,established by ,edward ,l4 ,youmans ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans ,,vol4 ,,liv ,,november1 #ahih1 ,,to ,,april1 #ahii ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #ahii ,,copyright1 #ahii1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,,vol4 ,,liv4 ,,established ,,by ,,edward ,l4 ,,youmans4 ,no4 #c4 ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,january1 #ahii4 ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,i4 ,the ,evolution of ,colonies4 ,,vi4 ,industrial ,evolution4 ,by ,,james ,,collier #bhi ,,ii4 ,the ,mind's ,eye4 ,by ,prof4 ,,joseph ,,jastrow4 7,illustrated47 #bii ,,iii4 ,nature ,study in the ,philadelphia ,normal ,school4 ,by ,l4 ,l4 ,w4 ,,wilson1 ,ph4 ,d4 #cac ,,iv4 ,principles of ,taxation4 ,,xx4 ,the ,diffusion of ,taxes4 ,by the ,late ,hon4 ,,david ,a4 ,,wells #cai ,v4 ,our ,florida ,alligator4 ,by ,i4 ,w4 ,,blake4 7,illustrated47 #ccj ,,vi4 ,the ,racial ,geography of ,europe4 ,the ,jews4 ,,ii4 ,by ,prof4 ,,william ,z4 ,,ripley4 7,illustrated47 #cch ,,vii4 ,true ,tales of ,birds and ,beasts4 ,by ,,david ,,starr ,,jordan #ceb ,,viii4 ,glacial ,geology in ,america4 ,by ,prof4 ,,daniel ,s4 ,,martin #cef ,,ix4 ,modern ,studies of ,earthquakes4 ,by ,,georg ,,geraland #cfb ,x4 ,a ,short ,history of ,scientific ,instruction4 ,by ,sir ,j4 ,n4 ,,lockyer #cgb ,,xi4 ,should ,children under ,ten learn to ,read and ,write8 ,by ,prof4 ,g4 ,t4 ,w4 ,,patrick #chb ,,xii4 ,soils and ,fertilizers4 ,by ,,charles ,,minor ,,blackford1 ,jr41 ,m4 ,d4 #cib ,,xiii4 ,sketch of ,friedrich ,august ,kekul4 7,with ,portrait47 #dja ,,xiv4 ,editor's ,table3 ,a ,voice from the ,pulpit4--,lessons of ,anthropology4--,an ,example of ,social ,decadence4--,the ,advance of ,science #dji ,,xv4 ,scientific ,literature #dae ,,xvi4 ,fragments of ,science #dbe ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 #gb ,,fifth ,,avenue4 ,,single ,,number1 #ej ,,cents4 ,,yearly ,,subscription1 #e4jj4 ,,copyright1 #ahih1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,entered at the ,post ,office at ,new ,york1 and admitted for transmission through the mails at second-class rates4 ,illustration3 ,,august ,,von ,,kekul4 ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,january1 #ahii4 ,,the ,,evolution ,,of ,,colonies4 ,,by ,,james ,,collier4 ,,vi4--,,industrial ,,evolution4 ,the earliest nomadic stage of mankind has left traces in many of the colonies4 ,the first age of ,french ,canada1 of ,new ,york1 of great part of ,north ,america1 was one of hunters and trappers1 and it has continued in the ,northwest till recent times4 ,the first brief period of ,rhodesia was that of the big-game hunter4 ,the ,boers of the ,transvaal are still as much hunters as farmers4 ,the ,american backwoodsman who clears a patch1 then sells his improvements to the first newcomer1 and1 placing his wife and children and scanty belongings on a cart1 proceeds da capo elsewhere1 is a nomadic pioneer4 ,the stage is in one way or another perpetual1 for the class never quite dies out4 ,the drunken ,english quarryman who1 driven by a demon of restlessness1 continually goes on tramp1 and in his wanderings covers on foot a space equal to twice the circumference of the globe1 is a demi-savage whose nomadism is only checked by the abhorred approaches of old age4 ,if he emigrates1 he repeats the old1 wild life as a pick-and-shovel man in ,queensland or a quarryman in ,new ,south ,wales4 ,the soberer colonial youth1 who more luxuriously canters from farm to farm in ,new ,zealand on the back of a scrub1 is a tamer specimen who settles down when he marries4 ,nay1 the restless man who periodically applies for leave of absence from a colonial legislature in order to travel in ,india1 ,china1 and ,timbuctoo1 is a still milder but not less incorrigible example of the same indestructible type4 ,the pastoral stage is all but universal4 ,wherever grass grows 7and there is wild grass almost everywhere7 sheep can graze1 and where there are succulent twigs cattle will fatten on them4 ,the ,south ,american estancias and the ranches of ,colorado1 the cattle runs of ,queensland and northern ,new ,zealand1 the sheep runs of ,victoria and ,new ,south ,wales repeat and perpetuate this stage4 ,the genesis of it may even now be daily observed4 ,a ,manchester accountant who has never before been astride a horse will in twelve months learn the mysteries of cattle and sheep farming1 then purchase a hundred acres or two from the colonial ,government1 gradually clear it of timber1 build of his own trees1 with no skilled assistance1 a weatherboard cottage1 and take home a swiftly wooed wife to lead with him a rather desolate existence in the bush4 ,or 7on a larger scale7 a squatter1#a who is commonly a gentleman by birth and education1 comes out from ,england with inherited wealth1 buys or leases from the ,government a large inland tract of grazing land1 takes with him flocks and herds1 shepherds and stockmen1 builds a bark or wooden manor house1 and settles down to the life of ,abram on the plains of ,mamre4 ,in earlier days1 when the colony was in its infancy1 he would not have had to purchase or lease his run4 ,one country after another saw the golden age of a would-be landed aristocracy4 ,as ,norman ,william parceled out all ,england among his nobles and knights1 rulers of conquered countries were then mighty free with what did not belong to them4 ,possessing the authority of a sovereign1 ,columbus made lavish grants of land1 and thus pacified his rebels4 ,charles ,,ii presented ,carolina to eight proprietors4 ,baronies of twelve thousand acres in ,south ,carolina1 manors of twenty thousand acres in ,maryland1 were dwarfed by territorial principalities of more than a million acres in ,new ,york4 ,the absolute governors of early ,australia gave away wide tracts4 ,when land was not given it was taken1 on ,rob ,roy's principle4 ,during the interregnum that followed the recall of the first ,governor of ,new ,south ,wales1 military robbers seized fifteen thousand acres1 and under subsequent administrations they continued their depredations4 ,land was held on various tenures4 ,the first ,american forms were varieties of belated feudalism2 of a hundred often strange and ridiculous emblems of suzerainty perhaps a dozen repeated ,old ,world customs4#b ,sir ,h4 ,s4 ,maine has proved that nearly all the feudal exactions that maddened a whole people to mutiny in #aghi were then in force in ,england4 ,how shadowy they must have grown is shown by the fact that none of them was transported to ,botany ,bay in that or later years4 ,they were atrophied portions of the ,british land system when ,australia was founded in #aghh4 ,for fully sixteen years the possession of lands granted or seized was as absolute as the ,english law ever allows it to be4 ,then the landholders1 finding the large tracts already conceded insufficient for the development of the pastoral industry1 applied for more1 and themselves suggested in #ahjc a plan of leasing crown lands which in the following year was legalized as the first charter of squatterdom2 it was the beginning of a system that has brought under pastoral occupancy territories as extensive as the largest ,european countries4 ,the land system formed part of or gave birth to a political organization4 ,a host of so-called seigneurs imported into old ,canada as much of the ancien rgime as would bear the voyage4 ,manors in ,maryland reproduced the feudal courts-baron and courts-leet4 ,the great ,new ,york landowners1 as inheriting both ,english and ,dutch institutions1 presided in such courts and were at the same time hereditary members of a powerful legislative order4#c ,the courts were dropped on the way out to ,australia1 but the political influence of the ,english landed aristocracy inhered in their representatives at the antipodes4 ,as the ,southern slavearchy1 through its ,washingtons and ,jeffersons1 ,clays and ,calhouns1 was for three quarters of a century the driving force in ,american politics1 the ,australian squatterarchy for one generation or more ruled the seven colonies with a sway that waxed as the absolute power of the governor waned4 ,it composed the legislature1 appointed the judges1 controlled the executive1 and if the governor was refractory it sent him home4 ,in both southern countries social life reflected its tastes and was the measure of its grandeur4 ,it constituted society1 ran the races1 gave the balls1 and kept open house2 the surrounding villages lived in its sunshine4 ,why could not this patriarchal state last1 as it has lasted in ,arabia for thousands of years and in ,europe for centuries8 ,in the ,southern ,states it was brought to bankruptcy by the civil war4 ,in ,australia it collapsed before two enemies as deadly--a succession of droughts and a fall in the price of wool4 ,the banker has his foot on the squatter's neck4 ,if one may judge from the published maps1 three fourths of the freehold land in the older colonies is in the hands of the money lenders4 ,the once lordly runholder1 who would have excluded from his table1 or at least from his visiting circle1 any one engaged in commerce1 is now the tenant of a mortgage company which began by using him too well and ended by crushing him unmercifully4 ,it is also brought to a close by the rise of the agricultural stage4 ,the colonial latifundia gets broken up for the same economic reasons as that of the mother country4 ,whenever from the increase of population wheat-growing becomes more profitable than grazing1 land rises in value1 and vast sheep walks are subdivided into two-hundred-acre farms1 which are put under the plow4 ,the transition may be retarded in some countries and altogether arrested in others4 ,nasse has shown that1 in consequence of the moisture of the climate1 there was in the sixteenth century a continual tendency in ,england to revert from agriculture to pasture4 ,the light rainfall1 high temperatures1 and unfertilized soil will forever keep nine tenths of ,australia under grass4 ,most of the mountainous north and the glacier-shaved portions of the south of ,new ,zealand must be perpetual cattle runs and sheep walks4 ,a century or perhaps centuries will pass before much of the light soil of ,tasmania1 hardly enriched by the scanty foliage of the eucalyptus1 is sufficiently fertilized by grazing to grow corn4 ,rich alluvial or volcanic lands are put under the plow1 without passing through the pastoral stage1 as soon as markets are created by the advent of immigrants4 ,there is a cry for farm lands4 ,companies that have bought large estates break them up into allotments4 ,when they or other large landholders still resist pressure1 the radical colonial legislature accelerates their deliberations by putting on the thumbscrew of a statute which confiscates huge cantles of their land4 ,or the colonial ,government1 if socialist-democratic1 purchases extensive properties1 which it breaks up into farms and communistic village settlements4 ,over wide tracts the agriculturist1 great and small1 takes the place of the pastoralist4 ,he holds his lands under a variety of tenures4 ,new ,south ,wales1 in its search for an ideal form1 has flowered into fifteen varieties4 ,other colonies are stumbling toward it more or less blindly through a succession of annual statutes4 ,where land is abundant the tenure will be easy4 ,in ,north ,america nominal quitrents were general2 the system was long since introduced into ,south ,africa1 and it has lately been imported into ,new ,zealand in spite of all previous experience to the effect that such rents can not be collected4 ,mr4 ,eggleston remarks that in the ,united ,states the tendency was to a simple and direct ownership of the soil by the occupant4 ,since those days ,henry ,george has come and 7alas67 gone4 ,a craze for the nationalization of the land buzzes in the bonnets of all who have no land4 ,there is an equal reluctance on the part of colonial legislatures to grant waste lands as freeholds and on the part of purchasers to accept them on any other terms4 ,hence the constant effort to devise a tenure which shall reserve the rights of the colony and yet not oppress the tenant4 ,one legislature has blasphemed into the eternal lease1 which would seem to be almost preferable to absolute ownership in a country subject to earthquakes6 ,but the tenure in the early days is unimportant4 ,with a virgin soil yielding at first seventy and then regularly forty bushels to the acre1 and high prices ruling1 the farmer can stand any tenure4 ,seen at market or cattle show1 his equine or bovine features and firm footing on mother earth suggest a sense of solidity in the commonwealth to which he belongs4 ,he gives it its character4 ,the legislature consists of his representatives4 ,laws are passed in his interest4 ,he controls the executive4 ,his sons fill the civil service4 ,judges sometimes come from his ranks1 and lawyers easily fall back into them4 ,he supports the churches and fills them4 ,small towns spring up in place of the pastoral villages to supply his wants4 ,as the period of the ,golden ,fleece was the colonial age of gold1 when ,jason1 the wool king1 made a fortune1 received a baronetcy1 and1 returning to the mother country1 founded a county family and intermarried with the ,british aristocracy1 so the agricultural stage is the colonial age of silver1 in money as in morals4 ,it lasted in ,england till well into the century1 in ,germany till the other day1 in ,france till now4 ,it is1 in the main1 the stage of contemporary colonies4 ,what brings it to an end8 ,the soil gets exhausted1 prices fall1 and a succession of wet seasons in ,new ,zealand or of dry seasons in ,australia or ,south ,africa sends the farmer into the money market4 ,nearly every province of almost every colony gets mortgaged up to the hilt4 ,the foot of the land agent is on the neck of the farmer1 who becomes his tenant or serf--adscriptus gleb as much as the ,old ,english villeins who were the ancestors of the farmer1 or the ,virginia villeins who repeated in the seventeenth century the ,old ,english status4 ,but tenancy does not always arise out of bankrupt proprietorship4 ,a capitalist may drain an extensive marsh 7like that along the valley of the ,shoalhaven ,river in ,new ,south ,wales7 and divide the rich alluvial soil into hundreds of profitable dairy farms4 ,more inland marshes1 like the ,piako ,swamp in ,new ,zealand1 have been so completely drained as to make the soil too dry to carry wheat1 and so have swamped both capitalists and banker4 ,where the squatter owner keeps the land in his own hands1 he may lease an unbroken-up tract for three or five years to a farmer who plows and fences it1 takes off crops1 pays a light rent of from five to fifteen bushels per acre1 and leaves it in grass4 ,on one tenure or another the whole colony gradually comes into cultivation4 ,the predominance of the agricultural interest is long threatened and at length shaken by the rise of the industrial stage4 ,it is partly evolved from the pastoral and agricultural stages and partly independent4 ,nor do these stages at once and necessarily give rise to collective industry4 ,in all young colonies where the population is scanty and processes are simple there are no division and no association of labor4 ,the account that one of the best of ,american historians gives of the ,northwest ,territory might be accepted as a description of this primitive state1 and realizes ,fichte's ideal of a geschlossener ,handelstaat 7closed trade state74 ,shut in by mountains1 the people raised their own flax and sometimes grew their own wool1 which they spun and wove at home4 ,they made their own spinning wheels and looms1 as they made their own furniture4 ,they tanned their own leather and cobbled rude shoes of it4 ,of ,indian-corn husks they spun ropes and manufactured horse collars and chair bottoms4 ,barrels and beehives were formed of sawn hollow trees4 ,they extracted sugar from the maple and tea from the sassafras root4 ,their boats were dug-out canoes4 ,in colonies of later foundation this self-sufficing stage1 which repeats an earlier period in the mother country than the time when the colony was given off1 is dropped1 though there are traces of it everywhere to be found4 ,sheep countries give birth to the woolen industry4 ,new ,zealand reduplicates the woolen manufactures of ,england and1 owing to protective duties1 has attained a deserved success4 ,new ,south ,wales1 with finer wools1 has not succeeded1 for no other apparent reason than that she refuses to impose such duties4 ,for it is to be observed that it is under legislative protection--bounties1 bonuses1 drawbacks1 export and especially import duties--that almost every colonial industry has grown up1 as the industries of the mother country grew up4 ,sometimes the profit in a particular undertaking is exactly equal to the amount of the import duty1 and it is seldom greater4 ,by taking extravagant advantage of the liberty long refused 7as leave to manufacture was long refused to the ,north ,american colonies71 but at length conceded1 to impose import duties1 an ,australasian colony1 misled as much by its own splendid energy as by evil counselors 7,carlyle among them71 built up a whole artificial system of industries which sank in ruinous collapse when the boom had passed4 ,independent industries spring first from the soil4 ,gold and silver mining lose their wild adventurous character1 and become regular industries1 worked by companies with extensive plants4 ,the digging of gum in ,auckland 7bled from the gigantic ,kauri pine7 is operated by merchants who keep the gum diggers in a species of serfage4 ,the discovery of coal makes native industries possible or remunerative1 but till iron has been found the system is incomplete4 ,all countries1 and therefore all colonies1 are late in reaching this stage2 the most advanced contemporary colonies have not yet reached it4 ,none the less have they followed ,england with swifter steps1 if with less momentum1 into the modern age of iron--that ,brummagem epoch which has the creation of markets for its war cry1 state socialism for its gospel1 ,joseph of ,birmingham for its prophet1 and the ,british ,empire for its deity4 ,the iron age is fitly inaugurated by the most degraded relationship that man can bear to man--that of slavery4 ,only the oldest of modern colonies imitate the mother countries in passing through this stage2 in those of later foundation a mere shadow of it remains1 or it takes other shapes4 ,colonists first enslave the natives of the country where they settle4 ,in the ,south ,american colonies1 where they went to find gold1 they would work for no other purpose2 they therefore needed the natives to till the soil2 they needed them also as carriers4 ,for these purposes they were used unscrupulously4 ,they were distributed among the ,spaniards under a system of repartimientos which repeated the provisions of ,greek and ,roman slavery1 and was itself reduplicated three centuries later in the convict assignment system of ,new ,south ,wales4 ,with such savage cruelty was it worked that1 according to the testimony of ,columbus1 six sevenths of the population of ,hispaniola died under it in a few years4 ,the same form of slavery1 but of a very different character1 prevailed in ,africa down almost to our own times4 ,in the ,british colonies it was submerged in #ahcd1 from causes exterior to itself1 by the humanitarian wave that wrecked the ,west ,indies2 in the ,french colonies it was abolished by the revolutionary government of #ahdh2 in the ,dutch colonies it possibly subsists to this day4 ,theoretically abolished or not1 the relationship between civilized whites and savage blacks must be everywhere a modified form of slavery2 and a white colonization of the ,african tropics can only take place under conditions indistinguishable from a limited slavery4 ,in colder or younger colonies1 even if a more refined sentiment had permitted it1 there could be no question of enslaving the fierce red ,indians1 the warlike ,maoris1 or the intractable ,australian blacks4 ,the ,indians rendered some services to the northern colonists4 ,the ,maoris worked for the first immigrants into ,canterbury1 but as free laborers1 and the phase soon passed away as more valuable labor arrived4 ,blacks were in the early years employed by the ,australian settlers1 but like nearly all savages they were found incapable of continuous industry4 ,the next step is to import slaves4 ,to lighten the oppression of the ,mexicans1 negroes were introduced1 as they had previously been into ,europe4 ,there1 and still more in the southern colonies of ,north ,america1 they were the chief pioneers4 ,they cut down forests1 cleared the jungles1 drained the swamps1 and opened up the country4 ,for the best part of two hundred years the world's sugar1 rice1 cotton1 tobacco1 and indigo were grown by negro labor4 ,the effect on the negro himself has been to raise him one grade in the scale of being4 ,if1 as ,mr4 ,galton believes1 he is naturally two grades below the ,european1 a place in the organization of labor will have to be found for him midway between the white workman and the slave4 ,it is1 indeed1 being found4 ,as a farmer the negro has totally failed4 ,but he is a good laborer under supervision4 ,he is a success in the mines4 ,he has found acceptance in the iron furnaces and about the coke ovens4 ,he is in great demand in periods of railroad construction1 and he is a ,western pioneer4 ,above born and bred slaves for life there is the status of imported slaves for a term4 ,for years ,kanakas1 hired or captured from the ,melanesian ,islands of the ,pacific1 were used as slaves by the sugar planters of ,queensland1 until the outcry in ,england put a stop to an ill-conducted traffic4 ,it has since been resumed under humaner conditions1 which make it as defensible as slavery can ever be4 ,coolies from ,india are imported into ,fiji and ,hongkong practically as free laborers4 ,they are also employed on board the great liners that ply between ,india1 ,china1 ,australia1 and ,england1 much to the discontent of the working class and to the great satisfaction of the well-to-do1 who thus gain cheaper passages and lower freights4 ,the radical opposition is no more likely to prevent this form of native labor from spreading to all suitable environments than the conservative opposition has prevented women from filling the employments within their improved capacities4 ,the ubiquitous ,chinaman1 again1 has imported himself into most colonies1 and so long as he takes a place that the white laborer refuses to occupy1 he will present the ugly problem of the coexistence of an indestructible alien race with a civilized people whose type of civilization and his are irreconcilable4 ,european colonies have also known white slavery1 as ,greek and ,roman colonies knew it1 and slavery of their own race and nation1 as ,european countries knew it4 ,its most degraded type has doubtless been ,spanish1 ,english1 and ,french convictism4 ,the ,australian-,english is the most familiar and the worst4 ,the ,australian convict was a slave for life or a long term4 ,like the slave1 he was at the mercy of his master1 excepting that corporal punishment could not be inflicted by the master's hands4 ,the lash was none the less kept going2 in a single year1 in ,new ,south ,wales1 nearly three thousand floggings were administered4 ,the ,roman ergastula were pleasure bowers compared with the convict hells of ,parramatta1 in ,new ,south ,wales1 and ,port ,arthur1 in ,tasmania4 ,marcus ,clarke's terrible fiction proves to be still more terrible fact4 ,convicts were herded together like pigs2 kindness was rare1 oppression general1 and many fine men died inch by inch4 ,such was the state of things even after the introduction of the assignment system4 ,according to that system1 convicts were assigned as agricultural laborers and shepherds to settlers who cried out for them1 as the ,american planters did for slaves4 ,craftsmen were allotted to high officials in lieu of salary or to influential persons who hired them to others 7herein repeating ,english serfdom7 or permitted them to work for themselves1 receiving a portion of their earnings 7herein repeating ,greek slavery74 ,mechanics were employed on public works1 and hundreds of buildings were erected by convict masons1 bricklayers1 and carpenters4 ,day laborers were employed on roads1 and hundreds of miles of solid highway are a durable monument to the memory of the convict4 ,they were the true pioneers of the country1 braving the dangers of the bush1 resisting the aborigines1 clearing and cultivating the land1 and developing the resources of the colonies4 ,for themselves they did well and ill4 ,many reformed1 and after manumission1 which was at first special and at length general1 became respectable citizens1 dealers1 and traders4 ,some grew to be prosperous merchants1 wealthy squatters1 editors1 legislators1 and all but ministers4 ,their sons are judges1 legislators1 solicitors1 ,government officials1 newspaper proprietors4 ,after lasting for sixty years the system of transportation was at length abolished in consequence of the opposition of the working class1 who objected to competition1 and of the respectable classes generally4 ,the legislative body and the large landowners were rather in favor of its perpetuity1 and there are still members of the old slave-driving party in ,tasmania who regret its discontinuance4 ,the bond servants1 who were common in ,new ,england and at first more numerous than slaves in the ,southern ,states1 repeated the status of the ,english serfs4 ,their origin was various4 ,crime1 debt1 sale by parents1 voluntary surrender1 and kidnapping all contributed their quota4 ,the period of indentured service was at first from seven to ten years1 and was ultimately reduced to a fixed term of four years4 ,they were exchanged and sold like any other commodity4 ,their treatment seems to have been often harsh4 ,like the ,australian convicts1 many of them prospered4 ,leading families in the ,united ,states trace their origin to bondmen4 ,not a few of the ,southern overseers1 free laborers1 and small farmers are believed to be descended from them4 ,the vagabond element in all the ,states1 the white trash of the ,south1 and the criminal and pauper inhabitants of certain regions in the ,north are also affiliated on the more degraded sections of the class4#d ,the worst of modern inventions1 it has been said1 is the invention of the workingman4 ,the workingman1 however1 has a pedigree2 he is the son of the bondman or the serf1 and the grandson of the slave1 who would have been still more discreditable inventions if they had not been the outgrowth of their time and place4 ,the servile character of the workman long survived in ,european countries2 it was not till the beginning of this century that the last trades were emancipated in ,england4 ,while in ,north ,america and ,new ,south ,wales the transition is plainly traceable1 all vestiges of it have disappeared in the younger colonies4 ,in these1 almost from the first1 the mechanic is master of the situation4 ,the carpenter who can put up a wooden cottage commands regular work and high wages1 while the preacher who builds him a house not made with hands is starved4 ,the anomaly is in perfect consistency with the biological analogy2 the brain is everywhere of late development4 ,as the colony grows1 wages fall1 and the position of professional men becomes more tolerable1 but1 en revanche1 the workman acquires and at length almost monopolizes political power4 ,the premier and cabinet ministers are sometimes former peddlers1 gold diggers1 coal miners1 shepherds1 etc4 ,the legislative bodies consist largely of labor representatives4 ,laws are passed in the interest of labor4 ,not content with a share of political power out of all proportion to their numbers or importance1 the regimented trades1 under the command of unscrupulous leaders1 deliver a pitched battle against the employers1 with the object of gaining practical possession of the agencies of production and distribution4 ,they are necessarily defeated4 ,the value of labor and the importance of the mechanic decline with the application of machinery to all industrial processes4 ,accumulated wealth1 subsidizing inventions1 acquires an increasing ascendency4 ,the industrial system is in no greater danger from the onslaughts of labor than civilized countries from the invasion of barbarians4 ,only the beginnings of the commercial epoch1 or age of bronze1 are to be found in colonies4 ,in production we witness the same supersession of individual enterprise by the limited liability company4 ,this is also the case in distribution1 where many obsolete ,old ,world stages are recapitulated4 ,we may still see the long1 slow bullock team1 the wearied pack horse 7the fur trade in ,canada was carried on by brigades of pack horses71 the hawker1 purveyor of news and gossip4 ,we easily trace the evolution of the shop3 at first a ship1 then landed1 with everything inside--groceries1 meat1 bread1 fruit1 and vegetables1 clothes1 crockery1 ironmongery1 stationery1 and tobacco2 the butcher first hives off1 then the baker1 the grocer2 in course of time reintegration takes place1 and shops are to be found in the colonial cities which reduplicate ,whiteley's in ,london1 where everything may again be had as in the beginning4 ,the processes of exchange likewise recapitulate the past4 ,barter is long universal1 and is still common in colonial villages4 ,even then a standard is needed4 ,in the ,old ,english period the currency consisted of cattle1 named by a facetious writer the current kine of the realm4 ,in ,virginia and ,maryland tobacco was the circulating medium for a century and a half1 supplemented in ,maryland with hemp and flax2 taxes were paid in tobacco1 and rent in kind4 ,in ,illinois and ,canada1 skins and furs1 with wampum for small coin2 in ,new ,england the latter singular currency was used far into the eighteenth century4 ,new ,south ,wales has the demerit of inventing the destructive medium of rum2 wages were paid in it or in wheat2 meal or spirits were taken at the doors of theaters4 ,store receipts for produce were given by the ,government and passed current1 not without depreciation2 military officers issued bills for all sums up to one hundred pounds2 private individuals1 in the lack of specie1 gave promissory notes4 ,fixed prices were long unknown2 extortioners in the early days of all the colonies made a profit of a thousand per cent2 and in quite recent days usurious attorneys exacted interest at the rate of a hundred per cent4 ,colonies sometimes anticipate the development of the mother country4 ,the communistic dreams of the forties in ,france and ,england were for a brief while realized in old ,virginia1 as they are at this hour being realized in the village settlements of ,south ,australia2 and the state socialism rendered popular by the ,german victories of #ahgj was perhaps more thoroughly embodied in convict ,new ,south ,wales than anywhere else outside of ,peru under the ,incas1 as it is now sweeping all of the ,australasian colonies onward to an unknown goal4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,in its primary ,american sense the word squatter denotes the backwoodsman described in the foregoing paragraph4 ,in its secondary ,australian sense it means the large landholder now described4 #b ,see an instructive article by ,mr4 ,edward ,eggleston1 ,social ,conditions in the ,colonies4 ,century ,magazine1 #ahhd1 pp4 #hdi1 #hej4 #c ,eggleston1 op4 cit41 p4 #hej4 #d ,eggleston1 op4 cit41 p4 #heh4 ,,the ,,mind',s ,,eye4 ,,by ,,joseph ,,jastrow4 ,,hamlet4--,my father1--,methinks1 ,i see my father4 ,,horatio4--,o1 where1 my lord8 ,,hamlet4--,in my mind's eye1 ,horatio4 ,it is a commonplace taught from nursery to university that we see with our eyes1 hear with our ears1 and feel with the fingers4 ,this is the truth1 but not the whole truth4 ,indispensable as are the sense organs in gaining an acquaintance with the world in which we live1 yet they alone do not determine how extensive or how accurate that acquaintance shall be4 ,there is a mind behind the eye and the ear and the finger tips which guides them in gathering information1 and gives value and order to the exercise of the senses4 ,this is particularly true of vision1 the most intellectual of all the senses1 the one in which mere acuteness of the sense organ counts least and the training in observation counts most4 ,the eagle's eye sees farther1 but our eyes tell us much more of what is seen4 ,the eye is often compared to a photographic camera1 with its eyelid cap1 its iris shutter1 its lens1 and its sensitive plate--the retina2 when properly adjusted for distance and light1 the image is formed on the retina as on the glass plate1 and the picture is taken4 ,so far the comparison is helpful2 but while the camera takes a picture whenever and wherever the plate happens to be exposed1 the complete act of seeing requires some co-operation on the part of the mind4 ,the retina may be exposed a thousand times and take but few pictures2 or perhaps it is better to say that the pictures may be taken1 but remain undeveloped and evanescent4 ,the pictures that are developed are stacked up1 like the negatives in the photographer's shop1 in the pigeonholes of our mental storerooms--some faded and blurred1 some poorly arranged or mislaid1 some often referred to and fresh prints made therefrom1 and some quite neglected4 ,in order to see1 it is at once necessary that the retina be suitably exposed toward the object to be seen1 and that the mind be favorably disposed to the assimilation of the impression4 ,true seeing1 observing1 is a double process1 partly objective or outward--the thing seen and the retina--and partly subjective or inward--the picture mysteriously transferred to the mind's representative1 the brain1 and there received and affiliated with other images4 ,illustrations of such seeing with the mind's eye are not far to seek4 ,wherever the beauties and conformations of natural scenery invite the eye of man does he discover familiar forms and faces 7,fig4 #a72 the forces of ,nature have rough-hewn the rocks1 but the human eye detects and often creates the resemblances4 ,the stranger to whom such curiosities of form are first pointed out often finds it difficult to discover the resemblance1 but once seen the face or form obtrudes itself in every view and seems the most conspicuous feature in the outlook4 ,the flickering fire furnishes a fine background for the activity of the mind's eye1 and against this it projects the forms and fancies which the leaping flames and the burning embers from time to time suggest4 ,not all see these fire-pictures readily1 for our mental eyes differ more from one another than the physical ones1 and perhaps no two persons see the same picture in quite the same way4 ,it is not quite true1 however1 as many have held1 that in waking hours we all have a world in common1 but in dreams each has a world of his own1 for our waking worlds are made different by the differences in what engages our interest and our attention4 ,it is true that our eyes when open are opened very largely to the same views1 but by no one observer are all these views1 though visible1 really seen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4e--,the man's face in the rocks is quite distinct1 and is usually readily found when it is known that there is a face somewhere4 7,for this view from the ,dalles of the ,st4 ,croix1 ,minn41 ,i am indebted to the courtesy of ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,dudley1 of ,madison1 ,wis47 ,this characteristic of human vision often serves as a source of amusement4 ,the puzzle picture with its tantalizing face1 or animal1 or what not1 hidden in the trees1 or fantastically constructed out of heterogeneous elements that make up the composition1 is to many quite irresistible4 ,we turn it about in all directions1 wondering where the hidden form can be1 scanning every detail of the picture1 until suddenly a chance glimpse reveals it1 plainly staring us in the face4 ,when several persons are engaged in this occupation1 it is amusing to observe how blind each is to what the others see2 their physical eyes see alike1 but their mental eyes reflect their own individualities4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,in order to see the lion's head1 hold the dollar exactly inverted and the head will be discovered facing the left1 as above outlined4 ,it is clearer on the dollar itself than in this reproduction4 ,thousands upon thousands of persons handle our silver dollar1 but few happen to observe the lion's head which lies concealed in the representation of the familiar head of ,liberty2 frequently even a careful examination fails to detect this hidden emblem of ,british rule2 but1 as before1 when once found1 it is quite obvious 7,fig4 #b74 ,for similar reasons it is a great aid in looking for an object to know what to look for2 to be readily found1 the object1 though lost to sight1 should be to memory clear4 ,searching is a mental process similar to the matching of a piece of fabric in texture or color1 when one has forgotten the sample and must rely upon the remembrance of its appearance4 ,if the recollection is clear and distinct1 recognition takes place when the judgment decides that what the physical eye sees corresponds to the image in the mind's eye2 with an indistinct mental image the recognition becomes doubtful or faulty4 ,the novice in the use of the microscope experiences considerable difficulty in observing the appearance which his instructor sees and describes1 and this because his conception of the object to be seen is lacking in precision4 ,hence his training in the use of the microscope is distinctly aided by consulting the illustrations in the text-book1 for they enable his mental eye to realize the pictures which it should entertain4 ,he may be altogether too much influenced by the pictures thus suggested to his mental vision1 and draw what is really not under his microscope at all2 much as the young arithmetician will manage to obtain the answer which the book requires even at the cost of a resort to very unmathematical processes4 ,for training in correct and accurate vision it is necessary to acquire an alert mental eye that observes all that is objectively visible1 but does not permit the subjective to add to or modify what is really present4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,observe the appearance of these letters at a distance of eight to twelve feet4 ,an interesting method of testing the activity of the mind's eye with these letters is described in the text4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c;a4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c;b4 ,the importance of the mind's eye in ordinary vision is also well illustrated in cases in which we see or seem to see what is not really present1 but what for one cause or another it is natural to suppose is present4 ,a very familiar instance of this process is the constant overlooking of misprints--false letters1 transposed letters1 and missing letters--unless these happen to be particularly striking4 ,we see only the general physiognomy of the word and the detailed features are supplied from within2 in this case it is the expected that happens4 ,reading is done largely by the mental eye2 and entire words1 obviously suggested by the context1 are sometimes read in1 when they have been accidentally omitted4 ,this is more apt to occur with the irregular characters used in manuscript than in the more distinct forms of the printed alphabet1 and is particularly frequent in reading over what one has himself written4 ,in reading proof1 however1 we are eager to detect misprints1 and this change in attitude helps to make them visible4 ,it is difficult to illustrate this process intentionally1 because the knowledge that one's powers of observation are about to be tested places one on one's guard1 and thus suppresses the natural activity of the mind's eye and draws unusual attention to objective details4 ,let the reader at this point hold the page at some distance off--say1 eight or twelve feet--and draw an exact reproduction of the letters shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,let him not read further until this has been done1 and perhaps he may find that he has introduced strokes which were not present in the original4 ,if this is not the case1 let him try the test upon those who are ignorant of its nature1 and he will find that most persons will supply light lines to complete the contours of the letters which in the original are suggested but not really present2 the original outline1 ,fig4 #c;a1 becomes something like ,fig4 #c;b1 and so on for the rest of the letters4 ,the physical eye sees the former1 but the mental eye sees the latter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,for description1 see text4 ,i tried this experiment with a class of over thirty university students of ,psychology1 and1 although they were disposed to be quite critical and suspected some kind of an illusion1 only three or four drew the letters correctly2 all the rest filled in the imaginary light contours2 some even drew them as heavily as the real strokes4 ,i followed this by an experiment of a similar character4 ,i placed upon a table a figure 7,fig4 #d7 made of light cardboard1 fastened to blocks of wood at the base so that the pieces would easily stand upright4 ,the middle piece1 which is rectangular and high1 was placed a little in front of the rest of the figure4 ,the students were asked to describe precisely what they saw1 and with one exception they all described1 in different words1 a semicircular piece of cardboard with a rectangular piece in front of it4 ,in reality there was no half-circle of cardboard1 but only parts of two quarter-circles4 ,the students1 of course1 were well aware that their physical eyes could not see what was behind the middle cardboard1 but they inferred that the two side pieces were parts of one continuous semicircle4 ,this they saw1 so far as they saw it at all1 with their mind's eye4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--,the black and white portions of this design are precisely alike1 but the effect of looking at the figure as a pattern in black upon a white background1 or as a pattern in white upon a black background1 is quite different1 although the difference is not easily described4 ,there is a further interesting class of illustrations in which a single outward impression changes its character according as it is viewed as representing one thing or another4 ,in a general way we see the same thing all the time1 and the image on the retina does not change4 ,but as we shift the attention from one portion of the view to another1 or as we view it with a different mental conception of what the figure represents1 it assumes a different aspect1 and to our mental eye becomes quite a different thing4 ,a slight but interesting change takes place if we view ,fig4 #e first with the conception that the black is the pattern to be seen and the white the background1 and again try to see the white as the pattern against a black background4 ,i give a further illustration of such a change in ,fig4 #f4 ,in our first and natural view of this we focus the attention upon the black lines and observe the familiar illusion1 that the four vertical lines seem far from parallel4 ,that they are parallel can be verified by measurement1 or by covering up all of the diagram except the four main lines4 ,but if the white part of the diagram is conceived as the design against a black background1 then the design is no longer the same1 and with this change the illusion appears1 and the four lines seem parallel1 as they really are4 ,it may require a little effort to bring about this change1 but it is very marked when once realised4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,when this figure is viewed as a black pattern on a white background1 the four main vertical lines seem far from parallel2 when it is viewed as a white pattern on a black background this illusion disappears 7or nearly so71 and the black lines as well as the white ones seem parallel4 ,a curious optical effect which in part illustrates the change in appearance under different aspects is reproduced in ,fig4 #g4 ,in this case the enchantment of distance is necessary to produce the transformation4 ,viewed at the usual reading distance1 we see nothing but an irregular and meaningless assemblage of black and white blotches4 ,at a distance of fifteen to eighteen feet1 however1 a man's head appears quite clearly4 ,also observe that after the head has once been realized it becomes possible to obtain suggestions of it at nearer distances4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,this is a highly enlarged reproduction taken from a half-tone process print of ,lord ,kelvin4 ,it appeared in the ,photographic ,times4 ,a much larger class of ambiguous diagrams consists of those which represent by simple outlines familiar geometrical forms or objects4 ,we cultivate such a use of our eyes1 as indeed of all our faculties1 as will on the whole lead to the most profitable results4 ,as a rule1 the particular impression is not so important as what it represents4 ,sense impressions are simply the symbols or signs of things or ideas1 and the thing or the idea is more important than the sign4 ,accordingly1 we are accustomed to interpret lines1 whenever we can1 as the representations of objects4 ,we are well aware that the canvas or the etching or the photograph before us is a flat surface in two dimensions1 but we see the picture as the representation of solid objects in three dimensions4 ,this is the illusion of pictorial art4 ,so strong is this tendency to view lines as the symbols of things that if there is the slightest chance of so viewing them1 we invariably do so2 for we have a great deal of experience with things that present their contours as lines1 and very little with mere lines or surfaces4 ,if we view outlines only1 without shading or perspective or anything to definitely suggest what is foreground and what background1 it becomes possible for the mind to supply these details and see foreground as background1 and vice versa4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--,this drawing may be viewed as the representation of a book standing on its half-opened covers as seen from the back of the book2 or as the inside view of an open book showing the pages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,when this figure is viewed as an arrow1 the upper or feathered end seems flat2 when the rest of the arrow is covered1 the feathered end may be made to project or recede like the book cover in ,fig4 #h4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4--,the smaller square may be regarded as either the nearer face of a projecting figure or as the more distant face of a hollow figure4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4--,this represents an ordinary table-glass1 the bottom of the glass and the entire rear side1 except the upper portion1 being seen through the transparent nearer side1 and the rear apparently projecting above the front4 ,but it fluctuates in appearance between this and a view of the glass in which the bottom is seen directly1 partly from underneath1 the whole of the rear side is seen through the transparent front1 and the front projects above the back4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4--;,in this scroll the left half may at first seem concave and the right convex1 it then seems to roll or advance like a wave1 and the left seems convex and the right concave1 as though the trough of the wave had become the crest1 and vice versa4 ,a good example to begin with is ,fig4 #h4 ,these outlines will probably suggest at first view a book1 or better a book cover1 seen with its back toward you and its sides sloping away from you2 but it may also be viewed as a book opened out toward you and presenting to you an inside view of its contents4 ,should the change not come readily1 it may be facilitated by thinking persistently of the appearance of an open book in this position4 ,the upper portion of ,fig4 #i is practically the same as ,fig4 #h1 and if the rest of the figure be covered up1 it will change as did the book cover2 when1 however1 the whole figure is viewed as an arrow1 a new conception enters1 and the apparently solid book cover becomes the flat feathered part of the arrow4 ,look at the next figure 7,fig4 #aj71 which represents in outline a truncated pyramid with a square base4 ,is the smaller square nearer to you1 and are the sides of the pyramid sloping away from you toward the larger square in the rear8 ,or are you looking into the hollow of a truncated pyramid with the smaller square in the background8 ,or is it now one and now the other1 according as you decide to see it8 ,here 7,fig4 #ac7 is a skeleton box which you may conceive as made of wires outlining the sides4 ,now the front1 or side nearest to me1 seems directed downward and to the left2 again1 it has shifted its position and is no longer the front1 and the side which appears to be the front seems directed upward and to the right4 ,the presence of the diagonal line makes the change more striking3 in one position it runs from the left-hand rear upper corner to the right-hand front lower corner2 while in the other it connects the left-hand front upper corner with the right-hand rear lower corner4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ac1 #ac;a1 and #ac;b4--,the two methods of viewing ,fig4 #ac are described in the text4 ,figs4 #ac;a and #ac;b are added to make clearer the two methods of viewing ,fig4 #ac4 ,the heavier lines seem to represent the nearer surface4 ,fig4 #ac;a more naturally suggests the nearer surface of the box in a position downward and to the left1 and ,fig4 #ac;b makes the nearer side seem to be upward and to the right4 ,but in spite of the heavier outlines of the one surface1 it may be made to shift positions from foreground to background1 although not so readily as in ,fig4 #ac4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4--;,each member of this frieze represents a relief ornament1 applied upon the background1 which in cross-section would be an isosceles triangle with a large obtuse angle1 or a space of similar shape hollowed out of the solid wood or stone4 ,in running the eye along the pattern1 it is interesting to observe how variously the patterns fluctuate from one of these aspects to the other4 ,illustration3 ,,figs4 #ae1 #ae;a1 and #ae;b4--,the two views of ,fig4 #ae described in the text are brought out more clearly in ,figs4 #ae;a and #ae;b4 ,the shaded portion tends to be regarded as the nearer face4 ,fig4 #ae;a is more apt to suggest the steps seen as we ascend them4 ,fig4 #ae;b seems to represent the hollowed-out structure underneath the steps4 ,but even with the shading the dual interpretation is possible1 although less obvious4 ,fig4 #ae will probably seen at first glimpse to be the view of a flight of steps which one is about to ascend from right to left4 ,imagine it1 however1 to be a view of the under side of a series of steps2 the view representing the structure of overhanging solid masonwork seen from underneath4 ,at first it may be difficult to see it thus1 because the view of steps which we are about to mount is a more natural and frequent experience than the other2 but by staring at it with the intention of seeing it differently the transition will come1 and often quite unexpectedly4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4--,this interesting figure 7which is reproduced with modifications from ,scripture--,the ,new ,psychology7 is subject in a striking way to interchanges between foreground and background4 ,most persons find it difficult to maintain for any considerable time either aspect of the blocks 7these aspects are described in the text72 some can change them at will1 others must accept the changes as they happen to come4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag;a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag;b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #ag4 ,,figs4 #ag1 #ag;a1 and #ag;b4--,how many blocks are there in this pile8 ,six or seven8 ,note the change in arrangement of the blocks as they change in number from six to seven4 ,this change is illustrated in the text4 ,figs4 #ag;a and #ag;b show the two phases of a group of any three of the blocks4 ,the arrangement of a pyramid of six blocks seems the more stable and is usually first suggested2 but hold the page inverted1 and you will probably see the alternate arrangement 7with1 however1 the black surfaces still forming the tops74 ,and once knowing what to look for1 you will very likely be able to see either arrangement1 whether the diagram be held inverted or not4 ,this method of viewing the figures upside down and in other positions is also suggested to bring out the changes indicated in ,figs4 #ac1 #ac;a1 #ac;b1 and in ,figs4 #ae1 #ae;a1 #ae;b4 ,the blocks in ,fig4 #af are subject to a marked fluctuation4 ,now the black surfaces represent the bottoms of the blocks1 all pointing downward and to the left1 and now the black surfaces have changed and have become the tops pointing upward and to the right4 ,for some the changes come at will2 for others they seem to come unexpectedly1 but all are aided by anticipating mentally the nature of the transformation4 ,the effect here is quite striking1 the blocks seeming almost animated and moving through space4 ,in ,fig4 #ag a similar arrangement serves to create an illusion as to the real number of blocks present4 ,if viewed in one way--the black surface forming the tops of the blocks--there seem to be six arranged as in ,fig4 #ah2 but when the transformation has taken place and the black surfaces have become the overhanging bottoms of the boxes1 there are seven1 arranged as in ,fig4 #ai4 ,somewhat different1 but still belonging to the group of ambiguous figures1 is the ingenious conceit of the duck-rabbit shown in ,fig4 #bj4 ,when it is a rabbit1 the face looks to the right and a pair of ears are conspicuous behind2 when it is a duck1 the face looks to the left and the ears have been changed into the bill4 ,most observers find it difficult to hold either interpretation steadily1 the fluctuations being frequent1 and coming as a surprise4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4--;,do you see a duck or a rabbit1 or either8 7,from ,harper's ,weekly1 originally in ,fliegende ,bltter47 ,all these diagrams serve to illustrate the principle that when the objective features are ambiguous we see one thing or another according to the impression that is in the mind's eye2 what the objective factors lack in definiteness the subjective ones supply1 while familiarity1 prepossession1 as well as other circumstances influence the result4 ,these illustrations show conclusively that seeing is not wholly an objective matter depending upon what there is to be seen1 but is very considerably a subjective matter depending upon the eye that sees4 ,to the same observer a given arrangement of lines now appears as the representation of one object and now of another2 and from the same objective experience1 especially in instances that demand a somewhat complicated exercise of the senses1 different observers derive very different impressions4 ,not only when the sense-impressions are ambiguous or defective1 but when they are vague--when the light is dim or the forms obscure--does the mind's eye eke out the imperfections of physical vision4 ,the vague conformations of drapery and make-up that are identified and recognized in spiritualistic sances illustrate extreme instances of this process4 ,the whitewashed tree or post that momentarily startles us in a dark country lane takes on the guise that expectancy gives it4 ,the mental predisposition here becomes the dominant factor1 and the timid see as ghosts what their more sturdy companions recognize as whitewashed posts4 ,such experiences we ascribe to the action of suggestion and the imagination--the cloud that's almost in shape like a camel1 or like a weasel1 or like a whale4 ,but throughout our visual experiences there runs this double strain1 now mainly outward and now mainly inward1 from the simplest excitements of the retina up to the realms where fancy soars freed from the confines of sense1 and the objective finds its occupation gone4 ,,footnote3 #e ,in order to obtain the effects described in the various illustrations it is necessary in several cases to regard the figures for a considerable time and with close attention4 ,the reader is requested not to give up in case the first attempt to secure the effect is not successful1 but to continue the effort for a reasonable period4 ,individuals differ considerably in the readiness with which they obtain such effects2 in some cases1 such devices as holding the diagrams inverted or at an angle or viewing them with the eyes half closed are helpful4 ,,nature ,,study ,,in ,,the ,,philadelphia ,,normal ,,school4 ,,by ,l4 ,l4 ,w4 ,,wilson1 ,,ph4 ,d4 ,when it was first proposed to me to write for the ,popular ,science ,monthly a brief account of the biological laboratories in the ,philadelphia ,normal ,school1 and of the ,nature work carried on under my direction in the ,school of ,observation and ,practice1 ,i felt that ,i could not do justice either to the place or the work2 for1 in my judgment1 the equipment of the laboratories and the work done in connection with them are finer than anything else of the kind either in this country or abroad--a statement which it seemed to me that ,i could not make with becoming modesty4 ,but1 after all1 it is not great ,babylon that ,i have built1 but a ,babylon builded for me1 and to fail to express my sense of its worth is to fail to do justice to ,dr4 ,w4 ,p4 ,wilson1 formerly of the ,university of ,pennsylvania1 to whom their inception was due2 to ,mr4 ,simon ,gratz1 president of the ,board of ,education1 who from the beginning appreciated their value1 and without whose aid they never would have taken visible form2 to the principals of the two schools1 and1 above all1 to my five assistants1 whose knowledge1 zeal1 and hard work have contributed more than anything else to the rapid building up of the work4 ,,the ,,laboratories ,,and ,,their ,,equipment4--,the rooms occupied by the botanical and zological departments of the normal school measure each seventy by twenty feet4 ,a small workroom for the teachers cuts off about ten feet of this length from each room4 ,in the middle of the remaining space stands a demonstration table furnished with hot and cold water4 ,each laboratory is lighted from the side by ten windows4 ,from them extend the tables for the students4 ,these give plenty of drawer space and closets for dissecting and compound microscopes4 ,those in the zological room are also provided with sinks4 ,each student is furnished with the two microscopes1 stage and eyepiece micrometers1 a drawing camera1 a set of dissecting instruments1 glassware1 note-books1 text-books1 and general literature4 ,the walls opposite the windows are in both rooms lined with cases1 in which there is a fine synoptic series4 ,in the botanical laboratory this systematic collection begins with models of bacteria and ends with trees4 ,in other cases1 placed in the adjoining corridor1 are representatives1 either in alcohol or by means of models1 of most of the orders of flowering plants1 as well as a series illustrating the history of the theory of cross-fertilization1 and the various devices by which it is accomplished2 another1 showing the different methods of distribution of seeds and fruits2 another1 of parasitic plants2 and still another showing the various devices by means of which plants catch animals4 ,as an example of the graphic and thorough way in which these illustrations are worked out1 the pines may be cited4 ,there are fossils2 fine specimens of pistillate and staminate flowers in alcohol2 cones2 a drawing of the pollen2 large models of the flowers2 models of the seeds1 showing the embryo and the various stages of germination2 cross and longitudinal sections of the wood2 drawings showing its microscopic structure2 pictures of adult trees2 and samples illustrating their economic importance4 ,for the last1 the long-leaved pine of the ,south is used1 and samples are exhibited of the turpentine1 crude and refined2 tar and the oil of tar2 resin2 the leaves2 the same boiled in potash2 the same hatcheled into wool2 yarn1 bagging and rope made from the wool2 and its timber split1 sawn1 and dressed4 ,the series illustrating the fertilization of flowers begins with a large drawing1 adapted by one of the students from ,gibson1 showing the gradual evolution of the belief in cross-fertilization from #afhb1 when ,nehemiah ,grew first declared that seed would not set unless pollen reached the stigma1 down to ,darwin1 who first demonstrated the advantages of cross-fertilization and showed many of the devices of plants by which this is accomplished4 ,the special devices are then illustrated with models and large drawings4 ,first comes the dimorphic primrose2 then follows trimorphic ,lythrum1 to the beautiful model of which is appended a copy of the letter in which ,darwin wrote to ,gray of his discovery3 ,but ,i am almost stark1 staring mad over ,lythrum4444 ,i should rather like seed of ,mitchella4 ,but1 oh1 ,lythrum6 ,your utterly mad friend1 ,c4 ,,darwin4 ,models of the cucumber1 showing the process of its formation1 and the unisexual flowers complete this series4 ,supplementing this are models and drawings of a large number of flowers1 illustrating special devices by which cross-fertilization is secured1 such as the larkspur1 butter and eggs1 orchids1 iris1 salvia1 several composites1 the milkweed1 and1 most interesting of all1 the ,dutchman's pipe4 ,this is a flower that entices flies into its curved trumpet and keeps them there until they become covered with the ripe pollen4 ,then the hairs wither1 the tube changes its position1 the fly is permitted to leave1 carrying the pollen thus acquired to another flower with the same result4 ,pictures and small busts of many naturalists adorn both of the rooms4 ,of these the most notable is an artist proof of ,mercier's beautiful etching of ,darwin4 ,every available inch of wall space is thus occupied1 or else1 in the botanical laboratory1 has on it mounted fungi1 lichens1 seaweeds1 leaf cards1 pictures of trees1 grasses1 and other botanical objects4 ,the windows are beautiful with hanging plants from side brackets meeting the wealth of green on the sill4 ,here are found in one window ferns1 in another the century plant2 in others still1 specimens of economic plants--cinnamon1 olive1 banana1 camphor4 ,on the tables are magnificent specimens of palms1 cycads1 dracnas1 and aspidistras1 and numerous aquaria filled with various water plants4 ,most of these plants are four years old1 and all of them are much handsomer than when they first became the property of the laboratory4 ,how much intelligent and patient care this means only those who have attempted to raise plants in city houses can know4 ,the zological laboratory is quite as beautiful as the botanical1 for it1 too1 has its plants and pictures4 ,it is perhaps more interesting because of its living elements4 ,think of a schoolroom in which are represented alive types of animals as various as these3 amoeba1 vorticella1 hydra1 worms1 muscles1 snails and slugs of various kinds1 crayfish1 various insects1 including a hive of ,italian bees1 goldfish1 minnows1 dace1 catfish1 sunfish1 eels1 tadpoles1 frogs1 newts1 salamanders1 snakes1 alligators1 turtles1 pigeons1 canaries1 mice1 guinea-pigs1 rabbits1 squirrels1 and a monkey6 ,imagine these living animals supplemented by models of their related antediluvian forms1 or fossils1 by carefully labeled dissections1 by preparations and pictures illustrating their development and mode of life2 imagine in addition to this books1 pamphlets1 magazines1 and teachers further to put you in touch with this wonderful world about us1 and you will then have some idea of the environment in which it is the great privilege of our students to live for five hours each week4 ,in addition to these laboratories there is a lecture room furnished with an electric lantern4 ,here each week is given a lecture on general topics1 such as evolution and its problems1 connected with the work of the laboratories4 ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,study ,,pursued ,,by ,,the ,,normal ,,students4--,botany3 ,in general1 the plants and the phenomena of the changing seasons are studied as they occur in ,nature4 ,in the fall there are lessons on the composites and other autumn flowers1 on fruits1 on the ferns1 mosses1 fungi1 and other cryptogams4 ,in the winter months the students grow various seeds at home1 carefully drawing and studying every stage in their development4 ,meanwhile1 in the laboratory1 they examine microscopically and macroscopically the seeds themselves and the various food supplies stored within4 ,by experimentation they get general ideas of plant physiology1 beginning with the absorption of water by seeds1 the change of the food supply to soluble sugar1 the method of growth1 the functions1 the histology1 and the modifications of stem1 root1 and leaves4 ,in the spring they study the buds and trees1 particularly the conifers1 and the different orders of flowering plants4 ,the particular merit of the work is that it is so planned that each laboratory lesson compels the students to reason4 ,having once thus obtained their information1 they are required to drill themselves out of school hours until the facts become an integral part of their knowledge4 ,for the study of fruits1 for example1 they are given large trays1 each divided into sixteen compartments1 plainly labeled with the name of the seed or fruit within4 ,then1 by means of questions1 the students are made to read for themselves the story which each fruit has to tell1 to compare it with the others1 and to deduce from this comparison certain general laws4 ,after sufficient laboratory practice of this kind they are required to read parts of ,lubbock's ,flower1 ,fruit1 and ,leaves1 ,kerner's ,natural ,history of ,plants1 ,wallace's ,tropical ,nature1 and ,darwinism1 etc4 ,finally1 they are each given a type-written summary of the work1 and after a week's notice are required to pass a written examination4 ,zology3 ,the course begins in the fall with a rather thorough study of the insects1 partly because they are then so abundant1 and partly because a knowledge of them is particularly useful to the grade teacher in the elementary schools4 ,the locust is studied in detail4 ,tumblers and aquaria are utilized as vivaria1 so that there is abundant opportunity for the individual study of living specimens4 ,freshly killed material is used for dissection1 so that students have no difficulty in making out the internal anatomy1 which is further elucidated with large1 home-made charts1 each of which shows a single system1 and serves for a text to teach them the functions of the various organs as worked out by modern physiologists4 ,they then study1 always with abundant material1 the other insects belonging to the same group4 ,they are given two such insects1 a bug1 and two beetles1 and required to classify them1 giving reasons for so doing4 ,while this work is going on they have visited the beehive in small groups1 sometimes seeing the queen and the drone1 and always having the opportunity to see the workers pursuing their various occupations1 and the eggs1 larv1 and pup in their different states of development4 ,beautiful models of the bees and of the comb1 together with dry and alcoholic material1 illustrate further this metamorphosis1 by contrast making clearer the exactly opposite metamorphosis of the locust4 ,at least one member of each of the other orders of insects is compared with these two type forms1 and1 although only important points are considered at all1 yet from one to two hours of laboratory work are devoted to each specimen4 ,this leisurely method of work is pursued to give the students the opportunity1 at least1 to think for themselves4 ,when the subject is finished they are then given a searching test4 ,this is never directly on their required reading1 but planned to show to them and to their teachers whether they have really assimilated what they have seen and studied4 ,after this the myriapods1 the earthworm1 and peripatus are studied1 because of their resemblance to the probable ancestors of insects4 ,in the meantime they have had a dozen or more fully illustrated lectures on evolution1 so that at the close of this series of lessons they are expected to have gained a knowledge of the methods of studying insects1 whether living or otherwise1 a working hypothesis for the interpretation of facts so obtained1 and a knowledge of one order1 which will serve admirably as a basis for comparison in much of their future work4 ,they then take up1 more briefly1 the relatives of the insects1 the spiders and crustaceans1 following these with the higher invertebrates1 reaching the fish in ,april4 ,this1 for obvious reasons1 is their last dissection4 ,but with living material1 and the beautiful preparations and stuffed specimens with which the laboratory is filled1 they get a very general idea of the reptiles1 birds1 and mammals4 ,this work is of necessity largely done by the students out of school hours4 ,for example1 on a stand on one of the tables are placed the various birds in season1 with accompanying nests containing the proper quota of eggs4 ,books and pamphlets relating to the subject are placed near4 ,each student is given a syllabus which will enable her to study these birds intelligently indoors and out1 if she wishes to do so4 ,in the spring are taken up the orders of animals below the insect1 and for the last lesson a general survey of all the types studied gives them the relationships of each to the other4 ,,the ,,course ,,of ,,study ,,pursued ,,in ,,the ,,school ,,of ,,practice4--,in addition to the plants and animals about them1 the children study the weather1 keeping a daily record of their observations1 and summarizing their results at the end of the month4 ,in connection with the weather and plants they study somewhat carefully the soil and1 in this connection1 the common rocks and minerals of ,philadelphia--gneiss1 mica schist1 granite1 sandstone1 limestones1 quartz1 mica1 and feldspar4 ,as in the laboratories1 so here the effort is made to teach the children to reason1 to read the story told by the individual plant1 or animal1 or stone1 or wind1 or cloud4 ,a special effort is made to teach them to interpret everyday ,nature as it lies around them4 ,for this reason frequent short excursions into the city streets are made4 ,those who smile and think that there is not much of ,nature to be found in a city street are those who have never looked for it4 ,enough material for study has been gathered in these excursions to make them a feature of this work1 even more than the longer ones which they take twice a year into the country4 ,last year ,i made not less than eighty such short excursions1 each time with classes of about thirty-five4 ,they were children of from seven to fourteen years of age4 ,without their hats1 taking with them note-books1 pencils1 and knives1 they passed with me to the street4 ,the passers-by stopped to gaze at us1 some with expressions of amusement1 others of astonishment2 approval sometimes1 quite frequently the reverse4 ,but ,i never once saw on the part of the children a consciousness of the mild sensation that they were creating4 ,they went for a definite purpose1 which was always accomplished4 ,the children of the first and second years study nearly the same objects4 ,those of the third and fourth years review this general work1 studying more thoroughly some one type4 ,when they enter the fifth year1 they have considerable causal knowledge of the familiar plants and animals1 of the stones1 and of the weather4 ,but1 what is more precious to them1 they are sufficiently trained to be able to look at new objects with a truly seeing eye4 ,the course of study now requires general ideas of physiology1 and1 in consequences1 the greater portion of their time for science is devoted to this subject4 ,i am glad to be able to say1 however1 that it is not ,school ,physiology which they study1 but the guinea-pig and ,the ,wandering ,jew6 ,in other words1 ,i let them find out for themselves how and what the guinea-pig eats2 how and what he expires and inspires2 how and why he moves4 ,along with this they study also plant respiration1 transpiration1 assimilation1 and reproduction1 comparing these processes with those of animals1 including themselves4 ,the children's interest is aroused and their observation stimulated by the constant presence in the room with them of a mother guinea-pig and her child4 ,nevertheless1 ,i have not hesitated to call in outside materials to help them to understand the work4 ,a series of lessons on the lime carbonates1 therefore1 preceded the lessons on respiration2 an elephant's tooth1 which ,i happened to have1 helped to explain the guinea-pig's molars2 and a microscope and a frog's leg made real to them the circulation of the blood4 ,in spite of the time required for the physiology1 the fifth-year children have about thirty lessons on minerals2 the sixth-year1 the same number on plants2 and the seventh-year1 on animals2 and it would be difficult to decide which of these subjects rouses their greatest enthusiasm4 ,,principles ,,of ,,taxation4#f ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,hon4 ,,david ,a4 ,,wells4 ,,xx4--,,the ,,law ,,of ,,the ,,diffusion ,,of ,,taxes4 ,,part ,i4 ,no attempt ought to be made to construct or formulate an economically correct1 equitable1 and efficient system of taxation which does not give full consideration to the method or extent to which taxes diffuse themselves after their first incidence4 ,on this subject there is a great difference of opinion1 which has occasioned1 for more than a century1 a vast and never-ending discussion on the part of economic writers4 ,all of this1 however1 has resulted in no generally accepted practical conclusions2 has been truthfully characterized by a leading ,french economist 7,m4 ,parieu7 as marked in no small part by the simplicity of ignorance1 and from a somewhat complete review 7recently published#g7 of the conflicting theories advanced by participants one rises with a feeling of weariness and disgust4 ,the majority of economists1 legislators1 and the public generally incline to the opinion that taxes mainly rest where they are laid1 and are not shifted or diffused to an extent that requires any recognition in the enactment of statutes for their assessment4 ,thus1 a tax commission of ,massachusetts1 as the result of their investigations1 arrived at the conclusion that the tendency of taxes is that they must be paid by the actual persons on whom they are levied4 ,but a little thought must1 however1 make clear that unless the advancement of taxes and their final and actual payment are one and the same thing1 the ,massachusetts statement is simply an evasion of the main question at issue1 and that its authors had no intelligent conception of it4 ,a better proposition1 and one that may even be regarded as an economic axiom1 is that1 regarding taxation as a synonym for a force1 as it really is1 it follows the natural and invariable law of all forces1 and distributes itself in the line of least resistance4 ,it is also valuable as indicating the line of inquiry most likely to lead to exact and practical conclusions4 ,but beyond this it lacks value1 inasmuch as it fails to embody any suggestions as to the best method of making the involved principle a basis for any general system for correct taxation2 inasmuch as the line of least resistance is not a positive factor1 and may be and often is so arranged as to make levies on the part of the ,state under the name of taxation subservient to private rather than public interests4 ,under such circumstances the question naturally arises1 ,what is the best method for determining1 at least1 the approximative truth in respect to this vexed subject8 ,a manifestly correct answer would be3 first1 to avoid at the outset all theoretic assumptions as a basis for reasoning2 second1 to obtain and marshal all the facts and conditions incident to the inquiry or deducible from experience2 third1 recognize the interdependence of all such facts and conclusions2 fourth1 be practical in the highest degree in accepting things as they are1 and dealing with them as they are found2 and on such a basis attention is next asked to the following line of investigations4 ,it is essential at the outset to correct reasoning that the distinction between taxation and spoliation be kept clearly in view4 ,that only is entitled to be called a tax law which levies uniformly upon all the subjects of taxation2 which does not of itself exempt any part of the property of the same class which is selected to bear the primary burden of taxation1 or by its imperfections to any extent permits such exemptions4 ,all levies or assessments made by the ,state on the persons1 property1 or business of its citizens that do not conform to such conditions are spoliations1 concerning which nothing but irregularity can be predicated2 nothing positive concerning their diffusion can be asserted2 and the most complete collection of experiences in respect to them can not be properly dignified as a science4 ,and it may be properly claimed that from a nonrecognition or lack of appreciation of the broad distinction between taxation and spoliation1 the disagreement among economists respecting the diffusion of taxes has mainly originated4 ,with this premise1 let us next consider what facts and experiences are pertinent to this subject1 and available to assist in reaching sound conclusions2 proceeding very carefully and cautiously in so doing1 inasmuch as territory is to be entered upon that has not been generally or thoroughly explored4 ,the facts and experiences of first importance in such inquiry are that the examination of the tax rolls in any ,state1 city1 or municipality of the ,united ,states will show that surprisingly small numbers of persons primarily pay or advance any kind of taxes4 ,it is not probable that more than one tenth of the adult population or about one twentieth of the entire population of the ,united ,states ever come in contact officially with a tax assessor or tax collector4 ,it is also estimated that less than two per cent of the total population of the ,united ,states advance the entire customs and internal revenue of the ,federal ,government4 ,in the investigations made in #ahga1 by a commission created by the ,legislature of the ,state of ,new ,york to revise its laws relative to the assessment and collection of taxes1 it was found that in the city of ,new ,york1 out of a population of over one million in the above year1 only #h1ibj names1 or less than one per cent of this great multitude of people1 had any household furniture1 money1 goods1 chattels1 debts due from solvent debtors1 whether on account of contract1 note1 bond1 or mortgage1 or any public stocks1 or stocks in moneyed corporations1 or in general any personal property of which the assessors could take cognizance for taxation2 and further1 that not over four per cent1 or1 say1 forty thousand persons out of the million1 were subject to any primary tax in respect to the ownership of any property whatever1 real or personal2 while only a few years subsequent1 or in #ahge1 the regular tax commissioners of ,new ,york estimated that of the property defined and described by the laws of the ,state as personal property1 an amount approximating two thousand million dollars in value was held in ,new ,york city alone4 ,later investigations show that this state of things has continued4 ,thus1 in #ahie1 out of a population of about two million1 it was estimated that only seventy-nine thousand1 or not over four per cent of the inhabitants of the city1 were subject to primary taxation1 and that one half the whole amount collected in that year was paid by less than a thousand persons4 ,in the city of ,boston1 where the tax laws are executed in the most arbitrary manner1 the ratio of population directly assessed is somewhat greater1 but aside from the poll tax1 which is a per capita and not a property tax1 only #g4bg per cent of residents paid a property tax in #ahie out of a population of #did1bje4 ,in one of the smaller cities of ,massachusetts1 where persons and property are capable of more thorough supervision than larger numbers and areas--namely1 the city of ,springfield1 with a population of about fifty thousand--the report of its tax officials shows that for the year #ahid-'ie the number of persons and corporations assessed on property 7mainly real estate7 was #g1gde1 or one for every #f4d of its citizens1 while #aj1efj other citizens were assessed for a poll tax of two dollars only4 ,of the total amount of taxes assessed--namely1 #gce1idh--the above number1 #aj1efj1 paid only #ba1abj2 and this is the experience generally throughout the ,united ,states1 as it will be in every country under a free popular government1 where arbitrary inquisitions and arrests of persons and seizures of property are not allowed1 and where a soldier does not practically stand behind every tax assessor and collector4 ,the time 7#ahga7 when the personal investigations above referred to were made was when the masses of the city of ,new ,york were moved with indignation at the misuse and private appropriation by a few officials 7,tweed and his associates7 of the municipal revenues raised by taxation1 under cover of instituting public improvements1 and which finally led to their prosecution1 imprisonment1 or self-imposed exile2 and the questions which naturally suggested themselves were3 ,if only some forty thousand of the million in ,new ,york city paid the taxes1 what interest had the other nine hundred and sixty thousand who never saw the face of a tax assessor or collector in opposing corruption8 ,what1 in an honest administration of the city government and in a reduction of taxes8 ,must it not be for the interest of the many that the expenditures of the ,state shall always be as large as possible8 ,must they not be benefited by exorbitant taxes on the owners of property1 and a distribution of the money collected1 even if stolen by corruptionists1 but spent by them lavishly on enterprises that will furnish new opportunities for employment or amusement for the masses8 ,clearly1 so far as any personal experience growing out of any direct assessment and levy was concerned1 ninety-six per cent of the population of the city had no more cause of personal grievance by reason of the unlawful taking of money from the city treasury than they would have had at the taking of an equivalent amount from the municipal treasuries of ,london1 ,paris1 or any other city4 ,the answer to these questions is to be found in the fact1 as ,john ,adams once remarked1 that if the ,creator had given man a reason that is fallible1 he has also impressed upon him an instinct that is sure4 ,and this instinct teaches the masses everywhere1 though they have never read a book on political economy1 or heard any one discourse learnedly on the principles of taxation1 that if taxes are increased1 either by a lawful or unlawful expenditure of public money1 they can not in any possible way avoid paying some portion of its increase2 or1 in other words1 that increased taxes meant increased cost of living1 through increased rents1 increased price of fuel1 clothing1 and provisions1 and possibly diminished opportunity to labor through such increased cost of the products of labor as would limit and restrict markets or consumption4 ,in short1 that taxes inevitably fall upon them through the increased price of all they consume1 even if they pay nothing to the tax collector directly4 ,a large proportion of the masses of the city of ,new ,york in #ahga-'gb1 who paid no taxes directly1 accordingly and spontaneously joined hands with the comparatively few of their fellow-citizens who did pay in resisting extravagance and corruption4#h ,we are thus led up and forced to the recognition of two propositions1 or rather principles1 in respect to taxation that can not be invalidated4 ,the first is1 that it is not necessary that a tax assessor or collector should personally assess and levy upon every citizen of a ,state or community in order that all should be compelled to contribute of his property for the support of such ,state or community2 second1 that there is an inexorable law by which every man must bear a portion of the burden of public expenditures1 even though the official assessors take no direct cognizance of him whatever4 ,the following incident may here be cited as instructive3 ,in one of the recent official hearings before a legislative committee of one of the ,states1 a strenuous advocate of the popular doctrine that there was and could be no such thing as equality in taxation except by rigidly taxing everybody directly for all his property1 of every description1 both real and personal1 and that to not tax immediately and directly was1 in at least a great degree1 to exempt from taxation1 expressed himself as entirely opposed to any system of restricting assessments to a comparatively few things1 on the ground that it would be a recognition in the ,united ,states of a system which in ,great ,britain had ground down the masses into poverty4 ,he1 however1 obtained some new light on the subject of nondiffusion by being reminded that if the masses of ,england had been grievously oppressed by taxation1 it had been under a system of many years' standing1 which never in any way brings the tax collector in direct contact with nineteen twentieths of the entire population2 the customs taxes of ,great ,britain being practically levied on only four articles--spirits1 tea1 coffee1 and tobacco2 and the inland revenue also on practically four--spirits1 beer1 legacies and successions1 and stamps 7on deeds1 insurance policies1 bills of exchange1 receipts1 drafts1 etc474 ,generalizing1 then1 on the basis of so broad a fact1 how illogical and unscientific was the assumption that whatever persons1 property1 or business are not taxed directly are exempt from taxation6--and yet the practical exemplification of such a system1 in the case of ,england1 was a most efficient instrumentality for grinding the masses of her people down to poverty4 ,on the other hand1 to generalize from the experience of an individual or a class in place of that of a nation or community1 let us take the case of a person who passes all the year in transitu--moving backward and forward1 for example1 in a boat on the line of the ,erie ,canal1 or between the head waters of the ,mississippi and its mouth2 a citizen of no one ,state1 a resident in no one town1 and buying all that he eats1 drinks1 and wears wherever he can buy cheapest4 ,does this man escape taxation because he has no permanent situs 7residence as a citizen71 and is unknown by any assessor8 ,if he does1 then his occupation is more profitable to the extent of the taxes he avoids than is that of the individual who1 following analogous occupations1 resides permanently in one location1 and pays taxes regularly2 or else some notable1 easily discernible cause1 as undue competition to obtain situations1 will account for his exemption4 ,let us next consider how practical experience definitely indicates the line of least resistance1 in conformity with which those contributions of property or service which the ,state requires its citizens to make for its support1 and are worthy of designation as taxes1 diffuse themselves4 ,let us take first that form of indirect taxation which is known as customs1 or taxes on imports1 one from which the ,federal ,government of the ,united ,states has derived in recent years more than half of its revenue1 and ,great ,britain more than one fourth of its total receipts from all forms of imperial taxes4 ,that all such taxes as a rule diffuse themselves1 and ultimately fall upon and are paid by final consumers1 is capable of demonstration by a great variety of evidence4 ,every remission of customs duties on the imports into any country of its staple articles of consumption is followed by a reduction of cost approximately equal to such reduction1 and a consequent increase in consumption4 ,on the other hand1 nothing is better settled than that an increase in customs taxes on imported articles as a rule increases prices and tends to reduce consumption4 ,when ,great ,britain1 in #ahfc1 reduced her taxes 7duties7 on her imports of tea from #as4 #e;d4 to #as4 per pound1 her importation of tea increased from #aad1jjj1jjj pounds in #ahfb to #aci1jjj1jjj in #ahff1 and her per capita consumption during the same period from #b4gj pounds to #c4db pounds2 and again1 when the duty was further reduced in #ahfe from #as4 to #f;d4 per pound1 the annual importations increased from #aci1jjj1jjj in #ahff to #bji1jjj1jjj in #ahha1 and the per capita consumption from #c4db pounds to #d4eh4 ,when by the act of ,october1 #ahij1 the tax was removed from the imports of crude sugars into the ,united ,states1 the price of the same went down almost immediately to an equal extent in all ,american markets2 while the consumption of sugar in the country increased from an average of about fifty-four pounds per capita in #ahij to more than sixty-seven pounds in #ahib4 ,a like result has attended a similar experience in respect to this in other countries1 and especially in ,great ,britain4 ,thus1 the aggregate consumption of sugar by the ,british people in #ahdd was returned at #bcg1adc tons4 ,a reduction of taxes on its importation in #ahfd increased its domestic use to #ebh1iai tons2 a reduction of fifty per cent on existing rates in #ahgj made it #fie1jbi tons2 another reduction of fifty per cent in #ahgc carried up consumption to #ggi1jjj tons2 and when1 in #ahgd1 all taxes on the imports of sugar were abolished1 the annual domestic consumption increased in little more than a year's period to #icj1jjj tons4 ,on the other hand1 when by the tariff act of #ahij an additional tax of half a cent per pound was imposed on the import of tin plate into the ,united ,states1 tin plate went up to an equal extent in price all over the country2 and so also on pearl buttons1 linen goods1 and other articles of foreign production on the importations of which the tariff taxes were largely increased4 ,by the tariff act of #ahij1 also1 eggs1 which could formerly be imported into the ,united ,states free of duty1 were made subject to a tax of five cents per dozen4 ,since then the price of eggs imported from ,canada into districts of the ,united ,states within the same sphere of territorial competition has been increased to the ,american consumers to almost exactly the extent of the import tax to which they are subjected4 ,thus1 when the price of eggs was ten and a half cents per dozen in ,toronto1 they were sixteen cents in ,buffalo and sixteen and a half to seventeen cents in ,new ,york4 ,such a result would be unaccountable if the ,canadian farmers paid the duty on eggs sent by them to the ,united ,states4 ,it is interesting to here ask attention to the opinions entertained and expressed by those whose situation and experience have qualified them to speak with authority3 ,the duty constitutes the price of the whole mass of the article in the market4 ,it is substantially paid on the article of domestic manufacture1 as well as that of foreign production 7,john ,quincy ,adams74 ,i said it1 and ,i stand by it1 that as a general rule the duties paid on imports operate as a tax upon the consumer 7,john ,sherman74 ,mr4 ,blaine1 in his ,twenty ,years in ,congress1 says1 speaking of the increase of duties on imports by the tariff act of ,july #ad1 #ahfb1 that it shut out still more conclusively all competition from foreign fabrics4 ,the increased cost was charged to the consumer4 ,mr4 ,mc,kinley1 in #ahij1 in a report introducing a bill for revision of the tariff of the ,united ,states1 in the direction of increased rates of duties on imports1 said it was not the intent of the bill to further cut down prices1 that the people were already suffering from low prices1 and would not be satisfied with legislation which will result in lower prices4 ,in an elaborate opinion given by the ,new ,york ,court of ,appeals in #ahea 7see vol4 iv1 ,new ,york ,reports71 in which there was no suspicion of any issue of free trade or protection1 the courts1 in carefully considering the relative powers of the legislature and the judiciary in respect to taxation1 assumed the proposition that all duties on imported goods are taxes on the class of consumers to be in the nature of a self-evident truth or economic axiom4 ,henry ,clay1 in a celebrated speech in the ,united ,states ,house of ,representatives in #ahcc1 in advocacy of a protective tariff policy1 candidly admitted that in general it may be taken as a rule that the duty upon an article forms a portion of its price4 ,but he subsequently qualified such admission by claiming that it does not follow that any consequent enhancement of its price is a tax on consumers1 inasmuch as directly or indirectly1 in one form or another1 all consumers of protected articles1 enhanced in price1 will get an equivalent4 ,but this may be equally affirmed of all necessary and equitable taxation1 and does not in any way antagonize the theory that the final incidence of the class of taxes under consideration falls on consumption4 ,but1 notwithstanding these conclusions and the incontrovertible evidence by which they are supported1 not a few persons occupying places of great legislative influence1 and no small part of the general public1 hold to the view that taxes on imports are really in the nature of premiums paid by foreigners for the privilege of selling their goods in the markets of the importing country1 and do not fall on its people who consume them4 ,that means that if the foreigner has a yard of cloth1 or other commodity1 which he sells at home for one dollar1 and the ,united ,states imposes a tariff of fifty cents on it1 he will then sell it for export to ,america at fifty cents4 ,there is no instance mentioned in history where this has ever been done1 but history unfortunately is rarely taken into account by the public in the discussion of these questions4 ,in this connection the following historical incident is interesting and instructive3 ,in #aghb an attempt by the ,congress of the ,confederation of the several ,american ,states to provide a system of revenue to defray the general expenses of the ,confederation by duties on imports1 which then was not permissible1 was blocked by the refusal of the ,state of ,rhode ,island to concur in it1 the ,legislature of that ,state unanimously rejecting the measure for three reasons--one of which was that it would bear hardest on the few commercial ,states1 particularly ,rhode ,island1 which in virtue of their relations with foreign commerce monopolize imports1 and lightest on the agricultural ,states1 that directly imported little or nothing4 ,congress appointed ,alexander ,hamilton to draft a reply to ,rhode ,island1 and in his answer he relied mainly on what he regarded as an incontrovertible fact1 that duties on imports would not prove a charge on an importing ,state1 but on the final consumers of imports1 wherever they may be located4 ,if the theory and assumption so confidently and generally asserted are to be accepted as correct1 that the foreigner pays the protective taxes which a country levies on its imports1 and that they do not fall upon or are not paid by its people who consume them1 then it must follow that to the extent that a country taxes its imports it lives at the expense of foreign nations2 and that1 as ,great ,britain is the country with which the ,united ,states has the largest foreign trade1 it must pay the largest share of the customs taxes of the ,united ,states1 or a good share of its annual revenue from all sources4 ,attention is further asked to the exact practical application of this theory4 ,thus1 the ,united ,states in #ahie imported #cf1dch1aif worth of woolen manufactures1 on which it assessed and collected duties 7taxes7 to the amount of #bj1fih1bfd1 or #ef4hj per cent of the value of such imports4 ,certainly this was a pretty heavy tax on foreign nations in respect to the sales of only one class of these commodities2 but it represented but a tithe of what the tariff taxes of the ,united ,states1 if paid by foreigners1 cost them4 ,thus they had to sell their woolens to the people of the latter country at less than half their value in order to compensate for the #ef4h per cent tax4 ,but a nation engaged in foreign trade can not as a rule have two prices for the product of its industries2 or one price for what it sells at home and another and different price for what it sells to foreigners4 ,so the fifty-six per cent deducted from the cost of the woolens sold by foreigners to the ,united ,states necessarily had to be deducted not only from so much of their product consumed at home1 but also from what they sent for sale to all foreign countries4 ,a further practical application of this theory is worthy of consideration4 ,as ,great ,britain imposes no protective duties or taxes on its imports1 it evidently can not collect anything from other nations by the system of taxation under consideration4 ,on the other hand1 the aggregate value of its exports sent to foreign nations during the year #ahib was #a1ace1jjj1jjj1 and if these several nations taxed this value at the average rate which the ,united ,states imposed in #ahid on all its dutiable imports--namely1 fifty per cent--,great ,britain obviously had to pay some #eeg1jjj1jjj in that year for the support of foreign governments2 and while this has been the experience of ,great ,britain for more than forty years of this century1 she has as a nation been increasing in wealth during this whole period4 ,some of the recent official experiences of the ,government of the ,united ,states that are pertinent to the topic under consideration are sufficiently curious to make them worthy of an economic record4 ,in a speech introducing a bill into the ,united ,states ,house of ,representatives1 which subsequently resulted in the tariff act of #ahij1 the then chairman of the ,committee of ,ways and ,means laid down the following proposition3 ,the ,government ought not to buy abroad what it can buy at home4 ,nor should it be exempted from the laws it imposes upon its citizens4 ,this would seem to warrant the characterization of a discovery that the ,united ,states had some reliable and important source of revenue independent of taxation1#i and that1 by compelling the application of a part of this income to the payment of taxes to itself1 the ,government is placed upon an equality with the citizens4 ,a legitimate criticism on this proposition is that the idea that all the income of the ,treasury is derived from the people1 and that to transfer portions of this income from one official recipient to another can have hardly any other result than an additional cost of bookkeeping1 seems never to have entered the mind of the speaker4 ,again1 the ,united ,states tariff act of #ahhc contained in its free list a provision for the admittance of articles imported for the use of the ,united ,states1 provided that the price of the same did not include the duty imposed on such importations4 ,under the tariff act of #ahij this provision was stricken out of the statute1 with the result that when the ,government imported any articles for its own use which were subject to duties 7as1 for example1 materials to be used in the ,national ,bureau of ,printing and ,engraving71 it was obliged1 in virtue of its nonexemption from the laws which it imposed on its own citizens1 to pay such duties itself4 ,but as the ,government has no authority to expend money for any purpose without the authority of ,congress1 the latter body accordingly authorized the ,federal ,treasury to appropriate money from its tax receipts and make payments with the same to the customhouse1 which the customhouse was to immediately pay back into the ,treasury4 ,just what process was gone through with to effect such a result the public was not informed1 but probably the collector of customs drew his warrant on the ,treasury1 had the amount credited to his account1 and then recredited to the ,treasury4 ,but1 be this as it may1 it is clear that the ,government1 under the conditions above stated1 paid the tax on its imports2 that the tax may be regarded in the light of a penalty on the ,government for importing articles for its own use2 and that the action of ,congress in authorizing the ,treasury to appropriate money for the payment of such taxes was a recognition or admission by that body that a tax upon imports neither puts anything in nor takes anything from the pocket of the foreigner4 ,does it not1 moreover1 invest with a degree of comicality a law enacted by the ,congress of the ,united ,states for the purpose of taxing foreign importers1 which necessitated the enactment by it of another law appropriating money to enable the ,united ,states to pay customs taxes every time on everything that it may import for its own use8#aj ,finally1 if the foreigner and not our citizens pays our customs taxes on imports1 what is the object of placing by specific statutes any article on the free list8 ,why not let him continue to pay millions of taxes for us1 as1 for example1 on sugar8 ,,footnotes3 #f ,it is fortunate that ,mr4 ,wells had practically completed his essays on taxation before death put an end to his activity4 ,the manuscript of two chapters was found among his papers--one on the ,best ,methods of ,taxation1 and the other on the ,law of the ,diffusion of ,taxes1 begun in this number4 ,the first manuscript has some pages missing1 and it has been thought best to postpone its publication1 in the hope that the missing pages may be found4 ,it is evident that the last touches were yet to be put upon the chapter on the diffusion of taxes--a chapter that was to sum up the theory of taxation developed by the writer4 ,so much of that summary is contained in it as to make the meaning of ,mr4 ,wells unmistakable1 and its publication is further amply justified by the number of practical illustrations and happy application of theory to fact1 in the selection and explanation of which the author excelled4 ,the entire series1 which has been running in the ,popular ,science ,monthly for more than three years1 will now be collected in a volume--a worthy memorial to one whose powers of popular exposition of abstract problems placed him among the first of economists in the ,united ,states4 #g ,on the ,shifting and ,incidence of ,taxation1 by ,prof4 ,edwin ,r4 ,seligman1 #ahib4 #h ,the assertion would not be warranted that the masses of ,new ,york were wholly unanimous in condemning ,tweed1 for a portion of them were undoubtedly well content with the situation4 ,he had curried favor with the very poor and ignorant by distributing coal and flour1 and making ostentatious presents of money2 and these charities are remembered to this day in the poorer parts of ,new ,york city1 and ,tweed is esteemed by many as the victim of injustice1 and a man who suffered because he was the friend of the people4 #i ,of the net ordinary receipts of the ,federal ,government 7#che1hai1jjj7 in #ahic1 only about #ab1jjj1jjj was derived from sources that could not be regarded as taxes1 and were mainly receipts from the sales and surveys of public and ,indian lands 7#d1abj1jjj7 and of other ,government property4 #aj ,in #ahig the merchant tailors of the ,united ,states1 who ought to know something about the incidence of a custom tax on imported clothing1 united in a petition to ,congress asking that ,americans returning from ,europe be permitted to introduce only two suits of foreign-made clothes free of duty2 and in support of their request they comment as follows on a ruling of the ,treasury in respect to this matter3 ,under this ruling it was possible to enter free of duty vast quantities of foreign-made garments which had never been actually in use1 and which were so imported solely because there exists a relative difference of at least fifty per cent in values between the cost of made-up garments in the ,united ,states and ,europe1 thus saving to the purchaser of garments abroad one half of their actual value upon arrival within the ,united ,states duty free4 ,but if the foreigner who made and sold the goods in question was liable to pay the duty on dutiable clothing1 and attended to his duty1 there would be no profit to the returning tourist in importing clothing free of duty4 ,it is further evident also that ,american tailors agree in opinion with ,alexander ,hamilton that the consumers of imported articles pay the customs taxes4 ,the records of the commercial relations between the ,united ,states and ,canada are exceedingly instructive on this matter4 ,they all show that for the products which the ,canadian sends to the ,united ,states1 and on which somebody pays the duty1 he receives exactly the same price as for those products which he sends to ,england1 on which nobody pays any duty4 ,this experience is exactly the same as that of the farmers of the ,northwestern ,states of the ,federal ,union1 who usually get the same price for their wheat furnished to a ,minnesota flour mill1 or for shipment to free-trade ,england1 as to countries like ,france and ,germany1 where heavy duties are assessed upon its import4 ,the term usually is employed1 for producers in the ,united ,states and ,canada alike do not always get as large a price for the articles they export as for the same articles they sell to their fellow-countrymen4 ,again1 if it be true1 as the advocates of extreme protection assert1 that the foreign exporter and not the consumer pays the duties on goods sent by him for sale in this country1 how does it happen that it is not true concerning the farm produce and live stock exported from ,canada8 ,and why should ,american farmers be exempt from this rule in sending their grain to ,europe8 ,has anybody ever known of ,england buying ,american products any cheaper in ,new ,york than ,france or ,germany1 and is it not also true that the ,french or ,german or ,italian consumer usually pays at least the amount of the duty levied by his ,government more for ,american products than his ,english competitor has1 whose imports are subjected to no duty8 ,during the period from #ahed to #ahff there was1 under the reciprocity treaty1 practically free trade between ,canada and the ,united ,states in live stock1 wool1 barley1 rye1 peas1 oats1 and other farm products1 while subsequent to #ahff1 when the reciprocity treaty had been repealed1 duties were imposed on all these articles on their import from ,canada into the ,united ,states4 ,during the first period ,canadian horses1 for example1 sold under free trade for shipment to the ,united ,states at from sixty-five to eighty-five dollars each1 while during the years next subsequent to #ahff the value of the ,canadian horses imported into the ,united ,states was returned at from ninety-two to one hundred and four dollars each2 thus showing that the ,united ,states tariff did not force the ,canadian horse breeders to lower their prices in order to compensate ,american purchasers for the duties exacted4 ,and as regards the other products mentioned1 the official data show that in no case did the imposition of duties under the ,united ,states tariff reduce the prices paid by ,american purchasers to the ,canadian farmers for their products4 ,these are very commonplace1 very familiar1 and very convincing facts which ought to silence all this talk about the foreign exporter or anybody else but the consumer paying the duty2 but it is not at all probable that they will4 ,,our ,,florida ,,alligator4 ,,by ,i4 ,w4 ,,blake4 ,an alligator is not an attractive creature4 ,he has not a single virtue that can be named4 ,he is cowardly1 treacherous1 hideous4 ,he is neither graceful nor even respectable in appearance4 ,he is not even amusing or grotesque in his ungainliness1 for as a brute--a brute unqualified--he is always so intensely real1 that one shrinks from him with loathing2 and a laugh at his expense while in his presence would seem curiously out of place4 ,his personality1 too1 is strong4 ,once catch the steadfast gaze of a free1 adult alligator's wicked eyes1 with their odd vertical pupils fixed full upon your own1 and the significance of the expression evil eye1 and the mysteries of snake-charming1 hypnotism1 and hoodooism will be readily understood1 for his brutish1 merciless1 unflinching stare is simply blood-chilling4 ,zologically the alligator belongs to the genus ,crocodilus1 and he has all the hideousness of that family1 lacking somewhat its bloodthirstiness1 although the ,american alligator is carnivorous by nature1 and occasionally cannibalistic4 ,strictly speaking1 however1 the true alligator is much less dangerous than his relatives of the ,old ,world1 and he is correspondingly less courageous4 ,one would suppose the saurians1 or crocodilians1 from their general appearance to be huge lizards1 but the resemblance is superficial4 ,the whole internal structure differs widely1 and1 subdivided into gavials1 crocodiles1 and alligators1 they form a family by themselves which is widespread1 extending into considerable areas of the temperate regions4 ,all crocodilians are great1 ungainly reptiles1 having broad1 depressed bodies1 short legs1 and long1 powerful1 and wonderfully flexible tails which are compressed--that is1 flattened sideways4 ,upon the upper surface of the tail lie two jagged or saw-toothed crests1 which unite near the middle of the appendage1 continuing in a single row to the extremity4 ,all have thick necks and bodies protected by regular transverse rows of long1 horny plates or shields1 which are elevated in the center into keel-shaped ridges1 forming an armor that is quite bullet-proof4 ,the throat1 the under side of the neck1 and belly are not thus protected1 and it is at these places1 as well as at the eyes1 and also just behind the ears1 that the hunter directs his aim4 ,the principal points of difference between a gavial and a crocodile are these3 the former has very long1 slender jaws1 set with twenty-seven teeth in each side of the upper jaw and with twenty-five teeth in the under1 while at the extremity of the snout there are two holes1 through which pass upward the lower large front teeth1 but all the remaining teeth are free1 and slant well outward2 whereas a crocodile has a head that is triangular1 the snout being the apex2 a narrow muzzle1 and canine teeth in the lower jaw1 which pass freely upward in the notches in the side of the upper jaw4 ,an alligator has a broad1 flat muzzle1 and the canine teeth of the lower jaw fit into sockets in the under surface of the upper jaw4 ,it is strictly an ,american form of the family4 ,its feet being much less webbed1 its habits are also less perfectly aquatic1 and1 preferring still or stagnant fresh-water courses or swamps1 it is rarely found in tide-water streams4 ,the crocodile1 on the contrary1 is commonly found in swift-running1 fresh and salt water rivers4 ,he is a sagacious brute1 and ferocious1 often attacking human beings without provocation2 but the alligator1 as a rule1 is not disposed to fight1 although in ,south ,america1 where it goes by the name of caiman or cayman1 it grows to an enormous size1 and is said to be fully as dangerous as the crocodile4 ,there is also a variety of the family--that is1 a true crocodile--found in ,florida1 but it is very rare1 and smaller than its ,asiatic relative4 ,the mouths of all these reptiles1 which are large and extend beyond the ears1 present a formidable array of sharp1 conical teeth of different sizes1 set far apart in the crocodile and the alligator1 some being enlarged into tusks4 ,all are implanted in separate sockets1 and form a single row upon each jaw4 ,when a tooth is shed or broken1 a new one promptly comes up beneath the hollow base of the old one2 and in this way1 all ready for the need1 sometimes three or four waiting teeth1 packed together like a nest of thimbles1 may be seen in the jaw of a dead alligator4 ,illustration3 ,,young ,,pet ,,alligator4 ,from photograph by ,e4 ,l4 ,russell1 ,palm ,beach4 ,the alligator is at best an awkward brute4 ,slow and ungainly upon land--although even there his powerful tail can1 when necessary1 assist the scuffling paws to an astonishing extent if the creature is in haste--he shows to better advantage in the water4 ,there he turns his clumsy body with wonderful dexterity and swiftness1 when1 at the sight of a swimming muskrat or a wading dog1 he instantly changes from what has resembled a drifting log idly floating upon the calm surface of the swamp1 into a thing of life--fierce and horrible4 ,the general food of an alligator is fish1 turtles1 and frogs1 with an occasional heedless dog or fowl4 ,a number of adult alligators will quickly deplenish a small1 clear-water lake of its finny inhabitants1 which statement to would-be ,florida fishermen will readily account for the lack in many localities4 ,there is also a curious belief in the ,south that the creature has an especial liking for a darkey steak1 and for this reason he is feared by the negroes4 ,that he becomes carnivorous to a dangerous extent when pressed by hunger1 there is no doubt1 for1 the supply of fish exhausted1 he must look for larger game4 ,partially concealed by rubbish1 or floating idly close to the bank--always only a short distance from his retreat--he so closely resembles an old and weather-worn log that no suspicion is aroused4 ,presently a razorback comes down the narrow trail that meanders through the scrub and passes close to the reptile4 ,let it pass between the alligator and the water--that is1 between the creature and his cave--and the end has come4 ,an alligator seldom misses1 and one spring1 leap1 or plunge1 or whatever the swift1 clumsy movement may be called1 and the wretched animal is seized and held fast1 either by the nose or leg1 as a rule4 ,then the struggle begins1 for the razorback loves its life1 despised pig of the ,florida flatwoods though it is4 ,alligators drown their prey4 ,their own nostrils and throats are so arranged that they themselves can sink to the bottom without danger of suffocation1 although their mouths1 or rather their jaws1 may be widely stretched with the body of their victim4 ,indeed1 they can reascend to the surface to breathe without releasing the prize2 and1 as this power is so closely connected with their method of killing the larger animals1 a description of the latter1 repulsive though it is1 may not be out of place4 ,the teeth of an alligator are better adapted for crushing and crunching than for biting4 ,therefore1 for him to eat a struggling animal would be difficult4 ,instinct teaches him that it must first be killed4 ,to dispose of a dog or a chicken is a small matter1 for when the alligator meets it upon the bank one strong1 far-reaching sweep of the powerful tail tosses it far out upon the lake4 ,the alligator simply follows1 grasps the half-stunned creature in his jaws1 and disappears beneath the surface1 where he remains until all is quiet4 ,with a larger animal1 however1 he proceeds differently1 for the reason that a yearling1 a colt1 or a razorback is not so easily handled4 ,first1 therefore1 a description of an alligator's cave must be given1 since it is to this grewsome retreat that the hideous brute takes his booty4 ,selecting some spot where the water is deep--usually beneath some overhanging bank--an alligator excavates what is called a cave4 ,any one1 standing upon the border of a lake or swamp in ,florida1 may1 all unconsciously1 be directly over one of these places4 ,he makes it sufficiently large to accommodate one or more of his kind1 by dragging out the mud and roots with the strong claws or nails that arm his fore paws or legs4 ,these caves serve in winter for hibernation1 and at other times for the purpose that will be explained4 ,once in the water1 then--to return to the unhappy razorback--the alligator does not rely wholly upon his teeth and jaws to hold the desperate animal4 ,he can not yet sink1 for the victim is too strong4 ,it must first be drowned1 and a furious struggle for the mastery then begins4 ,by degrees the brute finally succeeds in dragging the animal out into water sufficiently deep to suit his purpose1 and then he clasps it firmly with his paws1 precisely like the hugging of a bear4 ,he then begins to roll over and over4 ,now beneath the surface1 now out1 he turns and turns1 first the alligator uppermost1 then his prey1 alternately1 until the poor animal is drowned literally by inches4 ,before long the razorback weakens1 his struggles lessen1 and then the alligator sinks to the bottom1 and when all motion has ceased he deposits the body in his cave1 well pleased with the prospect of a full larder for some time to come4 ,one might naturally ask just here whether or not this scene would be the same were a human being the victim4 ,the reply would be--precisely4 ,the alligator undoubtedly prefers his food in a partly decomposed condition1 although it is an undecided point whether this preference arises from a natural taste1 or for the reason that food in that state is softer and more easily torn apart4 ,whichever may be the case1 ,nature unasked supplies the remedy1 and the alligator takes advantage of her assistance1 and deposits his victim in his hiding place1 confident that at the proper time it will rise to the surface in the condition best adapted to his needs4 ,although by nature the alligator is amphibious1 he passes the greater part of his time upon land during the breeding season4 ,at such times1 also1 he migrates from one clear-water lake or swamp to another1 should he not find a mate in his own locality1 and he may not infrequently be met in his overland journeyings4 ,alligators are not strictly gregarious1 although large numbers are found in the same body of water2 while1 on the contrary1 there will often be but one or two that will haunt a certain tract for a long period4 ,during this season the bull alligator is very noisy1 and his deep bellowing may be heard for a long distance4 ,to state that this noise causes the ground to vibrate may seem an exaggeration1 but the fact may easily be proved by visiting a swamp where the reptiles have congregated4 ,the water in the vicinity will plainly show the jarring of the ground4 ,this bellow is a thundering1 rumbling sound2 and when it is combined with the startling hisses1 blowings1 sighs1 and deep-breathed snorts which the creature can produce at will1 no one will be likely to dispute that his collection of diabolical noises is quite complete4 ,during the period of incubation the female alligator is a devoted mother4 ,she does not desert her nest from the time that the eggs are laid until they are hatched--lying concealed in the scrub close by--and she is naturally1 at this time1 most dangerous to approach1 although her vigilance does not always save a portion of her unhatched progeny from the numerous enemies that have a fondness for alligator omelet4 ,illustration3 ,,group ,,of ,,captive ,,alligators4 ,from photograph by ,o4 ,p4 ,hareus1 ,jacksonville4 ,the nest is a large1 well-rounded heap or mound1 composed of sand and rubbish1 which she drags and pushes together with her claws4 ,throughout this mound she deposits her eggs1 from forty to seventy and over4 ,these eggs resemble those of a goose1 only that they are larger2 they have a thick1 tough shell1 and are of about the same size at both ends4 ,in about sixty days1 the heat of the sun1 combined with the warmth and moisture generated by the fermentation of the rubbish1 completes the process of incubation1 and the little ones begin to come forth4 ,forcing their way through the sand1 they hurry down the sloping sides of the mound1 straightway seeking the water by instinct4 ,while these baby 'gators are thus kicking and flinging off their shell overcoats as they emerge from their incubator1 perfect little duplicates of their mother--only that they are rather pretty in their clean1 glossy1 black or dark-brown skins1 which have orange-colored stripes that completely ring their miniature tails and bodies--she wanders anxiously about1 probably wondering how many of her family will succeed in running the very uncertain gantlet of life4 ,for1 eaten while in the egg stage by birds and animals1 and swallowed by open-mouthed1 expectant fishes1 and by other alligators--often led1 if the truth must be told1 by the interesting father himself--as soon as they reach the water1 the early days of an alligator are full of trouble4 ,that enough escape to prevent extinction1 however1 goes almost without saying4 ,alligators are hunted for their teeth1 which find a ready market when made up into pretty ornaments2 and of late years extensively for their hides1 which make a very handsome leather4 ,for this purpose the older specimens are not valuable1 their hides being too gnarled1 knotty1 and moss-grown to tan well4 ,after ten or fifteen years the hide coarsens4 ,it is always the skin from the under side of the body and head which is used1 that from the back being so heavily armored with tough1 horny plates and shields as to be practically useless4 ,the flesh for food finds but few admirers4 ,like the eggs1 it is permeated by a strong1 musky flavor1 too rank to find appreciation from a refined palate2 but in some places the steaks from the reptile are eaten by the negroes and pronounced good4 ,to successfully hunt the alligator requires experience1 for quick work is necessary1 the brute disappearing at the least suspicion of danger4 ,hunting by jack is the usual method pursued1 for the light seems to charm the creature1 so that he may be more easily detained until a properly directed bullet speedily puts an end to his existence4 ,a professional alligator hunter1 or a 'gator man1 as he is called1 leads a life full of adventure1 but his business is upon the wane1 since the fad for alligator leather is being pushed aside to make way for something later and more novel4 ,nevertheless1 a description of his outfit may not be uninteresting4 ,a most important adjunct to this outfit is the man who usually accompanies the 'gator man upon his expeditions4 ,he might properly be called the silent partner1 for his duty is to instantly and silently obey the different hand signals1 meaning ,to the right1 ,to the left1 ,stop1 ,back1 ,hurry1 ,forward1 ,spurt1 ,slow1 given by the hunter1 while standing erect in the bow of the boat1 when out with the jack4 ,indeed1 upon his alertness depends much of the success or failure of the night's work4 ,the other tools used by the 'gator man are a light1 strong boat1 a pair of light oars and a broad-bladed paddle with a four-foot handle1 neatly coiled rope1 a jack lamp furnished with a powerful reflector1 an axe1 a long1 keen-bladed hunting knife1 two guns 7twelve-bore breech-loaders1 for a heavy charge at one delivery is absolutely necessary71 bags of ammunition1 some strong chains1 rawhide rope1 and a 'gator pole4 ,this last-mentioned tool is a stout pole about ten feet long1 armed with a heavy hook of quarter-inch iron1 bearing a barbed shank of two inches or more1 and it is used for hauling the dead alligators from the bottom1 for the creatures sink as soon as killed4 ,the brilliant rays from the jack reveal a curious and a grewsome sight when thrown upon a bank or island upon which a group of the creatures have congregated4 ,the shining waters of the swamp1 so still and black at that hour of midnight2 the hideous tangle of huge gray forms1 as a dozen or more alligators1 fairly intoxicated by the gleam of the mysterious light1 steadfastly watch its incomprehensible presence4 ,gazing intently1 their evil eyes blood-red in the glare from the powerful reflector1 some lie motionless1 others roar and hiss and snort with thrilling fierceness as the mystery deepens1 incessantly arching their bodies1 then alternately depressing them to the ground4 ,still others1 crawling from beneath their companions1 scuffle angrily to the front1 and stand with jaws partly open--now and then slowly inflating their lungs1 until their throats and sides puff out like bellows4 ,yet1 strange to say1 instinct seems to warn the mother alligator1 for there she may be seen quietly creeping away with her young4 ,then1 the loud reports from the guns1 and the mystery is dispelled6 ,the island is deserted1 and the work of raising the successfully shot saurians begins4 99 99 99 99 99 ,boards of rural engineering1 syndicates of specialists organized in several of the countries of northern ,europe to look after drainage and irrigation1 have rendered great services to the populations of the country districts4 ,with their aid #eia villages in ,alsace-,lorraine were provided with water between #ahha and #ahie1 and #eaf communes in ,baden have been benefited by their assistance4 ,the expense of the improvement has not exceeded #f4fa 7#cc francs7 per inhabitant4 ,the ,agricultural ,bureau in ,prussia has in the past five years drawn the plans and directed the work of #eed hydraulic syndicates1 covering a total surface of more than #fjj1jjj acres4 ,a numerous body of these agricultural engineers is formed every year in ,germany1 #eag students having pursued the course of the section of rural engineering in #ahic in the agronomical institutes of ,bonn and ,berlin alone4 ,it is generally accepted that the spider is a solitary animal1 that will tolerate no companions1 even the male being in danger of being devoured by his female4 ,but a spider--the ,stregodyphus gregarius--is described as living in the ,transvaal in communities1 including males and females1 young and old4 ,the nests are sometimes voluminous and have partitions and numerous passages running through them4 ,the spiders usually escape observation by wrapping themselves in dry leaves that hang from stems4 ,,the ,,racial ,,geography ,,of ,,europe4 ,a ,,sociological ,,study4 7,lowell ,institute ,lectures1 #ahif47 ,,by ,,william ,z4 ,,ripley1 ,,ph4 ,d41 ,,assistant ,,professor ,,of ,,sociology1 ,,massachusetts ,,institute ,,of ,,technology2 ,,lecturer ,,in ,,anthropo-,,geography ,,at ,,columbia ,,university4 ,,supplement4--,,the ,,jews 7continued74 ,tradition has long divided the ,jewish people into two distinct branches3 the ,sephardim1 or southern1 and the ,ashkenazim1 or north1 ,european4 ,medival legend among the ,jews themselves traced the descent of the first from the tribe of ,judah2 the second1 from that of ,benjamin4 ,the ,sephardim are mainly the remnants of the former ,spanish and ,portuguese ,jews4 ,they constitute in their own eyes an aristocracy of the nation4 ,they are found primarily to-day in ,africa2 in the ,balkan states1 where they are known as ,spagnuoli2 less purely in ,france and ,italy4 ,a small colony in ,london and ,amsterdam still holds itself aloof from all communion and intercourse with its brethren4 ,the ,ashkenazim branch is numerically far more important1 for the ,german1 ,russian1 and ,polish ,jews comprise over nine tenths of the people1 as we have already seen in our preceding article4 ,early observers all describe these two branches of the ,jews as very different in appearance4 ,vogt1 in his ,lectures on ,man1 assumes the ,polish type to be descended from ,hindu sources1 while the ,spanish alone he held to be truly ,semitic4 ,weisbach#aa gives us the best description of the ,sephardim ,jew as to-day found at ,constantinople4 ,he is slender in habit1 he says2 almost without exception the head is exquisitely elongated and narrow1 the face a long oval2 the nose hooked and prominent1 but thin and finely chiseled2 hair and eyes generally dark1 sometimes1 however1 tending to a reddish blond4 ,this rufous tendency in the ,oriental ,jew is emphasized by many observers4 ,dr4 ,beddoe#ab found red hair as frequent in the ,orient as in ,saxon ,england1 although later results do not fully bear it out4#ac ,this description of a reddish ,oriental type corresponds certainly to the early representations of the ,saviour2 it is the type1 in features1 perhaps1 rather than hair1 painted by ,rembrandt--the ,sephardim in ,amsterdam being familiar to him1 and appealing to the artist in preference to the ,ashkenazim type4 ,this latter is said to be characterized by heavier features in every way4 ,the mouth1 it is alleged1 is more apt to be large1 the nose thickish at the end1 less often clearly ,jewish1 perhaps4 ,the lips are full and sensual1 offering an especial contrast to the thin lips of the ,sephardim4 ,the complexion is swarthy oftentimes1 the hair and eyes very constantly dark1 without the rufous tendency which appears in the other branch4 ,the face is at the same time fuller1 the breadth corresponding to a relatively short and round head4 ,does this contrast of the traditional ,sephardim and ,ashkenazim facial types correspond to the anthropometric criteria by means of which we have analyzed the various populations of ,europe8 ,and1 first of all1 is there the difference of head form between the two which our descriptions imply8#ad ,and1 if so1 which represents the primitive ,semitic type of ,palestine8 ,the question is a crucial one4 ,it involves the whole matter of the original physical derivation of the people1 and the rival claims to purity of descent of the two branches of the nation4 ,in preceding papers we have learned that western ,asia is quite uniformly characterized by an exceeding broad-headedness1 the cephalic index--that is to say1 the breadth of the head in percentage of the length from front to back--often rising to #hf4 ,this is especially marked in ,asia ,minor1 where some of the broadest and shortest crania in the world are to be found4 ,the ,armenians1 for example1 are so peculiar in this respect that their heads appear almost deformed1 so flattened are they at the back4 ,a head of the description appears in the case of our ,jew from ,ferghanah on our second portrait page1 #cdd4 ,on the other hand1 the peoples of ,african or negroid derivation form a radical contrast1 their heads being quite long and narrow1 with indices ranging from #ge to #gh4 ,this is the type of the living ,arab to-day4 ,its peculiarity appears in the prominence of the occipital region in our ,arab and other ,african portraits4 ,scientific research upon these ,arabs has invariably yielded harmonious results4 ,from the ,canary ,islands1#ae all across northern ,africa1#af to central ,arabia itself1#ag the cephalic indices of the nomadic ,arabs agree closely4 ,they denote a head form closely allied to that of the long-headed ,iberian races1 typified in the modern ,spaniards1 south ,italians1 and ,greeks4 ,it was the head form of the ancient ,phoenicians and ,egyptians also1 as has recently been proved beyond all question4#ah ,thus does the ,european ,mediterranean type shade off in head form1 as in complexion also1 into the primitive anthropological type of the negro4 ,the situation being thus clearly defined1 it should be relatively easy to trace our modern ,jews1 if1 indeed1 as has so long been assumed1 they have remained a pure and undefiled race during the course of their incessant migrations4 ,we should be able to trace their origin if they possess any distinctive head form1 either to the one continent or the other1 with comparative certainty4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,authority4 ,place4 ,number4 ,cephalic ,index4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,lombroso1 #ahid a ,turin1 ,italy4 #aab #hb4j ,weisbach1 '#gg ,balkan states4 #ai #hb4b ,majer and ,kopernicki1 '#gg;,galicia4 #caf #hc4f ,blechmann1 '#hb ,w4 ,russia4 #ajj #hc4b ,stieda1 '#hc 7,dybowski7 ,minsk1 ,russia4 #fg #hb4b ,ikof1 '#hd ,russia4 #abj #hc4b ,ikof1 '#hd ,constantinople4 #ag crania #gd4e ,ikof1 '#hd ,crimea4 #cj crania #hc4c 7,karaim74 ,majer and ,kopernicki1'#he ,galicia4 #ajj #ha4g ,jacobs1 '#ij ,england4 #cfc #hj4j ,jacobs1 '#ij ,england 7,sephardim74 #ea ,talko-,hyrncewicz1 '#ib ,lithuania4 #gac ,chantre1 '#ie ,caucasia4 #cd #he4j ,weissenberg1 '#ie ,south ,russia4 #ajj #hb4e ,weissenberg1 '#ie ,south ,russia4 #ej women4 #hb4d ,glck1 '#if ,bosnia 7,spagnuoli74 #ee #hj4a ,livi1 '#if ,italy4 #cd #ha4f ,elkind1 '#ig ,poland4 #cbe ,men1 #ha4i ,women1 #hb4i ,deniker1 '#ih ,daghestan4 #ai #hg4j ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,during the last quarter of a century about twenty-five hundred ,jews have submitted their heads to scientific measurement4 ,these have naturally for the most part been taken from the ,great ,russian and ,polish branch2 a few observers1 as ,lombroso1 ,ikof1 ,jacobs1 ,glck1 and ,livi1 have taken observations upon a more or less limited number from southern ,europe4 ,for purposes of comparison we have reproduced in our footnote a summary of all the results obtained thus far4 ,inspection of the table shows a surprising uniformity4 ,ikof's limited series of ,spagnuoli from ,constantinople1 and that of the ,jews from ,caucasia and ,daghestan1 are the only ones whose cephalic index lies outside the limits of #hj to #hc4 ,in other words1 the ,jews1 wherever found in ,europe1 betray a remarkable similarity in head form1 the crania being considerably broader than among the peoples of ,teutonic descent4 ,as we know1 the extremes of head form in ,europe1 measured by the cephalic index1 extend from #gd to #hi2 we thus observe that the ,jews take a place rather high in the ,european series4 ,they are about like the northern ,french and southern ,germans4 ,more important still1 they seem to be generally very closely akin in head form to the people among whom they reside4 ,thus1 in ,russia and ,poland scarcely an appreciable difference exists in this respect between ,jews and ,christians4 ,the same is true in ,turin1 while in the direction of ,asia our ,jews are as bullet-headed as even the most typical ,armenians and ,caucasians round about them4 ,illustration3 ,,arab4 ,index1 #gf4 ,,mussulman1 ,,tunis4 ,index1 #ge4 ,,jew1 ,,tunis4 ,index1 #ge4 ,,african ,,semitic ,,types4 ,this surprising similarity of head form between the ,jews of ,north and ,south ,europe bears hard upon the long-accepted theory that the ,sephardim is dolichocephalic1 thereby remaining true to the original ,semitic type borne to-day by the ,arabs4 ,it has quite universally been accepted that the two branches of the ,jews differed most materially in head form4 ,from the facial dissimilarity of the two a correlative difference in head form was a gratuitous inference4 ,dr4 ,beddoe observes that in ,turkey the ,spagnuoli seemed to him to be more dolichocephalic4 ,a few years later ,barnard ,davis 7#ahfg7 suspected a diversity1 but had only three ,italian skulls to judge from1 so that his testimony counts for little4 ,then ,weisbach 7#ahgg7 referred to the exquisitely long heads of the ,spagnuoli1 but his data show a different result4 ,ikof1 with his small series of crania from ,constantinople1 is the only observer who got a result which accords in any degree with what we know of the head form of the modern ,semitic peoples4 ,on the other hand1 ,glck in ,bosnia and ,livi in ,italy find no other sign of long-headedness than a slight drop in index of a point or two4 ,jacobs1 in ,england1 whose methods1 as ,topinard has observed1 are radically defective1 gives no averages for his ,sephardim1 but they appear to include about eleven per cent less pure long-headed types than even their ,ashkenazim brethren in ,london4 ,this1 it will be noted1 is the exact opposite of what might normally be expected4 ,this tedious summary forces us inevitably to the conclusion that1 while a long-headed type of ,sephardim ,jews may exist1 the law is very far from being satisfactorily established4 ,thus1 from a study of our primary characteristic--the proportions of the head--we find our modern ,jews endowed with a relatively much broader head than that of the average ,englishman1 for example3 while the best living representative of the ,semitic race1 the ,arab1 has a head which is even longer and narrower than our own type4 ,it is1 in short1 one of the longest known1 being in every way distinctly ,african4 ,the only modern ,jews who even approach this type would seem to be those who actually reside to-day in ,africa1 as in the case of our two portrait types from that region4 ,two possible explanations are open to us3 either the great body of the ,jews in ,europe to-day--certainly all the ,ashkenazim1 who form upward of ninety per cent of the nation1 and quite probably the ,sephardim also1 except possibly those in ,africa--have departed widely from the parental type in ,palestine2 or else the original ,semitic type was broad-headed1 and1 by inference1 distinctly ,asiatic in derivation2 in which case it is the modern ,arab which has deviated from its original pattern4 ,ikof is the only authority who boldly faces this dilemma1 and chooses the ,asiatic hypothesis with his eyes open4#ai ,which1 we leave it to the reader to decide1 would be the more likely to vary--the wandering ,jew1 ever driven from place to place by constant persecution1 and constantly exposed to the vicissitudes of life in densely populated cities1 the natural habitat of the people1 as we have said2 or the equally nomadic ,arab1 who1 however1 seems to be invariable in type1 whether in ,algeria1 ,morocco1 the ,canary ,islands1 or ,arabia ,felix itself8 ,there can be but one answer1 it seems to us4 ,the original ,semitic stock must have been in origin strongly dolichocephalic--that is to say1 ,african as the ,arabs are to-day2 from which it follows1 naturally1 that about nine tenths of the living ,jews are as widely different in head form from the parent stock to-day as they well could be4 ,the boasted purity of descent of the ,jews is1 then1 a myth4 ,renan 7#ahhc7 is right1 after all1 in his assertion that the ethnographic significance of the word ,jew1 for the ,russian and ,danubian branch at least1 long ago ceased to exist4 ,or1 as ,lombroso observes1 the modern ,jews are physically more ,aryan than ,semitic1 after all4 ,they have unconsciously taken on to a large extent the physical traits of the people among whom their lot has been thrown4 ,in ,algiers they have remained long-headed like their neighbors1 for1 even if they intermarried1 no tendency to deviation in head form would be provoked4 ,if1 on the other hand1 they settled in ,piedmont1 ,austria1 or ,russia1 with their moderately round-headed populations1 they became in time assimilated to the type of these neighbors as well4 ,nothing is simpler than to substantiate the argument of a constant intercourse and intermixture of ,jews with the ,christians about them all through history1 from the original exodus of the forty thousand 787 from ,jerusalem after the destruction of the second temple4 ,at this time the ,jewish nation as a political entity ceased to exist4 ,an important consideration to be borne in mind in this connection1 as ,neubauer suggests very aptly1 is that opposition to mixed marriages was primarily a prejudice of religion and not of race4 ,it was dissipated on the conversion of the ,gentile to ,judaism4 ,in fact1 in the early days of ,judaism marriage with a nonbeliever was not invalid at all1 as it afterward became1 according to the ,jewish code4 ,thus ,josephus1 speaking of the ,jews at ,antioch1 mentions that they made many converts1 receiving them into their community4 ,an extraordinary number of conversions to ,judaism undoubtedly took place during the second century after ,christ4 ,as to the extent of intermarriage which ensued during the middle ages discussion is still rife4 ,renan1 ,neubauer1 and others interpret the various rigid prohibitions against intermarriage of ,jews with ,christians--as1 for example1 at the church councils of #ech1 #ehi1 at ,toledo1 and of #gdc at ,rome--to mean the prevalent danger of such practices becoming general2 while ,jacobs1 ,andree1 and others are inclined to place a lower estimate upon their importance4 ,two wholesale conversions are known to have taken place3 the classical one of the ,khozars1 in ,south ,russia1 during the reign of ,charlemagne1 and that of the ,falashas1 who were neighboring ,arab tribes in ,yemen4 ,jacobs has ably shown1 however1 the relatively slight importance of these4 ,it is probable that the greatest amount of infusion of ,christian blood must have taken place1 in any event1 not so much through such striking conversions1 as insidiously through clandestine or irregular marriages4 ,illustration3 ,,ferghanah1 ,,turkestan4 ,h,,rault1 ,,france4 ,,elizabethgrad1 ,,russia4 ,,spagnuoli1 ,,bosnia4 ,,elizabethgrad1 ,,russia4 ,,jewish ,,types4 ,we find1 for example1 much prohibitive legislation against the employment of ,christian servants by ,jews4 ,this was directed against the danger of conversion to ,judaism1 by the master1 with consequent intermarriage4 ,it is not likely that these prohibitions were of much avail1 for1 despite stringent laws in ,hungary1 for example1 we find the archbishop of that country reporting in #abbi that many ,jews were illegally living with ,christian wives1 and that conversions by thousands were taking place4 ,in any case1 no protection for slaves was ever afforded4 ,the confinement of the ,jews strictly to the ,ghettos during the later centuries would naturally discourage such intermixture of blood1 as also the increasing popular hatred between ,jew and ,christian2 but1 on the other hand1 the greater degree of tolerance enjoyed by the ,israelites even during this present century would be competent speedily to produce great results4 ,jacobs has strenuously1 although perhaps somewhat inconclusively1 argued in favor of a substantial purity of the ,jews by means of a number of other data--such as1 for example1 by a study of the relative frequency of ,jewish names1 by the supposed relative infecundity of mixed marriages1 and the like4 ,experience and the facts of everyday observation1 on the other hand1 tend to confirm us in the belief that racially no purity of descent is to be supposed for an instant4 ,consider the evidence of names1 for example4 ,we may admit a considerable purity1 perhaps1 to the ,cohns and ,cohens1 legitimate descendants of the ,cohanim1 the sons of ,aaron1 early priests of the temple4 ,their marital relations were safeguarded against infusion of foreign blood in every possible way4 ,the name is1 perhaps1 in its various forms1 the most frequent among ,jews to-day4 ,but how shall we account for the equally pure ,jewish names in origin1 such as ,davis1 ,harris1 ,phillips1 and ,hart8 ,how did they ever stray so far from their original ethnic and religious significance1 unless the marital bars were lowered to a large degree8 ,some of them certainly claim a foremost position numerically in our ,christian ,english directories4 ,we have an interesting case of indefinite ,jewish delimitation in our portraits4 ,the middle portrait at page #cda is certainly a ,jewish type4 ,dr4 ,bertholon writes me that all who saw it immediately asserted it to be a ,jew4 ,yet the man was a professed ,mussulman1 in fact1 even though his face was against him4 ,there is1 as we have sought to prove1 no single uniform type of head peculiar to the ,jewish people which may be regarded as in any sense racially hereditary4 ,is this true also of the face8 ,our first statement encounters no popular disapproval1 for most of us never1 perhaps1 happened to think of this head form as characteristic4 ,but the face1 the features6 ,is this another case of science running counter to popular belief8 ,the first characteristic to impress itself upon the layman is that the ,jew is generally a brunette4 ,all scientific observers corroborate this impression1 agreeing in that the dark hair and eyes of this people really constitute a distinct racial trait4 ,about two thirds of the ,ashkenazim branch in ,galicia and ,russia1 where the general population is relatively quite blond1 is of the brunette type1 this being especially marked in the darker color of the hair4 ,for example1 ,majer and ,kopernicki1#bj in ,galicia1 found dark hair to be about twice as frequent as the light4 ,elkind1#ba in ,warsaw1 finds about three fifths of the men dark4 ,in ,bosnia1 ,glck's observations on the ,sephardim type gave him only two light-haired men out of fifty-five4 ,in ,germany and ,austria#bb this brunette tendency is likewise strongly emphasized4 ,pure brunette types are twice as frequent in the latter country1 and three times as frequent in ,germany1 among ,jewish as among ,christian school children4 ,facts also seem to bear out the theory1 to which we have already alluded1 that the ,oriental ,jews betray a slightly greater blond tendency1 thus inclining to rufous4 ,in ,germany also the blond tendency becomes appreciably more frequent in ,alsace-,lorraine1 a former center of gravity of the nation1 as the map in our previous article has shown4 ,this comparative blondness of the ,alsatian ,jew is not new1 for in #ahfa the origin of these same blondes was matter of controversy4 ,broca believed them to be of northern derivation1 while ,pruner ,bey traced them from a blondish ,eastern source4 ,the ,english ,jews seem also to be slightly lighter than their continental brethren1 even despite their presumably greater proportion of ,sephardim1 who are supposed to be peculiarly dark4 ,as to the relative red blondness of the ,oriental ,jew1 the early observations of ,dr4 ,beddoe1 and those of ,langerhans 7#ahgc7 as to the blue eyes and red-brown hair of the ,druses of ,lebanon1 do not seem to be borne out2 or1 as ,jacobs puts it1 the argument may be dismissed with costs4 ,certainly the living ,semites are dark enough in type1 and the evidence of the sacred books bears out the same theory of an original dark type4 ,thus black and hair are commonly synonymous in the early ,semitic languages4 ,in any case1 whatever the color in the past1 we have seen that science corroborates the popular impression that the ,jews as a people are distinctively of a brunette type4 ,this constitutes one of the principal traits by which they may be almost invariably identified4 ,it is not without interest to notice that this brunetteness is more accentuated1 oftentimes1 among the women1 who are1 the world over1 persistent conservators of the primitive physical characteristics of a people4#bc ,secondly1 as to the nose4 ,popularly the humped or hook nose constitutes the most distinctive feature of the ,jewish face4 ,observations among the ,jews1 in their most populous centers1 do not1 however1 bear out the theory4 ,thus ,majer and ,kopernicki 7#ahhe71 in their extended series1 found only nine per cent of the hooked type--no greater frequency than among the ,poles2 a fact which ,weissenberg confirms as to the relative scarcity of the convex nose in profile among his ,south ,russian ,jews4 ,he agrees1 however1 that the nose is often large1 thick1 and prominent4 ,weisbach 7#ahgg7 measured the facial features of nineteen ,jews1 and found the largest noses in a long series of people from all over the earth2 exceeded in length1 in fact1 by the ,patagonians alone4 ,the hooked nose is1 indeed1 sometimes frequent outside the ,jewish people4 ,olechnowicz found1 for example1 over a third of the noses of the gentry in southeast ,poland to be of this hooked variety4 ,running the eye over our carefully chosen series of portraits1 selected for us as typical from four quarters of ,europe--,algeria1 ,russia1 ,bosnia1 and the confines of ,asia--representing the ,african1 ,balkan ,spagnuoli1 and ,russian ,ashkenazim varieties1 visual impression will also confirm our deduction4 ,the ,jewish nose is not so often truly convex in profile4 ,nevertheless1 it must be confessed that it gives a hooked impression4 ,this seems to be due to a peculiar tucking up of the wings1 as ,dr4 ,beddoe expresses it4 ,herein lies the real distinctive quality about it1 rather than in any convexity of outline4 ,in fact1 it often renders a nose concave in profile1 immediately recognizable as ,jewish4 ,jacobs#bd has ingeniously described this nostrility1 as he calls it1 by the following diagrams3 ,write1 he says1 a figure #f with a long tail 7,fig4 #a72 now remove the turn of the twist1 and much of the ,jewishness disappears2 and it vanishes entirely when we draw the lower continuation horizontally1 as in ,fig4 #c4 ,behold the transformation6 ,the ,jew has turned ,roman beyond a doubt4 ,what have we proved1 then8 ,that there is in reality such a phenomenon as a ,jewish nose1 even though it be differently constituted from our first assumption4 ,a moment's inspection of our series of portraits will convince the skeptic that this trait1 next to the prevalent dark hair and eyes and the swarthy skin1 is the most distinctive among the chosen people4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #c4 ,another characteristic of the ,jewish physiognomy is the eyes4 ,the eyebrows1 seemingly thick because of their darkness1 appear to be nearer together than usual1 arching smoothly into the lines of the nose4 ,the lids are rather full1 the eyes large1 dark1 and brilliant4 ,a general impression of heaviness is apt to be given4 ,in favorable cases this imparts a dreamy1 melancholy1 or thoughtful expression to the countenance2 in others it degenerates into a blinking1 drowsy type2 or1 again1 with eyes half closed1 it may suggest suppressed cunning4 ,the particular adjective to be applied to this expression varies greatly according to the personal equation of the observer4 ,quite persistent also is a fullness of the lips1 often amounting in the lower one almost to a pout4 ,the chin in many cases is certainly rather pointed and receding1 ,jacobs to the contrary notwithstanding4 ,a feature of my own observation1 perhaps not fully justified1 is a peculiar separation of the teeth1 which seem to stand well apart from one another4 ,but a truce to speculations4 ,entering into greater detail1 the flat contradictions of different observers show that they are vainly generalizing from an all too narrow base of observations4 ,even the fancied differences in feature between the two great branches of the ,hebrew people seem to us to be of doubtful existence4 ,our portraits do not bear it out4 ,it seems rather that the two descriptions of the ,ashkenazim and ,sephardim types which we have quoted denote rather the distinction between the faces of those of the upper and the lower classes4 ,enough for us to know that there is a something ,jewish in these faces which we instantly detect4 ,we recognize it in ,rembrandt's ,hermitage1 or in ,munkaczy's ,christ before ,pilate4 ,not invariable are these traits4 ,not even to the ,jew himself are they always a sure criterion4 ,weissenberg gives an interesting example of this4#be ,to a friend1 a ,jew in ,elizabethgrad1 he submitted two hundred and fifty photographs of ,russian ,jews and ,christians in undistinctive costume4 ,seventy per cent of the ,jews were rightly chosen1 while but ten per cent of the ,russians were wrongly classed as ,jews4 ,of what concern is it whether this characterization be entirely featural1 or in part a matter of expression8 ,the first would be a matter of direct heredity1 the second hypothesis partakes more of the nature of a characteristic acquired from the social environment4 ,some one--,jacobs1 ,i think--speaks of it as the expression of the ,ghetto4 ,it certainly appears in the remarkable series of composite ,jewish portraits published in his monograph4 ,it would not be surprising to find this true4 ,continued hardship1 persecution1 a desperate struggle against an inexorable human environment as well as natural one1 could not but write its lines upon the face4 ,the impression of a dreary past is deep sunk in the bodily proportions1 as we have seen4 ,why not in the face as well8 ,we are now prepared1 in conclusion1 to deal with what is perhaps the most interesting phase of our discussion4 ,it is certainly1 if true1 of profound sociological importance4 ,we have in these pages spoken at length of the head form--primary index of race2 we have shown that there are ,jews and ,jews in this respect4 ,yet which was the real ,jew it was not for us to decide1 for the ninety-and-nine were broad-headed1 while the ,semite in the ,east is still1 as ever1 a long-headed member of the ,africanoid races4 ,this discouraged our hopes of proving the existence of a ,jewish cephalic type as the result of purity of descent4 ,it may indeed be affirmed with certainty that the ,jews are by hereditary descent from early times no purer than most of their ,european neighbors4 ,then we discovered evidence that in this head form the ,jews were often closely akin to the people among whom they lived4 ,in long-headed ,africa they were dolichocephalic4 ,in brachycephalic ,piedmont1 though supposedly of ,sephardim descent1 they were quite like the ,italians of ,turin4 ,and all over ,slavic ,europe no distinction in head form between ,jew and ,christian existed4 ,in the ,caucasus also they approximate closely the cranial characteristics of their neighbors4 ,hypnotic suggestion was not needed to find a connection here1 especially since all history bore us out in our assumption of a large degree of intermixture of ,gentile blood4 ,close upon this disproval of purity of type by descent came evidence of a distinct uniformity of facial type4 ,even so impartial an observer as ,weissenberg--certainly not prejudiced in favor of cephalic invariability--confesses this featural unity4 ,how shall we solve this enigma of ethnic purity1 and yet impurity1 of type8 ,in this very apparent contradiction lies the grain of comfort for our sociological hypothesis4 ,the ,jew is radically mixed in the line of racial descent2 he is1 on the other hand1 the legitimate heir to all ,judaism as a matter of choice4 ,it is for us a case of purely artificial selection1 operative as ever only in those physical traits which appeal to the senses4 ,it is precisely analogous to our example of the ,basques in ,france and ,spain4 ,what we have said of them will apply with equal force here4 ,both ,jews and ,basques possessed in a high degree a consciousness of kind2 they were keenly sensible of their social individuality4 ,the ,basques primarily owed theirs to geographical isolation and a peculiar language2 that of the ,jews was derived from the circumstances of social isolation1 dependent upon the dictates of religion4 ,another case in point occurs to us in this connection4 ,chantre1#bf in a recent notable work1 has shown the remarkable uniformity in physical type among the ,armenians4 ,they are so peculiar in head form that we in ,america recognize them at once by their foreshortened and sugar-loaf skulls1 almost devoid of occiput4 ,they too1 like the ,jews1 have long been socially isolated in their religion4 ,thus in all these cases1 ,basques1 ,armenians1 and ,jews1 we have a potent selective force at work4 ,so far as in their power lay1 the individuality of all these people was encouraged and perpetuated as one of their dearest possessions4 ,it affected every detail of their lives4 ,why should it not also react upon their ideal of physical beauty8 and why not influence their sexual preferences1 as well as to determine their choice in marriage8 ,its results became thus accentuated through heredity4 ,but all this would be accomplished1 be it especially noted1 only in so far as the physical traits were consciously or unconsciously impressed upon them by the facts of observation4 ,there arises at once the difference between artificial selection in the matter of the head form and that concerning the facial features4 ,one is an unsuspected possession of individuality1 the other is matter of common notice and1 it may be1 of report4 ,what ,jew or ,christian1 till he became anthropologist1 ever stopped to consider the shape of his head1 any more than the addition of a number of cubits to his stature8 ,who has not1 on the other hand1 early acquired a distinct concept of a ,jewish face and of a distinctly ,jewish type8 ,could such a potent fact escape observation for a moment8 ,we are confirmed in our belief in the potency of an artificial selection1 such as we have described1 to perpetuate or to evolve a ,jewish facial type by reason of another observation4 ,the women among the ,jews1 as ,jacobs#bg notes1 in confirmation of our own belief1 betray far more constantly than the men the outward characteristics peculiar to the people4 ,we have already cited ,weissenberg's testimony that brunetteness is twice as prevalent among ,russian ,jewesses as among the men4 ,of course this may be a matter of anabolism1 pure and simple4 ,this would be perhaps a competent explanation of the phenomenon for physiologists like ,geddes and ,thompson4 ,for us this other cause may be more directly responsible4 ,artificial selection in a social group1 wherein the active choice of mates falls to the share of the male1 would seem to tend in the direction of an accentuated type in that more passive sex on which the selective influence directly plays4 ,at all events1 observations from widely scattered sources verify the law that the facial individuality of a people is more often than otherwise expressed most clearly in the women4 ,thus1 for example1 the women betray the ,mongol type more constantly than the men among the ,asiatic tribes of eastern ,russia4#bh ,on the other hand1 ,mainof1 best of authority1 confirms the same tendency among those of ,finnic descent4#bi ,the ,setti ,communi in northern ,italy still preserve their ,german language as evidence of a historic ,teutonic descent4 ,they seem to have lost their identity entirely in respect of the head form1#cj but ,ranke#ca states that among the women the ,german facial type constantly reappears4 ,this1 ,i confess1 is not altogether easy to understand1 unless the ,lombards1 of whom these colonies are supposedly the remnants1 brought their native women with them across the ,alps4 ,perhaps1 however1 not bringing their women1 a new ,teutonic resemblance has been evolved out of whole cloth4 ,a better example than this is offered among the ,hamitic peoples of ,africa north of the ,sahara4 ,these peoples1 from ,abyssinia to ,morocco1 really belong to the white races of ,europe4 ,among nearly all their tribes the negroid traits are far more accentuated among the women1 according to ,sergi4#cb ,it is not necessary to cite more specific testimony4 ,the law occupies a respected place among anthropologists4 ,that the ,jews confirm it1 would seem to strengthen our hypothesis at every point4 ,our final conclusion1 then1 is this3 ,it is paradoxical1 yet true1 we affirm4 ,the ,jews are not a race1 but only a people1 after all4 ,in their faces we read its confirmation1 while in respect of their other traits we are convinced that such individuality as they possess--by no means inconsiderable--is of their own making from one generation to the next1 rather than as a product of an unprecedented purity of physical descent4 ,,footnotes3 #aa #ahgg1 p4 #bad4 #ab #ahfa b1 pp4 #bbg and #cca4 #ac ,glck1 #ahif a4 ,jacobs1 #ahij1 p4 #hb1 did not find a trace of it in the ,sephardim congregation in ,london4 ,see ,andree1 #ahgh1 in this connection4 #ad ,the cephalic index by which we measure the head-form is merely the breadth of the head in percentage of its length from front to back4 ,the index rises as the head becomes relatively more broad4 #ae ,verneau1 #ahha a1 p4 #ejj4 #af ,pruner ,bey1 #fe b2 ,gillebert d',hercourt1 #ahfh1 p4 #i2 and especially ,collignon1 #ahhg a1 pp4 #cbf-cci2 ,bertholon1 #ahib1 p4 #da2 also ,collignon1 #ahif b4 #ag ,elisev1 #ahhc4 #ah ,bertholon1 #ahib1 p4 #dc2 ,sergi1 #ahig a1 chapter i1 and even more recently ,fouquet1 #ahif and #ahig1 on the basis of ,de ,morgan's discoveries4 #ai ,compare ,brinton1 #ahij a1 p4 #acb1 and #ahij b1 for interesting linguistic data on the ,semites4 #bj #ahgg1 pp4 #hh-ij2 #ahhe1 p4 #hd4 #ba ,centralblatt fr ,anthropologie1 vol4 iii1 p4 #ff4 #bb ,virchow1 #ahhf b1 p4 #cfd2 ,schimmer1 #ahhd1 p4 xxiii4 #bc ,weissenberg1 #ahie1 p4 #efg1 finds brunettes twice as frequent among the south ,russian ,jewesses as among the men4 #bd #ahhf a1 p4 xxxii4 #be #ahie1 p4 #efc4 #bf ,recherches anthropologiques dans l',asie ,occidentale 7,archives du ,museum d'histoire naturelle1 ,lyons1 vol4 vi1 #ahie74 #bg #ahhf a1 p4 xxviii4 #bh ,sommier1 #ahhg1 reprint1 p4 #aaf4 ,cf4 ,zograf1 #ahif1 p4 #ej1 on crania from the sixteenth century in ,moscow4 #bi ,congrs int4 des sciences gographiques1 ,paris1 #ahge1 p4 #bfh4 #cj ,livi1 #ahif a1 pp4 #acg and #adf4 #ca ,beitrge zur ,anth4 ,bayerns1 vol4 ii1 #ahgi1 p4 #ge4 #cb ,africa1 ,antropologia della stirpe ,camitica1 ,torino1 #ahig1 p4 #bfc4 ,,true ,,tales ,,of ,,birds ,,and ,,beasts4 ,,by ,,david ,,starr ,,jordan4 ,i4--,,se,,or ,,alcatraz4 ,he was just a bird when he was born1 and a very ugly bird at that4 ,for he had big splay feet1 with all the toes turned forward and joined together in one broad web1 and his wings were thick and clumsy1 and underneath his long bill there was a big red sack that he could fill with fishes1 and when it was full he could hardly walk or fly1 so large the sack was and so great was his appetite4 ,but he kept the sack well filled and he emptied it out every day into his stomach1 and so he grew very soon to be a large bird1 as big as a turkey1 though not as fat1 and each day uglier than ever4 ,but one morning1 when he was walking out on the sand flat of the ,astillero at ,mazatlan1 ,mexico1 where he lived1 he saw a big fish which had been left by the falling tide in a little pool of water4 ,it was a blue-colored fish with a big bony head1 and no scales1 and a sleek1 slippery skin4 ,he did not know that it was a bagre1 but he thought that all fishes were good to eat1 so he opened his mouth and slipped the fish1 tail first1 down into his pouch4 ,it went all right for a while1 but when the fish woke up and knew he was being swallowed1 he straightened out both of his arms1 and there he was4 ,for the bagre is a kind of catfish1 and each arm is a long1 stiff1 sharp bone1 or spine1 with a saw edge the whole length of it4 ,and all the bagre has to do is just to put this arm out straight and twist it at the shoulder and then it is set1 and no animal can bend or break it4 ,and it pierced right through the skin of the bird's sack1 and the bird could not swallow it1 nor make it go up nor down1 and the bagre held on tight1 for he knew that if he let go once he would be swallowed1 and that would be the last of him4 ,so the bird tried everything he could think of1 and the fish held on1 and they kept it up all day4 ,in the afternoon a little boy came out on the sands4 ,his name was ,inocente1 and he was the son of ,ygnacio1 the fisherman of ,mazatlan4 ,and ,inocente took a club of mangrove and ran up to the struggling bird and struck it on the wing with the club4 ,the blow broke the wing1 and the bird lay down to die1 for with a broken wing and a fish that would not go up nor down1 there was no hope for him4 ,when ,inocente saw what kind of a fish it was1 he knew just what to do4 ,he reached down into the bird's sack and took hold of the fish's spines4 ,he gave each one a twist so that it rolled over in its socket1 the upper part toward the fish's head1 and then they were not stiff any more1 but lay flat against the side of the fish1 just as they ought to lie4 ,then the fish knew that it had found a master1 and lay perfectly still4 ,so the bird gave a great gulp1 and out the bagre went on the sand1 and when the tide came up it swam away1 and took care never to go again where a bird could get hold of it4 ,and the bird with the broken wing had learned something about fishes1 too4 ,but he could not fly away1 so he waited to see what the boy was going to do4 ,the boy took the bird into his boat and brought him home4 ,and old ,ygnacio put a splint on his wing and covered it with salve1 and by and by it healed4 ,but the bone was set crooked1 and the bird could not fly very well4 ,so the boys called the bird ,seor ,alcatraz1 which is the ,spanish for ,mr4 ,pelican1 and ,seor ,alcatraz and all the boys and dogs and goats became good friends1 and all ran about on the streets together4 ,and when the boys would shout and the dogs bark1 all ,seor ,alcatraz could do was to squawk and hiss and open his big mouth and show the inside of his red fish sack4 ,and when the boys would go fishing on the wharf1 ,alcatraz would go1 too1 and he would stow away the fishes in his pouch as fast as the boys could catch them4 ,but if they caught a bagre fish1 he would turn his head the other way and then run away home just as fast as his splay feet would take him4 ,and when the men drew the net on the beach ,alcatraz would splash around inside the net1 catching whatever he could1 and having a great deal of fun in his clumsy pelican fashion4 ,then he would run along the street with the boys1 squawking and flapping his wings and thinking that he was just like the rest of them4 ,and if you ever go to ,mazatlan1 ask for ,dr4 ,rogers1 and he will show you the way to ,ygnacio's cabin on the street they call ,libertad4 ,and there in the front yard1 in a general scramble of dogs1 goats1 and little ,indian boys1 you will see ,seor ,alcatraz romping and squabbling like the best of them4 ,and you will know which he is by the broken wing and the red sack under his throat4 ,but if you say ,bagre to him1 he will run under the doorstep and hide his face till you go away4 ,,ii4--,,the ,,little ,,blue ,,fox4 ,once there was a little blue fox1 and his name was ,eichkao1 and he was a thief4 ,so he built his house down deep among the rocks under the moss on the ,mist ,island1 and his little fox children used to stay down among the rocks4 ,there they would gurgle1 gurgle1 gurgle1 whenever they heard anybody walking over their heads4 ,eichkao and his fox wife used to run all round over the rocks to find something for them to eat1 and whenever ,eichkao saw anybody coming he would go clin-n-n-g1 cling-g-g1 and his voice was high and sharp1 just like the voice of a buzz saw4 ,one day he walked out on the rocks over the water and began to talk to the black sea parrot1 whose name is ,epatka1 and who sits erect on his carelessly built nest with one egg in it1 and wears a great big bill made of red sealing wax4 ,he has a long white quill pen stuck over each ear1 and over his face is a white mask1 so that nobody can know what kind of a face he has1 and all you can see behind the mask is a pair of little foolish twinkling white glass eyes4 ,what the two said to each other ,i don't know1 but they did not talk very long1 for in a few minutes when ,i came back to his house among the rocks ,eichkao was gone1 and there lay out on the bank a bill made of red sealing wax1 a white mask1 and two little white quill pens4 ,there were a few bones and claws and some feathers1 but they did not seem to belong to anything in particular1 and the little foxes in the rocks went gurgle1 gurgle1 gurgle4 ,one day ,i lay down on the moss out by the old fox walk on the ,mist ,island1 and ,eichkao saw me there and thought ,i was some new kind of walrus which might be good to eat1 and would feed all the little foxes for a month4 ,so he ran around me in a circle1 and then he ran around again1 then again and again1 always making the circle smaller1 until finally the circle was so narrow that ,i could reach him with my hand4 ,as he went around and around1 all the time he looked at me with his cold1 gray1 selfish eye1 and not one of all the beasts has an eye as cruel-cold as his4 ,when he thought that he was near enough1 he gave a snap with his jaws1 and tried to bite out a morsel to take home to the little foxes2 but all ,i offered him was a piece of rubber boot4 ,and when ,i turned around to look at him he was running away as fast as he could1 calling klin-n-g-g1 klin-n-g1 klin-n-g1 like a scared buzz saw all the time as he went out of sight4 ,and ,i think that he is running yet1 while the little foxes still go gurgle1 gurgle under the rocks4 ,,iii4-,,how ,,the ,,red ,,fox ,,went ,,hunting4 7,with acknowledgment to ,mr4 ,a4 ,c4 ,bassett1 of ,menlo ,park1 ,california47 ,once on a time there was a great tall rabbit1 the kind the miners call a narrow-gauge mule2 but he was not a mule at all1 and his real name was ,jack ,rabbit4 ,his home was in ,montana1 and he lived by the river they call the ,silver ,bow4 ,he could run faster than any of the other beasts1 and he went lickety-clip1 lickety-clip1 bounding over the tops of the sagebrush1 for he had no brush of his own to carry4 ,and there was a red fox who lived on the ,silver ,bow1 too1 and he went hunting because he wanted rabbit for dinner4 ,but while he could run very fast he could not bound over the tops of the sagebrush1 for his own brush1 which he always carried with him because he was so proud of it1 would catch on the thorns of the other kinds of brush and so would keep him back4 ,so he sent for his cousin1 the coyote1 to come and help him4 ,now1 the coyote lived out in the country by ,emigrant ,mountain4 ,he was not proud at all1 for he hadn't much of a brush1 and nobody flattered him for his beauty4 ,but for all that the coyote could run very fast1 as he had ,indian blood in him4 ,the only trouble was that his hind feet ran faster than his fore feet4 ,so he had to stop every little while and run sidewise to unkink himself and give his fore feet a chance to catch up4 ,when the coyote came up the rabbit was bounding along through the bushes1 going around in a great circle so that he always came back to the same place1 for that is the way of the rabbit-folk4 ,so the fox lay low and hid his brush in the sage1 and the coyote followed the rabbit around the circle4 ,and he just kept up with the rabbit all the way1 for the rabbit wasn't scared1 and didn't run very fast4 ,and when they had gone once around the circle the rabbit passed the hidden fox4 ,then the fox got up and chased him1 and was only a few feet behind4 ,and the coyote stopped and ran sidewise for a while to unkink himself1 and then he lay down in the bushes and waited for the rabbit to come back4 ,the rabbit was much scared when he saw the fox close behind him1 so he ran and bounded very fast1 and the fox kept falling behind because he had his long brush to carry4 ,but he kept at it just the same1 and when the rabbit came around the circle to where he started there was the coyote waiting for him4 ,the rabbit had to make a great jump to get over the coyote's head4 ,then they went around again and the coyote kept close behind all the way1 and the rabbit began to get tired4 ,when the coyote's hind legs got tangled up then the fox was rested1 and he took up the chase2 and so they kept on1 each one taking his turn1 except the rabbit1 who had to keep his own turn all the time4 ,when the race was over there was nobody there to see how they divided up what they caught4 ,but ,i saw the coyote the next day1 and he looked so very empty that ,i think that the red fox must have taken all the rabbit meat for himself4 ,most likely he left his cousin just the ears for his part1 with a rabbit's foot to carry in his pocket for good luck4 ,,glacial ,,geology ,,in ,,america4 ,,by ,,prof4 ,,daniel ,s4 ,,martin4 ,under this title the vice-president of ,section ,e 7,geology7 of the ,american ,association--,prof4 ,herman ,l4 ,fairchild1 of the ,university of ,rochester1 ,new ,york--gave an admirable rsum of the whole history1 progress1 and scope of the study of ice phenomena in ,north ,america1 as the opening address before the section at the recent ,boston meeting4 ,apart from the interest of the subject in itself considered1 this address was a model of what such addresses should be4 ,while strictly scientific1 without the least attempt at rhetorical effect1 it was at the same time so clear1 so well arranged and so simple in language1 that any intelligent auditor could enjoy it and grasp it1 and carry away a distinct impression of the gradual development and present status of this great department of geological study4 ,professor ,fairchild's choice of his subject was happy also in its fitness to the occasion1 as covering almost exactly the half century of the life of the association1 though going back indeed a few years further1 into the period of the earlier society which developed into the association in #ahdh4 ,the great body of phenomena comprised under the term drift1 and the smoothed and scratched surfaces of rock1 etc41 had been by no means unnoticed by the early students of ,american geology1 but they were attributed to violent and widespread water action1 and were spoken of in general as diluvial formations4 ,when the agency of ice began to be recognized1 it was regarded as that of floating and stranding bergs2 and this view for a long time contended with the theory of glacial action1 even when the latter had been adopted and advocated by eminent students of the subject4 ,the first allusion to drifting ice as the agent of transportation of bowlders1 etc41 appears to have been made as early as #ahbe1 by one ,peter ,dobson1 of ,connecticut1 in a letter to ,prof4 ,benjamin ,silliman1 of ,yale ,college4 ,sir ,roderick ,murchison1 who became the great champion of this view1 credits ,mr4 ,dobson's letter with giving him the first suggestion of it4 ,twelve years later1 in #ahcg1 ,t4 ,a4 ,conrad made the earliest reference to land ice as the cause of our drift phenomena2 he does this in very striking words when read in the light of the studies and determinations of later years1 although of course imperfectly and vaguely4 ,meanwhile1 however1 ,agassiz and others had been working among the glaciers of the ,alps1 and their views as to a great period of former extension1 in ,europe and the ,british ,isles1 were finding some acceptance abroad4 ,in this country1 ,prof4 ,edward ,hitchcock1 in his address as retiring president of the ,association of ,american ,geologists1 in #ahda1 gave a broad and careful review of the drift phenomena in eastern ,north ,america1 and referred to the work of ,agassiz1 ,buckland1 and ,lyell with great interest1 as having given him a new geological sense in observing these phenomena1 and said1 with prophetic foresight1 ,henceforth1 glacial action must form an important chapter in geology4 ,but the time was not ripe for the understanding and acceptance of the glacial theory as a later generation has come to know it4 ,the studies of ,agassiz and his confrres had been among glaciers upon mountain slopes1 and hence1 while many of the drift phenomena were strikingly accounted for1 others were not and could not be4 ,so it came to pass that1 while ,professor ,hitchcock and others in this country were strongly impressed1 they were not satisfied1 and held for years an uncertain position4 ,the glacial indications conformed in some aspects to the theory1 but not in others2 the stri and groovings1 instead of following valleys1 all had a general trend to the southward1 and the bowlders were carried across great depressions and deposited upon heights4 ,how could these conditions be due to glaciers8 ,could ice flow uphill1 or move long distances over level areas8 ,these and other phenomena1 such as the peculiar distribution of drift material1 in drumlin ridges and the like1 had no explanation4 ,hence1 notwithstanding ,president ,hitchcock's utterances above quoted1 and his similar ,postscript on the subject of drift and moraines1 appended in the same year to his volume on the ,geology of ,massachusetts1 we find him in #ahdc1 when again addressing the ,association of ,geologists1 adopting a modified tone1 dwelling upon these points of difficulty1 and seeking a compromise view1 which he called glacio-aqueous4 ,the great influence also of ,murchison and ,lyell had been thrown into the scale in favor of the iceberg theory1 and this fact doubtless had much to do with the slow development of true conceptions4 ,lyell visited ,america in #ahdb1 and was present at the ,american ,geologists' meeting1 advocating the floating-ice doctrine1 to which most of our observers already leaned2 and so the views of ,agassiz and the glacial school had to wait for a decade before they found general acceptance or even audience4 ,this1 we may note in passing1 is but one marked instance out of many in the history of science1 wherein the personal influence of eminent leaders has obstructed and retarded the advance of true knowledge4 ,the whole recognition of the ,cambrian system1 as pre-,silurian and distinct1 was suppressed and prevented for many years by ,murchison's intense opposition to the views of ,sedgwick4 ,similar facts might be cited in this country1 did we care to mention names4 ,science can not claim1 as is sometimes asserted1 that it possesses or imparts any entire exemption from the influence of authority1 and bestows complete independence from the tendency to swear to the words of a master4 ,of the ,new ,york geologists1 ,vanuxem alone1 in his ,geology of the ,third ,district1 #ahdb1 inclined to the glacial theory2 the others--,emmons1 ,mather1 and ,hall--advocated floating ice1 the latter urging as a chief objection the absence of any great northern highlands from which glaciers could extend southward4 ,prof4 ,henry ,d4 ,rogers advocated ,de la ,beche's view1 of great catastrophic waves or dbacles of water and ice1 produced by sudden uplifts of the floor of a circumpolar ocean1 and sweeping southward with tremendous power over the middle latitudes4 ,these views were presented by him in #ahdd1 at the ,washington meeting of the geologists1 and are to us a most curious illustration of the old cataclysmic phase of geological conceptions4 ,two years later ,agassiz came to ,america1 and at once set about studying the ice evidences here1 first in the ,white ,mountains and then around the ,great ,lakes4 ,at the first meeting of the ,american ,association1 in #ahdh1 he presented his views as to the identity of our phenomena with those studied by himself1 ,desor1 and ,guyot abroad4 ,his views were not very warmly received1 however1 and he did not attempt their public presentation again for some years1 turning his attention more to the field of zology4 ,in #ahej1 in a work on ,lake ,superior1 he refers somewhat sharply to the prejudice that seemed to prevail in relation to this subject4 ,from this time1 however1 the aqueous theories began to be less strongly presented2 and a new generation of geologists was coming on1 largely under the training of ,guyot and ,agassiz1 and more open to their observed results4 ,c4 ,b4 ,adams1 in #ahej1 presented a view nearly akin to that adopted by ,dana a few years later1 of an elevation of the high northern latitudes1 resulting in a southward-moving glacial sheet1 and a subsequent depression connected with its retreat1 to account for the stratified deposits4 ,professor ,dana accepted this doctrine in his presidential address before the association in #ahee1 adding the ,terrace period of partial re-elevation4 ,from this time he became the leader of the ,american glacialists1 and his great ,manual1 issued in #ahfb1 carried these views into all the colleges of the country4 ,in #aheg ,prof4 ,edward ,hitchcock published an important treatise on ,surface ,geology1 particularly of the ,connecticut ,valley1 in the ,smithsonian ,contributions to ,knowledge4 ,in this paper he noted the distinction1 so important and now so familiar1 between local stri and those with the general southward course of the drift4 ,two years later his son1 ,prof4 ,c4 ,h4 ,hitchcock1 extended this distinction widely over ,new ,england4 ,in #ahfc the report of progress of the ,geological ,survey of ,canada gave an extended review of the surface geology1 by ,prof4 ,robert ,bell1 in which he fully adopted the glacial theory4 ,meantime1 also1 ,professor ,ramsay1 in ,england1 had abandoned the iceberg doctrine for that of glaciers4 ,in #ahff and #ahfg important papers appeared by ,charles ,whittlesey1 and one by ,edward ,hungerford2 this last1 read before the association1 adopted the general views of ,agassiz1 with some important limitations now generally received4 ,in the same year the revised edition of ,dana's ,manual gave yet fuller statement and wider diffusion to the generally accepted views as held to-day4 ,professor ,fairchild sums up this historical sketch as comprising four periods--viz41 prior to #ahda1 undisputed reign of diluvial hypotheses2 #ahda to #ahdh1 suggestion and discussion of glacial hypotheses2 #ahdi to #ahff1 gradual acceptance of the latter view2 from #ahfg onward1 development of glacial geology4 ,from this point1 the address was occupied with consideration of the various aspects of the subject as studied and wrought out during the past twenty years by numerous observers4 ,these are grouped under four main heads1 each with various subdivisions--viz41 7#a7 the ice sheet1 as to its area1 its thickness1 its centers of dispersion1 its migration of centers1 etc42 7#b7 the ice period1 as to its cause1 its divisions1 its duration1 its distance in time2 7#c7 the interpretation of special phenomena1 such as moraines1 drumlins1 eskers1 kettles1 and the like1 valley drift1 terraces1 loess1 etc42 and 7#d7 existing glaciers1 as discovered on our high mountains of the far ,west1 and as studied in closer relation to the ancient phenomena in the great ice cap of ,greenland and the immense glacier development in ,alaska4 ,it is impossible to go into a detailed review of the numerous points of interest covered in this discussion4 ,suffice it to say that one who heard or who reads it finds an admirably clear and condensed account of all the problems and phenomena that have been and that are now encountered in the study of glacial geology on this continent1 and of their gradual interpretation and solution by the combined labors of many students4 ,the progress of knowledge over this wide field1 advancing step by step1 amid conflicting views and perplexing conditions1 is beautifully shown1 and leaves a very striking impression on the mind1 of the difficulties and the successes of scientific research4 ,nor is ,professor ,fairchild disposed to claim too much or assert too strongly4 ,he recognizes that1 with all that has been met and mastered1 there are still questions unsolved1 and laurels to be won by others4 ,among the facts brought out1 a few may be briefly alluded to4 ,the early abandonment of ,agassiz's original view of a vast extension of the polar snow caps1 and the recognition of separate centers of continental glaciation1 now distinctly determined as three in number--a western1 a central1 and an eastern--the former being the earliest1 and the others following in succession2 the recognition by the ,western geologists of the twofold character of the ,glacial epoch1 as also determined in western ,europe1 but less markedly traceable in our ,eastern ,states1 though now generally admitted2 in close relation to this the determination of the line of the great terminal moraine1 traced by successive observers from the ,atlantic seaboard to ,minnesota1 and the subsequent recognition of an older1 eroded1 and fragmentary morainal fringe1 marking the line of the earlier ice sheet1 somewhat beyond the later4 ,with regard to the actual distance of the last glacial retreat1 as expressed in years1 ,professor ,fairchild is both cautious and frank4 ,he notes the general consensus of recent observers toward a much shorter period than was formerly supposed--from five to ten or perhaps fifteen thousand years4 ,at the same time1 there are many elements of uncertainty involved1 and the problem is by no means settled4 ,the ,niagara gorge1 so long looked upon as a possible chronometer1 grows more complicated as it is further studied2 the rate of erosion has evidently varied much with the volume of water carried by the river2 and this1 in turn1 has varied with the changes of level1 and consequently of drainage routes1 in the basin of the ,great ,lakes4 ,there have been times when only the ,erie waters flowed through the ,niagara outlet1 the upper lake drainage passing eastward independently1 until a gradual northern rise of the land1 which is proved to be still going on1 turned the entire drainage into the present ,st4 ,clair route from ,lake ,huron into ,lake ,erie1 and so through ,niagara4 ,this point leads us to digress for a moment from the address under consideration to allude to a very interesting department of study that is now growing into prominence--to wit1 the restoration of pre-glacial geography and hydrography1 and the genesis of our existing river and lake systems throughout the northern part of the country4 ,the discussions and results in regard to ,niagara and the ,great ,lakes are somewhat familiar1 but the work on the rivers and smaller lakes is not so widely known4 ,professor ,fairchild himself has done much in relation to the central lakes of ,new ,york ,state2 and one very interesting paper of this kind on ,the ,development of the ,ohio ,river was read before the section by ,prof4 ,william ,g4 ,light1 of ,granville1 ,ohio1 besides many papers by others on similar topics4 ,the work done within a few years upon the glaciers of ,arctic ,america has proved peculiarly fruitful in results4 ,here1 again1 the whole subject is reviewed historically1 and the name and work of each observer are impartially noted4 ,much of the difficulty encountered by the glacial theory arose1 as we have seen1 from the fact that only mountain glaciers had been studied1 so that many of the phenomena produced by continental ice could not be explained4 ,professor ,fairchild says1 as to this aspect3 ,more has been learned of the structure1 behavior1 and work of our ancient ice sheets by the study of the ,alaskan glaciers during the last ten years1 and especially by the study of the ,greenland ice cap during the last four years1 than by all the study of the ,alpine glaciers for the seventy years since they have been observed4 ,prominent among those who have worked in this field are the names of ,professors ,chamberlain and ,salisbury in ,greenland1 and ,professors ,h4 ,f4 ,reid and ,i4 ,c4 ,russell in ,alaska2 other important contributors are ,prof4 ,w4 ,p4 ,blake1 the pioneer geologist in ,alaska1 #ahfg2 ,dall and ,baker1 who discovered and named the ,malaspina ,glacier in #ahgd2 and ,john ,muir1 #ahgh1 for whom the ,muir ,glacier was named2 ,wright1 ,baldwin1 ,schwatka1 ,libbey1 and others1 and ,barton and ,tarr in ,greenland4 ,professor ,russell1 in #ahia1 recognized and named a type of glacier that was before unknown4 ,in his studies on the ,malaspina he found a condition that does not occur1 so far as yet observed1 anywhere else than on the northwest coast of ,america2 this is where a number of mountain glaciers debouch upon a low1 flat coast plain1 and unite to form a great sluggishly moving sheet of ice4 ,this particular development he called the ,piedmont type4 ,in closing his address1 ,professor ,fairchild remarks that the word theory1 as applied to the glacial origin of the drift and its phenomena1 may and should now be abandoned4 ,the subject has passed beyond the stage of theory1 and is as well understood and as clearly established as the volcanic origin of the cone of ,vesuvius or the sedimentary origin of stratified rocks4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the center of the artificial platforms or platform mounds1 characteristic of many of the ancient ,peruvian towns1 ,mr4 ,bandelier has observed features that recall forcibly the ,new ,mexican ,indian custom of giving to each inanimate object its heart4 ,in some instances1 says ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,hodge1 in his paper1 round columns formed a kind of an interior niche2 in others1 a small chamber contained urns or jars with maize meal4 ,a remarkable and very significant feature was observed by the explorer in a partly ruined mound at ,chanchan4 ,the core of this structure when opened showed two well-preserved altars of adobe4 ,in such interior apartments1 figurines of metal1 clay1 or wood are almost invariably found2 and the materially valuable finds made in ,peruvian ruins in earlier times came from the heart of one or the other of the artificial elevations described4 ,,modern ,,studies ,,of ,,earthquakes4 ,,by ,,georg ,,geraland4 ,the investigation of earthquakes1 seismology1 has become in the present day an independent subject of scientific interest4 ,in lands where earthquakes are frequent1 as in ,italy and ,japan1 seismic observations have been officially systematized over the whole country1 with central and branch stations at which the work is never still4 ,a net of seismic observations of all nations is being more and more closely woven over the whole earth1 and there are yearly and monthly collations of observations of even the slightest shocks4 ,seismic literature is1 therefore1 nearly inexhaustible1 and theory and praxis are in constant vogue2 in short1 seismics has grown to be a separate branch of science1 and to demand independent treatment1 calling for the energy and labor of many students4 ,what gives it so great importance8 ,what is the condition of our present knowledge and its history8 ,what will be reached in the future through the competition of the nations8 ,these questions possess a high scientific as well as culture-historical interest4 ,we here attempt to answer them4 ,the first really scientific description of an earthquake--that of ,lisbon--with its far-reaching accompanying phenomena1 was the work of the greatest contemporary thinker1 ,kant1 and it is not too much to say that his paper opened a new epoch in the knowledge of earthquakes4 ,that terrible event and the extreme terror which it caused everywhere were followed in #aghc by the likewise extremely destructive earthquake of ,calabria4 ,the attention of the people was thus directed to this mysterious mighty activity of the earth1 and was kept especially lively in ,italy1 the country of ,europe most subject to earthquakes4 ,the newly rising science of geology therefore found in the last third of the last century in these phenomena a problem of prominent importance4 ,geologists were the first to apply themselves to seismic studies1 as the most widely current explanation of the phenomena is still a geological one4 ,the scientific interest of the question prevailed over the practical4 ,more attentive observation was given to earthquakes1 the accounts of them scattered through the ancient chronicles were collated1 and the already very numerous seismic notes of great earthquake manifestations--such as those by ,hoff1 ,perry1 ,mallet1 ,volger1 ,fuchs1 etc4--constituted a very important factor in the study4 ,one of the earliest results of the inquiry was to show that directly perceptible earthquakes are not perceptible everywhere2 that they are most common on the great upfoldings of the earth's crust on the mountain chains1 such as the ,andes1 ,alps1 and ,himalayas2 and that1 further1 they are connected with the shores of the ,pacific1 the ,antilles1 and the ,mediterranean1 and with places also where great breaches and various disturbances are evident2 that they are at home likewise in volcanoes2 and that they are most frequent in the northern hemisphere1 and when the earth is nearest to the sun4 ,the descriptions of powerful shocks furnish us evidence of a double movement of the earth's crust--an alternate up-and-down vibration and an often very marked wave motion4 ,the destruction which earthquake shocks and waves inflict on buildings1 and the remarkably rapid and wide spread of the tremblings over the surface of the earth1 have been very diligently inquired into2 and when1 in #ahef1 ,naples and ,calabria were visited by a great earthquake1 an ,english investigator1 ,robert ,mallet1 made a full study of it1 and believed that by comparing the direction of the rents in walls and buildings1 which were assumed to correspond with that of the tremblings1 he could identify the focus of the shocks in the earth's interior1 and the course of the wave movement over its surface--a view which has long prevailed in seismology4 ,still more important was the work of the geologist ,karl von ,seebach1 of ,gttingen1 on the great earthquake in central ,germany1 which kept the northern part of the plains of the upper ,rhine1 around ,mayence1 ,grossgerau1 and ,darmstadt1 disturbed for several years after #ahfi4 ,von ,seebach's chief effort was to obtain the most exact data possible as to the time of the beginning of the shocks from as many places as possible1 from which he might deduce the spot where the shocks began and were strongest1 the epicenter which lay directly over the point in the earth's interior where the movement originated4 ,from them he also deduced a series of localities where the shocks were simultaneous and of equal intensity1 which could be connected by certain nearly circular lines called homoseists4 ,as the distance of these from the epicenter increases1 the undulations take place later and are weaker1 and facts may be thus furnished from the velocity of propagation of the shocks can be computed4 ,the observations are also important because von ,seebach undertook through a simple mathematical calculation to determine from them the situation of the forces of the subterranean point where the undulations originated4 ,with these investigations1 the process of annihilating time and space by steam and the applications of electricity was also going on4 ,by the effect of this great event1 the conditions of earthquake investigation were revolutionized4 ,a comparative study of the phenomena1 fundamental and essential to a science of seismology1 on the basis of material furnished from all the regions of the earth1 was rendered possible4 ,an earthquake service was organized in ,japan1 by ,j4 ,milne1 of ,england2 one had already been organized for a considerable time in ,italy1 and the results obtained at the two places of observation so widely separated corresponded4 ,japanese1 ,indian1 and ,american earthquakes could be simultaneously studied in ,italy1 ,russia1 ,germany1 and ,england2 and thus a new1 hitherto undeveloped field was gained1 the scope of which has already extended far beyond its merely geological aspect4 ,this could have happened only through another advance that has been made in our century1 which has first rendered a real seismology1 a scientific knowledge of the seismic conditions of the earth1 possible through the immense development of technics1 by which a system of instrumental observation of earthquakes was established4 ,only through this could the acquisitions of recent times be utilized4 ,while formerly observations were macroscopic and touched only earthquakes that could be directly felt1 they now cover essentially microscopic tremors of the earth's crust1 of less than a thousandth of a millimetre1 that are wholly imperceptible to human senses2 and we can read them1 enlarged at our pleasure1 on our photographically registering seismometers4 ,we already had instruments which correctly indicated the time of the beginning and possibly the direction of a shock2 but we needed and have invented new instruments--various sorts of horizontal and vertical pendulums--for the observation and representation of the whole course of the movement4 ,the vertical indicating instruments are much used in ,italy1 and the horizontal ones almost exclusively in ,england1 ,japan1 and ,germany4 ,the horizontal pendulum was invented in ,germany in #ahcb by ,hengler1 adapted to scientific use by ,professor ,zllner1 of ,leipsic1 and afterward applied in that form by ,english1 ,german1 and other observers4 ,the most complete shape and the one best adapted to extremely delicate seismic observations was given to it by the late ,german astronomer and geographer ,dr4 ,ernst von ,rebeur ,paschnitz1 of ,merseburg4 ,having undergone a few small changes1 fixed in a threefold combination it serves as our most sensitive and accurate seismometer4 ,its movements and its very exact time markings are photographically represented4 ,the pendulum box is only forty centimetres in diameter4 ,in consequence of its convenience and cheapness1 its self-action and its serviceability1 it is becoming adopted more and more generally as an international instrument4 ,microseismic investigation and its wide extension over the earth have raised seismology another step during the last twenty years1 so that it may be said that really exact seismic research began with it4 ,modern seismology has confirmed many of the older results1 such as the localization of earthquakes on the shores of the ,pacific1 the ,mediterranean and in the mountain chains of the earth1 and also the importance of homoseists and the epicenter4 ,it has1 on the other hand1 greatly modified the former estimates of the velocity of propagation of the shocks4 ,it has cast much doubt on speculations as to the seasons in which earthquakes are more or less frequent2 and it has demonstrated the inadequacy of former methods of determining the central focus4 ,it has furthermore brought us much that is new4 ,first is the momentous fact that the earth's crust is never at rest2 that it undergoes a multitude of very diversified movements besides those of the earthquake4 ,thus a periodical swelling1 a flood wave1 is produced by the attraction of the moon2 and other heavings are induced by the daily and annual course of the sun's heat4 ,but such movements and other similar ones do not come within the scope of this article4 ,real earthquakes1 or movements that originate in the depths of the earth1 also appear in very different forms4 ,first are the directly perceptible shocks1 from the powerful ones that create great disturbances to the merely local ones often hardly remarked4 ,of the immediate workings of these shocks1 microscopic instruments have taught us nothing essentially new4 ,but very many macroscopic movements1 often continuing for several hours1 but which are not felt1 have been revealed1 that have been shown in many instances to be distant effects of other strong earthquakes2 effects which are sometimes propagated over the whole surface of the earth4 ,there is1 furthermore1 another series of movements1 only partly explained as yet1 of a peculiar sort3 first1 small1 quickly passing disturbances1 which appear in the photographic reproductions of the curves as larger or smaller knots1 and which are regarded with great probability as distant effects of minor seismic movements most likely imperceptible anywhere4 ,they can not be local earthquakes1 for they give entirely different curves4 ,there also appear1 with considerable regularity1 at certain seasons of the year1 very slow movements of the ground1 called pulsations2 and finally the multitude of vibrations called tremors1 which assume various forms4 ,sometimes they come as forerunners1 accompaniments1 or followers in close association with those great disturbances that originate in distant earthquakes2 sometimes as shocks of minute intensity in separate groups1 which it has not yet been possible to account for2 and in other cases they are traced to the shaking of the ground by the wind4 ,it is hardly necessary to observe that the seismic apparatus should be most carefully guarded against disturbance by the movements of trade1 wagons1 etc41 so that the problem shall not be complicated by them4 ,the theory of the nature of earthquake shocks1 their transmission and their velocity1 has been set in a new light by the labors of ,augustus ,smith1 of ,stuttgart4 ,from some calculations of their velocity made by ,g4 von ,nebeur1 it is found that the earthquake of ,april #ag1 #ahhi1 in ,tokio1 ,japan1 was perceived in ,potsdam1 ,prussia1 nine thousand kilometres distant1 in thirteen minutes2 that of ,october #bg1 #ahid1 in ,santiago1 ,chili1 in ,rome1 eleven thousand five hundred kilometres distant1 in seventeen minutes1 and in ,charkow1 ,russia1 two thousand kilometres from ,rome1 between one and two minutes later4 ,it reached ,tokio at the same time1 after a transit of seventeen thousand four hundred kilometres4 ,still another task of modern seismology is the investigation of earthquakes at sea1 or seismic movements of the bottom of the ocean1 and the manner in which they are propagated through the water1 of which a very fine cartographic representation has been published by ,dr4 ,c4 ,rudolph1 of ,strasburg4 ,the question of the origin of earthquakes stands in constant connection with this external development of seismology4 ,it is significant and remarkable that the answers to it1 though they may be given differently from different scientific points of view1 are always consistent in one fact1 that earthquakes are a phenomenon of the whole earth4 ,some of the investigators seek to explain them1 aside from those that occur in volcanic regions1 as a part of the great changes in the earth's crust which have taken place during the last geological epoch1 and are still1 perhaps1 taking place2 others find their seat and cause in the unstable condition of the interior of the earth1 beneath its solid and red-hot envelope4 ,the former explanation1 the older and heretofore the prevalent one1 is called the tectonic theory1 because it is based1 leaving out volcanic earthquakes1 on the structure of the earth's crust2 the second1 which is gaining ground1 and requires no separate explanation for volcanic earthquakes1 may be called1 reviving an expression used by ,l4 ,fr4 ,naumann1 of ,leipsic1 the ,plutonic theory1 because it goes down into the unexplored depths of the earth4 ,if seismic manifestations depend upon the action of the whole earth1 a single explanatory principle1 as is always the case with great natural phenomena1 is not sufficient1 and tectonic as well as ,plutonic earthquakes must be recognized1 and the reverse4 ,the tectonic theory is of geological origin1 and properly supplanted the older ,plutonic theory of ,humboldt1 which was only an unverified supposition4 ,as a whole it was first worked out by ,otto ,volger in #aheh1 after various similar hypotheses had been set forth by other investigators4 ,he was confirmed by the independent researches of ,rudolf ,hoernes1 ,edouard ,suess1 and most of the ,german1 ,french1 and ,english seismologists4 ,their theory supposes that there are large hollow spaces in the crust of the earth1 into which immense falls of material take place1 and that these are the cause of a part of the earthquakes2 that the crust of the earth is often and variously disturbed in consequence of the constant contraction dependent upon the cooling of the globe4 ,it is broken up into separate masses which in their turn are dislocated horizontally or vertically2 is lifted up and folded into immense mountain ranges1 the arches of which1 breaking1 may again suffer dislocation4 ,thus continuous action in movement of masses and foldings is constantly going on in the earth4 ,edouard ,suess1 the distinguished ,austrian geologist1 has indeed constituted a special earthquake type to correspond with this type of mountain formation4 ,since1 in consequence of this condition1 tension is present everywhere in the crust of the earth1 it may come to pass that it shall be relieved by a distant earthquake1 and another earthquake1 which may be called a relay or transmission earthquake1 be produced thereby4 ,hence we have1 besides the volcanic1 the landfall1 the tectonic 7in the strict sense71 and the transmission earthquakes4 ,the sources of earthquake force lie1 then1 according to this theory1 in the incompleteness of the earth's crust1 the effects of gravity1 and the earth's loss of heat4 ,and is the supposition not very probable8 ,do we not see similar processes going on over the whole earth1 in the shape of earthquakes1 landslides1 fissures1 subsidences of land1 and the like8 ,and as the ,alps were lifted up1 and the plain of the ,rhine was depressed between the ,vosges and the ,black ,forest1 may not mightier dislocations1 breaches1 and destruction occur8 ,why may not the processes which took place in the earlier epochs of the earth's history and were so powerful in the more recent ,tertiary be still going on8 ,all this seems so plausible that1 with a few exceptions1 the theory has been almost universally agreed in4 ,i briefly mention here ,falb's theory1 which1 accepting the earlier views1 ascribes earthquakes to periodical swellings of the fiery fluid interior of the earth1 only because of the effect it has had on the public in connection with some wholly unscientific predictions4 ,more worthy of consideration is the theory of ,daubre1 the late distinguished master of ,french and especially ,alsatian geology1 who did not attribute the similar phenomena of volcanic and nonvolcanic earthquakes to different causes1 but maintained that all earthquakes were produced by superheated steam issuing from surface waters4 ,but this theory needs no refutation4 ,there are1 however1 some serious objections to the tectonic theory of earthquakes1 plausible as it may seem4 ,in order to weigh them as we ought1 we must as briefly as possible construct a picture of the constitution of the earth's interior4 ,the average distance from the earth's surface to its center is sixty-three hundred and seventy kilometres4 ,the temperature of the earth increases with the depth1 at the rate1 on a moderate estimate1 of about one degree centigrade for every forty metres4 ,hence1 at a depth of one thousand kilometres we would have a temperature of #be1jjj ,c42 even if we call it only #ae1jjj1 we should expect to find there only gases1 and those in a simple state1 for with that heat all the compound gases would be dissociated4 ,the zone of fluidity for all rocks lies at a depth of about one hundred kilometres1 where the temperature is #b1ejj ,c4 ,while the crust of the earth is between #b4e and three times as heavy as distilled water at #d ,c41 its specific gravity rises toward the center of the earth to more than eleven1 or about fourfold4 ,iron has a specific gravity of #g4h1 or about threefold that of the crust of the earth2 but the specific gravity of the earth at the greatest depth is considerably higher than this4 ,hence must arise an enormous pressure1 steadily increasing toward the center1 where1 according to the ,english geophysicist1 the ,rev4 ,osmond ,fisher1 it reaches about three million atmospheres to the ,english square inch4 ,it results from these conditions that with the enormous pressure and heat1 and specific gravity1 the interior of the earth consists of dissociated gases compressed to great rigidity1 which exert an immense counter-pressure--for their tendency is always to expand4 ,they pass out continuously into a zone of fluid matter1 and this again is held by the pressure of the interior gases in a like compact condition4 ,thus a very high pressure still prevails in the lower parts of the solid crust of the earth1 which is so high that even the most solid rocks there are in a latent plastic condition--that is1 they behave toward different forces like plastic clay1 and like it can be deformed without breaking4 ,rents1 slides1 caves1 and clefts are out of the question there2 things of that kind can exist only in the upper strata4 ,this fact constitutes a very strong objection to the tectonic theory of earthquakes1 and thus the very depths of the earth speak against it4 ,we have already mentioned that ,k4 von ,seebach estimated the depth of the earthquake focus from the movements of the waves1 and found it not very great4 ,but his estimates1 as ,prof4 ,august ,schmidt has shown1 rest upon physically incorrect premises2 according to ,schmidt's more correct calculation1 the center of the ,charleston earthquake of #ahhf lay at a depth of one hundred and twenty kilometres1 where there can be no question of tectonic movements1 because general fluidity is reached at one hundred kilometres4 ,further1 the earthquake at ,lisbon1 if the tectonic theory is valid1 might1 taking the character of the region into consideration1 have been occasioned by a slide4 ,but how large must the plunging mass1 how deep the plunge or slide have been to produce such shocks as destroyed ,lisbon and shook ,europe to beyond ,bohemia6 ,where can we find room in the closely compressed interior of the earth for such irruptions8 ,even if such a sudden sinking had left no trace in the interior1 it should have left its marks on the surface4 ,mr4 ,john ,milne counts up not less than #h1cca considerable earthquake shocks in ,japan between #ahhe and #ahib2 ,julius ,schmidt1 former director of the observatory in ,athens1 enumerated three hundred severe and dangerous and fifty thousand light shocks for ,phocis alone between #ahgj and #ahgc1 of which not a trace of land changes or depressions can be perceived1 aside from superficial avalanches 7on ,parnassus1 for example7 and subsidence of meadows and other spongy soil1 like the famous depression of the ,molo at ,lisbon4 ,all this speaks so emphatically against the tectonic origin of earthquakes that it can not be considered as a general cause4 ,even the mighty disturbances and shocks of the times when such ranges as the ,alps and ,himalayas were lifted up can prove nothing for the present time2 for the conditions1 the mechanical work and acting forces1 of the earth were quite different1 and the latter much greater and more acute than in our time1 as the number and magnitude of the volcanoes of those ages show1 before which ours are almost as nothing4 ,we have no adequate comprehension of the way that mechanical work was done4 ,a depression like that of the plain of the ,rhine could certainly not have taken place without severe earthquakes2 but we do not know how they may have come to pass1 for we have nothing analogous to them4 ,the upper strata of the earth's crust are broken up1 fissured1 and cavernous2 hence purely local minor earthquakes may undoubtedly be produced by cavings-in1 landslides1 and settlings of small extent4 ,but this explanation1 in view of the nature of the crust1 is not possible for strong earthquakes1 even in the upper layers1 which send their waves far over the land2 their origin must be1 almost of necessity1 in the greater deeps beneath the crust1 far down where the immense gas globe of the interior is constantly forcing its way into the fluid band1 and this into the solid stone2 in those zones of changing conditions a mighty movement must be incessantly prevailing4 ,the pressure upon the gases of the interior diminishes here1 and the excessive temperature as well4 ,this can not take place without changes4 ,temperature and pressure now fall1 now rise again1 but continue very high through it all4 ,the dissociated gases unite and separate again1 and most violent explosions are infallibly produced thereby4 ,water exists in the interior in immense masses1 and that not solely in consequence of percolation from the surface4 ,vapor at very high pressure separates into its elements--hydrogen and oxygen--the reunion of which ensues with violent explosions1 similar to our gas explosions1 which must be very numerous in the interior of the earth1 and accompanied with great development of force4 ,the principal effect of such explosions is1 of course1 against the cooler and more weakly resisting sides1 and therefore not toward the interior but toward the crust and the weakest parts of it1 toward the rupture lines of the zones of disturbance1 the synclinals4 ,such attacks1 striking the earth's crust from within1 occasion most earthquakes1 especially violent1 destructive1 deep-seated outbursts like those of ,lisbon and ,charleston4 ,the relation of the seismic and the volcanic phenomena is clearly to be seen4 ,one series of seismic phenomena remains to be explained--the lighter undulations1 the tremors1 and the remarkable irregularity of the movements of the ground4 ,the indications of the vertical pendulum apparatus which represent these movements form an inextricable tangle of lines running over and crossing one another4 ,the late ,japanese professor of seismology1 ,sekiya1 prepared an enlarged model of the tracings of the seismic movements of a point of the earth's surface1 which has been much copied4 ,it represents an extremely confusing vibration of the lines4 ,now we have to confront a very important fact which adds much to the difficulty of seismic research4 ,we never feel and observe the earthquake shocks themselves1 never directly in their simplicity or multiplicity1 but only the wave movements that are sent out from them in the elastic crust of the earth4 ,these1 however multifold their origin1 proceed in an immense spherical wave which moves in more or less numerous repetitions through the earth's interior4 ,it is this shaking of the earth by the spherical waves that our instruments represent as earthquakes4 ,we can not include as the earth's crust the surface of the earth on which we live1 and which consists of loose materials disintegrated by weathering1 breaking1 and numerous causes1 but the solid crust1 often lying at a considerable distance beneath us1 which bears these materials1 and from which the spherical waves emerge4 ,as the waves of the sea1 beating upon the coast1 are turned1 split up1 divided1 thrown up1 etc41 in their surging1 so surge1 too1 the seismic waves upon the disintegrated surface of shingle1 pebbles1 broken rocks1 sand1 and earth1 in clefts and gorges4 ,we thus never observe the original spherical waves1 but only their fragmentary derivative forms1 their resolution into numerous single waves which come to us diverted into the most various directions4 ,it is thus most plainly shown that ,mallet's effort to determine the center and origin of the earthquake from the direction of the shock was futile4 ,we can only draw scientific conclusions respecting the time of beginning1 the duration1 and force of the movement4 ,it is thus evident that many of the tremors 7not all1 by any means7 originate in this division2 that a fixed point of the earth's surface must describe a very complicated path in so intricate a wave movement2 that the division is less marked on firm ground than on loose2 that the former1 in consequence of the more evenly protracted movement1 is less dangerous than the latter2 and that multiplied waves interfere1 overlay1 weaken1 or strengthen one another just as water waves do4 ,thus are explained the earthquake bridges or spots which always remain unmoved through repeated earthquakes1 either because they are firmer1 or because the progress of the waves is arrested at them by interference4 ,the sounds1 too1 which so frequently accompany earthquakes are likewise simply results of this division of the waves and their escape into the air1 for we perceive wave motions in the air as sound4 ,the admirable delicacy of our sense of hearing is here manifested1 for seismic movements are not rarely perceptible1 or heard1 as air waves1 which we can not perceive as movements of the ground4 ,earthquake thunder is caused1 like storm thunder1 by shocks to the air1 of which we hear the nearest and latest first1 and the farthest and earliest last4 ,the different tone shades of the earthquake sound depend upon their various sources1 as from small1 sharp fragments1 clinking1 rattling1 and humming2 from sand and earth1 dull rumbling2 from trees1 whistling1 etc4 ,the echo in ravines not rarely operates to add strength to them4 ,earthquake sounds that seem to come out of the air from above are caused by earthquake waves reaching us by way of trees1 houses1 etc42 the different directions and degrees of force which they seem to indicate in different houses or in different rooms of the same house are explainable by the different elasticity conditions of the houses and rooms4 ,but not the most insignificant conclusion can be drawn from these sounds concerning the nature and causes of earthquakes4 ,it is important to emphasize this fact1 for errors have often originated in conclusions drawn from such things4--,translated for the ,popular ,science ,monthly from the ,deutsche ,rundschau4 99 99 99 99 99 ,examples of a race of curiously protectively colored mice which inhabit the sandy island1 the ,north ,bull1 in the ,bay of ,dublin1 were exhibited by ,dr4 ,h4 ,lyster ,jameson in the ,zological ,section of the ,british ,association4 ,a considerable percentage of them were distinctly lighter hued than the ancestral type of house mouse1 though every possible gradation occurred between the typical house mouse and the palest examples4 ,the speaker regarded the marked predominance of sand-colored specimens as due to the action of natural selection4 ,the hawks and owls which frequent the island1 and are the only enemies the mice have to compete against1 most easily capture the darkest examples1 or those that contrast most strongly with the color of the sand4 ,thus a protectively colored race is becoming established4 ,the island came into existence only about a hundred years ago4 ,consequently it is possible to fix a time limit within which the sandy-colored race has been evolved4 ,its evolution also1 as ,professor ,poulton observed in his comment on ,dr4 ,jameson's paper1 gives additional evidence to that afforded by the shore crabs described by ,professor ,weldon in his presidential address to the section1 that the transmutation of species is not necessarily so slow as to be indiscernible4 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,scientific ,,instruction#cc ,,by ,j4 ,,norman ,,lockyer1 ,k4 ,c4 ,b41 ,f4 ,r4 ,s4 ,the two addresses by my colleagues1 ,professors ,judd and ,roberts-,austen1 have drawn attention to the general history of our college and the details of one part of our organization4 ,i propose to deal with another part1 the consideration of which is of very great importance at the present time1 for we are in one of those educational movements which spring up from time to time and mold the progress of civilization4 ,the question of a teaching university in the largest city in the world1 secondary education1 and so-called technical education are now occupying men's minds4 ,at the beginning it is imperative that ,i should call your attention to the fact that the stern necessities of the human race have been the origin of all branches of science and learning2 that all so-called educational movements have been based upon the actual requirements of the time4 ,there has never been an educational movement for learning's sake2 but of course there have always been studies and students apart from any of those general movements to which ,i am calling attention2 still we have to come down to the times of ,louis ,quatorze before the study of the useless1 the mme inutile1 was recognized as a matter of national concern4 ,it is perhaps the more necessary to insist upon stern necessity as being the origin of learning1 because it is so difficult for us now to put ourselves in the place of those early representatives of our race that had to face the problems of life among conditionings of which they were profoundly ignorant3 when night meant death2 when there was no certainty that the sun would rise on the morrow2 when the growth of a plant from seed was unrecognized2 when a yearly return of seasons might as well be a miracle as a proof of a settled order of phenomena2 when1 finally1 neither cause nor effect had been traced in the operations of ,nature4 ,it is doubtless in consequence of this difficulty that some of the early races have been credited by some authors with a special love of abstract science1 of science for its own sake2 so that this1 and not stern necessity1 was the motive of their inquiries4 ,thus we have been told that the ,chaldeans differed from the other early races in having a predilection for astronomy1 another determining factor being that the vast plains in that country provided them with a perfect horizon4 ,the first historic glimpses of the study of astronomy we find among the peoples occupying the ,nile ,valley and ,chaldea1 say #fjjj ,b4 ,c4 ,but this study had to do with the fixing of the length of the year1 and the determination of those times in it in which the various agricultural operations had to be performed4 ,these were related strictly to the rise of the ,nile in one country and of the ,euphrates in the other4 ,all human activity was1 in fact1 tied up with the movements of the sun1 moon1 and stars4 ,these1 then1 became the gods of those early peoples1 and the astronomers1 the seers1 were the first priests2 revered by the people because as interpreters of the celestial powers they were the custodians of the knowledge which was the most necessary for the purposes of life4 ,eudemus of ,rhodes1 one of the principal pupils of ,aristotle1 in his ,history of ,geometry1 attributes the origin of geometry to the ,egyptians1 who were obliged to invent it in order to restore the landmarks which had been destroyed by the inundation of the ,nile1 and observes that it is by no means strange that the invention of the sciences should have originated in practical needs4#cd ,the new geometry was brought from ,egypt to ,greece by ,thales three hundred years before ,aristotle was born4 ,when to astronomy and geometry we add the elements of medicine and surgery1 which it is known were familiar to the ancient ,egyptians1 it will be conceded that we are1 in those early times1 face to face with the cultivation of the most useful branches of science4 ,now1 although the evidence is increasing day by day that ,greek science was ,egyptian in its origin1 there is no doubt that its cultivation in ,greece was more extended1 and that it was largely developed there4 ,one of the most useful and prolific writers on philosophy and science who has ever lived1 ,aristotle1 was born in the fourth century ,b4 ,c4 ,from him1 it may be said1 dates a general conception of science based on observation as differing from experiment4 ,if you wish to get an idea of the science of those times1 read his writings on ,physics and on the ,classification of ,animals4 ,all sought in ,aristotle the basis of knowledge1 but they only read his philosophy2 ,dante calls him the master of those who know4#ce ,why was ,aristotle so careful to treat science as well as philosophy1 with which his master1 ,plato1 had dealt almost exclusively8 ,the answer to this question is of great interest to our present subject4 ,the late ,lord ,playfair#cf in a pregnant passage suggests the reason1 and the later history of ,europe shows1 ,i think1 that he is right4 ,we find that just as early nations became rich and prosperous1 so did philosophy arise among them1 and it declined with the decadence of material prosperity4 ,in those splendid days of ,greece when ,plato1 ,aristotle1 and ,zeno were the representatives of great schools of thought1 which still exercise their influence on mankind1 ,greece was a great manufacturing and mercantile community2 ,corinth was the seat of the manufacture of hardware2 ,athens that of jewelry1 shipbuilding1 and pottery4 ,the rich men of ,greece and all its free citizens were actively engaged in trade and commerce4 ,the learned class were the sons of those citizens1 and were in possession of their accumulated experience derived through industry and foreign relations4 ,thales was an oil merchant2 ,aristotle inherited wealth from his father1 who was a physician1 but1 spending it1 is believed to have supported himself as a druggist till ,philip appointed him tutor to ,alexander4 ,plato's wealth was largely derived from commerce1 and his master1 ,socrates1 is said to have been a sculptor4 ,zeno1 too1 was a traveling merchant4 ,archimedes is perhaps an exception1 for he is said to have been closely related to a prince2 but if so1 he is the only princely discoverer of science on record4 ,in ancient ,greece we see the flood of the first great intellectual tide4 ,alas6 it never touched the shores of western ,europe1 but it undoubtedly reached to ,rome1 and there must have been very much more observational science taught in the ,roman studia than we generally imagine1 otherwise how account for ,pliny1 the vast public works1 their civilizing influence carried over sea and land from beyond ,bab-el-,mandeb to ,scotland8 ,in some directions their applications of science are as yet unsurpassed4 ,with the fall of the ,roman ,empire both science and philosophy disappeared for a while4 ,the first wave had come and gone2 its last feebler ripples seem to have been represented at this time by the gradual change of the ,roman secular studia wherever they existed into clerical schools1 the more important of which were in time attached to the chief cathedrals and monasteries2 and it is not difficult to understand why the secular 7or scientific7 instruction was gradually replaced by one more fitted for the training of priests4 ,it is not to be wondered at that the ceaseless strife in the center of ,europe had driven what little learning there was to the western and southern extremities1 where the turmoil was less--,i refer to ,britain and ,south ,italy--while the exiled ,nestorians carried ,hellenic science and philosophy out of ,europe altogether to ,mesopotamia and ,arabia4 ,the next wave--it was but a small one--had its origin in our own country4 ,in the eighth century ,england was at its greatest height1 relatively1 in educational matters1 chiefly owing to the labors of two men4 ,beda1 generally called the ,venerable ,bede1 the most eminent writer of his age1 was born near ,monkwearmouth in #fgc1 and passed his life in the monastery there4 ,he not only wrote the history of our island and nation1 but treatises on the nature of things1 astronomy1 chronology1 arithmetic1 medicine1 philosophy1 grammar1 rhetoric1 poetry1 music1 basing his work on that of ,pliny4 ,he died in #gce1 in which year his great follower was born in ,yorkshire4 ,i refer to ,alcuin4 ,he was educated at the ,cathedral ,school at ,york under ,archbishop ,egbert1 and1 having imbibed everything he could learn from the writings of ,bede and others1 was soon recognized as one of the greatest scholars of the time4 ,on returning from ,rome1 whither he had been sent by ,eaubald to receive the pallium1 he met ,karl the ,great1 ,king of the ,franks and ,lombards1 who eventually induced him to take up his residence at his court1 to become his instructor in the sciences4 ,karl 7or ,charlemagne7 then was the greatest figure in the world1 and although as ,king of the ,franks and ,lombards1 and subsequently ,emperor of the ,holy ,roman ,empire1 his court was generally at ,aachen1 he was constantly traveling throughout his dominions4 ,he was induced1 in consequence of ,alcuin's influence1 not only to have a school always about him on his journeys1 but to establish1 or foster1 such schools wherever he went4 ,hence it has been affirmed that ,france is indebted to ,alcuin for all the polite learning it boasted of in that and the following ages4 ,the universities of ,paris1 ,tours1 ,fulden1 ,soissons1 and others were not actually founded in his day1 but the monastic and cathedral schools out of which they eventually sprang were strengthened1 and indeed a considerable scheme of education for priests was established--that is1 an education free from all sciences1 and in which philosophy alone was considered4 ,karl the ,great died in #had1 and after his death the eastward traveling wave1 thus started by ,bede and ,alcuin1 slightly but very gradually increased in height4 ,two centuries later1 however1 the conditions were changed4 ,we find ourselves in presence of interference phenomena1 for then there was a meeting with another wave traveling westward1 and this meeting was the origin of the ,european universities4 ,the wave now manifested traveling westerly1 spread outward from ,arab centers first and finally from ,constantinople1 when its vast stores of ,greek lore were opened by the conquest of the city4 ,the first wavelet justified ,eudemus's generalization that the invention of the sciences originated in practical needs1 and that knowledge for its own sake was not the determining factor4 ,the year had been determined1 stone circles erected almost everywhere1 and fires signaled from them1 giving notice of the longest and shortest days1 so that agriculture was provided for1 even away from churches and the festivals of the ,church4 ,the original user of geometry was not required away from the valleys of the ,nile1 ,tigris1 and ,euphrates1 and therefore it is now medicine and surgery that come to the front for the alleviation of human ills4 ,in the eleventh century we find ,salerno1 soon to be famed throughout ,europe as the great medical school1 forming itself into the first university4 ,and medicine did not exhaust all the science taught1 for ,adelard listened there to a lecture on the nature of things1 the cause of magnetic attraction being one of the things in question4 ,this teaching at ,salerno preceded by many years the study of the law at ,bologna and of theology at ,paris4 ,the full flood came from the disturbance of the ,arab wave center by the crusades1 about the beginning of the twelfth century4 ,after the ,pope had declared the ,holy ,war1 ,william of ,malmesbury tells us the most distant islands and savage countries were inspired with this ardent passion4 ,the ,welshman left his hunting1 the ,scotchman his fellowship with vermin1 the ,dane his drinking party1 the ,norwegian his raw fish4 ,report has it that in #ajif no less than six millions were in motion along many roads to ,palestine4 ,this1 no doubt1 is an exaggeration1 but it reflects the excitement of the time1 and prepares us for what happened when the crusaders returned4 ,as ,green puts it3#cg ,the western nations1 including our own1 'were quickened with a new life and throbbing with a new energy4' 444 ,a new fervor of study sprang up in the ,west from its contact with the more cultured ,east4 ,travelers like ,adelard1 of ,bath1 brought back the first rudiments of physical and mathematical science from the schools of ,cordova or ,bagdad4444 ,the long mental inactivity of feudal ,europe broke up like ice before a summer's sun4 ,wandering teachers1 such as ,lanfranc or ,anselm1 crossed sea and land to spread the new power of knowledge4 ,the same spirit of restlessness1 of inquiry1 of impatience with the older traditions of mankind1 either local or intellectual1 that drove half ,christendom to the tomb of its ,lord1 crowded the roads with thousands of young scholars hurrying to the chosen seats where teachers were gathered together4 ,studium generale was the term first applied to a large educational center where there was a guild of masters1 and whither students flocked from all parts4 ,at the beginning of the thirteenth century the three principal studia were ,paris1 ,bologna1 and ,salerno1 where theology and arts1 law and medicine1 and medicine almost by itself1 were taught respectively2 these eventually developed into the first universities4#ch ,english scholars gathered in thousands at ,paris round the chairs of ,william of ,champeaux or ,ablard1 where they took their place as one of the nations of which the great middle-age university of ,paris was composed4 ,we have only to do with the arts faculty of this university4 ,we find that the subject-matter of the liberal education of the middle age there dealt with varied very little from that taught in the schools of ancient ,rome4 ,the so-called artiens1 students of the arts faculty1 which was the glory of the university and the one most numerously attended1 studied the seven arts of the trivium and quadrivium--that is1 grammar1 rhetoric1 dialectic and arithmetic1 geometry1 music1 astronomy4#ci ,this at first looks well for scientific study1 but the mathematics taught had much to do with magic2 arithmetic dealt with epacts1 golden numbers1 and the like4 ,there was no algebra1 and no mechanics4 ,astronomy dealt with the system of the seven heavens4 ,science1 indeed1 was the last thing to be considered in the theological and legal studia1 and it would appear that it was kept alive more in the medical schools than in the arts faculties4 ,aristotle's writings on physics1 biology1 and astronomy were not known till about #abcj1 and then in the shape of ,arab-,latin translations4 ,still1 it must not be forgotten that ,dante learned some of his astronomy1 at all events1 at ,paris4 ,oxford was an offshoot of ,paris1 and therefore a theological studium1 in all probability founded about #aafg1dj and ,cambridge came later4 ,not till the ,reformation 7sixteenth century7 do we see any sign of a new educational wave1 and then we find the two which have had the greatest influence upon the history of the world--one of them depending upon the ,reformation itself1 the other depending upon the birth of experimental inquiry4 ,before the ,reformation the universities were priestly institutions1 and derived their authority from the ,popes4 ,the universities were for the few2 the education of the people1 except in the various crafts1 was unprovided for4 ,the idea of a general education in secular subjects at the expense of the state or of communities is coeval with the ,reformation4 ,in ,germany1 even before the time of ,luther1 it was undreamed of1 or rather1 perhaps1 one should say1 the question was decided in the negative4 ,in his day1 however1 his zeal first made itself heard in favor of education1 as many are now making themselves heard in favor of a better education1 and in #aebd he addressed a letter to the councils of all the towns in ,germany1 begging them to vote money not merely for roads1 dikes1 guns1 and the like1 but for schoolmasters1 so that all children might be taught2 and he states his opinion that if it be the duty of a state to compel the able-bodied to carry arms1 it is a fortiori its duty to compel its subjects to send their children to school1 and to provide schools for those who without such aid would remain uninstructed4 ,here we have the germ of ,germany's position at the present day1 not only in scientific instruction but in everything which that instruction brings with it4 ,with the ,reformation this idea spread to ,france4 ,in #aefj we find the ,states-,general of ,orleans suggesting to ,francis ,,ii a leve d'une contribution sur les bnfices ecclsiastiques pour raisonablement stipendier des pdagogues et gens lettrs1 en toutes villes et villages1 pour l'instruction de la pauvre jeunesse du plat pays1 et soient tenus les pres et mres1 peine d'amende1 envoyer les dits enfants l'cole1 et ce faire soient contraints par les segnieurs et les juges ordinaires4 ,two years after this suggestion1 however1 the religious wars broke out2 the material interests of the clerical party had predominated1 the new spirit was crushed under the iron heel of priestcraft1 and the ,french1 in consequence1 had to wait for three centuries and a revolution before they could get comparatively free4 ,in the universities1 or at all events alongside them1 we find next the introduction not so much yet of science as we now know it1 with its experimental side1 as of the scientific spirit4 ,the history of the ,collge de ,france1 founded in #aeca by ,francis ,i1 is of extreme interest4 ,in the fifteenth century the studies were chiefly literary1 and except in the case of a few minds they were confined merely to scholastic subtleties1 taught 7,i have it on the authority of the ,statistique de l',enseignement ,suprieur7 in barbarous ,latin4 ,this was the result of the teaching of the faculties2 but even then1 outside the faculties1 which were immutable1 a small number of distinguished men still occupied themselves in a less rigid way in investigation2 but still these studies were chiefly literary4 ,among those men may be mentioned ,dans1 ,postel1 ,dole1 ,guillaume ,bud1 ,lefvre d'taples1 and others1 who edited with notes and commentaries ,greek and ,latin authors whom the university scarcely knew by name4 ,hence the renaissance of the sixteenth century1 which gave birth to the ,collge de ,france1 the function of which1 at the commencement1 was to teach those things which were not in the ordinary curriculum of the faculties4 ,it was called the ,collge des ,deux ,langues1 the languages being ,hebrew and ,greek4 ,it then became the ,collge des ,trois ,langues1 when the king1 notwithstanding the opposition of the university1 created in #aecd a chair of ,latin4 ,there was another objection made by the university to the new creation3 from the commencement the courses were free2 and this feeling was not decreased by the fact that around the celebrated masters of the ,trois ,langues a crowd of students was soon congregated4 ,the idea in the mind of ,francis ,i in creating this ,royal ,college may be gathered from the following edict1 dated in #aede3 ,franois1 etc41 savoir faisons tous prsents et venir que ,nous1 considrant que le savoir des langues1 qui est un des dons du ,saint-,esprit1 fait ouverture et donne le moyen de plus entire connaissance et plus parfaite intelligence de toutes bonnes1 honntes1 saintes et salutaires sciences4444 ,avons fait faire pleinement entendre ceux qui1 y voudraient vacquer1 les trois langues principales1 ,hbraque1 ,grecque1 et ,latine1 et les ,livres esquels les bonnes sciences sont le mieux et le plus profondment traites4 ,a laquelle fin1 et en suivant le dcret du concile de ,vienne1 nous avons pia ordonn et establi en ntre bonne ville de ,paris1 un bonne nombre de personnages de savoir excellent1 qui lisent et enseignent publiquement et ordinairement les dites langues et sciences1 maintenant florissantautant ou plus qu'elles ne firent de bien longtemps 444 auxquels nos lecteurs avons donn honntes gages et salaires1 et iceux fait pourvoir de plusieurs beaux bnfices pour les entretenir et donner occasion de mieux et plus continuellement entendre au fait de leur charge1 444 etc4 ,the ,statistique1 which ,i am following in this account1 thus sums up the founder's intention3 ,le ,collge ,royal avait pour mission de propager les nouvelles connaissances1 les nouvelles dcouvertes4 ,il n'enseignait pas la science faite1 il la faisait4 ,it was on account of this more than on account of anything else that it found its greatest enemy in the university4 ,the founding of this new college1 and the great excitement its success occasioned in ,paris1 were1 there can be little doubt1 among the factors which induced ,gresham to found his college in ,london in #aegd4 ,these two institutions played a great part in their time4 ,gresham ,college1 it is true1 was subsequently strangled1 but not before its influence had been such as to permit the ,royal ,society to rise phoenixlike from its ashes2 for it is on record that the first step in the forming of this society was taken after a lecture on astronomy by ,sir ,christopher ,wren at the college4 ,all connected with them felt in time the stupendous change of thought in the century which saw the birth of ,bacon1 ,galileo1 ,gilbert1 ,hervey1 ,tycho ,brahe1 ,descartes1 and many others that might be named2 and of these1 it is well to remark1 ,gilbert1#da ,hervey1 and ,galileo were educated in medical schools abroad4 ,bacon was not only the first to lay down regul philosophandi1 but he insisted upon the far-reaching results of research1 not forgetting to point out that lucifera experimenta1 non fructifera qurenda1#db as a caution to the investigator1 though he had no doubt as to the revolution to be brought about by the ultimate application of the results of physical inquiry4 ,as early as #aefj the ,academia ,secretorum ,natur was founded at ,naples1 followed by the ,lincei in #afji1 the ,royal ,society in #afde1 the ,cimento in #afeg1 and the ,paris ,academy in #afff4 ,from that time the world may be said to have belonged to science1 now no longer based merely on observation but on experiment4 ,but1 alas6 how slowly has it percolated into our universities4 ,the first organized endeavor to teach science in schools was naturally made in ,germany 7,prussia71 where1 in #agdg 7nearly a century and a half ago71 ,realschulen were first started2 they were taken over by the ,government in #ahcb1 and completely reorganized in #ahei1 this step being demanded by the growth of industry and the spread of the modern spirit4 ,eleven hours a week were given to natural science in these schools forty years ago4 ,,teaching ,,the ,,teachers4--,until the year #agfb the ,jesuits had the education of ,france almost entirely in their hands1 and when1 therefore1 their expulsion was decreed in that year1 it was only a necessary step to create an institution to teach the future teachers of ,france4 ,here1 then1 we had the cole ,normale in theory2 but it was a long time before this theory was carried into practice1 and very probably it would never have been had not ,rolland d',erceville made it his duty for more than twenty years1 by numerous publications1 among which is especially to be mentioned his ,plan d',education1 printed in #aghc1 to point out not merely the utility but the absolute necessity for some institution of the kind4 ,as generally happens in such cases1 this exertion was not lost1 for in #agid it was decreed that an cole ,normale should be opened at ,paris1 ou seront appels de toutes les parties de la ,rpublique1 des citoyens dj instruits dans les sciences utiles1 pour apprendre1 sous les professeurs les plus habiles dans tous les genres1 l'art d'enseigner4 ,to follow these courses in the art of teaching1 one potential schoolmaster was to be sent to ,paris by every district containing twenty thousand inhabitants4 ,fourteen or fifteen hundred young men therefore arrived in ,paris1 and in #agie the courses of the school were opened first of all in the amphitheater of the ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,the professors were chosen from among the most celebrated men of ,france1 the sciences being represented by ,lagrange1 ,laplace1 ,hary1 ,monge1 ,daubenton1 and ,berthollet4 ,while there was this enormous progress abroad1 represented especially by the teaching of science in ,germany and the teaching of the teachers in ,france1 things slumbered and slept in ,britain4 ,we had our coal and our iron1 our material capital1 and no one troubled about our mental capital1 least of all the universities1 which had become1 according to ,matthew ,arnold 7who was not likely to overstate matters71 mere hauts lyces1 and had lost the very idea of a real university2#dc and since our political leaders generally came from the universities1 little more was to be expected from them4 ,many who have attempted to deal with the history of education have failed to give sufficient prominence to the tremendous difference there must necessarily have been in scientific requirements before and after the introduction of steam power4 ,it is to the discredit of our country that we1 who gave the perfected steam engine1 the iron ship1 and the locomotive to the world1 should have been the last to feel the next wave of intellectual progress4 ,all we did at the beginning of the century was to found mechanics' institutions4 ,they knew better in ,prussia1 a bleeding and lacerated mass2#dd after ,jena 7#ahjf71 ,king ,frederick ,william ,,iii and his councilors1 disciples of ,kant1 founded the ,university of ,berlin1 to supply the loss of territory by intellectual effort4 ,among the universal poverty money was found for the ,universities of ,knigsberg and ,breslau1 and ,bonn was founded in #ahah4 ,as a result of this policy1 carried on persistently and continuously by successive ministers1 aided by wise councilors1 many of them the products of this policy1 such a state of things was brought about that not many years ago ,m4 ,ferdinand ,lot1 one of the most distinguished educationists of ,france1 accorded to ,germany a supremacy in science comparable to the supremacy of ,england at sea4 ,but this position has not been obtained merely by founding new universities4 ,to ,germany we owe the perfecting of the methods of teaching science4 ,i have shown that it was in ,germany that we find the first organized science teaching in schools4 ,about the year #ahbe that country made another tremendous stride4 ,liebig demonstrated that science teaching1 to be of value1 whether in the school or the university1 must consist to a greater or less extent in practical work1 and the more the better2 that book work was next to useless4 ,liebig1 when appointed to ,giessen1 smarting still under the difficulties he had had in learning chemistry without proper appliances1 induced the ,darmstadt ,government to build a chemical laboratory in which the students could receive a thorough practical training4 ,it will have been gathered from this reference to ,liebig's system of teaching chemistry that still another branch of applied science had been created1 which has since had a stupendous effect upon industry2 and while ,liebig was working at ,giessen1 another important industry was being created in ,england4 ,i refer to the electric telegraph and all its developments1 foreshadowed by ,galileo in his reference to the sympathy of magnetic needles4 ,not only then in chemistry1 but in all branches of science which can be applied to the wants of man1 the teaching must be practical--that is1 the student must experiment and observe for himself1 and he must himself seek new truths4 ,it was at last recognized that a student could no more learn science effectively by seeing some one else perform an experiment than he could learn to draw effectively by seeing some one else make a sketch4 ,hence in the ,german universities the doctor's degree is based upon a research4 ,liebig's was the fons et origo of all our laboratories--mechanical1 metallurgical1 chemical1 physical1 geological1 astronomical1 and biological4--,nature4 ,to be continued4 ,,footnotes3 #cc ,an address delivered at the ,royal ,college of ,science on ,october #f1 #ahih4 #cd ,greek ,geometry from ,thales to ,euclid1 p4 #b4 ,allman4 #ce ,inferno1 canto iv1 p4 #acj et seq4 #cf ,subjects of ,social ,welfare1 p4 #bjf4 #cg ,history of the ,english ,people1 vol4 i1 p4 #aih4 #ch ,see ,histoire de l',universit de ,paris4 ,crvier1 #agia1 passim4 #ci ,enumerated in the following middle-age ,latin verse3 ,lingua1 tropus1 ratio1 numerus1 tonus1 angulus1 astra4 #dj ,universities of ,europe in the ,middle ,ages1 by ,rashdall1 vol4 ii1 p4 #cdd4 #da ,william ,gilbert1 of ,colchester1 on the ,magnet4 ,mittelag1 p4 x4 #db ,novum ,organum1 vol4 #a1 p4 #gj4 ,fowler's edition1 p4 #bee4 #dc ,schools and ,universities on the ,continent1 p4 #bia4 #dd ,university ,education in ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany1 by ,sir ,rowland ,blennerhassett1 p4 #be4 ,,should ,,children ,,under ,,ten ,,learn ,,to ,,read ,,and ,,write8 ,,by ,,prof4 ,g4 ,t4 ,w4 ,,patrick4 ,there are certain propositions about education so evidently true that probably no parent or teacher would question them4 ,for instance1 the best school is one in which the course of study is progressively adapted to the mental development of the children4 ,again1 certain subjects are adapted to children of certain ages or stages of development1 and others are not4 ,one would not recommend the study of logic or of the calculus to the average child of ten1 nor would the teaching of ,english be wisely deferred until the age of fifteen4 ,finally1 if the courses of study in our present school system shall be found to be arranged without regard to the order of mental development1 they will sooner or later be modified in accordance with it4 ,now the educational system in practice in the two or three hundred thousand public schools in the ,united ,states is a somewhat definite one1 with a somewhat fixed order of studies through the different years or grades4 ,in a majority of the ,states children are admitted to the schools at the age of six2 in more than one third of the ,states children of five are admitted4 ,in a general way we may say that during the first four years of school life the principal subjects occupying the time of the children are reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,to be more exact1 we may cite1 for instance1 the city schools of ,chicago4#de ,exclusive of recesses and opening exercises1 there are in these schools thirteen hundred and fifty minutes of school work per week4 ,of this time1 in the first and second grades1 six hundred and seventy-five minutes are devoted to reading1 seventy-five minutes to writing1 and two hundred and twenty-five minutes to mathematics4 ,seventy-two per cent of the total time is therefore consumed by these subjects4 ,in the third grade the proportion is the same2 in the fourth grade it is somewhat more than fifty per cent4 ,i have mentioned the ,chicago schools because this is one of those school systems where a liberal introduction of other subjects1 such as ,nature study1 physical culture1 singing1 and oral ,english1 has somewhat lessened the time given to reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,other cities1 with few exceptions1 will be found to give more rather than less time to these subjects4 ,in the country schools1 and indeed in a vast number of town and city schools1 practically all the time during these early years is given to reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,we must conclude1 therefore1 if our educational system is a rational one1 that reading1 writing1 and arithmetic are the subjects peculiarly adapted to the mind of the child between the ages of five and ten4 ,it is worth while to inquire from the standpoint of child psychology whether this be true4 ,it should be observed1 in the first place1 that the manner in which our educational system has grown up is no guarantee that it rests upon a psychological basis4 ,our schools are exceedingly conservative4 ,any innovations or radical changes are resisted by the parents of the children even more strenuously than by school boards1 superintendents1 and teachers4 ,notwithstanding numerous and important minor improvements1 the school system as a whole remains unchanged4 ,our children of seven and eight years are learning to read and write because our grandfathers were so doing at that age4 ,we can not here discuss the origin of our present school curriculum1 but1 as explaining the prominence given to reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 it is worthy of notice that originally the elementary school existed to teach just these three subjects4 ,the primitive schoolmaster was not superior to the parents of the child1 usually not their equal1 in anything except his knowledge of letters4 ,so the child was sent to school for a short time to learn letters4 ,it was not at all the function of the school to educate the child in all that was necessary to fit him for the duties of life4 ,afterward1 as the scope of the school was enlarged1 other subjects were added1 and these were put after the original ones1 and the schoolmaster1 furthermore1 came rather to take the place of an educator than a mere teacher of letters4 ,it is conceivable1 therefore1 that the present accepted order of studies in our elementary schools rests upon an accidental rather than upon a psychological basis4 ,it is true that modern educators have expressly considered the subject of the order and correlation of studies1 as1 for instance1 in the case of the ,committee of ,fifteen1 and that1 while recommending minor changes in the school curriculum1 they have not usually thought of questioning the position so long held by reading1 writing1 and arithmetic4 ,in the report of the committee just referred to we find this expression3 ,the conclusion is reached that learning to read and write should be the leading study of the pupil in his first four years of school4 ,but1 again1 it was not the function of this committee to suggest sweeping changes1 nor to raise the inquiry whether the system itself rests upon a psychological basis4 ,even if it did not rest upon such a basis1 expressions like the above would not be unnatural on the part of committees appointed by bodies representing the system as a whole4 ,we may not1 then1 conclude a priori that our system of primary education is a sound one4 ,there have indeed been other wholly different systems giving excellent results in their time1 as1 for instance1 that of the ancient ,greeks1 where music and gymnastics1 not reading1 writing1 and arithmetic1 were the principal subjects occupying the time of the pupils4 ,much attention has recently been given to the subjects of the physiology and psychology of children4 ,these studies have been systematic1 painstaking1 and exact4 ,it seems1 indeed1 to many people improbable that anything very new or very remarkable should just at this time be found out about children1 and there have not been wanting either prominent educators or psychologists who have given public expression to warnings against the new child study4 ,but this1 again1 is not conclusive1 for students of history may recall that every advance in science has met just such opposition--for instance1 bacteriology1 organic evolution1 chemistry1 and astronomy4 ,furthermore1 when we reflect that scientific advance in this century has ever been1 and inevitably1 from the simple to the complex1 and1 further1 that the brain of the child is the most complex thing in the whole range of natural history which science will ever have to attempt1 it is not difficult to understand that scientific knowledge of it with its pedagogical implications has not belonged1 at any rate1 to the past4 ,it will belong to the future1 having1 perhaps1 its beginnings in the present4 ,an educational system which has not reckoned with an accurate knowledge of the brain of the child may by accident be a correct one1 but until such reckoning is made we can not be sure4 ,our increasing knowledge of the child's mind1 his muscular and nervous system1 and his special senses1 points indubitably to the conclusion that reading and writing are subjects which do not belong to the early years of school life1 but to a later period1 and that other subjects now studied later are better adapted to this early stage of development4 ,what is thus indicated of reading and writing may be affirmed also of drawing and arithmetic4 ,the reasons leading to this conclusion can be only very briefly summarized here4 ,as regards reading1 writing1 and drawing1 they involve1 in the first place1 a high degree of motor specialization1 which is not only unnatural but dangerous for young children4 ,studies in motor ability have shown that the order of muscular development is from the larger and coarser to the finer and more delicate muscles4 ,the movements of the child are the large1 free movements of the body1 legs1 and arms1 such as he exhibits in spontaneous play4 ,the movements requiring fine co-ordination1 such as those of the fingers and the eyes1 are the movements of maturer life4 ,if we reverse this order and compel the child to hold his body1 legs1 and arms still1 while he engages the delicate muscles of the eyes and fingers with minute written or printed symbols1 we induce a nervous overtension1 and incur the evils incident to all violation of natural order4 ,the increasing frequency of nervous disorders among school children1 particularly in the older countries1 is probably due in part to these circumstances4 ,if we consider the brain of the child of seven or eight years1 our conclusions are strengthened that he should not be engaged in reading and writing4 ,at this age the brain has attained almost its full weight1 and is therefore large in proportion to the body4 ,its development is1 however1 very incomplete1 particularly as regards its associative elements--that is1 the so-called association fibers and apperception centers4 ,such a brain constantly produces and must expend a large amount of nervous energy1 which can not be used centrally--that is1 psychologically speaking--in comparison1 analysis1 thought1 reflection4 ,it must flow out through the motor channels1 becoming muscular movement4 ,the healthy child is therefore incessantly active in waking hours1 the action being of the vigorous kind involving the larger members4 ,hence we can understand that1 of all the ways in which a young child may receive instruction1 the method through the printed book is pre-eminently the one ill fitted to him4 ,the evil of this method is aggravated by the fact that1 before the child can receive instruction through the book1 a long time--several years1 in fact--is spent in the confining task of learning to read4 ,it comes about1 therefore1 that the child1 at the very age when he should be leading a free and expansive life1 is obliged to fix his eyes upon the narrow page of a book and decipher small printed symbols1 in themselves devoid of life and interest4 ,with respect to writing and learning to write the case is worse4 ,a considerable amount of motor specialization is involved in forming letters upon the blackboard1 but when the pencil and pen are used it becomes of an extreme kind4 ,in the whole life history of the man there are no movements requiring finer co-ordination than those of writing with pencil or pen1 yet our school system requires these of the child of six or seven years1 makes them1 indeed1 a prominent part of elementary school life4 ,in addition to the motor specialization of reading and writing is the physical confinement in the narrow seat and desk which is necessarily connected with them4 ,the child of six or seven has not reached the age when such confinement is natural or safe4 ,the injuries which ,i have mentioned relate to the nervous system as a whole4 ,there are other injuries resulting from the reading habit in young children which concern the eyes directly4 ,so much has been said and written lately about the increase of myopia and other defects of the eye among school children1 that ,i shall merely refer to this subject here4 ,upon entering school1 children are practically free from these defects4 ,upon leaving school1 a strikingly large percentage are suffering from them1 more1 however1 as yet1 in ,european countries than in ,america4 ,the causes are many1 but it is scarcely doubted that the chief cause is found in bending over finely printed books and maps1 and fine writing1 pencil work1 and drawing4 ,if pencils1 pens1 paper1 and books could be kept away from children until they are at least ten years of age1 and their instruction come directly from objects and from the voice of the teacher1 this evil could be greatly lessened4 ,if the above reasons for not teaching reading and writing to young children were the only ones1 the objections could to a certain extent be overcome4 ,writing might1 for instance1 be practiced only on the blackboard with large free-hand movements1 and letters could be taught from large forms upon charts4 ,but we have to consider the questions whether reading and writing are in themselves branches of instruction which belong to the early years of school life1 whether they may not be acquired at a great disadvantage at this period1 and whether more time is not spent upon them than is necessary4 ,it is a well-known fact that a child's powers1 whether physical or mental1 ripen in a certain rather definite order4 ,there is1 for instance1 a certain time in the life of the infant when the motor mechanism of the legs ripens1 before which the child can not be taught to walk1 while after that time he can not be kept from walking4 ,again1 at the age of seven1 for instance1 there is a mental readiness for some things and an unreadiness for others4 ,the brain is then very impressionable and retentive1 and a store of useful material1 both motor and sensory1 may be permanently acquired with great economy of effort4 ,the imagination is active1 and the child loves to listen to narration1 whether historical or mythical1 which plays without effort of his will upon his relatively small store of memory images4 ,the powers of analysis1 comparison1 and abstraction are little developed1 and the child has only a limited ability to detect mathematical or logical relations4 ,the power of voluntary attention is slight1 and can be exerted for only a short time4 ,all this may be stated physiologically by saying that the brain activity is sensory and motor1 but not central4 ,the sensory and motor mechanism has ripened1 but not the associative4 ,the brain is hardly more than a receiving1 recording1 and reacting apparatus4 ,it would be inaccurate1 however1 to express this psychologically by saying that perception1 memory1 and will are the mental powers that have ripened at the age of seven4 ,this would be true only if by perception we mean not apperception1 which involves a considerable development of associative readiness1 but mere passive apprehension through the senses1 and if by memory we mean not recollection1 but mere retentiveness for that which interests1 and if by will we mean not volition1 but only spontaneous movement and readiness to form habits of action1 including a large number of instinctive movement psychoses1 such as imitation1 play1 and language in its spoken form4 ,following out1 then1 somewhat as above1 the psychology of the child1 what kind of education would be particularly adapted to his stage of development8 ,we ask not what can the child be taught1 but what studies are for him most natural and therefore most economical4 ,in the first place1 from the development of the senses and the perceptive power above described1 we infer that the child is ready to acquire a knowledge of the world of objects around him through the senses of sight1 hearing1 touch1 temperature1 taste1 and smell4 ,his education will have to do with real things and their qualities1 rather than with symbols which stand for things4 ,if we wish a general term for this branch of instruction1 we may call it natural science1 or1 to distinguish it from science in its more mature form as the study of laws and causes1 we may call it natural history1 or1 more briefly1 ,nature study4 ,although the appropriateness and economy of this study for young children has been known and proclaimed for more than a century1 it is still in practice the study of later years1 while young children study letters4 ,in the second place1 from the development of the retentive powers of the child we infer that he is qualified to gain acquaintance not only with the real world around him1 but with the real world of the past4 ,we may call this history4 ,history is now studied later by means of text-books4 ,it may be studied with far greater economy during earlier years by means of direct narration by parent or teacher4 ,it is wonderful how eagerly a child will listen to historical narration1 and how easily he will retain it4 ,this method of teaching history forms a striking contrast to the perfunctory manner in which it is often studied in the upper school grades1 with the text-book lesson1 recitation1 and the final examination4 ,upon the minds of many young people the study of history has a deadening effect when the history epoch is passed and the mathematical epoch has arrived4 ,it has already been proposed1 at a conference of educators lately held in ,chicago1 to extend the study of history downward into the lower grades1 a proposition fully sanctioned by psychological pedagogy4 ,in what ,i have here said about history for young people ,i refer not to the philosophy of history1 which comes much later in the life of the student1 but to history as a mere record of facts and events1 the kind of history which is now studied in the grammar and high schools1 the kind which many educators who would make all children philosophers are now saying should not be studied at all4 ,in the third place1 what studies correspond to the development of the will in the child from five to ten8 ,it is the habit-forming epoch4 ,it is the time when a large and useful store of motor memory images may be acquired1 and when permanent reflex tracts may be formed in the spinal cord and lower brain centers4 ,this is the time to teach the child to do easily and habitually a large number of useful things4 ,if we use the term in its broadest sense1 we may call this branch of instruction morals1 but it will also include1 besides habits of conduct1 various bodily activities1 certain manual dexterities1 and correct habits of speech1 expression1 and singing4 ,but here some restrictions must be observed4 ,the habit-forming period begins at birth and continues far beyond the age of ten1 and the period from five to ten is not the time for the formation of all habits4 ,the order of muscular development must be observed1 and all dexterities involving finely co-ordinated movements of the fingers1 or strain of the eyes1 should be deferred beyond this period1 or at most begun only in the latter part of it2 such1 for instance1 as writing1 drawing1 modeling1 sewing1 knitting1 playing upon musical instruments1 and minute mechanical work1 as well1 of course1 as the plaiting1 pricking1 stitching1 weaving1 and other finger work still practiced in some kindergartens and primary schools4 ,we have thus seen that there are certain branches of instruction for which the mind of the child from five to ten has ripened1 and which may therefore be taught most economically and safely during this period4 ,concerning the teaching of language ,i shall speak presently1 but thus far we have found that from the psychological standpoint there are at any rate three subjects which are strikingly adapted to this period1 namely1 natural science1 history1 and morals1 using these terms with the latitude and restriction already explained4 ,certain branches of ,nature study and one branch of what we have called morals--namely1 manual training--have in recent years been introduced into our best elementary city schools1 and in a few schools history is taught systematically in the lower grades by means of stories4 ,they have not1 however1 crowded out reading1 writing1 and arithmetic so much as crowded into them4 ,but if we consider the great mass of schools in city1 town1 and country throughout the land1 the subjects which practically complete the elementary school curriculum--reading1 writing1 arithmetic1 and geography--are1 with the exception of the latter1 found to be subjects which do not naturally belong to this period at all4 ,mathematics in every form is a subject conspicuously ill fitted to the child mind4 ,it deals not with real things1 but with abstractions4 ,when referred to concrete objects1 it concerns not the objects themselves1 but their relations to each other4 ,it involves comparison1 analysis1 abstraction4 ,it calls for a fuller development of the association tracts and fibers of the cerebral hemispheres4 ,the grotesque number forms which so many children have1 and which originate in this period1 are evidence of the necessity which the child feels of giving some kind of bodily shape to these abstractions which he is compelled to study4 ,under mathematics ,i do not of course include the mere mentioning or learning a number series1 such as in the process called counting1 or the committing to memory of a multiplication table4 ,furthermore1 in this and in all discussions of this kind it must be remembered that there are exceptional children in whom the mathematical faculty1 or musical faculty1 or literary faculty1 develops much earlier than with the average child4 ,if possible1 they should have instruction suited to their peculiarities4 ,but it is evident that1 so long as children are educated in schools1 there must be a general plan of education1 and that it can not be based upon exceptional children4 ,what we learn from physiology and psychology about the ripening of the child's mind is confirmed by the theory of the culture epochs4 ,i can not discuss here the doctrine of recapitulation1 with its great truths and its minor exceptions1 but it is well known that in a general way the development of the child1 both physical and mental1 is an epitome of the development of the race4 ,if we compare the physical and mental activities of the modern civilized man with those of the more primitive member of the race1 we may learn what forms of physical and mental activity are natural in the different periods of child life4 ,some of the things which are characteristic of the modern as contrasted with the primitive man are sedentary habits1 manual dexterities requiring finely co-ordinated movements both of the eyes and fingers1 increasing devotion to written language and books as contrasted with spoken language1 the lessened dependence upon the memory1 the increasing subjectivity of mental life as contrasted with the purely objective life of the savage1 and the increased importance of reflection1 deliberation1 and reasoning1 with decrease of impulsive and habitual action4 ,these things1 then1 we should expect to belong to the later period of child life1 and studied which involve these activities will not be economically pursued in the elementary school grades4 ,these laws are wholly overlooked in our traditional school curriculum4 ,in practice we are saying to the young child3 ,man is a sedentary1 reading1 writing1 thinking1 reasoning being1 possessing the power of voluntary attention4 ,i am to educate you to be a man4 ,therefore you must learn to sit still1 to read1 write1 think1 reason1 and give attention to your work4 ,the child of six or eight years is therefore given a book or pen1 and put into a closely fitting seat and left to give attention to his work4 ,this is precisely as if the mother should say to the infant at the beginning of the period of creeping3 ,you are a man1 not a brute4 ,men go upright1 not on all fours4 ,you must walk1 not creep4 ,i wish to call especial attention to the fact that it is only late in the history of the race that language has passed to its written form4 ,man is indeed now a reading and writing animal1 but only recently has he become so4 ,it is only since the invention of printing and the wide dissemination of books1 magazines1 and newspapers that reading has become a real determining factor in the life of the people4 ,even now the human organism is engaged in adapting itself to the new strain brought upon the eyes and fingers in reading and writing4 ,we can understand1 therefore1 that it will demand a considerable maturity in the child before he is ready for that which has developed so late in the history of the race4 ,the language of the child1 like that of the primitive man1 is the language of the ear and tongue4 ,the child is a talking and hearing animal4 ,he is ear-minded4 ,there has been in the history of civilization a steady development toward the preponderating use of the higher senses1 culminating with the eye4 ,the average adult civilized man is now strongly eye-minded1 but it is necessary to go back only to the time of the ancient ,greeks to find a decided relative ear-mindedness4 ,few laboratory researches have been made upon the relative rapidity of development of the special senses in children1 but such as have been made tend to confirm the indications of the culture epochs theory1 and to show that the auditory centers develop earlier than the visual4 ,more and more attention is given in our elementary schools to the subject of language--more1 as some think1 than the relative importance of the subject warrants2 but without discussing this question1 it is indubitably shown by child psychology that it is the spoken language which belongs to the elementary school4 ,the ear is the natural medium of instruction for young children1 and all the second-hand knowledge which it is necessary that the child should receive should come to him in this way4 ,it should come from the living words of the living teacher or parent1 not through the cold medium of the printed book4 ,in the elementary school1 then1 the child may be instructed in language as it relates to the ear and the tongue1 and this is the real language4 ,he may be taught to speak accurately and elegantly1 and he may be taught to listen and remember4 ,he may study in this way the best literature of his mother tongue1 and get a living sympathetic knowledge of it1 such as can never come through the indirect medium of the book4 ,indeed1 this language study need not be limited to the mother tongue4 ,there is no age when a child may with so great economy of effort gain a lasting knowledge of a foreign language as when he is from seven to eleven years old4 ,when the spoken language has been mastered in this way1 and when the child has arrived at the reading and writing age1 language in its written form may be acquired in a very short time1 and that which now fills so many weary years of school life will sink into the position of comparative insignificance in which it rightfully belongs4 ,reading and writing have usurped altogether too much time4 ,in the schools of to-day there is a worship of the reading book1 spelling book1 copy book1 and dictionary not rightfully due them4 ,by dropping the study of letters from the lower grades much needed time may be found for other timely and important subjects1 such as ,nature study1 morals1 history1 oral language1 singing1 physical training1 and play4 ,one of the greatest goods which would follow the banishing of the book from the primary and elementary schools would be the cultivation of better mental habits4 ,children suffer lasting injury by being left with a book in their seats and directed to study at an age when the power of voluntary attention has not developed4 ,they then acquire habits of listlessness and mind-wandering afterward difficult to overcome4 ,they read over many times that which does not hold their attention and is not remembered4 ,lax habits of study are thus acquired1 with the serious incidental result of weakening the retentive power which depends so much upon interest and concentration4 ,with the substitution of the oral for the book method1 reliance upon the memory during the memory period will permanently strengthen the child's power of retention4 ,the period between the ages of five and ten years is an important one in the child's life4 ,it is the time when the let-alone plan of education is of most value1 for the reason that nearly all our educational devices beyond the kindergarten are more or less attempts to make men and women out of children4 ,if the child at this age must be put into the harness of an educational system1 his course of study will not be impoverished by the omission of reading and writing4 ,to teach him to speak and to listen1 to observe and to remember1 to know something of the world around him1 and instinctively to do the right thing1 will furnish more than enough material for the most ambitious elementary school curriculum4 ,,footnote3 #de ,see the article on ,courses of ,study in the ,elementary ,schools of the ,united ,states1 by ,t4 ,r4 ,crosswell1 ,pedagogical ,seminary1 ,april1 #ahig4 ,,soils ,,and ,,fertilizers4#df ,,by ,,charles ,,minor ,,blackford1 ,,jr41 ,m4 ,d4 ,the word soil is used in several arts and sciences to denote the material from which something derives nourishment4 ,the meat broths and jellies on which bacteria are grown are soils for them1 as the earth of a field is a soil for the ordinary farm crops2 but in general we mean by soils the various mixtures of mineral and organic substances that make up the surface of the earth4 ,the object of this paper is to show as briefly as possible the way it was formed1 of what it is composed1 the manner in which it nourishes plants1 and the rules that should guide us in replenishing its nutritious matter when exhausted4 ,so broad a field can be but lightly touched1 and the effort will be to give only hints from which rules for specific cases may be deduced4 ,when a sample of ordinary fertile soil is analyzed1 it is found to consist of a number of minerals1 of carbon1 nitrogen1 and phosphorus in various combinations1 water1 and certain other ingredients dependent on the locality4 ,among the minerals the most important are potassium1 sodium1 lime1 iron1 and silicon1 and the history of these is of the greatest interest4 ,scientific students are generally agreed that the surface of the earth is but a shell inclosing a liquid1 or at all events a highly heated interior4 ,originally the whole mass was fluid1 but the surface has cooled more rapidly than the interior1 and so a firm crust has been formed4 ,as the central mass cooled1 it contracted1 and the crust became wrinkled and folded1 as does the skin of an apple as its pulp dries1 and1 by this folding1 great ridges were thrown up in some places and vast depressions formed in others4 ,when the crust became cool enough for water to remain on it1 most of the depressions were filled by it1 and the dry land appeared1 not only on the crests of the ridges1 but on the elevated plateaus about them1 and thus oceans and continents were formed4 ,had one of us seen the earth at that time he would have been loath to select it as a residence4 ,rugged1 rocky ranges of precipitous mountains surrounded by stretches of naked rock made the landscape4 ,dense clouds from the tepid oceans dashed against the icy peaks1 and torrents of water rushed back to the sea4 ,where the slopes permitted1 the glaciers spread over wide areas1 for no vegetation checked the rapid radiation of heat1 and night brought bitter cold4 ,the crust waved and fluctuated over the liquid interior as does thin ice under a daring skater1 and as it fell the sea rushed over the land1 only to flow elsewhere as the depressed area rose again4 ,the freezing and thawing and the effects of wind and water in time produced a change4 ,the rocks were riven and broken to powder1 their nearly vertical slopes became less steep1 and instead of bare rock the earth showed dreary morasses and stretches of sand4 ,over these marshes vegetation began to thrive4 ,in the sea there lived then1 as now1 a teeming population1 animal1 vegetable1 and living beings that can with difficulty be assigned to either of these classes4 ,each of them1 however1 contained carbon1 and many had built lime1 phosphorus1 nitrogen1 and other valuable substances into their bodies4 ,where food was abundant these grew in vast numbers1 and though many are infinitely small singly1 their aggregate mass is enormous4 ,among the tiny organisms is one called the ,globigerina1 a being so small as to require a microscope to study it1 but in the past1 as now1 growing in great numbers in the sea4 ,the animal is soft and jellylike1 but it forms an outside skeleton of shell of carbonate of calcium or chalk1 a structure that protects it living1 but entombs it dead4 ,when death comes1 the little ,globigerina sinks to the bottom1 and its tiny shell helps to cover the sea floor4 ,in the days of long ago these lived as now1 and when some convulsion of ,nature lifted the bottom of prehistoric seas1 the ,globigerina ooze was lifted as well1 and thus the limestone formed4 ,in our land a bed of this kind extends from ,alabama to ,newfoundland2 thence1 as the telegraphic plateau1 it passes under the ,atlantic1 rising into the chalk downs and cliffs of ,england2 then1 again dipping under the sea1 it passes through ,europe1 and finally furnishes the marble quarries of ,greece4 ,heat1 water1 and chemical action give a ceaseless variety to the forms of the limestone1 but wherever found it shows the former seat of an ocean4 ,as soon as the ooze was lifted from below the sea it began to change4 ,some has been exposed to heat and has crystallized into marble1 but for our purposes the most interesting changes have been wrought by water4 ,chalk1 limestone1 and marble--for these are chemically the same--are almost insoluble in pure water4 ,but water is rarely pure2 it dissolves many things1 and among them the carbonic-oxide gas that every fire1 every animal1 every decaying scrap of wood is pouring into the atmosphere4 ,the rain1 charged with this gas1 dissolves the limestone1 but when the gas escapes the lime falls1 as you know happens when hard water is boiled1 for the heat drives off the gas4 ,by this solution1 however1 the lime is scattered widely through the soil1 and is rarely lacking in untilled earth4 ,besides lime1 phosphorus is necessary in a good soil4 ,this is widely spread in ,nature1 but its great reservoir is the ocean1 that boundless mine of wealth4 ,many marine animals have the power of building it into their tissues1 and the shells of oysters and other mollusks1 the bones of nearly all animals1 terrestrial and marine1 and parts of other organisms1 are composed of phosphates to a greater or less degree4 ,in the ceaseless changes of level the primal oyster beds and coral reefs are raised to the surface or far above it1 and the slow action of time begins to tear down the deposits and spread them wide-cast4 ,since that far-off time in the beginning no new matter has been put on earth save the small amounts of the meteorites1 and the economy of ,nature can allow not one atom to lie in idleness1 but calls on each one to play its part ceaselessly1 without haste and without rest4 ,a certain amount of a substance is disseminated through the earth2 by rains it is washed into the streams1 and thence to the sea4 ,here plants or animals eagerly await it1 and by means of them it is again restored to the land1 to begin again its endless round4 ,the metals most necessary for plant life are potassium1 sodium1 and iron2 indeed1 the very name of the first shows its importance4 ,if the ashes which contain all the mineral constituents of plants be put in a vessel and water poured on them1 a solution of lye will percolate through the mass4 ,the word lye is an abbreviation for alkali1 and when chemistry became sufficiently advanced1 a metal was discovered in this lye to which the name potassium--i4 e41 potash-metal--was given4 ,if seaweeds be burned and leeched in the same way we can obtain from the lye another metal1 sodium1 that is much like potassium1 and that is one of the most widely spread substances on earth as its chloride1 or common salt4 ,potassium and sodium enter into the composition of many rocks1 and as these become eroded by weather they are scattered through the soil1 whence their salts are extracted by rootlets and enter into the formation of vegetable tissue4 ,behind these stands iron4 ,the green coloring matter of plants is a very complex substance known as chlorophyll1 the duty of which is to take carbonic oxide from the air1 utilize the carbon1 and restore the oxygen4 ,iron enters into the composition of chlorophyll1 and to it is due the brown color of dead leaves4 ,this metal is well-nigh universal1 all the reds and browns in soils and rocks being made by it1 and so it is rarely lacking anywhere4 ,so much for the metals in soils2 but1 important as they are1 plants can not live on them alone4 ,among the nonmetallic bodies phosphorus stands high among essentials1 and for it we are indebted to the sea and the interior of the earth4 ,many living creatures extract phosphorus from the sea water--combine it chiefly with lime1 and use the phosphate for making skeletons or shells1 as the case may be4 ,after the death of the possessors the bones or shells sink to the bottom1 as do the ,globigerina1 and in time are either lifted up1 as were the limestones1 and form phosphate beds like those of ,georgia and ,florida1 or are dredged up and ground into powder with bones of land animals4 ,much of the matter forced up from the interior of the earth contains phosphorus2 indeed1 it is the bane of ,southern iron ores2 but though iron masters dread it1 farmers welcome it1 as the rains and frosts crumble the phosphatic rocks and add them to the mass of dbris that forms our soil4 ,now let us take a test tube and put into it lime1 potash1 soda1 iron1 silicon1 or sand1 and phosphorus1 add to it a grain of corn1 and watch results4 ,under suitable conditions of warmth and moisture the grain will sprout1 but when the store of food laid up in it is exhausted our little plant will die4 ,it is obvious that something else is needed for a soil1 and analysis shows that it is nitrogen1 the gas that forms nearly four fifths of our atmosphere--a gas useless1 as such1 to animals1 but essential to plants4 ,nitrogen is abundant in ,nature4 ,besides being nearly four fifths of the air1 it forms twenty-two per cent of nitric acid1 forty-five per cent of saltpeter or niter1 eighty-two per cent of ammonia1 and about twenty-five per cent of sal ammoniac4 ,plants can not use nitrogen in its pure form1 but one or another of these forms will be found in the soil1 whence it may be extracted4 ,now we have the chief articles of plant food1 and it is necessary to know how they are to be used4 ,a plant usually consists of two parts1 one that appears above ground1 bearing branches1 twigs1 and leaves1 and another that remains below ground4 ,it is this latter that concerns us now1 and it is worth study4 ,this lower part consists of a number of twigs called rhizomes1 from which proceed a vast number of fine1 threadlike rootlets1 and these are the mouths of the plant1 through which it draws nourishment from the earth about it4 ,before any living thing can use nourishment from without1 it must be dissolved1 and this solution requires much preparation at times4 ,men1 and other animals with a wide range of food stuffs1 effect this by the secretions of the digestive organs2 but most plants have no digestive apparatus1 strictly speaking1 and were they supplied with an abundance of the foods they most need1 they would starve unless the food were in a suitable state for absorption4 ,the way in which ,nature effects this solution is the key to many of her secrets1 and it has been understood only within the past few years4 ,if we have a piece of meat freshly taken from an animal we find it firm1 coherent1 and almost odorless4 ,if it be put into a warm1 moist chamber for a few days a great change comes over it1 and it becomes soft1 offensive in odor1 and liable to fall to pieces4 ,we say that it is rotten or putrid4 ,if a bit of it be put under a microscope1 it is seen to be teeming with bacteria1 and these are responsible for the decay4 ,now1 if a specimen of earth be examined1 we find that it contains bacteria1 that attack all kinds of organic matter1 tearing it to pieces to get their food1 and making many different things out of what is left4 ,there is one sort of ferment that grows in apple juice and splits the sugar into alcohol and carbonic acid1 forming hard cider1 and if the fermentation stops at this point the well-known drink results4 ,however1 there is another ferment called mother of vinegar that may get in1 and1 if so1 a different kind of fermentation is started that forms acetic acid instead of alcohol2 or the bacteria of decomposition may come in and the whole go back to its elements4 ,there is a wonderful provision of ,nature shown in these stages4 ,the bacteria--the organisms that produce decay--can not live in a strong sugar solution1 but the ferments1 like common yeast1 can live in it1 and they split the sugar into alcohol1 carbonic oxide1 and other things4 ,in these another set can live1 and when the first have died of starvation or from the alcohol they form1 the second set step in and turn the weak alcohol into acetic acid4 ,acetic acid is a preserving agent1 as our sour pickles show1 but if it is not too strong there are some organisms that can live in it1 and the whole process ends in decay4 ,now1 it should be noticed that each of these organisms paves the way for the next by converting an unsuitable food stuff into a suitable one4 ,this familiar example indicates the lines on which ,nature works4 ,it is the same everywhere1 and shows the advantage of specialization1 of allowing some one with peculiar facilities for performing an act to do that exclusively1 that others may profit by his skill4 ,so long as each man sought and killed his food1 cooked his meals1 made his own clothing1 weapons1 and implements--in a word1 lived alone--advance was impossible4 ,it was only when he who was most skillful with the needle made garments for the hunter in exchange for a haunch of venison1 that the hunter could practice marksmanship1 and the tailor design a new cut for the mantle with which the warrior might dazzle the daughter of the arrow maker4 ,it is the same in ,nature4 ,some organisms possess powers of elaborating certain materials of which others are quick to avail themselves4 ,plants can manufacture starch1 an article needed by animals1 but of which their own capacity1 so far as producing it is concerned1 is very limited1 and thus animals find it advantageous to avail themselves of these stores instead of taxing their own resources4 ,similarly1 plants need the organic matters of the animal bodies1 and wise agriculture supplies carbon1 nitrogen1 and other articles of food in the shape of animal and vegetable refuse4 ,but this matter requires digestion2 it must be made soluble before it can be absorbed1 and but few plants can effect this solution unaided4 ,the ,venus's flytrap1 the sundew1 the wonderful carrion plant1 and others1 are equipped with elaborate apparatus by which they are enabled to capture1 kill1 and literally digest the insects that supply them with nitrogeneous food1 but these are exceptional cases4 ,nature usually employs other agents4 ,the action of bacteria in causing decay has been said to be in general similar to fermentation--that it is effected by the bacteria in seeking their food4 ,if oxygen be abundant1 putrefaction occurs2 if it be scant or absent1 then fermentation takes place1 for the tiny organisms require oxygen1 and1 if the air fails them1 they pull to pieces the organic matters near them to obtain it4 ,in doing this they get the nitrogen into such shape that the plants can use it1 and thus digest their food for them4 ,all organic matter contains carbon1 hydrogen1 and oxygen as a general rule1 and to these are often united phosphorus1 sulphur1 nitrogen1 and others1 making very complex arrangements1 veritable houses of cards1 in fact1 only held together by the strange power of life4 ,when a leaf falls or a bird dies1 some of these combinations are broken1 and then the bacteria and other lowly organisms have full sway1 for living matter is impregnable to all save a few of them4 ,as oxygen or something else is taken out of the complex molecules1 the compound falls to pieces1 but as in the kaleidoscope the bits of colored glass tumble into endless varieties of symmetrical figures1 so do the atoms fall into new combinations4 ,if the keystone of an arch be removed1 the stones fall apart2 but atoms1 unlike bricks or stones1 can not stand alone as a rule2 they must be united to something1 and so1 as soon as old associations are dissolved1 new ones are formed4 ,these new ones are those needed by plants1 and thus is plant food digested4 ,the term plant food has been frequently used1 and should now be distinctly explained1 for merely stating the chemical elements is not describing the food4 ,when a physician tells a nurse to feed a patient he does not order so much carbon1 nitrogen1 phosphorus1 and the like1 but specifies a soup1 certain vegetables1 and so on1 detailing every particular2 and the same should be done for vegetable invalids4 ,in medical practice a condition is recognized that is called scurvy4 ,it is not exactly starvation1 but is produced by lack of some food materials usually supplied by fresh vegetables4 ,if scurvy appears at sea1 no amount of meat1 bread1 cakes1 or pastry will stop it2 vegetables1 and they only1 will stay it4 ,sometimes a similar condition prevails among crops3 some ingredient in a soil is lacking1 and the others may be supplied indefinitely without giving the desired relief4 ,to this may be attributed much of the fault found with fertilizers2 for if the soil does not need a particular compound it is useless to apply it1 and an excellent fertilizer is often blamed for not producing a crop on land already overstocked with it and crying for something else4 ,let us suppose a field on which cotton has been grown for many successive years until it has become exhausted4 ,analysis shows that a crop yielding one hundred pounds of lint to the acre removes from the soil3 ,nitrogen #bj4ga pounds2 ,phosphoric acid #h4ag ,potash #ac4jf ,lime #ab4fj ,magnesia #d4ge ----- ,total #ei4bi ,the weight of the whole crop from which these figures were taken was eight hundred and forty-seven pounds1 so that cotton exhausts land less than any staple crop1 if the roots1 stems1 leaves1 etc41 be turned under and only the lint and seed be removed4 ,of these the lint 7one hundred pounds7 takes #a4ag pound from the soil1 and the seed #ac4hi pounds1 making #ae4jf pounds net loss4#dg ,but ignoring returns that may be made in the shape of cotton-seed meal1 etc41 and lime1 with which our soils are abundantly supplied1 we see that nitrogen1 phosphoric acid1 and potash have been removed4 ,suppose the owner puts bone meal on his exhausted land3 the phosphoric acid in the bone will supply one need1 and an improvement results4 ,on the strength of this1 bone meal will be loaded into the soil again1 and let us suppose the deficit not yet made up1 the crop again shows improvement4 ,now1 phosphoric acid abounds in the soil1 though the deficiency in nitrogen and potash has become steadily greater2 so1 when the customary bone meal is applied1 the crop falls back1 because the plants are starving for potash and nitrogen4 ,they are like scurvy-smitten sailors1 but many thoughtless farmers would attribute the decline to the maker of the bone meal1 and say that its quality was not so high as formerly--an opinion similar to that of a sea captain who would ascribe to the poor quality of salt beef an outbreak of scurvy on his vessel4 ,as crops of any description extract potash1 nitrogen1 and phosphoric acid from soils1 the question how they are to be replaced is an important matter1 and its answer may be most readily found by studying ,nature's methods4 ,in parts of the ,old ,world there are fields that are fertile in the extreme after thousands of years of tillage1 and it is apparent that mere cultivation does not prove injurious4 ,the tropical forests have something growing wherever a plant can find foothold--a population in which the struggle for food is secondary to that for light and air1 and yet the soil supporting this vegetation is marvelously rich4 ,every leaf that falls remains where it fell until in the warm1 moist1 half-lighted forest it becomes a little heap of mold4 ,the bacteria of decomposition require warmth and moisture for their life2 light is deleterious to them1 but they thrive in the dense shade of the jungle4 ,the tangled web of roots1 weeds1 and vines retains the rainfall1 retarding evaporation1 and preventing both droughts and freshets4 ,receiving dead and broken leaves1 boughs1 and other vegetable products1 and spared the washing of violent torrents1 the forest is inestimably fertile4 ,on a smaller scale this goes on universally4 ,the annual weeds1 deciduous leaves1 and such matter1 fall prey to molds and bacteria1 by which they are made soluble4 ,snows and rains bear the products into the soil1 and there other bacteria1 clustering around the roots1 form the acids needed to complete solution4 ,every one knows that well-rotted manure is better than that which is fresh1 and many wonder at this1 but the reason is apparent4 ,in feeding delicate patients1 physicians often prescribe predigested foods or the digestive ferments to aid enfeebled assimilation2 and similarly the manures that have been thoroughly acted on by bacteria1 or containing those capable of producing the matters that plants need1 are of most value for nourishing vegetation4 ,in producing an article of any sort1 the cheapness and ease with which it can be made is largely dependent on the shape in which the raw material reaches the factory4 ,if a foundry can procure iron that needs only to be melted and cast1 the owner can fill his orders more readily than would be possible if he had to reduce the metal from the ore2 and ,nature uses this principle over and over again4 ,the importance of nitrogen to plants and its abundance in ,nature have been mentioned1 but it has also been said that plants can not use it directly1 as most animals do with oxygen4 ,the tiny bacteria intervene1 and this they do in two ways3 first1 by causing decay of animal or vegetable matter containing nitrogen1 and by this decay producing substances that plants can absorb2 and1 secondly1 by producing little nodules or tubercles on the rootlets1 through which the plant can take up nitrogen4#dh ,now1 when a plant is sated with nitrogen1 it ceases to form these tubercles1 and their formation is a sure sign that the plant is craving this article of food4 ,when it is supplied1 and its own life is ended1 these form reservoirs from which other plants may be supplied1 as new castings may be made from broken wheels4 ,the great value of green manuring depends on the store of available nitrogen so laid up1 but it is open to failure in one direction4 ,the liability of fermentation to go to the acid stage from contamination with acid-forming ferments has been mentioned1 an accident the possibility of which is impressed on us from time to time by sour bread2 and similarly the organic matter turned under may undergo acid fermentation1 rendering the ground sour and unfit for cultivation4 ,the limits of this paper forbid the consideration of special fertilizers1 but from the general principles laid down the rules for any special case may be deduced4 ,a soil should contain a sufficient amount of potash1 soda1 lime1 iron1 and a few other minerals2 phosphoric acid1 nitrogen1 organic matter1 and1 for some special crops1 some other ingredients may be needed4 ,when the soil needs renewing1 there are two ways of accomplishing it4 ,one way is to guess at what is needed2 to buy fertilizers at high prices1 without inquiring whether the soil needs the substances in that particular brand or not4 ,though very common1 this is not a good plan4 ,it is as though a physician were to give a patient any drug that was convenient1 without inquiring into the disorder or the needs of the system1 and it is followed by much the same result4 ,that acid phosphate gave ,farmer ,a a good crop1 is no reason that ,farmer ,b's land is also deficient in phosphorus4 ,the same reasoning would teach that a heart stimulant that rouses a patient from shock would benefit one in danger of apoplexy1 where the least increase in heart force might be fatal4 ,a physician using such reasoning as the basis of his practice would not be considered a master of his art2 and were he to attribute the fatal outcome of his logic to the poor quality of his stimulant1 he would display criminal ignorance of drugs as well as disease2 yet it is very common to see farmers put guano on a soil begging for potash1 and then heap execration on the head of the dealer who sold the guano when the crop failed4 ,to revert to a simile used above1 a captain must not blame the salt pork for scurvy4 ,the other way to buy and use fertilizers is to ascertain what a certain crop needs2 then find out whether these be in the soil1 and to what extent4 ,with these data the deficiency may be made good without the wasteful cost of the former method4 ,state and ,federal ,departments of ,agriculture furnish their aid freely and gladly1 and already the signs are seen of the day when agriculture will take its place among the semiexact sciences1 and the present haphazard methods will become obsolete4 ,,footnotes3 #df ,an address delivered before the ,richmond ,county 7,georgia7 ,agricultural ,society1 on ,february #ai1 #ahih4 #dg ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,farmers' ,bulletin1 ,no4 #dh4 #dh ,leguminous ,plants for ,green ,manuring and for ,feeding4 ,e4 ,w4 ,allen1 ,ph4 ,d4 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,farmers' ,bulletin1 ,no4 #af4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,august ,,kekul4 ,this news1 said ,herr ,h4 ,landrelt1 president1 announcing ,kekul's death in the ,german ,chemical ,society at ,berlin1 will be received with sorrow not only by our society but by the whole chemical world4 ,science has again lost one of its greatest representatives1 one of those extremely rare spirits who were called upon to found a new epoch in it and push it mightily forward4 ,,friedrich ,,august ,,kekul was born at ,darmstadt1 ,september #g1 #ahbi1 and died1 after a long illness1 at ,bonn1 ,july #ac1 #ahif4 ,he was originally destined by his father for the profession of an architect2 and some houses1 he told his students in a festival address1 still existed 7in #ahib7 in ,darmstadt of which he drew the plans when1 a youth1 he was attending the gymnasium4 ,the leading events of his life were very tersely told by himself in an address responding to an ovation from the students of the ,university of ,bonn on the twenty-fifth anniversary of his professorship there2 a translation of which1 from the ,klnische ,zeitung1 was published by ,mr4 ,j4 ,e4 ,martin in ,nature1 ,june #cj1 #ahib4 ,at ,giessen1 he said1 where he went to study architecture1 he attended ,liebig's lectures1 and was thereby attracted to chemistry4 ,but his relatives would not at first hear of his changing his profession1 and he was given a half-year's grace to think over it4 ,he spent his time in the ,polytechnicum at ,darmstadt4 ,his first teacher in chemistry at ,darmstadt was ,moldenhauer1 the inventor of lucifer matches4 ,his leisure time was spent in modeling in plaster and at the lathe4 ,he was then permitted to return to ,giessen4 ,i attended1 he said1 the lectures1 first of ,will and then of ,liebig4 ,liebig was at work on a new edition of his letters on ,chemistry1 for which many experiments had to be carried out4 ,i had to make estimations of ash1 of albumen1 to investigate gluten in plants1 etc4 ,the names of the young chemists who helped ,liebig were mentioned in the book1 among them mine4 ,the proposal was then made to me1 just at the time ,liebig intended to make me his assistant1 that ,i should go for a year abroad1 either to ,berlin1 which was at that time to ,giessen a foreign land1 or to ,paris4 ',go1' said ,liebig1 'to ,paris2 there your views will be widened2 you will learn a new language2 you will get acquainted with the life of a great city2 but you will not learn chemistry there4' ,in that1 however1 ,liebig was wrong4 ,i attended lectures by ,frmy1 ,wurtz1 ,pouillet1 ,regnault2 by ,marchandis on physiology1 and by ,payen on technology4 ,one day1 as ,i was sauntering along the streets1 my eyes encountered a large poster with the words ,leons de philosophie chimique par ,charles ,gerhardt1 ex-professeur de ,montpellier4 ,gerhardt had resigned his professorship at ,montpellier1 and was teaching philosophy and chemistry as privat docent in ,paris4 ,that attracted me1 and ,i entered my name on the list4 ,some days later ,i received a card from ,gerhardt2 he had seen my name in ,liebig's ,letters on ,chemistry4 ,on my calling upon him he received me with great kindness1 and made me the offer1 which ,i could not accept1 that ,i should become his assistant4 ,my visit took place at noon1 and ,i did not leave his house till midnight1 after a long talk on chemistry4 ,these discussions continued between us at least twice a week for over a year4 ,then ,i received the offer of the post of assistant to von ,plauter1 at the ,castle of ,reichenau1 near ,chur1 which ,i accepted1 contrary to ,liebig's wish1 who recommended me as assistant to ,fehling1 at ,stuttgart4 ,so ,i went to ,switzerland1 where ,i had leisure to digest what ,i had learned in ,paris during my intercourse with ,gerhardt4 ,then ,i received an invitation from ,stenhouse1 in ,london1 to become his assistant1 an invitation ,i was loath to accept1 since ,i regarded him1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 as a ,schmierchemiker4 ,by chance1 however1 ,bunsen came to ,chur on a visit to his brother-in-law1 at whose house ,i first met him4 ,i consulted ,bunsen as to ,stenhouse's offer1 and he advised me by all means to accept it4 ,i should learn a new language1 but ,i should not learn chemistry4 ,so ,i came to ,london1 where as ,stenhouse's assistant ,i did not learn much4 ,by means of a friend1 however1 ,i became acquainted with ,williamson4 ,the latter had just published his ether theory1 and was at work on the polybasic acids 7in particular on the action of ,p,cl#e on ,h#b,,so#d74 ,chemistry was at one of its turning points4 ,the theory of polybasic radicals was being evolved4 ,with ,williamson was also associated ,odling4 ,williamson insisted on plain1 simple formul1 without commas1 without the buckles of ,kolbe or the brackets of ,gerhardt4 ,it was a capital school to encourage independent thought4 ,the wish was expressed that ,i should stay in ,england and become a technologist1 but ,i was too much attached to home4 ,i wished to teach in a ,german university4 ,but where8 ,in order to get acquainted with the circumstances at several universities1 ,i became a traveling student4 ,in this capacity ,i came1 among other universities1 to ,bonn4 ,here there was no chemist of eminence1 and hence there were no prospects4 ,nowhere did there seem so much promise and so great a future as at ,heidelberg4 ,i could ask no help of ,bunsen4 ',i can do nothing for you1' he said1 'at least not openly4 ,i will not stand in your way1 but more ,i can not promise4' ,i fitted up a small private laboratory in the principal street of ,heidelberg at the house of a corn merchant--,gross1 by name--a single room with an adjoining kitchen4 ,i took a few pupils1 among whom was ,baeyer4 ,in our little kitchen ,i finished my work on fulminate of silver1 while ,baeyer carried out the researches1 which subsequently became famous1 on cacodyl4 ,that the walls were coated thick with arsenious acid1 and that silver fulminate is explosive1 we took no thought about4 ,after two years and a half ,i received a call to ,ghent as ordinary professor4 ,there ,i stayed nine years1 and had to lecture in ,french4 ,with me to ,ghent came ,baeyer4 ,through the kindness of the then ,prime ,minister of ,belgium1 ,rogier1 ,i obtained the means to establish a small laboratory4 ,i had there with me a number of students1 among whom ,i may name ,baeyer1 ,hbner1 ,ladenburg1 ,wichelhaus1 ,linnemann1 ,radzizewski4 ,there was not so much a systematic course of instruction as a free and pleasant academic intercourse4 ,after nine years' work ,i received the call to ,bonn4 ,professor ,kekul concluded his address with some account of his work at ,bonn1 and of the great attention he had always received from his pupils4 ,for a full account of ,kekul's scientific career and achievements1 we are indebted to the memorial address made by ,president ,landelt to the ,german ,chemical ,society on the occasion of his death1 of which we translate the more important passages from the ,berichte3 ,the works which ,kekul has left behind him belong1 as we all know1 to the bases of all chemistry4 ,his teachings have so passed into our flesh and blood that it seems almost superfluous to remind a circle of professional chemists of them4 ,i shall be able to present only in the most general outlines this evening the immense influence which the dead master has exercised upon science2 a complete view of all his labors is a subject for a biography1 which we must wait for4 ,kekul's scientific work began in #ahed1 with the discovery of thiacetic acid1 by which he at once separated from the old school of chemistry that was still prevailing1 and1 founding a new one1 revealed himself as an adherent of the new doctrine of types4 ,after his habilitation at ,heidelberg1 which followed in #ahef1 came the essay on fulminating mercury1 in which the view so important for the future was expressed1 that to the three typical combinations of chlorhydrogen1 water1 and ammonia1 hitherto recognized1 might be added a fourth1 marsh gas4 ,in the next essay1 on binary combinations and the theory of polyatomic radicals1 he put forward the conception of mixed types1 and first reached the knowledge of various atomicity or valency of the radicals4 ,these researches were continued1 and there appeared shortly afterward1 in the spring of #aheh1 the two great treatises which have since exercised so powerful an influence on chemistry--that on the constitution and metamorphoses of chemical combinations1 and that on the chemical nature of carbon4 ,in these theses ,kekul passed from the valency of the radicals to that of the elements themselves1 and showed that the composition of all those compounds that contain one atom of carbon lead to the conclusion that that element is quadrivalent2 and that1 further1 the relations of combination of a complex of carbon atoms are explainable if we suppose that the latter are mutually bound by a certain number of their four unities of attraction4 ,this idea was suggested very carefully1 and the words which the author added at the end of his essay read very curiously to-day3 ',finally1 ,i think ,i ought still to insist that ,i attach only little value to speculations of this sort4 ,since one delving in chemistry must once in a while1 in the lack of exact scientific principles1 content himself with probabilities and temporary hypotheses1 it seems proper to communicate these conceptions1 because1 as it appears to me1 they furnish a simple and fairly general expression for the newest discoveries1 and because1 therefore1 the use of them may assist in the discovery of new facts4' ,how diffident the words sound1 and how far have the expectations been exceeded6 ,we all know that the theory of valency is to-day the leading guide through all our science2 and1 although another investigator had a share in its origination1 no one disputes that its main foundation and its eminent value in organic chemistry are primarily due to ,kekul's idea of the quadrivalency of carbon4 ,after he was called to the ,university of ,ghent1 in #aheh1 ,kekul exhibited an indefatigable activity4 ,he began the great series of investigations of the organic acids which1 beginning with succinic acid1 malic acid1 and tartaric acid1 and extending afterward to many others1 have given complete conclusions as to the nature of these bodies4 ,contemporaneously1 in #ahfj1 appeared the first number of the ,lehrbuch der organischen ,chemie1 which was soon followed by other numbers1 so that the whole first volume was completed in #ahfa4 ,all his fellow-chemists who are acquainted with the events of that period will remember the enthusiasm with which the work was received4 ,for the first time1 in place of the former system of organic chemistry based on the old radicals of ,berzelius1 a system of treatment appeared which in the dress of the theory of types had the doctrine of valency as its foundation1 and exposed the construction as well as the isomeric relations of the numerous carbon compounds with wonderful clearness4 ,the work1 the first two published volumes of which contained the substances designated by ,kekul as the fatty compounds1 is still recognized as the prototype of many text-books that followed it4 ,in #ahee ,kekul put forth the second of his great theories4 ,first in the ,bulletin of the ,chemical ,society of ,paris1 and afterward in fuller form in ,liebig's ,annalen1 appeared the essay1 ,researches among the ,aromatic ,compounds1 in which he showed that the substances so designated all contain six or more atoms of carbon1 and that they could be described as derivatives of the simplest of them1 benzene4 ,he proposed two hypotheses to explain the constitution of this substance1 one of which1 the only one afterward pursued1 supposed that the six carbon atoms are associated in a ring1 and alternately linked by one and two valencies4 ,by replacing the hydrogen atoms corresponding to each carbon atom by other elements or radicals one could arrive at the knowledge of the constitution of a large number of aromatic bodies which now figure as benzol derivatives4 ,these considerations led1 however1 to another question--namely1 whether or not the supplied places of the six hydrogen atoms are chemically equivalent4 ,the question of space relations in chemistry first came up in connection with this investigation1 and ,kekul at once endeavored to solve it4 ,all these ideas were1 however1 expressed at first with reserve1 and this essay closes with the words1 ',i place no more value on these views than they are worth1 and ,i believe that much labor must still be applied before such speculations can be regarded as anything else than more or less elegant hypotheses2 but ,i believe1 too1 that at least experimental speculations of this kind must be used in chemistry4' ,in this case1 again1 ,kekul's modest expectations have been surpassed4 ,the wonderful results that have accrued from the benzol theory are patent to all of us4 ,we know that it was the instigation to the carrying out of an innumerable multitude of researches which are still pursued with undiminished industry4 ,rarely has a thought exercised so fructifying and forwarding an influence on chemistry1 and so redounded to the advantage of both pure science and art4 ,thankfulness for this gift1 as you know1 prompted our society to honor the author of the benzol theory and the twenty-fifth year of the announcement of it by a public festival2 and the ,kekul celebration1 which took place in this house on the #aath of ,march1 #ahij1 is memorable to all for the brilliant and witty speech with which the master responded to the many addresses made to him4 ,it is preserved in our reports 7,berichte #bc1 #ahib71 and the repeated reading of it always affords rich enjoyment4 ,kekul assumed his last position1 as professor at the ,university of ,bonn1 in the fall of #ahfg4 ,he there devoted his attention for a period to the erection of a new institute building1 but it was not long before numerous works began again to appear--some of them by himself alone1 like the important investigation of the condensation products of aldehyde2 and others in co-operation with his many students4 ,the continuation of his ,lehrbuch was taken in hand at the same time4 ,in #ahfg he gratified his fellow-chemists by the publication of the first volume of his ,chemistry of the ,benzol ,derivatives4 ,this was followed from #ahhj to #ahhg by single numbers1 prepared with the help of co-workers1 of the second and third volumes4 ,prof4 ,f4 ,r4 ,japp1 in the ,kekul memorial lecture before the ,chemical ,society of ,london1 speaking of ,kekul's residence in that city1 ,september1 #ahig1 said that he always acknowledged the influence which ,liebig and ,odling and ,williamson1 with whom he became acquainted in ,london1 exercised on the formation of his opinions4 ,kekul's theories1 ,professor ,japp said1 were based on ,gerhardt's type theory2 on ,williamson's theory of polyvalent radicals1 which by their power of linking together other radicals render possible the existence of multiple types2 and ,odling's theory of mixed types1 which was a deduction from ,williamson's theory4 ,less consciously1 perhaps1 his opinions were influenced by ,e4 ,frankland's theory of the valency of elementary atoms1 and by ,kolbe's speculation on the constitution of organic compounds4 ,kekul gathered together the various ideas which he found scattered throughout the writings of his predecessors1 added to them1 and welded the whole into the consistent system which forms our present theory of chemical structure4 ,in #aheg1 in the course of a memoir on the constitution of fulminic acid1 he gave a tabular arrangement of compounds formulated on the type of marsh gas1 this being the earliest statement1 though put forward only in an imperfect form1 of the tetravalency of carbon4 ,in the same year he published an important theoretical paper ,on the ,so-called ,conjugated ,compounds and the ,theory of ,polyatomic ,radicals1 which contains a complete system of multiple types and mixed types4 ,in #aheh the celebrated paper1 ,on the ,constitution and ,metamorphoses of ,chemical ,compounds1 and on the ,chemical ,nature of ,carbon1 appeared4 ,it embodies the fully developed doctrine of the tetravalency of carbon1 together with ,kekul's views on the linking of atoms and on the valency of such chains of atoms1 the foundation on which our modern system of constitutional chemistry rests4 ,in #ahfe ,kekul put forward his well-known benzene theory--pronounced by ,professor ,japp the crowning achievement1 in his hands1 of the doctrine of the linking of atoms1 and the most brilliant piece of scientific prediction to be found in the whole range of organic chemistry4 ,the conception of closed chains1 or cycloids1 which he thus introduced1 has shown itself to be capable of boundless expansion4 ,kekul's students all speak admiringly of his qualities as a teacher4 ,the memorialist of the ,german ,chemical ,society said3 ,all of us who have attended his lectures or heard him in other places will ever remember what a teacher ,kekul was4 ,with incomparable lucidity and sometimes with the happiest humor1 he could go playfully through the theme he was considering1 masterfully presenting it in new and often surprising aspects4 ,the charm of his personality affected all who came in contact with him2 it was the geniality which shone out of his whole being1 and involuntarily commanded admiration4 ,numerous pupils flocked to him1 and many of those who to-day fill chairs of chemistry in ,germany and other countries have made his name highly honored4 ,professor ,thorpe1 of ,london1 who spent a little time in ,kekul's laboratory1 describes him as having been one of the very best expositors1 with the single possible exception of ,kirchhoff1 to whom it had been his lot to listen4 ,as a laboratory teacher he was excellent4 ,he was a most severe judge of work1 striving to exact the same high manipulative finish1 the same neatness and order1 which he invariably bestowed on everything he did1 and he was absolutely intolerant of anything slovenly or sloppy4 ,but it was as a lecturer that he was seen at his best4 ,he was singularly luminous as a thinker1 a close and accurate reasoner1 with a remarkable power of concentrated expression4444 ,his language was apt and well chosen1 and his delivery easy and natural2 and his whole address showed that every detail had been carefully considered4 ,at a distance of thirty years1 ,professor ,dewar said1 at the ,london memorial meeting1 that to look back and call to mind the presence and personality of the great chemist as he knew him was indeed a pleasure4 ,he was a man of noble mien1 handsome1 dignified1 and yet of a homely and kindly disposition4 ,he was a severe critic1 having a haughty contempt for the accidental and bizarre in scientific work4 ,his originality and suggestiveness seemed endless1 so that he had no need to commit trespass or to follow just in the wake of other people's ideas4 ,everything that passed through the ,kekul alembic was indeed transmuted into pure gold4 ,his precision of thought and diction rendered his papers profoundly suggestive to other workers4 ,the last years of the master's life1 his ,german eulogist says1 were often troubled by illness1 but there were not wanting bright days which the love of his students and colleagues prepared for him4 ,such a one was the celebration of the twenty-fifth anniversary of his professorship at ,bonn1 ,june #a1 #ahib1 in which the students and officers participated with cordial unanimity4 ,the ceremony began in the morning with an enthusiastic ovation by the students4 ,the chemical theater was decorated with plants2 the benzene hexagon was figured on the blackboard with garlands of flowers1 in the midst of which the letters ,a4 ,k4 were wrought in a monogram of roses4 ,alfred ,helle1 one of the chemical students1 delivered a felicitous address1 in which he congratulated his fellow-students on being privileged to sit at the feet of the greatest of living chemists1 after which three cheers were given to the professor4 ,kekul responded to the offering in an address giving some of the details of his life1 from which we have already quoted4 ,kekul's personal staff and the officers of the university then presented their congratulations4 ,in the evening the students honored him with a torchlight procession1 it being the third time he had received this1 the most conspicuous honor which is bestowed by ,german students4 ,the first occasion was in #ahge1 when he declined the professorship at ,munich2 the second was in #ahgh1 when he was rector of the university1 and was given in celebration of the restoration of unity among the students1 after a long period of disunion4 ,among the torchbearers on that occasion was the present ,emperor of ,germany4 ,during the later period of his life ,kekul was comparatively sterile4 ,those who knew him1 however1 ,professor ,thorpe says1 would be the first to affirm that this seeming apathy sprang from no natural indifference4 ,there is no doubt that he suffered1 even in the early period of middle life1 from the intense stress and strain of his mental labors prior to the ,ghent period4 ,he too surely exemplified the sad truth of ,liebig's saying that he who would become a great chemist must pay for his pre-eminence by the sacrifice of his health4 ,there is reason to know that it was the consciousness of failing power which prevented him from finishing much to which he had put his hand1 and that his fastidiousness and his sense of 'finish1' amounting almost to hypercriticism1 restrained him from publishing much which he realized fell short of his ideal4 ,the last time ,kekul's name was brought before the public was on the occasion of the renewal of the ancient title of nobility of his family1 as ,august ,kekul von ,stradowitz4 ,editor's ,table4 ,a ,,voice ,,from ,,the ,,pulpit4 ,we called attention last month to a weak attack on the doctrine of evolution by a certain ,mr4 ,a4 ,j4 ,smith1 ,superintendent of ,public ,schools in the city of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the only thing which gave any consequence to the deliverance in question was that it was addressed to a large gathering of public-school teachers1 who might possibly have been unduly influenced in their appreciation of it by the speaker's official position4 ,we are glad now to learn that1 very shortly after the publication of ,superintendent ,smith's address1 an excellent statement of the true relation of the doctrine of evolution to education was made in one of the city pulpits by the ,rev4 ,s4 ,g4 ,smith1 who did not boast1 as the superintendent had done1 of having made an exhaustive study of the subject1 but who1 nevertheless1 showed that he had a grasp of it which the other altogether lacked4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,smith's discourse would have merited attention wherever it might have been delivered2 but1 considered as a pulpit utterance1 it seems to us to possess a special and very encouraging significance4 ,we need hardly say that the pulpit has not always been friendly to broad scientific views1 but in this case it has spoken with a candor1 a breadth1 and an intelligence which the lecture platform can not do more than equal1 and which it would certainly be too much to look for in all our colleges4 ,the law of evolution1 said the reverend gentleman1 is as universal in its application as the law of gravitation4 ,it holds that in every realm the simple tends to become complex1 and that the complex is more stable than the simple4 ,motion and matter have a history in which the simple and the indefinite take on variety of organization and definiteness of adaptation4 ,this is a statement in which the author of the ,synthetic ,philosophy would probably have very little change to suggest4 ,mr4 ,smith does not1 like so many who discuss the subject in a superficial manner1 confound evolution with ,darwinism4 ,darwinism1 he recognizes1 may1 in its particular explanations as to the origin of species and the descent of life1 be in error2 but evolution is universal in its scope1 and can only fail if it can be shown that the fundamental postulates on which it rests1 such as the instability of the homogeneous1 the continuity of motion1 the law of rhythm1 etc41 are not to be depended on4 ,must a person have made the circle of the sciences and comprehended all knowledge before he can reasonably profess a belief in evolution8 ,no1 says ,mr4 ,smith2 when the foundations of a doctrine have been clearly laid1 when they have been tested by many different investigators from many different points of view1 and when these1 almost without exception1 affirm that the doctrine is not only in harmony with1 but lends a new and deeper significance to1 the several orders of fact with which they are individually concerned1 any person of ordinary intelligence is justified in considering that doctrine as satisfactorily proved and giving it his personal adhesion4 ,what chiefly excited the ire of ,superintendent ,a4 ,j4 ,smith was the contention of evolutionists that the modern child reflects the earlier stages of human development4 ,he asked his audience if they really thought the children of to-day were young savages1 and quoted ,emerson and ,longfellow as authorities on the question4 ,the ,rev4 ,s4 ,g4 ,smith takes up the point and expresses himself as follows3 ,when it is stated that the child has many points of contact with primitive man1 it is not meant that the child is a savage1 but that 'in its immaturity' we can learn much respecting it from the study of child races4 ,the child has neither the virtues nor the vices of the savage1 but he has many of the mental characteristics4 ,embryology does not teach that in prenatal life the child passes into the form of every animal in a menagerie1 but that its life passes through the stages that mark the great subdivisions of all life4 ,nor do the comparisons of the child with primitive man imply that he must pass through all the activities of savage races1 but that the development of his faculties1 the tendencies of his desires1 the state of his ignorance1 all illustrate the history of the development of the race4 ,primitive man may be understood by a study of the child1 and1 conversely1 the child may be illustrated by primitive man4 ,it must be borne in mind that the child is in constant contact with its elders1 that it is subject to the restraints which they impose1 and that it lives more or less in an atmosphere of affection and care4 ,there is excellent reason1 therefore1 why it should not resemble primitive man in all points4 ,its daily life is really controlled and guided by a higher power4 ,in some cases there is even too much control and guidance2 the conditions are made too artificial1 and the development of the child's nature suffers in consequence4 ,when the age of manhood or womanhood is reached there is something lacking1 precisely because enough scope was not left for the primitive or1 as we may very properly say1 the savage instincts of childhood4 ,a great ,french writer1 ,joseph de ,maistre1 quotes a popular saying to the effect that spoilt children always turn out well4#di ,so far as there is any truth in it1 the explanation is that the spoilt child is one that has a great deal of its own way1 and is left to work out the savage and so acquire a sounder foundation for its future life4 ,in how many of us are there not chained savages that might have made their escape in earlier years if they had only been allowed6 ,it is a dangerous thing to try to make little angels of children4 ,the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,smith is quite right in what he says as to the predominance of the imagination in children1 this being another strong point of resemblance to primitive man4 ,the beginnings of history and institutions1 he truly says1 can only be understood when we remember that races in their early development do not have clearly marked activities of imagination1 reason1 and memory4 ,they mix the three4 ,so legends1 myths1 and heroics are earnest efforts of the undeveloped mind to make objective the truth1 and are not clumsy lies at all4 ,applying this to the child1 the conclusion is that he must be fed through his imagination or he will not grow4 ,a very imaginative child is apt to be accused of falsehood1 when he simply fails to distinguish between things imagined and things remembered4 ,neither the child nor the savage can concentrate his attention1 and to force either to do so beyond a certain very limited measure is simply to injure and deform such natural powers as he possesses4 ,the amount of mischief which a dogmatic and over-logical teacher1 wholly ignorant of the psychology of the child1 can do is beyond all calculation4 ,it is needless1 however1 to pursue the parallel further1 though the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,smith very properly carries it into the region of morals1 where it is no less close than in that of intellectual action4 ,there is another interesting aspect of evolution which the reverend gentleman glances at1 and that is its bearing on general courses of study4 ,history and literature1 considered as departments of research1 it has largely transformed by substituting for conventional categories and abstract notions the perception of a genetic process pervading all the works of the human spirit and linking them into an organic unity4 ,in conclusion1 we may observe that1 if ,superintendent ,a4 ,j4 ,smith had not made some foolish remarks in a rather ostentatious manner1 it is probable the ,rev4 ,s4 ,g4 ,smith would not have delivered the excellent discourse on which we have commented1 and which we feel sure will far outweigh in general effect the performance which called it forth4 ,the conclusions to be drawn are the pleasing ones that good may sometimes come out of evil1 and that a free pulpit is admirably adapted to guard the interests of liberty and common sense4 ,,footnote3 #di ,les enfans gts russissent toujours4 ,,lessons ,,of ,,anthropology4 ,the address delivered at the last meeting of the ,british ,association by the president of the ,anthropological ,section contained nothing that was strikingly novel--it is not every year that striking novelties can be announced--but it dealt in an interesting manner with several phases of a most important subject4 ,the speaker1 ,professor ,brabrook1 took the position that the order of the universe is expressed in continuity1 not cataclysm1 and that this principle will be found illustrated in every branch of anthropological research1 in direct proportion to the completeness of the data obtained4 ,he admitted the vastness of the gap which still separates the remains of palaeolithic from those of neolithic man1 but expressed the belief that further explorations would bring intermediate relics to light4 ,to quote the speaker's words3 ,the evidence we want relates to events which took place at so great a distance of time that we may well wait patiently for it1 assured that somewhere or other these missing links must have existed1 and probably are still to be found4 ,reference was made to the labors which are now being usefully expended in gathering what is called the folklore of various communities1 and to the result which continually appears with fuller evidence1 namely1 that the tendency of mankind everywhere is to develop like fancies and ideas at a like stage of intellectual development4 ,full of detail as these stories are1 they are found to contain but a few primitive ideas2 and it seems not improbable that to a large extent they are essentially ,nature myths4 ,mr4 ,brabrook happily quotes ,lord ,bacon's description of such narratives as sacred relics1 gentle whispers and the breath of better times4 ,the better times are a part of the general system of myth2 but who will deny that there is a special charm in these early documents of our race8 ,let one of our literary exquisites1 said a thoughtful ,french writer1 try to write a fairy tale which shall neither be a pretentious apologue nor a tiresome and transparent allegory1 and he will soon feel that mere cleverness does not suffice to create these marvelous narratives1 and will conceive a just admiration for those who constructed them1 that is to say1 everybody and nobody4 ,the progress of anthropology1 according to the president of the section1 seems more and more to confirm the theory adopted by ,fustel de ,coulanges in ,france and ,spencer in ,england1 that the belief in spirits lies at the basis of all religious systems4 ,we thus see1 to use his words1 that the group of theories and practices which constitute the great province of man's emotions and mental operations expressed in the term 'religion' has passed through the same stages1 and produced itself in the same way1 from rude early beginnings1 as every other mental exertion4 ,mr4 ,brabrook mentions a work lately published by a distinguished missionary of the ,evangelical ,society of ,paris1 the ,rev4 ,mr4 ,coillard1 in which an account is given of the superstitions prevailing among the natives of the upper ,zambesi4 ,the reverend gentleman tells of their belief in witchcraft1 and gives a story of a young woman who was condemned to penal labor on suspicion of having bewitched1 or tried to bewitch1 another young woman who had taken her husband from her2 the evidence of the crime being found in a dead mouse1 which had been discovered in the second young woman's chamber4 ,the missionary says3 ,she was made a convict4 ,a few years ago she would have been burned alive4 ,ah1 my friends1 paganism is an odious and a cruel thing6 ,on which the president of the ,anthropological ,section observes3 ,ah1 ,mr4 ,coillard1 is it many years ago that she would have been burned alive or drowned in ,christian ,england or ,christian ,america8 ,surely the odiousness and the cruelty are not special to paganism any more than to ,christianity4 ,this is much to the point4 ,if witchcraft is no longer a recognized crime in ,england or ,america1 it is not because these lands are ,christian1 but because science is mixed with their ,christianity4 ,even missionaries ought to know this4 ,a great many different sciences are grouped under the name anthropology1 but they all have their rallying point in man1 whose nature and history they seek to explore4 ,the fact is that all sciences should have the same rallying point2 and we trust that the greater interest which is visibly being taken year by year in anthropological studies will tend to humanize in a beneficial degree the whole circle of human knowledge4 ,,an ,,example ,,of ,,social ,,decadence4 ,that the incessant encroachment of the ,government upon the rights of the individual will produce social decadence is a truth that most ,americans have yet to learn4 ,with a light heart they are constantly approving scheme after scheme for social regeneration that involves some restriction upon freedom1 or an increase of taxation1 or both4 ,it is not perhaps singular that the history of similar schemes in the past should possess no lesson for them4 ,when ,president ,eliot1 of ,harvard ,university1 says that the experience of the ,italian republics has no value for us1 it is not to be expected that persons with less capacity to interpret the records of other times should attach little or no importance to them4 ,but they ought not most certainly to maintain the same attitude toward the experience of the nations of to-day4 ,it is to blind their eyes to what does not rest upon hearsay or upon dubious documents--to what admits of the clearest demonstration at the hands of living witnesses4 ,for this reason we urge upon all students of social science the study of the condition of the inhabitants of the black-earth region of ,russia4 ,in that field1 one of the largest and most fruitful in the world for investigation1 they will find the amplest evidence of the frightful havoc wrought by the abridgment of individual freedom and the seizure of private property in the form of taxes for public purposes4 ,if it be said that ,russia is an autocracy1 and can not therefore furnish instruction to a democracy like the ,united ,states1 the answer is easy1 if not obvious4 ,despotism1 like gravitation1 is the same all over the world4 ,it makes no difference in the long run whether a law abridging freedom issues from the palace of a czar or from the legislative halls of a popular assembly4 ,the individual objecting to it is obliged to regulate his life1 not in accordance with his own notions1 but in accordance with the notions of some one else4 ,it makes no difference1 either1 whether taxation is imposed by an imperial edict or by a legislative vote4 ,the citizens that have to bear it against their will contribute money for purposes that some one else only approves of4 ,the only difference between ,russia and the ,united ,states is that this kind of despotism has been carried to much greater lengths in one country than in the other4 ,if1 therefore1 we can find out what the effect has been in ,russia1 we will be able to predict what the effect will be in the ,united ,states4 ,as every person familiar with ,russia knows1 the black-earth region is one of the richest and most productive in the world4 ,it ought to be inhabited by one of the wealthiest and happiest of peoples4 ,yet such is not the case4 ,according to ,count ,tolstoi1 who contributed recently a letter to the ,london ,times on the subject1 the inhabitants are among the poorest and most miserable in the world4 ,they are in a state of chronic starvation4 ,they are obliged to content themselves with nearly a third less food than is sufficient to maintain normal health4 ,the physical effect of this insufficiency of food is a decrease in vitality1 a diminished stature1 and a check to the growth of population4 ,it is proved1 first1 by the failure of the peasants of the region to meet the requirements for military service1 and1 second1 by the statistics of population1 which show that the increase of births over deaths has fallen from the maximum reached twenty years ago to zero4 ,but the mental effects of the destitution wrought by the robberies of the ,government are more distressing even than the physical4 ,it gives birth to a stolidity and despair that tend to paralyze all effort toward betterment4 ,the people subjected to it come to feel that there is no use of making any struggle beyond the maintenance of mere existence4 ,whatever they get in excess of this requirement will be taken from them4 ,a peasant1 says ,tolstoi1 illustrating this fact1 feels that his position as an agriculturalist is bad1 but he believes that it can not be improved2 and1 consequently1 adapting himself to this hopeless position1 he no longer fights against it1 but lives and acts only in so far as he is stirred by the instinct of self-preservation4 ,moreover1 the very wretchedness of his condition increases still more his depression of spirit4 ,the lower the economic condition of a population sinks1 like a weight on a lever1 the more difficult it becomes to raise it again2 the peasants feel this1 and1 as it were1 throw away the helve after the hatchet4 ',why should we trouble ourselves8' they say4 ',we sha'n't get fat4 ,if we can only keep alive4' ,the fruits of this mental state are as palpable as those of the lack of food4 ,they are to be found in every direction4 ,in manners1 habits1 and customs the peasants are hopelessly conservative4 ,they belong1 not to the nineteenth century1 but to the ninth4 ,instead of adopting new and improved methods of agriculture1 they cling to those of the subjects of ,rurik4 ,they use the old plow1 distribute tillage in three crops1 and divide their fields into long1 narrow strips4 ,so slowly do they toil with primitive implements and debilitated animals1 and so indifferent are they to what they are doing1 that it takes them a day to do the work that a well-fed and alert peasant would do in half the time4 ,a more deplorable sign of demoralization is the prevalence of family discord and loss of interest in a higher life4 ,the aggressions of the state have stimulated selfishness1 bad temper1 and incipient rebellion4 ,the children disobey their parents1 the younger brothers reject the primacy of the older1 and money earned elsewhere is kept from the family treasury4 ,with the decadence of family life there is a decadence of religious life4 ,although the peasants are nominally orthodox1 they care nothing for religion4 ,even the clergy confirm the fact that they are becoming more and more indifferent to the church4 ,what they seek is not to penetrate the mysteries of life1 but to obliterate consciousness of them4 ,under these circumstances1 says ,tolstoi1 alluding to the economic and mental decadence1 the craving for forgetfulness is natural1 and accordingly spirits and tobacco are being consumed in ever greater and greater quantities4 ,he adds that even quite young boys drink and smoke4 ,since the loss of freedom due to the seizure of property is the same in the last analysis as that due to an abridgment of the right to think and act1 the evils of ecclesiastical and bureaucratic despotism do not differ from those of excessive taxation4 ,nevertheless1 they receive separate attention at the hands of ,tolstoi4 ,as a proof of the blight of a church that the peasants have no part in directing1 he points to the profound and beneficent change wrought the moment they fall in with a sect of dissenters4 ,their spirits at once rise1 he says1 and at the same time the foundation of their material prosperity is laid4 ,a blight of the same kind can be traced to the attempt of the state to play the paternal rle4 ,nominally1 says ,tolstoi again1 there exist for the peasants special laws with regard to the possession and division of land1 to inheritance1 and to all the duties connected with it1 but in reality there is a kind of hodge-podge of regulations1 explanation1 customary laws1 decrees of courts of cassation1 and so on1 which naturally makes the peasants feel their absolute dependence on the will of innumerable officials4 ,knowing that they are powerless to resist the ,government1 which is constantly flogging them for disobedience or stupidity1 they comply as best they can with the thousand rules and regulations made for them4 ,seldom do they think of acting upon their own responsibility4 ,thus they lose the power of private initiative4 ,what the impoverishment of taxation has not done to ruin them is left to ecclesiastical and bureaucratic despotism to complete4 ,it is curious to note that ,tolstoi's remedy for these evils is the one that ,herbert ,spencer himself might have suggested4 ,with one stroke he dismisses the prescriptions that the social reformer in the ,united ,states as well as in ,russia attaches so much importance to4 ,it is not1 in his opinion1 the ministry of agriculture1 with all its contrivances1 that will reclaim the peasants1 nor is it exhibitions nor schools for rural economy1 nor that unfailing remedy for all evils1 i4 e41 parish schools4 ,the thing they need is freedom4 ,it is necessary1 says ,tolstoi1 to give them religious liberty1 to subject them to common instead of special laws--the will of rural officials2 it is necessary to give them liberty of education1 liberty of reading1 liberty of moving about1 and1 above all1 to remove the power to torture brutally by flogging grown-up people simply because they belong to the peasant class4 ,but to give them such freedom means to deliver them not only from excessive taxation but from vexatious rules and regulations4 ,it is to apply to them the same remedy that must be applied in the ,united ,states to save the ,american people1 now so heavily taxed and so oppressed by countless laws1 from the same social decadence that afflicts ,russia4 ,,the ,,advance ,,of ,,science4 ,the paper by ,sir ,j4 ,norman ,lockyer1 which we publish in this number1 recounts in an interesting manner the steps by which science gained a place for itself in the educational systems of the world4 ,to us1 in the latter years of the nineteenth century1 it is apt to seem strange that the recognition of science as an essential element in all education should have come so late in the world's history2 but reflection shows that it could not well have been otherwise4 ,to view and examine any subject scientifically involves not only a deliberate and prolonged mental effort1 but the holding in check of some of the most active propensities of the human mind1 such as imagination and what ,bagehot has called the emotion of belief4 ,in a certain sense imagination is the precursor of science2 but1 in the early stages of human development the precursor is mistaken for the true teacher4 ,the lesson that there is no royal road to truth1 nothing but a highway on which much wearisome plodding must be done1 is one which human nature in general does not take to kindly4 ,even in the present day how many there are who chafe at the restraints which ,science imposes on belief1 whose disposition is to break her bonds asunder and have none of her reproof6 ,when we think1 indeed1 of what the intellectual condition of the world is to-day1 with the wonders which science has wrought raising their testimony on every hand1 it is hardly surprising that1 a couple of centuries ago1 it was difficult to get any systematic provision made for the teaching of science4 ,however1 that battle has been fought and won1 and ,science has long since definitely entered on her career of beneficent conquest4 ,systems founded on imagination1 or on merely abstract reasoning1 come and go1 wax and wane2 but the empire of science once set up can never be subverted4 ,we must hope that some day it will rule in the realm of morals as now it does in that of material things4 ,not till then will its perfect work be done4 ,scientific ,literature4 ,,special ,,books4 ,prof4 ,dean ,c4 ,worcester1 of the ,university of ,michigan1 spent eleven months1 beginning in ,september1 #ahhg1 in the ,philippine ,islands in connection with the second scientific expedition of ,dr4 ,j4 ,b4 ,steere4 ,he went there again1 with an expedition of which he was chief1 in ,july1 #ahij1 and spent two years and eight months4 ,his object in both expeditions was the study of birds4 ,in the course of them he visited twenty-two islands4 ,the first expedition was unofficial and was regarded suspiciously by the authorities of the islands2 the second was armed with a special permission from the ,spanish ,minister of the ,colonies and enjoyed every advantage4 ,the scientific results of both were reported to the ,united ,states ,national ,museum1 and the collections were deposited in its cabinet4 ,the general results1 the story of the adventures of the members of the expedition1 with their observations on the geographical features of the islands1 their peoples1 and the social conditions prevailing there1 are given in a popular style in the volume before us4#ej ,the account is preceded by a short sketch of the history of the islands1 as an aid to the better comprehension of their present condition and the reasons for it4 ,of the natives1 who form the bulk of the #h1jjj1jjj of the population of the islands1 there are more than eighty distinct tribes1 each with its own peculiarities1 scattered over hundreds of islands4 ,the more important of these islands may be reached by lines of mail and merchant steamers1 which afford tolerably frequent communication between them4 ,the difficulties begin when one attempts to make his way into the interior of the large and less explored of them1 or desires to reach ports at which vessels do not call4 ,roads are scarce and to a large extent impracticable1 while enemies and dangers are many1 and such boats as one can find off the regular routes are precarious4 ,as to climate1 if one is well1 able to live as he pleases1 and most scrupulously observes all sanitary rules1 keeping the most healthy spots1 he may escape disease2 but if he steps a little aside at any point he is in danger4 ,it is very doubtful1 in the author's judgment1 if many successive generations of ,european or ,american children could be reared there4 ,evidences of the action of earthquakes and volcanoes are seen almost everywhere1 and elevation and subsidence are going on with great rapidity at the present time4 ,hence it is not safe to build substantial houses in ,manila4 ,the soil is astonishingly fertile3 fruits--in about fifty varieties--are the chief luxury2 the value of the forest products is enormous2 the mineral wealth is great1 but has never been developed4 ,professor ,worcester speaks of five millions of civilized natives of the ,philippines4 ,they belong for the most part to three tribes3 the ,tagalogs1 ,ilocanos1 and ,visayans4 ,without drawing fine distinctions between these1 they are regarded as showing sufficient homogeneity to be treated as a class4 ,they have their bad qualities and their good1 which are reviewed with an apparent inclination on the part of the author to like them1 and the conclusion that1 having learned something of their power1 they will now be likely to take a hand in shaping their own future4 ,there are also barbarians1 of whom the ,moros of ,sulu are a type--bloodthirsty and faithless1 and as careless of human life as one would be of weeds in a field2 and savages of all degrees1 down to the lowest4 ,the government is various1 according to the particular governor and the people he has to deal with1 but all of the ,spanish or ,moro type4 ,the clergy are the dominant class2 and of these the friars or brethren of the orders exert an evil influence1 while the ,jesuits are believed to be a distinctive power for good4 ,much can be said in favor of the insurgents' demand that the friars be expelled from the colony and their places taken by secular clergymen not belonging to any order4 ,professor ,worcester has made a very lively1 interesting1 and instructive book1 which is marred1 however1 by occasional evidences that1 while begun with serious purpose1 it has been hurried to meet a passing demand1 and by the too frequent intrusion of trivialities and slang4 99 99 99 99 99 ,we are often surprised at manifestations of individuality and intelligence in domestic animals and pets1 and are accustomed to attribute extraordinary qualities to the beasts in which we perceive them2 as if each animal could not have its peculiar traits and talents as well as each man4 ,we hardly imagine that there are any special differences in wild animals1 and that idiosyncrasies of character and diversities of gifts and powers of adaptation may run through the whole animal kingdom4 ,a closer acquaintance with ,nature would teach us better4 ,certain stories and myths of savages show that they had a fair appreciation of the individual peculiarities of animals1 and farmers' boys1 who live in natural surroundings1 know something of these things4 ,the subject is now presented to us in a fairly clear light by ,mr4 ,ernest ,seton ,thompson1 as illustrated in the careers of a number of typical specimens of animals and birds whose characters and acts1 as they came under his observation1 are related in ,wild ,animals ,i have ,known4#ea ,the stories1 he avers1 are true2 the animals in the book are all real characters4 ,they lived the lives he has depicted1 and showed the stamp of heroism and personality more strongly by far than it has been in the power of his pen to tell4 ,among them was ,lobo1 the wolf1 of the ,corrumpaw ,cattle ,range1 ,new ,mexico1 the leader of a gang1 who exhibited some of the qualities of an able general1 and was a beast of influence1 powerful1 vigilant1 crafty1 and the terror of the settlement2 and who was only trapped when grief for the loss of a female companion deprived him of the wit by which he had escaped all previous efforts to take him4 ,silverspot1 the crow1 was the leader of a large band4 ,he had his calls1 which the other crows obeyed1 and was always to be seen at the head of his company in their incursions into the fields1 and guiding them in their journeys northward and southward4 ,raggylug1 the rabbit1 is acknowledged to be a composite1 embodying in one the ways of several rabbits1 their nesting habits and ways of concealment and devices to baffle pursuers4 ,bingo1 the dog1 had associates as well as enemies among the wolves1 and different characters by day and by night4 ,in a similar way to these1 the traits of the fox1 the pacing mustang1 other dogs than ,bingo1 and the partridge are portrayed4 ,in all the stories the real personality of the individual and his view of life are the author's theme1 rather than the ways of the race in general1 as viewed by a casual and hostile human eye4 ,the moral is suggested by the lives and emphasized by ,mr4 ,thompson1 that we and the beasts are kin4 ,man has nothing that the animals have not at least a vestige of2 the animals have nothing that man does not at least in some degree share4 ,since1 then1 the animals are creatures with wants and feelings differing only in degree from our own1 they surely have their rights4 ,it would be hard to speak too well of the graphic expressiveness of the illustrations4 ,,footnotes3 #ej ,the ,philippine ,islands and their ,people4 ,a ,record of ,personal ,observation and ,experiences1 with a ,short ,summary of the ,more ,important ,facts in the ,history of the ,archipelago4 ,by ,dean ,c4 ,worcester4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #ebi4 ,price1 #d4 #ea ,wild ,animals ,i have ,known1 and #bjj ,drawings4 ,by ,ernest ,seton ,thompson4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #ceh4 ,price1 #b4 ,,general ,,notices4 ,an unscientific account of a scientific expedition is what ,mrs4 ,mabel ,loomis ,todd happily styles the story of the ,amherst ,eclipse ,expedition1 told in ,corona and ,coronet#eb--;,corona being what the expedition went to see1 and ,coronet the vessel that took it to the observing station4 ,professor ,todd was the astronomer of the party1 and ,mrs4 ,todd1 who has published a work on astronomy1 was his companion4 ,she believes that certain aspects of the trip1 covering as it did more than ten thousand miles of sailing for the party1 and at least forty-five thousand miles of deep-sea voyaging for the ,coronet1 were worthy of narration4 ,the astronomical purposes of the expedition1 the objects it sought to obtain1 the scientific bearings of the observations1 and the methods1 are intelligibly set forth in the introduction to the book4 ,the rest is devoted mostly to narrative1 the social aspects of the voyage1 and the incidents4 ,a short sojourn was made at the ,sandwich ,islands1 where the more interesting objects were visited4 ,mrs4 ,todd was with ,kate ,field when she died there1 and gives an account of her last hours4 ,a voyage of four weeks carried the party to ,yokohama1 whence some of the members went to the capital and other interesting points in ,japan1 while the rest were preparing the observing station at ,esashi1 eleven hundred miles north of ,yokohama--a village on the shores of the ,sea of ,okotsk1 among the hairy ,ainu1 in a region so remote that the native steamers had only recently begun to go there at all4 ,besides the account of the observations1 descriptions are given of such ,japanese experiences as life in ,kioto1 cormorant fishing1 yachting in the ,inland ,sea1 the tidal wave1 and observations among the ,ainu1 with a visit on the way home to an ,arizona copper mine4 ,the late ,prof4 ,james ,d4 ,dana had begun a revision of his ,text-,book of ,geology a short time before his death4 ,prof4 ,william ,north ,rice was requested by his family to complete the revision1 and the result is the present volume4#ec ,it was intended in the original plan of revision to preserve as far as possible the distinctive characteristics of the book4 ,it was to be brought down to date as regards its facts1 but was still to express the well-known opinions of its author1 with the general plan of arrangement kept unchanged4 ,it soon became evident1 however1 that more and greater changes than had been contemplated would be required4 ,the zological and botanical classifications would have to be modified2 the theory of evolution must have more recognition than it had received1 especially as ,professor ,dana himself had adopted some of its features before his death2 and the treatment of metamorphism was believed to require considerable modification4 ,in the present edition the bearing of various events in geological history upon the theory of evolution is pointed out in the appropriate places1 and the general bearing of paleontology upon evolution is discussed in the concluding chapter4 ,all these changes seem to be in the line of continuing the usefulness of ,professor ,dana's most excellent and standard work1 and of keeping his name before students as that of one of the greatest of geologists and one of the noblest of men4 ,a true son of ,nature is ,mr4 ,f4 ,schuyler ,mathews1 and he shows himself at his best in his ,familiar ,life in ,field and ,forest4#ed ,there are few things1 he says1 more gratifying to the lover of ,nature than these momentary glimpses of wild life which he obtains while passing through the field or forest4 ,wild animals do not confine themselves exclusively to the wilderness2 quite frequently they venture upon the highway1 and we are apt to regard the meeting of one of them there as a rare and fortunate occurrence4 ,the daisy and the wild rose appear in their accustomed places on the return of summer1 and the song sparrow sings in the same tree he frequented the year before2 but the wood-chuck1 the raccoon1 and the deer are not so often found exactly where we think they belong4 ,to seek an interview with such folk is like taking a chance in a lottery2 there are numerous blanks and but few prizes4 ,but because wild life is not in constant evidence1 like the wild flower1 is no proof that it is uncommon4 ,to those who keep in touch with ,nature1 it becomes a very familiar thing1 and to live a while where the wild creatures make their homes is to cross their paths continually4 ,mr4 ,mathews is in touch with ,nature4 ,he does not exactly know where to find the wild and shy1 for they do not come at call1 but he can put himself where he will meet them if they come around--and one can never tell at what moment some surprising demonstration of wild life will occur at one's very doorstep4 ,in this book ,mr4 ,mathews records some of his meetings1 at home and in his daily walks1 offering as his excuse for the record1 that he has lived long enough among wild animals to respect their rights of life1 and speak a good word for them when occasion offers4 ,the ,short ,manual of ,analytical ,chemistry1#ee prepared by ,mr4 ,john ,muter1 follows the course of instruction given in the ,south ,london ,school of ,pharmacy4 ,encouraged by the continued favor which the book has received in ,great ,britain1 the author offers a special edition of it to ,american students1 a concise and low-priced manual1 designed to introduce them to the chief developments of analytical chemistry from the simplest operations upward4 ,it includes many organic questions generally overlooked in initiatory books4 ,by working through it the author claims the student may expect to become familiar with a great variety of processes1 and to be in a position to use with satisfaction the more exhaustive treatises dealing with any special branch he may desire to follow4 ,in preparing it for ,american students1 the directions1 wherever the ,british methods differ from the ,american1 have been modified to agree with the latter4 ,the processes given include the qualitative analysis1 all the general operations and those relating to detection of the metals1 of acid radicals and their separation1 of unknown salts1 of alkaloids and certain organic bodies used in medicine--with a general sketch of toxicological procedure2 and in quantitative analysis1 directions on weighing1 measuring1 and specific gravity2 gravimetric analysis of metals and acids1 ultimate organic analysis1 special processes for the analysis of air1 water1 and food2 analysis of drugs1 urine1 and calculi2 and analysis of gases1 polarization1 spectrum analysis1 etc4 ,the pure geometry of position is mainly distinguished1 according to ,professor ,reye's definition1#ef from the geometry of ancient times and from analytical geometry1 in that it makes no use of the idea of measurement4 ,nothing is said in it about the bisection of segments of straight lines1 about right angles and perpendiculars1 about ratios and proportions1 about the computation of areas1 and just as little about trigonometric ratios and the algebraic equations of curved lines1 since all these subjects of the older geometry assume measurement4444 ,we shall be concerned as little with isosceles and equilateral triangles as with right-angled triangles2 the rectangle1 the regular polygon1 and the circle are likewise excluded from our investigations1 except in the case of these applications to metric geometry4 ,we shall treat of the center1 the axes1 and the foci of so-called curves of the second order1 or conic sections1 only as incidental to the general theory2 but1 on the other hand1 shall become acquainted with many properties of these curves1 more general and more important than those to which most text-books upon analytical geometry are restricted4 ,of all the other branches of geometry1 the descriptive is the most helpful in facilitating the study of the geometry of position2 and perspective or central projection plays an important part in it4 ,it stands in a certain antithetical relation to analytical geometry on account of its method1 which is synthetic1 and whence it is sometimes known as synthetic geometry4 ,since metric relations are not considered in it1 its theorems and problems are very general and comprehensive4 ,as presented in von ,standt's complete work1 it is regarded by the author as an excellent aid to the exercise and development of the imagination2 and the important graphical methods with which ,professor ,culmann has enriched the science of engineering in his work on graphical statistics1 being based for the most part upon it1 a knowledge of it has become important for students of that science4 ,in the present work1 the outgrowth of his lectures1 ,professor ,reye has attempted to supply the want of a text-book which shall offer to the student the necessary material in a concise form4 ,prof4 ,cyrus ,thomas brings the qualification which a lifetime devoted to study of the subject develops1 to the preparation of an ,introduction to the ,study of ,north ,american ,archology4#eg ,he is known to all students in this branch as a careful1 judicious investigator whose work in the field has been supplemented by valuable contributions to its literature4 ,in this volume he presents a brief summary of the progress that has been made in the investigation of ,american antiquities--which has been recently great indeed1 and well calls for a new synopsis4 ,his chief object has been to present the data and arrange them so as to afford the student some means of bringing his facts and materials into harmony1 and of utilizing them4 ,he presents the theories that have been advanced1 and mentions opposing views2 regarding it1 he says1 as important to the progress of the student to know which of the questions that arise have been answered1 and which hypotheses have been eliminated from the class of possibilities4 ,the materials for the study and the methods are first explained4 ,the relics of ancient men and the mounds are then described as under three divisions--the ,arctic1 the ,atlantic1 and the ,pacific4 ,local as well as regional characteristics and differences are pointed out2 as in the mounds as a whole1 the special class of animal mounds1 the pueblos1 the cliff dwellings1 and the ,mexican and ,central ,american monuments1 the peculiar features of each are pointed out1 and their territorial limits are defined4 ,all these various kinds of works are ascribed to substantially the same people1 who are supposed to have come down from somewhere in the north or northwest 7the extreme northwest ,pacific coast71 although the different immigrations may perhaps have arrived by various routes4 ,the people were the present ,indians or their ancestors2 the time of the immigration was not extremely remote2 and the mound-building habit is shown to have persisted and been practiced till since the advent of the ,europeans4 ,in entitling his book ,the ,art of ,taxidermy1#eh the chief of the ,department of ,taxidermy in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history evidently intends to use the word art in the high sense of a fine art2 for he speaks of the enormous strides toward perfection which it has made from the former trade of most inartistically upholstering a skin--stuffing it1 we used to call it--and of its study having been taken up of late years by a number of men of genius and education4 ,it is largely owing to the exertions of these men that the taxidermy of the present day is so far in advance of what it was a decade since4 ,the proverb says that art is long1 and accordingly ,mr4 ,rowley takes for the motto of his book a sentence from ,thoreau1 that into a perfect work time does not enter4 ,to the possible objection that some of his methods seem to involve considerable time and expense1 the author replies in substance that if the work is not worth this1 it is hardly worth while to take it up at all4 ,if it is a proper work1 and one has the proper degree of energy and enthusiasm1 let him give the specimen all the time it demands4 ,in preparing his treatise1 the author has aimed to eliminate all extraneous matter1 and to give mainly the results of his own experience1 coupled with that of other taxidermists with whom he has come in contact4 ,he begins with instructions about collecting tools and materials1 and casting1 and treats further of the preparation of birds1 of mammals1 and of fish1 reptiles1 and crustaceans2 the cleansing and mounting of skeletons1 and the reproduction of foliage for groups4 ,the appendix contains addresses of reliable firms from whom tools and materials used in taxidermy may be purchased4 ,the preparation of this book on ,the ,storage ,battery was suggested to ,mr4 ,treadwell#ei by his finding a lack in working on these machines of any compact data concerning their construction1 and the paucity of reliable discharge curves2 and he concluded that a book containing such data and curves1 with rules for the handling and maintenance of cells1 would be valuable to all interested in storage batteries as well as to the student and manufacturer4 ,among the points specially mentioned by the author are the lists of ,american and foreign patents given as footnotes for the various types1 not complete but noticing the principal patents for each cell2 the chapter on the chemistry of secondary batteries1 which gives the latest and most generally accepted theory concerning the chemical reactions taking place in an accumulator1 and which has been approved by ,dr4 ,sewal ,matheson2 and1 in the appendix1 tables of data comprising figures of all the batteries1 methods for the measurement of the ,e4 ,m4 ,f4 and internal resistance of a storage battery2 and data from which the theoretical and practical capacity of an accumulator may be determined4 ,the ,natural ,advanced ,geography#fj is a successful application of modern methods to the teaching of this science1 and presents it with the interest undiminished which really appertains to it4 ,while in the elementary book of this1 the natural series1 the pupil starts from his own home and is introduced to the study of man in relation to his environment1 in the present work the fact is developed that environment itself is the chief factor in the various activities and economies of man4 ,one of the salient features of the presentation of the subject1 marked throughout the work1 and one that commands high praise1 is the arrangement of the facts into such order that their correlation may be perceived and the unity of ,nature recognized4 ,the isolated1 barren1 curt1 unrelated statements that made the study of many of the old geographies hard and tedious are conspicuously absent1 and the subject1 studied in orderly sequence1 unfolds itself naturally and logically1 each lesson preparing the way for those which follow4 ,the first part of the work is devoted to a study of the world as a whole4 ,the second part1 comprising about three fourths of the volume1 is an application of these laws to the various countries of the globe1 beginning with the ,united ,states4 ,in the ,united ,states1 for instance1 a general description of the whole is given1 which presents a real1 comprehensive mental picture of the country2 and the process is repeated1 in measure according to the conditions1 for the several ,states1 so that the pupil is taught what are the factors that give the characteristics and local features to each4 ,a like method is pursued1 on a more general scale1 with other countries4 ,the colored maps are drawn on a system of uniform scales1 with reliefs plainly shown according to the accepted conventions2 graphic charts or sketch maps showing the distribution of products and resources are employed2 and pedagogical exercises and aids are afforded abundantly4 ,a text-book on the ,differential and ,integral ,calculus1#fa for students who have a working knowledge of elementary geometry1 algebra1 trigonometry1 and analytical geometry1 by ,prof4 ,p4 ,a4 ,lambert1 has the threefold object of inspiring confidence1 by a logical presentation of principles1 in the methods of infinitesimal analysis2 of aiding1 through numerous problems1 in acquiring facility in the use of these methods2 and1 by applications to problems in physics1 engineering1 and other branches of mathematics1 to show the practical value of the calculus4 ,by a division of the matter according to classes of functions1 it is made possible to introduce these applications from the start1 and thereby to arouse the interest of the student4 ,by simultaneous treatment of differentiation and integration and the use of trigonometric substitution to simplify integration it is sought to economize the time and effort of the student4 ,the ,birds of ,indiana1 by ,amos ,w4 ,butler1 lately published as part of ,willis ,s4 ,blatchley's ,twenty-second ,annual ,report on the ,geology and ,natural ,resources of ,indiana1 is just at hand4 ,it is one of the most accurate1 detailed1 and satisfactory local catalogues yet published4 ,three hundred and twenty-one species of birds have been taken in ,indiana1 and of each of these is given a detailed description1 with a general account of its habits1 song1 migration1 and nesting4 ,in the case of the more rare species1 full records of the dates and places of capture of the known specimens are appended4 ,analytical keys to genera and species are also given1 so that every facility is furnished for the identification of species4 ,this book is a model of its kind1 and is a worthy fruit of ,mr4 ,butler's twenty years of devoted study of the birds of his native ,state4 ,robert ,h4 ,whitten1 in his monograph on ,public ,administration in ,massachusetts--the relation of central to local activity--pursues a parallel course with that taken by ,mr4 ,john ,a4 ,fairlie in a similar essay on the ,centralization of ,administration in ,new ,york ,state1 of this same series of ,columbia ,university studies in ,history1 ,economics1 and ,public ,law4 ,having found the systems and tendencies of administration in the early settlement of ,massachusetts all for expansion and decentralization1 ,mr4 ,whitten now perceives the course altogether changed1 and centralization more and more the rule4 ,the change corresponds with changes in the conditions of life1 and keeps track with them step by step4 ,of great dynamic forces which have been set to work and are bringing about a complete reconstruction of the social structure1 improvements in transportation and communication were the most vital--first1 turnpikes1 then the steamboat1 railroad1 and telegraph2 then the horse railway1 cheap postage1 the telephone1 the electric railway1 and the bicycle4 ,the tendency at first was to bring about a concentration which was attended by the congestion of population in cities and the depopulation of the rural towns4 ,the electric railway1 the telephone1 and the bicycle came in to counteract these evils2 while their tendency is strongly toward the centralization of bureaus1 it is also toward the diffusion of habitations4 ,these great socializing forces1 going hand in hand with the development of the factory system and improvement of machinery1 make possible a vastly higher organization of society than was possible under a stagecoach rgime4 ,the first volume of the ,final ,report of the ,state ,geologist of ,new ,jersey1 on ,topography1 ,magnetism1 and ,climate1 was published in #ahhh4 ,other volumes embracing other topics have been published since1 and in the meantime the supply of the first volume has been exhausted1 while the demand has continued4 ,it has been therefore necessary either to reprint the volume or to publish a new work which should include the important statistical matter of it4 ,accordingly1 we have now ,the ,physical ,geography of ,new ,jersey1 prepared by ,prof4 ,rollin ,d4 ,salisbury1 with an appendix embodying ,data pertaining to the ,physical ,geology of the ,state1 by ,mr4 ,c4 ,c4 ,vermeule1 who was formerly in charge of the topographic survey1 and is author of the volume on water supply4 ,the two parts of the volume treat of the topography of ,new ,jersey as it now is1 and the geological history of the topography4 ,the report is accompanied by a relief map of the ,state1 prepared by ,mr4 ,vermeule on the basis of the topographical survey1 and presenting1 therefore1 an accurate picture of the relief4 ,it shows the great features of the ,state1 its ranges of mountains1 hills1 tablelands1 plains1 marsh lands1 streams1 and water areas in their proper relations to one another2 and it is contemplated to put it in every schoolhouse in the ,state as an aid in the study of geography4 ,m4 ,imbert de ,saint-,amand's series of books about the ,second ,french ,empire furnish very interesting reading1 are1 so far as our recollection of events goes1 historically accurate1 and fill a gap which the literary world always has to suffer concerning any period too recently passed for a competent judicial mind to have appeared to tell its story4 ,the second of the series--,napoleon ,,iii and his ,court--takes ,louis ,napoleon at the height of his success and happiness1 just after he had married the beautiful ,eugnie1 of whom the world has nothing harsh to say1 and carries him through the period of his wonderful popularity and brilliant accomplishments to the close of the ,crimean ,war and the birth of the prince whose fate was so unhappy4 ,it deals1 in a pleasant manner1 and all favorable to ,napoleon1 but not adulatory1 with affairs social1 political1 and military1 in which it is hard to say whether the tact or the good fortune of the subject of the history shone most brilliantly4 ,we are told how ,eugnie won the ,french nation2 of ,napoleon's good will1 especially manifested toward all that could contribute to his exaltation2 of his dealings with the sovereigns around him1 gradually winning their recognition1 including that of ,nicholas of ,russia2 of the darkening of the clouds of war1 the ,crimean campaigns2 of the interchanges of courtesies1 gradually rising into close1 firm friendship1 with the ,british court2 and of the birth of the ,prince ,imperial4 ,think what we may of the character of the reign of ,louis ,napoleon and of its influence1 it marked an epoch in nearly every line of development of the world's history1 and was as distinctly separated from what came before it and from what followed it as if a broad line were drawn around it2 and it left some important results that are not likely to be soon effaced4 ,m4 de ,saint-,amand writes from personal knowledge1 having witnessed or participated in much of what he describes1 and has in ,elizabeth ,gilbert ,martin a fully competent and acceptable translator4 7,published by ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #djg4 ,price1 #a4ej47 ,the paper of the late ,dr4 ,theodor ,eimer on ,orthogenesis and the ,impotence of ,natural ,selection in ,species ,formation is published by the ,open ,court ,company1 ,chicago1 as ,no4 #bi of their ,religion of ,science ,library4 ,pp4 #ef4 ,price1 #be cents4 ,the second volume of ,uncle ,robert's ,geography1 of ,appletons' ,home-,reading ,series--,on a ,farm--,mr4 ,francis ,w4 ,parker1 the editor1 and ,nellie ,lathrop ,helm1 emphasizes the importance of parents and teachers1 giving full and complete recognition of the immense educational value of spontaneous activities as displayed in motive and interest2 a recognition which should be followed by active encouragement and direction of the child's play1 work1 and observations4 ,the story deals entirely with the interests and life of children in the environment of the country4 ,a little girl is in her playhouse in a ,virginia fence corner1 with her doll and mimic housekeeping4 ,her shy1 retiring companions are the birds who peep into the playhouse1 and1 after she has gone away1 come into it and pick up the crumbs she has left4 ,this leads to talks about different birds and their nest building4 ,a ,st4 ,bernard dog is introduced and furnishes the opportunity for bringing in stories of the ,alps1 their glaciers and snows1 and the ,hospice of ,st4 ,bernard1 and then about other dogs4 ,susy makes a garden in the woods1 and the wild flowers become the subjects of her spontaneous study4 ,so with the rabbits1 bread making and the grain that furnishes the material for the bread1 and other incidents2 with more birds' nests2 the nature of bulbs1 squirrels1 etc42 and finally ,uncle ,robert sets the child to finding out how the animals in the woods spend the winter1 and whether they are doing anything now in preparation for it4 7,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,price1 #db cents47 ,the ,thirty-fifth ,annual ,report of the ,secretary of the ,state ,board of ,agriculture of ,michigan includes the ,ninth ,annual ,report of the ,agricultural ,college ,experiment ,station1 and is largely taken up with the work of the latter institution1 reviewing the records of the college departments and presenting the reports and bulletins of the station4 ,the record of meteorological observations1 the ,proceedings of the ,farmers' ,institutes1 the ,transactions of the ,association of ,breeders of ,improved ,live ,stock1 and the ,transactions of the ,state ,agricultural ,society are also incorporated in the volume4 ,an interesting feature of the publication is the insertion of a portrait and biographical notice of one of the pioneer farmers of the ,state1 ,enos ,goodrich1 who was also prominent in public life4 ,the translation by ,eleanor ,marx ,aveling of ,lissagaray's ,history of the ,commune of #ahga was made many years ago at the request of the author from a contemplated second edition which the ,french ,government would not allow published4 ,the work having been revised and corrected by the translator's father1 and for other reasons1 no changes have been made to adapt it to the time of its issue from the press4 ,the translator claims that ,lissagaray's work is the only reliable and accurate history that has yet been written of the ,commune4 ,he has not attempted1 she says1 to hide the errors of his party1 or to gloss over the fatal weakness of the revolution4 ,of course1 a very different view of the movement is given from that presented in the ,french accounts1 as well as that generally held by ,english and ,americans2 but the communists have a right to be represented and heard1 and it is well that they have so competent a spokesman4 7,published by the ,international ,publishing ,company1 #bc ,duane ,street1 ,new ,york47 ,,footnotes3 #eb ,corona and ,coronet3 ,being the ,narrative of the ,amherst ,eclipse ,expedition to ,japan1 in ,mr4 ,james's ,schooner ,yacht ,coronet1 to observe the ,sun's ,total ,obscuration1 ,august #i1 #ahif4 ,by ,mabel ,loomis ,todd4 ,boston and ,new ,york3 ,houghton1 ,mifflin ,co4 ,pp4 #chc4 ,price1 #b4ej4 #ec ,revised ,text-,book of ,geology4 ,by ,james ,d4 ,dana1 ,,ll4 ,d4 ,fifth edition1 revised and enlarged4 ,edited by ,william ,north ,rice4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #dhb4 #ed ,familiar ,life in ,field and ,forest4 ,the ,animals1 ,birds1 ,frogs1 and ,salamanders4 ,by ,f4 ,schuyler ,mathews4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #bhd4 ,price1 #a4ge4 #ee ,a ,short ,manual of ,analytical ,chemistry1 ,qualitative and ,quantitative1 ,inorganic and ,organic4 ,by ,john ,muter4 ,second ,american edition4 ,illustrated4 ,adapted from the eighth ,british edition4 ,philadelphia3 ,e4 ,blakiston1 ,son ,co4 ,pp4 #bbh4 ,price1 #a4be4 #ef ,lectures on the ,geometry of ,position4 ,by ,theodor ,r4 ,reye4 ,translated and edited by ,thomas ,f4 ,halgate4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #adh4 ,price1 #b4be4 #eg ,introduction to the ,study of ,north ,american ,archology4 ,by ,prof4 ,cyrus ,thomas4 ,cincinnati3 ,the ,robert ,clarke ,company4 ,pp4 #cia4 #eh ,the ,art of ,taxidermy4 ,by ,john ,rowley4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #bdd4 ,price1 #b4 #ei ,the ,storage ,battery4 ,a ,practical ,treatise on the ,construction1 ,theory1 and ,use of ,secondary ,batteries4 ,by ,augustus ,treadwell4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #beg4 ,price1 #a4ge4 #fj ,natural ,advanced ,geography4 ,by ,jacques ,w4 ,redway and ,russell ,hinman4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #ajj4 #fa ,differential and ,integral ,calculus4 ,for ,technical ,schools and ,colleges4 ,by ,r4 ,a4 ,lambert4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #bde4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,,publications ,,received4 ,academy of ,natural ,sciences of ,philadelphia4 ,proceedings1 #ahih4 ,part ,,ii4 ,april to ,september4 ,pp4 #bbd1 with plates4 ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins and ,reports4 ,cornell ,university3 ,no4 #aeb4 ,studies in ,milk ,secretion4 ,by ,h4 ,h4 ,wing and ,leroy ,anderson4 ,pp4 #ef2 ,no4 #aec4 ,impressions of our ,fruit-growing ,industries4 ,by ,l4 ,h4 ,bailey4 ,pp4 #ah4--;,iowa ,state ,college of ,agriculture1 etc43 ,no4 #aj4 ,anatomical and ,histological ,studies4 ,pp4 #be1 with plates4--,new ,hampshire ,college3 ,no4 #ec4 ,the ,farm ,water ,supply4 ,by ,fred ,w4 ,morse4 ,pp4 #ab2 ,the ,winter ,food of the ,chickadee4 ,by ,clarence ,m4 ,weed4 ,pp4 #af4--,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture3 ,the ,chinch ,bug4 ,by ,f4 ,m4 ,webster4 ,pp4 #hb2 ,some ,books on ,agriculture and ,sciences related to ,agriculture published in #ahif-'ih4 ,pp4 #de2 ,forage ,plants and ,forage ,resources of the ,gulf ,states4 ,by ,s4 ,m4 ,tracy4 ,pp4 #ee2 ,list of ,publications relating to ,forestry in the ,department ,library4 ,pp4 #ic4--,university of ,illinois3 ,the ,chemistry of the ,corn ,kernel4 ,by ,c4 ,g4 ,hopkins4 ,pp4 #eb4 ,austin1 ,herbert ,ernest4 ,observation ,blanks for ,beginners in ,mineralogy4 ,boston3 ,d4 ,c4 ,heath ,co4 ,pp4 #hj4 #ej cents4 ,bailey1 ,m4 ,a4 ,american ,elementary ,arithmetic4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #bje4 ,beddard1 ,frank ,e4 ,the ,structure and ,classification of ,birds4 ,new ,york and ,london3 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 ,pp4 #edh4 ,barnes's ,national ,vertical ,penmanship4 ,nos4 ,a and ,b1 and #a to #f4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,bookseller1 ,the1 ,newsdealer1 and ,stationer4 ,semimonthly4 ,new ,york3 #aef ,fifth ,avenue4 ,pp4 #ch4 #a a year4 ,boutwell1 ,hon4 ,george ,s4 ,problems raised by the ,war4 ,boston3 ,woman's ,educational and ,industrial ,union4 ,pp4 #bj4 ,bulletins1 ,reports1 ,proceedings1 etc4 ,michigan ,monthly ,bulletin of ,vital ,statistics1 ,october1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #af4--,national ,pure ,food and ,drug ,congress3 ,journal of ,proceedings1 ,march1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #ec4--,united ,states ,department of ,labor3 ,bulletin ,no4 #ah1 ,september1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #abd2 ,no4 #ai1 ,november1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #db4 ,card1 ,fred ,w4 ,bush ,fruits4 ,a ,horticultural ,monograph of ,raspberries1 ,blackberries1 etc4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #ecg4 #a4ej4 ,carpenter1 ,frank ,g4 ,carpenter's ,geographical ,reader1 ,north ,america4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #ceb4 ,clark1 ,william ,j4 ,commercial ,cuba1 with an ,introduction by ,e4 ,sherman ,gould4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #ead with maps4 #d4 ,collyer1 ,rev4 ,robert4 ,the ,parable of ,lot's ,wife4 ,pp4 #ac4 #e cents4 ,earl1 ,alfred4 ,the ,living ,organism4 ,an ,introduction to the ,principles of ,biology4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #bga4 #a4ge4 ,fisher1 ,george ,e41 and ,schwatt1 ,isaac ,j4 ,text-,book of ,algebra1 with ,exercises4 ,philadelphia3 ,fisher ,schwatt4 ,pp4 #fhc4 #a4ge4 ,hall1 ,fred ,s4 ,sympathetic ,strikes and ,sympathetic ,lockouts4 ,columbia ,university4 7,studies in ,history1 ,economics1 and ,public ,law7 ,pp4 #aah4 ,hill1 ,frank ,a4 ,how far the ,public ,high ,school is a ,just ,charge on the ,public ,treasury4 ,pp4 #cf4 ,holman1 ,silas ,w4 ,matter1 ,energy1 ,force1 and ,work4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #beg4 #b4 ,hornbrook1 ,a4 ,r4 ,primary ,arithmetic4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #bec4 ,geikie1 ,james4 ,rock ,sculpture1 or the ,origin of ,land ,forms4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,pp4 #cig4 #b4 ,hurley1 ,denis ,m4 ,the ,metric ,system of ,weights and ,measures in the ,congress of the ,united ,states4 ,pp4 #d4 ,inglis1 ,george ,e41 ,editor4 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,monthly4 ,chicago3 ,the ,anglo-,saxon ,publishing ,company4 #aj cents4 #a a year4 ,jackman1 ,wilbur ,s4 ,nature ,study for ,grammar ,grades4 ,danville1 ,ill43 ,illinois ,printing ,company4 ,pp4 #djg4 ,jenkins1 ,c4 ,francis4 ,animated ,pictures4 ,washington1 ,d4 ,c43 ,c4 ,francis ,jenkins4 ,pp4 #aah4 ,jordan1 ,david ,starr4 ,footnotes to ,evolution4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #cib4 #a4ej4 ,lassalle1 ,ferdinand4 ,the ,workingman's ,programme4 ,new ,york3 ,international ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #fb4 ,macmillan ,company1 ,the4 ,catalogue of ,books1 ,section ,,vii1 ,scientific1 pp4 #bd2 and ,section ,,ix1 ,classical and ,educational1 pp4 #bf4 ,makato1 ,tentearo4 ,japanese ,notions of ,european ,political ,economy4 ,philadelphia4 ,pp4 #db4 ,marshall1 ,henry ,rutgers4 ,instinct and ,reason4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #ege4 #c4ej4 ,merriman1 ,mansfield4 ,elements of ,sanitary ,engineering4 ,new ,york3 ,john ,wiley ,sons4 ,pp4 #baf4 ,metric ,system1 ,the1 of ,weights and ,measures4 ,hartford1 ,conn43 ,hartford ,steam ,boiler ,inspection and ,insurance ,company4 ,pp4 #aif4 ,millennial ,dawn1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,the ,day ,of ,vengeance4 ,allegheny1 ,pa43 ,the ,tower ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #ffh4 #ce cents4 ,park4 ,j4 ,g4 ,language ,lessons4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #add4 ,payne1 ,frank ,owen4 ,geographical ,nature ,studies4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #add4 #be cents4 ,peabody1 ,j4 ,e4 ,laboratory ,exercises in ,anatomy and ,physiology4 ,new ,york3 ,henry ,holt ,co4 ,pp4 #gi4 #fj cents4 ,preece1 ,w4 ,h4 ,president's ,address before the ,institution of ,civil ,engineers1 ,november #a1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #bi4 ,reprints4 ,coulter1 ,john ,m4 ,the ,origin of ,gymnosperms and the ,seed ,habit4 7,botanical ,society of ,america47 ,pp4 #af4--;,brinton1 ,daniel ,g4 ,the ,peoples of the ,philippines4 ,pp4 #af4--;,eckles1 ,c4 ,h4 ,the ,relation of ,certain ,bacteria to the ,production of ,butter4 ,pp4 #aj4--;,graziani1 ,dr4 ,giovanni4 ,a ,sensitive ,test for ,kryofine in the ,urine1 etc4 ,pp4 #ha4--,keen1 ,w4 ,w4 ,the ,advantages of a ,permanent ,abdominal ,anus1 etc41 in ,operations for ,cancer of the ,rectum4 ,pp4 #aa2 ,the ,advantages of the ,trendelenburg ,posture during ,operations involving the ,cavities of the ,mouth1 etc4 ,pp4 #g2 ,removal of ,angioma of the ,liver1 etc4 ,pp4 #ab4--,keen1 ,w4 ,w41 and ,spiller1 ,w4 ,g4 ,on ,resection of the ,gasserian ,ganglion1 etc4 ,pp4 #ch1 with plates4--,ladd1 ,e4 ,f4 ,the ,proteids of ,cream4 ,pp4 #c2 and ,humates and ,soil ,fertility4 ,pp4 #g4--,lloyd1 ,james ,hendrie4 ,a ,study of the ,lesions in a ,case of ,trauma of the ,cervical ,region of the ,spinal ,cord simulating ,syringomyelia4 ,pp4 #ah4--,sherwood1 ,w4 ,l4 ,the ,frogs and ,toads found in the ,vicinity of ,new ,york ,city4 ,pp4 #bg4--,tromsdorff1 ,richard4 ,observations at the ,clinic of ,professor ,ebstein on ,kryofine4 ,pp4 #ab4 ,ripley1 ,frederic ,h41 and ,tappen1 ,thomas4 ,a ,short ,course in ,music4 ,book ,two4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #age4 ,russell1 ,israel ,c4 ,rivers of ,north ,america4 ,new ,york3 ,g4 ,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,pp4 #cbg4 #b4 ,sands1 ,maniel4 ,opposites in ,religion4 ,new ,york3 ,peter ,eckler4 7,library of ,liberal ,classics1 ,monthly74 ,pp4 #ach4 #ej cents4 ,savage1 ,m4 ,j4 ,the ,word of ,god3 ,the ,evils of ,religious and ,political ,pessimism4 ,boston3 ,george ,h4 ,ellis4 ,pp4 #ah each4 ,schimmel ,co41 ,leipzig and ,new ,york ,semiannual ,report 7fine chemicals71 ,october1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #fd1 with map4 ,seymour1 ,a4 ,t41 ,editor4 ,the ,science ,teacher4 ,monthly4 ,orange1 ,n4 ,j4 ,pp4 #ab4 #ae cents4 #a a year4 ,smithsonian ,institution and ,united ,states ,national ,museum4 ,annual ,report of the ,board of ,regents to ,july1 #ahif4 ,pp4 #gbg4--;,bean1 ,barton ,a4 ,notes on a ,collection of ,fishes from ,mexico1 etc4 ,pp4 #d4--;,cook1 ,o4 ,f4 ,american ,oniscoid ,diploda1 etc4 ,pp4 #af1 with plates4--,coquillet1 ,d4 ,w4 ,report on ,japanese ,diptera4 ,pp4 #cf4--;,enkle1 ,arthur4 ,topaz ,crystals in the ,mineral ,collection of the ,museum4 ,pp4 #aj4--;,gilbert1 ,c4 ,n4 ,caulolepis ,longidens1 ,gill1 on the ,coast of ,california4 ,p4 #a4--;,jordan1 ,david ,starr1 and ,evermann1 ,barton ,d4 ,the ,fishes of ,north and ,middle ,america4 ,part ,,iii4 ,pp4 #igh4--,marlatt1 ,c4 ,l4 ,japanese ,hymenoptera of the ,family ,teuthredonid4 ,pp4 #af4--,mearns1 ,edgar ,a4 ,mammals of the ,catskill ,mountains4 ,pp4 #bj4--,moore1 ,j4 ,percy4 ,the ,leeches of the ,united ,states ,national ,museum4 ,pp4 #bj1 with plates4--,oberholser1 ,harry ,c4 ,revision of the ,wrens of the ,genus ,thryomanes1 ,sclater4 ,pp4 #cj4--,rathbun1 ,mary ,j4 ,brachyura ,collected by the ,steamer ,albatross between ,norfolk1 ,va41 and ,san ,francisco4 ,pp4 #ej1 with plate2 and ,fresh-,water ,crabs of ,america4 ,pp4 #cj4--,smith1 ,hugh ,m4 ,amphiura1 or the ,congo ,snake1 in ,virginia4 ,p4 #a4--,smith1 ,john ,b41 and ,dyar1 ,harrison ,g4 ,the ,lepidopterous ,family ,noctuid of ,boreal ,north ,america1 etc4 ,pp4 #aid1 with plates4--,starks1 ,edwin ,c4 ,osteology and ,relationships of the ,family ,zeid4 ,pp4 #h1 with plates4--,stearns1 ,robert ,e4 ,c4 ,a ,species of ,acton from the ,quaternary ,deposits of ,spanish ,height1 ,san ,diego1 ,cal4 ,pp4 #c2 and ,cythera 7,tivala7 ,crassateloides1 ,conrad1 etc4 ,pp4 #h1 with plate4--,stejneger1 ,leonhard4 ,a ,new ,species of ,spiny-tailed ,iguana from ,california4 ,p4 #a4--,test1 ,frederick ,c4 ,variations of the ,tree ,frog1 ,hyla ,regilla4 ,pp4 #af1 with plate4--,true1 ,frederick ,w4 ,nomenclature of the ,whalebone ,whales1 etc4 ,pp4 #bj4--,walcott1 ,c4 ,d4 ,cambrian ,brachiopoda1 ,obolus1 and ,singulella1 etc4 ,pp4 #cf4 ,sue1 ,eugne4 ,the ,silver ,cross1 or the ,carpenter of ,nazareth4 ,new ,york3 ,international ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #aea4 ,sullivan1 ,christine ,gordon4 ,elements of ,perspective4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #if4 ,terrestrial ,magnetism4 ,an ,international ,quarterly ,journal4 ,l4 ,a4 ,bauer and ,thomas ,french1 ,jr41 ,editors4 ,university of ,cincinnati4 ,pp4 #df1 with plates4 #fj cents4 #b a year4 ,vines1 ,sidney ,h4 ,an ,elementary ,text-,book of ,botany4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #faa4 #b4be4 ,volta ,bureau1 ,washington1 ,publications of ,catalogue of ,books by ,prof4 ,a4 ,melville ,bell4--,some ,differences in the ,education of the ,deaf and the ,hearing4 ,pp4 #ae4--;,international ,reports of ,schools for the ,deaf4 ,pp4 #bg4--;,bell1 ,a4 ,g4 ,methods of ,instructing the ,deaf in the ,united ,states4 ,pp4 #d4--;,gordon1 ,j4 ,c4 ,the ,difference between the ,two ,systems of ,teaching ,deaf-mutes the ,english ,language4 ,pp4 #d4--;,gilman1 ,arthur4 ,miss ,helen ,adams ,keller's ,first ,year of ,college ,preparatory ,work4 ,pp4 #ad4--;,bell1 ,mabel ,gardiner4 ,the ,story of the ,rise of the ,oral ,method in ,america as told in the ,writings of the ,hon4 ,gardiner ,g4 ,hubbard4 ,pp4 #ej4 ,voorhees1 ,edward ,b4 ,fertilizers4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #cce4 #a4 ,wadden ,turner1 ,susan1 ,prof4 ,william1 and ,jane4 ,in ,memoriam4 ,by ,caroline ,h4 ,dall4 ,pp4 #ai4 ,weysse1 ,arthur ,w4 ,an ,epitome of ,human ,histology4 ,new ,york3 ,longmans1 ,green ,co4 ,pp4 #ij4 #a4ej4 ,fragments of ,science4 ,the ,huxley ,lecture4--,the ,charing ,cross ,medical ,school in ,london1 which had the good fortune some fifty-three years ago to number ,huxley among its pupils1 had largely through this fact the honor of being addressed on ,october #c;d by ,professor ,virchow1 the greatest living pathologist and one of the greatest of living scientists4 ,there was a peculiar fitness in his delivering the ,huxley lecture1 for1 while ,professor ,virchow's work has been chiefly that of the specialist1 his co-operation with laborers in other fields1 his continued efforts to popularize science1 and the prominent position which he has occupied for the last thirty years in public life1 have given him a standing in ,germany somewhat akin to that of ,huxley in ,england4 ,his career is a striking illustration1 as was also ,huxley's1 of the happy results to humanity from a combination in one man of great ability as an investigator with a facility for generalization and the practical application of scientific truths to the concrete problems of science and civilization4 ,professor ,virchow is described as modest and unassuming1 and very much of a contrast in all ways to the ordinary ,german professor4 ,his address was on ,the ,recent ,advances in ,science1 and their ,bearing on ,medicine and ,surgery4 ,it was inevitable that he should refer to ,huxley1 of whom he was in some sense a pupil4 ,in speaking of the rapid growth of the latter during his four years on the ,beagle1 he said3 ,how this was possible any one will readily understand who knows from his own experience how great is the value of personal observation4444 ,freed from the formalism of the schools1 thrown upon his own intellect1 compelled to test each single object as regards properties and history1 we soon forget the dogmas of the prevailing system1 and become first a skeptic and then an investigator4 ,this paragraph is especially worthy of notice1 because it points out one of the invariable characteristics of the great man4 ,in whatever field his greatness may lie1 he will be found to have broken away from the formalism and conservatism of the schools1 and that his great work is based on personal observation and research4 ,this was notably the case with ,professor ,virchow's establishment of the cellular pathology1 as well as of ,huxley's researches in comparative anatomy4 ,our present school system is lamentably weak in this particular1 tending to stifle rather than stimulate originality and self-dependence4 ,professor ,virchow's address was1 of course1 interesting and instructive1 but1 as he said1 much too short for anything like an adequate treatment of the subject4 ,the chief interest of the occasion lay in its associations4 ,an address by ,rudolph ,virchow1 at a meeting presided over by ,lord ,lister on an occasion commemorating ,professor ,huxley1 left only one thing to be desired--the presence of the latter4 ,for a biologist1 or in fact a modern scientist of any description1 one can not imagine a more delightful occasion4 ,the ,climate of ,cuba4--,systematic records of weather appear to be wanting in ,cuba4 ,the meteorological observations kept up for several years by ,andre ,poey are not accessible1 no need of their being published having been found4 ,the chief source of information on the subject is the observations which have been kept up at ,belen ,college1 ,havana1 since #ahei4 ,from these and a few scattered observations of brief periods at other towns1 and by comparison with notes taken at other ,west ,indian stations1 ,w4 ,f4 ,b4 ,phillips1 of the ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture1 has attempted to describe the climate of ,cuba4 ,the average annual temperature of the past ten years at ,havana was #gg ,f41 and the difference between the highest and the lowest yearly means was only #a4a ,f4 ,the warmest month is ,july1 with an average temperature of #hb4g ,f41 and the coldest is ,january1 with an average temperature of #gj4c ,f4 ,the highest temperature recorded was #ajj4f ,f41 in ,july1 #ahia1 and the lowest #di4f4 ,brief intermittent records at ,matanzas1 more than sixty years old1 give a mean annual temperature of about #gh1 with #ic as the highest and #ea as the lowest4 ,at ,santiago the annual mean appears to be about #hj1 and the difference between the warmest and coldest months about #f ,f4 ,records of temperature in the interior1 such as they are1 give annual means of from #gc4f to #ge1 apparently showing lower temperatures than on the coast4 ,the average daily range of temperature is about #aj1 the highest occurring between noon and two o'clock ,p4 ,m41 while sudden variations in the temperature of the day are not unknown4 ,the average yearly rainfall at ,havana is about fifty-two inches4 ,the season of heavy rainfall begins in the latter part of ,may and first of ,june1 and lasts till ,october1 and during this period about sixty-three per cent of the year's rain is precipitated4 ,rain occurs on about one day in three1 in heavy downpours of short duration4 ,notwithstanding the frequency of rain during the summer months1 these do not present the greatest number of cloudy days4 ,the days on which rain does not fall are usually perfectly cloudless1 and1 in general1 no clouds are seen in summer except while the showers are falling2 while in other months cloudy days sometimes occur without rain4 ,the average velocity of the wind is about #g4e miles an hour1 with variations1 according to the season1 from #h4e miles in winter to #f4e miles in summer4 ,the diurnal variation in wind velocity is much more pronounced than the seasonal variation4 ,the ,new ,planet ,d ,q4--,the number of minor planets discovered during the last few years1 and their lack of practical importance in astronomy1 has tended to distract astronomers' attention from the search for them1 as unprofitable1 and the announcement of a new one attracts little attention1 as a rule4 ,the planet ,d ,q1 however1 discovered by ,herr ,witt1 of the ,urania ,observatory1 of ,berlin1 on ,august #acth last1 has aroused from the first special attention through its remarkable behavior4 ,the orbit is a very unusual one4 ,mars has always been considered our nearest neighbor1 although it was known that some of the minor planets were slightly nearer to the sun when at perihelion than ,mars is when at aphelion4 ,but the mean distances of the latter were in all cases much greater than that of ,mars2 while that found for the new planet is only #a4df as compared with #a4eb for ,mars1 and1 as the eccentricity amounts to #j4bc1 the perihelion distance is only #a4ac1 and the least distance from the earth's orbit only #j4ae as compared with #j4bg for ,venus in transit1 and #j4ch for ,mars in perihelion4 ,the planet will thus be far closer to us than any other member of the solar system1 and will afford a most excellent means of determining the sun's parallax4 ,its diameter is thought to be about seventeen miles4 ,extra-,organic ,factors of ,evolution4--,observing that our civilization has made advances or strides in recent years out of all proportion to any improvements that have taken place in our organic faculties1 ,arthur ,allin has insisted1 in ,science1 on the importance of extra-organic factors in human development4 ,our sense and motor organs1 he says1 are essentially instruments and tools1 and so is the brain2 and most if not all of the three hundred or more mechanical movements known in the arts are found exemplified in the human body4 ,our sense organs are thus indefinitely multiplied and extended by such extra-organic sense organs as the microscope1 telescope1 resonator1 telephone1 telegraph1 thermometer1 etc4 ,our motor organs are multiplied by such agencies as steam and electrical machines1 etc41 in the same manner4 ,the printing press is an extra-organic memory far more lasting and durable than the plastic but fickle brain4 ,fire provides man with a second digestive apparatus by means of which hard and stringy roots and other materials for food are rendered digestible and poisonous roots and herbs innocuous4 ,tools1 traps1 weapons1 etc41 are but extensions of bodily contrivances4 ,clothing1 unlike the fur or layer of blubber of the lower animals1 becomes a part of the organism at will4 ,one finds himself more or less independent of seasons1 climates1 and geographical restrictions4 ,by organic heredity or the transmission of the congenital characteristics of the parents to the children1 working alone1 all progress depends upon the transmission of variations occurring within the organism4 ,moreover1 these advantageous organic variations die with the individual1 and must be born again1 so to speak1 with each new individual4 ,this requires time1 and progress depending on it would be indefinitely protracted4 ,on the other hand1 by means of social heredity1 each new member of the race has handed to him at birth the accumulated organic advantageous variations of sense and motor organs1 and the extra-organic adaptations that have multiplied so indefinitely in the age of civilized man4 ,the vast importance of accumulation of capital is obvious4 ,fossils as criterions of ,geological ,ages4--,prof4 ,o4 ,c4 ,marsh said in a paper on ,the ,comparative ,value of ,different ,kinds of ,fossils in determining ,geological ,age1 which was read at the meeting of the ,british ,association1 that the value of all fossils as evidence of geological age depends mainly upon their degree of specialization4 ,in invertebrates1 for example1 a lingula from the ,cambrian has reached a definite point of development from some earlier ancestor4 ,one from the ,silurian or ,devonian1 or even a later formation1 shows1 however1 little advance4 ,even recent forms of the same or an allied genus have no distinctive characters sufficiently important to mark geological horizons4 ,with ammonites the case is entirely different4 ,from the earliest appearance of the family the members were constantly changing4 ,the trilobites show a group of invertebrates ever subject to modification1 from the earliest known forms in the ,cambrian to the last survivors in the ,permian4 ,they are thus especially fitted to aid the geologist1 as each has distinctive features and an abiding place of its own in geological time4 ,in the fresh-water forms of mollusca--the ,unios1 for example--there is little evidence of change from the palozoic forms to those still living1 and we can therefore expect little assistance from them in noticing the succeeding periods during their life history4 ,the same law as to specialization holds good among the fossil vertebrates4 ,pedigree ,photographs4--,sir ,francis ,galton unfolded before the ,british ,association a plan for the systematic collection of photographs of pedigree stock1 particularly of cattle breeds1 and of more information about them than is now obtainable4 ,he believes that a system of this sort would greatly facilitate the study of heredity4 ,the author had previously shown how the general knowledge that offspring can inherit peculiarities from their ancestry as well as from their parents was superseded by a general law the nature of which was first suggested to him by theoretical considerations1 and this ancestral law proves the importance of a much more comprehensive system of records than now exists4 ,the breeder should be able to compare the records of all the near ancestry of the animals he proposes to mate in respect to the qualities in which he is interested4 ,no present source for such information is comparable with what the system proposed would furnish4 ,a habitual study of the form of each pure-bred animal in connection with the portraits of all its nearest ancestry would test current opinions and decide between conflicting ones1 and could not fail to suggest new ideas4 ,likenesses would be traced to prepotent ancestors1 and the amount of their several prepotencies would be defined2 forms and features that supplement one another or nick in1 and others that clash or combine awkwardly1 would be observed and recorded2 and conclusions based on incomplete and inaccurate memories of ancestry would give way to others founded on more exact data4 ,the value of the ancestral law would be adequately tested1 and it would be possible to amend it when required4 ,english ,names for ,plants4--,in the ,proceedings of the ,torrey ,botanical ,club1 published in its journal for ,july1 ,dr4 ,v4 ,havard suggested some principles which it would be well to follow in applying ,english names to plants1 predicating that an authorized vernacular binomial should be assigned to each plant1 so that ambiguity and confusion may be avoided4 ,in the absence of suitable ,english names already recognized1 it seems best to adopt the ,latin genus name1 if short and easy1 like ,cicuta1 ,parnassia1 ,hibiscus1 or a close translation thereof1 when possible1 like astragal1 chenopody1 cardamin1 while the specific ,english name should be an equivalent of the ,latin one or a descriptive adjective4 ,in case of all ,english binomials clearly applying to well-known individual species and no others1 all substantives are capitalized without a hyphen1 as in ,witch ,hazel1 ,may ,apple1 and ,dutchman's ,pipe4 ,in all genera in which two or more species must be designated1 the genus name is compounded into one word without a hyphen1 as ,peppergrass1 ,sweetbrier1 ,goldenrod1 ,hedgenettle1 etc42 except in long names1 where the eye requires the hyphen1 as ,prairie-clover1 ,forget-me-not4 ,genus names in the possessive case 7,st4 ,john's-wort7 are written with the hyphen1 followed by a lower-case initial4 ,plants commemorating individual men 7,douglas ,spruce1 ,coulter ,pine7 are written without the mark of the possessive4 ,in specific names participial endings are suppressed1 the participle becoming a substantive1 which is added as a suffix without the hyphen2 thus ,heartleaved ,willow is changed to ,heartleaf ,willow4 ,in the discussion that followed this paper1 ,president ,addison ,brown and ,dr4 ,t4 ,f4 ,allen deprecated the manufacture of book names4 ,the secretary defended the use of vernacular names1 saying that they deserved more attention1 and adding that in their absence the generic name should be used unchanged4 ,many ,latin names1 as ,portulacca1 win their way without change as soon as they are fairly made familiar4 ,coined names seldom live4 ,a name to be successful must be a growth1 as language is4 ,cooking ,schools in ,philadelphia4--,the establishment of schools in ,philadelphia for the teaching of cookery is mentioned1 in the ,annual ,report of the ,superintendent of ,public ,schools in that city1 among the results of the general movement for manual training1 as a means of mental development and practical knowledge4 ,the teaching was introduced experimentally into the ,girls' ,normal ,school in #ahhg1 and was in the following year made a regular branch of the course4 ,it was later extended to other schools4 ,there are now eight school kitchens under the department of ,public ,instruction1 situated in different parts of the city4 ,the question of the proper place for cookery in the school course has been solved1 for ,philadelphia1 by putting it in the sixth school year1 when the pupils are firmly established in the work of the grammar grades1 and their attention has not yet been directed to preparation for admission to the ,high ,school4 ,the course provides between twenty-five and thirty lessons1 and is completed in a single year4 ,it includes instruction in the care of the kitchen1 and of the stove or range1 general lessons in the classification and nutritive values of foods1 the cooking of vegetables1 breakfast cereals1 bread1 eggs1 soups1 meats1 simple cakes and desserts1 lessons in invalid cookery1 and in table setting and serving4 ,special attention is given to the preparation of nutritious and savory dishes from inexpensive materials4 ,about two thousand pupils1 or less than one half of the number of girls of the sixth year now in the schools1 are accommodated in the eight cookery schools4 ,the pupils manifest an intelligent interest in the instruction1 and spend the half day per week in the school kitchen without any appreciable loss in the other branches of study4 ,it comes as a period of relaxation4 ,a ,trait ,common to us ,all4--,the doctrine of the tendency of mankind to develop the like fancies and ideas at the like stage of intellectual infancy was mentioned by ,mr4 ,e4 ,w4 ,brabrook in his presidential address before the ,anthropological ,section of the ,british ,association1 as a generalization for which we are fast accumulating material in folklore4 ,it is akin to the generalization that individual savage races present in their intellectual development a marked analogy to the condition of the earlier races of mankind4 ,the fancies and ideas of the child resemble closely the fancies and ideas of the savage and the fancies and ideas of primitive man4 ,mrs4 ,gomme has found that a great number of children's games consist of dramatic representations of marriage by capture and marriage by purchase1 and that the idea of exogamy is distinctly embodied in them4 ,there can be little doubt that they go back to a high antiquity1 and there is much probability that they are founded upon customs actually existing1 or just passing away1 at the time they were first played4 ,upon the same principle1 if we view children's stories in their wealth of details1 we shall deem it impossible that they could have been disseminated over the world otherwise than by actual contact of the several peoples with each other4 ,but if we view them in their simplicity of idea1 we shall be more apt to think that the mind of man naturally produces the same result under like circumstances1 and that it is not necessary to postulate any communication between the peoples to account for their identity4 ,it does not surprise us that the same complicated physical operations should be performed by far-distant peoples without any communication with each other2 why should it be surprising that mental operations1 not nearly so complex1 should be produced in the same order by different peoples without any such communication8 ,the ,toes in ,walking4--,an instructive discussion of the walking value of the lesser toes by ,dr4 ,heather ,bigg is given in a recent copy of the ,london ,lancet4 ,dr4 ,bigg believes that the lesser toes of the human foot are of little importance in walking--the great toe constituting the important tread of the foot--and in proof of this he gives an account of a patient1 all of whose lesser toes it was found necessary to amputate because of persistent contraction of the tendons4 ,on ,november #aj1 #ahid1 the toes were removed1 especial care being taken to keep the resulting scars well up on the dorsal aspect of the foot1 so as to be well away from the subsequent tread4 ,in three weeks the patient could stand on her feet1 and1 after her return home1 sent the following record of her progress toward complete recovery3 ,december #cj1 #ahid3 ,i am able to walk perfectly on my feet with little or no pain1 but can not yet wear either slippers or boots1 as they are still tender4--,january #ae1 #ahie3 ,i managed to get on my slippers yesterday and wore them with ease for more than six hours4--,january #bhth3 ,i put on my boots to-day for the first time4 ,it still pains me slightly to walk2 otherwise my feet are going on all right4--,february #ahth3 ,i ought to say that the steel plates only half way answer splendidly4--,march #bdth3 ,you will be glad to hear that ,i can walk splendidly now1 just like a proper human being2 it is just eighteen weeks next ,tuesday since the operation4--,may #eth3 ,i have decided to come to town next ,monday week to let you see how well ,i can walk4--,june #agth3 ,i played two sets of tennis on ,saturday1 and my feet were none the worse afterward4--,july #bdth3 ,you will be surprised to hear that the big toes have lengthened half an inch since the operation1 and ,i have had all my boots lengthened and the toe line made straighter4--,august #cjth3 ,i know that you will be interested to hear that ,i have just accepted an invitation to a dance on ,september #acth4 ,whether ,i shall dance comfortably or not is another thing4--,september #adth3 ,i went to the dance on ,tuesday evening and thoroughly enjoyed myself after not dancing for so long4 ,my feet were on their best behavior1 and did not pain me once during the evening4 ,i never realized before that ,i had no toes until ,i began to dance2 then it seemed so odd only to have one toe1 but ,i suffered no inconvenience whatever from the loss of them4--,december #eth3 ,i get on so well with my bicycle4 ,only two disadvantages showed themselves as the result of the operation and these were temporary4 ,one was that the great toes tended to pervert themselves toward the middle line of the feet1 a thing which was readily remedied by the use of single-toed stockings1 and by packing the space in the boot left vacant by the missing toes with cotton wool2 the other was a loss of local sense on the outer sides of the feet1 which went to show that the lesser toes were missed rather as tactile organs than anything else4 ,this failure of feeling righted itself in time1 presumably by a vicarious and intenser sense being acquired by the skin of the outer side of the foot4 ,in all other respects the loss of the toes discovered no inconvenience4 ,animals' ,bites4--,that there is something more serious than the mere wound in the bite even of a healthy animal is attested by ,mr4 ,pagin ,thornton1 from a chapter in his own experience1 and in the testimony of a number of his own friends who have suffered for weeks together from having been bitten4 ,and what is more surprising to me1 he says1 is that some of us may have hands crippled for some time from bites of a man's teeth4 ,dog bites are always dangerous1 but largely from the size of the wound which a dog biting in earnest will inflict4 ,with men they usually fail to do their best4 ,animals recover from wounds more easily than men do2 but ,lord ,ebrington says that deer bitten by the dogs in ,exmoor hardly ever recover4 ,much of the poisoning caused by bites is supposed to be due to the state of the animal's teeth2 and in this way the bite of a herbivorous animal1 whose teeth are usually soiled1 may cause worse after effects than that of a carnivore1 whose wet mouth and wet tongue keep its teeth fairly clean4 ,a similar difference is observable in the effects of being clawed and bitten by carnivora4 ,wounds made by the claws of leopards are poisonous1 while those caused by the teeth are rarely septic4 ,the force with which a bite in earnest is inflicted is an important element in its dangerous character4 ,it seems1 says the ,london ,spectator1 as if for the moment the animal threw all its force into the combination of muscular action which we call a 'bite4' ,in most cases the mere shock of impact1 as the beast hurls itself on its enemy1 is entirely demoralizing1 or inflicts physical injury4 ,a muzzled mastiff will hurl a man to the ground in the effort to fasten its teeth in his throat or shoulder4 ,then1 the driving and crushing force of the jaw muscles is astonishing4 ,sir ,samuel ,baker noticed that the tiger usually seized an ,indian native by the shoulder1 and with one jaw on one side and the other on the other bit clean through chest and back4 ,in nearly all cases the bite penetrates to the lungs4 ,this kind of wound is characteristic of the bites of the felid4 ,hardly any bird recovers from a cat's bite1 for the same reason4 ,the canine teeth are almost instantly driven through the lung under the wing4 ,doulton ,potteries4--,sir ,henry ,doulton1 head of the ,lambeth potteries1 whose death1 ,november #ag1 #ahig1 has been recorded in the ,monthly1 preferred devoting himself to the factory to engaging in the study of a learned profession for which his parents intended him1 and himself did much of the largest work produced there in the earlier days of his connection with it4 ,as the factory was enlarged1 it made drain pipes1 vessels and appliances of stoneware for chemical and other similar uses1 for which it gained prizes at the great exhibitions of #ahea and #ahfb2 ale pots and mugs of traditional and original designs2 terra-cotta vases2 and first exhibited articles of higher artistic merit at ,paris in #ahfg4 ,it showed a magnificent collection at ,vienna in #ahgc1 and its exhibit at ,philadelphia in #ahgf was one of the marked features of our ,centennial4 ,the chief styles of its work are the ornamental salt-glazed stoneware known as ,doulton ware1 and the underglaze-painted earthenware called ,lambeth faence4 ,sir ,george ,birdwood ascribes as the great merit of ,sir ,henry's life work his adherence to the two principles of making1 as far as possible1 every piece intended for decoration on the wheel1 and of giving the utmost scope to the designer into whose hands the piece fell for ornamentation4 ,four hundred designers1 mostly women1 and some of them real artists1 are engaged at the potteries1 and each has her way and signs her name to her work2 so that ,sir ,henry ,doulton succeeded in creating a most prolific school1 or rather several schools1 of ,english pottery1 the influence of which has been felt in the revival of the ceramic arts in all the countries of the ,old ,world--where they had been demoralized by the use of machinery2 and through the influence of his example1 working since #ahga1 the ,united ,kingdom now produces the most artistic commercial pottery of any country in the world4 ,,minor ,,paragraphs4 ,a little over a year ago ,professor ,fraser published the results of some researches which showed that the bile of several animals possessed antidotal properties against serpents' venom1 and against the toxines of such diseases as diphtheria and tetanus1 and that the bile of venomous serpents is an antidote to their venom4 ,the results from an extension of these first experiments have been recently published in the ,british ,medical ,journal4 ,the most important conclusions are as follows3 ,the bile of venomous serpents is the most powerful antidote to venom1 and is closely followed in efficiency by the bile of innocuous serpents4 ,regarding the antidotal power of bile on the toxines of disease1 ,professor ,fraser found that the bile of venomous serpents had more antidotal power than that of the majority of the other animals examined4 ,it is curious that among the non-venomous animals the rabbit's bile is the most powerful in antidotal properties4 ,three ways are mentioned by ,prof4 ,w4 ,a4 ,herdman in which disease may be communicated through oysters to the consumer2 viz41 by the presence in the animal of inorganic1 usually metallic1 poison2 or of organic poison2 or of a pathological organism or definite disease germ4 ,from experiments in the inoculation and disinfection of oysters1 it was found that all traces of these organisms could be removed by proper washing4 ,good currents passing the beds are an important factor in keeping the oyster healthy1 and make it possible for the animal to absorb large quantities of sewage and dispose of it4 ,the effect of this is to purify the water2 but in the sifting process1 while the sewage is passing through1 the animal retains disease germs1 and may pass them on to the consumer4 ,oysters should therefore be given an opportunity to purify themselves1 as is done in ,france1 where they are kept for a time in clean tanks before being sent to market4 ,oysters may be effectively washed in fresh water4 ,sea water is unfavorable to disease germs4 ,greenness in oysters is caused by food administered to improve their quality2 by the presence of copper2 and in some ,american oysters by an inflamed condition of the mantle4 ,green spots are also produced by wandering cells getting under the epithelium4 ,these cells are loaded with granules which give a copper reaction4 ,the most interesting result of the massacre and sack of ,benin1 the ,saturday ,review says1 was the capture of a large series of brass plaques1 statuettes1 box lids1 pipes1 etc41 which have been brought to ,england4 ,the various articles are all castings1 and their elaborate ornamentation bespeaks for their makers great skill in metal working4 ,most ,african tribes have smiths who hammer pieces of brass rod and wire into simple ornaments2 but these ,benin brasses represent a stage of metal working far more advanced than anything recorded for the native races of ,africa4 ,nothing like them is being made by any negro race at present1 and nothing is known that can be regarded as a precursor of them4 ,a statuette in the ,liverpool ,museum of a negro holding a flint gun fixes their date as not earlier than about #afcj4 ,in trying to account for them1 many think they were due to the influence of some comparatively advanced tribe that reached ,benin from the central ,soudan and brought with them a knowledge of brass work derived from early1 possibly ,egyptian1 sources2 and others attribute the work to some prisoner or trader who lived at ,benin in the seventeenth century4 ,,notes4 ,the ,committee of the ,british ,association on ,meteorological ,photography reported that the result of their determinations of the heights of clouds showed the existence of greater altitudes in hot weather under thunderstorm conditions1 when clouds may occur at five or six different levels1 extending as high as ninety thousand feet4 ,a rise of cloud takes place in hot weather1 also during the morning and early afternoons1 while the lowest altitudes are found during cyclones4 ,m4 ,maige1 by varying the condition of exposure of plants to light1 and keeping flowering branches in the dark1 has succeeded in transforming the latter into sterile creeping or climbing branches4 ,inversely1 he has been able1 by means of the localized action of light1 to transform creeping or climbing into flowering branches4 ,these results were obtained at the vegetable biological laboratory of ,fontainebleau4 ,f4 ,l4 ,washburn1 of the ,state ,university of ,oregon1 reports that the condition of the ,eastern oysters introduced to the ,oregon coast waters two years ago leaves nothing to be desired4 ,the specimens have withstood two winters successfully1 and have made phenomenal growth1 far exceeding what they would have made in the same time in their native waters4 ,further1 they spawned4 ,the experiments in artificial fertilization were not so successful4 ,the spawn suffer from the serious difficulties of sudden variations in the temperature and salinity of the water resulting from the change of tide and strong winds4 ,it is hoped that better conditions may be found at ,yaquina ,bay4 ,the population of ,egypt has been gradually increasing during the past hundred years4 ,it is stated to have been about two and a half million in #ahjj1 and is now estimated at nearly ten million4 ,there are about #aab1jjj foreigners1 of whom #ch1jjj are ,greeks2 the remainder being chiefly ,italians1 #bd1jjj2 ,english1 #ai1jjj2 ,french1 #ad1jjj2 ,austrians1 #g1jjj2 ,russians1 #c1jjj2 and ,persians and ,germans1 about #a1jjj each4 ,only about five per cent of the population can read and write1 and nearly two thirds are without any trade or profession4 ,our record of deaths among men known in science includes the names of ,dr4 ,henriques de ,castro1 a ,dutch archologist of ,portuguese descent1 member of many learned societies of the ,netherlands2 ,john ,eliza de ,vry1 of the ,netherlands1 one of the chief authorities on the chemistry and pharmacy of the cinchona alkaloids1 at ,the ,hague1 ,july #cjth1 in the eighty-sixth year of his age2 ,dr4 ,eugenio ,bettoni1 director of the ,fisheries ,station at ,brescia1 ,italy1 ,august #eth1 aged fifty-three years2 ,professor ,arzruni1 mineralogist in the ,polytechnic ,institute at ,aix2 ,heinrich ,theodor ,richter1 director of the ,school of ,mines at ,freiberg1 ,saxony2 ,dr4 ,j4 ,crocq1 professor of pathology in the ,university of ,brussels2 ,dr4 ,c4 ,g4 ,gibelli1 professor of botany and director of the ,botanical ,institute at ,turin2 ,don ,francisco ,coello de ,portugal1 president of the ,geographical ,society of ,madrid1 and author of an atlas of ,spain and its colonies2 ,dr4 ,b4 ,kotula1 author of ,researches on the ,distribution of ,plants2 ,surgeon ,major ,j4 ,e4 ,t4 ,aitchison1 a distinguished botanist1 particularly in the botany of ,india1 and author of numerous papers on the subject1 ,september #cjth1 in his sixty-fourth year2 ,m4 ,thomas ,frdric ,moreau1 a ,french archologist1 author of a collection of ,gallic1 ,gallo-,roman1 and ,merovingian antiquities1 in his one hundred and first year2 ,m4 ,gabriel de ,mortillet1 the eminent ,french anthropologist1 in ,paris1 ,november #dth1 aged sixty-seven years2 ,sir ,george ,smyth ,baden ,powell1 political economist1 aged fifty-one years2 ,sir ,john ,fowler1 engineer in chief of the ,forth ,bridge1 aged eighty-one years2 ,dr4 ,james ,i4 ,peck1 assistant professor of biology in ,williams ,college1 and assistant director of the ,biological ,laboratory at ,woods ,hole2 ,george ,vestal1 professor of agriculture and horticulture at the ,new ,mexico ,agricultural ,college1 ,october #bdth1 aged forty-one years2 ,dr4 ,w4 ,kochs1 docent for physiology at ,bonn2 ,m4 ,j4 ,v4 ,barbier1 a distinguished ,french geographer2 ,m4 ,n4 ,j4 ,raffard1 an eminent ,french mechanical engineer1 author of many valuable inventions2 ,latimer ,clark1 ,f4 ,r4 ,s41 an eminent ,english electrician1 one of the founders and a past president of the ,institution of ,electrical ,engineers1 whose name is associated with the history of electric telegraphy and with many inventions1 and author of several books that are standard with the profession1 at ,kensington1 ,london1 ,october #cjth1 in his seventy-sixth year2 ,count ,michele ,stefano de ,rossi1 a distinguished ,italian seismologist2 ,m4 de ,meritens1 a ,french electrical engineer1 inventor of one of the first practical dynamos1 and of other valuable electrical apparatus1 aged sixty-five years4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,words surrounded by are italicized4 ,words surrounded by are bold4 ,obvious printer's errors have been repaired1 other inconsistent spellings have been kept4 ,illustrations were relocated to correspond to their references in the text4