---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,passages in bold are indicated by bold4 ,superscript text is preceded by a caret1 like ,no4 ,small-caps text has been converted to ,,uppercase4 ,changes in the text are listed at the end of the book4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,illustration3 ,,surveying ,,steamer ,,fathomer ,,in ,,manila ,,bay4 7,frontispiece7 ,,nautical ,,charts ,,by ,g4 ,r4 ,,putnam1 ,m4,s4 ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,american ,,society ,,of ,,civil ,,engineers ,,director ,,of ,,coast ,,surveys1 ,,philippine ,,islands1 #aijj ,,to #aijf ,,first ,,edition ,,first ,,thousand ,,new ,,york ,,john ,,wiley ,,sons ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,limited #aijh ,,copyright1 #aijh1 ,,by ,g4 ,r4 ,,putnam ,stanhope ,press ,f4 ,h4 ,,gilson ,,company ,,boston1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,in preparing the material for a lecture on ,charts for ,columbia ,university1 the writer was impressed with the fact that although nautical charts are mentioned or discussed in many publications1 there was not found any one which covered the general subject of their origin1 construction1 and use4 ,in the countries of the world more than a million copies of such charts are now issued annually4 ,a considerable portion of the human race is interested directly or indirectly1 whether as mariners or passengers or shippers1 in navigation upon the sea4 ,aside from supplying a handbook for those who might have a general interest in the subject1 it was thought that a discussion of charts might lead to further consideration of the principles governing their construction4 ,this paper has intentionally been made as non-technical as seemed feasible in treating a somewhat technical subject4 ,the writer is indebted to the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey for various illustrative material from its archives1 and to a number of authors for facts or suggestions4 ,a list is appended of books and papers which have been freely consulted1 bearing on this and related subjects4 ,g4 ,r4 ,p4 ,,washington1 ,d4,c41 ,may #bd1 #aijh4 ,,contents ,,page ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,or ,,papers ,,bearing ,,on ,,nautical ,,charts ,,and ,,related ,,subjects vii ,,charts ,,and ,,maps #a ,,collection ,,of ,,information ,,for ,,charts #ca ,,preparation ,,of ,,information ,,for ,,charts #fg ,,publication ,,of ,,charts #hd ,,correction ,,of ,,charts #ig ,,reading ,,and ,,using ,,charts #aab ,,use ,,of ,,charts ,,in ,,navigation #abd ,,publications ,,supplementing ,,nautical ,,charts #aed ,,index #afa ,,list ,,of ,,books ,,or ,,papers ,,bearing ,,on ,,nautical ,,charts ,,and ,,related ,,subjects ,periplus1 an ,essay on the ,early ,history of ,charts1 and ,sailing ,directions4 ,a4 ,e4 ,nordenskild1 ,stockholm1 #ahig4 ,maps1 their ,uses and ,construction4 ,g4 ,james ,morrison1 ,london1 #aijb4 ,charts and ,chart ,making4 ,lieut4 ,john ,e4 ,pillsbury1 ,u4,s4,n41 in ,proceedings ,u4 ,s4 ,naval ,institute1 #ahhd4 ,principal ,facts relating to the ,earth's ,magnetism4 ,l4 ,a4 ,bauer1 in ,u4 ,s4 ,magnetic ,declination ,tables1 ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 #aijc4 ,marine ,hydrographic ,surveys of the ,coasts of the ,world4 ,g4 ,w4 ,littlehales1 in ,report of the ,eighth ,international ,geographic ,congress1 #aijd4 ,smithsonian ,geographical ,tables4 ,r4 ,s4 ,woodward1 ,washington1 #aijf4 ,admiralty ,charts1 ,abridged list of4 ,published by ,j4 ,d4 ,potter1 ,london1 #aijg4 ,military ,topography4 ,capt4 ,c4 ,b4 ,hagadorn1 ,u4,s4,a41 ,west ,point1 #aijg4 ,service ,hydrographique de la ,marine1 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,a ,manual of ,conventional ,symbols in ,use on ,official ,charts4 ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,office1 ,gustave ,herrle1 #aijc4 ,hydrographical ,surveying4 ,admiral ,w4 ,j4 ,l4 ,wharton1 ,london1 #ahih4 ,on the ,correction of ,charts1 ,light ,lists1 and ,sailing ,directions4 ,published by ,j4 ,d4 ,potter1 ,london1 #aijd4 ,notes ,relative to the ,use of ,charts4 ,d4 ,b4 ,wainwright1 ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 #aijj4 ,the ,law relating to ,charts and ,sailing ,directions4 ,h4 ,stuart ,moore1 ,london1 #aijd4 ,notes bearing on the ,navigation of ,h4 ,m4 ,ships4 ,hydrographic ,office1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,the ,relations of ,harbors to ,modern ,shipping4 ,w4 ,h4 ,wheeler1 in ,engineering ,news1 ,september #f1 #aijf1 ,new ,york4 ,wrinkles in ,practical ,navigation4 ,capt4 ,s4 ,t4 ,s4 ,lecky1 ,london1 #ahii4 ,navigation and ,compass ,deviations4 ,commander ,w4 ,c4 ,p4 ,muir1 ,u4,s4,n41 ,annapolis1 #aijf4 ,the ,practice of ,navigation4 ,henry ,raper1 ,london1 #ahih4 ,lehrbuch der ,navigation4 ,reichs-,marine-,amt1 ,berlin1 #aijf4 ,the ,nautical ,magazine1 ,london4 ,dangers and ,ice in the ,north ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,bureau of ,navigation1 ,u4 ,s4 ,navy ,department1 #ahfh4 ,reported ,dangers in the ,north ,pacific ,ocean4 ,u4 ,s4 ,hydrographic ,office1 #ahga4 ,pacific ,islands1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 chapter on ,vigias4 ,british ,hydrographic ,office1 ,london1 #aijj4 ,harriman ,alaska ,expedition1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,bogoslof1 our ,newest ,volcano1 by ,c4 ,hart ,merriam1 ,new ,york1 #aija4 ,expedition to the ,aleutian ,islands1 #aijg4 ,t4 ,a4 ,jaggar1 ,jr41 in ,the ,technology ,review1 #aijg1 ,boston4 ,recent ,changes in ,level in the ,yakutat ,bay ,region1 ,alaska1 by ,r4 ,s4 ,tarr and ,lawrence ,martin1 in ,bulletin of the ,american ,geological ,society1 #aijf4 ,an ,index to the ,islands of the ,pacific ,ocean4 ,w4 ,t4 ,brigham1 ,honolulu1 #aijj4 ,geography1 articles by ,c4 ,r4 ,markham1 ,a4 ,r4 ,clarke1 and ,h4 ,r4 ,mill in ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,development in ,dimensions of vessels1 ,elmer ,l4 ,corthell1 ,tenth ,international ,navigation ,congress1 #aije4 ,,nautical ,,charts ,,charts ,,and ,,maps ,need of maps4 ,maps are useful and necessary for many purposes4 ,only by means of a correct map or globe can a clear idea of the geography of a region be given4 ,an attempt to convey the same information by a written description would in comparison be both cumbersome and obscure4 ,even by passing over an extensive region a man unaided by instruments will obtain only a rather crude notion of the relations1 which he could clearly see on a good map4 ,the importance among the human arts of the making of maps is indicated by the references to them in very early historical records1 and by the skill in map drawing shown by some of the primitive peoples of to-day4 ,this skill exists particularly among races whose mode of life gives them a wide horizon1 as for instance the ,eskimos4 ,an interesting instance of this was the case of ,joe1 an ,eskimo guide1 who1 in #ahih1 before the surveys of the ,yukon delta were made1 drew a map of the ,yukon mouths with much more complete information than any previously available4 ,without attempting to enumerate in detail the special uses for maps1 in the broader sense they may be said to be essential for commercial1 engineering1 military1 scientific1 educational1 and political purposes4 ,early geography and map making4 ,the oldest map known is a plan of gold mines in ,nubia1 drawn on a papyrus4 ,this is of the thirteenth century ,b4,c41 and was found in ,egypt4 ,in the earliest historic times men believed the earth to be a flat surface of nearly circular outline1 a natural inference for those with limited outlook and communication4 ,later the idea was introduced of the ocean as a river bounding the earth disk4 ,the spherical theory of the earth was1 however1 early accepted by learned men1 and was demonstrated by ,aristotle 7#chd to #cbb ,b4,c471 who used as proofs the earth's shadow on the moon1 and the change in the visibility of the stars in traveling north or south4 ,crates constructed a terrestrial globe in the second century ,b4,c4 ,there is no ,greek or ,latin map extant of earlier date than the time of ,ptolemy1 but there are references showing that maps were in use4 ,one of the first of such passages in ,greek literature is the interesting comment of ,herodotus written in the fifth century ,b4,c41 but ,i laugh when ,i see many who already have drawn the circuits of the earth1 without any right understanding thereof4 ,thus they draw ,oceanus flowing round the earth1 which is circular1 as though turned by a lathe1 and they make ,asia equal to ,europe4 ,a map of the world was drawn by ,anaximander1 #efj ,b4,c4 ,a hundred years later ,democritus drew a map having an oblong shape1 and taught that the width of the world from east to west was one and a half times its extent from north to south1 a conclusion based on his travels eastward as far as ,india4 ,this theory1 which was for a time accepted1 has left an enduring mark in the words longitude and latitude1 originally signifying the length and the breadth of the earth4 ,the first application of astronomy to geography was made by ,pytheas1 who about #cbf ,b4,c4 obtained the latitude of ,marseilles by an observation of the altitude of the sun4 ,dicearchus in #caj ,b4,c4 determined the first parallel of latitude by noting places where on the same day the sun cast shadows of equal length from pillars of equal height4 ,eratosthenes 7#bgf to #aif ,b4,c47 was the first to compute the circumference of the earth from observations of the altitude of the sun at ,alexandria and at ,syene in ,upper ,egypt and an estimation of the distance between these two places4 ,ptolemy1 a ,greek of ,alexandria1 in the years from #abg to #aea ,a4,d4 wrote extensively on geographic subjects1 and collected into systematic form all geographic knowledge then existing2 he was the greatest geographer of early history4 ,in the ten centuries which followed1 part of the early advance in this science was obscured1 and the theory that the earth was a flat disk surrounded by the sea again became prevalent4 ,the voyages of discovery of the middle ages1 however1 led to a rapid development of geographic knowledge4 ,the flattening of the spherical earth was not suspected until in #afgb a clock regulated to beat seconds at ,paris1 when taken to ,cayenne near the equator was found to lose two and one-half minutes a day4 ,newton proved that this was due to the fact that the earth is an oblate spheroid4 ,in #agce accurate measurements were undertaken to determine the size and shape of the earth4 ,the equatorial diameter has been found to be #gibf4f miles and the polar diameter #ghii4f miles1 the difference1 or #bg statute miles1 being the amount of the flattening at the poles4 ,the first sailing directions4 ,the early ,greek and ,roman writers do not allude to charts or maps intended especially for the use of seafarers4 ,there are1 however1 extant several peripli or descriptions of the coast4 ,some of these appear certainly to have been intended for use as nautical guides1 corresponding to the modern sailing directions4 ,it is probable that they were explanatory of or accompanied by coast charts1 now lost4 ,they are of interest therefore as being probably the first compilations for the guidance of seamen4 ,one of the earliest1 written apparently in the fifth and fourth centuries ,b4,c41 is entitled ,scylax of ,caryanda1 his circumnavigation of the sea of the inhabited part of ,europe and ,asia and ,libya4 ,it contains a systematic description of the coasts of the ,mediterranean1 ,black ,sea1 and part of the west coast of ,africa4 ,the following are some extracts which indicate the character of the work4 ,it is to be noted that no bearings are given1 and that distances are usually stated by day's sail3 ,africa is referred to as ,libya4 ,europe4 ,i shall begin from the ,pillars of ,hercules in ,europe and continue to the ,pillars of ,hercules in ,libya1 and as far as the land of the great ,ethiopians4 ,the ,pillars of ,hercules are opposite each other1 and are distant from each other by one day's sail4444 ,from ,thonis the voyage to ,pharos1 a desert island 7good harborage but no drinking water71 is #aej stadia4 ,in ,pharos are many harbors4 ,but ships water at the ,marian mere1 for it is drinkable4444 ,from ,chersonesus is one day's sail2 but from ,naustathmus to the harbor of ,cyrene1 #ajj stadia4 ,but from the harbor to ,cyrene1 #hj stadia2 for ,cyrene is inland4 ,these harbors are always fit for putting into4 ,and there are other refuges at little islands1 and anchorages and many beaches1 in the district between4444 ,after the isthmus is ,carthage1 a city of the ,phnicians1 and a harbor4 ,sailing along from ,herma it is half a day to ,carthage4 ,there are islands off the ,herman cape1 ,pontia island and ,cosyrus4 ,from ,herma to ,cosyrus is a day's sail4 ,beyond the ,herman cape1 towards the rising sun1 are three islands belonging to this shore1 inhabited by ,carthaginians2 the city and harbor of ,melite1 the city of ,gaulus1 and ,lampas2 this has two or three towers4444 ,the sailing along ,libya from the ,canopic mouth in ,egypt to the ,pillars of ,hercules 444 takes #gd days if one coast round the bays4444 ,from the cape of ,herma extend great reefs1 that is1 from ,libya towards ,europe1 not rising above the sea2 it washes over them at times4444 ,from ,thymiateria one sails to cape ,soloes1 which juts far into the sea4 ,but all this district of ,libya is very famous and very sacred4444 ,this whole coasting from the ,pillars of ,hercules to ,cerne ,island takes twelve days4 ,the parts beyond the isle of ,cerne are no longer navigable because of shoals1 mud1 and sea-weed4 ,this sea-weed has the width of a palm1 and is sharp towards the points1 so as to prick4 ,that there were many other similar writings in the following centuries is shown by the following quotation from ,marcianus1 in a preface to sailing directions written in the fifth century ,a4,d43 ,this ,i write after having gone through many sailing directions1 and spent much time on their examination4 ,for it behooves all who are men of education1 to scrutinise such attempts at learning in this subject1 so as neither rashly to believe the things that are said1 nor incredulously to set their private opinions against the careful decisions of others4 ,the oldest extant sailing directions of the middle ages bear date #acjf to #acbj4 ,development of chart making4 ,the application of the compass to nautical use in the twelfth century ,a4,d4 had a marked effect in encouraging voyages of exploration1 and therefore indirectly on chart making4 ,the following1 written toward the close of the twelfth century1 is the first known mention of the use of the compass in ,europe3 ,the sailors1 moreover1 as they sail over the sea1 when in cloudy weather they cannot longer profit by the light of the sun1 or when the world is wrapped in the darkness of the shades of night1 and they are ignorant to what part of the horizon the prow is directed1 place the needle over the magnet1 which is whirled round in a circle1 until1 when the motion ceases1 the point of it 7the needle7 looks to the north4 ,the nautical compass of that time appears to have consisted of a magnetized needle1 floated in a vessel of water by a cork or reed1 and having no index nor compass card4 ,peregrinus in #abfi made notable improvements in the compass1 including a pivot suspension for the needle1 a graduation1 a lubber line1 and an azimuth bar for sighting on the sun or other object4 ,nautical charts are known to have been in use since the thirteenth century ,a4,d41 but the earliest extant of which the date can be fixed is ,vesconte's loxodromic chart of #acaa4 ,the loxodromic charts first appeared in ,italy1 and were so called from the fact that they were crossed by loxodromes 7or rhumb lines7 radiating from a number of crossing points distributed regularly over the map4 ,compass roses carefully drawn were later added at these crossing points1 the first appearing on a chart of #acge4 ,the earliest known mention of the variation of the compass from true north was on the first voyage of ,columbus1 who discovered this important fact in #adib1 and as a consequence his seamen were terrified and dismayed4 ,before that time it was assumed in ,europe that the compass pointed true to the north pole4 ,the apparent failure to detect the variation earlier was doubtless to some extent due to its small amount at that time along the ,mediterranean4 ,the earlier charts showed both lines and compass roses apparently oriented with the true meridian1 though there is some evidence to indicate that they were actually oriented with the magnetic meridian1 the designer not recognizing any difference4 ,the variation of the compass was first marked on a map in #aecb and on a printed chart in #aeie1 but the placing of magnetic compasses on charts did not become customary until about fifty years ago4 ,these early charts were drawn on parchment1 using bright colors4 ,they were copied by hand1 one from another1 with gradual variations4 ,they had no projections1 and the draftsmen evidently had no idea of the sphericity of the earth4 ,islands and points were usually exaggerated2 shallows were indicated1 but no soundings2 no information was given as to the interior of the countries2 a scale of distances was nearly always provided4 ,charts were first printed about #adgg1 and are known to have been engraved on copper by #aefj4 ,the maps of ,ptolemy were ruled with degree lines1 but no chart was so provided until #adbg2 by #aejj1 however1 most charts were graduated4 ,before this date it is not known on what projection the charts were constructed4 ,on the first graduated charts the degree lines were equidistant parallel straight lines cutting each other at right angles and thus dividing the chart into equal squares or rectangles4 ,these were known as plain charts4 ,this square projection had little to commend it save simplicity of construction1 as in higher latitudes it gave neither directions nor distances correctly4 ,the difficulties of its use in navigation were early recognized1 and nautical works contained chapters on sailing by the plain chart1 and the uncertainties thereof4 ,the example of early chart making shown in ,fig4 #b is of great interest as being the earliest extant chart which includes ,america4 ,this chart was drawn on ox-hide in #aejj by ,juan de la ,cosa1 who accompanied ,columbus on his first voyage as master of his flagship1 and on his second voyage as cartographer4 ,the chart1 of which only a portion is shown here1 purports to cover the entire world2 it joins ,asia and ,america as one continent1 the ,pacific ,ocean being then still unknown4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,chart ,,of ,,north ,,atlantic ,,ocean1 ,gerhard ,krmer1 a ,flemish map-maker1 better known by his ,latin name of ,mercator1 in #aefi published his famous ,universal ,map4 ,in this map the meridians and parallels were still straight lines intersecting at right angles1 but the distances between the parallels were increased with increasing latitude in such proportion that a rhumb line1 or line cutting the meridians at a constant angle1 would appear on the map as a straight line4 ,mercator never explained the construction of his chart1 and as the above condition was not accurately carried out1 it is thought that the chart was drawn by comparing a terrestrial globe with a plain chart4 ,after examination of a mercator chart in #aeij1 ,edward ,wright developed the correct principles on which such a chart should be constructed1 and published in #aeii his treatise ,the ,correction of ,certain ,errors in ,navigation4 ,it took nearly a century to bring this chart into use1 and even in the middle of the eighteenth century nautical writers complain that some prefer the plain chart4 ,illustration3 ,,by ,,juan ,,de ,,la ,,cosa1 #aejj4 ,,earliest ,,extant ,,chart ,,showing ,,america4 ,the ,arcano del ,mare1 #afdf1 was the first marine atlas in which all the maps were drawn on the mercator projection4 ,in the sixteenth1 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries charts and sailing directions were often bound together in large volumes4 ,these usually had quaint titles1 not overburdened with modesty1 of which the following is an example3 ,the ,lightning ,columne1 or ,sea-,mirrour1 containing the ,sea-,coasts of the ,northern1 ,eastern1 and ,western ,navigation4 ,setting forth in divers necessaire ,sea-,cards1 all the ,ports1 ,rivers1 ,bayes1 ,roads1 ,depths1 and ,sands4 ,very curiously placed on its due ,polus height furnished4 ,with the ,discoveries of the chief ,countries and on what ,cours and ,distance they lay one from another4 ,never there to fore so ,clearly laid open1 and here and there very diligently bettered and augmented for the use of all ,seamen4 ,as also the situation of the ,northerly ,countries1 as ,islands1 the ,strate ,davids1 the ,isle of ,jan ,mayen1 ,bears ,island1 ,old ,greenland1 ,spitsbergen and ,nova ,zembla4 ,adorneth with many ,sea-,cards and ,discoveries4 ,gathered out of the ,experiences and practice of divers ,pilots and ,lovers of the famous ,art of ,navigation4 ,where unto is added a brief ,instruction of the ,art of ,navigation1 together with ,new ,tables of the ,sun's ,declination1 with a new ,almanach4 ,at ,amsterdam4 ,printed by ,casparus ,loots-,man1 ,bookseller in the ,loots-,man1 upon the ,water4 ,anno #afig4 ,with ,previlege for fiftheen years4 ,in #afcc a cartographer was appointed to the ,states-,general of ,holland1 and it was his duty to correct the charts from the ships' logs4 ,the ,dutch at an early date made important progress in publishing charts4 ,in #agbj there was established in ,paris by order of the king1 a central chart office 7dpt des cartes et plans1 journaux et mmoires concernant la navigation71 and in #agcg the first charts were published by this office4 ,detailed surveys of the coast of ,france were commenced in #ahaf4 ,in #agdj the commissioners for the discovery of longitude at sea were authorized by ,parliament to expend money on the survey of the coasts of ,great ,britain1 this commission having been created in #agac4 ,various rewards were offered by this commission1 including one of #aj1jjj1 for the discovery of a method of determining the longitude within #fj miles1 an interesting side light on the uncertainties of navigation at that time4 ,compensated timepieces1 which have been so important a factor in improving navigation1 were invented by ,harrison about #agfa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,loxodromic ,,chart ,,of ,,north ,,atlantic ,,ocean1 #aefe4 ,a ,,plain ,,chart ,,with ,,latitude ,,degrees ,,of ,,equal ,,length4 ,in #agie1 by an ,order in ,council1 a ,hydrographical ,office was established in ,london1 to take charge and custody of such plans and charts as then were1 or should thereafter be1 deposited in the ,admiralty1 and to select and compile such information as might appear to be requisite for the purpose of improving navigation4 ,this office had at first one assistant and one draftsman4 ,before that time many charts of a private or semiofficial character had been published2 the catalogue of the ,east ,india ,company in #aghf included #cdg charts4 ,in #ahjg the ,congress of the ,united ,states authorized the ,president to cause a survey to be taken of the coasts of the ,united ,states1 in which shall be designated the islands and shoals1 with the roads or places of anchorage1 within twenty leagues of any part of the shores of the ,united ,states2 and also the respective courses and distances between the principal capes1 or headlands1 together with such other matters as he may deem proper for completing an accurate chart of every part of the coasts within the extent aforesaid4 ,this law was the origin of the present ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 now under the ,department of ,commerce and ,labor4 ,in #ahda a systematic survey of the ,great ,lakes was commenced2 this is the ,survey of the ,northern and ,northwestern ,lakes1 briefly known as the ,lake ,survey1 conducted under the ,corps of ,engineers4 ,in #ahff the ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,office was established under the ,navy ,department for the improvement of the means for navigating safely the vessels of the ,navy1 and of the mercantile marine1 by providing under the authority of the ,secretary of the ,navy1 accurate and cheap nautical charts1 sailing directions1 navigators1 and manuals of instructions for the use of all vessels of the ,united ,states1 and for the benefit and use of navigation generally4 ,systematic surveying and chart making date back little more than a century1 and most of the information shown on modern charts has been gathered in that time4 ,at present all the principal maritime nations of the world have made1 or are extending1 careful surveys of their own coasts4 ,several of the countries have added valuable contributions in the examination of other regions and oceanic areas beyond their borders4 ,the maritime and colonial interests of ,great ,britain impelled that nation to carry on extensive surveys along coasts whose inhabitants were not prepared to do this work in the earlier days2 the ,british have made surveys along the coasts of ,asia and ,africa and a part of ,south ,america1 and the resulting charts have been a very important and not sufficiently known contribution to commercial intercourse among the nations1 as well as to geography4 ,the ,dutch1 ,french1 ,spanish1 and other ,european governments have made nautical surveys in various parts of the world1 largely in connection with their own colonies1 and in recent years much useful work has been done by vessels of the ,german government4 ,the ,united ,states has also beyond its own territory made valuable additions to hydrographic knowledge in the work of officers of the ,navy in a number of oceanic exploring expeditions1 and surveys on the coasts of ,mexico and in the ,west ,indies1 and in the explorations of ,fish ,commission vessels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,early ,,chart ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,harbor1 #agcg4 ,extension of maritime surveys4 ,of the total area of the earth's surface1 #ea1hhf1jjj square miles is land and #ade1jed1jjj square miles is sea4 ,the oceans thus occupy nearly three-fourths of the whole surface1 affording highways open to the nations4 ,to conduct international commerce by water the ships of one country must enter the ports of another4 ,thus both on the open sea and in the harbors there is an interest1 common to seamen of all nationalities1 in the advance of marine surveys and in the publication of charts4 ,to keep the coasts properly charted1 as well as lighted and buoyed1 is an obligation devolving on modern nations1 not only for the benefit of their own commerce but for that of other countries4 ,as shown below1 only a small part of the coast line of the world is thoroughly surveyed4 ,in the extensive ocean areas which are dotted with islands or reefs1 a large amount of work is required for their sufficient charting1 although many doubtful areas have been cleared up in recent years4 ,even the parts that are known to be of depths so great as to be free from navigational dangers should be sounded over sufficiently to develop the general configuration of the ocean bottom4 ,through international understanding a thorough exploration of all the water area of the globe and the coasts may in time be effected1 and the many doubtful spots which still disfigure the charts may be either eliminated or definitely located4 ,present state of progress of hydrographic surveys4 ,a comparatively small proportion of the coasts of the world can be considered as completely surveyed at the present time1 and even such regions require much additional revision4 ,in the class of more thoroughly surveyed coasts should be included the ,atlantic and most of the ,pacific coast of the ,united ,states1 ,porto ,rico1 nearly all the coasts of ,europe1 ,algeria1 and portions of the coasts of ,japan1 the ,philippine ,islands1 and ,india4 ,a large part of the world's coasts has been surveyed incompletely1 but sufficiently well to permit the publication of navigational charts4 ,this is the condition as respects most of southeastern ,alaska and some other portions of the ,alaskan coast1 ,british ,columbia1 most of ,mexico1 ,central ,america1 the ,west ,indies1 ,brazil and parts of ,chile1 the ,hawaiian ,islands1 ,china1 ,malay ,peninsula1 ,siam1 the ,dutch ,east ,indies1 ,australia1 ,new ,zealand1 ,persia1 ,arabia1 most of ,africa1 ,iceland1 northern ,scandinavia1 and ,finland4 ,another considerable portion of the coasts has not been surveyed1 but has been covered by explorations which have been embodied in nautical charts of varied degrees of incompleteness4 ,in this class are the north coast and considerable portions of the south and west coasts of ,alaska1 the ,aleutian ,islands1 ,siberia1 most of the oceanic groups in the ,pacific1 the northern coasts of ,europe and ,north ,america1 ,greenland1 the west coast of ,south ,america1 ,venezuela1 and ,argentina4 ,only a very small proportion of the total length of coasts is now entirely unexplored1 and such portions are confined to the polar regions4 ,chart publications of various nations4 ,there are about eighteen nations publishing navigational charts1 and adding to the information on which charts are based4 ,many of these nations republish to some extent the charts prepared by the others4 ,great ,britain has kept up a series of charts covering all parts of the world and practically including in some form all information published elsewhere4 ,this series now 7#aijh7 includes #cgbe different charts1 of which the annual issue is about #fjj1jjj copies4 ,france 7#aijf7 publishes #bidh different charts4 ,in the ,united ,states1 charts are published by the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey for the coasts and tidal waters of the main country and the insular possessions1 by the ,hydrographic ,office for oceanic areas and foreign coasts1 and by the ,lake ,survey for the ,great ,lakes4 ,the total number of different charts issued by these bureaus is about #bcjj1 and the total annual issue is about #bbe1jjj copies4 ,systems in use on various charts4 ,longitude4 ,the first chart of ,new ,york1 published by the ,coast ,survey in #ahdd1 was referred to the ,city ,hall of ,new ,york as the initial longitude1 and some years ago it was the prevailing custom for each nation to use a local initial longitude4 ,while this satisfied local pride it led to much geographical and navigational confusion4 ,happily the charts of all countries are now referred to ,greenwich1 with the following exceptions3 ,france refers to ,paris1 which is #b #bj #ae ,e4 of ,greenwich4 ,spain refers to ,san ,fernando1 which is #f #ab #bj ,w4 of ,greenwich4 ,portugal refers to ,lisbon1 which is #i #jh #bd ,w4 of ,greenwich4 ,units for depths4 ,the ,english fathom or foot is used for depths on the charts of ,great ,britain1 the ,united ,states1 and ,japan4 ,russia uses the sajene of seven ,english feet4 ,on the modern charts of practically all the other countries the meter is used1 though on older charts various units are found4 ,in the first group feet are ordinarily found only on large scale or local charts of areas with moderate depths1 and the other charts are in fathoms1 except that on the earlier charts of the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey feet were used on a sanded surface inside of the three-fathom curve and fathoms on the white surface outside of that curve4 ,heights are stated in feet on the charts of the first group4 ,plane of reference4 ,as the depth of water varies with the tide1 it is necessary for charting purposes to adopt some standard plane to which the soundings are referred4 ,practically all countries have adopted for this purpose a low stage of the tide1 as this is obviously on the side of safety2 in most cases an extreme low water is used1 so that the actual depths will seldom1 owing to the tide1 be less than those shown on the chart4 ,the definite reference planes used on the ,american charts will be mentioned later4 ,on nearly all charts heights are referred to mean high water1 doubtless owing to this being the visible limit of the land at high tide4 ,on topographic maps of the interior1 the heights are referred to mean sea level1 which plane is of course lower than the preceding by one-half the range of tide4 ,symbols on charts4 ,fair uniformity as to general principles1 with differences as to details in carrying them out1 exists on the various series of charts regarding their general arrangement and the more important symbols1 such as in the shading of land to distinguish from water1 the use of depth curves1 the representation of hills by shade or contour1 the indication of shoals and dangers1 and of lighthouses and buoys4 ,desirability of uniformity in charts4 ,ships engaged in international commerce must enter foreign ports4 ,as the information is constantly changing and charts are being corrected or improved1 it is sometimes desirable for the navigator to consult the local foreign charts1 and it may often be necessary for him to carry in his chart room the charts of several different countries4 ,there are therefore important advantages in international uniformity in chart publication4 ,there should be a common initial longitude1 and as the longitude of ,greenwich has been so extensively adopted1 it appears quite probable that its use may some day become universal4 ,a common unit for soundings and heights would be very desirable1 but the fact that a large group of nations has united on the metric system1 while a small group with great commercial interests retains another system1 makes the attainment of uniformity difficult4 ,substantial agreement as to the use of symbols on charts1 particularly such as represent aids or dangers to navigation1 would be desirable and doubtless feasible4 ,privately published charts4 ,many of the earlier charts were prepared and published by private enterprise1 and such charts are still published1 as1 for instance1 the so-called blue-back charts printed in ,london4 ,these charts have usually differed from those published by the various governments either in representing the main features in a very bold manner with little detail or in including a considerable area with many plans on a single large sheet backed for permanency4 ,an objection to the latter is that the durability together with the high price tends to keep an old chart in use long after it is out of date4 ,it would be financially difficult for a private firm to give the service that a government does in the matter of correcting the charts and issuing new editions1 and this is an important consideration in the selection of charts4 ,purpose of charts4 ,the main purpose of charts is to furnish graphical guides to aid in taking a vessel safely from one port to another2 they are maps for the use of navigators4 ,an experienced mariner may be able to steer his vessel over a familiar course without charts1 but this does not make their publication less necessary4 ,even such an expert pilot doubtless studied the charts in the first place2 the uncertainties of the sea and the changes of information are such that his vessel's equipment should include the latest charts1 and safety requires their examination4 ,the passengers and the merchants who intrust their lives or their goods to the sea are largely dependent upon the correctness of the charts4 ,besides their main purpose charts fill many other needs1 among which are2 for preliminary planning of harbor improvements and various engineering works1 for defensive works and other military uses1 for the fishing interests1 and for general information as to the coastal regions4 ,charts will furnish much of interest and instruction to the traveler by sea and the dweller near the coast1 who will learn to read them4 ,passenger steamers should more often for the interest of their patrons display charts of the waters traversed4 ,no written or verbal description can give as clear an idea of geographical features and relations as a good map or chart4 ,as the charts are revised from time to time1 a comparison of editions at different dates furnishes a record of the changes wrought by nature or man1 and this is especially useful in studying the action in many harbor and river entrances1 as well as for historical purposes4 ,requirements for charts4 ,as charts are maps of the water areas1 including the adjoining land1 and intended primarily for the use of mariners1 they differ in important respects from topographic maps or general maps1 even such as include the water areas4 ,the main requirements for charts are these2 correct and complete information1 early publication of new data1 clear and intelligible representation of the information1 convenient arrangement as navigational instruments1 and high standard of publication4 ,the special and sometimes difficult conditions under which charts must be used on shipboard call for good judgment throughout their preparation4 ,even the paper on which they are printed is of importance1 in order that they may be sufficiently durable and suitable for plotting4 ,information given on charts4 ,it is evident that it is impossible to represent on a chart of any practicable scale all the features that exist on the corresponding area of the earth's surface4 ,it is essential1 therefore1 that a selection be made of the classes of facts that are to be shown1 as well as of the detail that is to be used for each class4 ,the practical utility of the chart depends largely on the good judgment used in this selection4 ,in the information shown1 charts differ from maps principally in representing by soundings and curves the configuration of the bottom of the water area1 and in showing ordinarily the topographic features only in the vicinity of the coast line4 ,the convenience of mariners should govern in the selection and arrangement of the information to be shown on charts1 though they may be made useful for other purposes so long as this convenience is not lessened4 ,the needs and preferences of navigators alone1 however1 differ so much that a reasonable chart must be somewhat of a compromise between conflicting views4 ,for certain classes of navigation a boldly drawn chart showing only the dangers and a few other soundings and some landmarks might be useful4 ,for other maritime purposes a more detailed chart would be valuable4 ,the first1 however1 would fail to give facts often demanded in the navigational use of the chart1 and the second if carried to an extreme would make a chart difficult to use4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,state ,,of ,,advancement ,,of ,,hydrographic ,,surveys ,,of ,,the ,,coasts ,,of ,,the ,,world1 #aijd4 ,by ,g4 ,w4 ,littlehales4 ,shoals and dangers are shown either by the least depth or by rock or reef symbols4 ,the characteristic soundings are shown on the chart1 with abbreviations indicating the nature of the bottom4 ,depth curves are drawn1 joining together points of like depth1 and inclosing areas of less depth1 on the same principle that contours are used on land maps2 usually also the shoaler spots are made more prominent by sanding or tinting the area within them4 ,lighthouses1 buoys1 and other artificial aids to navigation are represented1 with descriptive abbreviations4 ,the coast is shown by a bold solid line for high water and a dotted line for low water4 ,the main topographic features are represented for a moderate distance from the coast1 with such detail as is useful1 depending on the scale of the chart4 ,elevations are given in figures for prominent summits1 islands1 and rocks2 the general configuration of hills and mountains is represented by contours on large scale charts or by hachures or shading on small scale charts4 ,rivers1 streams1 lakes1 marshes1 towns1 roads1 prominent buildings1 and other important topographic features are shown by appropriate symbols4 ,it is important that objects which may be useful in navigation as landmarks1 whether natural or artificial1 be plainly shown and described1 if necessary to their identification1 and that they should not be obscured by details of lesser importance4 ,on the larger scale charts only1 vegetation features1 particularly areas covered by trees1 are represented by symbols4 ,the land area is usually clearly distinguished from the water area by a tint or stipple4 ,latitude and longitude are given by the projection lines and the subdivided border1 or sometimes on harbor plans by a note giving the position of some one point4 ,brief information as to the time and range of the tides is stated in a note4 ,data regarding currents1 whether due to tidal or other causes1 are given by current arrows placed on the chart1 or by explanatory notes4 ,compasses are for convenience printed on the charts1 and data given as to the magnetic variation and its rate of change4 ,on large scale charts scales are provided for use in measuring distances4 ,ranges and channel lines are given when required4 ,the ports are indicated where storm warning signals are displayed4 ,the areas of forbidden anchorages are shown1 and when important1 the positions of submarine cables4 ,the lines dividing the high seas from inland waters are sometimes stated on ,united ,states charts4 ,life saving stations are given1 and time balls are usually noted4 ,views of important features are shown on some charts4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,symbols ,,used ,,on ,,charts ,,of ,,the ,,united ,,states ,,coast ,,and ,,geodetic ,,survey4 ,the layman who looks at the printed chart probably does not appreciate the amount or the variety of information that must be gathered and sifted and put in proper shape for a single chart4 ,,collection ,,of ,,information ,,for ,,charts ,need of thorough surveys4 ,as has been stated1 a good chart requires that a thorough and correct survey be first made of the region to be charted4 ,it is said that men are very apt to accept as true anything they see on a map4 ,as to the nautical chart the mariner is likely to be somewhat more critical1 however1 and it is well that he is4 ,the difficulty of charting an invisible surface such as the bottom of the sea is great1 and the proportion of the navigable waters surveyed in sufficient detail to be at all certain of the absence of uncharted dangers is small4 ,the planning of surveys in a new region1 such1 for instance1 as the ,philippine ,islands1 presents many interesting problems1 on the solution of which the effectiveness in chart results and the cost of the work materially depend4 ,many local conditions must be taken into account4 ,the surveys are made on opposite coasts according to the seasonal winds and rainfall4 ,in some parts fair-sized steamers are necessary2 in others launches and small boats can do the work more economically4 ,shore parties with land transportation are used for portions of the work where the country permits4 ,natives are employed as far as practicable for the classes of work they can do2 the ,filipinos1 for instance1 make good sailors on the vessels and excellent penmen in the office4 ,the following is a brief outline of the steps of a complete survey for charting purposes1 according to the present practice of the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey4 ,these are given in their logical order1 though in actual work this order must often be departed from4 ,in this ,survey the methods of control have been of a high standard2 that is1 the main stations have been accurately determined and permanently marked and described1 and this has proven an advantage in the joining together of the original surveys and resurveys4 ,astronomical observations4 ,to locate on the surface of the earth the area to be charted1 astronomical observations are required for the latitude and longitude of one or more points4 ,in the best practice the longitude of a point is obtained by observing the transits of stars to get the local time1 and sending time signals by telegraph to obtain the difference from the local time of some other place whose longitude is known4 ,the latitude is observed by measuring the difference of zenith distance of pairs of stars crossing the meridian north and south of the zenith4 ,the azimuth or true direction of some line is also obtained from star observations1 usually by observations with a theodolite on a circumpolar star4 ,much existing chart work depends on positions determined by less accurate methods1 as1 for instance1 longitudes obtained by transporting chronometers between the known station and that to be determined1 or by observations of moon culminations1 and latitudes obtained by direct observations of the altitudes of stars with theodolite or sextant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,,symbols ,,used ,,on ,,charts ,,of ,,the ,,british ,,hydrographic ,,office4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,,triangulation ,,of ,a ,,bay1 ,,showing ,,location ,,of ,,survey ,,signals ,,and ,,landmarks4 ,triangulation4 ,the main framework of the survey consists of a series of triangles connecting prominently located points which are permanently marked in the ground and the location described so that they can be found at a future time4 ,at long intervals in the survey base lines are laid out and carefully measured with steel tape4 ,signals are erected over the points1 including those at the ends of the base line1 and angles are then measured at the various stations4 ,from the measured length of the base and the angles the lengths of the sides of the triangles are computed1 and from these lengths and the latitude and longitude of one point the latitudes and longitudes of all the other points are obtained4 ,when several astronomically determined points are connected by such a triangulation a complication arises from what is known as deflection of the plumb line1 which is the angular amount by which the actual sea-level surface of the earth departs from the symmetrical figure of revolution1 owing to the variations in the density of the earth's outer layers4 ,the distance between two points as measured by triangulation thus differs from the distance computed from the astronomically determined positions4 ,if this irregularity were not taken care of by adopting mean positions1 the discrepancy in joining up different surveys would in extreme cases amount to about half a mile4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,,triangulation ,,station ,,and ,,signal1 ,,on ,,alaska ,,coast4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,,measuring ,,angles ,,with ,,theodolite ,,at ,,triangulation ,,station ,,on ,,alaska ,,coast4 ,survey sheets are next prepared1 of suitable size and scale4 ,on each sheet a projection is laid down1 that is1 the meridians and parallels are drawn1 and all the points determined in the triangulation are plotted in their true relation4 ,usually separate sheets are prepared for the topography or shore survey and for the hydrography or survey of the water area4 ,topography4 ,the topographic survey of the shore and as much of the adjacent area as is required is usually made with a plane table1 on which the map is actually drawn in the field as the work progresses4 ,points are located on the plane table sheet either by direct reading of the distance on a stadia rod or by intersections from two or more stations4 ,on the plane table sheet it is customary to locate the shore or high-water line1 the low-water line1 off-lying rocks1 streams1 rivers1 roads1 towns1 lighthouses1 and all prominent features near the coast4 ,elevations are measured with the plane table or obtained from the triangulation1 and are represented on the sheet both by figures and by contours1 which are lines joining together points of the same elevation4 ,for instance1 a #ajj-;foot contour represents the line where a plane #ajj feet above sea level would cut the surface of the ground4 ,it is particularly important in this topographic work to locate accurately objects which are good landmarks and likely to be of use to the mariner4 ,in some regions auxiliary methods are used in filling in the topography1 as1 for instance1 along a difficult coast each feature of importance may be located by sextant angles1 or a traverse line may be run along the shore by the transit and stadia method4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,,topographic ,,survey ,,party ,,at ,,work ,,with ,,plane ,,table ,,on ,,the ,,pribilof ,,islands4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,,survey ,,signal ,,of ,,iron ,,pipe ,,on ,,the ,,bar ,,off ,,the ,,mouth ,,of ,,the ,,yukon ,,river4 ,the hydrography1 or the survey of the water area1 is of prime importance for the chart1 but in the order of prosecution of the work it is convenient but not essential that it come after sufficient points have been located by the triangulation and topography4 ,a hydrographic sheet is prepared on which all the points are plotted which will be useful4 ,a system of sounding lines is then run over the entire area to be surveyed1 locating the position of the sounding boat at intervals by sextant angles on survey signals or by angles from the shore4 ,the ordinary method of sounding is to cast a lead from a boat and read the depth when the lead touches bottom and the line is vertical1 and make note of the nature of the bottom4 ,there is a systematic spacing between the casts of the lead and between the lines passed over by the boat1 depending on the depth of water and character of the bottom4 ,for soundings in deeper water various forms of sounding machines are used1 with weight attached to a wire4 ,for very great depths a small steel wire is employed and the weight is detached and left on the bottom4 ,the deepest sounding thus far made1 #ebfi fathoms1 or nearly six miles1 was obtained by this method in the ,pacific ,ocean near ,guam4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,,hydrographic ,,party ,,sounding ,,with ,,launch ,,in ,,baltimore ,,harbor4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,,the ,,lucas ,,automatic ,,sounding ,,machine ,,for ,,depths ,,to #ejjj ,,fathoms1 ,,with ,,engine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,,the ,,sigsbee ,,sounding ,,machine ,,on ,a ,,surveying ,,vessel4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,,longitudinal ,,section ,,of ,,surveying ,,steamer ,,fathomer1 ,,showing ,,general ,,arrangements4 ,the offshore soundings are made from a surveying steamer2 the inshore work is usually done by a launch or small boat4 ,so far as the navigational use of charts is concerned it is important that the hydrography shall show the limiting depths and the freedom from dangers1 of channels1 entrances1 harbors1 and anchorages4 ,it is also desirable that the soundings shall be carried off shore at least as far as the one-hundred-fathom curve1 as with the modern forms of navigational sounding machines it is possible for vessels under way to obtain soundings to this depth1 and such soundings may be of value in identifying the location of the vessel4 ,for depths greater than one hundred fathoms the soundings have less direct value to navigation except as proving the absence of shoaler areas1 but soundings throughout the oceanic regions are of great geographical interest as well as of direct practical value in the laying of cables4 ,it is obvious that the plan of mapping the sea bottom by dropping a lead at intervals over its hidden surface is far from an ideal one4 ,the lead gives the depth only at the point at which it touches the bottom1 and no information as to the space between the casts except such as may be inferred from the relation of successive soundings4 ,in numerous cases1 after what was considered a very thorough survey of a region had been made1 at some later day a pinnacle rock or other danger has been discovered4 ,for instance1 a very detailed hydrographic survey of ,buzzards ,bay was made in #ahie2 the sounding lines were run at intervals of #ej to #ajj yards1 and #ia1jjj soundings were made for a single sheet4 ,within this area the cruiser ,brooklyn in #aijb touched a rock which was found to have #ah feet over it4 7,fig4 #ag47 ,the least depth in the vicinity developed in the original survey was #ca feet4 ,for the satisfactory development of hydrographic work some invention is much needed which as it passes along the bottom will give a continuous depth curve4 ,several devices have successfully accomplished this in shoal water1 but great credit awaits the inventor who designs something of more general application4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,,portion ,,of ,,original ,,hydrographic ,,sheet1 ,,buzzards ,,bay1 ,,on ,,scale #a-ajjjj1 ,,showing ,,area ,,closely ,,sounded ,,in #ahie1 ,,where ,,the ,,brooklyn ,,struck ,,in #aijb4 ,tides and currents4 ,information must be obtained as to the movement of the water1 both vertical and horizontal4 ,the rise and fall of the tide are obtained by tide gauges1 either automatic1 which draw a continuous tidal curve on a roll of paper1 or simple tide staffs1 which must be read at intervals4 ,the currents1 whether due to the tides or other movements1 are measured by noting the movement of partially submerged floats4 ,less accurate but useful information as to currents is obtained from the logs of vessels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,,dragging ,,for ,,dangers ,,with ,a ,,long ,,wire4 ,dragging for dangers has long been resorted to for the investigation of isolated spots4 ,a valuable and successful means has been employed recently of making sure that an area is free from shoals or rocks having less than a certain depth4 ,this is done by dragging through the water a wire from #ejj to #adjj feet long1 and suspended at the required depth1 with suitable buoys and weights1 and kept taut by the angle of pull4 ,if1 for instance1 the wire is set at a depth of #cj feet it will indicate the presence of any obstruction of less depth by catching on it and upsetting the buoys1 and such spots are at once marked and investigated4 ,considerable work has been done with such drags in the last few years on the ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts and on the ,great ,lakes4 ,this is of course a somewhat tedious process and gives no information as to depths greater than that for which the wire is set1 but the experience already had indicates its great value4 ,it will probably be found desirable in time to thus drag all water areas important to navigation where the depth is near the draft of vessels and the irregular nature of the bottom gives indication of dangers4 ,in extensive dragging operations near ,key ,west and in ,jericho ,bay1 ,maine1 a number of shoals have been picked up which were not found in the original surveys4 ,a remarkable instance of the value of the drag was the recent discovery of a rock in ,blue ,hill ,bay on the coast of ,maine4 ,this rock has but #g feet of water over it1 and is only #f feet in diameter at the top4 ,it is surrounded by depths of #gh feet1 from which it rises nearly perpendicularly4 ,the original survey gave no indication of a danger here1 and its existence was not suspected until it was discovered with the wire drag4 ,another method of dragging that has been employed is by means of a pipe suspended beneath a ship's bottom4 ,magnetic variation4 ,as the compass is a universal navigational instrument1 information as to the magnetic variation is needed for the charts4 ,the angle between the direction of the magnetic needle and the true north is measured at various points on both land and sea1 and at some stations these observations are repeated after a number of years4 ,from these results magnetic maps are made1 from which both the variation and its annual change may be taken4 ,reports of dangers4 ,aside from the more systematic surveys as outlined above1 much information has been placed on the charts from other sources4 ,on the earlier charts and on those of more remote regions at the present day much of the work has been sketched rather than surveyed4 ,even in the better surveyed portions reports come in as to dangers or other matters not shown1 and if of importance and the report appears to be reliable these are sometimes at once put on the chart pending further investigation1 or in other cases an examination is first made4 ,shoals1 rocks1 and even islands have in numerous instances been shown on the charts which no one has been able to find again1 and many of them after repeated searches have been removed4 ,the same island or danger has sometimes been charted in two or more different positions as reported at various times4 ,the treatment of such cases is one of the serious and interesting problems of the chart maker4 ,it is generally less harmful to show a danger which does not exist than to omit one which does exist4 ,on the other hand a non-existing danger shown on a chart may be the cause of actual expense and loss of time in compelling a vessel needlessly to go out of its course4 ,it is surprising to note with what lack of care and of sufficient evidence reports of dangers at sea have sometimes been made1 and how incomplete are many of the reports even when the existence of the danger is beyond question4 ,it is unfortunately true that some of these reports are the result of effort to escape blame for accident by throwing the fault on the chart4 ,many such reports also result from various illusory appearances4 ,a large tree covered with weeds1 an overturned iceberg strewn with earth and stones1 a floating ice-pan covered with earth1 the swollen carcass of a dead whale1 a whale with clinging barnacles and seaweed1 reflections from the clouds1 marine animalcul1 vegetable growth1 scum1 floating volcanic matter1 and partially submerged wrecks covered with barnacles1 have been mistaken for islands1 shoals1 or reefs4 ,a school of jumping fish has given the appearance of breakers or caused a sound like surf1 and tide rips have been mistaken for breakers4 ,raper very properly calls attention to the obligation upon every seaman of carefully investigating doubtful cases and making reliable reports4 ,of the dangers to which navigation is exposed none is more formidable than a reef or a shoal in the open sea2 not only from the almost certain fate of the ship and her crew that have the misfortune to strike upon it1 but also from the anxiety with which the navigation of all vessels1 within even a long distance1 must be conducted1 on account of the uncertainty to which their own reckonings are ever open4 ,no commander of a vessel1 therefore1 who might meet unexpectedly with any such danger1 could be excused1 except by urgent circumstances1 from taking the necessary steps both for ascertaining its true position1 and for giving a description as complete as a prudent regard to his own safety allowed4 ,as to the older doubtful dangers now shown on the oceanic charts1 it is estimated that the positions may be considered as uncertain by #aj miles in latitude and #cj miles in longitude1 and areas of this extent must be searched to determine definitely the question of their existence4 ,the following are interesting or typical cases of reported dangers3 ,the master of an ,italian bark in ,september1 #ahgd1 reported sighting a large rock in latitude #dj ,n4 and longitude #fb #ah ,w4 ,fortunately for the charts there were two independent reports from other vessels in the same month of sighting a partially submerged wreck in this vicinity4 ,the ,spanish steamer ,carmen was wrecked in #ahia by running on a rock off the southwest coast of ,leyte2 the rock was reported to lie one mile off shore1 a dangerous position for vessels using ,canigao ,channel4 ,a survey made in #aijc showed #eh feet of water in this location1 and that ,carmen ,rock on which the vessel struck was really within one-fourth mile of the beach4 ,the rock had1 however1 for twelve years been shown on the charts in a position which made it an obstruction to navigation4 ,the ship ,minerva in #ahcd was reported to have struck a rock near the middle of the broad entrance to ,balayan ,bay2 the fact that this occurred at #b ,a4,m4 indicated a very doubtful position1 but it was stated that an ,american ship had previously been wrecked on the same rock4 ,it consequently appeared as a danger on the charts for seventy-one years1 when a survey showed no depth of less than #aij fathoms in this vicinity1 and it was removed from the charts4 ,a ,british steamer was wrecked in ,san ,bernardino ,strait in #aije2 the master reported that he was in a position where the chart showed #ea fathoms1 and that he was #a-a_/b miles distant from ,calantas ,rock1 and on these grounds the finding of the official inquiry was that no blame can be attached to the master1 officers1 or any of the crew for the casualty4 ,very shortly after the disaster1 the surveying steamer ,pathfinder definitely located the wreck and made a survey of the vicinity4 ,the previous chart of ,calantas ,reef was found to be fairly correct1 and the stranding was determined to have occurred well within this reef in a position where the chart showed soundings of #c-c_/d to #d-c_/d fathoms1 and #a_/b mile from ,calantas ,rock1 which rises #e feet above high water4 ,a transport entering ,san ,bernardino ,strait a few years ago ran on a rock and was damaged2 the position was reported as about two miles southeast of ,san ,bernardino ,island and near the middle of the passage4 ,the rock was not put on the charts1 as prompt investigation showed #ej fathoms of water in this vicinity1 and that in all probability the transport actually touched a small reef making out from the island4 ,the master of the brig ,helen reported that his vessel was wrecked on a reef lying six miles from ,rockall4 ,when surveyed ,helen ,reef was found to be about one-third this distance from ,rockall4 ,an island has been reported in eight different positions1 ranging in latitude from #cj #bi to #cj #db ,n4 and in longitude from #aci #cg to #adj #ch ,e4 ,there have been a number of reports of islands in the area from latitude #dj #jj to #dj #cj ,n4 and longitude #aej #cj to #aea #jj ,w4 ,the master of the bark ,washington reported in #ahfg3 ,on my passage from the ,sandwich ,islands to the northwest coast of the ,united ,states1 when in latitude #dj #jj ,n41 in a dense fog1 ,i perceived the sea to be discolored4 ,soundings at first gave great depths1 but diminished gradually to #i fathoms1 when through the mist an island was seen1 along which ,i sailed #dj miles4 ,it was covered with birds1 and the sea swarmed with seal and sea elephants4 ,a ,united ,states vessel searched in this vicinity without seeing any indication of land1 and obtained soundings of #bfjj fathoms4 ,a ,british ship in #aheh searched for fourteen days over this area without finding anything4 ,searches were also made in #ahfj and #ahfg without success1 and the present charts show no islands in this part of the ,pacific4 ,in a number of cases erroneous positions have been due simply to blunders4 ,thus ,lots ,wife1 first seen by ,captain ,meares in #aghh1 was shown on his chart in latitude #bi #ej ,n41 longitude #aef #jj ,e41 and stated in his book to be in latitude #bi #ej ,n4 and longitude #adb #bc ,e4 ,massachusetts ,island by one report was in longitude #agg #je ,e4 and by another in #afg #je ,e4 ,the apparent blunder of #aj is now immaterial1 as the island has disappeared from the charts altogether4 ,the ,knox ,islands were placed by the ,wilkes ,exploring ,expedition in latitude #e #ei #ae ,n41 longitude #agb #jb #cc ,e4 ,the old ,british charts showed islands of this name also in latitude #e #ei ,n41 longitude #agb #jc ,w41 the longitude being doubtless transposed4 ,in the case of ,starbuck ,island1 discovered south of the equator1 the latitude was apparently transposed1 as on old charts it was also shown in the position1 latitude #e #dj ,n41 longitude #aef #ee ,w4 ,a pinnacle rock can sometimes be located only with great difficulty even when known to exist4 ,rodger ,rock1 on which the bark ,ellen struck and was damaged1 lies in latitude #j #da #ae ,n4 and longitude #ajg #ca ,e4 ,it has but three feet over it at low tide4 ,the ,british surveying ship ,rifleman searched four days before finding it1 although the plotted tracks showed that she and her boats had passed very close to it4 ,this indicates that great caution must be used in removing a reported danger from the charts4 ,the old charts of the ,atlantic indicated a danger #cj to #de miles to the southwest of ,cape ,st4 ,vincent4 ,this danger was omitted from the charts about #aghf owing to lack of confirmation4 ,later1 in #ahac and #ahba1 it was reported that vessels were lost or damaged by striking this rock4 ,soundings of over a thousand fathoms are now shown on the chart in this vicinity and the rock no longer appears4 ,a comparison of a ,pacific ,ocean chart of about forty years ago with one of the present time 7,fig4 #ai7 illustrates in a striking manner how many doubtful dangers1 or vigias1 have gotten on the charts and how after laborious search many of them have now been removed4 ,this condition was especially true of the ,pacific1 owing to the numerous reports of an indefinite nature from whaling ships1 among whose captains there was a saying that they do not care where their ship is1 so long as there are plenty of whales in sight4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,,portion ,,of ,,charts ,,of #ahfi ,,and #aijc1 ,,of ,,the ,,pacific ,,ocean ,,west ,,of ,,the ,,hawaiian ,,islands1 ,,to ,,illustrate ,,the ,,removal ,,of ,,doubtful ,,dangers4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,,portion ,,of ,,chart ,,of ,,ponce ,,harbor1 ,,scale #a-bjjjj1 ,,to ,,show ,,selection ,,of ,,soundings ,,from ,,original ,,survey ,,given ,,below4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,,hydrographic ,,survey ,,of ,,same ,,portion ,,of ,,ponce ,,harbor1 ,,reduced ,,to ,,one-,,half ,,scale ,,of ,,original ,,sheet4 ,,preparation ,,of ,,information ,,for ,,charts4 ,chart schemes4 ,before commencing the preparation of a chart it is necessary to arrange a definite scheme for it1 and the usefulness of the chart will depend materially on this preliminary plan1 in which must be outlined its scale1 size1 limits1 and features to be represented4 ,new charts have sometimes been prepared simply to fit the surveys as they progressed or to fill immediate or local requirements4 ,it is1 however1 desirable that general plans for series or groups of charts be made1 and with changing needs1 information1 and conditions it is sometimes necessary that existing schemes be modified4 ,compilation of information4 ,considerable work must usually be done to get the field records in shape for the published chart4 ,the soundings must be plotted and the characteristic depths selected4 ,only a part of the soundings that are made can be shown on the original sheet and only a small part of these are used on the final chart4 ,a selection is made showing the least soundings on shoals and bars1 the channel depths1 and the characteristic soundings in anchorages and other areas4 ,the original surveys are generally made on a considerably larger scale than that on which the chart is published1 in order that the soundings may be more thoroughly plotted4 ,the sheets must then be reduced to the scale of publication1 and this can conveniently be done by means of photography or with a pantograph4 ,the best judgment is required in selecting the important features to be shown on the chart and omitting the less important and not essential features which might tend to obscure the others4 ,in charts of new regions where complete surveys are lacking1 care must be exercised in weighing1 combining1 and adjusting information from various sources and which is1 perhaps1 more or less conflicting4 ,projections4 ,the surface of the earth being curved1 there is no possible system of projection by which it can be represented on a flat sheet of paper in an ideally satisfactory way4 ,numerous methods of projecting the earth's surface upon a plane have been proposed and many of them are actually used for various purposes4 ,in general each projection has qualities which are valuable for certain uses1 and deficiencies which make it less valuable in other ways4 ,only four of the different projections need be mentioned here as of special interest in chart construction4 ,mercator projection4 ,this is a rectangular projection in which the meridians are straight lines spaced at equal intervals and the parallels are straight lines so spaced as to satisfy the condition that a rhumb line1 or line on the earth cutting successive meridians at the same angle1 shall appear on the developed projection as a straight line preserving the same angle with respect to the meridians4 ,this projection may be considered as the unrolling upon a plane of the surface of a cylinder tangent to the earth along the equator1 and upon which the various features of the earth's surface have been projected in such manner as to satisfy the above requirement4 ,on this projection there is a constant distance between the meridians1 whereas on the earth they actually converge toward the poles4 ,the distance between the parallels increases in passing toward the poles1 approximately in the proportion of the secant of the latitude4 ,for each small portion of the map the relative proportions are maintained as on the earth4 ,some characteristics of the mercator projection are these3 ,the meridians and parallels are all straight lines and perpendicular to each other2 there is no convergence of the meridians2 the minute of longitude is a constant distance on the map2 the minute of latitude increases in length from the equator toward the poles but locally retains its true proportion to the minute of longitude2 areas and distances increase in scale with the latitude so that a given scale is strictly correct only for one latitude2 great circles and consequently lines of sight are curved lines excepting the meridians and the equator2 rhumb lines or lines having a constant angle with the meridians are straight1 and for the same angle are parallel in all parts of the chart4 ,these qualities are all rigid and the projection can therefore be used for all areas1 small or large1 up to the extent of the earth's surface1 except that it cannot be extended to the poles1 as there the length of the minute of latitude would become infinite4 ,an interesting fact regarding a rhumb line oblique to the meridians is that it is a spiral continually approaching but never reaching the pole2 this spiral makes an infinite number of revolutions around the pole1 and yet it has a finite length for the reason that the length of each revolution diminishes as the number of revolutions increases4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,,mercator ,,projection ,,of ,,north ,,pacific ,,ocean1 ,,showing ,,great ,,circle ,,routes ,,yokohama ,,to ,,puget ,,sound1 ,,and ,,yokohama ,,to ,,honolulu ,,and ,,thence ,,to ,,san ,,francisco4 ,the mercator projection has been extensively used for nautical charts1 for which it presents important mechanical advantages1 in that adjacent charts can be joined on all their edges while still oriented with the meridian2 all charts are similar2 the border may be conveniently subdivided1 giving a longitude scale applicable to any part of the chart1 but a latitude scale that may be used in the same latitude only2 courses are laid down as straight lines and can be transferred with parallel rulers from one part of the chart to another without error4 ,on a mercator chart an island in latitude #fj would appear four times as large as an island of the same actual area at the equator1 but this distortion of areas1 while it gives erroneous impressions on charts of great extent in latitude1 does not seriously affect the use of the chart for nautical purposes4 ,areas may also be correctly measured on a mercator map by taking each projection quadrilateral separately1 subdividing it if necessary1 and using the published tables of areas of quadrilaterals in different latitudes4 ,although distance scales vary with the latitude1 distances can be taken from this chart with fair correctness by the use of the latitude border scale for the middle latitude1 subdividing the total distance if there is much range of latitude4 ,the inability to take off the great circle or shortest course directly from the mercator chart is from a navigational point of view a defect1 but the most convenient solution for this appears to be the supplementary use of a gnomonic chart as will be described4 ,the fact that lines of sight are not straight lines on this projection is another defect1 as by the plotting of bearings and angles on approaching the land the positions of vessels are located on the chart2 fortunately1 however1 the error due to this cause usually falls within the other uncertainties involved in locating a ship2 if need be it would be practicable to allow for this curvature4 ,in the polar regions1 however1 the faults of the mercator projection become so much exaggerated that it is not used for navigational purposes1 but because of the absence of commercial navigation there this is a minor matter in the general question of chart projection4 ,for the plotting of original surveys the mercator projection is not suited and is not used1 for the reasons above mentioned4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,,polyconic ,,projection ,,of ,,portion ,,of ,,north ,,pacific ,,ocean4 ,tables of meridional parts are published which give the distance in terms of minutes of longitude from the equator to the various parallels2 with these tables a mercator projection may readily be constructed4 ,airy proposed a graphical method of sweeping the arc of a great circle on to a mercator chart1 and tables are published for this purpose4 ,the method is only approximate and is limited in application1 and the supplementary use of a gnomonic chart would appear to be preferable4 ,polyconic projection4 ,in plotting the original surveys it is essential that a projection be used which will for the area included on a survey sheet show the points in their correct relation both as to direction and distance4 ,these conditions are substantially fulfilled by several projections1 of which the polyconic is used in the ,united ,states4 ,if a hollow cone were placed so that it would either be tangent to the earth's surface along one of the parallels of latitude or cut it along two parallels1 and the points projected on to this cone1 and the cone then unrolled and laid out flat1 the result would be a conical projection1 of which there are several variations4 ,if successive tangent cones be used and each parallel of latitude be developed as the circumference of the base of a right cone tangent to the spheroid along that parallel1 the result is the polyconic projection1 which has been used for field sheets and for the large scale charts1 as well as for the topographic maps of the ,united ,states4 ,this projection has valuable qualities for moderate areas of the earth's surface1 within which the scale is approximately uniform1 areas retain nearly their true proportions1 and great circles and consequently all bearings and directions are approximately straight lines4 ,the parallels of latitude are arcs of circles with radiuses increasing as we recede from the pole2 therefore they are not truly parallel and the length of the degree of latitude increases either side from the central meridian4 ,the meridians converge toward the poles and become slightly curved as we recede from the central one2 the longitude scale is everywhere correct1 but the latitude scale is strictly correct only on the central meridian4 ,the angles of intersection of parallels and meridians are right angles or nearly so4 ,the polyconic projection is not used for very extensive areas of the earth's surface1 as for instance a hemisphere4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,,gnomonic ,,chart ,,of ,,north ,,pacific ,,ocean1 ,,showing ,,great ,,circle ,,routes ,,yokohama ,,to ,,puget ,,sound1 ,,and ,,yokohama ,,to ,,honolulu ,,and ,,thence ,,to ,,san ,,francisco4 ,gnomonic projection4 ,in this projection the eye is assumed to be at the center of the earth and the features are projected upon a plane tangent to some point on the earth's surface4 ,it is practicable to use this projection for oceanic areas1 and it has the very important quality that every straight line on it represents a great circle of the earth4 ,to obtain the great circle or shortest course between two points it is therefore only necessary to draw a straight line between the points on a gnomonic chart4 ,because of the great distortion near the edges this projection is not otherwise adapted to navigational use1 and it is employed only to mark out the general course1 and sufficient points are then transferred to a mercator chart4 ,the gnomonic chart is therefore useful in supplementing the mercator chart1 supplying its deficiencies as to convenience in marking out great circle courses4 ,the great circle course can be derived not only more easily and quickly from the gnomonic chart than by computation1 but the chart is also to be preferred because the course marked out on it will show at once if any obstruction1 as an island or danger1 is met or too high a latitude is reached4 ,a modified or composite course can readily be laid out on a gnomonic chart4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,,north ,,polar ,,chart ,,on ,,arbitrary ,,projection4 ,arbitrary projection4 ,the few charts published of the polar regions are sometimes on an arbitrary projection1 in which the meridians are straight lines radiating from the pole and the parallels are equidistant circles with the pole as center4 ,the latitude scale is uniform4 ,at some distance from the pole the longitude scale becomes very much distorted1 but the projection is a practicable and convenient one for the immediate polar regions4 ,gnomonic and conical projections are also used for the polar charts1 differing little from the foregoing for moderate areas4 ,scales4 ,charts are published on a variety of scales to suit different needs of navigation1 and the usual classification depends on scale4 ,in addition to the ocean charts covering a single ocean in either one or several sheets and intended for navigation on the high seas1 there are for our ,atlantic coast the following series3 ,sailing charts1 scale about #a_/abjjjjj1 for general coastwise navigation4 ,general coast charts1 scale #a_/djjjjj1 for local coastwise navigation4 ,coast charts1 scale #a_/hjjjj1 for approaching the coast at any point and for inside passages4 ,harbor and channel charts1 of various large scales from #a_/ejjj to #a_/fjjjj1 for entering harbors and rivers and passing through channels4 ,the expression of scales by miles to the inch or inches to the mile is the more familiar4 ,the expression of scale in the manner used by the ,coast ,survey and by most of the ,european countries1 by standard fractions as #a_/hjjjj1 meaning that any distance on the chart is #a_/hjjjj of the actual distance on the earth1 has some advantages4 ,for instance1 the relation of these fractions gives at a glance the relation of the scales of the charts4 ,thus a #a_/hjjjj chart is on a scale five times as large as a #a_/djjjjj chart4 ,for the more important harbors charts have been published on several different scales to meet various needs4 ,thus ,new ,york ,harbor is shown on charts of scales of #a_/ajjjj1 #a_/djjjj1 #a_/hjjjj1 #a_/bjjjjj1 #a_/djjjjj and #a_/abjjjjj1 each of course including a different area4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,,new ,,york ,,harbor1 ,,portions ,,of ,,charts ,,on ,,four ,,different ,,scales4 ,the selection of suitable publication scales is of prime importance2 a large scale permits of greater clearness and of showing more detail1 but on the other hand restricts the area and the points that can be shown on a single sheet1 or else makes a chart of excessive dimensions4 ,in general in chart preparation the scale should be restricted to the minimum that can be used to fulfill the particular object and clearly represent what is desired4 ,a chart of very large scale is not convenient for plotting1 and a moving vessel may pass quickly beyond it or into range of objects beyond the limits of the chart4 ,,publication ,,of ,,charts4 ,methods of publication4 ,an ideal process of publication for nautical charts would include the following features2 rapidity in getting out new charts1 facility in reprinting and correcting existing charts1 clearness and sharpness of print1 durability of paper and print1 and correctness of scale4 ,it is difficult to fulfill all these requirements by any method as yet developed4 ,in the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey several different processes are in use at present2 charts are engraved on copper and printed directly from the copper plate1 or they are transferred from the copper plate to stone and printed from the stone1 or a finished drawing is made and transferred to stone by photolithography and printed from the stone1 or an etching is made on copper from a finished drawing and printed from a transfer to stone4 ,charts in other countries are in large part printed from engraved plates1 excepting some preliminary charts by lithography4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,,engraving ,a ,,chart ,,on ,a ,,copper ,,plate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,,engraving ,,soundings ,,on ,a ,,copper ,,plate ,,with ,a ,,machine4 ,copper plate engraving and printing have long been used in chart preparation4 ,a drawing is prepared as a guide for the engraver2 this must be correct as to all information to be shown but need not be a finished drawing4 ,a true projection is ruled upon a copper plate4 ,by photography a matrix is made from the drawing and a wax impression taken from this matrix4 ,this is then laid down on the copper to fit the projection1 and the impression is chemically fixed on to the copper4 ,the work thus marked out is engraved by hand or by machine4 ,a high degree of skill is required in the accuracy and finish necessary for chart engraving4 ,machines have been invented in recent years which can be used for portions of the work on copper plates1 as for instance for cutting the sounding figures1 the bottom characteristics1 the border and projection lines1 border divisions1 compasses1 line ruling1 and stipple ruling4 ,stamps and dies have been successfully used for some symbols and notes1 and roulettes for shading4 ,by means of these various machines1 many of which are ,american inventions1 the process of chart publication from plates has been materially facilitated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,,electrotyping ,,plant ,,for ,,electrotyping ,,chart ,,plates4 ,when the plate is completed an alto1 or raised copy1 is made by depositing copper on to it in an electrotype vat1 and from this alto another basso or sunken copy is made by the same process4 ,this latter basso is used in printing4 ,a copper plate may be used for about #cjjj impressions1 after which it may become too much worn for satisfactory chart printing4 ,by printing from a duplicate basso the original plate is preserved and additional copies can be made when needed4 ,the use of the alto also greatly facilitates matters when a considerable correction to the chart is required4 ,all the portions of the chart to be changed can be scraped off the alto1 and when a new basso is electrotyped from this scraped alto all such areas will of course appear as smooth copper1 on which the new work can be engraved4 ,numerous small corrections are called for on charts1 and on copper plates where these are to replace old work the latter is removed either by hammering up the back of the plate or by scraping its face4 ,printing directly from plates is a laborious process4 ,after the press bed has been carefully padded to take up inequalities in the plate1 the surface of the latter is covered with ink and then carefully wiped off by hand1 leaving the ink only in the engraved lines4 ,the paper1 first dampened1 is laid on the plate1 and passes with it beneath the cylinder of the press under considerable pressure4 ,the prints are calendered by being placed in a hydraulic press under #fjj tons pressure4 ,the charts are beautifully clear and sharp1 not equalled by other methods of printing4 ,owing to the wetting and drying of the paper1 the finished print is1 however1 quite appreciably smaller in scale than the plate1 and the shrinkage is greater in one direction than in the other4 ,the average day's work for one press and two men is #ge prints4 ,this is small compared with the output practicable with lithographic presses4 ,on the other hand a plate can be prepared for printing more readily than a lithographic stone4 ,for small editions the plate printing compares well in economy with lithographic printing1 and the plate can also be printed on short notice4 ,because of changes in aids to navigation and other corrections1 it is usually desirable to print at one time only a sufficient number of copies of a chart to meet current demands1 and not to carry a large stock on hand4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,,printing ,,charts ,,from ,,copper ,,plates2 ,,final ,,cleaning ,,of ,,the ,,plate ,,by ,,hand2 ,,plate ,,press ,,on ,,the ,,left4 ,the copper plates1 bassos1 and altos make a very convenient and enduring means of preserving the chart ready for printing or for further correction4 ,a large number of plates can be placed in a small space1 and if properly cared for they may be stored indefinitely without deterioration4 ,with plate printing it is not practicable to print more than one impression on the chart or to use more than one color1 and plate-printed charts are therefore in black only4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,,lithographing ,,presses ,,for ,,printing ,,charts2 ,,lithograph ,,stone ,,on ,,transfer ,,press4 ,engraving on stone4 ,on the ,united ,states ,lake ,survey the charts are first engraved on stone1 and by a special process the work is then transferred to small copper plates1 which are preserved4 ,the final publication is by lithography1 transferring again from the plates to stone4 ,photolithography is a quick method of publishing a chart4 ,it would be practicable by this means to reproduce the original survey sheets1 but ordinarily these are not suitable as to scale and legibility1 and it is necessary to make a new drawing1 usually on tracing vellum4 ,this is photographed on to glass plates1 on the scale of the proposed chart4 ,from these glass negatives positive prints are made on sensitized lithographic paper4 ,these prints are fitted together and then inked1 taking the ink only where the lines appear4 ,this transfer print is then laid face down on the lithographic stone and run through a press under pressure1 the stone absorbing the ink from the paper4 ,the stone is then treated so that the inked portion remains slightly raised1 and from this stone an indefinite number of charts can be printed in a lithographic press at the rate of #ajjj an hour4 ,the paper is not moistened1 and consequently there is little distortion or change of scale in prints from stone4 ,if desired to shade the land or use another color for any other purpose1 additional impressions can be made on the same charts from other stones4 ,because of the bulk of the stones1 work cannot ordinarily be retained on them1 but the chart is cleaned off and the stones repeatedly used until worn thin4 ,the original drawing as well as the negatives is preserved1 from which the chart can again be published4 ,for republication1 the process is1 however1 not entirely satisfactory2 the negatives are not always permanent1 the work must again be assembled and transferred to the stone1 changes or corrections are not very conveniently made on either drawing or negative1 and after repeated changes the drawing becomes difficult to use in photolithography4 ,whether the charts are actually printed from copper or stone1 there are decided advantages therefore in the matter of correction work and future editions in having the charts engraved on copper4 ,on the other hand1 the advantages of the photolithographic process are the ability to publish new drawings promptly1 to use more than one shade on a chart1 to obtain prints with little change of scale or distortion1 and to print large editions rapidly4 ,lithographic printing by transfer from engraved plates4 ,an impression on transfer paper may be taken from an engraved plate and this laid down on the stone in a manner similar to that used in laying down the prints from the glass negatives in photolithography4 ,prints are then made from the stone the same as in photolithography1 but with superior results as to clearness4 ,this general process is extensively used in both map and chart publishing in this country1 as it combines the advantages of the plate in preservation of the chart record and facility of correction1 and the advantages of the lithographic printing in less distortion of the printed chart1 ability to print more than one shade1 and facility for large editions4 ,as the transfer from the plate can be readily made it is also better applicable to small editions than is photolithography4 ,it is1 however1 not as convenient in the latter respect as plate printing1 and it does not give a resulting impression equal in clearness or durability to the impression directly from the plate4 ,etching on copper for chart publication has been recently developed in the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey4 ,a finished tracing is made1 the surface of a smooth copper plate is sensitized1 and by exposure to the sun a print is made on the sensitized surface4 ,it is essential to use an air-exhausted printing frame so as to get good contact between the vellum and the plate4 ,the work is then etched into the copper and the plate cleaned and touched up1 after which it may be used the same as a hand-engraved plate1 either for transfer to stone or direct plate printing4 ,the expense and time required in the etching process are much less than for hand engraving4 ,the process has been successfully used for a number of harbor charts4 ,the etching of course will be of the same scale as the vellum at the time of the print1 and vellum varies somewhat in scale with weather conditions and age4 ,unless overcome by the substitution of some more invariable material in place of vellum1 this might be an obstacle to the use of the process for general charts where a true scale on the copper plate is desirable because of future work to be done on the plate4 ,it must also be taken into account that the etching requires a finished tracing in ink1 which is not essential for the hand engraver2 if1 however1 the chart is first published by photolithography1 as is the usual practice in the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 the same tracing is used for both processes4 ,distribution of charts4 ,charts published by the government are sold to the public at a small price1 estimated to cover the cost of paper and printing4 ,the charts may be obtained direct from the publishing office or from the chart agents who are to be found in all the principal seaports4 ,catalogues are published from time to time giving complete lists of the current charts and the main facts regarding them4 ,index maps show graphically the area covered by each chart4 ,the notices to mariners contain announcement of new charts or new editions published and of charts or editions cancelled1 as well as of all corrections4 ,,correction ,,of ,,charts4 ,need for revision4 ,the making of the survey and the printing of the chart do not complete the problem of the chart maker4 ,both nature and man are constantly changing the facts the representation of which has been attempted on the charts1 and also the needs of man are always varying4 ,the original surveys are made to meet the reasonable requirements of the time1 but breakwaters and jetties are built1 and channels and harbors dredged and otherwise improved1 and cities built1 and new paths of commerce are opened which bring vessels into waters previously thought of minor importance4 ,with the increase of commerce and speed of vessels more direct routes are demanded for reasons of economy4 ,inside routes not originally used are sometimes developed for defensive reasons4 ,the average draft of the larger vessels has also increased remarkably since the modern hydrographic surveys were commenced1 and surveys once made to insure safety for the deepest vessels of that time are now not adequate4 ,the average loaded draft of the #bj largest steamships of the world has increased as follows3 #ahdh1 #ai feet2 #ahgc1 #bd feet2 #ahih1 #bi feet2 #aijc1 #cb feet4 ,the average length of these vessels was #bcj feet in #ahdh1 #cij feet in #ahgc1 #eda feet in #ahih1 and #fdj feet in #aijc4 ,the number of vessels drawing as much as #bf-a_/d feet rose from #cf in #aijb to #ahe in #aijd4 ,in #aijf there were #ag vessels afloat1 drawing #cb feet and upwards4 ,there are now two steamers on the ,atlantic #gij feet long1 #hh feet beam1 and #cg-a_/b feet draft when fully loaded1 and larger vessels are already planned4 ,great natural agencies are also constantly at work effecting changes in features shown on the charts4 ,the action of currents and waves is continually cutting away or building the shore1 particularly on sandy coasts exposed to storms4 ,when surveyed in #ahdi ,fishing ,point on the east coast of ,maryland was but a bend in the shore line4 ,by #ahhg it had built out about two miles in a southerly direction1 and in #aijb about two-thirds of a mile further1 curving to the westward4 ,altogether in about half a century this tongue of land has grown out nearly three miles4 ,rivers are bearing vast quantities of sediment and depositing these near their mouths1 pushing out the coast line and filling in the bottom4 ,the main mouths of the ,mississippi are advancing into the ,gulf1 but at a comparatively slow rate4 ,a break from the main river at ,cubit's ,gap just above the head of the passes1 however1 has done an enormous amount of land making1 filling in an area of about #ej square miles between #aheb and #aije4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,,fishing ,,point1 ,,maryland1 ,,from ,,surveys ,,of #ahdi ,,and #aijb1 ,,illustrating ,,building ,,out ,,of ,a ,,point ,,on ,,the ,,coast4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,,growth ,,of ,,land ,,at ,,cubits ,,gap1 ,,mississippi ,,delta1 ,,from #aheb to #aije4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,,columbia ,,river ,,entrance1 ,,showing ,,movement ,,of ,,sand ,,island1 ,,surveys ,,of #ahea1 #ahgj ,,and #aije4 ,the mouth of the ,columbia ,river in ,oregon shows an interesting example of the movement of an island4 ,the chart of #ahea shows the center of ,sand ,island #c-a_/d miles southeast of ,cape ,disappointment1 the chart of #ahgj shows it #b-c_/d miles southeast1 and the chart of #aije shows it #a-a_/d miles easterly4 ,this island has thus moved #b miles northwesterly directly across the middle of the river entrance1 closing up the former north channel4 ,the southern point of the entrance1 ,clatsop ,spit1 has built out about the same distance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,,changes ,,in ,,haulover ,,break1 ,,nantucket ,,island1 #ahij ,,to #aijc4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,,maps ,,of ,,bogoslof ,,island1 #ahie ,,and #aijg1 ,,showing ,,changes ,,due ,,to ,,volcanic ,,action4 ,illustration3 ,photo by ,u4 ,s4 ,r4 ,c4 ,service4 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,,bogoslof ,,volcano1 ,,bering ,,sea4 ,volcanic action in well authenticated cases has caused islands to rise or disappear4 ,in the present location of ,bogoslof ,island in ,bering ,sea the early voyagers described a sail rock4 ,in this position in #agif there arose a high island4 ,in #ahhc another island appeared near it4 ,in #aijf a high cone arose between the two1 and a continuous island was formed over #a-a_/b miles long and #ejj feet high4 ,the latest report 7,september1 #aijg7 was that this central peak had suddenly collapsed and disappeared4 ,bogoslof is an active volcano1 and the main changes have been the result of violent volcanic action4 ,the history of this island for over a century past forms a remarkable record of violent transformations in the sea4 ,earthquakes sometimes cause sudden displacements1 horizontal or vertical1 of sufficient amount to affect the information shown on the charts4 ,a careful investigation of the effects of the earthquake in ,yakutat ,bay1 ,alaska1 in ,september1 #ahii1 showed that the shore was raised in some parts with a maximum uplift of #dg feet and depressed in other parts1 and that at least two reefs and four islets were raised in the water area where none appeared before4 ,undoubtedly there were changes in the water depths1 but definite information is lacking because there had been no previous hydrographic survey4 ,the ,san ,francisco earthquake of #aijf caused little vertical displacement1 but there were horizontal changes of relative position as much as #af feet2 so far as known this earthquake did not affect the practical accuracy of the charts4 ,related to earthquake phenomena are the gradual coast movements of elevation or subsidence which are taking place but at so slow a rate as not to sensibly affect the charts in ordinary intervals of time4 ,another agency at work is the coral polyp on the coral reefs2 although the rate of growth appears to be very slow1 the resulting reefs and keys are an important feature in tropical seas4 ,practically all of the land features shown on charts are likewise subject to changes1 the more rapid of which are mainly due to the works of man4 ,the changes of channels and of commercial needs cause many alterations to be made from time to time in the lights and buoys which are shown on the charts4 ,methods of correction4 ,the problem of keeping a chart sufficiently up to date is one of much practical importance and one which must be taken into account in planning what should be shown on the chart in the first place so as to bring it within the range of practicable revision4 ,certain features are corrected at once on the charts as soon as the information is received1 such as dangers reported1 and changes in lights and buoys4 ,where harbor works are in progress the periodic surveys made in this country by the ,corps of ,engineers furnish data which are applied promptly to the charts4 ,reported dangers in channels and bars are investigated by special surveys and the information is put on the charts4 ,examinations are made from time to time for the revision of the features along the coast line4 ,complete resurveys have been made1 at long intervals1 of some important portions of the coast where there has been evidence of change1 and these1 when they become available1 are applied to the charts4 ,all parts of the coast where the exposed portions are not of very permanent material will require resurveys at intervals1 depending on their importance and the rate of change4 ,notwithstanding the great progress made in hydrographic surveys1 a considerable number of rocks and shoals dangerous to navigation and not previously shown on the charts are reported1 averaging nearly #djj each year for the last six years1 according to the ,british reports4 ,of the #cfg reported in #aijf1 #aa were discovered by vessels striking them4 ,immediate information in the form of ,notices to ,mariners is published1 of the more important corrections to charts which can be made by hand4 ,these corrections show what charts are affected1 and give sufficient data for plotting4 ,in the case of extensive corrections or new surveys a new edition of the chart is printed and all existing copies of the previous edition are canceled4 ,it is important that the user of the chart shall make certain that he has the latest edition and that all corrections from its date of issue have been applied from the ,notices to ,mariners4 ,it is unfortunately true that owing to failure to take proper account of the notices1 or to economy1 old editions or unconnected charts are sometimes used1 and in a number of cases the loss of vessels has been directly due to this cause4 ,those responsible for the safe navigation of vessels should insist that the latest editions of charts are provided and that all charts to be used are inspected and corrected to date4 ,,reading ,,and ,,using ,,charts4 ,reading charts4 ,a chart is a representation on paper of hydrographic and topographic information by means of various conventional methods and symbols4 ,it is evidently important for those making use of charts to understand the system and conventions used1 and to be able to interpret readily the various parts of the chart4 ,the ability to read a chart must include an understanding of all its features1 such as scale1 projection1 geographic position1 directions1 depths1 plane of reference1 aids to navigation1 tides1 currents1 elevations1 topography1 and date of survey and publication4 ,scale4 ,for ,american and ,british charts the scale is usually expressed by the inches or fractions of an inch to the minute or degree of latitude1 or by the fractional proportion of a distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the earth4 ,these fractions are sometimes stated on the ,british charts1 and nearly always on those of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey4 ,the chart catalogues give the scale in one or the other form4 ,a familiarity with the meaning of scales is of value in selecting the most suitable chart1 in judging of the relative uses of charts1 and in estimating distances4 ,where the fractional scales are stated they furnish a simple means of comparing charts1 as1 for instance1 a chart on #a_/ejjjj scale will show all distances just twice as long as a chart on #a_/ajjjjj scale4 ,the following are scale equivalents3 ,scale #a_/ajjjj is equivalent to #g4cj inches to one nautical mile4 ,scale #a_/bjjjj is equivalent to #c4fe inches to one nautical mile4 ,scale #a_/djjjj is equivalent to #a4hb inches to one nautical mile4 ,scale #a_/ejjjj is equivalent to #a4df inches to one nautical mile4 ,scale #a_/hjjjj is equivalent to #j4ia inch to one nautical mile4 ,scale #a_/ajjjjj is equivalent to #j4gc inch to one nautical mile4 ,scale #a_/bjjjjj is equivalent to #j4cf inch to one nautical mile4 ,scale #a_/djjjjj is equivalent to #j4ah inch to one nautical mile4 ,scale #a_/ajjjjjj is equivalent to #j4jg inch to one nautical mile4 ,scale #a_/abjjjjj is equivalent to #j4jf inch to one nautical mile4 ,for use in measuring distances on large scale charts the length of one or more nautical miles is usually drawn on the chart1 and sometimes scales are also given in other units4 ,on ,british charts the nautical mile scale is divided into tenths 7that is1 cables of #ajj fathoms or #fjj feet length72 on the ,american charts into quarters and eighths4 ,where the scale covers more than one mile the fractional divisions are shown only for the left-hand mile and the zero of the scale is placed between this and the full mile scale1 so that with dividers the full miles and fraction may readily be taken off4 ,the nautical mile in the ,united ,states is taken to be the length of a minute of arc of a great circle on a sphere whose surface equals that of the earth2 this definition makes the nautical mile equal #fjhj4bg feet4 ,lecky adopts #fjhj feet as the nautical mile4 ,the length of the actual minute of latitude on the earth's surface increases from #fjdf feet at the equator to #fajh feet at the poles1 an increase of about one per cent4 ,it is1 however1 this somewhat variable unit of length which is ordinarily used in scaling distances on the sailing charts4 ,on small scale charts there is usually a border scale entirely around the chart1 conveniently subdivided2 this serves the double purpose of facilitating the plotting or reading of positions by latitude and longitude and of furnishing a scale of minutes of latitude for use in measuring distances4 ,on a mercator chart this scale of course varies with the latitude and it must be referred to in the mean latitude of the distance to be measured4 ,in general practice the minute of latitude is taken as equal to the nautical mile4 ,projection4 ,on only a few charts is there a statement of the projection used4 ,practically all general sailing charts are on the mercator projection1 which can be readily recognized by the rectangular network of meridians and parallels and the increase with latitude of the distance between the parallels4 ,on large scale local and harbor charts the kind of projection used is not of importance to navigation1 as for such limited areas the difference between projections would not affect the use of the chart4 ,on certain small scale charts of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey which are on the polyconic projection this fact is stated on the chart1 and can also be readily recognized by the convergence of the meridians and curvature of the parallels4 ,gnomonic charts intended for taking off great circle courses are always described in their titles and are also easily recognized by the increased scale and distortion toward all the borders4 ,charts of the polar regions are published on several different projections1 which are distinguished from the mercator by their circular or curved parallels4 ,geographic position4 ,for large scale and harbor charts the latitude and longitude of some point marked on the chart are sometimes stated on the face of the chart4 ,for others of these1 however1 and for smaller scale and general charts1 positions are obtained by reference to the border scale4 ,there is a latitude scale down either side of the chart1 and a longitude scale across the top and bottom4 ,these scales are conveniently subdivided into degrees1 minutes1 or fractions of a minute4 ,the minute is divided into tenths 7#f71 sixths 7#aj71 quarters 7#ae71 or halves 7#cj7 on various charts4 ,directions are indicated on charts both by the projection lines and by compass roses4 ,nearly all charts are now oriented with the meridian1 that is1 north is the top of the chart1 and on a mercator chart the east and west border lines are parallel with the meridians and the north and south border lines with the parallels4 ,formerly many charts were not so oriented4 ,some of these are still in use and can readily be recognized by the diagonal or inclined direction of the projection lines with respect to the border of the chart4 ,of course directions must not be referred to the border lines of these diagonal charts1 and scales along such border lines must not be used4 ,directions with respect to true north may always be referred to the projection lines of the chart1 but on a polyconic or polar chart a direction must not be carried so far from any projection line as to introduce error on account of convergence of the meridians4 ,compass roses are placed on charts to facilitate the taking off or laying down of directions1 though in some respects their use is less accurate and convenient than the use of protractors1 referring to the projection lines4 ,the ,british charts and many of those of the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey have only magnetic compasses1 with degrees outside and points inside1 the former graduated to #ij4 ,these are engraved on the chart with the magnetic variation for the date of publication1 or for a few years in advance1 and give the annual change in the variation4 ,because of expense of engraving they can be changed on the charts only at intervals of some years1 and until this is done allowance for the change in variation is to be made if important4 ,the ,german charts and those of the ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,office now have a threefold compass1 the outer one degrees true1 the middle degrees magnetic and the inner points magnetic2 the degrees in both cases are graduated to #cfj1 reading from north through east1 south1 and west2 thus northwest would be stated as #cae instead of ,n4 #de ,w4 ,small scale charts covering extensive areas have no magnetic compasses4 ,they sometimes have true compasses1 and usually have the isogonic lines1 or lines of equal magnetic variation1 marked on them1 from which the variation at any intermediate point can be estimated4 ,depths4 ,the unit used for depths is always stated plainly on the chart1 and it is important to note this carefully1 as the ,british1 ,american1 and ,japanese charts use fathoms for some charts and feet for others1 and most other countries use meters4 ,some of the earlier charts of the ,united ,states coast have the depths inside of the #ah-;foot curve in feet and outside of that curve in fathoms4 ,depth curves are shown on charts in order to bring clearly to the eye the different depth areas and the limits for navigation of vessels of various drafts4 ,the shoaler areas are usually indicated by sanding the outer limit or the entire area within the depth curve4 ,for the curves of greater depths various standard symbols are used which vary slightly in the different series but which may readily be recognized by the soundings on either side of them4 ,on the ,british charts the #a and #c fathom curves are usually indicated by sanding the outer edge of the areas of these depths respectively2 beyond these the standard curves shown on these charts are the #e1 #aj1 #bj1 and #ajj fathom curves4 ,similar curves are used on the ,united ,states charts4 ,the ,german charts show the #b1 #d1 #f1 #aj1 and #bj meter and various deeper curves1 and the ,french the #b1 #e1 #aj1 and #bj meter and deeper curves4 ,on the ,united ,states ,lake ,survey charts the areas included within the #f1 #ab1 and #ah foot curves are shaded with a blue tint1 heavy along the outer edge1 which brings out strongly the shoal areas4 ,depth curves if clearly shown are a great aid in interpreting the hydrography and making plain the shoals and passages4 ,the system of curves should always be understood when using a chart1 and it may sometimes aid the navigator to trace out with a pencil an additional curve1 if needed1 beyond the draft of his vessel4 ,the abbreviations used for the bottom characteristics are explained either on the chart or on the sheet of chart symbols1 and give information which is useful in anchoring1 and may be helpful in identifying a position by soundings4 ,when a sounding is made without the lead reaching bottom1 the depth obtained is sometimes shown on the chart by a short line and zero above the figure1 indicating that at the depth stated1 bottom was not obtained 7no bottom74 ,there are a few important symbols shown in the water area of charts4 ,the sunken rock symbol indicates a dangerous area1 or a danger having a moderate depth of water over it1 or a rock the least water over which is not known2 ordinarily on the ,united ,states charts the least depth will be stated when known1 and the symbol omitted4 ,the rock awash symbol indicates a rock awash at some stage of the tide1 unless more definitely stated4 ,the position of a wreck is indicated by a special symbol4 ,p4 ,d4 7position doubtful7 and ,e4 ,d4 7existence doubtful7 are placed after soundings or rocks or other features which depend on some doubtful report not yet verified4 ,the following are the relations between depth units found on various charts3 #a meter #c4bha ,english feet #j4edg ,english fathoms4 #a sajene 7,russian7 #g ,english feet #a4afg ,english fathoms4 #a braza 7old ,spanish7 #e4dhd ,english feet #j4iad ,english fathom4 #a4hbi meters #f ,english feet #a4jjj ,english fathom4 ,aids to navigation4 ,each series of charts has a definite system of representing the aids to navigation2 these are similar in principle but differ as to detail4 ,the characteristics of the lights1 light-vessels1 buoys1 and beacons are usually explained by abbreviations placed by the side of each1 and the entire system of representation is given on the explanatory sheet for the charts4 ,various methods of coloring lights and sectors and buoys are in use on different charts4 ,it is evidently of importance that the user of the chart should readily understand the significance of the navigational aids as shown4 ,for details regarding lights it is of course desirable to refer to the light lists2 for the coasts of the ,united ,states detailed buoy lists are also published4 ,range and channel lines when shown are represented by distinctive symbols with bearings indicated4 ,danger ranges for the avoidance of shoals are sometimes shown4 ,on the ,british charts bearings as stated on range and channel lines are magnetic2 the custom varies on other charts and must be carefully noted in each case4 ,plane of reference4 ,the soundings given on the chart express the depth of water when the tide is at the height adopted for the plane of reference2 this same plane is used in the tide tables1 which thus will indicate the amount to be added to the soundings when the tide is above the plane1 or to be subtracted when it is below4 ,in order to be on the safe side the plane of reference adopted is always some low stage of the tide1 so that there is usually more water than shown on the chart4 ,on the ,british and ,german charts the soundings are reduced to the mean low water of ordinary spring tides1 unless otherwise stated4 ,on the charts of the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey the following are the planes of reference3 for the ,atlantic and ,gulf coasts1 the mean of the low waters2 for the ,pacific coast1 ,alaska1 and the ,philippines1 the mean of the lower low waters1 except for ,puget ,sound and ,wrangell ,narrows1 where planes two and three feet lower respectively have been adopted4 ,according to the ,tide ,tables for #aijh1 at ,new ,york 7,sandy ,hook7 the tide will fall below the plane of reference on #ace days during the year1 but the extreme low tide will be only one foot below the plane4 ,at ,portland1 ,maine1 in #aijh1 the extreme low water is #b4a feet below the plane1 and at ,san ,francisco #a4e feet4 ,of course when the tide is below the plane of reference the amount must be subtracted from the depths shown on the chart4 ,strong winds and unusual barometric pressure may have a marked effect on the height of tide1 so that it may differ appreciably from the predicted height1 which is of course based on normal conditions4 ,at ,baltimore and at ,willets ,point observation shows that a heavy wind may reduce the tide four feet below the predicted heights4 ,tides4 ,information regarding tides is given on all large scale charts1 and additional information and predictions may be found in the ,tide ,tables4 ,on the charts of the ,united ,states coast there is a small tide table giving for the high and low waters the time relations to the moon's transit and the height relations to the plane of reference4 ,on the ,british charts there is a brief statement as to the tides either at the port on the chart or in the general notes2 this ordinarily gives the interval in hours and minutes between the moon's meridian passage and the time of high water for the periods of full and new moon1 and also the amount in feet that the spring and neap tides rise above the plane of reference1 and the range of the neap tide4 ,the following is an example of such a tide note3 ,h4 ,w4 ,f4 and ,c4 ,campbellton ,,ivh #jm4 ,springs rise #aj feet1 ,neaps #g feet4 ,at some important ports information as to the state of the tide is given to vessels1 either by means of signal balls1 or by automatic tidal indicators1 as at the ,narrows in ,new ,york ,harbor1 where a large dial shows to passing vessels the height of the tide1 and an arrow indicates whether it is rising or falling4 ,the tidal information becomes important and must be considered in navigation or in anchoring in waters where the available depth at low water approximates the draft of the vessel4 ,in the general use of coast charts it is also important to observe the effect of the stage of tide on the appearance of many features4 ,rocks rising some feet above low water may be entirely submerged at high water4 ,in some areas the aspect may be radically changed between high and low water by the baring of extensive shoals or reefs4 ,currents4 ,information1 when available1 as to currents is given either by a note or by current arrows placed on the chart at the position of observation4 ,additional information as to certain regions is given in the ,united ,states ,tide ,tables4 ,tidal currents1 flood and ebb1 and currents not due to tidal action are distinguished by symbols1 and the velocity is given in knots1 and on some charts is indicated by the lengths of the arrows4 ,complete and systematic current observations have been made in comparatively few localities because of the time and expense necessary to get the full information as to the variations of the currents with the tides and seasons4 ,ordinarily therefore the current arrows shown on charts indicate only the average direction and velocity1 or possibly only the conditions existing at the season when the survey was made4 ,oceanic and coast currents are probably much less uniform than might be inferred from the current streams drawn on maps and charts4 ,a more systematic investigation of ocean currents is required to fulfill the needs of navigation4 ,the tidal currents seldom turn with the tides1 and there may be an interval of as much as three hours between the time of high tide or low tide and slack water4 ,this leads to the apparent anomaly that in cases the current may be running with its greatest velocity at the time of high or low water1 and may be running into a channel for several hours after the tide commences to fall4 ,it is therefore1 evidently1 not safe to draw inferences as to currents solely from the tidal heights4 ,there are passages where the tidal currents become of the greatest importance to navigation1 as1 for instance1 in ,seymour ,narrows on the inside route to ,alaska1 where the current velocity reaches #ab knots and the interval of apparent slack water lasts but a few minutes4 ,elevations4 ,the unit used for elevations is also stated on the face of the chart1 as also the plane to which elevations are referred4 ,on the ,united ,states charts this is generally mean high water and on ,british charts the high water of ordinary spring tides4 ,rocks and islets usually have figures shown beside them1 either in brackets or underscored1 which indicate the height above high water4 ,rocks which are bare at low water sometimes have a note dries or bares so many feet1 indicating their height above low tide1 although they are covered at high tide4 ,the ,british charts in some regions where there is a large range of tide have underlined figures in the area between high water and low water indicating the heights above low water1 or the depths of water over the bank at high water1 as explained in each case4 ,topography4 ,the land area on most charts is distinguished from the water area by a stipple or tint2 on some charts the topographic features have1 however1 been depended upon to bring out the land from the water4 ,the solid shore line is the high-water line1 and should be clear on the chart2 the area between high and low water is sanded or otherwise shaded on all charts4 ,the relief of the land is represented by hill shading or by contour lines which are the successive curves of elevation on the land4 ,topographic symbols are used for some of the more important features1 such as cliffs1 rocky ledges1 buildings1 bridges1 trees1 roads1 etc4 ,it is important for the navigator to understand the significance of the hill representation and the symbols1 as they will aid him in recognizing a coast or island1 and in identifying landmarks4 ,date of survey and publication4 ,there is usually an authority note on each chart showing the source of information or date of survey2 if on a coast subject to change1 the latter is important4 ,on the ,united ,states ,coast ,survey charts the date of publication of the edition is given1 and on ,british and other charts the date of both large and small corrections4 ,the chart catalogues give the dates of the last editions1 or the dates of extensive corrections1 and this affords a means of seeing whether the copy of the chart in use is the latest edition available4 ,,use ,,of ,,charts ,,in ,,navigation4 ,chart working4 ,in crossing the open and deep portions of the ocean1 where the only data given may be the projection lines and soundings far deeper than can be reached with navigational sounding machines1 the chart is used to lay out in advance the general course to be followed and to plot the positions of the vessel at intervals either as determined by observations or1 lacking these1 by dead reckoning4 ,when necessary the courses of the vessel are modified as the plotted positions are found to fall one side or the other of the proposed general track4 ,the principal operations on a chart are plotting or taking off positions by latitude and longitude1 laying down or taking off bearings1 directions1 and courses1 plotting or measuring distances1 and laying down or taking off angles4 ,to plot a position by its latitude and longitude on a mercator chart1 set a parallel ruler on the adjacent parallel and then move it to the required latitude as shown by the border scale at either side2 then with a pair of dividers at the upper or lower longitude border scale take the distance from the nearest meridian and lay this distance off along the edge of the parallel ruler4 ,the latitude and longitude of a point are taken from the chart by reversing this process1 or with the dividers only4 ,a direction is laid down on the chart or read from the chart preferably by using some form of protractor and measuring the angle from the projection lines4 ,in this country it is more commonly done by carrying the direction with a parallel ruler either from or to a compass rose printed on the chart4 ,distances are measured or laid down on a mercator chart by using the latitude border scale for the middle latitude4 ,on polyconic and other larger scale charts distances are measured from the scales printed on the chart4 ,it should be remarked that in general where special accuracy is required distances should be computed and not scaled from any chart1 because of the error due to the distortion of paper in printing4 ,the use of protractors on charts in plotting by angles in the three-point problem will be referred to later4 ,the course to be steered to allow for a set due to current or wind may be obtained by a graphical solution on the chart1 though it will be preferable to do this on other paper1 using a larger scale4 7,fig4 #ch47 ,the direction and velocity of the set and the course and speed of the ship may be considered as two sides of a parallelogram of forces1 of which the diagonal is the distance and course made good4 ,to obtain the course to steer to reach a given point with a given current and speed of vessel1 lay down the direction of the destination2 from the starting point lay off the direction of set and the amount in one hour2 from the extremity of this describe an arc with radius equal to the speed of the vessel in one hour4 ,a line drawn from the extremity of the direction of set to the point of intersection of the arc and the course to be made good will give the direction of the course to be steered1 and the point of intersection will also be the estimated position of the vessel at the end of the hour's run4 ,methods of locating a vessel4 ,the principal methods used for locating the position of a vessel are by astronomical observations1 by dead reckoning1 by compass bearings1 by ranges1 by horizontal angles1 by soundings1 by vertical angles1 and by sound4 ,the full discussion of these methods pertains to navigation and pilotage1 and they will be only briefly referred to here as to their graphical application to charts4 ,astronomical methods4 ,there are a number of methods of obtaining the position of a vessel by astronomical observations4 ,when the position is computed the chart enters into these only in the plotting of the final result1 so that with one exception these methods will not be referred to further here4 ,the elegant method discovered by an ,american seaman1 ,captain ,sumner1 in #ahdc1 is in part graphical1 to be worked out upon the chart4 ,this method is based on the obvious fact that at any instant there is a point on the earth having the sun in its zenith and which is the center of circles on the earth's surface along the circumference of any one of which the sun's altitude is the same at all points4 ,a short portion of such a circle may be considered as a straight line and can be determined by locating one point and its direction1 or two points in it4 ,this is known as a ,sumner line4 7,fig4 #ci47 ,from an observation of the sun's altitude and azimuth and an assumed latitude a position is computed and plotted and a line drawn on the chart through this position at right angles to the azimuth of the sun as taken from the azimuth tables and laid off from a meridian4 ,another method is to compute positions with two assumed latitudes and plot the two resulting positions and draw a line through them4 ,the vessel must be somewhere on the resulting ,sumner line4 ,a good determination may be obtained by the intersection of two ,sumner lines obtained from two observations of the sun with sufficient interval so that there will be a change of azimuth of as much as #cj degrees to give a fair intersection4 ,allowance must be made for the movement of the vessel between the two observations by drawing a line parallel to the first and at a distance equal to the distance made good4 ,an excellent intersection may be obtained by observation of the sun1 and before or after it of a star in the twilight at a different azimuth4 ,illustration3 ,,course ,,to ,,allow ,,for ,,set1 ,,graphical ,,solution ,,fig4 #ch4 ,illustration3 ,,position ,,by ,,intersection ,,of ,,sumner ,,lines ,,fig4 #ci4 ,illustration3 ,,position ,,by ,,compass ,,bearings ,,fig4 #dj4 ,even a single ,sumner line1 however1 furnishes valuable information1 as it may be combined with other sources of information to obtain an approximation to the position4 ,the vessel must be somewhere on this line1 and this gives a good check on the position by dead reckoning1 or an intersection may be obtained with a line or bearing of a distant land object1 or a line of soundings may be compared on the chart with the ,sumner line4 ,if an observation is taken when the observed heavenly body is bearing abeam1 it is evident that the resulting ,sumner line will be the direction of the course of the vessel1 and this fact may be useful in shaping the course when nearing the land or a danger4 ,dead reckoning4 ,when impossible to obtain the position by any other means1 it is computed or plotted from the last determined position1 using the courses and distances run as shown by compass and log and allowing for effect of current and wind4 ,because of uncertainties in all these elements1 positions so obtained may be from five to twenty miles in error in a two-hundred-mile run1 depending of course to some extent on the speed of the vessel4 ,compass bearings4 ,a compass bearing of a single object1 as a lighthouse or a tangent to a point of land1 laid down on the chart1 shows that the vessel is somewhere on that line1 and when combined with other information1 as with a ,sumner line or the course by dead reckoning or the distance by a vertical angle1 will give a position whose correctness of course depends on the accuracy of the data used4 ,bearings of two objects not in the same direction give two lines on the chart whose intersection is the position4 ,this will be very weak if the angle of intersection is acute1 and will become stronger as it approaches a right angle4 ,a bearing of a third object should be taken when practicable1 as it affords a valuable check in that the three lines should intersect in the same point2 if they do not do so when plotted the error is either in the observations1 or the compass1 or the plotting1 or the chart4 7,fig4 #dj74 ,all compass bearings are of course dependent upon the accuracy of the compass and the knowledge of its errors due to the local magnetic effect of the ship1 and also upon the correctness with which the magnetic variation from true north is known4 ,bearings of near objects should therefore always be preferred1 and those of distant objects considered as giving only approximate positions4 ,an error of one degree in the bearing of an object #cj miles away will deflect the plotted line about one-half mile4 ,because of the facility with which they may be taken compass bearings are much used for inshore navigation1 but in point of reliability they are inferior to some of the other methods4 ,a single or danger bearing of an object is often a valuable guide in avoiding a danger4 ,for example1 a reef may lie to the westward of a line drawn ,south #aj ,east from a lighthouse2 in approaching a vessel will pass safely to the eastward of the reef if the lighthouse is not allowed to bear any to the northward of ,north #aj ,west4 7,fig4 #da47 ,two successive bearings of a single object1 as1 for instance1 a lighthouse1 noting the distance run in the interval1 afford a convenient and much used means of locating the position with respect to that object4 ,such bearings are drawn on the chart in reversed direction from the object4 ,the distance run between the bearings1 as read by the log and corrected for current if practicable1 is scaled off with dividers and the course of the vessel is set off with parallel ruler2 the latter is then moved across the two plotted directions until the distance intercepted between them equals that scaled with the dividers1 and the edge of the ruler then represents the track of the vessel4 7,fig4 #db47 ,if the angle from the bow1 or from the course of the vessel1 for the second bearing is double that for the first bearing1 the distance from the object at the second bearing is equal to that run by the vessel in the interval1 and the use of this simple relation is designated as doubling the angle on the bow4 ,if the angles between the course and the object are respectively #de and #ij when the two bearings are taken on an object on the shore1 the distance that the ship passes offshore when the object is abeam is equal to the distance run between the two bearings2 this is a much used navigational device1 known as the bow and beam bearing or the four-point bearing4 ,there is an advantage1 however1 in using bearings at two and four points 7or #bb4e and #de71 as these give the probable distance that the object will be passed before it is abeam4 ,ranges4 ,a valuable line of position is obtained by noting when two well-situated objects are in range1 that is1 one back of the other in the line of sight from the vessel1 as1 for instance1 a church spire appearing behind a lighthouse or a rock in line with a prominent point4 ,such ranges are of course entirely free from compass errors1 and should be noted whenever there is favorable opportunity4 ,the value of the range in plotting will increase with the distance between the objects1 and if the two are close in proportion to the distance to the vessel the direction will be weak owing to the uncertainty in drawing a direction through close points4 ,artificial ranges are often erected as aids to navigation1 usually to indicate the course to be followed in passing through a channel4 ,ranges afford a valuable guide in avoiding dangers1 as for example an inspection of the chart may show that if a certain lighthouse is kept in line with or open from an islet a dangerous shoal will be given a good berth2 on coasts not well buoyed such danger ranges are sometimes marked on the charts4 7,fig4 #dc47 ,illustration3 ,,danger ,,bearing ,,fig4 #da4 ,illustration3 ,,position ,,by ,,successive ,,bearings ,,two ,,and ,,four ,,point ,,bearings ,,fig4 #db4 ,illustration3 ,,range ,,to ,,avoid ,,danger ,,fig4 #dc4 ,horizontal sextant angles4 ,the location of a position by the three-point problem1 using sextant angles1 is much more exact than by bearings1 but is less used because not so well known and also because additional instruments are required and the conditions are not always favorable4 ,it is so valuable a method1 however1 that it should be used1 when necessary1 on every well-equipped vessel4 ,a single horizontal angle taken with a sextant between objects1 as two lighthouses1 defines the position of the vessel as somewhere on the circumference of a circle passing through the two objects and the vessel4 ,a protractor laid on the chart with two of its arms set at the observed angle and passing through the two objects1 will permit of locating two or more points of this circle on the chart4 ,this furnishes a line of position which may be combined with other information to locate the vessel4 ,with a compass bearing of one of the objects the position may be plotted directly from the single angle4 ,two sextant angles measured at the same instant between three objects furnish one of the most accurate means of locating the position of a vessel1 this being the same method that is ordinarily used in hydrographic surveying1 known as the three-point problem4 7,fig4 #dd47 ,the two angles are conveniently set off on a three-arm protractor1 which is shifted on the chart until the three arms touch the three points1 when the position of the center is plotted4 ,a third angle to a fourth point furnishes a valuable check in case of doubt4 ,two angles may also be taken to four objects without any common point1 and in this case portions of the two circles of position are plotted and their intersection will be the ship's position4 ,the value of this method depends largely on the selection of favorably located objects1 and it is quite important that the principles of the three-point problem be understood4 ,if the ship is on or near the circumference of a circle which passes through the three objects the position will be very weak1 and the same is true if the distance between any two of the objects is small as compared with the distance from them to the vessel4 ,a useful general rule is that the position will be strong if the middle one of the three objects is the nearest to the vessel1 provided that no two of the objects are close together in comparison with the distance to the vessel4 ,a single sextant angle furnishes a means of avoiding a known danger by using what is known as the horizontal danger angle4 7,fig4 #de47 ,note two well-defined objects on the coast either side of the danger to be avoided and describe a circle through them and passing sufficiently outside of the reef to give it a safe berth4 ,with a protractor on the chart note the angle between the objects at any point on the outer part of this circle4 ,if in passing1 the angle at the ship between the two objects is not allowed to become greater than this danger angle the danger will be given a sufficient berth4 ,this method as well as any use of sextant angles or bearings depends of course on the accuracy of the chart1 and caution must be used where it is not certain that the chart depends upon an accurate survey4 ,illustration3 ,,position ,,by ,,sextant ,,angles ,,three ,,point ,,problem ,,fig4 #dd4 ,illustration3 ,,horizontal ,,danger ,,angle ,,fig4 #de4 ,illustration3 ,,distance ,,by ,,vertical ,,angle ,illustration3 ,,vertical ,,danger ,,angle ,,fig4 #df4 ,soundings4 ,even if objects cannot be seen1 due to distance or thick weather1 the chart furnishes a valuable aid when a vessel has approached within the limits where it is practicable to obtain soundings4 ,modern navigational sounding machines permit of obtaining soundings to depths of nearly one hundred fathoms without stopping the vessel4 ,a rough check is at once obtained by comparing such soundings with those given on the chart for the position carried forward by dead reckoning4 ,if a number of soundings are taken and plotted on a piece of tracing paper1 spaced by the log readings to the scale of the chart1 and this tracing paper is laid over the chart and shifted in the vicinity of the probable position until the soundings best agree with those on the chart1 a valuable verification of position may be obtained4 ,this is particularly the case if the area has been well surveyed1 and the soundings taken on the vessel are accurate1 and the configuration of the bottom has marked characteristics4 ,for instance1 in approaching ,new ,york the crossing of the #cj1 #bj1 and #aj fathom curves will give a fair warning of the distance off the ,long ,island and ,new ,jersey coasts1 and soundings across such a feature as the submerged ,hudson gorge extending to the southeastward of ,sandy ,hook will give a valuable indication of position4 ,the taking of soundings should be resorted to even in favorable conditions1 in approaching shoal water1 as a check on other means of locating the vessel4 ,many marine disasters are attributed to failure to make sufficient use of the lead1 the simplest of navigational aids4 ,vertical angles4 ,the vertical angle of elevation of an object whose height is known will give the distance1 and combined with a bearing or other information this permits of locating a vessel where better means cannot be used4 ,distance tables are published for this method4 7,fig4 #df47 ,the vertical angle is measured with a sextant and must be the angle at the ship between the top of the object and the sea level vertically beneath it2 for a hill or mountain1 therefore1 the eye of the observer should be near the water4 ,the object should not be so distant that curvature becomes appreciable4 ,the vertical danger angle is a means of avoiding a known danger1 on a principle similar to that of the horizontal danger angle2 that is1 the angle of elevation of a known object is not permitted to become greater than a fixed amount depending on the distance from the object to the danger to be avoided4 ,positions by sound4 ,in thick weather sound affords a valuable aid to the navigator4 ,in narrow passages noting the echo of the whistle from a cliff is a method resorted to1 as for instance in ,puget ,sound and along the ,alaska coast4 ,fog whistles and bell buoys are maintained at many places4 ,submarine bells have recently been introduced at a number of points along the ,atlantic coast1 and vessels may be equipped to receive these submarine signals transmitted through the water1 which indicate also the general direction from which the sound comes4 ,need of vigilance4 ,too great importance cannot be attached to frequent verification of positions by the best available means1 particularly when approaching the land4 ,neglect of this or overconfidence has caused many disasters4 ,a notable instance was the loss of one of the largest ,pacific steamers on the coast of ,japan in ,march1 #aijg4 ,in the afternoon of a clear day this vessel ran on to a well-known reef about a mile from a lighthouse1 resulting in the total loss of vessel and cargo valued at three and a half million dollars4 ,the captain was so confident of his position and that he was giving the reef a sufficient berth that he laid down no bearings on the chart and took no soundings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,,field',s ,,protractor ,,and ,,parallel ,,ruler ,,in ,,use ,,on ,a ,,chart1 ,,plotting ,,bearing ,,of ,a ,,lighthouse4 ,instruments4 ,the principal instruments needed for use with charts are2 dividers for taking off distances and latitudes and longitudes1 parallel ruler for transferring directions to or from a compass rose and for taking off or plotting the latitude on a mercator chart1 protractor of #ahj degrees for reading the angle with the meridian of any direction or for laying off on the chart any given angle with the meridian1 and three-arm or other full-circle protractor for plotting a position by the three-point problem4 ,parallel rulers on the principle of ,field's are strongly recommended for chart work1 as they combine in a single instrument the advantages of a parallel ruler and a #ahj-;degree protractor4 ,any direction can be read or laid off by simply moving the parallel ruler to the nearest projection line1 which is a process not only more convenient than referring to the compass rose printed on the chart but also more accurate because of the longer radius4 ,these instruments can also be used the same as a plain parallel ruler4 ,field's parallel rulers are made in two forms1 one rolling and the other sliding4 ,the former is a single ruler with edge graduated #ij degrees either way1 and mounted on rollers2 it is the most rapid instrument for reading or laying off a direction1 but it requires a smooth surface4 ,the latter is an ordinary two-bar parallel ruler with edge when closed graduated #ij degrees either way2 it is a very serviceable instrument and probably more to be depended upon for ordinary use than the rolling form4 ,some form of combined protractor and parallel ruler should be in every navigational equipment1 and it is unfortunate that these instruments are not better known in this country4 ,there are other forms of half-circle protractors which are used on the same principle1 that is1 of bringing the center on to a projection line and reading where the line cuts the border graduation of the protractor4 ,thus a semicircular protractor is used with a separate straight edge1 along which it is slid to the nearest meridian2 another form is the simple circular protractor with a thread fastened at the center4 ,all these forms of protractors1 it will be noted1 are intended to work from the true meridian1 and they are usually graduated in degrees only2 the use of degrees instead of points is becoming much more general in navigational work1 and reference to the true meridian is also more common than formerly4 ,the standard three-arm protractor1 or station pointer1 as it is known to the ,english1 should be a part of every navigational outfit because of its value in locating a position by the three-point problem4 ,a recent ,american invention1 ,court's three-arm protractor1 is an instrument made of celluloid for the same purpose4 ,it should not be considered as a substitute for the standard metal instrument1 but it is a simple1 cheap1 and handy supplement to it1 as it may be readily used for small angles and short distances where there are mechanical difficulties in working with the metal three-arm protractor4 ,other protractors can be used for the three-point problem1 as1 for instance1 ,cust's protractor on celluloid1 on which the angles are drawn in pencil and erased1 and the tracing-paper protractor4 ,degree of reliance on charts4 ,the value of a chart must not be judged alone from its general appearance1 as skill in preparation and publication may give a handsome appearance to an incomplete survey4 ,on the other hand a thorough survey might through poor preparation result in a chart defective either in information or in utility4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,,three-,,arm ,,protractor ,,in ,,use ,,on ,a ,,chart1 ,,plotting ,,position ,,from ,,two ,,angles4 ,the degree of completeness of the soundings1 the character of the region1 and the date of the survey should be taken into account in deciding as to the amount of reliance to be placed on the chart4 ,areas where the soundings are not distributed with fair uniformity may be assumed not to have been completely surveyed4 ,caution should be used in navigating on charts where the survey is not complete1 and even where careful surveys exist care must be taken if the bottom is of very irregular nature with lumps near the navigable depth1 as for instance on some of the coral reef coasts4 ,isolated soundings shoaler than the surrounding depths should be avoided1 as there may be less water than shown4 ,in such a region1 unless the whole area is dragged1 it is impossible to make it entirely certain that all obstructions are charted4 ,while an immense amount of faithful work has been put into the preparation of many charts1 the user must constantly exercise his own judgment as to the reliance to be placed on them4 ,a coast is not to be considered as clear unless it is shown to be2 buoys may get adrift and be in a different position or be gone altogether2 fog signals vary in distinctness owing to atmospheric conditions2 extreme or unusual tides may fall below the plane of reference2 owing to strong winds the actual tide may differ from the predicted tide4 ,errors sometimes creep in from various sources1 such as those due to different reference longitudes or the use of a corrected longitude for a portion of the chart without changing other positions to which the same correction is applicable2 clerical and printing errors may occur2 there are sometimes omissions in surveys2 a feature may get plotted in two different positions2 tide rips are reported as breakers and floating objects as rocks or islands1 and thus many dangers have gotten on the charts which cannot be found again1 and false reports are sometimes made to shield some one from blame4 ,most of these classes of errors and uncertainties1 however1 disappear in the use of charts of a thoroughly surveyed coast4 ,use the latest editions of charts4 ,the latest edition of a chart should always be used and should be corrected for all notices since its issue4 ,carelessness or false economy in not providing the largest scale or the latest chart has been the cause of more than one marine disaster4 ,the ,british ,board of ,trade issue the following official notice to shipowners and agents3 ,the attention of the ,board of ,trade has frequently been called to cases in which ,british vessels have been endangered or wrecked through the masters' attempting to navigate them by means of antiquated or otherwise defective charts4 ,the ,board of ,trade desires1 therefore1 to direct the especial attention of shipowners and their agents to the necessity of seeing that the charts taken or sent on board their ships are corrected to the time of sailing4 ,neglect to supply a ship with proper charts will be brought prominently before the ,court of ,inquiry in the event of a wreck occurring from that cause4 ,the following is a translation of a notice in the preface to the catalogue of charts published by the ,german government3 ,owners and masters of vessels are apprised that cases of marine accidents in which the casualty was due to antiquated or erroneous charts1 have frequently been before the admiralty courts4 ,in consequence of this1 the ',instructions for the prevention of accidents to steamers and sailing vessels1' issued by the ,seeberufsgenossenschaft have been amended by the following additional paragraph3 ',it is obligatory upon every master1 except when engaged in local coastwise navigation1 to keep the ,notices to ,mariners regularly1 and with the aid of them to carefully keep his charts up to date4' ,the ,british shipping laws provide that a ship may not be sent to sea in such an unseaworthy state that the life of any person is thereby endangered1 and the ,house of ,lords has defined the term seaworthy to mean in a fit state as to repairs1 equipment1 and crew1 and in all other respects1 to encounter the ordinary perils of the voyage4 ,proper charts and sailing directions are a necessary part of the equipment of a vessel1 and the courts have frequently inquired into this4 ,the records of the ,british courts1 however1 show that even in recent years many ships have been damaged or lost owing directly or indirectly to failure to have the latest information on board4 ,the following are instances from these records4 ,in #ahij the steamer ,dunluce was lost owing to the use of an old edition of the ,admiralty chart which showed a depth of #d-a_/b fathoms on the ,wikesgrund1 whereas the later chart showed much less water4 ,in this case the master had requested his ship chandler to send him the latest chart4 ,in #ahia the steamer ,st4 ,donats got ashore on a patch which was not shown on the chart in use1 which was privately published in #ahha2 the danger was1 however1 shown on the ,admiralty chart corrected to #ahhi4 ,also in #ahia the steamer ,trent was lost on the ,missipezza ,rock in the ,adriatic4 ,the ship was navigated by a private chart published in #ahij which did not show this rock1 and by sailing directions published in #ahff4 ,the steamer ,aboraca1 stranded in the ,gulf of ,bothnia in #ahid1 was being navigated by a chart corrected to #ahha which did not show that the ,storkallagrund light-vessel had been moved eight miles4 ,the steamer ,ravenspur was lost on ,bilbao ,breakwater owing to the use of a chart not up to date which did not show the breakwater4 ,in #ahih the steamer ,cromarty was lost in attempting to enter ,ponta ,delgada harbor1 and in #aija the steamer ,dinnington was lost by steaming on to the new breakwater in ,portland harbor2 both of these disasters were likewise due to the use of old charts which did not show the breakwaters4 ,in these three cases the masters of the vessels had authority to obtain the necessary charts at the owners' expense4 ,not so1 however1 in the following case from the finding of a ,british marine court in #ahgg3 ,the primary cause of the ship's getting on shore was due to the master's being guided in his navigation by an obsolete ,admiralty chart dated ,september #a1 #aheb1 and corrected to ,april1 #ahfb1 and on which no lights are shown to exist either in 444 or 444 and to his not being supplied with the latest sailing directions4 ,the ,court1 considering that the master was obliged to furnish himself with chronometer1 barometer1 sextant1 charts1 sailing directions1 and everything necessary for the navigation of his vessel out of his private resources1 which1 under very favorable circumstances1 might perhaps reach #aej a year1 find themselves unable in this instance to pass a heavier censure upon him than that he be severely reprimanded4 ,the loss of the ,german steamer ,baker on the coast of ,cuba on ,january #ca1 #aijh1 was declared by the marine court at ,hamburg to be due in part to the use of an unofficial chart which did not show the latest surveys on that coast4 ,use the largest scale charts4 ,the largest scale chart available should be employed when entering channels1 bays1 or harbors1 as it gives information with more clearness and detail1 positions may be more accurately plotted1 and sometimes it is the first corrected for new information4 ,the records of the courts of inquiry also show cases where vessels have been wrecked owing to the use of charts of too small scale4 ,in #ahij the steamer ,lady ,ailsa was lost on the ,plateau du ,four4 ,the only chart on board for this locality was a general chart of the ,bay of ,biscay1 and the stranding was due to the master's mistaking one buoy for another4 ,the court found that the chart1 although a proper one for general use1 was not sufficient for the navigation of a vessel in such narrow waters and on such a dangerous coast4 ,the ,zenobia was stranded on the ,san ,thom ,bank in #ahia4 ,on this vessel the owners were to furnish the chronometers and the master the charts and sailing directions4 ,the master was1 however1 apparently satisfied with only a general chart of the ,south ,atlantic for navigation on the coast of ,brazil1 and had no sailing directions at all4 ,the depth curves on charts furnish a valuable guide1 and if the curves are lacking or broken in some parts it is usually a sign that the information is incomplete4 ,the #ajj-;fathom curve is a general warning of approach to the coast4 ,the #aj-;fathom curve on rocky coasts should be considered as a danger curve1 and caution used after crossing it4 ,the #e-;fathom curve is the most important for modern vessels of medium draft1 as it indicates for them the practical limit of navigation4 ,the #c1 #b1 and #a-;fathom curves are a guide to smaller vessels1 but have less significance than formerly because of the increase of draft of vessels4 ,the shrinkage of paper1 especially in plate printing1 has been referred to4 ,this introduces two possible sources of error3 first1 the shrinkage being different in the two directions1 any scale printed on the chart will be accurate only when used in a direction parallel to itself2 second1 for the same reason1 angles and directions will be somewhat distorted4 ,fortunately these errors are not serious in the ordinary navigational use of a chart1 but they should not be overlooked when accurate plotting or measuring of distances is attempted on a plate-printed chart4 ,the actual shrinkage measured on charts printed from plates varies from #a_/c inch to #a inch in a length of chart of #cf inches4 ,on ,british and ,american plate printed charts the shrinkage is usually from two to nearly three times as much in one direction as it is in the other4 ,care of charts4 ,in order that they may be properly used charts should be filed flat and not rolled4 ,they should be systematically arranged so that the desired chart can be instantly found4 ,they should be cared for and when in bad condition replaced by new copies4 ,they can be most conveniently filed in shallow drawers1 thus avoiding the placing of many charts in a single drawer4 ,the latter is a common fault2 it not only increases the labor of handling the charts but adds to the liability of their injury4 ,,publications ,,supplementing ,,nautical ,,charts4 ,there are several publications in book and in chart form which are either necessary or convenient for use in connection with nautical charts4 ,these comprise the coast pilots1 notices to mariners1 tide tables1 light and buoy lists1 and various special charts4 ,coast pilots1 or sailing directions1 are books giving descriptions of the main features1 as far as of interest to seamen1 of the coast and adjacent waters1 with directions for navigation4 ,they contain much miscellaneous information of value to the mariner1 especially the stranger4 ,although they contain additional facts which cannot be shown on the charts1 they are not at all intended to supersede the latter2 the mariner should in general rely on the charts4 ,the sailing directions can be less readily corrected than the charts1 and in all cases where they differ the charts are to be taken as the guide4 ,the most extensive series of sailing directions is that published by the ,british ,admiralty1 comprising fifty-six volumes and including all the navigable regions of the world4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey publishes ten volumes of coast pilots for the ,atlantic1 ,gulf1 and ,pacific coasts1 ,porto ,rico1 and southeastern ,alaska1 and eight volumes of sailing directions for ,alaska and the ,philippine ,islands4 ,the ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,office publishes sixteen volumes of sailing directions for various parts of the world4 ,notices to ,mariners are published at frequent intervals1 giving all important corrections1 which should be at once applied by hand to the charts1 such as rocks or shoals discovered and lights and buoys established or moved4 ,new charts1 new editions1 and canceled charts are also announced4 ,these notices should be carefully examined and the necessary corrections made on all charts of the sets in use on the vessel4 ,a chart should be considered as a growing rather than a finished instrument1 and constant watchfulness is required to see that it is kept up to date4 ,neglect of this may cause shipwreck1 as the following instance shows4 ,report came to ,manila in #aijd that there was a low sand islet lying off the very poorly charted northeast coast of ,samar2 this information was promptly published in the local ,notice to ,mariners4 ,about a month later a small steamer was sent to land some native constabulary on that coast4 ,the captain failed to obtain or observe this notice1 and approached the coast before daylight on a course which led directly across the sand islet4 ,the vessel was driven far up on the sand1 where it still lies4 ,in the ,united ,states1 weekly ,notices to ,mariners are published by the ,department of ,commerce and ,labor for the coasts under the jurisdiction of the ,united ,states1 and by the ,navy ,department for all regions4 ,these notices are distributed free and can be obtained from chart agents and consular officers4 ,in ,great ,britain the notices are published at frequent intervals by the ,hydrographic ,office1 and practically all countries issuing charts also issue such notices4 ,information as to important changes in lights and other announcements of navigational interest are also sometimes printed in the marine columns of newspapers and in nautical periodicals4 ,tide ,tables4 ,brief information as to the time and height of the tide is usually for convenience given on the face of the chart4 ,more complete information is published in the ,tide ,tables1 with which every navigator should be provided4 ,the ,tide ,tables for ,united ,states and foreign ports1 published annually in advance by the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 give complete predictions of the time and height of high and low water for each day of the year for #gj of the principal ports of the world1 and the tidal differences from some principal port for #cjjj subordinate ports4 ,the other leading nations also publish annual tide tables2 those of the ,british government are entitled ,tide ,tables for ,british and ,irish ports1 and also the times of high water for the principal places on the globe4 ,light and buoy lists4 ,brief information as to all artificial aids to navigation is shown on the charts4 ,every vessel should also have on board the latest official light and buoy lists1 which give a more detailed description than can be placed on the charts4 ,light and buoy lists for the coasts of the ,united ,states are published annually by the ,light-,house ,board4 ,the ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,office publishes a ,list of ,lights of the ,world 7excepting the ,united ,states71 in three volumes4 ,the ,british ,hydrographic ,office publishes eight volumes of ,lists of ,lights1 and these are corrected annually4 ,chart catalogues are published in connection with all series of charts4 ,they give the particulars and price of each chart published1 and are usually arranged in geographical order1 with both alphabetical and numerical indexes1 for convenience in finding charts either by position1 name1 or number4 ,charts for special purposes4 ,there are various special charts published for the benefit of mariners1 although not intended for direct use in plotting the course of a vessel or in locating its position4 ,some of the more important of these are mentioned below4 ,gnomonic charts are intended solely for laying down the great circle or shortest practicable courses between points1 for which purpose they are very convenient4 ,their use has already been described4 ,the ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,office publishes six such charts1 for the ,north ,atlantic1 ,south ,atlantic1 ,pacific1 ,north ,pacific1 ,south ,pacific1 and ,indian ,oceans4 ,current charts are published by the ,british ,hydrographic ,office for the various oceans2 these usually show the average ocean currents1 but for the ,atlantic there are monthly and for the ,pacific quarterly current charts4 ,magnetic variation charts are published by both the ,united ,states and ,british governments4 ,they show on a mercator chart of the world the isogonic lines1 or lines along which the variation of the needle from true north is the same4 ,the lines are drawn for each degree of variation4 ,the annual change in the variation is also indicated4 ,other magnetic charts are published showing the lines of equal magnetic dip1 horizontal magnetic force1 and vertical magnetic force4 ,meteorological ocean charts are published by several governments1 including the ,united ,states1 ,great ,britain1 and ,germany1 and give the average weather conditions1 winds1 fogs1 currents1 ice1 tracks of storms1 and other information4 ,pilot charts of the ,north ,atlantic and ,north ,pacific ,oceans are issued by the ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,office about the first of each month1 and give a forecast of the weather for the ensuing and a review of that for the preceding month1 together with all obtainable information as to the most available sailing and steam routes1 dangers to navigation1 ice1 fog1 derelicts1 etc41 and any additional information that may be received of value to navigation4 ,mariners in all parts of the world have joined in contributing the information which has been used in compiling these pilot charts4 ,track charts are published by the ,british and ,united ,states governments4 ,that of the latter is entitled ,track and distance chart of the world1 showing the routes traversed by full-powered steamers between the principal ports of the world1 and the corresponding distances4 ,telegraph charts are published showing the telegraphic connections afforded by the submarine cables and the principal overland telegraph lines4 ,index charts are outline plans showing the area covered by each chart of a series1 and furnish a convenient means of finding a chart of any desired region or of selecting the most suitable chart for any purpose4 ,these index charts are published either in sets1 showing all the charts of a series1 or are bound into the chart catalogues4 ,star charts are included in navigational series1 and are conveniently arranged for use on shipboard in identifying the brighter stars4 ,the ,united ,states ,hydrographic ,office publishes two1 constellations of the northern and of the southern hemispheres4 ,explanatory sheets are published in connection with various series of charts1 giving explanations of the symbols and abbreviations used and of other important features4 ,in the ,united ,states the ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey has issued a small pamphlet1 ,notes on the use of charts1 which contains explanations of its chart symbols1 and the ,hydrographic ,office has published ,a manual of conventional symbols and abbreviations in use on the official charts of the principal maritime nations4 ,,index ,,page ,aids to navigation1 #aah ,arbitrary projection1 #gi ,astronomical observations1 #cb ,astronomical positions1 #abf ,bearings1 position by1 #acj ,board of ,trade notice1 #adh ,care of charts1 #aec ,catalogues of charts1 #aeg ,changes in the coast1 #ih ,chart making1 development of1 #f ,chart publications of various nations1 #ah ,charts1 earliest nautical1 #f ,charts1 loxodromic1 #g ,charts1 plain1 #h ,chart schemes1 #fg ,chart working1 #abd ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey1 ,united ,states1 #ac ,coast pilots1 #aed ,compass bearings1 #acj ,compass1 nautical use of1 #f ,compass1 variation of1 #g ,compilation of information1 #fg ,correction of charts1 method of1 #aaj ,cosa1 ,juan de la1 #h ,current charts1 #aeg ,currents1 #ej1 #aba ,danger angle1 horizontal1 #acf ,danger bearing1 #aca ,danger range1 #acb ,dangers1 reports of1 #ef ,dates on charts1 #abc ,dead reckoning1 #abi ,depth curves1 #aaf1 #aeb ,depths1 unit for1 #ai1 #aaf ,depth units1 relation of1 #aah ,directions on charts1 #aae ,distances1 measured on chart1 #abe ,distribution of charts1 #if ,doubling angle on bow1 #aca ,draft of vessels1 #ig ,dragging for dangers1 #ee ,earthquakes1 #aji ,electrotyping plates1 #hi ,elevations1 #abb ,engraving machines1 #hi ,engraving on copper1 #hd ,engraving on stone1 #ic ,eskimo map1 #a ,etching on copper1 #ie ,explanatory sheets1 #aei ,flattening of the earth1 #c ,france1 establishment of chart office1 #aj ,geographic position on charts1 #aae ,geography1 early1 #b ,germany1 contributions to hydrography1 #ad ,gnomonic charts1 #gi1 #aeg ,gnomonic projection1 #gd ,great ,britain1 contributions to geography1 #ad ,holland1 development of chart making1 #aj ,hydrographic ,office1 ,british1 #ac ,hydrographic ,office1 ,united ,states1 #ac ,hydrography1 #dj ,index charts1 #aeh ,information on charts1 #bc ,instruments used on charts1 #ada ,lake ,survey1 ,united ,states1 #ac ,largest scale chart1 #aea ,latest editions of charts1 #adh ,light and buoy lists1 #aef ,lithographic printing1 #id ,locating a vessel1 #abf ,longitude1 initial1 #ai ,longitude1 uncertainties in1 #aj ,magnetic charts1 #aeg ,magnetic variation1 #ef ,map1 earliest1 #b ,map making1 development of1 #b ,maps1 need of1 #a ,maritime surveys1 extension of1 #ag ,mercator chart1 history1 #h ,mercator projection1 #fh ,meteorological charts 7pilot charts71 #aeh ,navigation1 use of charts in1 #abd ,notices to mariners1 #aaa1 #aee ,paper1 shrinkage of1 #aeb ,parallel rulers1 ,field's1 #ada ,photolithography1 #ic ,plane of reference1 #bj1 #aai ,plotting positions1 #abd ,polyconic projection1 #gc ,printing1 plate1 #hd1 #ij ,privately published charts1 #ba ,progress of hydrographic surveys1 #ag ,projection1 explanation of1 #aad ,projections1 #fh1 #aad ,protractor1 three-arm1 #add ,ptolemy1 #c ,publication of charts1 methods1 #hd ,purpose of charts1 #bb ,ranges1 #acb ,reading charts1 #aab ,reliance on charts1 #add ,reports of dangers1 erroneous1 #eg ,requirements for charts1 #bc ,revision of charts1 need of1 #ig ,rock1 ,brooklyn1 #ej ,sailing directions1 early1 #d ,sailing directions1 #aed ,scale equivalents1 #aac ,scales of charts1 #gi1 #aab ,set1 graphical allowance for1 #abe ,sextant angles1 #acb ,sheets for surveys1 #ci ,shrinkage of paper1 #aeb ,sound1 position by1 #adj ,sounding machines1 #di ,soundings1 position by1 #acf ,star charts1 #aei ,station pointer1 #add ,steamer for surveying1 #di ,sumner's method1 #abf ,supplementary publications1 #aed ,surveys on foreign coasts1 #ad ,surveys1 need of thorough1 #ca ,symbols on charts1 #bj ,telegraph charts1 #aeh ,three-point problem1 #acb1 #ace ,tides1 #ej1 #abj ,tide tables1 #aef ,topography1 #ci ,topography on charts1 #abc ,track charts1 #aeh ,triangulation1 #cb ,uniformity in charts1 #ba ,use of charts in navigation1 #abd ,vertical angles1 #aci ,vigias1 removal of1 #fb ,vigilance1 need of1 #adj ,volcanic action1 #aji ,wrecks due to deficient charts1 #adi ,,short-,,title ,,catalogue ,,of ,,the ,,publications ,,of ,,john ,,wiley ,,sons1 ,,new ,,york4 ,,london3 ,,chapman ,,hall1 ,,limited4 ,,arranged ,,under ,,subjects4 ,descriptive circulars sent on application4 ,books marked with an asterisk 7997 are sold at net prices only4 ,all books are bound in cloth unless otherwise stated4 ,,agriculture4 ,armsby's ,manual of ,cattle-feeding4 #abmo1 #a #ge ,principles of ,animal ,nutrition4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,budd and ,hansen's ,american ,horticultural ,manual3 ,part ,i4 ,propagation1 ,culture1 and ,improvement4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,part ,,ii4 ,systematic ,pomology4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,elliott's ,engineering for ,land ,drainage4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,practical ,farm ,drainage4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,graves's ,forest ,mensuration4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,green's ,principles of ,american ,forestry4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,grotenfelt's ,principles of ,modern ,dairy ,practice4 7,woll47 #abmo1 #b #jj ,hanausek's ,microscopy of ,technical ,products4 7,winton47 #hvo1 #e #jj ,herrick's ,denatured or ,industrial ,alcohol4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,maynard's ,landscape ,gardening as ,applied to ,home ,decoration4 #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,mc,kay and ,larsen's ,principles and ,practice of ,butter-making4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,sanderson's ,insects ,injurious to ,staple ,crops4 #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,schwarz's ,longleaf ,pine in ,virgin ,forest4 #abmo1 #a #be ,stockbridge's ,rocks and ,soils4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,winton's ,microscopy of ,vegetable ,foods4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,woll's ,handbook for ,farmers and ,dairymen4 #afmo1 #a #ej ,,architecture4 ,baldwin's ,steam ,heating for ,buildings4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,bashore's ,sanitation of a ,country ,house4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,berg's ,buildings and ,structures of ,american ,railroads4 #dto1 #e #jj ,birkmire's ,planning and ,construction of ,american ,theatres4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,architectural ,iron and ,steel4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,compound ,rivete ,girders as ,applied in ,buildings4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,planning and ,construction of ,high ,office ,buildings4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,skeleton ,construction in ,buildings4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,brigg's ,modern ,american ,school ,buildings4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,carpenter's ,heating and ,ventilating of ,buildings4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,freitag's ,architectural ,engineering4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,fireproofing of ,steel ,buildings4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,french and ,ives's ,stereotomy4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,gerhard's ,guide to ,sanitary ,house-inspection4 #afmo1 #a #jj ,sanitation of ,public ,buildings4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,theatre ,fires and ,panics4 #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,greene's ,structural ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,holly's ,carpenters' and ,joiners' ,handbook4 #ahmo1 #ge ,johnson's ,statics by ,algebraic and ,graphic ,methods4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,kellaway's ,how to ,lay ,out ,suburban ,home ,grounds4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,kidder's ,architects' and ,builders' ,pocket-book4 ,rewritten ,edition4 #afmo1 mor41 #e #jj ,merrill's ,stones for ,building and ,decoration4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,non-metallic ,minerals3 ,their ,occurrence and ,uses4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,monckton's ,stair-building4 #dto1 #d #jj ,patton's ,practical ,treatise on ,foundations4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,peabody's ,naval ,architecture4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,rice's ,concrete-block ,manufacture4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,richey's ,handbook for ,superintendents of ,construction4 #afmo1 mor41 #d #jj 99 ,building ,mechanics' ,ready ,reference ,book3 99 ,carpenters' and ,woodworkers' ,edition4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #ej 99 ,cementworkers and ,plasterer's ,edition4 7,in ,press47 99 ,stone- and ,brick-mason's ,edition4 #abmo1 mor41 #a #ej ,sabin's ,industrial and ,artistic ,technology of ,paints and ,varnish4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,siebert and ,biggin's ,modern ,stone-cutting and ,masonry4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,snow's ,principal ,species of ,wood4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,sondericker's ,graphic ,statics with ,applications to ,trusses1 ,beams1 and ,arches4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,towne's ,locks and ,builders' ,hardware4 #ahmo1 morocco1 #c #jj ,turneaure and ,maurer's ,principles of ,reinforced ,concrete ,construction4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wait's ,engineering and ,architectural ,jurisprudence4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,sheep1 #f #ej ,law of ,operations ,preliminary to ,construction in ,engineering and ,architecture4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,sheep1 #e #ej ,law of ,contracts4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wilson's ,air ,conditioning1 7,in ,press47 ,wood's ,rustless ,coatings3 ,corrosion and ,electrolysis of ,iron and ,steel4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,worcester and ,atkinson's ,small ,hospitals1 ,establishment and ,maintenance1 ,suggestions for ,hospital ,architecture1 with ,plans for a ,small ,hospital4 #abmo1 #a #be ,the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition of #ahic4 ,large #dto1 #a #jj ,,army ,,and ,,navy4 ,bernadou's ,smokeless ,powder1 ,nitro-cellulose1 and the ,theory of the ,cellulose ,molecule4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,chase's ,screw ,propellers and ,marine ,propulsion4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,cloke's ,gunner's ,examiner4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,craig's ,azimuth4 #dto1 #c #ej ,crehore and ,squier's ,polarizing ,photo-chronograph4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,davis's ,elements of ,law4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,treatise on the ,military ,law of ,united ,states4 #hvo1 #g #jj ,sheep1 #g #ej ,de ,brack's ,cavalry ,outposts ,duties4 7,carr47 #bdmo1 morocco1 #b #jj ,dietz's ,soldier's ,first ,aid ,handbook4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #be 99 ,dudley's ,military ,law and the ,procedure of ,courts-martial4 ,large #abmo1 #b #ej ,durand's ,resistance and ,propulsion of ,ships4 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,dyer's ,handbook of ,light ,artillery4 #abmo1 #c #jj ,eissler's ,modern ,high ,explosives4 #hvo1 #d #jj 99 ,fiebeger's ,text-book on ,field ,fortification4 ,small #hvo1 #b #jj ,hamilton's ,the ,gunner's ,catechism4 #ahmo1 #a #jj 99 ,hoff's ,elementary ,naval ,tactics4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,ingalls's ,handbook of ,problems in ,direct ,fire4 #hvo1 #d #jj 99 ,lissak's ,ordnance and ,gunnery4 #hvo1 #f #jj 99 ,lyons's ,treatise on ,electromagnetic ,phenomena4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 #hvo1 each1 #f #jj 99 ,mahan's ,permanent ,fortifications4 7,mercur47 #hvo1 half morocco1 #g #ej ,manual for ,courts-martial4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #ej 99 ,mercur's ,attack of ,fortified ,places4 #abmo1 #b #jj 99 ,elements of the ,art of ,war4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,metcalfe's ,cost of ,manufactures--,and the ,administration of ,workshops4 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,ordnance and ,gunnery4 #b vols4 #abmo1 #e #jj ,murray's ,infantry ,drill ,regulations4 #ahmo1 paper1 #aj ,nixon's ,adjutants' ,manual4 #bdmo1 #a #jj ,peabody's ,naval ,architecture4 #hvo1 #g #ej 99 ,phelps's ,practical ,marine ,surveying4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,powell's ,army ,officer's ,examiner4 #abmo1 #d #jj ,sharpe's ,art of ,subsisting ,armies in ,war4 #ahmo1 morocco1 #a #ej 99 ,tupes and ,poole's ,manual of ,bayonet ,exercises and ,musketry ,fencing4 #bdmo1 leather1 #ej ,weaver's ,military ,explosives4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wheeler's ,siege ,operations and ,military ,mining4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,winthrop's ,abridgment of ,military ,law4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,woodhull's ,notes on ,military ,hygiene4 #afmo1 #a #ej ,young's ,simple ,elements of ,navigation4 #afmo1 morocco1 #b #jj ,,assaying4 ,fletcher's ,practical ,instructions in ,quantitative ,assaying with the ,blowpipe4 #abmo1 morocco1 #a #ej ,furman's ,manual of ,practical ,assaying4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,lodge's ,notes on ,assaying and ,metallurgical ,laboratory ,experiments4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,low's ,technical ,methods of ,ore ,analysis4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,miller's ,manual of ,assaying4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,cyanide ,process4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,minet's ,production of ,aluminum and its ,industrial ,use4 7,waldo47 #abmo1 #b #ej ,o',driscoll's ,notes on the ,treatment of ,gold ,ores4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,ricketts and ,miller's ,notes on ,assaying4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,robine and ,lenglen's ,cyanide ,industry4 7,le ,clerc47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,ulke's ,modern ,electrolytic ,copper ,refining4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wilson's ,cyanide ,processes4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,chlorination ,process4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,,astronomy4 ,comstock's ,field ,astronomy for ,engineers4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,craig's ,azimuth4 #dto1 #c #ej ,crandall's ,text-book on ,geodesy and ,least ,squares4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,doolittle's ,treatise on ,practical ,astronomy4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,gore's ,elements of ,geodesy4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,hayford's ,text-book of ,geodetic ,astronomy4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,merriman's ,elements of ,precise ,surveying and ,geodesy4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,michie and ,harlow's ,practical ,astronomy4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,white's ,elements of ,theoretical and ,descriptive ,astronomy4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,,botany4 ,davenport's ,statistical ,methods1 with ,special ,reference to ,biological ,variation4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #be ,thom and ,bennett's ,structural and ,physiological ,botany4 #afmo1 #b #be ,westermaier's ,compendium of ,general ,botany4 7,schneider47 #hvo1 #b #jj ,,chemistry4 99 ,abegg's ,theory of ,electrolytic ,dissociation4 7,von ,ende47 #abmo1 #a #be ,adriance's ,laboratory ,calculations and ,specific ,gravity ,tables4 #abmo1 #a #be ,alexeyeff's ,general ,principles of ,organic ,synthesis4 7,matthews47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,allen's ,tables for ,iron ,analysis4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,arnold's ,compendium of ,chemistry4 7,mandel47 ,small #hvo1 #c #ej ,austen's ,notes for ,chemical ,students4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,beard's ,mine ,gases and ,explosions4 7,in ,press47 ,bernadou's ,smokeless ,powder4--,nitro-cellulose1 and ,theory of the ,cellulose ,molecule4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,bolduan's ,immune ,sera4 #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,browning's ,introduction to the ,rarer ,elements4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,brush and ,penfield's ,manual of ,determinative ,mineralogy4 #hvo1 #d #jj 99 ,claassen's ,beet-sugar ,manufacture4 7,hall and ,rolfe47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,classen's ,quantitative ,chemical ,analysis by ,electrolysis4 7,boltwood47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,cohn's ,indicators and ,test-papers4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,tests and ,reagents4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,crafts's ,short ,course in ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis4 7,schaeffer47 #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,danneel's ,electrochemistry4 7,merriam47 #abmo1 #a #be ,dolezalek's ,theory of the ,lead ,accumulator 7,storage ,battery74 7,von ,ende47 #abmo1 #b #ej ,drechsel's ,chemical ,reactions4 7,merrill47 #abmo1 #a #be ,duhem's ,thermodynamics and ,chemistry4 7,burgess47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,eissler's ,modern ,high ,explosives4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,effront's ,enzymes and their ,applications4 7,prescott47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,erdmann's ,introduction to ,chemical ,preparations4 7,dunlap47 #abmo1 #a #be 99 ,fischer's ,physiology of ,alimentation4 ,large #abmo1 #b #jj ,fletcher's ,practical ,instructions in ,quantitative ,assaying with the ,blowpipe4 #abmo1 morocco1 #a #ej ,fowler's ,sewage ,works ,analyses4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,fresenius's ,manual of ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis4 7,wells47 #hvo1 #e #jj ,manual of ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis4 ,part ,i4 ,descriptive4 7,wells47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,quantitative ,chemical ,analysis4 7,cohn47 #b vols4 #hvo1 #ab #ej ,fuertes's ,water and ,public ,health4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,furman's ,manual of ,practical ,assaying4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,getman's ,exercises in ,physical ,chemistry4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,gill's ,gas and ,fuel ,analysis for ,engineers4 #abmo1 #a #be 99 ,gooch and ,browning's ,outlines of ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis4 ,small #hvo1 #a #be ,grotenfelt's ,principles of ,modern ,dairy ,practice4 7,woll47 #abmo1 #b #jj ,groth's ,introduction to ,chemical ,crystallography4 7,marshall47 #abmo1 #a #be ,hammarsten's ,text-book of ,physiological ,chemistry4 7,mandel47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,hanausek's ,microscopy of ,technical ,products4 7,winton47 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,haskin's and ,mac,leod's ,organic ,chemistry4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,helm's ,principles of ,mathematical ,chemistry4 7,morgan47 #abmo1 #a #ej ,hering's ,ready ,reference ,tables 7,conversion ,factors47 #afmo1 morocco1 #b #ej ,herrick's ,denatured or ,industrial ,alcohol4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,hind's ,inorganic ,chemistry4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,laboratory ,manual for ,students4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,holleman's ,text-book of ,inorganic ,chemistry4 7,cooper47 #hvo1 #b #ej ,text-book of ,organic ,chemistry4 7,walker and ,mott47 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,laboratory ,manual of ,organic ,chemistry4 7,walker47 #abmo1 #a #jj ,holley and ,ladd's ,analysis of ,mixed ,paints1 ,color ,pigments1 and ,varnishes4 7,in ,press47 ,hopkins's ,oil-chemists' ,handbook4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,iddings's ,rock ,minerals4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,jackson's ,directions for ,laboratory ,work in ,physiological ,chemistry4 #hvo1 #a #be ,johannsen's ,key for the ,determination of ,rock-forming ,minerals in ,thin ,sections4 7,in ,press47 ,keep's ,cast ,iron4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,ladd's ,manual of ,quantitative ,chemical ,analysis4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,landauer's ,spectrum ,analysis4 7,tingle47 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,langworthy and ,austen4 ,the ,occurrence of ,aluminium in ,vegetable ,products1 ,animal ,products1 and ,natural ,waters4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,lassar-,cohn's ,application of ,some ,general ,reactions to ,investigations in ,organic ,chemistry4 7,tingle47 #abmo1 #a #jj ,leach's ,the ,inspection and ,analysis of ,food with ,special ,reference to ,state ,control4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,lb's ,electrochemistry of ,organic ,compounds4 7,lorenz47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,lodge's ,notes on ,assaying and ,metallurgical ,laboratory ,experiments4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,low's ,technical ,method of ,ore ,analysis4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,lunge's ,techno-chemical ,analysis4 7,cohn47 #abmo #a #jj 99 ,mc,kay and ,larsen's ,principles and ,practice of ,butter-making4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,maire's ,modern ,pigments and their ,vehicles4 7,in ,press47 ,mandel's ,handbook for ,bio-chemical ,laboratory4 #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,martin's ,laboratory ,guide to ,qualitative ,analysis with the ,blowpipe4 #abmo1 #fj ,mason's ,water-supply4 7,considered ,principally from a ,sanitary ,standpoint47 #c;d ,edition1 ,rewritten4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,examination of ,water4 7,chemical and ,bacteriological47 #abmo1 #a #be ,matthews's ,the ,textile ,fibres4 #b;d ,edition1 ,rewritten4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,meyer's ,determination of ,radicles in ,carbon ,compounds4 7,tingle47 #abmo1 #a #jj ,miller's ,manual of ,assaying4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,cyanide ,process4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,minet's ,production of ,aluminum and its ,industrial ,use4 7,waldo47 #abmo1 #b #ej ,mixter's ,elementary ,text-book of ,chemistry4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,morgan's ,an ,outline of the ,theory of ,solutions and its ,results4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,elements of ,physical ,chemistry4 #abmo1 #c #jj 99 ,physical ,chemistry for ,electrical ,engineers4 #abmo1 #e #jj ,morse's ,calculations used in ,cane-sugar ,factories4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #ej 99 ,muir's ,history of ,chemical ,theories and ,laws4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,mulliken's ,general ,method for the ,identification of ,pure ,organic ,compounds4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,large #hvo1 #e #jj ,o',driscoll's ,notes on the ,treatment of ,gold ,ores4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,ostwald's ,conversations on ,chemistry4 ,part ,one4 7,ramsey47 #abmo1 #a #ej ,part ,two4 7,turnbull47 #abmo1 #b #jj 99 ,palmer's ,practical ,test ,book of ,chemistry4 #abmo1 #a #jj 99 ,pauli's ,physical ,chemistry in the ,service of ,medicine4 7,fischer47 #abmo1 #a #be 99 ,penfield's ,notes on ,determinative ,mineralogy and ,record of ,mineral ,tests4 #hvo1 paper1 #ej ,pictet's ,the ,alkaloids and their ,chemical ,constitution4 7,biddle47 #hvo1 #e #jj ,pinner's ,introduction to ,organic ,chemistry4 7,austen47 #abmo1 #a #ej ,poole's ,calorific ,power of ,fuels4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,prescott and ,winslow's ,elements of ,water ,bacteriology1 with ,special ,reference to ,sanitary ,water ,analysis4 #abmo1 #a #be 99 ,reisig's ,guide to ,piece-dyeing4 #hvo1 #be #jj ,richards and ,woodman's ,air1 ,water1 and ,food from a ,sanitary ,standpoint4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,ricketts and ,miller's ,notes on ,assaying4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,rideal's ,sewage and the ,bacterial ,purification of ,sewage4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,disinfection and the ,preservation of ,food4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,riggs's ,elementary ,manual for the ,chemical ,laboratory4 #hvo1 #a #be ,robine and ,lenglen's ,cyanide ,industry4 7,le ,clerc47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,ruddiman's ,incompatibilities in ,prescriptions4 #hvo1 #b #jj 99 ,whys in ,pharmacy4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,sabin's ,industrial and ,artistic ,technology of ,paints and ,varnish4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,salkowski's ,physiological and ,pathological ,chemistry4 7,orndorff47 #hvo1 #b #ej ,schimpf's ,text-book of ,volumetric ,analysis4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,essentials of ,volumetric ,analysis4 #abmo1 #a #be 99 ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis4 #hvo1 #a #be ,smith's ,lecture ,notes on ,chemistry for ,dental ,students4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,spencer's ,handbook for ,chemists of ,beet-sugar ,houses4 #afmo1 morocco1 #c #jj ,handbook for ,cane ,sugar ,manufacturers4 #afmo1 morocco1 #c #jj ,stockbridge's ,rocks and ,soils4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,tillman's ,elementary ,lessons in ,heat4 #hvo1 #a #ej 99 ,descriptive ,general ,chemistry4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,treadwell's ,qualitative ,analysis4 7,hall47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,quantitative ,analysis4 7,hall47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,turneaure and ,russell's ,public ,water-supplies4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,van ,deventer's ,physical ,chemistry for ,beginners4 7,boltwood47 #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,walke's ,lectures on ,explosives4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,ware's ,beet-sugar ,manufacture and ,refining4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,small #hvo1 #d #jj ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,small #hvo1 #e #jj ,washington's ,manual of the ,chemical ,analysis of ,rocks4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,weaver's ,military ,explosives4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wehrenfennig's ,analysis and ,softening of ,boiler ,feed-,water4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,wells's ,laboratory ,guide in ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,short ,course in ,inorganic ,qualitative ,chemical ,analysis for ,engineering ,students4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,text-book of ,chemical ,arithmetic4 #abmo1 #a #be ,whipple's ,microscopy of ,drinking-water4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,wilson's ,cyanide ,processes4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,chlorination ,process4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,winton's ,microscopy of ,vegetable ,foods4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,wulling's ,elementary ,course in ,inorganic1 ,pharmaceutical1 and ,medical ,chemistry4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,,civil ,,engineering4 ,,bridges ,,and ,,roofs4 ,,hydraulics4 ,,materials ,,of ,,engineering4 ,,railway ,,engineering4 ,baker's ,engineers' ,surveying ,instruments4 #abmo1 #c #jj ,bixby's ,graphical ,computing ,table4 ,paper #ai-a_/b #bd-a_/d inches1 #be ,breed and ,hosmer's ,principles and ,practice of ,surveying4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,burr's ,ancient and ,modern ,engineering and the ,isthmian ,canal4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,comstock's ,field ,astronomy for ,engineers4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,corthell's ,allowable ,pressures on ,deep ,foundations4 #abmo1 #a #be ,crandall's ,text-book on ,geodesy and ,least ,squares4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,davis's ,elevation and ,stadia ,tables4 #hvo1 #a #jj ,elliott's ,engineering for ,land ,drainage4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,practical ,farm ,drainage4 #abmo1 #a #jj 99 ,fiebeger's ,treatise on ,civil ,engineering4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,flemer's ,phototopographic ,methods and ,instruments4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,folwell's ,sewerage4 7,designing and ,maintenance47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,freitag's ,architectural ,engineering4 #b;d ,edition1 ,rewritten4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,french and ,ives's ,stereotomy4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,goodhue's ,municipal ,improvements4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,gore's ,elements of ,geodesy4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,hauch and ,rice's ,tables of ,quantities for ,preliminary ,estimates4 #abmo1 #a #be ,hayford's ,text-book of ,geodetic ,astronomy4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,hering's ,ready ,reference ,tables 7,conversion ,factors74 #afmo1 morocco1 #b #ej ,howe's ,retaining ,walls for ,earth4 #abmo1 #a #be ,hoyt and ,grover's ,river ,discharge4 #hvo1 #b #jj 99 ,ives's ,adjustments of the ,engineer's ,transit and ,level4 #afmo1 ,bds4 #be ,ives and ,hilts's ,problems in ,surveying4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #ej ,johnson's 7,j4 ,b47 ,theory and ,practice of ,surveying4 ,small #hvo1 #d #jj ,johnson's 7,l4 ,j47 ,statics by ,algebraic and ,graphic ,methods4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,laplace's ,philosophical ,essay on ,probabilities4 7,truscott and ,emory47 #abmo1 #b #jj ,mahan's ,treatise on ,civil ,engineering4 7#ahgc47 7,wood47 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,descriptive ,geometry4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,merriman's ,elements of ,precise ,surveying and ,geodesy4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,merriman and ,brooks's ,handbook for ,surveyors4 #afmo1 morocco1 #b #jj ,nugent's ,plane ,surveying4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,ogden's ,sewer ,design4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,parsons's ,disposal of ,municipal ,refuse4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,patton's ,treatise on ,civil ,engineering4 #hvo half leather1 #g #ej ,reed's ,topographical ,drawing and ,sketching4 #dto1 #e #jj ,rideal's ,sewage and the ,bacterial ,purification of ,sewage4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,riemer's ,shaft-sinking under ,difficult ,conditions4 7,corning and ,peele47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,siebert and ,biggin's ,modern ,stone-cutting and ,masonry4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,smith's ,manual of ,topographical ,drawing4 7,mc,millan47 #hvo1 #b #ej ,sondericker's ,graphic ,statics1 with ,applications to ,trusses1 ,beams1 and ,arches4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,taylor and ,thompson's ,treatise on ,concrete1 ,plain and ,reinforced4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,tracy's ,plane ,surveying4 #afmo1 morocco1 #c #jj 99 ,trautwine's ,civil ,engineer's ,pocket-book4 #afmo1 morocco1 #e #jj ,venable's ,garbage ,crematories in ,america4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,wait's ,engineering and ,architectural ,jurisprudence4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,sheep1 #f #ej ,law of ,operations ,preliminary to ,construction in ,engineering and ,architecture4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,sheep1 #e #ej ,law of ,contracts4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,warren's ,stereotomy--,problems in ,stone-cutting4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,webb's ,problems in the ,use and ,adjustment of ,engineering ,instruments4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #be ,wilson's ,topographic ,surveying4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,,bridges ,,and ,,roofs4 ,boller's ,practical ,treatise on the ,construction of ,iron ,highway ,bridges4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,burr and ,falk's ,influence ,lines for ,bridge and ,roof ,computations4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,design and ,construction of ,metallic ,bridges4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,du ,bois's ,mechanics of ,engineering4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,small #dto1 #aj #jj ,foster's ,treatise on ,wooden ,trestle ,bridges4 #dto1 #e #jj ,fowler's ,ordinary ,foundations4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,greene's ,roof ,trusses4 #hvo1 #a #be ,bridge ,trusses4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,arches in ,wood1 ,iron1 and ,stone4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,grimm's ,secondary ,stresses in ,bridge ,trusses4 7,in ,press47 ,howe's ,treatise on ,arches4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,design of ,simple ,roof-trusses in ,wood and ,steel4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,symmetrical ,masonry ,arches4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,johnson1 ,bryan1 and ,turneaure's ,theory and ,practice in the ,designing of ,modern ,framed ,structures4 ,small #dto1 #aj #jj ,merriman and ,jacoby's ,text-book on ,roofs and ,bridges3 ,part ,i4 ,stresses in ,simple ,trusses4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,part ,,ii4 ,graphic ,statics4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,part ,,iii4 ,bridge ,design4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,part ,,iv4 ,higher ,structures4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,morison's ,memphis ,bridge4 #dto1 #aj #jj ,waddell's ,de ,pontibus1 a ,pocket-book for ,bridge ,engineers4 #afmo1 morocco1 #b #jj 99 ,specifications for ,steel ,bridges4 #abmo1 #ej ,wright's ,designing of ,draw-spans4 ,two parts in one volume4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,,hydraulics4 ,barnes's ,ice ,formation4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,bazin's ,experiments upon the ,contraction of the ,liquid ,vein ,issuing from an ,orifice4 7,trautwine47 #hvo1 #b #jj ,bovey's ,treatise on ,hydraulics4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,church's ,mechanics of ,engineering4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,diagrams of ,mean ,velocity of ,water in ,open ,channels4 paper1 #a #ej ,hydraulic ,motors4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,coffin's ,graphical ,solution of ,hydraulic ,problems4 #afmo1 morocco1 #b #ej ,flather's ,dynamometers1 and the ,measurement of ,power4 #abmo1 #c #jj ,folwell's ,water-supply ,engineering4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,frizell's ,water-power4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,fuertes's ,water and ,public ,health4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,water-filtration ,works4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,ganguillet and ,kutter's ,general ,formula for the ,uniform ,flow of ,water in ,rivers and ,other ,channels4 7,hering and ,trautwine47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,hazen's ,clean ,water and ,how to ,get ,it4 ,large #abmo1 #a #ej ,filtration of ,public ,water-supply4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,hazlehurst's ,towers and ,tanks for ,water-works4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,herschel's #aae ,experiments on the ,carrying ,capacity of ,large1 ,riveted1 ,metal ,conduits4 #hvo1 #b #jj 99 ,hubbard and ,kiersted's ,water-works ,management and ,maintenance4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,mason's ,water-supply4 7,considered ,principally from a ,sanitary ,standpoint47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,merriman's ,treatise on ,hydraulics4 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,michie's ,elements of ,analytical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,schuyler's ,reservoirs for ,irrigation1 ,water-power1 and ,domestic ,water-supply ,large #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,thomas and ,watt's ,improvement of ,rivers4 #dto1 #f #jj ,turneaure and ,russell's ,public ,water-supplies4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,wegmann's ,design and ,construction of ,dams4 #eth ,edition1 enlarged4 #dto1 #f #jj ,water-supply of the ,city of ,new ,york from #afeh to #ahie4 #dto1 #aj #jj ,whipple's ,value of ,pure ,water4 ,large #abmo1 #a #jj ,williams and ,hazen's ,hydraulic ,tables4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,wilson's ,irrigation ,engineering4 ,small #hvo1 #d #jj ,wolff's ,windmill as a ,prime ,mover4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wood's ,turbines4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,elements of ,analytical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,,materials ,,of ,,engineering4 ,baker's ,treatise on ,masonry ,construction4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,roads and ,pavements4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,black's ,united ,states ,public ,works4 ,oblong #dto1 #e #jj 99 ,bovey's ,strength of ,materials and ,theory of ,structures4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,burr's ,elasticity and ,resistance of the ,materials of ,engineering4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,byrne's ,highway ,construction4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,inspection of the ,materials and ,workmanship ,employed in ,construction4 #afmo1 #c #jj ,church's ,mechanics of ,engineering4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,du ,bois's ,mechanics of ,engineering4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,small #dto1 #g #ej 99 ,eckel's ,cements1 ,limes1 and ,plasters4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,johnson's ,materials of ,construction4 ,large #hvo1 #f #jj ,fowler's ,ordinary ,foundations4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,graves's ,forest ,mensuration4 #hvo1 #d #jj 99 ,greene's ,structural ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,keep's ,cast ,iron4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,lanza's ,applied ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,martens's ,handbook on ,testing ,materials4 7,henning47 #b vols4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,maurer's ,technical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,merrill's ,stones for ,building and ,decoration4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,merriman's ,mechanics of ,materials4 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,strength of ,materials4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,metcalf's ,steel4 ,a ,manual for ,steel-users4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,patron's ,practical ,treatise on ,foundations4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,richardson's ,modern ,asphalt ,pavements4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,richey's ,handbook for ,superintendents of ,construction4 #afmo1 mor41 #d #jj 99 ,ries's ,clays2 ,their ,occurrence1 ,properties1 and ,uses4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,rockwell's ,roads and ,pavements in ,france4 #abmo1 #a #be ,sabin's ,industrial and ,artistic ,technology of ,paints and ,varnish4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,schwarz's ,longleaf ,pine in ,virgin ,forest4 #abmo1 #a #be ,smith's ,materials of ,machines4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,snow's ,principal ,species of ,wood4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,spalding's ,hydraulic ,cement4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,text-book on ,roads and ,pavements4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,taylor and ,thompson's ,treatise on ,concrete1 ,plain and ,reinforced4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,thurston's ,materials of ,engineering4 #c ,parts4 #hvo1 #h #jj ,part ,i4 ,non-metallic ,materials of ,engineering and ,metallurgy4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,part ,,ii4 ,iron and ,steel4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,part ,,iii4 ,a ,treatise on ,brasses1 ,bronzes1 and ,other ,alloys and their ,constituents4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,tillson's ,street ,pavements and ,paving ,materials4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,turneaure and ,maurer's ,principles of ,reinforced ,concrete ,construction4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,waddell's ,de ,pontibus4 7,a ,pocket-book for ,bridge ,engineers47 #afmo1 mor41 #b #jj 99 ,specifications for ,steel ,bridges4 #abmo1 #ej ,wood's 7,de ,v47 ,treatise on the ,resistance of ,materials1 and an ,appendix on the ,preservation of ,timber4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,wood's 7,de ,v47 ,elements of ,analytical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wood's 7,m4 ,p47 ,rustless ,coatings3 ,corrosion and ,electrolysis of ,iron and ,steel4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,,railway ,,engineering4 ,andrew's ,handbook for ,street ,railway ,engineers4 #cx#e inches1 morocco1 #a #be ,berg's ,buildings and ,structures of ,american ,railroads4 #dto1 #e #jj ,brook's ,handbook of ,street ,railroad ,location4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #ej ,butt's ,civil ,engineer's ,field-book4 #afmo1 morocco1 #b #ej ,crandall's ,transition ,curve4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #ej ,railway and ,other ,earthwork ,tables4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,crookett's ,methods for ,earthwork ,computations4 7,in ,press7 ,dawson's ,engineering and ,electric ,traction ,pocket-book4 #afmo1 morocco1 #e #jj ,dredge's ,history of the ,pennsylvania ,railroad3 7#ahgi74 ,paper1 #e #jj ,fisher's ,table of ,cubic ,yards4 ,cardboard1 #be ,godwin's ,railroad ,engineers' ,field-book and ,explorers' ,guide4 #afmo1 mor41 #b #ej ,hudson's ,tables for ,calculating the ,cubic ,contents of ,excavations and ,embankments4 #hvo1 #a #jj ,molitor and ,beard's ,manual for ,resident ,engineers4 #afmo1 #a #jj ,nagle's ,field ,manual for ,railroad ,engineers4 #afmo1 morocco1 #c #jj ,philbrick's ,field ,manual for ,engineers4 #afmo1 morocco1 #c #jj ,raymond's ,elements of ,railroad ,engineering4 7,in ,press47 ,searles's ,field ,engineering4 #afmo1 morocco1 #c #jj ,railroad ,spiral4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #ej ,taylor's ,prismoidal ,formul and ,earthwork4 #hvo1 #a #ej 99 ,trautwine's ,method of ,calculating the ,cube ,contents of ,excavations and ,embankments by the ,aid of ,diagrams4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,the ,field ,practice of ,laying ,out ,circular ,curves for ,railroads4 #abmo1 morocco1 #b #ej ,cross-section ,sheet4 ,paper1 #be ,webb's ,railroad ,construction4 #afmo1 morocco1 #e #jj ,economics of ,railroad ,construction4 ,large #abmo1 #b #ej ,wellington's ,economic ,theory of the ,location of ,railways4 ,small #hvo1 #e #jj ,,drawing4 ,barr's ,kinematics of ,machinery4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,bartlett's ,mechanical ,drawing4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,abridged ,ed4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,coolidge's ,manual of ,drawing4 #hvo1 paper1 #a #jj ,coolidge and ,freeman's ,elements of ,general ,drafting for ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,oblong #dto1 #b #ej ,durley's ,kinematics of ,machines4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,emch's ,introduction to ,projective ,geometry and its ,applications4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,hill's ,text-book on ,shades and ,shadows1 and ,perspective4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,jamison's ,elements of ,mechanical ,drawing4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,advanced ,mechanical ,drawing4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,jones's ,machine ,design3 ,part ,i4 ,kinematics of ,machinery4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,part ,,ii4 ,form1 ,strength1 and ,proportions of ,parts4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,mac,cord's ,elements of ,descriptive ,geometry4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,kinematics2 or1 ,practical ,mechanism4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,mechanical ,drawing4 #dto1 #d #jj ,velocity ,diagrams4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,mac,leod's ,descriptive ,geometry4 ,small #hvo1 #a #ej 99 ,mahan's ,descriptive ,geometry and ,stone-cutting4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,industrial ,drawing4 7,thompson47 #hvo1 #c #ej ,moyer's ,descriptive ,geometry4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,reed's ,topographical ,drawing and ,sketching4 #dto1 #e #jj ,reid's ,course in ,mechanical ,drawing4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,text-book of ,mechanical ,drawing and ,elementary ,machine ,design4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,robinson's ,principles of ,mechanism4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,schwamb and ,merrill's ,elements of ,mechanism4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,smith's 7,r4 ,s47 ,manual of ,topographical ,drawing4 7,mc,millan47 #hvo1 #b #ej ,smith 7,a4 ,w47 and ,marx's ,machine ,design4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,titsworth's ,elements of ,mechanical ,drawing4 ,oblong #hvo1 #a #be ,warren's ,elements of ,plane and ,solid ,free-hand ,geometrical ,drawing4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,drafting ,instruments and ,operations4 #abmo1 #a #be ,manual of ,elementary ,projection ,drawing4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,manual of ,elementary ,problems in the ,linear ,perspective of ,form and ,shadow4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,plane ,problems in ,elementary ,geometry4 #abmo1 #a #be ,elements of ,descriptive ,geometry1 ,shadows1 and ,perspective4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,general ,problems of ,shades and ,shadows4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,elements of ,machine ,construction and ,drawing4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,problems1 ,theorems1 and ,examples in ,descriptive ,geometry4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,weisbach's ,kinematics and ,power of ,transmission4 7,herrmann and ,klein47 #hvo1 #e #jj ,whelpley's ,practical ,instruction in the ,art of ,letter ,engraving4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,wilson's 7,h4 ,m47 ,topographic ,surveying4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,wilson's 7,v4 ,t47 ,free-hand ,perspective4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,wilson's 7,v4 ,t47 ,free-hand ,lettering4 #hvo1 #a #jj ,woolf's ,elementary ,course in ,descriptive ,geometry4 ,large #hvo1 #c #jj ,,electricity ,,and ,,physics4 99 ,abegg's ,theory of ,electrolytic ,dissociation4 7,von ,ende47 #abmo1 #a #be ,anthony and ,brackett's ,text-book of ,physics4 7,magie47 ,small #hvo1 #c #jj ,anthony's ,lecture-notes on the ,theory of ,electrical ,measurements4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,benjamin's ,history of ,electricity4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,voltaic ,cell4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,betts's ,lead ,refining and ,electrolysis4 7,in ,press47 ,classen's ,quantitative ,chemical ,analysis by ,electrolysis4 7,boltwood47 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,collins's ,manual of ,wireless ,telegraphy4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,morocco1 #b #jj ,crehore and ,squier's ,polarizing ,photo-chronograph4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,danneel's ,electrochemistry4 7,merriam47 #abmo1 #a #be ,dawson's ,engineering and ,electric ,traction ,pocket-book4 #afmo1 morocco1 #e #jj ,dolezalek's ,theory of the ,lead ,accumulator 7,storage ,battery74 7,von ,ende47 #abmo1 #b #ej ,duhem's ,thermodynamics and ,chemistry4 7,burgess47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,flather's ,dynamometers1 and the ,measurement of ,power4 #abmo1 #c #jj ,gilbert's ,de ,magnete4 7,mottelay47 #hvo1 #b #ej ,hanchett's ,alternating ,currents ,explained4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,hering's ,ready ,reference ,tables 7,conversion ,factors74 #afmo1 morocco1 #b #ej ,hobart and ,ellis's ,high-speed ,dynamo ,electric ,machinery4 7,in ,press47 ,holman's ,precision of ,measurements4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,telescopic ,mirror-scale ,method1 ,adjustments1 and ,tests4 ,large #hvo1 #ge ,karapetoff's ,experimental ,electrical ,engineering4 7,in ,press47 ,kinzbrunner's ,testing of ,continuous-current ,machines4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,landauer's ,spectrum ,analysis4 7,tingle47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,le ,chatelier's ,high-temperature ,measurements4 7,boudouard--,burgess47 #abmo1 #c #jj ,lb's ,electrochemistry of ,organic ,compounds4 7,lorenz47 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,lyons's ,treatise on ,electromagnetic ,phenomena4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 #hvo1 each1 #f #jj 99 ,michie's ,elements of ,wave ,motion ,relating to ,sound and ,light4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,niaudet's ,elementary ,treatise on ,electric ,batteries4 7,fishback47 #abmo1 #b #ej ,norris's ,introduction to the ,study of ,electrical ,engineering4 7,in ,press47 99 ,parshall and ,hobart's ,electric ,machine ,design4 #dto1 half morocco1 #ab #ej ,reagan's ,locomotives3 ,simple1 ,compound1 and ,electric4 ,new ,edition4 ,large #abmo1 #c #ej 99 ,rosenberg's ,electrical ,engineering4 7,haldane ,gee--,kinzbrunner47 #hvo1 #b #jj ,ryan1 ,norris1 and ,hoxie's ,electrical ,machinery4 ,vol4 ,i4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,thurston's ,stationary ,steam-engines4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,tillman's ,elementary ,lessons in ,heat4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,tory and ,pitcher's ,manual of ,laboratory ,physics4 ,small #hvo1 #b #jj ,ulke's ,modern ,electrolytic ,copper ,refining4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,,law4 99 ,davis's ,elements of ,law4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,treatise on the ,military ,law of ,united ,states4 #hvo1 #g #jj 99 ,sheep1 #g #ej 99 ,dudley's ,military ,law and the ,procedure of ,courts-martial4 ,large #abmo1 #b #ej ,manual for ,courts-martial4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #ej ,wait's ,engineering and ,architectural ,jurisprudence4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,sheep1 #f #ej ,law of ,operations ,preliminary to ,construction in ,engineering and ,architecture4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,sheep1 #e #ej ,law of ,contracts4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,winthrop's ,abridgment of ,military ,law4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,,manufactures4 ,bernadou's ,smokeless ,powder--,nitro-cellulose and ,theory of the ,cellulose ,molecule4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,bolland's ,iron ,founder4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,the ,iron ,founder1 ,supplement4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,encyclopedia of ,founding and ,dictionary of ,foundry ,terms ,used in the ,practice of ,moulding4 #abmo1 #c #jj 99 ,claassen's ,beet-sugar ,manufacture4 7,hall and ,rolfe47 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,eckel's ,cements1 ,limes1 and ,plasters4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,eissler's ,modern ,high ,explosives4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,effront's ,enzymes and their ,applications4 7,prescott47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,fitzgerald's ,boston ,machinist4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,ford's ,boiler ,making for ,boiler ,makers4 #ahmo1 #a #jj ,herrick's ,denatured or ,industrial ,alcohol4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,holley and ,ladd's ,analysis of ,mixed ,paints1 ,color ,pigments1 and ,varnishes4 7,in ,press47 ,hopkins's ,oil-chemists' ,handbook4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,keep's ,cast ,iron4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,leach's ,the ,inspection and ,analysis of ,food with ,special ,reference to ,state ,control4 ,large #hvo1 #g #ej 99 ,mc,kay and ,larsen's ,principles and ,practice of ,butter-making4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,maire's ,modern ,pigments and their ,vehicles4 7,in ,press47 ,matthews's ,the ,textile ,fibres4 #b;d ,edition1 ,rewritten4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,metcalf's ,steel4 ,a ,manual for ,steel-users4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,metcalfe's ,cost of ,manufactures--,and the ,administration of ,workshops4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,meyer's ,modern ,locomotive ,construction4 #dto1 #aj #jj ,morse's ,calculations used in ,cane-sugar ,factories4 #afmo1 morocco1 #a #ej 99 ,reisig's ,guide to ,piece-dyeing4 #hvo1 #be #jj ,rice's ,concrete-block ,manufacture4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,sabin's ,industrial and ,artistic ,technology of ,paints and ,varnish4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,smith's ,press-working of ,metals4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,spalding's ,hydraulic ,cement4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,spencer's ,handbook for ,chemists of ,beet-sugar ,houses4 #afmo1 morocco1 #c #jj ,handbook for ,cane ,sugar ,manufacturers4 #afmo1 morocco1 #c #jj ,taylor and ,thompson's ,treatise on ,concrete1 ,plain and ,reinforced4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,thurston's ,manual of ,steam-boilers1 their ,designs1 ,construction and ,operation4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,ware's ,beet-sugar ,manufacture and ,refining4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,small #hvo1 #d #jj ,vol4 ,,ii4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,weaver's ,military ,explosives4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,west's ,american ,foundry ,practice4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,moulder's ,text-book4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,wolff's ,windmill as a ,prime ,mover4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wood's ,rustless ,coatings3 ,corrosion and ,electrolysis of ,iron and ,steel4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,,mathematics4 ,baker's ,elliptic ,functions4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,briggs's ,elements of ,plane ,analytic ,geometry4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,buchanan's ,plane and ,spherical ,trigonometry4 7,in ,press47 ,compton's ,manual of ,logarithmic ,computations4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,davis's ,introduction to the ,logic of ,algebra4 #hvo1 #a #ej 99 ,dickson's ,college ,algebra4 ,large #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,introduction to the ,theory of ,algebraic ,equations4 ,large #abmo1 #a #be ,emch's ,introduction to ,projective ,geometry and its ,applications4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,halsted's ,elements of ,geometry4 #hvo1 #a #ge ,elementary ,synthetic ,geometry4 #hvo1 #a #ej 99 ,rational ,geometry4 #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,johnson's 7,j4 ,b47 ,three-place ,logarithmic ,tables3 ,vest-pocket size paper1 #ae #ajj copies for #e #jj 99 ,mounted on heavy cardboard1 #h #aj inches1 #be #aj copies for #b #jj ,johnson's 7,w4 ,w47 ,elementary ,treatise on ,differential ,calculus4 ,small #hvo1 #c #jj ,elementary ,treatise on the ,integral ,calculus4 ,small #hvo1 #a #ej ,johnson's 7,w4 ,w47 ,curve ,tracing in ,cartesian ,co-ordinates4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,johnson's 7,w4 ,w47 ,treatise on ,ordinary and ,partial ,differential ,equations4 ,small #hvo1 #c #ej ,johnson's ,treatise on the ,integral ,calculus4 ,small #hvo1 #c #jj ,johnson's 7,w4 ,w47 ,theory of ,errors and the ,method of ,least ,squares4 #abmo1 #a #ej 99 ,johnson's 7,w4 ,w47 ,theoretical ,mechanics4 #abmo1 #c #jj ,laplace's ,philosophical ,essay on ,probabilities4 7,truscott and ,emory47 #abmo1 #b #jj 99 ,ludlow and ,bass4 ,elements of ,trigonometry and ,logarithmic and ,other ,tables4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,trigonometry and ,tables published separately4 ,each1 #b #jj 99 ,ludlow's ,logarithmic and ,trigonometric ,tables4 #hvo1 #a #jj ,manning's ,irrational ,numbers and their ,representation by ,sequences and ,series #abmo1 #a #be ,mathematical ,monographs4 ,edited by ,mansfield ,merriman and ,robert ,s4 ,woodward4 ,octavo1 each #a #jj ,no4 #a4 ,history of ,modern ,mathematics1 by ,david ,eugene ,smith4 ,no4 #b4 ,synthetic ,projective ,geometry1 by ,george ,bruce ,halsted4 ,no4 #c4 ,determinants1 by ,laenas ,gifford ,weld4 ,no4 #d4 ,hyperbolic ,functions1 by ,james ,mc,mahon4 ,no4 #e4 ,harmonic ,functions1 by ,william ,e4 ,byerly4 ,no4 #f4 ,grassmann's ,space ,analysis1 by ,edward ,w4 ,hyde4 ,no4 #g4 ,probability and ,theory of ,errors1 by ,robert ,s4 ,woodward4 ,no4 #h4 ,vector ,analysis and ,quaternions1 by ,alexander ,macfarlane4 ,no4 #i4 ,differential ,equations1 by ,william ,woolsey ,johnson4 ,no4 #aj4 ,the ,solution of ,equations1 by ,mansfield ,merriman4 ,no4 #aa4 ,functions of a ,complex ,variable1 by ,thomas ,s4 ,fiske4 ,maurer's ,technical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,merriman's ,method of ,least ,squares4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,rice and ,johnson's ,elementary ,treatise on the ,differential ,calculus4 ,sm4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,differential and ,integral ,calculus4 #b vols4 in one4 ,small #hvo1 #c #ej 99 ,veblen and ,lennes's ,introduction to the ,real ,infinitesimal ,analysis of ,one ,variable4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,wood's ,elements of ,co-ordinate ,geometry4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,trigonometry3 ,analytical1 ,plane1 and ,spherical4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,,mechanical ,,engineering4 ,,materials ,,of ,,engineering1 ,,steam-,,engines ,,and ,,boilers4 ,bacon's ,forge ,practice4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,baldwin's ,steam ,heating for ,buildings4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,barr's ,kinematics of ,machinery4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,bartlett's ,mechanical ,drawing4 #hvo1 #c #jj 99 ,abridged ,ed4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,benjamin's ,wrinkles and ,recipes4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,carpenter's ,experimental ,engineering4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,heating and ,ventilating ,buildings4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,clerk's ,gas and ,oil ,engine4 ,small #hvo1 #d #jj ,coolidge's ,manual of ,drawing4 #hvo1 paper1 #a #jj ,coolidge and ,freeman's ,elements of ,general ,drafting for ,mechanical ,engineers4 ,oblong #dto1 #b #ej ,cromwell's ,treatise on ,toothed ,gearing4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,treatise on ,belts and ,pulleys4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,durley's ,kinematics of ,machines4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,flather's ,dynamometers and the ,measurement of ,power4 #abmo1 #c #jj ,rope ,driving4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,gill's ,gas and ,fuel ,analysis for ,engineers4 #abmo1 #a #be ,hall's ,car ,lubrication4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,hering's ,ready ,reference ,tables 7,conversion ,factors74 #afmo1 morocco1 #b #ej ,hutton's ,the ,gas ,engine4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,jamison's ,mechanical ,drawing4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,jones's ,machine ,design3 ,part ,i4 ,kinematics of ,machinery4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,part ,,ii4 ,form1 ,strength1 and ,proportions of ,parts4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,kent's ,mechanical ,engineers' ,pocket-book4 #afmo1 morocco1 #e #jj ,kerr's ,power and ,power ,transmission4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,leonard's ,machine ,shop1 ,tools1 and ,methods4 #hvo1 #d #jj 99 ,lorenz's ,modern ,refrigerating ,machinery4 7,pope1 ,haven1 and ,dean47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,mac,cord's ,kinematics2 or1 ,practical ,mechanism4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,mechanical ,drawing4 #dto1 #d #jj ,velocity ,diagrams4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,mac,farland's ,standard ,reduction ,factors for ,gases4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,mahan's ,industrial ,drawing4 7,thompson47 #hvo1 #c #ej ,poole's ,calorific ,power of ,fuels4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,reid's ,course in ,mechanical ,drawing4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,text-book of ,mechanical ,drawing and ,elementary ,machine ,design4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,richards's ,compressed ,air4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,robinson's ,principles of ,mechanism4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,schwamb and ,merrill's ,elements of ,mechanism4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,smith's 7,o47 ,press-working of ,metals4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,smith 7,a4 ,w47 and ,marx's ,machine ,design4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,thurston's ,treatise on ,friction and ,lost ,work in ,machinery and ,mill ,work4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,animal as a ,machine and ,prime ,motor1 and the ,laws of ,energetics4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,tillson's ,complete ,automobile ,instructor4 #afmo1 #a #ej ,morocco1 #b #jj ,warren's ,elements of ,machine ,construction and ,drawing4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,weisbach's ,kinematics and the ,power of ,transmission4 7,herrmann--,klein47 #hvo1 #e #jj ,machinery of ,transmission and ,governors4 7,herrmann--,klein47 #hvo1 #e #jj ,wolff's ,windmill as a ,prime ,mover4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wood's ,turbines4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,,materials ,,of ,,engineering4 99 ,bovey's ,strength of ,materials and ,theory of ,structures4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,burr's ,elasticity and ,resistance of the ,materials of ,engineering4 #fth ,edition4 ,reset4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,church's ,mechanics of ,engineering4 #hvo1 #f #jj 99 ,greene's ,structural ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,johnson's ,materials of ,construction4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,keep's ,cast ,iron4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,lanza's ,applied ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,martens's ,handbook on ,testing ,materials4 7,henning47 #hvo1 #g #ej ,maurer's ,technical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,merriman's ,mechanics of ,materials4 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,strength of ,materials #abmo1 #a #jj ,metcalf's ,steel4 ,a ,manual for ,steel-users4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,sabin's ,industrial and ,artistic ,technology of ,paints and ,varnish4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,smith's ,materials of ,machines4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,thurston's ,materials of ,engineering4 #c vols41 #hvo1 #h #jj ,part ,,ii4 ,iron and ,steel4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,part ,,iii4 ,a ,treatise on ,brasses1 ,bronzes1 and ,other ,alloys and their ,constituents4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,wood's 7,de ,v47 ,treatise on the ,resistance of ,materials and an ,appendix on the ,preservation of ,timber4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,elements of ,analytical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wood's 7,m4 ,p47 ,rustless ,coatings3 ,corrosion and ,electrolysis of ,iron and ,steel4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,,steam-,,engines ,,and ,,boilers4 ,berry's ,temperature-entropy ,diagram4 #abmo1 #a #be ,carnot's ,reflections on the ,motive ,power of ,heat4 7,thurston47 #abmo1 #a #ej ,creighton's ,steam-engine and other ,heat-motors4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,dawson's ,engineering and ,electric ,traction ,pocket-book4 #afmo1 mor41 #e #jj ,ford's ,boiler ,making for ,boiler ,makers4 #ahmo1 #a #jj ,goss's ,locomotive ,sparks4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,locomotive ,performance4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,hemenway's ,indicator ,practice and ,steam-engine ,economy4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,hutton's ,mechanical ,engineering of ,power ,plants4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,heat and ,heat-engines4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,kent's ,steam boiler ,economy4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,kneass's ,practice and ,theory of the ,injector4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,mac,cord's ,slide-valves4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,meyer's ,modern ,locomotive ,construction4 #dto1 #aj #jj ,peabody's ,manual of the ,steam-engine ,indicator4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,tables of the ,properties of ,saturated ,steam and ,other ,vapors4 #hvo1 #a #jj ,thermodynamics of the ,steam-engine and ,other ,heat-engines4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,valve-gears for ,steam-engines4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,peabody and ,miller's ,steam-boilers4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,pray's ,twenty ,years with the ,indicator4 ,large #hvo1 #b #ej ,pupin's ,thermodynamics of ,reversible ,cycles in ,gases and ,saturated ,vapors4 7,osterberg47 #abmo1 #a #be ,reagan's ,locomotives3 ,simple1 ,compound1 and ,electric4 ,new ,edition4 ,large #abmo1 #c #ej ,sinclair's ,locomotive ,engine ,running and ,management4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,smart's ,handbook of ,engineering ,laboratory ,practice4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,snow's ,steam-boiler ,practice4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,spangler's ,valve-gears4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,notes on ,thermodynamics4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,spangler1 ,greene1 and ,marshall's ,elements of ,steam-engineering4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,thomas's ,steam-turbines4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,thurston's ,handy ,tables4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,manual of the ,steam-engine4 #b vols41 #hvo1 #aj #jj ,part ,i4 ,history1 ,structure1 and ,theory4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,part ,,ii4 ,design1 ,construction1 and ,operation4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,handbook of ,engine and ,boiler ,trials1 and the ,use of the ,indicator and the ,prony ,brake4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,stationary ,steam-engines4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,steam-boiler ,explosions in ,theory and in ,practice4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,manual of ,steam-boilers1 their ,designs1 ,construction1 and ,operation4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,wehrenfennig's ,analysis and ,softening of ,boiler ,feed-water4 7,patterson47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,weisbach's ,heat1 ,steam1 and ,steam-engines4 7,du ,bois47 #hvo1 #e #jj ,whitham's ,steam-engine ,design4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,wood's ,thermodynamics1 ,heat ,motors1 and ,refrigerating ,machines4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,,mechanics ,,and ,,machinery4 ,barr's ,kinematics of ,machinery4 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,bovey's ,strength of ,materials and ,theory of ,structures4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,chase's ,the ,art of ,pattern-making4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,church's ,mechanics of ,engineering4 #hvo1 #f #jj ,notes and ,examples in ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,compton's ,first ,lessons in ,metal-working4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,compton and ,de ,groodt's ,the ,speed ,lathe4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,cromwell's ,treatise on ,toothed ,gearing4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,treatise on ,belts and ,pulleys4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,dana's ,text-book of ,elementary ,mechanics for ,colleges and ,schools4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,dingey's ,machinery ,pattern ,making4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,dredge's ,record of the ,transportation ,exhibits ,building of the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition of #ahic4 #dto1 half morocco1 #e #jj ,du ,bois's ,elementary ,principles of ,mechanics3 ,vol4 ,i4 ,kinematics4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,statics4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,mechanics of ,engineering4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,small #dto1 #g #ej ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,small #dto1 #aj #jj ,durley's ,kinematics of ,machines4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,fitzgerald's ,boston ,machinist4 #afmo1 #a #jj ,flather's ,dynamometers1 and the ,measurement of ,power4 #abmo1 #c #jj ,rope ,driving4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,goss's ,locomotive ,sparks4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,locomotive ,performance4 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,greene's ,structural ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,hall's ,car ,lubrication4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,hobart and ,ellis's ,high-speed ,dynamo ,electric ,machinery4 7,in ,press47 ,holly's ,art of ,saw ,filing4 #ahmo1 #ge ,james's ,kinematics of a ,point and the ,rational ,mechanics of a ,particle4 ,small #hvo1 #b #jj 99 ,johnson's 7,w4 ,w47 ,theoretical ,mechanics4 #abmo1 #c #jj ,johnson's 7,l4 ,j47 ,statics by ,graphic and ,algebraic ,methods4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,jones's ,machine ,design3 ,part ,i4 ,kinematics of ,machinery4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,part ,,ii4 ,form1 ,strength1 and ,proportions of ,parts4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,kerr's ,power and ,power ,transmission4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,lanza's ,applied ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,leonard's ,machine ,shop1 ,tools1 and ,methods4 #hvo1 #d #jj 99 ,lorenz's ,modern ,refrigerating ,machinery4 7,pope1 ,haven1 and ,dean47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,mac,cord's ,kinematics2 or1 ,practical ,mechanism4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,velocity ,diagrams4 #hvo1 #a #ej 99 ,martin's ,text ,book on ,mechanics1 ,vol4 #a1 ,statics4 #abmo1 #a #be 99 ,vol4 #b1 ,kinematics and ,kinetics4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,maurer's ,technical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,merriman's ,mechanics of ,materials4 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,elements of ,mechanics4 #abmo1 #a #jj 99 ,michie's ,elements of ,analytical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #d #jj 99 ,parshall and ,hobart's ,electric ,machine ,design4 #dto1 half morocco1 #ab #ej ,reagan's ,locomotives3 ,simple1 ,compound1 and ,electric4 ,new ,edition4 ,large #abmo1 #c #ej ,reid's ,course in ,mechanical ,drawing4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,text-book of ,mechanical ,drawing and ,elementary ,machine ,design4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,richards's ,compressed ,air4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,robinson's ,principles of ,mechanism4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,ryan1 ,norris1 and ,hoxie's ,electrical ,machinery4 ,vol4 ,i4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,sanborn's ,mechanics3 ,problems4 ,large #abmo1 #a #ej ,schwamb and ,merrill's ,elements of ,mechanism4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,sinclair's ,locomotive-engine ,running and ,management4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,smith's 7,o47 ,press-working of ,metals4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,smith's 7,a4 ,w47 ,materials of ,machines4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,smith 7,a4 ,w47 and ,marx's ,machine ,design4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,sorel's ,carbureting and ,combustion of ,alcohol ,engines4 7,woodward and ,preston47 ,large #hvo1 #c #jj ,spangler1 ,greene1 and ,marshall's ,elements of ,steam-engineering4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,thurston's ,treatise on ,friction and ,lost ,work in ,machinery and ,mill ,work4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,animal as a ,machine and ,prime ,motor1 and the ,laws of ,energetics4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,tillson's ,complete ,automobile ,instructor4 #afmo1 #a #ej ,morocco1 #b #jj ,warren's ,elements of ,machine ,construction and ,drawing4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,weisbach's ,kinematics and ,power of ,transmission4 7,herrmann--,klein47 #hvo1 #e #jj ,machinery of ,transmission and ,governors4 7,herrmann--,klein47 #hvo1 #e #jj ,wood's ,elements of ,analytical ,mechanics4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,principles of ,elementary ,mechanics4 #abmo1 #a #be ,turbines4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition of #ahic4 #dto1 #a #jj ,,medical4 99 ,bolduan's ,immune ,sera4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,de ,fursac's ,manual of ,psychiatry4 7,rosanoff and ,collins47 ,large #abmo1 #b #ej ,ehrlich's ,collected ,studies on ,immunity4 7,bolduan47 #hvo1 #f #jj 99 ,fischer's ,physiology of ,alimentation4 ,large #abmo1 cloth1 #b #jj ,hammarsten's ,text-book on ,physiological ,chemistry4 7,mandel47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,lassar-,cohn's ,practical ,urinary ,analysis4 7,lorenz47 #abmo1 #a #jj 99 ,pauli's ,physical ,chemistry in the ,service of ,medicine4 7,fischer47 #abmo1 #a #be 99 ,pozzi-,escot's ,the ,toxins and ,venoms and their ,antibodies4 7,cohn47 #abmo1 #a #jj ,rostoski's ,serum ,diagnosis4 7,bolduan47 #abmo1 #a #jj ,salkowski's ,physiological and ,pathological ,chemistry4 7,orndorff47 #hvo1 #b #ej 99 ,satterlee's ,outlines of ,human ,embryology4 #abmo1 #a #be ,steel's ,treatise on the ,diseases of the ,dog4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,von ,behring's ,suppression of ,tuberculosis4 7,bolduan47 #abmo1 #a #jj ,woodhull's ,notes on ,military ,hygiene4 #afmo1 #a #ej 99 ,personal ,hygiene4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,wulling's ,an ,elementary ,course in ,inorganic ,pharmaceutical and ,medical ,chemistry4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,,metallurgy4 ,betts's ,lead ,refining by ,electrolysis4 7,in ,press47 ,egleston's ,metallurgy of ,silver1 ,gold1 and ,mercury4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,silver4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,gold and ,mercury4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,goesel's ,minerals and ,metals3 ,a ,reference ,book4 #afmo1 mor4 #c #jj 99 ,iles's ,lead-smelting4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,keep's ,cast ,iron4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,kunhardt's ,practice of ,ore ,dressing in ,europe4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,le ,chatelier's ,high-temperature ,measurements4 7,boudouard--,burgess47 #abmo1 #c #jj ,metcalf's ,steel4 ,a ,manual for ,steel-users4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,miller's ,cyanide ,process4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,minet's ,production of ,aluminum and its ,industrial ,use4 7,waldo47 #abmo1 #b #ej ,robine and ,lenglen's ,cyanide ,industry4 7,le ,clerc47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,smith's ,materials of ,machines4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,thurston's ,materials of ,engineering4 ,in ,three ,parts4 #hvo1 #h #jj ,part ,,ii4 ,iron and ,steel4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,part ,,iii4 ,a ,treatise on ,brasses1 ,bronzes1 and ,other ,alloys and their ,constituents4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,ulke's ,modern ,electrolytic ,copper ,refining4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,,mineralogy4 ,barringer's ,description of ,minerals of ,commercial ,value4 ,oblong1 morocco1 #b #ej ,boyd's ,resources of ,southwest ,virginia4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,boyd's ,map of ,southwest ,virginia4 ,pocket-book form4 #b #jj 99 ,browning's ,introduction to the ,rarer ,elements4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,brush's ,manual of ,determinative ,mineralogy4 7,penfield47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,chester's ,catalogue of ,minerals4 #hvo1 paper1 #a #jj ,cloth1 #a #be ,dictionary of the ,names of ,minerals4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,dana's ,system of ,mineralogy4 ,large #hvo1 half leather1 #ab #ej ,first ,appendix to ,dana's ,new ,system of ,mineralogy4 ,large #hvo1 #a #jj ,text-book of ,mineralogy4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,minerals and ,how to ,study ,them4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,catalogue of ,american ,localities of ,minerals4 ,large #hvo1 #a #jj ,manual of ,mineralogy and ,petrography4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,douglas's ,untechnical ,addresses on ,technical ,subjects4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,eakle's ,mineral ,tables4 #hvo1 #a #be ,egleston's ,catalogue of ,minerals and ,synonyms4 #hvo1 #b #ej ,goesel's ,minerals and ,metals3 ,a ,reference ,book4 #afmo1 mor41 #c #jj ,groth's ,introduction to ,chemical ,crystallography 7,marshall47 #abmo1 #a #be ,iddings's ,rock ,minerals4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,johannsen's ,key for the ,determination of ,rock-forming ,minerals in ,thin ,sections4 7,in ,press47 99 ,martin's ,laboratory ,guide to ,qualitative ,analysis with the ,blowpipe4 #abmo1 #fj ,merrill's ,non-metallic ,minerals4 ,their ,occurrence and ,uses4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,stones for ,building and ,decoration4 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,penfield's ,notes on ,determinative ,mineralogy and ,record of ,mineral ,tests4 #hvo1 paper1 #ej ,tables of ,minerals4 #hvo1 #a #jj 99 ,richards's ,synopsis of ,mineral ,characters #abmo1 morocco1 #a #be 99 ,ries's ,clays4 ,their ,occurrence1 ,properties1 and ,uses4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,rosenbusch's ,microscopical ,physiography of the ,rock-making ,minerals4 7,iddings47 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,tillman's ,text-book of ,important ,minerals and ,rocks4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,,mining4 ,beard's ,mine ,gases and ,explosions4 7,in ,press47 ,boyd's ,resources of ,southwest ,virginia4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,map of ,southwest ,virginia4 ,pocket-book form1 #b #jj ,douglas's ,untechnical ,addresses on ,technical ,subjects4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,eissler's ,modern ,high ,explosives4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,goesel's ,minerals and ,metals2 ,a ,reference ,book4 #afmo1 mor41 #c #jj ,goodyear's ,coal-mines of the ,western ,coast of the ,united ,states4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,ihlseng's ,manual of ,mining4 #hvo1 #e #jj 99 ,iles's ,lead-smelting4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,kunhardt's ,practice of ,ore ,dressing in ,europe4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,miller's ,cyanide ,process4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,o',driscoll's ,notes on the ,treatment of ,gold ,ores4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,robine and ,lenglen's ,cyanide ,industry4 7,le ,clerc47 #hvo1 #d #jj ,weaver's ,military ,explosives4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,wilson's ,cyanide ,processes4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,chlorination ,process4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,hydraulic and ,placer ,mining4 #b;d edition1 rewritten4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,treatise on ,practical and ,theoretical ,mine ,ventilation4 #abmo1 #a #be ,,sanitary ,,science4 ,bashore's ,sanitation of a ,country ,house4 #abmo1 #a #jj 99 ,outlines of ,practical ,sanitation4 #abmo1 #a #be ,folwell's ,sewerage4 7,designing1 ,construction1 and ,maintenance47 #hvo1 #c #jj ,water-supply ,engineering4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,fowler's ,sewage ,works ,analyses4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,fuertes's ,water and ,public ,health4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,water-filtration ,works4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,gerhard's ,guide to ,sanitary ,house-inspection4 #afmo1 #a #jj ,sanitation of ,public ,buildings4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,hazen's ,filtration of ,public ,water-supplies4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,leach's ,the ,inspection and ,analysis of ,food with ,special ,reference to ,state ,control4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,mason's ,water-supply4 7,considered principally from a ,sanitary ,standpoint7 #hvo1 #d #jj ,examination of ,water4 7,chemical and ,bacteriological47 #abmo1 #a #be 99 ,merriman's ,elements of ,sanitary ,engineering4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,ogden's ,sewer ,design4 #abmo1 #b #jj ,prescott and ,winslow's ,elements of ,water ,bacteriology1 with ,special ,reference to ,sanitary ,water ,analysis4 #abmo1 #a #be 99 ,price's ,handbook on ,sanitation4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,richards's ,cost of ,food4 ,a ,study in ,dietaries4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,cost of ,living as ,modified by ,sanitary ,science4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,cost of ,shelter4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,richards and ,woodman's ,air4 ,water1 and ,food from a ,sanitary ,standpoint4 #hvo1 #b #jj 99 ,richards and ,williams's ,the ,dietary ,computer4 #hvo1 #a #ej ,rideal's ,sewage and ,bacterial ,purification of ,sewage4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,disinfection and the ,preservation of ,food4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,turneaure and ,russell's ,public ,water-supplies4 #hvo1 #e #jj ,von ,behring's ,suppression of ,tuberculosis4 7,bolduan47 #abmo1 #a #jj ,whipple's ,microscopy of ,drinking-water4 #hvo1 #c #ej ,wilson's ,air ,conditioning4 7,in ,press47 ,winton's ,microscopy of ,vegetable ,foods4 #hvo1 #g #ej ,woodhull's ,notes on ,military ,hygiene4 #afmo1 #a #ej 99 ,personal ,hygiene4 #abmo1 #a #jj ,,miscellaneous4 ,association of ,state and ,national ,food and ,dairy ,departments 7,interstate ,pure ,food ,commission73 ,tenth ,annual ,convention ,held at ,hartford1 ,july #ag-bj1 #aijf4 #hvo1 #c #jj ,eleventh ,annual ,convention1 ,held at ,jamestown ,tri-,centennial ,exposition1 ,july #af-ai1 #aijg4 7,in ,press47 ,emmons's ,geological ,guide-book of the ,rocky ,mountain ,excursion of the ,international ,congress of ,geologists4 ,large #hvo1 #a #ej ,ferrel's ,popular ,treatise on the ,winds4 #hvo1 #d #jj ,gannett's ,statistical ,abstract of the ,world4 #bdmo1 #ge ,gerhard's ,the ,modern ,bath and ,bath-houses4 7,in ,press47 ,haines's ,american ,railway ,management4 #abmo1 #b #ej ,ricketts's ,history of ,rensselaer ,polytechnic ,institute1 #ahbd-ahid4 ,small #hvo1 #c #jj ,rotherham's ,emphasized ,new ,testament4 ,large #hvo1 #b #jj ,standage's ,decorative ,treatment of ,wood1 ,glass1 ,metal1 etc4 7,in ,press47 ,the ,world's ,columbian ,exposition of #ahic4 #dto1 #a #jj ,winslow's ,elements of ,applied ,microscopy4 #abmo1 #a #ej ,,hebrew ,,and ,,chaldee ,,text-,,books4 ,green's ,elementary ,hebrew ,grammar4 #abmo1 #a #be ,hebrew ,chrestomathy4 #hvo1 #b #jj ,gesenius's ,hebrew and ,chaldee ,lexicon to the ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 7,tregelles47 ,small #dto1 half morocco1 #e #jj ,letteris's ,hebrew ,bible4 #hvo1 #b #be ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,transcriber's ,notes ,the following inconsistencies were kept3 ,aluminum -- ,aluminium canceled -- cancelled ,cubit's ,gap -- ,,cubits ,,gap ,encyclopdia -- ,encyclopedia ,feed-water -- ,feed-,water ,light-,house -- lighthouse sea-weed -- seaweed ,punctuation has been corrected without explicit notice4 ,the following changes have been made 7c4 catalogue page73 p4 vii ,nordenskiold changed to ,nordenskild p4 #i alsoo changed to also4 p4 #aad ,united ,states ,court ,survey changed to ,united ,states ,coast ,survey4 p4 #acb #bb4e changed to #bb4e4 c4 #a ,rivete changed to ,rivete4 c4 #c ,metcalf's changed to ,metcalfe's4 c4 #e ,matthew's changed to ,matthews's4 c4 #aj ,hermann changed to ,herrmann4 c4 #ab ,maunal changed to ,manual4 c4 #ad ,richard's changed to ,richards's4 c4 #ae ,wehrenfenning's changed to ,wehrenfennig's4 c4 #ah ,virignia changed to ,virginia4 ---------------------------------------- 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