from a loaf of cheap ,french sugar with the key of the house1 drawing it from his belt and hammering lustily1 as the key weighs about four ounces1 and is eight or nine inches long4 ,of such a length are nearly all the house-keys of contemporary ,spain2 and with this apparatus bulging in his belt the somnolent sereno or night-watchman of this sleepy1 unprogressive1 ,latino-,mussulmanic land prowls to this hour along the starlit streets of ,barcelona1 ,seville1 or ,madrid4 ,the city ,ordinances of ,granada form a valuable and interesting link between the ,spanish-,moorish craftsmanship and that of ,spaniards ,christian-born4 ,the ,ordenanzas de ,cerrageros1 or ,locksmiths' ,ordinances1 though not voluminous1 are curious and informative beyond the rest1 and show us that a general rascality was prevalent in ,granada after her reconquest from the ,moor4 ,locksmiths were forbidden now to make a lock the impression of which was put into their hands in wax1 even if the order should be sweetened by a quantity of maravedis1 since the effect of such commissions1 whose very secrecy betrayed illicit and improper ends in view1 was stated to be very greatly perilous and mischief-making4 ,another ,ordinance reveals the ,christian locksmiths of ,granada as arrant scoundrels1 almost as troublesome to deal with as the pestering little shoeblacks of to-day4 ,word is brought us1 groaned the aldermen1 how many locksmiths1 foreigners that dwell within this city as well as naturals that go up and down our thoroughfares1 in taking locks and padlocks to repair1 do1 at the same time that they set the keys in order1 contrive to fit them with new wards inferior to the older ones1 so as to be able to open and close them with the keys they have themselves in store1 wherein is grave deceitfulness1 seeing that the aforesaid locks and padlocks may be opened in such wise without a key at all4#fd #fd ,ordenanzas de ,granada1 p4 #aia4 ,if we except the vast dimensions of the common keys of houses1 this branch of ,spanish craftsmanship has now no quality to point it from the rest of ,europe1 having become1 in ,riao's words1 simply practical and useful4 ,laborde observed in #ahji that locks and various iron utensils are made in divers places4 ,locksmiths are numerous at ,vega de ,ribadeo in ,galicia1 at ,helgoivar in ,biscay1 at ,vergara in ,guipuscoa1 at ,solsona and ,cardona in ,catalonia4 ,different kinds of iron goods are manufactured at ,vergara1 ,solsona1 and ,cardona4 ,the articles made of iron and steel at ,solsona are in high estimation1 notwithstanding they are destitute of taste and elegance1 badly finished1 and worse polished2 and can by no means be put in competition with similar articles introduced from other countries4#fe #fe ,those of my readers who have visited ,spain will probably have seen the inlaid iron-work of ,eibar and ,toledo4 ,the objects chiefly manufactured in this style are brooches1 bracelets1 scarf and hat pins1 photograph frames1 jewel and trinket boxes1 watches1 and cigarette cases4 ,the workmanship is often elaborate and costly1 nor can it be denied that the red or greenish gold has an effective look against the jet-black surface of the polished or unpolished iron4 ,upon the other hand1 the taste displayed in the design is seldom good2 while in a climate with the slightest tendency to damp1 the iron is apt to rust and tarnish1 and the fine inlay to loosen4 ,iron nails with ornamented heads and decorative door-knockers are other objects which reveal the influence of ,mohammedan ,spain4 ,a number of artistic ,spanish nails are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum4 ,some doors1 says ,riao1 still exist at the ,alhambra1 ,granada1 covered with enormous heads of nails of a half-spherical form with embossed pattern4 ,these same nails are constantly to be found on old ,spanish houses1 to which are added in the angles pieces of iron of a most artistic order 7,pl4 xix4,a74 ,in the same city1 though not precisely in the ,alhambra1 ,i have seen upon the doors of private houses nails of a decorative kind which appear to consist of a single piece1 but which are really formed of two--an ornamental boss perforated through its centre1 and the nail proper1 which fastens through it to the woodwork of the door behind4 ,thus1 when the nail is hammered tight upon the boss1 the effect is naturally that of a single piece of metal4 ,similar nails are on the door of ,tavera's hospital at ,toledo4 ,illustration3 ,,xixa ,,decorative ,,nail-,,heads 7,convent of ,san ,antonio1 ,toledo7 ,the ,ordenanzas of ,granada tell us minutely of the nails which were produced there in the sixteenth century4 ,they were denominated cabriales1 costaneros1 palmares1 bolayques1 vizcainos1 sabetinos1 and moriscos2 of all of which ,i can only find that the cabriales and costaneros were used for beams and rafters1 and the moriscos for fixing horse-shoes4 ,in ,spain the custom of fastening down the decorative coverings of chairs or benches dates from comparatively late2 and it was probably with this innovation that iron-workers began to exercise their ingenuity upon the heads of nails4 ,towards the close of the ,middle ,ages the city of ,segovia was celebrated for her locks and keys1 her knockers1 and her rejas4 ,in #ahib1 collections of iron objects1 chiefly manufactured in this town1 were shown by the duke of ,segovia1 ,don ,nicols ,duque1 and ,don ,adolfo ,herrera at the ,exposicin ,histrico-,europea of ,madrid4 ,segovia still preserves an old door covered with extraordinary iron spikes1 that once belonged to the castle of ,pedraza2 many curious balconies1 such as that in a first floor of the ,calle del ,carmen2 and the grilles--proceeding from the old cathedral--of the chapel of the ,cristo del ,consuelo and the chapel of the ,piedad4 ,another interesting collection of early decorative ,spanish iron1 belonging to the well-known painter1 ,seor ,rusiol1 is kept at the town of ,sitjes1 in ,catalua4 ,the late ,marquis of ,arcicollar possessed a number of specimens of ,spanish manufactured iron of the later ,middle ,ages1 such as boxes1 candelabra1 locks1 nails1 door-knockers1 braseros1 and a rare and curious iron desk 7fourteenth century71 with leather fittings4 ,the collection of the late ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan included four door-knockers of ,spanish iron1 dating from late in the fifteenth century or early in the sixteenth4 ,i give a reproduction of these knockers 7,pl4 xx474 ,the two which occupy the centre are evidently from a sacred building2 while the other pair are just as evidently seoriales1 and belonged to a noble house4 ,in the former pair1 the clumsy carving of the saints1 ,peter and ,james1 is attributed by ,serrano ,fatigati to the native coarseness of the iron4 ,illustration3 ,,xx ,,door-,,knockers 7#aeth ,century7 ,proceeding from the same collection are a pair of ceremonial maces and a ceremonial lantern1 which ,i also reproduce 7,pl4 xxi471 since the ,spanish writer from whom ,i have just quoted pronounces them to be excellent specimens of the iron-work of our country at the close of the ,middle ,ages4 ,he says that1 as we notice in the pinnacles1 they show a tendency to copy architectural detail1 and are otherwise characteristic of the period4 ,towards the fourteenth century the file replaced the hammer1 and the sheet of iron was substituted for the bar4 ,these objects1 dating from the fifteenth century1 duly reveal this change4 ,also1 as was usual at the time1 they are composed of separate pieces stoutly riveted4 ,in the knockers with the figures of the saints we notice the partial use of the chisel1 which became general in the sixteenth century1 at the same time that iron objects were loaded with images1 forms of animals1 and other capricious figures4 ,these may be said to belong to a period of transition1 culminating in the rejas4#ff #ff ,serrano ,fatigati1 in the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones4 ,the ,madrid ,museum contains a sixteenth-century cross of repouss iron1 in the ,greek form1 and which is certainly of ,spanish make4 ,according to ,villa-amil1 it formerly had a gilded border and was painted black1 which leads this writer to suppose that it was used at funerals4 ,iron crosses may be seen occasionally on churches and on other public buildings1 and ,stirling has inserted cuts of several in his ,annals of the ,artists of ,spain4 ,crosses of large size were sometimes planted on the highway4 ,such was the elaborate but ugly iron cross1 measuring three yards in height1 made by ,sebastian ,conde in #afib for the ,plazuela de la ,cerrajeri in ,seville1 and now preserved in her ,museum4 ,the iron balustrade or verja of the marble tomb of ,cardinal ,cisneros is finely wrought in ,plateresque-,renaissance1 with elaborate designs of gryphons1 foliage1 urns1 birds1 masks1 sheep's heads1 swans1 coats of arms1 dolphins1 and other ornament in great profusion4 ,the craftsman was ,nicols de ,vergara the elder4 ,lesser in size1 though not less striking in its execution1 is the railing1 by ,francisco de ,villalpando1 which surrounds the ,altar de ,prima in the choir of ,toledo ,cathedral4 ,illustration3 ,,xxi ,,ceremonial ,,maces ,,and ,,lantern 7#aeth ,century7 ,iron pulpits1 says ,riao1 have been made in ,spain with great success4 ,he mentions five3 two in ,avila ,cathedral 7,plate xxii472 two at ,seville2 and one at the church of ,san ,gil at ,burgos4 ,the latter is described by ,street1 who says3 ,it is of very late date1 end of the fifteenth century1 but ,i think it quite worthy of illustration4 ,the support is of iron1 resting on stone1 and the staircase modern4 ,the framework at the angles1 top and bottom1 is of wood1 upon which the iron-work is laid4 ,the traceries are cut out of two plates of iron1 laid one over the other1 and the iron-work is in part gilded1 but ,i do not think that this is original4 ,the canopy is of the same age and character1 and the whole effect is very rich at the same time that it is very novel4 ,i saw other pulpits1 but none so old as this4 ,the iron pulpits of ,salamanca1 covered with bas-reliefs representing the ,evangelists and subjects taken from the ,acts of the ,apostles and the apocalypse1 were made at the same time as the reja by ,fray ,francisco de ,zalamea or ,salamanca1 ,fray ,juan1 and other artists4 ,the two at ,avila are stationed one on either side of the ,capilla ,mayor1 and are of gilded iron1 hexagonal in form1 and measuring about ten feet in height4 ,gryphons or other beasts support the pulpit on its stem or column4 ,the body of each pulpit bears the arms of the cathedral1 namely1 the ,agnus ,dei1 a lion1 and a castle--the whole surmounted by a crown--and is divided lengthways by a central band into a double tier1 closed by a richly decorated cornice at the upper and the lower border4 ,otherwise the pulpits are quite dissimilar4 ,in one the decorative scheme is almost purely geometrical1 while in the other it consists of foliage1 birds and beasts1 and niches containing statuettes of saints4 ,the stair-railings are modern2 but the primitive carving still adorns the end of every step4#fg #fg ,for a detailed account of these pulpits see ,villa-amil y ,castro's article in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedadess4 ,illustration3 ,,xxii ,,iron ,,pulpit 7,avila ,cathedral7 ,we do not know who was the maker of these pulpits4 ,some believe him to have been a certain ,juan ,francs1 to whom our notice will again be called as figuring among the earliest masters of this eminently ,spanish craft1 and who1 on strongish evidence1 is thought to be the author of the rejas in the same cathedral which enclose the choir1 and the front and sides of the ,capilla ,mayor4 ,this is the only reason for supposing him to have made the pulpits also4 ,one of these1 however1 is in the ,flamboyant1 and the other in the ,renaissance style2 so it may well be doubted whether both were produced by the same hand1 or even at exactly the same period4#fh #fh ,payments made to ,master ,juan ,francs are recorded by ,zarco del ,valle1 ,documentos ,inditos para la ,historia de las ,bellas ,artes en ,espaa1 pp4 #cbj1 #cba4 ,it is1 however1 in the rejas that the craftsmanship of older ,spain attains its loftiest pinnacle4 ,they consist1 says ,banister ,fletcher1 of rich and lofty grilles in hammered and chiselled iron 444 strongly characteristic of the national art4 ,the formality of the long and vertical bars is relieved by figures beaten in repouss1 in duplicates1 attached back to back1 and by crestings and traceries adapted to the material1 and freely employed4 ,few things in ,spain are more original and artistic4#fi #fi ,history of ,architecture1 p4 #cjc4 ,they possess1 too1 the advantage1 from their ponderous solidity and fixedness1 that most of them are still extant and in the best of preservation1 although ,napoleon's ,vandals rooted up the chapel rejas of the ,church of ,santo ,domingo at ,granada1 and turned them into bullets2 just as their general1 ,sebastiani1 threw down the tower of ,san ,jernimo to make a trumpery bridge across the trickling stream of the ,genil4 ,scores of thousands of such crimes1 not to forget the blowing up of the gate and tower of the ,siete ,suelos1 were perpetrated by the ,french all over ,spain2 yet ,washington ,irving1 in a strangely infelicitous passage of his ,tales of the ,alhambra1 congratulates the invaders for their reverential treatment of the noblest monuments of ,spanish art6 ,the reja generally was not1 as many have supposed1 of late invention4 ,it existed from the earliest days of ,christianity2 but it was only in the ,gothic and ,renaissance ages that ,spain converted it into a vehicle for decorative art4 ,the growth of these ornamental rejas may be traced in cities of ,old ,castile1 together with ,seville1 ,salamanca1 ,cuenca1 and ,toledo4 ,spain1 it is idle to observe1 was at no moment so appreciative of her craftsmen as was ,italy1 so that our information as to medival ,spanish craftsmen and the process of their lives and labours is1 upon the whole1 deplorably deficient4 ,nevertheless1 among the oldest of her artists known in ,spanish as rejeros1 or 7a finer and more venerable term7 reja-masters--maestros de rexas--appears ,juan ,francs1 working in #adid in ,toledo ,cathedral and1 in the same capacity 7for he seems to have been an armourer besides1 and to have held the title of master-maker of iron arms in ,spain7#gj at ,alcal de ,henares1 as well as1 in #aeje1 at ,osma1 in whose cathedral he made the rejas of the choir and high chapel4#ga #gj ,so1 in ,spain1 does war appear to have been connected even with the peaceful reja4 ,similarly1 in #aeah1 the contractors for the grille of the ,chapel ,royal of ,granada were ,juan ,zagala and ,juan de ,cubillana1 master-artillerymen to their highnesses4 ,valladar1 ,gua de ,granada1 #ast ed41 p4 #cjb1 note4 #ga ,a quaint but somewhat tautological and prosy letter concerning matters of his craft1 addressed by ,francs to the cardinal-archbishop of ,toledo1 is published in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades1 article ,los ,plpitos de la ,catedral de ,avila1 by ,villa-amil y ,castro4 ,the reja of the presbytery at ,burgo de ,osma is thus inscribed3 ,izo esta obra maestre ,joan ,francs maestre mayor4 ,the top consists of repetitions of a shield containing five stars and supported by angels1 lions1 and gryphons4 ,two iron pulpits project from the lower part of the grille1 and a swan of the same metal1 with extended wings1 rests upon either pulpit4 ,although the craftsman's name has rarely been recorded1 we know that excellent rejera was made at ,barcelona in the fifteenth century4 ,also dating from the fifteenth century1 and therefore prior to the ,plateresque1 is the reja1 ornamented with leaves and figures of centaurs and other creatures1 mythical and real1 enclosing the sepulchre of the ,anayas in the old cathedral of ,salamanca4 ,during the first quarter of the sixteenth century much work in decorative rejera was completed in ,seville ,cathedral by ,fernando ,prieto1 ,fray ,francisco de ,salamanca1#gb ,sancho ,muoz1 ,diego de ,adrobo1 and others 7vide ,frontispiece74 ,taught by these1 while yet belonging to a slightly later time1 and linking in this way the riper and decadent ,gothic with the new ,renaissance and the ,plateresque1 were ,pedro de ,andino1 ,antonio de ,palencia1 and ,juan ,delgado4 ,rosell observes that without doubt these artists1 excepting only ,juan ,francs--the pioneer of them all--were ,spanish-born2 and they in their turn were succeeded by other ,spaniards who worked most regularly at ,toledo2 such as ,bartolom ,rodriguez1 ,luis de ,peafiel1 and ,francisco de ,silva4 #gb ,a ,dominican friar1 summoned to ,seville in #aeah1 to make her cathedral rejas4 ,he also made the pulpits of the high altar in #aeca1 and was working in this city as late as #aedg4 ,account-sheets penned by his hand were still extant a century ago1 and ,cean conveys to us some knowledge of ,fray ,francisco1 receiving as the wages of his labour1 now a score or so of ducats1 now a bushel or two of corn4 ,the friar1 whom the canons spoke of with affection for his many virtues1 seems to have been a handy man1 seeing that between his spells of reja-making he put the clock of the ,giralda into trim1 and built an alarum apparatus to rouse the cathedral bell-ringer at early morning4 ,for the sums paid to ,fray ,francisco and to ,sancho ,muoz for their work1 see ,gestoso1 ,diccionario de ,artfices ,sevillanos1 vol4 ii4 pp4 #cfe et seq4 ,an excellent rejero named ,hernando de ,arenas completed the grille of ,cuenca ,cathedral in #aeeg4 ,three years before1 a ,cordovese1 ,fernando de ,valencia1 had made the intricate ,renaissance reja of the ,chapel of the ,asuncin in the mosque of that most ancient capital--a noble piece of work1 which still exists4 ,other rejeros who were either natives of1 or who resided in1 this city were ,pedro ,sanchez1 ,alonso ,perez1 ,pedro ,sanchez ,cardenosa1 ,francisco ,lopez1 ,juan ,martinez ,cano1 and ,diego de ,valencia4 ,one of these men1 ,alonso ,perez1 a native of ,jaen1 contracted1 on ,april #acth1 #aegf1 to make the rejas of the ,capilla ,mayor in the church of the convent of the ,trinity at ,cordova4 ,he was to finish them within one year1 at a cost of fifty-one maravedis for every pound of iron1 of sixteen ounces to the pound4 ,ramrez de ,arellano1 who has extracted these notices of ,cordovese artists from the city archives#gc1 says that the reja in question is no longer standing2 but a document of the time informs us that it was of an elaborate character1 and carried architraves1 cornices1 and the usual decorative detail of the ,spanish ,renaissance4 #gc ,consult his valuable studies1 ,artistas exhumados1 published in various numbers of the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursionistas4 ,in #aeic ,pedro ,sanchez agreed to make1 within four years1 a grille for the old chapel of the ,concepcin1 also in ,cordova1 at a cost of forty-nine maravedis for every pound of iron that the finished reja should contain2 and a year later the same artist signed a contract for what is thought to be his masterpiece--the reja of the chapel of the ,holy ,cross1 in the nave of the sagrario of the same temple4 ,the stipulated time was two years only2 but the cost amounted in this instance to one hundred maravedis for every pound of the completed reja4 ,marvels of power and of patience are among the rejas of this land4 ,in them1 obedient to the genius of the craftsman1 the ponderous metal assumes the gossamer lightness of the finest gauze1 now seeming to be breathed rather than built across the entrance to some side-chapel1 now tapering skyward till we fancy it to melt away1 like vapour1 on the surface of the lofty roof4 ,such are the screens--which here demand a brief description--of ,toledo and ,palencia and ,granada2 that of ,cuenca1 where ,arenas plied his master-hand2 and1 first in merit of them all1 the peerless reja1 royal in magnificence and faultless taste1 that closes in at ,burgos the no less royal-looking chapel of a ,count of ,haro1 sometime ,constable of all ,castile4 ,the reja of the ,capilla ,mayor of ,toledo ,cathedral is twenty-one feet high by forty-six in breadth4 ,armies of workmen1 wrote ,mndez ,silva1 referring to this screen and to its neighbour1 that of the coro1 were toiling at them for ten years1 nor would their cost have been greater had they been of founded silver4 ,the cost of which he speaks was more than a quarter of a million reales1 although the workmen's daily wage was only two reales and a half1 or1 in the case of the particularly skilled1 four reales4 ,the author of this admirable screen was ,francisco de ,villalpando1 whose plans and estimate were approved by ,cardinal ,tavera in #aedj4 ,the reja consists of two tiers resting on different kinds of marble4 ,attic columns ornamented with handsome rilievi and terminated by bronze caryatides1 divide these tiers into several spaces4 ,the upper tier is formed by seven columns of ornate pattern1 containing1 on a frieze of complicated tracery1 figures of animals and angels1 and other delicately drawn and executed objects in relief4 ,upon the cornice are coats of arms1 angels1 and other decoration2 and in the centre1 the imperial arms of ,charles the ,fifth1 together with a large crucifix pendent from a massive gilded chain4 ,on the frieze of the second tier are the words1 ,,adorate ,,dominum ,,in ,,atrio ,,sancto ,,ejus ,,kalendas ,,aprilis #aedh1 and on the inner side1 ,,plus ,,ultra4 #gd #gd ,rosell y ,torres2 ,la ,reja de la ,capilla del ,condestable en la ,catedral de ,burgos1 published in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades4 ,illustration3 ,,xxiii ,,reja ,,of ,,chapel ,,royal 7,granada ,cathedral7 ,the other of the larger rejas in this temple--that of the choir--is not inferior in a great degree to ,villalpando's masterpiece4 ,it was made by ,maestre ,domingo 7de ,cspedes71#ge who1 in his estimate of ,june #ahth1 #aedj1 engaged to finish it at a total cost of #ejjj ducats1 he to be given the necessary gold and silver for the plating 7,archives of ,toledo ,cathedral1 quoted by ,rosell74 ,this ,maestre ,domingo was aided by his son-in-law1 ,fernando ,bravo1 and both of them1 says de la ,rada y ,delgado1 were probably natives of ,toledo4#gf ,in the same city they also made the rejas for the ,baptismal ,chapel1 and for the chapels of the ,reyes ,viejos and ,reyes ,nuevos4 #ge ,he is called ,domingo de ,cspedes by ,cean ,bermudez1 although1 as ,zarco del ,valle remarks1 the surname does not appear in any of the documents relating to this craftsman which are yet preserved in the archives of ,toledo cathedral4 ,these documents merely tell us that ,domingo was his ,christian name1 that his own signature was ,maestre ,domingo1 and that he and ,fernando ,bravo were required to find surety to the value of #cge1jjj maravedis for the faithful and expert performance of their work1 which they were to complete within two years1 receiving for it the sum of six thousand ducats4 #gf ,conde de ,cedillo1 ,toledo en el ,siglo ,,xvi4 ,reply to the ,count's address1 by ,j4 de ,dios de la ,rada y ,delgado4 ,illustration3 ,,xxiv ,,reja ,,of ,,chapel ,,royal 7,view from interior4 ,granada ,cathedral7 ,excellent ,plateresque rejas are those of the ,capilla ,mayor and ,coro of ,palencia ,cathedral--the latter from the hand of ,gaspar ,rodriguez of ,segovia1 who finished it in #aega at a cost of #cdjj ducats4 ,in the same city is the reja of the chapel of ,nuestra ,seora la ,blanca1 finished in #aeab by ,juan ,relojero1 a ,palencian1 who received for his labour #be1jjj maravedis and a load and a half of wheat4 ,the noble and colossal gilt and painted#gg reja of the ,chapel ,royal of ,granada ,cathedral was wrought between the years #aeah and #aebc by one ,master ,bartholomew1 whose name is near the keyhole4 ,this was a person of obscure life though mighty powers as a craftsman4 ,we know that he resided at ,jaen1 and1 from a document which still remains1#gh that he petitioned ,charles the ,fifth for payment 7sixteen hundred ducats7 of this grille1 because the clergy had continually refused to liquidate it4 ,he made1 besides the work ,i herewith describe1 the reja of the presbytery for ,seville cathedral1#gi and possibly1 as ,sentenach suggests1 the iron tenebrarium1 ten feet high by five across1 for the cathedral of ,jaen4 #gg ,the painting of a reja was commonly executed by the image-painter 7pintor de imaginera74 ,as the term implies1 it was this artist's business to gild or colour sacred furniture1 such as altars1 panels1 images1 and decorative doors and ceilings4 #gh ,archives of ,simancas4 ,descargos de las ,r4,c42 ,legajo #bc prov4 ,valladar1 ,gua de ,granada 7#ast ed471 p4 #cjb1 note4 #gi ,to ,master ,bartholomew1 rexero1 twenty gold ducats for the days he took in travelling from ,jaen1 and for those on which he was at work upon the reja of the high altar here in ,seville4 ,on ,march #ahth1 #aebd1 the same craftsman was paid #ac1abe maravedis for making the samples and other things belonging to the reja of the high altar4--,libro de ,fbrica of ,seville ,cathedral4 ,gestoso1 ,sevilla ,monumental y ,artstica1 and ,diccionario de ,artfices ,sevillanos1 vol4 xi4 p4 #cfb4 ,the reja of the ,chapel ,royal of ,granada1 of two faces1 the finest that was ever made of this material1 #hj has three tiers4 ,the first tier contains six ,corinthian pilasters and a broad frieze covered with ,plateresque ornamentation1 as are the pedestals on which the pilasters rest4 ,in the second tier are the arms of ,ferdinand and ,isabella within a garland supported by two lions1 and other crowns together with the yoke and arrows2#ha all intertwined with stems1 leaves1 and little angels of an exquisite effect4 ,before the pilasters of this tier and of the one immediately above it are figures of the apostles on ,gothic brackets--a style we also notice on the fastening of the gate and on the twisted railing2 but every other detail of the grille is ,plateresque4 ,upon the top are scenes of martyrdoms and of the life of ,christ1 the whole surmounted by a decorative scheme of leaves and candelabra1 and1 over this1 a crucifix together with the figures of the ,virgin and ,saint ,john4 ,the designing of the figures is only moderately good1 but all remaining detail and the craftsmanship are admirable #hb 7,plates xxiii4 and xxiv474 #hj ,pedraza1 ,historia de ,granada 7#afcf71 p4 #dj4 #ha ,the yoke and sheaf of arrows were the emblems of these princes--the yoke1 of ,ferdinand2 the arrows1 of his queen4 ,shields of their reign1 whether employed in architecture or on title-pages1 almost invariably include these emblems and the well-known motto1 ,tanto ,monta4 #hb ,gmez ,moreno1 ,gua de ,granada1 p4 #bia4 ,last on my list of ,spanish reja-makers ,i place the greatest and most honoured of them all--,cristbal de ,andino1 who1 as a modern writer has expressed it1 uttered the last word in the matter of giving shape to iron4 ,cristbal1 son of ,pedro de ,andino--himself an artist of no mean capacity--excelled in architecture1 sculpture1 rejera1 and probably in silver-work as well4 ,good craftsmen1 wrote his contemporary1 ,diego de ,sagredo1 and those who wish their work to breathe the spirit of authority and pass without rebuke1 should follow--like your fellow-townsman1 ,cristbal de ,andino--ancient precepts1 in that his works have greater elegance and beauty than any others that ,i witnessed heretofore4 ,if this 7you think7 be not the case1 look at that reja he is making for my lord the ,constable1 which reja is well known to be superior to all others of this kingdom4 ,such is the reja thought1 both then and now1 to be the finest ever made4 ,the style is pure ,renaissance4 ,two tiers of equal height consist of four-and-twenty ornamented rails or balusters disposed1 above1 between four columns2 below1 between four pilasters4 ,an attic is upon the cornice1 and contains two central1 semi-naked1 kneeling figures which support a large1 crowned shield4 ,this is surmounted by a bust of ,god the ,father1 enclosed in a triangular frame1 and raising the hand to bless4 ,on either side of the attic are ,s-shaped crests sustaining circular medallions with the likenesses1 in bold relief1 of ,christ and ,mary4 ,along the friezes are the legends2 ,,ego ,,sum ,,alpha ,,et ,greek3 omega2 ,,ego ,,sum ,,lux ,,vera2 and ,,ecce ,,ancilla ,,domini1 together with the words1 referring to the artist1 ,,ab ,,andino1 and the date ,a4,d4 ,,mdxxiii4 ,the decorative scheme is spirited and delicate at once1 whether we observe it on the railing1 pilasters1 and columns1 or on the horizontal parts and members of the reja4 ,the attic which surmounts the double tier and cornice is finally surmounted by a gilt ,saint ,andrew's cross2 and the entire screen is lavishly painted and gilded throughout4 ,here is a thing--almost a being--created out of iron1 so intensely lovely that the eye would wish to contemplate it to the end of time2 and1 as we linger in its presence1 if perchance the dead are privileged to hear their earthly praises echoed in the silence of the tomb1 surely from his marble sepulchre ,cristbal de ,andino listens to such praises at this hour4 ,for yonder1 in the neighbouring parish church of ,san ,cosm1 beside a wife devoted and well-loved the great artificer is laid to rest1 where ,latin words 7although of idle purport while the reja of the ,constable remains7 are deep engraved to thus remind us of his worth3-- ,,christophorus ,,andino ,,egregius ,,artifex ,,et ,,in ,,architectura ,,omnium ,,sui ,,seculi ,,facile ,,princeps ,,monumentum ,,sibi ,,ponendum ,,le ,,gavit ,,et ,,caterina ,,frias ,,ejus ,,uxor ,,honestissima ,,statim ,,mariti ,,votis ,,et ,,suis ,,satisfaciendum ,b ,,enigne ,,christianeque ,,curavit ,,urnam ,,cu ,,jus ,,lapides ,,solum ,,amborum ,,ossa ,,tegunt ,,sed ,,admonet ,,etiam ,,certis ,,annui ,,he ,,bdomade ,,cujusque ,,diebus ,,sacrificia ,,pro ,,eis ,,esse ,,perpetuo ,,facienda ,but if these splendid rejas of her temples constitute to-day a special glory of this nation1 her private balconies and window-gratings were in former times1 though from profaner motives1 almost or quite as notable4 ,between the sixteenth and the eighteenth centuries1 few of the foreigners who visited ,spain omitted to record their admiration of these balconies1 crowded upon a holiday with pretty women4 ,il y avoit1 wrote ,bertaut de ,rouen in #afei1 autant de foule proportion qu' ,paris2 et mesme ce qu'il y avoit de plus beau1 c'estoit que comme il y avoit des balcons toutes les fenestres et qu'elles estoient occupes par toutes les dames de la ville1 cela faisoit un plus bel effet que les chaffauts que l'on fait dans les rues de ,paris en semblables rencontres4 ,illustration3 ,,xxv ,,reja 7,casa de ,pilatos1 ,seville7 ,pinheiro da ,veiga1 in his queer ,pincigraphia1 or ,description and ,natural and ,moral ,history of ,valladolid1 written earlier in the same century1 and published twenty years ago by ,gayangos from a manuscript in the ,british ,museum1 is more plain-spoken than the ,frenchman on the various merits and peculiarities of the ,spanish balconies and rejas4 ,all of these churches have the most beautiful iron balustrades and iron open-work doors 7cancelas7 that can be found in ,europe1 for nowhere is iron worked so skilfully as here in ,valladolid4 ,these objects are made by the ,moriscos with turned balusters1 foliage1 boughs1 fruits1 war-material1 trophies1 and other contrivances1 which afterwards they gild and silver into the very likeness of these metals4 ,i say the same of window-balconies2 for nearly every window has its balcony4 ,there are in ,valladolid houses up which one might clamber to the very roof from balcony to balcony1 as though these were a hand-ladder4 ,so too from balcony to balcony 7for the distance from one to other is never greater than a palm's breadth7 one might climb round the whole ,plaza4 ,by reason of this1 we ,portuguese were wont to say that if there were as many thieves or lovers in ,valladolid as in ,portugal1 verily both one and other of this kind of folks would have but little need of hand-ladders4 ,yet here the thieves content themselves with stealing by the light of day1 while as for the women 7crafty creatures that they are671 they perpetrate their thefts away from home2 and1 having all the day at their disposal1 prefer to thieve while daylight lasts1 rather than pass the night uncomfortably4 ,to this ,i heard a lady of ,castile declare1 when one of my friends1 a ,portuguese1 petitioned her for leave to speak with her at night across her reja3 ',that would be tantamount to passing from one hierro to another yerro2#hc and in my house 7which is also your worship's7 it would not look well for you to seem a window-climbing thief4' #hc ,hierro means iron2 yerro1 a fault1 faux pas4 ,thus glossed1 the somewhat feeble pleasantry or pun is able to explain itself4 ,illustration3 ,,xxvi ,,reja ,,of ,,the ,,casa ,,de ,,las ,,conchas 7,salamanca7 ,it is curious1 in the foregoing narrative1 to read of ,morisco craftsmen working as late as #afjj1 and as far north as ,castile4 ,perhaps the notice of ,moriscos doing ,spanish iron-work may be traced to certain ,ordinances of ,granada1 published about three-quarters of a century before4 ,on ,october #adth1 #aebb1 the councillors of that town confabulated very lengthily and seriously as to the damage caused by balconies and rejas in the streets1 fixed in the basements and the lower rooms of houses1 or projecting portals which extend beyond the level of the wall4 ,for we have witnessed1 and do witness daily1 numerous mishaps to wayfarers1 alike on horseback and on foot1 whether by day or night1 because the highways1 narrow in themselves1 are rendered yet more narrow by such balconies and rejas4 ,whereas in winter persons seeking to escape the filth by keeping to the wall are thwarted1 or at night-time injured1 by these rejas4 ,or yet in summer1 when the waters swell1 and conduits burst and overflow the middle of the street1 then neither can they keep the middle of the way1 nor pass aside 7by reason of the balconies aforesaid7 to its edges4 ,having regard to all these grievances1 the councillors decreed that none of whatsoever order or condition shall dare henceforth to place1 or cause to be placed1 about the lower floors or entrance of their dwelling1 rejas or iron balconies1 or anything projecting much or little from the level of the wall4 ,but all projections shall be set three yards1 not any less1 above the street4 ,if not so much1 they shall be set within the wall1 on pain of a fine of ten thousand maravedis1 and five thousand maravedis to the mason and the carpenter that shall repair their fixing4 ,further1 we order that all balconies and rejas now at a height of less than the aforesaid three yards be taken away within three days from the crying in public of these ,ordinances4#hd #hd ,these laws affecting balconies were not1 or not as time went on1 restricted to ,granada4 ,nobody1 prescribes the general ,spanish code in force in #afbh1 shall make a balcony or oversailing part to fall upon the street1 nor yet rebuild or repair any that shall fall4--,pradilla1 ,suma de ,todas las ,leyes ,penales1 ,canonicas1 ,civiles1 y destos ,reynos4 ,for this deplorable state of things a double influence was to blame2 namely1 the oriental narrowness of the street1 and also the elaborate ornamentation1 proceeding very largely from a northern ,gothic and non-,spanish source1 of these annoying yet impressive gratings4 ,some of them1 sweeping the very soil1 and boldly and fantastically curved1 may yet be seen at ,toro4 ,those of ,granada are no more4 ,indeed1 not only have the rejas of the ,spanish private house long ceased to show the decorative cunning of the craftsman1 but even in their present unartistic form are largely limited to ,andalusia4 ,yet even thus1 they seem to guard a typical and national air1 mixed with a subtle1 semi-,mussulmanic poetry4 ,across them1 while the term of courtship lasts1 the lover whispers with his mistress1 oblivious of the outer world1 fixing his gaze within1 until his sultaness emerges from the gloom1 and holds his hand1 and looks into his eyes1 and listens to his vow4 ,therefore1 in ,april's ivory moonlight1 beneath the velvet skies of ,andalusia1 one always is well pleased to pass beside these children of romantic ,spain1 warming the frigid iron with the breath of youth1 and hope1 and happiness1 and telling to each other a secret that is known unto us all--at once the sweetest and the saddest1 the newest and the oldest story of all stories4 ,,bronzes ,the earliest objects of bronze discovered in this country are comparatively few4 ,as in other parts of ,europe1 they consist mostly of weapons1 such as spear-heads and hatchets 7which will be noticed under ,arms71 or bracelets1 necklaces1 and clasps or brooches4 ,earrings 7inaures71 brooches 7fibul71 and other objects of a similar purpose dating from the ,roman period have been discovered in ,galicia1 while plates of the same alloy#he which imitate a shell were used as personal ornaments by the men and women of the ancient ,spanish tribes4 #he ,le ,hon reminds us1 in ,l'homme fossile1 that before the ,iron ,age all bronzes of our western world contained one part of tin to nine of copper4 ,the province of ,palencia is a fertile field for archological discovery4 ,here have been found some curious clasps1 intended1 it would seem1 to represent the old ,iberian mounted warrior1 sometimes brandishing the typical ,iberian lance4 ,the following is a sketch in outline of an object of this kind1 fashioned as clumsily and crudely as the cheapest wooden plaything of our time3-- ,illustration ,two parts--the figure of the horseman1 and a four-wheeled stand on which the warrior's steed is resolutely set--compose this comical antiquity4 ,the rider's only article of clothing is a helmet2 while the horse1 without a saddle or a bridle1 is completely nude4 ,this toy1 or table ornament1 or whatever it may be1 was found not far from ,badajoz1 where other prehistoric bronzes are preserved in the museum of the province2#hf and ,mr ,e4 ,s4 ,dodgson says that in possession of an ,englishman at ,comillas he has seen another bronze rider of primitive workmanship1 with the head of a wild boar under his left arm4 ,those who are interested in the meaning of these early bronzes should consult an article1 ,el jinete ibrico1 by ,seor ,mlida1 published in ,nos4 #ij-ib of the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones4 #hf ,see ,romero de ,castilla1 ,inventarios de los objetos recogidos en el ,museo ,arqueolgico de la ,comisin de ,monumentos de ,badajoz4 ,badajoz1 #ahif4 ,plate xxvii4 represents another of these objects4 ,illustration3 ,,xxvii ,,meleager',s ,,hunt 7,primitive ,spanish ,bronze7 ,we know that the use of ,roman lamps grew to be general in this land--a fact which justifies my noticing the specimens preserved in the museum of ,madrid2 and more particularly so because their shape and general character have been perpetuated through the ,spanish ,moors and ,christians of the ,middle ,ages till this very moment4 ,the ,roman lamp1 shaped somewhat like a boat by reason of the rostrum or beakish receptacle for the wick1 consisted of an earthenware or metal vessel with a circular or oblong body and a handle1 together with at least one hole for pouring in the oil4 ,the commonest material was earthenware1 and next to this1 bronze4 ,the lamp was either suspended by a chain or chains1 or else was rested on a stand4 ,plato and ,petronius tell us that the stand was borrowed from the rustic makeshift of a stick1 or the stout stem of a plant1 thrust into the ground4 ,as time went on1 the stem or stick in imitative metal-work was rendered more or less artistic and ornate4 ,but there was more than a single kind of lampstand4 ,the lychnuchus 7,greek3 lychnouchos71 invented by the ,greeks1 held various lamps suspended from its branches1 while1 on the other hand1 the ,roman candelabrum supported but a solitary lamp upon the disc or platform at its top extremity4#hg ,the island of ,egina was famed for the production of these discs1 and ,pliny tells us that the decorated stem or scapus was chiefly manufactured at ,tarentum4 #hg ,undoubtedly the use of the ,roman candelabrum was continued by the ,spanish ,visigoths4 ,candelabrum1 says ,saint ,isidore1 a candelis dictum1 quasi candela feram1 quod candelam ferat 7,originum1 book xx41 chap4 x474 ,the ,spanish word candela is loosely used to-day for almost any kind of light or fire1 or even for a match2 but an ordinary candle is generally called a vela or buga 7bougie74 ,the ,roman lampstands also varied in their height4 ,when the stem was long they stood upon the ground--a fashion we have seen revived in recent years1 and even where electricity replaces oil4 ,when1 on the contrary1 the stem was short1 the stand was known as a candelabrum humile1 and rested on a table or a stool4 ,the ,madrid ,museum contains a remarkable bronze lamp in the form of an ass's head adorned with flowers and with ivy4 ,the ass is holding in its mouth the rostrum for the wick4 ,the hole for the oil is shaped like a flower with eleven petals1 under one of which is the monogram ,mdagger,r4 ,the back of this lamp consists of an uncouth human male figure1 in a reclining posture1 wearing a ,phrygian cap and holding the ass's head between his legs4 ,illustration3 ,,xxviii ,a ,,candil 7,modern7 ,other lamps of bronze1 including several of an interesting character1 are in the same collection4 ,one of these represents a sea-deity2 another has its handle shaped like a horse's head and neck2 and in a third the orifice for the oil is heart-shaped1 while the handle terminates in the head of a swan4 ,there is also a series of three pensile lamps--two in the likeness of the head and neck of a griffin1 and the third in that of a theatrical mask2 as well as a candelabrum fourteen inches high1 terminating beneath in three legs with lions' claws 7foreshadowing or repeating oriental motives71 and above in a two-handled vessel on which to place the lamp4 ,this vessel supports at present a fine lucerna in the form of a peacock4 ,probably no people in the world have kept extant1 or rather1 kept alive1 their oldest forms of pottery or instruments for giving light more steadfastly or more solicitously than the ,spaniards4 ,their iron candil#hh and brass veln of nowadays 7,pls4 xxviii4 and xxix47--the one of these the primitive lamp that hangs2 the other1 the primitive lamp that rests upon a table or the ground--are borrowed with but a minimum of alteration from the lighting apparatus of the ancient ,greeks and ,romans1 and possess1 for all their coarse and cheap and unpretentious workmanship1 a subtle interest and elegance attributable only to the inspiration of antiquity4 #hh ,a small open lamp with a beak1 and a hook to hang it1 within which is another of the same make that contains oil and a wick to give light1 commonly used in kitchens1 stables1 and inns4--,fathers ,connelly and ,higgins1 ,spanish-,english and ,english-,spanish ,dictionary4 ,swinburne wrote of these candiles3--,the ,spaniards delight in wine that tastes strong of the pitched skin1 and of oil that has a rank smell and taste2 indeed1 the same oil feeds their lamp1 swims in their pottage1 and dresses their salad2 in inns the lighted lamp is frequently handed down to the table1 that each man may take the quantity he chooses4 ,illustration3 ,,xxix ,a ,,vel,n 7,modern7 ,more than the shape of these old objects seems to have passed to modern ,spain--if any phase at all of ,spanish life can ever justly be accounted modern4 ,the ancients had an almost superstitious reverence for a lighted lamp1 and were accustomed to declare that lucerna1 cum extinguitur1 vocem emittit1 quasi necata2 a lamp1 on being put out1 utters a sound as though it were being murdered4 ,now1 it may be a coincidence--although ,i cannot but regard it as distinctly more than a coincidence--that even at this day a large proportion of the ,andalusian people are markedly averse to blowing out a kindled match2 nor do they think it of good augury to be in a room where three lights--candles1 matches1 or whatever they may be--are simultaneously aflame4 ,i have noticed1 too1 that1 whether from utter carelessness or whether from ancestral superstition handed down from ,rome1 one rarely sees upon the staircase or the doorstep of a ,spanish public building a vesta that has been 7if ,i may be allowed the term7 extinguished artificially4#hi #hi ,perhaps it is not foreign to my theme to add that the current name in ,spanish for an oil lamp is quinqu1 from ,quinquet1 the ,parisian chemist who invented the tuyau-chemine a hundred and odd years ago4 ,the same word passes also into ,spanish slang1 tener quinqu--i4e4 to be quick-witted and perceptive4 ,in the ,madrid ,museum are several military bronze signa which were found in ,spain and date from the ,roman era1 as well as a vexillum1 or one of the ,t-shaped frames on which the warriors of that people used to hang their standards4 ,one of these signa is in the form of a wild boar2 another in that of a saddled and bridled horse4 ,beneath this latter is the word ,,viva and a cross1 which shows that the object dates from a period not earlier than the reign of ,constantine4 ,it is strange--or rather1 would be strange in any country that had been less constantly afflicted both with civil and external warfare--that hardly anything remains of all the bronze artistic objects manufactured by the ,spanish ,moors4 ,poets of this race have sung of gold and silver fountains1 door-knockers1 and statues that adorned the buildings of ,cordova4 ,in many of these instances the hyperbolic gold and silver of the writers would undoubtedly be bronze4 ,al-,makkari quotes an ,arab poet who extols in passionate terms ,almanzor's dazzling mansion of ,az-zahyra4 ,lions of metal1 sang this poet1 bite the knockers of thy doors1 and as those doors resound appear to be exclaiming ,allahu akbar 7,god is great74 ,another bard describes the fountains of the same enchanted palace4 ,the lions who repose majestically in this home of princes1 instead of roaring1 allow the waters to fall in murmuring music from their mouths4 ,their bodies seem to be covered with gold1 and in their mouths crystal is made liquid4 ,though in reality these lions are at rest1 they seem to move and1 when provoked1 to grow enraged4 ,one would imagine that they remembered their carnage of past days1 and bellowing turned once more to the attack4 ,when the sun is reflected from their bronze surface1 they seem to be of fire1 with tongues of flame that issue from their mouths4 ,nevertheless1 when we observe them to be vomiting water1 one would think this water to be swords which melt without the help of fire1 and are confounded with the crystal of the fountain4 ,illustration3 ,,xxx ,,bronze ,,lion 7,found in the ,province of ,palencia7 ,figures in bronze1 of eagles1 peacocks1 swans1 stags1 dragons1 lions1 and many other creatures were set about in garden and in hall1 to decorate these splendid palaces of ancient ,cordova4 ,a specimen of this class of objects is a bronze lion of small dimensions 7,plate xxx47 found not many years ago in the province of ,palencia1 and believed to date from the reign of ,al-,hakem the ,second of ,cordova4 ,it belonged for some time to the painter ,fortuny--a diligent and lucky hunter of antiquities1--and was subsequently purchased in #ahge by ,m4 ,piot4 ,the modelling and decoration of this beast1 especially the mannered and symmetrical curls which are supposed to form its mane1 are quite conventional and strongly reminiscent of ,assyrian art1 such as pervades the various lions rudely wrought in stone and still existing at ,granada2 whether the celebrated dozen that support and guard the fountain in the courtyard of the ,moorish palace1#ij or else the greater pair of grinning brutes proceeding from the ruins of the palace of ,azaque 7miscalled the ,moorish ,mint71 which may be noticed squatting with their rumps towards the road1 beside the garden entrance to the ,carmen de la ,mezquita4 #ij ,swinburne fell into a comical error concerning these4 ,in the centre of the court are twelve ill-made lions muzzled1 their fore-parts smooth1 their hind-parts rough1 which bear upon their backs an enormous bason1 out of which a lesser rises4--,travels through ,spain1 p4 #ahj4 ,this little bronze lion measures about twelve inches high by fourteen inches long4 ,the legs and part of the body are covered with a pattern representing flowers4 ,the mane is described by comma-shaped marks4 ,the tail1 bent not ungracefully along the animal's back1 is decorated with a kind of plait through nearly all its length4 ,the eyes are now two cavities1 but seem in other days to have contained two coloured stones or gems4 ,upon the back and flanks is a ,cufic inscription which says1 ,perfect blessing4 ,complete happiness4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxi ,,bronze ,,stag 7,moorish4 ,museum of ,cordova47 ,mussulman historians have described1 in terms of cloying praise1 the red gold animals contrived with subtle skill and spread with precious stones which ,abderrahman placed at ,cordova upon the fountains of his palaces4 ,rivers of water issued from the mouth of every animal1 and fell into a jasper basin4 ,the words red gold are patently an oriental term for bronze4 ,in view of this1 and of the fact that the lion of ,palencia is hollow-bellied1 with his mouth wide open for ejecting water1 and with a tail of cunning craftsmanship1 which would avail1 on being rotated1 to produce or check the current of the liquid crystal1 we may conclude that it was intended both to form a part of1 and to decorate a ,moorish fountain of old days1 and is the kind of beast with precious stones for eyes so often and so ecstatically lauded by the ,muslim writers4 ,similar to the foregoing object1 and dating from about the same period1 is a small bronze stag 7,pl4 xxxi47 in the provincial museum of ,cordova4 ,it is believed to proceed originally from the famous palace 7tenth century7 of ,az-zahra1 and used to be kept1 some centuries ago1 in the convent of ,san ,jernimo de ,valparaiso4 ,the museum of ,granada contains some interesting ,moorish bronzes1 found on the site of the ancient city of ,illiberis1 abandoned by its occupants on their removal to ,granada at the beginning of the eleventh century4 ,the most remarkable of these discoveries are pieces of a fountain1 a small temple 7,plate xxxii471 an almirez or mortar 7,plate xxxiii471 similar to one 7not mentioned by ,riao7 which was discovered at ,monzn1 and a few lamps4 ,the fragments of a fountain end in the characteristic ,assyrian-looking lions' heads1 with lines in regular zones to represent the eyes and other features4 ,one of the lamps 7,pl4 xxxiii47 is far superior to the rest4 ,notwithstanding ,riao's assertion that all of these antiquities are incomplete and mutilated1 this lamp is well preserved1 and still retains1 secured by a chain1 the little metal trimming-piece or emunctorium of the ,romans4 ,the small bronze temple is sometimes thought 7but this hypothesis seems rather fanciful7 to be a case1 or part of a case1 designed for keeping jewellery4 ,the height of it is two-and-twenty inches1 and the form hexagonal1 with twelve small columns supporting bands of open work1 frescoes1 cupola1 and turrets2 in the angles are birds 7,riao74 ,illustration3 ,,xxxii ,,bronze ,,temple 7,moorish4 ,museum of ,granada7 ,the most important object in this substance now extant in any part of ,spain is probably the huge and finely decorated lamp of ,mohammed the ,third of ,granada 7,pl4 xxxiv471 called sometimes the lamp of ,oran1 from a mistaken belief that it had formed part of the booty yielded by this city after her capture in #aeji by ,cardinal ,jimenez de ,cisneros4 ,the material of this lamp is bronze1 possibly provided by the bells of ,christian churches taken and pillaged by the ,moors4 ,it has four parts or tiers of varying shape1 delicately wrought in open-work1 and reaching a height of nearly seven feet in all4 ,the third and largest tier1 corresponding to the shade1 is in the form of a truncated pyramid1 and shows a different design on each of its four sides4 ,the lamp bears several inscriptions1 interrupted here and there through breakage of the metal4 ,the longest of these legends is interpreted as follows3-- ,in the name of ,god the ,merciful4 7,may7 the blessing of ,god be on our lord ,mohammed and his kin2 health and peace4 7,this lamp7 was ordered 7to be made7 by our ,lord the egregious sultan1 the favoured1 the victorious1 the just1 the happy1 the conqueror of cities1 and the extreme boundary of just conduct among the servants 7of ,god72 the emir of the ,mussulmans ,abu-,abdillah1 son of our lord the emir of the ,mussulmans ,abu-,abdillah1 son of our lord ,al-,galib-,billah1 the conqueror through ,god's protection1 the emir of the ,mussulmans ,abu-,abdillah2 7may7 ,god aid him 7praised be ,god74 ,here is a breakage and a corresponding gap in the inscription1 which continues1 beneath it1 lighted by my light for its magnificence and the care of its xeque1 with righteous purpose and unerring certainty4 ,and this was in the month of ,rabi the first blessed1 in the year #gje4ia ,may 7,god7 be praised4 #ia ,september #bjth to ,october #aith1 ,a4,d4 #acje4 ,the history of this lamp has been explored with scholarly care by ,rodrigo ,amador de los ,ros1 whose monograph will be found in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades4 ,he says that the lamp was formerly suspended from the ceiling of the chapel of ,san ,ildefonso in the university of ,alcal de ,henares4 ,here1 too1 he has discovered entries which relate to it in two separate inventories1 dated #aebf and #aeca1 from which we gather that the lamp1 excepting the lowest part or tier1 which probably proceeded from ,oran1 was brought to ,alcal by ,cardinal ,cisneros from the mosque of the ,alhambra of ,granada4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxiii ,,moorish ,,lamp ,,and ,,mortar 7,museum of ,granada7 ,all of the lamp 7continues ,amador7 that properly belongs to it1 is the open-work shade1 together with the graduated set of spheres which we now observe on top4#ib ,the lowest part is clearly an inverted bell1 from which project four decorative pieces4 ,this is believed by ,amador to be a ,spanish bell1 dating from the fifteenth century1 designed for striking with a hammer1 and proceeding from some monastery or convent plundered by the ,moors4 ,indeed1 one of the two inventories discovered at ,alcal mentions a bell with a hole in it1 which used to belong to a ,moorish lamp1 thus countenancing the widespread supposition that the lamps of the mosque of ,cordova were made of the ,christian bells of ,compostela1 which the fierce ,almanzor caused to be conveyed upon the aching backs of ,christian captives to the ,moorish court and capital of ,andalusia4 #ib ,these spheres recall the four great gilded globes of bronze1 tapering from the bottom to the top1 that crowned in olden days the ,giralda tower of ,seville4 ,according to the ,crnica ,general the glitter of these globes de tan grande obra1 tan grandes1 que no se podren hacer otras tales1 could be distinguished at a distance of eight leagues4 ,on ,august #bdth1 #acie1 when ,seville was assailed by a frightful tempest accompanied by an earthquake1 the metal rod which pierced and held the globes was snapped1 and the globes themselves were dashed into a myriad pieces on the azotea1 scores of yards below4 ,it is probable1 therefore1 that the lamp of the third ,mohammed of ,granada is now composed of two lamps1 and that the primitive arrangement of its parts was altered by the ignorant4 ,eight chains would formerly suspend it1 in the following order of its tiers or stages1 from the dome of the mezquita4 ,first and uppermost would come the shade2 then1 next to this1 the set of tapering spheres2 and1 last and lowest1 the saucer or platillo1 which has disappeared4 ,further1 and as ,koranic law prescribed1 the lamp would hold two lights--one to be kindled on the saucer1 and the other underneath the shade4 ,illustration ,other articles of ,spanish-,moorish ornamented bronze are thimbles1 buckets1 and the spherical perfume-burners which were used to roll upon the stone or marble pavement of a dwelling4 ,moorish thimbles1 conical and uncouthly large1 are not uncommonly met with at ,granada4 ,i have one1 of which the above is an outline sketched to size4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxiv ,,lamp ,,of ,,mohammed ,,the ,,third 7,madrid ,museum7 ,sometimes these ,moorish thimbles are inscribed in ,cufic lettering with phrases such as--7,may7 the blessing of ,god and every kind of happiness 7be destined for the owner of this thimble72 or else the maker's name--,the work of ,saif2 or a single word--,blessing4 ,the thimbles from which ,i quote these legends are in the ,national ,museum4 ,the same collection includes a very finely wrought bronze bucket or acetre 7,latin situlus2 ,arabic as-setl1 the utensil for drawing water for a bath74 ,the outside is covered with delicate ornamentation1 varied with inscriptions of no great interest1 invoking ,allah's blessing on the owner or employer of the bucket1 which is thought by ,amador to be of ,granadino workmanship1 and to date from about the middle of the fourteenth century4 ,not many specimens remain of early medival ,spanish bronzes wrought by ,christian hands4 ,riao1 who admits that we can hardly trace any bronze of this period other than cathedral bells1 mentions as probably proceeding from abroad the altar-fronts and statuettes1 in gilt enamelled bronze1 of ,salamanca and elsewhere1#ic and gives a short description of the bell1 about six inches high 7,pl4 xxxv471 known as the ,abbot ,samson's1 now in ,cordova ,museum4 ,this object bears an early date 7#hge ,a4,d471 and is inscribed1 ,offert hoc munus ,samson abbatis in domum ,sancti ,sebastiani martyris ,christi1 ,era ,d4,c4,c4,c4,c4,,xiii4 #ic ,see p4 #ej4 ,it is curious that ,riao should make no mention of ,spanish bronze processional crosses4 ,in my chapter on gold1 silver1 and jewel work ,i mentioned those belonging to churches in the north of ,spain4 ,a bronze crucifix 7,plate xxxvi471 believed to date from the beginning of the twelfth century1 and proceeding from the monastery of ,arbs1 in the province of ,len1 is now in the possession of ,don ,felix ,granda ,builla4 ,it is undoubtedly of ,spanish make1 and probably was carried in processions4 ,the style is pure ,romanic1 and the drawing of the ribs1 extremities1 and limbs is typically primitive4 ,the sudarium is secured by the belt or parazonium4 ,the feet1 unpierced1 rest on a supedaneum4 ,a bronze ,renaissance parish cross of the sixteenth century1 once hidden in a village of ,asturias1 was bought some thirty years ago by the museum of ,madrid4 ,the body of the cross is wood1 covered on both sides with bronze plates wrought with figures of the ,saviour as the holy infant and as full-grown man1 and also with a figure of the ,virgin4 ,these figures were formerly painted1 and traces of the colour yet remain4 ,the cross was also silvered4 ,the rest of the ornamentation consists of vases1 flowers1 and other subjects proper to ,renaissance art4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxv ,,abbot ,,samson',s ,,bell 7#ith ,century4 ,museum of ,cordova7 ,a similar cross belongs to the parish church of ,san ,julian de ,recar1 in the province of ,lugo1 while ,san ,pedro de ,donas1 near ,santiago in ,galicia1 possesses a processional cross of bronze1 pierced along the edges in a pattern of trefoils and fleurs-de-lis1 but otherwise undecorated4 ,sometimes in ,spanish bronze we find the handiwork of ,moors and ,christians picturesquely intermingled1 as in the gates of ,toledo cathedral 7#accg71 and the ,puertas del ,perdn--forming the principal entrance to the ,court of ,orange ,trees--of the mosque of ,cordova1 made of wood and covered with bronze plating decorated with irregular hexagons and ,gothic and ,arabic inscriptions4 ,the knockers contain a scroll and flowers1 and on the scroll the words1 ,benedictus ,dominus ,deus ,israel4 ,the gate of the same name of ,seville cathedral 7,pl4 xxxvii47 is similar in workmanship1 and is considered by ,riao to be a good example of ,moresque bronze-work4 ,while speaking of these doors1 we should remember that ,moorish craftsmen were employed to decorate or to repair the mosque of ,cordova long after it had been converted to the worship of the ,christians4 ,when he was acting as viceroy in the year #abge1 the ,infante ,don ,fernando confirmed a letter of his father1 ,king ,alfonso1 remitting tolls and taxes that would otherwise be leviable upon four ,moors who worked in the cathedral4 ,the ,infante's confirmation1 after recording that one 7of the four ,moors7 is dead and the other blind1 in such wise that he can work no more1 consents to the engagement of another two1 ,famet and ,zahec by name1 to fill their places1 and who also are hereby exempted from the payment of all dues4 ,five years afterwards this privilege was reconfirmed by ,king ,alfonso1 and we are further told on this occasion that two of the ,moorish four were albas1 or masons1 and the others aaiares1 or carpenters4 ,as time progressed1 the situation of the vanquished and humiliated ,mussulmans grew more irksome4 ,on ,october #beth1 #acbj1 the ,infante ,don ,sancho1 who had usurped the throne1 proclaimed1 in ratification of a letter issued by his father1 that all the ,moorish carpenters1 masons1 sawyers1 and other workmen and artificers of ,cordova must work in the cathedral 7presumably without a wage7 for two days in every year4#id #id ,libro de las ,tablas1 pp4 #ag1 #ah4 ,see ,madrazo1 ,cordova1 pp4 #bgc et seq4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxvi ,,bronze ,,crucifix 7#abth ,century7 ,in the latter half of the sixteenth century1 ,bartolom ,morel1 a ,sevillano1 produced some notable work in bronze4#ie ,three objects by his hand--namely1 the choir lectern and the tenebrarium of ,seville cathedral1 and the weathercock or ,giraldillo which crowns the celebrated tower of the same enormous temple--are specially distinguished for their vigour and effectiveness4 #ie ,in documents which relate to him 7see ,gestoso's ,dictionary of ,sevillian ,artificers7 ,morel is often called an artillero4 ,his father1 ,juan ,morel1 was also a founder of cannon1 and signed a contract in #aefd to cast two bronze pieces or tiros1 with the royal arms on them4 ,the least important of these objects is the choir lectern1 for which ,morel was paid six hundred ducats4 ,the decoration is of statuettes and rilievi1 well designed and better executed4 ,the tenebrarium1 aptly defined by ,amador as an article of church furniture intended to make a show of light1#if is more ambitious and original4 ,it was designed and made by ,morel in the year #aefb4 ,juan ,giralte1 a native of ,flanders1 and ,juan ,bautista ,vazquez helped him to make the statues at the head of this candelabrum1 and ,pedro ,delgado1 another noted sculptor of ,seville1 worked at the foot of it4 ,it is eight and a half yards high1 and the triangular head is three yards across4 ,upon this upper part are fifteen statues1 representing the ,saviour1 the apostles1 and two other disciples or evangelists4 ,in the vacant space of the triangle is a circle adorned with leaves1 and in the centre of this circle is a bust of the ,virgin in relief1 and1 lower down1 the figure of a king4 ,all of this part is of bronzed wood1 and rests upon four small bronze columns4 ,the remainder of the candelabrum is all of this material1 and the small columns are supported by four caryatides1 resting upon an order of noble design decorated with lions' heads1 scrolls1 pendants1 and other ornamentation1 the whole resting upon a graceful border enriched with harpies4 #if ,the efficacy of light in illuminating1 or may be in dazzling and confounding1 ,christian worshippers is too self-evident to call for illustration4 ,the symbolic meaning of church candles is1 however1 neatly indicated by the wise ,alfonso in his compilation of the seven ,partidas4 ,because three virtues dwell in candles1 namely1 wick1 wax1 and flame1 so do we understand that persons three dwell in the ,trinity--,father1 ,son1 and ,holy ,spirit2 and we may understand three other things that dwell in ,jesus ,christ2 to wit1 body1 soul1 and godhead4 ,hence the twelve lighted candles manifested to each quarter of the church exhibit unto us the twelve apostles who preached the faith of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ through all the earth1 and manifesting truest wisdom illumined all the world4 ,this description of the ,seville tenebrarium is translated from ,cean ,bermudez1 and is the one most commonly quoted1 though ,amador complains that it is not precise1 and fails to dwell upon the symbolism of this mighty mass of bronze4#ig ,thus1 what ,cean affirms to be the bust of a king is declared by ,amador to be the head of a pope1 probably ,saint ,gregory the ,great4 ,metal1 as ,cean remarks1 is not employed throughout4 ,in order to preserve its balance1 the upper part of the tenebrarium1 containing the triangle which is said by some to symbolize the divinity of ,jesus as ,god the triple and the one1 is merely wood bronzed over4 ,amador adds that the foot and stem are intended to represent the people of ,israel in their perfidy and ingratitude4 ,he also says that the statue in the centre of the triangle is that of ,faith1 and that which crowns the entire tenebrarium1 of the ,virgin ,mary4 #ig ,the ,english rendering of ,cean's description inserted by ,riao is inaccurate throughout4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxvii ,,the ,,puerta ,,del ,,perd,n 7,seville ,cathedral7 ,morel1 like ,brunelleschi1 was an architect as well as a craftsman in bronze4#ih ,he completed this tenebrarium in #aefb1 and the chapter of the cathedral were so contented with it that instead of paying him the stipulated price1 namely1 eight hundred ducats1 they added of their own accord a further two hundred and fifty4 ,they also commissioned him to make a handsome case to keep it in2 but the case has disappeared1 and the naked tenebrarium now stands in the ,sacristy of ,chalices of the cathedral4#ii ,it is still used at the ,matin service during the last three days of ,holy ,week1 and still1 in the ,oficio de ,tinieblas1 the custom is observed of extinguishing the fifteen tapers1 one by one1 at the conclusion of each psalm4 #ih ,as architect1 he made a monument 7which exists no longer7 for the festivals of ,holy ,week at ,seville4 #ii ,in #aefe ,juan del ,pozo1 an ironsmith1 received one hundred reales on account of an engine which he made of iron for moving the tenebrarium of the cathedral1 and other heavy things4--,gestoso1 ,diccionario de ,artfices ,sevillanos1 vol4 i4 p4 #cac4 ,the title of the object which surmounts the famed ,giralda tower of ,seville is properly the ,statue of ,faith1 the triumph of the ,church 7,pl4 xxxviii472 but it is known in common language as the ,giraldillo 7weathercock71 which name has passed into the word ,giralda1 now applied to all the tower4 ,the populace of ,seville also call it1 in the argot of their cheerful town1 the mueco or doll1 the ,victory1 and the ,santa ,juana4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxviii ,,the ,,weathercock ,,of ,,the ,,giralda ,,tower 7#afth ,century4 ,seville ,cathedral7 ,this statue1 made of hollow bronze1 rotates upon an iron rod piercing the great bronze globe which lies immediately beneath the figure's feet4 ,the globe is nearly six feet in diameter4 ,the figure itself represents a ,roman matron wearing a flowing tunic partly covering her legs and arms4 ,sandals are secured to her feet by straps4 ,upon her head she wears a ,roman helmet crested by a triple plume4 ,in her right hand she holds the semicircular ,roman standard of the time of ,constantine1 which points the direction of the wind and causes the figure to revolve1 excepting when the air is very faint1 in which case it is caught by two diminutive banners springing from the large one4#ajj ,so huge are the proportions of this metal lady that the medal on her breast contains a life-size head which represents an angel4 #ajj ,the statue1 which looks so tiny from the street1 measures nearly fourteen feet in height1 and weighs more than two thousand two hundred pounds4 ,the banner alone weighs close upon four hundred pounds4 ,the figure was raised into its place in #aefh1 in which year ,i find that eighteen ,moriscos were paid seventy-eight reales between them all for doing the work of carriage 7,gestoso1 ,diccionario74 ,gestoso also mentions a large bronze plate made by ,morel for the pavement of the cathedral1 and which has disappeared4 ,it weighed #bbfi pounds1 or about the same as the weathercock of the ,giralda1 and ,morel was paid for it the sum of #bhi1cfa maravedis4 ,the ,spanish ,moors were also well acquainted with the use of weathercocks4 ,during the reign1 in the eleventh century1 of the ,zirite kingling of ,granada1 ,badis ben ,habbus1 a weathercock of strange design surmounted his alczar4 ,the historian ,marmol wrote in the sixteenth century that it was still existing on a little tower1 and consisted of a horseman in ,moorish dress1 with a long lance and his shield upon his arm1 the whole of bronze1 with an inscription on the shield which says3 ,badis ben ,habbus declares that in this attitude should the ,andalusian be discovered 7at his post74 ,not many other objects in this substance can be instanced as the work of ,spanish craftsmen of the sixteenth and succeeding centuries1 or of the later-,gothic age immediately preceding4 ,among them are the pulpits of ,santiago cathedral1 made by ,celma1 an ,aragonese1 in #aefc2 the choir-screen 7#aegd-aegi7 in the cathedral of ,zaragoza1 made by ,juan ,toms ,cela1 also a native of ,aragon2 the gilt lecterns of ,toledo cathedral1 which are the work of ,nicols ,vergara and his son2 the ,gothic lectern of the mosque of ,cordova2 the choir-lectern 7#aeeg7 of ,cuenca1 made by ,hernando de ,arenas1 who will also be remembered as having made the reja of the same cathedral2 and the octagonal gilt-bronze pulpits of ,toledo1 wrought by ,francisco de ,villalpando1 as are the bas-reliefs 7#aefd7 upon the door of ,lions1 executed by the same craftsman from designs by ,berruguete4 ,these last-named pulpits are associated with a legend4 ,within this temple1 once upon a time1 rested the metal sepulchre of the great ,don ,alvaro de ,luna1 so constructed by his orders that upon the touching of a secret spring the statue of the ,constable himself would rise into a kneeling posture throughout the celebration of the mass4 ,his lifelong and relentless foe1 the ,infante ,enrique of ,aragon1 tore up the tomb in #addi2 and from its fragments1 superstition says1 were made these pulpits4 ,spanish ,renaissance door-knockers in bronze are often curious4 ,fifteen large bronze rings adorned with garlands1 heads of lions and of eagles1 or with the pair of columns and the motto ,,plus ,,oultre of ,charles the ,fifth1 were formerly upon the pilasters of the roofless1 semi-ruined palace of that emperor at ,granada4 ,removed elsewhere for greater safety1#aja they will now be found among the couple of dozen curiosities preserved in a chamber of the ,moorish royal residence of the ,alhambra4 #aja ,spaniards have a very scanty confidence in one another's honesty1 as well as in the competence of their police4 ,often1 at ,madrid1 and at this day1 the porter of a house1 as soon as it is dark1 unscrews the knockers from the downstairs door1 and guards them in his conciergerie until the morning4 ,herewith ,i end my sketch of ,spanish bronzes1 without delaying to describe the tasteless transparente behind the altar of ,toledo cathedral1 or the neo-classic1 ,frenchified productions of the reign of ,charles the ,third1 such as the table-mountings of the ,buen ,retiro1 or trifles from the silver factory of ,antonio ,martinez4 ,at the ,escorial1 the shrine of the ,sagrario de la ,santa ,forma and the altar-front of the pantheon of the kings of ,spain1 wrought by ,fray ,eugenio de la ,cruz1 ,fray ,juan de la ,concepcin1 and ,fray ,marcos de ,perpignan1 are meritorious objects of their time4 ,but the history of ,spanish bronzes properly ends with the ,renaissance4 ,this material1 possibly from its cost1 has not at any time been greatly popular in ,spain4 ,wood1 plain or painted1 was preferred to bronze in nearly all her statuary4 ,her medival and ,renaissance reja and custodia makers can challenge all the world4 ,so can her potters1 armourers1 leather-workers1 and wood-carvers4 ,but if we look for masterpieces in the art of shaping bronze1 our eyes must turn to ,italy1 where1 to astonish modern men1 the powers of a ,donatello or ,ghiberti vibrate across all ages in the bas-reliefs of ,saint ,anthony at ,padua1 or in the gates of the ,baptistery of ,florence4 ,,arms ,lovers of the old-time crafts approach a fertile field in ,spanish arms2 for truly with this warworn land the sword and spear1 obstinately substituted for the plough1 seem to have grown well-nigh into her regular implements of daily bread-winning2 and from long before the age of written chronicle her soil was planted with innumerable weapons of her wrangling tribesmen4 ,the history of these ancient ,spanish tribes is both obscure and complicated4 ,if ,pliny1 ,strabo1 ,ptolemy1 and other authors may be credited1 the ,celtic race invaded the ,peninsula some seven centuries before the ,christian era1 crossing the river ,ebro1 founding settlements1 and fusing with the natives into the composite people known henceforward as the ,celtiberians4 ,thus strengthened1 they extended over nearly all the land1 and occupied1 by a dominative or assimilative policy1 the regions corresponding to the modern ,andalusia1 ,portugal1 ,galicia1 and the flat and central elevations of ,castile4 ,these ,spanish tribes were ever quarrelling1 and knew1 in ,strabo's words1 no entertainment save in horsemanship and in the exercise of arms4 ,quantities of their weapons have been found all over ,spain1 such as the heads of spears and arrows1 or the blades of daggers1 hatchets1 knives1 and swords4 ,with these ,iberian tribesmen1 as with other peoples of the ancient world1 the truly prehistoric age is that of stone2 hence they advanced to bronze1 and finally to iron4 ,beuter1 the historian of ,valencia1 wrote in #aecd that near to the town of ,cariena1 in ,aragon1 on digging out some earthen mounds the excavators came upon enormous bones1 flint lance and arrow heads1 and knives the size of half an ordinary sword2 all these in company with many skulls transfixed by the said stones4 ,in the collection at ,madrid1 formed by ,don ,emilio ,rotondo y ,nicolau1 these primitive ,spanish weapons number several thousands2 and many more are in the ,national ,museum4#ajb #ajb ,according to ,tubino1 the existence of a prehistoric age of stone was not suspected in ,spain until the year #agee1 when ,mann y ,mendoza affirmed that a state of society had existed in the ,peninsula before the age of metals4 ,since then the ,celtic remains of ,spain and ,portugal have been investigated by many scientists1 including ,assas1 ,mitjana1 ,murgua1 and ,casiano de ,prado1 who discovered numbers of these weapons4 ,towards the middle of last century ,casiano de ,prado1 aided by the ,frenchmen ,verneuil and ,lartet1 explored the neighbourhood of ,san ,isidro on the ,manzanares1 and found large quantities of arms and implements of stone4 ,valuable service in the cause of prehistoric ,spanish archology has also been performed by ,vilanova1 ,torrubia1 and ,machado4 ,discoveries of ancient ,spanish arms of bronze occur less often and in smaller quantities than those of stone or iron4 ,bronze hatchets1 principally of the straight-edged class 7 bords droites7 have been found in ,galicia and certain other provinces4 ,villa-amil y ,castro describes a bronze dagger of curious workmanship1 which was found in ,galicia in #ahfi4 ,the point of the blade is missing4 ,if this were included1 the length of the weapon would be about six inches4 ,other examples1 now in the ,madrid ,museum1 include two swords1 two daggers1 and two arrowheads4 ,the swords1 sharp-pointed1 narrow in the blade1 and used by preference for thrusting1 were found not far from ,calatayud--the ancient town renowned1 as ,roman ,bilbilis1 for weapons of incomparable temper4 ,the daggers were probably used for fighting hand to hand4 ,at the time of the ,roman invasion we find1 of course1 the ,spaniards using iron weapons4 ,i shall not tax the patience of my readers by enumerating all these weapons4 ,their names are many1 and the comments and descriptions of old authors which refer to them are constantly at variance4 ,nevertheless1 the sword most popular with the ,celtiberians at the period of the ,roman conquest seems to have been a broad1 two-handed weapon with a point and double edge1 and therefore serviceable both for cutting and for thrusting4 ,another of the ,celtiberian swords1 called the falcata1 was of a sickle shape4 ,it terminated in the kind of point we commonly associate with a scimitar1 and which is found to-day in ,spanish knives produced at ,albacete4 ,one of these swords1 in good condition1 is in the ,national ,museum4 ,it has a single edge1 upon the concave side of the blade1 and measures rather less than two feet4 ,other weapons in common use among the ,celtiberians were an iron dart--the sannion or soliferrea2 the javelin2 the lance--a weapon so immemorially old in ,spain that patriotic writers trace its origin to the prehistoric town of ,lancia in ,asturias2 and the trudes or bidente1 a crescent blade mounted upon a pole1 mentioned by ,strabo and ,saint ,isidore1 and identical with the cruel weapon used until about a quarter of a century ago for houghing coward cattle in the bull-ring4 ,illustration3 ,,xxxix ,,crest ,,of ,,jousting ,,helmet 7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,thus1 when the ,romans entered ,spain the natives of this country were experienced in the use of arms1 and made their own from such materials as their own soil yielded4 ,their tempering was excellent1 for ,diodorus ,siculus tells us that they had already discovered the secret of burying the metal in order that the moisture of the earth might eat away its baser portions4 ,besides the ancient ,bilbilis in ,aragon1 a ,spanish city famous for her faultless tempering of implements and weapons was ,toledo4 ,martial1#ajc the most illustrious son of ,bilbilis1 has sung the praises of the one2 less celebrated poets1 such as ,gracio ,falisco1 of the other4#ajd ,even the armourers of ,rome were found to be less skilful and successful swordsmiths than the ,spaniards2#aje and so1 before the second ,punic ,war1 the model or the models of the ,spanish sword had been adopted by the ,roman army4 #ajc ,gerone qui ferrum gelat4 ,this river1 the purity and coldness of whose waters lent1 or so it is supposed1 its virtues to the steel1 rolls past the walls of ,calatayud1 and is called in later ages the ,jalon4 #ajd ,imo ,toletano prcingant ilia cultro4 #aje ,romani patriis gladiis depositis ,hannibalico bello ,hispaniensium assumpserunt 444 sed ferri bonitatem et fabrica solertiam imitari non potuerunt4--,suidas4 ,various of the native peoples of ,iberia were distinguished by a special instrument or mode of fighting4 ,strabo says that the ,iberians as a general rule employed two lances and a sword4 ,those of ,lusitania were especially adroit in hurling darts4 ,each of their warriors kept a number of these darts contained within his shield4 ,upon the head they wore a helmet of a primitive pattern strapped beneath the chin4 ,this helmet1 called the bacula1 protected all the wearer's face1 and had a mitred shape1 with three red feathers on the crest4 ,together with these arms1 the ,lusitanians used a copper-headed lance and the typical form of ,celtiberian sword4 ,more singular and celebrated in their mode of fighting were the ,balearic islanders1 who carried1 through persistent exercise1 the art of slinging stones and leaden plummets to the utmost limit of perfection4 ,the beaches of these islands1 we are told1 abounded1 then as now1 in small1 smooth pebbles1 weapons of ,nature's own contrivance1 rarely suited to the sling4#ajf ,these slings were of three patterns1 severally designed for near1 far1 and middling distances4 ,the lead or stone projectile sometimes weighed a pound4 ,accordingly--so strenuous was their zeal to be unrivalled in the practice of this arm--even as little children the ,baleares went without their dinner1 till1 with the formidable funda in their hand1 they struck the stick their parents planted for them in the soil4 ,pliny and ,polybius1 notwithstanding1 state that the sling itself was not indigenous in this region1 but imported from ,phoenicia4 ,however this may be1 the islanders within a little time contributed to swell the power of the ,roman legions4 #ajf ,descripciones de las ,islas ,pithiusas y ,baleares4 ,madrid1 #aghg4 ,the ,visigoths continued using many of the ,roman or ,ibero-,roman arms4 ,nevertheless1 the solid armour of the ,romans1 such as their greaves and thigh-pieces and breastplates1 was now replaced by primitive chain-mail resembling scales of fishes4 ,according to ,saint ,isidore1 ,procopius1 and other writers1 the favourite weapons of the ,spanish ,visigoths were the sword or spatha1 long1 broad-bladed1 with a double edge2 the hatchet1 the bow1 the sling1 the lance1 the scythe1 the mace1 the pilum or javelin 7used extensively in ,spain throughout the ,middle ,ages71#ajg the dolon1 a dagger which concealed itself within a wooden staff1 and took the name of treacherous or wily from this circumstance2 and the conto1 a keenly pointed pike4 ,we also find among the military engines of the ,visigoths the balista1 for hurling stones and darts of large size1 and the ariete or battering-ram1 constructed from a gnarled and powerful tree-trunk braced with iron and suspended by a cable4 ,their defensive body-armour consisted of a coat of mail composed of bronze or iron scales1 and called the lriga or perpunte4 ,this was worn above the thorachomachus1 a kind of tunic made of felt1 in order to shield the body from the roughness of the mail4 ,upon their heads they wore an ample helmet4 #ajg ,a javelin made throughout of iron was found in ,spain some years ago1 completely doubled up1 so as to admit of its being thrust into a burial urn4 ,the javelin in question is now in the ,madrid museum1 and a similar weapon may be seen in the provincial museum of ,granada4 ,a fragment of stone carving preserved in ,seville museum shows us two ,visigothic ,spanish warriors who wear a tunic and helmet of a simple pattern1 and carry a two-edged sword and a large shield4 ,garca ,llans says1 however1 that the nobles of this people wore close-fitting mail tunics covered with steel scales1 a kind of bronze bassinet1 tight breeches1 and high boots1 and carried1 besides the sword which was slung from their belts1 a large1 oval shield4#ajh #ajh ,historia ,general del ,arte3 ,garca ,llans2 ,armas1 pp4 #dci1 #ddj4 ,illustration3 ,,xl ,,spanish ,,crossbowman 7,late #aeth ,century4 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,from about the time of the ,moorish invasion1 the changes in the arms and armour of the ,spaniards coincided in the main with those in other parts of western ,europe4 ,nevertheless1 as late as the eleventh century the ,spanish sword retained the characteristic which had endeared it to the ,roman legionaries--namely1 a hilt of small dimensions and a broad and shortish blade4 ,in course of time the blade grows narrower and begins to taper towards the point4 ,the quillons or crossbars 7,spanish arriaces1 from the ,arabic arrias1 a sword-hilt7 were originally straight or semicircular1 and ended in a knob 7manzana1 literally apple2 ,latin pomum1 ,english pommel74 ,thus1 in the ,poem of the ,cid we find the verse3-- ,las manzanas los arriaces todos de oro son4 ,throughout these early times the scabbard was of wood lined with leather or with velvet1 and strengthened and adorned with leather bands2 but when the owner was of high estate1 it often bore enamels in the cloisonn style2 that is1 with patches of the coloured1 vitreous substance bordered and fastened in by metal wire4 ,in ,spain this style1 undoubtedly of foreign origin1 was superseded in the thirteenth century by champlev enamelling1 in which the enamel lies within a hollowed ground4 ,spanish medival weapons down to the fourteenth century are specified in the fuero of ,cceres and other documents contemporary with their use4 ,next always in importance to the sword we find the hatchet1 lance1 crossbow1 and mace4 ,montaner's ,chronicle of the ,kings of ,aragon tells us that the sovereign1 mace in hand1 dealt one of his enemies such a blow upon his iron hat that his brains came oozing out at his ears4 ,covarrubias mentions a dart-shaped missile called the azcona--a word which some authorities derive from the ,arabic1 and others from the ,basque gascona1 an arm employed by the natives of ,gascony4 ,the former derivation seems the likelier4 ,the fuero of ,cceres mentions the targulo1 described by the ,count of ,clonard as a kind of dagger2 and at the close of the thirteenth century appears in ,spain the poniard1 which was called among the ,germans ,panzerbrecher1 or breaker of cuirasses1 and among the ,french the misericorde4 ,the fuero of ,cceres tells us1 furthermore1 what was the regular equipment of the ,spanish foot and mounted soldier of that period4 ,each horseman shall go forth to battle with a shield1 a lance1 a sword1 and spurs2 and he that carries not all these shall pay each time five sheep wherewith to feed the soldiers4444 ,each mounted man or pawn that trotteth not or runneth not to quit his town or village as he hears the call1--the first shall have his horse's tail cut off2 the other shall have his beard clipped4 ,defensive arms included various kinds of coverings for the head2 the lriga or covering for the body1 the clcias or covering for the legs1 and the shield4 ,the lriga 7,latin lorica7 was the ordinary hauberk or shirt of mail1 such as was worn all over military ,europe1 made of rings or scales sewed strongly on a linen or leather under-tunic consisting of a single piece1 and reaching to the knee4 ,the ,gran ,conquista de ,ultramar of ,alfonso el ,sabio also informs us that it was tied at certain openings known as ventanas 7windows71 and that the collar of the tunic was called the gorguera4 ,the resistance of the ,spanish lriga to a pointed weapon does not seem to have been great1 for the ,chronicle of the ,monk of ,silos says that at the siege of ,viseo the arrows of the ,moorish bowmen went through the triple lrigas of their foe4 ,towards the twelfth century the custom arose of wearing over the coat of mail a loose1 sleeveless frock 7the ,waffenrock of ,germany71 woven of linen or some other light material1 painted or embroidered with the owner's arms4 ,as the ,count of ,clonard observes1 it is clearly this kind of frock that is referred to in the following passage of the ,leyes de ,partida3 ,for some 7of the knights7 placed upon the armour carried by themselves and by their horses1#aji signs that were different one from another1 in order to be known thereby2 while others placed them on their heads1 or on their helmets4 #aji ,the horse was also covered with a lriga1 on which1 from about the twelfth century1 were thrown the decorative trappings of cendal or thin silk1 painted or embroidered with the warrior's arms4 ,illustration3 ,,xli ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,la ,,higueruela 7,wall painting4 ,hall of ,battles1 ,el ,escorial7 ,the ,normans used a form of hauberk with attached mail-stockings4 ,in ,spain we find in lieu of this leg-covering1 the ,roman clcia 7,latin caliga71 extending from the foot to just below the thigh1 and subsequently called the brafonera4#aaj ,this was1 in fact1 a separate mail-stocking1 made of closely interlacing steel rings1 and worn above the leather boots or trebuqueras4 #aaj ,calz las brafoneras que eran bien obradas ,con sortijas de acero1 sabet bien enlazadas2 ,asi eran presas bien trabadas1 ,que semejaban calzas de las tiendas taiadas4 ,poem of the ,cid4 ,the ,spanish escudo or shield was usually made of wood covered with leather1 and painted with the arms or the distinguishing emblem of its lord4 ,sometimes it was made of parchment4 ,thus the ,chronicle of the ,cid informs us that this hero after death was equipped with a painted parchment helm and with a shield in the same wise4 ,another form of ,spanish shield1 the adarga 7atareca1 atarca2 ,arabic ad-darka1 to hold upon the arm71 of which ,i shall subsequently notice specimens in the ,royal ,armoury1 was commonly in the shape of a rough oval or of a heart1 and made of various folds of leather sewn and glued together4 ,the ,chronicle of ,alfonso the ,eleventh speaks of a certain famine which broke out among the ,spanish troops1 and caused them such privation that they chewed the leather of their shields4#aaa #aaa ,count of ,clonard1 op4 cit4 ,the battle headgear of this people passed through many changes4 ,the helmet of the eighth century1 says the ,count of ,clonard1 was the same which had been used by the ,cantabrians and ,vascones before the general peace proclaimed by ,augustus ,csar4 ,helmets of this design are engraved upon the medals 7reproduced by ,florez7 of the imperial legate ,publius ,carisius4 ,they covered the entire head and face1 leaving only two holes for the eyes1 as we see upon the carved stone fragments in relief at the door of the church of ,san ,pedro de ,villanueva1 representing the struggle of ,king ,froila with a bear4 ,another form of helmet which the ,spaniards began to use about this time was the almofar 7,arabic al-mejfar71 made of iron scales4 ,it covered all the head1 with the exception of the eyes1 nose1 and mouth1 and corresponds to the camail of the ,normans4 ,beneath it was worn the linen cofia1 a kind of bag or cap in which the warrior gathered up his hair4 ,after about another century a round or conical iron helmet 7capacete71 fitted with cheek-pieces1 was superposed on the almofar and fastened round the chin with straps4 ,the capacete of a noble was often adorned with precious stones and coronets of pure gold1 while a spike projecting from the top was tipped with a large carbuncle1 in order to catch and to reflect the flashing sunbeams4 ,the substitution for this spike of multiform and multicolor figures or devices dates from a later age4 ,the ,chronicle of ,alfonso the ,eleventh describes as something altogether novel and surprising1 the crests upon the helmets of the foreign knights who flocked1 in #acdc1 to ,algeciras to aid the cause of ,christianity against the ,moor4 ,all of them1 says this narrative1 placed their helmets at the door of their dwellings1 supporting them on stout and lofty staves2 and the figures on the helmets were of many kinds4 ,on some was the figure of a lion2 on others that of a wolf1 or ass's head1 or ox1 or dog1 or divers other beasts2 while others bore the likeness of the heads of men2 faces1 beards1 and all4 ,others1 too1 had wings as those of eagles or of crows2 and so1 between these various kinds there were in all as many as six hundred helmets4 ,this brings us to the celebrated helmet or cimera 7,plate xxxix471 now in the ,royal ,armoury of ,madrid1 believed till recently to have belonged to ,jayme the ,first1 conqueror of ,palma and ,valencia1 and the greatest1 both in spirit and in stature1 of the old-time kings of ,aragon4 ,such part of this interesting helmet as is left consists of two pieces1 one of them resting loosely on the other4 ,baron de las ,cuatro ,torres infers1 from a detail which will presently be noted1 that the lower of these two pieces is not original2 and his opinion was shared by the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan1 who1 notwithstanding1 thought the spurious part to be coeval with the actual crest4 ,the upper part consists of a fragment of a helm1 made1 like some flimsy theatre property1 of linen1 card1 and parchment1 and surmounted with the figure of the mythical monster known in the ,lemosin language as the drac-pennat1 or winged dragon1 which formed1 conjointly with the royal crown1 the emblem or device of all the ,aragonese sovereigns from ,pedro the ,fourth to ,ferdinand the ,second4 ,illustration3 ,,xlii ,,parade ,,harness ,,of ,,philip ,,the ,,third 7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,there is1 however1 no reason to doubt the helmet's authenticity4 ,it is known to have remained for centuries at ,palma1 in the ,balearics1 where it was worn upon the day of ,saint ,sylvester in each year1 by a person who walked in the procession of the ,standart to celebrate the capture of the city by ,don ,jayme4 ,this would explain the lower piece contrived and added to the crest itself1 in order to adjust the incomplete and upper portion to the subsequent wearer's head4 ,the helmet as originally made was meant for tourneying only1 and is therefore fashioned1 not of metal1 but of the frail theatrical materials ,i have stated4 ,copper and wood1 says ,viollet-le-,duc1 were also used in making these objects4 ,the earliest wearer of the helm cannot have been ,don ,jayme4 ,baron de las ,cuatro ,torres remarks that on an ,aragonese coin of the reign of ,pedro the ,fourth1 the monarch is wearing on his head something which looks identical with this cimera4#aab ,demay has further told us that the vogue of such cimeras1 whose principal purpose was to distinguish seigniories1 lasted from #abhi till the introduction of movable visors at the end of the fourteenth or the beginning of the fifteenth century4 ,the present helmet1 therefore1 probably belonged to ,don ,pedro the ,fourth of ,aragon 7the ,ceremonious71 and was made at some time in his reign--that is1 between #acce and #achg4 ,a document has been discovered in which this monarch's son1 ,don ,martin of ,aragon1 commands that year by year his own helmet1 nostram emprissiam sive cimbram1 together with the banner of ,jayme the ,conqueror1 is to be publicly exhibited in commemoration of the capture of ,majorca4 ,therefore we may conclude from these important facts that here is the crest of a tourneying helmet which belonged either to ,don ,pedro the ,fourth of ,aragon1 or else to either of1 or possibly both1 his sons1 ,don ,juan and ,don ,martin4 #aab ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones2 ,nos4 #af and #ag4 ,the changes which occur in ,spanish arms and armour between the fourteenth and the sixteenth centuries keep pace1 upon the whole1 with those in other parts of ,europe4 ,it is1 however1 opportune to notice how the ,spanish armies of this time were organized4 ,their regular cavalry consisted of3 7#a7 the force directly mustered by the king and under his immediate leadership2 7#b7 the mounted burghers who defrayed the whole or part of their expenses1 being in certain instances assisted by a stipend which had been created by municipal and local fueros2 7#c7 the knights belonging to the military orders2 and 7#d7 the barons1 together with the men these last were called upon1 obedient to the summons of the royal mandadero 7messenger71 to mount1 equip1 provision1 and bring to war with them4 ,such was the heavy cavalry of later medival ,spain4 ,a lighter class1 said by the ,count of ,clonard to have been recruited from the southern regions of the land1 was known as alfaraces1 almogvares1 or omes de la gineta4 ,these latter lived in frugal fashion4 ,water was their only drink2 bread and the roots of plants their only food4 ,their clothing1 too1 was of the slightest1 consisting merely of a shirt1 high boots1 and a kind of net upon the head4 ,they wore no armour1 and carried as their only weapons an azagaya and a lance4 ,their principal value was in skirmishing4 ,the infantry were also of two kinds4 ,the first1 collective or stipendiary1 was levied by the towns and cities1 and from them received its maintenance4 ,the second was the almogvares1 who served for scouting1 like their mounted comrades of the same denomination4 ,the stipendiary or regular troops proceeded chiefly from the northern provinces--,alava1 ,guipzcoa1 the ,asturias1 and the mountains of ,len1 and carried commonly the lance1 sword1 sling1 crossbow1 and the azagaya--this last a dart-shaped missile borrowed from the ,berber tribesmen1--the ancient ,moorish azgaya1 the modern assagai or assegai of ,zululand4#aac #aac ,one of these weapons may be seen in the ,royal ,armoury 7,no4 ,i4 #ie74 ,it is made of iron covered with leather1 and has a laurel-shaped blade with sharpened edges4 ,the other end consists of two projecting pieces of the metal1 shaped to resemble the plumes of an arrow4 ,the length of this arm is #e feet #h inches4 ,in a country which was plunged in ruinous and almost unremitting internecine strife2 which was 7and is7 inherently averse to commerce or to agriculture2 and where the bulk of all the national wealth was either locked away in churches and in convents1 or in the coffers of great nobles who were frequently as wealthy as1 or even wealthier than1 the ,crown1 the armour of the common medival ,spanish soldier consisted of the plain and necessary parts and nothing more4 ,the aristocracy1 upon the other hand1 often adorned their battle-harness with the finest gold and silver work1 and studded it with precious stones4 ,even the esquires would sometimes imitate their masters in this costly mode4 ,we command1 said ,juan the ,first in one of his pragmatics dating from the end of the fourteenth century1 that no shield-bearer shall carry cloth of gold or any manner of gold ornament upon his trappings1 scarf1 or saddle2 or on his badge or arms1 excepting only on the edges of his bassinet and his cuisses1 together with the bit and poitral of his horse1 which may be gilded4 ,illustration3 ,,xliii ,,moorish ,,crossbow ,,and ,,stirrup 7,museum of ,granada7 ,it is also evident from ,royal ,letters of this time1 that the kings of ,spain depended very largely for the flower of their forces on the private fortune or resources of the ,spanish noblemen or even commoners2 nor did they ever hesitate to turn these means of other people to their own particular good4 ,the ,ordinance of ,juan the ,first1 dated ,segovia1 #acij1 commands that1 ,every man who possesses #bj1jjj maravedis and upward shall have his proper set of harness1 habergeons and scale-pieces1 and lappet-piece1 cuisses and vantbrasses1 bassinet1 camail1 and war-cap#aad with its gorget2 or else a helmet1 together with sword and dagger1 glaive and battle-axe4 ,and whoso possesses #cjjj maravedis and upward shall have his lance and javelin and shield1 his lappet-piece and coat of mail1 and iron bassinet without a camail1 and a capellina1 together with his sword1 estoque1 and knife4 ,and whoso has between #bjjj and #cjjj maravedis shall have his lance and sword or estoque and knife1 or a bassinet or capellina1 together with a shield4 ,and whoso has from #fjj to #bjjj maravedis shall have a crossbow with its nut and cord and stirrup1 quiver and strap1 and three dozen shafts4 ,and whoso has from #djj to #fjj maravedis shall have a lance1 a javelin1 and a shield4 ,and whoso has #djj maravedis shall have a javelin and a lance4 #aad ,capellina4 ,the ,count of ,clonard says that this was in the shape of half a lemon1 and fitted with a visor with a cutting edge4 ,the wealthier classes responded lavishly to this command4 ,describing the battle of ,olmedo and the forces of ,don ,alvaro de ,luna sent against the ,navarrese1 the chronicle of the ,constable declares that among his entire host could hardly have been found a single cavalier whose horse was not covered with trappings1 and its neck with mail4 ,for some there were that carried divers figures painted on the aforesaid trappings1 and others that bore upon their helmets jewels that were a token from their mistresses4 ,and others carried gold or silver bells suspended from their horses' necks by thick chains2 or plates upon their helmets studded with precious stones1 or small targes richly garnished with strange figures and devices4 ,nor was there less variety in the crests upon their helmets2 for some bore likenesses of savage beasts1 and others plumes of various colours2 while others carried but a plume or two upon their helmet crest1 like unto those upon the forehead of their horses4 ,the fifteenth century is often called in ,spain her golden age of arms--not in the sense that she invented anything new relating to this craft1 but that her warriors were more fully and more frequently equipped with what had been imported from elsewhere4 ,as in the case of crested helmets1 foreign initiative brought about the substitution of plate or ,german armour--developed from the chain armour and the coat of mail--for the earlier sets of disconnected pieces4 ,possibly1 as a chronicle which describes the ,englishmen and ,gascons who were present at the siege of ,lerma in #accd would seem to indicate1 it was in consequence of this direct association with the foreigner that the older form of ,spanish harness yielded to the new4 ,however this may be1 plate armour certainly appeared in ,spain at some time in the fourteenth century1 and grew in vogue throughout the fifteenth and the sixteenth centuries4 ,suits of armour worn by ,spanish pikemen and crossbowmen of this period may be profitably studied in the ,royal ,armoury 7,plate xl472 and the same harness is reproduced in the choir-stalls of ,toledo cathedral1 carved by ,maestre ,rodrigo in #adie4 ,it is also useful to consult the prolix description of the ,passo ,honroso 7#adcc7 of ,suero de ,quiones1 held at the bridge of ,orbigo1 as well as the painting of the battle of ,la ,higueruela 7,plate xli47 in the ,sala de las ,batallas of the ,escorial4 ,we find from these authoritative sources that ,spanish harness then consisted of the war-hat or capacete1 with its barbote or piece to cover the mouth and cheeks1 and fringe of mail 7mantillos7 to protect the neck3 the coracina or korazin of tinned steel plates2#aae the coat of mail2 armlets and gauntlets2 leg-pieces with closed greaves2 and steel-pointed mail shoes4 #aae ,the following armourers' marks are stamped on various korazins in the ,royal ,armoury1 made in ,aragon and dating from the fifteenth century3-- ,illustration ,the ,spanish man-at-arms of the sixteenth century is well described by ,martin de ,eguiluz1 in his book1 ,milicia1 ,discursos1 y ,regla ,militar4 ,the man is mounted and bears a lance4 ,his head is covered with a visored helmet4 ,he wears a double breastplate1 of which the outer piece is called volante4 ,his thighs are guarded by cuisses1 his legs by greaves1 and his feet by shoes of mail or iron4 ,his horse's face1 neck1 breast1 and haunches are covered with iron or with doubled leather4 ,these coverings are called bardas1 and the horses protected by them bardados1 of which each man-at-arms is called upon to possess two4 ,illustration3 ,,xliv ,,moorish ,,sword 7,casa de los ,tiros1 ,granada7 ,these plainer sets of war-harness for horses were made in ,spain4 ,the costlier bards1 whether for war or tournament1 were made in ,italy and ,germany1 and often match the outfit of the rider in the splendour and luxuriance of their decoration4 ,striking examples of these bards are in the ,royal ,armoury1 including one 7,plate xlii47 which formerly belonged to ,philip the ,third4 ,probably it is the same referred to in the manuscript account of ,valladolid from which ,i have already quoted curious notices of other crafts4 ,speaking of the ,duke of ,lerma in #afje1 this narrative says2 ,he rode a beautiful horse with richly decorated arms and gold-embroidered bard1 fringed1 and with medallions in relief4 ,the trappings1 reaching to the ground1 were of black velvet covered with silver plates as large as dinner-plates1 and others of a smaller size that represented arms and war-trophies1 all of them gilt1 and studded with precious stones4 ,i heard say that this armour which the ,duke now wore1 had once belonged to the ,emperor1 and is now the ,king's4#aaf #aaf ,my theory that this harness and the one in the ,royal ,armoury are the same is strengthened by the official inventory1 which specifies a band of gold and silver1 striped1 and with devices in relief1 studded with lapis lazuli1 and yellow gems and luminous crystals4 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan says that this fine outfit1 except the portions which are represented in the plate1 was mutilated and dispersed in later years1 and that he has discovered fragments in the museums of ,paris and ,vienna1 and in the collection of ,baron ,nathaniel de ,rothschild4 ,the crossbow was an arm of great importance from about the eleventh century until the seventeenth1 and ,spain1 throughout the latter of these centuries1 was celebrated for their manufacture4 ,roquetas1 a ,catalan1 master-maker of crossbows1 constructed them of steel1 so skilfully and finely that they could be carried concealed inside the sleeve of a coat1 and discharged without awaking the suspicion of the victim4 ,a letter of ,ren of ,anjou1 quoted by the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan1 also refers to the skill of the ,catalans in making crossbows1 and mentions one of these weapons constructed by ,saracen1 of ,barcelona1 who refuses to teach his craft to ,christians4 ,the letter further states that this arm was of a curious shape1 and that1 despite its small dimensions1 it carries to a greater distance than any other ,i have yet possessed4 ,a handsome ,moorish crossbow1 inlaid with bronze 7,plate xliii471 exists in the provincial museum of ,granada4 ,the ,royal ,armoury has no example of the rare form of crossbow fitted with wheeled gear1 but all the commoner kinds employed for hunting or for war are represented here1 including those with the armatoste or goat's-foot lever1 stirruped crossbows1 and those which have the torno or windlass 7,french cranequin74 ,demmin appends the following note to an illustration in his handbook of a crossbow with a goat's-foot lever fixed to the stock3--,a similar weapon in ironwood1 sixteenth century1 belonged to ,ferdinand the ,first1 proved by the inscription on the bow3 ,,dom ,,fernando ,,rei ,,de ,,romano1 followed by four ,golden ,fleeces4 ,it bears the name of the ,spanish armourer ,juan ,deneinas4 ,this valuable crossbow once belonged to ,m4 ,spengel1 at ,munich1 but it is at present in the collection of the ,count of ,nieuwerkerke4 ,there is also in the ,royal ,armoury a crossbow of the scarcer kind known in ,spanish as ballestas de palo1 in which the gaffle is not of steel1 but put together from slips of springy woods1 including yew4 ,the wings are tipped with horn1 and traces of heraldic and ,renaissance decoration1 painted on parchment1 yet remain upon the weapon4 ,other portions are inlaid4 ,except for the erasure of the painting1 this arm is splendidly preserved1 and still retains its double cord1 nut1 and pins1 together with the separate lever4 ,another interesting crossbow in this armoury belonged to ,charles the ,fifth1 who used it for the chase4 ,it has a verja or yard of steel engraved with the letter ,c four times repeated and surmounted by a crown1 and bears the inscription1 ,,pro ,,imperatore ,,semper ,,avgvsto ,,plvs ,,vltra 1 together with ,,iv ,,de ,,la ,,fvete 1 for ,juan de la ,fuente1 the name of a celebrated maker of these parts of a crossbow4 ,the shaft 7tablero71 ornamented in bone and iron1 is from the hand of another master1 ,juan ,hernandez1 whose signature is ,,io3 ,,hrz4 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan supposed that this was the one crossbow which ,charles took with him to the rustic solitude of ,yuste1 and which is mentioned in a document at ,simancas as a crossbow with its gear and gaffles 7it is in ,his ,majesty's possession1 but he has not paid for it74 ,illustration3 ,,xlv ,,sword ,,of ,,boabdil ,,el ,,chico 7,museum of ,artillery1 ,madrid7 ,hitherto ,i have traced the war-equipment of the ,spanish ,christians only4 ,in the early period of ,mohammedan rule1 the conquerors used a simple dress for war1 consisting of the capacete or almofar for the head1 secured by a chain beneath the chin and covered by a piece of cloth called schasch1 hanging to just below the shoulders2 a wide sleeveless tunic2 a shirt of mail2 tight breeches1 and leather shoes4 ,their weapons were the lance and sword4 ,the foot-soldiery wore the djobba1 a tight-sleeved tunic of white wool1 bound to the body by a scarf1 and leather shoes1 and carried as their arms a capacete of beaten iron1 without a crest or cheek-pieces2 a large round shield with its projecting umbo2 and either a lance1 or a double-edged and double-handed sword4 ,such are the details represented in the ,codex of the ,apocalypse1 preserved in the cathedral of ,gerona4 ,as time progressed1 the weapons and defensive armour of these ,spanish ,moors grew more luxurious and ornate1 being often decorated with enamels1 precious stones1 or inlaid metals such as silver1 gold1 and bronze4 ,prominent centres of this industry were ,murcia1 ,zaragoza1 and ,toledo1 which are even said to have surpassed ,damascus4 ,andalusia1 too1 was celebrated for her gold-inlaid cuirasses and coats of mail2 while1 according to ,el ,idrisi1 the town of ,jativa enjoyed a widespread fame for every kind of decorative armour4#aag #aag ,historia ,general del ,arte3 ,garca ,llans2 ,armas2 pp4 #ddj1 #dda4 ,the military outfit of the ,spanish ,moors was1 therefore1 much the same as that of ,christian ,spain4 ,toledo under ,muslim rule continued to be famous for her swords4 ,moorish ,seville1 ,ronda1 and ,valencia were also favourably known for weapons1 household knives1 and scissors4 ,cutlery in the ,moorish style is still produced in certain parts of eastern ,spain1 and in his ,history of the ,mohammedan ,dynasties of this country1 ,gayangos tells us of a knife which bore upon one side of the blade the inscription in ,arabic characters1 ,with the help of ,god ,i will inflict death upon thy adversary1 and upon the other side1 in ,castilian1 the words1 ,knife-factory of ,antonio ,gonzalez4 ,albacete1 #agje4 ,the primitive ,spanish-,moorish sword was an arm of moderate breadth used both for cutting and for thrusting4 ,as time went on1 this people gradually adopted swords of ,spanish make or pattern1 such as the ponderous brandimartes and montantes made for wielding with both hands4 ,the ,granadino writer ,aben ,said complains that the adoption of the arms1 and even of the costume of the ,spanish ,christians1 was prevalent at ,granada in the thirteenth century4 ,sultans and soldiers alike1 he said1 dress in the manner of the ,christians1 even to their arms and armour1 crimson cloaks1 standards1 and saddlery4 ,they wield in battle a shield and a long lance1#aah which serves them to attack with2 nor do they seem to care for ,arab bows or maces1 but prefer to use the ,frankish ones4 #aah ,this weapon can have been no other than the typical ,iberian lance4 ,nevertheless1 the warriors of ,granada carried several weapons which were not of ,christian origin4 ,the tribe of the ,beni-,merines brought across from ,africa a kind of sword called often in the ,christian chronicles the espada gineta1 used principally1 as we gather from its name1 by those addicted to the ,moorish mode of horsemanship1 or riding with short stirrups4 ,the use of it extended later to the ,christian ,spaniards1 and it is said to have contributed in later times to the victory of the ,spanish army at ,pavia4 ,other swords in use among the ,granadinos were the alfange1 the chifarra1 the chifarote1 and the nammexi4 ,the last of these is described in an old dictionary of the ,valencian and ,castilian languages as a kind of scimitar1 although ,quatremre and ,fleischer believe it to have been a dagger4 ,illustration3 ,,xlvi ,,dagger ,,of ,,boabdil ,,el ,,chico 7,museum of ,artillery1 ,madrid7 ,another author who describes the arms and armour of the ,granadinos is ,al-,jattib1 who says in his ,splendour of the ,new ,moon2 ,there are in ,granada two kinds of soldiery--those of ,al-,andalus and those of ,africa4 ,their leader is a prince of royal blood1 or some exalted personage at court4 ,formerly they used the ,christian arms2 that is1 ample coats of mail1 heavy shields1 thick iron helmets1 lances with broad points1 and insecure saddles4444 ,now they have discarded that equipment1 and are beginning to use short cuirasses1 light helmets1 ,arab saddles1 leather shields1 and thin lances4 ,of the ,african troops the same historian adds2 ,their weapons for attacking are spears1 either short or long1 which they propel by pressing with the finger4 ,these arms they call marasas2 but for daily exercise they use the ,european bow4 ,descriptions of the ,spanish-,moorish swords inserted in the chronicles and poems of the ,middle ,ages1 together with the few examples that have been preserved until our time1 enable us to form an accurate idea of the shape and decoration of these weapons generally4 ,those of the sultans and the ,muslim aristocracy were1 as a rule1 profusely ornamented1 either with precious stones or with enamels1 or else with delicate and lavish damascening1 or with the characteristic ,oriental atauja-work of gold and silver inlay4 ,inscriptions1 too1 were freely used upon the hilt or scabbard4 ,thus we are told that the great ,almanzor kept for daily use a sword which bore the legend2 ,strive in warfare till ye win great victories4 ,battle with the infidels till ye win them over to ,islam2 and similar inscriptions may be quoted in great number4 ,but four or five of these magnificent arms have proved superior to the ravages of time1 and naturally tell us more than any weapons whose renown survives in written records merely4 ,among such extant ,spanish-,moorish swords are two attributed respectively to ,aliatar and ,abindarraez2 two others which are known to have belonged to the last ill-fated monarch of the ,moors of ,spain1 ,boabdil el ,chico2 and another1 considered to have also been ,boabdil's property1 now in possession of the ,marquises of ,campotejar1 owners of the ,generalife and of the ,casa de los ,tiros at ,granada4 ,the sword of ,aliatar1 preserved in the ,museum of ,artillery at ,madrid1 is said to have been wrested from the clenched hand of that warrior1 father-in-law of ,boabdil and governor of ,loja1 as his corpse was swept away down stream after the rout of the ,moorish expedition at ,lucena4 ,this arm is richly damascened as well as decorated with the characteristic atauja4 ,the centre of the hilt is made of ivory1 and the pommel and crossbars--which latter terminate in elephants' heads with slightly upturned trunks--of damascened and inlaid iron1 ornamented here and there with atauja4 ,part of the blade--probably about an eighth--is broken off4 ,the sheath has disappeared4 ,an idle superstition has attributed the so-called sword of ,abindarraez to the hero of the well-known sixteenth-century romance entitled ,the ,abencerraje and the ,beautiful ,jarifa4 ,this weapon1 which for many years was in possession of the ,narvaez family1 belongs at present to the ,marquis of ,la ,vega de ,armijo4 ,the decoration is not particularly rich1 and part of it is worn away2 but the narrow blade is still engraved with figures or portraits from the story which has given the sword its name4 ,the sword 7,pl4 xliv47 belonging to the ,marquises of ,campotejar1 and which is preserved in the ,casa de los ,tiros at ,granada1 bears some resemblance to the sword of ,aliatar1 and has about the same dimensions4 ,although it is commonly believed that ,boabdil was the original owner of this sword1 ,gmez ,moreno considers that more probably it belonged to one of the ,moorish princes of ,almera4 ,the handle and crossbars1 as well as the shape of the sheath1 are silver-gilt1 covered with minute arabesque ornamentation forming leaves and stems1 and further decorated with enamel4 ,the sheath is of ,morocco leather worked with silver thread4 ,the crossbars1 curving abruptly down1#aai terminate in elephants' trunks boldly upturned towards the pommel4 ,the blade is stamped with a ,toledo mark consisting of ,castilian letters and a pomegranate4 #aai ,in the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 this characteristically eastern downward curve of the crossbars grew to be popular even with the ,christian ,spaniards1 as we observe from the swords of ,ferdinand himself1 preserved in the ,royal ,armoury at ,madrid1 and the ,chapel ,royal of the cathedral of ,granada4 ,but the most important1 interesting1 and beautiful specimens of ,spanish-,moorish arms preserved to-day are those which were captured from ,boabdil at the battle of ,lucena 7#adhb71 when the monarch was made prisoner by the young ,alcaide de los ,donceles1 ,don ,diego ,fernandez de ,cordova4 ,a manuscript ,history of the ,house of ,cordova1 quoted by ,eguilaz ,yanguas1#abj says that upon the day in question1 irretrievably disastrous to the ,moorish cause in ,spain1 ,boabdil carried a short1 silver-handled sword1 a damascened dagger1 and a lance and buckler of great strength 7,plates xlv4 and xlvi474 ,these arms1 together with another and a larger sword 7montante or estoque real7 for wielding with both hands1 and certain articles of ,boabdil's clothing1 continued in the captor's family for centuries1 and were1 some years ago1 presented by the ,marquises of ,villaseca1 his direct descendants1 to the ,national ,museum of ,artillery4 #abj ,las ,pinturas de la ,alhambra1 p4 #ae4 ,illustration3 ,,xlvii ,,moorish ,,sword 7,hilt and upper part of sheath7 ,the smaller or gineta sword#aba is handsomer and more important than the large estoque4 ,the crossbars1 as we find so often in weapons of this character and date1 are bent abruptly down1 and then curve up in a design of dragons' heads--the well-known emblem of the ,nasrite sultans of ,granada4 ,part of the handle is of solid gold adorned with crimson1 white1 and blue enamel distributed about the top and bottom of the hilt1 the pommel1 and the arriaces or crossbars4 ,the centre of the hilt consists of ivory1 richly carved4 ,on either side of it are two octagonal intersecting figures1 bearing upon one side1 in semi-,cufic characters1 the words1 ,achieve thy aim1 and on the other1 in preserving his 7i4e4 the owner's7 life4 ,round the upper border of the ivory is carved the sentence2 ,in the name of ,god2 the power belongs to ,him1 and there is no ,divinity but ,he4 ,happiness proceeds from ,god alone2 and round the lower border1 ,the marvellous belongs to ,god4 ,assuredly at the outset the ignorant do not know their ,god2 seeing that error is their custom4 #aba ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan states that seven ,hispano-,moresque gineta swords are known to exist to-day3 the one vwhich is here described1 and those belonging to the ,marquises of ,viana and ,pallavicino1 ,baron de ,sangarrn1 the ,duke of ,dino1 ,seor ,snchez ,toscano1 the archological museum at ,madrid1 the museum of ,cassel in ,germany1 and the national library at ,paris1 ,a gineta sword in the ,madrid ,armoury popularly attributed to ,boabdil can never have belonged to him4 ,the hilt is modern1 and the blade proceeds from ,barbary4 ,other inscriptions of a sacred character1 combined with delicate atauja-work1 are on the pommel and the upper portion of the hilt2 but it has been remarked that1 although the entire decoration is amazingly elaborate and rich1 these inscriptions nowhere indicate that the weapon belonged to a personage of royal blood4 ,the sheath of this most sumptuous arm is also lavishly adorned with silver and enamel on a purple leather ground4 ,the blade is of a later date than either sheath or hilt1 and bears the letter ,s1 believed to be the mark of ,alonso ,sahagun the elder1 of ,toledo4 ,the total length of this weapon is thirty-nine inches2 and ,gayangos declares that it was worn suspended by a belt between the shoulders4#abb #abb ,a number of ,moorish swords are mentioned in the inventory1 compiled in #aefj1 of the ,dukes of ,alburquerque4 ,one is particularly interesting4 ,it is described as a ,moorish gineta sword which belongs to the ,count of ,monteagudo1 and is pawned for six thousand maravedis4 ,the sheath is of bay leather1 worked in gold thread4 ,the chape and fittings are of silver1 decorated with green1 blue1 purple1 and white enamel4 ,there are two serpents' heads upon the fitting1 together with the figure of a monster worked in gold thread on a little plate1 and two large scarlet tassels3 the little plate has three ends of the same enamel and a silver-gilt buckle4 ,a note at the margin adds2 ,the chape is wanting1 and is owed us by the ,marquis of ,comares1 who lost it at the cane-play at ,madrid4 ,the two serpents' heads formed part of the arms of the ,alahmar sultans of ,granada2 so that from this and from the richness of this weapon we may infer that it had once belonged to ,mussulman royalty4 ,the same inventory describes a ,moorish scimitar with gilded hilt2 the cross and pommel1 and a great part of the scimitar itself1 being of gilded atauja work4 ,the sheath is green inside1 and black and gilt upon the face2 and hanging from the hilt is a gold and purple cord with a button and a black tassel4 ,the large montante which belonged to the same ill-fated monarch has a cylindrical hilt1 narrower in the centre of the handle than at either end4 ,this hilt is made of steel inlaid with lacera or network ornament in ivory4 ,in a small shield within the decoration of the pommel1 appear the words ,to ,god2 and in the centre of the handle1 the familiar motto of the ,nasrite sultans of ,granada2 ,the only ,conqueror is ,god4 ,part of the blade is broken off4 ,that which is left is broad and straight1 with two grooves 7one of which extends about three inches only7 on each side1 and bears an oriental mark consisting of five half-moons4 ,the sheath is of brown ,morocco decorated with a small gilt pattern forming shells and flowers4 ,the mouth and chape are silver-gilt4 ,in beautiful and skilful craftsmanship ,boabdil's dagger or guma matches with his swords4 ,the handle is of steel inlaid in ivory with floral patterns1 and terminates in a large sphere1 similarly decorated4 ,the blade has a single edge1 and is exquisitely damascened in gold designs which cover more than half of all its surface4 ,along one side we read the inscription2 ,health1 permanent glory1 lasting felicity1 permanent glory1 lasting felicity1 and lasting and permanent glory belong to ,god2 and on the other side1 ,it was made by ,reduan4 ,the sheath of this little arm is made of crimson velvet richly embroidered with gold thread1 and hanging from it is a large tassel of gold cord and crimson silk4 ,the chape and mouth are silver-gilt1 profusely decorated1 and the latter of these pieces is embellished with circular devices of a lightish green enamel1 in addition to the chasing4 ,the small1 plain knife1 also preserved among the spoil1 was carried in this sheath1 together with the dagger4#abc #abc ,to-day the craft of finely decorating arms is not forgotten in ,morocco4 ,a silversmith advanced to show a half-completed silver-sheathed and hafted dagger1 engraved with pious sentences1 as1 ,god is our sufficiency and our best bulwark here on earth1 and running in and out between the texts a pattern of a rope with one of the strands left out1 which pattern also ran round the cornice of the room we sat in1 and round the door1 as it runs round the doors in the ,alhambra and the ,alcazar1 and in thousands of houses built by the ,moors1 and standing still1 in ,spain4 ,the dagger and the sheath were handed to me for my inspection1 and on my saying that they were beautifully worked1 the ,caid said keep them1 but ,i declined1 not having anything of equal value to give in return4--,cunninghame ,graham2 ,mogreb-,el-,acksa1 p4 #bcd4 ,illustration3 ,,xlviii ,,war ,,harness ,,of ,,charles ,,the ,,fifth 7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,the ,royal ,armoury at ,madrid is often thought by foreigners#abd to contain a representative collection of the arms1 offensive and defensive1 used by the ,spanish people through all their medival and post-medival history4 ,this is not so4 ,although it is the choicest and the richest gallery in ,europe1 the ,armera ,real was formed almost entirely from the cmaras de armas or private armouries of ,charles the ,fifth and of his son1 and is1 as ,mlida describes it1 a splendid gallery of royal arms1 dating1 with very few exceptions1 from the sixteenth century4 #abd ,e4g41 by ,townsend1 who wrote of it1 with ill-informed enthusiasm1 as an epitome of ,spanish history4 ,swinburne's notice of the same armoury is also curious3 ,at the bottom of the palace-yard is an old building1 called the ,armeria1 containing a curious assortment of antique arms and weapons1 kept in a manner that would have made poor ,cornelius ,scriblerus swoon at every step2 no notable housemaid in ,england has her fire-grates half so bright as these coats of mail2 they show those of all the heroes that dignify the annals of ,spain2 those of ,saint ,ferdinand1 ,ferdinand the ,catholic1 his wife ,isabella1 ,charles the ,fifth1 the great ,captain ,gonsalo1 the king of ,granada1 and many others4 ,some suits are embossed with great nicety4 ,the temper of the sword blades is quite wonderful1 for you may lap them round your waist like a girdle4 ,the art of tempering steel in ,toledo was lost about seventy years ago1 and the project of reviving and encouraging it is one of the favourite schemes of ,charles the ,third1 who has erected proper works for it on the banks of the ,tagus4 ,the greater part of its contents were made within a limited interval1 as well as not produced in ,spain4 ,such are the glittering and gorgeous harnesses constructed for the actual use of ,charles the ,fifth by celebrated ,german and ,italian armourers1 ponderous suits for jousting or parade1 or lighter suits for combat in the field1 whether on foot or horseback 7,plate xlviii471 fashioned1 chiselled1 and inlaid by craftsmen such as the ,negroli and ,piccini of ,milan1 ,bartolommeo ,campi of ,pesaro1 or ,kollman of ,augsburg1 bombastically called1 by a ,spanish poet in the mode of ,gongora1 the direct descendant of ,vulcanus4 ,this ,german and ,italian armour1 with its multitude of accessorial pieces1#abe falls outside the province of a book on ,spanish arts and crafts4 ,nevertheless1 ,i reproduce1 as being too little known outside ,madrid1 the sumptuous jousting harness 7,plate xlix471 of ,charles the ,fifth1 made for the emperor when he was a lad of only eighteen years by ,kollman ,helmschmied of ,augsburg4#abf ,laurent ,vital1 describing the royal jousts at ,valladolid in #aeah1 relates that aprs marchait le ,roy bien gorgiasement mont et arm d'un fin harnais d',alemaigne1 plus reluisant que d'argent brunti4 ,this is the very harness told of by the chronicler4 ,the helmet turns the scale at forty pounds2 the entire suit at two hundred and fifty-three pounds2 and the length of the lance exceeds eleven feet4 #abe ,throughout this time1 the full equipment of the knight consisted of no less than four complete suits1 for tournament or battle1 or for foot or mounted fighting1 together with their lances1 swords1 and targes4 ,the ,alburquerque inventory describes in detail a complete set 7all of it kept in a box7 of war and tourneying harness belonging to the duke4 ,although the warriors of that day were short of stature1 their muscular strength is undeniable1 for one of their lances has to be lifted nowadays by several men4 ,when the author of ,mogreb-,el-,acksa wrote contemptuously of the scrofulous champions tapping on each other's shields1 he was perhaps1 forgetful for a moment of this fact4 #abf ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan has found1 from documents at ,simancas1 that in the year #aebe ,kollman visited ,toledo to measure ,charles for armour4 ,it is also certain1 adds the ,count1 that1 in order to produce this armour of a perfect fit1 ,kollman first moulded ,charles' limbs in wax1 and then transferred the moulds to lead4 ,in a budget of accounts which coincides with ,kollman's visit to ,toledo appears the following item3 ,pour trois livres de cire et de plomb pour faire les patrons que matre ,colman1 armoyeur1 a fait--followed by details of the cost4 ,there is1 however1 also in this armoury a jousting harness 7,plate l47 formerly the property of ,philip the ,first of ,spain1 a part of which1 including the cuirass1 is known to be of ,spanish make4 ,the cuirass in question bears the mark of a ,valencia armourer1 and the harness generally dates from about the year #aejj1 at which time ,gachard tells us in his ,chroniques ,belges that ,philip was learning to joust la mode d',espaigne4 ,besides the enormous helmet and the ,spanish-made cuirass1 covered with gold brocade1 this ornament includes a tourneying lance with a blunt three-pointed head1#abg and a curious form of rest1 said by the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan to be peculiar to the ,spaniards and ,italians4 ,this rest is stuffed with cork1 on which1 just as the fray began1 the iron extremity of the lance was firmly driven4 ,another interesting detail is the cuja1 fastened to the right side of the cuirass1 and also stuffed with cork1 made use of to support the lance upon its passage over to the rest4 ,nor in this instance was the cuja a superfluous device1 seeing that the lance is over fifteen feet in length4 #abg ,this1 in the later ,middle ,ages1 was a favourite form of tourneying lance4 ,these are the principal portions of the harness4 ,the seemingly insufficient protection for the arms is explained by the fact that the solid wooden shield completely covered the fighter's left arm1 while the right would be defended by the shield-like disc or arandela of the lance4 ,illustration3 ,,xlix ,,jousting ,,harness ,,of ,,charles ,,the ,,fifth 7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,spanish shields and swords of great antiquity and interest are also in this armoury4 ,the oldest of the shields dates from the twelfth century1 and proceeds from the monastery of ,san ,salvador de ,oa1 ,burgos4 ,the material is a wood resembling cedar1 although much eaten by moth1 and is covered on both sides with parchment bearing traces of primitive painting of a non-heraldic character4 ,inside the shield1 this decoration consisted of a black ground crossed diagonally by a broad red band1 and outside1 of a red ground covered with rhomboid figures1 some in gilt and some in colour4 ,such figures were a popular pattern at this time and on this class of objects4 ,the general stoutness of this shield shows that it was meant for war4 ,it still retains the strap which slung it from the warrior's neck1 as well as fragments of the braces--made of buffalo leather covered with crimson velvet--for the hand4 ,another shield1 proceeding from the same monastery1 dates from the thirteenth century4 ,the material1 here again1 is wood and parchment2 but in this hundred years formal heraldic ornament had superseded fancy or conventional devices4 ,accordingly1 this shield is painted with a blazon1 now much worn1 of which1 however1 enough remains to show that it consisted once upon a time of four black chaperons crowned with gold fleurs-de-lis upon a gold ground--said to have been the arms of ,don ,rodrigo ,gomez1 ,count of ,bureba4 ,the scut1 or polished metal shield1 with painted blazonry or other decoration1 was limited to ,aragon and ,catalua4#abh #abh ,historia ,general del ,arte2 ,armas1 by ,garca ,llans2 p4 #dde4 ,among the smaller and more modern shields preserved in this collection are two wooden bucklers dating from the sixteenth century4 ,one is in the ,spanish-,moorish style and of a convex shape1 with iron bordering and umbo1 and a lining of yellow brocade4 ,the other1 of the ,christian ,spaniards1 is small and lined with painted parchment1 and was intended1 so the inventory says1 for going about at night4#abi #abi ,ds que le soir arrive1 on ne va point n'y ,madrid ny ailleurs1 sans cotte de maille et sans broquet qui est une rondache4--,bertaut de ,rouen1 ,voyage d',espagne 7#afei ,a4,d471 p4 #bid4 ,the arms of ,spaniards promenading after dark were even fixed by law4 ,the ,suma de ,leyes of #afbh ordains that after ten o'clock nobody is to carry arms at all unless he also bears a lighted torch or lantern4 ,no arquebus1 on pain of a fine of ten thousand maravedis1 may have a barrel less than a yard long4 ,nobody may carry a sword or rapier the length of whose blade exceeds a yard and a quarter1 or wear a dagger unless a sword accompanies it4 ,sometimes these prohibitions extended even to seasons of the year4 ,in #aecj an ,ordinance of ,granada proclaims that from the first of ,march until the last day of ,november nobody may carry a hatchet1 sickle1 or dagger1 except the dagger which is called a barazano1 of a palm in length1 even if the wearer be a shepherd4 ,the penalty for infringement of this law was a fine of ten thousand maravedis2 but labourers who worked upon a farm were exempted from the prohibition4 ,swinburne wrote from ,catalua1 in #agge1 that amongst other restrictions1 the use of slouched hats1 white shoes1 and large brown cloaks is forbidden4 ,until of late they durst not carry any kind of knife2 but in each public house there was one chained to the table1 for the use of all comers4 ,there is also a richly gilt and silvered buckler of the seventeenth century1 made at ,eugui in ,navarre1 and covered with a scene--decadent in design and workmanship--which represents the judgment of ,paris4 ,defensive armour1 chiefly of a highly decorative kind1 was made all through this century at the capital of ,navarre1 ,pamplona4 ,the ,royal ,armoury contains a ,pamplonese parade harness 7,plate lii471 offered as a gift to ,philip the ,third1 as well as six diminutive sets of armour made to his order for the youthful princes ,don ,felipe1 ,don ,fernando1 and ,don ,carlos4 ,the adarga was a kind of targe used by the light cavalry1 and had its origin in ,africa4 ,those which were stored in the palace of the ,nasrite sultans of ,granada are described by ,al-,makkari as solid1 without pores1 soft to the touch1 and famed for their imperviousness4 ,the material was strong leather1 such as cowhide1 often embroidered with a scutcheon or with arabesques4 ,two ,spanish-made adargas in this armoury are particularly handsome4 ,one is of ,moorish craftsmanship1 and dates from the end of the fifteenth century4 ,the other 7,plate liii471 apparently the work of a ,spanish ,christian and dating from a century later1 is embroidered in silver thread and coloured silk with arabesque devices and also with four coats of arms1 one of which belongs to the noble family of ,fernndez de ,cordova4 ,the dimensions of this shield are a yard in height by thirty inches in breadth4 ,illustration3 ,l ,,jousting ,,harness ,,of ,,philip ,,the ,,handsome 7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,there also are preserved in this collection a shield 7late sixteenth century7 adorned by ,mexican ,indians with a most elaborate mosaic of feather-work1 and a number of ,spanish adargas of the same period1 for playing the juego de caas or game of canes4 ,the armoury contained in former days as many as forty-two adargas2 but the fire of #ahhd completely destroyed sixteen and badly damaged twenty-three1 obliterating their heraldic and other decoration4 ,a yet more sinister event befell on ,december #ast1 #ahjh1 when the ,spanish mob1 exasperated by the ,french1 broke in and seized three hundred swords1 not one of which was afterwards recovered4 ,mention of these disasters leads me to recall the quantity of beautiful or historic military gear that ,spain has lost through many tribulations and vicissitudes4 ,formerly her noble families had excellent collections in their palaces or castles4 ,such were the private armouries of the ,dukes of ,pastrana at ,guadalajara1 and of the ,dukes of ,alburquerque at ,cullar ,castle1 near ,segovia4 ,bertaut de ,rouen describes the first as une des plus belles qui se voyent pour un seigneur particulier4 ,il y a quantit d'armes anciennes1 et l'on y void une pe qui s'allonge et s'accourcit quand on veut1 de deux pieds et demy4#acj ,the ,cullar armoury was pulled to pieces by ,philip the ,fourth to arm his troops against the ,french4 ,send me1 he wrote to the ,duke from ,madrid1 in a letter dated ,april #afth1 #afcg1 all your pistols1 carbines1 harness for horses1 breastplates and other arms for mounted fighting2 and the loyal nobleman complied upon the spot1 despatching more than five hundred pieces1 many of which were doubtless of the greatest interest4#aca #acj ,voyage d',espagne1 p4 #aii4 #aca ,gonzalo de la ,torre de ,trassierra2 ,articles on ,cullar published in the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones4 ,had ,i the erudition and the time1 ,i would attempt to write1 as it deserves to be written1 an introduction to the history of ,spanish swords4 ,of all the objects mentioned in these volumes1 here is the most inherently symbolic of the ,spanish character and history4 ,the ,spanish ,moors and ,spanish ,christians spoke of it as something superhuman4 ,once the sword is in the hand of man1 observed1 in solemn tones1 the ,wise ,alfonso1 he hath it in his power to raise or lower it1 to strike with it1 or to abandon it4 ,the ,spanish ,mussulmans talked of putting clothes and breeches on a sword that had a sheath1 as though it were a breathing person2 while a ,spaniard of the time of ,gongora would often use such language as the following3 ,truly in point of look there is as great a difference between a costly sword and a ,toledan ,loyalty or ,soldier's ,dream1 as between a marquis and a muleteer1 or a washerwoman and the ,infanta4 ,yet every sword is virtually an hidalgo4 ,does not the basest of our ,toledanas1 even to the perrillos and morillos1 which have no core1 and cost a dozen reales merely1 afford a chivalrous lesson to its wearer1 as it bids him no me saques sin razon1 ni me envaines sin honor8#acb ,the horse and the sword1 he continued1 taking a magnificently damascened rapier1 and stroking it caressingly1 are the noblest friends of man1 albeit the nobler is the sword2 for the horse at times is obstinate or faint-hearted1 but the sword is ready continually4 ,the sword1 moreover1 possesses the chiefest of all virtues--justice1 or the power of dividing right and wrong2 a soul of iron1 which is strength2 and1 last and greatest1 the ,cross1 which is the symbol of the blessed ,catholic ,faith4#acc #acb ,draw me not without a cause1 nor sheathe me without honour4 ,a sword with this inscription is in the ,royal ,armoury--7,g4 #ga of the official catalogue74 #acc ,leonard ,williams2 ,toledo and ,madrid3 their ,records and ,romances2 p4 #ajb4 ,notices of early ,spanish sword-makers are far from common4 ,don ,manuel ,g4 ,simancas quotes the following1 dated in the thirteenth century3-- ,master ,almerique4 ,by letters of the ,king and ,queen1 to ,master ,almerique1 for making the 7sword7 blades for the ,king2 out of the ,,mcc maravedis of his salary he received ,,cccc maravedis4 ,master ,enrique4 ,by letters of the ,king and ,queen1 to ,master ,enrique1 for making the swords1 ,,mcccc1 7of which7 he received ,,ccccxii maravedis4 ,other entries of the same period relate to ,juan ,ferrndez1 armourer1 who received a sum for making coverings for arms and saddles2 and to ,master ,jacomin1 who was paid three gold doblas1 or sixty-three maravedis1 for making a breastplate4 ,in the inventory 7#aefj7 of the ,dukes of ,alburquerque occurs a very curious notice which seems to show that medival ,spanish swords were manufactured even in the rural districts4 ,the entry runs2 an old grooved sword of a broad shape1 bearing the words ,juanes me fezi 7,john made me74 ,in the middle of the same a ,p within a parted wave1 with ,portuguese fittings1 varnished1 black silk hilt and fringes1 and double straps of black leather1 with varnished ends and buckles and black leather sheath4 ,juan de ,lobinguez made this sword at ,cullar4 ,illustration3 ,,li ,,moorish ,,buckler 7,osier and metal4 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,the ,spanish guilds of armourers enjoyed high favour1#acd since the examination for admission to this craft was very strict1 as well as fenced about with curious prohibitions4 ,thus at ,seville1 no ,moor1 ,jew1 black man1 or other person such as the law debars1 shall set up a shop for making and selling defensive arms1 or undergo examination in this craft4#ace ,the penalty for infringement of this law was confiscation of the arms1 together with a fine of twenty thousand maravedis4 #acd ,in the ,corpus ,christi festival at ,granada the banner which preceded all the rest was that of the armourers and knife-makers1 followed by that of the silk-mercers4 ,ordenanzas de ,granada2 tit4 #abf4 #ace ,armourers' ,ordinances of ,seville1 extant in ms4 7quoted by ,gestoso2 ,diccionario de ,artfices ,sevillanos2 vol4 ,i41 p4 xxxvi74 ,throughout these times the armourer's and the gilder's crafts are found in closest union2 just as the armourer's craft would often alternate with that of the goldsmith or the silversmith4 ,at ,seville1 the ,ordinance of #aeab prescribed that every candidate who came to be examined must make a set of horse harness1 complete with stirrups1 headstalls1 spurs1 poitral1 and the fittings of a sword2 and he must silver several of these pieces and blue them with fine blue2 and make of iron1 and gild the spurs and fittings of the sword4 ,thus shall he make1 and gild1 and silver the aforesaid pieces4 ,equally severe and comprehensive are the swordsmiths' ,ordinances 7#aebg to #aeca7 of ,granada4 ,the aspirant to the title of oficial shall mount a sword for wear with ordinary clothes1 fitted in black1 together with its straps1 and fringed and corded hilt2 besides a sword gilded a low gold1 together with its straps and other parts1 all of a single colour4 ,also he shall fit a velvet-scabbarded1 silver-hilted sword1 and a two-handed sword1 fully decorated1 with the knife attaching to the same1 one-edged and with a smooth hilt2 also a sword whose scabbard shall be fitted with knives numbering not less than three2 and a hilt of lacera 7network ornament72 and another sword in a white sheath1 with woven hilt2 and another of a hand and a half4#acf #acf ,de mano y media2 i4e4 for wielding either with one hand or both4 ,specimens of this kind of sword existing at ,madrid will be described immediately4 ,the ,royal ,armoury at ,madrid contains an excellent collection of these weapons4 ,among the earliest known to be of ,spanish make are two which date from the thirteenth century4 ,one of them 7,plate liv41 ,no4 #a71 with fittings of a later time1 is frequently miscalled the ,cid's ,colada1 and seems to have been confounded with the genuine weapon of that hero which was acquired in the thirteenth century by one of the sovereigns of ,castile1 and which has probably disappeared4 ,the blade of this remarkable sword has two edges and tapers gradually to the point4 ,part of the blade is slightly hollowed1 and bears1 extending through about a quarter of the hollow or canal1 the following inscription or device3-- ,illustration ,this is believed by some authorities to represent the words ,,si1 ,,si1 ,,no1 ,,non 7,yes1 yes1 no1 no72 and by others to be a purely meaningless and decorative pattern4 ,the weapon1 in any case1 is in the best of preservation1 and is especially interesting from the fact that engraved blades dating from this early period are very seldom met with4 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan believes this weapon to be the same ,lobera which belonged to ,ferdinand the ,third1 and aptly quotes the following passage from the chronicle4 ,when ,ferdinand1 conqueror of ,seville1 was lying on his death-bed in that capital1 surrounded by his children1 he gave his blessing to his younger son1 the ,infante ,don ,manuel1 and addressed him in these words4 ,i can bequeath no heritage to you2 but ,i bestow upon you my sword ,lobera1 that is of passing worth1 and wherewith ,god has wrought much good to me4 ,if the ,count's surmise be accurate1 another passage which he quotes from the work ,nobleza y ,lealtad1 written by the twelve councillors of ,ferdinand1 fully explains the legend on the blade4 ,sennor1 el tu si sea asi1 e el tu non1 sea non2 que muy gran virtud es al ,prncipe1 otro qualquier ome ser verdadero1 e grand seguranza de sus vasallos1 e de sus cosas4#acg #acg ,seor1 let thy yea be yea1 and thy nay be nay2 for of great virtue is it in the prince1 or any man1 to be a speaker of the truth1 and of great security to his vassals and to his property4 ,i said that the chiselled and gilded iron fittings to the blade are of a later period4 ,they date from the earlier part of the sixteenth century1 and are the work of ,salvador de ,avila1 of ,toledo4 ,illustration3 ,,lii ,,armour ,,made ,,at ,,pamplona 7#agth ,century4 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,the other sword in this collection1 and which also belongs to the thirteenth century1 has a long1 broad blade with two edges and a central groove1 thinly engraved with circles 7,pl4 liv41 ,no4 #c1 and ,pl4 lv474 ,the crossbars are of silver-gilt1 engraved with ataurique1 curving towards the blade and terminating in trefoils4 ,a shield midway between them bears the arms of ,castile upon one side1 and those of ,len upon the other4 ,the grip is of wood1 covered with silver plates with decorated borders1 and the pommel is of iron1 also covered with ornamental plates of silver-gilt4 ,formerly this arm was studded with precious stones1 but all of these excepting one have disappeared4 ,the scabbard is of wood lined with sheepskin1 and is covered with a series of five silver-gilt plates1 profusely decorated with ,hispano-,moresque lacera1 studded with various kinds of gems4 ,these gems upon the scabbard amounted once upon a time to seventy-six1 which sum1 through pilfering or accident 7probably the former1 since the finest stones are gone71 has been diminished by one-half4 ,an inventory1 made in the reign of ,philip the ,second1 states that the inner side of the sheath1 now wholly worn away1 was covered with lions and castles1 and that the belt was of broad orange-coloured cloth1 with silver fittings4 ,this sword has been absurdly attributed to the nephew of ,charlemagne1 who lived not less than half a thousand years before its date of manufacture4 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan thought that it may have been the property of a ,spanish monarch of the thirteenth century1--perhaps ,alfonso the ,learned1 or ,ferdinand the ,third1 ,alfonso's father4 ,ferdinand1 we know1 possessed a sword which he delivered with due ceremony to his elder son1 the ,infante ,don ,fernando1 upon his leading out a force against the town of ,antequera4 ,this sword the chronicler ,alvar ,garca de ,santa ,mara described as having a sheath in pieces1 with many precious stones4 ,of even greater interest than the foregoing weapon is the great two-handed and two-edged estoque or ceremonial sword of ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 which measures forty-two inches in length4 ,the fittings are of iron1 gilded and engraved4 ,the crossbars1 terminating in small half-moons1 with the concave side directed outward1 are inscribed with the well-known motto of the ,catholic sovereigns1 ,,tanto ,,monta1 and with a supplication to the ,virgin1 ,,memento ,,mei ,o ,,mater ,,dei ,,mei4 ,the pommel is a flat disc1 suggestive in its outline of a ,gothic cross1 and bears upon one side the figure of ,saint ,john together with the yoke1 emblem of ,ferdinand the ,catholic1 and upon the other the sheaf of arrows1 emblem of his consort ,isabella4 ,the hilt is covered with red velvet bound with wire4 ,the sheath of this most interesting sword--affirmed by the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan to have been used by ,ferdinand and ,isabella1 and subsequently by ,charles the ,fifth1 in the ceremony of conferring knighthood1 and also1 during the ,hapsburg monarchy1 to have been carried by the master of the horse before the king upon his formal visit to a city of his realm--is made of wood covered with crimson silk1 bearing in superposed embroidery the arms of ,spain posterior to the conquest of ,granada1 together with a repetition of the emblems of the ,catholic sovereigns 7,plate liv41 ,no4 #b74 ,in the same collection are two other swords which probably belonged to ,ferdinand the ,catholic4 ,one of them 7,pl4 lvii41 ,no4 #a71 has a discoid pommel and a gilded iron handle4 ,the flat crossbars grow wider and bend down towards the blade1 and on the hilt we read the words ,,paz ,,comigo ,,nvnca ,,veo1 ,y ,,siempre ,,gvera ,,deseo 7,never does peace attend me1 and always do ,i yearn for war74 ,this sword has been attributed to ,isabella4 ,the evidence for this belief is slight1 although the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan discovered that in the year #aejj ,isabella was undoubtedly the possessor of certain weapons and armour which she sometimes actually wore4 ,among these objects were several ,milanese breastplates1 a small dagger with a gold enamelled hilt in the shape of her emblem of the sheaf of arrows1 and two swords1 one fitted with silver and enamel1 and the other with iron4 ,the other sword1 which probably belonged to ,ferdinand the ,catholic1 is of the kind known as of a hand and a half 7de mano y media2 see p4 #bdh1 note71 and also of the class denominated estoques de arzn1 or saddle-bow swords1 being commonly slung from the forepart of the saddle upon the left side of the rider4 ,ferdinand1 however1 had reason to be chary of this usage1 for ,lucio ,marineo ,sculo affirms that at the siege of ,velez-,mlaga the sword which he was wearing thus suspended1 jammed at a critical moment of the fray1 and very nearly caused his death4 ,sculo adds that after this experience ,ferdinand invariably wore his sword girt round his person1 just as he wears it in the carving on the choir-stalls of ,toledo4 ,illustration3 ,,liii ,,adarga 7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,the ,royal ,armoury contains another sword improperly attributed both to ,ferdinand the ,third and ,ferdinand the ,catholic4 ,it dates from the fifteenth century1 and has a blade of unusual strength intended to resist plate armour4 ,this blade1 which has a central ridge continued to the very point1 is very broad towards the handle1 tapers rapidly1 and measures thirty-two inches4 ,at the broader end1 and on a gilded ground embellished with concentric circles1 are graven such legends as3-- ,the ,lord is my aid4 ,i will not fear what man may do to me1 and will despise my enemies4 ,superior to them1 ,i will destroy them utterly4 ,make me worthy to praise thee1 ,o sweet and blessed ,virgin ,mary4 ,the handle is of iron1 with traces of gilded decoration1 and corded with black silk4 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan says that no reliable information can be found concerning this fine arm4 ,its length and general design would allow of its being used with one hand or with both1 and either slung from the saddle-bow or round the middle of a warrior on foot4 ,another handsome sword1 wrongly attributed by the ignorant to ,alfonso the ,sixth1 is kept at ,toledo1 in the sacristy of the cathedral4 ,the scabbard is adorned with fourteenth-century enamel in the champlev style4 ,baron de las ,cuatro ,torres considers that this sword belonged to the archbishop ,don ,pedro ,tenorio 7see p4 #bfi71 and adduces his proofs in the ,boletn de la ,sociedad ,espaola de ,excursiones for ,march #ahig4 ,the prelate in question1 appointed to command an army sent against ,granada1 was1 like so many of the ,spanish medival clerics1 of a warlike temper1 and exchanged with great alacrity his rochet for his harness1 and his mitre for his helm4 ,one of the most ridiculous and barefaced forgeries in the ,royal ,armoury is a sixteenth-century sword which has inscribed upon its blade the name of the redoubtable ,bernardo del ,carpio4 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan says he remembers to have met with other blades of later medival make1 engraved with such legends as belonging to ,count ,fernn-,gonzalez1 or even ,recaredus ,rex ,gothorum1 while others in this armoury are ascribed1 without the least authority of fact or common sense1 to ,garca de ,paredes1 ,alvaro de ,sande1 and ,hernando de ,alarcn4 ,others1 again1 with less extravagance1 though not on solid proof1 are said to have belonged to ,hernn ,corts1 the ,count of ,lemos1 and ,diego ,hurtado de ,mendoza4 ,some1 upon the other hand1 belonged undoubtedly to celebrated ,spanish warriors of the olden time4 ,such are the swords of the ,count of ,corua1 of ,gonzalo de ,crdova1 and of the conqueror of ,peru1 ,francisco ,pizarro4 ,the first of these weapons 7,pl4 lvii41 ,no4 #d7 has a superb hilt carved in the style of the ,spanish ,renaissance1 with crossbars curving down1 a pas d'ne1 and a ,toledo blade of six mesas 7tables7 or surfaces1 grooved on both sides1 and ending in a blunt point4 ,the armourer's mark1 which seems to represent a fleur-de-lis four times repeated1 is that of the swordsmith ,juan ,martinez1 whose name we read upon the blade1 together with the words ,,in ,,te ,,domine ,,speravi1 and on the other side1 in ,spanish1 ,,para ,,don ,,bernardino ,,xvarez ,,de ,,mendoza1 ,,conde ,,de ,,corv,a4 ,the sword of the great captain1 ,gonzalo de ,crdova 7#adec-aeae71 is not of ,spanish make 7,plate lvii41 ,no4 #c74 ,it has a straight blade with bevelled edges4 ,the pommel and quillons are decorated with ,renaissance carving1 and the bars1 which are of gilded iron1 grow wider at their end and curve towards the blade4 ,the pommel1 of gilded copper1 is spherical1 and bears1 upon one side1 a scene which represents a battle1 together with the words ,,gonsalvi ,,agidari ,,victoria ,,de ,,gallis ,,ad ,,cannas4 ,upon the other side are carved his arms4 ,other inscriptions in ,latin are also on the pommel and the blade4 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan believed that this sword was a present to ,gonzalo from the corporation of some ,italian town1 and that it replaced1 as an estoque real1 or sword of ceremony1 the state sword 7see p4 #beb7 of ,ferdinand and ,isabella4 ,illustration3 ,,liv ,,spanish ,,swords 7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,pizarro's sword remained in possession of his descendants1 the ,marquises of ,la ,conquista1 until as recently as #ahji1 in which year this family presented it to a ,scotch officer named ,john ,downie1 who had fought in the ,peninsular ,war against the ,french4 ,downie1 in turn1 bequeathed it to his brother ,charles1 lieutenant-colonel in the ,spanish army1 from whom it passed into the hands of ,ferdinand the ,seventh4 ,the appearance of this sword is not remarkable4 ,it has a stout1 four-surfaced blade1 with a powerful recazo or central ridge1 engraved with the ,christian name of ,mateo ,duarte1 a swordsmith who was living at ,valencia in the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,the hilt is of blued 7pavonado7 steel1 inlaid with leaves and other ornament in gold4 ,the pommel is a disc2 the quillons are straight1 or very nearly so1 and there is a pas d'ne 7,plate lvii41 ,no4 #b74 ,the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries are famous as the epoch of the ,spanish rapier4 ,toledo1 as the world is well aware1 enjoyed an undisputed name for the production of these weapons4 ,within this ancient and historic capital generations of artists bequeathed1 from father to son1 and son to grandson1 the secret 7if there were a secret7 of the tempering of these matchless arms2 nor have ,toledo blades deteriorated to this day4 ,many an idle superstition seeks to justify the talent and dexterity of these swordsmiths2 though probably the key to all their skill was merely in the manual cunning1 based on constant practice1 of the craftsman1 as well as in the native virtues of the water of the ,tagus4 ,in one of my books ,i have described the workshop of an armourer of ,toledo in the sixteenth century4 ,after a few moments we entered the ,calle de las ,armas1 which struck me as having grown a good deal narrower2 and my companion1 pausing beside an open doorway topped with a sign depicting a halberd and a sword1 invited me to enter4 ,two or three steps led downwards to a dark1 damp passage1 and at the end of this was a low but very large room1 blackened by the smoke from half a dozen forges4 ,the walls were hung with a bewildering variety of arms and parts of armour--gauntlets and cuirasses2 morions1 palettes1 and lobster-tails2 partisans and ranseurs2 halberds1 bayonets1 and spontoons2 as well as swords and daggers without number4 ,several anvils1 with tall1 narrow buckets filled with water standing beside them1 were arranged about the stone-paved floor2 and beside each forge was a large heap of fine1 white sand4 ,the showers of sparks1 together with a couple of ancient-looking lamps whose flames shook fitfully to and fro in the vibration1 showed thirty or forty workmen busily engaged2 and what with the clanging of the hammers1 the roaring of the bellows1 and the strident hissing of the hot metal as it plunged into the cold water1 the racket was incessant4 ,my cicerone surveyed the discordant scene with all the nonchalance of lifelong custom1 daintily eluding the columns of scalding steam1 or screening his chambergo from the sparks4 ,finding1 however1 that ,i was powerless to understand the remarks he kept addressing to me1 he finally held up his finger and gave the signal to cease work2 upon which the oficial handed him a bundle of papers which ,i took to be accounts1 and the men1 doffing their leathern aprons1 and hanging them in a corner1 filed eagerly away4 ',it is quite simple1' said my companion1 as though divining the query ,i was about to put to him2 'and indeed1 ,i often wonder why we are so famous4 ,they say it is the water2 but any water will do4 ,or else they say it is the sand2 and yet this sand1 though clean and pure1 is just the same as any other4 ,look6 ,the blade of nearly all our swords is composed of three pieces--two strips of steel1 from ,mondragn in ,guipzcoa1 and an iron core4 ,this latter is the alma1 or soul4 ,the three pieces are heated and beaten together2 and when they grow red-hot and begin to throw out sparks1 they are withdrawn from the fire1 and a few handfuls of sand are thrown over them4 ,the welding of the pieces is then continued on the anvil2 and1 finally1 the file is brought to bear on all unevennesses1 and the weapon passes on to the temperer1 the grinder1 and the burnisher4' ',it is in the tempering that we have earned our principal renown1 although this process is quite as simple as the rest4 ,upon the forge--see1 here is one still burning--a fire is made in the form of a narrow trench1 long enough to receive four-fifths of the length of the weapon4 ,as soon as the metal reaches a certain colour' 7,i thought ,i noted a mischievous twinkle in the armourer's eyes1 as though this certain colour were the key to all our conversation71 ',i take these pincers1 and1 grasping the portion which had remained outside the fire1 drop the weapon so1 point downwards1 into the bucket of water4 ,any curve is then made straight by beating upon the concave side1 and the part which had been previously kept outside the trench of fire returns to the forge and is duly heated4 ,the entire blade is next smeared with mutton fat1 and rested against the wall to cool1 point upwards4 ,there is nothing more except the finishing4 ,your sword is made4'#ach #ach ,toledo and ,madrid3 their ,records and ,romances2 pp4 #ii-aja4 ,illustration3 ,,lv ,,sword 7#acth ,century4 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,the following passage from ,bowles' ,natural ,history of ,spain1 written in #ageb1 is also of especial interest here3--,at a league's distance from ,mondragn is a mine of varnished1 or1 as miners term it1 frozen iron4 ,it lies in the midst of soft red earth1 and produces natural steel--a very curious circumstance1 seeing that1 as ,i am assured1 there is no other mine of this description in the kingdom4 ,a tradition exists that the iron from this mine was used for making the swords1 so celebrated for their tempering1 presented by ,doa ,catalina1 daughter of the ,catholic ,sovereigns1 to her husband1 ,henry the ,eighth of ,england4 ,a few of these swords are yet extant in ,scotland1 where the natives call them ,andr ,ferrara1#aci and esteem them greatly4 ,the famous sword-blades of ,toledo1 and the ,perrillo blades of ,zaragoza1 which are still so highly valued1 as well as others made elsewhere1 are said to have been forged from the iron of this mine1 which yields forty per cent4 of metal4 ,it is1 however1 somewhat hard to melt4 ,with a little trouble it is possible to secure excellent steel1 because this mine1 like many another1 possesses in itself the quality of readily taking from the coal of the forge the spirit which is indispensable for making first-rate swords2 but without cementation ,i do not think it would serve for making good files or razors4 #aci ,andrs ,ferrara was a well-known armourer of ,zaragoza4 ,the swords of which ,i spoke as being so famed were generally either of a long shape1 for wearing with a ruff2 or broad1 and known as the arzn1 for use on horseback4 ,it is probable that when the ruff was suddenly abandoned at the beginning of this century1 large quantities of ready-fitted swords began to be imported from abroad1 of such a kind as was demanded by the novel clothing4 ,this would account for the decline and the eventual collapse of our factories1 and the loss of our art of tempering swords4 ,concerning the mode of executing this1 opinions differ4 ,it is said by some that the blades were tempered in winter only1 and that when they were withdrawn for the last time from the furnace1 the smiths would shake them in the air at great speed three times on a very cold day4 ,others say that the blades were heated to a cherry-colour1 then plunged for a couple of seconds into a deep jar filled with oil or grease1 and changed forthwith to another vessel of lukewarm water1 after which they were set to cool in cold water2 all these operations being performed at midwinter4 ,others1 again1 declare that the blades were forged from the natural iron of ,mondragn by placing a strip of ordinary iron along their core so as to give them greater elasticity2 and that they were then tempered in the ordinary manner1 though always in the winter4 ,such are the prevailing theories about the iron swords of ,mondragn1 which are1 in truth1 of admirable quality4 ,magnificent examples of ,toledo sword-blades1 produced while her craft was at the zenith of its fame--that is1 throughout the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries--are in the ,royal ,armoury 7,pl4 lvii41 ,nos4 #e1 #f1 #g74 ,among them are a series of montantes made for tournament or war1 and a superb blade1 dated #aefd1 forged for ,philip the ,second by ,miguel ,cantero4 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan considered this to be one of the finest weapons ever tempered2 adding that the sword-blades of the city of the ,tagus were held in such esteem all over ,europe that he had seen1 in numerous museums of the ,continent1 weapons professing to be ,toledo-made1 in which the blade and mark are evidently forged2 bearing1 for instance1 ,ernantz for ,hernandez1 ,johanos for ,juanes1 and ,tomas ,dailae for ,toms de ,ayala4 ,it is generally agreed that the changes in the national costume1 together with the importation of a lighter make of sword from ,france1 were directly responsible for the decline of the ,toledo sword-blades early in the eighteenth century4 ,however1 this decline was only temporary4 ,townsend wrote in #aghf3 ,from the ,alcazar we went to visit the royal manufactory of arms1 with which ,i was much pleased4 ,the steel is excellent1 and so perfectly tempered1 that in thrusting at a target1 the swords will bend like whalebone1 and yet cut through a helmet without turning their edge4 ,this once famous manufacture had been neglected1 and in a manner lost1 but it is now reviving4 ,laborde endorsed these praises subsequently3 ,within a few years the fabrication of swords has been resumed at ,toledo2 the place allotted to this object is a handsome edifice1 a quarter of a league distant from the city1 which commands the banks of the ,tagus4 ,this undertaking has hitherto been prosperous2 the swords are celebrated for the excellence of their blades1 which are of finely tempered steel4 ,illustration3 ,,lvi ,,old ,,sword 7,erroneously attributed to the ,cid4 ,collection of the ,marquis of ,falces7 ,the modern small-arms factory of ,toledo1 situated on the right bank of the ,tagus1 a mile from the city walls1 had1 in fact1 been opened in #aghc1 when the same industry was also reviving at ,vitoria1 ,barcelona1 and elsewhere4 ,toledo worthily maintains to-day her ancient and illustrious reputation for this craft4 ,the ,tagus still supplies its magic water for the tempering1 while part of the prime material of the steel itself proceeds from ,solingen and ,styria1 and the rest from ,trubia and ,malaga4 ,cutlery continued to be made in ,spain all through the eighteenth century4 ,colmenar says that the knives of ,barcelona were considered excellent4 ,according to ,laborde1 cutlery was made at ,solsona and ,cardona in ,catalua1 at ,mora in ,new ,castile1 and at ,albacete in ,murcia4 ,the cutlery of ,solsona is in great repute2 but the largest quantity is made at ,albacete4 ,in the latter place are about twenty-eight working cutlers1 each of whom employs five or six journeymen1 who respectively manufacture annually six or seven thousand pieces1 amounting in the whole to about one hundred and eighty thousand pieces4#adj #adj ,vol4 iv4 p4 #ceh4 ,,firearms ,cannon of a primitive kind were used in ,spain comparatively early4 ,a large variety of names was given to these pieces1 such as cerbatanas1 ribadoquines1 culebrinas1 falconetes1 pasavolantes1 lombardas or bombardas1 and many more2 but the oldest1 commonest1 and most comprehensive name of all was trueno1 thunder1 from the terrifying noise of the discharge4 ,this word was used for both the piece and the projectile4 ,the ,count of ,clonard quotes ,pedro ,mega's ,silva de ,varias ,lecciones to show that gunpowder was known in ,spain as early as the eleventh century4 ,thunders of some description seem to have been used at the siege of ,zaragoza in #aaah2 and a ,moorish author1 writing in #abdi1 describes in fearsome terms the horrid noise like thunder1 vomiting fire in all directions1 destroying everything1 reducing everything to ashes4 ,al-,jattib1 the historian of ,granada1 wrote at the beginning of the fourteenth century that the sultan of that kingdom used at the siege of ,baza a mighty engine1 applying fire thereto1 prepared with naphtha and with balls4 ,the ,chronicle of ,alfonso the ,eleventh describes in a quaint and graphic passage the crude artillery of that period1 and the panic it occasioned4 ,at the siege of ,algeciras in #acdb1 the ,moors that were within the city threw many 'thunders' at the 7,christian7 host1 together with mighty balls of iron1 to such a distance that several overpassed the army1 and some did damage to our host4 ,also1 by means of 'thunders' they threw arrows exceeding great and thick1 so that it was as much as a man could do to lift them from the ground4 ,and as for the iron balls these 'thunders' hurled1 men were exceedingly afraid thereof2 for if they chanced to strike a limb they cut it off as clean as with a knife1 and though the wound were but a slight one1 yet was the man as good as dead2 nor was any chirurgery that might avail him1 both because the balls came burning hot1 like flame1 and because the powder which discharged them was of such a kind that any wound it made was surely mortal2 and such was the violence of these balls1 that they went through a man1 together with all his armour4 ,towards the close of the same century the testament of ,don ,pedro ,tenorio 7see p4 #bef71 the bellicose archbishop of ,alcal de ,henares1 who ruled that diocese from #acgf to #acii1 contains the following passage3--,item4 ,we bought crossbows and bassinets both for foot and horse1 together with shields1 pikes1 javelins1 darts1 lombards1 hemp1 powder1 and other munitions for the castles of our ,church2 of which munitions we stored the greater quantity at ,talavera and at ,alcal de ,henares1 purposing to deposit them at ,cazorla and in the castles of ,canales and of ,alhamin1 which we are now repairing after they were thrown down by the ,king ,don ,pedro1 and for the tower of ,cazorla1 which we are now erecting4 ,and it is our will that all of these munitions be for the said castles and tower2 and that no one lay his hand on them1 on pain of excommunication1 excepting only the bishop elected and confirmed who shall succeed us2 and he shall distribute them as he holds best among the aforesaid castles4 ,and all the best of these munitions shall be for the governorship of ,cazorla1 as being most needed there to overthrow the enemies of our faith2 and we have duly lodged the shields and crossbows1 parted from the rest1 upon the champaign of ,toledo2 whither should arrive more shields from ,valladolid1 that all together may be carried to ,cazorla4 ,illustration3 ,,lvii ,,spanish ,,swords 7,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,the article from which ,i quote this passage adds that the palace of the archbishop at ,alcal de ,henares was fortified with cannon until the beginning of the nineteenth century4#ada #ada ,escudero de la ,pea2 ,claustros1 ,escalera1 y ,artesonados del ,palacio ,arzobispal de ,alcal de ,henares2 published in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades4 ,cannon are mentioned with increasing frequency throughout the fifteenth century2 and in the reign of ,ferdinand and ,isabella we read of lombards of enormous size1 which had to be dragged across the ,andalusian hills and plains by many scores of men and beasts2 which frequently stuck fast and had to be abandoned on the march2 and which1 even in the best of circumstances1 could only be discharged some twice or thrice a day4 ,in reading documents and chronicles of older ,spain1 it is easy to confound the early forms of cannon with the engines similar to those employed by the ,crusaders in the ,holy ,land1 and built for hurling stones or arrows of large size4 ,such engines were the trabuco1 the almajanech or almojaneque1 the algarrada1 and the fundbalo or ,catalan fonevol4 ,beuter1 in his ,chronicle of ,spain and of ,valencia1 describes the latter as a certain instrument which has a sling made fast to an extremity of wood 444 made to revolve so rapidly that the arm1 on being released1 projects the stone with such a force as to inflict much harm1 even in distant places1 whither could reach no missile slung by the hand of man4 ,turning to portable ,spanish firearms1 we find that the precursor of the arquebus1 musket1 and rifle seems to have been a weapon which was introduced about the middle of the fifteenth century1 and called the espingarda4 ,alfonso de ,palencia says it was employed against the rebels of ,toledo in #adfg2 and the ,chronicle of ,don ,alvaro de ,luna relates that when this nobleman was standing beside ,don ,iigo d',estiga1 upon a certain occasion in #adec1 a man came out in his shirt and set fire to an espingarda1 discharging the shot thereof above the heads of ,don ,alvaro and of ,iigo d',estiga1 but wounding an esquire4 ,illustration3 ,,lviii ,,marks ,,of ,,toledan ,,armourers 7#ae,,th-#ag,,th ,,centuries71 ,,from ,,swords ,,in ,,the ,,royal ,,armoury ,,at ,,madrid ,as time advanced1 portable firearms of first-rate quality were made throughout the northern ,spanish provinces1 and also in ,navarra1 ,catalua1 ,aragon1 and ,andalusia4 ,the inventory of the ,dukes of ,alburquerque mentions1 in #aefj1 four flint arquebuses of ,zaragoza make 444 another arquebus of ,zaragoza1 together with its fuse1 and arquebuses of those that are made within this province 7i4e4 of ,segovia74 ,cristbal ,frisleva1 of ,ricla in ,aragon1 and ,micerguillo of ,seville were celebrated makers of this arm2 but probably these and all the other ,spanish masters of this craft derived their skill from foreign teaching1 such as that of the brothers ,simon and ,peter ,marckwart 7in ,spanish the name is spelt ,marcuarte17 who were brought to ,spain by ,charles the ,fifth4#adb #adb ,the brothers ,marckwart1 or possibly one or other of them1 are believed to have stamped their arquebuses with a series of small sickles1 thus3 ,illustration ,the ,royal ,armoury contains some finely decorated guns1 made for the kings of ,spain at the close of the seventeenth century and early in the eighteenth1 by ,juan ,belen1 ,juan ,fernandez1 ,francisco ,baeza y ,bis1 and ,nicols ,bis4 ,the last-named1 pupil of ,juan ,belen1 was a ,german2 but all these gunsmiths lived and worked at ,madrid4 ,nicols was arquebus-maker to ,charles the ,second from #afia1 and afterwards held the same post from ,philip the ,fifth4 ,he died in #agbf1 and the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan says that in #ahjh--that is1 before it was plundered by the mob--the ,royal ,armoury contained no fewer than fifty-three weapons of his manufacture4 ,one of the guns which bear his mark1 and still exist1 is inscribed with the words1 ,i belong to the ,queen our lady 7,isabel ,farnese1 first wife of ,philip the ,fifth71 combined with the arms of ,len and ,castile1 and of the ,bourbon family4 ,this weapon was used1 or intended to be used1 for hunting4 ,diego ,esquivel1 another gunsmith of ,madrid1 was also famous early in the eighteenth century1 as1 later on1 were ,manuel ,sutil1 ,jos ,cano1 ,francisco ,lopez1 ,salvador ,cenarro1 ,isidro ,soler 7author of a ,compendious ,history of the ,arquebus-makers of ,madrid71 ,juan de ,soto1 and ,sebastin ,santos4 ,swinburne wrote from ,catalua in #agge2 the gun-barrels of ,barcelona are much esteemed1 and cost from four to twenty guineas1 but about five is the real value2 all above is paid for fancy and ornament2 they are made out of the old shoes of mules4 ,illustration3 ,,lix ,,bridona ,,saddle 7#aeth ,century4 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,until #agic1 the smaller firearms of the ,spanish army were made at ,plasencia in ,guipzcoa4 ,in that year the government factory1 where hand-labour alone continued to be used till #ahee1 was removed to ,oviedo4 ,to-day this factory employs about five hundred workmen4 ,in #ahji ,laborde wrote that firearms1 such as fusees1 musquets1 carbines1 and pistols are manufactured at ,helgoivar1 ,eybor1 and ,plasencia2 at ,oviedo1 ,barcelona1 ,igualada1 and at ,ripoll2 the arms made at the latter city have long had a distinguished reputation4 ,seven hundred and sixty-five gunsmiths1 it is estimated1 find employment in the factories of ,guipzcoa4 ,both ,townsend and the foregoing writer give a good account of ,spanish cannon at this time4 ,according to ,laborde1 two excellent founderies for brass cannon are royal establishments at ,barcelona and ,seville2 in the latter city copper cannon are cast1 following the method recommended by ,m4 ,maritz4 ,iron ordnance are made at ,lierganez and ,cavada4 ,townsend wrote of ,barcelona1 in #aghf2 ,the foundery for brass cannon is magnificent1 and worthy of inspection4 ,it is impossible anywhere to see either finer metal1 or work executed in a neater and more perfect manner4 ,their method of boring was1 in the present reign1 introduced by ,maritz1 a ,swiss4 ,near two hundred twenty-four pounders are finished every year1 besides mortars and field-pieces4 ,,saddlery ,,and ,,coaches ,probably no relic of the former of these crafts in ,spain is older or more curious than the iron bit 7,plate lvii41 ,no4 #h71 inlaid with silver dragons' heads and crosses1 and attributed1 from cruciform monograms which also decorate it1 to the ,visigothic ,king ,witiza 7who died in #gaa71 or sometimes to the conqueror of ,toledo1 ,alfonso the ,sixth 7eleventh century74 ,the spurs or acicates 7,plate lvii41 ,no4 #i7 of ,ferdinand the ,third of ,castile1 who conquered ,seville from the ,moors1 are also treasured in the ,royal ,armoury1 and bear upon an iron ground remains of gold and silver decoration representing castles4 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan believed these spurs to be authentic1 because they are identical with the ones which ,ferdinand wears in his equestrian seal1 preserved among the ,national ,archives of ,france1 and dating from the year #abcg4 ,saddles of various kinds were used in ,spain throughout the ,middle ,ages4 ,among them were the ordinary travelling-saddle or silla de barda 7,arabic al-bard72 saddles de palafrn1#adc the silla de la guisa1 or de la brida or bridona1 for riding with long stirrups1 and consequently the antithesis of the gineta saddle2#add or saddles made for use exclusively in war1 on which the rider was accustomed to make the sign of the cross before or after mounting1 such as the lidona1 gallega 7siellas gallegas are mentioned in the ,poem of the ,cid71 and corsera or cocera 7,arabic al-corsi71 or else the silla de conteras1 whose hindmost bow1 according to the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan1 terminated in converging pieces to protect the wearer's thighs4 #adc ,an old account copied into a book 7see p4 #hi1 note7 in the ,national ,library at ,madrid1 and dating from the reign of ,sancho the ,fourth1 states that ,pedro ,ferrndez1 saddler1 received a certain sum for making various saddles1 including two de palafrs1 wrought in silk with the devices of the king4 #add ,in medival ,spain1 good riders were often designated as ',ginete en ambas sillas1' that is1 accustomed to either saddle1 i4e4 the ,moorish and the ,christian1 and ,i now understand why chroniclers have taken the trouble to record the fact4 ,strangely enough1 the high-peaked and short-stirruped saddle does not cross the ,nile1 the ,arabs of ,arabia riding rather flat saddles with an ordinary length of leg4 ,the ,arab saddle of ,morocco1 in itself1 is perhaps the worst that man has yet designed2 but1 curiously enough1 from it was made the ,mexican saddle1 perhaps the most useful for all kinds of horses and of countries that the world has seen4 ,cunninghame ,graham3 ,mogreb-,el-,acksa1 p4 #ff4 ,the same writer navely adds the following footnote to the words ,ginete en ambas sillas4 ,this phrase often occurs in ,spanish chronicles1 after along description of a man's virtues1 his charity1 love of the church1 and kindness to the poor1 and it is apparently inserted as at least as important a statement as any of the others4 ,in point of fact1 chronicles being written for posterity1 it is the most important4 ,a saddle known as the silla de rua1 or street saddle1 was generally used in ,spain throughout the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries4 ,it was intended1 not for war1 but promenade and show1 and therefore richly decorated4 ,the ,royal ,armoury has nineteen of these saddles1 all of which are ,spanish-made4 ,in the same collection is a plain bridona saddle 7,plate lix471 with iron stirrups and two gilt-metal bells1 such as were commonly used in tournaments or other festivals4 ,this saddle has been erroneously ascribed to the thirteenth century4 ,it dates from the beginning of the fifteenth century1 and proceeds from ,majorca4 ,illustration3 ,,lx ,,hanging ,,jaeces ,,for ,,horses ,the old belief that one of the saddles in this armoury1 whose bows are chased with a design in black and gilt of leaves and pilgrim's shells1 was once upon a time the ,cid ,campeador's1 has been exploded recently4 ,the saddle in question is known to be ,italian1 dates from the sixteenth century1 and bears the arms of a town in the duchy of ,montferrato4 ,the inventory 7#aefj7 of the dukes of ,alburquerque mentions some curious saddles1 including one de la brida1 of blue velvet1 with the bows painted gold1 and on the front bow a cannon with its carriage1 and on the hind bow another cannon with flames of fire4 ,among the rest were a gineta saddle of red leather1 used by my lord the duke1 together with saddles of bay leather1 of dark brown leather1 of smooth leather with trappings of blue cloth1 of ,cordova leather1 and a date-coloured gineta-saddle1 complete4 ,the same inventory specifies innumerable smaller articles of harness1 such as stirrups1 spurs1 reins1 headstalls1 and poitrals or breast-leathers4 ,many of these pieces were richly ornamented2 e4g41 some silver headstalls of small size1 enamelled in blue1 with gilt supports of iron1#ade as well as some silver headstalls1 gilded and enamelled green and rose1 with shields upon the temples4 ,others of these headstalls were made of copper1 and nearly all were colour-enamelled4 #ade ,as ,i have stated in another chapter1 the precious stones and metals were continually employed in arms and harness1 both of ,spanish ,moors and ,spanish ,christians4 ,in #ajfb ,pedro ,ruderiz bequeathed to the ,monastery of ,arlanza all his battle harness1 together with his silver bit 7frenum argenteum74 ,thousands of such bequests have been recorded4 ,the ,chronicle of ,alfonso the ,eleventh says that after the victory of the ,rio ,salado1 this monarch found among his spoil many swords with gold and silver fittings1 and many spurs1 all of enamelled gold and silver4444 ,and all this spoil was gathered by the king into his palaces of ,seville 7i4e4 the ,alczar71 the doubloons in one part1 and the swords in another part4 ,the testament 7sometimes considered to be a forgery7 of ,pedro the ,cruel mentions my sword in the ,castilian manner1 that ,i caused to be made here in ,seville with gems and with aljofar4 ,in #adji ,yusuf1 ,king of ,granada1 presented ,juan the ,second and the ,infante ,don ,enrique with silver-fitted swords4 ,referring to a later age1 ,davillier discovered at ,simancas a detailed list of weapons sumptuously decorated with gold and coloured enamels1 made for ,philip the ,second by ,juan de ,soto1 orfebrero de su ,alteza4 ,recherches1 pp4 #adi-aea4 ,the stirrups included two ,moorish stirrups of gilded tin1 for a woman's use2#adf some large ,moorish stirrups1 gilt1 with two silver plates upon their faces1 enamelled gold1 green1 and blue1 and eight nails on either face2 some other ,moorish stirrups1 wrought inside with atauja-work in gold1 and outside with plates of copper enamelled in green1 blue1 and white2 the handles gilt1 with coverings of red leather2 and some silver stirrups with three bars upon the floor thereof1 round-shaped in the manner of an urinal1 with open sides consisting of two bars1 a flower within a small shield on top1 and1 over this1 the small face of a man4 #adf ,the women of medival ,spain had few amusements besides riding4 ,another--though owing to the temperate climate it must have been on few occasions--was skating1 since this inventory mentions two pairs of skates1 for a man1 for travelling over ice4 ,two pairs of skates1 for the same purpose1 for a woman4 ,this entry almost matches in its quaintness with the irons for mustaches1 or the triggers for extracting teeth1 set forth in ,spanish documents such as the ,tassa ,general of #afbg4 ,the many sets of reins included several of ,granada make1 coloured in white1 red1 and bay2 while one of the most elaborate of the poitrals was of red leather1 embroidered with gold thread1 with fringes of rose-coloured silk1 buckles1 ends1 and rounded knobs2 the whole of copper enamelled green1 and blue1 and white4 ,small but attractive accessories to these handsome sets of medival ,spanish harness were the decorative medals 7,plate lx47 hung from the horse's breast in tourneying or in war4 ,in ,france these medals were known as annelets volants1 branlants1 or pendants2 although in ,spain1 where it is probable that they were used more widely than in other countries1 they have no definite name4 ,the term jaeces is sometimes applied to them2 but jaez properly means the entire harness for a horse1 and the word is thus employed by classic ,spanish authors1 such as ,tirso de ,molina4 ,a recent term1 invented by a living writer1 is jaeces colgantes1 or hanging jaeces4 ,these ornaments1 which had their origin among the ,romans and ,byzantines1 are figured in certain of the older ,spanish codices such as the ,cntigas de ,santa ,maria4 ,in ,christian ,spain1 however1 their vogue was greatest in the thirteenth and the fourteenth centuries4 ,they disappeared altogether in the sixteenth century2 and among the ,spanish ,moors their use1 though not unknown1 was always quite exceptional4 ,the mottoes and devices on these little plates are very varied4 ,sometimes the motto has an amorous1 sometimes a religious import4 ,sometimes the vehicle of the motto is ,latin1 sometimes ,spanish1 sometimes ,french4 ,sometimes the device contains1 or is composed of1 a blazon1 and commonly there is floral or other ornament4 ,a collection of nearly three hundred of these medals belonged to the late ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan1 all of which were probably made in ,spain4 ,the material as a rule is copper1 adorned with champlev enamelling1 and the colours often used to decorate and relieve the interspaces of the gilded metal are red1 blue1 black1 white1 and green4 ,illustration3 ,,lxi ,,travelling ,,litter 7,attributed to ,charles the ,fifth4 ,royal ,armoury1 ,madrid7 ,according to ,florencio ,janer1 coaches were not known in ,spain until the middle of the sixteenth century4 ,before that time the usual conveyance was the litter4 ,the ,madrid ,armoury contains an object which is thought to have been the campaigning-litter of ,charles the ,fifth 7,plate lxi474 ,the ,count of ,valencia de ,don ,juan also inclined to this belief from the circumstance that an engraving exists in the ,british ,museum which represents a ,german litter of the sixteenth century1 identical in all respects with this one4 ,probably1 however1 these litters were the same all over ,europe4 ,the inventory of the ,dukes of ,alburquerque includes1 in #aefj1 a cowhide litter1 black1 lined with black serge2 also poles stained black1 and harness for mules4 ,this1 together with other travelling gear1 belonged to my lady the duchess2 and it is worth noting that the litter attributed to ,charles1 though cased with a protective covering of whitish canvas1 is also of black leather and lined with black serge1 besides being evidently built for carriage by two mules4 ,the interior contains a small armchair rising some inches only from the floor1 and which1 requiring him to keep his legs continually outstretched1 could hardly fail to prove excruciatingly uncomfortable to the traveller4 ,mendez ,silva says that the precise date of the introduction of coaches into ,spain was #aedf1 and other writers do not greatly differ from him4 ,the ,alburquerque inventory includes two four-wheeled coaches1 as well as a triumphal car with four wheels1 its body painted with red and gold stripes4 ,vanderhamen1 who says that the first coach ever seen in ,spain was brought here by a servant of ,charles the ,fifth in #aeed1 adds that within a little time their use became a hellish vice that wrought incalculable havoc to ,castile4 ,certainly this vehicle for many years was far from popular among the ,spaniards1 and was assailed with special vehemence by all who lacked the income to support one4 ,the ,duke of ,berganza is said to have remarked that ,god had fashioned horses for the use of men1 and men had fashioned coaches for the use of women2 while a priest1 ,toms ,ramn1 declared that it was a vast disgrace to see bearded men1 with rapiers at their side1 promenading in a coach4 ,even the governing powers thought fit to interfere4 ,in #aeej1 #aefc1 and #aegc the ,cortes demanded the total prohibition of these modish yet detested vehicles1 while the ,cortes of #aegh decreed four horses as the statutory and invariable number for a private carriage4 ,a further law enacted in #afaa that coaches must be strictly private property1 and not1 on pain of rigorous chastisement1 be lent or hired by their owner2#adg while the owner1 to own or use a coach at all1 required a special licence from the ,crown4 #adg ,this prohibition was not inopportune4 ,swinburne wrote towards the end of the eighteenth century2 ,having occasion one day for a coach to carry us about1 the stable-boy of our inn offered his services1 and in a quarter of an hour brought to the door a coach and four fine mules1 with two postillions and a lacquey1 all in flaming liveries2 we found they belonged to a countess1 who1 like the rest of the nobility1 allows her coachman to let out her equipage when she has no occasion for it2 it cost us about nine shillings1 which no doubt was the perquisite of the servants4 ,some curious facts relating to these vehicles in older ,spain are instanced by ,janer4 ,in the seventeenth century a ,spanish provincial town would normally contain a couple of hundred coaches4 ,among such boroughs was ,granada4 ,here1 in #afae1 the authorities1 backed by nearly all the citizens1 protested that the coaches ploughed the highway into muddy pits and channels1 and gave occasion1 after nightfall1 to disgraceful and immoral scenes4#adh ,after a while the protest grew so loud that the use of coaches in this capital was totally suppressed4 ,one of the first persons to employ a coach in ,granada had been the ,marquis of ,mondejar2 and yet1 in spite of his extensive influence1 this nobleman1 each time he wished to drive abroad1 required to sue for licence from the town authorities1 and these1 in making out the written permit1 took care to specify the streets through which he was allowed to pass4 #adh ,towns still exist in ,spain where vehicles are not allowed to proceed at more than a walking-pace through any of the streets4 ,one of such towns is ,argamasilla de ,alba 7of ,don ,quixote fame71 where ,i remember to have read a notice to this effect1 painted1 by order of the mayor1 on a house-wall of the principal thoroughfare4 ,assailed by numerous pragmatics1#adi chiefly of a sumptuary tenor and repeated at spasmodic intervals until as late as #aghe1 the private coach became at last an undisputed adjunct to the national life of ,spain4 ,doubtless the use by royalty of gala-coaches or carrozas went far to sanction and extend their vogue4 ,however1 ,i will not describe these lumbering1 uncouth1 and over-ornamented gala-carriages 7some of which were made in ,spain7 belonging to the ,spanish ,crown1 but quote the following pragmatic1 dated #agbc1 as aptly illustrative of the progress of this industry1 and other industries akin to it1 in the ,peninsula3-- ,in order to restrain the immoderate use of coaches1 state-coaches1 estufas1 litters1 furlones1#aej and calashes1 we order that from this time forth no one of these be decorated with gold embroidery or any kind of silk containing gold1 nor yet with bands or fringes that have gold or silver points2 but only with velvets1 damasks1 and other simple silken fabrics made within this realm and its dependencies1 or else in foreign countries that have friendly commerce with us4 ,also1 the fringes and galloons shall be of silk alone2 and none1 of whatsoever dignity and degree1 shall cause his coach1 state-coach1 etc41 to be decorated with the fringes that are known as net-work1 tassel-pointed1 or bell-pointed2 but only with undecorated1 simple fringes1 or with those of ,santa ,isabel2 nor shall the breadth of either kind of these exceed four fingers4 ,also1 he shall not cause his coach1 state-coach1 etc41 to be overlaid with any gilt or silvered work1 or painted with any manner of design--meaning by such1 historic scenes1 marines1 landscapes1 flowers1 masks1 knots of the pattern known as coulicoles1 coats of arms1 war devices1 perspectives1 or any other painting1 except it imitate marble1 or be marbled over of one single colour chosen at the owner's fancy2 and further1 we allow in every coach1 state-coach1 etc41 only a certain moderate quantity of carving4 ,and this our order and pragmatic shall begin to rule upon the day it is made public2 from which day forth no person shall construct1 or buy1 or bring from other countries1 coaches or estufas that infringe our law herein expressed2 wherefore we order the alcaldes of this town1 our court and capital1 to make a register of all such vehicles that each house contains1 without excepting any4 ,nevertheless1 considering that if we should prohibit very shortly those conveyances that now be lawful1 the owners would be put to great expense1 we grant a period of two years wherein they may consume or rid themselves thereof2 upon the expiration of which term our law shall be again made public1 and thenceforward all1 regardless of their quality and rank1 shall be compelled to pay obedience to the same4 ,also we order that no person make or go abroad in hand-chairs fitted with brocade1 or cloth of gold or silver1 or yet with any silk containing gold and silver2 nor shall the lining be embroidered or adorned with any of the stuffs aforesaid2 but the covering of the chair1 inside and out1 shall only be of velvet1 damask1 or other unmixed silk1 with a plain fringe of four fingers' breadth and button-holes of the same silk1 and not of silver1 gold1 or thread1 or any covering other than those aforesaid2 but the columns of such chairs may be adorned with silken trimmings nailed thereto4 ,and we allow1 as in the case of coaches1 a period of two years for wearing out the hand-chairs now in use4444 ,also1 we order that the coverings of coaches1 estufas1 litters1 calashes1 and furlones shall not be made of any kind of silk1 or yet the harness of horses or mules for coaches and travelling litters2 and that the said coaches1 gala-coaches1 estufas1 litters1 calashes1 and furlones shall not be back-stitched 7pespuntados71 even if they should be of cowhide or of cordwain 7goatskin72 nor shall they contain any fitting of embroidered leather4 #adi ,a royal degree of #afai disposed that every one who sows and tills twenty-five fanegas of land each year1 may use a coach4 #aej ,the estufa 7literally stove7 was a form of family-coach4 ,the furlon is described in an old dictionary as a coach with four seats and hung with leather curtains4 ,,printed ,,by ,,neill ,,and ,,company1 ,,limited1 ,,edinburgh4 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,the original spelling and minor inconsistencies in the spelling and formatting have been maintained4 ,inconsistent hyphenation and accents are as in the original if not marked as an misprint4 ,the text decoration above ,,iv ,,de ,,la ,,fvete has been omitted on page #bbb4 ,the table below lists all corrections applied to the original text4 p4 xii3 ,old ,keys2 ,seville ,cathedral #abf - #aca p4 #aa3 for securing the cloak2 the torquis - torques p4 #ab3 ,fibulae - ,fibul p4 #ag3 ,amador de los ,rios - ,ros p4 #bh3 ,amador de los ,rios - ,ros p4 #bh3 de joyaux les plus precieux - prcieux p4 #fe3 is generally of the fifteeenth - fifteenth p4 #gj3 ,he carried1 too1 a - a p4 #gb3 ,the goldsmiths' and the silversmiths - silversmiths' p4 #hb3 ,mores ont cach leurs tresors - trsors p4 #ij3 a friar of ,guadelupe - ,guadalupe p4 #ia3 ,juan ,gonzlez - ,gonzalez p4 #ic3 ,as soon as ,cristobal - ,cristbal p4 #id3 fu deste cuento1 ,jan - ,juan p4 #ajb3 et cela luy feioit - fetoit p4 #aje3 pearls or other stones4 - stones4 p4 #abc3 in the ,museo ,espaol de ,antigedades - ,antigedades7 p4 #adj3 ,museo ,espaol de ,antiguedades - ,antigedades p4 #adc3 ,museo ,espaol de ,antiguedades - ,antigedades p4 #agf3 the emir of the ,mussulmans ,abi-,abdillah - ,abu-,abdillah p4 #ahj3 ,d4,c4,c4,c4,c4,,xiii4 - ,d4,c4,c4,c4,c4,,xiii4 p4 #aha3 and the ,puertas del ,perdon - ,perdn p4 #ahh3 consisted of a - a 666 p4 #bje3 among the ,germans panzerbrecher - ,panzerbrecher p4 #bjf3 frock 7the waffenrock - ,waffenrock p4 #bbj3 which specifies a bard - band p4 #bbb3 ,it has a verga - verja p4 #bbi3 as well as the chape - shape p4 #bcb3 button and a black tassel4 - tassel4 p4 #bdd3 published in the ,boletin - ,boletn p4 #bfb3 and the burnisher4 - burnisher4 p4 #bfd3 making good files or razors4 - making good files or razors4 p4 #bgc3 of ,segovia74 ,cristobal - ,cristbal