,ver4#aj_/jd_/ja99;,,end99            ,a
 ,history of ,greek ,art  ,with an      
,introductory ,chapter on ,art in ,egypt
 and ,mesopotamia  ,,by ,f4 ,b4         
,,tarbell  ,,professor ,,of ,,classical 
,,archaeology ,,in ,,the ,,university   
,,of ,,chicago      ,,preface4   ,the   
art of any artistically gifted people   
may be studied with various purposes and
 in various ways4 ,one man1 being       
himself an artist1 may seek inspiration 
or guidance for his own practice2       
another1 being a student of the history 
of civilization1 may strive to          
comprehend the products of art as one   
manifestation of a people's spiritual   
life2 another may be interested chiefly 
in tracing the development of artistic  
processes1 forms1 and subjects2 and so  
on4 ,but this book has been written in  
the conviction that the greatest of all 
motives for studying art1 the motive    
which is and ought to be strongest in   
most people1 is the desire to become    
acquainted with beautiful and noble     

things1 the things that soothe the cares
 and lift the thoughts of man4 ,the     
historical method of treatment has been 
adopted as a matter of course1 but the  
emphasis is not laid upon the historical
 aspects of the subject4 ,the chief aim 
has been to present characteristic      
specimens of the finest ,greek work that
 has been preserved to us1 and to       
suggest how they may be intelligently   
enjoyed4 ,fortunate they who can carry  
their studies farther1 with the help of 
less elementary handbooks1 of           
photographs1 of casts1 or1 best of all1 
of the original monuments4  ,most of the
 illustrations in this book have been   
made from photographs1 of which all but 
a few belong to the collection of ,greek
 photographs owned by the ,university of
 ,chicago4 ,a number of other           
illustrations have been derived from    
books or serial publications1 as may be 
seen from the accompanying legends4 ,in 
several cases where cuts were actually  
taken from secondary sources1 such as   

,baumeister's ,denkmaler des klassischen
 ,altertums1 they have been credited to 
their original sources4 ,a few          
architectural drawings were made        
expressly for this work1 being adapted  
from trustworthy authorities1 viz43     
,figs4 #f1 #ea1 #fa1 and #fd4 ,there    
remain two or three additional          
illustrations1 which have so long formed
 a part of the ordinary stock-in trade  
of handbooks that it seemed unnecessary 
to assign their origin4  ,the           
introductory chapter has been kindly    
looked over by ,dr4 ,j4 ,h4 ,breasted1  
who has relieved it of a number of      
errors1 without in any way making       
himself responsible for it4 ,the        
remaining chapters have unfortunately   
not had the benefit of any such         
revision4  ,in the present reissue of   
this book a number of slight changes and
 corrections have been introduced4      
,chicago1 ,january1 #aije4              
,,contents4      ,i4 ,,art ,,in ,,egypt 
,,and ,,mesopotamia   ,,ii4             

,,prehistoric ,,art ,,in ,,greece       
,,iii4 ,,greek ,,architecture   ,,iv4   
,,greek ,,sculpture--,,general          
,,considerations    ,v4 ,,the ,,archaic 
,,period ,,of ,,greek ,,sculpture1      
,,first ,,half3 #fbe 787-#eej ,b4,c4    
,,vi4 ,,the ,,archaic ,,period ,,of     
,,greek ,,sculpture4 ,,second ,,half3   
#eej-dhj ,b4 ,c4  ,,vii4 ,,the          
,,transitional ,,period ,,of ,,greek    
,,sculpture4 #dhj-dejf4 ,c4 ,,viii4     
,,the ,,great ,,age ,,of ,,greek        
,,sculpture4 ,,first ,,period3 #dej-djj 
,b4 ,c4   ,,ix4 ,,the ,,great ,,age ,,of
 ,,greek ,,sculpture4 ,,second ,,period3
 #djj-cbc ,b4 ,c4    ,x4 ,,the          
,,hellenistic ,,period ,,of ,,greek     
,,sculpture4 #cbc-adf ,b4 ,c4   ,,xi4   
,,greek ,,painting      ,a ,,history    
,,of ,,greek ,,art4      ,,chapter ,i4  
,,art ,,in ,,egypt ,,and ,,mesopotamia4 
,the history of ,egypt1 from the time of
 the earliest extant monuments to the   
absorption of the country in the ,roman 
,empire1 covers a space of some         

thousands of years4 ,this long period   
was not one of stagnation4 ,it is only  
in proportion to our ignorance that life
 in ancient ,egypt seems to have been on
 one dull1 dead level4 ,dynasties rose  
and fell4 ,foreign invaders occupied the
 land and were expelled again4 ,customs1
 costumes1 beliefs1 institutions1       
underwent changes4 ,of course1 then1 art
 did not remain stationary4 ,on the     
contrary1 it had marked vicissitudes1   
now displaying great freshness and      
vigor1 now uninspired and monotonous1   
now seemingly dead1 and now reviving to 
new activity4 ,in ,babylonia we deal    
with perhaps even remoter periods of    
time1 but the artistic remains at       
present known from that quarter are     
comparatively scanty4 ,from ,assyria1   
however1 the daughter of ,babylonia1    
materials abound1 and the history of    
that country can be written in detail   
for a period of several centuries4      
,naturally1 then1 even a mere sketch of 
,egyptian1 ,babylonian1 and ,assyrian   

art would require much more space than  
is here at disposal4 ,all that can be   
attempted is to present a few examples  
and suggest a few general notions4 ,the 
main purpose will be to make clearer by 
comparison and contrast  the essential  
qualities of ,greek art1 to which this  
volume is devoted4  ,i begin with       
,egypt1 and offer at the outset a table 
of the most important periods of        
,egyptian history4 ,the dates are taken 
from the sketch prefixed to the         
catalogue of ,egyptian antiquities in   
the ,berlin ,museum4 ,in using them the 
reader must bear in mind that the       
earlier ,egyptian chronology is highly  
uncertain4 ,thus the date here suggested
 for the ,old ,empire1 while it cannot  
be too early1 may be a thousand years   
too late4 ,as we come down1 the margin  
of possible error grows less and less4  
,the figures assigned to the ,new       
,empire are regarded as trustworthy     
within a century or two4 ,but only when 
we reach the ,saite dynasty do we get a 

really precise chronology4  ,chief      
,periods of ,egyptian ,history3  ,,old  
,,empire1 with capital at ,memphis2     
,dynasties #d-e 7#bhjj-bejj ,b4 ,c4 or  
earlier7 and ,dynasty #f4  ,,middle     
,,empire1 with capital at ,thebes2      
,dynasties #aa-ac 7#bbjj-ahjj ,b4 ,c4 or
 earlier74  ,,new ,,empire1 with capital
 at ,thebes2 ,dynasties #ag-bj 7ca4     
#afjj-aajj ,b4 ,c474  ,,saite ,,period2 
,dynasty #bf 7#ffc-ebe ,b4 ,c474  ,one  
of the earliest ,egyptian sculptures now
 existing1 though certainly not earlier 
than the ,fourth ,dynasty1 is the great 
,sphinx of ,gizeh 7,fig4 #a74 ,the      
creature crouches in the desert1 a few  
miles to the north of the ancient       
,memphis1 just across the ,nile from the
 modern city of ,cairo4 ,with the body  
of a lion and the head of a man1 it     
represented a solar deity and was an    
object of worship4 ,it is hewn from the 
living rock and is of colossal size1 the
 height from the base to the top of the 
head being about #gj feet and the length

 of the body about #aej feet4 ,the paws 
and breast were originally covered with 
a limestone facing4 ,the present        
dilapidated condition of the monument is
 due partly to the tooth of time1 but   
still more to wanton mutilation at the  
hands of fanatical ,mohammedans4 ,the   
body is now almost shapeless4 ,the nose1
 the beard1 and the lower part of the   
head dress are gone4 ,the face is seamed
 with scars4 ,yet the strange monster   
still preserves a mysterious dignity1 as
 though it were guardian of all the     
secrets of ancient ,egypt1 but disdained
 to betray them  ,the art which         
conceived and carved this prodigious    
statue1 says ,professor ,maspero        
,footnote3 ,manual of  ,egyptian        
,archaeology second edition #ahie page  
#bjh was a finished art1 an art which   
had attained self mastery1 and was sure 
of its effects4 ,how many centuries had 
it taken to arrive at this degree of    
maturity and perfection8 ,it is         
impossible to  guess4 ,the long process 

of self- schooling in artistic methods  
which must have preceded this work is   
hidden from us4 ,we cannot trace the    
progress of ,egyptian  art from its     
timid1 awkward beginnings to the days of
 its conscious power1 as we shall find  
ourselves able to do in the case of     
,greek art4 ,the evidence is            
annihilated1  or is hidden beneath the  
sand of the desert1 perhaps to  be one  
day revealed4 ,should that day come1 a  
new first chapter in the history of     
,egyptian art will have to be written4  
,there are several groups of pyramids1  
large and small at ,gizeh and elsewhere1
 almost all of which  belong to the ,old
 ,empire4 ,the three great pyramids of  
,gizeh are among the earliest4 ,they    
were built by three kings of the ,fourth
 ,dynisty1 ,cheops 7,chufu71 ,chephren  
7,chafre71 and ,mycerinus 7,menkere7    
,they are  gigantic sepulchral monuments
 in which the mummies of the kings who  
built them were deposited4 ,the pyramid 
of ,cheops 7,fig4 #a1 at the right71 the

 largest of all1 was originally #dha    
feet #d inches in height1 and was thus  
doubtless the loftiest structure ever   
reared in pre- ,christian times4 ,the   
side of the square base measured #gee   
feet #h inches4 ,the pyramidal mass     
consists in the main of blocks of       
limestone1 and the exterior was         
originally cased with fine limestone1 so
 that the surfaces were perfectly       
smooth4 ,at present the casing is gone1 
and instead of a sharp point at the top 
there is a platform about thirty feet   
square4 ,in the heart of the mass was   
the granite chamber where the king's    
mummy was laid4 ,it was reached by an   
ingenious system of passages1 strongly  
barricaded4 ,yet all these precautions  
were  ineffectual to save ,king ,cheops 
from the hand of the spoiler4           
,chephren's pyramid 7,fig4 #a1 at the   
left7 is not much smaller than that of  
,cheops1 its present height being about 
#dej feet1 while the height of the third
 of this group1 that of ,mycerinus1 is  

about #baj feet4 ,no wonder that the    
pyramids came to be reckoned among the  
seven wonders of the world4  ,while     
kings erected pyramids to serve as their
 tombs1 officials of high rank were     
buried in1 or rather under1 structures  
of a different type1 now commonly known 
under the ,arabic name of mastabas4 ,the
 mastaba may be described as a block of 
masonry of limestone or sun-dried brick1
 oblong in plan1 with the sides built   
battering1 i4e41 sloping inward1 and    
with a flat top4 ,it had no             
architectural merits to speak of1 and   
therefore need not detain us4 ,it is    
worth remarking1 however1 that some of  
these mastabas contain genuine arches1  
formed of unbaked bricks4 ,the knowledge
 and use of the arch in ,egypt go back  
then to at least the period of the ,old 
,empire4 ,but the chief interest of the 
mastabas lies in the fact that they have
 preserved to us most of what we possess
 of early ,egyptian sculpture4 ,for in a
 small1 inaccessible chamber 7serdab7   

reserved in the mass of masonry were    
placed one or more portrait statues of  
the owner1 and often of his wife and    
other members of his household1 while   
the walls of another and larger chamber1
 which served as a chapel for the       
celebration of funeral rites1 were often
 covered with painted bas- reliefs1     
representing scenes from the owner's    
life or whatever in the way of funeral  
offering and human activity could       
minister to his happiness4  ,one of the 
best of the portrait statues of this    
period is the famous ,sheikh-el-,beled  
7,chief of the ,village71 attributed  to
 the ,fourth or ,fifth ,dynasty 7,fig4  
#b74 ,the name was given by the ,arab   
workmen1 who1 when the figure was first 
brought to light in the cemetery of     
,sakkarah1 thought they saw in it the   
likeness of their own sheikh4 ,the man's
 real name1 if he was the owner of the  
mastaba from whose serdab he was taken1 
was ,ra-em-ka4 ,the figure is less than 
life-sized1 being a little over three   

and one half feet in height4 ,it is of  
wood1 a common material for sculpture in
 ,egypt4 ,the arms were made separately 
7the left of two pieces7 and attached at
 the shoulders4 ,the feet1 which had    
decayed1 have been restored4 ,originally
 the figure was covered with a coating  
of linen1 and this with stucco1 painted4
 ,the eyeballs are of opaque white      
quartz1 set in a bronze sheath1 which   
forms the eyelids2 in the center of each
 there is a bit of rock-crystal1 and    
behind this a shining nail ,footnote3   
,musee de ,gizeh3 ,notice ,sommaire     
7#ahib74--;a contrivance which produces 
a marvelously  realistic effect4 ,the   
same thing1 or something like it1 is to 
be seen in other statues of the period4 
,the attitude of ,ra-em-ka is the usual 
one of ,egyptian standing figures of all
 periods3 the left leg is advanced2 both
 feet are planted flat on the ground2   
body and head face squarely forward4    
,the only deviation from the most usual 
type is in the left arm1 which is bent  

at the elbow1 that the hand may grasp   
the staff of office4 ,more often the    
arms both hang at the sides1 the hands  
clenched1 as in the admirable limestone 
figure of the priest1 ,ra-nofer 7,fig4  
#c74  ,the cross-legged scribe of the   
,louvre 7,fig4 #d7 illustrates another  
and less stereotyped attitude4 ,this    
figure was found in the tomb of one     
,sekhem-ka1 along with two statues of   
the owner and a group of the owner1 his 
wife1 and son4 ,the scribe was          
presumably in the employ of ,sekhem-ka4 
,the figure is of limestone1 the        
commonest material for these sepulchral 
statues1 and1 according to the unvarying
 practice1 was completely covered with  
color1 still in good preservation4 ,the 
flesh is of a reddish brown1 the regular
 color for men4 ,the eyes are similar to
 those of the ,sheikh-el- ,beled4 ,the  
man is seated with his legs crossed     
under him2 a strip of papyrus1 held by  
his left hand1 rests upon his lap2 his  
right hand held a pen4  ,the head shown 

in ,fig4 #e belongs to a group1 if we   
may give that name to two figures carved
 from separate blocks of limestone and  
seated stiffly side by side4 ,egyptian  
sculpture in the round never created a  
genuine1 integral group1 in which two or
 more figures are so combined that no   
one is intelligible without the rest2   
that achievement was reserved for the   
,greeks4 ,the lady in this case was a   
princess2 her husband1 by whom she sits1
 a high priest of ,heliopolis4 ,she is  
dressed in a long1 white smock1 in which
 there is no indication of folds4 ,on   
her head is a wig1 from under which1 in 
front1 her own hair shows4 ,her flesh is
 yellow1 the conventional tint for      
women1 as brownish red was for men4 ,her
 eyes are made of glass4  ,the specimens
 given have been selected with the      
purpose of showing the sculpture of the 
,old ,empire at its best4 ,the          
all-important fact to notice is the     
realism of these portraits4 ,we shall   
see that ,greek sculpture throughout its

 great period tends toward the typical  
and the ideal in the human face and     
figure4 ,not so in ,egypt4 ,here the    
task of the artist was to make a        
counterfeit presentment of his subject  
and he has achieved his task at times   
with marvelous skill4 ,especially the   
heads of the best statues have an       
individuality and lifelikeness which    
have hardly been surpassed in any age4  
,but let not our admiration blind us to 
the limitations of ,egyptian art4 ,the  
sculptor never attains to freedom in the
 posing of his figures4 ,whether the    
subject sits1 stands1 kneels1 or squats1
 the body and head always face directly 
forward4 ,and we look in vain for any   
appreciation on the sculptor's part of  
the beauty of the athletic body or of   
the artistic possibilities of drapery4  
,there is more variety of pose in the   
painted bas-reliefs with which the walls
 of the mastaba chapels are covered4    
,here are scenes of agriculture1        
cattle-tending1 fishing1 bread-making1  

and so on1 represented with admirable   
vivacity1 though with certain fixed     
conventionalities of style4 ,there are  
endless entertainment and instruction   
for us in these pictures of old         
,egyptian life4 ,yet no more here than  
in the portrait statues do we find a    
feeling for beauty of form or a poetic1 
idealizing touch4  ,as from the ,old    
,empire1 so from the ,middle ,empire1   
almost the only works of man surviving  
to us are tombs and their contents4     
,these tombs have no longer the simple  
mastaba form1 but are either built up of
 sun-dried brick in the form of a block 
capped by a pyramid or are excavated in 
the rock4 ,the former class offers      
little interest from the architectural  
point of view4 ,but some of the rock-cut
 tombs of ,beni-hasan1 belonging to the 
,twelfth ,dynasty1 exhibit a feature    
which calls for mention4 ,these tombs   
have been so made as to leave pillars of
 the living rock standing1 both at the  
entrance and in the chapel4 ,the        

simplest of these pillars are square in 
plan and somewhat tapering4 ,others1 by 
the chamfering off of their edges1 have 
been made eight-sided4 ,a repetition of 
the process gave sixteen-sided pillars4 
,the sixteen sides were then hollowed   
out 7channeled74 ,the result is         
illustrated by ,fig4 #f4 ,it will be    
observed that the pillar has a low1     
round base1 with beveled edge2 also1 at 
the top1 a square abacus1 which is      
simply a piece of the original          
four-sided pillar1 left untouched4 ,such
 polygonal pillars as these are commonly
 called proto-,doric columns4 ,the name 
was given in the belief that these were 
the models from which the ,greeks       
derived their ,doric columns1 and this  
belief is still held by many            
authorities4  ,with the ,new ,empire we 
begin to have numerous and extensive    
remains of temples1 while those of an   
earlier date have mostly disappeared4   
,fig4 #g may afford some notion of what 
an ,egyptian temple was like4 ,this one 

is at ,luxor1 on the site of ancient    
,thebes in ,upper ,egypt4 ,it is one of 
the largest of all1 being over #hjj feet
 in length4 ,like many others1 it was   
not originally planned on its present   
scale1 but represents two or three      
successive periods of construction1     
,ramses ,,ii41 of the ,nineteenth       
,dynasty1 having given it its final form
 by adding to an already finished       
building all that now stands before the 
second pair of towers4 ,as so extended1 
the building has three pylons1 as they  
are called1 pylon being the name for the
 pair of sloping-sided towers with      
gateway between4 ,behind the first pylon
 comes an open court surrounded by a    
cloister with double rows of columns4   
,the second and third pylons are        
connected with one another by a covered 
passage--an exceptional feature4 ,then  
comes a second open court2 then a       
hypostyle hall1 i4e41 a hall with flat  
roof supported by columns2 and finally1 
embedded in the midst of various        

chambers1 the relatively small          
sanctuary1 inaccessible to all save the 
king and the priests4 ,notice the double
 line of sphinxes flanking the avenue of
 approach1 the two granite obelisks at  
the entrance1 and the four colossal     
seated figures in granite representing  
,ramses ,,ii4--all characteristic       
features4  ,fig4 #h is taken from a     
neighboring and still more gigantic     
temple1 that of ,karnak4 ,imagine an    
immense hall1 #agj feet deep by #cbi    
feet broad4 ,down the middle run two    
rows of six columns each 7the nearest   
ones in the picture have been restored71
 nearly seventy feet high4 ,they have   
campaniform 7bell-shaped7 capitals4 ,on 
either side are seven rows of shorter   
columns1 somewhat more than forty feet  
high4 ,these1 as may be indistinctly    
seen at the right of our picture1 have  
capitals of a different type1 called1   
from their origin rather than from their
 actual appearance1 lotiform or         
lotus-bud capitals4 ,there was a        

clerestory over the four central rows of
 columns1 with windows in its walls4    
,the general plan1 therefore1 of this   
hypostyle hall has some resemblance to  
that of a ,christian basilica1 but the  
columns are much more numerous and      
closely set4 ,walls and columns were    
covered with hieroglyphic texts and     
sculptured and painted scenes4 ,the     
total effect of this colossal piece of  
architecture1 even in its ruin1 is one  
of overwhelming majesty4 ,no other work 
of human hands strikes the beholder with
 such a sense of awe4  ,fig4 #i is a    
restoration of one of the central       
columns of this hall4 ,except for one   
fault1 say ,messrs4 ,perrot and         
,chipiez1,footnote3 ,histoire de l',art 
,egypte1 page #egf4 ,the translation    
given above differs from that in the    
,english edition of ,perrot and         
,chipiez1 ,art in ,ancient ,egypt1 ,vol4
 ,,ii41 page #abc4 this column would be 
one of the most admirable creations of  
art2 it would hardly be inferior to the 

most perfect columns of ,greece4 ,the   
one fault--a grave one to a critical    
eye--is the meaningless and             
inappropriate block inserted between the
 capital and the horizontal beam which  
it is the function of the column to     
support4 ,the type of column used in the
 side aisles of the hall at ,karnak is  
illustrated by ,fig4 #aj1 taken from    
another temple4 ,it is much less        
admirable1 the contraction of the       
capital toward the top producing an     
unpleasant effect4  ,other specimens of 
these two types of column vary widely   
from those of ,karnak1 for ,egyptian    
architects did not feel obliged1 like   
,greek architects1 to conform1 with but 
slight liberty of deviation1 to         
established canons of form and          
proportion4 ,nor are these two by any   
means the only forms of support used in 
the temple architecture of the ,new     
,empire4 ,the proto-,doric column       
continued in favor under the ,new       
,empire1 though apparently not later2 we

 find it1 for example1 in some of the   
outlying buildings at ,karnak4 ,then    
there was the column whose capital was  
adorned with four heads in relief of the
 goddess ,hathor1 not to speak of other 
varieties4 ,whatever the precise form of
 the support1 it was always used to     
carry a horizontal beam4 ,although the  
,egyptians were familiar from very early
 times with the principle of the arch1  
and although examples of its use occur  
often enough under the ,new ,empire1 we 
do not find columns or piers used1 as in
 ,gothic architecture1 to carry a       
vaulting4 ,in fact1 the genuine vault is
 absent from ,egyptian temple           
architecture1 although in the ,temple of
 ,abydos false or corbelled vaults 7cf4 
page #di7 do occur4  ,egyptian          
architects were not gifted with a fine  
feeling for structural propriety or     
unity4 ,a few of their small temples are
 simple and coherent in plan and fairly 
tasteful in details4 ,but it is         
significant that a temple could always  

be enlarged by the addition of parts not
 contemplated in the original design4   
,the result in such a case was a vast1  
rambling edifice1 whose merits consisted
 in the imposing character of individual
 parts1 rather than in an organic and   
symmetrical relation of parts to whole4 
,statues of the ,new ,empire are far    
more numerous than those of any other   
period1 but few of them will compare in 
excellence with the best of those of the
 ,old ,empire4 ,colossal figures of     
kings abound1 chiseled with infinite    
patience from granite and other obdurate
 rocks4 ,all these and others may be    
passed over in order to make room for a 
statue in the ,louvre 7,fig4 #aa71 which
 is chosen1 not because of its artistic 
merits1 but because of its material and 
its subject4 ,it is of bronze1 somewhat 
over three feet in height1 thus being   
the largest ,egyptian bronze statue     
known4 ,it was cast in a single piece1  
except for the arms1 which were cast    
separately and attached4 ,the date of it

 is in dispute1 one authority assigning 
it to the ,eighteenth ,dynasty and      
another bringing it down as late as the 
seventh century ,b4,c4 ,be that as it   
may1 the art of casting hollow bronze   
figures is of high antiquity in ,egypt4 
,the figure represents a hawk-headed    
god1 ,horus1 who once held up some      
object1 probably a vase for libations4  
,egyptian divinities are often          
represented with the heads of animals-- 
,anubis with the head of a jackal1      
,hathor with that of a cow1 ,sebek with 
that of a crocodile1 and so on4 ,this in
 itself shows a lack of nobility in the 
popular theology4 ,moreover it is clear 
that the best talents of sculptors were 
engaged upon portraits of kings and     
queens and other human beings1 not upon 
figures of the gods4 ,the latter exist  
by the thousand1 to be sure1 but they   
are generally small statuettes1 a few   
inches high1 in bronze1 wood1 or        
faience4 ,and even if sculptors had been
 encouraged to do their best in bodying 

forth the forms of gods1 they would     
hardly have achieved high success4 ,the 
exalted imagination was lacking4  ,among
 the innumerable painted bas-reliefs    
covering the walls of tombs and temples1
 those of the great ,temple of ,abydos  
in ,upper ,egypt hold a high place4 ,one
 enthusiastic art critic has gone so far
 as to pronounce them the most perfect1 
the most noble bas- reliefs ever        
chiseled4 ,a specimen of this work1 now1
 alas6 more defaced than is here shown1 
is given in ,fig4 #ab4 ,king ,seti ,i4  
of the ,nineteenth ,dynasty stands in an
 attitude of homage before a seated     
divinity1 of whom almost nothing appears
 in the illustration4 ,on the palm of   
his right hand he holds a figure of     
,maat1 goddess of truth4 ,in front of   
him is a libation-standard1 on which    
rests a bunch of lotus flowers1 buds1   
and leaves4 ,the first remark to be made
 about this work is that it is genuine  
relief4 ,the forms are everywhere       
modeled1 whereas in much of what is     

commonly called bas-relief in ,egypt1   
the figures are only outlined and the   
spaces within the outlines are left     
flat4 ,as regards the treatment of the  
human figure1 we have here the          
stereotyped ,egyptian conventions4 ,the 
head1 except the eye1 is in profile1 the
 shoulders in front view1 the abdomen in
 three-quarters view1 the legs again in 
profile4 ,as a result of the distortion 
of the body1 the arms are badly attached
 at the shoulders4 ,furthermore the     
hands1 besides being very badly drawn1  
have in this instance the appearance of 
being mismated with the arms1 while both
 feet look like right feet4 ,the dress  
consists of the usual loin-cloth and of 
a thin1 transparent over-garment1       
indicated only by a line in front and   
below4 ,now surely no one will maintain 
that these methods and others of like   
sort which there is no opportunity here 
to illustrate are the most artistic ever
 devised4 ,nevertheless serious         
technical faults and shortcomings may   

coexist with great merits of composition
 and expression4 ,so it is in this      
relief of ,seti4 ,the design is stamped 
with unusual refinement and grace4 ,the 
theme is hackneyed enough1 but its      
treatment here raises it above the level
 of commonplace4  ,egyptian bas-reliefs 
were always completely covered with     
paint1 laid on in uniform tints4        
,paintings on a flat surface differ in  
no essential respect from these painted 
bas-reliefs4 ,the conventional and      
untruthful methods of representing the  
human form1 as well as other            
objects--buildings1 landscapes1         
etc4--are the same in the former as in  
the latter4 ,the coloring1 too1 is of   
the same sort1 there being no attempt to
 render gradations of color due to the  
play of light and shade4 ,fig4 #ac1 a   
lute-player from a royal tomb of the    
,eighteenth ,dynasty1 illustrates some  
of these points4 ,the reader who would  
form an idea of the composition of      
extensive scenes must consult works more

 especially devoted to ,egyptian art4   
,he will be rewarded with many a vivid  
picture of ancient ,egyptian life4  ,art
 was at a low ebb in ,egypt during the  
centuries of ,libyan and ,ethiopian     
domination which succeeded the ,new     
,empire4 ,there was a revival under the 
,saite monarchy in the seventh and sixth
 centuries ,b4,c4 ,to this period is    
assigned a superb head of dark green    
stone 7,fig4 #ad71 recently acquired by 
the ,berlin ,museum4 ,it has been broken
 from a standing or kneeling statue4    
,the form of the closely-shaven skull   
and the features of the strong face1    
wrinkled by age1 have been reproduced by
 the sculptor with unsurpassable        
fidelity4 ,the number of works emanating
 from the same school as this is very   
small1 but in quality they represent the
 highest development of ,egyptian       
sculpture4 ,it is fit that we should    
take our leave of ,egyptian art with    
such a work as this before us1 a work   
which gives us the quintessence of the  

artistic genius of the race4  ,babylonia
 was the seat of a civilization perhaps 
more hoary than that of ,egypt4 ,the    
known remains of ,babylonian art1       
however1 are at present far fewer than  
those of ,egypt and will probably always
 be so4 ,there being practically no     
stone in the country and wood being very
 scarce1 buildings were constructed     
entirely of bricks1 some of them merely 
sun-dried1 others kiln-baked4 ,the      
natural wells of bitumen supplied a     
tenacious mortar4 ,footnote3 ,compare   
,genesis ,,xi #c3 ,and they had brick   
for stone and slime had they for mortar4
 ,the ruins that have been explored at  
,tello1 ,nippur1 and elsewhere1 belong  
to city walls1 houses1 and temples4 ,the
 most peculiar and conspicuous feature  
of the temple was a lofty rectangular   
tower of several stages1 each stage     
smaller than the one below it4 ,the arch
 was known and used in ,babylonia from  
time immemorial4 ,as for the ornamental 
details of buildings1 we know very      

little about them except that large use 
was made of enameled bricks4  ,the only 
early ,babylonian sculptures of any     
consequence that we possess are a       
collection of broken reliefs and a dozen
 sculptures in the round1 found in a    
group of mounds called ,tello and now in
 the ,louvre4 ,the reliefs are extremely
 rude4 ,the statues are much better and 
are therefore probably of later date1   
they are commonly assigned by students  
of ,babylonian antiquities to about     
#cjjj ,b4,c4 ,fig4 #ae reproduces one of
 them4 ,the material1 as of the other   
statues found at the same place1 is a   
dark and excessively hard igneous rock  
7dolerite74 ,the person represented is  
one ,gudea1 the ruler of a small        
semi-independent principality4 ,on his  
lap he has a tablet on which is engraved
 the plan of a fortress1 very           
interesting  to the student of military 
antiquities4 ,the forms of the body are 
surprisingly well given1 even the       
knuckles of the fingers being indicated4

 ,as regards the drapery1 it is         
noteworthy that an attempt has been made
 to render folds on the right breast and
 the left arm4 ,the skirt of the dress  
is covered with an inscription in       
cuneiform characters4  ,fig4 #af belongs
 to the same group of sculptures as the 
seated figure just discussed4 ,although 
this head gives no such impression of   
lifelikeness as the best ,egyptian      
portraits1 it yet shows careful study4  
,cheeks1 chin1 and mouth are well       
rendered4 ,the eyelids1 though too wide 
open1 are still good2 notice the inner  
corners4 ,the eyebrows are less         
successful4 ,their general form is that 
of the half of a figure #h bisected     
vertically1 and the hairs are indicated 
by slanting lines arranged in           
herring-bone fashion4 ,altogether1 the  
reader will probably feel more respect  
than enthusiasm for this early          
,babylonian art and will have no keen   
regret that the specimens of it are so  
few4  ,the ,assyrians were by origin one

 people with the ,chaldeans and were    
therefore a branch of the great ,semitic
 family4 ,it is not until the ninth     
century ,b4,c4 that the great period of 
,assyrian history begins4 ,then for two 
and a half centuries ,assyria was the   
great conquering power of the world4    
,near the end of the seventh century it 
was completely annihilated by a         
coalition of ,babylonia and ,media4     
,with an insignificant exception or two 
the remains of ,assyrian buildings and  
sculptures all belong to the period of  
,assyrian greatness4 ,the principal     
sites where explorations have been      
carried on are ,koyunjik 7,nineveh71    
,nimroud1 and ,khorsabad1 and the ruins 
uncovered are chiefly those of royal    
palaces4 ,these buildings were of       
enormous extent4 ,the palace of         
,sennacherib at ,nineveh1 for example1  
covered more than twenty acres4         
,although the country possessed building
 stone in plenty1 stone was not used    
except for superficial ornamentation1   

baked and unbaked bricks being the      
architect's sole reliance4 ,this was a  
mere blind following of the example of  
,babylonia1 from which ,assyria derived 
all its culture4 ,the palaces were      
probably only one story in height4      
,their principal splendor was in their  
interior decoration of painted stucco1  
enameled bricks1 and1 above all1 painted
 reliefs in limestone or alabaster4     
,the great ,assyrian bas-reliefs covered
 the lower portions of the walls of     
important rooms4 ,designed to enrich the
 royal palaces1 they drew their         
principal themes from the occupations of
 the kings4 ,we see the monarch offering
 sacrifice before a divinity1 or1 more  
often1 engaged in his favorite pursuits 
of war and hunting4 ,these extensive    
compositions cannot be adequately       
illustrated by two or three small       
pictures4 ,the most that can be done is 
to show the sculptor's method of        
treating single figures4 ,fig4 #ag is a 
slab from the earliest series we        

possess1 that belonging to the palace of
 ,asshur-nazir-pal 7#hhd-hfj ,b4,c47 at 
,nimroud4 ,it represents the king facing
 to right1 with a bowl for libation in  
his right hand and his bow in his left1 
while a eunuch stands fronting him4 ,the
 artistic style exhibited here remains  
with no essential change throughout the 
whole history of ,assyrian art4 ,the    
figures are in profile1 except that the 
king's further shoulder is thrown       
forward in much the fashion which we    
have found the rule in ,egypt1 and the  
eyes appear as in front view4 ,both king
 and attendant are enveloped in long    
robes1 in which there is no indication  
of folds1 though fringes and tassels are
 elaborately rendered4 ,the faces are of
 a strongly marked ,semitic cast1 but   
without any attempt at portraiture4 ,the
 hair of the head ends in several rows  
of snail-shell curls1 and the king's    
beard has rows of these curls           
alternating with more natural-looking   
portions4 ,little is displayed of the   

body except the fore-arms1 whose        
anatomy1 though intelligible1 is coarse 
and false4 ,as for minor matters1 such  
as the too high position of the ears1   
and the unnatural shape of the king's   
right hand1 it is needless to dwell upon
 them4 ,a cuneiform inscription runs    
right across the relief1 interrupted    
only by the fringes of the robes4  ,fig4
 #ah shows more distinctly the          
characteristic ,assyrian method of      
representing the human head4 ,here are  
the same ,semitic features1 the eye in  
front view1 and the strangely curled    
hair and beard4 ,the only novelty is the
 incised line which marks the iris of   
the eye4 ,this peculiarity is first     
observed in work of ,sargon's time      
7#gbb-gje ,b4 ,c474  ,a constant and    
striking feature of the ,assyrian       
palaces was afforded by the great1      
winged1 human-headed bulls1 which       
flanked the principal doorways4 ,the one
 herewith given 7,fig4 #ai7 is from     
,sargon's palace at ,khorsabad4 ,the    

peculiar methods of ,assyrian sculpture 
are not ill suited to this fantastic    
creature1 an embodiment of force and    
intelligence4 ,one special peculiarity  
will not escape the attentive observer4 
,like all his kind1 except in           
,sennacherib's palace1 this bull has    
five legs4 ,he was designed to be looked
 at from directly in front or from the  
side1 not from an intermediate point of 
view4  ,assyrian art was not wholly     
without capacity for improvement4 ,under
 ,asshur-bam-pal 7#ffh-fbf71 the        
,sardanapalus of the ,greeks1 it reached
 a distinctly higher level than ever    
before4 ,it is from his palace at       
,nineveh that the slab partially shown  
in ,fig4 #bj was obtained4 ,two demons1 
with human bodies1 arms1 and legs1 but  
with lions' heads1 asses' ears1 and     
eagles' talons1 confront one another    
angrily1 brandishing daggers in their   
right hands4 ,mesopotamian art was fond 
of such creatures1 but we do not know   
precisely what meaning was attached to  

the present scene4 ,we need therefore   
consider only stylistic qualities4 ,as  
the two demons wear only short skirts   
reaching from the waist to the knees1   
their bodies are more exposed than those
 of men usually are4 ,we note the       
inaccurate anatomy of breast1 abdomen1  
and back1 in dealing with which the     
sculptor had little experience to guide 
him4 ,a marked difference is made       
between the outer and the inner view of 
the leg1 the former being treated in the
 same style as the arms in ,fig4 #ag4   
,the arms are here better1 because less 
exaggerated4 ,the junction of human     
shoulders and animal necks is managed   
with no sort of verisimilitude4 ,but the
 heads1 conventionalized though they    
are1 are full of vigor4 ,one can almost 
hear the angry snarl and see the        
lightning flash from the eyes4  ,it is1 
in fact1 in the rendering of animals    
that ,assyrian art attains to its       
highest level4 ,in ,asshur-bam-pal's    
palace extensive hunting scenes give    

occasion for introducing horses1 dogs1  
wild asses1 lions1 and lionesses1 and   
these are portrayed with a keen eye for 
characteristic forms and movements4 ,one
 of the most famous of these animal     
figures is the lioness shown in ,fig4   
#ba4 ,the creature has been shot through
 with three great arrows4 ,blood gushes 
from her wounds4 ,her hind legs are     
paralyzed and drag helplessly behind    
her4 ,yet she still moves forward on her
 fore- feet and howls with rage and     
agony4 ,praise of this admirable figure 
can hardly be too strong4 ,this and     
others1 of equal merit redeem ,assyrian 
art4  ,as has been already intimated1   
these bas-reliefs were always colored1  
though1 it would seem1 only partially1  
whereas ,egyptian bas-reliefs were      
completely covered with color4  ,of     
,assyrian stone sculpture in the round  
nothing has yet been said4 ,a few pieces
 exist1 but their style is so           
essentially like that of the bas-reliefs
 that they call for no separate         

discussion4 ,more interesting is the    
,assyrian work in bronze4 ,the most     
important specimens of this are some    
hammered reliefs1 now in the ,british   
,museum1 which originally adorned a pair
 of wooden doors in the palace of       
,shalmaneser ,,iii4 at ,balawat4 ,the   
art of casting statuettes and statues in
 bronze was also known and practiced1 as
 it had been much earlier in ,babylonia1
 but the examples preserved to us are   
few4 ,for the decorative  use which the 
,assyrians made of color1 our principal 
witnesses are then enameled bricks4     
,these are ornamented with various      
designs--men1 genii1 animals1 and floral
 patterns--in a few rich colors1 chiefly
 blue and yellow4 ,of painting1 except  
in the sense of mural decoration1 there 
is no trace4  ,egypt and ,mesopotamia   
are1 of all the countries around the    
,mediterranean the only seats of an     
important1 indigenous art1 antedating   
that of ,greece4 ,other countries of    
,western ,asia--,syria1 ,phrygia1       

,phenicia1 ,persia1 and so on--seem to  
have been rather recipients and         
transmitters than originators of        
artistic influences4 ,for ,egypt1       
,assyria1 and the regions just named did
 not remain isolated from one another4  
,on the contrary1 intercourse both      
friendly and hostile was active1 and    
artistic products1 at least of the small
 and portable kind1 were exchanged4 ,the
 paths of communication were many1 but  
there is reason for thinking that the   
,phenicians1 the great trading nation of
 early times1 were especially           
instrumental in disseminating artistic  
ideas4 ,to these influences ,greece was 
exposed before she had any great art of 
her own4 ,among the remains of          
prehistoric ,greece we find1 besides    
some objects of foreign manufacture1    
others1 which1 though presumably of     
native origin1 are yet more or less     
directly inspired by ,egyptian or       
oriental models4 ,but when the true     
history of ,greek art begins1 say about 

#fjj ,b4 ,c41 the influences from ,egypt
 and ,asia sink into insignificance4 ,it
 may be that the impulse to represent   
gods and men in wood or stone was       
awakened in ,greece by the example of   
older communities4 ,it may be that one  
or two types of figures were suggested  
by foreign models4 ,it may be that a    
hint was taken from ,egypt for the form 
of the ,doric column and that the ,ionic
 capital derives from an ,assyrian      
prototype4 ,it is almost certain that   
the art of casting hollow bronze statues
 was borrowed from ,egypt4 ,and it is   
indisputable that some ornamental       
patterns used in architecture and on    
pottery were rather appropriated than   
invented by ,greece4 ,there is no       
occasion for disguising or underrating  
this indebtedness of ,greece to her     
elder neighbors4 ,but1 on the other     
hand1 it is important not to exaggerate 
the debt4 ,greek art is essentially     
self-originated1 the product of a       
unique1 incommunicable genius4 ,as well 

might one say that ,greek literature is 
of ,asiatic origin1 because1 forsooth1  
the ,greek alphabet came from ,phenicia1
 as call ,greek art the offspring of    
,egyptian or oriental art because of the
 impulses received in the days of its   
beginning4 ,footnote3 ,this comparison  
is perhaps not original with the present
 writer4      ,,chapter ,,ii4           
,,prehistoric ,,art ,,in ,,greece4      
,thirty years ago it would have been    
impossible to write with any            
considerable knowledge of prehistoric   
art in ,greece4 ,the ,iliad and         
,odyssey1 to be sure1 tell of numerous  
artistic objects1 but no definite       
pictures of these were called up by the 
poet's words4 ,of actual remains only a 
few were known4 ,some implements of     
stone1 the mighty walls of ,tiryns1     
,mycenae1 and many another ancient      
citadel1 four treasuries1 as they were  
often called1 at ,mycenae and one at the
 ,boeotian ,orchomenus--these made up   
pretty nearly the total of the visible  

relics of that early time4 ,to-day the  
case is far different4 ,thanks to the   
faith1 the liberality1 and the energy of
 ,heinrich ,schliemann1 an immense      
impetus has been given to the study of  
prehistoric ,greek archaeology4 ,his    
excavations at ,troy1 ,mycenae1 ,tiryns1
 and elsewhere aroused the world4 ,he   
labored1 and other men1 better trained  
than he1 have entered into his labors4  
,the material for study is constantly   
accumulating1 and constant progress is  
being made in classifying and           
interpreting this material4 ,a          
civilization antedating the ,homeric    
poems stands now dimly revealed to us4  
,mycenae1 the city rich in gold1 the    
residence of ,agamemnon1 whence he ruled
 over many islands and all ,argos1      
,footnote3 ,iliad ,,ii1 #ajh is seen to 
have had no merely legendary            
preeminence4 ,so conspicuous1 in fact1  
does ,mycenae appear in the light as    
well of archaeology as of epic1 that it 
has become common1 somewhat misleading  

though it is1 to call a whole epoch and 
a whole civilization ,mycenaean4 ,this  
,mycenaean civilization was widely      
extended over the ,greek islands and the
 eastern portions of continental ,greece
 in the second millennium before our    
era4 ,exact dates are very risky1 but it
 is reasonably safe to say that this    
civilization was in full development as 
early as the fifteenth century ,b4,c41  
and that it was not wholly superseded   
till considerably later than #ajjj      
,b4,c4  ,it is our present business to  
gain some acquaintance with this epoch  
on its artistic side4 ,it will be       
readily understood that our knowledge of
 the long period in question is still   
very fragmentary1 and that1 in the      
absence of written records1 our         
interpretation of the facts is hardly   
better than a groping in the dark4      
,fortunately we can afford1 so far as   
the purposes of this book are concerned1
 to be content with a slight review4    
,for it seems clear that the ,mycenaean 

civilization developed little which can 
be called artistic in the highest sense 
of that term4 ,the real history of      
,greek art--that is to say1 of ,greek   
architecture1 sculpture1 and            
painting--begins much later4            
,nevertheless it will repay us to get   
some notion1 however slight1 of such    
prehistoric ,greek remains as can be    
included under the broadest acceptation 
of the word art4  ,in such a survey it  
is usual to give a place to early walls 
of fortification1 although these1 to be 
sure1 were almost purely utilitarian in 
their character4 ,the classic example of
 these constructions is the citadel wall
 of ,tiryns in ,argolis4 ,fig4 #bb shows
 a portion of this fortification on the 
east side1 with the principal approach4 
,huge blocks of roughly dressed         
limestone--some of those in the lower   
courses estimated to weigh thirteen or  
fourteen tons apiece--are piled one upon
 another1 the interstices having been   
filled with clay and smaller stones4    

,this wall is of varying thickness1     
averaging at the bottom about           
twenty-five feet4 ,at two places1 viz41 
at the south end and on the east side   
near the southeast corner1 the thickness
 is increased1 in order to give room in 
the wall for a row of store chambers    
with communicating gallery4 ,fig4 #bc   
shows one of these galleries in its     
present condition4 ,it will be seen that
 the roof has been formed by pushing the
 successive courses of stones further   
and further inward from both sides until
 they meet4 ,the result is in form a    
vault1 but the principle of the arch is 
not there1 inasmuch as the stones are   
not jointed radially1 but lie on        
approximately horizontal beds4 ,such a  
construction is sometimes called a      
corbelled arch or vault4  ,similar walls
 to those of ,tiryns are found in many  
places1 though nowhere else are the     
blocks of such gigantic size4 ,the      
,greeks of the historical period ,viewed
 these imposing structures with as much 

astonishment  as do we1 and attributed  
them 7of at least those in ,argohs7 to  
the ,cyclopes1 a mythical folk1         
conceived in this connection as masons  
of superhuman strength4 ,hence the      
adjective ,cyclopian or ,cyclopean1     
whose meaning varies unfortunately in   
modern usage1 but which is best         
restricted to walls of the ,tirynthian  
type2 that is to say1 walls built of    
large blocks not accurately fitted      
together1 the interstices being filled  
with small stones4 ,this style of       
masonry seems to be always of early date
  ,portions of the citadel wall of      
,mycenae are ,cyclopean4 ,other         
portions1 quite probably of later date1 
show a very different character 7,fig4  
#bd74 ,here the blocks on the outer     
surface of the wall1 though irregular in
 shape4 are fitted together with close  
joints4 ,this style of masonry is called
 polygonal and is to be carefully       
distinguished from ,cyclopean1 as above 
defined4 ,finally1 still other portions 

of this same ,mycenaean wall show on the
 outside a near approach to what is     
called ashlar masonry1 in which the     
blocks are rectangular and laid in even 
horizontal courses4 ,this is the case   
near the ,lion ,gate1 the principal     
entrance to the citadel4 7,fig4 #be7    
,next to the walls of fortification the 
most numerous early remains of the      
builder's art in ,greece are the        
bee-hive tombs of which many examples   
have been discovered in ,argolis1       
,laconia1 ,attica1 ,boeotia1 ,thessaly1 
and ,crete4 ,at ,mycenae alone there are
 eight now known1 all of them outside   
the citadel4 ,the largest and most      
imposing of these1 and indeed of the    
entire class1 is the one commonly       
referred to by the misleading name of   
the ,treasury of ,atreus4  ,fig #bf     
gives a section through this tomb4 ,a   
straight passage1 ,a ,b1 flanked by     
walls of ashlar masonry and open to the 
sky1 leads to a doorway1 ,b4 ,this      
doorway1 once closed with heavy doors1  

was framed with an elaborate            
aichitectural composition1  of which    
only small fragments now exist and these
 widely dispersed in ,london1 ,berlin1  
,carlsruhe1 ,munich1 ,athens1 and       
,mycenae itself4 ,in the decoration of  
this facade rosettes and running spirals
 played a conspicuous  part1 and on     
either side of the doorway stood a      
column which tapered downwards and was  
ornamented with spirals arranged in     
zigzag bands4 ,this downward-tapering   
column1 so unlike the columns of classic
 times1 seems to have been in common use
 in ,mycenaean architecture4  ,inside   
the doors comes a short passage1 ,b ,c1 
roofed by two huge lintel blocks1 the   
inner one of which is estimated to weigh
 #acb tons4 ,the principal chamber1 ,d1 
which is embedded in the hill1 is       
circular in plan1 with a lower diameter 
of about forty-seven feet4 ,its wall is 
formed of horizontal courses of stone1  
each pushed further inward than the one 
below it1 until the opening was small   

enough to be covered by a single stone4 
,the method of roofing is therefore     
identical in principle with that used in
 the galleries and store chambers of    
,tiryns2 but here the blocks have been  
much more carefully worked and          
accurately fitted1 and the exposed ends 
have been so beveled as to give to the  
whole interior a smooth1 curved surface4
 ,numerous horizontal rows of small     
holes exist1 only partly indicated in   
our illustration1 beginning in the      
fourth course from the bottom and       
continuing at intervals probably to the 
top4 ,in some of these holes bronze     
nails still remain4 ,these must have    
served for the attachment of some sort  
of bronze decoration4 ,the most careful 
study of the disposition of the holes   
has led to the conclusion that the      
fourth and fifth courses were completely
 covered with bronze plates1 presumably 
ornamented1 and that above this there   
were rows of single ornaments1 possibly 
rosettes4 ,fig4 #bg will give some idea 

of the present appearance of this       
chamber1 which is still complete1 except
 for the loss of the bronze decoration  
and two or three stones at the top4 ,the
 small doorway which is seen here1 as   
well as in ,fig4 #bf1 leads into a      
rectangular chamber1 hewn in the living 
rock4 ,this is much smaller than the    
main chamber4  ,at ,orchomenus in       
,boeotia are the ruins of a tomb        
scarcely inferior in size to the        
,treasury of ,atreus and once scarcely  
less magnificent4 ,here too1 besides the
 bee-hive construction1 there was a     
lateral1 rectangular chamber--a feature 
which occurs only in these two cases4   
,excavations conducted here by          
,schliemann in #ahhj-ha brought to light
 the broken fragments of a ceiling of   
greenish schist with which this lateral 
chamber  was once covered4 ,fig4 #bh    
shows this ceiling restored4 ,the       
beautiful sculptured decoration consists
 of elements which recur in almost the  
same combination on a fragment of       

painted stucco from the palace of       
,tiryns4 ,the pattern is derived from   
,egypt4  ,the two structures just       
described were long ago broken into and 
despoiled4 ,if they stood alone1 we     
could only guess at their original      
purpose4 ,but some other examples of the
 same class have been left unmolested or
 less completely ransacked1 until in    
recent years they could be studied by   
scientific investigators4 ,furthermore  
we have the evidence of numerous        
rock-cut chambers of analogous shape1   
many of which have been recently opened 
in a virgin condition4 ,thus it has been
 put beyond a doubt that these          
subterranean beehive chambers were      
sepulchral monuments1 the bodies having 
been laid in graves within4 ,the largest
 and best built of these tombs1 if not  
all1 must have belonged to princely     
families4  ,even the dwelling-houses of 
the chieftains who ruled at ,tiryns and 
,mycenae are known to us by their       
remains4 ,the palace of ,tiryns occupied

 the entire southern end of the citadel1
 within the massive walls above         
described4 ,its ruins were uncovered in 
#ahhd- #he4 ,the plan and the lower     
portions of the walls of an extensive   
complex of gateways1 open courts1 and   
closed rooms were thus revealed4 ,there 
are remains of a similar building at    
,mycenae1 but less well preserved1 while
 the citadels of ,athens and ,troy      
present still more scanty traces of an  
analogous kind4 ,the walls of the       
,tirynthian palace were not built of    
gigantic blocks of stone1 such as were  
used in the citadel wall4 ,that would   
have been a reckless waste of labor4 ,on
 the contrary1 they were built partly of
 small irregular pieces of stone1 partly
 of sun-dried bricks4 ,clay was used to 
hold these materials together1 and beams
 of wood 7bond timbers7 were laid       
lengthwise here and there in the wall to
 give additional strength4 ,where       
columns were needed1 they were in every 
case of wood1 and consequently have long

 since decomposed and disappeared4      
,considerable remains1 however1 were    
found of the decorations of the         
interior4 ,thus there are bits of what  
must once have been a beautiful frieze  
of alabaster1 inlaid with pieces of blue
 glass4 ,a restored piece of this1      
sufficient to give the pattern1 is seen 
in ,fig4 #bi4 ,essentially the same     
design1 somewhat simplified1 occurs on  
objects of stone1 ivory1 and glass found
 at ,mycenae2 and in a bee-hive tomb of 
,attica4 ,again1 there are fragments of 
painted stucco which decorated the walls
 of rooms in the palace of ,tiryns4 ,the
 largest and most interesting of these  
fragments is shown in ,fig4 #cj4 ,a     
yellow and red bull is represented      
against a blue background1 galloping    
furiously to left1 tail in air4 ,above  
him is a man of slender build1 nearly   
naked4 ,with his right hand the man     
grasps one of the bull's horns2 his     
right leg is bent at the knee and the   
foot seems to touch with its toes the   

bull's back2 his outstretched left leg  
is raised high in air4 ,we have several 
similar representations on objects of   
the ,mycenaean period1 the most         
interesting of which will be presently  
described 7see page #fg74 ,the          
comparison of these with one another    
leaves little room for doubt that the   
,tirynthian fresco was intended to      
portray the chase of a wild bull4 ,but  
what does the man's position signify8   
,has he been tossed into the air by the 
infuriated animal8 ,has he adventurously
 vaulted upon the creature's back8 ,or  
did the painter mean him to be running  
on the ground1 and1 finding the problem 
of drawing the two figures in their     
proper relation too much for his simple 
skill1 did he adopt the child-like      
expedient of putting one above the      
other8 ,this last seems much the most   
probable explanation1 especially as the 
same expedient is to be seen in several 
other designs belonging to this period4 
,at ,mycenae also1 both in the principal

 palace which corresponds to that of    
,tiryns and in a smaller house1 remains 
of wall-frescoes have been found4       
,these1 like those of ,tiryns1 consisted
 partly of merely ornamental patterns1  
partly of genuine pictures1 with human  
and animal figures4 ,but nothing has    
there come to light at once so well     
preserved and so spirited as the        
bull-fresco from ,tiryns4  ,painting in 
the ,mycenaean period seems to have been
 nearly1 if not entirely1 confined to   
the decoration of house-walls and of    
pottery4 ,similarly sculpture had no    
existence as a great1 independent art4  
,there is no trace of any statue in the 
round of life-size or anything          
approaching that4 ,this agrees with the 
impression we get from the ,homeric     
poems1 where1 with possibly one         
exception1 ,footnote3 ,iliad ,,vi1 #bgc1
 #cjc4 there is no allusion to any      
sculptured image4 ,there are1 to be     
sure1 primitive statuettes1 one class of
 which1 very rude and early1 in fact    

pre-,mycenaean in character1 is         
illustrated by ,fig4 #ca4 ,images of    
this sort have been found principally on
 the islands of the ,greek ,archipelago4
 ,they are made of marble or limestone1 
and represent a naked female figure     
standing stiffly erect1 with arms       
crossed in front below the breasts4 ,the
 head1 is of extraordinary rudeness1 the
 face of a horse-shoe shape1 often with 
no feature except a long triangular     
nose4 ,what religious ideas were        
associated with these barbarous little  
images by their possessors we can hardly
 guess4 ,we shall see that when a truly 
,greek art came into being1 figures of  
goddesses and women were decorously     
clothed4  ,excavations on ,mycenaean    
sites have yielded quantities of small  
figures1 chiefly of painted terra-cotta 
7cf4 ,fig4 #dc71 but also of bronze or  
lead4 ,of sculpture on a larger scale we
 possess nothing except the gravestones 
found at ,mycenae and the relief which  
has given a name1 albeit an inaccurate  

one1 to the ,lion ,gate4 ,the           
gravestones are probably the earlier4   
,they were found within a circular      
enclosure just inside the ,lion ,gate1  
above a group of six graves--the        
so-called pit-graves  or shaft-graves of
 ,mycenae4 ,the best preserved of these 
gravestones is shown in ,fig4 #cb4 ,the 
field1 bordered by a double fillet1 is  
divided horizontally into two parts4    
,the upper part is filled with an       
ingeniously contrived system of running 
spirals4 ,below is a battle-scene3 a man
 in a chariot is driving at full speed1 
and in front there is a naked foot      
soldier 7enemy871 with a sword in his   
uplifted left hand4 ,spirals1 apparently
 meaningless1 fill in the vacant spaces4
 ,the technique is very simple4 ,the    
figures having been outlined1 the       
background has been cut away to a       
shallow depth2 within the outlines there
 is no modeling1 the surfaces being left
 flat4 ,it is needless to dwell on the  
shortcomings of this work1 but it is    

worth while to remind the reader that   
the gravestone commemorates one who must
 have been an important personage1      
probably a chieftain1 and that the best 
available talent would have been secured
 for the purpose4  ,the famous relief   
above the ,lion ,gate of ,mycenae       
7,figs4 #be1 #cc71 though probably of   
somewhat later date than the sculptured 
gravestones1 is still generally believed
 to go well back into the second        
millennium before ,christ4 ,it          
represents two lionesses 7not lions7    
facing one another in heraldic fashion1 
their fore-paws resting on what is      
probably to be called an altar or pair1 
of altars2 between them is a column1    
which tapers downward 7cf4 the columns  
of the ,treasury of ,atreus1 page #ec71 
surmounted by what seems to be a        
suggestion of an entablature4 ,the heads
 of the lionesses1 originally made of   
separate pieces and attached1 have been 
lost4 ,otherwise the work is in good    
preservation1 in spite of its           

uninterrupted exposure for more than    
three thousand years4 ,the technique is 
quite different from that of the        
gravestones1 for all parts of the relief
 are carefully modeled4 ,the truth to   
nature is also far greater here1 the    
animals being tolerably life-like4 ,the 
design is one which recurs with         
variations on two or three engraved gems
 of the ,mycenaean period 7cf ,fig4     
#dj71 as well as in a series of later   
,phrygian reliefs in stone4 ,placed in  
this conspicuous position above the     
principal entrance to the citadel1 it   
may perhaps have symbolized the power of
 the city and its rulers4  ,if sculpture
 in stone appears to have been very     
little practiced in the ,mycenaean age1 
the arts of the goldsmith1 silversmith1 
gem- engraver1 and ivory carver were in 
great requisition4 ,the shaft- graves of
 ,mycenae contained1 besides other      
things1 a rich treasure of gold         
objects--masks1 drinking-cups1 diadems1 
ear-rings1 finger-rings1 and so on1 also

 several silver vases4 ,one of the      
latter may be seen in ,fig4 #dc4 ,it is 
a large jar1 about two and one half feet
 in height1 decorated below with        
horizontal flutings and above with      
continuous spirals in repousse 7i4e41   
hammered7 work4 ,most of the gold       
objects must be passed over1 interesting
 though many of them are4 ,but we may   
pause a moment over a group of circular 
ornaments in thin gold-leaf about two   
and one half inches in diameter1 of     
which #gja specimens were found1 all in 
a single grave4 ,the patterns on these  
discs were not executed with a free     
hand1 but by means of a mold4 ,there are
 fourteen patterns in all1 some of them 
made up of spirals and serpentine       
curves1 others derived from vegetable   
and animal forms4 ,two of the latter    
class are shown in ,figs4 #cd1 #ce4 ,one
 is a butterfly1 the other a cuttle-    
fish1 both of them skilfully            
conventionalized4 ,it is interesting to 
note how the antennae of the butterfly  

and still more the arms of the          
cuttle-fish are made to end in the      
favorite spiral4  ,the sculptures and   
gold objects which have been thus far   
described or referred to were in all    
probability executed by native1 or at   
any rate by resident1 workmen1 though   
some of the patterns clearly betray     
oriental influence4 ,other objects must 
have been1 others may have been1        
actually imported from ,egypt or the    
,east4 ,it is impossible to draw the    
line with certainty between native and  
imported4 ,thus the admirable silver    
head of a cow from one of the           
shaft-graves 7,fig4 #cf7 has been       
claimed as an ,egyptian or a ,phenician 
production1  but the evidence adduced is
 not decisive4 ,similarly with the      
fragment of a silver vase shown in ,fig4
 #cg4 ,this has a design in relief      
7repousse7 representing the siege of a  
walled town or citadel4 ,on the walls is
 a group of women making frantic        
gestures4 ,the defenders1 most of them  

naked1 are armed with bows and arrows   
and slings4 ,on the ground lie          
sling-stones and                        
throwing-sticks1,footnote3 ,so explained
 by ,mr ,a4 ,j4  ,evans in ,the ,journal
 of ,hellenic ,studies1 ,,xiii41 page   
#aii4  which may be supposed to have    
been hurled by the enemy4 ,in the       
background there are four nondescript   
trees1 perhaps intended for olive trees4
  ,another variety of ,mycenaean        
metal-work is of a much higher order of 
merit than the dramatic but rude relief 
on this silver vase4 ,i refer to a      
number of inlaid dagger-blades1 which   
were found in two of the shaft-graves4  
,fig4 #ch reproduces one side of the    
finest of these4 ,it is about nine      
inches long4 ,the blade is of bronze1   
while the rivets by which the handle was
 attached are of gold4 ,the design was  
inlaid in a separate thin slip of       
bronze1 which was then inserted into a  
sinking on the blade4 ,the materials    
used are various4 ,the lions and the    

naked parts of the men are of gold1 the 
shields and trunks of the men of        
electrum 7a mixture of gold and silver71
 the hair of the men1 the manes of the  
lions1 and some other details of an     
unidentified dark substance2 the        
background1 to the edges of the inserted
 slip1 was covered with a black enamel4 
,the scene is a lion-hunt4 ,four men1   
one armed only with a bow1 the others   
with lances and huge shields of two     
different forms1 are attacking a lion4  
,a fifth hunter has fallen and lies     
under the lion's fore-paws4 ,the beast  
has already been run through with a     
lance1 the point of which is seen       
protruding from his haunch2 but he still
 shows fight1 while his two companions  
dash away at full speed4 ,the design is 
skilfully composed to fill the          
triangular space1 and the attitudes of  
men and beasts are varied1 expressive1  
and fairly truthful4 ,another of these  
dagger-blades has a representation of   
panthers hunting ducks by the banks of a

 river in which what may be lotus plants
 are growing1 ,the lotus would point    
toward ,egypt as the ultimate source of 
the design4 ,moreover1 a dagger of      
similar technique has been found in     
,egypt in the tomb of a queen belonging 
to the end of the ,seventeenth ,dynasty4
 ,on the other hand1 the dress and the  
shields of the men engaged in the       
lion-hunt are identical with those on a 
number of other ,mycenaean              
articles--gems1 statuettes1 etc4--which 
it is difficult to regard as all of     
foreign importation4 ,the probability1  
then1 seems to be that while the        
technique of the dagger-blades was      
directly or indirectly derived from     
,egypt1 the specimens found at ,mycenae 
were of local manufacture4  ,the        
greatest triumph of the goldsmith's art 
in the ,mycenaean period does not come  
from ,mycenae4 ,the two gold cups shown 
in ,fig4 #ci were found in #ahhh in a   
bee-hive tomb at ,vaphio in ,laconia4   
,each cup is double2 that is to say1    

there is an outer cup1 which has been   
hammered into shape from a single disc  
of gold and which is therefore without a
 joint1 and an inner cup1 similarly     
made1 whose upper edge is bent over the 
outer cup so as to hold the two         
together4 ,the horizontal parts of the  
handles are attached by rivets1 while   
the intervening vertical cylinders are  
soldered4 ,the designs in repousse work 
are evidently pendants to one another4  
,the first represents a hunt of wild    
bulls4 ,one bull1 whose appearance      
indicates the highest pitch of fury1 has
 dashed a would-be captor to earth and  
is now tossing another on his horns4 ,a 
second bull1 entangled in a stout net1  
writhes and bellows in the vain effort  
to escape4 ,a third gallops at full     
speed from the scene of his comrade's   
captivity4 ,the other design shows us   
four tame bulls4 ,the first submits with
 evident impatience to his master4 ,the 
next two stand quietly1 with an almost  
comical effect of good nature and       

contentment4 ,the fourth advances       
slowly1 browsing4 ,in each composition  
the ground is indicated1 not only       
beneath the men and animals1 but above  
them1 wherever the design affords room4 
,it is an example of the same naive     
perspective which seems to have been    
employed in the ,tirynthian bull-fresco 
7,fig4 #cj74 ,the men1 too1 are of the  
same build here as there1 and the bulls 
have similarly curving horns4 ,there are
 several trees on the cups1 two of which
 are clearly characterized as palms1    
while the others resemble those in ,fig4
 #cg1 and may be intended for olives4   
,the bulls are rendered with amazing    
spirit and understanding4 ,true1 there  
are palpable defects1 if one examines   
closely4 ,for example1 the position of  
the bull in the net is quite impossible4
 ,but in general the attitudes and      
expressions are as lifelike as they are 
varied4 ,evidently we have here the work
 of an artist who drew his inspiration  
directly from nature4  ,engraved gems   

were in great demand in the ,mycenaean  
period1 being worn as ornamental beads1 
and the work of the gem-engraver1 like  
that of the goldsmith1 exhibits         
excellent qualities4 ,the usual material
 was some variety of ornamental         
stone--agate1 jasper1 rock-crystal1 etc4
 ,there are two principal shapes1 the   
one lenticular1 the other elongated or  
glandular 7,figs4 #dj1 #da74 ,the       
designs are engraved in intaglio1 but1  
our illustrations being made1 as is     
usual1 from plaster impressions1 they   
appear as cameos4 ,among the subjects   
the lion plays an important part1       
sometimes represented singly1 sometimes 
in pairs1 sometimes devouring a bull or 
stag4 ,cattle1 goats1 deer1 and         
fantastic creatures 7sphinxes1 griffins1
 etc47 are also common4 ,so are human   
figures1 often engaged in war or the    
chase4 ,in the best of these gems the   
work is executed with great care1 and   
the designs1 though often inaccurate1   
are nevertheless vigorous4 ,very        

commonly1 however1 the distortion of the
 figure is carried beyond all bounds4   
,fig4 #dj was selected for illustration1
 not because it is a particularly       
favorable specimen of its class1 but    
because it offers an interesting analogy
 to the relief above the ,lion ,gate4   
,it represents two lions rampant1 their 
fore-paws resting on an altar 7871 their
 heads1 oddly enough1 combined into one4
 ,the column which figures in the relief
 above the gate is absent from the gem1 
but is found on another specimen from   
,mycenae1 where the animals1 however1   
are winged griffins4 ,fig4 #da has only 
a standing man1 of the wasp-waisted     
figure and wearing the girdle with which
 other representations have now made us 
familiar4  ,it remains to glance at the 
most important early varieties of ,greek
 pottery4 ,we need not stop here to     
study the rude1 unpainted1 mostly       
hand-made vases from the earliest strata
 at ,troy and ,tiryns1 nor the more     
developed1 yet still primitive1 ware of 

the island of ,thera4 ,but the          
,mycenaean pottery is of too great      
importance to be passed over4 ,this was 
the characteristic ware of the          
,mycenaean civilization4 ,the           
probability is that it was manufactured 
at several different places1 of which   
,mycenae may have been one and perhaps  
the most important4 ,it was an article  
of export and thus found its way even   
into ,egypt1 where specimens have been  
discovered in tombs of the ,eighteenth  
,dynasty and later4 ,the variations in  
form and ornamentation are considerable1
 as is natural with an article whose    
production was carried on at different  
centers and during a period of          
centuries4 ,fig4 #db shows a few of the 
characteristic shapes and decorations2  
some additional pieces may be seen in   
,fig4 #dc4 ,the ,mycenaean vases are    
mostly wheel-made4 ,the decoration1 in  
the great majority of examples1 is      
applied in a lustrous color1 generally  
red1 shading to brown or black4 ,the    

favorite elements of design are bands   
and spirals and a variety of animal and 
vegetable forms1 chiefly marine4 ,thus  
the vase at the bottom of ,fig4 #db1 on 
the left1 has a conventionalized        
nautilus2 the one at the top1 on the    
right1 shows a pair of lily-like plants2
 and the jug in the middle of ,fig4 #dc 
is covered with the stalks and leaves of
 what is perhaps meant for seaweed4     
,quadrupeds and men belong to the latest
 period of the style1 the vase-painters 
of the early and central ,mycenaean     
periods having abstained1 for some      
reason or other1 from those subjects    
which formed the stock in trade of the  
gem-engravers4  ,the ,mycenaean pottery 
was gradually superseded by pottery of  
an essentially different style1 called  
,geometric1 from the character of its   
painted decorations4 ,it is impossible  
to say when this style made its first   
appearance in ,greece1 but it seems to  
have flourished for some hundreds of    
years and to have lasted till as late as

 the end of the eighth century ,b4 ,c4  
,it falls into several local varieties1 
of which the most important is the      
,athenian4 ,this is commonly called     
,dipylon pottery1 from the fact that the
 cemetery near the ,dipylon1 the chief  
gate of ancient ,athens1 has supplied   
the greatest number of specimens4 ,some 
of these ,dipylon vases are of great    
size and served as funeral monuments4   
,fig4 #dd gives a good example of this  
class4 ,it is four feet high4 ,both the 
shape and the decoration are very       
different from those of the ,mycenaean  
style4 ,the surface is almost completely
 covered by a system of ornament in     
which zigzags1 meanders1 and groups of  
concentric circles play an important    
part4 ,in this system of ,geometric     
patterns zones or friezes are reserved  
for designs into which human and animal 
figures enter4 ,the center of interest  
is in the middle of the upper frieze1   
between the handles4 ,here we see a     
corpse upon a funeral bier1 drawn by a  

two-horse wagon4 ,to right and left are 
mourners arranged in two rows1 one above
 the other4 ,the lower frieze1 which    
encircles the vase about at its middle1 
consists of a line of two-horse chariots
 and their drivers4 ,the drawing of     
these designs is illustrated on a larger
 scale on the right and left of the vase
 in ,fig4 #dd2 it is more childish than 
anything we have seen from the          
,mycenaean period4 ,the horses have thin
 bodies1 legs1 and necks1 and their     
heads look as much like fishes as       
anything4 ,the men and women are just as
 bad4 ,their heads show no feature save1
 at most1 a dot for the eye and a       
projection for the nose1 with now and   
then a sort of tassel for the hair2     
their bodies are triangular1 except     
those of the charioteers1 whose shape is
 perhaps derived from one form of ,greek
 shield2 their thin arms1 of varying    
lengths1 are entirely destitute of      
natural shape2 their long legs1 though  
thigh and calf are distinguished1 are   

only a shade more like reality than the 
arms4 ,such incapacity on the part of   
the designer would be hard to explain1  
were he to be regarded as the direct    
heir of the ,mycenaean culture4 ,but the
 sources of the ,geometric style are    
probably to be sought among other tribes
 than those which were dominant in the  
days of ,mycenae's splendor4 ,greek     
tradition tells of a great movement of  
population1 the so-called ,dorian       
migration1 which took place some        
centuries before the beginning of       
recorded history in ,greece4 ,if that   
invasion and conquest of ,peloponnesus  
by ruder tribes from the ,north be a    
fact1 then the hypothesis is a plausible
 one which would connect the gradual    
disappearance of ,mycenaean art with    
that great change4 ,geometric art1      
according to this theory1 would have    
originated with the tribes which now    
came to the fore4  ,besides the         
,geometric pottery and its offshoots1   
several other local varieties were      

produced in ,greece in the eighth and   
seventh centuries4 ,these are sometimes 
grouped together under the name of      
orientalizing styles1 because1 in a     
greater or less degree1 they show in    
their ornamentation the influence of    
oriental models1 of which the pure      
,geometric style betrays no trace4 ,it  
is impossible here to describe all these
 local wares1 but a single plate from   
,rhodes 7,fig4 #de7 may serve to        
illustrate the degree of proficiency in 
the drawing of the human figure which   
had been attained about the end of the  
seventh century4 ,additional interest is
 lent to this design by the names       
attached to the three men4 ,the         
combatants are ,menelaus and ,hector2   
the fallen warrior is ,euphorbus4 ,here 
for the first time we find depicted a   
scene from the ,trojan ,war4 ,from this 
time on the epic legends form a large   
part of the repertory of the            
vase-painters4      ,,chapter ,,iii4    
,,greek ,,architecture4   ,the supreme  

achievement of ,greek architecture was  
the temple4 ,in imperial ,rome1 or in   
any typical city of the ,roman ,empire1 
the most extensive and imposing         
buildings were secular--basilicas1      
baths1 amphitheaters1 porticoes1        
aqueducts4 ,in ,athens1 on the other    
hand1 or in any typical ,greek city1    
there was little or nothing to vie with 
the temples and the sacred edifices     
associated with them4 ,public secular   
buildings1 of course1 there were1 but   
the little we know of them does not     
suggest that they often ranked among the
 architectural glories of the country4  
,private houses were in the best period 
of small pretensions4 ,it was to the    
temple and its adjunct buildings that   
the architectural genius and the        
material resources of ,greece were      
devoted4 ,it is the temple1 then1 which 
we have above all to study4  ,before    
beginning1 however1 to analyze the      
artistic features of the temple1 it will
 be useful to consider the building     

materials which a ,greek architect had  
at his disposal and his methods of      
putting them together4 ,greece is richly
 provided with good building stone4 ,at 
many points there are inexhaustible     
stores of white marble4 ,the island of  
,paros1 one of the ,cyclades1 and ,mount
 ,pentelicus in ,attica--to name only   
the two best and most famous            
quarries--are simply masses of white    
marble1 suitable as well for the builder
 as the sculptor4 ,there are besides    
various beautiful colored marbles1 but  
it was left to the ,romans to bring     
these into use4 ,then there are many    
commoner sorts of stone ready to the    
builder's hand1 especially the rather   
soft1 brown limestones which the ,greeks
 called by the general name of poros4   
,footnote3 ,the word has no connection  
with porous ,this material was not      
disdained1 even for important buildings4
 ,thus the ,temple of ,zeus at ,olympia1
 one of the two most important religious
 centers in the ,greek world1 was built 

of local poros4 ,the same was the case  
with the numerous temples of ,acragas   
7,girgenti7 and ,selinus in ,sicily4 ,an
 even meaner material1 sun-dried brick1 
was sometimes1 perhaps often1 employed  
for cella walls4 ,where poros or crude  
brick was used1 it was coated over with 
a very fine1 hard stucco1 which gave a  
surface like that of marble4  ,it is    
remarkable that no use was made in      
,greece of baked bricks before the      
period of ,roman domination4 ,roof-tiles
 of terra-cotta were in use from an     
early period1 and ,greek travelers to   
,babylonia brought back word of the use 
of baked bricks in that country4        
,nevertheless ,greek builders showed no 
disposition to adopt baked bricks for   
their masonry4  ,this probably hangs    
together with another important fact1   
the absence of lime-mortar from ,greek  
architecture4 ,lime-stucco was in use   
from time immemorial4 ,but lime-mortar1 
i4e41 lime mixed with sand and used as a
 bond for masonry1 is all but unknown in

 ,greek work4 ,footnote3 ,the solitary  
exception at present known is  an ,attic
 tomb built of crude bricks laid in     
lime-mortar ,consequently in the walls  
of temples and other carefully          
constructed buildings an elaborate      
system of bonding by means of clamps and
 dowels was resorted to4 ,fig4 #df      
illustrates this and some other points4 
,the blocks of marble are seen to be    
perfectly rectangular and of uniform    
length and height4 ,each end of every   
block is worked with a slightly raised  
and well-smoothed border1 for the       
purpose of securing without unnecessary 
labor a perfectly accurate joint4 ,the  
shallow holes1 ,,iii1 ,,iii1 in the     
upper surfaces are pry-holes1 which were
 of use in prying the blocks into       
position4 ,the adjustment having been   
made1 contiguous blocks in the same     
course were bonded to one another by    
clamps1 ,i1 ,i1 embedded horizontally1  
while the sliding of one course upon    
another was prevented by upright dowels1

 ,,ii1 ,,ii4 ,greek clamps and dowels   
were usually of iron and they were fixed
 in their sockets by means of molten    
lead run in4 ,the form of the clamp     
differs at different periods4 ,the      
double-,t shape shown in the            
illustration is characteristic of the   
best age 7cf4 also ,fig4 #dh74  ,another
 important fact to be noted at the      
outset is the absence of the arch from  
,greek architecture4 ,it is reported by 
the ,roman philosopher1 ,seneca1 that   
the principle of the arch was discovered
 by the ,greek philosopher1 ,democritus1
 who lived in the latter half of the    
fifth century ,b4 ,c4 ,that he          
independently discovered the arch as a  
practical possibility is most unlikely1 
seeing that it had been used for ages in
 ,egypt and ,mesopotamia2 but it may be 
that he discussed1 however imperfectly1 
the mathematical theory of the subject4 
,if so1 it would seem likely that he had
 practical  illustrations about him2 and
 this view receives some support from   

the existence of a few subterranean     
vaults which perhaps go back to the good
 ,greek period4 ,be that as it may1 the 
arch plays absolutely no part in the    
columnar architecture of ,greece4 ,in a 
,greek temple or similar building only  
the flat ceiling was known4 ,above the  
exterior portico and the vestibules of a
 temple the ceiling was sometimes of    
stone or marble1 sometimes of wood2 in  
the interior it was always of wood4 ,it 
follows that no very wide space could be
 ceiled over without extra supports4 ,at
 ,priene in ,asia ,minor we find a      
temple 7,fig4 #di7 whose cella1 slightly
 over thirty feet in breadth1 has no    
interior columns4 ,the architect of the 
,temple of ,athena on the island of     
,a,egina 7,fig4 #eb7 was less           
venturesome4 ,although the cella there  
is only #ba #a_/d feet in breadth1 we   
find1 as in large temples1 a double row 
of columns to help support the ceiling4 
,and when a really large room was built1
 like the ,hall of ,initiation at       

,eleusis or the ,assembly ,hall of the  
,arcadians at ,megalopolis1 such a      
forest of pillars was required as must  
have seriously interfered with the      
convenience of congregations4 ,we are   
now ready to study the plan of a ,greek 
temple4 ,the essential feature is an    
enclosed chamber1 commonly called by the
 ,latin name cella1 in which stood1 as a
 rule1 the image of the god or goddess  
to whom the temple was dedicated4 ,fig4 
#dg shows a very simple plan4 ,here the 
side walls of the cella are prolonged in
 front and terminate in antae 7see      
below1 page #hh74 ,between the antae are
 two columns4 ,this type of temple is   
called a templum in antis4 ,were the    
vestibule 7pronaos7 repeated at the     
other end of the building1 it would be  
called an opisthodomos1 and the whole   
building would be a double templum in   
antis4 ,in ,fig4 #dh the vestibules are 
formed by rows of columns extending     
across the whole width of the cella1    
whose side walls are not prolonged4 ,did

 a vestibule exist at the front only1   
the temple would be called prostyle2 as 
it is1 it is amphiprostyle4 ,only small 
,greek temples have as simple a plan as 
those just described4 ,larger temples   
are peripteral1 i4e41 are surrounded by 
a colonnade or peristyle 7,figs4 #di4   
#ej74 ,in ,fig4 #di the cella with its  
vestibules has the form of a double     
templum in antis1 in ,fig #ej it is     
amphiprostyle4 ,a further difference    
should be noted4 ,in ,fig4 #di1 which is
 the plan of an ,ionic temple1 the antae
 and columns of the vestibules are in   
line with columns of the outer row1 at  
both the ends and the sides2 in ,fig4   
#ej1 which is the plan of a ,doric      
temple1 the exterior columns are set    
without regard to the cella wall1 and   
the columns of the vestibules4 ,this is 
a regular difference between ,doric and 
,ionic temples1 though the rule is      
subject to a few exceptions in the case 
of the former4  ,the plan of almost any 
,greek temple will be found to be       

referable to one or other of the types  
just described1 although there are great
 differences in the proportions of the  
several parts4 ,it remains only to add  
that in almost every case the principal 
front was toward the east or nearly so4 
,when ,greek temples were converted into
 ,christian churches1 as often happened1
 it was necessary1 in order to conform  
to the ,christian ritual1 to reverse    
this arrangement and to place the       
principal entrance at the western end4  
,the next thing is to study the         
principal elements of a ,greek temple as
 seen in elevation4 ,this brings us to  
the subject of the ,greek orders4 ,there
 are two principal orders in ,greek     
architecture1 the ,doric and the ,ionic4
 ,figs4 #ea and #fa show a              
characteristic specimen of each4 ,the   
term order1 it should be said1 is       
commonly restricted in architectural    
parlance to the column and entablature4 
,our illustrations1 however1 show all   
the features of a ,doric and an ,ionic  

facade4 ,there are several points of    
agreement between the two3 in each the  
columns rest on a stepped base1 called  
the crepidoma1 the uppermost step of    
which is the stylobate2 in each the     
shaft of the column tapers from the     
lower to the upper end1 is channeled or 
fluted vertically1 and is surmounted by 
a projecting member called a capital2 in
 each the entablature consists of three 
members--architrave1 frieze1 and        
cornice4 ,there the important points of 
agreement end4 ,the differences will    
best be fixed in mind by a detailed     
examination of each order separately4   
,our typical example of the ,doric order
 7,fig4 #ea7 is taken from the ,temple  
of ,aphaia on the island of ,aegina--a  
temple probably erected about #dhj      
,b4,c4 7cf4 ,fig4 #eb47 ,the column     
consists of two parts1 shaft and        
capital4 ,it is of sturdy proportions1  
its height being about five and one half
 times the lower diameter of the shaft4 
,if the shaft tapered upward at a       

uniform rate1 it would have the form of 
a truncated cone4 ,instead of that1 the 
shaft has an ,,entasis or swelling4     
,imagine a vertical section to be made  
through the middle of the column4 ,if1  
then1 the diminution of the shaft were  
uniform1 the sides of this section would
 be straight lines4 ,in reality1        
however1 they are slightly curved lines1
 convex outward4 ,this addition to the  
form of a truncated cone is the entasis4
 ,it is greatest at about one third or  
one half the height of the shaft1 and   
there amounts1 in cases that have been  
measured1 to from #a_/hj to #a_/adj of  
the lower diameter of the               
shaft4,footnote3 ,observe that the      
entasis is so slight that the lowest    
diameter of the shaft is always the     
greatest diameter4 ,the illustration is 
unfortunately not quite correct1 since  
it gives the shaft a uniform diameter   
for about one third of its height4 ,in  
some early ,doric temples1 as the one at
 ,assos in ,asia ,minor1 there is no    

entasis4 ,the channels or flutes in our 
typical column are twenty in number4    
,more rarely we find sixteen2 much more 
rarely larger multiples of four4 ,these 
channels are so placed that one comes   
directly under the middle of each face  
of the capital4 ,they are comparatively 
shallow1 and are separated from one     
another by sharp edges or ,,arrises4    
,the capital1 though worked out of one  
block1 may be regarded as consisting of 
two parts--a cushion- shaped member     
called an ,,echinus1 encircled below by 
three to five ,,annulets1 7cf4 ,figs4   
#ei1 #fj7 and a square slab called an   
,,abacus1 the latter so placed that its 
sides are parallel to the sides of the  
building4 ,the ,,architrave is a        
succession of horizontal beams resting  
upon the columns4 ,the face of this     
member is plain1 except that along the  
upper edge there runs a slightly        
projecting flat band called a ,,taenia1 
with regulae and guttae at equal        
intervals2 these last are best          

considered in connection with the       
frieze4 ,the ,,frieze is made up of     
alternating triglyphs and metopes4 ,a   
,,triglyph is a block whose height is   
nearly twice its width2 upon its face   
are two furrows1 triangular in plan1 and
 its outer edges are chamfered off4     
,thus we may say that the triglyph has  
two furrows and two half-furrows2 these 
do not extend to the top of the block4  
,a triglyph is placed over the center of
 each column and over the center of each
 intercolumniation4 ,but at the corners 
of the buildings the intercolumniations 
are diminished1 with the result that the
 corner triglyphs do not stand over the 
centers of the corner columns1 but      
farther out 7cf4 ,fig4 #eb74 ,under each
 triglyph there is worked upon the face 
of the architrave1 directly below the   
taenia1 a ,,regula1 shaped like a small 
cleat1 and to the under surface of this 
regula is attached a row of six         
cylindrical or conical ,,guttae4        
,between every two triglyphs1 and       

standing a little farther back1 there is
 a square or nearly square slab or block
 called a ,,metope4 ,this has a flat    
band across the top2 for the rest1 its  
face may be either plain or sculptured  
in relief4 ,the uppermost member of the 
entablature1 the ,,cornice1 consists    
principally of a projecting portion1 the
 ,,corona1 on whose inclined under      
surface or soffit are rectangular       
projections1 the so-called ,,mutules    
7best seen in the frontispiece71 one    
over each triglyph and each metope4     
,three rows of six guttae each are      
attached to the under surface of a      
mutule4 ,above the cornice1 at the east 
and west ends of the building1 come the 
triangular ,,pediments or gables1 formed
 by the sloping roof and adapted for    
groups of sculpture4 ,the pediment is   
protected above by a raking cornice1    
which has not the same form as the      
horizontal cornice1 the principal       
difference being that the under surface 
of the raking cornice is concave and    

without mutules4 ,above the raking      
cornice comes a ,,sima or gutter-facing1
 which in buildings of good period has a
 curvilinear profile4 ,this sima is     
sometimes continued along the long sides
 of the building1 and sometimes not4    
,when it is so continued1 water-spouts  
are inserted into it at intervals1      
usually in the form of lions' heads4    
,fig #ec shows a fine lion's head of    
this sort from a sixth century temple on
 the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,if it be    
added that upon the apex and the lower  
corners of the pediment there were      
commonly pedestals which supported      
statues or other ornamental objects     
7,fig4 #eb71 mention will have been made
 of all the main features of the        
exterior of a ,doric peripteral temple4 
,every other part of the building had   
likewise its established form1 but it   
will not be possible here to describe or
 even to mention every detail4 ,the most
 important member not yet treated of is 
the ,,anta4 ,an anta may be described as

 a pilaster forming the termination of a
 wall4 ,it stands directly opposite a   
column and is of the same height with   
it1 its function being to receive one   
end of an architrave block1 the other   
end of which is borne by the column4    
,the breadth of its front face is       
slightly greater than the thickness of  
the wall2 the breadth of a side face    
depends upon whether or not the anta    
supports an architrave on that side     
7,figs4 #dg1 #dh1 #di1 #ej74 ,the ,doric
 anta has a special capital1 quite      
unlike the capital of the column4 ,fig4 
#ed shows an example from a building    
erected in #dcg-cb ,b4 ,c4 ,its most    
striking feature is the ,,doric ,,cyma1 
or ,,hawk',s-,,beak ,,molding1 the      
characteristic molding of the ,doric    
style 7,fig4 #ee71 used also to crown   
the horizontal cornice and in other     
situations 7,fig4 #ea and frontispiece74
 ,below the capital the anta is treated 
precisely like the wall of which it     
forms a part2 that is to say1 its       

surfaces are plain1 except for the      
simple base-molding1 which extends also 
along the foot of the wall4 ,the method 
of ceiling the peristyle and vestibules 
by means of ceiling-beams on which rest 
slabs decorated with square1 recessed   
panels or ,,coffers may be indistinctly 
seen in ,fig4 #ef4 ,within the cella1   
when columns were used to help support  
the wooden ceiling1 there seem to have  
been regularly two ranges1 one above the
 other4 ,this is the only case1 so far  
as we know1 in which ,greek architecture
 of the best period put one range of    
columns above another4 ,there were      
probably no windows of any kind1 so that
 the cella received no daylight1 except 
such as entered by the great front      
doorway1 when the doors were open4      
,footnote3 ,this whole matter1 however1 
is in dispute4 ,some authorities believe
 that large temples were ,,hypoethral1  
i4 e41 open1 or partly open1 to the sky1
 or in some way lighted from above4 ,in 
,fig4 #ef an open grating has been      

inserted above the doors1 but for such  
an arrangement in a ,greek temple there 
is no evidence1 so far as ,i am aware4  
,the roof-beams were of wood4 ,the roof 
was covered with terra-cotta or marble  
tiles4  ,such are the main features of a
 ,doric temple 7those last mentioned not
 being peculiar to the ,doric style74   
,little has been said thus far of       
variation in these features4 ,yet       
variation there was4 ,not to dwell on   
local differences1 as between ,greece   
proper and the ,greek colonies in       
,sicily1 there was a development        
constantly going on1 changing the forms 
of details and the relative proportions 
of parts and even introducing new       
features originally foreign to the      
style4 ,thus the column grows slenderer 
from century to century4 ,in early      
examples it is from four to five lower  
diameters in height in the best period  
7fifth and fourth centuries7 about five 
and one half1 in the post classical     
period1 six to seven4 ,the difference in

 this respect between early and late    
examples may be seen by comparing the   
sixth century ,temple of ,posidon 787 at
 ,paestum in southern ,italy 7,fig4 #eg7
 with the third 787 century ,temple of  
,zeus at ,nemea 7,fig4 #eh74 ,again1 the
 echinus of the capital is in the early 
period widely flaring1 making in some   
very early examples an angle at the     
start of not more than fifteen or twenty
 degrees with the horizontal 7,fig4     
#ei72 in the best period it rises more  
steeply1 starting at an angle of about  
fifty degrees with the horizontal and   
having a profile which closely          
approaches a straight line1 until it    
curves inward under the abacus 7,fig4   
#ea72 in the post-classical period it is
 low and sometimes quite conical 7,fig4 
#fj74 ,in general1 the degeneracy of    
post-classical ,greek architecture is in
 nothing more marked than in the loss of
 those subtle curves which characterize 
the best ,greek work4 ,other differences
 must be learned from more extended     

treatises4  ,the ,ionic order was of a  
much more luxuriant character than the  
,doric4 ,our typical example 7,fig4 #fa7
 is taken from the ,temple of ,priene in
 ,asia ,minor--a temple erected about   
#cdj-cj ,b4 ,c4 ,the column has a base  
consisting of a plain square ,,plinth1  
two ,,trochili with moldings1 and a     
,,torus fluted horizontally4 ,the ,ionic
 shaft is much slenderer than the       
,doric1 the height of the column        
7including base and capital7 being in   
different examples from eight to ten    
times the lower diameter of the shaft4  
,the diminution of the shaft is         
naturally less than in the ,doric1 and  
the entasis1 where any has been         
detected1 is exceedingly slight4 ,the   
flutes1 twenty-four in number1 are      
deeper than in the ,doric shaft1 being  
in fact nearly or quite semicircular1   
and they are separated from one another 
by flat bands or fillets4 ,for the form 
of the capital it will be better to     
refer to ,fig4 #fb1 taken from an ,attic

 building of the latter half of the     
fifth century4 ,the principal parts are 
an ,,ovolo and a ,,spiral ,,roll 7the   
latter name not in general use74 ,the   
ovolo has a convex profile1 and is      
sometimes called a quarter-round2 it is 
enriched with an ,,egg-,,and-,,dart     
ornament ,the spiral roll may be        
conceived as a long cushion1 whose ends 
are rolled under to form the ,,volutes4 
,the part connecting the volutes is     
slightly hollowed1 and the channel thus 
formed is continued into the volutes4   
,as seen from the side 7,fig4 #fc71 the 
end of the spiral roll is called a      
,,bolster2 it has the appearance of     
being drawn together by a number of     
encircling bands4 ,on the front1 the    
angles formed by the spiral roll are    
filled by a conventionalized floral     
ornament 7the so-called ,,palmette74    
,above the spiral roll is a low abacus1 
oblong or square in plan4 ,in ,fig4 #fb 
the profile of the abacus is an ovolo on
 which the egg-and-dart ornament was    

painted 7cf4 ,fig4 #ff1 where the       
ornament is sculptured74 ,in ,fig4 #fa1 
as in ,fig4 #ga1 the profile is a       
complex curve called a ,,cyma ,,reversa1
 convex above and concave below1        
enriched with a sculptured              
,,leaf-,,and-,,dart ornament4 ,footnote3
 ,the egg-and-dart is found only on the 
ovolo1 the leaf-and-dart only on the    
cyma reversa or the cyma recta 7concave 
above and convex below7 ,both ornaments 
are in origin leaf-patterns one row of  
leaves showing their points behind      
another row4 ,finally1 attention may be 
called to the ,,astragal or             
,,pearl-,,beading just under the ovolo  
in ,figs4 #fa1 #ga4 ,this might be      
described as a string of beads and      
buttons1 two buttons alternating with a 
single bead4  ,in the normal ,ionic     
capital the opposite faces are of       
identical appearance4 ,if this were the 
case with the capital at the corner of a
 building1 the result would be that on  
the side of the building all the        

capitals would present their bolsters   
instead of their volutes to the         
spectator4 ,the only way to prevent this
 was to distort the corner capital into 
the form shown by ,fig4 #fd2 cf4 also   
,figs4 #fa and #gj4  ,the ,ionic        
architrave is divided horizontally into 
three 7or sometimes two7 bands1 each of 
the upper ones projecting slightly over 
the one below it4 ,it is crowned by a   
sort of cornice enriched with moldings4 
,the frieze is not divided like the     
,doric frieze1 but presents an          
uninterrupted surface4 ,it may be either
 plain or covered with relief-sculpture4
 ,it is finished off with moldings along
 the upper edge4 ,the cornice 7cf4 ,fig4
 #fe7 consists of two principal parts4  
,first comes a projecting block1 into   
whose face rectangular cuttings have    
been made at short intervals1 thus      
leaving a succession of cogs or         
,,dentels2 above these are moldings4    
,secondly there is a much more widely   
projecting block1 the ,,corona1 whose   

under surface is hollowed to lighten the
 weight and whose face is capped with   
moldings4 ,the raking cornice is like   
the horizontal cornice except that it   
has no dentels4 ,the sima or            
gutter-facing1 whose profile is here a  
cyma recta 7concave above and convex    
below71 is enriched with sculptured     
floral ornament4  ,in the ,ionic        
buildings of ,attica the base of the    
column consists of two tori separated by
 a trochilus4 ,the proportions of these 
parts vary considerably4 ,the base in   
,fig4 #ff 7from a building finished     
about #djh ,b4,c47 is worthy of         
attentive examination by reason of its  
harmonious proportions4 ,in the ,roman  
form of this base1 too often imitated   
nowadays1 the trochilus has too small a 
diameter4 ,the ,attic-,ionic cornice    
never has dentels1 unless the cornice of
 the ,caryatid portico of the           
,erechtheum ought to be reckoned as an  
instance 7,fig4 #fg74  ,the capital     
shown in ,fig4 #ff is a special variety 

of the ,ionic capital1 of rather rare   
occurrence4 ,its distinguishing         
features are the insertion between ovolo
 and spiral roll of a torus ornamented  
with a braided pattern1 called a        
,,guilloche2 the absence of the         
palmettes from the corners formed by the
 spiral roll2 and the fact that the     
channel of the roll is double instead of
 single1 which gives a more elaborate   
character to that member4 ,finally1 in  
the ,erechtheum the upper part or       
necking of the shaft is enriched with an
 exquisitely wrought band of floral     
ornament1 the so-called honeysuckle     
pattern4 ,this feature is met with in   
some other examples4  ,as in the ,doric 
style1 so in the ,ionic1 the            
anta-capital is quite unlike the        
column-capital4 ,fig4 #fh shows an      
anta-capital from the ,erechtheum1 with 
an adjacent portion of the wall-band2   
cf4 also ,fig4 #fi4 ,perhaps it is      
inaccurate in this case to speak of an  
anta-capital at all1 seeing that the    

anta simply shares the moldings which   
crown the wall4 ,the floral frieze under
 the moldings is1 however1 somewhat more
 elaborate on the anta than on the      
adjacent wall4 ,the ,ionic method of    
ceiling a peristyle or portico may be   
partly seen in ,fig #fi4 ,the principal 
ceiling-beams here rest upon the        
architrave1 instead of upon the frieze1 
as in a ,doric building 7cf4 ,fig4 #ef74
 ,above were the usual coffered slabs4  
,the same illustration shows a          
well-preserved and finely proportioned  
doorway1 but unfortunately leaves the   
details of its ornamentation indistinct4
  ,the ,ionic order was much used in the
 ,greek cities of ,asia ,minor for      
peripteral temples4 ,the most           
considerable remains of such buildings1 
at ,ephesus1 ,priene1 etc41 belong to   
the fourth century or later4 ,in ,greece
 proper there is no known instance of a 
peripteral ,ionic temple1 but the order 
was sometimes used for small prostyle   
and amphiprostyle buildings1 such as the

 ,temple of ,wingless ,victory in       
,athens 7,fig4 #gj74 ,furthermore1      
,ionic columns were sometimes employed  
in the interior of ,doric temples1 as at
 ,bassae in ,arcadia and 7probably7 in  
the temple built by ,scopas at ,tegea4  
,in the ,propylaea or gateway of the    
,athenian ,acropolis we even find the   
,doric and ,ionic orders juxtaposed1 the
 exterior architecture being ,doric and 
the interior ,ionic1 with no wall to    
separate them4 ,one more interesting    
occurrence of the ,ionic order in       
,greece proper may be mentioned1 viz41  
in the ,philippeum at ,olympia 7about   
#ccf ,b4,c474 ,this is a circular       
building1 surrounded by an ,ionic       
colonnade4 ,still other types of        
building afforded opportunity enough for
 the employment of this style4  ,after  
what has been said of the gradual       
changes in the ,doric order1 it will be 
understood that the ,ionic order was not
 the same in the sixth century as in the
 fifth1 nor in the fifth the same as in 

the third4 ,the most striking change    
concerns the spiral roll of the capital4
 ,in the good period the portion of this
 member which connects the volutes is   
bounded below by a depressed curve1     
graceful and vigorous4 ,with the gradual
 degradation of taste this curve tended 
to become a straight line1 the result   
being the unlovely1 mechanical form     
shown in ,fig4 #ga 7from a building of  
,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 who reigned from
 #bhc to #bdf ,b4,c474 ,better formed   
capitals than this continued for some   
time to be made in ,greek lands2 but the
 type just shown1 or rather something   
resembling it in the disagreeable       
feature noted1 became canonical with    
,roman architects4  ,the ,corinthian    
order1 as it is commonly called1 hardly 
deserves to be called a distinct order4 
,its only peculiar feature is the       
capital2 otherwise it agrees with the   
,ionic order4 ,the ,corinthian capital  
is said to have been invented in the    
fifth century2 and a solitary specimen1 

of a meager and rudimentary type1 found 
in #ahab in the ,temple of ,apollo at   
,bassae1 but since lost1 was perhaps an 
original part of that building 7about   
#dcj ,b4 ,c74 ,at present the earliest  
extant specimens are from the interior  
of a round building of the fourth       
century near ,epidaurus in ,argolis     
7,fig4 #gb74 ,footnote3  ,for some      
reason or other the particular capital  
shown in our illustration was not used  
in the building1 but it is of the same  
model as those actually used1 except    
that the edge of the abacus is not      
finished4 ,it was from such a form as   
this that the luxuriant type of         
,corinthian capital so much in favor    
with ,roman architects and their public 
was derived4 ,on the other hand1 the    
form shown in ,fig4 #gc1 from a little  
building erected in #ccd ,b4,c4 or soon 
after1 is a variant which seems to have 
left no lineal successors4 ,in its usual
 form the ,corinthian capital has a     
cylindrical core1 which expands slightly

 toward the top so as to become         
bell-shaped2 around the lower part of   
this core are two rows of               
conventionalized acanthus leaves1 eight 
in each row2 from these rise eight      
principal stalks 7each1 in fully        
developed examples1 wrapped about its   
base with an acanthus leaf7 which       
combine1 two and two1 to form four      
volutes 7,,helices71 one under each     
corner of the abacus1 while smaller     
stalks1 branching from the first1 cover 
the rest of the upper part of the core2 
there is commonly a floral ornament on  
the middle of each face at the top2     
finally the abacus has1 in plan1 the    
form of a square whose sides have been  
hollowed out and whose corners have been
 truncated4 ,in the form shown in ,fig4 
#gc we find1 first1 a row of sixteen    
simple leaves1 like those of a reed1    
with the points of a second row showing 
between them2 then a single row of eight
 acanthus leaves2 then the scroll-work1 
supporting a palmette on each side2 and 

finally an abacus whose profile is made 
up of a trochilus and an ovolo4 ,this   
capital1 though extremely elegant1 is   
open to the charge of appearing weak at 
its middle4 ,there is a much less ornate
 variety1 also reckoned as ,corinthian1 
which has no scroll- work1 but only a   
row of acanthus leaves with a row of    
reed leaves above them around a         
bell-shaped core1 the whole surmounted  
by a square abacus4 ,in the ,choragic   
,monument of ,lysicrates the cornice has
 dentels1 and this was always the case1 
so far as we know1 where the ,corinthian
 capital was used4 ,in ,corinthian      
buildings the anta1 where met with1 has 
a capital like that of the column4 ,but 
there is very little material to        
generalize from until we descend to     
,roman times4  ,some allusion has been  
made in the foregoing to other types of 
columnar buildings besides the temple4  
,the principal ones of which remains    
exist are ,,propylaea and ,,stoas4      
,propylaea is the ,greek name for a form

 of gateway1 consisting essentially of a
 cross wall between side walls1 with a  
portico on each front4 ,such gateways   
occur in many places as entrances to    
sacred precincts4 ,the finest example1  
and one of the noblest monuments of     
,greek architecture1 is that at the west
 end of the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,the  
stoa may be defined as a building having
 an open range of columns on at least   
one side4 ,usually its length was much  
greater than its depth4 ,stoas were     
often built in sacred precincts1 as at  
,olympia1 and also for secular purposes 
along public streets1 as in ,athens4    
,these and other buildings into which   
the column entered as an integral       
feature involved no new architectural   
elements or principles4  ,one highly    
important fact about ,greek architecture
 has thus far been only touched upon2   
that is1 the liberal use it made of     
color4 ,the ruins of ,greek temples are 
to-day monochromatic1 either glittering 
white1 as is the temple at ,sunium1 or  

of a golden brown1 as are the ,parthenon
 and other buildings of ,pentelic       
marble1 or of a still warmer brown1 as  
are the limestone temples of ,paestum   
and ,girgenti 7,acragas74 ,but this     
uniformity of tint is due only to time4 
,a ,white ,city1 such as made the pride 
of ,chicago in #ahic1 would have been   
unimaginable to an ancient ,greek4 ,even
 to-day the attentive observer may      
sometimes see upon old ,greek buildings1
 as1 for example1 upon ceiling-beams of 
the ,parthenon1 traces left by patterns 
from which the color has vanished4 ,in  
other instances remains of actual color 
exist4 ,so specks of blue paint may     
still be seen1 or might a few years ago1
 on blocks belonging to the ,athenian   
,propylaea4 ,but our most abundant      
evidence for the original use of color  
comes from architectural fragments      
recently unearthed4 ,during the         
excavation of ,olympia 7#ahge-ha7 this  
matter of the coloring of architecture  
was constantly in mind and a large body 

of facts relating to it was accumulated4
 ,every new and important excavation    
adds to the store4 ,at present our      
information is much fuller in regard to 
the polychromy of ,doric than of ,ionic 
buildings4 ,it appears that1 just as the
 forms and proportions of a building and
 of all its details were determined by  
precedent1 yet not so absolutely as to  
leave no scope for the exercise of      
individual genius1 so there was an      
established system in the coloring of a 
building1 yet a system which varied     
somewhat according to time and place and
 the taste of the architect4 ,the       
frontispiece attempts to suggest what   
the coloring of the ,parthenon was like1
 and thus to illustrate the general     
scheme of ,doric polychromy4 ,the colors
 used were chiefly dark blue1 sometimes 
almost black1 and red2 green and yellow 
also occur1 and some details were       
gilded4 ,the coloration of the building 
was far from total4 ,plain surfaces1 as 
walls1 were unpainted4 ,so too were the 

columns1 including1 probably1 their     
capitals1 except between the annulets4  
,thus color was confined to the upper   
members--the triglyphs1 the under       
surface 7soffit7 of the cornice1 the    
sima1 the anta-capitals 7cf4 ,fig4 #ed71
 the ornamental details generally1 the  
coffers of the ceiling1 and the         
backgrounds of sculpture4 ,footnote3    
,our frontispiece gives the backgrounds 
of the metopes as plain1 but this is    
probably an error ,the triglyphs1       
regulae1 and mutules were blue2 the     
taenia of the architrave and the soffit 
of the cornice between the mutules with 
the adjacent narrow bands were red2 the 
backgrounds of sculpture1 either blue or
 red2 the hawk's-beak molding1          
alternating blue and red2 and so on4    
,the principal uncertainty regards the  
treatment of the unpainted members4     
,were these left of a glittering white1 
or were they toned down1 in the case of 
marble buildings1 by some application or
 other1 so as to contrast less glaringly

 with the painted portions8 ,the latter 
supposition receives some confirmation  
from ,vitruvius1 a ,roman writer on     
architecture of the age of ,augustus1   
and seems to some modern writers to be  
demanded by aesthetic considerations4   
,on the other hand1 the evidence of the 
,olympia buildings points the other way4
 ,perhaps the actual practice varied4   
,as for the coloring of ,ionic          
architecture1 we know that the capital  
of the column was painted1 but otherwise
 our information is very scanty4  ,if it
 be asked what led the ,greeks to a use 
of color so strange to us and1 on first 
acquaintance1 so little to our taste1 it
 may be answered that possibly the      
example of their neighbors had something
 to do with it4 ,the architecture of    
,egypt1 of ,mesopotamia1 of ,persia1 was
 polychromatic4 ,but probably the       
practice of the ,greeks was in the main 
an inheritance from the early days of   
their own civilization4 ,according to a 
well- supported theory1 the ,doric      

temple of the historical period is a    
translation into stone or marble of a   
primitive edifice whose walls were of   
sun-dried bricks and whose columns and  
entablature were of wood4 ,now it is    
natural and appropriate to paint wood2  
and we may suppose that the taste for a 
partially colored architecture was thus 
formed4 ,this theory does not indeed    
explain everything4 ,it does not1 for   
example1 explain why the columns or the 
architrave should be uncolored4 ,in     
short1 the ,greek system of polychromy  
presents itself to us as a largely      
arbitrary system4  ,more interesting    
than the question of origin is the      
question of aesthetic effect4 ,was the  
,greek use of color in good taste8 ,it  
is not easy to answer with a simple yes 
or no4 ,many of the attempts to         
represent the facts by restorations on  
paper have been crude and vulgar enough4
 ,on the other hand1 some experiments in
 decorating modern buildings with color1
 in a fashion1 to be sure1 much less    

liberal than that of ancient ,greece1   
have produced pleasing results4 ,at     
present the question is rather one of   
faith than of sight2 and most students  
of the subject have faith to believe    
that the appearance of a ,greek temple  
in all its pomp of color was not only   
sumptuous1 but harmonious and           
appropriate4  ,when we compare the      
architecture of ,greece with that of    
other countries1 we must be struck with 
the remarkable degree in which the      
former adhered to established usage1    
both in the general plan of a building  
and in the forms and proportions of each
 feature4 ,some measure of adherence to 
precedent is indeed implied in the very 
existence of an architectural style4    
,what is meant is that the ,greek       
measure was unusual1 perhaps            
unparalleled4 ,yet the following of     
established canons was not pushed to a  
slavish extreme4 ,a fine ,greek temple  
could not be built according to a hard  
and fast rule4 ,while the architect     

refrained from bold and lawless         
innovations1 he yet had scope to        
exercise his genius4 ,the differences   
between the ,parthenon and any other    
contemporary ,doric temple would seem   
slight1 when regarded singly2 but the   
preeminent perfection of the ,parthenon 
lay in just those skilfully calculated  
differences  ,a ,greek columnar building
 is extremely simple in form4,footnote3 
,the substance of this paragraph and the
 following is borrowed from ,boutmy1    
,philosophie de l',architecture en      
,grece 7,paris1 #ahgj7 ,the outlines of 
an ordinary temple are those of an      
oblong rectangular block surmounted by a
 triangular roof4 ,with a qualification 
to be explained presently1 all the lines
 of the building1 except those of the   
roof1 are either horizontal or          
perpendicular4 ,the most complicated    
,greek columnar buildings known1 the    
,erechtheum and the ,propylaea of the   
,athenian ,acropolis1 are simplicity    
itself when compared to a ,gothic       

cathedral1 with its irregular plan1 its 
towers1 its wheel windows1 its          
multitudinous diagonal lines4  ,the     
extreme simplicity which characterizes  
the general form of a ,greek building   
extends also to its sculptured and      
painted ornaments4 ,in the ,doric style 
these are very sparingly used2 and even 
the ,ionic style1 though more luxuriant1
 seems reserved in comparison with the  
wealth of ornamental detail in a ,gothic
 cathedral4 ,moreover1 the ,greek       
ornaments are simple in character4      
,examine again the hawk's-beak1 the     
egg-and-dart1 the leaf-and- dart1 the   
astragal1 the guilloche1 the            
honeysuckle1 the meander or fret4 ,these
 are almost the only continuous patterns
 in use in ,greek architecture4 ,each   
consists of a small number of elements  
recurring in unvarying order2 a short   
section is enough to give the entire    
pattern4 ,contrast this with the        
string-course in the nave of the        
,cathedral of ,amiens1 where the motive 

of the design undergoes constant        
variation1 no piece exactly duplicating 
its neighbor1 or with the intricate     
interlacing patterns of ,arabic         
decoration1 and you will have a striking
 illustration of the ,greek love for the
 finite and comprehensible4  ,when it   
was said just now that the main lines of
 a ,greek temple are either horizontal  
or perpendicular1 the statement called  
for qualification4 ,the elevations of   
the most perfect of ,doric buildings1   
the ,parthenon1 could not be drawn with 
a ruler4 ,some of the apparently        
straight lines are really curved4 ,the  
stylobate is not level1 but convex1 the 
rise of the curve amounting to #a_/dej  
of the length of the building2 the      
architrave has also a rising curve1 but 
slighter than that of the stylobate4    
,then again1 many of the lines that     
would commonly be taken for vertical are
 in reality slightly inclined4 ,the     
columns slope inward and so do the      
principal surfaces of the building1     

while the anta-capitals slope forward4  
,these refinements1 or some of them1    
have been observed in several other     
buildings4 ,they are commonly regarded  
as designed to obviate certain optical  
illusions supposed to arise in their    
absence4 ,but perhaps1 as one writer has
 suggested1 their principal office was  
to save the building from an appearance 
of mathematical rigidity1 to give it    
something of the semblance of a living  
thing4  ,be that as it may1 these       
manifold subtle curves and sloping lines
 testify to the extraordinary nicety of 
,greek workmanship4 ,a column of the    
,parthenon1 with its inclination1 its   
tapering1 its entasis1 and its fluting1 
could not have been constructed without 
the most conscientious skill4 ,in fact1 
the capabilities of the workmen kept    
pace with the demands of the architects4
 ,no matter how delicate the adjustment 
to be made1 the task was perfectly      
achieved4 ,and when it came to the      
execution of ornamental details1 these  

were wrought with a free hand and1 in   
the best period1 with fine artistic     
feeling4 ,the wall-band of the          
,erechtheum is one of the most exquisite
 things which ,greece has left us4      
,simplicity in general form1 harmony of 
proportion1 refinement of line--these   
are the great features of ,greek        
columnar architecture4  ,one other type 
of ,greek building1 into which the      
column does not enter1 or enters only in
 a very subordinate way1 remains to be  
mentioned--the theater4 ,theaters       
abounded in ,greece4 ,every considerable
 city and many a smaller place had at   
least one1 and the ruins of these       
structures rank with temples and walls  
of fortification among the commonest    
classes of ruins in ,greek lands4 ,but  
in a sketch of ,greek art they may be   
rapidly dismissed4 ,that part of the    
theater which was occupied by           
spectators--the auditorium1 as we may   
call it--was commonly built into a      
natural slope1 helped out by means of   

artificial embankments and supporting   
walls4 ,there was no roof4 ,the         
building1 therefore1 had no exterior1 or
 none to speak of4 ,such beauty as it   
possessed was due mainly to its         
proportions4 ,the theater at the        
sanctuary of ,asclepius near ,epidaurus1
 the work of the same architect who     
built the round building with the       
,corinthian columns referred to on page 
#ajc1 was distinguished in ancient times
 for harmony and beauty1 as the ,greek  
traveler1 ,pausamas 7about #afe ,a4     
,d471 puts it4 ,it is fortunately one of
 the best preserved4 ,fig4 #gd1 a view  
taken from a considerable distance will 
give some idea of that quality which    
,pausanias justly admired4 ,fronting the
 auditorium was the stage building1 of  
which little but foundations remains    
anywhere4 ,so far as can be ascertained1
 this stage building had but small      
architectural pretensions until the post
 classical period 7i4e41 after          
,alexander7 ,but there was opportunity  

for elegance as well as convenience in  
the form given to the stone or marble   
seats with which the auditorium was     
provided4      ,,chapter ,,iv4  ,,greek 
,,sculpture4--,,general                 
,,considerations4   ,in the ,mycenaean  
period1 as we have seen1 the art of     
sculpture had little existence1 except  
for the making of small images and the  
decoration of small objects4 ,we have   
now to take up the story of the rise of 
this art to an independent and          
commanding position1 of its perfection  
and its subsequent decline4 ,the        
beginner must not expect to find this   
story told with as much fulness and     
certainty as is possible in dealing with
 the art of the ,renaissance or any more
 modern period4 ,the impossibility of   
equal fulness and certainty here will   
become apparent when we consider what   
our materials for constructing a history
 of ,greek sculpture are4  ,first1 we   
have a quantity of notices1 more or less
 relevant1 in ancient ,greek and ,roman 

authors1 chiefly of the time of the     
,roman ,empire4 ,these notices are of   
the most miscellaneous description4     
,they come from writers of the most     
unlike tastes and the most unequal      
degrees of trustworthiness4 ,they are   
generally very vague1 leaving most that 
we want to know unsaid4 ,and they have  
such a haphazard character that1 when   
taken all together1 they do not begin to
 cover the field4 ,nothing like all the 
works of the greater sculptors1 let     
alone the lesser ones1 are so much as   
mentioned by name in extant ancient     
literature4  ,secondly1 we have several 
hundreds of original inscriptions       
belonging to ,greek works of sculpture  
and containing the names of the artists 
who made them4 ,it was a common         
practice1 in the case especially of     
independent statues in the round1 for   
the sculptor to attach his signature1   
generally to the pedestal4              
,unfortunately1 while great numbers of  
these inscribed pedestals have been     

preserved for us1 it is very rarely that
 we have the statues which once belonged
 on them4 ,moreover1 the artists' names 
which we meet on the pedestals are in a 
large proportion of cases names not even
 mentioned by our literary sources4 ,in 
fact1 there is only one indisputable    
case where we possess both a statue and 
the pedestal belonging to it1 the latter
 inscribed with the name of an artist   
known to us from literary tradition4    
7,see pages #bab-c47  ,thirdly1 we have 
the actual remains of ,greek sculpture1 
a constantly accumulating store1 yet    
only an insignificant remnant of what   
once existed4 ,these works have suffered
 sad disfigurement4 ,not one life-sized 
figure has reached us absolutely intact2
 but few have escaped serious           
mutilation4 ,most of those found before 
the beginning of this century1 and some 
of those found since1 have been         
subjected to a process known as         
restoration4 ,missing parts have been   
supplied1 often in the most arbitrary   

and tasteless manner1 and injured       
surfaces1 e4 g41 of faces1 have been    
polished1 with irreparable damage as the
 result4  ,again1 it is important to    
recognize that the creations of ,greek  
sculpture which have been preserved to  
us are partly original ,greek works1    
partly copies executed in ,roman times  
from ,greek originals4 ,originals1 and  
especially important originals1 are     
scarce4 ,the statues of gold and ivory  
have left not a vestige behind4 ,those  
of bronze1 once numbered by thousands1  
went long ago1 with few exceptions1 into
 the melting-pot4 ,even sculptures in   
marble1 though the material was less    
valuable1  have been thrown into the    
lime-kiln or used as building stone or  
wantonly mutilated or ruined by neglect4
 ,there does not exist to-day a single  
certified original work by any one of   
the six greatest sculptors of ,greece1  
except the ,hermes of ,praxiteles 7see  
page #bba74 ,copies are more plentiful4 
,as nowadays many museums and private   

houses have on their walls copies of    
paintings by the old masters1 so1 and   
far more usually1 the public and private
 buildings of imperial ,rome and of many
 of the cities under her sway were      
adorned with copies of famous works by  
the sculptors of ancient ,greece4 ,any  
piece of sculpture might thus be        
multiplied indefinitely2 and so it      
happens that we often possess several   
copies1 or even some dozens of copies1  
of one and the same original4 ,most of  
the masterpieces of ,greek sculpture    
which are known to us at all are known  
only in this way4  ,the question        
therefore arises1 ,how far are these    
copies to be trusted8 ,it is impossible 
to answer in general terms4 ,the        
instances are very few where we possess 
at once the original and a copy4 ,the   
best case of the kind is afforded by    
,fig4 #ge1 compared with ,fig4 #acb4    
,here the head1 fore-arms1 and feet of  
the copy are modern and consequently do 
not enter into consideration4 ,limiting 

one's attention to the antique parts of 
the figure1 one sees that it is a       
tolerably close1 and yet a hard and     
lifeless1 imitation of the original4    
,this gives us some measure of the      
degree of fidelity we may expect in     
favorable cases4 ,generally speaking1 we
 have to form our estimate of the       
faithfulness of a copy by the quality of
 its workmanship and by a comparison of 
it with other copies1 where such exist4 
,often we find two or more copies       
agreeing with one another as closely as 
possible4 ,this shows--and the          
conclusion is confirmed by other        
evidence--that means existed in ,roman  
times of reproducing  statues with the  
help of measurements mechanically taken4
 ,at the same time1 a comparison of     
copies makes it apparent that copyists1 
even when aiming to be exact in the     
main1 often treated details and         
accessories with a good deal of freedom4
 ,of course1 too1 the skill and         
conscientiousness of the copyists varied

 enormously4 ,finally1 besides copies1  
we have to reckon with variations and   
modernizations in every degree of       
earlier works4 ,under these             
circumstances it will easily be seen    
that the task of reconstructing a lost  
original from extant imitations is a    
very delicate and perilous one4 ,who    
could adequately appreciate the ,sistine
 ,madonna1 if the inimitable touch of   
,raphael were known to us only at       
second-hand8  ,any history of ,greek    
sculpture attempts to piece together the
 several classes of evidence above      
described4 ,it classifies the actual    
remains1 seeking to assign to each piece
 its place and date of production and to
 infer from direct examination and      
comparison the progress of artistic     
methods and ideas4 ,and this it does    
with constant reference to what         
literature and inscriptions have to tell
 us4 ,but in the fragmentary state of   
our materials1 it is evident that the   
whole subject must be beset with doubt4 

,great and steady progress has indeed   
been made since ,winckelmann1 the       
founder of the science of classical     
archaeology1 produced the first ,history
 of ,ancient ,art 7published in #agfc72 
but twilight still reigns over many an  
important question4 ,this general       
warning should be borne in mind in      
reading this or any other hand-book of  
the subject4  ,we may next take up the  
materials and the technical processes of
 ,greek sculpture4 ,these may be        
classified as follows3  7#a7 ,wood4     
,wood was often1 if not exclusively1    
used for the earliest ,greek            
temple-images1 those rude xoana1 of     
which many survived into the historical 
period1 to be regarded with peculiar    
veneration4 ,we even hear of wooden     
statues made in the developed period of 
,greek art4 ,but this was certainly     
exceptional4 ,wood plays no part worth  
mentioning in the fully developed       
sculpture of ,greece1 except as it      
entered into the making of gold and     

ivory statues or of the cheaper         
substitutes for these4  7#b7 ,stone and 
marble4 ,various uncrystallized         
limestones were frequently used in the  
archaic period and here and there even  
in the fifth century4 ,but white marble1
 in which ,greece abounds1 came also    
early into use1 and its immense         
superiority to limestone for statuary   
purposes led to the abandonment of the  
latter4 ,the choicest varieties of      
marble were the ,parian and ,pentelic   
7cf4 page #gg74 ,both of these were     
exported to every part of the ,greek    
world4  ,a ,greek marble statue or group
 is often not made of a single piece4   
,thus the ,aphrodite of ,melos 7page    
#bdi7 was made of two principal pieces1 
the junction coming just above the      
drapery1 while several smaller parts1   
including the left arm1 were made       
separately and attached4 ,the ,laocoon  
group 7page #bfe71 which ,pliny         
expressly alleges to have been made of a
 single block1 is in reality made of    

six4 ,often the head was made separately
 from the body1 sometimes of a finer    
quality of marble1 and then inserted    
into a socket prepared for it in the    
neck of the figure4 ,and very often1    
when the statue was mainly of a single  
block1 small pieces were attached1      
sometimes in considerable numbers4 ,of  
course the joining was done with extreme
 nicety1 and would have escaped ordinary
 observation4  ,in the production of a  
modern piece of marble sculpture1 the   
artist first makes a clay model and then
 a mere workman produces from this a    
marble copy4 ,in the best period of     
,greek art1 on the other hand1 there    
seems to have been no mechanical copying
 of finished models4 ,preliminary       
drawings or even clay models1 perhaps   
small1 there must often have been to    
guide the eye2 but the sculptor1 instead
 of copying with the help of exact      
measurements1 struck out freely1 as     
genius and training inspired him4 ,if he
 made a mistake1 the result was not     

fatal1 for he could repair his error by 
attaching a fresh piece of marble4 ,yet 
even so1 the ability to work in this way
 implies marvelous precision of eye and 
hand4 ,to this ability and this method  
we may ascribe something  of the        
freedom1 the vitality1 and the          
impulsiveness of ,greek marble          
sculpture--qualities which the          
mechanical method of production tends to
 destroy4 ,observe too that1 while      
pediment-groups1 metopes1 friezes1 and  
reliefs upon pedestals would often be   
executed by subordinates following the  
design of the principal artist1 any     
important single statue or group in     
marble was in all probability chiseled  
by the very hand of the master4         
,another fact of importance1 a fact     
which few are able to keep constantly   
enough in their thoughts1 is that ,greek
 marble sculpture was always more or    
less painted4 ,this is proved both by   
statements in ancient authors and by the
 fuller and more explicit evidence of   

numberless actual remains4 7,see        
especially pages #adh1 #bdg47 ,from     
these sources we learn that eyes1       
eyebrows1 hair1 and perhaps lips were   
regularly painted1 and that draperies   
and other accessories were often painted
 in whole or in part4 ,as regards the   
treatment of flesh the evidence is      
conflicting4 ,some instances are        
reported where the flesh of men was     
colored a reddish brown1 as in the      
sculpture of ,egypt4 ,but the evidence  
seems to me to warrant the inference    
that this was unusual in marble         
sculpture4 ,on the ,alexander           
sarcophagus the nude flesh has been by  
some process toned down to an ivory     
tint1 and this treatment may have been  
the rule1 although most sculptures which
 retain remains of color show no trace  
of this4 ,observe that wherever color   
was applied1 it was laid on in flat     
tints1 i4e41 not graded or shaded4      
,this polychromatic character of ,greek 
marble sculpture is at variance with    

what we moderns have been accustomed to 
since the ,renaissance4 ,by practice and
 theory we have been taught that        
sculpture and painting are entirely     
distinct arts4 ,and in the austere      
renunciation  by sculpture of all color 
there has even been seen a special      
distinction1 a claim to precedence in   
the hierarchy of the arts4 ,the ,greeks 
had no such idea4 ,the sculpture of the 
older nations about them was            
polychromatic2 their own early sculpture
 in wood and coarse stone was almost    
necessarily so2 their architecture1 with
 which sculpture was often associated1  
was so likewise4 ,the coloring of marble
 sculpture1 then1 was a natural result  
of the influences by which that         
sculpture was molded4 ,and1 of course1  
the ,greek eye took pleasure in the     
combination of form and color1 and      
presumably would have found pure white  
figures like ours dull and cold4 ,we are
 better circumstanced for judging ,greek
 taste in this matter than in the matter

 of colored architecture1 for we possess
 ,greek sculptures which have kept their
 coloring almost intact4 ,a sight of the
 ,alexander sarcophagus1 if it does not 
revolutionize our own taste1 will at    
least dispel any fear that a ,greek     
artist was capable of outraging         
beautiful form by a vulgarizing         
addition4  7#c7 ,bronze4 ,this material 
7an alloy of copper with tin and        
sometimes lead71 always more expensive  
than marble1 was the favorite material  
of some of the most eminent sculptors   
7,myron1 ,polyclitus1 ,lysippus7 and for
 certain purposes was always preferred4 
,the art of casting small1 solid bronze 
images goes far back into the           
prehistoric period in ,greece4 ,at an   
early date1 too 7we cannot say how      
early71 large bronze statues could be   
made of a number of separate pieces1    
shaped by the hammer and riveted        
together4 ,such a work was seen at      
,sparta by the traveler ,pausanias1 and 
was regarded by him as the most ancient 

existing statue in bronze4 ,a great     
impulse must have been given to bronze  
sculpture by the introduction of the    
process of hollow-casting4 ,pausanias   
repeatedly attributes the invention of  
this process to ,rhoecus and ,theodorus1
 two ,samian artists1 who flourished    
apparently early in the sixth century4  
,this may be substantially correct1 but 
the process is much more likely to have 
been borrowed from ,egypt than invented 
independently4  ,in producing a bronze  
statue it is necessary first to make an 
exact clay model4 ,this done1 the usual 
,greek practice seems to have been to   
dismember the model and take a casting  
of each part separately4 ,the several   
bronze pieces were then carefully united
 by rivets or solder1 and small defects 
were repaired by the insertion of       
quadrangular patches of bronze4 ,the    
eye-sockets were always left hollow in  
the casting1 and eyeballs of glass1     
metal1 or other materials1 imitating    
cornea and iris1 were inserted4         

,footnote3 ,marble statues also         
sometimes had inserted eyes ,finally1   
the whole was gone over with appropriate
 tools1 the hair1 for example1 being    
furrowed with a sharp graver and thus   
receiving a peculiar1 metallic          
definiteness of texture4  ,a hollow     
bronze statue being much lighter than   
one in marble and much less brittle1 a  
sculptor could be much bolder in posing 
a figure of the former material than one
 of the latter4 ,hence when a ,greek    
bronze statue was copied in marble in   
,roman times1 a disfiguring support1 not
 present in the original1 had often to  
be added 7cf4 ,figs1 #aja1 #ajd1 etc474 
,the existence of such a support in a   
marble work is1 then1 one reason among  
others for assuming a bronze original4  
,other indications pointing the same way
 are afforded by a peculiar sharpness of
 edge1 e4g41 of the eyelids and the     
eyebrows1 and by the metallic treatment 
of the hair4 ,these points are well     
illustrated by ,fig4 #gf4 ,notice       

especially the curls1 which in the      
original would have been made of        
separate strips of bronze1 twisted and  
attached after the casting of the       
figure4  ,bronze reliefs were not cast1 
but produced by hammering4 ,this is what
 is called repousse work4 ,these bronze 
reliefs were of small size1 and were    
used for ornamenting helmets1 cuirasses1
 mirrors1 and so on4  7#d7 ,gold and    
ivory4 ,chryselephantine statues1 i4e41 
statues of gold and ivory1 must1 from   
the costliness of the materials1 have   
been always comparatively rare4 ,most of
 them1 though not all1 were             
temple-images1 and the most famous ones 
were of colossal size4 ,we are very     
imperfectly informed as to how these    
figures were made4 ,the colossal ones   
contained a strong framework of timbers 
and metal bars1 over which was built a  
figure of wood4 ,to this the gold and   
ivory were attached1 ivory being used   
for flesh and gold for all other parts4 
,the gold on the ,athena of the         

,parthenon 7cf4 page #ahf7 weighed a    
good deal over a ton4 ,but costly as    
these works were1 the admiration  felt  
for them seems to have been untainted by
 any thought of that fact4  7#e7        
,terra-cotta4 ,this was used at all     
periods for small figures1 a few inches 
high1 immense numbers of which have been
 preserved to us4 ,but large terra-cotta
 figures1 such as were common in        
,etruria1 were probably quite           
exceptional in ,greece4  ,greek         
sculpture may be classified1 according  
to the purposes which it served1 under  
the following heads3  7#a7              
,architectural sculpture4 ,a temple     
could hardly be considered complete     
unless it was adorned with more or less 
of sculpture4 ,the chief place for such 
sculpture was in the pediments and      
especially in the principal or eastern  
pediment4 ,relief-sculpture might be    
applied to ,doric metopes or an ,ionic  
frieze4 ,and finally1 single statues or 
groups might be placed1 as acroteria1   

upon the apex and lower corners of a    
pediment4 ,other sacred buildings       
besides temples might be similarly      
adorned4 ,but we hear very little of    
sculpture on secular buildings4  7#b7   
,cult-images4 ,as a rule1 every temple  
or shrine contained at least one statue 
of the divinity1 or of each divinity1   
worshiped there4  7#c7 ,votive          
sculptures4 ,it was the habit of the    
,greeks to present to their divinities  
all sorts of objects in recognition of  
past favors or in hope of favors to     
come4 ,among these votive objects or    
,,anathemeta works of sculpture occupied
 a large and important place4 ,the      
subjects of such sculptures were        
various4 ,statues of the god or goddess 
to whom the dedication was made were    
common2 but perhaps still commoner were 
figures representing human persons1     
either the dedicators themselves or     
others in whom they were nearly         
interested4 ,under this latter head fall
 most of the many statues of victors in 

the athletic games4 ,these were set up  
in temple precincts1 like that of ,zeus 
at ,olympia1 that of ,apollo at ,delphi1
 or that of ,athena on the ,acropolis of
 ,athens1 and were1 in theory at least1 
intended rather as thank-offerings than 
as means of glorifying the victors      
themselves4  7#d7 ,sepulchral sculpture4
 ,sculptured grave monuments were common
 in ,greece at least as early as the    
sixth century4 ,the most usual monument 
was a slab of marble--the form varying  
according to place and time--sculptured 
with an idealized representation in     
relief of the deceased person1 often    
with members of his family4  7#e7       
,honorary statues4 ,statues representing
 distinguished men1 contemporary or     
otherwise1 could be set up by state     
authority in secular places or in       
sanctuaries4 ,the earliest known case of
 this kind is that of ,harmodius and    
,aristogiton1 shortly after #eaj ,b4,c4 
7cf4 pages #afj-d74 ,the practice       
gradually became common1 reaching an    

extravagant development in the period   
after ,alexander4  7#f7 ,sculpture used 
merely as ornament1 and having no sacred
 or public character4 ,this class       
belongs mainly1 if not wholly1 to the   
latest period of ,greek art4 ,it would  
be going beyond our evidence to say that
 never1 in the great age of ,greek      
sculpture1 was a statue or a relief     
produced merely as an ornament for a    
private house or the interior of a      
secular building4 ,but certain it is    
that the demand for such things before  
the time of ,alexander1 if it existed at
 all1 was inconsiderable4 ,it may be    
neglected in a broad survey of the      
conditions of artistic production in the
 great age4  ,the foregoing list1 while 
not quite exhaustive1 is sufficiently so
 for present purposes4 ,it will be seen 
how inspiring and elevating was the role
 assigned to the sculptor in ,greece4   
,his work destined to be seen by        
intelligent and sympathetic multitudes1 
appealed1 not to the coarser elements of

 their nature1 but to the most serious  
and exalted4 ,hence ,greek sculpture of 
the best period is always pure and      
noble4 ,the grosser aspects of ,greek   
life1 which flaunt themselves           
shamelessly in ,attic comedy1 as in some
 of the designs upon ,attic vases1 do   
not invade the province of this art4    
,it may be proper here to say a word in 
explanation of that frank and innocent  
nudity which is so characteristic a     
trait of the best ,greek art4 ,the      
,greek admiration for the masculine body
 and the willingness to display it were 
closely bound up with the extraordinary 
importance in ,greece of gymnastic      
exercises and contests and with the     
habits which these engendered4 ,as early
 as the seventh century1 if not earlier1
 the competitors in the foot- race at   
,olympia dispensed with the loin-cloth1 
which had previously been the sole      
covering worn4 ,in other ,olympic       
contests the example thus set was not   
followed till some time later1 but in   

the gymnastic exercises of every-day    
life the same custom must have early    
prevailed4 ,thus in contrast to         
primitive ,greek feeling and to the     
feeling of barbarians generally1 the    
exhibition by men among men of the naked
 body came to be regarded as something  
altogether honorable4 ,there could not  
be better evidence of this than the fact
 that the archer-god1 ,apollo1 the      
purest god in the ,greek pantheon1 does 
not deign in ,greek art to veil the     
glory of his form4  ,greek sculpture had
 a strongly idealizing bent4 ,gods and  
goddesses were conceived in the likeness
 of human beings1 but human beings freed
 from eery blemish1 made august and     
beautiful by the artistic imagination4  
,the subjects of architectural sculpture
 were mainly mythological1 historical   
scenes being very rare in purely ,greek 
work2 and these legendary themes offered
 little temptation to a literal copying 
of every-day life4 ,but what is most    
noteworthy is that even in the          

representation of actual human persons1 
e4g41 in athlete statues and upon grave 
monuments1 ,greek sculpture in the best 
period seems not to have even aimed at  
exact portraiture4 ,the development of  
realistic portraiture belongs mainly to 
the age of ,alexander and his           
successors4  ,mr4 ,ruskin goes so far as
 to say that a ,greek never expresses   
personal character1 and never expresses 
momentary passion4 ,footnote3 ,aratra   
,pentelici1 ,lecture ,,vi1 ,section     
#aia1 #aic4 ,these are reckless         
verdicts1 needing much qualification4   
,for the art of the fourth century they 
will not do at all1 much less for the   
later period4 ,but they may be of use if
 they lead us to note the preference for
 the typical and permanent with which   
,greek sculpture begins1 and the very   
gradual way in which it progresses      
toward the expression of the individual 
and transient4 ,however1 even in the    
best period the most that we have any   
right to speak of is a prevailing       

tendency4 ,greek art was at all times   
very much alive1 and the student must be
 prepared to find exceptions to any     
formula that can be laid down4          
,,chapter ,v4  ,,the ,,archaic ,,period 
,,of ,,greek ,,sculpture4 ,,first       
,,half3 #fbe 787-#eej ,b4,c4   ,the date
 above suggested for the beginning of   
the period with which we have first to  
deal must not be regarded as making any 
pretense to exactitude4 ,we have no     
means of assigning a definite date to   
any of the most primitive-looking pieces
 of ,greek sculpture4 ,all that can be  
said is that works which can be         
confidently dated about the middle of   
the sixth century show such a degree of 
advancement as implies more than half a 
century of development since the first  
rude beginnings4  ,tradition and the    
more copious evidence of actual remains 
teach us that these early attempts at   
sculpture in stone or marble were not   
confined to any one spot or narrow      
region4 ,on the contrary1 the centers of

 artistic activity were numerous and    
widely diffused-- the islands of ,crete1
 ,paros1 and ,naxos2 the ,ionic cities  
of ,asia ,minor and the adjacent islands
 of ,chios and ,samos2 in ,greece       
proper1 ,boeotia1 ,attica1 ,argolis1    
,arcadia1 ,laconia2 in ,sicily1 the     
,greek colony ,selinus2 and doubtless   
many others4 ,it is very difficult to   
make out how far these different spots  
were independent of one another2 how    
far1 in other words1 we have a right to 
speak of local schools of sculpture4    
,certainly there was from the first a   
good deal of action and reaction between
 some of these places1 and one chief    
problem of the subject is to discover   
the really originative centers of       
artistic impulse1 and to trace the      
spread of artistic types and styles and 
methods from place to place4 ,instead of
 attempting here to discuss or decide   
this difficult question1 it will be     
better simply to pass in review a few   
typical works of the early archaic      

period from various sites4  ,the first  
place may be given to a marble image    
7,fig4 #gg7 found in #ahgh on the island
 of ,delos1 that ancient center of      
,apolline worship for the ,ionians4 ,on 
the left side of the figure is engraved 
in early ,greek characters a metrical   
inscription1 recording that the statue  
was dedicated to ,artemis by one        
,nicandra of ,naxos4 ,whether it was    
intended to represent the goddess       
,artemis or the woman ,nicandra1 we     
cannot tell2 nor is the question of much
 importance to us4 ,we have here an     
extremely rude attempt to represent a   
draped female form4 ,the figure stands  
stiffly erect1 the feet close together1 
the arms hanging straight down1 the face
 looking directly forward4 ,the garment 
envelops the body like a close-fitting  
sheath1 without a suggestion of folds4  
,the trunk of the body is flat or nearly
 so at the back1 while in front the     
prominence of the breasts is suggested  
by the simple device of two planes1 an  

upper and a lower1 meeting at an angle4 
,the shapeless arms were not detached   
from the sides1 except just at the      
waist4 ,below the girdle the body is    
bounded by parallel planes in front and 
behind and is rounded off at the sides4 
,a short projection at the bottom1      
slightly rounded and partly divided1    
does duty for the feet4 ,the features of
 the face are too much battered to be   
commented upon4 ,the most of the hair   
falls in a rough mass upon the back1 but
 on either side a bunch1 divided by     
grooves into four locks1 detaches itself
 and is brought forward upon the breast4
 ,this primitive image is not an        
isolated specimen of its type4 ,several 
similar figures or fragments of figures 
have been found on the island of ,delos1
 in ,boeotia1 and elsewhere4 ,a small   
statuette of this type1 found at        
,olympia1 but probably produced at      
,sparta1 has its ugly face tolerably    
preserved4  ,another series of figures1 
much more numerously represented1 gives 

us the corresponding type of male       
figure4 ,one of the earliest examples of
 this series is shown in ,fig4 #gh1 a   
life-sized statue of ,naxian marble1    
found on the island of ,thera in #ahcf4 
,the figure is completely nude4 ,the    
attitude is like that of the female type
 just described1 except that the left   
foot is advanced4 ,other statues1       
agreeing with this one in attitude1 but 
showing various stages of development1  
have been found in many places1 from    
,samos on the east to ,actium on the    
west4 ,several features of this class of
 figures have been thought to betray    
,egyptian influence4 ,footnote3 ,see    
,wolters's edition of ,friederichs's    
,gipsabgusse antiker ,bildwerke1 pages  
#aa #ab4 ,the rigid position might be   
adopted independently by primitive      
sculpture anywhere4 ,but the fact that  
the left leg is invariably advanced1 the
 narrowness of the hips1 and the too    
high position frequently given to the   
ears-- did this group of coincidences   

with the stereotyped ,egyptian standing 
figures come about without imitation8   
,there is no historical difficulty in   
the way of assuming ,egyptian influence1
 for as early as the seventh century    
,greeks certainly visited ,egypt and it 
was perhaps in this century that the    
,greek colony of ,naucratis was founded 
in the delta of the ,nile4 ,here was a  
chance for ,greeks to see ,egyptian     
statues2 and besides1 ,egyptian         
statuettes may have reached ,greek      
shores in the way of commerce4 ,but be  
the truth about this question what it   
may1 the early ,greek sculptors were as 
far as possible from slavishly imitating
 a fixed prototype4 ,they used their own
 eyes and strove1 each in his own way1  
to render what they saw4 ,this is       
evident1 when the different examples of 
the class of figures now under          
discussion are passed in review4  ,our  
figure from ,thera is hardly more than a
 first attempt4 ,there is very little of
 anatomical detail1 and what there is is

 not correct2 especially the form and   
the muscles of the abdomen are not      
understood4 ,the head presents a number 
of characteristics which were destined  
long to persist in ,greek sculpture4    
,such are the protuberant eyeballs1 the 
prominent cheek-bones1 the square1      
protruding chin4 ,such1 too1 is the     
formation of the mouth1 with its        
slightly upturned corners--a feature    
almost1 though not quite1 universal in  
,greek faces for more than a century4   
,this is the sculptor's childlike way of
 imparting a look of cheerfulness to the
 countenance1 and with it often goes an 
upward slant of the eyes from the inner 
to the outer corners4 ,in representing  
this youth as wearing long hair1 the    
sculptor followed the actual fashion of 
the times1 a fashion not abandoned till 
the fifth century and in ,sparta not    
till later4 ,the appearance of the hair 
over the forehead and temples should be 
noticed4 ,it is arranged symmetrically  
in flat spiral curls1 five curls on each

 side4 ,symmetry in the disposition of  
the front hair is constant in early     
,greek sculpture1 and some scheme or    
other of spiral curls is extremely      
common4  ,it was at one time thought    
that these nude standing figures all    
represented ,apollo4 ,it is now certain 
that ,apollo was sometimes intended1 but
 equally certain that the same type was 
used for men4 ,greek sculpture had not  
yet learned to differentiate divine from
 human beings ,the so-called ,apollo of 
,tenea 7,fig4 #gi71 probably in reality 
a grave-statue representing the         
deceased1 was found on the site of the  
ancient ,tenea1 a village in the        
territory of ,corinth4 ,it is unusually 
well preserved1 there being nothing     
missing except the middle portion of the
 right arm1 which has been restored4    
,this figure shows great improvement    
over his fellow from ,thera4 ,the rigid 
attitude1 to be sure1 is preserved      
unchanged1 save for a slight bending of 
the arms at the elbows2 and we meet     

again the prominent eyes1 cheek-bones1  
and chin1 and the smiling mouth4 ,but   
the arms are much more detached from the
 sides and the modeling of the figure   
generally is much more detailed4 ,there 
are still faults in plenty1 but some    
parts are rendered very well1           
particularly the lower legs and feet1   
and the figure seems alive4 ,the        
position of the feet1 flat upon the     
ground and parallel to one another1     
shows us how to complete in imagination 
the ,apollo of ,thera and other         
mutilated members of the series4 ,greek 
sculpture even in its earliest period   
could not limit itself to single        
standing figures4 ,the desire to adorn  
the pediments of temples and temple-like
 buildings gave use to more complex     
compositions4 ,the earliest pediment    
sculptures known were found on the      
,acropolis of ,athens in the excavations
 of #ahhe-ij 7see page #adg7 ,the most  
primitive of these is a low relief of   
soft poros 7see page #gh71 representing 

,heracles slaying the many-headed hydra4
 ,somewhat later1 but still very rude1  
is the group shown in ,fig4 #hj1 which  
once occupied the right-hand half of a  
pediment4 ,the material here is a harder
 sort of poros1 and the figures are     
practically in the round1 though on     
account of the connection with the      
background the work has to be classed as
 high relief4 ,we see a triple monster1 
or rather three monsters1 with human    
heads and trunks and arms the human     
bodies passing into long snaky bodies   
coiled together4 ,a single pair of wings
 was divided between the two outermost  
of the three beings1 while snakes'      
heads1 growing out of the human bodies1 
rendered the aspect of the group still  
more portentous4 ,the center of the     
pediment was probably occupied by a     
figure of ,zeus1 hurling his thunderbolt
 at this strange enemy4 ,we have        
therefore here a scene from one of the  
favorite subjects of ,greek art at all  
periods--the gigantomachy1 or battle of 

gods and giants4 ,fig4 #ha gives a      
better idea of the nearest of the three 
heads4 ,footnote3 ,it is doubtful       
whether this head belongs where it is   
placed in ,fig #hj1 or in another       
pediment-group1 of which fragments have 
been found4 ,it was completely covered  
with a crust of paint1 still pretty well
 preserved4 ,the flesh was red2 the     
hair1 moustache1 and beard1 blue2 the   
irises of the eyes1 green2 the eyebrows1
 edges of the eyelids1 and pupils1      
black4 ,a considerable quantity of early
 poros sculptures was found on the      
,athenian ,acropolis4 ,these were all   
liberally painted4 ,the poor quality of 
the material was thus largely or wholly 
concealed4  ,fig4 #hb shows another     
,athenian work1 found on the ,acropolis 
in #ahfd-fe4 ,it is of marble and is    
obviously of later date than the poros  
sculptures4 ,in #ahhg the pedestal of   
this statue was found1 with a part of   
the right foot4 ,an inscription on the  
pedestal shows that the statue was      

dedicated to some divinity1 doubtless   
,athena1 whose precinct the ,acropolis  
was4 ,the figure then probably          
represents the dedicator1 bringing a    
calf for sacrifice4 ,the position of the
 body and legs is here the same as in   
the ,apollo figures1 but the subject has
 compelled the sculptor to vary the     
position of the arms4 ,another          
difference from the ,apollo figures lies
 in the fact that this statue is not    
wholly naked4 ,the garment1 however1 is 
hard to make out1 for it clings closely 
to the person of the wearer and betrays 
its existence only along the edges4 ,the
 sculptor had not yet learned to        
represent the folds of drapery  ,the    
,british ,museum possesses a series of  
ten seated figures of ,parian marble1   
which were once ranged along the        
approach to an important temple of      
,apollo near ,miletus4 ,fig4 #hc shows  
three of these4 ,they are placed in     
their assumed chronological order1 the  
earliest furthest off4 ,only the first  

two belong in the period now under      
review4 ,the figures are heavy and      
lumpish1 and are enveloped1 men and     
women alike1 in draperies1 which leave  
only the heads1 the fore-arms1 and the  
toes exposed4 ,it is interesting to see 
the successive sculptors attacking the  
problem of rendering the folds of loose 
garments4 ,not until we reach the latest
 of the three statues do we find any    
depth given to the folds1 and that      
figure belongs distinctly in the latter 
half of the archaic period4             
,transporting ourselves now from the    
eastern to the western confines of      
,greek civilization1 we may take a look 
at a sculptured metope from ,selinus in 
,sicily 7,fig4 #hd74 ,that city was     
founded1 according to our best ancient  
authority1 about the year #fbi ,b4,c41  
and the temple from which our metope is 
taken is certainly one of the oldest1 if
 not the oldest1 of the many temples of 
the place4 ,the material of the metope1 
as of the whole temple1 is a local      

poros1 and the work is executed in high 
relief4 ,the subject is ,perseus cutting
 off the head of ,medusa4 ,the ,gorgon  
is trying to run away--the position     
given to her legs is used in early      
,greek sculpture and vase-painting to   
signify rapid motion--but is overtaken  
by her pursuer4 ,from the blood of      
,medusa sprang1 according to the legend1
 the winged horse1 ,pegasus2 and the    
artist1 wishing to tell as much of the  
story as possible1 has introduced       
,pegasus into his composition1 but has  
been forced to reduce him to miniature  
size4 ,the goddess ,athena1 the         
protectress of ,perseus1 occupies what  
remains of the field4 ,there is no need 
of dwelling in words on the ugliness of 
this relief1 an ugliness only in part   
accounted for by the subject4 ,the      
student should note that the body of    
each of the three figures is seen from  
the front1 while the legs are in        
profile4 ,the same distortion occurs in 
a second metope of this same temple1    

representing ,heracles carrying off two 
prankish dwarfs who had tried to annoy  
him1 and is in fact common in early     
,greek work4 ,we have met something     
similar in ,egyptian reliefs and        
paintings 7cf4 page #cc71 but this      
method of representing the human form is
 so natural to primitive art that we    
need not here assume ,egyptian          
influence4 ,the garments of ,perseus and
 ,athena show so much progress in the   
representation of folds that one        
scruples to put this temple back into   
the seventh century1 as some would have 
us do4 ,like the poros sculptures of    
,attica1 these ,selinus metopes seem to 
have been covered with color4  ,fig4 #he
 takes us back again to the island of   
,delos1 where the statue came to light  
in #ahgg4 ,it is of ,parian marble1 and 
is considerably less than life-sized4 ,a
 female figure is here represented1 the 
body unnaturally twisted at the hips1 as
 in the ,selinus metopes1 the legs bent 
in the attitude of rapid motion4 ,at the

 back there were wings1 of which only   
the stumps now remain4 ,a comparison of 
this statue with similar figures from   
the ,athenian ,acropolis has shown that 
the feet did not touch the pedestal1 the
 drapery serving as a support4 ,the     
intention of the artist1 then1 was to   
represent a flying figure1 probably a   
,victory4 ,the goddess is dressed in a  
chiton 7shift71 which shows no trace of 
folds above the girdle1 while below the 
girdle1 between the legs1 there is a    
series of flat1 shallow ridges4 ,the    
face shows the usual archaic            
features--the  prominent eyeballs1      
cheeks1 and chin1 and the smiling mouth4
 ,the hair is represented as fastened by
 a sort of hoop1 into which metallic    
ornaments1 now lost1 were inserted4 ,as 
usual1 the main mass of the hair falls  
straight behind1 and several locks1 the 
same number on each side1 are brought   
forward upon the breast4 ,as usual1 too1
 the front hair is disposed             
symmetrically2 in this case1 a smaller  

and a larger flat curl on each side of  
the middle of the forehead are succeeded
 by a continuous tress of hair arranged 
in five scallops4  ,if1 as has been     
generally thought1 this statue belongs  
on an inscribed pedestal which was found
 near it1 then we have before us the    
work of one ,archermus of ,chios1 known 
to us from literary tradition as the    
first sculptor to represent ,victory    
with wings4 ,at all events1 this1 if a  
,victory1 is the earliest that we know4 
,she awakens our interest1 less for what
 she is in herself than because she is  
the forerunner of the magnificent       
,victories of developed ,greek art4     
,thus far we have not met a single work 
to which it is possible to assign a     
precise date4 ,we have now the          
satisfaction of finding a chronological 
landmark in our path4 ,this is afforded 
by some fragments of sculpture belonging
 to the old ,temple of ,artemis at      
,ephesus4 ,the date of this temple is   
approximately fixed by the statement of 

,herodotus 7,i1 #ib7 that most of its   
columns were picsented by ,croesus1 king
 of ,lydia1 whose reign lasted from #efj
 to #edf ,b4 ,c4 ,in the course of the  
excavations carried on for the ,british 
,museum upon the site of ,ephesus there 
were brought to light1 in #ahgb and     
#ahgd1 a few fragments of this sixth    
century edifice4 ,even some letters of  
,croesus's dedicatory inscription have  
been found on the bases of the ,ionic   
columns1 affording a welcome            
confirmation to the testimony of        
,herodotus4 ,it appears that the        
columns1 or some of them1 were treated  
in a very exceptional fashion1 the      
lowest drums being adorned with relief- 
sculpture4 ,the ,british ,museum        
authorities have partially restored one 
such drum 7,fig4 #hf71 though without   
guaranteeing that the pieces of         
sculpture here combined actually belong 
to the same column4 ,the male figure is 
not very pre-possessing1 but that is    
partly due to the battered condition of 

the face4 ,much more attractive is the  
female head1 of which unfortunately only
 the back is seen in our illustration4  
,it bears a strong family likeness to   
the head of the ,victory of ,delos1 but 
shows marked improvement  over that4    
,some bits of a sculptured cornice      
belonging to the same temple are also   
refined in style4 ,in this group of     
reliefs1 fragmentary though they are1 we
 have an indication of the development  
attained by ,ionic sculptors about the  
middle of the sixth century4 ,for1 of   
course1 though ,croesus paid for the    
columns1 the work was executed by ,greek
 artists upon the spot1 and presumably  
by the best artists that could be       
secured4 ,we may therefore use these    
sculptures as a standard by which to    
date other works1 whose date is not     
fixed for us by external evidence4      
,,chapter ,,vi4  ,,the ,,archaic        
,,period ,,of ,,greek ,,sculpture       
,,second ,,half #eej-dhj ,b4,c4   ,greek
 sculpture now enters upon a stage of   

development which possesses for the     
modern student a singular and potent    
charm ,true1 many traces still remain of
 the sculptor's imperfect mastery4 ,he  
cannot pose his figures in perfectly    
easy attitudes not even in reliefs1     
where the problem is easier than in     
sculpture in the round4 ,his knowledge  
of human anatomy--that is to say1 of the
 outward appearance of the human body1  
which is all the artistic anatomy that  
any one attempted to know during the    
rise and the great age of ,greek        
sculpture--is still defective1 and his  
means of expression are still imperfect4
 ,for example1 in the nude male figure  
the hips continue to be too narrow for  
the shoulders1 and the abdomen too flat4
 ,the facial peculiarities mentioned in 
the preceding chapter--prominent        
eyeballs1 cheeks1 and chin1 and smiling 
mouth--are only very gradually modified4
 ,as from the first1 the upper eyelid   
does not overlap the lower eyelid at the
 outer corner1 as truth1 or rather      

appearance1 requires1 and in relief     
sculpture the eye of a face in profile  
is rendered as in front view4 ,the      
texture and arrangement of hair are     
expressed in various ways but always    
with a marked love of symmetry and      
formalism4 ,in the difficult art of     
representing drapery there is much      
experimentation and great progress4 ,it 
seems to have been among the eastern    
,ionians perhaps at ,chios1 that the    
deep cutting of folds was first         
practiced1 and from ,ionia this method  
of treatment spread to ,athens and      
elsewhere4 ,when drapery is used1 there 
is a manifest desire on the sculptor's  
part to reveal what he can1 more1 in    
fact1 than in reality could appear1 of  
the form underneath4 ,the garments fall 
in formal folds1 sometimes of great     
elaboration4 ,they look as if they were 
intended to represent garments of       
irregular cut1 carefully starched and   
ironed4 ,but one must be cautious about 
drawing inferences from an imperfect    

artistic manner as to the actual        
fashions of the day4  ,but whatever     
shortcomings in technical perfection may
 be laid to their charge1 the works of  
this period are full of the indefinable 
fascination of promise4 ,they are       
marked1 moreover1 by a simplicity and   
sincerity of purpose1 an absence of all 
ostentation1 a conscientious and loving 
devotion on the part of those who made  
them4 ,and in many of them we are       
touched by great refinement and         
tenderness of feeling1 and a peculiarly 
,greek grace of line4  ,to illustrate   
these remarks we may turn first to      
,lycia1 in southwestern ,asia ,minor4   
,the so called ,harpy tomb was a huge1  
four sided pillar of stone1 in the upper
 part of which a square burial-chamber  
was hollowed out4 ,marble bas-reliefs   
adorned the exterior of this chamber    
,the best of the four slabs is seen in  
,fig #hg ,footnote3 ,our illustration is
 not quite complete on the right ,at the
 right is a seated female figure1       

divinity or deceased woman1 who holds in
 her right hand a pomegranate flower and
 in her left a pomegranate fruit ,to her
 approach three women1 the first raising
 the lower part of her chiton with her  
right hand and drawing forward her outer
 garment with her left1 the second      
bringing a fruit and a flower the third 
holding an egg in her right hand and    
raising her chiton with her left4 ,then 
comes the opening into the              
burial-chamber1 surmounted by a         
diminutive cow suckling her calf4 ,at   
the left is another seated female       
figure1 holding a bowl for libation4    
,the exact significance of this scene is
 unknown1 and we may limit our attention
 to its artistic qualities4 ,we have    
here our first opportunity of observing 
the principle of isocephaly in ,greek   
relief-sculpture2 i4e41 the convention  
whereby the heads of figures in an      
extended composition are ranged on      
nearly the same level1 no matter whether
 the figures are seated1 standing1      

mounted on horseback1 or placed in any  
other position4 ,the main purpose of    
this convention doubtless was to avoid  
the unpleasing blank spaces which would 
result if the figures were all of the   
same proportions4 ,in the present       
instance there may be the further desire
 to suggest by the greater size of the  
seated figures their greater dignity as 
goddesses or divinized human beings4    
,note1 again1 how1 in the case of each  
standing woman1 the garments adhere to  
the body behind4 ,the sculptor here     
sacrifices truth for the sake of showing
 the outline of the figure4 ,finally1   
remark the daintiness with which the    
hands are used1 particularly in the case
 of the seated figure on the right4 ,the
 date of this work may be put not much  
later than the middle of the sixth      
century1 and the style is that of the   
,ionian school4  ,under the tyrant      
,pisistratus and his sons ,athens       
attained to an importance in the world  
of art which it had not enjoyed before4 

,a fine ,attic work1 which we may       
probably attribute to the time of       
,pisistratus1 is the grave-monument of  
,aristion 7,fig4 #hh74 ,the material is 
,pentelic marble4 ,the form of the      
monument1 a tall1 narrow1 slightly      
tapering slab or stele1 is the usual one
 in ,attica in this period4 ,the man    
represented in low relief is1 of course1
 ,aristion himself4 ,he had probably    
fallen in battle1 and so is put before  
us armed4 ,over a short chiton he wears 
a leather cuirass with a double row of  
flaps below1 on his head is a small     
helmet1 which leaves his face entirely  
exposed1 on his legs are greaves2 and in
 his left hand he holds a spear ,there  
is some constraint in the position of   
the left arm and hand1 due to the       
limitations of space ,in general1 the   
anatomy1 so far as exhibited is         
creditable1 though fault might be found 
with the shape of the thighs ,the hair1 
much shorter than is usual in the       
archaic period1 is arranged in careful  

curls ,the beard1 trimmed to a point in 
front1 is rendered by parallel grooves  
,the chiton1 where it shows from under  
the cuirass1 is arranged in symmetrical 
plaits ,there are considerable traces of
 color on the relief1 as well as on the 
background ,some of these may be seen in
 our illustration on the cuirass4  ,our 
knowledge of early ,attic sculpture has 
been immensely increased by the thorough
 exploration of the summit of the       
,athenian ,acropolis in #ahhe-ij ,in    
regard to these important excavations it
 must be remembered that in #dhj and    
again in #dgi the ,acropolis was        
occupied by ,persians belonging to      
,xerxes' invading army1 who reduced the 
buildings and sculptures on that site to
 a heap of fire-blackened ruins ,this   
debris was used by the ,athenians in the
 generation immediately following toward
 raising the general level of the summit
 of the ,acropolis4 ,all this material1 
after having been buried for some twenty
 three and a half centuries1 has now    

been recovered4 ,in the light of the    
newly found remains1 which include      
numerous inscribed pedestals1 it is seen
 that under the rule of ,pisistratus and
 his sons ,athens attracted to itself   
talented sculptors from other ,greek    
communities1 notably from ,chios and    
,ionia generally4 ,it is to ,ionian     
sculptors and to ,athenian sculptors    
brought under ,ionian influences that we
 must attribute almost all those        
standing female figures which form the  
chief part of the new treasures of the  
,acropolis ,museum4  ,the figures of    
this type stand with the left foot1 as a
 rule1 a little advanced1 the body and  
head facing directly forward with       
primitive stiffness4 ,but the arms no   
longer hang straight at the sides1 one  
of them1 regularly the right1 being     
extended from the elbow1 while the other
 holds up the voluminous drapery4 ,many 
of the statues retain copious traces of 
color on hair1 eyebrows1 eyes1          
draperies1 and ornaments2 in no case    

does the flesh give any evidence of     
having been painted 7cf4 page #aai74    
,fig4 #hi is taken from an illustration 
which gives the color as it was when the
 statue was first found1 before it had  
suffered from exposure4 ,fig4 #ij is not
 in itself one of the most pleasing of  
the series1 but it has a special        
interest1 not merely on account of its  
exceptionally large size--it is over six
 and a half feet high--but because we   
probably know the name and something    
more of its sculptor4 ,if1 as seems     
altogether likely1 the statue belongs   
upon the inscribed pedestal upon which  
it is placed in the illustration1 then  
we have before us an original work of   
that ,antenor who was commissioned by   
the ,athenian people1 soon after the    
expulsion of the tyrant ,hippias and his
 family in #eaj1 to make a group in     
bronze of ,harmodius and ,aristogiton   
7cf4 pages #afj-d7 ,this statue might1  
of course1 be one of his earlier        
productions4  ,at first sight these     

figures strike many untrained observers 
as simply grotesque4 ,some of them are  
indeed odd2 ,fig4 #ia reproduces one    
which is especially so4 ,but they soon  
become absorbingly interesting and then 
delightful4 ,the strange-looking1       
puzzling garments1 ,footnote3 ,fig #ia  
wears only one garment the ,ionic       
chiton1 a long2 linen shift1 girded at  
the waist and pulled up so as to fall   
over conceal the girdle4 ,figs #hi1 #ij1
 #ib #ic wear over this a second garment
 which goes over the right shoulder and 
under the left ,this over-garment       
reaches to the feet1 so as to conceal   
the lower portion of the chiton ,at the 
top it is folded over1 or perhaps rather
 another piece of cloth is sewed on4    
,this over-fold1 if it may be so called1
 appears as if cut with two or more long
 points below which cling to the figure 
behind and fall in formal folds in      
front1 the elaborately1 often           
impossibly1 arranged hair1 the gracious 
countenances1 a certain quaintness and  

refinement and unconsciousness of       
self--these things exercise over us an  
endless fascination4  ,who are these    
mysterious beings8 ,we do not know4     
,there are those who would see in them1 
or in some of them1 representations of  
,athena1 who was not only a martial     
goddess1 but also patroness of spinning 
and weaving and all cunning handiwork4  
,to others1 including the writer1 they  
seem1 in their manifold variety1 to be  
daughters of ,athens4 ,but1 if so1 what 
especial claim these women had to be set
 up in effigy upon ,athena's holy hill  
is an unsolved riddle4  ,before parting 
from their company we must not fail to  
look at two fragmentary figures 7,figs4 
#id1 #ie71 the most advanced in style of
 the whole series and doubtless executed
 shortly before #dhj4 ,in the former1   
presumably the earlier of the two1 the  
marvelous arrangement of the hair over  
the forehead survives and the eyeballs  
still protrude unpleasantly4 ,but the   
mouth has lost the conventional smile   

and the modeling of the face is of great
 beauty4 ,in the other1 alone of the    
series1 the hair presents a fairly      
natural appearance1 the eyeballs lie at 
their proper depth1 and the beautiful   
curve of the neck is not masked by the  
locks that fall upon the breasts4 ,in   
this head1 too1 the mouth actually      
droops at the corners1 giving a perhaps 
unintended look of seriousness to the   
face4 ,the ear1 though set rather high1 
is exquisitely shaped4  ,still more     
lovely than this lady is the youth's    
head shown in ,fig4 #if4 ,fate has      
robbed us of the body to which it       
belonged1 but the head itself is in an  
excellent state of preservation4 ,the   
face is one of singular purity and      
sweetness4 ,the hair1 once of a golden  
tint1 is long behind and is gathered    
into two braids1 which start from just  
behind the ears1 cross one another1 and 
are fastened together in front2 the     
short front hair is combed forward and  
conceals the ends of the braids2 and    

there is a mysterious puff in front of  
each ear4 ,in the whole work1 so far at 
least as appears in a profile view1     
there is nothing to mar our pleasure4   
,the sculptor's hand has responded      
cunningly to his beautiful thought4  ,it
 is a pity not to be able to illustrate 
another group of ,attic sculptures of   
the late archaic period1 the most recent
 addition to our store4 ,the metopes of 
the ,treasury of the ,athenians at      
,delphi1 discovered during the          
excavations now in progress1 are of     
extraordinary interest and importance2  
but only two or three of them have yet  
been published1 and these in a form not 
suited for reproduction4 ,the same is   
the case with another of the recent     
finds at ,delphi1 the sculptured frieze 
of the ,treasury of the ,cnidians1      
already famous among professional       
students and destined to be known and   
admired by a wider public4 ,here1       
however1 it is possible to submit a     
single fragment1 which was found years  

ago 7,fig4 #ig74 ,it represents a       
four-horse chariot approaching an altar4
 ,the newly found pieces of this frieze 
have abundant remains of color4 ,the    
work probably belongs in the last       
quarter of the sixth century4  ,the     
pediment-figures from ,aegina1 the chief
 treasure of the ,munich collection of  
ancient sculpture1 were found in #ahaa  
by a party of scientific explorers and  
were restored in ,italy under the       
superintendence of the ,danish sculptor1
 ,thorwaldsen4 ,until lately these      
,a,eginetan figures were our only       
important group of late archaic ,greek  
sculptures2 and1 though that is no      
longer the case1 they still retain1 and 
will always retain1 an especial interest
 and significance4 ,they once filled the
 pediments of a ,doric temple of        
,aphaia1 of which considerable remains  
are still standing4 ,there is no        
trustworthy external clue to the date of
 the building1 and we are therefore     
obliged to depend for that on the style 

of the architecture and sculpture1      
especially the latter4 ,in the dearth of
 accurately dated monuments which might 
serve as standards of comparison1 great 
difference of opinion on this point has 
prevailed4 ,but we are now somewhat     
better off1 thanks to recent discoveries
 at ,athens and ,delphi1 and we shall   
probably not go far wrong in assigning  
the temple with its sculptures to about 
#dhj ,b4,c4 ,fig4 #eb illustrates1      
though somewhat incorrectly1 the        
composition of the western pediment4    
,the subject was a combat1 in the       
presence of ,athena1 between ,greeks and
 ,asiatics1 probably on the plain of    
,troy4 ,a close parallelism existed     
between the two halves of the pediment1 
each figure1 except the goddess and the 
fallen warrior at her feet1             
corresponding  to a similar figure on   
the opposite side4 ,athena1 protectress 
of the ,greeks1 stands in the center    
7,fig4 #ih74 ,she wears two garments1 of
 which the outer one 7the only one seen 

in the illustration7 is a marvel of     
formalism4 ,her aegis covers her breasts
 and hangs far down behind2 the points  
of its scalloped edge once bristled with
 serpents' heads1 and there was a       
,gorgon's head in the middle of the     
front4 ,she has upon her head a helmet  
with lofty crest1 and carries shield and
 lance4 ,the men1 with the exception of 
the two archers1 are naked1 and their   
helmets1 which are of a form intended to
 cover the face1 are pushed back4 ,of   
course1 men did not actually go into    
battle in this fashion2 but the sculptor
 did not care for realism1 and he did   
care for the exhibition of the body4 ,he
 belonged to a school which had made an 
especially careful study of anatomy1 and
 his work shows a great improvement in  
this respect over anything we have yet  
had the opportunity to consider4 ,still1
 the men are decidedly lean in          
appearance and their angular attitudes  
are a little suggestive of prepared     
skeletons4 ,they have oblique and       

prominent eyes1 and1 whether fighting or
 dying1 they wear upon their faces the  
same conventional smile4  ,the group in 
the eastern pediment corresponds closely
 in subject and composition to that in  
the western1 but is of a distinctly more
 advanced style4 ,only five figures of  
this group were sufficiently preserved  
to be restored4 ,of these perhaps the   
most admirable is the dying warrior from
 the southern corner of the pediment    
7,fig4 #ii71 in which the only          
considerable modern part is the right   
leg1 from the middle of the thigh4 ,the 
superiority of this and its companion   
figures to those of the western pediment
 lies1 as the ,munich catalogue points  
out1 in the juster proportions of body1 
arms1 and legs1 the greater fulness of  
the muscles1 the more careful attention 
to the veins and to the qualities of the
 skin1 the more natural position of eyes
 and mouth4 ,this dying man does not    
smile meaninglessly4 ,his lips are      
parted1 and there is a suggestion of    

death-agony on his countenance4 ,in both
 pediments the figures are carefully    
finished all round2 there is no neglect1
 or none worth mentioning1 of those     
parts which were destined to be         
invisible so long as the figures were in
 position4  ,the ,strangford ,apollo    
7,fig4 #ajj7 is of uncertain            
provenience1 but is nearly related in   
style to the marbles of ,aegina4 ,this  
statue1 by the position of body1 legs1  
and head1 belongs to the series of      
,apollo figures discussed above 7pages  
#abi-cb72 but the arms were no longer   
attached to the sides1 and were probably
 bent at the elbows4 ,the most obvious  
traces of a lingering archaism1 besides 
the rigidity of the attitude1 are the   
narrowness of the hips and the formal   
arrangement of the hair1 with its double
 row of snail-shell curls4 ,the statue  
has been spoken of by a high authority  
,footnote3 ,newton1  ,essays on ,art and
 ,archaeology page #ha4 as showing only 
a meager and painful rendering of       

nature4 ,that is one way of looking at  
it4 ,but there is another way1 which has
 been finely expressed by ,pater1 in an 
essay on ,the ,marbles of ,aegina3 ,as  
art which has passed its prime has      
sometimes the charm of an absolute      
refinement in taste and workmanship1 so 
immature art also1 as we now see1 has   
its own attractiveness in the naivete1  
the freshness of spirit1 which finds    
power and interest in simple motives of 
feeling1 and in the freshness of hand1  
which has a sense of enjoyment in       
mechanical processes still performed    
unmechanically1 in the spending of care 
and intelligence on every touch4 444    
,the workman is at work in dry          
earnestness1 with a sort of hard        
strength of detail1 a scrupulousness    
verging on stiffness1 like that of an   
early ,flemish painter2 he communicates 
to us his still youthful sense of       
pleasure in the experience of the first 
rudimentary difficulties of his art     
overcome4 ,footnote3 ,pater1 ,greek     

,studies page #bhe      ,,chapter ,,vii4
  ,,the ,,transitional ,,period ,,of    
,,greek ,,sculpture4 #dhj-dej ,b4 ,c4   
,the term ,transitional period is rather
 meaningless in itself1 but has acquired
 considerable currency as denoting that 
stage in the history of ,greek art in   
which the last steps were taken toward  
perfect freedom of style4 ,it is        
convenient to reckon this period as     
extending from the year of the ,persian 
invasion of ,greece under ,xerxes to the
 middle of the century4 ,in the artistic
 as in the political history of this    
generation ,athens held a position of   
commanding importance1 while ,sparta1   
the political rival of ,athens1 was as  
barren of art as of literature4 ,the    
other principal artistic center was     
,argos1 whose school of sculpture had   
been and was destined long to be widely 
influential4 ,as for other local        
schools1 the question of their centers  
and mutual relations is too perplexing  
and uncertain to be here discussed4  ,in

 the two preceding chapters we studied  
only original works1 but from this time 
on we shall have to pay a good deal of  
attention to copies 7cf4 pages #aad-af74
 ,we begin with two statues in ,naples  
7,fig4 #aja74 ,the story of this        
group--for the two statues were designed
 as a group--is interesting4 ,the two   
friends1 ,harmodius and ,aristogiton1   
who in #ead had formed a conspiracy to  
rid ,athens of her tyrants1 but who had 
succeeded only in killing one of them1  
came to be regarded after the expulsion 
of the remaining tyrant and his family  
in #eaj as the liberators of the city4  
,their statues in bronze1 the work of   
,antenor1 were set up on a terrace above
 the market-place 7cf4 pages #abd1      
#adi74 ,in #dhj this group was carried  
off to ,persia by ,xerxes and there it  
remained for a hundred and fifty years  
or more when it was restored to ,athens 
by ,alexander the ,great or one of his  
successors4 ,athens however had as      
promptly as possible repaired her loss4 

,critius and ,nesiotes1 two sculptors   
who worked habitually in partnership1   
were commissioned to make a second      
group1 and this was set up in #dgg-f on 
the same terrace where the first had    
been ,after the restoration of          
,antenor's statues toward the end of the
 fourth century the two groups stood    
side by side4  ,it was argued by a      
,german archaeologist more than a       
generation ago that the two marble      
statues shown in ,fig4 #aja are copied  
from one of these bronze groups1 and    
this identification has been all but    
universally accepted4 ,the proof may be 
stated briefly1 as follows4 ,first      
several ,athenian objects of various    
dates1 from the fifth century ,b4,c4    
onward1 bear a design to which the      
,naples statues clearly correspond ,one 
of these is a relief on a marble throne 
formerly in ,athens4 ,our illustration  
of this 7,fig4 #ajb7 is taken from a    
squeeze1 or wet paper impression4 ,this 
must then1 have been an important group 

in ,athens4 ,secondly1 the style of the 
,naples statues points to a bronze      
original of the early fifth century4    
,thirdly1 the attitudes of the figures  
are suitable for ,harmodius and         
,aristogiton1 and we do not know of any 
other group of that period for which    
they are suitable4 ,this proof1 though  
not quite as complete as we should like1
 is as good as we generally get in these
 matters4 ,the only question that       
remains in serious doubt is whether our 
copies go back to the work of ,antenor  
or to that of ,critius and ,nesiotes4   
,opinions have been much divided on this
 point but the prevailing tendency now  
is to connect them with the later       
artists4 ,that is the view here adopted 
,in studying the two statues it is      
important to recognize the work of the  
modern restorer4 ,the figure of         
,aristogiton 7the one on your left as   
you face the group7 having been found in
 a headless condition1 the restorer     
provided it with a head1 which is       

antique1 to be sure1 but which is       
outrageously out of keeping1 being of   
the style of a century later4 ,the chief
 modern portions are the left hand of   
,aristogiton and the arms1 right leg1   
and lower part of the left leg of       
,harmodius4 ,as may be learned from the 
small copies1 ,aristogiton should be    
bearded1 and the right arm of ,harmodius
 should be in the act of being raised to
 bring down a stroke of the sword upon  
his antagonist4 ,we have1 then1 to      
correct in imagination the restorer's   
misdoings1 and also to omit the tree-   
trunk supports1 which the bronze        
originals did not need4 ,further1 the   
two figures should probably be advancing
 in the same direction1 instead of in   
converging lines4  ,when these changes  
are made1 the group cannot fail to      
command our admiration4 ,it would be a  
mistake to fix our attention exclusively
 on the head of ,harmodius4 ,seen in    
front view1 the face1 with its low      
forehead and heavy chin1 looks dull1 if 

not ignoble4 ,but the bodies6 ,in       
complete disregard of historic truth1   
the two men are represented in a state  
of ideal nudity1 like the ,aeginetan    
figures4 ,the anatomy is carefully      
studied1 the attitudes lifelike and     
vigorous4 ,finally1 the composition is  
fairly successful4 ,this is the earliest
 example preserved to us of a group of  
sculpture other than a pediment-group4  
,the interlocking of the figures is not 
yet so close as it was destined to be in
 many a more advanced piece of ,greek   
statuary4 ,but already the figures are  
not merely juxtaposed2 they share in a  
common action1 and each is needed to    
complete the other4  ,of about the same 
date1 it would seem1 or not much later1 
must have been a lost bronze statue1    
whose fame is attested by the existence 
of several marble copies4 ,the best of  
these was found in #ahfb1 in the course 
of excavating the great theater on the  
southern slope of the ,athenian         
,acropolis 7,fig4 #ajc74 ,the naming of 

this figure is doubtful4 ,it has been   
commonly taken for ,apollo1 while       
another view sees in it a pugilist4     
,recently the suggestion has been thrown
 out that it is ,heracles4 ,be that as  
it may1 the figure is a fine example of 
youthful strength and beauty4 ,in pose  
it shows a decided advance upon the     
,strangford ,apollo 7,fig4 #ajj74 ,the  
left leg is still slightly advanced1 and
 both feet were planted flat on the     
ground2 but more than half the weight of
 the body is thrown upon the right leg1 
with the result of giving a slight curve
 to the trunk1 and the head is turned to
 one side4 ,the upper part of the body  
is very powerful1 the shoulders broad   
and held well back1 the chest           
prominently developed4 ,the face1 in    
spite of its injuries1 is one of        
singular refinement and sweetness4 ,the 
long hair is arranged in two braids1 as 
in ,fig4 #if1 the only difference being 
that here the braids pass over instead  
of under the fringe of front hair4 ,the 

rendering of the hair is in a freer     
style than in the case just cited1 but  
of this difference a part may be        
chargeable to the copyist4 ,altogether  
we see here the stamp of an artistic    
manner very different from that of      
,critius and ,nesiotes4 ,possibly1 as   
some have conjectured1 it is the manner 
of ,calamis1 an ,attic sculptor of this 
period1 whose eminence at any rate      
entitles him to a passing mention4 ,but 
even the ,attic origin of this statue is
 in dispute4  ,we now reach a name of   
commanding importance1 and one with     
which we are fortunately able to        
associate some definite ideas4 ,it is   
the name of ,myron of ,athens1 who ranks
 among the six most illustrious         
sculptors of ,greece4 ,it is worth      
remarking1 as an illustration of the    
scantiness of our knowledge regarding   
the lives of ,greek artists1 that       
,myron's name is not so much as         
mentioned in extant literature before   
the third century ,b4,c4 ,except for a  

precise1 but certainly false1 notice in 
,pliny1 who represents him as           
flourishing in #dbj-daf1 our literary   
sources yield only vague indications as 
to his date4 ,these indications1 such as
 they are1 point to the ,transitional   
period4 ,this inference is strengthened 
by the recent discovery on the ,athenian
 ,acropolis of a pair of pedestals      
inscribed with the name of ,myron's son 
and probably datable about #ddf4        
,finally1 the argument is clinched by   
the style of ,myron's most certainly    
identifiable work4  ,pliny makes ,myron 
the pupil of an influential ,argive     
master1 ,ageladas1 who belongs in the   
late archaic period4 ,whether or not    
such a relation actually existed1 the   
statement is useful as a reminder of the
 probability that ,argos and ,athens    
were artistically in touch with one     
another4 ,beyond this1 we get no direct 
testimony as to the circumstances of    
,myron's life4 ,we can only infer that  
his genius was widely recognized in his 

lifetime1 seeing that commissions came  
to him1 not from ,athens only1 but also 
from other cities of ,greece proper1 as 
well as from distant ,samos and         
,ephesus4 ,his chief material was       
bronze1 and colossal figures of gold and
 ivory are also ascribed to him4 ,so far
 as we know1 he did not work in marble  
at all4 ,his range of subjects included 
divinities1 heroes1 men1 and animals4   
,of no work of his do we hear so often  
or in terms of such high praise as of a 
certain figure of a cow1 which stood on 
or near the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,a    
large number of athlete statues from his
 hand were to be seen at ,olympia1      
,delphi1 and perhaps elsewhere1 and this
 side of his activity was certainly an  
important one4 ,perhaps it is a mere    
accident that we hear less of his       
statues of divinities and heroes4  ,the 
starting point in any study of ,myron   
must be his ,discobolus                 
7,discus-thrower74 ,fig4 #ajd reproduces
 the best copy4 ,this statue was found  

in ,rome in #agha1 and is in an         
unusually good state of preservation4   
,the head has never been broken from the
 body2 the right arm has been broken    
off1 but is substantially antique2 and  
the only considerable restoration is the
 right leg from the knee to the ankle4  
,the two other most important copies    
were found together in #agia on the site
 of ,hadrian's villa at ,tibur          
7,tivoli74 ,one of these is now in the  
,british ,museum1 the other in the      
,vatican2 neither has its original head4
 ,a fourth copy of the body1 a good deal
 disguised by restoration1 exists in the
 ,museum of the ,capitol in ,rome4      
,there are also other copies of the head
 besides the one on the ,lancellotti    
statue4  ,the proof that these statues  
and parts of statues were copied from   
,myron's ,discobolus depends principally
 upon a passage in ,lucian 7about #afj  
,a4 ,d474 ,footnote3 ,philopseudes1     
,section #ah4 ,he gives a circumstantial
 description of the attitude of that    

work1 or rather of a copy of it1 and his
 description agrees point for point with
 the statues in question4 ,this         
agreement is the more decisive because  
the attitude is a very remarkable one1  
no other known figure showing anything  
in the least resembling it4 ,moreover1  
the style of the ,lancellotti statue    
points to a bronze original of the      
,transitional period1 to which on       
historical grounds ,myron is assigned4  
,myron's statue represented a young     
,greek who had been victorious in the   
pentathlon1 or group of five contests   
7running1 leaping1 wrestling1 throwing  
the spear1 and hurling the discus71 but 
we have no clue as to where in the      
,greek world it was set up4 ,the        
attitude of the figure seems a strange  
one at first sight1 but other ancient   
representations1 as well as modern      
experiments1 leave little room for doubt
 that the sculptor has truthfully caught
 one of the rapidly changing positions  
which the exercise involved4 ,having    

passed the discus from his left hand to 
his right1 the athlete has swung the    
missile as far back as possible4 ,in the
 next instant he will hurl it forward1  
at the same time1 of course1 advancing  
his left foot and recovering his erect  
position4 ,thus ,myron has preferred to 
the comparatively easy task of          
representing the athlete at rest1       
bearing some symbol of victory1 the far 
more difficult problem of exhibiting him
 in action4 ,it would seem that he      
delighted in the expression of movement4
 ,so his ,ladas1 known to us only from  
two epigrams in the ,anthology1         
represented a runner panting toward the 
goal2 and others of his athlete statues 
may have been similarly conceived4 ,his 
temple- images1 on the other hand1 must 
have been as composed in attitude as the
 ,discobolus is energetic4  ,the face of
 the ,discobolus is rather typical than 
individual4 ,if this is not immediately 
obvious to the reader1 the comparison of
 a closely allied head may make it      

clear4 ,of the numerous works which have
 been brought into relation with ,myron 
by reason of their likeness to the      
,discobolus1 none is so unmistakable as 
a fine bust in ,florence 7,fig4 #aje74  
,the general form of the head1 the      
rendering of the hair1 the anatomy of   
the forehead1 the form of the nose and  
the angle it makes with the             
forehead--these and other features noted
 by ,professor ,furtwangler are alike in
 the ,discobolus and the ,riccardi head4
 ,these detailed resemblances cannot be 
verified without the help of casts or at
 least of good photographs taken from   
different points of view2 but the       
general impression of likeness will be  
felt convincing1 even without analysis4 
,now these two works represent different
 persons1 the ,riccardi head being      
probably copied from the statue of some 
ideal hero4 ,and the point to be        
especially illustrated is that in the   
,discobolus we have not a realistic     
portrait1 but a generalized type4 ,this 

is not the same as to say that the face 
bore no recognizable resemblance to the 
young man whom the statue commemorated4 
,portraiture admits of many degrees1    
from literal fidelity to an idealization
 in which the identity of the subject is
 all but lost4 ,all that is meant is    
that the ,discobolus belongs somewhere  
near the latter end of the scale4 ,in   
this absence of individualization we    
have a trait1 not of ,myron alone1 but  
of ,greek sculpture generally in its    
rise and in the earlier stages of its   
perfection 7cf4 page #abf74  ,another   
work of ,myron has been plausibly       
recognized in a statue of a satyr in the
 ,lateran ,museum 7,fig4 #ajf74 ,the    
evidence for this is too complex to be  
stated here4 ,if the identification is  
correct1 the ,lateran statue is copied  
from the figure of ,marsyas in a bronze 
group of ,athena and ,marsyas which     
stood on the ,athenian ,acropolis ,the  
goddess was represented s having just   
flung down in disdain a pair of flutes2 

the satyr1 advancing on tiptoe1         
hesitates between cupidity and the fear 
of ,athena's displeasure4 ,marsyas has a
 lean and sinewy figure1 coarse stiff   
hair and beard1 a wrinkled forehead1 a  
broad flat nose which makes a marked    
angle with the forehead1 pointed ears   
7modern1 but guaranteed by another copy 
of the head71 and a short tail sprouting
 from the small of the back ,the arms1  
which were missing1 have been           
incorrectly restored with castanets4    
,the right should be held up1 the left  
down1 in a gesture of astonishment4 ,in 
this work we see again ,myron's skill in
 suggesting movement4 ,we get a lively  
impression of an advance suddenly       
checked and changed to a recoil4  ,thus 
far in this chapter we have been dealing
 with copies ,our stock of original     
works of this period1 however1 is not   
small2 it consists1 as usual1 largely of
 architectural sculpture4 ,fig4 #ajg    
shows four metopes from a temple at     
,selinus4 ,they represent 7beginning at 

the left7 ,heracles in combat with an   
,amazon1 ,hera unveiling herself before 
,zeus1 ,actaeon torn by his dogs in the 
presence of ,artemis1 and ,athena       
overcoming the giant ,enceladus4 ,these 
reliefs would repay the most careful    
study1 but the sculptures of another    
temple have still stronger claims to    
attention4  ,olympia was one of the two 
most important religious centers of the 
,greek world1 the other being ,delphi4  
,olympia was sacred to ,zeus1 and the   
great ,doric temple of ,zeus was thus   
the chief among the group of religious  
buildings there assembled4 ,the erection
 of this temple probably falls in the   
years just preceding and following #dfj 
,b4,c4 ,a slight exploration carried on 
by the ,french in #ahbi and the thorough
 excavation of the site by the ,germans 
in #ahge-ha brought to light extensive  
remains of its sculptured decoration4   
,this consisted of two pediment groups  
and twelve sculptured metopes1 besides  
the acroteria4 ,in the eastern pediment 

the subject is the preparation for the  
chariot-race of ,pelops and ,oenomaus4  
,the legend ran that ,oenomaus1 king of 
,pisa in ,elis1 refused the hand of his 
daughter save to one who should beat him
 in a chariot-race4 ,suitor after suitor
 tried and failed1 till at last ,pelops1
 a young prince from over sea1 succeeded
 ,in the pediment group ,zeus1 as       
arbiter of the impending contest1       
occupies the center4 ,on one side of him
 stand ,pelops and his destined bride1  
on the other ,oenomaus and his wife1    
,sterope 7,fig4 #ajh74 ,the chariots1   
with attendants and other more or less  
interested persons follow 7,fig4 #aji74 
,the moment chosen by the sculptor is   
one of expectancy rather than action1   
and the various figures are in          
consequence simply juxtaposed1 not      
interlocked4 ,far different is the scene
 presented by the western pediment4 ,the
 subject here is the combat between     
,lapiths and ,centaurs1 one of the      
favorite themes of ,greek sculpture1 as 

of ,greek painting4 ,the ,centaurs1     
brutal creatures1 partly human1 partly  
equine1 were fabled to have lived in    
,thessaly4 ,there too was the home of   
the ,lapiths1 who were ,greeks4 ,at the 
wedding of ,pirithous1 king of the      
,lapiths1 the ,centaurs1 who had been   
bidden as guests1 became inflamed with  
wine and began to lay hands on the      
women4 ,hence a general metee1 in which 
the ,greeks were victorious4 ,the       
sculptor has placed the god ,apollo in  
the center 7,fig4 #aaj71 undisturbed    
amid the wild tumult2 his presence alone
 assures us what the issue is to he4    
,the struggling groups 7,figs4 #aaa1    
#aab7 extend nearly to the corners1     
which are occupied each by two reclining
 female figures1 spectators of the      
scene4 ,in each pediment the composition
 is symmetrical1 every figure having its
 corresponding figure on the opposite   
side4 ,yet the law of symmetry is       
interpreted much more freely than in the
 ,aegina pediments of a generation      

earlier2 the corresponding figures often
 differ from one another a good deal in 
attitude1 and in one instance even in   
sex4  ,our illustrations1 which give a  
few representative specimens of these   
sculptures1 suggest some comments4 ,to  
begin with1 the workmanship here        
displayed is rapid and far from         
faultless4 ,unlike the ,aeginetan       
pediment-figures and those of the       
,parthenon1 these figures are left rough
 at the back4 ,moreover1 even in the    
visible portions there are surprising   
evidences of carelessness1 as in the    
portentously long left thigh of the     
,lapith in ,fig4 #aab4 ,it is1 again1   
evidence of rapid1 though not exactly of
 faulty1 execution1 that the hair is in 
a good many cases only blocked out1 the 
form of the mass being given1 but its   
texture not indicated 7e4g41 ,fig4      
#aaa74 ,in the pose of the standing     
figures 7e4g41 ,fig4 #ajh71 with the    
weight borne about equally by both legs1
 we see a modified survival of the usual

 archaic attitude4 ,a lingering archaism
 may be seen in other features too2 very
 plainly1 for example1 in the           
arrangement of ,apollo's hair 7,fig     
#aaj74 ,the garments represent a thick  
woolen stuff1 whose folds show very     
little pliancy4 ,the drapery of ,sterope
 7,fig4 #ajh7 should be especially      
noted1 as it is a characteristic example
 for this period of a type which has a  
long history ,she wears the ,doric      
chiton1 a sleeveless woolen garment     
girded and pulled over the girdle and   
doubled over from the top4 ,the formal1 
starched-looking folds of the archaic   
period have disappeared4 ,the cloth lies
 pretty flat over the chest and waist2  
there is a rather arbitrary little fold 
at the neck4 ,below the girdle the      
drapery is divided vertically into two  
parts2 on the one side it falls in      
straight folds to the ankle1 on the     
other it is drawn smooth over the bent  
knee4  ,another interesting fact about  
these sculptures is a certain tendency  

toward realism4 ,the figures and faces  
and attitudes of the ,greeks1 not to    
speak of the ,centaurs1 are not all     
entirely beautiful and noble4 ,this is  
illustrated by ,fig4 #aji1 a bald-      
headed man1 rather fat4 ,here is realism
 of a very mild type1 to be sure1 in    
comparison with what we are accustomed  
to nowadays2 but the old men of the     
,parthenon frieze bear no disfiguring   
marks of age4 ,again1 in the face of the
 young ,lapith whose arm is being bitten
 by a ,centaur 7,fig4 #aab71 there is a 
marked attempt to express physical pain2
 the features are more distorted than in
 any other fifth century sculpture1     
except representations of ,centaurs or  
other inferior creatures4 ,in the other 
heads of imperiled men and women in this
 pediment1 e4g41 in that of the bride   
7,fig4 #aaa71 the ideal calm of the     
features is overspread with only a faint
 shadow of distress4  ,lest what has    
been said should suggest that the       
sculptors of the ,olympia               

pediment-figures were indifferent to    
beauty1 attention may be drawn again to 
the superb head of the ,lapith bride4   
,apollo1 too 7,fig4 #aaj71 though not   
that radiant god whom a later age       
conceived and bodied forth1 has an      
austere beauty which only a dull eye can
 fail to appreciate4  ,the twelve       
sculptured metopes of the temple do not 
belong to the exterior frieze1 whose    
metopes were plain1 but to a second     
frieze1 placed above the columns and    
antae of pronaos and opisthodomos4      
,their subjects  are the twelve labors  
of ,heracles1 beginning with the slaying
 of the ,nemean lion and ending with the
 cleansing of the ,augean stables4 ,the 
one selected for illustration is one of 
the two or three best preserved members 
of the series 7,fig4 #aac74 ,its subject
 is the winning of the golden apples    
which grew in the garden of the         
,hesperides1 near the spot where ,atlas 
stood1 evermore supporting on his       
shoulders the weight of the heavens4    

,heracles prevailed upon ,atlas to go   
and fetch the coveted treasure1 himself 
meanwhile assuming the burden4 ,the     
moment chosen by the sculptor is that of
 the return of ,atlas with the apples4  
,in the middle stands ,heracles1 with a 
cushion1 folded double1 upon his        
shoulders1 the sphere of the heavens    
being barely suggested at the top of the
 relief4 ,behind him is his companion   
and protectress1 ,athena1 once          
recognizable by a lance in her right    
hand4 ,footnote3 ,such at least seems to
 be the view adopted in the latest      
official publication on the subject     
,olympia2 ,die ,bildwerke in ,stein und 
,thon1 ,pl4 ,,lxv4 ,with her left hand  
she seeks to ease a little the hero's   
heavy load4 ,before him stands ,atlas1  
holding out the apples in both hands4   
,the main lines of the composition are  
somewhat monotonous1 but this is a      
consequence of the subject1 not of any  
incapacity of the artist1 as the other  
metopes testify4 ,the figure of ,athena 

should be compared with that of ,sterope
 in the eastern pediment4 ,there is a   
substantial resemblance in the drapery1 
even to the arbitrary little fold in the
 neck2 but the garment here is entirely 
open on the right side1 after the       
fashion followed by ,spartan maidens1   
whereas there it is sewed together from 
the waist down2 there is here no girdle2
 and the broad1 flat expanse of cloth in
 front observable there is here narrowed
 by two folds falling from the breasts4 
,fig4 #aad is added as a last example of
 the severe beauty to be found in these 
sculptures4 ,it will be observed  that  
the hair of this head is not worked out 
in detail1 except at the front4 ,this   
summary treatment of the hair is1 in    
fact1 more general in the metopes than  
in the pediment-figures4 ,the upper     
eyelid does not yet overlap the under   
eyelid at the outer corner 7cf4 ,fig4   
#aaj74  ,the two pediment-groups and the
 metopes of this temple show such close 
resemblances of style among themselves  

that they must all be regarded as       
products of a single school of          
sculpture1 if not as designed by a      
single man4 ,pausanias says nothing of  
the authorship of the metopes2 but he   
tells us that the sculptures of the     
eastern pediment were the work of       
,paeonius of ,mende1 an indisputable    
statue by whom is known 7cf4 page #bac71
 and those of the western by ,alcamenes1
 who appears elsewhere in literary      
tradition as a pupil of ,phidias4 ,on   
various grounds it seems almost certain 
that ,pausanias was misinformed on this 
point4 ,thus we are left without        
trustworthy testimony as to the         
affiliations of the artist or artists to
 whom the sculptured decoration of this 
temple was intrusted4  ,the so-called   
,hestia 7,vesta7 which formerly belonged
 to the ,giustiniani family 7,fig4      
#aae71 has of late years been           
inaccessible even to professional       
students4 ,it must be one of the very   
best preserved of ancient statues in    

marble1 as it is not reported to have   
anything modern about it except the     
index finger of the left hand4 ,this    
hand originally held a scepter4 ,the    
statue represents some goddess1 it is   
uncertain what one4 ,in view of the     
likeness in the drapery to some of the  
,olympia figures1 no one can doubt that 
this is a product of the same period4   
,in regard to the bronze statue shown in
 ,fig4 #aaf there is more room for      
doubt1 but the weight of opinion is in  
favor of placing it here4 ,it is        
confidently claimed by a high authority 
that this is an original ,greek bronze4 
,there exist also fragmentary copies of 
the same in marble and free imitations  
in marble and in bronze4 ,the statue    
represents a boy of perhaps twelve1     
absorbed in pulling a thorn from his    
foot4 ,we do not know the original      
purpose of the work2 perhaps it         
commemorated a victory won in a         
foot-race of boys ,the left leg of the  
figure is held in a position which gives

 a somewhat ungraceful outline2         
,praxiteles would not have placed it so4
 ,but how delightful is the picture of  
childish innocence and                  
self-forgetfulness6 ,this statue might  
be regarded as an epitome of the        
artistic spirit and capacity of the     
age--its simplicity and purity and      
freshness of feeling1 its not quite     
complete emancipation from the formalism
 of an earlier day4      ,,chapter      
,,viii  ,,the ,,great ,,age ,,of ,,greek
 ,,sculpture ,,first ,,period #dej-djj  
,b4,c4   ,the ,age of ,pericles1 which1 
if we reckon from the first entrance of 
,pericles1 into politics1 extended from 
about #dff to #dbi1 has become          
proverbial as a period of extraordinary 
artistic and literary splendor4 ,the    
real ascendancy of ,pericles began in   
#ddg1 and the achievements most properly
 associated with his name belong to the 
succeeding fifteen years4 ,athens at    
this time possessed ample material      
resources1 derived in great measure from

 the tribute of subject allies1 and     
wealth was freely spent upon noble      
monuments of art4 ,the city was fled    
with artists of high and low degree4    
,above them all in genius towered       
,phidias1 and to him1 if we may believe 
the testimony of ,plutarch1 ,footnote3  
,life of ,pericles ,section #ac a       
general superintendence of all the      
artistic undertakings of the state was  
intrusted by ,pericles4  ,great as was  
the fame of ,phidias in after ages1 we  
are left in almost complete ignorance as
 to the circumstances of his life4 ,if  
he was really the author of certain     
works ascribed to him1 he must have been
 born about #ejj ,b4,c4 ,this would make
 him as old1 perhaps1 as ,myron4        
,another view would put his birth       
between #dij and #dhe1 still another1 as
 late as #dhj4 ,the one undisputed date 
in his life is the year #dch1 when the  
gold and ivory statue of ,athena in the 
,parthenon was completed4 ,touching the 
time and circumstances of his death we  

have two inconsistent traditions4       
,according to the one1 he was brought to
 trial in ,athens immediately after the 
completion of the ,athena on the charge 
of misappropriating some of the ivory   
with which he had been intrusted but    
made his escape to ,elis1 where1 after  
executing the gold and ivory ,zeus for  
the temple of that god at ,olympia he   
was put to death for some unspecified   
reason by the ,eleans in #dcb-a4        
,according to the other tradition he was
 accused in ,athens1 apparently not     
before #dcb1 of stealing some of the    
gold destined for the ,athena and1 when 
this charge broke down1 of having       
sacrilegiously introduced his own and   
,pericles's portraits into the relief on
 ,athena's shield1 being cast into      
prison he died there of disease1 or1 as 
some said1 of poison4  ,the most famous 
works of ,phidias were the two          
chryselephantine statues to which       
reference has just been made1 and two or
 three other statues of the same        

materials were ascribed to him4 ,he     
worked also in bronze and in marble4    
,from a reference in ,aristotle's       
,ethics it might seem as if he were best
 known as a sculptor in marble1 but only
 three statues by him are expressly     
recorded to have been of marble1 against
 a larger number of bronze ,his subjects
 were chiefly divinities1 we hear of    
only one or two figures of human beings 
from his hands4  ,of the colossal ,zeus 
at ,olympia1 the most august creation of
 ,greek artistic imagination1 we can    
form only an indistinct idea4 ,the god  
was seated upon a throne1 holding a     
figure of ,victory upon one hand and a  
scepter in the other4 ,the figure is    
represented on three ,elean coins of the
 time of ,hadrian 7#aag-ach ,a4,d47 but 
on too small a scale to help us much4   
,another coin of the same period gives a
 fine head of ,zeus in profile 7,fig4   
#aag71;,footnote3 ,a more truthful      
representation of this coin may be found
 in ,gardner's ,types of ,greek ,coins1 

,,pi ,,xv #ai which is plausibly        
supposed to preserve some likeness to   
the head of ,phidias's statue4  ,in     
regard to the ,athena of the ,parthenon 
we are considerably better off1 for we  
possess a number of marble statues      
which1 with the aid of ,pausanias's     
description and by comparison with one  
another1 can be proved to be copies of  
that work4 ,but a warning is necessary  
here4 ,the ,athena1 like the ,zeus1 was 
of colossal size4 ,its height1 with the 
pedestal1 was about thirty-eight feet4  
,now it is not likely that a really     
exact copy on a small scale could       
possibly have been made from such a     
statue1 nor1 if one had been made1 would
 it have given the effect of the        
original4 ,with this warning laid well  
to heart the reader may venture to      
examine that one among our copies which 
makes the greatest attempt at exactitude
 7,fig4 #aah74 ,it is a statuette1 not  
quite #c #a_/b feet high with the basis1
 found in ,athens in #ahhj4 ,the goddess

 stands with her left leg bent a little 
and pushed to one side4 ,she is dressed 
in a heavy ,doric chiton1 open at the   
side4 ,the girdle1 whose ends take the  
form of snakes' heads1 is worn outside  
the doubled-over portion of the garment4
 ,above it the folds are carefully      
adjusted1 drawn in symmetrically from   
both sides toward the middle2 in the    
lower part of the figure there is the   
common vertical division into two parts1
 owing to the bending of one leg4 ,over 
the chiton is the aegis1 much less long 
behind than in earlier art 7cf4 ,fig4   
#ih71 fringed with snakes' heads and    
having a ,gorgon's mask in front4 ,the  
helmet is an elaborate affair with three
 crests1 the central one supported by a 
sphinx1 the others by winged horses2 the
 hinged cheek-pieces are turned up4 ,at 
the left of the goddess is her shield1  
within which coils a serpent4 ,on her   
extended right hand stands a ,victory4  
,the face of ,athena is the most        
disappointing part of it all1 but it is 

just there that the copyist must have   
failed most completely4 ,only the eye of
 faith1 or better1 the eye trained by   
much study of allied works1 can divine  
in this poor little figure the majesty  
which awed the beholder of ,phidias's   
work4  ,speculation has been busy in    
attempting to connect other statues that
 have been preserved to us with the name
 of ,phidias4 ,the most probable case   
that has yet been made out concerns two 
closely similar marble figures in       
,dresden1 one of which is shown in ,fig4
 #aai4 ,the head of this statue is      
missing1 but its place has been supplied
 by a cast of a head in ,bologna 7,fig4 
#abj71 which has been proved to be      
another copy from the same original4    
,this proof1 about which there seems to 
be no room for question1 is due to      
,professor ,furtwangler1 ,footnote3     
,masterpieces of  ,greek ,sculpture     
pages #d ff4 who argues further that the
 statue as thus restored is a faithful  
copy of the ,lemnian ,athena of         

,phidias1 a bronze work which stood on  
the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,the proof of 
this depends upon 7#a7 the resemblance  
in the standing position and in the     
drapery of this figure to the ,athena of
 the ,parthenon1 and 7#b7 the fact that 
,phidias is known to have made a statue 
of ,athena 7thought to be the ,lemnian  
,athena7 without a helmet on the head-- 
an exceptional1 though not wholly       
unique1 representation in sculpture in  
the round4  ,if this demonstration be   
thought insufficient1 there cannot1 at  
all events1 be much doubt that we have  
here the copy of an original of about   
the middle of the fifth century4 ,the   
style is severely simple1 as we ought to
 expect of a religious work of that     
period4 ,the virginal face1 conceived   
and wrought with ineffable refinement1  
is as far removed from sensual charm as 
from the ecstasy of a ,madonna4 ,the    
goddess does not reveal herself as one  
who can be touched with a feeling of our
 infirmities2 but by the power of her   

pure1 passionless beauty she sways our  
minds and hearts4  ,the supreme         
architectural achievement of the        
,periclean age was the ,parthenon1 which
 crowned the ,athenian ,acropolis4 ,it  
appears to have been begun in #ddg1 and 
was roofed over and perhaps             
substantially finished by #dch4 ,its    
sculptures were more extensive than     
those of any other ,greek temple1       
comprising two pediment- groups1 the    
whole set of metopes of the exterior    
frieze1 ninety- two in number1 and a    
continuous frieze of bas-relief1 #ebb   
feet #aj inches in total length1        
surrounding the cella and its vestibules
 7cf4 ,fig4 #ef74 ,after serving its    
original purpose for nearly a thousand  
years1 the building was converted into a
 ,christian church and then1 in the     
fifteenth century1 into a ,mohammedan   
mosque4 ,in #afhg ,athens was besieged  
by the forces of ,venice4 ,the          
,parthenon was used by the ,turks as a  
powder-magazine1 and was consequently   

made the target for the enemy's shells4 
,the result was an explosion1 which     
converted the building into a ruin4 ,of 
the sculptures which escaped from this  
catastrophe1 many small pieces were     
carried off at the time or subsequently1
 while other pieces were used as        
building stone or thrown into the       
lime-kiln4 ,most of those which remained
 down to the beginning of this century  
were acquired by ,lord ,elgin1 acting   
under a permission from the ,turkish    
government 7#ahja-c71 and in #ahaf were 
bought for the ,british ,museum4 ,the   
rest are in ,athens1 either in their    
original positions on the building1 or  
in the ,acropolis ,museum4  ,the best   
preserved metopes of the ,parthenon     
belong to the south side and represent  
scenes from the contest between ,lapiths
 and ,centaurs 7cf4 page #agd74 ,these  
metopes differ markedly in style from   
one another1 and must have been not only
 executed1 but designed1 by different   
hands4 ,one or two of them are          

spiritless and uninteresting4 ,others1  
while fine in their way1 show little    
vehemence of action4 ,fig4 #aba gives   
one of this class4 ,fig4 #abb is very   
different4 ,in this the ,lapith presses 
forward1 advancing his left hand to     
seize the rearing ,centaur by the       
throat1 and forcing him on his haunches2
 the right arm of the ,lapith is drawn  
back1 as if to strike2 his right hand1  
now wanting1 probably held a sword4 4444
 ,the ,centaur1 rearing up1 against his 
antagonist1 tries in vain to pull away  
the left hand of the ,lapith1 which1 in 
,carrey's drawing made in #afgd he      
grasps4 ,footnote3 ,a4 ,h4 ,smith1      
,catalogue of ,sculpture in the ,british
 ,museum1 page #acf4 ,observe how       
skilfully the design is adapted to the  
square field1 so as to leave no         
unpleasant blank spaces1 how flowing and
 free from monotony are the lines of the
 composition1 how effective 7in contrast
 with ,fig4 #aba7 is the management of  
the drapery1 and1 above all1 what vigor 

is displayed in the attitudes4 ,fig4    
#abc is of kindred character4 ,these two
 metopes and two others1 one            
representing a victorious ,centaur      
prancing in savage glee over the body of
 his prostrate foe1 the other showing a 
,lapith about to strike a ,centaur      
already wounded in the back1 are among  
the very best works of ,greek sculpture 
preserved to us4  ,the ,parthenon frieze
 presents an idealized picture of the   
procession which wound its way upward   
from the market-place to the ,acropolis 
on the occasion of ,athena's chief      
festival4 ,fully to illustrate this     
extensive and varied composition is out 
of the question here4 ,all that is      
possible is to give three or four       
representative pieces and a few         
comments4 ,fig4 #abd shows the best     
preserved piece of the entire frieze4   
,it belongs to a company of divinities1 
seated to right and left of the central 
group of the east front1 and conceived  
as spectators of the scene4 ,the figure 

at the left of the illustration is      
almost certainly ,posidon1 and the      
others are perhaps ,apollo and ,artemis4
 ,in ,fig4 #abe three youths advance    
with measured step1 carrying jars filled
 with wine1 while a fourth youth stoops 
to lift his jar2 at the extreme right   
may be seen part of a flute-player1     
whose figure was completed on the next  
slab4 ,the attitudes and draperies of   
the three advancing youths1 though      
similar1 are subtly varied4 ,so         
everywhere monotony is absent from the  
frieze4 ,fig4 #abf is taken from the    
most animated and crowded part of the   
design4 ,here ,athenian youths1 in a    
great variety of dress and undress1 dash
 forward on small1 mettlesome horses4   
,owing to the principle of isocephaly   
7cf4 page #ade71 the mounted men are of 
smaller dimensions than those on foot1  
but the difference does not offend the  
eye4 ,in ,fig4 #abg we have1 on a       
somewhat larger scale1 the heads of four
 chariot-horses instinct with fiery     

life4 ,fig4 #acb may also be consulted4 
,an endless variety in attitude and     
spirit1 from the calm of the ever-      
blessed gods to the most impetuous      
movement2 grace and harmony of line2 an 
almost faultless execution--such are    
some of the qualities which make the    
,parthenon frieze the source of         
inexhaustible delight4  ,the composition
 of the group in the western pediment is
 fairly well known1 thanks to a ,french 
artist1 ,jacques ,carrey1 who made a    
drawing of it in #afgd1 when it was     
still in tolerable preservation4 ,the   
subject was1 in the words of ,pausanias1
 the strife of ,posidon with ,athena for
 the land of ,attica4 ,in the eastern   
pediment the subject was the birth of   
,athena4 ,the central figures1 eleven in
 number1 had disappeared long before    
,carrey's time1 having probably been    
removed when the temple was converted   
into a church4 ,on the other hand1 the  
figures near the angles have been better
 preserved than any of those from the   

western pediment1 with one exception4   
,the names of these eastern figures have
 been the subject of endless guess-work4
 ,all that is really certain is that at 
the southern corner ,helios 7the        
,sun-god7 was emerging from the sea in a
 chariot drawn by four horses1 and at   
the northern corner ,selene 7the        
,moon-goddess7 or perhaps ,nyx 7,night7 
was descending in a similar chariot4    
,fig4 #abh is the figure that was placed
 next to the horses of ,helios4 ,the    
young god or hero reclines in an easy   
attitude on a rock2 under him are spread
 his mantle and the skin of a panther or
 some such animal4 ,in ,fig4 #abi we    
have1 beginning on the right1 the head  
of one of ,selene's horses and the torso
 of the goddess herself1 then a group of
 three closely connected female figures1
 known as the ,three ,fates1 seated or  
reclining on uneven1 rocky ground1 and  
last the body and thighs of a winged    
goddess1  ,victory or ,iris1 perhaps    
belonging in the western pediment4 ,fig4

 #acj1 from the northern corner of the  
western pediment1 is commonly taken for 
a river-god4  ,we possess but the broken
 remnants of these two pediment-groups1 
and the key to the interpretation of    
much that we do possess is lost4 ,we    
cannot then fully appreciate the        
intention of the great artist who       
conceived these works4 ,yet even in     
their ruin and their isolation the      
pediment-figures of the ,parthenon are  
the sublimest creations of ,greek art   
that have escaped annihilation4  ,we    
have no ancient testimony as to the     
authorship of the ,parthenon sculptures1
 beyond the statement of ,plutarch1     
quoted above1 that ,phidias was the     
general superintendent of all artistic  
works undertaken during ,pericles's     
administration4 ,if this statement be   
true1 it still leaves open a wide range 
of conjecture as to the nature and      
extent of his responsibility in this    
particular case4 ,appealing to the      
sculptures themselves for information1  

we find among the metopes such          
differences of style as exclude the     
notion of single authorship4 ,with the  
frieze and the pediment-groups1 however1
 the case is different4 ,each of these  
three compositions must1 of course1 have
 been designed by one master-artist and 
executed by or with the help of         
subordinate artists or workmen4 ,now the
 pediment-groups1 so far as preserved1  
strongly suggest a single presiding     
genius for both1 and there is no        
difficulty in ascribing the design of   
the frieze to the same artist4 ,was it  
,phidias8 ,the question has been much   
agitated of late years1 but the evidence
 at our disposal  does not admit of a   
decisive answer4 ,the great argument for
 ,phidias lies in the incomparable merit
 of these works2 and with the           
probability that his genius is here in  
some degree revealed to us we must needs
 be content4 ,after all1 it is of much  
less consequence to be assured of the   
master's name than to know and enjoy the

 masterpieces themselves4  ,the great   
statesman under whose administration    
these immortal sculptures were produced 
was commemorated by a portrait statue or
 head1 set up during his lifetime on the
 ,athenian ,acropolis2 it was from the  
hand of ,cresilas1 of ,cydonia in       
,crete4 ,it is perhaps this portrait of 
which copies have come down to us4 ,the 
best of these is given in ,fig #aca4    
,the features are1 we may believe1 the  
authentic features of ,pericles1        
somewhat idealized1 according to the    
custom of portraiture in this age4 ,the 
helmet characterizes the wearer as      
general4  ,the artistic activity in     
,athens did not cease with the outbreak 
of the ,peloponnesian ,war in #dca4 ,the
 city was full of sculptors1 many of    
whom had come directly under the        
influence of ,phidias1 and they were not
 left idle4 ,the demand from private    
individuals for votive sculptures and   
funeral reliefs must indeed have been   
abated1 but was not extinguished2 and in

 the intervals of the protracted war the
 state undertook important enterprises  
with an undaunted spirit4 ,it is to this
 period that the ,erechtheum probably   
belongs 7#dbj8-djh71 though all that we 
certainly know is that the building was 
nearly finished some time before #dji   
and that the work was resumed in that   
year4 ,the temple had a sculptured      
frieze of which fragments are extant1   
but these are far surpassed in interest 
by the ,caryatides of the southern porch
 7,fig4 #fg74 ,the name ,caryatides1 by 
the way1 meets us first in the pages of 
,vitruvius1 a ,roman architect of the   
time of ,augustus2 a contemporary       
,athenian inscription1 to which we are  
indebted for many details concerning the
 building1 calls them simply maidens4   
,as you face the front of the porch1 the
 three maidens on your right support    
themselves chiefly on the left leg1 the 
three on your left on the right leg     
7,fig4 #acb71 so that the leg in action 
is the one nearer to the end of the     

porch4 ,the arms hung straight at the   
sides1 one of them grasping a corner of 
the small mantle4 ,the pose and drapery 
show what ,attic sculpture had made of  
the old ,peloponnesian type of standing 
female figure in the ,doric chiton 7cf4 
page #agg74 ,the fall of the garment    
preserves the same general features1 but
 the stuff has become much more pliable4
 ,it is interesting to note that1 in    
spite of a close general similarity1 no 
two maidens are exactly alike1 as they  
would have been if they had been        
reproduced mechanically from a finished 
model4 ,these subtle variations are     
among the secrets of the beauty of this 
porch1 as they are of the ,parthenon    
frieze4 ,one may be permitted to object 
altogether to the use of human figures  
as architectural supports1 but if the   
thing was to be done at all1 it could   
not have been better done4 ,the weight  
that the maidens bear is comparatively  
small1 and their figures are as strong  
as they are graceful4  ,to the period of

 the ,peloponnesian ,war may also be    
assigned a sculptured balustrade which  
inclosed and protected the precinct of  
the little ,temple of ,wingless ,victory
 on the ,acropolis 7,fig4 #gj74 ,one    
slab of this balustrade is shown in     
,fig4 #acc4 ,it represents a winged     
,victory stooping to tie 7or1 as some   
will have it1 to untie7 her sandal4 ,the
 soft ,ionic chiton1 clinging to the    
form1 reminds one of the drapery of the 
reclining goddess from the eastern      
pediment of the ,parthenon 7,fig4 #abi71
 but it finds its closest analogy1 among
 datable sculptures1 in a fragment of   
relief recently found at ,rhamnus in    
,attica4 ,this belonged to the pedestal 
of a statue by ,agoracritus1 one of the 
most famous pupils of ,phidias4  ,the   
,attic grave-relief given in ,fig4 #acd 
seems to belong somewhere near the end  
of the fifth century4 ,the subject is a 
common one on this class of monuments1  
but is nowhere else so exquisitely      
treated4 ,there is no allusion to the   

fact of death4 ,hegeso1 the deceased    
lady1 is seated and is holding up a     
necklace or some such object            
7originally1 it may be supposed1        
indicated by color71 which she has just 
taken from the jewel-box held out by the
 standing slave-woman4 ,another fine    
grave-relief 7,fig4 #ace7 may be        
introduced here1 though it perhaps      
belongs to the beginning of the fourth  
century rather than to the end of the   
fifth4 ,it must commemorate some young  
,athenian cavalryman4 ,it is            
characteristic that the relief ignores  
his death and represents him in a moment
 of victory4 ,observe that on both these
 monuments there is no attempt at       
realistic portraiture and that on both  
we may trace the influence of the style 
of the ,parthenon frieze4  ,among the   
other bas-reliefs which show that       
influence there is no difficulty in     
choosing one of exceptional beauty1 the 
so-called ,orpheus relief 7,fig4 #acf74 
,this is known to us in three copies1   

unless indeed the ,naples example be the
 original4 ,the story here set forth is 
one of the most touching in ,greek      
mythology4 ,orpheus1 the ,thracian      
singer1 has descended into ,hades in    
quest of his dead wife1 ,eurydice1 and  
has so charmed by his music the stern   
,persephone that she has suffered him to
 lead back his wife to the upper air1   
provided only he will not look upon her 
on the way4 ,but love has overcome  him4
 ,he has turned and looked1 and the doom
 of an irrevocable parting is sealed4   
,in no unseemly paroxysm of grief1 but  
tenderly1 sadly1 they look their last at
 one another1 while ,hermes1 guide of   
departed spirits1 makes gentle signal   
for the wife's return4 ,in the chastened
 pathos of this scene we have the       
quintessence of the temper of ,greek art
 in dealing with the fact of death4     
,turning now from ,athens to ,argos1    
which1 though politically weak1 was     
artistically the rival of ,athens in    
importance1 we find ,polyclitus the     

dominant master there1 as ,phidias was  
in the other city4 ,polyclitus survived 
,phidias and may have been the younger  
of the two4 ,the only certain thing is  
that he was in the plenitude of his     
powers as late as #dbj1 for his gold and
 ivory statue of ,hera was made for a   
temple built to replace an earlier      
temple destroyed by fire in #dbc4 ,his  
principal material was bronze4 ,as      
regards subjects1 his great specialty   
was the representation of youthful      
athletes4 ,his reputation in his own day
 and afterwards was of the highest2     
there were those who ranked him above   
,phidias4 ,thus ,xenophon represents    
,footnote3 ,memorabilia ,i41 #d1 #c     
7written about #cij ,b4 ,c74 an         
,athenian as assigning to ,polyclitus a 
preeminence in sculpture like that of   
,homer in epic poetry and that of       
,sophocles in tragedy2 and              
,strabo,footnote3 ,,viii41 page #cgb    
7written about #ah ,a4 ,d474 pronounced 
his gold and ivory statues in the       

,temple of ,hera near ,argos the finest 
in artistic merit among all such works1 
though inferior to those of ,phidias in 
size and costliness4 ,but probably the  
more usual verdict was that reported by 
,quintilian1 ,footnote3 ,de             
,institutione ,oratoria ,,xii1 #aj1 #g  
7written about #ij ,a4 ,d474 which1     
applauding as unrivaled his rendering of
 the human form1 found his divinities   
lacking in majesty4  ,in view of the    
exalted rank assigned to ,polyclitus by 
,greek and ,roman judgment1 his         
identifiable works are a little         
disappointing4 ,his ,doryphorus1 a      
bronze figure of a young athlete holding
 a spear such as was used in the        
pentathlon 7cf4 page #afh71 exists in   
numerous copies4 ,the ,naples copy      
7,fig4 #acg71 found in ,pompeii in      
#agig1 is the best preserved1 being     
substantially antique throughout1 but is
 of indifferent workmanship4 ,the young 
man1 of massive build1 stands supporting
 his weight on the right leg2 the left  

is bent backward from the knee1 the foot
 touching the ground only in front4     
,thus the body is a good deal curved4   
,this attitude is an advance upon any   
standing motive attained in the         
,transitional period 7cf4 page #afe74   
,it was much used by ,polyclitus1 and is
 one of the marks by which statues of   
his may be recognized4 ,the head of the 
,doryphorus1 as seen from the side1 is  
more nearly rectangular than the usual  
,attic heads of the period1 e4g41 in the
 ,parthenon frieze4 ,for the            
characteristic face our best guide is a 
bronze copy of the head from            
,herculaneum 7,fig4 #ach71 to which our 
illustration does less than justice4  ,a
 strong likeness to the ,doryphorus     
exists in a whole series of youthful    
athletes1 which are therefore with      
probability traced to ,polyclitus as    
their author or inspirer4 ,such is a    
statue of a boy in ,dresden1 of which   
the head is shown in ,fig4 #aci4 ,one of
 these obviously allied works can be    

identified with a statue by ,polyclitus 
known to us from our literary sources4  
,it is the so- called ,diadumenos1 a    
youth binding the fillet of victory     
about his head4 ,this exists in several 
copies1 the best of which has been      
recently found on the island of ,delos  
and is not yet published4  ,an          
interesting statue of a different order1
 very often attributed to ,polyclitus1  
may with less of confidence be accepted 
as his4 ,our illustration 7,fig4 #adj7  
is taken from the ,berlin copy of this  
statue1 in which the arms1 pillar1 nose1
 and feet are modern1 but are guaranteed
 by other existing copies4 ,it is the   
figure of an ,amazon1 who has been      
wounded in the right breast4 ,she leans 
upon a support at her left side and     
raises her right hand to her head in an 
attitude perhaps intended to suggest    
exhaustion1 yet hardly suitable to the  
position of the wound4 ,the attitude of 
the figure1 especially the legs1 is very
 like that of the ,doryphorus1 and the  

face is thought by many to show a family
 likeness to his4 ,there are three other
 types of ,amazon which seem to be      
connected with this one1 but the mutual 
relations of the four types are too     
perplexing to be here discussed4  ,it is
 a welcome change to turn from copies to
 originals4 ,the ,american ,school of   
,classical ,studies at ,athens has      
carried on excavations 7#ahij-ie7 on the
 site of the famous sanctuary of ,hera  
near ,argos1 and has uncovered the      
foundations both of the earlier temple1 
burned in #dbc1 and of the later temple1
 in which stood the gold and ivory image
 by ,polyclitus1 as well as of adjacent 
buildings4 ,besides many other objects  
of interest1 there have been brought to 
light several fragments of the metopes  
of the second temple1 which1 together   
with a few fragments from the same      
source found earlier1 form a precious   
collection of materials for the study of
 the ,argive school of sculpture of     
about #dbj4 ,still more interesting1 at 

least to such as are not specialists1 is
 a head which was found on the same site
 7,fig4 #ada71 and which1 to judge by   
its style1 must date from the same      
period4 ,it is a good illustration of   
the uncertainty which besets the attempt
 to classify extant ,greek sculptures   
into local schools that this head has   
been claimed with equal confidence as   
,argive ,footnote3 ,so by ,professor    
,charles ,waldstein1 who directed the   
excavations4 and as ,attic in style4 ,in
 truth1 ,argive and ,attic art had so   
acted and reacted upon one another that 
it is small wonder if their productions 
are in some cases indistinguishable by  
us4  ,the last remark applies also to   
the bronze statue shown in ,fig4 #adb1  
which is believed by high authorities to
 be an original ,greek work and which   
has been claimed both for ,athens and   
for ,argos4 ,the standing position1     
while not identical with that of the    
,doryphorus1 the ,diadumenos1 and the   
wounded ,amazon1 is strikingly similar1 

as is also the form of the head4 ,at all
 events1 the statue is a fine example of
 apparently unstudied ease1 of that     
consummate art which conceals itself4   
,the only sculptor of the fifth century 
who is at once known to us from literary
 tradition and represented by an        
authenticated and original work is      
,paeonius of ,mende in ,thrace4 ,he was 
an artist of secondary rank1 if we may  
judge from the fact that his name occurs
 only in ,pausanias2 but in the         
brilliant period of ,greek history even 
secondary artists were capable of work  
which less fortunate ages could not     
rival4 ,pausanias mentions a ,victory by
 ,paeonius at ,olympia1 a votive        
offering of the ,messenians for         
successes gained in war4 ,portions of   
the pedestal of this statue with the    
dedicatory inscription and the artist's 
signature were found on ,december #bj1  
#ahge1 at the beginning of the ,german  
excavations1 and the mutilated statue   
itself on the following day 7,fig4      

#adc74 ,a restoration of the figure by a
 ,german sculptor 7,fig4 #add7 may be   
trusted for nearly everything but the   
face4 ,the goddess is represented in    
descending flight4 ,poised upon a       
triangular pedestal about thirty feet   
high1 she seems all but independent of  
support4 ,her draperies1 blown by the   
wind1 form a background for her figure4 
,an eagle at her feet suggests the      
element through which she moves4 ,never 
was a more audacious design executed in 
marble4 ,yet it does not impress us     
chiefly as a tour de force4 ,the        
beholder forgets the triumph over       
material difficulties in the sense of   
buoyancy1 speed1 and grace which the    
figure inspires4 ,pausanias records that
 the ,messenians of his day believed the
 statue to commemorate an event which   
happened in #dbe1 while he himself      
preferred to connect it with an event of
 #dec4 ,the inscription on the pedestal 
is indecisive on this point4 ,it runs in
 these terms3 ,the ,messenians and      

,naupactians dedicated this statue to   
the ,olympian ,zeus1 as a tithe of the  
spoils from their enemies4 ,paeonius of 
,mende made it2 and he was victorious   
over his competitors in making the      
acroteria for the temple4 ,the later of 
the two dates mentioned by ,pausanias   
has been generally accepted1 though not 
without recent protest4 ,this would give
 about the year #dbc for the completion 
and erection of this statue4            
,,chapter ,,ix4  ,,the ,,great ,,age    
,,of ,,greek ,,sculpture4 ,,second      
,,period3 #djj-cbc ,b4 ,c4   ,in the    
fourth century art became even more     
cosmopolitan than before4 ,the          
distinctions between local schools were 
nearly effaced and the question of an   
artist's birthplace or residence ceases 
to have much importance ,athens1        
however1 maintained her artistic        
preeminence through the first half or   
more of the century4 ,several of the    
most eminent sculptors of the period    
were certainly or probably ,athenians1  

and others appear to have made ,athens  
their home for a longer or shorter time4
 ,it is therefore common to speak of a  
younger ,attic school1 whose members    
would include most of the notable       
sculptors of this period4 ,what the     
tendencies of the times were will best  
be seen by studying the most eminent    
representatives of this group or school4
  ,the first great name to meet us is   
that of ,scopas of ,paros4 ,his artistic
 career seems to have begun early in the
 fourth century1 for he was the         
architect of a temple of ,athena at     
,tegea in ,arcadia which was built to   
replace one destroyed by fire in #cie-d4
 ,he  as active as late as the middle of
 the century1 being one of four         
sculptors engaged on the reliefs of the 
,mausoleum or funeral monument of       
,maussollus1 satrap of ,caria1 who died 
in #cea-j1 or perhaps two years earlier4
 ,that is about all we know of his life1
 for it is hardly more than a conjecture
 that he took up his abode in ,athens   

for a term of years4 ,the works of his  
hands were widely distributed in ,greece
 proper and on the coast of ,asia       
,minor4  ,until lately nothing very     
definite was known of the style of      
,scopas4 ,while numerous statues by him1
 all representing divinities or other   
imaginary beings1 are mentioned in our  
literary sources1 only one of these is  
described in such a way as to give any  
notion of its artistic character4 ,this 
was a ,maenad1 or female attendant of   
the god ,bacchus1 who was represented in
 a frenzy of religious excitement4 ,the 
theme suggests a strong tendency on the 
part of ,scopas toward emotional        
expression1 but this inference does not 
carry us very far4 ,the study of ,scopas
 has entered upon a new stage since some
 fragments of sculpture belonging to the
 ,temple of ,athena at ,tegea have      
become known4 ,the presumption is that1 
as ,scopas was the architect of the     
building1 he also designed1 if he did   
not execute1 the pediment-sculptures4   

,if this be true1 then we have at last  
authentic1 though scanty1 evidence of   
his style4 ,the fragments thus far      
discovered consist of little more than  
two human heads and a boar's head4 ,one 
of the human heads is here reproduced   
7,fig4 #ade74 ,sadly mutilated as it is1
 is has become possible by its help and 
that of its fellow to recognize with    
great probability the authorship of     
,scopas in a whole group of allied      
works4 ,not to dwell on anatomical      
details1 which need casts for their     
proper illustration1 the obvious        
characteristic mark of ,scopadean heads 
is a tragic intensity of expression     
unknown to earlier ,greek art4 ,it is   
this which makes the ,tegea heads so    
impressive in spite of the rude wasting 
of old ,time4  ,the magnificent head of 
,meleager in the garden of the ,villa   
,medici in ,rome 7,fig4 #adf7 shows this
 same quality4 ,a fiery eagerness of    
temper animates the marble1 and a       
certain pathos1 as if born of a         

consciousness of approaching doom4 ,so  
masterly is the workmanship here1 so    
utterly removed from the mechanical1    
uninspired manner of ,roman copyists1   
that this head has been claimed as an   
original from the hand of ,scopas1 and  
so it may well be4 ,something of the    
same character belongs to a head of a   
goddess in ,athens1 shown in ,fig4 #adg4
  ,fig4 #adh introduces us to another   
tendency of fourth century art4 ,the    
group represents ,eirene and ,plutus    
7,peace and ,plenty74 ,it is in all     
probability a copy of a bronze work by  
,cephisodotus1 which stood in ,athens   
and was set up1 it is conjectured1 soon 
after #cge1 the year in which the       
worship of ,eirene was officially       
established in ,athens4 ,the head of the
 child is antique1 but does not belong  
to the figure2 copies of the child with 
the true head exist in ,athens and      
,dresden4 ,the principal modern parts   
are3 the right arm of the goddess 7which
 should hold a scepter71 her left hand  

with the vase1 and both arms of the     
child2 in place of the vase there should
 be a small horn of plenty1 resting on  
the child's left arm4 ,the sentiment of 
this group is such as we have not met   
before4 ,the tenderness expressed by    
,eirene's posture is as characteristic  
of the new era as the intensity of look 
in the head from ,tegea4  ,cephisodotus 
was probably a near relative of a much  
greater sculptor1 ,praxiteles1 perhaps  
his father4 ,praxiteles is better known 
to us than any other ,greek artist4 ,for
 we have1 to begin with1 one            
authenticated original statue from his  
hand1 besides three fourths of a        
bas-relief probably executed under his  
direction4 ,in the second place1 we can 
gather from our literary sources a      
catalogue of toward fifty of his works1 
a larger list than can be made out for  
any other sculptor4 ,moreover1 of       
several pieces we get really            
enlightening descriptions1 and there are
 in addition one or two valuable general

 comments on his style4 ,finally two of 
his statues that are mentioned in       
literature can be identified with       
sufficient certainty in copies4 ,the    
basis of judgment is thus wide enough to
 warrant us in bringing numerous other  
works into relation with him4  ,about   
his life1 however1 we know1 as in other 
cases1 next to nothing4 ,he was an      
,athenian and must have been somewhere  
near the age of ,scopas1 though         
seemingly rather younger4 ,pliny gives  
the hundred and fourth ,olympiad        
7#cgj-ff7 as the date at which he       
flourished1 but this was probably about 
the beginning of his artistic career4   
,only one anecdote is told of him which 
is worth repeating here4 ,when asked    
what ones among his marble statues he   
rated highest he answered that those    
which ,nicias had tinted were the best4 
,nicias was an eminent painter of the   
period 7see page #bhb1 foot note74  ,the
 place of honor in any treatment of     
,praxiteles must be given to the ,hermes

 with the infant ,dionysus on his arm   
7,figs4 #adi1 #aej74 ,this statue was   
found on ,may #h1 #ahgg1 in the ,temple 
of ,hera at ,olympia1 lying in front of 
its pedestal4 ,here it had stood when   
,pausanias  saw it and recorded that it 
was the work of ,praxiteles4 ,the legs  
of ,hermes below the knees have been    
restored in plaster 7only the right foot
 being antique71 and so have the arms of
 ,dionysus4 ,except for the loss of the 
right arm and the lower legs1 the figure
 of ,hermes is in admirable             
preservation1 the surface being         
uninjured4 ,some notion of the          
luminosity of the ,parian marble may be 
gained from ,fig4 #aej4  ,hermes is     
taking the new-born ,dionysus to the    
,nymphs to be reared by them4 ,pausing  
on his way1 he has thrown his mantle    
over a convenient tree-trunk and leans  
upon it with the arm that holds the     
child4 ,in his closed left hand he      
doubtless carried his herald's wand2 the
 lost right hand must have held up some 

object-- bunch of grapes or             
what-not--for the entertainment of the  
little god4 ,the latter is not          
truthfully proportioned2 in common with 
almost all sculptors before the time of 
,alexander1 ,praxiteles seems to have   
paid very little attention to the       
characteristic forms of infancy4 ,but   
the ,hermes is of unapproachable        
perfection4 ,his symmetrical figure1    
which looks slender in comparison with  
the ,doryphorus of ,polyclitus1 is      
athletic without exaggeration1 and is   
modeled with faultless skill4 ,the      
attitude1 with the weight supported     
chiefly by the right leg and left arm1  
gives to the body a graceful curve which
 ,praxiteles loved4 ,it is the last     
stage in the long development of an easy
 standing pose4 ,the head is of the     
round ,attic form1 contrasting with the 
squarer ,peloponnesian type2 the face a 
fine oval4 ,the lower part of the       
forehead between the temples is         
prominent2 the nose not quite straight1 

but slightly arched at the middle4 ,the 
whole expression is one of indescribable
 refinement and radiance4 ,the hair1    
short and curly1 illustrates the        
possibilities of marble in the treatment
 of that feature2 in place of the wiry  
appearance of hair in bronze we find    
here a slight roughness of surface1     
suggestive of the soft texture of actual
 hair 7cf4 ,fig4 #adf and contrast ,fig4
 #ach74 ,the drapery that falls over the
 tree-trunk is treated with a degree of 
elaboration and richness which does not 
occur in fifth century work2 but        
beautiful as it is1 it is kept          
subordinate and does not unduly attract 
our attention4  ,for us the ,hermes     
stands alone and without a rival4 ,the  
statue1 however1 did not in antiquity   
enjoy any extraordinary celebrity1 and  
is in fact not even mentioned in extant 
literature except by ,pausanias4 ,the   
most famous work of ,praxiteles was the 
,aphrodite of ,cnidus in southwestern   
,asia ,minor4 ,this was a temple-statue2

 yet the sculptor1 departing from the   
practice of earlier times1 did not      
scruple to represent the goddess as     
nude4 ,with the help of certain imperial
 coins of ,cnidus this ,aphrodite has   
been identified in a great number of    
copies4 ,she is in the act of dropping  
her garment from her left hand in       
preparation for a bath2 she supports    
herself chiefly by the right leg1 and   
the body has a curve approaching that of
 the ,hermes1 though here no part of the
 weight is thrown upon the arm4 ,the    
subject is treated with consummate      
delicacy1 far removed from the          
sensuality too usual in a later age2 and
 yet1 when this embodiment of ,aphrodite
 is compared with fifth century ideals1 
it must be recognized as illustrating a 
growing fondness on the part of sculptor
 and public for the representation of   
physical charm4 ,not being able to offer
 a satisfactory illustration of the     
whole statue1 ,i have chosen for        
reproduction a copy of the head alone   

7,fig4 #aea74 ,it will help the reader  
to divine the simple loveliness of the  
original4  ,pliny mentions among the    
works in bronze by ,praxiteies  a       
youthful ,apollo1 called ,sauroctonos   
7,lizard-slayer74 ,fig4 #aeb is a marble
 copy of this1 considerably restored4   
,the god1 conceived in the likeness of a
 beautiful boy1 leans against a tree1   
preparing to stab a lizard with an      
arrow1 which should be in the right     
hand4 ,the graceful1 leaning pose and   
the soft beauty of the youthful face and
 flesh are characteristically           
,praxitelean4  ,two or three satyrs by  
,praxiteles are mentioned by ,greek and 
,roman writers1 and an anecdote is told 
by ,pausanias which implies that one of 
them enjoyed an exceptional fame4       
,unfortunately they are not described2  
but among the many satyrs to be found in
 museums of ancient sculpture there are 
two types in which the style of         
,praxiteles1 as we have now learned to  
know it1 is so strongly marked that we  

can hardly go wrong in ascribing them   
both to him4 ,both exist in numerous    
copies4 ,our illustration of the first  
7,fig4 #aec7 is taken from the copy of  
which ,hawthorne wrote so subtle a      
description in ,the ,marble ,faun4 ,the 
statue is somewhat restored1 but the    
restoration is not open to doubt1 except
 as regards the single pipe held in the 
right hand4 ,no animal characteristic is
 to be found here save the pointed ears2
 the face1 however1 retains a suggestion
 of the traditional satyr-type4 ,the    
whole statue1 unlike anything else that 
ever was wrought in that severe material
 of marble1 conveys the idea of an      
amiable and sensual creature-- easy1    
mirthful1 apt for jollity1 yet not      
incapable of being touched by pathos4   
,footnote3 ,hawthorne1 ,the ,marble     
,faun1 ,vol ,i1 ,chapter ,i4  ,in the   
,palermo copy of the other ,praxitelean 
satyr 7,fig4 #aed7 the right arm is     
modern1 but the restoration is          
substantially correct4 ,the face of this

 statue has purely ,greek features1 and 
only the pointed ears remain to betray  
the mixture of animal nature with the   
human form4 ,the original was probably  
of bronze4  ,with ,fig4 #aee we revert  
from copies to an original work4 ,this  
is one of three slabs which probably    
decorated the pedestal of a group by    
,praxiteles representing ,apollo1 ,leto1
 and ,artemis2 a fourth slab1 needed to 
complete the series1 has not been found 
,the presumption is strong that these   
reliefs were executed under the         
direction of ,praxiteles1 perhaps from  
his design4 ,the subject of one slab is 
the musical contest between ,apollo and 
,marsyas1 while the other two bear      
figures of ,muses4 ,the latter are posed
 and draped with that delightful grace  
of which ,praxiteles was master1 and    
with which he seems to have inspired his
 pupils ,the execution1 however1 is not 
quite faultless1 as witness the         
distortion in the right lower leg of the
 seated ,muse in ,fig4 l#ee--otherwise  

an exquisite figure4  ,among the many   
other works that have been claimed for  
,praxiteles on grounds of style1 ,i     
venture to single out one 7,fig4 #aef74 
,the illustration is taken from one of  
several copies of a lost original1      
which1 if it was not by ,praxiteles     
himself1 was by some one who had        
marvelously caught his spirit4 ,that it 
represents the goddess ,artemis we may  
probably infer from the short chiton1 an
 appropriate garment often worn by the  
divine huntress1 but not by human       
maidens4 ,otherwise the goddess has no  
conventional attribute to mark her      
divinity4 ,she is just a beautiful girl1
 engaged in fastening her mantle        
together with a brooch4 ,in this way of 
conceiving a goddess1 we see the same   
spirit that created the ,apollo         
,sauroctonos4  ,the genius of           
,praxiteles1 as thus far revealed to us1
 was preeminently sunny1 drawn toward   
what is fair and graceful and           
untroubled1 and ignoring what is tragic 

in human existence4 ,this view of him is
 confirmed by what is known from        
literature of his subjects4 ,the list   
includes five figures of ,aphrodite1    
three or four of ,eros1 two of ,apollo1 
two of ,artemis1 two of ,dionysus1 two  
or three of satyrs1 two of the courtesan
 ,phryne1 and one of a beautiful human  
youth binding a fillet about his hair1  
but no work whose theme is suffering or 
death is definitely ascribed to him4 ,it
 is strange therefore to find ,pliny    
saying that it was a matter of doubt in 
his time whether a group of the dying   
children of ,niobe which stood in a     
temple of ,apollo in ,rome was by       
,scopas or ,praxiteles4 ,it is commonly 
supposed1 though without decisive proof1
 that certain statues of ,niobe and her 
children which exist in ,florence and   
elsewhere are copied from the group of  
which ,pliny speaks4 ,the story was that
 ,niobe vaunted herself before ,leto    
because she had seven sons and seven    
daughters1 while ,leto had borne only   

,apollo and ,artemis4 ,for her          
presumption all her children were       
stricken down by the arrows of ,apollo  
and ,artemis4 ,this punishment is the   
subject of the group4 ,fig4 #aeg gives  
the central figures2 they are ,niobe    
herself and her youngest daughter1 who  
has fled to her for protection4 ,the    
,niobe has long been famous as an       
embodiment of haughtiness1 maternal     
love1 and sharp distress4 ,but much     
finer in composition1 to my thinking1 is
 ,fig4 #aeh4 ,in this son of ,niobe the 
end of the right arm and the entire left
 arm are modern4 ,originally this youth 
was grouped with a sister who has been  
wounded unto death4 ,she has sunk upon  
the ground and her right arm hangs      
limply over his left knee1 thus         
preventing his garment from falling4    
,his left arm clasps her and he seeks   
ineffectually to protect her4 ,that this
 is the true restoration is known from a
 copy in the ,vatican of the wounded    
girl with a part of the brother4 ,except

 for this son of ,niobe the ,florentine 
figures are not worthy of their old-time
 reputation4 ,as for their authorship1  
,praxiteles seems out of the question4  
,the subject is in keeping--with the    
genius of ,scopas1 but it is safer not  
to associate the group with any         
individual name4  ,this reserve is the  
more advisable because ,scopas and      
,praxiteles are but two stars1 by far   
the brightest1 to be sure1 in a         
brilliant constellation of contemporary 
artists4 ,for the others it is          
impossible to do much more here than to 
mention the most important names3       
,leochares and ,timotheus1 whose civic  
ties are unknown1 ,bryaxis and ,silanion
 of ,athens1 and ,euphranor of ,corinth1
 the last equally famous as painter and 
sculptor4 ,these artists seem to be     
emerging a little from the darkness that
 has enveloped them1 and it may be hoped
 that discoveries of new material and   
further study of already existing       
material will reveal them to us with    

some degree of clearness and certainty4 
,a good illustration of how new         
acquisitions may help us is afforded by 
a group of fragmentary sculptures found 
in the sanctuary of ,asclepius near     
,epidauros in the years #ahhb-hd and    
belonging to the pediments of the       
principal temple4 ,an inscription was   
found on the same site which records the
 expenses incurred in building this     
temple1 and one item in it makes it     
probable that ,timotheus1 the sculptor  
above mentioned1 furnished the models   
after which the pediment- sculptures    
were executed4 ,the largest and finest  
fragment of these sculptures that has   
been found is given in ,fig4 #aei4 ,it  
belongs to the western pediment1 which  
seems to have contained a battle of     
,greeks and ,amazons4 ,the ,amazon of   
our illustration1 mounted upon a rearing
 horse1 is about to bring down her lance
 upon a fallen foe4 ,the action is      
rendered with splendid vigor4 ,the date 
of this temple and its sculptures may be

 put somewhere about #cge4  ,reference  
was made above 7page #bae7 to the       
,mausoleum4 ,the artists engaged on the 
sculptures which adorned that           
magnificent monument were1 according to 
,pliny1 ,scopas1 ,leochares1 ,bryaxis1  
and ,timotheus4 ,footnote3  ,the        
tradition on this point was not quite   
uniform ,vitruvius names ,praxiteles as 
the fourth artist1 but adds that some   
believed that ,timotheus also was       
engaged ,there seem to have been at     
least three sculptured friezes1 but of  
only one have considerable remains been 
preserved 7cf4 ,fig4 #fe74 ,this has for
 its subject a battle of ,greeks and    
,amazons1 a theme which ,greek sculptors
 and painters never wearied of          
reproducing4 ,the preserved portions of 
this frieze amount in all to about      
eighty feet1 but the slabs are not      
consecutive4 ,figs4 #afj and #afa give  
two of the best pieces4 ,the design     
falls into groups of two or three       
combatants1 and these groups are varied 

with inexhaustible fertility and        
liveliness of imagination4 ,among the   
points which distinguish this from a    
work of the fifth century may be noted  
the slenderer forms of men and women and
 the more expressive faces4 ,the        
existing slabs1 moreover1 differ among  
themselves in style and merit1 and an   
earnest attempt has been made to        
distribute them among the four artists  
named by ,pliny1 but without conclusive 
results4  ,since the ,hermes of         
,praxiteles was brought to light at     
,olympia there has been no discovery of 
,greek sculpture so dazzling in its     
splendor as that made in #ahhg on the   
site of the necropolis of ,sidon in     
,phenicia4 ,there1 in a group of        
communicating subterranean chambers1    
were found1 along with an ,egyptian     
sarcophagus1 sixteen others of ,greek   
workmanship1 four of them adorned with  
reliefs of extraordinary beauty4 ,they  
are all now in the recently created     
,museum of ,constantinople1 which has   

thus become one of the places of        
foremost consequence to every student   
and lover of ,greek art4 ,the sixteen   
sarcophagi are of various dates1 from   
early in the fifth to late in the fourth
 century4 ,the one shown in ,fig4 #afb  
may be assigned to about the middle of  
the fourth century4 ,its form is adapted
 from that of an ,ionic temple4 ,between
 the columns are standing or seated     
women1 their faces and attitudes        
expressing varying degrees of grief4    
,our illustration is on too small a     
scale to convey any but the dimmest     
impression of the dignity and beauty of 
this company of mourners4 ,above1 on a  
sort of balustrade1 may be been a       
funeral procession4  ,the old ,temple of
 ,artemis at ,ephesus 7cf page #adj7 was
 set on fire and reduced to ruins by an 
incendiary in #cef ,b4,c41 on the very  
night1 it is said1 in which ,alexander  
the ,great was born4 ,the ,ephesians    
rebuilt the temple on a much more       
magnificent scale1 making of it the most

 extensive and sumptuous columnar       
edifice ever erected by a ,greek        
architect4 ,how promptly the work was   
begun we do not know1 but it lasted into
 the reign of ,alexander1 so that its   
date may be given approximately as      
#cej-cj4 ,through the indefatigable     
perseverance of ,mr ,j4 ,t4 ,wood1 who  
conducted excavations at ,ephesus for   
the ,british ,museum in #ahfc-gd1 the   
site of this temple1 long unknown1 was  
at last discovered and its remains      
unearthed4 ,following the example of the
 sixth century temple1 it had the lowest
 drums of a number of its columns       
covered with relief sculpture4 ,of the  
half dozen recovered specimens ,fig4    
#afc shows the finest4 ,the subject is  
an unsolved riddle4 ,the most prominent 
figure in the illustration is the god   
,hermes1 as the herald's staff in his   
right hand shows4 ,the female figures to
 right and left of him are good examples
 of that grace in pose and drapery which
 was characteristic of ,greek sculpture 

in the age of ,scopas and ,praxiteles4  
,the most beautiful ,greek portrait     
statue that we possess is the ,lateran  
,sophocles 7,fig #afd74 ,the figure has 
numerous small restorations1 including  
the feet and the box of manuscript      
rolls4 ,that ,sophocles1 the tragic     
poet1 is represented1 is known from the 
likeness of the head to a bust inscribed
 with his name4 ,he died in #djf ,b4,c4 
,the style of our statue1 however1      
points to an original 7if it be not     
itself the original7 of about the middle
 of the fourth century4 ,there were     
probably in existence at this time      
authentic likenesses of the poet1 on    
which the sculptor based his work4 ,the 
attitude of the figure is the perfection
 of apparent ease1 but in reality of    
skilful contrivance to secure a due     
balance of parts and anety and grace of 
line4 ,the one garment1 drawn closely   
about the person1 illustrates the       
inestimable good fortune enjoyed by the 
,greek sculptor1 in contrast with the   

sculptor of to-day1 in having to        
represent a costume so simple1 so       
pliant1 so capable of graceful          
adjustment4 ,the head1 however much it  
may contain of the actual look of       
,sophocles1 must be idealized4 ,to      
appreciate it properly one must remember
 that this poet1 though he dealt with   
tragic themes1 was not wont to brood    
over the sin and sorrow and unfathomable
 mystery of the world1 but was serene in
 his temper and prosperous in his life4 
,the colossal head of ,zeus shown in    
,fig4 #afe was found a hundred years or 
more ago at ,otricoli1 a small village  
to the north of ,rome4 ,the antique part
 is a mere mask2 the back of the head   
and the bust are modern4 ,the material  
is ,carrara marble1 a fact which alone  
would prove that the work was executed  
in ,italy and in the imperial period4   
,at first this used to be regarded as   
copied from the ,olympian ,zeus of      
,phidias 7page #ahe71 but in the light  
of increased acquaintance with the style

 of ,phidias and his age1 this          
attribution has long been seen to be    
impossible4 ,the original belongs about 
at the end of the period now under      
review1 or possibly still later4        
,although only a copy1 the ,otricoli    
,zeus is the finest representation we   
have of the father of gods and men4 ,the
 predominant expression is one of       
gentleness and benevolence1 but the     
lofty brow1 transversely furrowed1 tells
 of thought and will1 and the leonine   
hair of strength4  ,with ,lysippus of   
,sicyon we reach the last name of       
first-rate importance in the history of 
,greek sculpture4 ,there is the usual   
uncertainty about the dates of his life1
 but it is certain that he was in his   
prime during the reign of ,alexander    
7#ccf-bc74 ,thus he belongs essentially 
to the generation succeeding that of    
,scopas and ,praxiteles4 ,he appears to 
have worked exclusively in bronze2 at   
least we hear of no work in marble from 
his hands4 ,he must have had a long     

life4 ,pliny credits him with fifteen   
hundred statues1 but this is scarcely   
credible4 ,his subjects suggest that his
 genius was of a very different bent    
from that of ,praxiteles4 ,no statue of 
,aphrodite or indeed of any goddess     
7except the ,muses7 is ascribed to him2 
on the other hand1 he made at least four
 statues of ,zeus1 one of them nearly   
sixty feet high1 and at least four      
figures of ,heracles1 of which one was  
colossal1 while one was less than a foot
 high1 besides groups representing the  
labors of ,heracles4 ,in short1 the list
 of his statues of superhuman beings1   
though it does include an ,eros and a   
,dionysus1 looks as if he had no        
especial predilection for the soft      
loveliness of youth1 but rather for     
mature and vigorous forms4 ,he was      
famous as a portrait- sculptor and made 
numerous statues of ,alexander1 from    
whom he received conspicuous            
recognition4 ,naturally1 too1 he        
accepted commissions for athlete        

statues2 five such are mentioned by     
,pausanias as existing at ,olympia4 ,an 
allegorical figure by him of ,cairos    
7,opportunity7 receives lavish praise   
from a late rhetorician4 ,finally1 he is
 credited with a statue of a tipsy      
female flute-player4 ,this deserves     
especial notice as the first            
well-assured example of a work of ,greek
 sculpture ignoble in its subject and   
obviously unfit for any of the purposes 
for which sculpture had chiefly existed 
7cf4 page #abd74  ,it is ,pliny who puts
 us in the way of a more direct         
acquaintance with this artist than the  
above facts can give4 ,he makes the     
general statement that ,lysippus        
departed from the canon of proportions  
previously followed 7i4e41 probably1 by 
,polyclitus and his immediate           
followers71 making the head smaller and 
the body slenderer and dryer1 and he    
mentions a statue by him in ,rome called
 an ,apoxyomenos1 i4e41 an athlete      
scraping himself with a strigil4 ,a copy

 of such a statue was found in ,rome in 
#ahdi 7,fig4 #aff74 ,the fingers of the 
right hand with the inappropriate die   
are modern1 as are also some additional 
bits here and there4 ,now the           
coincidence in subject between this     
statue and that mentioned by ,pliny     
would not alone be decisive4 ,polyclitus
 also made an ,apoxyomenos1 and1 for all
 we know1 other sculptors may have used 
the same motive4 ,but the statue in     
question is certainly later than        
,polyclitus1 and its agreement with what
 ,pliny tells us of the proportions     
adopted by ,lysippus is as close as     
could be desired 7contrast ,fig4 #acg74 
,we therefore need not scruple to accept
 it as ,lysippian4  ,our young athlete1 
before beginning his exercise1 had      
rubbed his body with oil and1 if he was 
to wrestle1 had sprinkled himself with  
sand4 ,now1 his exercise over1 he is    
removing oil and sweat and dirt with the
 instrument regularly used for that     
purpose4 ,his slender figure suggests   

elasticity and agility rather than brute
 strength4 ,the face 7,fig4 #afg7 has   
not the radiant charm which ,praxiteles 
would have given it1 but it is both fine
 and alert4 ,the eyes are deeply set2   
the division of the upper from the lower
 forehead is marked by a groove2 the    
hair lies in expressive disorder4 ,in   
the bronze original the tree-trunk      
behind the left leg was doubtless       
absent1 as also the disagreeable support
 7now broken7 which extended from the   
right leg to the right fore-arm4  ,the  
best authenticated likeness of          
,alexander the ,great is a bust in the  
,louvre 7,fig4 #afh7 inscribed with his 
name3 ,alexander of ,macedon1 son of    
,philip4 ,the surface has been badly    
corroded and the nose is restored4 ,the 
work1 which is only a copy1 may go back 
to an original by ,lysippus1 though the 
evidence for that belief1 a certain     
resemblance to the head of the          
,apoxyomenos1 is hardly as convincing as
 one could desire4 ,the king is here    

represented1 one would guess1 at the age
 of thirty or thereabouts4 ,now as he   
was absent from ,europe from the age of 
twenty-two until his death at ,babylon  
at the age of thirty-three 7#cbc        
,b4,c471 it would seem likely that      
,lysippus1 or whoever the sculptor was1 
based his portrait upon likenesses taken
 some years earlier4 ,consequently1     
although portraiture in the age of      
,alexander had become prevailingly      
realistic1 it would be unsafe to regard 
this head as a conspicuous example of   
the new tendency4 ,the artist probably  
aimed to present a recognizable likeness
 and at the same time to give a worthy  
expression to the great conqueror's     
qualities of character4 ,if the latter  
object does not seem to have been       
attained1 one is free to lay the blame  
upon the copyist and time4              
,,chapter ,x4  ,,the ,,hellenistic      
,,period ,,of ,,greek ,,sculpture4      
#cbc-adf ,b4,c4   ,the reign of         
,alexander began a new era in ,greek    

history1 an era in which the great fact 
was the dissemination of ,greek culture 
over wide regions to which it had been  
alien4 ,this period1 in which ,egypt and
 western ,asia were ruled by men of     
,greek or ,macedonian blood and         
gradually took on more or less of ,greek
 civilization1 is often called the      
,hellenistic period4  ,under the new    
political and social order new artistic 
conditions were developed4 ,for one     
thing1 ,athens and the other old centers
 of artistic activity lost their        
pre-eminence1 while new centers were    
created in the ,east1 ,the only places  
which our literary sources mention as   
seats of important schools of sculpture 
in the two centuries following the death
 of ,alexander are ,rhodes and          
,pergamum4  ,then again a demand now    
grew up for works of sculpture to be    
used as mere ornaments in the interiors 
of palaces and private houses1 as well  
as in public buildings and places4 ,this
 of course threw open the door for      

subjects which had been excluded when   
sculpture was dominated by a sacred     
purpose4 ,sculptors were now free to    
appeal to the lower tastes of their     
patrons4 ,the practice of art for art's 
sake had its day1 and trivial1 comical1 
ugly1 harrowing1 or sensual themes were 
treated with all the resources of       
technical skill4 ,in short1 the position
 and purposes of the art of sculpture   
became very like what they are to-day4  
,hence the untrained modern student     
feels much more at home in a collection 
of ,hellenistic sculpture than in the   
presence of the severer1 sublimer       
creations of the age of ,phidias4  ,it  
is by no means meant to pass a sweeping 
condemnation upon the productions of the
 post-classical period4 ,realistic      
portraiture was now practiced with great
 frequency and high success4 ,many of   
the genre statues and decorative reliefs
 of the time are admirable and          
delightful4 ,moreover1 the old uses of  
sculpture were not abandoned1 and though

 the tendency toward sensationalism was 
strong1 a dignified and exalted work was
 sometimes achieved4 ,but1 broadly      
speaking1 we must admit the loss of that
 noble simplicity and quiet             
grandeur--the phrase is                 
,winckelmann's--which stamped the       
creations of the age of ,phidias4 ,greek
 sculpture gained immensely in variety1 
but at the expense of its elevation of  
spirit4  ,although this sketch is       
devoted principally to bronze and marble
 sculpture1 ,i cannot resist the        
temptation to illustrate by a few       
examples the charming little terra-cotta
 figurines which have been found in such
 great numbers in graves at ,tanagra and
 elsewhere in ,boeotia 7,figs4 #afi1    
#agj74 ,it is a question whether the    
best of them were not produced before   
the end of the period covered by the    
last chapter4 ,at all events1 they are  
post-,praxitelean4 ,the commonest       
subjects are standing or seated women2  
young men1 lads1 and children are also  

often met with4 ,fig4 #agj shows another
 favorite figure1 the winged ,eros1     
represented as a chubby boy of four or  
five--a conception of the god of ,love  
which makes its first appearance in the 
,hellenistic period4 ,the men who       
modeled these statuettes were doubtless 
regarded in their own day as very humble
 craftsmen1 but the best of them had    
caught the secret of graceful poses and 
draperies1 and the execution of their   
work is as delicate as its conception is
 refined4  ,returning now to our proper 
subject1 we may begin with the latest   
and most magnificent of the sarcophagi  
found at ,sidon 7,fig4 #aga2 cf4 page   
#bcd74 ,this belongs somewhere near the 
end of the fourth century4 ,it is       
decorated with relief-sculpture on all  
four sides and in the gables of the     
cover4 ,on the long side shown in our   
illustration the subject is a battle    
between ,greeks and ,persians1 perhaps  
the battle of ,issus1 fought in #ccc4   
,alexander the ,great1 recognizable by  

the skin of a lion's head which he wears
 like ,heracles1 instead of a helmet1 is
 to be seen at the extreme left4 ,the   
design1 which looks crowded and confused
 when reduced to a small scale1 is in   
reality well arranged and extremely     
spirited1 besides being exquisitely     
wrought4 ,but the crowning interest of  
the work lies in the unparalleled       
freshness with which it has kept its    
color4 ,garments1 saddle-cloths1 pieces 
of armor1 and so on1 are tinted in      
delicate colors1 and the finest details1
 such as bow-strings1 are perfectly     
distinct4 ,the nude flesh1 though not   
covered with opaque paint1 has received 
some application which differentiates it
 from the glittering white background1  
and gives it a sort of ivory hue4 ,the  
effect of all this color is thoroughly  
refined1 and the work is a revelation of
 the beauty of polychromatic sculpture4 
,the ,victory of ,samothrace 7,fig4     
#agb7 can also be dated at about the end
 of the fourth century4 ,the figure is  

considerably above life-size4 ,it was   
found in #ahfc1 broken into a multitude 
of fragments1 which have been carefully 
united4 ,there are no modern pieces1    
except  in the wings4 ,the statue stood 
on a pedestal having the form of a      
ship's prow1 the principal parts of     
which were found by an ,austrian        
expedition to ,samothrace in #ahge4     
,these fragments were subsequently      
conveyed to the ,louvre1 and the        
,victory now stands on her original     
pedestal4 ,for determining the date and 
the proper restoration of this work we  
have the fortunate help of numismatics4 
,certain silver coins of ,demetrius     
,poliorcetes1 who reigned #cjf-bhf      
,b4,c41 bear upon one side a ,victory   
which agrees closely with her of        
,samothrace1 even to the great          
prow-pedestal4 ,the type is supposed on 
good grounds to commemorate an important
 naval victory won by ,demetrius over   
,ptolemy in #cjf4 ,in view1 then1 of the
 close resemblance between coin-type and

 statue1 it seems reasonably certain    
that the ,victory was dedicated at      
,samothrace by ,demetrius soon after the
 naval battle with ,ptolemy and that the
 commemorative coins borrowed their     
design directly from the statue4 ,thus  
we get a date for the statue1 and1 what 
is more1 clear evidence as to how it    
should be restored4 ,the goddess held a 
trumpet to her lips with her right hand 
and in her left carried a support such  
as was used for the erection of a       
trophy4 ,the ship upon which she has    
just alighted is conceived as under way1
 and the fresh breeze blows her garments
 backward in tumultuous folds4 ,compared
 with the ,victory of ,paeonius 7,figs4 
#adc1 #add7 this figure seems more      
impetuous and imposing4 ,that leaves us 
calm2 this elates us with the sense of  
onward motion against the salt sea air4 
,yet there is nothing unduly sensational
 about this work4 ,it exhibits a        
magnificent idea1 magnificently         
rendered4  ,from this point on no       

attempt will be made to preserve a      
chronological order1 but the principal  
classes of sculpture belonging to the   
,hellenistic period will be illustrated1
 each by two or three examples4         
,religious sculpture may be put first4  
,here the chief place belongs to the    
,aphrodite of ,melos1 called the ,venus 
of ,milo 7,fig4 #agc74 ,this statue was 
found by accident in #ahbj on the island
 of ,melos 7,milo7 near the site of the 
ancient city4 ,according to the best    
evidence available1 it was lying in the 
neighborhood of its original pedestal1  
in a niche of some building4 ,near it   
were found a piece of an upper left arm 
and a left hand holding an apple2 of    
these two fragments the former certainly
 and perhaps the latter belong to the   
statue4 ,the prize was bought by ,m4 de 
,riviere1 ,french ambassador at         
,constantinople1 and presented by him to
 the ,french king1 ,louis ,,xviii4 ,the 
same vessel which conveyed it to ,france
 brought some other marble fragments    

from ,melos1 including a piece of an    
inscribed statue- base with an artist's 
inscription1 in characters of the second
 century ,b4,c4 or later4 ,a drawing    
exists of this fragment1 but the object 
itself has disappeared1 and in spite of 
much acute argumentation it remains     
uncertain whether it did or did not form
 a part of the basis of the ,aphrodite4 
,still greater uncertainty prevails as  
to the proper restoration of the statue1
 and no one of the many suggestions that
 have been made is free from            
difficulties4 ,it seems probable1 as has
 recently been set forth with great     
force and clearness by ,professor       
,furtwangler1 ,footnote3 ,masterpieces  
of ,greek ,sculpture1 pages #chd ff4    
that the figure is an adaptation from an
 ,aphrodite of the fourth century1 who  
rests her left foot upon a helmet and1  
holding a shield on her left thigh1     
looks at her own reflection4 ,on this   
view the difficulty of explaining the   
attitude of the ,aphrodite of ,melos    

arises from the fact that the motive was
 created for an entirely different      
purpose and is not altogether           
appropriate to the present one1 whatever
 precisely that may be4  ,it has seemed 
necessary1 in the case of a statue of so
 much importance1 to touch upon these   
learned perplexities2 but let them not  
greatly trouble the reader or turn him  
aside from enjoying the superb qualities
 of the work4 ,one of the ,aphrodites of
 ,scopas or ,praxiteles1 if we had it in
 the original1 would perhaps reveal to  
us a still diviner beauty4 ,as it is1   
this is the worthiest existing          
embodiment of the goddess of ,love4 ,the
 ideal is chaste and noble1 echoing the 
sentiment of the fourth century at its  
best2 and the execution is worthy of a  
work which is in some sense a ,greek    
original4  ,the ,apollo of the          
,belvedere 7,fig4 #agd71 on the other   
hand1 is only a copy of a bronze        
original4 ,the principal restorations   
are the left hand and the right fore-arm

 and hand4 ,the most natural explanation
 of the god's attitude is that he held a
 bow in his left hand and has just let  
fly an arrow against some foe4 ,his     
figure is slender1 according to the     
fashion which prevailed from the middle 
of the fourth century onward1 and he    
moves over the ground with marvelous    
lightness4 ,his appearance has an effect
 of almost dandified elegance1 and      
critics to-day cannot feel the reverent 
raptures which this statue used to      
evoke4 ,yet still the ,apollo of the    
,belvedere remains a radiant apparition4
 ,an attempt has recently  been made to 
promote the figure1 or rather its       
original1 to the middle of the fourth   
century4  ,as a specimen of the         
portrait-sculpture of the ,hellenistic  
period ,i have selected the seated      
statue of ,posidippus 7,fig4 #age71 an  
,athenian dramatist of the so-called    
,new ,comedy1 who flourished in the     
early part of the third century4 ,the   
preservation of the statue is           

extraordinary2 there is nothing modern  
about it except the thumb of the left   
hand4 ,it produces strongly the         
impression of being an original work and
 also of being a speaking likeness4 ,it 
may have been modeled in the actual     
presence of the subject1 but in that    
case the name on the front of the plinth
 was doubtless inscribed later1 when the
 figure was removed from its pedestal   
and taken to ,rome4 ,posidippus is      
clean-shaven1 according to the fashion  
that came in about the time of          
,alexander4 ,there is a companion statue
 of equal merit1 which commonly goes by 
the name of ,menander4 ,the two men are 
strongly contrasted with one another by 
the sculptor in features1 expression1   
and bodily carriage4 ,both statues show1
 as do many others of the period1 how   
mistaken it would be to form our idea of
 the actual appearance of the ,greeks   
from the purely ideal creations of      
,greek sculpture4  ,besides real        
portraits1 imaginary portraits of great 

excellence were produced in the         
,hellenistic period4 ,fig4 #agf is a    
good specimen of these4 ,only the head  
is antique1 and there are some          
restorations1 including the nose4 ,this 
is one of a considerable number of heads
 which reproduce an ideal portrait of   
,homer1 conceived as a blind old man4   
,the marks of age and blindness are     
rendered with great fidelity4 ,there is 
a variant type of this head which is    
much more suggestive of poetical        
inspiration4  ,portraiture1 of course1  
did not confine itself to men of        
refinement and intellect4 ,as an extreme
 example of what was possible in the    
opposite direction nothing could be     
better than the original bronze statue  
shown in ,fig4 #agg4 ,it was found in   
,rome in #ahhe1 and is essentially      
complete1 except for the missing        
eyeballs2 the seat is new4 ,the statue  
represents a naked boxer of herculean   
frame1 his hands armed with the aestus  
or boxing-gloves made of leather4 ,the  

man is evidently a professional bruiser 
of the lowest type4 ,he is just resting 
after an encounter1 and no detail is    
spared to bring out the nature of his   
occupation4 ,swollen ears were the      
conventional mark of the boxer at all   
periods1 but here the effect is still   
further enhanced by scratches and drops 
of blood4 ,moreover1 the nose and cheeks
 bear evidence of having been badly     
punished1 and the moustache is clotted  
with blood4 ,from top to toe the statue 
exhibits the highest grade of technical 
skill4 ,one would like very much to know
 what was the original purpose of the   
work4 ,it may have been a votive statue1
 dedicated by a victorious boxer at     
,olympia or elsewhere4 ,a bronze head of
 similar brutality found at ,olympia    
bears witness that the refined statues  
of athletes produced in the best period 
of ,greek art and set up in that        
precinct were forced at a later day to  
accept such low companionship4 ,or it   
may be that this boxer is not an actual 

person at all1 and that the statue      
belongs to the domain of genre4 ,in     
either case it testifies to the coarse  
taste of the age4  ,by genre sculpture  
is meant sculpture which deals with     
incidents or situations illustrative of 
every-day life4 ,the conditions of the  
great age1 although they permitted a    
genre-like treatment in votive          
sculptures and in grave-reliefs 7cf4    
,fig4 #acd71 offered few or no occasions
 for works of pure genre1 whose sole    
purpose is to gratify the spectator4 ,in
 the ,hellenistic period1 however1 such 
works became plentiful4 ,fig4 #agh gives
 a good specimen4 ,a boy of four or five
 is struggling in play with a goose and 
is triumphant4 ,the composition of the  
group is admirable1 and the zest of the 
sport is delightfully brought out4      
,observe too that the characteristic    
forms of infancy--the large head1 short 
legs1 plump body and limbs--are         
truthfully rendered 7cf4 page #bbb74    
,there is a large number of             

representations in ancient sculpture of 
boys with geese or other aquatic birds2 
among them are at least three other     
copies of this1 same group4 ,the        
original is thought to have been of     
bronze4  ,fig4 #agi is genre again1 and 
is as repulsive as the last example is  
charming4 ,it is a drunken old woman1   
lean and wrinkled1 seated on the ground 
and clasping her wine-jar between her   
knees1 in a state of maudlin ecstasy4   
,the head is modern1 but another copy of
 the statue has the original head1 which
 is of the same character as this4      
,ignobility of subject could go no      
further than in this work4  ,it is a    
pleasure to turn to ,fig4 #ahj1 which in
 purity of spirit is worthy of the best 
time4 ,the arms are modern1 and their   
direction may not be quite correct1     
though it must be nearly so4 ,this      
original bronze figure represents a boy 
in an attitude of prayer4 ,it is        
impossible to decide whether the statue 
was votive or is simply a genre piece4  

,hellenistic art struck out a new path  
in a class of reliefs of which ,figs4   
#aha and #ahb are examples4 ,there are  
some restorations4 ,a gulf separates    
these works from the friezes of the     
,parthenon and the ,mausoleum4 ,whereas 
relief-sculpture in the classical period
 abjured backgrounds and picturesque    
accessories1 we find here a highly      
pictorial treatment4 ,the subjects      
moreover are1 in the instances chosen1  
of a character to which ,greek sculpture
 before ,alexander's time hardly offers 
a parallel 7yet cf4 ,fig4 #hg74 ,in     
,fig4 #aha we see a ewe giving suck to  
her lamb4 ,above1 at the right1 is a hut
 or stall1 from whose open door a dog is
 just coming out2 at the left is an oak 
tree4 ,in ,fig4 #ahb a lioness crouches 
with her two cubs4 ,above is a sycamore 
tree1 and to the right of it a group of 
objects which tell of the rustic worship
 of ,bacchus4 ,each of the two reliefs  
decorated a fountain or something of the
 sort4 ,in the one the overturned       

milk-jar served as a water- spout2 in   
the other the open mouth of one of the  
cubs answered the same purpose4         
,generally speaking1 the pictorial      
reliefs seem to have been used for the  
interior decoration of private and      
public buildings4 ,by their subjects    
many of them bear witness to that love  
of country life and that feeling for the
 charms of landscape which are the most 
attractive traits of the ,hellenistic   
period4  ,the kingdom of ,pergamum in   
western ,asia ,minor was one of the     
smaller states formed out of            
,alexander's dominions4 ,the city of    
,pergamum became a center of ,greek     
learning second only to ,alexandria in  
importance4 ,moreover1 under ,attalus   
,i4 7#bda-aig ,b4,c47 and ,eumenes ,,ii4
 7#aig-aei ,b4,c47 it developed an      
independent and powerful school of      
sculpture1 of whose productions we      
fortunately possess numerous examples4  
,the most famous of these is the ,dying 
,gaul or ,galatian 7,fig4 #ahc71 once   

erroneously called the ,dying           
,gladiator4 ,hordes of ,gauls had       
invaded ,asia ,minor as early as #bgh   
,b4,c41 and1 making their headquarters  
in the interior1 in the district        
afterwards known from them as ,galatia1 
had become the terror and the scourge of
 the whole region4 ,attalus ,i4 early in
 his reign gained an important victory  
over these fierce tribes1 and this      
victory was commemorated by extensive   
groups of sculpture both at ,pergamum   
and at ,athens4 ,the figure of the      
,dying ,gaul belongs to this series4    
,the statue was in the possession of    
,cardinal ,ludovisi as early as #afcc1  
along with a group closely allied in    
style1 representing a ,gaul and his     
wife1 but nothing is certainly known as 
to the time and place of its discovery4 
,the restorations are said to be3 the   
tip of the nose1 the left knee- pan1 the
 toes1 and the part of the plinth on    
which the right arm rests1,footnote3    
,helbig1 ,guide to the ,public          

,collections of ,classical ,antiquities 
in ,rome1 ,vol ,i1 ,no #ecc4 together   
with the objects on it4 ,that the man   
represented is not a ,greek is evident  
from the large hands and feet1 the      
coarse skin1 the un-,greek character of 
the head 7,fig4 #ahd74 ,that he is a    
,gaul is proved by several points of    
agreement with what is known from       
literary sources of the ,gallic         
peculiarities--the moustache worn with  
shaven cheeks and chin1 the stiff1      
pomaded hair growing low in the neck1   
the twisted collar or torque4 ,he has   
been mortally wounded in battle--the    
wound is on the right side--and sinks   
with drooping head upon his shield and  
broken battle-horn4 ,his death-struggle1
 though clearly marked1 is not made     
violent or repulsive4 ,with savage      
heroism he consents to death1 and       
conquers agony4,footnote3 ,byron1       
,childe ,harold1 ,,iv1 #aej ,here1 then1
 a powerful realism is united to a      
tragic idea1 and amid all vicissitudes  

of taste this work has never ceased to  
command a profound admiration4  ,our    
knowledge of ,pergamene art has recently
 received a great extension1 in         
consequence of excavations carried on in
 #ahgh-hf upon the acropolis of         
,pergamum in the interest of the ,royal 
,museum of ,berlin4 ,here were found the
 remains of numerous buildings1         
including an immense altar1 or rather   
altar-platform1 which was perhaps the   
structure referred to in ,revelation    
,,ii4 #ac1 as ,satan's throne4 ,this    
platform1 a work of great architectural 
magnificence1 was built under ,eumenes  
,,ii4 ,its exterior was decorated with a
 sculptured frieze1 #g #a_/b feet in    
height and something like #djj feet in  
total length4 ,the fragments of this    
great frieze which were found in the    
course of the ,german excavations have  
been pieced together with infinite      
patience and ingenuity and amount to by 
far the greater part of the whole4 ,the 
subject is the gigantomachy1 i4e41 the  

battle between the gods and the         
rebellious sons of earth 7cf4 page      
#acd74  ,fig4 #ahe shows the most       
important group of the whole            
composition4 ,here ,zeus recognizable by
 the thunderbolt in his outstretched    
right hand and the aegis upon his left  
arm1 is pitted against three            
antagonists4 ,two of the three are      
already disabled4 ,the one at the left1 
a youthful giant of human form1 has sunk
 to earth1 pierced through the left     
thigh with a huge1 flaming thunderbolt4 
,the second1 also youthful and human1   
has fallen upon his knees in front of   
,zeus and presses his left hand         
convulsively to a wound 787 in his right
 shoulder4 ,the third still fights      
desperately4 ,this is a bearded giant1  
with animal ears and with legs that pass
 into long snaky bodies4 ,around his    
left arm is wrapped the skin of some    
animal2 with his right hand 7now        
missing7 he is about to hurl some       
missile2 the left snake1 whose head may 

be seen just above the giant's left     
shoulder1 is contending1 but in vain1   
with an eagle1 the bird of ,zeus4  ,fig4
 #ahf adjoins ,fig #ahe on the right of 
the latter4 ,footnote3 ,fig #ahf is more
 reduced in scale1 so that the slabs    
incorrectly appear to be of unequal     
height4 ,here we have a group in which  
,athena is the central figure4 ,the     
goddess1 grasping her antagonist by the 
hair1 sweeps to right4 ,the youthful    
giant has great wings1 but is otherwise 
purely human in form4 ,a serpent1       
attendant of ,athena1 strikes its fangs 
into the giant's right breast4 ,in front
 of ,athena1 the ,earth-goddess1 mother 
of the giants1 half emerging from the   
ground1 pleads for mercy4 ,above1       
,victory wings her way to the scene to  
place a crown upon ,athena's head4  ,if 
we compare the ,pergamene altar-frieze  
with scenes of combat from the best     
period of ,greek art1 say with the      
metopes of the ,parthenon or the best   
preserved frieze of the ,mausoleum1 we  

see how much more complicated and       
confused in composition and how much    
more violent in spirit is this later    
work4 ,yet1 though we miss the noble    
simplicity of the great age1 we cannot  
fail to be impressed with the ,titanic  
energy which surges through this        
stupendous composition4 ,the decline of 
,greek art1 if we are to use that term1 
cannot be taken to imply the exhaustion 
of artistic vitality4  ,the existence of
 a flourishing school of sculpture at   
,rhodes during the ,hellenistic period  
is attested by our literary sources1 as 
well as by artists' inscriptions found  
on the spot4 ,of the actual productions 
of that school we possess only the group
 of ,laocoon and his sons 7,fig4 #ahg74 
,this was found in ,rome in #aejf1 on   
the site of the palace of ,titus4 ,the  
principal modern parts are3 the right   
arm of ,laocoon with the adjacent parts 
of the snake1 the right arm of the      
younger son with the coil of the snake  
around it1 and the right hand and wrist 

of the older son4 ,these restorations   
are bad4 ,the right arm of ,laocoon     
should be bent so as to bring the hand  
behind the head1 and the right hand of  
the younger son should fall limply      
backward4  ,laocoon was a ,trojan priest
 who1 having committed grievous sin1 was
 visited with a fearful punishment4 ,on 
a certain occasion when he was engaged  
with his two sons in performing         
sacrifice1 they were attacked by a pair 
of huge serpents1 miraculously sent1 and
 died a miserable death4 ,the           
sculptors--for the group1 according to  
,pliny1 was the joint work of three     
,rhodian artists--have put before us the
 moving spectacle of this doom4         
,laocoon1 his body convulsed and his    
face distorted by the torture of poison1
 his mouth open for a groan or a cry1   
has sunk upon the altar and struggles in
 the agony of death4 ,the younger son is
 already past resistance2 his left hand 
lies feebly on the head of the snake    
that bites him and the last breath      

escapes his lips4 ,the older son1 not   
yet bitten1 but probably not destined to
 escape1 strives to free himself from   
the coil about his ankle and at the same
 time looks with sympathetic horror upon
 his father's sufferings4  ,no work of  
sculpture of ancient or modern times has
 given rise to such an extensive        
literature as the ,laocoon4 ,none has   
been more lauded and more blamed4       
,hawthorne felt the ,laocoon very       
powerfully1 though very quietly2 an     
immortal agony1 with a strange calmness 
diffused through it1 so that it         
resembles the vast rage of the sea1 calm
 on account of its immensity4 ,footnote3
 ,italian ,note-books1 under date of    
,march #aj1aheh4 ,ruskin1 on the other  
hand1 thinks that no group has exercised
 so pernicious an influence on art as   
this2 a subject ill chosen1 meanly      
conceived1 and unnaturally treated1     
recommended to imitation by subtleties  
of execution and accumulation of        
technical knowledge1 ,footnote3 ,modern 

,painters1 ,part ,,ii1 ,section ,,ii1   
,chap4 ,,iii4 ,of the two verdicts the  
latter is surely much nearer the truth4 
,the calmness which ,hawthorne thought  
he saw in the ,laocoon is not there2    
there is only a terrible torment4       
,battle1 wounds1 and death were staple  
themes of ,greek sculpture from first to
 last2 but nowhere else is the          
representation of physical suffering1   
pure and simple1 so forced upon us1 so  
made the be-all and end-all of a ,greek 
work4 ,as for the date of the group1    
opinion still varies considerably4 ,the 
probabilities seem to point to a date   
not far removed from that of the        
,pergamene altar2 i4e41 to the first    
half of the second century ,b4,c4       
,macedonia and ,greece became a ,roman  
province in #adf ,b4,c42 the kingdom of 
,pergamum in #acc ,b4,c4 ,these         
political changes1 it is true1 made no  
immediate difference to the cause of    
art4 ,greek sculpture went on1 presently
 transferring its chief seat to ,rome1  

as the most favorable place of          
patronage4 ,what is called ,roman       
sculpture is1 for the most part1 simply 
,greek sculpture under ,roman rule4 ,but
 in the ,roman period we find no great1 
creative epoch of art history2 moreover1
 the tendencies of the times have       
already received considerable           
illustration4 ,at this point1 therefore1
 we may break off this sketch4          
,,chapter ,,xi4  ,,greek ,,painting4    
,the art of painting was in as high     
esteem in ,greece as the art of         
sculpture and1 if we may believe the    
testimony of ,greek and ,roman writers1 
achieved results as important and       
admirable4 ,but the works of the great  
,greek painters have utterly perished1  
and imagination1 though guided by       
ancient descriptions and by such painted
 designs as have come down to us1 can   
restore them but dimly and doubtfully4  
,the subject may therefore here be      
dismissed with comparative brevity4  ,in
 default of pictures by the great ,greek

 masters1 an especial interest attaches 
to the work of humbler craftsmen of the 
brush4 ,one class of such work exists in
 abundance--the painted decorations upon
 earthenware vases4 ,tens of thousands  
of these vases have been brought to     
light from tombs and sanctuaries on     
,greek and ,italian sites and the number
 is constantly increasing4 ,thanks to   
the indestructible character of pottery1
 the designs are often intact4 ,now the 
materials and methods employed by the   
vase- painters and the spaces at their  
disposal were very different from those 
of mural or easel paintings4            
,consequently inferences must not be    
hastily drawn from designs upon vases as
 to the composition and coloring of the 
great masterpieces4 ,but the best of the
 vase- painters1 especially in the early
 fifth century1 were men of remarkable  
talent1 and all of them were influenced 
by the general artistic tendencies of   
their respective periods4 ,their work1  
therefore1 contributes  an important    

element to our knowledge of ,greek art  
history4  ,having touched in ,chapter   
,,ii4 upon the earlier styles of ,greek 
pottery1 ,i begin here with a vase of   
,attic manufacture1 decorated1 as an    
inscription on it shows1 by ,clitias1   
but commonly called from its finder the 
,francois vase 7,fig4 #ahh74 ,it may be 
assigned to the first half of the sixth 
century1 and probably to somewhere near 
the beginning of that period4 ,it is an 
early specimen of the class of          
black-figured vases1 as they are called4
 ,the propriety of the name is obvious  
from the illustration4 ,the objects     
represented were painted in black       
varnish upon the reddish clay1 and the  
vase was then fired4 ,subsequently      
anatomical details1 patterns of         
garments1 and so on were indicated by   
means of lines cut through the varnish  
with a sharp instrument4 ,moreover1 the 
exposed parts of the female             
figures--faces1 hands1 arms1 and        
feet--were covered with white paint1    

this being the regular method in the    
black- figured style of distinguishing  
the flesh of female from that of male   
figures4  ,the decoration of the        
,francois vase is arranged in horizontal
 bands or zones4 ,the subjects are      
almost wholly legendary and the vase is 
therefore a perfect mine of information 
for the student of ,greek mythology4    
,our present interest1 however1 is      
rather in the character of the drawing4 
,this may be better judged from ,fig4   
#ahi1 which is taken from the zone      
encircling the middle of the vase4 ,the 
subject is the wedding of the mortal1   
,peleus1 to the sea- goddess1 ,thetis1  
the wedding whose issue was ,achilles1  
the great hero of the ,iliad4 ,to this  
ceremony came gods and goddesses and    
other supernatural beings4 ,our         
illustration shows ,dionysus 7,bacchus71
 god of wine1 with a wine-jar on his    
shoulder and what is meant for a        
vine-branch above him4 ,behind him walk 
three female figures1 who are the       

personified ,seasons4 ,last comes a     
group consisting of two ,muses and a    
four-horse chariot bearing ,zeus1 the   
chief of the gods1 and ,hera1 his wife4 
,the principle of isocephaly is observed
 on the vase as in a frieze of          
relief-sculpture 7page #ade74 ,the      
figures are almost all drawn in profile1
 though the body is often shown more    
nearly from the front1 e4g41 in the case
 of the ,seasons1 and the eyes are      
always drawn as in front view4 ,out of  
the great multitude of figures on the   
vase there are only four in which the   
artist has shown the full face4 ,two of 
these are intentionally ugly ,gorgons on
 the handles2 the two others come within
 the limits of our specimen             
illustration4 ,if ,dionysus here appears
 almost like a caricature1 that is only 
because the decorator is so little      
accustomed to drawing the face in front 
view4 ,there are other interesting      
analogies between the designs on the    
vase and contemporary reliefs4 ,for     

example1 the bodies1 when not disguised 
by garments1 show an unnatural smallness
 at the waist1 the feet of walking      
figures are planted flat on the ground1 
and there are cases in which the body   
and neck are so twisted that the face is
 turned in exactly the opposite         
direction to the feet4 ,on the whole1   
,clitias shows rather more skill than a 
contemporary sculptor1 probably because 
of the two arts that of the vase-       
painter had been the longer cultivated4 
,the black-figured ware continued to be 
produced in ,attica through the sixth   
century and on into the fifth4 ,fig4    
#aij gives a specimen of the work of an 
interesting vase-painter in this style1 
,execias by name1 who probably belongs  
about the middle of the sixth century4  
,the subject is ,achilles slaying in    
battle the ,amazon queen1 ,penthesilea4 
,the drawing of ,execias is             
distinguished by an altogether unusual  
care and minuteness of detail1 and if   
the whole body of his work1 as known to 

us from several signed vases1 could be  
here presented1 it would be easily seen 
that his proficiency was well in advance
 of that of ,clitias4 ,obvious          
archaisms1 however1 remain4 ,especially 
noticeable is the unnatural twisting of 
the bodies4 ,a minor point of interest  
is afforded by the ,amazon's shield1    
which the artist has not succeeded in   
rendering truthfully in side view4 ,that
 is a rather difficult problem in       
perspective1 which was not solved until 
after many experiments4  ,some time     
before the end of the sixth century1    
perhaps as early as #edj1 a new method  
of decorating pottery was invented in   
,attica4 ,the principal coloring matter 
used continued to be the lustrous black 
varnish2 but instead of filling in the  
outlines of the figures with black1 the 
decorator1 after outlining the figures  
by means of a broad stroke of the brush1
 covered with black the spaces between  
the figures1 leaving the figures        
themselves in the color of the clay4    

,vases thus decorated are called        
red-figured4 ,in this style incised     
lines ceased to be used1 and details    
were rendered chiefly by means of the   
black varnish or1 for certain purposes1 
of the same material diluted till it    
became of a reddish hue4 ,the           
red-figured and black-figured styles    
coexisted for perhaps half a century1   
but the new style ultimately drove the  
old one out of the market4  ,the        
development of the new style was        
achieved by men of talent1 several of   
whom fairly deserve to be called        
artists4 ,such an one was ,euphronius1  
whose long career as a potter covered   
some fifty years1 beginning at the      
beginning of the fifth century or a     
little earlier4 ,fig4 #aia gives the    
design upon the outside of a cylix 7a   
broad1 shallow cup1 shaped like a large 
saucer1 with two handles and a foot71   
which bears his signature4 ,its date is 
about #dhj1 and it is thus approximately
 contemporary with the latest of the    

archaic statues of the ,athenian        
,acropolis 7pages #aea f474 ,on one side
 we have one of the old stock subjects  
of the vase-painters1 treated with      
unapproached vivacity and humor4 ,among 
the labors of ,heracles1 imposed upon   
him by his taskmaster1 ,eurystheus1 was 
the capturing of a certain destructive  
wild boar of ,arcadia and the bringing  
of the creature alive to ,mycenae4 ,in  
the picture1 ,heracles is returning with
 the squealing boar on his shoulder4    
,the cowardly ,eurystheus has taken     
refuge in a huge earthenware jar sunk in
 the ground1 but ,heracles1 pretending  
to be unaware of this fact1 makes as    
though he would deposit his burden in   
the jar4 ,the agitated man and woman to 
the right are probably the father and   
mother of ,eurystheus4 ,the scene on the
 other side of the cylix is supposed to 
illustrate an incident of the ,trojan   
,war3 two warriors1 starting out on an  
expedition1 are met and stopped by the  
god ,hermes4 ,in each design the        

workmanship1 which was necessarily      
rapid1 is marvelously precise and firm1 
and the attitudes are varied and        
telling4 ,euphronius belonged to a      
generation which was making great       
progress in the knowledge of anatomy and
 in the ability to pose figures         
naturally and expressively4 ,it is      
interesting to note how close is the    
similarity in the method of treating    
drapery between the vases of this period
 and contemporary sculpture4  ,the cylix
 shown in ,fig4 #aib is somewhat later1 
dating from about #dfj4 ,the technique  
is here different from that just        
described1 inasmuch as the design is    
painted in reddish brown upon a white   
ground4 ,the subject is the goddess     
,aphrodite1 riding upon a goose4 ,the   
painter1 some unnamed younger           
contemporary of ,euphronius1 has learned
 a freer manner of drawing4 ,he gives to
 the eye in profile its proper form1 and
 to the drapery a simple and natural    
fall4 ,the subject does not call1 like  

the last1 for dramatic vigor1 and the   
preeminent quality of the work is an    
exquisite purity and refinement of      
spirit4  ,if we turn now from the humble
 art of vase-decoration to painting in  
the higher sense of the term1 the first 
eminent name to meet us is that of      
,polygnotus1 who was born on the island 
of ,thasos near the ,thracian coast4    
,his artistic career1 or at least the   
later part of it1 fell in the           
,transitional period 7#dhj-dej ,b4,c471 
so that he was a contemporary of the    
great sculptor ,myron4 ,he came to      
,athens at some unknown date after the  
,persian invasion of ,greece 7#dhj      
,b4,c47 and there executed a number of  
important paintings4 ,in fact1 he is    
said to have received ,athenian         
citizenship4 ,he worked also at ,delphi 
and at other places1 after the ordinary 
manner of artists4  ,painting in this   
period1 as practiced by ,polygnotus and 
other great artists1 was chiefly mural2 
the painting of easel pictures seems to 

have been of quite secondary            
consequence4 ,thus the most famous works
 of ,polygnotus adorned the inner faces 
of the walls of temples and stoas4 ,the 
subjects of these great mural paintings 
were chiefly mythological4 ,for example1
 the two compositions of ,polygnotus at 
,delphi1 of which we possess an         
extremely detailed account in the pages 
of ,pausanias1 depicted the sack of     
,troy and the descent of ,odysseus into 
,hades4 ,but it is worth remarking1 in  
view of the extreme rarity of historical
 subjects in ,greek relief- sculpture1  
that in the ,stoa ,poicile 7,painted    
,portico7 of ,athens1 alongside of a    
,sack of ,troy by ,polygnotus and a     
,battle of ,greeks and ,amazons by his  
contemporary1 ,micon1 there were two    
historical scenes1 a ,battle of         
,marathon and a ,battle of ,o,enoe4 ,in 
fact1 historical battle-pieces were not 
rare among the ,greeks at any period4   
,as regards the style of ,polygnotus we 
can glean a few interesting facts from  

our ancient authorities4 ,his figures   
were not ranged on a single line1 as in 
contemporary bas-reliefs1 but were      
placed at varying heights1 so as to     
produce a somewhat complex composition4 
,his palette contained only four colors1
 black1 white1 yellow1 and red1 but by  
mixing these he was enabled to secure a 
somewhat greater variety4 ,he laid his  
colors on in flat tints1 just as the    
,egyptian decorators did1 making no     
attempt to render the gradations of     
color due to varying light and shade4   
,his pictures were therefore rather     
colored drawings than genuine paintings1
 in our sense of the term4 ,he often    
inscribed beside his figures their      
names1 according to a common practice of
 the time4 ,yet this must not be taken  
as implying that he was unable to       
characterize his figures by purely      
artistic means4 ,on the contrary1       
,polygnotus was preeminently skilled in 
expressing character1 and it is recorded
 that he drew the face with a freedom   

which archaic art had not attained4 ,in 
all probability his pictures are not to 
be thought of as having any depth of    
perspective2 that is to say1 although he
 did not fail to suggest the nature of  
the ground on which his figures stood   
and the objects adjacent to them1 it is 
not likely that he represented his      
figures at varying distances from the   
spectator or gave them a regular        
background4  ,it is clear that          
,polygnotus was gifted with artistic    
genius of the first rank and that he    
exercised a powerful influence upon     
contemporaries and successors4 ,yet1    
alas6 in spite of all research and      
speculation1 our knowledge of his work  
remains very shadowy4 ,a single drawing 
from his hand would be worth more than  
all that has ever been written about    
him4 ,but if one would like to dream    
what his art was like1 one may imagine  
it as combining with the dramatic power 
of ,euphronius and the exquisite        
loveliness of the ,aphrodite cup1       

,giotto's elevation of feeling and      
,michael ,angelo's profundity of        
thought4  ,another branch of painting   
which began to attain importance in the 
time of ,polygnotus was scene-painting  
for theatrical performances4 ,it may be1
 as has been conjectured1 that the      
impulse toward a style of work in which 
a greater degree of illusion was aimed  
at and secured came from this branch of 
the art4 ,we read1 at any rate1 that one
 ,agatharchus1 a scene-painter who      
flourished about the middle of the fifth
 century1 wrote a treatise which        
stimulated two philosophers to an       
investigation of the laws of            
perspective4  ,the most important       
technical advance1 however1 is          
attributed to ,apollodorus of ,athens1 a
 painter of easel pictures4 ,he departed
 from the old method of coloring in flat
 tints and introduced the practice of   
grading colors according to the play of 
light and shade4 ,how successfully he   
managed this innovation we have no means

 of knowing2 probably very imperfectly4 
,but the step was of the utmost         
significance4 ,it meant the abandonment 
of mere colored drawing and the creation
 of the genuine art of painting4  ,two  
artists of the highest distinction now  
appear upon the scene4 ,they are ,zeuxis
 and ,parrhasius4 ,the rather vague     
remark of a ,roman writer1 that they    
both lived about the time of the        
,peloponnesian ,war 7#dca-djd ,b4,c47 is
 as definite a statement as can safely  
be made about their date4 ,parrhasius   
was born at ,ephesus1 ,zeuxis at some   
one or other of the numerous cities     
named ,heraclea4 ,both traveled freely  
from place to place1 after the usual    
fashion of ,greek artists1 and both     
naturally made their home for a time in 
,athens4 ,zeuxis availed himself of the 
innovation of ,apollodorus and probably 
carried it farther4 ,indeed1 he is      
credited by one ,roman writer with being
 the founder of the new method4 ,the    
strength of ,parrhasius is said to have 

lain in subtlety of line1 which would   
suggest that with him1 as with          
,polygnotus1 painting was essentially   
outline drawing4 ,yet he too can hardly 
have remained unaffected by the new     
chiaroscuro4  ,easel pictures now       
assumed a relative importance which they
 had not had a generation earlier4 ,some
 of these were placed in temples and    
such conformed in their subjects to the 
requirements of religious art1 as       
understood in ,greece4 ,but many of the 
easel pictures by ,zeuxis and his       
contemporaries can hardly have had any  
other destination than the private      
houses of wealthy connoisseurs4         
,moreover1 we hear first in this period 
of mural painting as applied to domestic
 interiors4 ,alcibiades is said to have 
imprisoned a reluctant painter1         
,agatharchus 7cf4 page #bgh71 in his    
house and to have forced him to decorate
 the walls4 ,the result of this sort of 
private demand was what we have seen    
taking place a hundred years later in   

the case of sculpture1 viz43 that       
artists became free to employ their     
talents on any subjects which would     
gratify the taste of patrons4 ,for      
example1 a painting by ,zeuxis of which 
,lucian has left us a description       
illustrates what may be called          
mythological genre4 ,it represented a   
female ,centaur giving suck to two      
offspring1 with the father of the family
 in the background1 amusing himself by  
swinging a lion's whelp above his head  
to scare his young4 ,this was1 no doubt1
 admirable in its way1 and it would be  
narrow-minded to disparage it because it
 did not stand on the ethical level of  
,polygnotus's work4 ,but painters did   
not always keep within the limits of    
what is innocent4 ,no longer restrained 
by the conditions of monumental and     
religious art1 they began to pander not 
merely to what is frivolous1 but to what
 is vile in human nature4 ,the great    
,parrhasius is reported by ,pliny to    
have painted licentious little pictures1

 refreshing himself 7says the writer7 by
 this means after more serious labors4  
,thus at the same time that painting was
 making great technical advances1 its   
nobility of purpose was on the average  
declining4  ,timanthes seems to have    
been a younger contemporary of ,zeuxis  
and ,parrhasius4 ,perhaps his career    
fell chiefly after #djj ,b4 ,c4 ,the    
painting of his of which we hear the    
most represented the sacrifice of       
,iphigenia at ,aulis1 ,the one point    
about the picture to which all our      
accounts refer is the grief exhibited in
 varying degrees by the bystanders4 ,the
 countenance of ,calchas was sorrowful2 
that of ,ulysses still more so2 that of 
,menelaus displayed an intensity of     
distress which the painter could not    
outdo2 ,agamemnon1 therefore1 was       
represented with his face covered by his
 mantle1 his attitude alone suggesting  
the father's poignant anguish4 ,the     
description is interesting as           
illustrating the attention paid in this 

period to the expression of emotion4    
,timanthes was in spirit akin to        
,scopas4 ,there is a ,pompeian wall-    
painting of the sacrifice of ,iphigenia1
 which represents ,agamemnon with veiled
 head and which may be regarded1 in that
 particular at least1 as a remote echo  
of ,timanthes's famous picture4         
,sicyon1 in the northeastern part of    
,peloponnesus--a city already referred  
to as the home of the sculptor          
,lysippus--was the seat of an important 
school of painting in the fourth        
century4 ,toward the middle of the      
century the leading teacher of the art  
in that place was one ,pamphilus4 ,he   
secured the introduction of drawing into
 the elementary schools of ,sicyon1 and 
this new branch of education was        
gradually adopted in other ,greek       
communities4 ,a pupil of his1 ,pausias  
by name1 is credited with raising the   
process of encaustic painting to a      
prominence which it had not enjoyed     
before4 ,in this process the colors1    

mixed with wax1 were applied to a wooden
 panel and then burned in by means of a 
hot iron held near4  ,thebes also1 which
 attained to a short-lived importance in
 the political world after the battle of
 ,leuctra 7#cga ,b4,c471 developed a    
school of painting1 which seems to have 
been in close touch with that of        
,athens4 ,there were painters besides1  
who seem to have had no connection with 
any one of these centers of activity4   
,the fourth century was the ,golden ,age
 of ,greek painting1 and the list of    
eminent names is as long and as         
distinguished for painting as for       
sculpture4  ,the most famous of all was 
,apelles4 ,he was a ,greek of ,asia     
,minor and received his early training  
at ,ephesus4 ,he then betook himself to 
,sicyon1 in order to profit by the      
instruction of ,pamphilus and by        
association with the other painters     
gathered there4 ,it seems likely that   
his next move was to ,pella1 the capital
 of ,macedon1 then ruled over by        

,philip1 the father of ,alexander4 ,at  
any rate1 he entered into intimate      
relations with the young prince and     
painted numerous portraits of both      
father and son4 ,indeed1 according to an
 often repeated story1 ,alexander1      
probably after his accession to the     
throne1 conferred upon ,apelles the     
exclusive privilege of painting his     
portrait1 as upon ,lysippus the         
exclusive privilege of representing him 
in bronze4 ,later1 presumably when      
,alexander started on his eastern       
campaigns 7#ccd ,b4,c471 ,apelles       
returned to ,asia ,minor1 but of course 
not even then to lead a settled life4   
,he outlived ,alexander1 but we do not  
know by how much4  ,of his many         
portraits of the great conqueror four   
are specifically mentioned by our       
authorities4 ,one of these represented  
the king as holding a thunderbolt1 i4e41
 in the guise of ,zeus--a fine piece of 
flattery4 ,for this picture1 which was  
placed in the ,temple of ,artemis at    

,ephesus1 he is reported1 though not on 
very good authority1 to have received   
twenty talents in gold coin4 ,it is     
impossible to make exact comparisons    
between ancient and modern prices1 but  
the sum named would perhaps be in       
purchasing power as large as any modern 
painter ever received for a work of     
similar size4 ,footnote3 ,nicias1 an    
,athenian painter and a contemporary of 
,apelles1 is reported to have been      
offered by ,ptolemy1 the ruler of       
,egypt1 sixty talents for a picture and 
to have refused the offer4 ,it has been 
mentioned above that ,apelles made a    
number of portraits of ,king ,philip4   
,he had also many sitters among the     
generals and associates of ,alexander2  
and he left at least one picture of     
himself4 ,his portraits were famous for 
their truth of likeness1 as we should   
expect of a great painter in this age4  
,an allegorical painting by ,apelles of 
,slander and ,her ,crew is interesting  
as an example of a class of works to    

which ,lysippus's statue of ,opportunity
 belonged 7page #bci74 ,this picture    
contained ten figures1 whereas most of  
his others of which we have any         
description contained only one figure   
each4  ,his most famous work was an     
,aphrodite1 originally placed in the    
,temple of ,asclepius on the island of  
,cos4 ,the goddess was represented1     
according to the ,greek myth of her     
birth1 as rising from the sea1 the upper
 part of her person being alone         
distinctly visible4 ,the picture1 from  
all that we can learn of it1 seems to   
have been imbued with the same spirit of
 refinement and grace as ,praxiteles's  
statue of ,aphrodite in the neighboring 
city of ,cnidus4 ,the ,coans1 after     
cherishing it for three hundred years1  
were forced to surrender it to the      
emperor ,augustus for a price of a      
hundred talents1 and it was removed to  
the ,temple of ,julius ,caesar in ,rome4
 ,by the time of ,nero it had become so 
much injured that it had to be replaced 

by a copy4  ,protogenes was another     
painter whom even the slightest sketch  
cannot afford to pass over in silence4  
,he was born at ,caunus in southwestern 
,asia ,minor and flourished about the   
same time as ,apelles4 ,we read of his  
conversing with the philosopher         
,aristotle 7died #cbb ,b4,c471 of whose 
mother he painted a portrait1 and of his
 being engaged on his most famous work1 
a picture of a ,rhodian hero1 at the    
time of the siege of ,rhodes by         
,demetrius 7#cjd ,b4,c474 ,he was an    
extremely painstaking artist1 inclined  
to excessive elaboration in his work4   
,apelles1 who is always represented as  
of amiable and generous character1 is   
reported as saying that ,protogenes was 
his equal or superior in every point but
 one1 the one inferiority of ,protogenes
 being that he did not know when to     
stop4 ,according to another anecdote    
,apelles1 while profoundly impressed by 
,protogenes's masterpiece1 the ,rhodian 
hero above referred to1 pronounced it   

lacking in that quality of grace which  
was his own most eminent merit4         
,footnote3 ,plutarch1 ,life of          
,demetrius1 ,section #bb4 ,there are    
still other anecdotes1 which give an    
entertaining idea of the friendly       
rivalry between these two masters1 but  
which do not help us much in imagining  
their artistic qualities4 ,as regards   
technique1 it seems likely that both of 
them practiced principally tempera      
painting1 in which the colors are mixed 
with yolk of eggs or some other sticky  
non-unctuous medium4 ,footnote3 ,oil    
painting was unknown in ancient times4  
,both ,apelles and ,protogenes are said 
to have written technical treatises on  
the painter's art4  ,there being nothing
 extant which would properly illustrate 
the methods and the styles of the great 
artists in color1 the best substitute   
that we have from about their period is 
an ,etruscan sarcophagus1 found near    
,corneto in #ahfi4 ,the material is     
alabaster or a marble closely resembling

 alabaster4 ,it is ornamented on all    
four sides by paintings executed in     
tempera representing a battle of ,greeks
 and ,amazons4 ,in the flesh tints the  
difference of the sexes is strongly     
marked1 the flesh of the fighting       
,greeks being a tawny red1 while that of
 the ,amazons is very fair4 ,for each   
sex two tints only are used in the      
shading and modeling of the flesh4 444  
,hair and eyes are for the most part a  
purplish brown2 garments mainly reddish 
brown1 whitish grey1 or pale lilac and  
light blue4 ,horses are uniformly a     
greyish white1 shaded with a fuller tint
 of grey2 their eyes always blue4 ,there
 are two colors of metal1 light blue for
 swords1 spear-heads1 and the inner     
faces of shields1 golden yellow for     
helmets1 greaves1 reins1 and handles of 
shields1 girdles1 and chain ornaments4  
,our illustration 7,fig4 #aic7 is taken 
from the middle of one of the long sides
 of the sarcophagus4 ,it represents a   
mounted ,amazon in front of a fully     

armed foot-soldier1 upon whom she turns 
to deliver a blow with her sword4 ,every
 reader will be struck by the beauty and
 spirit of the ,amazon1 alike in her    
action and her facial expression4 ,the  
type of head1 broad1 bold1 and powerful1
 and at the same time young and         
blooming1 with the pathetic- indignant  
expression1 is preserved with little    
falling off from the best age of ,greek 
art4 444 ,in spirit and expression      
almost equal to the ,amazon is the horse
 she bestrides4 ,footnote3 ,the         
quotations are from an article by ,mr4  
,sidney ,colvin in ,the ,journal of     
,hellenic ,studies1 ,vol4 ,,iv41 pages  
#ced ff ,the ,greek warrior is also     
admirable in attitude and expression1   
full of energy and determination4       
,although the paintings of this         
sarcophagus were doubtless executed in  
,etruria1 and probably by an ,etruscan  
hand1 they are in their style almost    
purely ,greek4 ,the work is assigned to 
the earlier half of the third century   

,b4,c4 ,if an unknown craftsman was     
stimulated by ,greek models to the      
production of paintings of such beauty  
and power1 how magnificent must have    
been the achievements of the great      
masters of the brush6  ,for examples of 
,greek portrait painting we are indebted
 to ,egypt1 that country whose climate  
has preserved so much that elsewhere    
would have perished4 ,it will be        
remembered that ,egypt1 having been     
conquered by ,alexander1 fell after his 
death to the lot of his general1        
,ptolemy1 and continued to be ruled by  
,ptolemy's descendants until1 in #cj    
,b4,c41 it became a ,roman province4    
,during the period of ,macedonian rule  
,alexandria was the chief center of     
,greek culture in the world1 and ,greeks
 and ,greek civilization became         
established also in the interior of the 
country2 nor did these ,hellenizing     
influences abate under ,roman           
domination4 ,to this late period1 when  
,greek and ,egyptian customs ere largely

 amalgamated1 belongs a class of        
portrait heads which have been found in 
the ,fayyurn1 chiefly within the last   
ten years4 ,they are painted on panels  
of wood 7or rarely on canvas71 and were 
originally attached to mummies4 ,the    
embalmed body was carefully wrapped in  
linen bandages and the portrait placed  
over the face and secured in position4  
,these pictures are executed principally
 by the encaustic process1 though some  
use was made also of tempera4 ,the      
persons represented appear to be of     
various races-- ,greek1 ,egyptian1      
,hebrew1 negro1 and mixed2 perhaps the  
,greek type predominates in the         
specimens now known4 ,at any rate1 the  
artistic methods of the portraits seem  
to be purely ,greek4 ,as for their date1
 it is the prevailing opinion that they 
belong to the second century after      
,christ and later1 though an attempt has
 been made to carry the best of them    
back to the second century ,b4,c4  ,the 
finest collection of these portraits is 

one acquired by a ,viennese merchant1   
,herr ,theodor ,graf4 ,they differ      
widely in artistic merit2 our           
illustrations show three of the best4   
,fig4 #aid is a man in middle life1 with
 irregular features1 abundant1 waving   
hair1 and thin1 straggling beard4 ,one  
who has seen ,watts's picture of ,the   
,prodigal ,son may remark in the lower  
part of this face a likeness to that4   
,fig4 #aie is a charming girl1 wearing a
 golden wreath of ivy-leaves about her  
hair and a string of great pearls about 
her neck4 ,her dark eyes look strangely 
large1 as do those of all the women of  
the series2 probably the effect of eyes 
naturally large was heightened1 as      
nowadays in ,egypt1 by the practice of  
blackening the edges of the eyelids4    
,fig4 #aif is the most fascinating face 
of all1 and it is artistically          
unsurpassed in the whole series4 ,this  
and a portrait of an elderly man1 not   
given here1 are the masterpieces of the 
,graf collection4 ,it is much too little

 to say of these two heads that they are
 the best examples of ,greek painting   
that have come down to us4 ,in spite of 
the great inferiority of the encaustic  
technique to that of oil painting1 these
 pictures are not unworthy of comparison
 with the great portraits of modern     
times4  ,the ancient wall-paintings     
found in and near ,rome4 but more       
especially in ,pompeii1 are also mostly 
,greek in character1 so far as their    
best qualities are concerned4 ,the best 
of them1 while betraying deficient skill
 in perspective1 show such merits in    
coloring1 such power of expression and  
such talent for composition1 as to      
afford to the student a lively enjoyment
 and to intensify tenfold his regret    
that ,zeuxis and ,parrhasius1 ,apelles  
and ,protogenes1 are and will remain to 
us nothing but names4