,,anci5t ,,plants ,illu/ration3 ,photo4 ( ! specim5 9 ,man*e/] ,museum4 ,,! ,,/ump ,,( ,a ,,lepidod5dron ,,f ,,! ,,coal ,,measures ,,anci5t ,,plants ,,be+ ,a ,,simple ,,acc\nt ,,( ,,! ,,pa/ ,,vegetation ,,( ,,! ,,e>? ,,& ,,( ,,! ,,rec5t ,,important ,,discov]ies ,,made ,,9 ,,?is ,,realm ,,( ,,nature ,,/udy ,,by ,,m>ie ,c4 ,,/opes1 ,d4,sc41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,l4,s4 ,lectur] 9 ,fossil ,botany1 ,man*e/] ,univ]sity ,au?or ( 8,! ,/udy ( ,plant ,life = ,"y ,p0 ,,london ,,blackie ,,son1 ,limit$1 #ej ,,old ,,bailey1 ,e4,c4 ,,glasg[ ,,& ,,bombay #aiaj ,preface ,! numb] & ! importance ( ! discov]ies :i* h be5 made 9 ! c\rse ( ! la/ five or six ye>s 9 ! realm ( ,fossil ,botany h l>gely alt]$ ! aspect ( ! subject & greatly wid5$ its horizon4 ,until comp>atively rec5t times ! r n>r[ outlook & ! te*nical difficulties ( ! /udy made x "o :i* c\ld only be appreciat$ by speciali/s4 ,?is has be5 gradually *ang$1 ow+ to ! detail$ anatomical "w :i* x 0 f\nd possible to d on ! c>bonif]\s plants1 & :i* prov$ to be ( great botanical importance4 ,ab\t t5 ye>s ago textbooks 9 ,engli% 7 writt51 & ! subject 0 includ$ 9 ! "w ( ! hon\rs /ud5ts ( ,botany at ! ,univ]sities4 ,to-day ! important be>+ ( ! results ( ?is bran* ( ,sci5ce on sev]al o!rs1 z well z its intr9sic value1 is s mu* great]1 t anyone :o is at all acqua9t$ ) g5]al sci5ce1 & m p>ticul>ly ) ,botany & ,geology1 mu/ f9d mu* to int]e/ him 9 x4 ,!re is no book 9 ! ,engli% language :i* places ?is really attractive subject be=e ! non-speciali/1 & to d s is ! aim ( ! pres5t volume4 ,! two excell5t ,engli% books :i* we possess1 viz4 ,sew>d's ,fossil ,plants 7( :i* ! fir/ volume only has appe>$1 & t t5 ye>s ago7 & ,scott's ,/udies 9 ,fossil ,botany1 are ideal = advanc$ ,univ]sity /ud5ts4 ,b !y are writt5 = /ud5ts :o are suppos$ to h a previ\s k ( te*nical botany1 & prove v h>d or impossible read+ = ^? :o are m]ely acqua9t$ ) ,sci5ce 9 a g5]al way1 or = less advanc$ /ud5ts4 ,! inclusion ( fossil types 9 ! ,s\? ,k5s+ton syllabus = ,botany indicates ! increas+ importance atta*$ to palobotany1 & z vital facts ab\t sev]al ( ^? types are n to be f\nd 9 a simply writt5 book1 ! /ud5ts prep>+ = ! exam9ation mu/ f9d "s difficulty 9 gett+ _! in=mation4 ,fur!rmore1 ,scott's book1 ! only up-to-date "o1 does n give a complete survey ( ! subject1 b j selects ! m important families to describe 9 detail4 ,h5ce ! pres5t book 0 attempt$ = ! d\ble purpose ( pres5t+ ! mo/ int]e/+ discov]ies & g5]al conclusions ( rec5t ye>s1 & br++ toge!r ! subject z a :ole4 ,! mass ( in=mation :i* has be5 collect$ ab\t fossil plants is n[ enorm\s1 & ! greate/ difficulty 9 writ+ ?is little book has be5 ! necessity ( elim9at+ mu* t is ( great int]e/4 ,! au?or awaits ) fe> & trembl+ ! criticisms ( speciali/s1 :o w probably f9d t _m ?+s consid]$ by !m z p>ticul>ly int]e/+ or ess5tial h be5 left out4 ,x is hop$ t !y w be> 9 m9d ! scope & aim ( ! book4 ,i try to pres5t only ! /ructure rais$ on ! f\ndation ( ! accumulat$ details ( speciali/s' "w1 & n to demon/rate brick by brick ! expos$ f\ndation4 ,?\gh ! book is n writt5 specially = !m1 x is probable t ,univ]sity /ud5ts may f9d x useful z a g5]al survey ( ! :ole subject1 = !re is mu* 9 x t c only be le>n$ o!rwise by ref]5ce to innum]able orig9al monographs4 ,9 writ+ ?is book all possible s\rces ( in=mation h be5 consult$1 & ?\gh ,scott's ,/udies#a naturally =m$ ! f\ndation ( "s ( ! *apt]s on ,pt]idophytes1 ! au?orities = all ! g5]al "p & ! rec5t discov]ies are ! num]\s memoirs publi%$ by _m diff]5t le>n$ societies "h & abroad4 ,z ^! pages are prim>ily = ! use ( ^? :o h no v te*nical prelim9>y tra9+1 ! simple/ language possible :i* is consi/5t ) a concise /yle has always be5 adopt$4 ,! necess>y te*nical t]ms are ei!r expla9$ 9 ! context or 9 ! gloss>y at ! end ( ! book4 ,! li/ ( ! m important au?orities makes no pret5ce ( includ+ all ! ref]5ces t might be consult$ ) advantage1 b m]ely indicates ! m important volumes & pap]s :i* anyone %\ld read :o wi%es to foll[ up ! subject4 ,all ! illu/rations are made = ! book itself1 & ,i am mu* oblig$ to ,mr4 ,d4 ,m4 ,s4 ,watson1 ,b4,sc41 = ! microphotos ( plant anatomy :i* adorn its pages4 ,! figures & diagram are my own "w4 ,?is book is d$icat$ to college /ud5ts1 to ! s5ior pupils ( good s*ools :]e ! subject is beg9n+ to f9d a place 9 ! high] c\rses ( ,botany1 b especially to all ^? :o take an int]e/ 9 plant evolution because x =ms a ?read 9 ! web ( life ^: design !y wi% to trace4 ,m4 ,c4 ,,/opes4 ,decemb]1 #aiji4 ,cont5ts ,*ap4 ,page ,i4 ,introductory #a ,,ii4 ,v>i\s ,k9ds ( ,fossil ,plants #f ,,iii4 ,coal1 ! mo/ ,important ( ,plant ,rema9s #bb ,,iv4 ,! ,sev5 ,ages ( ,plant ,life #cc ,v4 ,/ages 9 ,plant ,evolution #dc ,,vi4 ,m9ute ,/ructure ( ,fossil ,plants-- ,lik5esses to ,liv+ ,ones #ec ,,vii4 ,diff]5ces f ,liv+ ,ones #fi ,,viii4 ,pa/ ,hi/ories ( ,plant ,families-- 7i7 ,fl[]+ ,plants #gi ,,ix4 7ii7 ,high] ,gymnosp]ms #hf ,x4 7iii7 ,b5nettitales #ajb ,,xi4 7iv7 ,! ,cycads #aji ,,xii4 7v7 ,pt]idosp]ms #aad ,,xiii4 7vi7 ,! ,f]ns #abd ,,xiv4 7vii7 ,! ,lycopods #acc ,,xv4 7viii7 ,! ,horsetails #ade ,,xvi4 7ix7 ,sph5ophyllales #aec ,,xvii4 7x7 ,! ,l[] ,plants #afa ,,xviii4 ,fossil ,plants z ,records ( ,anci5t ,c\ntries #afh ,,xix4 ,conclusion #agd ,,app5dix ,i4 ,li/ ( ,requirem5ts = a ,collect+ ,exp$ition #ahc ,,ii4 ,treatm5t ( ,specim5s #ahd ,,iii4 ,lit]ature #ahf ,gloss>y #ahh ,footnotes #aic ,index #aic ,,anci5t ,,plants ,,*apt] ,i ,,introductory ,! lore ( ! plants :i* h successively clo!d ?is anci5t e>? dur+ ! ?\s&s ( c5turies be=e m5 appe>$ is g5]ally ignor$ or toss$ on "o side ) a contemptu\s comm5t on ! dullness & 8dryness0 ( fossil botany4 ,x is true t all t rema9s ( ! once luxuriant vegetation are fragm5ts pres]v$ 9 /one1 fragm5ts :i* (t5 %[ little ( beauty or value to ! untra9$ eye2 b nev]!less ^! fragm5ts c tell a /ory ( great int]e/ :5 once we h ! clue to _! mean+4 ,! plants :i* liv$ :5 ! _w 0 "y 7 n ! same z ^? :i* live to-day1 yet !y fill$ mu* ! same place 9 ! economy ( nature1 & 7 z vitally important to ! animals !n dep5d+ on !m z are ! plants :i* are n[ indisp5sable to man4 ,to-day ! life ( ! mod]n plants int]e/s _m p1 & ev5 philosoph]s h exam9$ ! /ructure ( _! bodies & h pond]$ ov] ! great unansw]$ que/ions ( ! cause & ! c\rse ( _! evolution4 ,b all ! plants :i* are n[ alive are ! desc5dants ( ^? :i* liv$ a few ye>s ago1 & ^? aga9 came d[n ?r\gh g5]ation aft] g5]ation f ! plants :i* inhabit$ ! _w be=e ! races ( m5 exi/$4 ,if1 !re=e1 we wi% to "k & und]/& ! vegetation liv+ to-day we mu/ look into ! pa/ hi/ories ( ! families ( plants1 & !re is no way to d ?is at once s simple & s direct 79 !ory7 z to exam9e ! rema9s ( ! plants :i* actually liv$ 9 t pa/4 ,yet :5 we come to d ?is practically we enc\nt] _m difficulties1 :i* h disc\rag$ all b en?usia/s f attempt+ ! /udy hi!rto1 b :i* 9 reality ne$ n dismay u4 ,:5 ,l9dley & ,hutton1 9 #ahca1 began to publi% _! classical book ,! ,fossil ,flora ( ,great ,brita91 !y c\ld give b isolat$ fragm5ts ( in=mation conc]n+ ! fossils !y describ$1 & ! results ( _! "w ?rew b little light on ! !oretical problems ( morphology & classification ( liv+ plants4 ,s9ce !n great advance has be5 made1 & n[ ! sum ( our k ( ! subject1 ?\gh f> f complete1 is s consid]able & has su* a f>-rea*+ influ5ce t x is becom+ ! *ief inspiration ( sev]al bran*es ( mod]n botany4 ,( ! _m work]s :o h contribut$ to ?is /ock ( k ! =emo/1 z he 0 ! pione] 9 ! inve/igations on mod]n l9es1 is ,williamson1 :o 0 a pr(essor at ,man*e/] ,univ]sity1 & ^: monographs & specim5s are classics to-day4 ,/ill liv+ is ,dr4 ,scott1 ^: greatness is sc>cely less1 z well z an ev]-increas+ numb] ( speciali/s 9 ?is c\ntry1 :o are cont9ually mak+ discov]ies4 ,abroad1 ! *ief ,cont95tal names are ,r5ault1 ,b]tr&1 ,c\nt ,solms ,lauba*1 ,brongni>t1 ,zeill]2 & 9 ,am]ica is ,dr4 ,wiel&2 :ile !re are innum]able o!r work]s 9 ! field :o h deep5$ & wid5$ ! *annels ( in=mation4 ,! lit]ature on fossil plants is n[ va/2 s great t to give m]ely ! names ( ! publications w\ld fill a v l>ge volume4 ,b1 l ! records left by ! plants !mselves1 mo/ ( ?is lit]ature is unreadable by any b speciali/s1 & its really vital int]e/ is enclos$ 9 a petrify+ m$ium ( te*nicalities4 ,x is to give _! results 9 a m accessible =m t ! pres5t volume has be5 writt54 ,! actual plants t liv$ & di$ long ago h left ei!r no trace ( _! =m & "*1 or b imp]fect fragm5ts ( "s ( _! p>ts emb$d$ 9 h>d rock & (t5 hidd5 deep 9 ! e>?4 ,t su* difficulties lie 9 our way %\ld n disc\rage u f attempt+ to le>n all ! fossils c tea*4 ,_m an old manuscript :i* is torn & p>tly de/roy$ be>s a record1 ! fragm5ts ( :i* are m int]e/+ & important ?an a tale told by a complete new book4 ,! v difficulty ( ! subject ( fossil botany is 9 itself an inc5tive to /udy1 & ! ob/acles to be surm\nt$ be=e a view ( ! anci5t plants c be se5 increase ! fasc9ation ( ! j\rney4 ,! _w ( to-day has be5 ne>ly explor$2 b ! _w1 or r ! innum]able _w-phases ( ! pa/1 lie be=e u practically unkn[n1 bewild]+ly entic+ 9 _! my/]y4 ,^! untrodd5 regions are reveal$ to u only by ! fossils ly+ scatt]$ ?r\gh ! rocks at our feet1 :i* give u ! clues to guide u along an adv5tur\s pa?4 ,fables ( fly+ dragons & wondr\s sea mon/]s h be5 %[n by ! /ud5ts ( animal fossils to be no m m>vell\s ?an 7 ! actual creatures :i* once inhabit$ ! globe2 & among ! plants su* wond]ful mon/]s h _! p>allels 9 ! floras ( ! pa/4 ,! trees :i* are liv+ to-day are v rec5t 9 comp>ison ) ! ance/ors ( ! families ( l[li] plants1 & mo/ ( ! mod]n =e/ trees h usurp$ a position :i* once belong$ to ! mon/] memb]s ( su* families z ! ,lycopods & ,equisetums1 :i* are n[ humble & dw9dl+4 ,an anci5t giant ( ! pa/ is se5 9 ! frontispiece1 & ! great gir? ( its /em (f]s a /rik+ contra/ to ! feeble trail+ bran*es ( its liv+ relatives1 ! ,club-mosses4 ,z we foll[ _! hi/ories we %all see h[ family aft] family has ris5 to dom9ate ! =e/1 & has 9 its turn giv5 place to a succe$+ gr\p4 ,"s ( ! families t fl\ri%$ long s9ce h liv+ desc5dants ( dw>f$ & puny gr[?1 o!rs h di$ out completely1 s t _! v exi/5ce w\ld h be5 unsuspect$ _h x n be5 reveal$ by _! brok5 fragm5ts entomb$ 9 ! rocks4 ,f ! /udy ( ! fossils1 also1 we c discov] some?+ ( ! c\rse ( ! evolution ( ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! plant body1 f ! *anges x has pass$ ?r\gh 9 ! c\ntless ages ( its exi/5ce4 ,j z ! dom9ant animals ( ! pa/ _h bodies lack+ 9 _m ( ! *>act]s :i* are mo/ important to ! liv+ animals1 s did ! e>ly plants diff] f ^? ar\nd u to-day4 ,x is ! comp>ative /udy ( liv+ & fossil /ructures :i* ?r[s ! /ronge/ light on ! facts & factors ( evolution4 ,:5 ! /udy ( fossil organisms goes into m9ute detail & embraces ! f9e subtleties ( _! int]nal /ructure1 !n ! /ud5t ( fossil plants has ! advantage ( ! zoological obs]v]1 = 9 _m ( ! fossil plants ! cells !mselves are petrifi$ ) a p]fection t no fossil animal tissues h yet be5 f\nd to approa*4 ,"u ! microscope ! mo/ delicate ( plant cells1 ! patt]ns on _! walls1 & sometimes ev5 _! nuclei c be recogniz$ z cle>ly z if !y 7 liv+ tissues4 ,! value ( ?is is imm5se1 because ! ext]nal appe>ance ( leaves & /ems is (t5 v deceptive1 & only :5 bo? ext]nal appe>ance & int]nal /ructure are kn[n c a real e/imate ( ! "* ( ! plant be made4 ,9 ! foll[+ *apt]s a numb] ( photographs tak5 ?r\gh ! microscope w %[ "s ( ! cell /ructure f fossil plants4 ,su* figures z fig4 #aa & fig4 #if1 = example1 illu/rate ! excell5ce ( pres]vation :i* is (t5 f\nd 9 petrifi$ plant tissues4 ,inde$1 ! microscope becomes an ess5tial "p ( ! equipm5t ( a fossil botani/2 z x is to a /ud5t ( liv+ plants4 ,b = ^? :o are n int5d+ to specialize on ! subject micro-photographs w illu/rate suffici5t detail1 :ile 9 mo/ mod]n museums "s excell5tly pres]v$ specim5s are exhibit$ :i* %[ _! /ructure if exam9$ ) a magnify+ glass4 ,we recognize to-day ! effect ! vegetation ( a di/rict has on its sc5]y1 ev5 on its m fundam5tal nature2 & we see h[ ! plants keep 9 close h>mony ) ! l&s & wat]s1 ! climates & soils ( ! places !y inhabit4 ,s 0 x 9 ! pa/4 ,h5ce ! fossil plants ( a di/rict w ?r[ mu* light on its physical *>act]s dur+ ! epo* :5 !y 7 liv+1 & f _! evid5ce x is possible to build up a picture ( ! conditions ( a region dur+ ! epo*s ( its unwritt5 hi/ory4 ,f e po9t ( view a /ud5t ( liv+ plants w f9d 8 k & und]/&+ ( !m greatly increas$ by a /udy ( ! fossils4 ,n only to ! botani/ is ! subject ( value1 ! geologi/ is equally conc]n$ ) x1 ?\gh f a slightly diff]5t viewpo9t1 & all /ud5ts ( ! pa/ hi/ory ( ! e>? w ga9 f x a wid] k ( _! specialty4 ,to all obs]v]s ( life1 to all philosoph]s1 ! :ole hi/ory ( plants1 :i* only approa*es completion :5 ! fossils are /udi$1 & comp>$ or contra/$ ) liv+ =ms1 af=ds a wond]ful illu/ration ( ! laws ( evolution on :i* are bas$ mo/ ( ! mod]n conceptions ( life4 ,ev5 to ^? ^: pr(ession necessitates purely practical l9es ( ?\ght1 fossil botany has some?+ to tea*2 ! /udy ( coal1 = in/ance1 comes )9 its b\nd>ies4 ,:ile to all :o ?9k on ! _w at all1 ! /ory told by ! fossil plants is a *apt] 9 ! ,book ( ,life :i* is z well wor? read+ z any 9 t my/ical volume4 ,,*apt] ,,ii ,,v>i\s ,,k9ds ,,( ,,fossil ,,plants ,( ! rocks :i* =m ! solid e>? ( to-day1 a v l>ge proportion h be5 built up f ! deposits at ! bottom ( anci5t oceans & lakes4 ,! e>? is v old1 & 9 ! c\rse ( its hi/ory dry l& & sea1 m\nta9s & valleys h be5 =m$ & aga9 de/roy$ on ! same spot1 & x is f ! silt at ! bottom ( an ocean t ! hills ( ! future are built4 ,! *ief key we h to ! processes t 7 9 op]ation 9 ! pa/ is ! c\rse ( ev5ts pass+ "u our eyes to-day4 ,h5ce1 if we w\ld und]/& ! =mation ( ! rocks 9 ! anci5t seas1 we mu/ g to ! %ores ( ! mod]n ones & see :at is tak+ place !re4 ,"o ( ! mo/ noticeable *>act]s ( a %ore is ! l9e ( flotsam t is left by ! edge ( ! waves2 "h y may f9d all k9ds ( l& plants mix$ ) ! sea %ells & g5]al rubbi%1 plants t may h drift$ f>4 ,mu* ( ! dbris 7outside t[ns7 is br\ght d[n by ! riv]s1 & may be c>ri$ "s di/ance out to sea2 !n "p becomes wat]logg$ & s9ks1 & "p floats 9 to %ore1 p]haps to be c>ri$ out aga91 or to be buri$ "u ! co>se s& ( ! bea*4 ,:5 we exam9e s&/one rock1 or ! f9] gra9$ /ones :i* are h>d5$ mud1 we f9d 9 !m ! rema9s ( %ells1 sometimes ( bones1 & also ( plant leaves & /ems1 :i* 9 _! "t _h =m$ ! flotsam ( a %ore4 ,inde$1 "o may say t ne>ly e rock :i* has n be5 =m$ 9 anci5t volcanoes1 or be5 alt]$ by _! heat1 c>ries 9 x "s trace ( plant or animal4 ,^! rema9s are (t5 v fragm5t>y & difficult to recognize1 b sometimes !y are wellnigh z p]fect z dri$ specim5s ( liv+ ?+s4 ,:5 !y are recognizable z plant or animal rema9s !y are commonly call$ 8fossils01 & x is f _! te/imony t we mu/ le>n all we c "k ab\t ! life ( ! pa/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4--,! ,face ( a ,qu>ry1 %[+ lay]s or 8b$s0 ( diff]5t rock1 a1 b1 & c4 ,! top gravel & soil s has be5 dis9tegrat$ by ! gr[+ plants & atmosph]e4 ,if we w\ld f9d su* /ones = ourselves1 ! qu>ries (f] ! be/ hunt+ gr\nd1 = !re sev]al lay]s ( rock are expos$1 & we c rea* fre% surfaces :i* h n be5 decay$ by ra9 & /orm4 ,fig4 #a %[s a diagram ( a qu>ry1 & illu/rates ! almo/ univ]sal fact t ! b$s ( rock :5 undi/urb$ lie p>allel to ea* o!r4 ,rock a 9 ! figure is f9e-gra9$ lime/one1 b black friable %ale mix$ ) s&1 & c pur] %ale4 ,9 su* a s]ies ( rocks ! be/ fossils w be f\nd 9 ! lime/one2 its h>d] & f9] /ructure act+ z a bett] pres]vative ( organisms ?an ! o!rs4 ,9 lime/one "o f9ds bo? plant & animal fossils1 v (t5 mix$ toge!r z ! flotsam on ! %ore is mix$4 ,_m lime/ones split along p>allel planes1 & may break into q ?9 %eets on ^: surfaces ! flatt5$ fossils %[ p>ticul>ly well4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ) ! plant fossils t we mu/ conc]n ourselves1 & among !m we f9d great v>iety ( =m4 ,"s are m or less complete1 & give an imm$iate idea ( ! size & appe>ance ( ! plant to :i* !y _h belong$2 b su* are r>e4 ,"o ( ! be/-kn[n examples ( ?is type is ! base ( a great tree trunk illu/rat$ 9 ! frontispiece4 ,) su* a fossil !re is no %ad[ ( d\bt t x is "p ( a giant tree1 & its spread+ roots runn+ s f> horizontally along ! gr\nd sugge/ ! picture ( a l>ge cr[n ( bran*es4 ,mo/ fossils1 h[ev]1 are mu* less illum9at+1 & x is usually only by ! c>eful piec+ toge!r ( fragm5ts t we c obta9 a m5tal picture ( a fossil plant4 ,a fossil su* z t illu/rat$ 9 ! frontispiece--& on a small] scale ?is type ( pres]vation is "o ( ! commone/--does n actually consi/ ( ! plant body itself4 ,al?\gh f ! outside x looks z ?\gh x 7 a /em base cov]$ ) b>k1 ! :ole ( ! inn] portion is compos$ ( f9e h>d rock ) no trace ( woody tissue4 ,9 su* specim5s we h ! %ape1 size1 & =m ( ! plant pres]v$1 b none ( its actual /ructure or cells4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a ,ca/4 ,fossil ca/s appe> to h be5 =m$ by f9e s& or mud silt+ r\nd a subm]g$ /ump & enclos+ x z completely z if x _h be5 set 9 pla/] ( ,p>is2 !n ! wood & s(t tissue decay$ & ! holl[ 0 fill$ up ) m f9e silt2 gradually all ! b>k also decay$ & ! mud h>d5$ into /one4 ,?us ! /one m\ld r\nd ! outside ( ! plant enclos$ a /one ca/+4 ,:51 aft] ly+ = ages undi/urb$1 ^! fossils are une>!d1 !y are s h>d & 8set0 t ! surr\nd+ /one peels away f ! inn] "p1 j z a pla/] ca/ comes away f an object & reta9s its %ape4 ,!re are _m v>ieties ( ca/s among fossil plants4 ,sometimes on break+ a rock x w split s z to %[ ! p]fect =m ( ! surface ( a /em1 :ile its rev]se is left on ! /one z is %[n 9 fig4 #b4 ,_h we only ! rev]se we %\ld /ill h be5 able to see ! =m ( ! leaf bases by tak+ a wax impression f x2 al?\gh !re is no?+ ( ! actual tissue ( ! plant 9 su* a fossil4 ,sometimes ca/s ( leaf bases %[ ! detail pres]v$ ) wond]ful %>pness1 z 9 fig4 #c4 ,?is is an illu/ration ( ! leaf sc>s ( ,lepidod5dron1 :i* (t5 =m p>ticul>ly good ca/s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4--;,a1 ,ca/ ( ! ,surface %[+ ! ,%ape ( ,leaf ,bases ( ,sigill>ia2 ,b1 ! rev]se ( ! impression left on ! adjac5t lay] ( rock4 7,photo47 ,9 o!r in/ances ! ca/ may simply repres5t ! int]nal holl[s ( ! plant4 ,?is happ5s mo/ commonly 9 ! case ( /ems :i* conta9$ s(t pi? cells :i* quickly decay$1 or ) naturally holl[ /ems l ! ,horse-tails 7,equisetum7 ( to-day4 ,f9e mud or s& silt$ into su* holl[s completely fill+ !m up1 & !n1 :e!r ! re/ ( ! plant 7 pres]v$ or n1 ! %ape ( ! inside ( ! /em rema9s z a solid /one4 ,:]e ?is has happ5$1 & ! out] "p ( ! plant has decay$ s z to leave no trace1 ! solid plug ( /one f ! c5tre may look v mu* l an actual /em itself1 z x is cyl9drical & may h surface m>k+s l ^? on ! outsides ( /ems4 ,"s ( ! ca/s ( ?is type 7 = long a puzzle to ! old] fossil botani/s1 p>ticul>ly t illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #d1 :]e ! :ole looks l a pile ( discs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #c4--;,ca/ ( ! ,leaf ,bases ( ,lepidod5dron1 %[+ f9ely m>k$ detail4 7,photo47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #d4--8,/]nb]gia40 ,int]nal ca/ ( ! /em ( ,cordaites4 ,! true nature ( ?is fossil 0 recogniz$ :5 ca/s ( ! plan 7 f\nd ) "s ( ! wood pres]v$ outside ! ca/+s2 & x 0 !n kn[n t ! plant _h a holl[ pi?1 ) transv]se b&s ( tissue across x at int]vals :i* caus$ ! curi\s con/rictions 9 ! ca/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #e4--,leaf ,impressions ( 8,f]n0 ,sph5opt]is on ,%ale4 7,photo47 ,ano!r =m ( ca/ :i* is common 9 "s rocks is t ( se$s4 ,z a rule ^! ca/s are n connect$ ) any actually pres]v$ tissue1 b !y %[ ! ext]nal =m1 or ! =m ( ! /ony "p ( ! se$4 ,well-kn[n se$s ( ?is type are ^? ( ,trigonoc>pon1 :i* has ?ree *>act]i/ic ridges d[n ! /one4 ,sometimes 9 ! f9e s&/one 9 :i* !y occur emb$d$1 ! int]nal ca/ lies emb$d$ 9 ! ext]nal ca/1 & betwe5 !m !re is a slight space1 n[ empty1 b :i* once conta9$ ! actual %ell ( ! se$1 n[ decay$4 ,?us we may rattle ! 8/one0 ( a fossil fruit z we d ! dri$ nuts ( to-day--! ext]nal resemblance betwe5 ! liv+ & ! fossil is v /rik+1 b ( ! actual tissues ( ! fossil se$ no?+ is left4 ,ca/s h be5 ( great s]vice to ! fossil botani/s1 = !y (t5 give cle> indications ( ! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! p>ts !y repres5t2 p>ticul>ly ( /ems1 leaf sc>s1 & l>ge se$s4 ,b all su* fossils are v imp]fect records ( ! pa/ plants1 = none ( ! actual plant tissues1 no m9ute anatomy or cell /ructure1 is pres]v$ 9 t way4 ,a type ( fossil :i* (t5 %[s m detail1 & :i* usually reta9s some?+ ( ! actual tissues ( ! plant1 is t kn[n te*nically z ! ,impression4 ,^! fossils are ! mo/ attractive ( all ! _m k9ds we h scatt]$ ?r\gh ! rocks1 = !y (t5 %[ ) m>vell\s p]fection ! mo/ delicate & beautiful f]n leaves1 su* z 9 fig4 #e4 ,"h ! plant %[s up z a black silh\ette aga9/ ! grey /one1 & ! v ve9s ( ! midrib & leaves are q visible4 ,fig4 #f %[s ano!r f]nlike leaf 9 an impression1 n q flat l t %[n 9 fig4 #e1 b ) a slight natural curvature ( ! leaves simil> to :at w\ld h be5 _! =m 9 life4 ,?\gh an impression1 ?is specim5 is n ( ! 8press$ plant0 type1 x almo/ might be describ$ z a bas-relief4 ,sometimes impressions ( f]n foliage are v l>ge1 & %[ highly bran*$ & complex leaves l ^? ( tree f]ns1 & !y may cov] l>ge %eets ( /one4 ,!y are p>ticul>ly common 9 ! f9e %ales above coal seams1 & are be/ se5 9 ! m9es1 = !y are (t5 too big to br+ to ! surface complete4 ,9 mo/ impressions ! black col\r is due to a film ( c>bon :i* repres5ts ! p>tly decompos$ tissues ( ! plant4 ,sometimes ?is film is cohesive en\gh to be deta*$ f ! /one )\t damage4 ,beautiful specim5s ( ?is k9d are to be se5 9 ! ,royal ,scotti% ,museum1 ,ed9burgh :]e ! coil$ bud ( a "y f]n leaf has be5 sep>at$ f ! rock on :i* x 0 press$1 & m\nt$ on glass4 ,su* specim5s might be call$ mummy plants1 = !y are ! actual plant mat]ial1 b s decay$ & )]$ t ! int]nal cells are no long] intact4 ,9 really well pres]v$ ones x is sometimes possible to peel (f ! plant film1 & !n treat x ) /rong *emical ag5ts to cle> ! black c>bon atoms away1 & m\nt x = microscopic exam9ation1 :5 ! actual outl9e ( ! epid]mis cells c be se54 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #f4--;,impression ( ,neuropt]is ,leaf1 %[+ details ( ve9s1 ! leaves 9 p>tial relief4 7,photo47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #g4--,leaf ,impression ( ,g9kgo1 ( :i* ! film 0 /rong en\gh to peel (f complete ,9 fig4 #g1 ! impression is t ( a ,g9kgo leaf1 & aft] treatm5t ! cells ( ! epid]mis 7 p]fectly recognizable "u ! microscope1 ) ! /omates 7brea?+ pores7 also well pres]v$4 ,?is is %[n 9 fig4 #h1 :]e ! outl9e ( ! cells 0 drawn f ! microscope4 ,9 su* specim5s1 h[ev]1 x is only ! out] sk9 :i* is pres]v$1 ! inn] s(t tissue1 ! vital anatomy ( ! plant1 is cru%$ & c>boniz$4 ,leaves1 /ems1 roots1 ev5 fl[]s 79 ! m rec5t rocks7 & se$s may all be pres]v$ z impressions2 & v (t5 ^? f ! m rec5tly =m$ rocks are s %>ply def9$ & p]fect t !y seem to be actual dri$ leaves laid on ! /one4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #h4--,outl9e ( ! ,cells f ,specim5 ( ,leaf %[n 9 fig4 #g c1 ,ord9>y cells2 s1 /omates2 v1 elongat$ cells above ! ve94 ,mu* evid5ce has be5 accumulat$ t goes to %[ t ! rocks :i* conta9 ! be/ impressions 7 orig9ally deposit$ "u tranquil conditions 9 wat]4 ,x might h be5 9 a pool or quiet lake ) ov]%ad[+ trees1 or a l&lock$ inlet ( ! sea :]e silt quietly accumulat$1 & z ! plant fragm5ts fell or drift$ into ! spot !y 7 cov]$ by f9e-gra9$ mud )\t di/urbance4 ,9 ! case ( ^? :i* are v well pres]v$ ?is mu/ h tak5 place ) consid]able rapidity1 s t !y 7 %ut away f contact ) ! air & f ! decay :i* x induces4 ,impressions 9 ! ?9 %eets ( f9e rock may be comp>$ to dri$ specim5s press$ betwe5 %eets ( blott+ pap]2 !y are flatt5$1 pres]v$ f decay1 & _! detail$ outl9e is reta9$4 ,fossils ( ?is k9d are mo/ valuable1 = !y give a cle> picture ( ! =m ( ! foliage1 & :51 z sometimes happ5s1 l>ge masses ( leaves1 or bran*es ) sev]al leaves atta*$ to !m1 are pres]v$ toge!r1 x is possible to recon/ruct ! plant f !m4 ,x is *iefly f su* impressions t ! inspiration is drawn = ^? semi-imag9>y pictures ( ! =e/s ( long ago4 ,f !m also are drawn _m facts ( prime importance to sci5ti/s ab\t ! nature & appe>ance ( plants1 ( :i* ! int]nal anatomy is kn[n f o!r specim5s1 & also ab\t ! connection ( v>i\s p>ts ) ea* o!r4 ,sometimes isolat$ impressions are f\nd 9 clay balls or nodules4 ,:5 ! latt] are split op5 !y may %[ z a c5tre or nucleus a leaf or cone1 r\nd :i* ! nodule has collect$4 ,9 su* cases ! plant is (t5 pres]v$ )\t compression1 & may %[ some?+ ( ! m9ute details ( organization4 ,! pres]vation1 h[ev]1 is g5]ally f> f p]fect :5 view$ f a microscopical /&po9t4 ,fig4 #i %[s "o ( ^! smoo?1 clayey nodules split op51 & )9 x ! cone :i* =m$ its c5tre1 also split into two1 & /&+ 9 high relief1 ) its scales %[+ cle>ly4 ,simil> nodules or balls ( clay are f\nd to-day1 =m+ 9 sl[ly runn+ wat]1 & x may be g5]ally obs]v$ t !y collect r\nd "s rubbi%1 %ell1 or plant fragm5t4 ,^! nodules are p>ticul>ly well se5 n[adays 9 ! m\? ( ! ,clyde1 :]e !y are =m$ ) great rapidity4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #i4--;,clay ,nodule split op51 %[+ ! two halves ( ! cone :i* 0 its c5tre4 7,photo47 ,ano!r k9d ( pres]vation is t :i* coats ov] ! :ole plant surface ) m9]al matt]1 :i* h>d5s1 & ?us pres]ves ! =m ( ! plant4 ,?is process c be obs]v$ go+ on to-day 9 ! neighb\rhood ( hot volcanic /reams :]e ! wat] is heavily *>g$ ) m9]als4 ,9 mo/ cases su* fossils h prov$ ( little importance to sci5ce1 ?\gh !re are "s int]e/+ specim5s 9 ! ,fr5* museums :i* h n yet be5 fully exam9$4 ,a notewor?y fossil ( ?is type is ! ,*>a1 :i*1 gr[+ 9 masses toge!r1 has sometimes be5 pres]v$ 9 ?is way 9 l>ge quantities1 indicat+ ! exi/5ce ( an anci5t pond 9 ! locality4 ,!re is q a v>iety ( o!r types ( pres]vation among fossil plants1 b !y are ( m9or int]e/ & importance1 & h>dly ju/ify detail$ consid]ation4 ,"o example t %\ld be m5tion$ is ,amb]4 ,?is is ! gum ( old res9\s trees1 & is a well-kn[n sub/ance :i* may rank z a 8fossil04 ,jet1 too1 is =m$ f plants1 :ile coal is s important t ! :ole ( ! next *apt] w be devot$ to its consid]ation4 ,ev5 ! black lead ( p5cils possibly repres5ts plants t 7 once alive on ?is globe4 ,?\gh su* rema9s tell u ( ! exi/5ce ( plants at ! place !y 7 f\nd at a kn[n p]iod 9 ! pa/1 yet !y tell v little ab\t ! actual /ructure ( ! plants !mselves1 & !re=e v little t is ( real use to ! botani/4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 !re are fossils :i* pres]ve e cell ( ! plant tissues1 ea* "o p]fect1 di/5d$ z 9 life1 & yet replac$ by /one s z to be h>d & to all[ ( ! prep>ation ( ?9 sections :i* c be /udi$ ) ! microscope4 ,^! are ! vegetable fossils :i* are ( prime importance to ! botani/ & ! sci5tific enquir] into ! evolution ( plants4 ,su* specim5s are commonly kn[n z ,petrifactions4 ,sometimes small isolat$ /umps ( wood or bran*es h be5 completely p]meat$ by silica1 :i* replaces ! cell walls & completely pres]ves & h>d5s ! tissues4 ,?is silicifi$ wood is f\nd 9 a numb] ( diff]5t b$s ( rock1 & may be se5 wa%$ out on ! %ore 9 ,york%ire1 ,su!rl&1 & o!r places :]e su* rocks occur4 ,:5 su* a block is cut & poli%$ ! annual r+s & all ! f9e /ructure or 8gra90 ( ! wood become z app>5t z 9 rec5t wood4 ,f ^! fossils1 too1 microscopic sections c be cut1 & !n ! individual wood cells c be /udi$ almo/ z well z ^? ( liv+ trees4 ,a p>ticul>ly notable example ( fossil tree trunks is ! ,t]ti>y =e/ ( ! ,yell[/one ,p>k4 ,"h ! petrifi$ trunks are wea!r$ out & /& toge!r mu* z !y mu/ h /ood :5 alive2 !y are ( c\rse b]eft ( _! foliage bran*es4 ,su* specim5s1 h[ev]1 are usually only isolat$ blocks ( wood1 (t5 fragm5ts f l>ge /umps :i* %[ no?+ b ! r+s ( late-=m$ wood4 ,x is impossible to connect !m ) ! impressions ( leaves or fruits 9 mo/ cases1 s t ( ! plants !y repres5t we "k only ! anatomical /ructure ( ! second>y wood & no?+ ( ! foliage or g5]al appe>ance ( ! plant z a :ole4 ,h5ce ^! specim5s also give a v p>tial repres5tation ( ! plants to :i* !y belong$4 ,=tunately1 h[ev]1 !re is /ill ano!r type ( pres]vation ( fossils1 a type m p]fect ?an any ( ! o!rs & sometimes comb9+ ! advantages ( all ( !m4 ,?is is ! special type ( petrifaction :i* includes1 n a s+le piece ( wood1 b a :ole mass ( vegetation consi/+ ( fragm5ts ( /ems1 roots1 leaves1 & ev5 se$s1 sometimes all toge!r4 ,^! petrifactions are ^? ( masses ( =e/ dbris :i* 7 ly+ z !y dropp$ f ! trees1 or _h drift$ toge!r z su* fragm5ts d4 ,! plant tissues 9 su* masses are pres]v$ s t ! mo/ delicate s(t tissue cells are p]fect1 & 9 _m cases ! sections are s di/9ct t "o might well be delud$ into ! belief t x is a liv+ plant at :i* "o looks4 ,v important & well-kn[n specim5s h be5 f\nd 9 ,france & describ$ by ! ,fr5* palobotani/s4 ,z a rule ^! specim5s are pres]v$ 9 silica1 & are f\nd n[ 9 irregul> masses ( ! nature ( *]t4 ,( /ill great] importance1 h[ev]1 ow+ p>tly to _! great] abundance & p>tly to ! quantity ( sci5tific "w t has be5 done on !m1 are ! masses ( /one f\nd 9 ! ,engli% coal seams & commonly call$ 8coal balls04 ,! 8coal balls0 are be/ kn[n f ,lanca%ire & ,york%ire1 :]e !y are extremely common 9 "s ( ! m9es1 b !y also occur 9 ,we/phalia & o!r places on ! ,cont95t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aj4--,mass ( ,coal ) _m 8coal balls0 emb$d$ 9 x a a1 ,9 surface view2 b b1 cut across4 ,all wa%$ ) acid to make ! coal balls %[ up aga9/ ! black coal4 7,photo by ,lomax47 ,9 ext]nal appe>ance ! 8coal balls0 are slightly irregul> r\ndi% masses1 mo/ g5]ally ab\t ! size ( potatoes1 & black on ! outside f films ( adh]+ coal4 ,_! size v>ies greatly1 & !y h be5 f\nd f t ( peas up to masses ) a diamet] ( a foot & a half4 ,!y lie emb$d$ 9 ! coal & are n v easily recognizable 9 x at fir/1 because !y are black also1 b :5 wa%$ ) acid !y turn greyi%-:ite & !n c be recogniz$ cle>ly4 ,fig4 #aj %[s a block ( coal ) an exceptionally l>ge numb] ( ! 8coal balls0 emb$d$ 9 x4 ,?is figure illu/rates _! slightly irregul> r\nd$ =m 9 a typical mann]4 ,by *emical analysis !y are f\nd to consi/ ( a ne>ly pure mixture ( ! c>bonates ( lime & magnesia2 ?\gh 9 "s specim5s !re is a consid]able quantity ( iron sulphide1 & 9 all !re is at lea/ #e p] c5t ( v>i\s impurities & "s quantity ( c>bon4 ,! important m9]al comp\nds1 ,ca,c,o#c & ,mg,c,o#c1 are mix$ 9 v diff]5t quantities1 & ev5 9 coal balls ly+ q close to ea* o!r !re is (t5 mu* dissimil>ity 9 ?is respect4 ,9 :atev] proportion ^! m9]als are comb9$1 x seems to make b little diff]5ce to _! pres]vative p[]1 & 9 good 8coal balls0 !y may completely replace & petrify ea* individual cell ( ! plants 9 !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aa4--,photograph ( ,section across ,/em ( ,sph5ophyllum f a ,lanca%ire 8coal ball01 %[+ p]fect pres]vation ( woody tissue ,w1 wood2 c1 cortex4 ,fig4 #aa %[s a section across ! wood ( a /em pres]v$ 9 a 8coal ball01 & illu/rates a degree ( p]fection :i* is n uncommon4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! succe$+ *apt]s con/ant ref]5ce w be made to tissues pres]v$ 9 8coal balls01 & x may be notic$ t n only ! relatively h>d woody cells are pres]v$ b ! v s(te/ & y\nge/ tissues also appe> equally unh>m$ by _! long soj\rn 9 ! rocks4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ab4--,photograph ( ,section ?r\gh a ,bud ( ,lepidod5dron1 %[+ _m small leaves tightly pack$ r\nd ! axis4 ,f a 8coal ball0 ,! p>ticul> value ( ! coal balls z records ( pa/ vegetation lies 9 ! fact t !y are petrifactions1 n ( individual plants alone1 b ( masses ( plant dbris4 ,h5ce 9 "o ( ^! /ony concretions may lie twigs ) leaves atta*$1 bits ( /ems ) _! fruits1 & f9e rootlets gr[+ ?r\gh ! mass4 ,a c>eful /udy & comp>ison ( ^! fragm5ts has l$ to ! connection1 piece by piece1 ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( _m plants4 ,su* a specim5 z t figur$ 9 fig4 #ab %[s h[ ! s(t tissues ( "y leaves are pres]v$1 & h[ _! relation to ea* o!r & to ! axis is indicat$4 ,hi!rto ! only concretions ( ! nature ( 8coal balls0 conta9+ well pres]v$ plant dbris1 h be5 f\nd 9 ! coal or imm$iately above x1 & are ( ,palozoic age 7see p4 #cd74 ,rec5t exploration1 h[ev]1 has result$ 9 ! discov]y ( simil> concretions ( ,mesozoic age1 f :i* mu* may be hop$ 9 ! future4 ,/ill1 at pres5t1 x is to ! palozoic specim5s we mu/ turn = ne>ly all valuable k ab\t anci5t plants1 & prim>ily to t =m ( pres]vation ( ! specim5s kn[n z /ructural petrifactions1 ( :i* ! 8coal balls0 are bo? ! commone/ & ! mo/ p]fect examples4 ,,*apt] ,,iii ,,coal1 ,,! ,,mo/ ,,important ,,( ,,plant ,,rema9s ,"s ( ! _m =ms :i* are tak5 by fossil plants 7 %ortly describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]1 b ! mo/ important ( all1 namely coal1 mu/ n[ be consid]$4 ,( ! fossils hi!rto m5tion$ _m are difficult to recognize )\t exam9+ !m v closely1 & "o might say t all h b little influ5ce on human life1 = !y are ( little practical or comm]cial use1 & _! sci5tific value is n yet v widely kn[n4 ,( all fossil plants1 ! great exception is coal4 ,its comm]cial importance all ov] ! _w ne$s no illu/ration1 & its appe>ance ne$s no description = x is 9 use 9 ne>ly e h\sehold4 ,q ap>t f its economic importance1 coal has a unique place among fossils 9 ! eyes ( ! sci5ti/1 & is ( special int]e/ to ! palontologi/4 ,9 ,engl& ne>ly all ! coal lies 9 rocks ( a great age1 belong+ to a p]iod v remote 9 ! _w's hi/ory4 ,! rocks be>+ ! coal conta9 o!r fossils1 pr9cipally ^? ( m>9e animals1 :i* are *>act]i/ic ( !m & ( ! p]iod dur+ :i* !y 7 =m$1 :i* is g5]ally kn[n z ! 8,coal ,measure p]iod04 ,!re is geological pro( t at "o "t ! coal seams 7 mu* m widely spread ov] ,engl& ?an !y are at pres5t2 !y h be5 brok5 up & de/roy$ 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 by ! natural movem5ts among ! rocks & by ! _m *anges & processes ( dis9tegration & decay :i* h gone on ev] s9ce !y 7 deposit$4 ,to-day !re are b relatively small coal-be>+ areas1 :i* h be5 pres]v$ 9 ! holl[s ( ! syncl9es4#b ,! seams ( coal are extremely num]\s1 & ev5 ! same seam may v>y greatly 9 ?ickness4 ,f a qu>t] ( an in* to five or six feet is ! commone/ ?ickness = coal 9 ?is c\ntry1 b !re are _m b$s abroad ( v mu* great] size4 ,?9 seams (t5 lie irregul>ly 9 co>se s&/one2 = example1 !y may be commonly se5 9 ! ,mill/one ,grit2 b typical coal seams are f\nd emb$d$ betwe5 rocks ( a m or less def9ite "* kn[n z ! 8ro(0 & 8floor04 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ac4--;,diagram ( a ,s]ies ( ,p>allel ,coal ,seams ) ,und]clays & ,%ale ,ro(s ( v>y+ ?icknesses ,basalts1 granites1 & su* rocks d n conta9 coal2 ! coal measures 9 :i* ! seams ( coal occur are1 g5]ally speak+1 lime/ones1 f9e s&/ones1 & %ales1 t is to say1 rocks :i* 9 _! orig9 7 deposit$ "u wat]4 ,9 detail almo/ e seam has "s individual peculi>ity1 b ! foll[+ repres5ts two types ( typical seams4 ,9 _m cases1 bel[ ! coal1 ! lime/one or s&/one rocks give place to f9e1 yell[-col\r$ lay]s ( clay1 :i* v>ies f a few in*es to _m feet 9 ?ickness & is call$ ! 8und]clay04 ,?is f9e clay is g5]ally free f pebbles & co>se dbris ( all k9ds1 & is (t5 suppos$ to be ! soil 9 :i* ! plants =m+ ! coal _h be5 gr[+4 ,! l9e ( dem>cation betwe5 ! coal & ! clay is usually v %>p1 & ! compact black lay]s ( h>d coal /op almo/ z abruptly on ! upp] side & give place to a %ale or lime/one 8ro(02 see fig4 #ac1 lay]s #e1 #f1 & #g4 ,v frequ5tly a numb] ( small seams come toge!r1 ly+ p>allel1 & sometimes succe$+ ea* o!r s rapidly t ! 8ro(0 is elim9at$1 & a clay floor foll[$ by a coal seam1 is succe$$ imm$iately by ano!r clay floor & ano!r coal seam1 z 9 fig4 #ac1 lay]s #aj1 #aa1 & #ab4 ,! relative ?ickness ( ^! b$s also v>ies v greatly1 & ov] an und]clay ( sev5 or eight feet ! coal seam may only rea* a c\ple ( in*es1 :ile a ?ick seam may h a floor ( v slight dim5sions4 ,^! relations dep5d on su* a v>iety ( local circum/ances f ! day !y 7 =m+1 t x is only possible to unravel ! causes :5 an individual case is closely /udi$4 ,! ma9 sequ5ce1 h[ev]1 is con/ant & is t illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #ac4 ,! second type ( seam is t 9 :i* ! und]clay floor is n pres5t1 & is replac$ ei!r by %ales or by a special v h>d rock ( a f9ely granul> nature call$ 8ganni/]04 ,9 ! ganni/] floor x is usual to f9d traces ( rootlets & basal /umps ( plants1 :i* seem to indicate t ! ganni/] 0 ! gr\nd 9 :i* ! plants =m+ ! coal 7 root$4 ,! coal itself is g5]ally v pure plant rema9s1 ?\gh betwe5 its lay]s are (t5 f\nd b&s ( %aly /one :i* are call$ 8dirt b&s04 ,^! are p>ticul>ly noticeable 9 ?ick seams1 & !y may be look$ on z correspond+ to ! ro( %ales2 z ?\gh1 9 fact1 ! ro( _h />t$ to =m b _h only rea*$ a slight developm5t :5 ! coal =mation began aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ad4--;,diagram ( ,coal ,seam ) ,ganni/] ,floor1 9 :i* are traces ( rootlets r1 & ( /umps ( root-l organs s ,t ! coal is /rik+ly diff]5t f ! rocks 9 :i* x lies is v obvi\s1 b t alone is no indication ( its orig94 ,x is n[ s univ]sally kn[n & accept$ t coal is ! rema9s ( vegetables t no pro(s are usually (f]$ = ! /atem5t4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 ( bo? int]e/ & importance to m>%al ! evid5ce = ?is belief4 ,! gr\nds = recogniz+ coal z consi/+ ( practically pure plant rema9s are _m & v>i\s1 s t only ! m important ( !m w be consid]$ n[4 ,! mo/ direct sugge/ion lies 9 ! impressions ( leaves & /ems :i* are f\nd betwe5 its lay]s2 ?is1 h[ev]1 is confront$ by ! p>allel case ( plant impressions f\nd 9 %ales & lime/ones :i* are n ( vegetable orig91 s t x might be argu$ t ^? plants 9 ! coal drift$ 9 z did ^? 9 ! lime/one4 ,b :5 we exam9e ! black impressions on lime/one or s&/one1 an item ( value is noticeable2 x is (t5 possible to peel (f a film1 ly+ betwe5 ! upp] & l[] impression1 ( black coaly sub/ance1 sometimes an eigh? ( an in* ?ick1 & h>d & %9+ l coal4 ,?is foll[s ! outl9e ( ! plant =m ( ! impression1 & x is c]ta9 t ?is m9ute 8coal seam0 0 =m$ f ! plant tissues4 ,x is1 9 fact1 a coal seam be>+ ! cle>e/ possible evid5ce ( its plant nature4 ,we h only to imag9e ?is multipli$ by _m plants ly+ tightly pack$ toge!r1 ) no m9]al impurities betwe51 to see t x w\ld yield a coal seam l ^? we f9d actually exi/+4 ,9 "s cases 9 ! coal itself a c]ta9 am\nt ( ! /ructure ( ! plants :i* =m$ x rema9s1 ?\gh usually1 9 ! process ( _! decay ! tissues h entirely decompos$1 & left only _! c>boniz$ elem5ts4 ,*emical analysis reveals t1 beyond ! p]c5tage ( m9]al a% :i* is f\nd 9 liv+ plants1 !re is little 9 a pure sample ( coal t is n c>bonace\s4 ,all ! deposits ( c>bon f\nd 9 any =m 9 nature c be trac$ to "s animal or vegetable rema9s1 s t x is logical to assume t coal also arose f ei!r animal or plant dbris4 ,b 7 coal ( an animal orig91 ! am\nt ( m9]al matt] 9 x w\ld be mu* l>g] z well z be+ ( a diff]5t nature2 = almo/ all animals h skeletons1 ev5 ! simple/ s+le-cell$ protozoa (t5 own calc>e\s %ells1 sponges h silice\s spicules1 molluscs h>d %ells1 & ! high] animals bones & tee?4 ,^! ?+s are ( a v p]man5t nature1 & w\ld c]ta9ly be f\nd 9 quantities 9 ! coal _h animals =m$ x4 ,fur!r1 ! peat ( to-day1 :i* collects 9 ?ick compact masses ( vegetable1 %[s h[ plants may =m a mat]ial consi/+ ( c>boniz$ rema9s4 ,by c]ta9 exp]im5ts 9 :i* peat 0 subject$ to pressure & heat1 practically normal coal 0 made f x4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ae4--,"p ( a ,coal ,ball1 %[+ ! conc5tric b&+s 9 x :i* are *>act]i/ic ( concretions ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #af4--,mass ( ,coal ) ,coal ,balls1 ,a & ,b bo? enclos+ "p ( ! same /em ,l ,/ill a fur!r witness may be f\nd 9 ! /ructure ( ! 8coal balls0 describ$ 9 ! la/ *apt]4 ,^! /ony masses1 ly+ 9 ! pure coal1 might well be consid]$ z ap>t f x & be>+ no relation to its /ructure2 b rec5t "w has %[n t !y 7 actually =m$ at ! same "t z ! coal1 develop+ 9 its mass z m9]al concretions r\nd "s ( ! plants 9 ! s(t1 saturat$1 peaty mass :i* 0 to be h>d5$ into coal lat] on4#c ,all 8coal balls0 d n %[ _! concretion>y /ructure s cle>ly1 b sometimes x c be se5 t !y are made ) conc5tric b&s or m>k+s l ^? *>act]i/ic ( ord9>y m9]al concretions 7see fig4 #ae74 ,concretions are =m$ by ! cry/allization ( m9]als r\nd "s c5tre1 & x mu/ h happ5$ t 9 ! coal seams 9 :i* ! coal-ball concretions are f\nd t ?is process took place 9 ! s(t plant mass be=e x h>d5$4 ,rec5t rese>* has f\nd t !re is good evid5ce t ^? seams#d result$ f ! sl[ accumulation ( plant dbris "u ! salt or bracki% wat] 9 ^: swamps ! plants 7 gr[+1 & t z !y 7 collect+ ! gr\nd sl[ly sank till !y 7 q bel[ ! level ( ! sea & 7 cov]$ by m>9e silt4 ,at ! same "t "s ( ! m9]als pres5t 9 ! sea wat]1 :i* mu/ h saturat$ ! mass1 cry/alliz$ p>tly & deposit$ !mselves r\nd c5tres 9 ! plant tissues1 & by enclos+ !m & p5etrat+ !m pres]v$ !m f decay till ! m9]al /ructure entirely replac$ ! cells1 molecule by molecule4 ,evid5ce is n want+ t ?is process w5t on )\t di/urbance1 = 9 fig4 #af is %[n a mass ( coal 9 :i* lie sev]al coal balls1 two ( :i* enclose p>ts ( ! same plant4 ,?is means t r\nd diff]5t c5tres 9 ! same /em two ( ! concretions 7 =m+ & pres]v+ ! tissues2 ! two /one masses1 h[ev]1 did n enl>ge en\gh to unite1 b left a "p ( ! tissue unm9]aliz$1 :i* is n[ se5 z a /reak ( coal4 ,we h "h ! mo/ important pro( t ! coal balls are actually =m$ 9 ! coal & ( ! plants mak+ ! coal1 = _h ^? coal balls come 9 z pebbles1 or 9 any way f ! outside into ! coal1 !y c\ld n h rema9$ 9 su* a position z to lie side by side enclos+ "p ( ! same /em4 ,!re are _m o!r details :i* may be us$ 9 ?is pro(1 b ?is "o illu/ration s]ves to %[ ! importance ( coal balls :5 deal+ ) ! !ories ( ! orig9 ( coal1 = !y are p]fectly pres]v$ samples ( :at ! :ole coal mass 0 at "o "t4 ,!re are b few seams1 h[ev]1 :i* conta9 coal balls1 & ab\t ^? 9 :i* !y d n occur our k is v scanty4 ,x is (t5 assum$ t ! plant impressions 9 ! %ales above ! coal seams c be tak5 z fair samples ( ^? :i* =m$ ! coal itself2 b ?is has be5 rec5tly %[n to be a fallaci\s argum5t 9 "s cases1 s t x is impossible to rely on x 9 g5]al4 ,! tru? is1 t ?\gh coal is "o ( ! mo/ /udi$ ( all ! geological deposits1 we are /ill pr(\ndly ignorant ( ! details ( its =mation except 9 a few cases4 ,! way 9 :i* coal seams 7 =m$ has be5 describ$ (t5 & v>i\sly1 & = _m ye>s !re 7 heat$ discussions betwe5 ! uphold]s ( ! diff]5t views z to ! m]its ( _! v>i\s !ories4 ,x is n[ c]ta9 t !re mu/ h be5 at lea/ f\r pr9cipal ways 9 :i* coal 0 =m$1 & ! diff]5t seams are illu/rations ( ! products ( diff]5t me?ods4 ,9 all cases m or less wat] is requir$1 = coal is :at is kn[n z a s$im5t>y deposit1 t is1 "o :i* collects "u wat]1 l ! f9e mud & silt & dbris 9 a lake4 ,x w be und]/ood1 h[ev]1 t if ! plant rema9s 7 collect+ at any spot1 & ! wat] br\ght 9 s& & mud z well1 !n ! deposit c\ld n h result$ 9 pure coal1 b w\ld h be5 a s&y mixture ) _m plant rema9s1 & w\ld h result$ 9 ! =mation ( a rock1 su* z p>ts ( ! mill/one grit1 :]e !re are _m /reaks ( coal ?r\gh ! /one4 ,among v>i\s coal seams1 evid5ce = ! foll[+ modes ( coal =mation c be f\nd3-- 7a7 ,9 fre% wat]4--,9 /ill fre%wat] lakes or pools1 ) ov]hang+ plants gr[+ on ! banks1 twigs & leaves :i* fell or 7 bl[n into ! wat] became wat]logg$ & sank to ! bottom4 ,) a luxuriant gr[? ( plants rapidly collect+ "u wat]1 & !re pres]v$ f contact ) ! air & its decay+ influ5ce1 en\gh plant rema9s w\ld collect to =m a seam4 ,aft] t "s *ange 9 ! local conditions took place1 & o!r deposits cov]$ ! plants & began ! accumulations :i* f9ally press$ ! vegetable mass into coal4 ,to fre%wat] lakes ( l>ge size plants might also h be5 br\ght by riv]s & /reams2 !y w\ld h become wat]logg$ 9 "t1 aft] float+ f>!r ?an ! s& & /ones ) :i* !y came1 & w\ld ?us settle & =m a deposit practically free f any?+ b plant rema9s4 7b7 ,z peat4--,peat commonly =ms on our hea!r moors & bogs to-day to a consid]able ?ickness4 ,?is also took place long ago 9 all probability1 & :5 ! level ( ! l& alt]$ x w\ld h be5 cov]$ by o!r deposits1 press$1 & f9ally *ang$ into coal4 7c7 ,9 salt or bracki% wat]1 gr[+ 9 situ4--,trees & und]gr[? gr[+ ?ickly toge!r 9 a salt or bracki% m>% suppli$ a l>ge quantity ( dbris :i* fell into ! mud or wat] bel[ !m1 & 7 ?us %ut (f f ! air & p>tly pres]v$4 ,:5 conditions fav\r$ ! =mation ( a coal seam ! l& level 0 sl[ly s9k+1 & s1 ?\gh ! dbris collect$ 9 l>ge quantities1 x 0 always kept j b5ea? ! wat] level4 ,f9ally ! l& sank m rapidly1 till ! vegetable mass 0 q "u sea wat]1 !n mud 0 deposit$ ov] x1 & ! mat]ials :i* 7 aft]w>ds h>d5$ to =m ! ro( rocks 7 deposit$4 ,?is 0 ! case 9 ^? seams 9 :i* 8coal balls0 occur1 & ! evid5ce ( ! sea wat] cov]+ ! coal soon aft] x 0 deposit$ lies 9 ! num]\s sea %ells f\nd 9 ! ro( imm$iately above x4 7d7 ,9 salt wat]1 drift$ mat]ial4--,tree trunks & l>ge tangl$ masses ( vegetation drift$ out to sea by ! riv]s j z !y d to-day4 ,^! became wat]logg$1 & f9ally sank "s di/ance f ! %ore4 7,^? s9k+ ne> ! %ore w\ld n =m pure coal1 = s& & mud w\ld be mix$ ) !m1 also br\ght d[n by riv]s & /irr$ up f ! bottom by waves47 ,! curr5ts w\ld br+ numb]s ( su* plants to ! same area until a l>ge mass 0 deposit$ on ! sea floor4 ,f9ally ! local conditions w\ld h *ang$1 ! curr5ts !n br++ mud or s&1 :i* cov]$ ! vegetable mass & =m$ ! m9]al ro( ( ! result+ coal seam4 ,!re is a v>iety ( :at might be call$ ! 8drift$ coals01 :i* appe>s to h be5 =m$ ( no?+ b ! spores ( plants ( a res9\s nature4 ,^! /ructures mu/ h be5 v light1 & possibly float$ a long di/ance be=e s9k+4 ,if we c\ld b obta9 en\gh evid5ce to und]/& ea* case fully we %\ld probably f9d t e coal seam repres5ts "s slightly diff]5t mode ( =mation1 t 9 ea* case !re 0 "s local peculi>ity 9 ! plants !mselves & ! way !y accumulat$ 9 coal-=m+ masses1 b ! above f\r me?ods w be f\nd to cov] ! pr9cipal ways 9 :i* coal has aris54 ,coal1 z we n[ "k x1 has a great v>iety ( qualities4 ,! diff]5ces probably dep5d only to a small ext5t on ! v>ieties among ! plants =m+ x1 & are almo/ entirely due to ! _m lat] conditions :i* h affect$ ! coal aft] its orig9al =mation4 ,"s su* conditions are ! v>i\s upheavals & depressions to :i* ! rocks conta9+ ! coal h be5 subject$1 ! weight ( ! b$s ly+ ov] ! coal seams1 & ! high temp]atures to :i* !y may h be5 subject$ :5 ly+ "u a consid]able dep? ( lat]-deposit$ rocks4 ,! influ5ce on ! coal ( ^! & _m o!r physical factors has be5 enorm\s1 b !y are purely cosmical & belong to ! special realm ( geological /udy1 & s _c be consid]$ 9 detail n[4 ,to return to our special subject1 namely1 ! plants !mselves :i* are n[ pres]v$ 9 ! coal4 ,_! nature & appe>ance1 _! aff9ities & m9ute /ructure1 c only be asc]ta9$ by a detail$ /udy1 to :i* ! foll[+ *apt]s w be devot$1 ?\gh 9 _! limit$ space b an outl9e sket* ( ! subject c be drawn4 ,x has be5 /at$ by "s writ]s t 9 ! ,coal ,measure p]iod plants 7 m num]\s & luxuriant ?an !y ev] 7 be=e or ev] h be5 s9ce4 ,?is view c\ld only h be5 br\ght =w>d by "o :o 0 consid]+ ! geology ( ,engl& alone1 & 9 any case !re appe>s to be v little real evid5ce = su* a view4 ,c]ta9ly 9 ,europe a l>ge proportion ( ! coal is ( ?is age1 & to supply ! enorm\s masses ( vegetation x repres5ts a great gr[? ( plants mu/ h exi/$4 ,b x is evid5t t j at ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod 9 :at is n[ call$ ,europe ! physical conditions ( ! l& :i* r\ghly correspond$ to ! pres5t ,cont95t 7 su* z fav\r$ ! accumulation ( plants1 & ! gradual s9k+ ( ! l& level also fav\r$ _! pres]vation "u rapidly succe$+ deposits4 ,( ! c\ntless plants gr[+ 9 ,europe to-day v few /& any *ance ( be+ pres]v$ z coal = ! future2 s t1 unless ! physical conditions 7 suitable1 plants might h be5 gr[+ 9 great quantity at any giv5 p]iod )\t ev] =m+ coal4 ,b n[ t ! geology ( ! :ole _w is becom+ bett] kn[n1 x is f\nd t coal is by no means specially conf9$ to ! ,coal ,measure age4 ,ev5 9 ,europe coals ( a mu* lat] date are work$1 :ile abroad1 especially 9 ,asia & ,au/ralia1 ! lat] coals are v important4 ,= example1 9 ,japan1 seams ( coal #ad1 #bj1 & ev5 m feet 9 ?ickness are work$ :i* belong to ! ,t]ti>y p]iod 7see p4 #cd71 :ile 9 ,man*uria coal #ajj feet ?ick is report$ ( ! same age4 ,:5 ^! facts are consid]$ x is soon f\nd t all ! /atem5ts made ab\t ! unique vegetative luxuriance ( ! ,coal ,measure p]iod are f\nd$ ei!r on insuffici5t evid5ce or on no evid5ce at all4 ,! plants =m+ ! lat] coals mu/ h _h 9 _! own /ructure mu* t diff]$ f ^? =m+ ! old coals ( ,brita91 & ! gradual *ange 9 ! "* ( ! vegetation 9 ! c\rse ( ! succe$+ ages is a po9t ( fir/-rate importance & int]e/ :i* w be consid]$ %ortly 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,iv ,,! ,,sev5 ,,ages ,,( ,,plant ,,life ,life has play$ its important "p on ! e>? = c\ntless s]ies ( ye>s1 ( ! l5g? ( ^: p]iods no "o has any exact k4 ,_m guesses h be5 made1 & _m sci5tific !ories h be5 us$ to e/imate _! duration1 b !y rema9 inscrutable4 ,:5 numb]s are imm5se !y cease to hold any mean+ = u1 = ! human m9d _c compreh5d ! significance ( va/ numb]s1 ( imm5se space1 or ( ons ( "t4 ,h5ce :5 we look back on ! hi/ory ( ! _w we _c attempt to give ev5 approximate dates = its ev5ts1 & ! be/ we c d is to speak only ( great p]iods z units ^: relative position & ^: relative duration we c e/imate to "s ext5t4 ,^? :o h /udi$ geology1 :i* is ! sci5ce ( ! _w's hi/ory s9ce its beg9n+1 h giv5 names to ! great epo*s & to _! *ief subdivisions4 ,) ! small] p]iods & ! subdivisions ( ! great] ones we w n conc]n ourselves1 = our /udy ( ! plants x w suffice if we recognize ! ma9 sequ5ce ( pa/ "t4 ,! ma9 divisions are practically univ]sal1 & evid5ce ( _! exi/5ce & ( ! "* ( ! creatures liv+ 9 !m c be f\nd all ov] ! _w2 ! small] divisions1 h[ev]1 may (t5 be local1 or only ( value 9 "o cont95t4 ,to ! speciali/ ev5 ! smalle/ ( !m is ( importance1 & is a l9k 9 ! *a9 ( evid5ce ) :i* he _c disp5se2 b we are at pres5t conc]n$ only ) ! broad outl9es ( ! hi/ory ( ! plants ( ^! p]iods1 s w n tr\ble ourselves ) unnecess>y details4#e ,correspond+ to c]ta9 m>k$ *anges 9 ! "* ( ! vegetation1 we f9d sev5 important divisions ( geological "t :i* we w take z our unit p]iods1 & :i* are tabulat$ z foll[s3-- ,ca9ozoic ,i4 ,pres5t ,day4 ,,ii4 ,t]ti>y4 ,mesozoic ,,iii4 ,upp] ,cretace\s 7or ,*alk74 ,,iv4 ,! re/ ( ! ,mesozoic4 ,v4 ,new] ,palozoic1 includ+ ,p]mian4 ,c>bonif]\s4 ,devonian4 ,palozoic ,,vi4 ,old] ,palozoic4 ,eozoic ,,vii4 ,ar*an4 ,n[ ! actual l5g? ( ^! v>i\s p]iods 0 v diff]5t4 ,! epo* ( ! ,pres5t ,day is only 9 its comm5cem5t1 & is l a ?9 l9e if comp>$ ) ! broad b&s ( ! pa/ epo*s4 ,by f> ! greate/ ( ! p]iods is ! ,ar*an1 & ev5 ! ,old] ,palozoic is probably long] ?an all ! o!rs tak5 toge!r4 ,x is1 h[ev]1 s remote1 & ! rocks :i* 7 =m$ 9 x reta9 s little plant /ructure t is deciph]able1 s few specim5s :i* are m ?an m]e fragm5ts1 t we "k v little ab\t x f ! po9t ( view ( ! plant life ( ! "t4 ,x includes ! imm5se indef9ite epo*s :5 plants began to evolve1 & ! lat] ones :5 animals ( _m k9ds fl\ri%$1 & :5 plants1 too1 7 ( great size & importance1 ?\gh we are ignorant ( _! /ructure4 ,( all ! sev5 divisions ( "t1 we c say lea/ ab\t ! two e>lie/1 simply = want ( any?+ to say :i* is f\nd$ on fact r ?an on !oretical conclusions4 ,al?\gh ^! p]iods seem cle>ly m>k$ (f f "o ano!r :5 look$ at f a great di/ance1 !y are1 ( c\rse1 b arbitr>y divisions ( "o long1 cont9u\s s]ies ( sl[ *anges4 ,x is n 9 ! way ( nature to make an abrupt *ange & sudd5ly %ut (f "o p]iod--be x a day or an on--f ano!r1 & j z ! seasons glide almo/ imp]ceptibly into "o ano!r1 s did ! great p]iods ( ! pa/4 ,?us1 ?\gh !re is a /rong & v evid5t contra/ betwe5 ! plants typical ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod & ( ! ,mesozoic1 ^? ( ! ,p]mian are to "s ext5t int]m$iate1 & betwe5 ! beg9n+ ( ! ,p]mian & ! end ( ! ,c>bonif]\s--if judg$ by ! flora--x is (t5 h>d to decide4 ,x mu/ be realiz$ t almo/ any giv5 spot ( l&--! nor? ( ,engl&1 = example--has be5 b5ea? ! sea1 & aga9 elevat$ into ! air1 at lea/ m ?an once4 ,t ! h>d rocks :i* make its pres5t-day hills h be5 built up f ! silt & dbris "u an ocean1 & aft] be+ =m$ h se5 daylight on a l& surface long ago1 & sunk aga9 to be cov]$ by new] deposits1 p]haps ev5 a second or a ?ird "t1 be=e !y rose = ! "t t is ! pres5t4 ,yet all ^! pr(\nd *anges took place s sl[ly t _h we be5 liv+ !n we c\ld h felt no motion1 j z we feel no motion to-day1 ?\gh ! l& is cont9u+ to *ange all ar\nd u4 ,! great alt]nations betwe5 l& & wat] ov] l>ge areas m>k out to "s ext5t ! ma9 p]iods tabulat$ on p4 #cd1 = aft] ea* great subm]sion ! ris+ l& seems to h h>b\r$ plants & animals ) some:at diff]5t *>act]s f ^? :i* inhabit$ x be=e4 ,simil>ly1 :5 ! next subm]sion laid d[n m rocks ( lime/one & s&/one1 !y enclos$ ! %ells ( "s creatures diff]5t f ^? :i* _h inhabit$ ! seas ( ! region previ\sly4 ,?r\gh all ! p]iods ! actual rocks =m$ are v simil>--%ales1 lime/ones1 s&/ones1 clays4 ,:5 any rocks happ5 to h pres]v$ nei!r plant nor animal rema9s x is almo/ impossible to tell to :i* epo* !y belong1 except f a comp>ative /udy ( _! position z reg>ds o!r rocks :i* d reta9 fossils4 ,?is dep5ds on ! fact t ! physical processes ( rock build+ h gone on ?r\gh\t ! hi/ory ( ! globe on v mu* ! same l9es z !y are foll[+ at pres5t4 ,by ! sift+ p[] ( wat]1 f9e mud1 s&1 pebbles1 & o!r dbris are sep>at$ f ea* o!r & collect$ 9 masses l to l4 ,! f9e mud w h>d5 into %ales1 s&gra9s mass$ toge!r h>d5 into s&/ones1 & s on1 & :51 aft] be+ rais$ once m to =m dry l&1 !y are brok5 up by w9d & ra9 & br\ght d[n aga9 to ! sea1 !y settle out once aga9 9 a simil> way & =m new %ales & s&/ones2 & s on indef9itely4 ,b meantime ! liv+ ?+s1 bo? plant & animal1 h be5 *ang+1 gr[+1 evolv+1 & ! leafy twig br\ght d[n ) ! s&gra9s 9 ! flood$ riv] ( "o epo* diff]s f t br\ght d[n by ! riv] ( a succe$+ epo*--?\gh x might *ance t ! s&gra9s 7 ! same id5tical ones4 ,& h5ce x is by ! rema9s ( ! plants & animals 9 a rock t we c tell to :i* epo* x belong$4 ,unless1 ( c\rse1 ready-=m$ fossils f an e>li] epo* get mix$ ) x1 com+ z pebbles 9 ! riv] 9 flood--b t is a subtle po9t ( geological importance :i* we _c consid] "h4 ,su* cases are almo/ always recognizable1 & d n affect ! ma9 proposition4 ,f ! v>i\s epo*s1 ! plants :i* h be5 pres]v$ z fossils are 9 ne>ly all cases ^? :i* _h liv$ on ! l&1 or at lea/ on swamps & m>%es by ! l&4 ,( wat] plants 9 ! wide s5se1 includ+ bo? ^? gr[+ 9 fre% wat] & ^? 9 ! sea1 we h comp>atively few4 ,?is lack is p>ticul>ly rem>kable 9 ! case ( ! seawe$s1 because !y 7 actually gr[+ 9 ! v m$ium 9 :i* ! bulk ( ! rocks 7 =m$1 & :i* we "k f rec5t exp]im5ts acts z a pres]vative = ! tissues ( l& plants subm]g$ 9 x4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$1 h[ev]1 t almo/ all ! plants gr[+ 9 wat] h v s(t tissues1 & are usually ( small size & delicate /ructure z comp>$ ) l& plants1 & ?us w\ld /& less *ance ( be+ pres]v$1 & w\ld also /& less *ance ( be+ recogniz$ to-day 7 !y pres]v$4 ,! m>k on a /one ( ! impression ( a s(t film ( a wat]we$ w\ld be v slight z comp>$ ) t left by a lea!ry leaf or ! woody twig ( a l& plant4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 exceptions1 &1 z w be not$ lat] on 7see ,*apt] ,,xvii71 !re are fossil seawe$s & fossil fre%wat] plants1 b we may take x on ! :ole t ! fossils we %all h to deal ) & t give important evid5ce1 are ^? ( ! l& :i* _h drift$ out to sea1 9 ! _m cases :5 !y are f\nd 9 rocks toge!r ) sea %ells4 ,let u n[ consid] v %ortly ! sali5t features ( ! sev5 epo*s we h nam$ z ! *ief divisions ( "t4 ,! vegetation ( ! ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod is bett] kn[n to u ?an t ( any o!r p]iod except t ( ! pres5t day1 s t x w =m ! be/ />t+-po9t = our consid]ation4 ,at ?is p]iod !re 71 z !re are to-day1 oceans & cont95ts1 high l&s1 l[ l&s1 riv]s & lakes1 9 fact1 all ! physical features ( ! pres5t-day _w1 b !y 7 all 9 diff]5t places f ^? ( to-day4 ,if we conf9e our att5tion to ,brita91 we f9d t at t p]iod ! f> nor?1 ,scotl&1 ,wales1 & ,*>nwood 7 high] l&1 b ! bulk ( ! s\!rn area 0 cov]$ by flat swamps or %all[ inlets1 :]e ! l& level gradually *ang$1 sl[ly s9k+ 9 "o place & sl[ly ris+ 9 o!rs1 :i* lat] began also to s9k4 ,gr[+ on ?is area :]ev] !y c\ld get a foo?old 7 _m plants1 all diff]5t f any n[ liv+4 ,among !m none bore fl[]s4 ,a few families bore se$s 9 a peculi> way1 diff]+ widely f mo/ se$-be>+ plants ( to-day4 ,! mo/ preval5t type ( tree 0 t ( :i* a /ump is repres5t$ 9 ! frontispiece1 & ( :i* !re 7 _m diff]5t species4 ,^! plants1 ?\gh 9 size & "s o!r ways simil> to ! great trees ( to-day1 7 fundam5tally diff]5t f !m1 & belong$ to a v primitive family1 ( :i* b few & small repres5tatives n[ exi/1 namely ! ,lycopods4 ,_m o!r great trees 7 l hugely magnifi$ 8horsetails0 or ,equisetums2 & !re 7 also se$-be>+ ,gymnosp]ms ( a type n[ ext9ct4 ,!re 7 f]ns ( _m k9ds1 ( :i* ! pr9cipal ones belong to q ext9ct families1 z well z sev]al o!r plants :i* h no p>allel among liv+ ones4 ,h5ce "o may judge t ! vegetation 0 ri* & v>i\s1 & t1 z !re 7 tall trees ) se$s1 ! plants 7 already v highly evolv$4 ,inde$1 except = ! highe/ gr\p ( all1 ! fl[]+ plants1 practically all ! ma9 gr\ps n[ kn[n 7 repres5t$4 ,! flora ( ! ,devonian 0 v simil> 9 ess5tials4 ,if t be s1 x may seem unsatisfactory to place all ! prec$+ ons "u "o head+1 ! ,old] ,palozoic4 ,&1 inde$1 x is v unsatisfactory to be =c$ to d s4 ,we "k f ! /udy ( animal fossils t ?is "t 0 va/1 & t !re 7 sev]al well-def9$ p]iods 9 x dur+ :i* _m gr\ps ( animals evolv$1 & became ext9ct aft] rea*+ _! highe/ developm5t2 b ( ! plants we "k s little t we _c make any divisions ( "t :i* w\ld be ( real value 9 help+ u to und]/& !m4 ,fossil plants f ! ,e>ly ,palozoic !re are1 b extremely few z comp>$ ) ! succe$+ p]iod1 & ^? few b little illum9ative4 ,9 ! lat] divisions ( ! ,pre-,c>bonif]\s "s ( ! plants seem to belong to ! same g5]a z ^? ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,!re is a f]n :i* is *>act]i/ic ( "o ( ! e>li] divisions1 & !re are sev]al r indef9ite impressions :i* may be consid]$ z seawe$s4 ,!re is evid5ce also t ev5 "o ( ! high] gr\ps be>+ se$s 7! ,cordaite7 0 9 full sw+ long be=e ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod began4 ,h5ce1 ?\gh ( ,old] ,palozoic plants we "k little ( actual fact1 we c surmise ! sali5t tru?s2 viz41 t 9 t p]iod ^? plants mu/ h be5 evolv+ :i* 7 important 9 ! ,devonian & ,c>bonif]\s p]iods2 t 9 ! e>li] "p ( t p]iod !y did n exi/1 & ! simpl] types only clo!d ! e>?2 & t fur!r back /ill1 ev5 ! simpl] types _h n yet evolv$4 ,names h be5 giv5 to _m fragm5t>y bits ( fossils1 b = practical purposes we might z well be )\t !m4 ,= ! pres5t ! actual plants ( ! ,old] ,palozoic mu/ rema9 9 a mi/y obscurity1 _! =ms we c imag9e1 b n "k4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ( ! m rec5t p]iods1 ^? succe$+ ! ,c>bonif]\s1 we h a little m k4 ,yet = all ^! p]iods1 ev5 ! ,t]ti>y imm$iately prec$+ ! pres5t day1 our k is f> less exact & f> less detail$ ?an x is = t unique p]iod1 ! ,c>bonif]\s itself4 ,! *>act]i/ic plants ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod are all v diff]5t f ^? ( ! pres5t1 & e plant ( t date is n[ ext9ct4 ,9 ! succe$+ p]iods ! ma9 types ( vegetation *ang$1 & ) ea* succe$+ *ange advanc$ a /ep t[>ds ! /age n[ rea*$4 ,! ,p]mian1 geologically speak+1 0 a p]iod ( transition4 ,t[>d ! close ( ! ,c>bonif]\s !re 7 _m important e>? movem5ts :i* rais$ ! level ( ! l& & t5d$ to enclose ! area ( wat] 9 :at is n[ ,ea/]n ,europe1 & to make a cont95tal area ) inl& seas4 ,_m ( ! ,c>bonif]\s g5]a are f\nd to ext5d ?r\gh ! ,p]mian & !n die out1 :ile at ! same "t o!rs became q ext9ct z ! physical conditions *ang$4 ,! se$-be>+ plants became relatively m important1 & ?\gh ! g5us ,cordaites di$ out at ! end ( ! p]iod x 0 succe$$ by an increas+ numb] ( o!rs ( m advanc$ type4 ,:5 we come to ! old] ,mesozoic rocks1 we h 9 ,engl& at any rate an area :i* 0 sl[ly subm]g+ aga94 ,! m important ( ! plants :i* are pres]v$1 & !y are un=tunately all too few1 are ( a type :i* has n yet appe>$ 9 ! e>li] rocks1 & are 9 "s ways l ! liv+ ,cycas1 ?\gh !y h _m *>act]s fundam5tally diff]5t f any liv+ type4 ,9 ! vegetation ( ?is "t1 plants ( ,cycad-l appe>ance seem to h l>gely pr$om9at$1 & may c]ta9ly be tak5 z ! *>act]i/ic feature ( ! p]iod4 ,! great ,lycopod & ,equisetum-l trees ( ! ,c>bonif]\s are repres5t$ n[ only by small] individuals ( ! same gr\ps1 & practically all ! g5]a :i* 7 fl\ri%+ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s times h become ext9ct4 ,! ,cycad-l plants1 h[ev]1 7 f> m num]\s & v>i$ 9 "* & widely spread ?an !y ev] 7 9 any succe$+ "t4 ,/ill1 no fl[]s 7z we und]/& ! ^w to-day7 _h appe>$1 or at lea/ we h no indication 9 any fossil hi!rto discov]$1 t true fl[]s 7 evolv$ until t[>ds ! end ( ! p]iod 7see1 h[ev]1 ,*apt] ,x74 ,! new] ,mesozoic or ,upp] ,cretace\s p]iod repres5ts a relatively deep sea area ov] ,engl&1 & ! rocks !n =m$ are n[ kn[n z ! *alk1 :i* 0 all deposit$ "u an ocean ( "s size ^: wat] mu/ h be5 cle>1 & on ! :ole free f ord9>y dbris1 = ! *alk is a rem>kably homog5e\s deposit4 ,f ! po9t ( view ( plant hi/ory1 ! ,upp] ,mesozoic is notable1 because 9 x ! fl[]+ plants take a sudd5ly important position4 ,b$s ( ?is age 7?\gh ( v diff]5t physical nature7 are kn[n all ov] ! _w1 & 9 !m impressions ( leaves & fruits1 or _! ca/s1 are well repres5t$4 ,! leaves are ^? ( bo? ,monocotyl$ons & ,dicotyl$ons1 & ! g5]a are usually directly comp>able ) ^? n[ liv+1 & sometimes s simil> t !y appe> to belong to ! same g5us4 ,! cone-be>+ gr\ps ( ! ,gymnosp]ms are /ill pres5t & are repres5t$ by a numb] ( =ms1 b !y are f> few] 9 v>ieties ?an are ! gr\ps ( fl[]+ plants--:ile ! ,cycad-l plants1 s important 9 ! ,l[] ,mesozoic1 h relatively few repres5tatives4 ,!re is1 x almo/ seems1 a sudd5 jump f ! fl[]less type ( vegetation ( ! ,l[] ,mesozoic1 to a flora 9 ! ,upp] ,mesozoic :i* is /rik+ly l t ( ! pres5t day4 ,! ,t]ti>y p]iod is a %ort "o 7geologically speak+1 & comp>$ ) ^? go+ be=e x71 & dur+ x ! l& level rose aga9 gradually1 suff]+ _m great s]ies ( e>? movem5ts :i* built mo/ ( ! m\nta9 *a9s 9 ,europe :i* are /&+ to ! pres5t day4 ,9 ! _m plant-conta9+ deposits ( ?is age1 we f9d specim5s indicat+ t ! flora 0 v simil> to ! plants n[ liv+1 & t fl[]+ plants held ! dom9ant position 9 ! =e/s1 z !y d to-day4 ,9 fact1 f ! po9t ( view ( plant evolution1 x is almo/ an arbitr>y & unnecess>y di/9ction to sep>ate ! ,t]ti>y epo* f ! pres5t1 because ! ma9 features ( ! vegetation are s simil>4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 su* important diff]5ces 9 ! di/ribution ( ! plants ( ! ,t]ti>y & ^? ( ! pres5t times1 t ! di/9ction is advisable2 b x mu/ always be rememb]$ t x is n comp>able ) ! wide diff]5ces betwe5 ! o!r epo*s4 ,among ! plants n[ liv+ we f9d repres5tatives ( mo/1 ?\gh n ( all1 ( ! great gr\ps ( plants :i* h fl\ri%$ 9 ! pa/1 ?\gh 9 ! c\rse ( "t all ! species h alt]$ & ^? ( ! e>lie/ e>? p]iods h become ext9ct4 ,! relative importance ( ! diff]5t gr\ps *anges greatly 9 ! v>i\s p]iods1 & z we proce$ ?r\gh ! ages ( "t we see ! dom9ant place 9 ! plant _w held successively by increas+ly advanc$ types1 :ile ! plants :i* dom9at$ e>li] epo*s dw9dle & take a subord9ate position4 ,= example1 ! great trees ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod belong$ to ! ,lycopod family1 :i* to-day are repres5t$ by small h]bs creep+ along ! gr\nd4 ,! ,cycad-l plants ( ! ,mesozoic1 :i* grew 9 su* luxuriance & 9 su* v>iety1 are n[ re/rict$ to a small numb] ( types scatt]$ ov] ! _w 9 isolat$ localities4 ,dur+ all ! p]iods ( :i* we h any k !re exi/$ a ri* & luxuriant vegetation compos$ ( trees1 l>ge f]ns1 & small h]bs ( v>i\s k9ds1 b ! memb]s ( ?is vegetation h *ang$ fundam5tally ) ! *ang+ e>?1 & unlike ! e>? 9 h] rock-=m+ !y h nev] repeat$ !mselves4 ,,*apt] ,v ,,/ages ,,9 ,,plant ,,evolution ,to attempt any discussion ( ! causes ( evolution is f> beyond ! scope ( ! pres5t "w4 ,at pres5t we mu/ accept life z we f9d x1 end[$ ) an endless capacity = *ange & a cont9u\s impulse to advance4 ,we c b /udy 9 "s degree ! c\rse tak5 by its *anges4 ,f ! mo/ primitive beg9n+s ( ! e>lie/ p]iods1 enorm\s advance _h be5 made be=e we h any detail$ records ( ! =ms4 ,yet !re rema9 9 ! _w ( to-day num]\s places :]e ! types ) ! simple/ /ructure c /ill fl\ri%1 & successfully compete ) high] =ms4 ,_m places :i*1 f ! po9t ( view ( ! high] plants1 are undesirable1 are well suit$ to ! l[]4 ,su* places1 = example1 z ! sea1 & on l& ! small nooks & crannies :]e wat] drops collect1 :i* are useless = ! high] plants1 suffice = ! m9ute =ms4 ,9 "s cases ! l[] plants may gr[ 9 su* masses toge!r z to capture a di/rict & keep ! high] plants f x4 ,equisetum 7! horsetail7 does ?is by means ( an ext5sive sy/em ( und]gr\nd rhizomes :i* give ! plant a v /rong hold on a piece ( l& :i* fav\rs x1 s t ! fl[]+ plants may be q kept f gr[+ !re4 ,9 su* places1 by a v>iety ( means1 plants are n[ fl\ri%+ on ! e>? :i* repres5t practically all ! ma9 /ages ( developm5t ( plant life z a :ole4 ,x is to ! /udy ( ! simpl] ( ! liv+ =ms t we owe mo/ ( our conceptions ( ! c\rse tak5 by evolution4 ,_h we to dep5d on fossil evid5ce alone1 we %\ld be 9 almo/ complete ignorance ( ! e>lie/ types ( vegetation & all ! simpl] cohorts ( plants1 because _! m9ute size & v delicate /ructure h always r5d]$ !m unsuitable = pres]vation 9 /one4 ,at ! same "t1 _h we none ( ! k ( ! num]\s fossil =ms :i* we n[ possess1 !re w\ld be great gaps 9 ! s]ies :i* no /udy ( liv+ =ms c\ld supply4 ,x is only by a /udy & comp>ison ( bo? liv+ & fossil plants ( all k9ds & f b$s ( all ages t we c get any true conception ( ! :ole s*eme ( plant life4 ,gr\p+ toge!r all ! ma9 families ( plants at pres5t kn[n to u to exi/ or to h exi/$1 we get ! foll[+ s]ies3-- ,gr\p4 ,common examples ( typical families 9 ! gr\p4 ,?allophyta ,alg ,seawe$s4 ,fungi ,m\lds & toad/ools4 ,bryophyta ,hepatic ,liv]worts4 ,musci ,mosses4 ,pt]idophyta ,equisetales ,horsetails4 ,sph5ophyllales99 fossil only1 ,sph5ophyllum4 ,lycopodales ,club-moss4 ,filicales ,brack5 f]n4 ,pt]idosp]m ,lyg9od5dr99 fossil only1 ,sph5opt]is4 ,gymnosp]ms ,cycadales ,cycads4 ,b5nettitales99 fossil only1 ,b5nettites4 ,g9kgoales ,maid5hair ,tree4 ,cordaitales99 fossil only1 ,cordaites4 ,conif]ales ,p9e1 ,yew4 ,gnetales ,welwits*ia4 ,angiosp]ms ,monocotyl$ons ,lily1 ,palm1 ,grass4 ,dicotyl$ons ,rose1 ,oak1 ,daisy4 ,9 ?is table ! diff]5t gr\ps h n a /rictly equival5t sci5tific value1 b ea* ( ^? 9 ! second column repres5ts a l>ge & well-def9$ s]ies ( prim>y importance1 ^: memb]s c\ld n possibly be includ$ along ) any ( ! o!r gr\ps4 ,^? m>k$ ) an a/]isk are kn[n only z fossils1 & x w be se5 t ( ! sev5te5 gr\ps1 s _m z f\r are kn[n only 9 ! fossil /ate4 ,?is indicates1 h[ev]1 b a "p ( _! importance1 = 9 ne>ly e o!r gr\p are _m families or g5]a :i* are only kn[n z fossils1 ?\gh !re are liv+ repres5tatives ( ! gr\p z a :ole4 ,9 ?is table ! individual families are n m5tion$1 because = ! pres5t we ne$ only ! ma9 outl9e ( classification to illu/rate ! pr9cipal facts ab\t ! c\rse ( evolution4 ,z ! table is giv51 ! simple/ families come fir/1 ! succe$+ ones gradually increas+ 9 complexity till ! la/ gr\p repres5ts ! mo/ advanc$ type ) :i* we are acqua9t$1 & ! "o :i* is ! dom9ant gr\p ( ! pres5t day4 ,?is mu/ n be tak5 z a sugge/ion t ! memb]s ( ?is s]ies h evolv$ directly "o f ! o!r 9 ! ord] 9 :i* !y /& 9 ! table4 ,t is inde$ f> f ! case1 & ! relations betwe5 ! gr\ps are highly complex4 ,x mu/ be rem>k$ "h t x is (t5 difficult1 ev5 impossible1 to decide :i* are ! mo/ highly evolv$ memb]s ( any gr\p ( plants4 ,ea* individual ( ! high] families is a v complicat$ organism consi/+ ( _m p>ts1 ea* ( :i* has evolv$ m or less indep5d5tly ( ! o!rs 9 response to "s special quality ( ! surr\nd+s4 ,= in/ance1 "o plant may require1 & !re=e evolve1 a v complex & well-develop$ wat]-c>riage sy/em :ile reta9+ a simple type ( fl[]2 ano!r may gr[ :]e ! wat] problem does n tr\ble x1 b :]e x ne$s to develop special me?ods = gett+ its ovules poll9at$2 & s on1 9 inf9ite v>iety4 ,z a result ( ?is1 9 almo/ all plants we h "s organs highly evolv$ & specializ$1 & o!rs /ill 9 a primitive or relatively primitive condition4 ,x is only possible to det]m9e ! relative positions ( plants on ! scale ( developm5t by mak+ an av]age conclusion f ! /udy ( ! details ( all _! p>ts4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 is beset ) difficulties1 & 9 mo/ cases ! sci5ti/1 weigh$ by p]sonal incl9ations1 arbitr>ily decides on "o or o!r "* to :i* he pays mu* att5tion z a crit]ion1 :ile ano!r sci5ti/ t5ds to lay /ress on diff]5t *>act]s :i* may po9t 9 ano!r direction4 ,9 no gr\p is ?is bett] illu/rat$ ?an among ! ,conif]1 :]e ! relative arrangem5t ( ! diff]5t families includ$ 9 x is /ill v unc]ta91 & :]e ! obs]vations ( diff]5t work]s1 ea* deal+ ma9ly ) diff]5t *>act]s 9 ! plants1 t5d to contradict ea* o!r4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 z a byword4 ,not)/&+ ^! difficulties1 :i* x w\ld be unfair to ignore1 ! ma9 s*eme ( evolution /&s out cle>ly be=e ! sci5ti/ ( to-day1 & 8 views are l>gely support$ by _m important facts f bo? fossil & liv+ plants4 ,v /rong evid5ce po9ts to ! conclusion t ! mo/ primitive plants ( e>ly "t 71 l ! simple/ plants ( to-day1 wat] dwell]s4 ,:e!r 9 fre% wat] or ! sea is an undecid$ po9t1 ?\gh op9ion seems to incl9e 9 g5]al to ! view t ! sea 0 ! fir/ home ( plant life4 ,x c1 h[ev]1 be equally well1 & p]haps ev5 m successfully argu$1 t ! fre%wat] lakes & /reams 7 ! homes ( ! fir/ families f :i* ! high] plants h gradually be5 evolv$4 ,= ?is !re is no direct evid5ce 9 ! rocks1 = ! m9ute =ms ( ! s+le s(t cells assum$ by ! mo/ primitive types 7 j su* z "o c\ld n expect to be successfully fossiliz$4 ,h5ce ! e>lie/ /ages mu/ be d$uc$ f a comp>ative /udy ( ! simple/ plants n[ liv+4 ,=tunately !re is mu* mat]ial = ?is 9 ! num]\s wat]s ( ! e>?1 :]e sw>ms ( m9ute types 9 _m /ages ( complexity are to be f\nd4 ,! simple/ type ( plants n[ liv+1 :i* appe>s to be capable ( evolution on l9es :i* might h l$ to ! high] plants1 is t f\nd 9 v>i\s memb]s ( ! gr\p ( ! ,protococcoide among ! ,alg4 ,! claim ( bact]ia & o!r primitive organisms ( v>i\s k9ds to ! absolute priority ( exi/5ce is "o :i* is entirely beyond ! scope ( a book deal+ ) fossil plants4 ,! e>ly evolution ( ! simple types ( ! ,protococcoide is also some:at beyond its scope1 b z !y appe> to lie on ! mo/ direct 8l9e ( desc5t0 ( ! majority ( ! high] plants x _c be entirely ignor$4 ,f ! simpl] gr\ps ( ! gre5 ,alg o!r types h specializ$ & advanc$ along v>i\s directions1 b among !m !re seems an inh]5t limitation1 & none b ! protococcoid =ms seem to indicate ! possibility ( really high developm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ag4--;,a ,protococcoid ,plant consi/+ ( "o cell p1 ,protoplasm2 n1 nucleus2 g1 col\r+ body or *loropla/2 w1 cell wall4 ,9 a few words1 a typical example ( "o ( ! simple ,protococcoide may be describ$ z consi/+ ( a mass ( protoplasm 9 :i* lie a recognizable nucleus & a gre5 col\r+ body or *loropla/1 ) a cell wall or sk9 surr\nd+ ^! vital /ructures1 a cell wall t may at times be disp5s$ ) or unusually ?ick5$ accord+ z ! ne$ arises4 ,?is plant is repres5t$ 9 fig4 #ag 9 a some:at diagrammatic =m4 ,9 su* a case ! :ole plant consi/s ( "o s+le cell1 liv+ surr\nd$ by ! wat]1 :i* supplies x ) ! necess>y food mat]ials1 & also protects x f dry+ up & f imm$iate contact ) any h>d or injuri\s object4 ,:5 ^! plants propagate !y divide into f\r p>ts1 ea* "o simil> to ! orig9al cell1 :i* all rema9 toge!r )9 ! ma9 cell wall = a %ort "t be=e !y sep>ate4 ,if n[ we imag9e t ! f\r cells d n sep>ate1 b rema9 toge!r p]man5tly1 we c see ! possibility ( a beg9n+ ( specialization 9 ! diff]5t p>ts ( ! cell4 ,! s+le liv+ cell is equally act$ on f all sides1 & 9 itself x mu/ p]=m all ! life functions2 b :]e f\r lie toge!r1 ea* ( ! f\r cells is no long] equally act$ on f all sides4 ,?is %[s cle>ly 9 ! diagram ( a divid$ cell giv5 9 fig4 #ah4 ,"h x is obvi\s t "o side ( ea* ( ! f\r cells1 viz4 t nam$ a 9 ! diagram1 is on ! outside & 9 direct contact ) ! wat] & ext]nal ?+s2 b walls b & c t\* only ! correspond+ walls ( ! neighb\r+ cells4 ,?r\gh walls b & c no food & wat] c ent] directly1 b at ! same "t !y are protect$ f injury & ext]nal /imulus4 ,h5ce1 9 ?is gr\p ( f\r cells !re is a slight diff]5tiation ( ! sides ( ! cells4 ,if n[ we imag9e t ea* ( ! f\r cells1 /ill rema9+ 9 contact1 divides once m into f\r memb]s1 ea* ( :i* rea*es mature size :ile all rema9 toge!r1 !n we h a gr\p ( sixte5 cells1 "s ( :i* w be entirely inside1 & "s ( :i* w h walls expos$ to ! environm5t4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ah4--;,diagram ( ,protococcoid ,cell divid$ into f\r daught] cells4 ,walls a are ext]nal1 & walls b & c 9 contact ) ea* o!r4 ,if ! cells ( ! gr\p all divide aga91 9 ! mann] %[n ! mass w become m ?an "o cell ?ick1 & ! inn] cells w be m completely diff]5tiat$1 = !y w be entirely cut (f f ! outside & all direct contact ) wat] & food mat]ials1 & w dep5d on :at ! out] cells transmit to !m4 ,! out] cells w become specializ$ = protection & also = ! absorption ( ! wat] & salts & air = ! :ole mass4 ,f su* a pla/ic gr\p ( gre5 cells x is probable t ! high] & increas+ly complex =ms ( plants h evolv$4 ,!re are /ill liv+ plants :i* correspond ) ! gr\ps ( f\r1 sixte51 c41 cells j n[ !oretically /ipulat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ai4--;,a1 ,details ( ,"p ( ! ,tissues 9 a ,/em ( a ,fl[]+ ,plant4 ,b1 ,diagram ( ! ,:ole ,arrangem5t ( ,cross ,section ( a ,/em3 e1 ,out] protect+ sk92 g1 gre5 cells2 s1 ?ick-wall$ /r5g!n+ cells2 p1 g5]al gr\nd tissue cells4 ,v1 ,gr\ps ( special conduct+ tissues3 x1 vessels = wat] c>riage2 px1 fir/ =m$ ( ! wat] vessels2 c1 gr[+ cells to add to ! tissues2 b1 food-conduct+ cells2 ss1 /r5g!n+ cells4 ,! high] plants ( to-day all consi/ ( v l>ge numb]s ( cells =m+ tissues ( diff]5t k9ds1 ea* ( :i* is specializ$ m or less1 "s v elaborately1 = ! p]=mance ( c]ta9 functions ( importance = ! plant body z a :ole4 ,) ! increase 9 ! numb] ( cells =m+ ! solid plant body1 ! numb] ( ^? liv+ :olly cut (f f ! outside becomes increas+ly great 9 comp>ison ) ^? =m+ ! ext]nal lay]4 ,"s idea ( ! complexity & diff]5tiation ( ?is cell mass is giv5 9 fig4 #ai1 ,a1 :i* %[s ! relative sizes & %apes ( ! cells compos+ a small "p ( ! /em ( a common fl[]+ plant4 ,! complete section w\ld be circul> & ! gr\ps ,v w\ld be repeat$ r\nd x symmetrically1 & ! :ole w\ld be enclos$ by an unbrok5 lay] ( ! cells m>k$ e1 z 9 ! diagram ,b4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bj4--;,conduct+ ,cells & ,surr\nd+ ,tissue se5 9 fig4 #ai1 ,a1 cut l5g?ways4 px1 ,fir/ =m$ vessels = wat] conduction2 x1 l>g] vessel2 b1 food-conduct+ cells2 ss1 /r5g!n+ cells2 p1 g5]al gr\nd tissue4 ,9 ! tissues ( ! high] plants ! mo/ important feature is ! complex sy/em ( conduct+ tissues1 %[n 9 ! "y condition 9 ,v 9 fig4 #ai1 ,a4 ,9 !m ! food & wat] conduct+ elem5ts are v mu* elongat$ & highly specializ$ cells1 :i* run betwe5 ! o!rs mu* l a sy/em ( pipes 9 ! brickwork ( a h\se4 ,^! cells are %[n cut longitud9ally 9 fig4 #bj1 :]e !y are lett]$ to correspond ) ! cells 9 fig4 #ai1 ,a1 ) :i* !y %\ld be comp>$4 ,9 su* a view ! great diff]5ce betwe5 ! highly specializ$ cells x1 px1 b1 c41 & ^? ( ! ma9 mass ( gr\nd tissue p becomes app>5t4 ,ev5 9 ! comp>atively simply organiz$ gr\ps ( ! ,equisetales & ,lycopodiales ! diff]5tiation ( tissues is complete4 ,9 ! mosses1 & /ill m 9 ! liv]worts1 x is rudim5t>y2 b !y gr[ 9 v damp situations1 :]e ! conduction ( wat] & ! protection f too mu* dry+ is n a difficult problem = !m4 ,z plants gr[ high] into ! air1 or inhabit dri] situations1 ! ne$ ( specialization ( tissues becomes increas+ly great1 = !y are increas+ly liable to be dri$1 & !re=e ne$ a bett] fl[ ( wat] & a m p]fect protective coat4 ,x is ne$less to po9t out h[ ! individual cells ( a plant1 su* z t figur$ 9 figs4 #ai & #bj1 h specializ$ away f ! simple type ( ! protococcoid cell 9 _! mature =m4 ,9 ! "y gr[+ p>ts ( a plant1 h[ev]1 !y are ess5tially l protococcoid cells ( squ>i% outl9e1 fitt+ closely to ea* o!r to make a solid mass1 f :i* ! individual types w diff]5tiate lat] & take on ! =m suitable = ! special "p !y h to play 9 ! economy ( ! :ole plant4 ,to trace ! specialization n only ( ! tissues b ( ! v>i\s p>ts ( ! :ole plant :i* h become elaborate organs1 su* z leaves1 /ems1 & fl[]s1 is a task q beyond ! pres5t "w to attempt4 ,f ! illu/rations giv5 ( tissue /ructure f plants at ! two ends ( ! s]ies mu* c be imag9$ ( ! inevitable int]m$iate /ages 9 tissue evolution4 ,z reg>ds ! elaboration ( organs1 & p>ticul>ly ( ! reproductive organs1 details w be f\nd ?r\gh\t ! book4 ,9 judg+ ( ! place ( any plant 9 ! scale ( evolution x is to ! reproductive organs t we look = ! pr9cipal crit]ia1 = ! reproductive organs t5d to be influ5c$ less by _! physical surr\nd+s ?an ! vegetative organs1 & are !re=e tru] guides to natural relation%ips4 ,9 ! ess5tial cells ( ! reproductive organs1 viz4 ! egg cell & ! male cell1 we get ! mo/ primitively organiz$ cells 9 ! plant body4 ,9 ! simpl] families bo? male & female cells return to ! condition ( a free-swimm+ protococcoid cell1 & 9 all b ! highe/ families ! male cell requires a liquid environm5t1 9 :i* x swims to ! egg cell4 ,9 ! high] families ! necess>y wat] is provid$ )9 ! /ructure ( ! se$1 & ! male cell does n swim1 a nak$1 solit>y cell1 out into ! wide _w1 z x does 9 all ! families up to & includ+ ! ,filicales4 ,9 ! ,conif] & ,angiosp]ms ! male cell does n swim1 b is passive 7or l>gely s71 & is br\ght to ! egg cell4 ,"o might almo/ say t ! :ole evolution ( ! complex /ructures f\nd 9 fruit+ cones & fl[]s is a result ( ! ne$ ( protection ( ! delicate1 simple reproductive cells & ! embryonic tissues result+ f _! fusion4 ,! l[] plants scatt] ^! delicate cells broadca/ 9 enorm\s numb]s1 ! high] plants protect ea* s+le egg cell by an elaborate s]ies ( tissues1 & actually br+ ! male cell to x )\t ev] all[+ ei!r ( !m to be expos$4 ,x mu/ be assum$ t ! read] possesses a g5]al acqua9tance ) ! liv+ families tabulat$ on p4 #dd2 ^? ( ! fossil gr\ps w be giv5 9 "s detail 9 succe$+ *apt]s :i* deal ) ! hi/ories ( ! v>i\s families4 ,x is premature to attempt any g5]al discussion ( ! evolution ( ! v>i\s gr\ps till all h be5 /udi$1 s t ?is w be res]v$ = ! conclud+ *apt]s4 ,,*apt] ,,vi ,,m9ute ,,/ructure ,,( ,,fossil ,,plants--,,lik5esses ,,to ,,liv+ ,,ones ,! individual plants ( ! ,coal ,measure p]iod diff]$ entirely f ^? n[ liv+2 !y 7 m ?an m]ely di/9ct species1 = 9 ! ma9 ev5 ! families 7 l>gely diff]5t f ! pres5t ones4 ,nev]!less1 :5 we come to exam9e ! m9ute anatomy ( ! fossils1 & ! cells ( :i* !y are compos$1 we f9d t betwe5 ! liv+ & ! fossil cell types ! close/ simil>ity exi/s4 ,f ! e>lie/ times ( :i* we h any k ! elem5ts ( ! plant body h be5 ! same1 ?\gh ! types ( /ructures :i* !y built h v>i$ 9 plan4 ,individual cells ( ne>ly e type f ! ,coal ,measure p]iod c be id5tically mat*$ ) ^? ( to-day4 ,9 ! way ! walls ?ick5$1 9 ! %apes ( ! wood1 /r5g!n+ or epid]mal cells1 9 ! =m ( ! v>i\s tissues adapt$ to specific purposes1 !re is a unity ( organization :i* x is reasonable to suppose dep5ds on ! fundam5tal qualities inh]5t 9 plant life4 ,?is w be illu/rat$ be/1 p]haps1 by tabulat+ ! *ief modifications ( cells :i* are f\nd 9 plant tissues4 ,! illu/rations ( ^! types 9 ! foll[+ table are tak5 f liv+ plants1 because f !m figures ( m diagrammatic cle>ness c be made1 & ! sali5t *>act]s ( ! cells m easily recogniz$4 ,comp>ison ( ^! typical cells ) ^? illu/rat$ f ! fossil plants reveals _! id5tity 9 ess5tial /ructure1 & mo/ ( !m w be f\nd 9 ! photos ( fossils 9 ^! pages1 ?\gh !y are bett] recogniz$ 9 ! actual fossils !mselves4 ,pr9cipal ,types ( ,plant ,cells ,epid]mal4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ba ,epid]mis4--,protect+ lay] or sk94 ,cells ) out] wall ?ick5$ 9 _m cases 7fig4 #ba1 a & b74 ,comp>e fossil epid]mis 9 fig4 #cd1 e4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bb ,hairs4--,ext5sions ( epid]mis cells4 ,s+le cells1 or complex1 z fig4 #bb1 h1 :]e e is epid]mis & p p>5*yma4 ,comp>e fossil hairs 9 figs4 #gi & #abj4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bc ,/omates4--,brea?+ pores 9 ! epid]mis4 ,se5 9 surface view z two-lipp$ /ructures 7fig4 #bc74 s1 ,/omates2 e1 epid]mis cells4 ,comp>e fossil /omates 9 fig4 #h4 ,gr\nd ,tissue ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bd ,p>5*yma4--,simple s(t cells1 ei!r closely pack$1 z 9 fig4 #bd1 or ) air spaces betwe5 !m4 ,comp>e #gh1 ,b1 = fossil4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #be ,palisade4--,elongat$1 closely pack$ cells1 p1 *iefly 9 leaves1 ly+ bel[ ! epid]mis1 e1 fig4 #be4 ,comp>e fig4 #cd1 p1 = fossil palisade4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bf ,endod]mis4--,cells ) specially ?ick5$ walls1 en1 ly+ z %ea? betwe5 ! p>5*yma1 c1 ( gr\nd tissue1 & ! vascul> tissue1 s1 fig4 #bf4 ,comp>e fig4 #ajh = fossil endod]mis4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bg ,latex cells4--,l>ge1 (t5 mu* elongat$ cells1 m1 ly+ 9 ! p>5*yma1 p1 fig4 #bg1 :i* are pack$ ) cont5ts4 ,comp>e fig4 #ajg1 s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bh ,scl]5*yma4--,?ick-wall$ cells among p>5*yma = /r5g!n+1 fig4 #bh4 ,comp>e fig4 #cd1 s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #bi ,cork4--,lay]s ( cells replac+ ! epid]mis 9 old /ems4 ,out] cells1 o1 cru%$2 k1 closely pack$ cork cells2 /one cells1 s1 fig4 #bi4 ,comp>e fig4 #ie1 k4 ,cork cambium4--,n>r[1 actively divid+ cells1 c 9 fig4 #bi1 giv+ rise to new cork cells 9 consecutive r[s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cj ,tra*eides4--,specially ?ick5$ cells 9 ! p>5*yma1 usually = wat] /orage1 t1 fig4 #cj4 ,comp>e fig4 #ie1 t4 ,vascul> ,tissue ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ca ,wood4--,protoxylem1 tra*eids & vessels1 long1 n>r[ elem5ts1 ) spiral or r+-l ?ick5+s1 s#a & s#b1 fig4 #ca4 ,comp>e fig4 #ha1 ,a1 px1 = fossil4 ,metaxylem1 long elem5ts1 tra*eids & vessels4 ,"s ) n>r[ pits1 z t 9 fig4 #ca2 o!rs ) v>i\s k9ds ( pits4 ,9 transv]se section se5 9 fig4 #cc1 w1 fossil 9 fig4 #aad1 w4 ,wood p>5*yma4--,s(t cells associat$ ) ! wood1 p 9 fig4 #ca4 ,fossil 9 fig4 #ha1 ,b1 p4 ,wood scl]5*yma4--,h>d ?ick5$ cells 9 ! wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cb ,ba/4--,sieve tubes1 long cells :i* c>ry food/uffs1 cross walls pitt$ l sieves1 s1 fig4 #cb4 ,9 transv]se section 9 fig4 #cc4 ,companion cells1 n>r[ cells ) ri* proteid cont5ts1 c1 fig4 #cb4 ,9 transv]se section at c1 fig4 #cc4 ,ba/ p>5*yma4--,s(t unspecializ$ cells mix$ ) ! sieve tubes1 p1 fig4 #cb4 ,ba/ fibres4--,?ick-wall$ scl]5*ymat\s cells mix$ )1 or outside1 ! s(t ba/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cc ,cambium4--,n>r[ cells1 l ^? ( ! cork cambium1 :i* lie betwe5 ! wood & ba/1 & give rise to new tissues ( ea* k9d1 cb1 fig4 #cc4 ,comp>e fig4 #aad1 fossil4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 _m m9or v>ieties ( cells1 b ^! illu/rate all ! ma9 types4 ,among ! e>ly fossils1 h[ev]1 "o type ( wood cell & "o type ( ba/ cell1 s f> z we "k1 are n pres5t4 ,^! cells are ! true vessels ( ! wood ( fl[]+ plants1 & ! long ba/ cells ) _! companion proteid cells4 ,! figure ( a metaxylem wood cell1 %[n 9 fig4 #ca1 t1 %[s ! m primitive type ( wood cell1 :i* has an oblique cross wall4 ,?is type ( wood cell is f\nd 9 all ! fossil trees1 & all ! liv+ plants except ! fl[]+ plants4 ,! vessel type1 :i* is t 9 ! big wood vessels ( ! fl[]+ plants1 & has no cross wall1 is se5 9 fig4 #bj1 x4 ,! simil>ity betwe5 ! liv+ cells & ^? ( ! ,coal ,measure fossils is suffici5tly illu/rat$ to ne$ no fur!r comm5t4 ,?is simil>ity is an extremely helpful po9t :5 we come to an int]pretation ( ! fossils4 ,9 liv+ plants we c /udy ! physiology ( ! v>i\s k9ds ( cells1 & c d$uce f exp]im5t exactly ! "p !y play 9 ! economy ( ! :ole plant4 ,f a /udy ( ! tissues 9 any plant /ructure we "k :at function x p]=m$1 & c v (t5 e/imate ! nature ( ! surr\nd+ conditions "u :i* ! plant 0 gr[+4 ,to take a s+le example1 ! palisade tissue1 illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #be1 p1 9 liv+ plants always conta9s gre5 col\r+ matt]1 & lies j bel[ ! epid]mis1 usually ( leaves1 b sometimes also ( gre5 /ems4 ,^! cells d mo/ ( ! />* manufacture = ! plant1 & are f\nd be/ develop$ :5 expos$ to a good light4 ,9 v %ady places ! leaves seldom h ?is type ( cell4 ,n[1 :5 cells j l ^! are f\nd 9 fossils 7z is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #cd71 we c assume all ! physiological facts m5tion$ above1 & re/ assur$ t t leaf 0 gr[+ "u normal conditions ( light & 0 actively engag$ 9 />*-build+ :5 x 0 alive4 ,f ! physiological /&po9t ! fossil leaf is entirely ! same z a normal liv+ "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cd4--;,f a ,photo ( a ,fossil ,lea e1 ,epid]mis2 p1 palisade cells2 pr1 s(t p>5*yma cells 7poorly pres]v$72 s1 scl]5*yma above ! vascul> bundle4 ,f ! morphological /&po9t1 also1 ! features ( ! plant body f ! ,coal ,measure p]iod fall into ! same divisions z ^? ( ! pres5t4 ,roots1 /ems1 leaves1 & reproductive organs1 ! ess5tially di/9ct p>ts ( a plant1 are to be f\nd 9 a =m entirely recognizable1 or suffici5tly l t n[ 9 vogue to be int]pret$ )\t great difficulty4 ,9 ! detail$ /ructure ( ! reproductive organs m *anges h tak5 place ?an 9 any o!rs1 bo? 9 int]nal organization & ext]nal appe>ance4 ,already1 9 ! ,e>ly ,palozoic p]iod1 ! di/9ction betwe5 leaves1 /ems1 roots1 & reproductive organs 0 z cle>ly m>k$ z x is to-day1 &1 judg+ by _! /ructure1 !y mu/ ea* h p]=m$ ! physiological functions !y n[ d4 ,roots h *ang$ lea/ 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 probably because1 9 ! e>?1 !y live "u comp>atively uni=m conditions 9 :atev] p]iod ( ! _w's hi/ory !y are gr[+4 ,naturally1 betwe5 ! roots ( diff]5t species !re are slight diff]5ces2 b ! lik5ess betwe5 f]n roots f ! ,palozoic & f a liv+ f]n is absolutely complete4 ,?is is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #ce1 :i* %[s ! microscopic /ructure ( ! two roots :5 cut 9 transv]se direction4 ,! v>i\s tissues w be recogniz$ z com+ into ! table on p4 #ed1 s t bo? 9 ! details ( individual cells & 9 ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! cell gr\ps or tissues ! roots ( ^! fossil & liv+ f]ns agree4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ce4--;,a1 ,root ( ,liv+ ,f]n4 ,b1 ,root ( ,palozoic ,fossil ,f]n4 c1 ,cortex2 px1 protoxylem 9 two gr\ps2 m1 metaxylem2 s1 space 9 fossil due to decay ( s(t cells4 ,among /ems !re has be5 at all p]iods m v>iety ?an among ! roots ( ! correspond+ plants1 & 9 ! foll[+ *apt]1 :5 ! diff]5ces betwe5 liv+ & fossil plants w be consid]$1 !re w be sev]al important /ructures to notice4 ,nev]!less1 !re are v _m *>act]s 9 :i* ! /ems f su* widely diff]5t epo*s agree4 ,! plants 9 ! palozoic =e/s 7 ( _m k9ds1 & among !m 7 ^? ) weak trail+ /ems :i* climb$ ov] & support$ !mselves on o!r plants1 & also tall1 /urdy %afts ( woody trees1 _m ( :i* 7 cov]$ ) a corky b>k4 ,leaves 7 atta*$ to ! /ems1 ei!r directly1 z 9 ! case ( "s liv+ plants1 or by leaf /alks4 ,9 ext]nal appe>ance & 9 g5]al function ! /ems !n 7 z /ems are n[4 ,9 ! details ( ! individual cells also ! lik5ess is complete2 x is 9 ! gr\p+ ( ! cells1 ! anatomy ( ! tissues1 t ! important diff]5ces lie4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ already t increase 9 complexity ( ! plant =m usually goes ) an increase 9 complexity ( ! cells & v>iety ( ! tissues4 ,! g5]al gr\nd tissue 9 ne>ly all plants is v simil>2 x is pr9cipally 9 ! vascul> sy/em t ! advance & v>iety lie4 ,plant anatomi/s lay p>ticul> /ress on ! vascul> sy/em1 :i*1 9 comp>ison ) animal anatomy1 holds an ev5 m important position ?an does ! skeleton4 ,to und]/& ! ess5tial *>act]s ( /ems1 bo? liv+ & fossil1 & to appreciate _! po9ts ( lik5ess or diff]5ce1 x is necess>y to h "s k ( ! g5]al facts ( anatomy2 h5ce ! ma9 po9ts on :i* /ress is laid w be giv5 n[ 9 brief outl9e4 ,leav+ aside consid]ation ( ! m rudim5t>y & less def9$ /ructure ( ! alg & mosses1 all plants may be said to possess a 8vascul> sy/em04 ,?is is typically compos$ ( elongat$ wood 7or xylem7 ) accessory cells 7see p4 #eg1 table71 & ba/ 7phloem71 also ) accessory cells4 ,^! specializ$ conduct+ elem5ts lie 9 ! gr\nd tissue1 & 9 ne>ly all cases are cut (f f direct contact ) x by a def9ite %ea?1 call$ ! endod]mis 7see p4 #ee1 fig4 #bf74 ,v (t5 !re are also gr\ps or r+s ( h>d ?ick-wall$ cells associat$ ) ! vascul> tissues1 :i* protect !m & play an important "p 9 ! consolidation ( ! :ole /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cf4--;,diagram ( ,simple/ ,arrangem5t ( ,complete ,/ele 9 a ,/em ,w1 ,c5tral solid wood2 ,p1 r+ ( ba/2 ,e1 enclos+ %ea? ( endod]mis2 ,c1 gr\nd tissue or cortex4 ,! simple/1 & probably evolutionally ! mo/ primitive =m :i* is tak5 by ! vascul> tissues1 is t ( a s+le c5tral /r&1 ) ! wood 9 ! middle1 ! ba/ r\nd x1 & a circul> endod]mis enclos+ all1 z 9 fig4 #cf1 :i* %[s a diagram ( ?is arrangem5t4 ,su* a mass ( wood & ba/ surr\nd$ by an endod]mis1 is te*nically kn[n z a /ele1 a v conv5i5t t]m :i* is mu* us$ by anatomi/s4 ,9 its simple/ =m 7z 9 fig4 #cf7 x is call$ a proto/ele1 & is to be f\nd 9 bo? liv+ & fossil plants4 ,a numb] ( plants :i* get m complex /eles lat] on1 h proto/eles 9 ! e>ly /ages ( _! developm5t1 z 9 ,pt]is aurita = example1 a species alli$ to ! brack5 f]n1 :i* has a holl[ r+ /ele :5 mature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #cg4--;,diagram ( a ,/ele ) a few ,cells ( ,pi? p 9 ! ,middle ( ! ,wood4 ,lett]+ z 9 fig4 #cf ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ch4--;,diagram %[+ ,ext5sive ,pi? p 9 ! ,wood4 ,lett]+ z 9 fig4 #cf ,! next type ( /ele is q simil> to ! proto/ele1 b ) ! addition ( a few l>ge unspecializ$ cells 9 ! middle ( ! wood 7p1 fig4 #cg72 ^! are ! comm5cem5t ( ! holl[+ process :i* goes on 9 ! wood1 result+ lat] 9 ! =mation ( a consid]able pi?1 z is se5 9 fig4 #ch1 :]e ! wood is n[ a holl[ cyl9d]1 z ! phloem has be5 f ! fir/4 ,:5 ?is is ! case1 a second %ea? or endod]mis g5]ally develops on ! inn] side ( ! wood1 outside ! pi?1 & cuts ! vascul> tissues (f f ! inn] p>5*yma4 ,a fur!r /ep is ! developm5t ( an inn] cyl9d] ( ba/ s t ! vascul> r+ is completely d\ble1 ) endod]mis on bo? sides ( ! cyl9d]1 z is se5 9 fig4 #ci4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ci4--;,a ,cyl9drical ,/ele1 ) e1 inn] endod]mis1 & ph1 inn] phloem2 ,w1 wood2 ,p1 out] phloem2 ,e1 out] endod]mis4 ,l1 "p ( ! /ele go+ out to supply a l>ge leaf1 ?us break+ :at w\ld o!rwise appe> z a clos$ r+ /ele ,9 all ^! cases !re is b "o /r& or cyl9d]1 ( vascul> tissue 9 ! /em1 b "o /ele1 & ?is type ( anatomy is kn[n z ! mono/elic or s+le-/el$ type4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dj4--;,a ,r+ ,/ele app>5tly brok5 up into a ,numb] ( ,proto/eles by _m ,leaf ,gaps ,:5 f ! d\ble cyl9d] j describ$ a /r& ( tissue goes (f to supply a l>ge leaf1 a consid]able "p ( ! /ele goes out & breaks ! r+4 ,?is is %[n 9 fig4 #ci1 :]e ,l is ! "p ( ! /ele go+ to a leaf1 & ! re/ ! brok5 c5tral cyl9d]4 ,:5 ! /em is %ort1 & leaves gr[ ?ickly s t bundles are con/antly go+ out f ! ma9 cyl9d]1 ?is gets p]man5tly brok51 & its appe>ance :5 cut across at any giv5 po9t is t ( a gr\p ( sev]al /eles arrang$ 9 a r+1 ea* sep>ate /ele be+ l ! simple proto/ele 9 its /ructure4 ,see fig4 #dj4 ,?is type ( /em has long be5 kn[n z poly/elic 7i4e4 _m-/el$71 & x is /ill a conv5i5t t]m to describe x by4 ,!re has be5 mu* !oretical discussion ab\t ! true mean+ ( su* a 8poly/elic0 /em1 :i* _c be ent]$ into "h2 x may be not$1 h[ev]1 t ! v>i\s /r&s ( ! brok5 r+ jo9 up & =m a me%work :5 we consid] ! /em z a :ole1 x is only 9 a s+le section t !y appe> z q indep5d5t proto/eles4 ,nev]!less1 z we g5]ally consid] ! anatomy ( /ems 9 t]ms ( s+le sections1 & z ! descriptive ^w 8poly/elic0 is a v conv5i5t & widely und]/ood t]m1 x w be us$ ?r\gh\t ! book :5 speak+ ( ?is type ( /em anatomy4 ,su* a type z ?is1 %[n 9 fig4 #dj1 is already complex1 b x (t5 happ5s t ! /eles bran* & divide /ill fur!r1 until !re is a highly complicat$ & sometimes bewild]+ sy/em ( vascul> /r&s runn+ ?r\gh ! gr\nd tissue 9 _m directions1 b cut (f f x by _! protective endod]mal %ea?s4 ,su* complex sy/ems are to be f\nd bo? 9 liv+ & fossil plants1 m especially 9 _m ( ! l>g] f]ns 7see fig4 #hh74 ,high] plants 9 g5]al1 h[ev]1 & 9 p>ticul> fl[]+ plants1 d n h a poly/elic vascul> arrangem5t1 b a specializ$ type ( mono/ele4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #da4--,mono/ele 9 :i* ! ,c5tral ,pi? is ,/>-%ap$1 & ! ,wood break+ up into ,sep>ate ,gr\ps p1 ,pi?2 ,w1 wood2 ,p1 phloem2 ,e1 endod]mis2 ,c1 cortex4 ,ref]r+ aga9 to fig4 #cg z a />t+-po9t1 imag9e ! pi? 9 ! c5tre to spread 9 a />-%ap$ =m till ! po9ts ( ! /> t\*$ ! edges ( ! r+1 & ?us to break ! wood r+ into gr\ps4 ,a /age 9 ?is process 7:i* is n yet complet$7 is %[n 9 fig4 #da1 :ile 9 fig4 #db ! wood & ba/ gr\ps are entirely di/9ct4 ,9 ! fl[]+ plants ! cells ( ! endod]mis are frequ5tly poorly *>act]iz$1 & ! pi? cells resemble ^? ( ! cortical gr\nd tissue1 s t ! sep>ate gr\ps ( wood & ba/ 7usually kn[n z 8vascul> bundles01 9 di/9ction f ! 8/eles0 ( fig4 #dj7 appe> to lie indep5d5tly 9 ! gr\nd tissue4 ,^! /r&s1 h[ev]1 mu/ n be confus$ ) /eles1 !y are only fragm5ts ( ! s+le app>5tly brok5 up /ele :i* runs 9 ! /em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #db4--,mono/ele 9 :i* ! ,pi? has invad$ all ! ,tissues z f> z ! ,endod]mis1 & brok5 ! ,wood & ,phloem up into ,sep>ate ,bundles4 ,^! are usually call$ 8vascul> bundles0 9 ! fl[]+ plants ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dc4--,%[+ actively gr[+ ,zone c 7,cambium7 9 ! ,vascul> ,bundles1 & jo9+ across ! gr\nd tissue betwe5 !m ,! vascul> bundle1 ( all except ! ,monocotyl$ons1 has a pot5tiality = cont9u$ gr[? & expansion :i* places x f> above ! /ele 9 value = a plant ( long life & consid]able gr[?4 ,! cells ly+ betwe5 ! wood & ! ba/1 ! s(t p>5*yma cells always accompany+ su* tissues1 reta9 _! vitality & cont9ue to divide ) great regul>ity1 & to give rise to a cont9u\s succession ( new cells ( wood on ! "o side & ba/ on ! o!r2 see fig4 #cc1 c1 b4 ,9 ?is way ! prim>y1 di/9ct vascul> bundles are jo9$ by a r+ ( wood1 see fig4 #dc1 to :i* are add$ fur!r r+s e season1 till ! mass ( wood becomes a /rong solid %aft4 ,?is ev]-recurr+ activity ( ! cambium gives rise to :at are kn[n z 8annual r+s0 9 /ems1 see fig4 #dd1 9 :i* ! wood %[s bo? prim>y di/9ct gr\ps 9 ! c5tre1 & ! r+s ( gr[? ( lat] ye>s4 ,cambium ) ?is p[] ( long-cont9u$ activity is f\nd 9 ne>ly all ! high] plants ( to-day 7except ! ,monocotyl$ons71 b 9 ! f]n & lycopod gr\ps x is 9 abeyance4 ,c]ta9 cases f ne>ly e family ( ! ,pt]idophytes are kn[n1 :]e "s slight developm5t ( cambium ) its second>y ?ick5+ takes place1 b 9 ! gr\ps bel[ ! ,gymnosp]ms cambium has almo/ no "p to play4 ,on ! o!r h&1 s f> back z ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 ! masses ( wood 9 ! ,pt]idophyte trees 7 =m$ by cambium 9 j ! same way z !y are n[ 9 ! high] =ms4 ,its pres5ce 0 almo/ univ]sal at t "t 9 ! l[] gr\ps :]e to-day !re are h>dly any traces ( x to be f\nd4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dd4--,/em ) ,solid ,cyl9d] ( ,wood develop$ f ! ,cambium1 %[+ ?ree 8annual r+s04 ,9 ! c5tre may /ill be se5 ! sep>ate gr\ps ( ! wood ( ! prim>y 8vascul> bundles0 ,x w be se5 f ?is %ort outl9e ( ! vascul> sy/em ( plants1 t !re is mu* v>iety possible f modifications ( ! fundam5tal proto/ele4 ,x is also to be not$ t ! plants ( ! ,coal ,measures _h already evolv$ all ! ma9 v>ieties ( /eles :i* are kn[n to u ev5 n[1#f & t ! developm5t ( second>y ?ick5+ 0 v widespread4 ,9 sev]al cases ! complexity ( type exce$s t ( mod]n plants 7see ,*ap4 ,,vii71 & !re are to be f\nd vascul> arrangem5ts no long] extant4 ,:5 we turn to ! ,reproductive ,organs1 we f9d t ! po9ts ( lik5ess betwe5 ! liv+ & ! fossil =ms are n s num]\s or s direct z !y are 9 ! case ( ! vegetative sy/em4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #de4--;,f]n ,sporangia ,a1 fossil2 ,b1 liv+4 ,z has be5 indicat$1 ! families ( plants typical ( ! ,coal ,measures 7 n ^? :i* are ! mo/ prom95t to-day1 b belong$ to ! l[] s]ies ( ,pt]idophytes4 ,9 _! simpl] =ms ! fructifications !n & n[ resemble ea* o!r v closely1 b 9 ! m elaborate developm5ts ! po9ts ( v>iety are m /rik+1 s t !y w be dealt ) 9 ! foll[+ *apt]4 ,cases ( lik5ess are se5 9 ! sporangia ( f]ns1 "s ( :i* appe> to h be5 practically id5tical ) ^? n[ liv+4 ,?is is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #de1 :i* %[s ! outl9e ( ! cells ( ! sporangia ( liv+ & fossil side by side4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #df4--;,a1 ,liv+ ,lycopod cone2 ,b1 ,lepidod5dron 7fossil7 cone4 a1 ,axis2 s1 scale2 ,s1 sporangium ) spores4 ,"o side ( a longitud9al section ,9 ! g5]al /ructure also ( ! cones ( ! simpl] types ( ,lepidod5dron 7fossil1 see frontispiece7 !re is a close agreem5t ) ! liv+ ,lycopods1 ?\gh z reg>ds size & output ( spores !re 0 a consid]able diff]5ce 9 fav\r ( ! fossils4 ,! plan ( ea* is t r\nd ! axis ( ! cone simple scales are arrang$1 on ea* ( :i*1 on its upp] side1 is seat$ a l>ge sporangium be>+ num]\s spores all ( "o k9d 7see fig4 #df74 ,equally simil> are ! cones ( ! liv+ ,equisetum & "s ( ! simple memb]s ( ! fossil family ,calamite1 b ! m int]e/+ cases are ^? :]e diff]5ces ( an important morphological nature are to be se54 ,z reg>ds ! second#g g5]ation !re is "s v important evid5ce1 f extremely "y /ages1 :i* has rec5tly be5 giv5 to ! _w4 ,9 a f]n sporangium g]m9at+ spores 7 fossiliz$ s z to %[ ! fir/ divisions ( ! spore cell4 ,^! seem to be id5tical ) ! fir/ divisions ( "s rec5t f]ns 7see fig4 #dg74 ,?is is n only ( int]e/ z %[+ ! close simil>ity 9 detail betwe5 plants ( su* widely diff]5t ages1 b is a rem>kable case ( delicate pres]vation ( s(t & mo/ p]i%able /ructures 9 ! 8coal balls04 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dg4--;,g]m9at+ ,f]n ,spores ,a & ,b1 f c>bonif]\s fossils2 ,c1 liv+ f]n4 7,a & ,b aft] ,scott47 ,:ile ^! few cases illu/rate po9ts ( lik5ess betwe5 ! fructifications ( ! ,coal ,measures & ( to-day1 ! l>ge size & successful "* ( ! primitive ,coal ,measure plants 0 accompani$ by _m developm5ts on ! "p ( _! reproductive organs :i* are no long] se5 9 liv+ =ms1 & ! great] numb] ( palozoic fructifications mu/ be consid]$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,,*apt] ,,vii ,,m9ute ,,/ructure ,,( ,,fossil ,,plants--,,diff]5ces ,,f ,,liv+ ,,ones ,we h se5 9 ! la/ *apt] t ! ma9 morphological divisions1 roots1 /ems1 leaves1 & fructifications1 7 z di/9ct 9 ! ,coal ,measure p]iod z !y are n[4 ,!re is "o /ructure1 h[ev]1 f\nd 9 ! ,coal ,measure fossils1 :i* is h>dly p>allel$ by any?+ simil> 9 ! liv+ plants1 & t is ! fossil kn[n z ,/igm>ia4 ,/igm>ia is ! "n giv51 n to a di/9ct species ( plant1 b to ! l>ge rootlike organs :i* we "k to h belong$ to all ! species ( ,lepidod5dron & ( ,sigill>ia4 ,9 ! frontispiece ^! organs are well se51 & bran* away at ! foot ( ! trunk1 spread+ horizontally1 to all appe>ance m]ely l>ge roots4 ,!y are especially regul>ly develop$1 h[ev]1 ! ma9 trunk giv+ rise always to f\r prim>y bran*es1 ^! ea* divid+ into two equal bran*es1 & s on--9 ?is !y are unlike ! usual roots ( trees4 ,!y bore num]\s rootlets1 ( :i* we "k ! /ructure v well1 z !y are ! commone/ ( all fossils1 b 9 _! int]nal anatomy ! ma9 8roots0 _h n ! /ructure :i* is *>act]i/ic ( roots1 b 7 l /ems4 ,9 liv+ plants !re are _m examples ( /ems :i* run und]gr\nd1 b !y always h at lea/ ! rudim5ts ( leaves 9 ! =m ( scales1 :ile ! fossil /ructures h app>5tly no trace ( ev5 ! smalle/ scales1 b be> only rootlets1 ?us resembl+ true roots4 ,! que/ions ( morphology ^! /ructures raise are too complex to be discuss$ "h1 & ,/igm>ia is only introduc$ z an example1 "o ( ! v few available1 ( a palozoic /ructure :i* seems to be ( a nature n cle>ly det]m9able z ei!r root1 /em1 leaf1 or fructification4 ,among liv+ plants ! f9e rootlike rhizophores ( ,selag9ella be> "s resemblance to ,/igm>ia 9 ess5tials1 ?\gh s widely diff]5t f !m 9 _m ways1 & !y are probably ! close/ analogy to be f\nd among ! plants ( to-day4 ,! individual cells1 we h already se51 are /rik+ly simil> 9 ! case ( fossil & liv+ plants4 ,!re are1 ( c\rse1 specific v>ieties peculi> to ! fossils1 ( :i* p]haps ! mo/ /rik+ seem to be "s =ms ( hair cells4 ,= example1 9 a species ( f]n f ! ,fr5* rocks !re 7 multicellul> hairs :i* look$ l little /ems ( ,equisetum ow+ to regul> b&s ( tee? at ! junctions ( ! cells4 ,^! hairs 7 q *>act]i/ic ( ! species--b hairs ( all sorts h always ab\nd$ 9 v>iety1 s t su* di/9ction has b m9or significance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #dh4--,/ele ( ,lepidod5dron ,w1 surr\nd$ by a small r+ ( second>y wood ,s ,z 0 not$ 9 ! table 7p4 #eh7 ! only cell types ( prime importance :i* 7 n evolv$ by ! ,palozoic plants 7 ! wood vessels1 phloem & accompany+ cells :i* are *>act]i/ic ( ! fl[]+ plants4 ,among ! fossils ! vascul> arrangem5ts are mo/ int]e/+1 &1 z well z all ! types ( /ele developm5t not$ 9 ! previ\s *apt] z common to bo? liv+ & fossil plants1 !re are fur!r v>ieties f\nd only among ! fossils 7see fig4 #ej74 ,! simple proto/ele describ$ 7on p4 #fa7 is /ill f\nd1 p>ticul>ly 9 ! v "y /ages ( liv+ f]ns1 b x is a type ( vascul> arrangem5t :i* is n common 9 ! mature plants ( ! pres5t day4 ,9 ! ,coal ,measure p]iod1 h[ev]1 ! proto/ele 0 *>act]i/ic ( "o ( ! two ma9 gr\ps ( f]ns4 ,9 diff]5t species ( ^! f]ns1 ! proto/ele assum$ a l>ge v>iety ( %apes & =ms z well z ! simple cyl9drical type4 ,! c5tral mass ( wood became five-ray$ 9 "s1 />-%ap$1 & ev5 v deeply lob$1 ) slightly irregul> arms1 b 9 all ^! cases x rema9$ fundam5tally mono/elic4 ,frequ5tly second>y tissue develop$ r\nd ! proto/eles ( plants ^: liv+ relatives h no su* tissue4 ,a case ( ?is k9d is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #dh1 :i* %[s a simple circul> /ele surr\nd$ by a zone ( second>y woody tissue 9 a species ( ,lepidod5dron4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #di4--,lepidod5dron1 %[+ ,"p ( ! ,holl[ ,r+ ( ,prim>y ,wood ,w1 ) a relatively l>ge am\nt ( ,second>y ,tissue ,s1 surr\nd+ x ,9 _m species ( ,lepidod5dron ! quantity ( second>y wood =m$ r\nd ! prim>y /ele 0 v great1 s t 7z is ! case 9 high] plants7 ! prim>y wood became relatively insignificant comp>$ ) x4 ,9 mo/ species ( ,lepidod5dron ! prim>y /ele is a holl[ r+ ( wood 7cf4 fig4 #ch1 p4 #fb7 r\nd :i* ! second>y wood develop$1 z is se5 9 fig4 #di4 ,^! two cases illu/rate a peculi>ity ( fossil plants4 ,among liv+ ones ! solid & ! simple r+ /ele are almo/ conf9$ to ! ,pt]idophytes1 :]e second>y wood does n develop1 b ! palozoic ,pt]idophytes1 :ile hav+ ! simple prim>y types ( /eles1 _h quantities ( second>y tissue1 :i* 0 correlat$ ) _! l>ge size & dom9ant position4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ej4--;,diagram ( ,/eles ( ! ,engli% ,m$ullosa1 %[+ ?ree irregul>1 solid1 /eles ,a1 ) second>y ?ick5+s ,s1 all r\nd ea*4 a1 ,small accessory /eles ,among poly/elic types 7see p4 #fc7 we f9d int]e/+ examples 9 ! fossil gr\p ( ! ,m$ullose1 :i* are mu* m complex ?an any kn[n at pres5t1 bo? ow+ to _! prim>y /ructure & also to ! peculi> fact t all ! /eles develop$ second>y tissue t[>ds ! inn] z well z ! out] side4 ,"o ( ! simpl] memb]s ( ?is family f\nd 9 ! ,engli% ,coal ,measures is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #ej4 ,"h !re are ?ree pr9cipal proto/eles 7& sev]al irregul> m9or ones7 ea* ( :i* has a consid]able quantity ( second>y tissue all r\nd x1 s t a portion ( ! second>y wood is gr[+ 9 t[>ds ! actual c5tre ( ! /em z a :ole--a v anomal\s /ate ( affairs4 ,9 ! m complex ,cont95tal type ( ,m$ullosa !re are v l>ge numb]s ( /eles4 ,9 ! "o figur$ f ! ,cont95t 9 fig4 #ea b a few are repres5t$4 ,!re is a l>ge out] d\ble-r+ /ele1 ) second>y wood on bo? sides ( x1 & )9 ^! a numb] ( small /eles1 all scatt]$ ?r\gh ! gr\nd tissue1 & ea* surr\nd$ by second>y wood4 ,9 actual specim5s ! numb] ( ^! c5tral /eles is mu* great] ?an t indicat$ 9 ! diagram4 ,no plant exi/s to-day :i* has su* an arrangem5t ( its vascul> cyl9d]4 ,x almo/ appe>s z ?\gh at ! e>ly p]iod1 :5 ! ,m$ullose fl\ri%$1 /eles 7 exp]im5t+ 9 v>i\s directions4 ,su* types z are illu/rat$ 9 figs4 #ej & #ea are obvi\sly wa/eful 7= second>y wood develop+ t[>ds ! c5tre ( a /em is b\nd to f9ally meet71 & complex1 b app>5tly ineffici5t1 :i* may p>tly acc\nt = ! fact t ?is type ( /ructure has n surviv$ to ! pres5t1 ?\gh simpl] & equally anci5t types h done s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ea4--;,cont95tal ,m$ullosa1 %[+ ,r1 out] d\ble-r+ /ele ) second>y wood all r\nd x2 ,s1 inn] /ellate /eles1 also surr\nd$ 9 ea* case by second>y tissue ,fur!r details ( ! anatomy ( fossils w be m5tion$ :5 we come to consid] ! individual families2 ^? n[ illu/rat$ suffice to %[ t 9 ! ,coal ,measures v diff]5t arrangem5ts ( /eles 7 to be f\nd1 z well z ^? :i* 7 simil> to ^? exi/+ n[4 ,! significance ( ^! diff]5ces w become app>5t :5 _! relation to ! o!r *>act]s ( ! plants is consid]$4 ,! fructifications1 always ! mo/ important p>ts ( ! plant1 (f] a wide field1 & ! div]g5ce betwe5 ! common] palozoic & rec5t types seems at fir/ to be v great4 ,inde$1 :5 palozoic reproductive bodies h to be describ$1 x is (t5 necess>y to use ! common descriptive t]ms 9 an alt]$ & wid] s5se4 ,among ! plants ( to-day !re are _m v>ieties ( ! simple s+le-cell$ reproductive masses :i* are call$ spores1 & :i* are usually =m$ 9 l>ge numb]s inside a spore case or sporangium4 ,among ! high] plants se$s are also kn[n 9 endless v>iety1 all ( :i*1 comp>$ ) spores1 are v complex1 = !y are _m-cell$ /ructures1 consi/+ ess5tially ( an embryo or "y plant enclos$ 9 v>i\s protective coats4 ,! di/9ction betwe5 ! two is %>p & well def9$1 & = ! /ud5t ( liv+ plants !re exi/s no difficulty 9 sep>at+ & describ+ se$s & spores4 ,b :5 we look back ?r\gh ! pa/ eras to palozoic plants ! subject is n s easy1 & ! two ma9 types ( pot5tially reproductive masses are n %>ply di/9ct4 ,! se$1 z we "k x among rec5t plants1 & z x is g5]ally def9$1 _h n fully evolv$2 :ile ! spores 7 ( great v>iety & _h evolv$ 9 sev]al directions1 "s ( :i* seem to h be5 int]m$iate /ages betwe5 simple spores & true se$s4 ,^! se$like spores s]v$ to reproduce ! plants ( ! p]iod1 b _! type has s9ce di$ out & left b two ma9 me?ods among liv+ plants1 namely ! ess5tially simple spores1 ! v simplicity ( ^: organization gives !m a secure position1 & ! complex se$s ) _! inf9ite v>iety ( me?ods = protect+ & scatt]+ ! "y embryos !y conta94 ,among ! ,coal ,measure fossils we c pick up "s ( ! e>ly /ages 9 ! evolution ( ! se$ f ! spore1 or at lea/ we c exam9e int]m$iate /ages betwe5 !m :i* give "s idea ( ! possible c\rse ( ev5ts4 ,h5ce1 ?\gh ! diff]5ces f our mod]n reproductive /ructures are s noticeable a feature ( ! palozoic ones1 x w be se5 t !y are really su* diff]5ces z exi/ betwe5 ! memb]s at ! two ends ( a s]ies1 n su* z exi/ betwe5 unrelat$ objects4 ,v few types c be m5tion$ "h1 & to make _! relations cle> a %ort s]ies ( diagrams ) explanations w be f\nd m helpful ?an a detail$ acc\nt ( ! /ructures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eb4--,spores ,ea* spore a s+le cell :i* develops ) ?ree o!rs 9 tetrads 7gr\ps ( f\r74 ,v num]\s tetrads enclos$ 9 a spore case or sporangium :i* develops on a leaflike segm5t call$ ! sporophyll4 ,ea* spore g]m9ates indep5d5tly ( ! o!rs aft] be+ scatt]$1 all be+ ( ! same size4 ,common 9 fossils & liv+ ,pt]idophytes4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ec4--,spores ,ea* a s+le cell l ! prec$+1 b "h only "o tetrad 9 a sporangium rip5s1 s t ea* conta9s only f\r spores4 ,comp>$ ) ! prec$+ types ^! spores are v l>ge4 ,o!rwise details simil> to above4 ,"s fossils h su* sporangia ) eight spores1 or "s o!r small numb]2 liv+ ,selag9ellas h f\r4 ,9 ! same cone sporangia ) small spores are develop$ & give rise to ! male organs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ed4--8,spores0 ( ,se$like ,/ructure ,out ( a tetrad 9 ea* sporangium only "o spore rip5s1 ,s 9 figure1 ! o!rs1 s1 abort4 ,! wall ( ! sporangium1 w1 is m massive ?an 9 ! prec$+ cases1 & f ! sporophyll1 flaps1 sp f1 gr[ up on ea* side & enclose & protect ! sporangium4 ,! "o big spore appe>s to g]m9ate inside ^! protective coats1 & n to be scatt]$ sep>ately f !m4 ,only f\nd 9 fossils1 "o ( ! me?ods ( reproduction 9 ,lepidod5dron4 ,o!r sporangia ) small spores 7 develop$ :i* gave rise to ! male organs4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ee4--8,se$0 ,9 appe>ance ?is is l a se$1 b diff]s f a true se$ 9 hav+ no embryo1 & is l ! prec$+ /ructure 9 hav+ a v l>ge spore1 ,s1 ?\gh !re is no trace ( ! ?ree abort+ ones4 ,! spore develops 9 a special mass ( tissue kn[n z ! nucellus1 n1 :i* p>tly corresponds to ! sporangium wall ( ! previ\s types4 ,9 x a cavity1 p c1 ! poll5 *amb]1 receives ! poll5 gra9s :i* ent] at ! apex ( ! 8se$04 ,!re is a complex coat1 ,c1 :i* /&s r\nd ! nucellus b is n jo9$ to x1 leav+ ! space l betwe5 !m4 ,only 9 fossils2 ,trigonoc>pus 7see p4 #abb7 is simil>ly organiz$4 ,small spores 9 f]n-l sporangia1 call$ poll5 gra9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ef4--8,se$0 ,v simil>ly organiz$ to ! above1 b ! coat is jo9$ to ! nucellus ab\t two-?irds ( its ext5t1 & up to ! level l4 ,9 ! poll5 *amb]1 p c1 a cone ( nucell> tissue projects1 & ! upp] "p ( ! coat is flut$1 b ^! complexities are n ( prim>y importance4 ,! l>ge spore ,s g]m9at$ & 0 f]tiliz$ )9 ! 8se$01 b app>5tly produc$ no embryo be=e x rip5$4 ,small 8spores0 9 f]n-l sporangia =m ! poll5 gra9s4 ,only 9 fossils1 e4g4 ,lag5o/oma4 7,see p4 #aai47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eg4--,se$ ,ess5tially simil> to ! prec$+1 except 9 ! possession ( an embryo e1 :i* is1 h[ev]1 small 9 comp>ison ) ! endosp]m :i* fills ! spore ,s4 ,! :ole organization is simpl] ?an 9 ! fossil ,lag5o/oma1 b ! coat is fus$ to ! nucellus fur!r up 7see l74 ,small 8spores0 =m ! poll5 gra9s4 ,liv+ & fossil type1 ,cycads & ,g9kgo4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #eh4--,se$ ,9 ! ripe se$ ! l>ge embryo e practically fills up all ! space )9 ! two se$ coats c#a & c#b2 endosp]m1 poll5 *amb]1 c41 h be5 elim9at$1 & ! "y ovule is v simple & small z a result ( ! protection & active s]vice ( ! c>pels 9 :i* x is enclos$4 ,small 8spores0 =m ! poll5 gra9s4 ,typical ( liv+ ,dicotyl$ons4 ,^! few illu/rations repres5t only ! ma9 divisions ( an army ( /ructures ) an almo/ unimag9able weal? ( v>iety :i* mu/ be left out ( consid]ation4 ,= ! /ructures illu/rat$ 9 figs4 #ed1 #ee1 & #ef we h no "n1 = _! possible exi/5ce 0 n conceiv$ ( :5 our t]m9ology 0 inv5t$1 & no "o has yet *ri/5$ !m anew ) di/9ct names4 ,!y are evid5tly too complex 9 organization & too simil> to se$s 9 sev]al ways to be call$ spores1 yet !y lack ! ess5tial elem5t 9 a se$1 namely1 an embryo4 ,! t]m 8ovule0 7usually giv5 to ! "y se$ :i* has n yet develop$ an embryo7 does n fit !m any bett]1 = _! tissues are rip5$ & h>d1 & !y 7 ( l>ge size & app>5tly fully gr[n & mature4 ,= ! pres5t a "n is n ess5tial2 ! "o ?+ t is important is to recognize _! int]m$iate "* & ! light !y ?r[ on ! possible evolution ( mod]n se$s4 ,a fur!r po9t ( great int]e/ is ! mann] 9 :i* ^! 8se$s0 7 borne on ! plant4 ,to-day se$s are always develop$ 7) ! exception ( ,cycas7 9 cones or fl[]s1 or at lea/ special infloresc5ces4 ,b ! 8se$0 ( ,lag5o/oma 7fig4 #ef71 z well z a numb] ( o!rs 9 ! gr\p x repres5ts1 7 n borne on a special /ructure1 b directly on ! gre5 foliage leaves4 ,!y 7 9 ?is on a level ) ! simple sporangia ( f]ns :i* appe> on ! backs ( ! fronds1 a fact :i* is ( great significance bo? = our views on ! evolution ( se$s z su*1 & = ! be>+ x has on ! relation%ips ( ! v>i\s gr\ps ( alli$ plants4 ,?is w be ref]r$ to subsequ5tly 7,*apt] ,,xi71 & is m5tion$ n[ only z an example ( ! diff]5ce betwe5 "s ( ! *>act]s ( e>ly fossils & ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,x is true t botani/s h long recogniz$ ! organ :i* be>s se$s z a modifi$ leaf4 ,! c>pels ( all ! high] plants are look$ on z homolog\s ) leaves1 al?\gh !y d n appe> to be l !m ext]nally4 ,sometimes among liv+ plants curi\s diseases cause ! c>pels to become foli>1 & :5 ?is happ5s ! diseas$ c>pel rev]ts m or less to ! suppos$ ance/ral leaf-l condition4 ,x is only among ! anci5t 7b rec5tly discov]$7 fossils1 h[ev]1 t se$s are kn[n to be borne normally on foliage leaves4 ,f ,mesozoic plants we %all le>n new conceptions ab\t fl[]s & reproductive infloresc5ces 9 g5]al1 b ^! mu/ be def]r$ to ! consid]ation ( ! family z a :ole 7,*apt] ,,xiii74 ,en\gh has be5 illu/rat$ to %[ t ?\gh ! individual cells1 ! bricks1 s to speak1 ( plant con/ruction1 7 s simil> 9 ! pa/ & pres5t1 yet ! organs built up by !m h be5 cont9ually v>y+1 z a *ild builds increas+ly ambiti\s palaces ) ! same set ( bricks4 ,,*apt] ,,viii ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,i4 ,fl[]+ ,plants1 ,angiosp]ms ,9 comp>ison ) ! o!r gr\ps ( plants ! fl[]+ families are ( rec5t orig91 yet 9 ! s5se 9 :i* ! ^w is usually us$ !y are anci5t inde$1 & ! e>lie/ records ( !m mu/ date at lea/ to p]iods hundr$s ( ?\s&s ( ye>s ago4 ,?r\gh all ! ,t]ti>y p]iod 7see p4 #cd7 !re 7 num]\s fl[]+ plants1 & !re is evid5ce t _m families ( bo? ,monocotyl$ons & ,dicotyl$ons exi/$ 9 ! ,upp] ,cretace\s times4 ,fur!r back ?an ?is we h little reliable te/imony1 = ! few specim5s ( s-call$ fl[]+ plants f ! ,l[] ,mesozoic are = ! mo/ "p ( a d\btful nature4 ,! fl[]+ plants seem to /& mu* isolat$ f ! re/ ( ! plant _w2 !re is no direct evid5ce ( connection betwe5 _! olde/ repres5tatives & any ( ! m primitive families4 ,s f> z our actual k goes1 !y might h sprung into be+ at ! middle ( ! ,mesozoic p]iod q indep5d5tly ( ! o!r plants !n liv+2 ?\gh !re are n want+ elaborate & almo/ conv9c+ !ories ( _! connection ) m ?an "o gr\p ( _! pr$ecessors 7see p4 #ajh74 ,x is a peculi>ly un=tunate fact t al?\gh ! rocks ( ! ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y are s mu* less anci5t ?an ^? ( ! ,coal ,measures1 !y h pres]v$ = u f> less well ! plants :i* 7 liv+ :5 !y 7 =m$4 ,hi!rto no "o has f\nd 9 ,mesozoic /rata masses ( exquisitely m9]aliz$ ,angiosp]m fragm5ts#h l ^? f\nd 9 ! ,coal ,measures1 :i* tell u s mu* ab\t ! m anci5t plants4 ,cases are kn[n ( m or less isolat$ fragm5ts ) _! microscopical tissues m9]aliz$4 ,= example1 !re are "s palms & f]ns f ,s\? ,am]ica :i* %[ _! anatomical /ructure v cle>ly pres]v$ 9 silica1 & :i* seem to resemble closely ! liv+ species ( _! g5]a4 ,! bulk ( ! plants pres]v$ f ^! p]iods are f\nd 9 ! =m ( ca/s or impressions 7see p4 #aj71 :i*1 z has be5 po9t$ out already1 are mu* less satisfactory to deal )1 & give mu* less reliable results ?an specim5s :i* h also _! int]nal /ructure petrifi$4 ,! quantity ( mat]ial1 h[ev]1 is great1 & impressions ( s+le leaves innum]able1 & ( specim5s ( leaves atta*$ to /ems1 & ev5 ( fl[]s & fruits1 are to be f\nd 9 ! lat] b$s ( rock4 ,^! are g5]ally cle>ly recognizable z belong+ to "o or o!r ( ! liv+ families ( fl[]+ plants4 ,leaf impressions are by f> ! mo/ frequ5t1 & our k ( ! ,t]ti>y flora is pr9cipally d]iv$ f a /udy ( !m4 ,_! outl9e & _! ve9s are g5]ally pres]v$1 (t5 also _! petioles & "s indication ( ! ?ickness & "* ( ! fle%y "p ( ! leaf4 ,f ! outl9e & ve9s alone an exp]t is g5]ally able to det]m9e ! species to :i* ! plant belongs1 ?\gh x is n always q safe to tru/ to ^! det]m9ations or to draw wide-rea*+ conclusions f !m4 ,9 fig4 #ei is %[n a photograph ( ! impression ( a ,t]ti>y leaf1 :i* illu/rates ! condition ( an av]age good specim5 f rocks ( ! p]iod4 ,its %ape & ! "* ( ! ve9s are suffici5t to m>k x out imm$iately z belong+ to ! ,dicotyl$on\s gr\p ( ! fl[]+ plants4 ,se$s & fruits are also to be f\nd2 & 9 "s v f9ely pres]v$ specim5s f ,japan /am5s f a fl[] & delicate se$s are se5 cle>ly impress$ on ! light /one4 ,9 fig4 #fj is illu/rat$ a c\ple ( su* se$s1 :i* %[ n only _! w+s b also ! small ant5n-l /igmas4 ,specim5s s p]fectly pres]v$ are practically z good z h]b>ium mat]ial ( rec5t plants1 & 9 ?is way ! ext]nals ( ! ,t]ti>y plants are pretty well kn[n to u4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ei4--;,dicotyl$on\s ,leaf ,impression f ,t]ti>y ,rocks ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fj4--,se$s f ,japanese ,t]ti>y ,rocks2 at a are se5 ! two /igmas /ill pres]v$ ,a problem :i* has long be5 discuss$1 & :i* has ar\s$ mu* int]e/1 is ! relative antiquity ( ! ,monocotyl$on\s & ! ,dicotyl$on\s bran*es ( ! fl[]+ plants4 ,a peculi> fasc9ation seems to hang ov] ?is /ill unsolv$ riddle1 & a battle ( fl[]s may be said to rage betwe5 ! lily & ! rose = priority4 ,rec5t "w has ?r[n no decisive light on ! "q1 b x has und\bt$ly demoli%$ ! old view :i* suppos$ t ! ,monocotyl$ons 7! lily gr\p7 appe>$ at a f> e>li] date ^u ?is e>? ?an ! ,dicotyl$ons4 ,! old writ]s bas$ _! cont5tion on incorrectly det]m9$ fossils4 ,= in/ance1 se$s f ! ,palozoic rocks 7 describ$ z ,monocotyl$ons because ( ! ?ree or six ribs :i* 7 s *>act]i/ic ( _! %ell2 we "k n[ t ^! se$s 7,trigonoc>pus7 belong to a family already m5tion$ 9 ano!r connection 7p4 #gb71 ! ,m$ullose 7see p4 #abb71 ! aff9ity ( :i* lies betwe5 ! cycads & ! f]ns4 ,leaves ( ,cordaites1 aga91 :i* are broad & long ) well-m>k$ p>allel ve9s1 7 describ$ z ^? ( a ,monocotyl$on\s plant l ! ,yucca ( to-day2 b we n[ "k !m to belong to a family ( true ,gymnosp]ms possibly di/antly relat$ to ,taxus 7! ,yew tree74 ,rec5t "w1 :i* has c>efully sift$ ! fossil evid5ce1 c only say t no true ,monocotyl$ons h yet be5 f\nd bel[ ! ,l[] ,cretace\s rocks1 & t at t p]iod we see also ! sudd5 inru% ( ,dicotyl$ons4 ,h5ce1 s f> z palontology c %[1 ! two p>allel gr\ps ( ! fl[]+ plants arose ab\t ! same "t4 ,x is ( int]e/ to note1 h[ev]1 t ! only petrifaction ( a fl[] kn[n f any "p ( ! _w is an ov>y :i* seems to be t ( "o ( ! ,liliace4 ,9 ! same nodules1 h[ev]1 !re are sev]al specim5s ( ,dicotyl$on\s woods1 s t x does n ?r[ any light on ! "q ( priority4 ,) ! evid5ce d]iv$ f ! comp>ative /udy ( ! anatomy ( rec5t fl[]+ plants we _c conc]n ourselves "h1 beyond not+ t ! results weigh 9 fav\r ( ! ,dicotyl$ons z be+ ! m primitive1 ?\gh n necess>ily develop$ mu* e>li] 9 po9t ( "t4 ,until v mu* m is discov]$ ?an is yet kn[n ( ! orig9 ( ! fl[]+ plants z a :ole1 x is impossible to come to a m def9ite conclusion ab\t ?is mu*-discuss$ subject4 ,let u n[ attempt to picture ! vegetable communities s9ce ! appe>ance ( ! fl[]+ plants4 ,! facts :i* =m ! bases ( ! foll[+ conceptions h be5 ga!r$ f _m l&s by num]\s work]s 9 ! field ( fossil botany1 f scatt]$ plant rema9s su* z h be5 describ$4 ,:5 ! fl[]+ plants 7 h]ald$ 9 !y appe>$ 9 l>ge numb]s1 & already by ! ,cretace\s p]iod !re 7 v _m diff]5t species4 ,( ^! a numb] seem to belong to g5]a :i* are /ill liv+1 & _m ( !m are extremely l liv+ species4 ,x w\ld be we>isome & ( little value to give a li/ ( all ! record$ species f ?is p]iod1 b a few ( ! common] ones may be m5tion$ to illu/rate ! nature ( ! plants !n fl\ri%+4 ,sev]al species ( ,qu]cus 7! ,oak7 appe>$ e>ly1 p>ticul>ly ,qu]cus ,ilex2 leaves ( ! ,jugl&ace 7,walnut family7 7 v common1 & among ! ,t]ti>y fossils appe> its fruits4 ,bo? ,populus 7! ,popl>7 & ,salix 7! ,will[7 date f ! e>ly rocks1 :ile ,ficus 7! ,fig7 0 v common1 & ,casu>9a 7! ,swit* ,plant7 seems to h be5 widely spread4 ,magnolias also 7 common1 & x appe>s t ,platanus 7! ,plane7 & ,eucalyptus coexi/$ ) !m4 ,x w be imm$iately recogniz$ t ! above plants h all liv+ repres5tatives1 ei!r wild or cultivat$1 gr[+ 9 ?is c\ntry at ! pres5t day1 s t !y are m or less famili> objects1 & !re appe>s to h be5 no /rik+ diff]5ce betwe5 ! e>ly fl[]+ plants & ^? ( ! pres5t day4 ,betwe5 ! anci5t ,lycopods1 = example1 & ^? n[ liv+ ! diff]5ces are v notewor?y2 b ! e>lie/ ( ! kn[n fl[]+ plants seem to h be5 ess5tially l ^? n[ fl\ri%+4 ,x mu/ be rememb]$ 9 ?is connection t ! exi/+ fl[]+ plants are imm5sely ne>] 9 po9t ( "t to _! orig9 ?an are ! exi/+ ,lycopods1 & t :5 su* ons h pass$ z divide ! pres5t f ! ,palozoic1 ! fl[]+ plants ( ! future may h dw9dl$ to a subord9ate position correspond+ to t held by ! ,lycopods n[4 ,a noticeable "* ( ! e>ly fl[]+-plant flora1 :5 tak5 z a :ole1 is ! relatively l>ge proportion ( plants 9 x :i* belong to ! family ,am5tif] 7oaks1 will[s1 popl>s1 c474 ,?is is suppos$ by "s to indicate t ! family is "o ( ! mo/ primitive /ocks ( ! ,angiosp]ms4 ,?is view1 h[ev]1 h>dly be>s v close scrut9y1 because x d]ives its ma9 support f ! l>ge numb]s ( ! ,am5tif] z comp>$ ) o!r gr\ps4 ,n[1 ! ,am5tif] 7 7& are7 l>gely woody resi/ant plants1 ^: v nature w\ld r5d] !m m liable to be pres]v$ z impressions ?an delicate trees or h]bs1 :i* w\ld m readily decay & leave no trace4 ,simil>ly bas$ on unc]ta9 evid5ce is ! surmise t ! gr\p ( fl[]s class$ z ,gamopetal 7fl[]s ) petals jo9$ up 9 a tube1 l convolvulus7 did n fl\ri% 9 e>ly times1 b are ! high] & lat] developm5t ( ! fl[] type4 ,n[1 ,viburnum 7alli$ to ! honeysuckle7 belongs to ?is gr\p1 & x is f\nd "r d[n 9 ! ,cretace\s1 & ,sambucus 7,eld]1 ( ! same family7 is kn[n 9 ! e>ly ,t]ti>y4 ,^! two plants are woody %rubs or small trees1 :ile _m o!rs ( ! family are h]bs1 & x is notewor?y t x is j ^! woody1 resi/ant =ms :i* are pres]v$ z fossils2 _! pres5ce demon/rates ! antiquity ( ! gr\p z a :ole1 & ! abs5ce ( o!r memb]s ( x may be reasonably attribut$ to accid5ts ( pres]vation4 ,9 ! ,t]ti>y also we get a memb] ( ! hea? family1 viz4 ,&rom$a1 & ano!r tube-fl[]1 ,bignonia1 z well z sev]al m woody gamopetal\s fl[]s4 ,h5ce x is wise to be v cauti\s ab\t draw+ any important conclusions f ! relative numb]s ( ! diff]5t species1 or ! abs5ce ( any type ( plant f ! li/s ( ^? z yet kn[n f ! ,cretace\s4 ,:5 quantities ( /ructurally pres]v$ mat]ial c be exam9$ conta9+ ! fl[]+ plants 9 petrifactions1 !n x w be possible to speak ) "s security ( ! nature ( ! ,mesozoic flora z a :ole4 ,! positive evid5ce :i* is already accumulat$1 h[ev]1 is ( great value1 & f x c]ta9 d$uctions may be safely made4 ,specim5s ( ,cretace\s plants f v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w seem to indicate t !re 0 a v /rik+ uni=mity 9 ! flora ( t p]iod all ov] ! globe4 ,9 ,am]ica & 9 ,c5tral ,europe1 = example1 ! same types ( plants 7 gr[+4 ,we %all see t1 z "t advanc$1 ! v>i\s types became sep>at$ out1 dy+ away 9 diff]5t places1 until ea* great cont95t & division ( l& _h a special set ( plants ( its own4 ,at ! comm5cem5t ( ! reign ( fl[]+ plants1 h[ev]1 !y seem to h liv$ toge!r 9 ! way we are told ! bea/s fir/ liv$ 9 ! g>d5 ( ,ed54 ,at ! beg9n+ ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod !re 7 /ill _m tropical =ms1 su* z ,palms1 ,cycads1 ,nipa1 v>i\s ,artoc>pace1 ,laurace1 ,araliace1 & o!rs1 gr[+ side by side ) su* temp]ate =ms z ,qu]cus1 ,alnus1 ,betula1 ,populus1 ,viburnum1 & o!rs ( ! same k9d4 ,be=e ! middle ( ! ,t]ti>y 0 rea*$ ! la/ ,cycads di$ 9 :at is n[ kn[n z ,europe2 & soon aft] ! middle ,t]ti>y all ! tropical types di$ out ( ?is zone4 ,at ! same "t ^? plants ^: leaves appe> to h fall5 at ! end ( ! w>m season began to become common1 :i* is tak5 z an indication ( a climatic influ5ce at "w4 ,"s writ]s consid] t 9 ! ,cretace\s times !re 0 no cold season1 & !re=e no regul> p]iod ( leaf fall1 b z ! climate became temp]ate ! decidu\s trees increas$ 9 numb]s2 yet ! ,gymnosp]mic & ,angiosp]mic woods :i* are f\nd ) petrifi$ /ructure %[ well-m>k$ annual r+s & seem to contradict ?is view4 ,t[>d ! end ( ! ,t]ti>y times !re 7 practically no m tropical =ms 9 ! ,european flora1 ?\gh !re /ill rema9$ a numb] ( plants :i* are n[ f\nd ei!r only 9 ,am]ica or only 9 ,asia4 ,! ,glacial epo* at ! close ( ! ,t]ti>y appe>s to h driv5 all ! plants be=e x1 & aft]w>ds1 :5 its glaci]s retreat$1 %r9k+ up to ! ,nor? & up ! sides ( ! high m\nta9s1 ! plant species t return$ to take possession ( ! l& 9 ! ,quat]n>y or pres5t p]iod 7 ^? :i* are /ill inhabit+ x1 & ! floras ( ! tropics1 ,asia1 & ,am]ica 7 no long] mix$ ) t ( ,europe4#i ,,*apt] ,,ix ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,,ii4 ,high] ,gymnosp]ms ,! m rec5t hi/ory ( ! high] ,gymnosp]ms1 9 ! ,upp] ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y p]iods1 mu* resembles t ( ! fl[]+ plants z sket*$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]4 ,_m ( ! g5]a appe> to h be5 ^? /ill liv+1 & "s ( ! species ev5 may h come v close to or h be5 id5tical ) ^? ( to-day4 ,! =ms n[ *>act]i/ic ( ! diff]5t cont95ts 7 gr[+ toge!r1 & appe> to h be5 widely di/ribut$ ov] ! globe4 ,= example1 ,sequoia & ,taxodium1 two types n[ *>act]i/ic ( ,am]ica1 & ,glypto/robus1 at pres5t f\nd 9 ,asia1 7 /ill gr[+ ) ! o!r ,european types 9 ,europe s late z middle ,t]ti>y times4 ,z 9 ! case ( ! ,angiosp]ms1 ! fossils we h ( ,cretace\s & ,t]ti>y ,gymnosp]ms are ne>ly all impressions & ca/s1 ?\gh "s m or less isolat$ /ems h _! /ructure pres]v$4 ,h5ce our k ( ^! lat] ,gymnosp]ms is f> f complete4 ,f ! old] rocks1 h[ev]1 we h bo? impressions & microscopically pres]v$ mat]ial1 & are m fully acqua9t$ ) !m ?an ) ^? :i* liv$ ne>] our own "t4 ,h>d1 resi/ant leaves1 :i* are s *>act]i/ic ( mo/ ( ! liv+ g5]a ( ,gymnosp]ms1 seem to h be5 also develop$ 9 ! pa/ memb]s ( ! gr\p1 & ^! t5d to leave cle> impressions 9 ! rocks1 s t we h reliable data = recon/ruct+ ! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! fossil =ms f ! ,palozoic p]iod4 ,! res9\s "* ( ,gymnosp]m wood probably greatly assi/$ its pres]vation1 & fragm5ts ( x are v common 9 rocks ( all ages1 g5]ally pres]v$ 9 silica s z to %[ microscopic /ructure4 ,! isolat$ wood ( ,gymnosp]ms1 h[ev]1 is n v in/ructive1 = f ! wood alone 7& usually x is j fragm5ts ( ! second>y wood :i* are pres]v$7 b little ( ei!r physiological or evolutional value c be le>n$4 ,:5 twigs ) prim>y tissues & b>k & leaves atta*$ are pres]v$1 !n ! specim5s are ( importance1 = _! true "* c be recogniz$4 ,=tunately among ! coal balls !re are _m su* fragm5ts1 "s ( :i* are accompani$ by fruits & male cones1 s t we "k mu* ( ! ,palozoic ,gymnosp]ms1 & f9d t 9 "s respects !y diff] widely f ^? n[ liv+4 ,!re is1 !re=e1 mu* m to be said ab\t ! fossil ,gymnosp]ms ?an ab\t ! ,angiosp]ms1 bo? because ( ! bett] quality ( _! pres]vation & because _! hi/ory dates back to a v mu* e>li] p]iod ?an does ! ,angiosp]mic record4 ,inde$1 we d n "k :5 ! ,gymnosp]ms began2 ! well-develop$ & anci5t gr\p ( ,cordaite 0 fl\ri%+ be=e ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 & mu/ !re=e date back to ! rocks ( :i* we h no reliable in=mation f ?is po9t ( view1 & ! orig9 ( ! ,gymnosp]ms mu/ lie 9 ! pre-,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,! gr\p ( ,gymnosp]ms includes a numb] ( g5]a ( diff]5t types1 mo/ ( :i* may be arrang$ "u sev5 pr9cipal families4 ,9 a sket* ( ?is nature x is1 ( c\rse1 q impossible to deal ) all ! less-important families & g5]a4 ,^? t w be consid]$ "h are ! foll[+3-- ,conif]ales 7see p4 #ij74 ,arauc>e1 e4g4 ,monkey-puzzle ,g5]a bo? liv+ & fossil4 ,fossil =ms und\bt$ s f> back z ! ,jurassic1 & presumably fur!r4 ,abiet9e1 e4g4 ,p9e & ,l>* ,g5]a bo? liv+ & fossil4 ,fossils recogniz$ z f> back z ! ,l[] ,cretace\s4 ,cupresse1 e4g4 ,junip]1 ,cypress ,g5]a bo? liv+ & fossil4 ,fossils recogniz$ z f> back z ! ,jurassic4 ,taxe1 e4g4 ,yew ,g5]a liv+ & fossil4 ,fossils recogniz$ z f> back z ! ,cretace\s4 ,cordaitales 7see p4 #ib74 ,cordaite1 e4g4 ,cordaites ,fossil only4 ,*>act]i/ic ( ,devonian1 ,c>bonif]\s1 & ,p]mian p]iods4 ,poroxyle1 e4g4 ,poroxylon ,fossil only4 ,*>act]i/ic ( ! ,c>bonif]\s & ,p]mian4 ,g9kgoales 7see p4 #ih74 ,g9kgoace1 e4g4 ,g9kgo ,fossil & liv+1 dat+ back1 app>5tly ) little *ange1 to ,palozoic times4 ,we mu/ pay ! mo/ att5tion to ! two la/ gr\ps1 z !y are s important z fossils1 & ! ,cordaite 7 a v num]\s family 9 ,coal ,measure times4 ,!y _h _! p]iod ( pr9cipal developm5t s long ago t x is probable t no direct desc5dants rema9 to ! pres5t "t1 ?\gh "s botani/s consid] t ! ,taxe are alli$ to !m4 ,( ! gr\ps /ill liv+ x is difficult1 almo/ impossible1 to say :i* is ! highe/1 ! mo/ evolv$ type4 ,9 ! consid]ation ( ! ,gymnosp]m family x is br\ght home ) great emphasis h[ incomplete & p>tial our k is z yet4 ,_m hold t ! ,arauc>e are ! mo/ primitive ( ! high] ,gymnosp]ms4 ,9 support ( ?is view ! foll[+ facts are not$4 ,!y h a simple type ( fructification1 ) a s+le se$ on a simple scale1 & _m scales arrang$ r\nd an axis to =m a cone4 ,9 ! microscopic /ructure ( _! wood !y h d\ble r[s ( bord]$ pits1 a k9d ( wood cell :i* comes clos] to ! old fossil types ?an does ! wood ( any ( ! o!r liv+ g5]a4 ,fur!r ?an ?is1 wood :i* is almo/ indi/+ui%able f ! wood ( rec5t ,arauc>ias is f\nd v f> back 9 ! rocks1 :ile _! leaves are broad & simple1 & atta*$ directly to ! /em 9 a way simil> to ! leaves ( ! fossil ,cordaite1 & v diff]5t f ! ne$le leaves on ! second>y /ems ( ! ,p9e family2 s t !re appe>s good gr\nd = consid]+ ! gr\p an anci5t & probably a primitive "o4#aj ,on ! o!r h&1 !re are n want+ sci5ti/s :o consid] ! ,abiet9e ! liv+ repres5tatives ( ! mo/ primitive & anci5t /ock1 ?\gh on ! :ole ! evid5ce seems to indicate m cle>ly t ! ,p9e-tree gr\p is specializ$ & highly modifi$4 ,_! d\ble s]ies ( foliage leaves1 _! complex cones 7^: /ructures are n yet fully und]/ood71 & _! wood all support ! latt] view4 ,"s1 aga91 consid] ! ,taxe z a v primitive gr\p1 & w\ld place !m ne> ! ,cordaite1 ) :i* !y may be relat$4 ,_! fle%y se$s1 gr[+ n 9 cones b on %ort special axes1 support ?is view1 & x is c]ta9ly true t 9 _m ways ! l>ge se$s1 ) _! succul5t coats & big endosp]m1 are mu* l ^? ( ! l[] ,gymnosp]ms & ( sev]al fossil types4 ,^?1 h[ev]1 :o hold to ! view t ! ,abiet9e are primitive1 see 9 ! ,taxe ! late/ & mo/ modifi$ type ( ,gymnosp]m4 ,x w be se5 f ?is t !re is no lack ( v>iety reg>d+ ! int]pretation ( ,gymnosp]m /ructures4 ,! ,gymnosp]ms d n /& 9 su* an isolat$ position z d ! ,angiosp]ms4 ,:atev] ! v>iety ( views held ab\t ! details ( ! relative plac+ ( ! families )9 ! gr\p1 all agree 9 recogniz+ ! evid5ce :i* enables u to trace ) confid5ce ! connection betwe5 ! l[] ,gymnosp]ms & ! families ( f]ns4 ,!re are _m indications ( ! intimate connection betwe5 high] & l[] ,gymnosp]ms4 ,betwe5 ! s]ies exi/ :at might be describ$ z diff]5t degrees ( c\s9%ip1 & 9 ! l[] gr\ps lie unmi/akable clues to _! connection ) m anci5t gr\ps 9 ! pa/ :i* bridge ov] ! gaps betwe5 !m & ! f]ns4 ,= ! pres5t1 h[ev]1 let u conf9e ourselves to ! hi/ory ( ! m important ,gymnosp]ms1 ! discussion ( _! orig9 & ! gr\ps f :i* !y may h aris5 mu/ be po/pon$ until ! necess>y details ab\t ^? gr\ps h be5 m5tion$4 ,to a consid]ation ( ! liv+ families ( ,arauc>e1 ,abiet9e1 ,cupresse1 & ,taxe we c all[ b a %ort space2 _! g5]al *>act]s & appe>ance are likely to be kn[n to ! read]1 & _! details c be /udi$ f liv+ specim5s if !y are n4 ,= purposes ( comp>ison ) ! fossils1 h[ev]1 x w be necess>y to m5tion a few ( ! pr9cipal features :i* are ( special importance 9 discuss+ phylog5y4 ,! ,arauc>iace are woody trees :i* atta9 a consid]able size1 ) broad-bas$1 l>ge leaves atta*$ directly to ! /em4 ,9 ! leaves are a s]ies ( num]\s p>allel vascul> bundles4 ,! wood cells 9 microscopic section %[ two r[s or m ( r\nd bord]$ pits4 ,! cones are v l>ge1 b ! male & female are diff]5t 9 size & organization4 ,! female cone is compos$ ( s]ies ( simple scales arrang$ spirally r\nd ! axis1 & ea* scale be>s a s+le se$ & a small ligule4 ,! poll5 gra9s f ! male cone are caught on ! ligule & ! poll5 tubes ent] ! micropyle ( ! ovule1 br++ 9 passive male cells :i* may develop 9 l>ge numb]s 9 ea* gra94 ,! se$s :5 ripe are /ony1 & "s are provid$ ) a w+ f "p ( ! tissue ( ! scale4 ,9 ! ripe cones ! scales sep>ate f ! cone axis4 ,! ,abiet9e are woody trees1 "s rea*+ a great height1 all ) a /rong ma9 /em4 ,! leaves are ( two k9ds3 prim>y ones borne directly atta*$ to ! /em 7z 9 fir/-ye> %oots ( ! ,l>*71 & second>y ones borne 9 tufts ( two 79 ,p9e7 or a l>ge numb] 79 old] bran*es ( ,l>*7 on special %ort bran*es1 ! prim>y leaves only develop+ z br[n scales closely atta*$ to ! /ems4 ,leaves g5]ally v f9e & ne$lelike1 & ) a c5tral vascul> bundle4 ,! wood 9 microscopic section %[s a s+le r[ ( r\nd bord]$ pits on ! n>r[ tra*e4 ,! female cones are l>ge1 male & female diff]+ greatly 9 size & organization4 ,! female cone1 compos$ ( a spiral s]ies ( pairs ( scales1 :i* (t5 fuse toge!r z ! cone rip5s4 ,ea* upp] scale ( ! pair be>s two se$s4 ,! poll5 gra9s f ! male cone ent] ! micropyle ( ! se$ & are caught 9 ! tissue 7apex ( nucellus7 !re2 ! poll5 tubes dis*>ge passive male cells1 only two ( :i* develop 9 ea* gra94 ,! se$s :5 ripe are /ony & provid$ ) a w+ f ! tissue ( ! scale on :i* !y 7 borne4 ,! ,cupresse are woody trees rea*+ no great height1 & ( a bu%y1 bran*+ gr[?4 ,! leaves are atta*$ directly to ! ma9 /em1 & arrange !mselves 9 alt]nat+ pairs ( v small leaves1 closely press$ to ! /em4 ,! wood 9 microscopic section %[s a s+le r[ ( r\nd bord]$ pits on ! tra*e4 ,! cones are small1 & ! scales =m+ !m arrang$ 9 cycles4 ,! female scales be> a v>y+ numb] ( se$s4 ,! poll5 gra9 has two passive male cells4 ,! se$s :5 ripe are /ony1 ) w+s1 ?\gh 9 "s cases 7species ( ,junip]7 ! cone scales close up & become fle%y1 s t ! :ole fruit resembles a b]ry4 ,! ,taxe are woody1 ?\gh n great trees1 bu%ily bran*$4 ,! leaves are atta*$ spirally all r\nd ! /em1 b place !mselves s z to appe> to lie 9 pairs arrang$ 9 "o horizontal direction4 ,! wood 9 microscopic section %[s a s+le r[ ( r\nd bord]$ pits on ! tra*e4 ,!re are small male cones1 b ! se$s are n borne on cones1 gr[+ in/ead on special %ort axes1 :]e !re may be sev]al "y ovules1 b on :i* usually two se$s rip54 ,! se$s are big1 & h an inn] /one & out] fle%y cov]+4 ,"s h special out] fle%y /ructures kn[n z 8arils01 e4g4 ! r$ out] cup r\nd ! yew 8b]ry0 7:i* is n a b]ry at all1 b a s+le un5clos$ se$ ) a fle%y coat74 ,:5 we turn to ! ,cordaite we come to a gr\p ( plants :i* be>s di/9ct relation%ip to ! prec$+1 b :i* has a numb] ( individual *>act]s4 ,x is a gr\p ( :i* we %\ld "k no?+ 7 x n = ! fossils pres]v$ 9 ! ,palozoic rocks2 yet1 not)/&+ ! fact t x fl\ri%$ s long ago1 x is a family ( :i* we "k mu*4 ,at ! "t ( ! ,coal ,measures & ! succe$+ ,p]mo-c>bonif]\s p]iod1 x 0 ( great importance1 &1 inde$1 9 "s ( ! ,fr5* deposits x w\ld seem z ?\gh :ole lay]s ( coal 7 compos$ entirely ( its leaves4 ,among ! fossil rema9s ( ?is family !re are impressions1 ca/s1 & true petrifactions1 s t we "k bo? its ext]nal appe>ance & ! int]nal anatomy ( ne>ly e "p ( sev]al species ( ! g5us4 ,= a long "t ! v>i\s fossil rema9s ( ! plant 7 n recogniz$ z belong+ to ea* o!r & toge!r =m+ ! records ( "o & ! same plant--! broad1 long leaves ) _! p>allel ve9s 7 look$ on z ,monocotyl$ons 7see fig4 #fa72 ! pi? ca/s 7see fig4 #fc7 7 ?\ght to be peculi> con/rict$ /ems1 & 7 call$ ,/]nb]gia2 :ile ! wood1 :i* 0 kn[n f its microscopic /ructure1 0 call$ ,arauc>ioxylon--b ! c>eful "w ( _m ma/]s ( fossil botany1 ^: labori\s /udies we _c describe 9 detail "h1 br\ght all ^! fragm5ts toge!r & prov$ !m to belong to ,cordaites4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fa4--,leaf ( ,cordaites1 l1 atta*$ by its broad base to a ,/em1 s ,we n[ "k t ,cordaites 7 l>ge trees1 ) /rong upright %afts ( wood1 to ^: bran*es l>ge simple leaves 7 atta*$4 ,! leaves 7 mu* bigg] ?an ^? ( any liv+ ,gymnosp]m1 ev5 ?an ^? ( ! ,kauri ,p9e 7a memb] ( ! ,arauc>iace71 & seem 9 "s species to h exce$$ #c ft4 9 l5g?4 ,! trees bran*$ only at ! top ( ! ma9 %aft1 & ) _! huge sword-l leaves mu/ h diff]$ greatly 9 appe>ance f any plant n[ liv+4 ,! leaves _h _m p>allel ve9s1 z c be se5 9 fig4 #fa1 & 7 atta*$ by a broad base directly to ! ma9 /em2 ?us com+ clos] to ! ,arauc>ias ?an ! o!r gr\ps ( ,gymnosp]ms 9 _! leaf *>act]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb;,a4--,microscopic ,section ( ,"p ( a ,leaf ( ,cordaites ,v1 ,vascul> bundle2 ,w1 wood ( bundle2 %1 its %ea?2 ,s#a1 l>ge scl]5*yma mass alt]nat+ ) bundles2 ,s#b & ,s#c1 scl]5*yma caps ( bundle2 ,p1 s(t tissue ( leaf4 ,! int]nal anatomy is (t5 well pres]v$1 & !re is a numb] ( species ( leaves ^: anatomy is kn[n4 ,z w be expect$ f ! p>allel ve9s1 9 ea* section !re are _m vascul> bundles runn+ equidi/antly ?r\gh ! tissue4 ,fig4 #fb;,a %[s ! microscopic details f a well-pres]v$ leaf4 ,9 all ! species pat*es ( scl]5*yma 7 develop$1 & ev]y?+ indicates t !y 7 t\gh & well protect$ aga9/ loss ( wat]1 ev5 to a great] ext5t ?an are mo/ ( ! leaves ( liv+ ,gymnosp]ms4 ,9 ! /ems ! pi? 0 mu* l>g] ?an t 9 liv+ ,gymnosp]ms 7:]e ! wood is g5]ally v solid71 & x 0 holl[ 9 old] /ems1 except = discs ( tissue across ! cavity4 ,! int]nal ca/ f ^! /ems has be5 describ$ be=e1 & is se5 9 fig4 #fc4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fb;,b4--,mu*-magnifi$ ,wood ,elem5ts f ,cordaites ,/em se5 9 longitud9al section1 ! type kn[n z ,arauc>ioxylon4 ,note ! hexagonal outl9es ( ! bord]$ pits1 :i* lie 9 sev]al r[s ,! wood 0 =m$ 9 closely pack$ radiat+ r[s by a normal cambium 7see p4 #ff71 & ! tra*e s =m$ _h *>act]i/ic r[s ( bord]$ pits 7see fig4 #fb;,b74 ,! wood comes ne>] to t ( ! liv+ ,arauc>ias ?an any o!r1 & inde$ ! num]\s pieces ( fossil wood ( ?is type :i* are kn[n f all ! geological p]iods are call$ ,arauc>ioxylon4#aa ,a d\ble /r& goes out f ! ma9 mass ( wood1 :i* aft]w>ds divides & subdivides to provide ! num]\s bundles ( ! leaf4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fc4--;,ca/ ( ,holl[ ,pi? ( ,cordaites1 ! con/rictions correspond+ to discs ( solid tissue across ! cavity ,9 ! case ( ^! fossils we are =tunate en\gh to h ! fructifications1 bo? male & female1 9 a good /ate ( pres]vation4 ,z 9 o!r ,gymnosp]ms1 ! male & female cones are sep>ate1 b !y diff]$ less f ea* o!r 9 _! arrangem5t ?an d ^? ( any ( ! liv+ types hi!rto m5tion$4 ,!y c h>dly be describ$ z true cones1 ?\gh !y _h some?+ ( t nature2 ! se$s seem to be borne on special %ort /ems1 r\nd :i* are also /]ile scales4 ,9 ! se$ & ! way x is borne p]haps ! ,cordaite may be comp>$ m ne>ly ) ! ,taxe ?an ) ! o!r gr\ps4 ,a se$1 n yet ripe1 is %[n 9 slightly diagrammatic =m 9 fig4 #fd1 :]e ! ess5tial details are illu/rat$4 ,! se$s ( ?is family sometimes rea*$ a consid]able size1 & _h a fle%y lay] :i* 0 ?ick 9 comp>ison ) ! /one1 & ext]nally comp>able ) a *]ry--?\gh1 ( c\rse1 ( v diff]5t nature 9 reality1 = ,cordaites1 l ,taxus1 is a ,gymnosp]m1 ) simple nak$ se$s1 :ile a *]ry is ! fruit ( an ,angiosp]m4 ,9 a few words1 ^! are ! ma9 *>act]s ( ! l>ge gr\p ( ,cordaites1 :i* held ! dom9ant position among ,gymnosp]ms 9 ! ,palozoic era4 ,!y h relation%ips1 or p]haps "o %\ld say lik5esses1 to _m gr\ps4 ,_! /em- & root-anatomy is simil> to ! ,conif] ( ! pres5t day1 ! position ( ! ovules is l t 9 ! ,taxace1 ! male cones 9 "s measure recall ^? ( ,g9kgo1 ! anatomy ( _! leaves has po9ts :i* are comp>able ) ^? ( ! ,cycads1 to :i* gr\p also ! l>ge pi? 9 ! /em & ! /ructure ( "s details 9 ! se$s unite !m4 ,_! own specially di/9ctive *>act]s lie 9 _! cr[n ( huge leaves1 & unbran*$ %aft ( /em1 ! simil>ity ( _! male & female infloresc5ces1 & "s po9ts 9 _! poll5 gra9s :i* h n be5 m5tion$4 ,! type is a v complex "o1 possibly com+ ne> ! /ock :i*1 hav+ bran*$ out 9 v>i\s directions1 gave rise to sev]al ( ! liv+ families4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fd4--,repres5tation ( ,cordaites ,se$ & its ,axis ) ,scales1 slightly diagrammatic1 modifi$ f ,r5ault4 ,a1 ,axis ) s1 scales2 c1 coat ( ! se$1 f :i* ! inn] p>ts h %runk away2 n1 nucellus2 p4c1 poll5 *amb] conta9+ poll5 gra9s :i* ent] ?r\gh m4 ,plants :i* come v ne> to ! ,cordaite are ! ,poroxyle4 ,( ?is gr\p we h un=tunately no rema9s ( fructifications 9 organic connection1 s t its actual position mu/ rema9 a little d\btful till !y are discov]$4 ,!re seems no d\bt t !y mu/ h borne se$s4 ,/ill1 x has be5 abundantly demon/rat$ 9 rec5t ye>s t ! anatomy ( ! root1 /em1 & leaves indicates ) consid]able exactness ! position ( any plant1 s t1 z ^! are kn[n1 we c d$uce f !m1 ) a feel+ ( safety1 ! position t ,poroxylon takes 9 ! natural sy/em4 ,9 its anatomy ! *>act]s are ^? ( ! ,cordaite1 ) c]ta9 details :i* %[ a m primitive nature & seem to be *>act]i/ic ( ! gr\ps bel[ x 9 organization4 ,poroxylon is n common1 & until rec5tly _h n be5 f\nd 9 ! ,l[] ,coal ,measures ( ,engl&4 ,! plants appe> to h be5 mu* small] ?an ,cordaites1 ) delicate /ems :i* bore relatively l>ge simple leaves4 ,! anatomy ( ! root 0 t common 9 ,gymnosp]ms1 b ! /em _h a v l>ge pi?1 & ! leaves 7 mu* l ^? ( ,cordaites 9 hav+ p>allel ve9s4 ,an important "* 9 ! anatomy ( ! /em 0 ! pres5ce ( :at is kn[n z c5tripetal wood4 ,?is mu/ be %ortly expla9$4 ,9 all ! /ems hi!rto consid]$1 ! fir/-=m$ wood cells 7protoxylems1 see p4 #eg7 develop$ at ! c5tral po9t ( ! wood1 t[>ds ! pi? 7see fig4 #ai1 px1 p4 #di74 ,?is is *>act]i/ic ( all ,angiosp]ms & ! high] ,gymnosp]ms 7except 9 a c\ple ( rec5tly inve/igat$ ,p9es71 b among ! l[] plants we f9d t "p ( ! lat] wood develops to ! inn] side ( ^! protoxylem masses4 ,! di/9ction is %[n 9 fig4 #fe4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fe4--;,a1 ,normal bundle ( high] plant2 x1 protoxylem on inn] side next ! pi? p1 & ! old] wood w outside x1 c5trifugal wood4 ,b1 ,bundle ) wood cells c develop$ on inn] side ( protoxylem1 c5tripetal wood2 ! arr[ indicates ! direction ( ! c5tre ( ! /em4 ,?is po9t is "o to :i* botani/s h giv5 mu* att5tion1 & on :i* !y h laid mu* weight 9 consid]+ ! aff9ities ( ! l[] ,gymnosp]ms & ! int]m$iate gr\ps betwe5 !m & ! f]ns1 :i* are f\nd among ! fossils4 ,9 ,cordaites ?is po9t ( connection ) ! l[] types is n se51 b 9 ,poroxylon1 :i* has o!rwise a /em anatomy v simil> to ,cordaites1 we f9d gr\ps ( c5tripetal wood develop$ inside ! protoxylem ( prim>y bundles4 ,= ?is reason1 pr9cipally1 is ,poroxylon ( int]e/ at pres5t1 z 9 its /em anatomy x seems to connect ! ,cordaites type ) t ( ! gr\p bel[ x 9 g5]al organization4 ,g9kgoales4--,ref]5ce to p4 #dd %[s t ,g9kgo1 ! ,maid5hair tree1 belongs to ! ,g9kgoales1 a gr\p tak+ equal rank ) ! l>ge & complex s]ies ( ! ,conif]ales4 ,! ,g9kgoales ( ! pres5t day1 h[ev]1 h b "o liv+ repres5tative4 ,g9kgo /&s alone1 ! s+le liv+ species ( its g5us1 repres5t+ a family s diff]5t f any o!r liv+ family t x =ms a prime gr\p by itself4 ,_h ! tree n be5 held sacr$ 9 ,*9a & ,japan1 x is probable t x w\ld long s9ce h be5 ext9ct1 = x is n[ kn[n only 9 cultivation4 ,x is inde$ a relic f ! pa/ :i* has be5 =tunately pres]v$ alive = our exam9ation4 ,x belongs to ! fossil _w1 z a belat$ ,novemb] rose belongs to ! summ]4 ,because ( its beauty & int]e/ ! plant is n[ widely di/ribut$ "u cultivation1 & is available = /udy almo/ z freely z ! o!r types ( liv+ ,gymnosp]ms already m5tion$1 s t b a %ort summ>y ( its m important features is ne$$ "h4 ,old plants1 su* z c be se5 gr[+ freely 9 ,japan 79 ,kew ,g>d5s !re is also a f9e specim571 are v tall h&some woody trees1 ) noble %afts & _m bran*es4 ,! leaves gr[ on little side %oots & are ! mo/ *>act]i/ic ext]nal feature ( ! tree2 _! liv+ =m is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #ff1 :i* %[s ! typical simple %ape z well z ! lob$ =m ( ! leaf :i* are to be f\nd1 ) all int]m$iate /ages1 on ! same tree4 ,no o!r plant 7save a few f]ns1 :i* c g5]ally be di/+ui%$ f x )\t difficulty7 has leaves at all l ^!1 s t x is p>ticul>ly easy to id5tify ! fossil rema9s1 ( :i* !re are _m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ff4--;,a1 ,tuft ( ,g9kgo ,leaves1 %[+ _! 8maid5hair0-l %ape4 ,b1 ,s+le deeply-divid$ ,leaf to be f\nd on ! same tree1 usually on "y bran*es4 ,! wood is compact & f9e gra9$1 ! r+s ( second>y tissue be+ develop$ f a normal cambium z 9 ! case ( ! high] ,gymnosp]ms1 & ! individual tra*e h r\nd bord]$ pits4 ,!re are small male cones1 b ! se$s are n borne 9 cones4 ,!y develop on special /alks on :i* are no scales1 b a small mass ( tissue at ! base ( ! se$ call$ ! 8coll>04 ,usually !re are two "y ovules1 ( :i* (t5 only "o rip5s to a fle%y se$1 ?\gh bo? may mature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fg4--,ripe ,/age ( ,g9kgo ,se$s atta*$ to _! ,/alk4 c1 8,coll>0 ( se$4 ,! ripe se$ rea*es ! size %[n 9 ! diagram1 & is orange col\r$ & v fle%y2 )9 x is a /one encas+ ! endosp]m1 :i* is l>ge1 gre51 & />*y1 & conta9s ! embryo ) two cotyl$ons4 ,?is embryo is small comp>$ ) ! endosp]m1 cf4 fig4 #eg1 p4 #gf1 :i* is some:at simil> to t ( ,g9kgo 9 ?is /age4 ,( ! microscopic *>act]s ( ! reproductive organs ! mo/ rem>kable is ! male cell4 ,?is is n a passive nucleus1 z 9 ! plants hi!rto consid]$1 b is an actively swimm+ cell ( "s size1 provid$ ) a spiral ( cilia 7hairlike /ructures7 ^: movem5ts propel x ?r\gh ! wat]4 ,9 ! cavity ( ! unripe se$ ^! swim t[>ds ! female cell1 & actively p5etrate x4 ,! arrangem5ts ( ! se$ are diagrammatically %[n 9 fig4 #fh1 :i* %\ld be comp>$ ) t ( ,cycas1 fig4 #gf1 ) :i* x has _m po9ts 9 common4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fh4--,section ?r\gh ,se$ ( ,g9kgo p4c1 ,poll5 *amb] 9 ! nucellus n1 :i* is fus$ to ! coat c to ! level l2 sc1 /ony lay] 9 coat2 ,s1 ! big spore1 fill$ ) endosp]m tissue 79 ?is case gre5 9 col\r72 e1 egg cells1 "o ( :i* w produce ! embryo aft] f]tilization4 ,! nature ( ! male cell 9 ,cordaites is n yet kn[n1 b !re is reason to suspect x may h be5 actively swimm+ also4 ,z ?is is unc]ta91 h[ev]1 we may consid] ,g9kgo ! mo/ highly organiz$ plant :i* has su* a primitive feature1 a feature :i* is a bond ( union betwe5 x & ! f]ns1 & :i*1 :5 x 0 discov]$ ab\t a doz5 ye>s ago1 caus$ a consid]able s5sation 9 ! botanical _w4 ,to turn n[ to ! fossil records ( ?is family4 ,leaf impressions ( ,g9kgo are f\nd 9 rocks ( ne>ly all ages back ev5 to ! ,upp] ,palozoic4 ,!y %[ a consid]able v>iety ( =m1 & x is c]ta9 t !y d n all belong to ! same species z ! liv+ plant1 b probably !y are closely alli$4 ,fig4 #fi %[s a typical impression f ! ,l[] ,mesozoic rocks4 ,9 ?is specim51 ! cells ( ! epid]mis 7 =tunately suffici5tly well pres]v$ to be se5 ) ! microscope1 & !re is a di/9ct diff]5ce 9 ! size & %ape ( ! cells ( liv+ & fossil species1 see fig4 #gj2 b ?is diff]5ce is slight z comp>$ ) ! great simil>ity ( =m & appe>ance1 z c be se5 on comp>+ figs4 #fi & #ff1 ,b1 s t ! fossil is at ! mo/ a diff]5t species ( ! g5us ,g9kgo4 ,among ! fossil leaves !re is great] v>iety ?an among ! liv+ ones1 & "s :i* are v deeply lob$ s z to =m a divid$ palm-l leaf g by diff]5t names1 e4g4 ,bai]a1 b !y are suppos$ to belong to ! same family4 ,fossil se$s & male cones are also kn[n z impressions1 & are f\nd f> back 9 ! ,mesozoic rocks4 ,f ! fossil impressions x is c]ta9 t ,g9kgo & plants closely alli$ to x 7 v widespread 9 ! pa/1 z !y are f\nd all ov] ,europe z well z ! o!r cont95ts4 ,p>ticul>ly 9 ! ,l[] ,mesozoic rocks ,g9kgo seems to h be5 a _w-wide type gr[+ 9 great abundance4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #fi4--,leaf ,impression ( ,g9kgo f ,mesozoic ,rocks ( ,scotl& ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gj4--,%[+ ,epid]mis ) ,/omates f ! l[] side ( ! ,leaf se5 9 fig4 #fi e1 ,epid]mis cells2 s1 /omates2 v1 long cells ( epid]mis ly+ ov] ! ve9s4 ,9 ! ,palozoic ! records are n s und\bt$1 b !re is /rong evid5ce :i* leads u to suppose t if ! g5us n[ liv+ 7 n !n extant1 at lea/ o!r closely relat$ g5]a 71 & !re seems to be good gr\nds = suppos+ t ,g9kgo & ,cordaites may h bo? aris5 f "s anci5t common /ock4 ,,*apt] ,x ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,,iii4 ,! ,b5nettitales ,?is fasc9at+ family is kn[n only f ! fossils1 & is s remote 9 its organization f any common liv+ =ms t x may p]haps be a little difficult = ^? :o d n "k ! ,cycads to appreciate ! position ( ,b5nettites4 ,x w\ld probably be bett] = "o /udy+ fossil plants = ! fir/ "t to read ! *apt]s on ! ,cycads1 ,pt]idosp]ms1 & ,f]ns be=e ?is *apt] on ! pres5t gr\p1 :i* has *>act]s connect+ x ) t s]ies4 ,until rec5tly ! bulk ( ! fossils :i* are f\nd z impressions ( /ems & foliage ( ?is family 7 v naturally class$ z ,cycads4 ,!y are extremely common 9 ! ,mesozoic rocks 7! s-call$ ,age ( ,cycads71 & 9 ! ext]nal appe>ance ( bo? /ems & leaves !y are practically id5tical ) ! ,cycads4 ,a few incomplete fructifications ( "s species h be5 kn[n 9 ,europe = _m ye>s1 b x is only rec5tly t !y h be5 fully kn[n4 ,?is is ow+ to ,wiel&'s#ab "w on ! ,am]ican species1 :i* has made kn[n ! complete organization ( ! fructifications f a mass ( ri* & well-petrifi$ mat]ial4 ,9 ! ,l[] ,cretace\s & ,upp] ,jurassic rocks ( ,am]ica ^! plants ab\nd1 ) _! microscopic /ructure well pres]v$1 & _! fructifications %[ an organization ( a diff]5t nature f t ( any pa/ or pres5t ,cycad4 ,probably ow+ to _! ext]nal appe>ance1 ,wiel& describes ! plants z 8,cycads0 9 ! title ( 8 big book on !m2 b ! g5]ic "n he uses1 ,cycadeoidea1 seems less kn[n 9 ?is c\ntry ?an ! equally well-e/abli%$ "n ( ,b5nettites1 :i* has long be5 us$ to d5ote ! ,european specim5s ( ?is family1 & :i* w be us$ 9 ! foll[+ %ort acc\nt ( ! gr\p4 ,at ! pres5t "t no family ( fossils is excit+ m int]e/4 ,_! completely ,cycadean appe>ance & _! unique type ( fructification h l$ _m botani/s to see 9 !m ! =]unn]s ( ! ,angiosp]ms1 to look on !m z ! key to t my/]y--! orig9 ( ! fl[]+ plants4 ,?is position w be discuss$ & ! _m facts 9 its fav\r not$1 b we mu/ n =get t ! ,b5nettitales h only rec5tly be5 realiz$ fully by botani/s1 & t a new toy is ev] p>ticul>ly *>m+1 a new cure p>ticul>ly efficaci\s1 & a new !ory all-p]suasive4 ,f _! detail$ /udy ( ! fl[]+ plants botani/s h lean$ t[>d diff]5t gr\ps z ! pres5t repres5tatives ( ! primitive types4 ,! v>i\s claims ( ! diff]5t families to ?is position _c be consid]$ "h2 probably t ( ! ,ranales 7! gr\p ( families r\nd ,ranunculace z a c5tral type7 is ! be/ support$4 ,yet ^! plants are mo/ frequ5tly delicate h]bs1 :i* w\ld h /ood relatively less *ance ( fossilization ?an ! o!r families :i* may be consid]$ primitive4 ,!y are peculi>ly remote f ! gr\p ( ,b5nettite 9 _! vegetative /ructure1 a fact ! importance ( :i* seems to h be5 und]rat$1 = 9 ! same brea? we are assur$ t ! ,b5nettites are a k9d ( c\s9 to ! anci5t ,angiosp]ms1 & t ! ,ranales are among ! mo/ primitive liv+ ,angiosp]ms1 & !re=e presumably ne>e/ ! anci5t ones4 ,h[ev]1 let u leave ! *>ms ( controv]sy on "o side & look at ! actual /ructure ( ! gr\p4 ,!y 7 widely spread 9 ,l[] ,mesozoic times1 ! plants be+ pres]v$ z ca/s1 impressions1 & ) /ructure 9 great numb]s4 ,! bulk ( ! describ$ /ructural specim5s h be5 obta9$ f ! rocks ( ,engl&1 ,france1 ,italy1 & ,am]ica1 al?\gh leaf impressions are almo/ univ]sally kn[n4 ,! g5us ,williamsonia belongs to ?is family1 & is "o ( ! be/ kn[n ( ,mesozoic plant impressions4 ,ext]nally ! ,b5nettite 7 id5tical 9 appe>ance ) /umpy ,cycads1 & _! leaves x is :i* gave rise to ! surmise1 s long preval5t1 t ! ,l[] ,mesozoic 0 ! 8,age ( ,cycads01 j z x 0 ! ,pt]idosp]m leaves t gave ! ,palozoic ! cr$it ( be+ ! 8,age ( ,f]ns04 ,9 ! anatomy ( bo? /em & leaf1 also1 ! *>act]s are entirely ,cycadean2 ! outgo+ leaf trace is inde$ simpl] 9 its c\rse ?an t ( ! ,cycads4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ga4--;,half ( a ,longitud9al ,section ?r\gh a ,mature ,cone ( ,b5nettites ,a1 ,%ort conical axis2 s1 enclos+ bracts2 ,s1 se$s2 sc1 /]ile scales betwe5 ! se$s4 ,! fructifications1 h[ev]1 diff] fundam5tally f ^? ( ! ,cycads1 z inde$ !y d f ^? ( any kn[n family4 ,!y took ! =m ( compact cones1 :i* occurr$ 9 v l>ge numb]s 9 ! mature plants hidd5 by ! leaf bases4 ,9 ,williamsonia1 ( :i* we "k mu* less detail1 ! fructifications /ood away f ! ma9 axis on long p$icels4 ,9 ,b5nettites ! cones 7 compos$ ( s]ies ( %ea?+ scales surr\nd+ a %ort conical axis on :i* /ood ?9 radiat+ /alks1 ea* be>+ a se$4 ,betwe5 !m 7 long-/alk$ /]ile scales ) exp&$ ends4 ,a "p ( a cone is illu/rat$ diagrammatically 9 fig4 #ga4 ,! :ole _h mu* ! appe>ance ( a complex fruit4 ,9 "s specim5s ^! features alone are pres5t 9 ! cones1 b 9 y\ng] cones f ! ,am]ican plants fur!r /ructures are f\nd atta*$4 ,bel[ ! ma9 axis ( ! se$-be>+ "p ( ! cone 0 a s]ies ( l>ge complex leaflike /ructures closely resembl+ f]n leaves 9 _! mu*-divid$ nature4 ,on ! p9n ( ^! leaves 7 cr[d$ innum]able l>ge sporangia1 simil> to ^? ( a f]n1 :i* provid$ ! poll5 gra9s4 ,! fossils are p>ticul>ly well pres]v$1 & h be5 f\nd ) ^! male 7poll5-be>+7 organs 9 ! "y unop5$ /ages1 & also 9 ! mature unfold$ condition1 z well z ! rip5+ se$ cones f :i* !y h fad$1 j z ! /am5s fade f a fl[] :5 ! se$s enl>ge4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gb4--;,diagram ( ,complete ,cone ( ,b5nettites ,a1 ,c5tral axis ( conical %ape t]m9at+ 9 ! se$-be>+ cone ,s4 7,aft] ,wiel&71 & be>+ successively ,br41 bracts1 comp>able ) floral leaves2 ,m1 l>ge complex leaves ) poll5 sacs4 ,x appe>s t ^! huge complex leaflike /ructures 7 really /am5s1 b nev]!less !y 7 roll$ up 9 ! circ9ate =m z are "y f]n leaves1 & z !y unroll$ & spread out r\nd ! c5tral cone !y mu/ h _h ! appe>ance ( a :orl ( leaves 7see fig4 #gb74 ,?is1 9 a few words1 is ! ma9 g5]al "* ( ! fructification4 ,! mo/ important features1 on :i* /ress is laid1 are ! foll[+4 ,! association ( ! male & female /ructures on ! same axis1 ) ! female "p above ! male4 ,?is arrangem5t is f\nd only 9 ! fl[]+ plants2 ! l[] plants1 :i* h male & female on ! same cone1 h !m mix$1 or ! female bel[1 & are 9 any case mu* simpl] 9 _! entire organization4 ,! conical =m ( ! axis is also important1 z is ! fact t x t]m9ates 9 ! se$-be>+ /ructures4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gc4--;,diagram ( ,cross ,section ( ,b5nettites1 ,se$1 ) ,embryo c1 ,d\ble-lay]$ se$ coat2 n1 cru%$ nucellus2 cot41 two cotyl$ons :i* practically fill ! se$4 ,! position ( ! individual se$s1 ea* on ! end ( a s+le /alk1 is rem>kable1 z are ! long-/alk$ bracts ^: %ield-l ends jo9 9 ! protection ( ! se$s4 ,^! /ructures toge!r give ! cone mu* ( ! appe>ance ( a complex fruit ( a fl[]+ plant1 b ! /ructure ( ! se$s !mselves is t ( a simple ,gymnosp]m4 ,9 ! se$s1 h[ev]1 0 an embryo4 ,9 ?is !y diff] f all kn[n se$s ( an e>li] date1 :i*1 z has be5 already not$ 7see p4 #gg71 are always devoid ( "o4 ,?is embryo is "o ( ! mo/ important features ( ! plant4 ,x _h two cotyl$ons :i* fill$ ! se$ space 7see fig4 #gc71 & left almo/ no trace ( ! endosp]m4 ,ref]5ce to p4 #aab w %[ t ?is is an advance on ! ,cycad se$1 :i* has a small embryo emb$d$ 9 a l>ge mass ( endosp]m1 & t x practically co9cides ) ! ,dicotyl$on\s type4 ,! se$ ) its embryo sugge/$ comp>ison ) ! ,angiosp]ms long be=e ! complete /ructure ( ! fructification 0 kn[n4 ,! f]n-l nature ( ! poll5-be>+ /ructures is ano!r v important po9t4 ,7 any "o ( ^! leaflike 8/am5s0 f\nd isolat$ its f]n-l nature w\ld n h be5 que/ion$ a ye> or two ago1 & _! pres5ce 9 ! 8fl[]0 ( ,b5nettites is a /rong argum5t 9 fav\r ( ! ,f]n-,pt]idosp]m aff9ities ( ! gr\p4 ,_h ! p>ts ( ?is rem>kable fructification develop$ on sep>ate trees1 or on sep>ate bran*es or di/9ct cones ( ! same "o1 !y w\ld h be5 mu* less sugge/ive ?an !y are at pres5t1 & ! fructifications might well h be5 includ$ among ^? ( ! ,gymnosp]ms1 diff]+ little m 7ap>t f ! embryo7 f ! o!r ,gymnosp]m g5]a ?an !y d f ea* o!r4 ,9 fact1 ! extremely f]n-l nature ( ! male organs is almo/ m sugge/ive ( a ,pt]idosp]m aff9ity1 = ev5 ! simple/ ,cycads h well-m>k$ scaly cones z _! male organs4 ,! female cone1 aga91 consid]$ z an isolat$ /ructure1 c be int]pret$ z be+ n vitally diff]5t f ,cordaites1 :]e ! se$s are borne on special %ort /alks amid/ scales4 ,! embryo w\ld1 9 any case1 po9t to a position among advanc$ types2 b x is s common = "o organ ( a plant to evolve along l9es ( its own indep5d5tly1 or 9 advance ( ! o!r organs1 t ! embryo /ructure alone c\ld n h be5 held to c\nt]balance ! ,cycadean /ems & leaves1 ! ,pt]idosp]m-l male organs1 & ! ,gymnosp]mic se$s4 ,b all ^! p>ts occur on ! same axis1 arrang$ 9 ! mann] typical ( ,angiosp]ms4 ,! se$-be>+ /ructures at ! apex1 ! 8/am5s0 bel[ !m1 & a s]ies ( exp&$ scales bel[ ^! aga91 :i* x takes little imag9ation to picture z incipi5t petals & sepals2 & behold--! ?+ is a fl[]6 ,& be+ a 8fl[]01 is 9 close/ connection ) ! ance/ors ( ! mod]n fl[]+ plants1 :i* mu/ consequ5tly h evolv$ f "s ,cycadean-l ance/or :i* also gave rise to ! ,b5nettitales4 ,?us c ! fl[]+ plants be l9k$ on to ! s]ies t runs ?r\gh ! ,cycads directly to ! primitive f]ns6 ,x is evid5t t ?is gr\p1 ( all ^? kn[n among ! fossils1 comes mo/ closely to an approximation ( ,angiosp]mic /ructure & arrangem5t4 ,en\gh has be5 said to %[ t 9 _! actual nature !y are n ,angiosp]ms1 ?\gh !y h "s ( _! *>act]s1 :ile at ! same "t !y are n ,cycads1 ?\gh !y h _! appe>ance4 ,!y /& some:]e betwe5 ! two4 ,?\gh _m botani/s at pres5t hold t ?is mixture ( *>act]s indicates a relation%ip equival5t to a k9d ( c\s9%ip ) ! ,angiosp]ms1 & bo? gr\ps may be suppos$ to h orig9at$ f a ,cycadean /ock1 ?is !ory has n yet /ood ! te/ ( "t1 nor is x support$ by o!r evid5ce f ! fossils4 ,we w g s f> z to say t x appe>s z ?\gh "s ,angiosp]ms arose 9 t way2 b fl[]+ plants %[ s _m po9ts utt]ly diff]+ f ! :ole ,cycadean /ock t a little scepticism may n be un:olesome4 ,x is well to rememb] ! ,lycopods1 :]e 7z we %all see1 p4 #ada7 /ructures v l se$s 7 develop$ at ! "t :5 ! ,lycopods 7 ! dom9ant plants1 & we d n f9d any evid5ce to prove t !y l$ on to ! ma9 l9e ( se$ plants4 ,simil>ly1 ,cycads may h got :at practically am\nt$ to fl[]s at ! "t :5 !y 7 ! dom9ant gr\p1 & x is v conceivable t !y did n lead on to ! ma9 l9e ( fl[]+ plants4 ,:atev] view may be held1 h[ev]1 & :atev] may be ! future discov]ies relat+ to ?is gr\p ( plants1 we c see 9 ! ,b5nettitales po9ts :i* ?r[ mu* light on ! pot5tialities ( ! ,cycadean /ock1 & /ructures :i* h giv5 rise to "s mo/ int]e/+ speculations on ! subject ( ! ,angiosp]ms4 ,?is gr\p is ano!r ( ! jewels 9 ! cr[n ( fossil botany1 = ! :ole ( its /ructures h be5 recon/ruct$ f ! /ones t hold all t rema9s ( ?is once ext5sive & n[ ext9ct family ( plants4 ,,*apt] ,,xi ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,,iv4 ,! ,cycads ,! gr\p ( ! ,cycadales1 :i* has a sy/ematic value equival5t to ! ,g9kgoales1 conta9s a mu* l>g] v>iety ( g5]a & species ?an does ! latt]4 ,!re are /ill liv+ n9e g5]a1 ) m ?an a hundr$ & fifty species1 :i* =m 7?\gh a small "o comp>$ ) mo/ ( ! prime gr\ps7 a well-def9$ family4 ,!y are ! mo/ primitive ,gymnosp]ms1 ! mo/ primitive se$-be>+ plants n[ liv+1 & 9 _! appe>ance & *>act]s are v diff]5t f any o!r mod]n type4 ,_! ext]nal resemblance to ! gr\p ( ! ,b5nettitales1 h[ev]1 is v /rik+1 & inde$1 )\t ! fructifications x w\ld be impossible to di/+ui% !m4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ! g5]a is t ( ,cycas1 ( :i* an illu/ration is giv5 9 fig4 #gd4 ,! ?ick1 /umpy /em & cr[n ( 8palm0-l leaves give x a v diff]5t appe>ance f any o!r ,gymnosp]m4 ,commonly ! plants rea* only a few feet 9 height1 b v old specim5s may gr[ to ! height ( #cj ft4 or m4 ,! o!r g5]a are small]1 & "s h %ort /ems & a v f]n-l appe>ance1 z1 = example1 ! g5us ,/ang]ia1 :i* 0 suppos$ to be a f]n :5 x 0 fir/ discov]$ & be=e fruit+ specim5s _h be5 se54 ,! l>ge comp\nd leaves are all borne directly on ! ma9 /em1 g5]ally 9 a s+le rosette at its apex1 & z !y die (f !y leave _! fle%y leaf bases1 :i* cov] ! /em & rema9 = an almo/ indef9ite numb] ( ye>s4 ,! wood ( ! ma9 trunks diff]s f t ( ! o!r ,gymnosp]ms 9 be+ v loosely built1 ) a l>ge pi? & mu* s(t tissue betwe5 ! radiat+ b&s ( wood4 ,!re is a cambium :i* adds zones ( second>y tissue1 b x does n d its "w regul>ly1 & ! cross section ( an old ,cycad /em %[s disconnect$ r+s ( wood1 accompani$ by mu* s(t tissue4 ,! cells ( ! wood h bord]$ pits on _! walls1 & 9 ! ma9 axis ! wood is usually all develop$ 9 a c5trifugal direction1 b 9 ! axis ( ! cones "s c5tripetal wood is f\nd 7ref] to c1 fig4 #fe1 p4 #ig74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gd4--,plant ( ,cycas1 %[+ ! ma9 /em ) ! cr[n ( leaves & ! irregul> bran*es :i* come on an old plant ,9 _! fructifications ! ,cycads /& ev5 fur!r ap>t f ! re/ ( ! ,gymnosp]ms4 ,"o /rik+ po9t is ! enorm\s size ( _! male cones4 ,! male cones consi/ ( a /\t axis1 r\nd :i* are spiral s]ies ( closely pack$ simple scales cov]$ ) poll5-be>+ sacs 7:i* be> no inconsid]able lik5ess to f]n sporangia71 ! :ole cone rea*+ #a ft4 9 l5g? 9 "s g5]a1 & weigh+ sev]al p\nds4 ,all ! o!r ,gymnosp]ms1 except ! ,arauc>e1 :]e !y are an in* or two long1 h male cones b a fraction ( an in* 9 l5g?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ge4--,se$-be>+ ,scale ( ,cycas1 %[+ its lob$ & leaflike "* s1 ,se$s atta*$ on ei!r side bel[ ! divisions ( ! sporophyll4 ,9 all ! memb]s ( ! family1 except+ ,cycas itself1 ! female fructifications also consi/ ( simil>ly organiz$ cones be>+ a c\ple ( se$s on ea* scale in/ead ( ! num]\s poll5 sacs4 ,9 ,cycas ! male cones are l ^? ( ! o!r g5]a1 & rea* an enorm\s size2 b !re are no female cones1 = ! se$s are borne on special leaflike scales4 ,^! are illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #ge1 :i* %[s also t !re are n two se$s 7z 9 ! o!r g5]a ) cones7 to ea* scale1 b an indef9ite numb]4 ,! leafy nature ( ! se$-be>+ scale is an important & int]e/+ feature4 ,al?\gh !oretically botani/s are accu/om$ to accept ! view t se$s are always borne on specially modifi$ leaves 7s t to a botani/ ev5 ! 8%ell0 ( a pea-pod & ! box ( a poppy capsule are leaves71 yet 9 ,cycas alone among liv+ plants are se$s really f\nd gr[+ on a l>ge /ructure :i* has ! appe>ance ( a leaf4 ,h5ce1 f ?is po9t ( view 7see p4 #de1 h[ev]1 = a caution aga9/ conclud+ t ! :ole plant is simil>ly l[ly organiz$71 ,cycas is ! mo/ primitive ( all ! liv+ plants t be> se$s1 & h5ce presumably ! like/ to ! fossil ance/ors ( ! se$-be>+ types4 ,9 ?is "* x is m primitive ?an ! fossil gr\p ( ! ,cordaite1 & comes v close to an int]m$iate gr\p ( fossils to be consid]$ 9 ! next *apt]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gf4--,se$ ( ,cycas cut op5 n1 ,! nucellus1 fus$ at ! level l to ! coat c2 sc1 /ony lay] ( coat2 p4c1 poll5 *amb] 9 apex ( ! nucellus2 ,s1 8spore01 fill$ ) endosp]m1 9 :i* lies ! embryo e4 ,to ent] into ! detail$ anatomy ( ! se$s w\ld lead u too f> into ! realms ( ! speciali/1 b we mu/ notice "o or two po9ts ab\t !m4 ,fir/ly1 _! v l>ge size1 = ripe se$s ( ,cycas are z l>ge z pea*es 7& pea*es1 x is to be not$1 are fruits1 n se$s71 & p>ticul>ly ! l>ge size !y atta9 be=e !y are f]tiliz$ & h an embryo4 ,among ! high] plants ! "y se$s rema9 v m9ute until an embryo is secur$ by ! act ( f]tilization1 b 9 ! ,cycads ! se$s enl>ge & lay 9 a big /ore ( />* 9 ! endosp]m be=e ! embryo appe>s1 s t 9 ! cases 9 :i* f]tilization is prev5t$ l>ge1 /]ile 8se$s0 are nev]!less produc$4 ,?is mu/ be look$ on z a want ( precision 9 ! me*anism1 & z a wa/eful arrangem5t :i* is und5iably primitive4 ,an ev5 m wa/eful arrangem5t appe>s to h be5 common to ! 8se$s0 ( ! ,palozoic p]iod1 =1 ?\gh _m fossil 8se$s0 are kn[n 9 detail f ! old rocks1 n "o is kn[n to h any trace ( an embryo4 ,a g5]al plan ( ! ,cycas se$ is %[n 9 fig4 #gf1 :i* %\ld be comp>$ ) t ( ,g9kgo 7fig4 #fh74 ,! l>ge size ( ! endosp]m & ! ?ick & complex se$-coats are *>act]i/ic features ( bo? ^! /ructures4 ,ano!r po9t t makes ! ,cycad se$s ( special int]e/ is ! fact t ! male cells 7z 9 ,g9kgo7 are develop$ z active1 free-swimm+ sp]ms1 :i* swim t[>ds ! female cell 9 ! space provid$ = !m 9 ! se$ 7see p4c1 fig4 #gf74 ,! *>act]s ( ! ,cycads z !y are n[ liv+ prove !m to be an extremely primitive gr\p1 & !re=e presumably well repres5t$ among ! fossils2 & inde$ among ! ,mesozoic rocks !re is no lack ( impressions :i* h be5 describ$ z ! leaves ( ,cycads4 ,!re is1 h[ev]1 v little reliable mat]ial1 & practically none :i* %[s good microscopic /ructure4 ,leaf impressions alone are mo/ unsafe--m unsafe 9 ?is gr\p1 p]haps1 ?an 9 any o!r--= reasons t w be app>5t lat] on1 & ! conclusions t us$ to be drawn ab\t ! va/ numb] ( ,cycads :i* inhabit$ ! globe 9 ! e>ly ,mesozoic mu/ be look$ on ) caution1 result+ f ! exp]i5ce ( rec5t discov]ies prov+ _m ( ^! leaves to belong to a diff]5t family4 ,!re rema91 h[ev]1 _m au!ntic specim5s :i* %[ t ,cycas c]ta9ly goes back v f> 9 hi/ory1 & specim5s ( ?is g5us are kn[n f ! old] ,mesozoic rocks4 ,we _c say1 h[ev]1 z securely z us$ to be said1 t ! ,mesozoic 0 ! 8,age ( ,cycads01 al?\gh x 0 d\btless ! age ( plants :i* _h mu* ( ! ext]nal appe>ance ( ,cycads4 ,f ! ,palozoic we h no reliable evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( ,cycads1 ?\gh ! plants ( t "t includ$ a gr\p :i* has an und\bt$ connection ) !m4 ,inde$1 s f> z fossil evid5ce goes1 we mu/ suppose t ! ,cycads1 s9ce _! appe>ance1 possibly at ! close ( ! ,palozoic1 h nev] be5 a dom9ant or v ext5sive family1 ?\gh !y grew 9 ! pa/ all ov] ! _w1 & 9 ,europe seem to h rema9$ till ! middle ( ! ,t]ti>y epo*4 ,,*apt] ,,xii ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,v4 ,pt]idosp]ms ,?is gr\p consi/s entirely ( plants :i* are ext9ct1 & :i* 7 9 ! height ( _! developm5t 9 ! ,coal ,measure p]iod4 ,z a gr\p !y are ! mo/ rec5tly discov]$ 9 ! plant _w1 & b a few ye>s ago ! "n 8,pt]idosp]m0 0 unkn[n4 ,!y =m1 h[ev]1 bo? "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( plant families & "o ( ! mo/ num]\s ( ^? :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,to m5tion fir/ ! vital po9t ( int]e/ 9 _! /ructure1 !y %[ leaves :i* 9 all respects appe> l ord9>y foliage leaves1 & yet be> se$s4 ,^! leaves1 :i* we n[ "k bore ! se$s1 _h long be5 consid]$ z typical f]n leaves1 & _h be5 nam$ & describ$ z f]n leaves4 ,!re are two extremely important results f ! discov]y ( ?is fossil gr\p1 viz4 t leaves1 to all appe>ance l ord9>y foliage1 c directly be> se$s1 & t ! leaves1 ?\gh l f]n leaves1 bore se$s l ^? ( a ,cycad4 ,z ! "n ,pt]idosp]m indicates1 ! gr\p is a l9k betwe5 ! f]ns & ! se$-be>+ plants1 & z su* is ( special int]e/ & value to botani/s4 ,! gradual recognition ( ?is gr\p f among ! num]\s plant fragm5ts ( ,palozoic age is "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( ! accumulative discov]ies ( fossil botany4 ,ev] s9ce fossil rema9s attract$ ! att5tion ( enquir+ m9ds _m 8f]ns0 h be5 recogniz$ among ! ri* impressions ( ! ,coal ,measures4 ,mo/ ( !m1 h[ev]1 7 n connect$ ) any /ructural mat]ial1 & 7 giv5 _m diff]5t names ( specific value4 ,s num]\s 7 ^! f]n 8species0 t x 0 suppos$ t 9 ! ,coal ,measure p]iod ! f]ns mu/ h be5 ! dom9ant class1 & x is (t5 spok5 ( ev5 yet z ! 8,age ( ,f]ns04 ,f ! rocks ( ! same age1 pres]v$ ) _! microscopical /ructure p]fect1 7 /ems :i* 7 call$ ,lyg9od5dron4 ,9 ! coal balls associat$ ) ^! /ems 7:i* 7 ! commone/ ( ! /ems s pres]v$7 7 also roots1 petioles1 & leaflets1 b !y 7 isolat$1 l ! mo/ ( ! fragm5ts 9 a coal ball1 & to ea* 0 giv5 its "n1 ) no ?\ght ( ! v>i\s fragm5ts hav+ any connection ) ea* o!r4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 v>i\s fragm5ts f ! coal balls _h be5 recogniz$ z belong+ toge!r2 "o specim5 ( a petiole atta*$ to a /em suffic$ to prove t all ! scatt]$ petioles ( ! same type belong$ also to t k9d ( /em1 & :5 leaves 7 f\nd atta*$ to an isolat$ fragm5t ( ! petiole1 ! *a9 ( pro( 0 complete t ! leaves belong$ to ! /em1 & s on4 ,by a s]ies ( l5g?y & pa9/ak+ inve/igations all ! p>ts ( ! plant n[ call$ ,lyg9od5dron h be5 br\ght toge!r1 & ! impressions ( its leaves h be5 connect$ ) x1 ^! be+ ( ! f]nlike type s long call$ ,sph5opt]is1 illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #gg4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gg4--,sph5opt]is ,leaf ,impression1 ! f]nlike foliage ( ,lyg9od5dron ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh;,a4--,diagram ( ! ,transv]se ,section ( ,/em ( ! ,lyg9od5dron p1 ,pi?2 ,p1 prim>y wood gr\ps2 ,w1 second>y wood2 l4t1 leaf trace2 s1 scl]iz$ b&s 9 ! cortex2 ,s1 longitud9al view ( wood elem5ts to %[ ! r[s ( bord]$ pits4 ,! anatomy ( ! ma9 /em is v sugge/ive ( t ( a ,cycad4 ,! zones ( second>y wood are loosely built1 ! quantity ( s(t tissue betwe5 ! radiat+ b&s ( wood1 & ! size ( ! pi? be+ l>ge1 :ile f ! ma9 axis d\ble /r&s ( wood run out to ! leaf base4 ,! prim>y bundles1 h[ev]1 are n l ^? ( a ,cycad /em1 b h gr\ps ( c5tripetal wood )9 ! protoxylem1 & ?us resemble ! prim>y bundles ( ,poroxylon 7see p4 #ig71 :i* are m primitive 9 ?is respect ?an ^? ( ! ,cycads4 ,! roots ( ,lyg9od5dron1 :5 "y1 7 l ^? ( ! ,m>attiace\s f]ns1 _! five-ray$ mass ( wood be+ *>act]i/ic ( t family1 & diff]5t f ! type ( root f\nd 9 mo/ o!r f]ns 7cf4 fig4 #gh;,b ) fig4 #ce on p4 #fj74 ,unlike f]n roots ( any k9d1 h[ev]1 !y h well-develop$ zones ( second>y wood1 9 :i* !y approa* ! ,gymnosp]mic roots 7see fig4 #gh;,b1 s74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gh;,b4--,transv]se ,section ( ,root ( ,lyg9od5dron w1 ,five-ray$ mass ( prim>y wood2 s1 zone ( second>y wood2 c1 cortical & o!r s(t tissues4 ,a fur!r mixture ( *>act]s is se5 9 ! vascul> bundles ( ! petioles4 ,a d\ble /r&1 l t 9 ! l[] ,gymnosp]ms1 goes (f to ! leaf base f ! ma9 axis1 b 9 ! petiole itself ! bundle is l a normal f]n /ele1 & %[s no *>act]s 9 transv]se section :i* w\ld sep>ate x f ! f]ns4 ,su* a petiole is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #gi1 ) its ,v-%ap$ f]nlike /ele4 ,on ! petioles & /ems 7 c]ta9 r\gh1 sp9y /ructures ( ! nature ( complex hairs4 ,9 "s cases !y are gl&ul>1 z is se5 9 g 9 fig4 #gi1 & z !y seem to be unique 9 _! appe>ance !y h be5 ( great s]vice 9 ! id5tification ( ! v>i\s isolat$ organs ( ! plant4 ,z is se5 f fig4 #gg1 ! leaves 7 q f]n-l1 b 9 /ructural specim5s !y h be5 f\nd ) ! *>act]i/ic gl&ul> hairs ( ! plant4 ,! se$s 7 s long kn[n "u ! "n ( ,lag5o/oma t !y are /ill call$ by x1 ?\gh !y h be5 id5tifi$ z belong+ to ,lyg9od5dron4 ,!y 7 small 7ab\t 94 9 maximum l5g?7 :5 comp>$ ) ^? ( mo/ o!r plants ( ! gr\p1 or ( ! ,cycads1 ) :i* !y %[ consid]able aff9ity4 ,!y are too complex to describe fully1 & h be5 m5tion$ already 7see p4 #gf71 s t !y w n be describ$ 9 mu* detail "h4 ,! diagrammatic figure 7fig4 #ef7 %[s ! ess5tial *>act]s ( _! longitud9al section1 & _! transv]se section1 z illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #hj1 %[s ! complex & elaborate me*anism ( ! apex4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #gi4--,transv]se ,section ?r\gh ,petiole ( ,lyg9od5dron v1 ,f]n-l /ele2 c1 cortex2 g1 gl&ul> hairlike protub]ances4 ,r\nd ! 8se$0 0 a %ea?1 some?+ l ! husk r\nd a hazel nut1 :i* appe>s to h _h ! function ( a protective organ1 ?\gh :at its real morphological nature may h be5 is z yet an unsolv$ problem4 ,on ! %ea? 7 gl&ul> hairs l ^? f\nd on ! petiole & leaves1 :i* 71 inde$1 ! fir/ clues t l$ to ! discov]y ( ! connection betwe5 ! se$ & ! plant ,lyg9od5dron4 ,! poll5 gra9s seem to h be5 produc$ 9 sacs v l f]n sporangia develop$ on normal foliage leaves1 ea* gra9 ent]$ ! cavity pc 9 ! se$ 7see fig4 #ef71 b ( ! nature ( ! male cell we are ignorant4 ,9 none ( ! fossils has any embryo be5 f\nd 9 ! 8se$s01 s t presumably !y rip5$1 or at lea/ matur$ _! tissues1 be=e f]tilization4 ,^!1 9 a few words1 are ! ess5tials ( ! /ructures ( ,lyg9od5dron4 ,b ?is plant is only "o ( a gr\p1 & at lea/ two o!r ( ! ,pt]idosp]ms des]ve notice1 viz4 ,m$ullosa1 :i* is m complex1 & ,het]angium1 :i* is simpl] ?an ! c5tral type4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hj4--;,diagram ( ,transv]se ,section ( ,lag5o/oma ,se$ ne> ! ,apex1 %[+ ! n9e flut+s f ( ! coat c2 v1 ! vascul> /r& 9 ea*2 nc1 cone ( nucell> tissue /&+ up 9 ! flut$ apex ( ! nucellus n2 pc1 ! poll5 *amb] ) a few poll5 gra9s2 s1 space betwe5 nucellus & coat4 ,comp>e ) diagram #ef4 ,het]angium is f\nd also 9 rocks r old] ?an ! coal s]ies ( ,engl&1 ?\gh ( ,c>bonif]\s age1 viz4 9 ! ,calcif]\s s&/one s]ies ( ,scotl&1 x occurs also 9 ! ord9>y ,coal ,measure nodules4 ,x is 9 sev]al respects m primitive ?an ,lyg9od5dron1 & 9 p>ticul> 9 ! /ructure ( its /ele comes ne>] to t ( f]ns4 ,! /ele is1 9 fact1 a solid mass ( prim>y wood & wood p>5*yma1 correspond+ 9 "s degree to ! proto/ele ( a simple type 7see p4 #fa1 fig4 #cf71 b x has t[>ds ! outside gr\ps ( protoxylem surr\nd$ by wood 9 bo? c5tripetal & c5trifugal directions1 :i* are j l ! prim>y bundles 9 ,lyg9od5dron4 ,outside ! prim>y mass ( wood is a zone ( second>y wood1 b ! quantity is n l>ge 9 proportion to x 7see fig4 #ha71 z is common 9 ,lyg9od5dron4 ,?\gh ! prim>y mass is s f]nlike 9 appe>ance ! l>g] tra*eids %[ s]ies ( bord]$ pits1 z d mo/ ( ! tra*eids ( ! ,pt]idosp]ms1 9 :i* !y %[ a ,gymnosp]m-l "*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ha4--;,het]angium ,a1 ,half ( ! /ele ( a /em1 %[+ ! c5tral mass ( wood ,s mix$ ) p>5*yma p4 ,! protoxylem gr\ps p4 x4 lie t[>ds ! outside ( ! /ele4 ,surr\nd+ x is ! n>r[ zone ( small-cell$ second>y wood ,w4 ,b1 ,a few ( ! wood cells 9 longitud9al view3 p4 x41 ,protoxylem2 p1 p>5*yma4 ,s1 ,l>ge vessels ) r[s ( bord]$ pits4 ,! foliage ( ,het]angium 0 f]nlike1 ) mu*-divid$ leaves simil> to ^? ( ,lyg9od5dron4 ,we h reason to suspect1 ?\gh actual pro( is want+ z yet1 t small ,gymnosp]m-l se$s 7 borne directly on ^! leaves4 ,m$ullosa has be5 m5tion$ already 7see p4 #gb7 because ( ! int]e/+ & unusually complex type ( its vascul> anatomy4 ,ea* individual /ele ( ! gr\p ( ?ree 9 ! /em1 h[ev]1 is ess5tially simil> to ! /ele ( a ,het]angium4 ,?\gh ! :ole arrangem5t appe>s to diff] s widely f o!r /ems 9 ! plant _w1 c>eful comp>ison ) "y /ages ( rec5t ,cycads has indicat$ a possible remote connection ) t gr\p1 :ile 9 ! prim>y arrangem5ts ( ! proto/eles a lik5ess may be trac$ to ! f]ns4 ,! roots1 ev5 9 _! prim>y tissues1 7 l ^? ( ,gymnosp]ms1 b ! foliage ) its comp\nd leaves 0 q f]n-l ext]nally4 ,a small "p ( a leaf is %[n 9 fig4 #hc1 & is cle>ly l a f]n 9 sup]ficial appe>ance4 ,! leaves 7 l>ge1 & ! leaf bases /rong & well suppli$ ) v num]\s bran*+ vascul> bundles4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hb4--,/eles ( ,m$ullosa 9 ,cross ,section ( ! ,/em ,a1 ,prim>y solid wood2 ,s1 surr\nd+ second>y wood4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hc4--,"p ( a ,leaf ( ,m$ullosa1 kn[n z ,ale?opt]is1 = long suppos$ to be a ,f]n ,! connection betwe5 ?is plant & c]ta9 l>ge ?ree-ribb$ se$s kn[n z ,trigonoc>pus is /rongly suspect$1 ?\gh actual cont9uity is n yet e/abli%$ 9 any ( ! specim5s hi!rto discov]$4 ,^! se$s h be5 m5tion$ be=e 7p4 #gf & p4 #hb74 ,!y 7 l>g] ?an ! o!r fossil se$s :i* we h m5tion$1 &1 ) _! fle%y coat1 7 simil> 9 g5]al organization to ! ,cycads1 ?\gh ! fact t ! se$ coat /ood free f ! inn] tissues "r d[n to ! base seems to m>k !m z be+ m primitive 7cf4 fig4 #ee1 p4 #gf74 ,( impressions ( ! ,pt]idosp]ms ! mo/ /rik+ is1 p]haps1 ! foliage kn[n z ,neuropt]is 7see fig4 #f1 p4 #ac71 to :i* ! l>ge se$s are f\nd actually atta*$ 7cf4 fig4 #he74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hd4--;,diagrammatic ,section ( a ,transv]se ,section ( a ,se$ ( ,trigonoc>pus ,s1 ,/one ( coat ) ?ree ma9 ridges & six m9or ones4 ,f1 ,fle% ( coat3 i f1 inn] fle%2 n1 nucellus1 cru%$ & free f coat2 s1 spore wall4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #he4--;,fragm5t ( ,foliage ( ,neuropt]is ) ,se$ atta*$1 %[+ ! mann] 9 :i* ! se$s grew on ! normal foliage leaves 9 ! ,pt]idosp]ms ,ev]-increas+ numb]s ( ! 8f]ns0 are be+ recogniz$ z belong+ to ! ,pt]idosp]ms1 b ,het]angium1 ,lyg9od5dron1 & ,m$ullosa =m ! ?ree pr9cipal g5]a1 & are 9 !mselves a s]ies indicat+ ! connection betwe5 ! f]nlike & ,cycadean *>act]s4 ,be=e ! fructifications 7 suspect$ ( be+ se$s ! anatomy ( ^! plants 0 kn[n1 & _! nature 0 p>tly recogniz$ f x alone1 ?\gh at t "t !y 7 suppos$ to h only f]nlike spores4 ,! v num]\s impressions ( _! f]nlike foliage f ! ,palozoic rocks indicate t ! plants :i* bore su* leaves mu/ h exi/$ at t "t 9 great quantity4 ,!y mu/ h be51 9 fact1 "o ( ! dom9ant types ( ! vegetation ( ! p]iod4 ,! rec5t discov]y t s l>ge a proportion ( !m 7 n f]ns1 b 7 se$-be>+ plants1 alt]s ! long-e/abli%$ belief t ! f]ns rea*$ _! high-wat] m>k ( prosp]ity 9 ! ,coal ,measure p]iod4 ,inde$1 ! fossils ( ?is age :i* rema9 und\bt$ly true f]ns are f> f num]\s4 ,x is ! se$-be>+ ,pt]idosp]ms :i* _h _! day 9 ,palozoic times4 ,:e!r !y l$ directly on to ! ,cycads is z yet unc]ta91 ! probability be+ r t !y & ! ,cycads sprang f a common /ock :i* _h 9 "s measure ! t5d5cies ( bo? gr\ps4 ,t ! ,pt]idosp]ms 9 !mselves comb9$ _m ( ! mo/ important features ( bo? ,f]ns & ,gymnosp]ms is illu/rat$ 9 ! acc\nt ( !m giv5 above1 :i* may be summ>iz$ z foll[s3-- ,sali5t ,*>act]s ( ! ,pt]idosp]ms ,g,gymnosp]mic ,f,f]nlike ,f ,prim>y /ructure ( root4 ,g ,second>y ?ick5+ ( root4 ,f ,9 ,het]angium & ,m$ullosa ! ,f solid c5tripetal prim>y wood ( /ele4 ,g ,pits on tra*e ( prim>y wood4 ,g ,second>y ?ick5+ ( /em4 ,g ,d\ble leaf trace4 ,f ,f]nlike /ele 9 petiole4 ,f ,f]nlike leaves4 ,f ,sporangia poll5-sac-l4 ,f ,reproductive organs borne directly on ord9>y foliage leaves4 ,g ,g5]al organization ( ! se$4 ,?us x c be se5 at a glance1 )\t ent]+ into m9uti1 t ! *>act]s are divid$ betwe5 ! two gr\ps ) approximate equality4 ,! connection ) ,f]ns is cle>1 & ! connection ) ,gymnosp]ms is cle>4 ,! po9t :i* is n yet det]m9$1 & ab\t :i* discussion w probably long rage1 is ! position ( ?is gr\p 9 ! :ole s*eme ( ! plant _w4 ,d !y /& z a connect+ l9k betwe5 ! f]ns on "o h& & ! :ole tra9 ( high] plants on ! o!r1 or d !y lead s f> z ! ,cycads & !re /op8 ,,*apt] ,,xiii ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,,vi4 ,! ,f]ns ,un=tunately ! records 9 ! rocks d n g back s f> z to t\* :at mu/ h be5 ! mo/ int]e/+ p]iod 9 ! hi/ory ( ! f]ns1 namely1 ! po9t :]e !y div]g$ f "s simple ance/ral type1 or at lea/ 7 suffici5tly primitive to give indications ( _! orig9 f "s l[] gr\p4 ,be=e ! ,devonian p]iod all plant impressions are ( little value1 & by t e>ly pre-,c>bonif]\s "t !re are pres]v$ complex leaves1 :i* are to all appe>ance highly organiz$ f]ns4 ,to-day ! dom9ant family 9 ?is gr\p is ! ,polypodiace4 ,x includes ne>ly all our ,briti% f]ns1 & ! majority ( species = ! :ole _w4 ,?is family does n appe> to be v old1 h[ev]1 & x _c be recogniz$ ) c]ta9ty beyond ,mesozoic times4 ,f ! lat] ,mesozoic we h only mat]ial 9 ! =m ( impressions1 f :i* x is impossible to draw accurate conclusions unless ! specim5s h sporangia atta*$ to !m1 & ?is is n (t5 ! case4 ,! cuticle ( ! epid]mis or ! spores c sometimes be /udi$ "u ! microscope aft] special treatm5t1 b on ! :ole we h v little in=mation ab\t ! lat] ,mesozoic f]ns4 ,a c\ple ( specim5s f ! old] ,mesozoic h be5 rec5tly describ$1 ) well-pres]v$ /ructure1 & !y belong to ! family ( ! ,osmundas 7! s-call$ 8fl[]+ f]ns01 because ( ! appe>ance ( special leaves on :i* all ! sporangia are cr[d$71 & %[ 9 ! anatomical *>act]s ( _! /ems indications t !y may be relat$ to an old gr\p1 ! ,botryopt]ide1 9 :i* are ! mo/ important ( ! ,palozoic f]ns4 ,9 ! ,palozoic rocks !re are num]\s impressions z well z f]n petrifactions1 b 9 ! majority ( cases ! connection betwe5 ! two is n yet e/abli%$4 ,!re 7 two ma9 s]ies ( f]ns1 :i* may be class$ z belong+ to ,i4 ,m>attiace4 ,,ii4 ,botryopt]ide4 ,( ^! ! =m] has /ill liv+ repres5tatives1 ?\gh ! gr\p is small & unimportant comp>$ ) :at x once 02 ! latt] is entirely ext9ct1 & is *iefly develop$ 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s & succe$+ ,p]mian p]iods4 ,! latt] gr\p is also ! m int]e/+1 = its memb]s %[ great v>iety1 & s]ies may be made ( !m :i* seem to indicate ! c\rse tak5 9 ! advance t[>ds ! ,pt]idosp]m type4 ,= ?is reason ! gr\p w be consid]$ fir/1 :ile ! /ructure ( ! ,pt]idosp]ms is /ill fre% 9 our m9ds4 ,! ,botryopt]ide =m$ an ext5sive & elaborate family1 ) its num]\s memb]s ( diff]5t degrees ( complexity4 ,!re is1 un=tunately1 b little kn[n z to _! ext]nal appe>ance1 & almo/ no def9ite in=mation ab\t _! foliage4 ,!y are pr9cipally kn[n by ! anatomy ( _! /ems & petioles4 ,"s ( !m _h upright trunks l small tree f]ns 7liv+ tree f]ns belong to q a diff]5t family1 h[ev]71 o!rs appe> to h _h und]gr\nd /ems1 & _m 7 sl5d] climb]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hf4--,/ele ( ,a/]o*la5a1 %[+ its deeply lob$ nature ,9 _! anatomy all ! memb]s ( ! family h mono/elic /ructure 7see p4 #fb74 ,?is is notewor?y1 = at ! pres5t "t ?\gh a numb] ( g5]a are mono/elic1 no family ^: memb]s rea* any consid]able size or /eady gr[? is exclusively mono/elic4 ,9 ! %ape ( ! s+le /ele1 !re is mu* v>iety 9 ! diff]5t g5]a1 "s hav+ x s deeply lob$ t only a c>eful exam9ation enables "o to recognize its ess5tially mono/elic nature4 ,9 fig4 #hf a radiat+ />-%ap$ type is illu/rat$4 ,betwe5 ?is elaborate type ( proto/ele 9 ,a/]o*la5a1 & ! simple solid circul> mass se5 9 ,botryopt]is itself 7fig4 #hh7 are all possible gradations ( /ructure4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hg4--,! ,/ele ( a ,botryopt]idean ,/em1 %[+ s(t tissue 9 ! c5tre ( ! solid wood ( ! proto/ele4 7,microphoto47 ,9 sev]al ( ! g5]a ! c5tre ( ! wood is n entirely solid1 b has cells ( s(t tissue1 an incipi5t pi?1 mix$ ) scatt]$ tra*eids1 z 9 fig4 #hg4 ,9 mo/ ( ! g5]a num]\s petioles are giv5 (f f ! ma9 axis1 & ^! are (t5 ( a l>ge size comp>$ ) x1 & may sometimes be ?ick] ?an ! axis itself4 ,toge!r ) ! petiole usually come (f adv5titi\s roots1 z is se5 9 fig4 #hh1 :i* %[s ! ma9 axis ( a ,botryopt]is4 ,! petioles ( ! gr\p %[ mu* v>iety 9 _! /ructure1 & "s are extremely complex4 ,a few ( ! %apes assum$ by ! /eles ( ! petioles are se5 9 fig4 #hi2 !y are n divid$ into sep>ate bundles 9 any ( ! kn[n =ms1 z are _m ( ! petiole /eles ( o!r families4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hh4--,ma9 ,axis ( ,botryopt]is ) simple solid ,proto/ele x4 ,a petiole ab\t to deta* itself p & ! /r& go+ out to an adv5titi\s root r are also se54 7,micro-photograph47 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #hi4--;,diagrams %[+ ! ,%apes ( ! ,/eles 9 "s ( ! ,petioles ( diff]5t ,g5]a ( ,botryopt]ide ,a1 ,zygopt]is2 ,b1 ,botryopt]is2 ,c1 ,tubicaulis2 ,d1 ,a/]o*la5a4 ,9 "o g5us ( ! family second>y wood has be5 obs]v$4 ,?is is highly sugge/ive ( ! condition ( ! /ele 9 ,het]angium1 :]e ! l>ge mass ( ! prim>y wood is surr\nd$ by a relatively small quantity ( second>y ?ick5+1 develop$ 9 normal radial r[s f a cambium4 ,ano!r notewor?y po9t 9 ! wood ( ^! plants is ! ?ick5+ ( ! walls ( ! wood cells4 ,_m ( !m h sev]al r[s ( bord]$ pits1 & are1 individually1 practically indi/+ui%able f ^? ( ! ,pt]idosp]ms1 cf4 fig4 #ha & fig4 #ij4 ,^! are unlike ! *>act]i/ic wood cells ( mod]n f]ns & ( ! o!r family ( ,palozoic f]ns4 ,! foliage ( mo/ memb]s ( ! family is unkn[n1 or at lea/1 ( ! _m impressions :i* possibly belong to ! diff]5t g5]a1 ! mo/ "p h n yet be5 connect$ ) _! correspond+ /ructural mat]ial4 ,!re are indications1 h[ev]1 t ! leaves 7 l>ge & complexly divid$4 ,! fructifications 7 presumably f]n sporangia ( normal b r massive type4 ,( mo/ g5]a !y are n kn[n1 ?\gh 9 a few !y h be5 f\nd 9 connection ) recognizable p>ts ( _! tissue4 ,! be/ kn[n ( ! sporangia are l>ge1 9 comp>ison ) liv+ sporangia 7actually ab\t #b4e millimetres long71 oval sacs clu/]$ toge!r on little p$icels4 ,! spores )9 !m seem 9 no way ess5tially diff]5t f normal f]n spores4 ,! coexi/5ce ( ! ,botryopt]ide & ,pt]idosp]ms1 & ! sev]al po9ts 9 ! /ructure ( ! =m] :i* seem to lead up to ! *>act]s ( ! latt] gr\p1 are significant4 ,! ,botryopt]ide1 ev5 7 !y an entirely isolat$ gr\p1 w\ld be int]e/+ f ! v>iety ( /ructures & ! v>iations ( ! mono/ele 9 _! anatomy2 & ! prom95t place !y held 9 ! ,palozoic flora1 z ! greate/ family ( f]ns ( t p]iod1 gives !m an important position 9 fossil botany4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ij4--,tra*e ( ,wood ( ,botryopt]idean ,f]n 9 ,longitud9al ,section1 %[+ ! r[s ( pits on ! walls4 7,microphoto47 ,! o!r family ( importance 9 ,palozoic times1 ! ,m>attiace1 has desc5dants liv+ at ! pres5t day1 ?\gh ! family is n[ repres5t$ by a small numb] ( species belong+ to b five g5]a :i* are conf9$ to ! tropics4 ,p]haps ! be/ kn[n ( ^! is ! giant 8,elephant ,f]n01 :i* s5ds up f its und]gr\nd /ock huge complex fronds t5 or a doz5 feet high4 ,o!r species are ( ! m usual size & appe>ance ( f]ns1 :ile "s h /urdy trunks above-gr\nd support+ a cr[n ( leaves4 ,! memb]s ( ?is family h a v complex anatomy1 ) sev]al s]ies ( /eles ( l>ge size & irregul> %ape4 ,_! fructifications are *>act]i/ic1 ! sporangia be+ plac$ 9 gr\ps ( ab\t five to a doz51 & fus$ toge!r in/ead ( rip5+ z sep>ate sacs z 9 ! o!r f]n families4 ,impressions ( leaves ) ?is type ( sorus 7gr\p ( f]n sporangia7 are f\nd 9 ! ,mesozoic rocks1 & ^! bridge ov] ! int]val betwe5 ! liv+ memb]s ( ! family & ^? :i* liv$ 9 ,palozoic times4 ,9 ! ,coal ,measure & ,p]mian p]iods ^! plants fl\ri%$ greatly1 & !re are rema9s ( v num]\s species f t "t4 ,! family 0 mu* m ext5sive !n ?an x is n[1 & ! individual memb]s also seem to h rea*$ mu* great] dim5sions1 = _m ( !m _h ! habit ( l>ge tree f]ns ) massive trunks4 ,up till ,triassic times half ( ! f]ns appe> to h belong$ to ?is family2 s9ce !n1 h[ev]1 !y seem to h dw9dl$ gradually d[n to ! few g5]a n[ exi/+4 ,on ! ,cont95t fossils ( ?is type ) well-pres]v$ /ructure h long be5 kn[n to ! g5]al public1 z _! anatomy gave ! /ones a v beautiful appe>ance :5 poli%$1 s t !y 7 us$ = decorative purposes by lapid>ies be=e _! sci5tific int]e/ 0 recogniz$4 ,! memb]s ( ! ,palozoic ,m>attiace :i* h /ructure pres]v$ g5]ally g by ! g5]ic "n ,ps>onius1 9 :i* !re is a great numb] ( species4 ,!y %[ consid]able uni=mity 9 _! ess5tial /ructure 79 :i* !y diff] noticeably f ! gr\p ( f]ns j describ$71 s t b "o type w be consid]$4 ,9 ext]nal appe>ance !y probably resembl$ ! 8tree f]ns0 ( ! pres5t day 7?\gh ^! belong to an entirely diff]5t family71 ) massive /umps1 "s ( :i* rea*$ a height ( #fj ft4 ,! l>ge spread+ leaves 7 arrang$ 9 v>i\s ways on ! /em1 "s 9 a d\ble r[ along x1 z is se5 by ! impressions ( ! leaf sc>s1 & o!rs 9 complex spirals4 ,on ! leaves 7 ! spore sacs1 :i* 7 9 gr\ps1 "s completely fus$ l ^? ( ! mod]n memb]s ( ! family1 & o!rs ) indep5d5t sporangia mass$ 9 well-def9$ gr\ps4 ,9 _! microscopic /ructure also !y appe> to h be5 closely simil> to ^? ( ! liv+ ,m>attiace4 ,! transv]se section ( a /em %[s ! mo/ *>act]i/ic & be/-kn[n view ( ! plant4 ,?is is %[n 9 fig4 #ia1 9 some:at diagrammatic =m4 ,! mass ( rootlets :i* entirely p]meate & surr\nd ! out] tissues ( ! /em is a v /rik+ & *>act]i/ic feature ( all ! species ( ,ps>onius4 ,?\gh su* a mass ( roots is n f\nd 9 ! liv+ species1 yet ! microscopic /ructure ( an individual fossil root is almo/ id5tical ) t ( a liv+ ,m>attia4 ,?\gh ^! plants 7 s successful & s important 9 ,palozoic times1 ! gr\p ev5 !n seems to h possess$ little v>iety & little pot5tiality = advance 9 new directions4 ,!y /& ap>t f ! o!r fossils1 & ! few =ms :i* n[ compose ! liv+ ,m>attiace are isolat$ f ! pres5t successful types ( mod]n f]ns4 ,f ! ,ps>onie we c trace no developm5t t[>ds a mod]n s]ies ( plants1 no connection ) ano!r important gr\p 9 ! pa/4 ,!y appe> to h culm9at$ 9 ! lat] ,palozoic & to h sl[ly dw9dl$ ev] s9ce4 ,x has be5 sugge/$ t ! male fructifications ( ! ,b5nettite & ! ,pt]idosp]ms %[ "s lik5ess to ! ,m>attiace1 b !re does n seem mu* to support any view ( phylog5etic connection betwe5 !m4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ia4--,transv]se ,section ( ,/em ( ,ps>onius v1 ,num]\s irregul>ly-%ap$ /eles2 s1 irregul> pat*es ( scl]5*yma2 l1 leaf trace go+ out z a horse%oe-%ap$ /ele2 c1 zone ( cortex ) num]\s adv5titi\s roots r runn+ ?r\gh x2 sc1 scl]iz$ cortical zone ( roots2 w1 vascul> /r& ( roots4 ,be=e leav+ ! palozoic f]ns1 m5tion %\ld be made ( ! v num]\s leaf impressions :i* seem to %[ true f]n *>act]s1 ?\gh !y h n be5 connect$ ) mat]ial %[+ _! int]nal /ructure4 ,among !m x is r>e to get impressions ) ! sori or sporangia1 b su* are kn[n & are 9 !mselves en\gh to prove ! cont5tion t true f]ns exi/$ 9 ! ,palozoic epo*4 ,= x might be m5tion$ z a sci5tific curiosity1 t aft] ! discov]y t s _m ( ! leaf impressions :i* _h always be5 suppos$ to be f]ns1 really belong$ to ! se$-be>+ ,pt]idosp]ms1 !re 0 a p]iod ( panic among "s botani/s1 :o br\ght =w>d ! />tl+ idea t !re 7 no f]ns at all 9 ! ,palozoic p]iods1 & t mod]n f]ns 7 deg5]at$ se$-be>+ plants6 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ib4--;,impression ( ,palozoic ,f]n1 %[+ sori on ! p9nules4 7,photo47 ,^! two big gr\ps f ! ,palozoic include practically all ! f]ns t !n fl\ri%$4 ,!y h be5 spok5 ( 7toge!r ) a few o!r types ( :i* little is kn[n7 z ! ,prim(ilices1 a "n :i* emphasizes _! primitive *>act]s4 ,z c be se5 by ! complex organization ( ! g5]a1 h[ev]1 !y !mselves _h advanc$ f> beyond _! really primitive ance/ors4 ,!re is cle> indication t ! ,botryopt]ide 7 9 a p]iod ( *ange1 :at might almo/ be t]m$ a condition ( flux1 & t f _! c5tral types v>i\s families sep>at$ & specializ$4 ,beh9d ! ,botryopt]ide1 h[ev]1 we h no specim5s to %[ u ! connection betwe5 !m & ! simpl] gr\ps f :i* !y mu/ h sprung4 ,f a detail$ comp>ative /udy ( plant anatomy we c d$uce "s ( ! ess5tial *>act]s ( su* ance/ral plants1 b "h ! realm ( fossil botany ceases1 to give place to !oretical speculation4 ,z a fact1 !re is a deep abyss betwe5 ! f]ns & ! o!r families ( ! ,pt]idophytes1 :i* is n yet bridg$ firmly en\gh = any b speciali/s1 us$ to ! haz>d\s foot+ on su* /ructures1 to attempt to cross x4 ,until ! buttresses & pill>s ( ! bridge are built ( ! /rong /one ( fossil /ructures we mu/ bew>e ( sett+ out on :at w\ld prove a p]il\s j\rney4 ,9 ! ,coal ,measures & previ\s p]iods we see ! f]ns already repres5t$ by two l>ge families1 diff]+ greatly f ea* o!r1 & f ! ma9 families ( mod]n f]ns :i* sprung at a lat] date f "s /ock :i* we h n yet recogniz$4 ,b ?\gh _! pa/ is s obscure1 ! palozoic f]ns & _! allies ?r[ a brilliant light on ! c\rse ( evolution ( ! high] gr\ps ( plants1 & ! gulf betwe5 f]ns & se$-be>+ types may be said to be securely bridg$ by ! ,botryopt]ide & ! ,pt]idosp]ms4 ,,*apt] ,,xiv ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,,vii4 ,! ,lycopods ,! pres5t-day memb]s ( ?is family are n at all impressive1 & 9 _! l[l9ess may well be ov]look$ by "o :o is n int]e/$ 9 unpret5d+ plants4 ,! fre% gre5 mosslike ,selag9ella gr[n by flori/s z ornam5tal bord]s 9 gre5h\ses & ! creep+ 8club moss0 tw9+ among ! hea!r on a ,highl& moor are probably ! be/ kn[n ( ! liv+ repres5tatives ( ! ,lycopods4 ,9 ! pa/ ! gr\p held a v diff]5t position1 & 9 ! di/ant era ( ! ,coal ,measures x held a dom9ant "o4 ,_m ( ! giants ( ! =e/ belong$ to ! family 7see frontispiece71 & ! numb] ( species x conta9$ 0 v great4 ,let u turn at once to ?is halcyon p]iod ( ! gr\p4 ,! hi/ory ( ! times int]v5+ betwe5 x & ! pres5t is b ! tale ( ! dy+ out ( ! l>ge species1 & ! gradual %r9k+ ( ! family & dw>f+ ( its repres5tative g5]a4 ,x is difficult to give ! *>act]s ( a sci5tific family 9 a few simple words2 b p]haps we may describe ! liv+ ,lycopods z plants ) creep+ /ems :i* divide & subdivide into two ) great regul>ity1 & :i* be> l>ge numb]s ( v small po9t$ leaves closely arrang$ r\nd ! /em4 ,! fruit+ organs come at ! tips ( ! bran*es1 & sometimes !mselves divide into two1 & 9 ^! cone-l axes ! spore cases are arrang$1 a s+le "o on ! upp] side ( ea* ( ! scales 7see p4 #fg1 fig4 #df1 ,a74 ,9 ! ,lycopods ! spores are all alike1 9 ! ,selag9ellas !re are l>g] spores borne 9 a small numb] 7f\r7 9 "s sporangia 7see fig4 #ec1 p4 #ge71 & o!rs 9 l>ge numb]s & ( small] size on ! scales above !m4 ,! /ems are all v sl5d]1 & h no zones ( second>y wood4 ,!y g5]ally creep or climb1 & f !m are put out long /ructures some?+ l roots 9 appe>ance1 :i* are specially modifi$ /em-l organs giv+ rise to roots4 ,f ! fossils ( ! ,coal ,measures ,lepidod5dron mu/ be *os5 z ! example = comp>ison4 ,! diff]5t species ( ?is g5us are v num]\s1 & ! v>i\s fossiliz$ rema9s ( x are among ! commone/ & be/ kn[n ( palontological specim5s4 ,! huge /ems are objects ( public int]e/1 & h be5 pres]v$ 9 ! ,victoria ,p>k 9 ,glasg[ 9 _! orig9al position 9 ! rocks1 app>5tly z !y grew ) _! spread+ rootlike organs runn+ horizontally4 ,a great /ump is also pres]v$ 9 ! ,man*e/] ,museum1 & is figur$ 9 ! frontispiece4 ,:ile among ! ca/s & impressions ! leaf bases ( ! plant are among ! be/ pres]v$ & ! mo/ beautiful 7see fig4 #ic74 ,! cone has already be5 illu/rat$ 7see fig4 #df & fig4 #i71 & is "o ( ! be/ kn[n ( fossil fructifications4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ic4--,photo ( ,leaf ,bases ( ,lepidod5dron ,c1 ,sc> ( leaf2 ,s1 leaf base4 ,9 ! sc>3 v1 m>k ( sev]$ vascul> bundle1 & p1 ( p>i*nos4 l1 ,ligule sc>4 ,f ! abundant1 ?\gh scatt]$ mat]ial1 fossil botani/s h recon/ruct$ ! plants 9 all _! detail4 ,! trunks 7 l(ty & ( great ?ickness1 be>+ t[>ds ! apex a mu*-bran*$ cr[n1 ! bran*es1 ev5 d[n to ! f9e/ twigs1 all divid+ into two equal p>ts4 ,! leaves1 z w\ld be expect$ f ! great size ( ! plants1 7 mu* bigg] ?an ^? ( ! rec5t species 7fig4 #ic %[s ! actual size ( ! leaf bases71 b !y 7 ( ! same relatively small size z comp>$ ) ! /ems1 & ( ! same simple po9t$ %ape4 ,a transv]se section across ! apex ( a f]tile bran* %[s ^! closely pack$ leaves arrang$ 9 s]ies r\nd ! axis1 ^? t[>ds ! outside %[ ! c5tral vascul> /r& :i* runs ?r\gh ea*4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #id4--,section across an ,axis surr\nd$ by _m ,leaves1 :i* %[s _! simple %ape & s+le c5tral vascul> bundle v ,! m>k+s left on ! well-pres]v$ leaf-sc>s indicate ! ma9 features ( ! int]nal anatomy ( ! leaves4 ,!y _h a s+le c5tral vascul> /r& 7v1 fig4 #ic71 on ei!r side ( :i* ran a /r& ( s(t tissue p call$ ! p>i*nos1 :i* is *>act]i/ic ( ! plants ( ?is gr\p4 ,:ile ano!r simil>ly obscure /ructure associat$ ) ! leaf is ! little scale-l ligule l on its upp] surface4 ,! anatomy ( ! /ems is int]e/+1 = 9 ! diff]5t species diff]5t /ages ( advance are to be f\nd1 f ! simple solid proto/ele ) a uni=m mass ( wood to holl[ r+ /eles ) a pi?4 ,an int]e/+ int]m$iate /age betwe5 ^! two is f\nd 9 ,lepidod5dron selag9oides 7see fig4 #ie71 :]e ! c5tral cells ( ! wood are n true wat]-conduct+ cells1 b %ort irregul> wat]-/orage tra*eides 7see p4 #ef71 :i* are mix$ ) p>5*yma4 ,all ! g5]a ( ^! fossils h a s+le c5tral /ele1 r\nd :i* x is usual to f9d a zone ( second>y wood ( great] or less ext5t accord+ to ! age ( ! plant4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ie4--,transv]se ,section ( ,lepidod5dron selag9oides1 %[+ ! circul> mass ( prim>y wood1 ! c5tral cells ( :i* are irregul> wat]-/orage tra*eides s1 ,zone ( second>y wood2 c1 inn] cortical tissues2 r1 intrusive burr[+ rootlet2 oc1 out] cortical tissues ) corky ext]nal lay]s k4 7,microphoto47 ,"s /ems in/ead ( ?is compact c5tral /ele h a r+ ( wood ) an ext5sive pi?4 ,su* a type is illu/rat$ 9 fig4 #if1 :i* %[s b a "p ( ! circle ( wood1 & ! zone ( ! second>y wood outside x1 :i* greatly exce$s ! prim>y mass 9 ?ickness4 ,?is zone ( second>y wood became v ext5sive 9 old /ems1 =1 z w be imag9$1 ! prim>y wood 0 n suffici5t to supply ! l>ge trunks4 ,! me?od ( its developm5t f a normal cambium 9 radiat+ r[s ( uni=m tra*eides is q simil> to t :i* is f\nd 9 ! p9es to-day4 ,?is is ! mo/ important diff]5ce betwe5 ! liv+ & ! fossil /ems ( ! family1 = no liv+ plants ( ! family h su* second>y wood4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! individual elem5ts ( ?is wood are diff]5t f ^? ( ! high] families hi!rto consid]$1 & h n>r[ slit-l pits sep>at$ by b&s ( ?ick5+ on ! longitud9al walls4 ,su* tra*eides are f\nd commonly 9 ! ,pt]idophytes1 bo? liv+ & fossil4 ,_! type is se5 9 fig4 #if1 ,b1 :i* %\ld be comp>$ ) t 9 figs4 #gh1 ,a & #fb1 ,b to see ! contra/ ) ! high] gr\ps4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #if4--;,a1 ,lepidod5dron ,/em ) ,holl[ ,r+ ( ,wood ,w & ,zone ( ,second>y ,wood ,s4 ,b1 ,longitud9al ,view ( ! ,n>r[ ,pits ( ! ,wood ,elem5ts4 ,to supply ! vascul> tissues ( ! leaf traces1 simple /r&s come (f f ! out] "p ( ! prim>y wood1 :]e gr\ps ( small-cell$ protoxylem project 7see px 9 fig4 #ig74 ,! leaf /r&s lt move out ?r\gh ! cortex 9 consid]able numb]s to supply ! _m leaves1 into ea* ( :i* a s+le "o ent]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ig4--,transv]se ,section ( ,out] ,"p ( ,prim>y ,wood ( ,lepidod5dron1 %[+ px1 project+ protoxylem gr\ps2 lt1 leaf trace com+ f ! /ele & pass+ 7z lt#a7 ?r\gh ! cortex ,z reg>ds ! fructifications ( ,lepidod5dron mu* c\ld be said 7 !re space4 ,! _m g5]a ( ,lepidod5dron bore sev]al di/9ct types ( cones ( diff]5t degrees ( complexity4 ,9 sev]al ( ! g5]a ! cones 7 simple 9 organization1 directly comp>able ) ^? ( ! liv+ ,lycopods1 ?\gh on a mu* l>g] scale 7see p4 #fg74 ,9 "s ! spores 7 uni=m1 all develop+ equally 9 num]\s tetrads4 ,! sporophyll 0 radially ext5d$1 & along x ! l>ge sausage-%ap$ sporangia 7 atta*$ 7see fig4 #ih74 ,! tips ( ! sporophylls ov]lapp$ & af=d$ protection to ! sporangia4 ,! axis ( ! cone _h a c5tral /ele ) wood elem5ts l ^? 9 ! /em4 ,! appe>ance ( a transv]se section ( an actual cone is %[n 9 fig4 #ii4 ,"h ! sporangia are irregul> 9 %ape1 ow+ to _! contraction aft] rip5ess & dur+ fossilization4 ,o!r cones _h sporangia simil> 9 size & %ape1 b :i* produc$ spores ( two k9ds1 l>ge ones result+ f ! rip5+ ( only two or ?ree tetrads 9 ! l[] sporangia1 & num]\s small ones 9 ! sporangia above4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ih4--,longitud9al ,diagram1 %[+ ! arrangem5t ( ! elongat$ sporangia on ! sporophylls a1 ,ma9 axis1 r\nd :i* ! sporophylls are ins]t$2 ,s1 sporangium2 s1 leaflike end ( sporophyll4 ,! simil>ity betwe5 ! ,lepidod5dron & ! mod]n ,lycopod cone has be5 po9t$ out already 7p4 #fg71 & x is ?is :i* =ms ! pr9cipal gu>antee t !y belong to ! same family1 ?\gh ! size & wood developm5t ( ! palozoic & ! mod]n plants diff] s greatly4 ,! l>ge gr\p ( ! ,lepidod5dra includ$ "s memb]s ^: fructifications _h advanc$ s f> beyond ! simple sporangial cones describ$ above z to approa* v closely to se$s 9 _! con/ruction4 ,?is type 0 describ$ on p4 #ge1 fig4 #ed1 9 a s]ies ( female fructifications1 s t its ess5tial /ructure ne$ n be recapitulat$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ii4--,transv]se ,section ?r\gh ,cone ( ,lepidod5dron ,a1 ,ma9 axis ) woody tissue2 /1 /alks ( sporophylls cut 9 oblique longitud9al direction2 s1 tips ( sporophylls cut across2 ,s1 sporangia ) a few gr\ps ( spores4 7,microphoto47 ,! section %[n 9 fig4 #ajj is t cut at "r angles to t 9 :i* ! sporangia are %[n 9 fig4 #ih1 viz4 tang5tial to ! axis4 ,a rem>kable feature ( ! plant is t !re 7 also r\nd ^? sporangia :i* bore ! num]\s small spores 7correspond+ to poll5 gra9s7 enclos+ integum5t-l flaps simil> to ^? %[n 9 fig4 #ajj1 sp4 f4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajj4--,section ?r\gh "o ,sporangium ( ,lepidoc>pon sp1 ,sporophyll2 sp4f41 flaps ( sporophyll protect+ sporangium2 ,s1 l>ge spore )9 ! sporangium wall w2 s1 ! ?ree abort$ spores ( ! tetrad to :i* ,s belongs4 ,?is type ( fructification is ! ne>e/ approa* to se$ & poll5 gra9s rea*$ by any ( ! ,pt]idophytes1 & its appe>ance at a "t :5 ! ,lycopods 7 "o ( ! dom9ant families is sugge/ive ( ! effect t su* a position has on ! families occupy+ x1 h[ev] l[ly !y may be4 ,! simple ,pt]idophyte ,lycopods _h n only ! tall trunks & solid woody /ructure ( a mod]n tree1 b also a semblance ( its se$s4 ,:e!r ?is l9e ( developm5t ev] l$ on to any ( ! high] families is /ill unc]ta94 ,! feel+ ( mo/ speciali/s is t x did n2 b !re are n want+ m5 :o support ! view t ! lycopod aff9ity evolv$ 9 "t & ent]$ ! ranks ( ! high] plants1 & inde$ !re are _m po9ts ( sup]ficial lik5ess betwe5 ! palozoic ,lycopods & ! ,conif]4 ,judg$ f _! int]nal /ructure1 h[ev]1 ! s]ies ?r\gh ! f]ns & ,pt]idosp]ms leads mu* m conv9c+ly to ! se$ plants4 ,9 _! roots1 or r 9 ! und]gr\nd /ructures commonly call$ roots1 ! ,lepidod5drons 7 also rem>kable4 ,ev5 m symmetrically ?an 9 _! above-gr\nd bran*+1 ! base ( _! trunks divid$2 !re 7 f\r ma9 l>ge divisions1 ea* ( :i* bran*$ into two & ^! into two aga94 ,^! /ructures 7 call$ ,/igm>ia1 & 7 common to all species ( ,lepidod5dron & also ! gr\p ( ,sigill>ia 7see fig4 #ajb74 ,on ^! horizontally runn+ /ructures 7well %[n 9 ! frontispiece7 small app5dages 7 borne all ov] _! surface 9 great pr(usion1 :i* 71 bo? 9 _! function & microscopic /ructure1 rootlets4 ,!y left circul> sc>s ( a *>act]i/ic appe>ance on ! big trunks1 ( :i* !y 7 ! only app5dages4 ,^! sc>s %[ cle>ly on ! fragm5ts along ! l$ge to ! left ( ! photograph4 ,! exact morphological nature ( ! big axes is n kn[n2 _! anatomy is n l t ( roots1 b is t ( a /em1 yet !y d n be> :at practically e /em1 :e!r und]gr\nd or n1 has develop$1 namely leaves1 or scales repres5t+ r$uc$ leaves4 ,_! nature has be5 comm5t$ on previ\sly 7p4 #fi71 & we _c discuss ! po9t fur!r1 b mu/ be cont5t to consid] !m z a =m ( root-be>+ /em1 practically conf9$ to ! ,lycopods & pr9cipally develop$ among ! palozoic fossils ( t gr\p4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aja4--,transv]se ,section ?r\gh a ,rootlet ( ,/igm>ia oc1 ,out] cortex2 s1 space2 ic1 inn] cortex2 w1 wood ( vascul> /r& 7wood only pres]v$72 px1 protoxylem gr\p4 ,9 microscopic /ructure ! rootlets are extremely well kn[n1 because 9 _! gr[? !y h p5etrat$ ! masses ( ! tissues ( o!r plants :i* 7 be+ petrifi$ & h become petrifi$ ) !m4 ,! mass ( decay+ vegetable tissue on :i* ! liv+ plants ( ! p]iod fl\ri%$ 7 ev]y:]e pi]c$ by ^! intrusive rootlets1 & !y are f\nd petrifi$ inside o!rwise p]fect se$s1 9 ! he>ts ( woody /ems1 9 leaves & sporangia1 & sometimes ev5 inside ea* o!r6 ,fig4 #ie %[s su* a root r ly+ 9 ! space left by ! decay ( ! s(t tissue ( ! inn] cortex 9 an o!rwise excell5tly pres]v$ ,lepidod5dron /em 7see also fig4 #aja74 ,9 fig4 #aja _! simple /ructure is se54 ,!y are (t5 extremely irregul> 9 %ape1 ow+ to ! way !y seem to h twi/$ & flatt5$ !mselves 9 ord] to fit into ! tissues !y 7 p5etrat+4 ,no root hairs seem to h be5 develop$ 9 ^! rootlets1 b o!rwise _! /ructure is t ( a typical simple root1 & v l ! swamp-p5etrat+ rootlets ( ! liv+ ,isoetes4 ,! ,/igm>ian axes & _! rootlets are v commonly f\nd 9 ! 8und]clays0 & 8ganni/]0 b$s :i* lie bel[ ! coal seams 7see p4 #be71 & !y may sometimes be se5 atta*$ to a bit ( ! trunk gr[+ upw>ds ?r\gh ! lay]s4 ,!y & ! a]ial /ems ( ,lepidod5dron are p]haps ! commone/ & mo/ widely kn[n ( fossil plants4 ,be=e leav+ ! palozoic ,lycopods ano!r g5us mu/ be m5tion$1 :i* is also a widely spread & important "o1 ?\gh x is less well kn[n ?an its contempor>y4 ,! g5us ,sigill>ia is be/ kn[n by its impressions & ca/s ( /ems cov]$ by leaf sc>s4 ,! /ems 7 sometimes deeply ribb$1 & ! leaf sc>s 7 arrang$ 9 r[s & 7 m or less hexagonal 9 outl9e1 z is se5 9 fig4 #ajb1 :i* %[s a ca/ & its rev]se ( ! /em ( a typical ,sigill>ia4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajb4--;,ca/ & ,rev]se ( ,leaf ,sc>s ( ,sigill>ia4 ,9 ,a ! %ape ( ! leaf bases is cle>ly %[n1 ! c5tral m>k+s 9 ea* be+ ! sc> ( ! vascul> bundle & p>i*nos ,9 its prim>y wood ,sigill>ia diff]$ f ,lepidod5dron 9 be+ m remote f ! type ) a prim>y solid /ele4 ,its woody /ructure 0 t ( a r+1 9 "s cases irregul>ly brok5 up into cresc5t-%ap$ bundles4 ,! second>y wood 0 q simil> to t ( ,lepidod5dron4 ,/igm>ia & its rootlets belong equally to ! two plants1 & hi!rto x has be5 impossible to tell :e!r any giv5 specim5 ( ,/igm>ia _h belong$ to a ,lepidod5dron or a ,sigill>ia4 ,betwe5 ! two g5]a !re c]ta9ly exi/$ ! close/ aff9ity & simil>ity 9 g5]al appe>ance4 ,^! two g5]a repres5t ! climax ( developm5t ( ! ,lycopod family4 ,9 ! ,l[] ,mesozoic "s l>ge =ms are /ill f\nd1 b all ?r\gh ! ,mesozoic p]iods ! gr\p dw9dl$1 & 9 ! ,t]ti>y little is kn[n ( x1 & x seems to h tak5 ! retir+ position x occupies to-day4 ,,*apt] ,,xv ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,,viii4 ,! ,horsetails ,! horsetails ( to-day all belong to ! "o g5us1 ,equisetum1 among ! diff]5t species ( :i* !re is a rem>kably close simil>ity4 ,mo/ ( ! species love swampy l&1 & ev5 gr[ /&+ up ?r\gh wat]2 b "s live on ! dry clay ( pl\gh$ fields4 ,:]ev] !y gr[ !y usually congregate 9 l>ge numb]s1 & =m little groves toge!r4 ,!y are easily recogniz$ by _! delicate /ems1 bran*+ 9 bottle-bru% fa%ion1 & ! small leaves arrang$ r\nd !m 9 :orls1 ) _! n>r[ tee? jo9$ to a r+ at ! base4 ,at ! end ( "s ( ! bran*es come ! cones1 ) compactly arrang$ & simple sporophylls all ( "o k9d4 ,9 ,engl& mo/ plants ( ?is family are b a few in*es or a foot 9 height1 ?\gh "o species sometimes rea*es #f ft41 :ile 9 ,s\? ,am]ica !re are groves ( delicate-/emm$ plants #bj ft4 high4 ,! ribb$ /ems & ! :orls ( small1 f9ely too!d leaves are ! mo/ important ext]nal *>act]i/ics ( ! plants1 :ile 9 _! int]nal anatomy ! holl[ /ems h v little wood1 :i* is arrang$ 9 a s]ies ( small bundles1 ea* associat$ ) a holl[ canal 9 ! gr\nd tissue4 ,! family /&s ap>t f all o!rs1 & ev5 betwe5 x & ! gr\p ( ,lycopods !re seems to be a big gap across :i* /ret* no bonds ( aff9ity4 ,has ! gr\p always be5 9 a simil> position1 & /ood isolat$ 9 a backwat] ( ! /ream ( plant life8 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajc4--;,impression ( ,leaf ,:orl ( ,equisetites f ! ,mesozoic ,rocks1 %[+ ! n>r[ too!d =m ( ! leaves4 7,photo47 ,9 ! late ,t]ti>y p]iod !y seem to h held mu* ! same position z !y d n[1 & we le>n no?+ new ( !m f rocks ( t age4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we come to ! ,mesozoic1 ! memb]s ( ! family are ( great] size1 ?\gh !y appe> 7to judge f _! ext]nal appe>ance7 to h be5 practically id5tical ) ^? n[ liv+ 9 all _! arrangem5ts4 ,9 "s b$s _! impressions are v num]\s1 b un=tunately mo/ are )\t any indication ( int]nal /ructure4 ,fossils f ! ,mesozoic are call$ ,equisetites1 a "n :i* indicates t !y come v close to ! liv+ ones 9 _! *>act]s4 ,9 ! ,l[] ,mesozoic "s ( ^! /ems seem to h rea*$ ! great size ( a c\ple ( feet 9 circumf]5ce1 b to h no ess5tial diff]5ce f ! o!rs ( ! gr\p4 ,:51 h[ev]1 we come to ! ,palozoic rocks we f9d _m specim5s ) _! /ructure pres]v$1 & we are at once 9 a v diff]5t position z reg>ds ! family4 ,fir/ 9 ! ,p]mian we meet ) ! important g5us ( plant call$ ,calamites1 :i* 7 v abundant 9 ! ,coal ,measures4 ,_m ( ! ,calamites 7 ( great size1 = specim5s ) l>ge trunks h be5 f\nd #cj ft4 & m long1 :i* :5 gr[+ mu/ c]ta9ly h be5 mu* tall] ?an t4 ,! numb] ( individuals mu/ also h be5 v great1 = ca/s & impressions ( ! g5us are among ! commone/ fossils4 ,!y 71 9 fact1 "o ( ! dom9ant gr\ps ( ! p]iod4 ,l ! ,lycopods1 ! ,equisetace rea*$ _! high-wat] m>k ( developm5t 9 ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod2 at t "t ! plants 7 mo/ num]\s1 & ( ! l>ge/ size & mo/ complicat$ /ructure t !y ev] atta9$4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajd4--,small ,bran*es atta*$ to /\t] ,axis ( ,calamites4 ,photo ( ,impression ,z w be imm$iately suspect$ f analogy ) ! ,lycopods1 !y diff]$ f ! mod]n memb]s ( ! family 9 _! /rongly develop$ anatomy1 & 9 ! /r5g? & quantity ( _! second>y wood4 ,yet 9 _! ext]nal appe>ance !y probably resembl$ ! liv+ g5us 9 all ess5tials1 & ! groves ( ! l>g] ones ( to-day gr[+ 9 ! m>%es probably h ! appe>ance t ! palozoic plants w\ld h _h if look$ at ?r\gh a rev]s$ op]a glass4 ,fig4 #ajd is a photograph ( "s ( ! small bran*es ( a ,calamite1 9 :i* ! ribb$ /em c be se51 & on ! small side twigs ! f9e1 po9t$ leaves ly+ 9 :orls4 ,9 mo/ ( ! fossil specim5s1 h[ev]1 p>ticul>ly ! l>g] ones1 ! ribs are n ^? ( ! true surface1 b are ^? m>k$ on ! int]nal ca/ ( ! pi?4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aje4--,transv]se ,section ( ,calamites ,/em ) ,second>y ,wood w =m$ 9 ,regul> ,radial ,r[s 9 a ,solid ,r+ c1 ,canals associat$ ) ! prim>y bundles2 p1 cells ( ! pi?1 :i* is holl[ ) a cavity l1 cor1 ,cortex & out] tissues well pres]v$4 7,microphoto47 ,among tissue petrifactions !re are _m ,calamite /ems ( v>i\s /ages ( gr[?4 ,9 ! v "y ones !re are only prim>y bundles1 & ^! little /ems are l ^? ( a liv+ ,equisetum 9 _! anatomy1 & h a holl[ pi? & small vascul> bundles ) canals associat$4 ,! fossil =ms1 h[ev]1 soon began to gr[ second>y wood1 :i* develop$ 9 regul> radial r[s f a cambium beh9d ! prim>y bundles & jo9$ to a complete r+4 ,a /em 9 ?is /age ( developm5t is se5 9 fig4 #aje1 :]e only ! wood & int]nal tissues are pres]v$4 ,! v *>act]i/ic canals associat$ ) ! prim>y bundles are cle>ly %[n4 ,! am\nt ( second>y wood /eadily increas$ z ! /ems grew 7!re appe> to h be5 no 8annual r+s07 till !re 0 a v l>ge quantity ( second>y tissue ( regul> texture1 ?r\gh :i* ran small m$ull>y rays1 s t ! /ems became increas+ly l ^? ( ! high] plants z !y grew old]4 ,x is ! prim>y /ructure :i* is ! important factor 9 consid]+ _! aff9ity1 & t is ess5tially ! same z 9 ! o!r memb]s ( ! family 9 :i* second>y ?ick5+ is n develop$4 ,z we h se5 already 9 o!r gr\ps ( fossils1 second>y wood appe>s to develop on simil> l9es :5ev] x is ne$$ 9 any gr\p1 & !re=e has b little value z an indication ( sy/ematic position4 ,?is important fact is "o1 h[ev]1 :i* has only be5 realiz$ z a result ( ! /udy ( fossil plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajf4--;,diagram ( ! ,arrangem5t ( ! ,bundles at ! ,node ( a ,calamite1 %[+ h[ ^? ( consecutive int]nodes alt]nate n1 ,region ( node ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajg4--,leaf ( ,calamites 9 ,cross ,section v1 ,vascul> bundles2 s1 cells ( %ea?1 fill$ ) black5$ cont5ts2 p1 palisade cells2 e1 epid]mis4 ,! longitud9al section ( ! /ems1 :5 cut tang5tially1 is v *>act]i/ic1 z ! bundles run /raight d[n to ea* node & !re divide1 ! neighb\r+ halves jo9+ s t ! bundles ( ea* node alt]nate ) ^? ( ! ones above & bel[ x 7see fig4 #ajf74 ,! leaves :i* 7 atta*$ at ! nodes 7 naturally mu* l>g] ?an ^? ( ! pres5t ,equisetums1 ?\gh !y 7 simil>ly simple & undivid$4 ,_! anatomy is pres]v$ 9 a numb] ( cases 7see fig4 #ajg71 & 0 simple1 ) a s+le small /r& ( vascul> tissue ly+ 9 ! c5tre4 ,!y _h c]ta9 l>ge cells1 sometimes v black 9 ! fossils1 :i* may h be5 fill$ ) mucilage4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #ajh4--,transv]se ,section ( ,"y ,root ( ,calamites w1 ,wood ( axis2 l1 spaces 9 ! lacun> cortex1 ^: radiat+ /r&s r are some:at cru%$2 ex1 out]mo/ cells ( cortex ) ?ick5$ wall4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aji4--;,diagram ( ,cone ( ,calamites ,a1 ,ma9 axis2 br1 /]ile bracts2 sp1 sporophylls ) f\r sporangia ,s atta*$ to ea*1 ( :i* two only are se54 ,! "y roots ( ^! plants h a v *>act]i/ic cortex1 :i* consi/s ( cells loosely built toge!r 9 a lacelike fa%ion1 ) l>ge air spaces1 s t !y are mu* l wat] plants 9 _! appe>ance 7see fig4 #ajh74 ,inde$1 s unlike ! old roots & ! /ems are !y1 t = long !y 7 call$ by ano!r "n & suppos$ to be subm]g$ /ems1 b _! connection ) ,calamites is n[ q c]ta94 ,z _! woody axis develops1 ! second>y tissue increases & pu%es (f ! lacelike cortex1 & ! roots become v simil> 9 _! anatomy to ! /ems4 ,bo? h simil> zones ( second>y wood1 b ! roots d n h ^? prim>y canals :i* are s *>act]i/ic ( ! /ems1 & !reby !y c be readily di/+ui%$ f !m4 ,! fructifications ( ! ,calamites 7 n unlike ^? ( ! liv+ types ( ! family1 ?\gh 9 "s respects slightly m complex4 ,r\nd ea* cone axis develop$ r+s ( sporophylls :i* alt]nat$ ) /]ile %ea?+ bracts4 ,ea* sporophyll 0 %ap$ l a small umbrella ) f\r spokes1 & /ood at "r angles to ! axis1 be>+ a sporangium at ea* ( ! spokes4 ,a diagram ( ?is arrangem5t is se5 9 fig4 #aji4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaj4--,longitud9al ,section ( ,"p ( ,calamites ,cone br1 ,/]ile bracts atta*$ to axis2 sp1 atta*m5t ( sporophylls2 ,s1 sporangia4 ,at ,x a gr\p ( f\r sporangia is se5 r\nd ! sporophyll1 :i* is se5 at a4 7,microphoto47 ,a photograph ( an actual section ( su* a cone1 cut slightly obliquely ?r\gh ! l5g? ( ! axis1 is se5 9 fig4 #aaj1 :]e ! upp] gr\ps ( sporangia are cut tang5tially1 & %[ _! gr\p+ r\nd ! sporophyll to :i* !y are atta*$4 ,a few s+le tetrads ( spores are enl>g$ 9 fig4 #aaa1 :]e x w be se5 t ! l>ge spores are ( a simil> size1 b t ! small ones ( ! tetrads are v irregul>4 ,!y are abort+ memb]s ( ! tetrad1 & appe> to h be5 us$ z food by ! o!r spores4 ,9 ea* sporangium l>ge numb]s ( ^! tetrads develop & all ! ripe spores seem to h be5 ( "o size4 ,9 a species ( ,calamites 7,c4 ca%eana71 o!rwise v simil> to ! common "o we h be5 consid]+1 !re is a di/9ct diff]5ce 9 ! sizes ( ! spores f diff]5t sporangia4 ,! small ones1 h[ev]1 7 only ab\t "o-?ird ( ! diamet] ( ! l>ge ones1 s t ! diff]5ce 0 v mu* less m>k$ ?an x 0 betwe5 ! small & l>ge spores ( ! ,lycopods4 ,among ! palozoic memb]s ( ! gr\p are o!r g5]a closely alli$ to1 b diff]+ f ,calamites 9 "s p>ticul>s4 ,"o ( ^! is ,ar*ocalamites1 :i* has a cone almo/ id5tical ) t ( ! liv+ ,equisetums1 z x has no /]ile bracts m+l$ ) ! umbrella-l sporophylls4 ,o!r g5]a are m complex ?an ^? describ$ = ,calamites1 & ev5 9 ! simple con$ ,ar*ocalamites itself ! leaves are f9ely bran*$ & divid$ in/ead ( be+ simple scales4 ,b no g5us is s completely kn[n z is ,calamites1 :i* w itself suffice z an illu/ration ( ! palozoic ,equisetace4 ,?\gh ! g5us1 z 0 po9t$ out above1 %[s sev]al important *>act]s diff]+ f ^? ( ,equisetum1 & p>allel to "s ext5t to ^? ( ! palozoic ,lycopods1 yet ^! features are m ( a physiological nature ?an a sy/ematic "o1 & !y ?r[ no light on ! orig9 ( ! family or on its connection ) ! o!r ,pt]idophytes4 ,x is 9 ! ext9ct family dealt ) 9 ! next *apt] t we f9d :at "s consid] z a clue to ! solution ( ^! problems4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaa4--,tetrads ( ,spores ( ,calamites ,s1 ,normal-siz$ spores2 a1 b1 c41 abort+ spores4 ,,*apt] ,,xvi ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,,ix4 ,sph5ophyllales ,! gr\p to :i* ,sph5ophyllum belongs is ( consid]able int]e/ & importance1 & is1 fur!r1 "o ( ^? ext9ct families ^: v exi/5ce w\ld nev] h be5 suspect$ _h x n be5 discov]$ by fossil botani/s4 ,n only is ! family z a :ole ext9ct1 x also %[s features 9 its anatomy :i* are n to be p>allel$ among liv+ /ems4 ,sph5ophyllum became ext9ct 9 ! ,palozoic p]iod1 b its int]e/ is v real & liv+ to-day1 & 9 ! peculi> features ( its /ructure we see ! fir/ clue t sugge/s a common ance/or = ! /ill liv+ gr\ps ( ,lycopods & ,equisetace1 :i* n[ /& s isolat$ & f> ap>t4 ,be=e1 h[ev]1 we c consid] ! aff9ities ( ! gr\p1 we mu/ describe ! /ructure ( a typical plant belong+ to x4 ,! g5us ,sph5ophyllum includes sev]al species 7= :i* !re are no common ,engli% names1 z !y are only kn[n to sci5ce7 ^: diff]5ces are ( less importance ?an _! po9ts ( simil>ity1 s t "o species only1 ,s4 plurifoliatum1 w be describ$4 ,we h a g5]al k ( ! ext]nal appe>ance ( ,sph5ophyllum f ! num]\s impressions ( leaves atta*$ to twigs :i* are f\nd 9 ! rocks ( ! ,c>bonif]\s p]iod4 ,^! impressions pres5t a good deal ( v>iety1 b all h r delicate /ems ) :orls ( leaves atta*$ at regul> int]vals4 ,! specim5s are g5]ally easy to recognize f ! %ape ( ! leaves1 :i* are l broad w$ges atta*$ at ! po9t 7see fig4 #aab74 ,9 "s cases ! leaves are m f9ely divid$ & less fanlike1 & x may ev5 happ5 t on ! same bran* "s may be w$ge-%ap$ l ^? 9 fig4 #aab1 & o!rs almo/ hairlike4 ,?is naturally sugge/s comp>ison ) wat] plants1 :i* h f9ely divid$ subm]g$ leaves & exp&$ a]ial ones4 ,9 ! case ( ,sph5ophyllum1 h[ev]1 ! divid$ leaves sometimes come at ! upp] ends ( ! /ems1 q ne> ! cones1 & s c h>dly h be5 ^? ( a subm]g$ "p4 ,! v delicate /ems & "s po9ts 9 _! int]nal anatomy sugge/ t ! plant 0 a trail+ creep] :i* support$ itself on ! /\t] /ems ( o!r plants4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aab4--;,impression ( ,sph5ophyllum ,leaves atta*$ to ! ,/em1 %[+ ! w$ge-%ap$ leaflets arrang$ 9 :orls ,! /ems 7 ribb$1 b unlike ^? ( ! ,calamites ! ribs ran /raight d[n ! /em ?r\gh ! nodes1 & did n alt]nate !re1 s t ! bundles at ! node did n bran* & fuse z !y did 9 ,calamites4 ,! ext]nal appe>ance ( ! long sl5d] cones 0 n unlike t ( ! ,calamite cones1 ?\gh _! int]nal details %[$ important di/9ctions4 ,9 "o noticeable ext]nal feature ! plants diff]$ f ^? ( ! la/ two gr\ps consid]$1 & t 0 9 _! size4 ,palozoic ,lycopods & ,equisetace rea*$ ! dim5sions ( great trees1 b hi!rto no treelike =m ( ,sph5ophyllum has be5 discov]$1 & 9 ! /ructure-petrifactions ! l>ge/ /ems we "k 7 less ?an an in* 9 diamet]4 ,9 ! int]nal anatomy ( ^! /ems lies "o ( ! *ief int]e/s & peculi>ities ( ! plants4 ,9 ! v "y /age !re 0 a %>ply po9t$ solid triangle ( wood 9 ! c5tre 7fig4 #aac71 at ea* ( ! corn]s ( :i* 0 a gr\p ( small cells1 ! protoxylems4 ,! /ructure ( su* a /em is l t ( a root1 9 :i* ! prim>y wood all gr[s inw>ds f ! protoxylems t[>ds ! c5tre1 & _h we _h no?+ b ^! isolat$ "y /ems x w\ld h be5 impossible to recognize _! true nature4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aac4--,sph5ophyllum1 ,transv]se ,section ( ,"y ,/em c1 ,cortex1 ! s(t tissue )9 :i* has decay$ & left a space1 9 :i* lies ! solid triangle ( wood1 ) ! small protoxylem gr\ps px at ea* corn]4 7,microphoto47 ,su* v "y /ems are r>e1 = ! developm5t ( second>y wood began e>ly1 & x soon greatly exce$$ ! prim>y wood 9 am\nt4 ,fig4 #aad %[s a photograph ( a /em 9 :i* ! second>y wood is well develop$4 ,! prim>y triangle ( wood is /ill to be se5 9 ! c5tre1 & corresponds to t 9 fig4 #aac1 :ile closely fitt+ to x are ! bays ( ! fir/-=m$ second>y wood1 :i* makes ! wood mass r\ghly circul>4 ,outside ?is ! second>y wood =ms a regul> cyl9d] r\nd ! axis1 :i* %[s no sign ( annual r+s4 ,! cells ( ! wood are l>ge & approximately squ>e 9 %ape1 :ile at ! angles =m$ at ! junction ( e f\r cells is a gr\p ( small1 ?9-wall$ p>5*yma1 see fig4 #aae4 ,!re are no m$ull>y rays go+ out radially ?r\gh ! wood1 su* z are f\nd 9 all o!r zones ( second>y wood1 & 9 ?is arrangem5t ( s(t tissue ! plants are unique4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aad4--,sph5ophyllum1 ,transv]se ,section ) ,second>y ,wood ,w4 ,at c ! cork =mation is to be se54 7,microphoto47 ,beyond ! wood 0 a zone ( s(t tissue & phloem1 :i* is n (t5 pres]v$1 :ile outside t 0 ! cork1 :i* add$ to ! cortical tissues z ! /em grew 7see fig4 #aad1 c74 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aae4--;,gr\p ( ,wood ,cells w1 %[+ _! %ape & ! small s(t-wall$ cells at ! angles betwe5 !m p ,petrifi$ mat]ial ( leaves & roots is r>e1 & bo? are *iefly kn[n ?r\gh ! "w ( ! ,fr5* palobotani/ ,r5ault4 ,! leaves are *iefly rem>kable = ! b&s ( scl]iz$ /r5g!n+ tissue1 & g5]ally _h ! /ructure ( a]ial1 n subm]g$ leaves4 ,! roots 7 simple 9 /ructure1 &1 z 9 ,calamites1 _h second>y tissue l t 9 ! /ems4 ,9 ! case ( ! fructifications x is ! ,engli% mat]ial :i* has yield$ ! mo/ illum9at+ specim5s4 ,! cones 7 long & sl5d]1 ext]nally cov]$ by ! closely pack$ tips ( ! scales1 :i* ov]lapp$ deeply4 ,betwe5 ! :orls ( scales lay ! sporangia1 atta*$ to _! upp] sides by sl5d] /alks4 ,a diagram w be/ expla9 h[ !y 7 arrang$ 7see fig4 #aaf74 ,two sporangia 7 atta*$ to ea* bract1 b _! /alks 7 ( diff]5t l5g?s1 s t "o sporangium lay ne> ! axis & "o lay outside x t[>d ! tip ( ! bract4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aaf4--;,diagram ( ,arrangem5t ( ,scales & ,sporangia 9 ,cones ( ,sph5ophyllum ,a1 ,axis2 br1 bract2 ,s1 sporangium1 ) /alk /4 ,9 its anatomy ! /alk ( ! cone has c]ta9 features simil> to ^? 9 ! /em prop]1 :i* 7 among ! fir/ indications t l$ to ! discov]y t ! cone belong$ to ,sph5ophyllum4 ,!re 7 num]\s spores 9 ea* ( ! sporangia1 :i* _h coats ornam5t$ ) little sp9es :5 !y 7 ripe 7fig4 #aag1 if exam9$ ) a magnify+ glass1 w %[ ?is74 ,hi!rto ! only spores kn[n are ( uni=m size1 & !re is no evid5ce t !re 0 any diff]5tiation into small 7male7 & l>ge 7female7 spores su* z 7 f\nd 9 "s ( ! ,lepidod5drons4 ,9 ?is respect ,sph5ophyllum 0 less specializ$ ?an ei!r ,lepidod5dron or ,calamites4 ,9 ! actual sections ( ,sph5ophyllum cones ! num]\s sporangia seem mass$ toge!r 9 confusion1 b usually "s are cut s z to %[ ! atta*m5t ( ! /alk1 z 9 fig4 #aag1 /4 ,z ! /alk 0 long & sl5d]1 b a %ort l5g? ( x is usually cut ?r\gh 9 any "o section1 & to realize _! mode ( atta*m5t to ! axis 7z %[n 9 fig4 #aaf7 x is necess>y to /udy a s]ies ( sections4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aag4--,"p ( ,cone ( ,sph5ophyllum1 %[+ sporangia sp1 "s ( :i* are cut s z to %[ a "p ( _! /alks /4 ,b1 ,bract4 7,microphoto47 ,( ! o!r plants belong+ to ! gr\p1 ,b[manites ,rm]i is specially int]e/+4 ,its sporangia 7 borne on /alks simil> to ^? ( ,sph5ophyllum1 b ea* /alk _h two sporangia atta*$ to x4 ,two sporangia are also borne on ea* /alk 9 ,s4 f]tile4 ,^! plants help 9 elucidat+ ! nature ( ! /alk$ sporangia ( ,sph5ophyllum1 = !y seem to indicate a direct comp>ison betwe5 !m & ! sporophylls ( ! ,equisetales4 ,!re is1 fur!r1 ano!r plant1 ( :i* we only "k ! cone1 ( /ill great] importance4 ,?is cone 7,*eiro/robus7 is1 h[ev]1 s complex t x w\ld take f> too mu* space to describe x 9 detail4 ,ev5 a diagram ( its arrangem5ts is extraord9>ily elaborate4 ,to ! speciali/ ! cone is peculi>ly fasc9at+1 = its v complexity gives him great scope = weav+ !ories ab\t x2 b = our purposes mo/ ( ^! are too ab/ruse4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aah4--;,a1 ,diagram ( ,?ree-lob$ ,bract f ,cone ( ,*eiro/robus4 a1 ,axis2 br1 ! ?ree /]ile l[] lobes ( ! bract2 sp1 ! ?ree upp] sporophyll-l lobes1 to ea* ( :i* 7 atta*$ f\r sporangia ,s4 ,b1 ,"p ( ! above se5 9 section longitud9al to ! axis4 7,modifi$ f ,scott47 ,its mo/ important features are ! foll[+4 ,r\nd ! axis 7 s]ies ( scales1 twelve 9 ea* :orl1 & ea* scale 0 divid$ into an upp] & a l[] portion1 ea* ( :i* aga9 divid$ into ?ree lobes4 ,! l[] ?ree ( ea* ( ^! scale gr\ps 7 /]ile & bractlike1 comp>able1 p]haps1 ) ! bracts 9 fig4 #aaf2 :ile ! upp] ?ree divisions 7 /alks r\nd ea* ( :i* 7 f\r sporangia4 ,ea* sporophyll segm5t ?us resembl$ ! sporophyll ( ,calamites1 :ile ! long sausage-%ap$ sporangia !mselves 7 m l ^? ( ,lepidod5dron4 ,9 fig4 #aah is a diagram ( a trilob$ bract ) its ?ree atta*$ sporophylls4 ,r\nd ! axis 7 v num]\s :orls ( su* bracts1 & z ! cone 0 l>ge !re 7 enorm\s numb]s ( spore sacs4 ,a po9t ( int]e/ is ! "* ( ! wood ( ! ma9 axis1 :i* is simil> to t ( ,lepidod5dron 9 _m respects1 be+ a r+ ( c5tripetally develop$ wood ) twelve project+ ext]nal po9ts ( protoxylem4 ,?is cone#ac is ! mo/ complex fructification ( any ( ! kn[n ,pt]idophytes1 :e!r liv+ or fossil1 :i* alone ensures x a special importance1 ?\gh = our purpose ! mix$ aff9ities x %[s are ( great] int]e/4 ,to m5tion "s ( its *>act]s3--,! individual segm5ts ( ! sporophylls1 ea* be>+ f\r sporangia1 are comp>able ) ^? ( ,calamites1 :ile ! individual sporangia & ! l5g? ( ! sporophyll /alk are simil> 9 appe>ance to ^? ( ,lepidod5dron4 ,! wood ( ! ma9 axis also resembles t ( a typical ,lepidod5dron4 ,! way ! vascul> bundles ( ! bract pass out f ! axis1 & ! way ! /alks be>+ ! sporangia are atta*$ to ! /]ile "p ( ! bracts1 are l ! correspond+ features 9 ,sph5ophyllum1 & /ill m l ,b[manites4 ,_m o!r po9ts ( comp>ison are to be f\nd 9 ^! plants1 b )\t go+ into fur!r detail en\gh has be5 indicat$ to support ! conclusion t ,*eiro/robus is a v important clue to ! aff9ities ( ! ,sph5ophyllales & e>ly ,pt]idophytes4 ,x is inde$ consid]$ to h belong$ to an anci5t /ock ( plants1 f :i* ! ,equisetace1 & ,sph5ophylla1 & possibly also ! ,lycopods all sprang4 ,sph5ophyllum1 ,b[manites1 & ,*eiro/robus1 a s]ies ( =ms t became ext9ct 9 ! ,palozoic1 remote 9 _! /ructure f any liv+ types1 ^: exi/5ce w\ld h be5 entirely unsuspect$ b = ! "w ( fossil botany1 are yet ! clues :i* h l$ to a p>tial solution ( ! my/]ies surr\nd+ ! pres5t-day ,lycopods & ,equisetums1 & :i* help to bridge ! *asm betwe5 ^! remote & deg5]ate families4 ,,*apt] ,,xvii ,,pa/ ,,hi/ories ,,( ,,plant ,,families ,x4 ,! ,l[] ,plants ,9 ! plant _w ( to-day !re are _m families includ+ imm5se numb]s ( species ^: organization is simpl] ?an t ( ! gr\ps hi!rto consid]$4 ,tak5 all toge!r !y =m1 9 fact1 a v l>ge proportion ( ! total numb] ( liv+ species1 ?\gh ! bulk ( !m are ( small size1 & _m are microscopic4 ,^! 8l[] plants0 include all ! mosses1 & ! flat gre5 liv]worts1 ! li*5s1 ! toad/ools1 & all ! innum]able m\lds & p>asites caus+ plant diseases1 ! gre5 we$s gr[+ 9 wat]1 & all ! seawe$s1 l>ge & small1 9 ! sea1 ! m9ute gre5 cells gr[+ 9 crevices ( ! b>k ( trees1 & all ! simil> ones liv+ by millions 9 wat]4 ,truly a ho/ ( =ms ) an endless v>iety ( /ructures4 ,yet :5 we turn to ! fossil repres5tatives ( ?is =midable multitude1 we f9d b few4 ,inde$1 ( ! fossil memb]s ( all ^! gr\ps tak5 toge!r we "k less t is ( importance & real int]e/ ?an we d ( any s+le family ( ^? hi!rto consid]$4 ,! reasons = ?is de>? ( fossils ( ! l[] types are n q app>5t1 b "o :i* may h "s be>+ on x is ! difficulty ( m9]alization4 ,x is self-evid5t t ! m delicate & s(t-wall$ any /ructure is ! less *ance has x ( be+ pres]v$ )\t decay long en\gh to be fossiliz$4 ,z w h be5 und]/ood f ,*apt] ,,ii1 ev5 :5 ! process ( fossilization took place1 geologically speak+1 rapidly1 x c nev] h be5 actually accompli%$ quickly z comp>$ ) ! c\nt] processes ( decay4 ,h5ce all ! l[] plants1 ) _! s(t tissue & lack ( wood & /r5g!n+ cells1 seem on ! face ( x to /& b little *ance ( petrifaction4 ,!re is mu* 9 ?is argum5t1 b x is n a suffici5t explanation ( ! r>ity ( l[] plant fossils4 ,all ?r\gh ! prec$+ *apt]s m5tion has be5 made ( v delicate cells1 su* z pi?1 spores1 & ev5 g]m9at+ spores 7see fig4 #dg1 p4 #fh71 ) _! mo/ delicate outgr[+ cells4 ,if !n su* small & delicate elem5ts f ! high] plants are pres]v$1 :y %\ld n _m ( ! l[] plants 7"s ( :i* are l>ge & /urdy7 be f\nd 9 ! rocks8 ,z reg>ds ! fir/ gr\p1 ! mosses1 x is probable t !y did n exi/ 9 ! ,palozoic p]iod1 :5ce our mo/ delicately pres]v$ fossils are d]iv$4 ,!re seems mu* to support ! view t !y h evolv$ comp>atively rec5tly al?\gh !y are less highly organiz$ ?an ! f]ns4 ,q rec5tly exp]im5ts h be5 made ) _! ne> allies ! liv]worts1 & ^? :i* 7 plac$ = "o ye> "u conditions simil> to ^? "u :i* plant petrifaction took place1 7 f\nd to be p]fectly pres]v$ at ! end ( ! p]iod2 ?\gh !y w\ld naturally decay rapidly "u usual conditions4 ,?is %[s t ,bryophyte cells are n peculi>ly incapable ( pres]vation z fossils1 & adds weight to ! negative evid5ce ( ! rocks1 /r5g!n+ ! presumption ( _! late orig94 ,t "s ( ! l[] plants1 among ! v l[e/ & simple/1 c be well pres]v$ is %[n 9 ! case ( ! fossil fungi :i* (t5 occur 9 microscopic sections ( palozoic leaves1 :]e !y infe/ ! high] plants z simil> p>asitic species d to-day4 ,we mu/ n[ br+ =w>d ! m important ( ! facts kn[n ab\t ! fossils ( ! v>i\s gr\ps ( l[] plants4 ,bryophytes4--,mosses4 ,( ?is family !re are no specim5s ( any age :i* are s pres]v$ z to %[ _! microscopical /ructure4 ,( impressions !re are a few f v>i\s b$s :i* %[1 ) m or less unc]ta9ty 9 mo/ cases1 /ems & leaves ( :at appe> to be mosses simil> to ^? n[ extant1 b !y ne>ly all lack ! fructifications :i* w\ld det]m9e !m ) c]ta9ty4 ,^! impressions g by ! "n ( ,muscites1 :i* is a dignifi$ cloak = ignorance 9 mo/ cases4 ,! few :i* are q satisfactory z impressions belong to comp>atively rec5t rocks4 ,liv]worts are simil>ly scanty1 & !re is no?+ among !m :i* c\ld ?r[ any light on ! liv+ =ms or _! evolution4 ,! m common are ( ! same types z ! rec5t ones1 & are call$ ,m>*antites1 specim5s ( :i* h be5 f\nd 9 b$s ( v>i\s ages1 *iefly1 h[ev]1 9 ! m rec5t p]iods ( ! e>?'s hi/ory4 ,x is ( int]e/ to note t among all ! delicate tissue :i* is s well pres]v$ 9 ! 8coal balls0 & o!r palozoic petrifactions1 !re are no specim5s :i* give evid5ce ( ! exi/5ce ( mosses at t "t4 ,x is n unlikely t !y may h evolv$ m rec5tly ?an ! o!r gr\ps ( ! 8l[]0 plants4 ,*>ace4--,memb]s ( ?is some:at isolat$ family 7,/oneworts7 are bett] kn[n1 z !y frequ5tly occur z fossil ca/s4 ,?is is probably due to _! "*1 = ev5 :ile alive !y t5d to cov] _! delicate /ems & leaves1 & ev5 fruits1 ) a limy incru/ation4 ,?is assi/s fossilization to "s degree1 & fossil ,*>as are n uncommon4 ,usually !y are f ! rec5tly deposit$ rocks1 & ! e>lie/ true ,*>as date only to ! middle ( ! ,mesozoic4 ,an int]e/+ occurr5ce is ! petrifaction ( masses ( ^! plants toge!r1 :i* indicate ! exi/5ce ( an anci5t pool 9 :i* !y mu/ h gr[n 9 abundance at "o "t4 ,a case has be5 describ$ :]e masses ( ,*>a are petrifi$ :]e !y seem to h be5 gr[+1 & 9 _! accumulations _h gradually fill$ up ! pond till !y _h accumulat$ to a height ( #h feet4 ,! plants1 h[ev]1 h little importance f our pres5t po9t ( view4 ,fungi4--,( ! high] fungi1 namely1 8toad/ools01 we h no true fossils4 ,"s indications ( !m h be5 f\nd 9 amb]1 b su* specim5s are s unsatisfactory t !y c h>dly af=d mu* int]e/4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aai4--,! ,hyph ( ,fungi ,p>asitic on a ,woody ,tree c1 ,cells ( ho/2 h1 hyph ( fungus1 ) divid+ cell walls4 ,! l[] fungi1 h[ev]1 & 9 p>ticul> ! microscopic & p>asitic =ms1 occur v frequ5tly1 & are f\nd 9 ! ,coal ,measure fossils4 ,p5etrat+ ! tissues ( ! high] plants1 _! ho/s1 ! p>asitic cells are (t5 excell5tly pres]v$1 & we may see _! delicate hyph w&]+ f cell to cell z 9 fig4 #aai1 :ile sometimes !re are atta*$ swoll5 cells :i* seem to be sporangia4 ,f ! ,palozoic we get leaves ) ne/s ( spores ( ! fungus :i* _h attack$ & spott$ !m z s _m d to leaves to-day 7see fig4 #abj74 ,:at is specially noticeable ab\t ^! plants is _! simil>ity to ! liv+ =ms infe/+ ! high] plants ( ! pres5t day4 ,already 9 ! ,palozoic ! %>p di/9ction exi/$ betwe5 ! highly organiz$ indep5d5t high] plants & _! simple p>asites4 ,! high] plants h *ang$ pr(\ndly s9ce t "t1 /imulat$ by ev]-*ang+ surr\nd+s1 b ! p>asites liv+ )9 !m are n[ mu* z !y 7 !n1 j suffici5tly highly organiz$ to rob & reproduce4 ,a =m ( fungus inhabitant :i* seems to be useful to ! high] plant appe>s also to h exi/$ 9 ,palozoic times1 viz4 ,mycorhiza4 ,9 ! roots ( _m liv+ trees1 p>ticul>ly su* z ! ,bee* & its allies1 ! cells ( ! out] lay]s are p5etrat$ by _m fungal =ms :i* live 9 association ) ! tree & d x "s s]vice at ! same "t z ga9+ some?+ = !mselves4 ,?is curi\s1 & z yet incompletely und]/ood physiological relation betwe5 ! high] plants & ! fungi1 exi/$ s f> back z ! ,palozoic p]iod1 f :i* roots h be5 describ$ ^: cells 7 pack$ ) m9ute organisms app>5tly id5tical ) ,mycorhiza4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abj4--;,fossil ,leaf l ) ,ne/s ( ,infe/+ ,fungal ,spores f on its l[] side ,alg4--,gre5 ,alg 7pond we$s74 ,_m impressions h be5 describ$ z alg f "t to "t1 numb]s ( :i* h s9ce be5 %[n to be a v>iety ( o!r ?+s1 sometimes n plants at all4 ,o!r impressions may really be ^? ( alg1 b hi!rto !y h add$ practically no?+ to our k ( ! gr\p4 ,sev]al g5]a ( alg coat !mselves ) calc>e\s matt] :ile !y are alive1 mu* 9 ! same way z d ! ,*>as1 & ( ^!1 z is natural1 !re are q a numb] ( fossil rema9s f ,t]ti>y & ,mesozoic rocks4 ,?is is /ill m ! case 9 ! gr\p ( ! ,r$ ,alg 7seawe$s71 ( :i* ! calc>e\s-coat$ g5]a1 su* z ,corall9a & o!rs1 h _m fossil repres5tatives4 ,^! plants appe> s l corals 9 _m cases t !y 7 long held to be ( animal nature4 ,! g5us ,li?o?amnion n[ gr[s atta*$ to rocks1 & is ?ickly encru/$ ) calc>e\s matt]4 ,a good _m species ( ?is g5us h be5 describ$ among fossils1 p>ticul>ly f ! ,t]ti>y & ,cretace\s rocks4 ,z ! plant grew 9 association ) animal corals1 x is n always v easy to sep>ate x f !m4 ,br[n ,alg 7seawe$s7 h (t5 be5 describ$ z fossils4 ,?is is v natural1 z s _m fossils h be5 f\nd 9 m>9e deposits1 & :5 among !m !re is any?+ %[+ a d>k1 wavy impression1 x is usually describ$ z a seawe$4 ,& possibly x may be "o1 b su* an impression does n lead to mu* advance 9 k4 ,f ! e>ly ,palozoic rocks ( bo? ,europe & ,am]ica a l>ge fossil plant is kn[n f ! p>tially petrifi$ /ructure ( its /em4 ,!re seem to be sev]al species1 or at lea/ diff]5t v>ieties ( ?is1 kn[n "u ! g5]ic "n ,nematophycus4 ,specim5s ( ?is g5us are f\nd to h sev]al anatomical *>act]s common to ! big liv+ seawe$s ( ! ,lam9>ia type1 & x is v possible t ! fossils repres5t an e>ly memb] ( t gr\p4 ,9 none ( ^! petrifi$ specim5s1 h[ev]1 is !re any indication ( ! microscopic /ructure ( reproductive organs1 s t ! exact nature ( ! fossils is n det]m9able4 ,x is probable t ?\gh p]haps alli$ to ! ,lam9>ias !y belong to an entirely ext9ct gr\p4 ,an int]e/+ & ev5 amus+ *apt] might be writt5 on all ! fossils :i* look l alg & ev5 h be5 describ$ z su*4 ,! m9ute riv] sy/ems t =m 9 ! moi/ mud ( a =e%ore1 if pres]v$ 9 ! rocks 7z !y (t5 are1 ) ! ripples & ra9drops ( ! pa/71 look extraord9>ily l seawe$s--z d also c\ntless impressions & trails ( animals4 ,9 ?is portion ( ! /udy ( fossils x is bett] to h a heal?y scepticism ?an an illum9at+ imag9ation4 ,diatoms1 ) _! h>d silice\s %ells1 are naturally well pres]v$ z fossils 7see fig4 #aba71 = ev5 if ! protoplasm decays ! m9]al coats rema9 practically un*ang$4 ,diatoms to-day exi/ 9 great numb]s1 bo? 9 ! cold wat] ( ! pol> regions & 9 ! heat ( hot spr+s4 ,(t51 9 ! latt]1 "o c see !m actually be+ turn$ into fossils4 ,9 ! ,yell[/one ,p>k !y are accumulat+ 9 va/ numb]s ov] l>ge areas1 & 9 "s places h collect$ to a ?ickness ( #f feet4 ,at ! bottoms ( fre%wat] lakes !y may =m an almo/ pure mud ( f9e texture1 :ile on ! floor ( deep oceans !re is an ooze ( diatoms :i* h be5 sep>at$ f ! calc>e\s %ells by _! great] p[]s ( resi/ance to solution by salt wat]4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #aba4--;,diatom %[+ ! ,d\ble ,silice\s ,coat ,!re are enorm\s numb]s ( species n[ liv+1 & ( fossils f ! ,t]ti>y & ,upp] ,mesozoic rocks2 b1 /rangely en\gh1 ?\gh s num]\s & s widely di/ribut$1 bo? n[ & 9 ^! pa/ p]iods1 !y h n be5 f\nd 9 ! e>li] rocks4 ,9 "o way ! diatoms diff] f ord9>y fossils4 ,9 ! latt] ! s(t tissues ( ! plant h be5 replac$ by /one1 :ile 9 ! =m] ! liv+ cell 0 enclos$ 9 a silice\s case :i* does n decompose1 ?us resembl+ m ! fossils ( animal %ells4 ,bact]ia are s v m9ute t x is impossible to recognize !m 9 ord9>y cases4 ,9 ! matrix ( ! be/-pres]v$ fossils are always m9ute cry/als & granules t may simulate bact]ial %apes p]fectly4 ,bacillus & ,micrococcus ( v>i\s species h be5 describ$ by ,fr5* writ]s1 b !y d n c>ry conviction4 ,z 0 /at$ at ! beg9n+ ( ! *apt]1 f all ! fossils ( all ! l[]-plant families we _c le>n mu* ( prime importance = ! pres5t purpose4 ,yet1 z ! hi/ory ( plants w\ld be incomplete )\t m5tion ( ! little t is kn[n1 ! =ego+ pages h be5 add$4 ,,*apt] ,,xviii ,,fossil ,,plants ,,z ,,records ,,( ,,anci5t ,,c\ntries ,! l& :i* to-day appe>s s firm & un*ang+ has be5 "u ! sea _m times1 & 9 _m diff]5t ways has be5 unit$ to o!r l& masses to =m cont95ts4 ,at ea* p]iod1 d\btless1 ! solid e>? appe>$ z /able z x is n[1 :ile ! c\ntry 0 z well *>act]iz$1 & _h its typical sc5]y1 plants1 & animals4 ,we "k :at an important feature ( ! "* ( any pres5t c\ntry is its flora2 & we h no reason to suspect t x 0 ev] less s ?an x is to-day4 ,inde$1 9 ! ages be=e m5 int]f]$ ) =e/ gr[?1 & built _! cities1 ) _! de/ructive influ5ces1 ! plants 7 relatively m important 9 ! _w l&scape ?an !y are to-day4 ,z we g back 9 ! p]iods ( geological hi/ory we f9d ! plants _h an ev]-increas+ area ( di/ribution4 ,to-day mo/ individual species & _m g5]a are limit$ to isl&s or p>ts ( cont95ts1 b be=e ! ,glacial epo* _m 7 di/ribut$ ov] bo? ,am]ica & ,europe4 ,9 ! ,mesozoic ,g9kgo 0 spread all ov] ! _w1 & 9 ! pres5t epo* x 0 conf9$ to ,*9a & ,japan till x 0 di/ribut$ aga9 by cultivation2 :ile 9 ! ,palozoic p]iod ,lepidod5dron seem$ to /ret* wellnigh f pole to pole4 ,! importance ( ! relation ( plant /ructure to ! climate & local physical conditions "u :i* x 0 gr[+ _c be too mu* insi/$ ^u4 ,mod]n biology & ecology are cont9ually enl>g+ & r5d]+ m precise our views ( ?is int]relation1 s t we c safely se>* ! details ( anatomical /ructure ( ! fossil plants = sidelights on ! "* ( ! c\ntries !y inhabit$ & _! climates4 ,x has be5 rem>k$ already t mo/ ( ! fossils :i* we h well pres]v$1 :e!r ( plants or animals1 7 fossiliz$ 9 rocks :i* collect$ "u sea wat]2 yet x 0 also not$ t ( m>9e plants we h almo/ no reliable fossils at all4 ,h[ comes ?is seem+ contradiction8 ,! lack ( m>9e plant fossils probably dep5ds on _! easily decomposable nature1 :ile ! pres5ce ( ! num]\s l& plants result$ f _! drift+ out to sea 9 /reams & riv]s1 or dropp+ into ! /ill salt m>%es :]e !y grew4 ,h5ce1 9 ! rocks deposit$ 9 a sea1 we h ! plants pres]v$ :i* grew on adjac5t l&s4 ,9 fre% wat]1 also1 ! plants ( ! neighb\rhood 7 (t5 fossiliz$2 b actually on ! l& itself b little 0 pres]v$4 ,! w9ds & ra9s & decay t are always at "w on a l& area t5d to break d[n & wa% away its surface1 n to build x up4 ,!re are _m diff]5t details :i* are us$ 9 det]m9+ ! evid5ce ( a fossil plant4 ,:]e leaf impressions are pres]v$ :i* exhibit a close simil>ity to liv+ species 7z (t5 happ5s 9 ! ,t]ti>y p]iod71 x is directly assum$ t !y liv$ "u conditions l ^? "u :i* ! pres5t plants ( t k9d are liv+2 :ile1 if ! anatomy is well pres]v$ 7z 9 ! ,palozoic & sev]al ,mesozoic types71 we c comp>e its details ) t ( simil> plants gr[+ "u kn[n conditions1 & judge ( ! climate t _h nurtur$ ! fossil plant :ile x grew4 ,previ\s to ! pres5t p]iod !re 0 :at is s well kn[n z ! ,glacial epo*4 ,9 ! e>?y deposits ( ?is age 9 :i* fossils are f\nd plants are n uncommon4 ,!y are ( ! same k9d z ^? n[ gr[+ 9 ! cold regions ( ! ,arctic circle1 & on ! heights ( hills ^: temp]ature is mu* l[] ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ l[l&s4 ,glacial epo*s occurr$ 9 o!r p>ts ( ! _w at diff]5t times2 = example1 9 ,s\? ,africa1 9 ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s p]iod1 dur+ :i* "t ! fossils indicate t ! w>m?-lov+ plants 7 driv5 mu* f>!r nor? ?an is n[ ! case4 ,x is l>gely f ! nature ( ! plant fossils t we "k ! climate ( ,engl& at ! "t prec$+ ! ,glacial epo*4 ,impressions ( leaves & /ems1 & ev5 ( fruits1 are abundant f ! v>i\s p]iods ( ! ,t]ti>y4 ,_m ( !m 7 ,angiosp]ms 7see ,*ap4 ,,viii71 & 7 ( ! families & ev5 g5]a :i* are n[ liv+1 ( :i* n a few belong to ! w>m regions ( ! e>?1 & are subtropical4 ,x is g5]ally assum$ t ! fossils relat$ to1 or id5tical )1 ^! plants mu/ !re=e h f\nd 9 ,t]ti>y ,nor!rn ,europe a mu* w>m] climate ?an n[ exi/s4 ,n only 9 ,nor!rn ,europe1 b "r up into ! ,arctic circle1 su* plants occur 9 ,t]ti>y rocks1 & ev5 if we _h n _! liv+ repres5tatives ) :i* to comp>e !m1 ! l>ge size & ?9 texture ( _! leaves1 _! smoo?ness1 & a numb] ( o!r *>act]i/ics w\ld make x c]ta9 t ! climate 0 v mu* mild] ?an x is at pres5t1 ?\gh ! value ( "s ( ! evid5ce has be5 ov]e/imat$4 ,f ! ,t]ti>y we are dep5d5t *iefly on impressions ( fossils2 anatomical /ructure w\ld d\btless yield m details1 b ev5 z x is we h q en\gh evid5ce to ?r[ mu* light on ! physiography ( ! ,t]ti>y p]iod4 ,! causes = su* m>k$ *anges ( climate mu/ be left = ! consid]ation ( geologi/s & a/ronom]s4 ,plants are passive1 driv5 be=e great climatic *anges1 ?\gh !y h a consid]able influ5ce on ra9fall1 z has be5 prov$ repeat$ly 9 ,india 9 rec5t times4 ,f ! m di/ant p]iods x is ! plants ( ! ,c>bonif]\s1 ^: /ructure we "k s well1 t tea* u mo/4 ,al?\gh !re is /ill v mu* to be done be=e k is z complete z we %\ld wi%1 !re are suffici5t facts n[ discov]$ to correct sev]al popul> illusions conc]n+ ! ,palozoic p]iod4 ,! 8deep1 all-envelop+ mi/s1 ?r\gh :i* ! sun's rays c\ld sc>cely p5etrate01 :i* h tak5 ! popul> imag9ation1 appe> to h no f\ndation 9 fact4 ,!re is no?+ 9 ! actual /ructure ( ! plants to indicate t ! light int5sity ( ! climate 9 :i* !y grew 0 any less ?an x is 9 a smoke-free atmosph]e to-day4 ,look at ! 8%ade leaves0 ( any ord9>y tree1 su* z a ,lime or ,maple1 & comp>e !m ) ^? gr[+ 9 ! sunlight1 ev5 on ! same tree4 ,!y are l>g] & s(t] & ?9n]4 ,to absorb ! same am\nt ( en]gy z ! m brilliantly light$ leaves1 !y mu/ expose a l>g] surface to ! light4 ,h5ce if ! ,coal ,measure plants grew 9 v great %ade1 to supply _! l>ge gr[? ) ! necess>y sun en]gy we %\ld expect to f9d enorm\s spread+ leaves4 ,b :at is ! fact8 ,no su* l>ge leaves are kn[n4 ,calamites & ,lepidod5dron1 ! commone/ & mo/ successful plants ( ! p]iod1 _h n>r[ simple leaves ) b a small area ( surface4 ,!y 71 9 fact1 leaves ( ! type we n[ f9d gr[+ 9 expos$ places4 ,! f]ns _h l>ge divid$ leaves1 b !y 7 f9ely lob$ & did n expose a l>ge cont9u\s area z a true 8%ade leaf0 does2 :ile ! height ( _! /ems indicates t !y 7 gr[+ 9 p>tial %ade--at lea/1 ! %ade ca/ by ! small-leav$ ,calamites & ,lepidod5drons :i* ov]topp$ !m4 ,inde$ !re is no indication f geological evid5ce t s late z ,palozoic times !re 0 any great abnormality ( atmosph]e1 & f ! int]nal evid5ce ( ! plants !n gr[+ !re is ev]y?+ to indicate a dry or physiologically dry#ad sunny condition4 ,( ! plant fossils f ! ,coal ,measures we h at lea/ two types4 ,"o1 ^? commonly f\nd 9 nodules 9 ! coal itself2 & ! o!r1 nodules 9 ! rocks above ! coal :i* _h drift$ f high l&s into ! sea4 ,! =m] are ! plants :i* actually =m$ ! coal itself1 & f _! int]nal organization we see t ^! plants 7 gr[+ ) p>tly subm]g$ roots 9 bracki% swamps4 ,_! roots are ^? ( wat] plants 7see p4 #aej1 "y root ( ,calamite71 b _! leaves are ^? ( ! 8protect$0 type ) n>r[ surface & v>i\s devices = prev5t+ a loss ( wat] by rapid transpiration4 ,if ! wat] !y grew 9 _h be5 fre% !y w\ld n h _h su* leaves1 = !re w\ld h be5 no ne$ = !m to economize _! wat]1 b1 z we see 9 bogs & bracki% or salt wat] to-day 7:i* is physiologically usable 9 only small quantities by ! plant71 plants ev5 p>tly subm]g$ protect _! expos$ leaves f transpir+ l>gely4 ,!re are details too num]\s to m5tion 9 connection ) ^! coal-=m+ plants :i* g to prove t !re 7 l>ge regions ( swampy gr\nd ne> ! sea :]e !y 7 gr[+ 9 a bright atmosph]e & uni=m climate4 ,ext5sive areas ( coal1 & geological evid5ce ( /ill m ext5sive deposits1 %[ t 9 ,europe 9 ! ,coal ,measure p]iod !re 7 va/ flats1 s ne> ! sea level t !y 7 con/antly be+ subm]g$ & appe>+ aga9 z dbris drift$ & collect$ ov] !m4 ,su* a l& area mu/ h diff]$ greatly f ! ,europe n[ exi/+1 9 all its features4 ,b ! :ole cont95t did n consi/ ( ^! flats2 !re 7 hills & high] gr\nd1 l>gely to ! nor?-ea/1 on :i* a dry l& flora grew1 a flora :]e sev]al ( ! ,pt]idosp]ms & ,cordaites ) its allies 7 ! pr9cipal plants4 ,^! plants h leaves s organiz$ z to sugge/ t !y grew 9 a region :]e ! climate 0 bright & dry4 ,a fossil flora :i* has ar\s$ mu* int]e/1 p>ticul>ly among geologi/s1 is t kn[n z ! ,glossopt]is flora4 ,?is ,palozoic flora has 9 g5]al *>act]s simil> to ^? ( ! ,european ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s1 b x has special features ( its own1 9 p>ticul> ! g5us ,glossopt]is & also ! g5]a ,phyllo!ca & ,s*izoneura4 ,^! g5]a1 ) a few o!rs1 are *>act]i/ic ( ! ,p]mo-,c>bonif]\s p]iod 9 ! regions 9 ! ,s\!rn ,hemisph]e n[ kn[n by ! names ( ,au/ralasia1 ,s\? ,africa1 & ,s\? ,am]ica1 & 9 ,india4 ,^! regions1 at t date1 =m$ :at is call$ by geologi/s 8,gondwanal&04 ,9 ! rocks bel[ ^? conta9+ ! plants !re is evid5ce ( glacial conditions1 & x is n impossible t ?is great diff]5ce 9 climate acc\nts = ! diff]5ces :i* exi/ betwe5 ! flora ( ! ,gondwanal& region & ! ,nor!rn ,hemisph]e4 ,un=tunately we h n microscopically pres]v$ specim5s ( ! ,glossopt]is flora1 :i* c\ld be comp>$ ) ^? ( our own ,palozoic4#ae ,to describe 9 detail ! s]ies ( *anges ?r\gh :i* ! seas & cont95ts h pass$ belongs to ! realm ( pure geology4 ,"h x is only necess>y to po9t out h[ ! evid5ce f ! fossil plants may af=d mu* in=mation conc]n+ ^! cont95ts1 & z our k ( fossil anatomy & ( rec5t ecology increases1 _! evid5ce w become /ill m weighty4 ,ev5 n[1 _h we no o!r s\rces ( in=mation1 we c\ld tell f ! plants alone :]e 9 ! pa/ cont95ts 7 sn[ & ice1 heat & dr\ght1 swamps & hilly l&4 ,h[ev] diff]5t 9 _! sy/ematic position or scale ( evolutional developm5t1 plants h always _h simil> m9ute /ructure & simil> physiological response to ! conditions ( climate & l& surface1 s t 9 _! petrifi$ cells are pres]v$ ! hi/ories ( c\ntries & conditions long pa/4 ,,*apt] ,,xix ,,conclusion ,9 ! /up5d\s pageant ( liv+ ?+s :i* moves ?r\gh creation1 ! plants h a place unique & vitally important4 ,yet s quietly & s sl[ly d !y live & move t we 9 our ha/y motion (t5 =get t !y1 equally ) ourselves1 belong to ! liv+ & evolv+ organisms4 ,:5 we look at ! relative /ructures ( plants divid$ by long int]vals ( "t we c recognize ! progress !y make2 & ?is is :at we d 9 ! /udy ( fossil botany4 ,we c place ! sali5t features ( ! flora ( ,palozoic & ,mesozoic eras 9 a few pages ( pr9t1 & ! contra/ becomes surpris+4 ,b ! actual di/ance 9 "t betwe5 ^! two types ( plants is imm5se1 & mu/ h ext5d$ ov] sev]al million ye>s2 inde$ to speak ( ye>s becomes mean+less1 = ! duration ( ! p]iods mu/ h be5 s va/ t !y pass beyond our m5tal grasp4 ,9 ^! p]iods we f9d a contra/ 9 ! *>act]s ( ! plants z /rik+ z t 9 ! *>act]s ( ! animals4 ,:ole families di$ out1 & new ones arose ( m complex & advanc$ organization4 ,b 9 height & gir? !re is little diff]5ce betwe5 ! e>lie/ & ! late/ trees2 !re seems a limit to ! possible size ( plants on ?is planet1 z !re is to t ( animals1 ! height ( m\nta9s1 or ! dep? ( ! sea4 ,! 8high] plants0 are (t5 less massive & less 9 height ?an ! l[]--,man is less 9 /ature ?an 0 ! ,d9osaur--& ?\gh by no legitimate /ret* ( ! imag9ation c we speak ( bra9 9 plants1 !re is an unconsci\s sup]iority ( adaptation by :i* ! m highly organiz$ plants capture ! soil !y dom9ate4 ,x has be5 not$ 9 ! previ\s *apt]s t s f> back z ! ,coal ,measure p]iod ! vegetative p>ts ( plants 7 9 _m respects simil> to ^? ( ! pres5t1 x 0 9 ! reproductive organs t ! ess5tial diff]5ces lay4 ,naturally1 :5 a race 7z all races d7 dep5ds = its v exi/5ce on ! *a9 ( individuals lead+ f g5]ation to g5]ation1 ! mo/ important items 9 ! plant /ructures mu/ be ^? me*anisms conc]n$ ) reproduction4 ,x is "h t we see ! mo/ fundam5tal diff]5ces betwe5 liv+ & fossil plants1 betwe5 ! high] & ! l[] ( ^? n[ liv+1 betwe5 ! =e/ trees ( ! pres5t & ! =e/ trees ( ! pa/4 ,! wood ( ! palozoic ,lycopods 0 9 ! quality & ext5t & orig9 ( its second>y gr[? comp>able ) t ( high] plants /ill liv+ to-day--yet 9 ! fruit+ organs h[ va/ is ! contra/6 ,! ,lycopods1 ) simple cones compos$ ( scales 9 ^: huge sporangia 7 simple s+le-cell$ spores2 ! fl[]+ plants1 ) male & female %>ply contra/$ yet gr[+ 9 ! same cone 7"o c legitimately comp>e a fl[] ) a cone71 surr\nd$ by specially col\r$ & protective scales1 & ) ! 8spore0 9 ! tissue ( ! "y se$ s modifi$ & *ang$ t x is only 9 a te*nical s5se t comp>ison ) ! ,lycopod spore is possible4 ,to /udy ! m9ute details ( fossil plants x is necess>y to h an elaborate tra9+ 9 ! /ructure ( liv+ ones4 ,9 ! prec$+ *apt]s only ! sali5t features h be5 consid]$1 s t f !m we c only glean a k simil> to ! picture ( a h\se by a ,japanese arti/--a ?+ ( few l9es4 ,ev5 f ! facts br\ght toge!r 9 ^! %ort *apt]s1 h[ev]1 x _c fail to be evid5t h[ l>ge a field fossil botany cov]s1 & ) h[ _m subjects x comes 9 t\*4 ,f ! m9ute details ( plant anatomy & evolution pure & simple to ! climate ( dep>t$ cont95ts1 & f ! det]m9ation ( ! geological age ( a piece ( rock by means ( a black5$ f]n impression on x to ! *emical que/ions ( ! pres]vative prop]ties ( sea wat]1 all is a "p ( ! /udy ( 8fossil botany04 ,to br+ toge!r ! ma9 results ( ! /udy 9 a graphic =m is n an easy task1 b x is possible to con/ruct a r\gh diagram giv+ "s indication ( ! di/ribution ( ! *ief gr\ps ( plants 9 ! ma9 p]iods ( "t 7see fig4 #abb74 ,su* a diagram c only repres5t ! pres5t /ate ( our imp]fect k2 any day discov]ies may ext5d ! l9e ( any gr\p up or d[n 9 ! s]ies1 or may connect ! gr\ps toge!r4 ,x becomes evid5t t s e>ly z ! ,palozoic !re are ne>ly z _m types repres5t$ z 9 ! pres5t day1 & t 9 fact ev]y?+1 up to ! high] ,gymnosp]ms1 0 well develop$ 7= x is h>d inde$ to prove t ,cordaites is less highly organiz$ ?an "s ( ! pres5t ,gymnosp]m types71 b fl[]+ plants & also ! true cycads are want+1 z well z ! int]m$iate ,mesozoic ,b5nettitales4 ,! peculi> gr\ps ( ! p]iod 7 ! ,pt]idosp]m s]ies1 connect+ l9ks betwe5 f]n & cycad1 & ! ,sph5ophyllums1 connect+ 9 "s measure ! ,lycopods & ,calamites4 ,) !m "s ( ! /ill liv+ gr\ps ( f]ns1 ,lycopods1 & ,equisetace 7 fl\ri%+1 ?\gh all ! species diff]$ f ^? n[ extant4 ,?is %[s u h[ v f> f ! beg9n+ our e>lie/ in=mation is1 = already 9 ! ,palozoic we h a flora z div]sifi$ z t n[ liv+1 ?\gh ) m primitive *>act]s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #abb4--;,diagram %[+ ! relative di/ribution ( ! ma9 gr\ps ( plants ?r\gh ! geological eras4 ,! dott$ l9es connect+ ! gr\ps & ^? 9 ! pre-,c>bonif]\s are entirely !oretical1 & m]ely indicate ! conclusions rea*$ at pres5t4 ,! size ( ! surface ( ea* gr\p r\ghly indicates ! "p x play$ 9 ! flora ( ea* p]iod4 ,^? ) dott$ surface bore se$s1 ! o!rs spores4 ,9 ,mesozoic times ! mo/ /rik+ gr\p is t ( ! ,cycads & ,b5nettitales1 ! latt] bran* sugge/+ a direct connection betwe5 ! f]n-cycad s]ies & ! fl[]+ plants4 ,?is view1 s rec5tly publi%$ & upheld by v>i\s em95t botani/s1 is fa/ ga9+ gr\nd4 ,inde$1 s popul> has x become among ! speciali/s t !re is a dang] ( ov]look+ ! real difficulties ( ! case4 ,! morphological leap f ! leaves & /ems ( cycads to ^? ( ! fl[]+ plants seems a mu* m s]i\s matt] to presuppose ?an is at pres5t recogniz$4 ,z is indicat$ 9 ! diagram1 ! gr\ps d n appe> isolat$ by great unbridg$ gaps1 z !y did ev5 tw5ty ye>s ago4 ,by means ( ! fossils ei!r direct connections or probable l9es ( connection are discov]$ :i* l9k up ! s]ies ( families4 ,at pres5t ! greate/ gap n[ lies h$g+ 9 ! ,moss family1 &1 z 0 m5tion$ 7p4 #afc71 fossil botany _c z yet ?r[ mu* light on t problem ow+ to ! lack ( fossil mosses4 ,?is glimpse into ! pa/ sugge/s a prophecy = ! future4 ,evolution hav+ proce$$ /eadily = su* va/ p]iods is n likely to /op at ! /age rea*$ by ! plants ( to-day4 ,:at w be ! ma9 l9e ( advance ( ! plants ( ! future1 & h[ w !y diff] f ^? ( ! pres5t8 ,we h se5 9 ! pa/ h[ ! diff]5tiation ( size 9 ! spores result$ 9 sex1 & 9 ! high] plants 9 ! modifications along widely diff]5t l9es ( ! male & female2 h[ ! l>ge spore 7female7 became enclos$ 9 protect+ tissues1 :i* f9ally l$ up to true se$s 7see p4 #ge71 :ile ! male be+ s tempor>y _h no su* elaboration4 ,z ! se$ advances x becomes m & m complex1 & :5 we rea* /ill high] plants fur!r surr\nd+ tissues are press$ into its s]vice & x becomes enclos$ 9 ! c>pel ( ! highe/ fl[]+ plants4 ,aft] t ! se$ itself has few] g5]al duties1 & in/ead ( ^? ( ! ,gymnosp]ms ) l>ge endosp]ms collect+ food be=e ! embryo appe>s1 small ovules suffice1 :i* only develop aft] f]tilization is assur$4 ,! v>i\s families ( fl[]+ plants h gone fur!r1 & ! :ole complex s]ies ( bracts & f]tile p>ts :i* make up a fl[] is adapt$ to ensure ! cross+ ( male & female ( diff]5t individuals4 ,! complex me*anisms :i* seem adapt$ = 8cross f]tilization0 are innum]able1 & are f\nd 9 ! highe/ gr\ps ( ! fl[]+ plants4 ,b "s h gone beyond ! /age :5 ! individual fl[]s _h ea* its device1 & accompli%$ its se$-be>+ indep5d5tly ( ! o!r fl[]s on ! same bran*4 ,^! h a comb9ation ( _m fl[]s cr[d$ toge!r into "o community1 9 :i* !re is specialization ( diff]5t fl[]s = diff]5t duties4 ,9 su* a composite fl[]1 ! ,daisy = example1 "s are l>ge petall$ & brightly col\r$ to attract ! poll5-c>ry+ insects1 "s be> ! male organs only1 & o!rs ! female or se$-produc+4 ,"h1 !n1 9 ! mo/ advanc$ type ( fl[]+ plant we get back aga9 to ! sep>ation ( ! sexes 9 sep>ate fl[]s2 b ^! fl[]s are comb9$ 9 an organiz$ community mu* m complex ?an ! cones ( ! ,gymnosp]ms1 = example1 :]e ! sexes are sep>ate on a l[] plane ( developm5t4 ,x seems possible t an important gr\p1 if n ! dom9ant gr\p1 ( fl[]+ plants 9 ! future w be s organiz$ t ! individual fl[]s are v simple1 ) few] p>ts ?an ^? ( to-day1 b t !y w be comb9$ 9 communities ( highly specializ$ individuals 9 ea* fl[] head or clu/]4 ,z well z ?is1 9 o!r species ! m9ute /ructure ( ! vital organs may %[ a developm5t 9 a direction contr>y to :at has hi!rto seem$ advance4 ,until rec5tly fl[]s & _! organs h appe>$ to u to be specializ$ 9 ! m advanc$ gr\ps on su* l9es z enc\rage 8cross f]tilization04 ,9 8cross f]tilization01 9 fact1 has appe>$ to lie ! secret ( ! /r5g? & advance ( ! races ( plants4 ,b mod]n cytologi/s h f\nd t _m ( ! plants long believ$ to dep5d on cross f]tilization are ei!r self-f]tiliz$ or n f]tiliz$ at all6 ,!y h pass$ ?r\gh ! p]iod :5 _! complex /ructures = ensur+ cross f]tilization 7 us$1 & ?\gh !y reta9 ^! ext]nal /ructures !y h tak5 to a simpl] me?od ( se$ production1 & 9 "s cases h ev5 disp5s$ ) f]tilization ( ! egg cell altoge!r4 ,! female vitality increas$1 ! male becomes sup]flu\s4 ,x is simpl] & m direct to bre$ ) only "o sex1 or to use ! poll5 ( ! same individual4 ,_m fl[]s are do+ ?is :i* until rec5tly _h n be5 suspect$ ( x4 ,we _c yet tell :e!r x w "w successfully = c5turies to come or is an indication ( 8race s5ility04 ,:e!r 9 ! epo*s to come fl[]+ plants w cont9ue to hold ! dom9ant position :i* !y n[ d is an int]e/+ !oretical problem4 ,fl[]s 7 evolv$ 9 correlation ) insect poll9ation4 ,"o c conceive ( a future1 :5 all ! e>? is "u dom9ion ( man1 9 :i* fruits w be /]iliz$ = man's use1 z ! banana is n[1 & se$ =mation l>gely replac$ by g>d5]s' 8cutt+s04 ,9 ^? plants :i* are n[ liv+ :]e ! complex me*anisms = cross-f]tilization h be5 sup]s$$ by simple self-f]tilization1 ! ext]nal p>ts ( ! m elaborate me?od are /ill produc$1 ?\gh !y are app>5tly futile4 ,9 ! future ^! ve/igial organs w be disc>d$1 or develop$ 9 a m rudim5t>y =m 7= x is rem>kable h[ organs t 7 once us$ by ! race reappe> 9 memb]s ( x t h long outgr[n _! use71 & ! morphology ( ! fl[] w be greatly simplifi$4 ,?us we c =esee on bo? sides mu* simplifi$ individual fl[]s--9 ! "o gr\p ! r$uc$ individuals associat+ toge!r 9 communities ! memb]s ( :i* are highly specializ$1 & 9 ! o!r ! solit>y fl[]s becom+ less elaborate & conspicu\s1 z !y no long] ne$ ! assi/ance ( insects 7! clei/ogamic fl[]s ( ! ,violet1 = example1 ev5 9 ! pres5t day b5d t[>d ! e>?1 & lack all ! bright attractiv5ess ( ord9>y fl[]s71 & p]haps f9ally develop+ und]gr\nd1 :]e ! se$s c\ld directly g]m9ate4 ,9 ! vegetative organs less *ange is to be expect$1 ! examples f ! pa/ lead u to =esee no great diff]5ce 9 size or g5]al organization ( ! ess5tial p>ts1 ?\gh ! int]nal anatomy has v>i$1 & probably w v>y1 greatly ) ! :ole evolution ( ! plant4 ,b "o m po9t & we mu/ h done4 ,:y d plants evolve at all8 ,:y did !y d s ?r\gh ! geological ages ( ! pa/1 & :y %\ld we expect !m to d s 9 ! future8 ,! answ] to ?is "q mu/ be less assur$ ?an x might h be5 ev5 tw5ty ye>s ago1 :5 ! magnetism ( ,d>w9's discov]ies & elucidations seem$ to obsess 8 disciples4 8,response to environm5t0 is und\bt$ly a pot5t factor 9 ! c\rse ( evolution1 b x is n ! cause ( x4 ,!re seems to be some?+ inh]5t 9 life1 some?+ app>5tly 7?\gh t may be due to our incomplete p[]s ( obs]vation7 ap>t f obs]vable factors ( environm5t :i* causes slight spontane\s *anges1 mutations1 & "s individuals ( a species w sudd5ly develop 9 a new direction 9 "o or o!r ( _! p>ts4 ,if1 !n1 ?is places !m 9 a sup]ior position z reg>ds _! environm5t or neighb\rs1 x p]si/s1 b if n1 ^? individuals die out4 ,! "w ( a special bran* ( mod]n botany seems cle>ly to indicate ! great importance ( ?is seem+ly inexplicable spontaneity ( life4 ,9 environm5t alone ! ?\ghtful /ud5t ( ! pres5t _c f9d inc5tive en\gh = ! great *anges & advances made by organisms 9 ! c\rse ( ! _w's hi/ory4 ,! climate & purely physical conditions ( ! ,coal ,measure p]iod 7 probably b little diff]5t f ^? 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w to-day1 b ! plants !mselves h fundam5tally *ang$4 ,true1 _! effect ^u ea* o!r mu/ be tak5 into acc\nt1 b ?is is a less active factor ) plants ?an ) m51 = we c imag9e no?+ equival5t to citiz5%ip1 society1 & education 9 ! plant communities1 :i* are s vital 9 human developm5t4 ,x seems to h be5 prov$ t plants & animals may1 at c]ta9 unkn[n int]vals1 8mutate02 & mutation is a f9e ^w to express our rec5t view ( "o ( ! ess5tial factors 9 evolution4 ,b x is a cloak = an ignorance av[$ly less mitigat$ ?an :5 we ?\ght to h f\nd a complete explanation ( ! causes ( evolution 9 8environm5t04 ,9 a sket* su* z ! pres5t1 outl9es alone are possible1 detail _c be elaborat$4 ,if x has sugge/$ en\gh ( atmosph]e to %[ ! va/ness ( ! l&scape spread+ out be=e our eyes back into ! pa/ & on into ! future1 ! task has be5 accompli%$4 ,!re are _m detail$ volumes :i* foll[ out "o or o!r special l9e ( enquiry along ! highroads & by-ways ( ?is long trav]se 9 creation4 ,if ! bird's-eye view ( ! c\ntry giv5 9 ?is book entices "s to foot x y>d by y>d "u ! guidance ( speciali/s = ea* di/rict1 x w h done its "p4 ,:ile to ^? :o w make no intimate acqua9tance ) s f> (f a l& x pres5ts a %ort acc\nt by a travell]1 s t !y may "k some?+ ( ! ma9 features & a little ( ! romance ( ! fossil _w4 ,,app5dix ,i ,,li/ ,,( ,,requirem5ts ,,= ,a ,,collect+ ,,exp$ition ,9 ord] to obta9 ! be/ possible results f an exp$ition1 x is well to g fossil hunt+ 9 a p>ty ( two1 f\r1 or six p]sons4 ,l>ge p>ties t5d to split up into deta*m5ts1 or to wa/e "t 9 try+ to keep toge!r4 ,ea* individual %\ld h /rong suitable clo!s1 ) z _m pockets arrang$ 9 !m z possible4 ,! weight ( ! /ones c ?us be di/ribut$ ov] ! body1 & is n felt s mu* z if !y 7 all c>ri$ 9 a knapsack4 ,ea* collector %\ld also provide himself )-- ,a sat*el or knapsack1 pref]ably ( lea!r or /rong canvas1 b n ( l>ge size1 = :5 ! space is limit$ selection ( ! specim5s is likely to be made c>efully4 ,"o or two hamm]s4 ,if only "o is c>ri$1 x %\ld be ( a fair size ) a squ>e head & /rong /raight edge4 ,"o *isel1 entirely ( metal1 & ) a /rong /raight cutt+ edge4 ,s(t pap] to wrap up ! m delicate fossils1 9 ord] to prev5t !m f scrap+ ea* o!r's surfaces2 & "o or two small c>dbo>d boxes = v fragile specim5s4 ,a map ( ! di/rict 7pref]ably geologically col\r$74 ,localities %\ld be not$ 9 p5cil on ?is1 indicat+ ! exact spot ( f9ds4 ,= g5]al "w ! "o-in* survey map suffices1 b = detail$ "w x is necess>y to h ! six-in* maps ( important di/ricts4 ,a small notebook4 ,few notes are ne$$1 b ^? few mu/ be tak5 on ! spot to be reliable4 ,a p5cil or f\nta9 p51 pref]ably bo?4 ,a p5knife1 :i*1 among o!r ?+s1 w be f\nd useful = work+ out v delicate fossils4 ,,app5dix ,,ii ,,treatm5t ,,( ,,specim5s #a4 ,! commone/ =m 9 :i* fossils are collect$ is t :i* has be5 describ$ z impression mat]ial 7see p4 #ab74 ,9 _m cases ^! w ne$ no fur!r att5tion aft] ! block ( /one on :i* !y lie has be5 *ipp$ into %ape4 ,9 *ipp+ a block d[n to ! size requir$ x is be/ to hold x freely 9 ! left h&1 protect+ ! actual specim5 ) ! palm :]e possible1 & tak+ ! surplus edges away by means ( %ort %>p bl[s f ! hamm]1 /rik+ s t only small pieces come away ) ea* bl[4 ,= delicate specim5s x is wise to leave a good m>g9 ( ! matrix r\nd ! specim51 & to d ! f9al cle>+ ) a ?9-blad$ p5knife1 tak+ away small flakes ( ! /one ) delicate taps on ! h&le ( ! knife4 ,specim5s f f9e s&/ones1 %ales1 & lime/ones are usually ?or\ghly h>d & resi/ant1 & are !n mu* bett] if left )\t treatm5t2 by v>ni%+ & poli%+ !m _m amateur collectors spoil _! specim5s1 = a coat ( %9y v>ni% (t5 conceals ! details ( ! fossil itself4 ,impressions ( plants on friable %ales1 on ! o!r h&1 or ^? :i* h a t5d5cy to peel (f z !y dry1 w require "s treatm5t4 ,9 su* cases ! be/ sub/ance to use is a dilute solution ( size1 9 :i* ! specim5 %\ld soak = a %ort p]iod :ile ! liquid is w>m 7n hot71 aft] :i* x %\ld be slightly dra9$ & ! size all[$ to dry 94 ,! congeal$ sub/ance !n holds ! plant film on to ! rock surface & prev5ts ! rock f crumbl+ away1 :ile x is almo/ invisible & does n spoil ! plant ) any excessive glaze4 #b4 ,= specim5s ( ca/s ! same treatm5t g5]ally applies1 ?\gh !y are m apt to sep>ate completely f ! matrix aft] "o or two %>p bl[s1 & ?us save "o ! "w ( pick+ out ! details ( _! /ructure4 #c4 ,^? blocks :i* conta9 petrifactions1 & c !re=e be made to %[ microscopic details1 w require mu* m treatm5t4 ,9 "s cases m]e poli%+ reveals mu* ( ! /ructure--su*1 = in/ance1 7 ! 8,/a>/e9e0 ( ! ,g]man lapid>ies1 :]e ! axis & rootlets ( a fossil l a treef]n %[ _! v *>act]i/ic patt]n di/9ctly4 ,z a rule1 h[ev]1 x is bett]1 & = any detail$ "w x is ess5tial1 to cut ?9 sections transv]sely across & longitud9ally ?r\gh ! axis ( ! specim5 & to gr9d !m d[n till !y are s transp>5t t !y c be /udi$ ?r\gh ! microscope4 ,! cutt+ c be done on a lapid>y's :eel1 :]e a revolv+ metal disc set ) diamond p[d] acts z a knife4 ,! comp>atively ?9 slice ?us obta9$ is fa/5$ on to glass by means ( h>d ,canada balsam1 & rubb$ d[n ) c>borundum p[d] till x is ?9 en\gh4 ,! process1 h[ev]1 is v sl[1 & an amateur _c get good results )\t sp5d+ a l>ge am\nt ( "t & pati5ce ov] ! "w :i* w\ld be bett] sp5t ov] ! /udy ( ! plant /ructures !mselves4 ,!re=e x is usually m economical to s5d specim5s to be cut by a pr(essional1 if !y are good en\gh to be wor? cutt+ at all1 ?\gh x is (t5 advisable to cut ?r\gh an unpromis+ block to see :e!r its pres]vation is su* z w\ld ju/ify ! exp5se4 ,9 ! case ( true 8coal balls0 mu* c be se5 on ! cut surface ( a block1 p>ticul>ly if x be wa%$ = a m9ute 9 dilute hydro*loric acid & !n 9 wat]1 & !n dri$ ?or\ghly4 ,! acid acts on ! c>bonates ( :i* ! /one is l>gely compos$1 & ! treatm5t acc5tuates ! black-&-:ite contra/ 9 ! petrifi$ tissues 7see fig4 #aj74 ,aft] ly+ ab\t = a few mon?s ! %>pness ( ! surface gets rubb$ (f1 z ! acid eats x into v delicate irregul>ities :i* break & =m a sme>+ p[d]2 b 9 su* a case all t is ne$$ to br+ back ! orig9al p]fection ( def9ition is a quick wa% ( dilute acid & wat]4 ,if ! specim5s are n rubb$ at all ! surface is practically p]man5t4 ,blocks s treat$ reveal a rem>kable am\nt ( detail :5 exam9$ ) a /rong h& l5s1 & =m v valuable museum specim5s4 ,! microscope slides %\ld be cov]$ ) glass slips 7z !y w\ld naturally be if pur*as$71 & /udi$ "u ! microscope z sections ( liv+ plants w\ld be4 ,microscopic slides ( fossils make excell5t museum specim5s :5 m\nt$ z transp>5cies aga9/ a w9d[ or /rong light1 :5 a magnify+ glass w reveal all b ! la/ m9uti ( _! /ructure4 #d4 ,labell+ & numb]+ ( specim5s is v important1 ev5 if ! collection be b a small "o4 ,z well z ! pap] label giv+ full details1 !re %\ld be a ref]5ce numb] on e specim5 itself4 ,on ! microscope slides ?is c be cut ) a diamond p5cil1 & on ! /ones seal+ wax dissolv$ 9 alcohol pa9t$ on ) a bru% is p]haps ! be/ m$ium4 ,on light-col\r$ close-textur$ /ones ink is good1 & :5 q dry c ev5 be wa%$ )\t blurr+4 ,! importance ( m>k+ ! /one itself w be br\ght home to "o on go+ ?r\gh an old collection :]e ! pap] labels h peel$ or rubb$ (f1 or _! word+ be5 oblit]at$ by age or m\ld4 ,a notebook %\ld be kept 9 :i* ! numb]s are ent]$1 ) a note ( all ! items on ! pap] label1 & any additional details ( int]e/4 ,,app5dix ,,iii ,,lit]ature ,a %ort li/ ( a few ( ! m important pap]s & books to :i* a /ud5t %\ld ref]4 ,! innum]able pap]s ( ! speciali/s w be f\nd cit$ 9 ^!1 s t1 z !y w\ld be read only by advanc$ /ud5ts1 !re is no attempt to catalogue !m "h4 ,c>ru!rs1 ,w41 8,on ,fossil ,cycadean ,/ems f ! ,second>y ,rocks ( ,brita910 publi%$ 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,l9nean ,society1 vol4 xxvi1 #ahgj4 99,geikie1 ,a41 ,a ,text-,book ( ,geology1 vols4 i & ii1 ,london1 #aijc4 ,gr&',eury1 ,c41 8,flore ,c>bonifre du dp>tem5t de la ,loire et du c5tre de la ,france01 publi%$ 9 ! ,mmoirs de l',acadmie des ,sci5ces1 ,p>is1 vol4 xxiv1 #ahgg4 99,kid/on1 ,r41 ,catalogue ( ! ,palozoic ,plants 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,geology & ,palontology ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 ,london1 #ahhf4 99,lapwor?1 ,c41 ,an ,int]m$iate ,text-,book ( ,geology1 twelf? edition1 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,laur5t1 ,l41 8,les ,progrs de la palobotanique angiosp]mique dans la d]nire decade01 ,progressus ,rei ,botanic1 vol4 i1 ,heft #b1 pp4 #cai-fh1 ,j5a1 #aijg4 ,l9dley1 ,j41 & ,hutton1 ,w41 ,! ,fossil ,flora ( ,great ,brita91 #c vols41 publi%$ 9 ,london1 #ahca-g4 ,lyell1 ,c41 ,pr9ciples ( ,geology & ,! ,/ud5t's ,lyell1 edit$ by ,j4 ,w4 ,judd1 ,london1 #ahif4 ,oliv]1 ,f4 ,w41 & ,scott1 ,d4 ,h41 8,on ! ,/ructure ( ! ,palozoic ,se$1 ,lag5o/oma ,lomaxi01 publi%$ 9 ! ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society1 s]ies ,b1 vol4 cxcvii1 ,london1 #aijd4 ,r5ault1 ,b41 ,c\rs de ,botanique fossile1 ,p>is1 #ahhb1 #d vols4 ,r5ault1 ,b41 ,bass9 ,h\ill] et ,p]mi5 d',autun et d',ep9ac1 ,atlas & ,text1 #ahic-f1 ,p>is4 99,scott1 ,d4 ,h41 ,/udies 9 ,fossil ,botany1 ,london1 second edition1 #aiji4 ,scott1 ,d4 ,h41 8,on ! ,/ructure & ,aff9ities ( ,fossil ,plants f ! ,palozoic ,rocks4 ,on ,*eiro/robus1 a ,new ,type ( ,fossil ,cone f ! ,l[] ,c>bonif]\s ,/rata40 ,publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society1 vol4 clxxxix1 ,b1 #ahig4 99,sew>d1 ,a4 ,c41 ,fossil ,plants1 vol4 i1 ,cambridge1 #ahih4 ,sew>d1 ,a4 ,c41 ,catalogue ( ! ,mesozoic ,plants 9 ! ,dep>tm5t ( ,geology ( ! ,briti% ,museum1 ,p>ts ,i & ,,ii1 ,london1 #ahid-e4 99,solms-,lauba*1 ,graf zu1 ,fossil ,botany 7translation f ! ,g]man71 ,ox=d1 #ahia4 ,/opes1 ,m4 ,c41 & ,watson1 ,d4 ,m4 ,s41 8,on ! ,/ructure & ,aff9ities ( ! ,calc>e\s ,concretions kn[n z #8,coal ,balls'01 publi%$ 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society1 vol4 cc4 99,/opes1 ,m4 ,c41 ,! ,/udy ( ,plant ,life = ,"y ,p1 ,london1 #aijf4 99,watts1 ,w4 ,w41 ,geology = ,beg9n]s1 ,london1 #aije 7second edition74 ,wiel&1 ,g4 ,r41 ,am]ican ,fossil ,cycads1 ,c>negie ,in/itute1 #aijf4 ,williamson1 ,w4 ,c41 ,a :ole s]ies ( publications 9 ! ,philosophical ,transactions ( ! ,royal ,society f #ahga to #ahia1 & ?ree lat] ones jo9tly ) ,dr4 ,scott2 ! s]ies entitl$ 8,on ! ,organization ( ! ,fossil ,plants ( ! ,coal ,measures01 ,memoir ,i1 ,,ii1 c4 ,zeill]1 ,r41 lm5ts de ,palobotanique1 ,p>is1 #aijj4 99,zittel1 ,k41 ,h&bu* d] ,palontologie1 vol4 ii2 ,palophytologie1 by ,s*imp] ,s*5k1 ,mn*5 & ,leipzig1 #aijj4 ,^? m>k$ 99 w\ld be f\nd ! mo/ useful = "o beg9n+ ! subject4 ,,gloss>y ,"s ( ! m te*nical t]ms ab\t :i* !re might be "s d\bt1 z !y are n always accompani$ by explanations 9 ! text1 are "h briefly def9$4 ,anatomy4--,! /udy ( ! details & relative arrangem5ts ( ! int]nal features ( plants2 9 p>ticul>1 ! relations ( ! diff]5t tissue sy/ems4 ,bracts4--,organs ( ! nature ( leaves1 ?\gh n usual foliage leaves4 ,!y (t5 surr\nd fructifications1 & are g5]ally br[n & scaly1 ?\gh !y may be brightly col\r$ or m]ely gre54 ,calc>e\s4--,conta9+ e>?y c>bonates1 p>ticul>ly calcium c>bonate 7*alk74 ,cambium4--,n>r[ liv+ cells1 :i* are con/antly divid+ & giv+ rise to new tissues 7see fig4 #cc1 p4 #eg74 ,c>bonates1 z us$ 9 ?is book1 ref] to ! comb9ations ( "s e>?y m9]al1 su* z calcium or magnesium1 comb9$ ) c>bonic acid gas & oxyg51 =mula ,ca,c,o#c1 ,mg,c,o#c1 c4 ,c>pel4--,! clos$ /ructure cov]+ ! se$s :i* gr[ atta*$ to x4 ,! 8husk0 ( a peapod is a c>pel4 ,cell4--,! unit ( a plant body4 ,fundam5tally a mass ( liv+ protoplasm ) its nucleus1 surr\nd$ 9 mo/ cases by a wall4 ,mature cells %[ _m v>ieties ( %ape & organization4 ,see ,*apt] ,,vi1 p4 #ed4 ,c5trifugal4--,wood or o!r tissues develop$ away f ! c5tre ( ! /em4 ,see fig4 #fe1 p4 #ig4 ,c5tripetal4--,wood or o!r tissues develop$ t[>ds ! c5tre ( ! /em4 ,see fig4 #fe1 p4 #ig4 ,*loropla/4--,! microscopic col\r$ masses1 usually r\nd1 gre5 bodies1 9 ! cells ( plants :i* are actively assimilat+4 ,coal ,balls4--,masses ( c>bonate ( calcium1 magnesium1 c41 g5]ally ( r\ndi% =m1 :i* are f\nd emb$d$ 9 ! coal1 & conta9 petrifi$ plant tissues4 ,see p4 #bh4 ,concretions4--,r\ndi% m9]al masses1 =m$ 9 conc5tric lay]s1 l ! coats ( an onion4 ,see p4 #bg4 ,cotyl$ons4--,! fir/ leaves ( an embryo4 ,9 _m cases pack$ ) food & fill+ ! se$4 ,see fig4 #eh4 ,cross ,f]tilization4--,! fusion ( male & female cells f diff]5t plants4 ,cuticle4--,a sk9 ( a special *emical nature :i* =ms on ! out] wall ( ! epid]mis cells4 ,see p4 #ed1 fig4 #ba4 ,e>? ,movem5ts4--,! gradual %ift+ ( ! level ( ! l&1 & ! b5d+ & contortions ( rocks :i* result f ! sl[ %r9k+ ( ! e>?'s surface1 & give rise to e>?quakes & volcanic action4 ,embryo4--,! v "y plant1 sometimes consi/+ ( only a few delicate cells1 :i* results f ! divisions ( ! f]tiliz$ egg cell4 ,! embryo is an ess5tial "p ( mod]n se$s1 & (t5 fills ! :ole se$1 z 9 a bean1 :]e ! two fle%y masses fill+ x are ! two fir/ leaves ( ! embryo4 ,see fig4 #eh1 p4 #gg4 ,endod]mis4--,! specializ$ lay] ( cells =m+ a %ea? r\nd ! vascul> tissue4 ,see p4 #ee4 ,endosp]m4--,! _m-cell$ tissue :i* fills ! l>ge 8spore0 9 ! ,gymnosp]m se$1 into :i* ! embryo f9ally gr[s4 ,see fig4 #eg4 ,epid]mis4--,out] lay] ( cells1 :i* =ms a sk91 9 ! multicellul> plants4 ,see fig4 #ba1 p4 #ed4 ,fruit4--,ess5tially consi/+ ( a se$ or se$s1 enclos$ 9 "s surr\nd+ tissues1 :i* may be only ^? ( ! c>pel1 or may also be o!r p>ts ( ! fl[] fus$ to x4 ,?us a peapod is a fruit1 conta9+ ! peas1 :i* are se$s4 ,ganni/]4--,a v h>d1 gritty rock f\nd bel[ "s coal seams4 ,see p4 #be4 ,g5us4--,a small gr\p )9 a family :i* includes all ! plants v l ea* o!r1 to :i* are all giv5 ! same 8surname02 e4g4 ,p9us montana1 ,p9us sylve/ris1 ,p9us ,p9a/]1 c4 c41 are all memb]s ( ! g5us ,p9us1 & w\ld be call$ 8p9e trees0 9 g5]al 7see 8,species074 ,hyph4--,! delicate elongat$ cells ( ,fungi4 ,molecule4--,! gr\p ( *emical elem5ts1 9 a def9ite proportion1 :i* is ! basis ( any comp\nd sub/ance2 e4g4 two atoms ( hydrog5 & "o atom ( oxyg5 =m a molecule ( wat]1 ,h#b,o4 ,a lime c>bonate molecule 7see def9ition ( 8,c>bonate07 is repres5t$ z ,ca,c,o#c4 ,mono/elic4--,a type ( /em t conta9s only "o /ele4 ,morphology4--,! /udy ( ! features ( plants1 _! %apes & relations1 & ! !ories reg>d+ ! orig9 ( ! organs4 ,nucellus4--,! tissue 9 a ,gymnosp]m se$ 9 :i* ! l>ge 8spore0 develops4 ,see figs4 #ee & #ef1 p4 #gf4 ,nucleus4--,! m compact mass ( protoplasm 9 ! c5tre ( ea* liv+ cell1 :i* controls its gr[? & division4 ,see fig4 #ag1 n4 ,palobotany4--,! /udy ( fossil plants4 ,palontology4--,! /udy ( fossil organisms1 bo? plants & animals4 ,petiole4--,! /alk ( a leaf1 :i* atta*es x to ! /em4 ,phloem4--,commonly call$ 8ba/04 ,! elongat$ vessel-l cells :i* conduct ! manufactur$ food4 ,see p4 #eg4 ,poll5 ,*amb]4--,! cavity inside a ,gymnosp]m se$ 9 :i* ! poll5 gra9s re/ = "s "t be=e giv+ out ! male cells :i* f]tilize ! egg-cell 9 ! se$4 ,see p4 #gf4 ,poly/elic4--,a type ( /em t appe>s1 9 any transv]se section1 to conta9 sev]al /eles4 ,see note on ! use ( ! ^w on p4 #fc4 ,protoplasm4--,! col\rless1 con/antly mov+ mass ( f9ely granulat$1 jelly-l sub/ance1 :i* is ! ess5tially liv+ "p ( bo? plants & animals4 ,rock4--,us$ by a geologi/ = all k9ds ( e>? lay]s4 ,clay1 & ev5 gravel1 are 8rocks0 9 a geological s5se4 ,ro(1 ( a coal seam4 ,! lay]s ( rock--usually %ale1 lime/one1 or s&/one--:i* lie j above ! coal4 ,see p4 #bd4 ,scl]5*yma4--,cells ) v ?ick walls1 specially modifi$ = /r5g!n+ ! tissues4 ,see fig4 #bh1 p4 #ef4 ,se$4--,ess5tially consi/+ ( a "y embryo & ! tissues r\nd x1 :i* are enclos$ 9 a d\ble coat4 ,see def9ition ( 8,fruit04 ,%ale4--,a f9e-gra9$ s(t rock1 =m$ ( dri$ & press$ mud or silt1 :i* t5ds to split into ?9 %eets1 on ! surface ( :i* fossils are (t5 f\nd4 ,species4--,individuals :i* 9 all ess5tials are id5tical are said to be ( ! same species4 ,z !re are _m v>iations :i* are n ess5tial1 x is sometimes f> f easy to draw ! b\nd>y betwe5 actual species4 ,! specific "n comes aft] t ( ! g5us1 e4g4 ,p9us montana is a species ( ! g5us ,p9us1 z is also ,p9us sylve/ris4 ,see 8,g5us04 ,sporangium4--,! saclike case :i* conta9s ! spores4 ,see figs4 #eb & #ec1 p4 #ge4 ,spore4--,a s+le cell 7g5]ally protect$ by a cell wall7 :i* has ! p[] ( g]m9at+ & reproduc+ ! plant ( :i* x is ! reproductive body4 ,see p4 #ge4 ,sporophyll4--,a leaf or "p ( a leaf :i* be>s spores or se$s1 & :i* may be mu* or little modifi$4 ,/ele4--,a /r& ( vascul> tissue completely enclos$ 9 an endod]mis4 ,see p4 #fb4 ,/igma4--,a special protub]ance ( ! c>pel 9 fl[]+ plants :i* cat*es ! poll5 gra9s4 ,/omates4--,brea?+ pores 9 ! epid]mis1 :i* =m z a space betwe5 two curv$ liplike cells4 ,see fig4 #bc1 p4 #ed4 ,tetrads4--,gr\ps ( f\r cells :i* develop by ! division ( a s+le cell call$ ! 8"m cell04 ,spores & poll5 gra9s are ne>ly always =m$ 9 ?is way4 ,see p4 #ge4 ,tra*eid4--,a cell specially modifi$ = conduct+ or /or+ ( wat]1 (t5 mu* elongat$4 ,! long wood cells ( ,f]ns & ,gymnosp]ms are tra*eids4 ,und]clay4--,! f9e clay f\nd imm$iately bel[ "s coal seams4 ,see p4 #bd4 ,vascul> ,tissue4--,! elongat$ cells :i* are specializ$ = conduction ( wat] & semifluid food/uffs4 ,,footnotes #a,my book 0 entirely writt5 be=e ! second edition ( ,scott's ,/udies appe>$1 :i*1 _h x be5 available1 w\ld h tempt$ me to escape "s ( ! lab\r sev]al ( ! *apt]s ( ?is little book involv$4 #b,! /ud5t w\ld d well to read up ! g5]al geology ( ?is v int]e/+ subject4 ,su* books z ,lyell's ,pr9ciples ( ,geology1 ,geikie's textbooks1 & _m o!rs1 provide in=mation ab\t ! process ( 8m\nta9 build+0 on :i* ! =m ( our coalfields dep5ds4 ,a good elem5t>y acc\nt is to be f\nd 9 ,watt's ,geology = ,beg9n]s1 p4 #if et seq4 #c,see note on p4 #bh4 #d,?is ref]s only to ! 8coal-ball0-be>+ seams2 !re are _m o!r coals :i* h c]ta9ly collect$ 9 o!r ways4 ,see ,/opes ,watson1 ,app5dix1 p4 #ahg4 #e;,= a detail$ li/ ( ! /rata ref] to ,watts1 p4 #bai 7see ,app5dix74 #f,?\gh ! ,angiosp]m 0 n !n evolv$1 ! ,gymnosp]m /em has di/9ct vascul> bundles arrang$ z are ^? ( ! ,angiosp]m1 ! diff]5ce "h lies 9 ! type ( wood cells4 #g,! gametophyte g5]ation 7repres5t$ 9 ! f]ns by ! pro?allium on :i* ! sexual organs develop7 alt]nates ) ! l>ge1 leafy sporophyte4 ,ref] to ,scott's volume on ,fl[]less ,plants 7see ,app5dix7 = an acc\nt ( ?is alt]nation ( g5]ations4 #h,mat]ial rec5tly obta9$ by ! au?or & ,dr4 ,fujii 9 ,japan does conta9 "s true petrifactions ( ,angiosp]ms & o!r plant debris4 ,! acc\nt ( ^! discov]ies has n yet be5 publi%$4 #i;,a full] acc\nt ( ! ,angiosp]mic flora c be _h 9 ,fr5*1 9 ,m4 ,laur5t's pap] 9 ,progressus ,rei ,botanic4 ,see ,app5dix = ref]5ce4 #aj;,f ! ,cretace\s deposits ( ,nor? ,am]ica sev]al fossil =ms 7,bra*yphyllum1 ,protodamm>a7 are describ$ :i* %[ cle> aff9ities ) ! family z x is n[ con/itut$4 7,see ,hollick & ,jeffrey2 ref]5ce 9 ! ,app5dix47 #aa,! addition ( -oxylon to ! g5]ic "n ( any liv+ type indicates t we are deal+ ) a fossil :i* closely resembles ! liv+ type s f> z we h in=mation f ! petrifi$ mat]ial4 #ab,see ref]5ce 9 ! ,app5dix to ?is ri*ly illu/rat$ volume4 #ac;,= full] description ( ?is int]e/+ cone1 see ,scott's ,/udies1 p4 #aad et seq4 #ad;,a bracki% swampy l& is physiologically dry1 z ! plants _c use ! wat]4 ,see ,w>m+'s ,oecology ( ,plants1 ,engli% edition1 = a detail$ acc\nt ( su* conditions4 ,= a simple acc\nt see ,/opes' ,! ,/udy ( ,plant ,life1 p4 #agj4 #ae,! /ud5t int]e/$ 9 ?is special flora %\ld ref] to ,arb]'s ,briti% ,museum ,catalogue ( ! ,fossil ,plants ( ! ,glossopt]is ,flora4 ,,index 7,italiciz$ numb]s ref] to illu/rations7 ,abiet9e1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij4 -- family *>act]s (1 #ia4 ,alg1 #dd1 #dg1 #afe4 -- br[n1 #aff4 -- gre51 #afe4 -- r$1 #afe4 ,alnus1 #he4 ,amb]1 #ag4 ,am5tif]1 #hd4 ,anatomy ( fossil plants1 lik5ess 9 detail to t ( liv+ plants1 #ec et seq4 -- -- -- -- diff]5ces 9 detail f t ( liv+ plants1 #fi et seq4 ,&rom$a1 #hd4 ,angiosp]ms1 comp>ison ) ,b5nettitales1 #ajc4 -- e>ly hi/ory (1 #gi et seq4 -- g5]al di/ribution ( 9 "t1 #agg4 -- lat] evolution (1 #agh4 -- male cell (1 #eb4 ,araliace1 #he4 ,arauc>e1 #hh1 #ij1 #aaa4 -- description (1 #ij4 -- primitive *>act]s (1 #hi4 ,arauc>ioxylon1 #ic1 #ie4 ,arb]1 #agc4 ,ar*ocalamites1 #aeb4 ,artoc>pace1 #he4 ,a/]o*la5a1 #abf1 #abg1 #hf1 #hi4 ,bacillus1 #afg4 ,bact]ia1 #afg4 ,bai]a1 #aja4 ,ba/1 #eg1 #cb4 ,b5nettitales1 #dd1 #ajb1 #aca4 -- g5]al di/ribution ( 9 "t1 #agg4 ,b5nettites1 #ajc et seq4 -- ext]nal appe>ance (1 #ajc4 -- fl[]-l nature ( fructification1 #ajh4 -- fructification (1 #ajd1 #ga1 #aje1 #gb4 -- se$ (1 #ajf1 #gc4 ,b]tr&1 #b4 ,betula1 #he4 ,bignonia1 #hd4 ,botryopt]ide1 #abe1 #acb4 -- description ( gr\p1 #abe4 -- fructifications (1 #abh4 -- petioles (1 #abg1 #hi4 -- /em anatomy (1 #abf1 #hf1 #hg4 -- wood (1 #abh1 #ij4 ,botryopt]is1 #abf1 #abg4 -- axis ) petiole1 #abg1 #hh1 #hi4 ,b[manites ,rm]i1 #aeh1 #afj4 ,bra*yphyllum1 #hi4 ,brongni>t1 #b4 ,bryophytes1 #afc4 ,calamites1 #adg1 #aed1 #aeg1 #aei1 #afj1 #aga4 -- bran* (1 #adg1 #ajd4 -- ca%eana1 #aeb4 -- cone (1 #aej1 #aji1 #aea1 #aaj4 -- leaf (1 #adi1 #ajg4 -- node (1 #adi1 #ajf4 -- spores (1 #aeb1 #aaa4 -- "y roots (1 #aej1 #ajh4 -- "y /em (1 #adh1 #aje4 ,cambium1 #eg1 #cc1 #fe1 #dc1 #ff1 #dd4 ,c>bon1 film ( repres5t+ decay$ plant1 #ab4 ,c>bonate ( magnesium1 #bj4 ,c>bonates ( lime1 #ai4 ,c>pels1 modifi$ leaves1 #gh4 ,c>ru!rs1 #ahf4 ,ca/s ( fossil plants1 #h1 #i1 #b1 #aj1 #c1 #d1 #aa1 #ab4 -- ( se$s1 #aa1 #ab4 -- treatm5t ( specim5s (1 #ahd4 ,casu>9a1 #hc4 ,cells1 simil>ity ( liv+ & fossil types (1 #ec4 -- pr9cipal types (1 #ec et seq41 #bb-cc4 ,cell wall1 #dg1 #ag4 ,c5trifugal wood1 #ig1 #fe4 ,c5tripetal wood1 #ig1 #fe1 #aaf4 ,*>a1 #af4 ,*>ace1 #afc4 ,*eiro/robus1 #aei1 #aah1 #afj4 ,*loropla/1 #dg1 #ag4 ,coal1 orig9 (1 #bi et seq4 -- ( diff]5t ages1 #cc4 -- seams 9 ! rocks1 #bd1 #ac1 #ad4 -- vegetable nature (1 #be et seq4 -- importance (1 #ag1 ,*ap4 ,,iii1 p4 #bb et seq4 8,coal balls01 #ah1 #ai1 #aj1 #bj1 #ba1 #bb1 #bg1 #ae1 #afc1 #ahe4 -- -- mass (1 9 coal1 #bh1 #af4 ,coal ,measures1 climate (1 #agb4 ,companion cells1 #eg1 #cb4 ,concretions1 #ba1 #bb1 #bg1 #ae1 #bh4 -- conc5tric b&+ 91 #bg1 #ae4 ,conduct+ tissue 9 high] plants1 #di1 #ai1 #ej1 #bj4 ,conif]ales1 conflict+ obs]vations among1 #df4 -- g5]al di/ribution 9 "t1 #agg4 -- male cell (1 #eb4 ,corall9a1 #aff4 ,cordaite1 #ci-hh1 #aab4 -- comp>ison ( fructifications ) ^? ( ,taxe1 #ie4 -- description ( family1 #ib4 -- g5]al di/ribution 9 "t1 #agg4 ,cordaites1 #dj1 #ajg1 #agf4 -- fructification (1 #ie1 #if1 #fd4 -- int]nal ca/ ( /em1 #aj1 #d1 #ic1 #id1 #ie4 -- leaves (1 once consid]$ to be ,monocotyl$ons1 #hb1 #ic4 -- leaves (1 #ic1 #fa1 #id1 #fb;,a4 -- possible common orig9 ) ,g9kgo1 #ajb4 -- wood (1 #id1 #fb;,b4 ,cork1 #ef1 #bi4 -- cambium1 #ef1 #bi4 ,cross f]tilization1 #agi4 ,cupresse1 #hh1 #ij4 -- description (1 #ia4 ,cycadeoidea1 #ajc4 ,cycads 9 ! ,mesozoic p]iod1 #dj1 #da1 #db1 #aac4 -- description ( gr\p1 #aji4 -- g5]al di/ribution ( 9 "t1 #agg4 -- 9 ,t]ti>y p]iod1 #he4 -- l>ge size ( male cones (1 #aaj4 -- se$s (1 #aab4 -- type ( se$ (1 #gf1 #eg4 -- wood (1 #aaj4 ,cycas1 #aji1 #aaj1 #gd4 -- se$-be>+ sporophyll (1 #aaa4 -- se$s (1 #aab1 #gf4 -- comp>ison ) ,g9kgo se$s1 #aab4 ,d>w91 #aha4 ,diatoms1 #afg1 #aba4 ,dicotyl$ons1 #da1 #dd1 #gi4 -- relative antiquity (1 #ha1 #hb4 -- se$ type (1 #gg1 #eh4 ,diff]5tiation1 comm5cem5t ( 9 simple plants1 #dh4 -- ( tissues 9 high] plants1 #di1 #ai1 #ej et seq41 #bj4 ,embryo ( ,g9kgo1 #ajj4 -- 9 se$s1 #gf1 #eg1 #gg1 #eh4 -- ( ,b5nettites1 #ajf1 #gc4 ,endod]mis1 #ee1 #bf1 #fa4 ,environm5t1 #aha1 #ahb4 ,epid]mal tissues1 #ed1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #abe4 ,epid]mis cells1 fossil impressions (1 #ac1 #ad1 #h1 #ei1 #cd1 #abe4 ,equisetales1 #dd4 -- g5]al di/ribution ( 9 "t1 #agg4 ,equisetites1 #adf1 #ajc4 ,equisetum1 #i1 #ch1 #dj1 #dd1 #ade1 #adi1 #aeb4 -- und]gr\nd rhizomes (1 #dc4 ,eucalyptus1 #hc4 ,europe1 #hg1 #ajb4 -- anci5t climates (1 #agj4 ,evolution1 #dc4 -- 9 plants1 v>i\s degrees ( 9 ! organs ( ! same plant1 #de et seq4 ,evolution 9 plants1 cause (1 #aha4 -- -- -- sugge/ions z to possible future l9es (1 #agh4 ,exp$ition1 requirem5ts = collect+1 #ahc4 ,ext9ct families1 #dd4 ,f]ns1 sporangia (1 #fg1 #de4 -- connection ) ,pt]idosp]ms1 #abc4 -- description ( gr\p1 #abd4 -- fructifications ( among fossils1 #aca1 #acb1 #ib4 -- g5]al di/ribution ( 9 "t1 #agg4 -- g]m9at+ spores (1 #fh1 #dg4 ,ficus1 #hc4 ,flotsam1 #f4 ,fl[]+ plant1 anatomy ( /em1 #di1 #ai4 ,=mation ( rocks1 key to processes1 #f4 ,fossil plants1 indications ( anci5t climates & conditions1 #afh4 -- -- diagram illu/ration ! di/ribution (1 #agg1 #abb4 ,fungi1 fossils (1 #afd4 -- p>asitic1 #aai1 #afd1 #afe1 #abj4 ,gamopetal1 #hd4 ,ganni/]1 #be1 #ad4 ,geikie1 #ahf4 ,g9kgo1 leaf impression1 #ad1 #g1 #ajj1 #fi4 -- comp>ison ) ,cycas se$s1 #aab4 -- di/ribution 9 ! pa/1 #afh4 -- embryo (1 #ajj4 -- epid]mis ( fossil1 #ad1 #h1 #ajj4 -- foliage (1 #ii1 #ff4 -- only liv+ species ( g5us1 #ih1 #gj4 -- possible common orig9 ) ,cordaites1 #ajb4 -- ripe se$ (1 #ii1 #fg4 -- section ( se$ (1 #ajj1 #fh4 -- se$ /ructure (1 #gf1 #eg4 -- simil>ity to ,cordaites1 #if4 ,g9kgoace1 #hh4 ,g9kgoales1 #hh1 #ih4 -- description ( gr\p1 #ih4 -- g5]al di/ribution 9 "t1 #agg4 ,glacial epo*1 #agj4 ,glossopt]is1 #agc4 ,glypto/robus1 #hf4 ,gondwanal&1 #agc4 ,gr&',eury1 #ahf4 ,gum1 #ag4 ,gymnosp]ms1 #ch1 #da1 #dd1 #hf1 #agf1 #agi4 -- connection ) ,pt]idosp]ms1 #abd4 -- g5]al di/ribution 9 "t1 #agg4 -- relations betwe5 ! gr\ps (1 #hh1 #hi1 #ij4 ,hairs1 #ed1 #bb1 #gj4 -- special =ms among fossils1 #gj4 ,het]angium1 #aai1 #abb1 #abc1 #abg4 -- foliage (1 #abj4 -- /em (1 #abj1 #ha4 ,hollick & ,jeffrey1 #hi4 ,horsetails1 description ( gr\p1 #ade4 ,hutton1 #b4 ,impression1 =m ( fossil1 #e1 #ab1 #ac1 #f1 #ad1 #g1 #ae1 #hj1 #ha1 #ei1 #fj4 -- treatm5t ( specim5s (1 #ahd4 ,inve/igators ( fossil plants1 #b4 ,iron sulphide1 #bj4 ,jet1 #ag4 ,jugl&ace1 #hc4 ,kauri p9e1 #ic4 ,kew ,g>d5s1 #ih4 ,kid/on1 #ahf4 ,labell+ ( specim5s1 #ahe4 ,lag5o/oma1 #gf1 #ef1 #aah1 #aai1 #hj4 ,lam9>ia1 #aff4 ,lapwor?1 #ahf4 ,latex cells1 #ee1 #bg4 ,laurace1 #he4 ,laur5t1 #ahf4 ,leaves1 />* manufacture 9 cells (1 #eh4 -- fossil leaf anatomy1 #ei1 #cd4 -- g5]al simil>ity ( liv+ & fossil1 #eh4 ,lepidoc>pon1 #ada1 #ajj4 ,lepidod5dron1 #i1 #aj1 #c1 #ba1 #ab1 #fg1 #df1 #gb1 #ge1 #acd1 #add1 #ade1 #aeg1 #afj1 #aga4 -- anatomy ( /em (1 #acf1 #acg1 #ie1 #ach1 #if1 #aci1 #ig4 -- comp>ison ( reproductive organs ) ^? ( liv+ lycopods1 #fg1 #df4 ,lepidod5dron1 description (1 #acd4 -- di/ribution 9 ! pa/1 #agg4 -- fructification (1 #aci1 #adj1 #ih1 #ada1 #ii4 -- huge /umps (1 #acd1 frontispiece4 -- leaf bases1 #aj1 #c1 #ace1 #ic4 -- leaf traces (1 #aci1 #ig4 -- peculi> fructification (1 #ge1 #ed4 -- petrifaction ( leaves1 #ba1 #ab4 -- rootlike organs (1 #fi4 -- second>y ?ick5+ 91 #gj1 #dh1 #ga1 #di4 -- selag9oides1 /em (1 #acg1 #ie4 -- wood (1 #gj1 #dh1 #ga1 #di4 ,liliace1 #hb4 ,lime/one1 #g1 #a1 #bd1 #be1 #cf4 ,l9dley1 #b1 #ahf4 ,lit]ature on fossil plants1 #ahf4 ,li?o?amnion1 #aff4 ,liv]worts1 #afc4 ,lycopods1 #ch1 #dj1 #db1 #dd1 #fg1 #acc1 #age4 -- description ( gr\p1 #acc4 -- g5]al di/ribution 9 "t1 #agg4 -- reproductive organs (1 #fg1 #df4 -- second>y wood 9 fossil1 #gj1 #dh1 #ga1 #di4 ,lyell1 #ahf4 ,lyg9od5dron1 #aae1 #aaf1 #abb4 -- anatomy ( /em (1 #aaf1 #gh;,a4 -- petioles (1 #aag1 #aah1 #gi4 -- roots (1 #aag1 #gh;,b4 -- se$s (1 #aah1 #aai1 #hj4 ,magnolia1 #hc4 ,m>attia1 #acj4 ,m>attiace1 #abe1 #abi4 -- appe>ance (1 #acj4 -- description ( gr\p1 #abi4 ,m>*antites1 #afc4 ,m$ullosa1 #gb1 #gc1 #aai1 #abj1 #aba1 #hb1 #hc1 #abb1 #abc4 -- foliage (1 #aba1 #hc4 -- probable se$s (1 #aba4 -- /eles (1 #gb1 #ej1 #gc1 #ea1 #abj4 ,mesozoic1 "* ( flora1 #dj4 ,metaxylem1 #eg1 #ca4 ,mycorhiza1 #afe4 ,micrococcus1 #afg4 ,monocotyl$ons1 #da1 #dd1 #gi4 -- relative antiquity (1 #ha1 #hb4 ,mono/elic anatomy1 #fc1 #abf4 ,mosses1 sc>city ( fossils (1 #afb4 ,mosses1 fossils (1 #afc4 ,m\nta9 build+1 f deposits "u wat]1 #f4 -- -- sl[ & cont9u\s *anges1 #ce4 ,muscites1 #afc4 ,mutation1 #aha4 ,nematophycus1 #aff4 ,neuropt]is1 leaf impression1 #f1 #ac4 -- foliage ( ,m$ullosa1 #abb4 -- ) se$ atta*$1 #abb1 #he4 ,nipa1 #he4 ,nodules1 #ae1 #af1 #i4 ,nucleus1 #dg1 #ag4 ,oliv]1 #ahg4 ,osmunda1 #abe4 ,ovule1 ^w unsuitable = palaeozoic 8se$s01 #gg4 ,palisade cells1 #ee1 #be4 -- tissue 9 leaves1 #eh4 -- -- -- fossil leaf1 #ei1 #cd4 ,palms1 #he4 ,p>5*yma1 #ee1 #bd4 ,petrifaction ( cells1 #d4 ,petrifactions1 #ag4 -- ( =e/ dbris1 #ah4 -- treatm5t ( specim5s (1 #ahd4 ,phyllo!ca1 #agc4 ,plant1 p>ts (1 ! same 9 liv+ & fossil1 #ei4 -- _w1 ma9 families 91 #dd4 ,platanus1 #hc4 ,polypodiace1 #abd4 ,poly/elic anatomy1 #fc1 #gb4 ,populus1 #hc1 #he4 ,poroxyle1 #hh4 -- description ( gr\p (1 #if4 ,poroxylon1 anatomy (1 #ig1 #aaf4 ,primitive plants1 #df4 ,prim(ilices1 #acb4 ,protococcoide1 #dg1 #ag4 ,protodamm>a1 #hi4 ,protoplasm1 #dg4 ,proto/ele1 #fb1 #gj4 ,protoxylem1 #eg1 #ca4 ,ps>onius1 #abi1 #acj4 -- /em anatomy (1 #aca1 #ia4 ,pt]idophytes1 developm5t ( second>y wood 9 fossil =ms (1 #gb4 ,pt]idosp]ms1 #dd1 #ajd1 #aad1 #aca4 -- description ( gr\p1 #aad et seq4 -- g5]al di/ribution ( 9 "t1 #agg4 -- summ>y ( *>act]s (1 #abc4 ,pt]is aurita1 #fb4 ,qu>ries1 #g1 #a4 ,qu]cus1 #hc1 #he4 ,race s5ility1 #ahj4 ,ranales1 #ajc4 ,r5ault1 #b1 #aef1 #ahg4 ,reproductive organs1 lik5ess betwe5 ^? ( liv+ & fossil plants1 #fg1 #de1 #df4 -- -- peculi> *>act]s ( "s f ! ,palozoic1 #gd4 -- -- simplicity ( ess5tial cells (1 #eb4 ,rocks1 p]si/5ce ( m9]al con/itu5ts1 #cf4 -- fossils v>y+ 9 accord+ to ! geological age1 #cg et seq4 ,ro( ( coal seam1 #bd1 #ac1 #be1 #ad4 ,roots1 lik5ess ( /ructure 9 liv+ & fossil1 #fj1 #ce4 ,salix1 #hc4 ,sambucus1 #hd4 ,s*izoneura1 #agc4 ,scl]5*yma1 #ef1 #bf1 #ei1 #cd4 ,scott1 #b1 #afj1 #ahg4 ,second>y wood1 developm5t ( 9 fossil memb]s ( families n[ lack+ x1 #gb4 ,se$s1 s]ies ( types f spores to se$s1 #ge1 #gf1 #eb-eh4 -- position on ! plant1 #gg1 #gh4 -- ,t]ti>y impressions (1 #hj1 #ha1 #fj4 ,selag9ella1 #ge1 #acc1 #acd4 -- ) f\r spores 9 a sporangium1 #ge1 #ec4 ,sequoia1 #hf4 ,sew>d1 #ahg4 8,%ade leaves01 #aga4 ,%ale1 #g1 #a1 #aa1 #bd1 #be1 #cf4 ,sieve tubes1 #eg1 #cb4 ,sigill>ia1 #adb1 #ade4 ,sigill>ia1 ca/ ( leaf bases1 #i1 #b1 #add1 #ajb4 -- description (1 #add4 ,silica1 #ag4 ,silicifi$ wood1 #ag1 #hj1 #hg4 ,solms ,lauba*1 #b1 #ahg4 ,specim5s1 treatm5t (1 #ahd4 ,sph5ophyllales1 #dd1 #aec4 -- description (1 #aec4 -- g5]al di/ribution 9 "t1 #agg4 ,sph5ophyllum1 #dd1 #aec1 #aed1 #afj4 -- cone (1 #aeg1 #aaf4 -- f]tile1 #aeh4 -- impression ( foliage1 #aed1 #aab4 -- plurifoliatum1 #aec4 -- sporangia (1 #aeh1 #aag4 -- /em anatomy1 #aee1 #aac1 #aef1 #aad4 -- /em 9 coal ball1 #bj4 -- wood (1 #aef1 #aad1 #aae4 ,sph5opt]is1 leaf impression1 #aa1 #e4 -- foliage ( ,pt]idosp]ms1 #aae1 #gg4 ,sporangium ( f]ns1 #fg1 #de4 -- ( lycopods1 #fg1 #df4 -- ( pt]idophytes1 #ge1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed4 ,spores1 g]m9at+1 9 fossil sporangia1 #fh1 #dg4 -- peculi> /ructures among palozoic examples (1 #gd4 -- s]ies ( types f 8spores0 to 8se$s01 #ge1 #gf1 #eb-eh4 -- tetrads (1 #ge1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed4 ,sporophyll1 #ge1 #eb1 #ec1 #ed4 ,/ang]ia1 #aaj4 ,/ele1 modifications (1 #fb1 #cf-db4 ,/ems1 ext]nal simil>ity 9 liv+ & fossil1 #fj4 ,/]nb]gia1 ca/ (1 #aj1 #d4 -- pi? ca/ ( ,cordaites1 #ic4 ,/igm>ia1 #fi1 #adb1 #adc1 #add1 #ade4 -- rootlet (1 #adc1 #aja4 ,/omates1 #ed1 #bc4 -- 9 fossil epid]mis1 #ad1 #h4 ,/oneworts1 #afc4 ,syncl9es1 #bc4 ,taxe1 #hh1 #ij4 -- comp>ison ( fructification ) t ( ,cordaite1 #ie4 -- description (1 #ib4 ,taxe1 fle%y se$s (1 #hi4 ,taxodium1 #hf4 ,taxus1 #hb4 ,"t1 divisions ( geological "t1 #cd4 ,tra*eides = wat] /orage1 #ef1 #cj4 ,tree-f]ns1 #acj4 ,trigonoc>pus1 #aa1 #gf1 #hb1 #abb1 #hd4 -- once suppos$ to be a ,monocotyl$on1 #hb4 -- probably ! se$ ( ,m$ullosa1 #aba4 ,tubicaulis1 #abg1 #hi4 ,unexplor$ _w1 #c4 ,unicellul> plants1 #dg1 #ag4 -- -- division ( cells 91 #dg1 #dh1 #ah4 8,vascul> bundles01 relation ( to /eles1 #fe1 #db4 -- tissue1 #eg1 #ca1 #cb1 #cc1 #ei4 -- -- cont9u$ gr[? (1 #fe1 #dc4 -- -- importance 9 plant anatomy1 #fa et seq4 ,viburnum1 #hd1 #he4 ,watts1 #ahg4 ,we/phalia1 #ai4 ,wiel&1 #b1 #ajb1 #ahg4 ,williamson1 #b1 #ahg4 ,williamsonia1 #ajd4 ,wood1 cells compos+1 #eg1 #ca4 -- c5trifugal developm5t (1 #ig1 #fe4 -- c5tripetal developm5t (1 #ig1 #fe4 -- p>5*yma1 #eg1 #ca4 -- silicifi$1 #ag1 #hj1 #hg4 -- solid r+s ( =m$ by cambium1 #ff1 #dd4 -- vessels ( ,angiosp]ms1 #eh4 ,yell[/one ,p>k1 #ag1 #afg4 ,yew1 #hb4 ,yucca1 #hb4 ,zeill]1 #b1 #ahg4 ,zittel1 #ahg4 ,zygopt]is1 #abg4 ,by ! ,same ,au?or ,! ,/udy ( ,plant ,life = ,"y ,p ,demy #hvo1 fully illu/rat$1 #bs4 #f;d4 net ,nature3 8,( ! v>i\s books writt5 = *ildr5 9 elem5t>y s*ools1 ,! ,/udy ( ,plant ,life is q ! mo/ logical & intellig5t t we h se504 ,man*e/] ,gu>dian3 8,) great skill ! k ga9$ f simple exp]im5ts 9 ! classroom or laboratory is made effective4444 ,our old fri5d ! cactus 444 & o!r exotic wond]s are happily relegat$ to v subord9ate p>ts 9 ^! bright & attractive pages40 ,a!num3 8,! au?or has atta9$ simplicity ( language--a m difficult bus9ess ?an writ]s ( textbooks imag9e--& z ! book is pr9t$ 9 l>ge1 cle> type1 we c /rongly recomm5d x to tea*]s 9 s*ools04 ,inquir]3 8,is a delightful book1 beautifully illu/rat$04 ,scotsman3 8,! book is a *>m+ guide = ! y\?ful botani/ or naturali/ to ! life hi/ory ( plants1 & x is writt5 ) a due reg>d to ! age ( ^? = :om x is int5d$04 ,k3 8,an excell5t book = "y p desir\s ( le>n+ ! :y & :]e=e ( plant life04 ,new ,age3 8,we h se5 no?+ produc$ on ?is side ( ! ,atlantic s good ( its k9d04 ,new ,phytologi/3 8444 may be unhesitat+ly pron\nc$ a great success 444 writt5 ) a bread? & k he has n met be=e 9 an ,engli% elem5t>y "w04 ,,london3 ,,blackie ,,son1 ,limit$1 #ej ,,old ,,bailey1 ,e4,c4 ,transcrib]'s ,notes --,sil5tly correct$ a h&ful ( palpable typos4 --,mov$ footnotes to a section imm$iately prec$+ ! ,index1 & add$ an entry = x to ! ,cont5ts4 --,slightly re=matt$ tables to bett] fit dynamic fl[ on n>r[ scre5s4 --,conjecturally re/or$ "o miss+ subtopic 78,coal1 importance (07 9 ! ,index4 --,9 ! text v]sions1 delimit$ text 9 italics by und]scores4 --,9 ! text v]sions1 includ$ fil5ames ( illu/rations1 = m conv5i5t ref]5ce 7by ano!r program74