,,church ,,and                          
,,nation                  ,,the ,,bishop
 ,,paddock ,,lectures ,,for #aiad-ae    
,,delivered ,,at ,,the ,,general        
,,theological                           
,,seminary1 ,,new ,,york                
,,by                                    
,,william ,,temple                      
,,hon4 ,,chaplain ,,to ,h4,m4 ,,the     
,,king                    ,rector of    
,st4 ,james's1 ,piccadilly1             
,chaplain to the ,archbishop of         
,canterbury             ,formerly       
,fellow of ,queen's ,college1 ,oxford1  
and                          ,headmaster
 of ,repton                             
,,macmillan ,,and ,,co41 ,,limited      
,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,street1 ,,london    
#aiae                                   
,,copyright                             
,,to                                ,,my
 ,,mother                  ,,who ,,fell 
,,asleep ,,as ,,good ,,friday ,,dawned  
,,april #b1 #aiae                       
99,,preface99   ,when ,i received and   

accepted the invitation to deliver the  
,paddock ,lectures for the season       
#aiad-aiae1 no one imagined that these  
years were destined to have the         
historical significance which they must 
now possess for all time4  ,i was myself
 one of those who had allowed concern   
for social reform1 and internal problems
 generally1 to occupy my mind almost to 
the exclusion of foreign questions4  ,i 
was prepared to stake a good deal upon  
what seemed to me the improbability of  
any outbreak of ,european war4  ,for all
 who took this view the events of recent
 months have involved perhaps a greater 
re-shaping of fundamental notions than  
was required by people who had thought  
probable such a catastrophe as that in  
which we are now involved4  ,i found it 
impossible to concentrate my mind upon  
any subject wholly unconnected with the 
war1 while at the same time it would    
have been in the last degree unsuitable 
that in my lectures to ,american        
,theological ,students ,i should deliver

 myself of such views as ,i had formed  
concerning the rights and wrongs of the 
war itself1 or the questions at stake in
 it4  ,these lectures1 therefore1       
represent an attempt to think out afresh
 the underlying problems which for a    
,christian are fundamental in regard not
 only to this war but to war in         
general--the place of ,nationality in   
the scheme of ,divine ,providence and   
the duty of the ,church in regard to the
 growth of nations4  ,but in a preface  
it may be permissible to say what would 
be inappropriate in the ,lectures       
themselves1 and first ,i would take this
 opportunity of reiterating certain     
convictions which have formed the basis 
of a series of pamphlets issued under   
the auspices of a ,committee drawn from 
various ,christian bodies and political 
parties1 of which ,i have had the honour
 to be ,editor3  #a4 ,that ,great       
,britain was in ,august morally bound to
 declare war and is no less bound to    
carry the war to a decisive issue2  #b4 

,that the war is none the less an       
outcome and a revelation of the         
un-,christian principles which have     
dominated the life of ,western          
,christendom and of which both the      
,church and the nations have need to    
repent2  #c4 ,that followers of ,christ1
 as members of the ,church1 are linked  
to one another in a fellowship which    
transcends all divisions of nationality 
or race2  #d4 ,that the ,christian      
duties of love and forgiveness are as   
binding in time of war as in time of    
peace2  #e4 ,that ,christians are bound 
to recognise the insufficiency of mere  
compulsion for overcoming evil1 and to  
place supreme reliance upon spiritual   
forces and in particular upon the power 
and method of the ,cross2  #f4 ,that    
only in proportion as ,christian        
principles dictate the terms of         
settlement will a real and lasting peace
 be secured2  #g4 ,that it is the duty  
of the ,church to make an altogether new
 effort to realise and apply to all the 

relations of life its own positive ideal
 of brotherhood and fellowship2    #h4  
,that with ,god all things are possible4
  ,these propositions were very         
carefully drafted by the ,committee     
referred to above and entirely represent
 my own beliefs2 but there is something 
more which ,i would add4 ,the new       
,triple ,alliance of ,germany1 ,austria1
 and ,turkey is no accident2 it is the  
combination of just those three ,powers 
which openly and avowedly believe in    
oppression--that is1 in the imposition  
by force of the standards accepted by   
one race upon people of another race4   
,all nations have at one time or another
 practised oppression2 certainly ,great 
,britain is not free from the charge1   
and the history of ,russia has many dark
 pages in this respect4  ,but we can all
 claim that when we have been guilty of 
oppression it has been under the        
influence of fear1 whether of           
revolution1 anarchism1 or some other    
force thought to be disruptive of the   

,state4  ,with our enemies this is not  
so4 ,we all know about ,turkey2 it is   
the essentially ,mohammedan power1 and  
,mohammedanism is the religion of       
oppression2 it believes in imposing its 
faith by means of the sword4  ,the      
,austrian ,empire consists of three     
divisions in each of which one race is  
imposing its manner of life upon        
another4  ,in ,austria-proper the       
,germans oppress the ,czechs2 in        
,galicia the ,poles have1 in some degree
 at least1 oppressed the ,ruthenes2 in  
,hungary the ,magyars have              
systematically and avowedly oppressed   
the ,roumanians in the east1 and the    
,croats in the south and west4  ,germany
 has shown her political faith by her   
conduct in ,alsace-,lorraine1 and still 
more in ,poland4  ,nothing has yet      
appeared so illuminating with regard to 
what is at stake in this war1 as ,prince
 ,buelow's chapter on ,poland in his    
book1 ,imperial ,germany2 he describes  
what seems to us the most grinding      

oppression with obvious self-contentment
 and without a question of its          
righteousness2 and there have been      
abundant signs that1 at least1 many     
people in ,germany are willing to impose
 ,german ,kultur by the sword as        
,mohammedans impose belief in their     
prophet4  ,if this is true1 and if the  
analysis in my lectures of the          
,christian function of the ,state and of
 the principles of the ,kingdom of ,god 
is sound1 then it becomes clear that    
this war is being fought to determine   
whether in the next period the          
,christian or the directly              
anti-,christian method shall have an    
increase of influence4  ,the three most 
democratic of the great ,western        
,powers--,great ,britain1 ,france1 and  
,italy--in conjunction with ,russia1    
which is after all profoundly democratic
 in its local life though imperially it 
is a military autocracy1 are linked     
together in a natural union on behalf of
 freedom as they understand it1 against 

an idea embodied and embattled which is 
in exact opposition to all they live    
for4  ,it was therefore no surprise to  
find that all the citizens of the       
,united ,states with whom ,i came in    
contact were quite definitely upon the  
side of the ,allies in sympathy4  ,to   
advocate war in the name of ,christ is  
to adopt a position which looks         
self-contradictory and which certainly  
involves immense responsibility1 and yet
 if our people can maintain the attitude
 of mind in which they entered on the   
war and can secure at the end a         
settlement harmonious with that frame of
 mind1 ,i believe they will have served 
the ,kingdom of ,god through fighting1  
better than it was possible to do at    
this moment in human history by any     
other means4  ,w4,t4   ,lecture ,,ii4 in
 this series is almost identical with   
the pamphlet ,our ,need of a ,catholic  
,church--,no4 #ai of ,papers for ,war   
,time4  ,in ,lectures ,i4 and ,,iii4 ,i 
am under great obligation to ,professor 

,a4 ,g4 ,hogg1 though my position is not
 at all identical with his4             
99,,contents99                          
,,lecture ,i  ,,the ,,kingdom ,,of      
,,freedom                               
,,lecture ,,ii  ,,church ,,and ,,state  
,,lecture ,,iii  ,,justice ,,and        
,,liberty ,,in ,,the ,,state            
,,lecture ,,iv  ,,holiness ,,and        
,,catholicity ,,in ,,the ,,church       
,,lecture ,v  ,,the ,,citizenship ,,of  
,,heaven                                
,,lecture ,,vi  ,,god ,,in ,,history    
,,appendix ,i  ,,on ,,the ,,apocalyptic 
,,consciousness                         
,,appendix ,,ii  ,,on ,,moral ,,and     
,,spiritual ,,authority                 
,,appendix ,,iii  ,,on ,,justice ,,and  
,,education                             
,,appendix ,,iv  ,,on ,,orders ,,and    
,,catholicity                           
,,appendix ,v  ,,on ,,providence ,,in   
,,history                               
99,,church ,,and ,,nation99             
99,,lecture ,i99                        

,,the ,,kingdom ,,of ,,freedom   ,and   
,jesus1 full of the ,holy ,spirit1      
returned from the ,jordan1 and was led  
by the ,spirit in the wilderness during 
forty days1 being tempted of the        
,devil4--,s4 ,luke iv4 #a4   ,our ,lord1
 in accepting for ,himself the title of 
the ,messiah1 or the ,christ1 claimed   
that it was ,his function to inaugurate 
upon earth the ,kingdom of ,god4        
,whatever else might at that time be    
believed about the ,messiah1 this at    
least was universally held1 that the    
,messiah1 when ,he came1 would          
inaugurate upon earth the ,kingdom of   
,god4 ,that is the task of the ,lord's  
ministry2 that is the task to which we1 
as ,his followers1 are pledged2 and at  
this time when the civilisation1 which  
for nearly two thousand years has been  
under the ,christian influence1 has     
culminated in as great a catastrophe as 
has ever beset any civilisation1        
,christian or ,pagan1 it is well for us 
to go back and ask1 ,what are the       

fundamental principles of the ,kingdom  
which ,christ founded1 what the method  
by which ,he founded it1 and what are   
the principles and methods which ,he    
rejected8  ,there were various          
anticipations of the way in which the   
promised ,christ would do ,his work2 but
 broadly speaking there were two main   
types of expectation4  ,there were those
 who supposed that the ,messiah when ,he
 came1 would rule in the manner of an   
earthly ruler1 establishing             
righteousness by the ordinary methods of
 law and political authority1 and this  
expectation undoubtedly derived some    
colour from the way in which ,isaiah had
 envisaged the coming ,christ3          
,isaiah ix1 #f1 #g4       ,for unto us a
 child is born1 unto us a son is given2 
and the     government shall be upon his
 shoulder3 and his name shall be        
called ,wonderful-,counsellor1 ,mighty  
,god1 ,everlasting ,father1     ,prince 
of ,peace4 ,of the increase of his      
government and of peace     there shall 

be no end upon the throne of ,david1 and
 upon his     kingdom1 to establish it1 
and to uphold it with judgment and      
with righteousness from henceforth1 even
 for ever4   ,it is a king ruling upon  
the throne of ,david that is suggested2 
and while it is only the most foolish   
literalism which will say that the      
,prophet himself was committed to such a
 view1 it was natural enough for those  
who read his writings to conceive of the
 ,messiah as acting after that fashion4 
,the people went into captivity2 and    
when they returned1 it was not to any   
realised ,kingdom of ,god upon earth1   
but rather to difficulties greater than 
had ever confronted them before1 until  
at last ,antiochus ,epiphanes initiated 
the great persecution whose aim was to  
stamp out altogether the worship of     
,jehovah1 setting up as he did in the   
very ,temple ,court at ,jerusalem the   
altar of ,zeus1 on which swine were     
sacrificed--the abomination of          
desolation standing where it ought not4 

,out of the fiery furnace of that       
persecution comes the glowing prophecy  
of ,daniel4 ,what is the answer which he
 conceives ,god as giving to the        
blasphemer ,antiochus8  ,it is nothing  
less than the divine judgment and the   
mission of the divine ,deliverer3       
,daniel vii1 #i1 #aj1 #ac1 #ad4       ,i
 beheld till thrones were placed and one
 that was ancient of     days did sit3  
his raiment was white as snow1 and the  
hair of his     head like pure wool2 his
 throne was fiery flames1 and the wheels
     thereof burning fire4  ,a fiery    
stream issued and came forth from       
before him2 thousand thousands          
ministered unto him1 and ten            
thousand times ten thousand stood before
 him2 the judgment was     set1 and the 
books were opened4444  ,i saw in the    
night visions1     and1 behold1 there   
came with the clouds of heaven one like 
unto     a son of man1 and he came even 
to the ancient of days1 and they        
brought him near before him4  ,and there

 was given him dominion1     and glory1 
and a kingdom1 that all the peoples1    
nations1 and     languages should serve 
him2 his dominion is an everlasting     
dominion1 which shall not pass away1 and
 his kingdom that which     shall not be
 destroyed4   ,this conception of the   
,messiah1 coming in the clouds of       
,heaven1 establishing the ,kingdom of   
,god by so manifest an exhibition of the
 divine authority with which ,he is     
endowed1 that all doubt and hesitation  
are quite impossible1 is that which took
 the greatest hold upon the religious   
imagination of ,israel1 and particularly
 of that great body of people1 the heirs
 of the tradition of the ,maccabees1    
inheritors of the heroism which had     
stood out against the persecution1 whom 
we know as the sect of the              
,pharisees--men who lived in the        
strength of a fellowship that had behind
 it the greatest religious tradition in 
all the world1 but who1 because they    
trusted more to their tradition than to 

the ,god who inspired it1 were unable to
 recognise the still further call of    
,god when it came to them4  ,the        
literature of the period between the    
,old and the ,new ,testament shows how  
wide and deep was the influence of      
,daniel's vision upon their ,messianic  
hopes4  ,at ,his baptism1 the ,lord is  
called to begin ,his ,messianic work2   
the voice which ,he heard from ,heaven  
spoke words which were by all           
interpreters of the time believed to    
refer to the ,messiah3--,thou art my    
beloved son2 in thee ,i am well pleased4
  ,the ,messiah will be endowed with    
,divine authority and power4  ,how shall
 ,he use it8  ,and immediately the ,lord
 goes into the wilderness to face the   
temptations that arose from precisely   
the conviction that ,his ,messianic work
 is even now to begin4  ,the temptation 
has two sides to it--an inward and an   
outward4  ,as regards ,himself1 what    
does the temptation mean8  ,let us      
remind ourselves that there was         

apparently no one with ,him in this     
crisis2 the story1 as we have it1 must  
come from ,himself4  ,it is ,his own    
account 7of course in parable form1 like
 so much else in ,his teaching7 of the  
struggle of those early days4  ,what is 
meant by the parable concerning the     
turning of stones into bread8  ,surely  
for ,himself it is the temptation to use
 the power1 with which us the ,christ of
 ,cod ,he is endowed1 for the           
satisfaction of ,his own needs1 and that
 in such a way as will do no kind of    
harm to anybody else4  ,no one will be  
the worse for his satisfying ,his hunger
 in that way4  ,it is a self-concern    
from which nobody can suffer2 it is     
perfectly innocent and perfectly        
rational4  ,but no6  ,it is not for any 
selfish purpose1 however harmless1 that 
the power of ,god is given2 selfishness 
in its most innocent form is set aside4 
,how shall ,he set about ,his work8     
,shall ,he fulfil that expectation which
 ,isaiah's vision had fostered8  ,he    

looks out on the kingdoms of the earth  
and the glory of them1 and ,he knows    
that they can be ,his1 if ,he will fall 
down and worship the ,prince of the     
power of this world4  ,shall ,he use    
worldly methods to convert the world to 
,god8  ,no2 worldliness in its most     
attractive form is set aside4  ,or shall
 ,he fulfil the expectation encouraged  
by the vision of the ,son of ,man in    
,daniel1 appearing with the clouds of   
,heaven1 descending upon ,jerusalem     
up-borne by angels1 giving that sign    
from ,heaven which the ,pharisees1 who  
particularly adopted this view of the   
,messiah1 were afterwards going to      
demand so frequently8  ,from ,his answer
 we know that this is a temptation not  
only to give them a sign1 but to secure 
it for ,himself1 for the answer is ,thou
 shalt not tempt1--that is1 ,thou shalt 
not put to the proof--the ,lord thy     
,god4  ,the promise of ,god is to be    
trusted1 not tested4  ,the test comes as
 we obey the command and in that sense  

every act of faith is an experiment1 but
 there must be no test cases to see     
whether ,god fulfils ,his promise4      
,infidelity in its most insidious form  
is set aside4  ,but there is an outward 
aspect also to the temptations4  ,shall 
,he use ,his power to satisfy the bodily
 needs of men8  ,shall ,he exert a power
 parallel with that of political rulers1
 which will coerce their conduct without
 first winning their free allegiance8   
,shall ,he give such proof of divine    
authority that any doubt1 intellectual  
or otherwise1 becomes impossible8  ,no2 
not any of these4  ,and as ,he leaves   
the temptation vanquished1 what ,he has 
set aside is precisely every method of  
controlling men's action without winning
 their hearts and wills4  ,he has       
rejected coercion2 ,he has decided to   
appeal to ,freedom4  ,what is left8  ,at
 first1 only the commission to proclaim 
the ,kingdom2 and ,he comes proclaiming 
it4  ,all through the early part of the 
ministry ,he moves from place to place  

preaching or proclaiming the ,kingdom of
 ,god4 ,he does not at present announce 
that ,he is ,king of that ,kingdom2 it  
is the ,kingdom itself on which all     
attention is concentrated4 ,he has      
indeed the power to do works of mercy1  
and when with that power ,he stands in  
the face of human need1 ,he must for    
very love exert the power and satisfy   
the need2 so people come crowding around
 ,him1 attracted by ,his wonder-working4
  ,but that is not what ,he desires4    
,the disciples are excited about it2 but
 ,he has gone out a long while before   
dawn1 and is alone in prayer2 and when  
,st4 ,peter finds ,him1 and says ,all   
men are seeking ,thee1 ,he does not say1
 ,then let us go to them1 but1 on the   
contrary1 ,let us go into the villages  
that ,i may preach--that ,i may make my 
proclamation--there also4  ,as the      
deadness1 the indifference1 and         
hostility of the people gradually shows 
itself to be invincible1 ,he gathers    
about ,him those whose hearts have been 

touched1 and from among them chooses    
twelve1 that they may be with ,him4     
,they are to live in ,his company1      
catching ,his ,spirit1 learning to      
understand ,him4  ,with them ,he goes on
 two long journeys--north-west to ,tyre 
and ,sidon1 and then north-east1 to     
,caesarea ,philippi2 through all those  
journeys they are alone with their      
,master1 moving through country outside 
the boundaries of the ,jewish religion1 
and therefore free from controversy4    
,s4 ,mark i1 #ce-ch4   ,s4 ,m,ark iii1  
#ad4   ,at ,caesarea ,philippi ,he feels
 that the time is ripe1 and asks them1  
,who do men say that ,i am8  ,they      
mention the various conjectures 444     
,elijah2 ,john the ,baptist2 one of the 
,prophets4  ,who say ye that ,i am8     
,and ,st4 ,peter with a leap of inspired
 insight answers3 ,thou art the         
,messiah4    ,s4 ,mark viii1 #bg-cj4    
,the ,lord recognises that this is the  
revelation of ,god to faith3 ,blessed   
art thou1 ,simon1 ,son of ,jonah2 flesh 

and blood hath not revealed it unto     
thee1 but my ,father which is in heaven4
 ,immediately that ,he has been thus    
spontaneously recognised1 ,he begins to 
say what ,he had never said before3 ,the
 ,son of ,man must suffer4  ,the ,son of
 ,man is the title of the ,messiah in   
glory1 as ,he was conceived in ,daniel's
 vision and the ,apocalyptic writings   
which drew their inspiration from it4   
,the ,son of ,man must suffer2 that is  
the great ,messianic act2 that is the   
way in which the ,kingdom of ,god shall 
be founded4  ,but it was not what ,st4  
,peter meant4  ,peter took ,him1 and    
began to rebuke ,him 444 ,be it far from
 ,thee1 ,lord2 this shall not be unto   
,thee4  ,and our ,lord recognises the   
voice of the tempter in the wilderness1 
who bade ,him take thought for self4444 
,get thee behind me1 ,satan1 for thou   
thinkest not ,god's thoughts1 but men's 
thoughts4    ,s4 ,matthew xvi1 #ag4     
,s4 ,matthew xvi1 #bb1 #bc4   ,just as1 
when once ,he was spontaneously         

recognised1 ,he began to set forth the  
new conception of the ,messiahship1 ,the
 ,son of ,man must suffer2 so too ,he   
immediately starts on that last journey 
to ,jerusalem which culminates with the 
,cross4  ,arrived at ,jerusalem1 ,he    
arranges the triumphal entry4  ,he      
carefully fulfils ,zechariah's          
prophecy--thus claiming the             
,messiahship1 and challenging the       
religious rulers4  ,but the prophecy    
which ,he thus selects for deliberate   
fulfilment is one which represents the  
,messiah as a civil1 not a military     
authority 7for this is the meaning of   
the ass as distinguished from the       
horse71 and as one who shall speak      
,peace to the nations4  ,it is the      
conception of the ,messiah which in all 
the ,old ,testament has least suggestion
 of coercion and is therefore the       
nearest to ,his own4    ,zechariah ix1  
#i1 #aj4   ,but the primary purpose of  
the triumphal entry is no doubt to make 
,his claim and issue ,his challenge4    

,on the journey and after the entry     
itself ,he declares with increasing     
emphasis that the ,kingdom of ,god is at
 hand2 those who stood there should see 
it come with power2 and as ,he stands   
before ,caiaphas1 ,he answers the       
question ,art ,thou the ,christ8 with   
the words1 ,i am1 and from this time    
there shall be the ,son of ,man seated  
on the right hand of power4  ,daniel's  
prophecy is here and now fulfilled4  ,in
 the moment that love completes its     
sacrifice in death1 the glory of ,god is
 fully made known and the power of ,his 
,kingdom is come2 this is the ,lord's   
own ,apocalypse4    ,different words in 
,st4 ,matthew and ,st4 ,luke1 but       
agreeing in sense1 which sense the      
authorised version spoils4   ,see       
,appendix ,i43 ,the ,apocalyptic        
,consciousness4   ,so ,he had spoken on 
that last journey4 ,ye know that they   
which are accounted to rule over the    
,gentiles lord it over them1 and their  
great ones exercise authority over them4

  ,but it is not so among you2 but      
whosoever would become great among you  
shall be your minister1 and whosoever   
shall be first among you shall be       
servant of all1 for verily the ,son of  
,man came--7again the title of the      
,messiah in ,glory7--not to be          
ministered unto1 but to minister2 and to
 give ,his life a ransom for many4      
,s4 ,mark x1 #db-de4   ,so1 too1 ,st4   
,john records ,his saying that in       
precisely this way he would win ,his    
royalty--,i1 if ,i be lifted up from the
 earth1 will draw all men unto me4  ,the
 ,cross was foreseen by the ,lord to be 
what1 as we look back1 we know that it  
has been--the throne of ,his glory and  
,his power2 and the capacity to realise 
it as such is for ,st4 ,paul the        
touchstone of character1 the test of    
election--,we preach a ,messiah on a    
,cross--to ,jews a scandal and to       
,gentiles an absurdity1 but to the very 
people who are called1 whether ,jews or 
,greeks1 a ,messiah who is ,god's power 

and ,god's wisdom4    ,s4 ,john xii1    
#cb4   #a ,cor4 i1 #bc1 #bd4   ,here    
then is the mode of ,god's power1 and we
 know that it can be no other2 for if   
,god is truly ,king1 ,he must be ,king  
of our hearts and wills1 and not only of
 our conduct4  ,there is only one way to
 win men's hearts and wills1 that is by 
showing love2 and there is only one way 
to show love1 and that is by sacrifice1 
by doing or suffering what1 apart from  
our love1 we should not choose to do or 
suffer4 ,sacrifice is the ,divine       
activity2 ,calvary is the mode of the   
,divine omnipotence4  ,it is the actual 
,divine method and the ideal human      
method4   ,as we come to consider how   
far it has become also the actual human 
method1 we are confronted at the outset 
by the sheer impossibility of our       
applying this method1 just because we   
have not in ourselves the necessary     
love4  ,our perfection1 we are told1 is 
to consist in just that quality which   
shows the ,father's perfection1 namely1 

that ,he is kind to the unthankful and  
evil1 and makes ,his sun to rise on the 
evil and good and sends ,his rain on the
 just and on the unjust2 and we are to  
be perfect in the way that ,he is       
perfect4    ,s4 ,matthew v1 #dc-dh4     
,but until we reach that perfection we  
cannot imitate ,his action2 for a man's 
act is not what ,he intends2 nor is it  
the mere motion of his body2 but it is  
the whole train of circumstances that he
 initiates4  ,christ in ,his perfect    
purity may stand before the woman taken 
in her sin and say1 ,neither do ,i      
condemn thee1 because there is no       
possibility that she will interpret ,his
 mercy as condonation of the sin2 but if
 we said it1 people would so interpret  
it1 and usually quite rightly so4  ,our 
problem then is so to guide our conduct 
that we come as near as we are capable  
of coming to the divine ideal that is   
set forth in ,christ1 and that we come  
perpetually closer and closer to it4    
,the ,lord in ,his temptation rejected  

all use of force and substituted for it 
the appeal of love expressed in         
sacrifice1 so far as the actual and     
positive building of ,his ,kingdom is   
concerned4  ,for us there must always be
 some use of the lower method1 because  
we are incapable of applying the        
highest4  ,if any man1 when he is       
confronted with evil which he can       
prevent by the exercise of force1       
refrains from doing it1 we must         
immediately put to him the question1    
,but did you so suffer under that act of
 evil that there is any hope of your    
suffering proving to be the redemption  
of the evil-doer8  ,if so1 well and     
good2 but1 if not1 then you are idle and
 cowardly1 not ,christian4  ,no one who 
is not a ,christian in spirit can       
perform the ,christian act2 and the     
,sermon on the ,mount is not a code of  
rules to be mechanically followed2 it is
 the description of the life which any  
man will spontaneously lead when once   
the ,spirit of ,christ has taken        

complete possession of his heart4  ,and 
yet there is a perfectly legitimate use 
of force also1 and a use which our ,lord
 ,himself makes of it4  ,we may use     
force in various circumstances in spite 
of the fact that for the positive work  
of the building ,his ,kingdom the ,lord 
rejected it4  ,it is legitimate1 in the 
first place1 when it is applied to      
immature characters--characters which   
are1 as all our characters are in early 
childhood1 a chaos of impulses and      
instincts1 as yet unregulated by any    
governing principle4 ,here it may be    
necessary simply to restrain the        
activity of one set of impulses without 
converting the heart or will of the     
person to whom that restraint is        
applied1 merely in order to give the    
other side of nature its chance of      
development4  ,so in education it is    
legitimate to employ force in this      
restraining way for the sake of the     
development which is made possible      
thereby in the other parts of nature4   

,but our ,lord's example also shows us  
that the use of force is permissible in 
dealing with those who are so           
case-hardened that the appeal of love   
can never reach them until their present
 state of mind is broken up4 ,it is     
sometimes said that the ,lord never made
 use of physical force2 but whether or  
not that is true--the question is       
unimportant1 because for all moral      
purposes there is no difference whatever
 between physical and non-physical      
force4  ,the appeal to force always     
means the appeal to pain or             
inconvenience1 for these are the only   
things that force can inflict upon one4 
,physical force may break a man's bones2
 but one may enforce a certain kind of  
conduct by the threat1 for example1 of  
social ostracism1 which might break his 
heart2 and there is no difference       
whatever between the two1 except that   
the second is a more refined form of    
cruelty4  ,now in our ,lord's           
denunciation of the ,pharisees1 in those

 words which are thrown1 burning and    
smashing1 into the self-complacent      
contentment of those upholders of       
tradition1 there is every moral quality 
of force and violence4  ,their aim is to
 batter down a state of mind1 the state 
of mind which cannot receive the appeal 
of love1 as it shows when it stands     
beneath the very ,cross and only jeers4 
,but this use of force is only negative 
and preparatory2 it is the effort of    
love to make ready for the rebuilding   
which only love's own method can really 
accomplish4  ,only with characters quite
 immature and liable to develop in many 
different directions1 can force be used1
 except in this wholly preparatory way2 
and even there its work is preparatory1 
for at that stage everything that is    
done is still preparatory4    e4g41     
whether or not ,he employed the scourge 
of small cords to drive men from the    
,temple ,courts as ,he certainly did the
 animals2 the ,greek words suggest that 
,he did not4   ,it is sometimes said    

that society rests upon force4  ,of     
course it does not1 and it could not1   
because force is a dead thing which can 
only operate as human wills direct it2  
and1 however much force there may be in 
the maintenance of society1 that force  
itself must be controlled by the consent
 of human wills4  ,it is true1 however1 
that society1 as we know it1 rests      
simultaneously upon two contradictory   
principles1 upon the principle of       
antagonism and the principle of         
fellowship4 ,so far as it is represented
 by the police force1 it rests upon     
antagonism4  ,men are selfish2 in their 
selfishness they are brought into       
conflict with one another4  ,in order   
that anyone may be able to enjoy1       
however selfishly1 any property or      
comfort in life1 it is necessary to     
restrain to some degree the selfishness 
of all the rest2 and to secure that     
restraint placed upon others1 a man     
submits to a similar restraint upon     
himself4  ,and so we arrive at that     

contract of which ,plato speaks3 the    
contract neither to commit nor to suffer
 injury4  ,but1 at the same time1 as    
,plato immediately afterwards points    
out1 society would arise quite equally  
if men were wholly altruistic1 because  
men's natures are different1 and they   
need one another for support1 for       
protection1 and for the very instinct of
 fellowship4  ,now those principles are 
both present in all actual societies2   
and progress has consisted of the steady
 development of the principle of        
co-operation and fellowship1 at the     
expense of the principle of competition 
and antagonism4    ,greek3 mete adikein 
mete adikisthai4 ,republic ii4          
#cei99;a994   ,the whole ,ideal ,state4 
,republic ii1 #cfi99;b99 to vii end4    
,that has been what we have meant in the
 last resort by political progress2 but 
the conclusion inevitably follows that  
society makes progress precisely in that
 degree in which it realises more and   
more a relationship of love between its 

various members1 and becomes the        
,kingdom which ,christ came on earth to 
found4 ,thus1 at the very outset of our 
enquiry we find that the principles of  
secular progress and of the ,divine     
revelation in ,christ are identical4  ,i
 shall venture in a subsequent lecture  
to trace out the way in which1 as ,i    
think1 further progress in accordance   
with this principle will lead us4  ,but 
let me close this lecture by recalling  
our thoughts to that ideal method for   
men1 which is the actual method of ,god1
 setting this in the words of a fable   
which ,i take from the masterpiece of   
the most ,russian of the ,russian       
novelists--,dostoievsky--merely throwing
 it into my own language4  ,in the days 
of the ,inquisition1 this fable runs1   
our ,lord returned to earth1 and visited
 a city where it was at work4  ,as ,he  
moved about1 men forgot their cares and 
sorrows4 ,he healed the sick folk as of 
old1 and meeting with a funeral         
procession where a mother was mourning  

the loss of her only son1 ,he stopped   
the procession1 and restored the dead   
boy to life4  ,that was in the          
,cathedral ,square1 and at that moment  
there came out from the ,cathedral doors
 the ,grand ,inquisitor1 an old man over
 ninety years of age1 clad now1 not in  
the ,cardinal's robe in which only the  
day before he had condemned a score of  
heretics to the stake1 but in a simple  
cassock1 with only two guards in        
attendance4  ,seeing what was done he   
turned to the guards and said1 ,arrest  
,him4  ,they moved forward to obey2 and 
he sent the ,prisoner to a cell in the  
dungeon4  ,that night the ,grand        
,inquisitor visited his ,prisoner1 and  
to all that he said the ,prisoner made  
no reply4  ,i know why ,thou art come1  
said the ,inquisitor2 ,thou art come to 
spoil our work1 to repeat ,thy great    
mistake in the wilderness1 and to give  
men again ,thy fatal gift of freedom4   
,what did the great wise spirit offer   
,thee there8  ,just the three things by 

which men may be controlled--bread and  
authority and mystery4  ,he bade ,thee  
take bread as the instrument of ,thy    
work2 men will follow one who gives them
 bread4  ,but ,thou wouldest not2 men   
were to follow ,thee out of love and    
devotion or not at all4  ,we have had to
 correct ,thy work1 or there would be   
few to follow ,thee4 ,he bade ,thee     
assume authority2 men will obey one who 
gives commands1 and punishes the        
disobedient4  ,but ,thou wouldest not2  
men were to obey out of love and        
devotion or not at all4  ,we have had to
 correct ,thy work1 or there would be   
few to obey ,thee4  ,he bade ,thee show 
some marvel that men might be persuaded 
and believe4  ,but ,thou wouldest not2  
men were to believe from perception of  
,thy grace and truth or not at all4  ,we
 have had to correct ,thy work and hedge
 ,thee about with mystery1 or there     
would be few to believe4  ,and which of 
us has served mankind the better8  ,thy 
appeal was to the few strong souls4  ,we

 have cared for the weak4  ,many who    
would be disorderly and miserable have  
been made orderly and happy4 ,and now   
,thou art come to spoil our work and    
repeat ,thy great mistake in the        
wilderness by giving to men again ,thy  
fatal gift of freedom1 through trust in 
the power of love4 ,but it shall not be2
 for to-morrow ,i shall burn ,thee4     
,the ,grand ,inquisitor ceased2 and     
still the ,prisoner made no reply2 but  
,he rose from where ,he sat1 and crossed
 the cell1 and kissed the old man on his
 bloodless lips4  ,then the ,inquisitor 
too1 rose1 and opened the door2 ,go1 he 
said4  ,the ,prisoner passed out into   
the night and was not seen again4  ,and 
the old man8  ,that kiss burns in his   
heart4  ,but he has not altered his     
opinion or his practice4                
99,,lecture ,,ii99                      
99,,church ,,and ,,state99   ,he put all
 things in subjection under his feet1   
and gave him to be head over all things 
to the ,church1 which is his body1 the  

fulness of him that1 all in all1 is     
being fulfilled4--,ephesians i1 #bb1    
#bc4   ,if one of the great saints of   
the early ,church had been told that in 
the year #aiae the world would still be 
waiting for the final consummation1 and 
had tried to conceive the life of men   
and nations as it would be after that   
long period of ,christian influence1    
what would his conception have been8    
,surely he would have expected that all 
nations would be linked together in the 
,holy ,communion1 the ,fellowship of    
,saints4  ,roman1 ,spaniard1 ,african1  
,syrian1 those strange ,germans1 and the
 barbarous ,britons who lived in the    
remotest corner of the earth1 might have
 maintained their own varieties of      
culture1 but each would find his joy and
 pride in offering his contribution to  
the life of the whole family of nations4
 ,rooted in knowledge of the love of    
,god1 their life would grow luxuriantly 
and bear fruit in love of one another   
and service of the common cause4        

,inspiring each and knitting all        
together1 the ,holy ,catholic ,church1  
fulfilling itself in service of the     
world1 would gather up all this         
exuberance of life and love into itself1
 and present it to the ,god and ,father 
of mankind in unceasing adoration4  ,but
 the world in #aiae is not in the least 
like that4  ,the old man of our selfish 
nature1 selfish himself and therefore   
supposing that others must be selfish   
too1 so that he relies upon the methods 
of cajolery and coercion1 has indeed    
received the kiss of ,christ2 and while 
that kiss burns in his heart1 so that   
sometimes he is roused to an aspiration 
after an order of things altogether     
different1 his opinions and his conduct 
remain fundamentally unchanged4  ,and   
the contrast between what is and what   
might have been is due in part1 at      
least1 to the failure of the ,church to 
be true to its own commission4  ,it is  
also because of this that no practical  
man dreams of turning to the ,church to 

find the way out from the intolerable   
situation into which the nations have   
drifted4  ,an eminent politician is     
reported to have defined the ,church on 
a recent occasion in the following      
terms3 ,the ,church is1 ,i suppose1 a   
voluntary organisation for the          
maintenance of public worship in the    
interest of those who desire to join in 
it4  ,and it is to be feared that many  
people regard it in some such way as    
that4  ,but of course the ,church is    
nothing of the kind2 the ,church is the 
,body of ,christ4  ,it is not a         
voluntary organisation any more than my 
body is a voluntary organisation either 
of limbs or of cells4  ,no one could    
voluntarily join the ,church1 if by that
 were meant that the act originated in  
his own will4  ,no man can say ,jesus is
 ,lord1 but in the ,holy ,spirit4  ,a   
man cannot make himself a ,christian4   
,the ,apostles were made ,christian by  
,christ ,himself--,ye did not choose    
,me1 but ,i chose you2 others were made 

,christian by the ,apostles1 or 7as they
 always said7 by ,christ working in and 
through them2 and so successive         
generations have been made ,christian by
 the ,spirit of ,christ operative in the
 fellowship of ,his disciples--that is  
to say1 in the ,church4  ,this is the   
aspect of truth expressed and preserved 
in the practice of infant baptism4  ,we 
are ,christians1 if at all1 not through 
any act initiated by our own will1 but  
through our being received into the     
,christian fellowship and subjected to  
its influence4  ,just as we are born    
members of our family1 so by our        
reception into the fellowship of the    
disciples we are made members of        
,christ4  ,in the one case as in the    
other1 we may repudiate our membership  
or we may disgrace it2 we can never     
abolish it4  ,let me hasten in          
parenthesis to add1 that this is only   
one aspect of the truth1 and the protest
 of those who object to infant baptism  
will be a valuable force in the ,church1

 until we are finally secure against the
 temptation to regard a sacrament as a  
piece of magic4  ,for of course it is   
true that1 while no man can make himself
 a ,christian by his own will1 no man   
can be made a ,christian against or     
without his will4  ,it is precisely his 
will that the ,spirit must lay hold of  
and convert1 and the will can refuse    
conversion4    #a ,cor4 xii1 #c   ,s4   
,john xv1 #af4   ,the ,church1 then1 is 
not a voluntary organisation1 but the   
creation of ,god in ,christ4  ,in fact  
it is the one immediate result of our   
,lord's earthly ministry4  ,when ,his   
physical presence was withdrawn1 there  
remained in the world1 as fruit of ,his 
sojourn here1 no volume of writings1 no 
elaborated organisation with codified   
aims and methods1 but a group of people 
who were united to one another because  
,his ,spirit lived and worked in each4  
,and the great marvel lay in this3      
whereas all men realise that fellowship 
is better than rivalry1 and yet fail to 

pass from one to the other because they 
are radically selfish both individually 
and corporately1 in ,christ men found   
themselves to be a real community in    
spite of their as yet unpurged          
selfishness4  ,by the invasion of the   
,divine ,life in ,christ1 the ideal     
itself1 the life of fellowship1 is      
given1 and is made into the means of    
destroying just those qualities which   
had hitherto prevented its own          
realisation4  ,the ecclesiastical       
organisations of to-day are not         
fellowships of this sort1 but if the    
members of the ,church lose their hold  
on this central principle of fellowship1
 as they have largely done1 we are      
thrown back upon the futile effort to   
build up fellowship on the foundation of
 unredeemed selfishness4  ,as it is not 
true to say that the ,church is a       
voluntary organisation1 so also it is   
not true to say that it exists for the  
maintenance of public worship1 at least 
in the sense that most ,englishmen would

 give to the words4  ,certainly the     
,church1 consisting of men and women    
whom ,god of ,his sheer goodness has    
delivered from the power of darkness and
 translated into the kingdom of ,his    
dear ,son1 will find its first duty1 as 
also its first impulse1 in an           
abandonment of adoration4  ,but if the  
,god who is worshipped is not only some 
,jewish ,jehovah or ,mohammedan ,allah1 
but the ,god and ,father of our ,lord   
,jesus ,christ1 this love and adoration 
of ,god will immediately express itself 
in the love and service of men1 and     
especially in the passionate desire to  
share with others the supreme treasure  
of the knowledge of ,god4 ,the ,church1 
like its ,master1 will be chiefly       
concerned to seek and to save that which
 is lost1 calling men everywhere to     
repent because the ,kingdom of ,god is  
at hand4 ,worship is indeed the very    
breath of its life1 but service of the  
world is the business of its life4  ,it 
is the ,body of ,christ1 that is to say1

 the instrument of ,his will1 and ,his  
will is to save the world4  ,the        
spiritual life of men is not limited to 
this planet1 and the fulfilment of the  
,church's task can never be here alone4 
,the ,church must call men from temporal
 to eternal hopes4 ,but in this way it  
will do more than is possible in any    
other way to purify the temporal life   
itself4  ,for most temporal goods are   
such that the more one person has the   
less there is for others1 so that       
absorption in them leads inevitably to  
strife and war4  ,but the eternal       
goods--love1 joy1 peace1 loyalty1       
beauty1 knowledge--are such that the    
fuller fruition of them by one leads of 
itself to fuller fruition by others     
also1 and absorption in them leads      
without fail to brotherhood and         
fellowship4  ,it is not of worship1 the 
breath of the church's life1 but of     
service1 the business of its life1 that 
,i wish to speak4  ,but this can only be
 misleading if the other has not first  

been given prominence4  ,the ,church    
serves because it first worships4  ,only
 because it has in itself a foretaste of
 eternal life1 the realised ,kingdom of 
,god1 can it prepare the way of the     
,lord1 so that ,his ,kingdom may come on
 earth as it is in heaven4  ,one        
question which demands attention        
concerns the nature of the ,church which
 is to perform this function4  ,is it   
enough that there should be vast numbers
 of ,christian individuals gathering    
together in whatever way is proved by   
experience to be the most effective for 
edification1 pursuing their profession  
as ,christians1 and so gradually        
leavening life8  ,or is there need for a
 quite definite society1 with a coherent
 constitution and a known basis of      
membership8  ,the former has much to    
recommend it2 it avoids the deadening   
influence of a rigid machinery2 it      
ensures freedom of spiritual and        
intellectual development2 it may seem to
 correspond with that loosely           

constituted group of disciples1 which   
was1 as we have seen1 the actual fruit  
of the earthly ministry of ,christ4     
,yet it is condemned by all analogies1  
and is inadequate to the essential      
nature of religion4  ,all relevant      
analogy suggests that a spirit must take
 definite and concrete form before it   
can be effective in the world1 even as  
,god ,himself must become incarnate in  
order to establish ,his ,kingdom upon   
earth4  ,no doubt the form has often    
fettered the spirit and sometimes even  
perverted it2 the history of the        
,franciscan movement is an instance of  
this2 but the influence of ,st4 ,francis
 would never have done for ,europe what 
it actually accomplished if the ,order  
had not been founded4  ,one of the      
clearest illustrations of the principle 
is before our eyes in our experience    
to-day4  ,when the spirit of national   
patriotism makes its appeal1 no one has 
to make any effort to understand its    
claim2 our nation is a definite and     

concrete society in which we easily     
realise our membership to the full4  ,we
 know that there is no escaping from it1
 and that1 when it appeals for our      
service or our lives1 we must either    
respond or refuse4  ,but the ,christian 
,church1 as we know it1 is powerless to 
bring home its appeal in the same way4  
,largely because of its divisions and   
endless controversy about the points1   
secondary though important1 which       
separate the various sections1 it has   
become curiously impotent in the face of
 any great occasion such as the present1
 and curiously unsuccessful in          
persuading either its own members or the
 world outside of the nature of its     
mission4  ,we are not conscious1 for    
example1 that we are permanently either 
responding to1 or else refusing1 the    
appeal to preach the ,gospel to every   
creature4  ,that appeal does not hit us 
personally as does the appeal1 every fit
 man wanted4  ,our membership in the    
,church does not in fact make us feel a 

personal obligation to assist the cause 
of the ,church4  ,we are content to     
belong to it without admitting that it  
has any power to dispose of its         
belongings2 we think that we support it 
by going to church and contributing to  
church expenses4  ,but we feel no link  
with our fellow-,christians in ,germany 
at all comparable to that which binds us
 to an agnostic but patriotic           
,englishman1 or at all capable of       
bridging spontaneously the gulf fixed by
 national antagonism4  ,by a deliberate 
effort we can realise that we and they  
are equally precious in the sight of    
,god1 and that they are our             
fellow-members in ,christ4  ,but there  
is no realised bond of corporate unity  
that binds us to each other1 and we rely
 upon the very feeble resources of our  
personal good-will and personal faith   
for any sense of unity with them that we
 may attain4  ,the ,church is less      
powerful than the nation as an influence
 in our lives1 partly at least because  

it is in fact less actual4  ,the ,church
 universal1 whether as an organisation  
or as spirit of life1 is an ideal1 not a
 reality4  ,such an argument1 however1  
simply invites refutation4  ,it is      
pointed out that when the whole of one  
section of ,christendom was organised as
 a single religious community under the 
,pope1 men did1 as a mere matter of     
historical fact1 fight and hate even    
more bitterly than now4  ,a common      
membership in one ,catholic ,church did 
not prevent ,edward ,,iii4 and ,henry   
,v4 from making war upon their          
neighbours across the ,english ,channel4
 ,and at this moment ,roman ,catholic   
,frenchmen appear to be fighting against
 ,roman ,catholic ,bavarians with no    
more signs of fellowship between the    
opponents than appear in other parts of 
the field of war4 ,so far as the ,church
 is organised as a unity1 this does not1
 in fact1 create unity of spirit in its 
members sufficient to mitigate national 
antagonisms4  ,and this1 it will be     

urged1 is only to be expected4  ,the    
wind bloweth where it listeth1 and      
machinery cannot control the spirit4    
,it is only a personal faith in ,christ 
that will lift men above natural        
divisions so that they spontaneously    
recognise as brothers those who have    
similar faith4  ,to build up again a    
great ecclesiastical organisation which 
shall include all ,europe1 or even all  
the world1 will not of itself create    
friendship between the members who      
compose it if otherwise they are        
antagonistic4  ,individual conversion1  
not ecclesiastical statesmanship1 is the
 one thing needful2 nothing can take its
 place4  ,no2 of course nothing can take
 its place4 ,and of course an           
all-comprehensive lukewarm ,church will 
share the fate of its smaller           
counterpart at ,laodicea4  ,when it is  
said that the ,universal ,church is not 
a reality1 it is not only the absence of
 a world-wide organisation that is      
deplored2 still worse is the total      

absence of any typical manner of life by
 which members of the ,church may be    
known from others4  ,men die for ,great 
,britain1 not because ,britain is a     
united kingdom1 but because there is a  
definite ,british character which is    
ours and which we love4  ,but there is  
no specifically ,christian type of      
character actually distinguishing       
members of the ,church from others which
 may make men ready to die for          
,christendom4  ,christians differ from  
others1 as ,spinoza bitterly remarked1  
not in faith or charity or any of the   
fruits of the ,spirit1 but only in      
opinion4  ,assuredly individual         
conversion is the primary requisite4    
,but half our troubles come from these  
absurd dilemmas4  ,do you believe in    
faith or in organisation8  ,well2 do ,i 
believe in my eyes or my ears8 ,why not 
in both8 ,of course organisation cannot 
take the place of faith2 of course faith
 without order is better than order     
without faith4  ,but why cannot we have 

in the ,church what we have got in the  
nation faith operative through order as 
loyalty is operative through the ,state 
and in service to it8  ,the earlier     
objection1 however1 is equally serious4 
,catholicism has failed in the past and 
is failing now4  ,one main ground of its
 failure is to be found1 ,i believe1 in 
its inadequate recognition of           
nationality1 which has avenged itself by
 almost ousting ,catholicism1 and with  
it ,christianity itself1 where national 
interests are concerned4    ,i am       
speaking throughout of the ,western     
,church3 the ,eastern ,church has       
perhaps been1 if anything1 too national4
   ,this failure to give adequate       
recognition to nationality arises from  
too exclusive emphasis on the principle 
which is1 quite rightly1 the root idea  
of ,catholicism--the idea of            
transcendence4 ,here in the last resort 
is the fundamental distinction between  
naturalism and religion2 naturalism may 
take a form which stimulates the        

religious emotions and supports a high  
ethical ideal2 but it confines itself to
 the limits of secular experience4  ,for
 naturalism the history of man and of   
the universe is the starting-point and  
the goal2 this as fact is the datum1    
this as understood is the solution4 ,the
 ,will of ,god1 on this view1 is to be  
discovered from the empirical course and
 tendency of history4  ,but religion    
begins with ,god2 it breaks in upon what
 we ordinarily call experience from     
outside2 in its monotheistic form it    
regards the world as created by ,god for
 ,his own pleasure1 and lasting only    
during that pleasure2 in its pantheistic
 form it regards the world as a phase or
 a moment of ,his ,being which is by no 
means limited to that phase or moment4  
,its philosophy does not elaborately    
conceive what ,god must be like in order
 to be the solution of our perplexities1
 but1 starting with the assurance of    
,his ,being and ,nature1 shows how this 
is in fact the answer to all our needs4 

,it is one peculiarity and glory of     
,christianity that it unites both of    
those4  ,its faith is fixed upon ,one   
who for us men and for our salvation    
came down from heaven1 and who is yet   
the eternal ,word through which all     
things were made1 the indwelling        
principle of all existence4             
,transcendence and immanence are here   
perfectly combined4 ,but because the    
former is the distinctively religious   
element1 without which the latter would 
have been in danger of relapsing into   
naturalism1 the deliberate emphasis was 
all laid on transcendence4  ,we can see1
 as we look back1 that when once the    
,incarnation has actually taken place   
upon the plane of history1 it makes no  
jot of difference in logic1 provided    
only that the ,life of the ,incarnate is
 taken as the starting-point and centre 
of thought1 whether terms of            
transcendence or of immanence are used4 
,the life of ,christ is at once the     
irruption of the ,divine into the       

world--7for the previous history of the 
world certainly does not explain        
it7--and is also the manifestation of   
the indwelling power which had all along
 sustained the world4  ,in other words1 
the ,god who redeems is the same ,god   
who creates and sustains4 ,but it is    
still true that the note of             
transcendence1 of something given to man
 by ,god as distinct from something     
emerging out of man in his search of    
,god1 is the specifically religious     
note4  ,and the ,church1 as the divine  
creation and instrument1 shares and must
 express this character4  ,it must be so
 constituted as to keep alive this      
faith4  ,that is the meaning of         
hierarchies and sacraments4  ,whether   
any given order is the most adequate    
that can be designed1 is of course a    
perfectly legitimate question4  ,but    
every order that aspires to be catholic 
aims1 at least1 at expressing the truth 
that religion is a gift of ,god1 and not
 a discovery of man4  ,and certainly it 

is only the gift of ,god that can be    
truly catholic or universal4  ,man's    
discoveries are indefinitely various2   
the ,european finds one thing1 the ,arab
 another1 the ,hindu yet another1 and   
none finds satisfaction in the other's  
discovery1 though in all of them ,god is
 operative4  ,only in ,his own gift of  
,himself is it reasonable to expect that
 all men will find what they need2 only 
in a ,church which is the vehicle of    
this gift1 and is known to be this1 and 
not a mutual benefit society organised  
by its own members for their several and
 collective advantage--only in a ,church
 expressive of ,divine transcendence can
 all nations find a home4  ,yet just    
because of a too one-sided emphasis on  
this truth1 the ,catholic ,church in the
 ,west has1 as a rule1 not tried to be a
 home for nations at all4  ,christianity
 separated religion from patriotism for 
every nation which became1 and which    
remained1 ,christian4  ,patriotism is   
particular2 religion ought to be        

universal4 ,the nation is a natural     
growth2 the ,church is a divine         
creation4  ,and so the primitive ,church
 was organised in complete independence 
of national life1 except in so far as   
its diocesan divisions followed national
 or provincial boundaries4  ,no doubt   
the conditions of its existence made    
this almost necessary1 for the organised
 secular life of the ,roman ,empire     
refused to tolerate it4  ,but it was its
 own principle1 true indeed but not the 
whole truth1 which led to this line of  
development4 ,the same principle is     
apparent in the ,middle ,ages1 when     
there was no external pressure4 ,the    
,church1 as it was conceived in the     
sublime ideal of ,hildebrand1 was to    
belong to no nation1 because supreme    
over them all1 binding them together in 
the obedience and love of ,christ1 and  
imposing upon them ,his holy will4      
,war and ,religion in ,the ,times       
,literary ,supplement1 ,dec4 #ca1 #aiad4
   ,the inevitable result of this was   

that the instinct of nationality was    
never christened at all4  ,it remained a
 brute instinct1 without either the     
sanction or the restraint of religion4  
,but it could not be crushed1 and so the
 ,church let it alone2 with the result  
that1 though murder was regarded as a   
sin1 a war of dynastic or national      
ambition was not by people generally    
considered sinful4  ,no doubt           
theologians condemned such war in       
general terms2 ,st4 ,thomas ,aquinas1   
for instance1 seems to regard as fully  
justified only such wars as are         
undertaken to protect others from       
oppression1 and some of the greatest    
,popes made heroic efforts to govern    
national policy according to            
righteousness4 ,but in the general      
judgment of the ,church1 international  
action was not subjected to ,christian  
standards of judgment at all4  ,this way
 of regarding the ,church sometimes     
leads people to speak of alternative    
loyalties so that they ask1 ,ought ,i to

 be loyal to my ,church or to my nation8
  ,and while faith and reason will      
combine to answer ,to my ,church1 an    
imperious instinct will lead most men in
 actual fact to answer ,to my nation4   
,the attempt to exalt the ,church to an 
unconditional supremacy has the actual  
result of making men ignore it when its 
guidance is most needed4  ,whatever     
truth there may be in the statement that
 the ,reformation was in part due to the
 growing sentiment of nationality1 is   
evidence of the failure of the old      
,catholic ,church in this matter4  ,in  
,england at any rate one main source of 
the popular ,protestantism was the      
objection to anything like a foreign    
domination4  ,no doubt the political    
ambitions of the ,papacy were largely   
responsible for the feeling that the    
,catholic ,church brought with it a     
foreign yoke4  ,but the whole principle 
of the ,church as non-national          
necessarily meant that the ,church was  
regarded as imposing ,christian         

standards rather than permeating        
national life with them4  ,the ,church  
tended to ignore the spiritual function 
of the ,state altogether1 claiming all  
spiritual activity for itself alone2 and
 thus it tended to make the ,state in   
actual fact unspiritual1 and involved   
itself in the necessity of attempting   
what only the ,state can do4  ,it thus  
not only tended to weaken the moral     
power of the ,state1 but also forsook   
its own supernatural function to        
exercise those of the magistrate or     
judge1 so that faith in the power of    
,god was never put to a full test4  ,the
 ,reformation was not only a moral and  
spiritual reform of the ,church1 but the
 uprising of the nations1 now growing   
fully conscious of their national life1 
against the cosmopolitan rule of ,rome4 
,but the ,reformation did not fully     
realise its task4 ,it expressed itself  
indeed in national ,churches1 but in    
actual doctrine tended to individualism2
 whereas ,catholicism laid emphasis on  

religion as the gift of ,god1           
,protestantism1 at least in its later   
development1 laid stress on the         
individual's apprehension of the gift4  
,but not only the individual--everything
 that is human1 family1 school1 guild1  
trade union1 nation1 needs to apprehend 
and appropriate the gift of ,god4  ,the 
nation1 too1 must be christened and     
submit to transforming grace4  ,the     
uprising of the national spirit has had 
the deplorable result of contributing to
 the break-up of ,christendom1 but it is
 not in itself deplorable at all4  ,all 
civilisation has in fact progressed by  
the development of different            
nationalities1 each with its own type4  
,if we believe in a ,divine ,providence1
 if we believe that the life of ,christ 
is not only the irruption of the ,divine
 into human history but is also and     
therein the manifestation of the        
governing principle of all history1 we  
shall confess that the nation as well as
 the ,church is a divine ,creation4     

,the ,church is here to witness to the  
ideal and to guide the world towards it1
 but the world is by divine appointment 
a world of nations1 and it is such a    
world that is to become the ,kingdom of 
,god4 ,moreover1 if it is by ,god's     
appointment that nations exist1 their   
existence must itself be an instrument  
of that divine purpose which the ,church
 also serves4  ,the whole course of     
,biblical revelation supports this view4
  ,it is quite true that if we were to  
read the ,new ,testament for the first  
time1 knowing nothing whatever about the
 ,old1 we should come to the conclusion 
that it almost entirely ignored         
nationality and everything which goes   
with it4  ,but then the ,church has     
always maintained that the ,new         
,testament grows by an organic life out 
of the ,old1 and presupposes it2 and    
when we go back to that1 there can be no
 doubt whatever about its view of       
nationality4  ,the whole of the early   
books of the ,old ,testament are        

concerned with this1 and almost nothing 
else4  ,the task of ,moses in the       
wilderness1 of ,joshua1 of the ,judges  
and the early ,kings1 is precisely to   
fashion ,israel into a nation4  ,so much
 is all attention concentrated upon this
 that we find a contentment with that   
contraction of the moral outlook which  
presents to many modern readers the     
chief stumbling block about the ,old    
,testament4  ,almost everything that was
 serviceable to ,israel is approved4    
,rahab is guilty of sheer treason to her
 own city of ,jericho1 but it is        
serviceable to ,israel1 and there is no 
word of condemnation4  ,jael is guilty  
of a very treacherous murder1 but it was
 serviceable to ,israel1 so ,blessed    
shall she be above women in the tent4   
,everything is concentrated upon this   
primary object of fashioning ,israel    
into a nation and persuading individual 
,israelites to put the welfare of the   
whole before the interest and ambition  
of their own clique or faction2 and when

 the time came for an advance to a wider
 view1 it came precisely not by way of  
saying that national divisions do not   
matter and that national life itself is 
unimportant1 but by insisting that      
nationality is equally precious in these
 other nations all around ,israel as it 
is within ,israel itself4  ,the turning 
point here as in so much else in the    
,old ,testament is the ,book of ,amos1  
the first of the written prophecies4    
,it is worth while to try to imagine the
 effect of those opening clauses4  ,the 
prophet begins by securing a willing    
hearing from those to whom he writes3 in
 other words he begins by abusing their 
neighbours4       ,thus saith the ,lord3
 ,for three transgressions of ,damascus1
 yea     for four1 ,i will not turn away
 the punishment thereof4444      ,thus  
saith the ,lord3 ,for three             
transgressions of ,gaza1 yea for        
four1 ,i will not turn away the         
punishment thereof4444      ,thus saith 
the ,lord3 ,for three transgressions of 

,tyre1 yea for     four1 ,i will not    
turn away the punishment thereof4444    
,thus saith the ,lord3 ,for three       
transgressions of ,edom1 yea for        
four1 ,i will not turn away the         
punishment thereof4444      ,thus saith 
the ,lord3 ,for three transgressions of 
the children     of ,ammon1 yea for     
four1 ,i will not turn away the         
punishment     thereof4444      ,thus   
saith the ,lord3 ,for three             
transgressions of ,moab1 yea for        
four1 ,i will not turn away the         
punishment thereof4444   ,and then1     
without a change of phrase1 without even
 the compliment of a heightened         
denunciation--       ,thus saith the    
,lord3 ,for three transgressions of     
,judah1 yea for     four1 ,i will not   
turn away the punishment thereof4444    
,thus saith the ,lord3 ,for three       
transgressions of ,israel1 yea     for  
four1 ,i will not turn away the         
punishment thereof4444    ,amos i1      
#c-;ii1 #f4   ,it would be impossible   

more emphatically to insist that all    
nations1 ,israel and the rest1 stand on 
an equal footing before the ,judgment   
,seat of ,god1 and are to be regarded as
 real entities1 and real moral agents2  
but that is not enough for the prophet4 
,are ye not as ,children of the         
,ethiopians unto me1 ,o children of     
,israel8--saith the ,lord4   ,i have no 
more care for you than the              
,ethiopians--who then1 as now1 were     
black folk4       ,have not ,i brought  
up ,israel out of the land of ,egypt1   
and     the ,philistines from ,caphtor1 
and the ,syrians from ,kir8    ,amos ix1
 #g4   ,it is the ,god who had guided   
the history of ,israel who has equally  
guided the history of the despised      
,philistine and the hated ,syrian4  ,and
 this line of thought reaches its       
culmination where we should expect to   
find it1 in the works of the            
statesman-prophet ,isaiah4  ,his little 
country of ,judah was likely to be      
destroyed by the hostilities of ,assyria

 and ,egypt1 and in the middle of that  
peril1 when these nations were at each  
other's throats1 he looks forward and   
says3--       ,in that day there shall  
be a highway out of ,egypt to ,assyria  
and the ,assyrian shall come into       
,egypt1 and the ,egyptian to            
,assyria2 and the ,egyptians shall      
worship with the ,assyrians4   ,there   
shall be free intercourse between them1 
and worship of the one ,god shall be the
 link between them4       ,in that day  
shall ,israel be the third with ,egypt  
and with     ,assyria1 a blessing in the
 midst of the earth1 for that the ,lord 
of hosts hath blessed them1 saying1     
',blessed be ,egypt my people1     and  
,assyria the work of my hands1 and      
,israel mine     inheritance8'          
,isaiah xix1 #bc-be4   ,just picture the
 pallid frenzy of the orthodox ,jew at  
the words--,egypt my people4  ,the      
teaching of the ,bible is plain enough2 
and as we come to the ,new ,testament1  
with all this in our minds1 knowing the 

emphasis that has already been laid upon
 nationality1 we find that there1 too1  
is the note of patriotism4  ,no man has 
ever loved his nation more than the     
,lord loved ,israel1 and in the         
bitterness of disappointment in the     
lament over ,jerusalem we have the      
measure of ,his patriotic love for the  
holy places of ,his people4  ,st4 ,paul1
 the author of those great              
ejaculations--,that there can be neither
 ,jew nor ,gentile1 ,greek nor          
,scythian1 bond nor free1 but one man in
 ,christ ,jesus--is also the author of  
the most ardent expression of patriotism
 in all literature4    ,gal4 iii1 #bh2  
,col4 iii1 #aa4       ,i say the truth  
in ,christ1 ,i lie not1 my conscience   
bearing     witness with me in the ,holy
 ,ghost1 that ,i have great sorrow and  
unceasing pain in my heart4  ,for ,i    
could wish that myself were     accursed
 from ,christ for my brethren's sake1 my
 kinsmen     according to the flesh2 who
 are ,israelites1 whose is the          

adoption1 and the glory1 and the        
covenants1 and the giving of     the    
law1 and the service of ,god1 and the   
promises2 whose are the     patriarchs1 
and of whom is ,christ as concerning the
 flesh4    ,rom4 ix1 #a-e4   ,one can   
almost hear him panting as he dictates  
the words4  ,the ,bible1 then1 strongly 
insists upon the nation as existing by  
divine appointment1 and it looks        
forward1 not to the abolition of        
national distinctions1 but to the       
inclusion of all nations in the family  
of nations4  ,so it was well that       
nationality should insist upon itself   
within the sphere of religion in the    
movement that we call the ,reformation4 
,but it left us with a broken           
,christendom1 and with what are called  
national ,churches4  ,the old ,church   
endeavoured to tyrannise over the       
,state2 under the influence of the      
,reformation the ,state tended to       
tyrannise over the ,church4 ,then comes 
a movement towards a free ,church in a  

free ,state2 but we shall only find     
satisfaction when we have a free ,state 
in a free ,church4  ,the nation is a    
natural growth with a spiritual         
significance4  ,it emerges as a product 
of various elementary needs of man2 but 
having emerged it is found to possess a 
value far beyond the satisfaction of    
these needs4  ,the ,church is a         
spiritual creation working through a    
natural medium4  ,its informing         
principle is the ,holy ,spirit of ,god  
in ,christ1 but its members are men and 
women who are partly animal in nature as
 well as children of ,god4  ,the nation 
as organised for action is the ,state2  
and the ,state1 being natural1 appeals  
to men on that side of their nature     
which is lower but is not in itself bad4
  ,justice is its highest aim and force 
its typical instrument1 though force is 
progressively less employed as the moral
 sense of the community develops3 mercy 
can find an entrance only on strict     
conditions4  ,the ,church1 on the other 

hand1 is primarily spiritual2 holiness  
is its primary quality2 mercy will be   
the chief characteristic of its         
judgments1 but it may fall back on      
justice and even1 in the last resort1 on
 force4  ,both ,state and ,church are   
instruments of ,god for establishing    
,his ,kingdom2 both have the same goal2 
but they have different functions in    
relation to that goal4    ,see ,appendix
 ,,ii43 ,on ,moral ,authority4   ,the   
,state's action for the most part takes 
the form of restraint2 the ,church's    
mainly that of appeal4  ,the ,state is  
concerned to maintain the highest       
standard of life that can be generally  
realised by its citizens2 the ,church is
 concerned with upholding an ideal to   
which not even the best will fully      
attain4 ,when a man reaches a certain   
pitch of development1 he scarcely       
realises the pressure of the ,state1    
though he is still unconsciously upheld 
by the moral judgment of society2 but he
 can never outgrow the demand of the    

,church4 ,on the other hand1 if a man is
 below a certain standard1 the appeal of
 the ,church will not hold him and he   
needs the support of the ,state's       
coercion4  ,neither ,state nor ,church  
is itself the ,kingdom of ,god1 though  
the specific life of the ,church is the 
very spirit and power of that ,kingdom4 
,each plays its part in building the    
,kingdom1 in which1 when it comes1 force
 will have disappeared1 while justice   
and mercy will coalesce in the perfect  
love which will treat every individual  
according to his need4  ,the ,church    
which1 officially at least1 ignored     
nationality has failed4 ,the ,church    
which allowed itself to become little   
more than the organ of national religion
 has failed4  ,the hope of the future   
lies in a truly international ,church1  
which shall fully respect the rights of 
nations and recognise the spiritual     
function of the ,state1 thereby         
obtaining the right to direct the       
national ,states along the path which   

leads to the ,kingdom of ,god4  ,we are 
all clear by now that the ,christian    
,church cannot be made the servant of   
one nation2 we must become equally clear
 that it cannot be regarded as standing 
apart from them1 so that in becoming a  
,churchman a man is withdrawn in some   
degree from national loyalty4  ,we must 
get rid of the idea of alternative      
loyalties4  ,the ,church is indeed the  
herald and the earnest of that ,kingdom 
of ,god which includes all mankind2 but 
unless all history is a mere aberration1
 that ,kingdom will have nations for its
 provinces1 and nations like individuals
 will realise their destiny by becoming 
members of it4  ,we shall1 then1        
conceive the relation of the nation to  
the ,church on the analogy of that      
between the family and the nation4      
,there is in principle no conflict of   
interest or loyalty here4  ,the family  
is a part of the nation1 owing          
allegiance to it2 but the nation        
consists of families and can reach its  

welfare only through theirs4  ,so the   
nation 7in proportion as it is          
,christian7 must learn to regard itself 
as a member of the family of nations in 
the ,catholic ,church4  ,no doubt in    
this imperfect world there is often a   
conflict of supposed interests1 and     
sometimes even of real interests4       
,moreover1 there is often room for doubt
 as to where the true interest lies4    
,but the family finds its own true      
welfare in the service of the nation1   
and the nation finds its own welfare in 
the service of the ,kingdom of ,god4    
,the ,catholic ,church1 which is itself 
not yet a society of just men made      
perfect1 while upholding the ideal of   
brotherhood and the love which kills    
hate by suffering at its hands1 and     
while calling both men and nations to   
penitence and renewed aspiration in so  
far as they fail to reach that ideal1   
will none the less recognise the        
divinity of the nation in spite of all  
its failures4  ,it will not call upon   

men to come out from their nation or    
separate themselves from its action1    
unless it believes that then and there  
the nation itself is capable of         
something better1 or unless the nation  
requires of them a repudiation of the   
very spirit of ,christ1 or an action    
intrinsically immoral4  ,if it is doing 
the best that at the moment it is       
capable of doing1 the ,church will bid  
its citizens support it in that act1    
lest the nation be weakened in its      
defence of the right or its control     
handed over to those who have no care   
for the right4  ,the ,church then must  
recognise the nation having a certain   
function in the divine providence with  
reference to man's spiritual life4  ,it 
must not try to usurp the ,state's      
functions1 for if it does it will       
perform them badly1 and it will         
also--which is far more serious--be     
deserting the work for which it alone is
 competent2 and the ,state must1 in its 
turn1 recognise the ,church as the      

,society of ,nations1 of which it with  
all others is a member4  ,nothing but   
such a spiritual society can secure     
fellowship among nations4  ,schemes of  
arbitration1 conciliation1 international
 police and the like1 presuppose1 if    
they are to be effective1 an admitted   
community of interest between the       
nations4  ,but this must be not only    
admitted but believed in sufficiently to
 prompt a nation which has no interest  
in a particular dispute to make         
sacrifices for the general good1 by     
spending blood and treasure in upholding
 the authority of the international     
court or council4  ,what will secure    
this1 except the realisation of common  
membership in the ,kingdom of ,god1 and 
in the ,christian ,church1 its herald   
and earnest8  ,and yet the ,church we   
know is not only divided but at war     
within itself4 ,this1 the ,creation of  
,god in ,christ1 is not more free from  
strife and faction than the nations1    
which are natural growths4  ,if grace   

fails1 how can nature succeed8  ,why    
should we expect the nations of the     
world to be at peace1 when the sections 
of the ,church are at war8  ,because the
 ,church is so far from what we hope it 
may become1 we can only sketch that     
future ,church in outline4  ,its        
building will be the work of years1     
perhaps of centuries4 ,and probably     
enough our attempt will fail as         
,hildebrand's failed2 probably enough   
there will be scores of failures2 but   
each time we must begin again in order  
that for ,christ and ,his ,spirit a     
,body may be prepared1 through which    
,his purpose may in the end of the ages 
find its accomplishment1 and the nations
 of the earth bring their glory--each   
its own--into ,his ,holy ,city4  ,there 
is the goal2 dimly enough seen2 but the 
method is perfectly plain4 ,thomas saith
 unto ,him1 ,lord1 we know not whither  
,thou goest2 how know we the way8       
,jesus saith unto him1 ,i am the way4   
,and when that way led to the ,cross1   

beside the innocent ,sufferer there were
 two others4  ,one cried to ,him1 ,save 
,thyself and us2 the other recognised   
,his royalty in that utmost humiliation 
and prayed1 ,jesus1 remember me when    
,thou comest in ,thy ,kingdom4  ,he1 and
 he alone in the four ,gospels1 is      
recorded to have addressed the ,lord by 
,his personal name4 ,penitence creates  
intimacy1 whether it be offered to ,god 
or to man4  ,we have been made very     
conscious of the burden of the world's  
pain and sin1 though perhaps that       
burden1 as ,god bears it1 is no heavier 
now than in our selfish and worldly     
peace4  ,will the ,church pray to ,him1 
,save ,thyself and us8 or will it       
willingly suffer with ,him1 united with 
,him in the intimacy of penitence1      
seeing ,his royalty in ,his crown of    
thorns8 ,will it1 while bidding men     
bravely do their duty as they see it1   
still say that the real treasures are   
not of this world though they may in    
part be possessed here1 suffering       

whatever may be the penalty for this    
unpopular testimony8  ,for the kingdoms 
of this world will become the ,kingdom  
of our ,god and of ,his ,christ only    
when the citizens of those kingdoms lay 
up their treasure in heaven and not upon
 the earth1 only when1 being risen with 
,christ1 they set their affection on    
things above--love1 joy1 peace1 loyalty1
 beauty1 knowledge--only when they      
realise their fellowship in ,his ,body  
so that their fellowship also in ,his   
,holy ,spirit may purge their           
selfishness away4  ,here is field enough
 for heroism and the moral equivalent of
 war4  ,the ,church is to be transformed
 and become a band of people united in  
their indifference to personal success  
or national expansion1 and caring only  
that the individual is pure in heart and
 the nation honourable4  ,in her zeal   
for that purity and honour1 and in her  
contempt for all else1 she may have to  
suffer crucifixion4  ,it is a big risk  
that the ,church must run2 for if she   

does not save the world she will have   
ruined it1 besides sacrificing herself4 
,if there is no ,god nor ,holy ,city of 
,god1 the ,church will have just spoilt 
life for all her faithful members1 and  
in some degree for every one else as    
well4  ,but if her vision is true1 then 
everything is worth while--rather the   
greatness of the sacrifice is an        
addition to the joy when the prize is so
 unimaginably great4 ,can we bring this 
spirit into the ,church8 ,on our answer 
depends the course of history in the    
next century1 and a new stage in the    
,coming of the ,lord4      ,the ,spirit 
and the ,bride say1 ,come4     ,and he  
that heareth1 let him say1 ,come4       
,yea3 ,i come quickly4       ,amen3     
come1 ,lord ,jesus4                     
99,,lecture ,,iii99                     
99,,justice ,,and ,,liberty ,,in ,,the  
,,state99   ,think not that ,i came to  
destroy the law or the prophets3 ,i came
 not to destroy but to fulfil4--,s4     
,matthew v41 #ag4   ,i4--,in the last   

lecture ,i said that justice would seem 
to be the typical virtue of the ,state1 
as holiness of the ,church4  ,let us1   
then1 first consider this virtue of     
justice in the light of our ,lord's     
teaching concerning one of the most     
familiar aspects of justice--its penal  
aspect4  ,those sayings that have of    
late given rise to so many searchings of
 heart among ,christians--the sayings   
about turning the other cheek and the   
rest--are given by our ,lord as         
explanations of the saying that ,he came
 not to destroy the law but to fulfil   
it4  ,the words to fulfil of course mean
 not only to obey and carry out1 but to 
complete4  ,in what sense is this       
teaching of our ,lord the completion of 
the law8 ,for the law of ,moses1 like   
every other law1 was concerned with     
regulating the relations of men to one  
another1 as well as their duties towards
 ,god2 and it enforced what it enjoined 
by penalties4  ,at first sight no doubt 
it looks as if ,he were directly        

contradicting what had been said to them
 of old time--       ,ye have heard that
 it was said1 ,an eye for an eye1 and a 
tooth     for a tooth3 but ,i say unto  
you1 ,that ye resist not him that is    
evil2 but whosoever smites thee on thy  
right cheek1 turn to him     the other  
also1 and if any man will sue thee at   
the law1 and     take away thy coat1 let
 him have thy cloak also4   ,how is this
 the fulfilment or completion of the    
,mosaic or any other law8 ,at this      
distance of time1 it is hard to remember
 what was the original significance of  
the law of retaliation4 ,we are inclined
 to think that the words an eye for an  
eye and a tooth for a tooth are intended
 to give a licence to that degree of    
vindictiveness2 but on the contrary1 in 
the primitive stage in which that       
enactment was given1 it was not a       
licence given to man's instinct for     
vengeance1 but a limitation set upon    
that primitive and animal instinct1     
whose natural tendency1 if unchecked1 is

 to take two eyes for an eye and a set  
of teeth for a tooth4  ,the lex talionis
 said--,only an eye for an eye1 and only
 a tooth for a tooth4  ,our ,lord       
carries the same principle further2 not 
even that degree of vindictiveness is   
allowed4  ,the first necessity was to   
put bounds upon man's natural and almost
 insatiable lust for vengeance4  ,the   
next was to tell him that the whole     
method of vengeance could never succeed 
in what is its only really justifiable  
aim4  ,for what is the true function of 
the law1 whether that of ,moses or any  
other8  ,it is always two-fold2 it must 
always aim not merely at checking the   
evil act1 but at converting1 if         
possible1 the evil will4  ,there has    
never1 ,i suppose1 been any legal system
 which was not justified by its         
upholders on this ground4  ,no one is   
really content1 to think that the       
punishment which he inflicts1 or may    
imagine himself as inflicting through   
the agency of the ,state1 or in any     

other way1 is purely deterrent2 he      
always thinks it will also be           
reformative4  ,but1 how are you as a    
matter of fact to attack the evil will8 
,the mere infliction of penalty will not
 of any necessity achieve this goal at  
all4  ,we know that it is very seriously
 debated whether our whole system of    
punishment in the civilised ,states of  
to-day has any really moral effect1 at  
least upon those who fall under its most
 severe penalties4 ,probably most       
convicts leave prison worse men than    
when they entered4 ,for if a man is     
below a certain level in moral          
attainment1 pain1 far from purifying1   
only brutalises and coarsens4  ,it is   
only those who are already far in the   
path of spiritual growth who are        
purified by suffering1 even as the      
,captain of our ,salvation was thus made
 perfect4 ,but it is still true that the
 aim of all penal law is twofold2 to    
check the evil act and1 if possible1 to 
convert the evil will4  ,now1 as ,i     

suggested previously1 mere restraint may
 have indirectly a positive moral value2
 as for example in the case of a child1 
who is potentially of very diverse      
characters4 ,he has the capacity to grow
 in many different directions1 and it   
will depend very much upon his          
surroundings1 and the influences which  
play upon his character1 whether this   
set of instincts or that receives       
development2 and here merely to keep    
forcibly within bounds the development  
of certain impulses1 which tend to grow 
out of proportion to the proper harmony 
and economy of nature1 may indirectly   
have the effect of preserving that      
harmony and thus develop genuine virtue 
in the soul4  ,and again1 with those    
whose characters are relatively formed1 
the direct restraint1 for example1 of   
,state action may have positive moral   
value1 inasmuch as it is the expression 
of the moral judgment of ,society4 ,what
 most of us would shrink from1 if we    
were in danger of imprisonment1 would   

not be the physical inconvenience1 which
 is not very great1 but the fact that we
 should have brought ourselves under the
 censure of ,society1 and acted in such 
a way as to put ourselves below the     
level which ,society generally considers
 itself justified in enforcing4  ,and so
 the purely restraining influence of the
 ,state1 even operating through force1  
may have a positive moral value1 because
 it represents1 and is the only way at  
present devised of representing1 the    
judgment of ,society1 and to shrink from
 the judgment of ,society is1 so far as 
it goes1 a really moral fear4 ,it is not
 indeed the highest ground for the      
avoidance of evil1 but it is a moral    
ground1 for it arises from our          
recognition of our fellow-membership in 
,society with those whose censure we    
fear4  ,but the ,state in all its       
actions is of necessity mechanical1 and 
cannot take account of the individual1  
and all that makes him what he is4 ,the 
,state officer cannot know the prisoner 

in such a way as really to determine the
 treatment allotted to him in the light 
of what is best for his spiritual       
welfare2 and therefore he has to fall   
back upon rough and ready rules which   
will never be perhaps very far from the 
right treatment1 though they may fail to
 allot the ideal treatment in any single
 case4 ,and here1 in parenthesis1 let me
 just mention that this is the chief    
reason why metaphors and comparisons    
drawn from the law-courts are so sadly  
misleading when used to illustrate the  
relation between the human soul and     
,god2 our only fear of the judge is     
concerned with what he will do to us2   
but what we fear with our father1 on    
earth or in ,heaven1 is not so much what
 he will do to us1 as the pain we have  
caused--,there is mercy with ,thee2     
therefore shalt ,thou be feared4  ,our  
,lord's method is the only one that aims
 straight at the evil will2 it is the   
only method which has in it any real    
hope of converting the individual4  ,it 

may fail time and again2 but it is the  
only one that has a chance of real and  
absolute success4  ,let us look for a   
moment at the instances which ,he       
chooses to illustrate the principle1 and
 we shall see at once that they are     
carefully chosen4 ,all the acts chosen  
are such as are particularly vexatious  
to the ordinary natural and selfish     
man--being struck in the face2 having a 
vexatious suit brought against one2     
being pestered by a beggar2 being       
compelled to do something for the public
 service when we are busy4 ,those are   
just the things which the natural man   
resents and which the real ,christian   
will not mind at all4  ,for1 after all1 
there is no real injury in being struck 
in the face1 or having one's coat taken 
away4 ,what one minds is the insult to  
one's precious dignity2 and the         
,christian who1 by definition1 has      
forgotten all about himself will not    
mind such injuries at all4  ,therefore  
if the acts commanded are spontaneously 

done and not done with a laborious      
conscientiousness--that is to say if    
they are done in the spirit of          
,christianity1 and not in the spirit of 
,pharisaism--they will express a        
complete conversion in the will of him  
who does them2 they will express        
absolute conquest of self1 and a concern
 solely for the welfare of him with whom
 we are dealing2 and there is no heart  
yet made that can resist the appeal of  
love which is constant in spite of every
 betrayal1 the appeal of trust which is 
renewed in spite of endless             
disappointments4  ,he that loveth his   
brother--says ,st4 ,john--walketh in the
 light4  ,he is the man who knows where 
he is going1 because he is the man who  
understands people and sees into their  
hearts4  ,they will reveal to him       
secrets of their nature1 which they will
 hide from the contemptuous and         
indifferent2 and even if at first he is 
from time to time disappointed and      
betrayed1 in the end his method will    

succeed1 because love and trust create  
what they believe in4  ,the justice     
then1 which we find at work in the      
,state1 is always a provisional thing   
pointing us to something more1 something
 which the ,state itself by its very    
constitution is unable to provide1 but  
which ,god provides in ,christ1 and will
 enable us in our measure to provide1 if
 we are faithful1 at least in the circle
 of our immediate activities1 so far1   
that is1 as the range of our sympathy   
will carry us4  ,,ii4--,the value of the
 justice which the ,state is able to    
secure actually resides for the most    
part in the liberty which it makes      
possible4 ,justice1 as the ,state       
interprets it1 is of itself1 as far as  
,i can see1 almost totally valueless4   
,i can see no kind of advantage in      
merely allotting so much pain to so much
 evil4  ,there is moral evil in a man   
and you put physical evil into him as   
well4  ,i do not see how you have made  
him or anyone else the better4  ,only in

 so far as the punishment is either     
deterrent or reformative1 has it any    
moral value at all2 and only in the     
latter case1 where it reforms the       
character1 can the value be called in   
the strict sense moral4 ,so far as it   
only deters men from evil acts which    
they would desire to commit1 it may add 
to the convenience of the other members 
of ,society1 but it is not doing any    
direct moral good4  ,indirectly1        
however1 it has moral results2 for when 
we enquire in what sense we can say that
 such justice as the ,state secures     
produces liberty1 the first answer is to
 be found in the obvious and elementary 
fact that the liberty of every one of us
 depends upon our knowledge that certain
 impulses and instincts in other people1
 should they arise1 will be checked and 
not allowed to receive full expression4 
,our liberty is increased by that check 
put upon predatory or homicidal impulses
 in other people1 and their liberty     
depends upon the suppression of such    

impulses in us4  ,so far it would seem  
that there must be in the most obvious  
sense of the words a certain curtailment
 of everybody's liberty in order that   
anybody may have liberty at all4  ,if we
 are all to be free to indulge our      
passions of anger and hatred1 should    
such arise within us1 then it is quite  
clear that there will be very little    
freedom of action in the ,society which 
rests on that principle4  ,everyone will
 go about in fear of everyone else4     
,but that is a very small part of the   
business4 ,the chief contribution of    
such justice to human liberty is that it
 supplies the necessary conditions of   
discipline without which there can be no
 liberty4  ,we think of liberty as      
meaning freedom from external           
constraint4 ,we think that an act of    
ours is free when we can say1 ,i did it1
 and no one made me do it2 but very     
little reflection is sufficient to      
convince us that a man whose life is    
actually governed by one or several     

over-developed passions which he will1  
as a matter of fact1 always gratify when
 opportunity offers1 in spite of the    
damage that is done to his whole life   
and to his permanent and deliberate     
purpose1 is not really a free man4  ,to 
be tied and bound with the chain of our 
sins is just as much slavery as to be in
 the ownership of another man2 and we   
can acquire the real liberty which is   
worth having1 the liberty1 that is1 to  
shape our lives1 to live according to   
our own purpose1 following out our own  
ideal1 only in so far as our natures    
have been welded by discipline into     
unity1 so that we are no longer a chaos 
of impulses and instincts1 any of which 
may be set in motion by the appropriate 
environment1 but are self-governing     
persons controlling our own lives4      
,liberty1 in so far as it is of any     
value1 always means self-control in both
 the senses of that term3 in the sense  
that we are only controlled by          
ourselves1 and also in the sense that by

 ourselves we are controlled1 and that  
every part of our nature is subservient 
to the purpose to which our whole nature
 is given4  ,legislation is really an   
instrument of self-discipline4  ,the    
people who write books about political  
philosophy are mainly members of the    
respectable classes4  ,they naturally   
find it rather difficult to envisage    
themselves as liable to commit murder   
and the like2 and they are therefore    
very liable to represent the criminal   
law of the ,state as being enacted      
against a few undisciplined or          
recalcitrant members4  ,but when we look
 at the thing more closely1 we see that 
what a community does1 especially a     
democratic community1 when it passes a  
law1 is to invoke1 every member upon his
 own head1 the penalties enacted by that
 law1 if he should do the act which the 
law forbids4  ,let us consider1 for     
example1 an international convention4   
,what is the use of nations agreeing    
with one another not to do something1   

for instance not to poison wells1 unless
 there is some chance that in a moment  
of strong temptation they may desire to 
do it8  ,they therefore strengthen their
 deliberate purpose to avoid such acts  
by entering into an agreement with one  
another always to avoid them4  ,there   
would be no object in doing this unless 
they needed help1 or thought that they  
might at some time need help1 in living 
up to their own purposes4  ,and we have 
to remember that in this way the law of 
the ,state is1 as a matter of fact1     
perpetually operating upon every one of 
us4  ,we are often liable to suppose    
that it is only active in relation to   
those people against whom it is         
definitely set in motion2 but it does   
operate in the life of every one of the 
citizens of a community2 because the    
fact that certain actions would involve 
us in ,state-penalty most undoubtedly   
does keep all of us from indulging in   
those actions at certain times1 even    
though at calm moments we recognise that

 it would be wrong to do so4 ,trivial   
instances are nearly always the         
clearest4 ,most of us1 ,i suppose1 are  
sufficiently honest to desire in general
 terms to pay for what we buy2 and we   
should perhaps usually pay for our      
places in the train1 even if there were 
no ticket-inspector2 still1 the         
existence of the inspector just clinches
 the matter4  ,the possibility of the   
penalty as a matter of fact helps to    
maintain our general1 permanent1 and    
deliberate purpose of honesty against a 
momentary temptation to be dishonest2   
and so far it is helping us to live up  
to our purpose1 or1 in other words1 is  
increasing our real freedom4  ,in fact1 
one main test of good legislation is    
precisely whether it does or does not in
 this way develop real freedom by       
increasing people's power to live by    
their own deliberate purpose4    ,i owe 
the illustration to ,mr4 ,a4 ,l4 ,smith1
 of ,balliol4   ,now so far we have been
 considering ,society as consisting of  

relatively free persons 7though the     
freedom exists in varying degrees1 both 
as regards the external constraint and  
capacity for self-control71 these       
persons having various claims which have
 to be regulated by the justice which   
the ,state upholds2 in other words1 in  
this stage1 we are regarding justice in 
the way in which ,i suppose it is most  
usually regarded1 namely1 as rendering  
to a man what is due to him4  ,that is  
the definition with which ,plato in ,the
 ,republic starts his enquiry1 and he   
naturally found very soon that it would 
not work4  ,it will not work because the
 moral values of people are not         
determinable4  ,you cannot1 as a matter 
of fact1 ever say what is the relative  
weight of the various claims that may be
 made on behalf of this or that man4    
,most particularly there is the         
perpetual conflict between the actual   
and the potential worth of any men4     
,he appropriately puts it in the mouth  
of ,polemarchus1 the well-brought up1   

but wholly inexperienced1 young man4    
,suppose that we decide that we will    
give to all men in ,society that which  
is their due4 ,how are we going to      
determine what is due8 ,is it to be     
determined by their economic value1 for 
example by the amount they are          
contributing to the economic or general 
welfare of ,society8  ,well then1 there 
are a large number of people at both    
ends of what we call the social scale   
who ought to receive nothing at all1    
because they are contributing nothing   
economically1 or1 indeed1 in any other  
way1 to the public welfare4  ,and yet   
that is not their fault2 they have been 
brought up1 it may be in squalor1 it may
 be in luxury1 but in either case in    
circumstances which have made them      
almost incapable of anything like good  
citizenship4  ,are we to kill such      
persons1 or leave them to starve1 in the
 interest of the public welfare8  ,all  
human instincts will protest that this  
is unjust1 and that they can claim more 

than they can possibly be represented as
 contributing1 simply because they have 
had1 as we say1 bad luck1 and it is not 
their fault4    ,see ,appendix ,,iii1   
,on ,justice and ,education4   ,let us  
try what happens if after ,plato's      
example we turn the matter upside down1 
and instead of saying that justice will 
be found when there is rendered to each 
man what is due to him1 we say that     
justice is found when each man          
contributes what is due from him4  ,now 
logically1 of course1 these two are the 
same1 because duties and rights are     
absolutely correlative4  ,my rights     
constitute other people's duties towards
 me1 and their rights constitute my     
duties towards them4 ,the only          
difference is that it is far more easy  
in any given case to determine what is  
due from somebody--what can be claimed  
from him--than to determine what is due 
to him4  ,in this imperfect stage of the
 world1 where we are passing through the
 transition from something like         

barbarism to ,christian civilisation1 as
 we hope1 it is possible that of two    
correlative processes1 one will actually
 carry us further than the other even   
though it is logically inseparable from 
it4  ,and in fact we find at once1 that 
if we put it this way1 and say that the 
principle of justice is not that each   
man should obtain what is due to him1   
but that each should contribute what is 
due from him1 we are coming to the      
central principle of ,god's             
administration of ,his world1 which is  
that we should render to every man not  
according to his desert1 but according  
to his need4  ,indeed for practical     
purposes1 if we are wishing to bring    
justice into our own dealings1 and into 
the dealings of any public body with    
which we may have influence1 this       
principle will carry us further than any
 other--,render to every man according  
to his need4  ,let us suppose that we   
meet on one day with two beggars4  ,one 
of them is a man who has borne a good   

character throughout his life1 and has  
lost his work through no fault of his   
own2 the works on which he was employed 
were closed1 and he is now tramping in  
search of more work4  ,all of us of     
course will say--,he deserves help and  
we will help him4  ,yes2 and it is quite
 easy to help him4  ,we have only to set
 him up again1 and all will be well4    
,it is not his own fault and we can rely
 upon him to make use of another        
opportunity4  ,the other beggar is a man
 who has lost this place1 as he has lost
 many before1 through indulgence in some
 vice1 such as drink4  ,there are very  
many people who will say1 ,well1 it is  
his own fault1 and now he must suffer   
for it4  ,if ,god had taken that line   
with us1 where would our redemption     
be8--,it is his own fault1 now he must  
suffer for it4  ,to say that is to      
repudiate the ,gospel in its entirety4  
,it is to call the ,cross absurd and    
scandalous4  ,god commendeth ,his love  
toward us in that while we were yet     

sinners ,christ died4  ,no2 the         
,christian will say1 ,this man needs    
help more than the other4 ,it will not  
be the same kind of help4  ,it is no use
 merely to give him money4  ,that may   
merely help him to go wrong quicker than
 he would otherwise4  ,he needs         
something that will cost us1 probably1  
more than money2 he needs our time--time
 to make friends2 time to remove his    
suspicions2 time to enter into real     
sympathy with him1 and to detect what   
elements of strength there are in his   
character1 that we may build them up    
again4  ,but he needs help more than the
 other1 and the ,christian will be bound
 to give it1 and he will say--,it was   
his own fault2 he cannot help himself2  
it depends entirely on us2 we will      
render to him according to his need4    
,and all of this would lead to another  
formula for describing the justice which
 we shall desire to practise in the     
,state1 and in all our secular life of  
which the ,state is the highest         

organisation--,the recognition of       
personality4  ,i do not know at all what
 forms your labour unrest in takes in   
this continent1 but ,i claim to have    
considerable opportunities of knowing   
what is the root of that unrest in      
,england1 at least among the better type
 of working people2 for ,i am concerned 
with an organisation which is at work   
among working folk all over ,england1   
having an enormous membership1 and which
 aims at claiming for them1 and         
supplying them with1 further facilities 
for education4  ,those with whom ,i thus
 come in contact are picked men1 no     
doubt1 because those who join an        
educational association are thereby     
marked off at once as intellectually at 
least more alert than those who do not  
join2 but as ,i go about them1 ,i find  
no room whatever for doubting that the  
root of the labour unrest in ,england is
 a sense that the whole organisation of 
our life constitutes a standing insult  
to the personality of the poor man4     

,why1 for example1 he feels1 should it  
be possible for a well-to-do man to     
secure for himself1 or for his wife1 or 
for his child1 the medical attendance   
that may be needed1 while he in very    
many parts of our country depends upon  
institutions maintained by voluntary    
contributions8  ,it is quite compatible 
with gratitude to those whose generosity
 maintains these institutions to feel   
that for such service he should not be  
dependent upon anybody's charity at     
all--whether the solution is to be that 
the ,state maintain such institutions or
 that every man who is doing his fair   
share of the country's work receive for 
himself the wage that will enable him to
 deal with such emergencies as they     
arise4  ,above all1 men feel the denial 
of their personality in the organisation
 of industry itself4  ,men have fought  
and died for political liberty1 which   
means the right to have a voice in      
making the laws by which you are to be  
governed4  ,but the laws of the ,state  

do not for the most part invade a man's 
home1 whereas the regulations of an     
industrial firm do4 ,they determine when
 he shall get up in the morning and when
 he shall go to bed2 they determine     
whether he shall have any leisure for   
the pursuit of any interest of his own4 
,in the making of those regulations he  
has1 as a rule1 no voice whatever1 and  
no opportunity of making his views      
understood except by threat1 the threat 
of a strike4  ,the men feel that they   
are what they are sometimes called1     
hands not persons4  ,they are the tools 
of other men4  ,you must apply all this 
to your own country1 if and so far as it
 does apply4  ,but one might easily     
imagine a village in ,lancashire1 or any
 other industrial district where all the
 inhabitants are dependent upon one     
industry2 there are many such2 and the  
control of that industry may be in the  
hands of a ,board of ,directors1 settled
 perhaps in ,london2 it may only meet a 
few times a year for the transaction of 

business1 and otherwise not exist at    
all4  ,they never see the people whose  
lives and destinies they thus control4  
,the shareholders who want their        
dividends make no enquiries as a rule   
about the conditions in which the work  
is done4  ,if that ,board of ,directors 
mismanages its business the village in  
,lancashire goes hungry4  ,if that      
,board of ,directors1 when they have    
already got a full supply of work1 takes
 on another large contract1 that village
 in ,lancashire works overtime2 and the 
people have no say in the matter4       
,whatever else that is1 it is not       
liberty1 and in the judgment of the     
people themselves it is not justice4    
,and indeed it is not either justice or 
liberty as we have learned in other     
spheres to understand those terms4  ,the
 economic organisation of life comes far
 closer to the individual citizen than  
the political organisation1 and the     
development of justice remains          
incomplete until it has secured liberty 

of an economic as well as a political   
kind4  ,if it is true that the method of
 ,christ is to appeal to the free       
personality of the man1 so that he obeys
 out of love and devotion and not from  
fear of penalty nor hope of reward1     
other than the reward of realising the  
love of the ,master1 then surely it is  
in the true line of development towards 
the perfected ,christian civilisation if
 we demand that these opportunities for 
the development of free personality     
shall be afforded4  ,no doubt it must be
 done with wisdom4  ,rough and ready    
methods1 however well-meant1 might do   
far more harm than good1 and leave us in
 a situation even worse than that which 
we know4  ,but the ,church has paid     
scarcely any attention to those things  
in ,england4  ,it is very difficult to  
persuade ,church-people that1 because   
they are followers of ,christ1 and      
therefore might be assumed to recognise 
that they are members one of another    
with all these others1 they are         

therefore bound 7for example7 in        
investing their money to find out the   
conditions under which their dividends  
are going to be earned4  ,in almost     
every department of life we have left   
such things alone4  ,under the stress of
 war1 we have suddenly become acutely   
conscious of the drink evil4  ,it was   
there before2 and we have been content  
that the great majority of our fellow   
citizens should have no opportunity for 
gratifying those instincts of social    
life and merriment1 which are the       
birthright of all ,god's children1      
except in places where the influence of 
alcohol was supreme4  ,we have been     
content with that4 ,we have not thought 
it was our duty to find a means of      
supplying them with other places of     
recreation and amusement2 we have saved 
our money4  ,and then we have the       
impertinent audacity to claim our own   
redemption by the blood of ,christ4     
,one can go on with one evil after      
another in the same way4  ,this is what 

makes the ,church weak4  ,it is no sort 
of use for us to say that ,christ is the
 ,redeemer of the world1 and the        
,revealer of the way of life1 if with   
regard to just those evils which press  
most heavily on men we have to say that 
for them ,he has unfortunately not      
supplied a remedy4  ,no doubt if these  
evils are to be dealt with on a large   
scale1 the work must be done by the     
,state1 for nothing else is adequate2   
and the ,church here has two main tasks4
 ,it is no part of the ,church's task to
 advocate general principles or         
particular maxims of economic science1  
though its members1 in their capacity of
 citizenship ought to be active in these
 ways4  ,the first task of the ,church  
is to inspire the ,state1 which after   
all very largely consists of the same   
persons as itself1 with the desire to   
combat the evil2 and the second is to   
counteract the one great difficulty     
which the ,state experiences4 ,when the 
,state takes up such work as this1 there

 is one thing which we all fear3        
,officialism4  ,what is ,officialism8   
,simply lack of love2 nothing else in   
the world4 ,it consists in treating     
people as cases1 according to rules and 
red tape1 instead of treating them as   
individuals2 and the ,church which must 
inspire the ,state to want to deal with 
these things1 must then supply the      
agents through whom it may deal with    
them effectively1 inspiring them with   
the love of men which is the fruit and  
test of a true love of ,god4  ,but      
beyond all this1 the ,church must be    
making demands far greater than it has  
ever made upon man's spiritual nature   
and spiritual capacity1 and must then   
point to the organisation of our social 
life and say--,that organisation1       
because and in so far as it deprives men
 of the full growth of their spiritual  
nature1 because and in so far as it     
prevents them from taking the share     
which belongs to ,god's children in ,his
 worship and the enjoyment of his gifts 

of nature and ,grace1 is proved to be of
 the devil4  ,in our worship we find for
 the most part what we expect to find4  
,there may be gifts offered us1 gifts   
from ,god1 that we never receive because
 we have not looked for them4 ,it is in 
our intercourse with ,christ that we    
shall find the means of solving the     
horror of our social problem1 if we are 
expecting to find it2 but we have not   
expected it4 ,we have not really        
believed that ,he is the ,redeemer of   
the ,world2 we have not looked to ,him  
for the redemption of ,society4  ,the   
,state by itself1 until the ,church     
comes to its help1 can do something     
indeed1 but something which by itself is
 almost worthless4  ,it supplies the    
indispensable foundation without which a
 spiritual structure cannot be built up2
 but1 if that building never comes1 the 
foundation by itself is little more than
 useless4 ,to those whom the social     
order favours it offers real liberty and
 life1 but no inspiration2 a perfect    

social order would offer liberty to all1
 but still no inspiration4  ,the ,state 
alone can never be the house of many    
mansions wherein every soul is truly at 
home4    ,it is to be observed that the 
,state is by its very nature largely    
limited to the regulation of those human
 relationships where men oppose each    
other with rival claims2 as soon as men 
rise to the reciprocity of friendship   
the method of the ,state is             
inappropriate4  ,people do not go to law
 to determine whether either loves the  
other adequately4                       
99,,lecture ,,iv99                      
99,,holiness ,,and ,,catholicity ,,in   
,,the ,,church99   ,this is the law of  
the house3 upon the top of the mountain 
the whole limit thereof round about     
shall be most holy4 ,behold1 this is the
 law of the house4--,ezekiel xliii1 #ab4
  ,and ,i saw no temple therein3 for the
 ,lord ,god ,almighty1 and the ,lamb1   
are the temple thereof4--,revelation    
xxi1 #bb4   ,the ,bible gives us two    

elaborately conceived pictures of the   
perfected life of man4 ,the first is    
that which occupies the closing chapters
 of ,ezekiel's prophecy2 its leading    
feature is the immense separation which 
is insisted upon between the ,temple and
 the secular ,city4  ,the ,hill of ,zion
 has become a very high mountain2 upon  
the top of it the ,temple is set1 and   
there is a wide space1 at least two     
miles1 between it and the ,city of      
,jerusalem1 which has been moved away by
 that distance to the south4  ,indeed1  
if we take the description as intended  
to be complete1 the ,city seems to exist
 chiefly to provide a congregation for  
the ,temple's services1 and the ,prince 
only to offer representative worship on 
behalf of ,his people4 ,all attention is
 concentrated upon the place of the     
worship of ,god1 and the holiness which 
is to be characteristic of that place4  
,by thus keeping the ,temple holy1      
through separating it from the body of  
the ,city and its secular life1 the     

,prophet attains no doubt the end he has
 in view1 but he also1 of necessity1    
though probably unintentionally1 leaves 
the suggestion that the secular life    
itself cannot be wholly consecrated4    
,in sharp contrast with this is ,st4    
,john's picture in the ,book of         
,revelation2 here there is no specific  
place of worship at all1 for the whole  
,city is the ,temple of ,god2 more than 
that1 the whole ,city is the very ,holy 
of ,holies1 for it is described as being
 a perfect cube1 and the ,holy of       
,holies in ,solomon's ,temple was a     
perfect cube4       ,and the city lieth 
four square1 and the length thereof is  
as     great as the breadth3 and he     
measured the city with the reed1        
twelve thousand furlongs2 the length and
 the breadth and the     height thereof 
are equal4  ,and he measured the wall   
thereof1 and     it was one hundred and 
forty and four cubits4    ,rev4 xxi1    
#af1 #ag4   ,the ,city thus corresponds 
in symbolic form with the ,holy of      

,holies4  ,it is become the dwelling    
place of ,god4  ,no special shrine is   
needed1 no place to which men draw      
apart1 because their whole life is an   
act of worship1 and ,god dwells among   
them in their daily activities4  ,there 
is one feature about this ,heavenly     
,city1 which is obscured through the use
 of the old terms of measurement1 for   
this cube is described as being #a1ejj  
miles high1 #a1ejj miles broad1 and     
#a1ejj miles long2 but the wall which   
stands for defence against foes without 
and for the containment and order of the
 life within1 and indeed represents in  
general the principle of                
organisation--the wall is only #baf feet
 high2 so small a thing is order in     
comparison with the life which it       
safeguards4  ,it is between those two   
poles1 which are set for us as the      
extreme terms in a process1 that the    
,church must live its life4  ,there is  
truth in both of them4  ,we were        
considering in the last lecture justice 

and liberty1 which are the supreme      
achievements of the ,national ,state4   
,let us to-day consider the ,holiness   
and ,catholicity1 which are the supreme 
treasures of the ,church4  ,holiness    
must come first1 ,holiness which means  
absolute conformity to the will of ,god4
 ,whatever obstacles there may be to    
overcome1 whatever seductions to avoid1 
the ,church is to remain absolutely     
devoted to the ,divine ,will4  ,only so 
can it be catholic or universal4 ,it    
might for a moment achieve an           
all-embracing unity by giving up        
everything that is offensive to men1 and
 gathering all within it under the glow 
of a comfortable sentiment2 but then its
 life would be gone1 and after a little 
while the men who had all become members
 of it would be just as though they had 
not4  ,only a ,church which is perfectly
 loyal to the ,will of ,god1 can        
possibly be the home for all mankind4   
,but ,holiness has always had two       
meanings--an outward and an inward1 a   

ceremonial and a moral4  ,we shall      
agree1 ,i suppose1 in saying that the   
outward and ceremonial is in itself of  
no consequence1 and exists only in order
 to preserve and make possible the      
inward and spiritual conformity to      
,god's ,will2 but for that purpose1 as  
all human experience has always shown1  
it is quite indispensable4  ,we are made
 of bodies as well as souls1 and if our 
whole being is to be permeated1 there   
must be bodily expression of that which 
our souls enjoy or need4  ,we must      
worship with our bodies as well as with 
our souls4  ,so ,st4 ,paul1 after all   
his emphasis upon the spirit as against 
dead works1 begins his practical        
exhortation with the words1 ,i beseech  
you1 therefore1 brethren1 by the mercies
 of ,god to present your bodies a living
 sacrifice4  ,the physical and bodily   
expression is always necessary1 in this 
human life of ours1 to the full efficacy
 and to the survival through the ages of
 the spiritual1 though this no doubt is 

alone of ultimate consequence4    ,rom4 
xii1 #a4   ,if the ,church is to        
maintain its ,holiness1 it must of      
necessity be to some extent separated   
from the world2 it cannot mix as a      
,church in all worldly activities4  ,it 
cannot simply set itself out to permeate
 the general life of men1 maintaining   
nothing that is separate and apart for  
itself4  ,if it does that1 it will      
simply be lost in the general life of   
the world4  ,in the last resort our     
characters depend almost entirely upon  
the influences that play upon them in   
our environment2 the one place where we 
have effective choice is in determining 
the influences to which we will submit  
ourselves4  ,if there is no place in our
 society1 or in the world1 where men may
 count upon finding the power of ,god in
 purity1 then men will inevitably fail  
to rise above that sort of character1   
which their worldly environment happens 
to be forming in them4  ,the ,church    
then1 precisely in order to do this work

 in the world1 must keep itself in some 
sense separate from the world2 but the  
vast majority of its members are people 
in the daily life of the world1 pursuing
 their avocations there2 and it would   
plainly be wholly disastrous to require 
that all ,christian people1 in virtue of
 their ,christianity1 should withdraw   
themselves from the ordinary concerns of
 men4  ,there is1 therefore1 no means by
 which this separateness of the ,church 
can be achieved unless there are certain
 persons set apart to be representatives
 of the ,church1 and of the ,church     
only2 and who1 because they are official
 representatives of the ,church are     
thereby deprived of the right to take   
part in many worldly activities1 though 
these in themselves are right enough4   
,it is not because they are more truly  
members of the ,church than others1 nor 
because there is a different moral      
standard for clergy and laity1 but      
because in the whole life of the ,church
 there are certain functions which are  

incompatible with others1 just as in the
 ,state a man cannot be at the same time
 an advocate and a judge1 or            
commander-in-chief and ambassador4      
,thus1 for example1 as it seems to me1  
one who is called to be a priest of the 
,church1 inevitably forfeits the right  
to take part in the hurly-burly of party
 politics2 partly because1 in a world   
which consists of many parties1 he is   
responsible for bringing before men the 
claim of ,god to which all the parties  
ought to bow2 partly also because a     
man's activities inevitably affect the  
quality of his own mind1 and if we are  
to be as it were repositories of the    
,eternal truths1 if we are to have ready
 for dispensation all the treasures     
which ,god commits to ,his ,church1 we  
need a type of mind which cannot1 at    
least by most men1 be maintained1 if we 
are engaged in heated controversy and   
frequent debate4  ,another example may  
be found in the question whether a      
priest should serve as a combatant in   

his country's army4  ,he is called to   
represent the ,church2 and the ,church  
is essentially1 not accidentally1       
international2 it is not international  
merely as a scientific society may be1  
in that it is not concerned with        
political frontiers and men of all      
nations are welcome within it2 but it is
 international in the sense that it     
exists to bind the nations of the earth 
in one4  ,the officer of such a society 
may be as patriotic in his feeling as   
anyone else1 but1 just because he is an 
official1 for him to take positive      
action on one side of the other weakens 
the ,church's international position1   
and is1 therefore1 a more serious act   
than it is in the case of the layman4   
,here again there are not two standards1
 but there are diverse circumstances4   
,if the ,church called on all its       
members to refuse to serve1 the result  
would be to interfere with the freedom  
of the ,state to act in its own sphere2 
if it allows everyone to serve1 it is   

deprived of its ,catholic witness just  
when that is most vitally needed4  ,the 
only way of doing justice to the        
legitimate claims of both nationalism   
and ,catholicity1 is to differentiate   
between persons2 and there is no        
practicable or even sensible way of     
doing this except to make the ,church's 
officers responsible for the ,catholic  
witness and its lay1 or unofficial1     
members for the national4  ,but does    
this not involve the danger of a        
priestly caste8  ,yes1 no doubt it does2
 but there are two ways in which we may 
avoid falling into that danger4  ,the   
first is perpetually to remember that   
men are called by ,god to the different 
kinds of work which ,he has for them to 
do2 and we shall avoid unctuousness1    
which is no doubt what men most dread   
about a priestly caste1 if we keep it   
perpetually in our mind that we are not 
personally holy because our calling is4 
,we are entrusted with this great       
charge4  ,we have to fulfil it4  ,it is 

our work for ,him4 ,but there are those 
whom ,he calls to serve ,him as         
politicians and as soldiers2 if they do 
their work as in ,his sight1 and to ,his
 glory1 they are serving ,him every bit 
as much as we are4  ,all the work of all
 the kinds of men is needed in the      
world1 and it is only if we suppose that
 we are made more holy because our      
calling is concerned with the           
specifically holy things that we shall  
fall before that danger4  ,and the other
 safeguard1 paradoxical as it may sound1
 is a very complete specialised         
training4  ,one of the reasons1 ,i am   
quite sure1 why lay people often find us
 rather stilted and uncongenial is      
because we have not secured a sufficient
 grasp upon what is our own special     
subject to feel full liberty in         
conversation and to speak naturally4 ,we
 are perpetually wondering at what point
 we shall be suddenly compromising that 
for which we are responsible4  ,we tend 
to utter 7and even to hold7 merely      

conventional opinions and to express    
ourselves only in the stereotyped       
phrases1 because we have not sufficient 
grasp of spiritual and moral truth to   
trust ourselves in forming individual   
opinions1 or in finding our own language
 for expressing the opinions which we   
form4 ,precisely in the degree in which 
we know our own work and have full      
possession of what is entrusted to us1  
shall we obtain liberty and ease of     
manner1 and be in general behaviour just
 like other people1 which is what we    
ought most to desire4  ,still it is in  
the person of its priests that the      
,church must maintain that outward      
holiness1 that separation from the      
world1 which alone makes possible a     
concentration upon things divine2 and   
without this concentration it can never 
become a catholic or universal body4    
,universal1 here does not1 of course1   
mean all-inclusive4  ,there are those   
who definitely and deliberately reject  
the claim of ,christ1 and those have    

never been submitted in any way to ,his 
influence4 ,the unbaptized heathen are  
not members of the ,catholic ,church2   
and if they refuse the ,gospel when it  
comes1 they remain outside4 ,moreover1  
as we have seen1 there is possible a    
vicious as well as a holy catholicity4  
,there is nothing so seductive as the   
temptation to suppose that doctrine     
which evokes a response is on that      
account true1 or particularly to be     
emphasised4  ,sometimes people dislike  
the truth4  ,there are people who are   
alienated by it2 and the attractiveness 
of our gospel to people1 irrespective of
 their frame of mind1 is no evidence of 
its divinity4 ,there is a picture in the
 ,old ,testament where ,moses the       
,prophet is apart upon the mountain top1
 communing with ,god1 while at the foot 
of the mountain1 ,aaron1 the official   
priest1 is ministering to the people the
 kind of religion they like4  ,he was   
encouraging them1 as the ,psalmist      
satirically says1 to worship3 the       

similitude of the calf that eateth hay4 
,there was nothing very dignified about 
it4 ,but it was what the people liked2  
and the response to his ministrations   
was immediate and immense4  ,our task is
 to lay hold1 so far as we may in our   
infinite feebleness1 of the truth that  
was given to the world in ,christ in all
 its sternness as well as its love--or  
rather in that sternness which is an    
essential part of its love2 and this is 
what we must present to men4  ,again1 it
 is not in proportion to their virtue in
 the ordinary moral sense that men are  
drawn to the ,church2 it is in          
proportion to their conscious need of   
,god4  ,it is perhaps worth while just  
now especially to emphasise the peril of
 a faithless virtue1 and the depth of   
error involved in any attempt to take   
for the basis of a ,church the religion 
of all good men4  ,what will happen to a
 man who sets his effort upon the       
building up of his whole character      
according to an ethical ideal8 ,one of  

two things4  ,either he may in part     
succeed1 perhaps as much as he himself  
desires to succeed1 and then he may     
become self-satisfied and a ,pharisee2  
or else he will find himself either     
failing altogether1 or1 having succeeded
 in part1 incapable of carrying the     
success to its full completion1 and not 
knowing where to find the power that    
will take him further2 and so he ends in
 despair4  ,no1 the appeal of the       
,church1 as universal1 is simply that it
 has within it that which answers the   
real and deepest need of every human    
being4 ,there everyone will find his    
home1 when once he has found his need of
 ,god1 if indeed the ,church is holy4   
,and this is also its distinction from  
the sects2 for it endeavours to uphold  
the entire body of the truth1 every     
particle of it that may be of service to
 anyone4  ,i suppose there are very few 
of us to whom the whole of the ,creed is
 a living reality4  ,we may believe it  
all1 but what we live by is usually a   

small part of it1 and it is a different 
part with different persons4  ,the      
essence of sectarianism1 as ,i          
understand it1 is the gathering together
 of those people who live by the same   
part of the ,creed1 in order that1 like 
mingling with like1 they may develop a  
great intensity and fervour of devotion4
  ,for a moment1 indeed1 they may be far
 more effective than the great body of  
the ,church1 and yet they cannot become 
universal4  ,there is something lacking 
from what they uphold1 which someone    
needs4  ,the aim of the ,church is to be
 universal here also1 and to uphold the 
entire body of the truth1 presenting it 
in its entirety1 even though the priest 
who is called upon to fulfil that office
 of presenting it to the people may     
himself be actually living by the       
slenderest portion of it4  ,no doubt we 
shall present most forcibly that part of
 the whole truth which is most real to  
ourselves2 and for that reason1 if no   
other1 we ought to try our utmost to    

gain a personal apprehension of the     
whole4 ,but men's spiritual diseases are
 of many kinds1 and all the healing     
truths must be offered by the ,church in
 which all men are to find life4        
,this is a description of ,sectarianism1
 not of any particular ,denomination4   
,we are all infected with the sectarian 
spirit4  ,in many respects ,rome is far 
more sectarian than the great           
,presbyterian bodies in ,scotland4      
,with all its faults ,i sincerely       
believe that the ,anglican ,communion   
is1 in spirit1 more of a ,church and    
less of a sect than any other body4 ,but
 then it contains several sects within  
itself1 both ,high1 ,broad1 and ,low4   
,the truth which it thus presents1 the  
,church believes to be the gift of ,god4
  ,this above all is the idea which it  
tries to safeguard by the outward signs 
of regular orders and sacraments4  ,our 
belief about the communion service is   
that there ,christ comes to us just as  
once the eternal ,word1 which was       

present with all ,his creation1 none the
 less came in full manifestation under  
the limitations of time and space at a  
particular moment and in a particular   
country4  ,so in the communion the      
,divine presence which fills the whole  
world 7,heaven and earth are full of    
,his glory1 as we say in the service    
itself7 is offered to us1 and draws near
 to us2 and that not because of any     
virtue in us2 it was while we were yet  
sinners that ,christ came and died2 it  
is while we are yet sinners that ,christ
 offers ,himself to us2 and it is as    
guarding against any conception that we 
can determine how ,he shall come1 or    
when and where1 and that we can1 as it  
were1 manufacture ,his presence in our  
own way1 that the ,church maintains with
 the utmost emphasis the order that is  
necessary for that service4  ,it is to  
preserve the conception of spiritual    
life as a gift of ,god1 and of the      
,church as the society which recognises 
and receives it as such a gift1 in      

distinction from a mutual benefit       
society organised for the edification of
 its own members1 that the ,church      
insists upon the due order of its       
administration2 and it is through       
concentration upon this idea of         
holiness1 and all that it ought to mean 
in our personal lives1 that we can make 
our greatest contribution towards       
bringing into existence again a real    
,catholic ,church1 a ,church which shall
 genuinely include all the persons who  
believe in ,christ in one order and     
fellowship4  ,the first and             
indispensable condition of re-union is  
fuller dedication to the will of ,god in
 ,christ4  ,we shall be united to one   
another when we are all truly united to 
,him4  ,but1 if that work is to be      
accomplished1 we shall also need wisdom1
 in order rightly to counteract the     
effects alike of folly and of sin in the
 past history of the ,church2 and here  
every man must be willing to make what  
suggestions he can1 merely submitting   

them for acceptance or rejection by the 
whole body of the ,church2 because      
unless people are prepared to speak of  
the problem as they see it1 leaving the 
final judgment to be formed by the body 
of which they are members1 there is no  
hope of our making any progress at all4 
,i will therefore1 venture to suggest to
 you six principles1 upon which1 as my  
vision is at present1 ,i think we might 
come near to agreement among ourselves2 
and if we should agree upon them1 then  
we could offer these or whatever        
modifications of these the ,church      
thinks fit1 to those bodies which are at
 present in separation from us4         
,i4--,first1 what do we mean by the     
,church8 ,ideally and in its eternal    
reality it is the ,body and ,bride of   
,christ1 the instrument of ,his will and
 the object of ,his love1 worthy as     
both4  ,but in the process of time and  
upon the stage of this world1 what are  
we going to mean by it1 and who are we  
going to account its members8  ,when    

people begin to think of this question1 
they always start with various          
enthusiastic schemes4  ,the members of  
the ,church are the people who have     
faith1 or the people who are conscious  
of the need of pardon1 and the like2 but
 all of this breaks down because you can
 never tell who these people are4  ,we  
must have some perfectly plain outward  
sign if the ,church is to be an         
operative agency in this world2 and you 
will find1 ,i think1 that there is none 
which you can reach except that it is   
the fellowship of the baptized4         
,baptism is the ,lord's own appointed   
way by which men should be received in  
the fellowship of ,his disciples4 ,we   
must take that as our basis4  ,it is no 
business of ours to pronounce judgment  
upon the spiritual state of other       
persons4  ,we shall thank ,god for every
 sign of the ,christian virtues and     
graces shown in other persons who have  
not been brought to baptism2 we may     
believe that they are members of the    

,church in heaven2 but still1 ,i would  
submit1 we must say for all purposes of 
practical working1 that the ,church on  
earth is the fellowship of the baptized4
  ,,ii4--,that fellowship exists in     
fragments and sections4  ,what is the   
peculiar mark of our fragment8  ,this is
 authoritatively defined for us in the  
,lambeth ,quadrilateral1 but our special
 character may be expressed briefly by  
saying that we are trustees for the     
,catholic order1 who yet reject what    
seem to us the accretions which the     
,church of ,rome upholds4    7a7 ,the   
,holy ,scriptures of the ,old and ,new  
,testaments4 as containing all things   
necessary to ,salvation1 and as being   
the rule and ultimate standard of faith4
  7b7 ,the ,apostles' ,creed1 as the    
,baptismal ,symbol2 and the ,nicene     
,creed1 as the sufficient statement of  
the ,christian faith4  7c7 ,the two     
,sacraments ordained by ,christ         
,himself--,baptism and the ,supper of   
the ,lord--ministered with unfailing use

 of ,christ's words of institution1 and 
of the elements ordained by ,him4  7d7  
,the ,historic ,episcopate1 locally     
adapted in the methods of its           
administration to the varying needs of  
the nations and peoples called of ,god  
into the ,unity of ,his ,church4   ,now 
some such order as that which we        
maintain1 is necessary1 as it seems to  
me1 to the fulfilment of the duty of    
charity4  ,i hope ,i am not unfair to   
those who are separated from us1 and are
 influenced by the ideals of            
,puritanism2 but it has seemed to me    
that their discipline is not always     
charitable4 ,indeed1 a ,church must     
either excommunicate freely or else     
possess a recognised order if it is to  
avoid becoming indistinguishable from   
the world about it2 if it is to be both 
holy and a friend of sinners it must    
have an order4  ,the order which we     
maintain is simply that which has come  
down to us as the actual order of       
historic ,christendom4                  

,,iii4--,thirdly1 ,i would submit that  
the ,body with its orders is a living   
whole1 and that it is illegitimate to   
discuss such a question as the validity 
of ,orders out of all relation to the   
historic life of the ,church4  ,the     
question of ,orders must be considered  
in relation to the whole life of the    
,body of which they are an organic part4
    ,see ,appendix ,,iv4  ,on ,orders   
and ,catholicity4   ,thus1 if we take   
the famous ,quadrilateral as our        
starting point1 a body which stands by  
the ,canonical ,scriptures1 the ,creeds 
and the two great ,sacraments1 though   
not upholding the episcopal succession1 
is closer to the ideal than one which is
 indifferent to any of these three as   
well as to the succession2 it has       
maintained many of the 7ex hypothesi7   
essential features of a true ,church2 it
 approximates to the complete           
requirement4  ,moreover1 within the     
field of the problem of ,orders1 there  
are degrees of approximation2 it is     

generally considered that an agreement  
between the ,anglican and ,presbyterian 
communions could be far more easily     
reached than between the ,anglican and  
some other ,protestant bodies4  ,we     
must1 therefore1 avoid two kindred      
errors4 ,one is to set up the abrupt    
dilemma--,either a true ,church or not1 
and the other is to regard the          
possession of valid ,orders as being the
 one and only condition of the          
,catholicity of the body possessing     
them4  ,the ,church ,visible cannot be  
identical with the ,church ,invisible2  
it is its sacrament4 ,and the question  
resolves itself into one concerning the 
degree of adequacy with which it        
expresses1 and thereby maintains through
 the ages1 the fulness of the truth4    
,our actual divisions in the ,west date 
from the ,reformation4  ,no one disputes
 that the ,church just before that time 
was corrupt to a horrible degree4  ,it  
is possible to hold that the corruption 
could have been purged away without     

schism if the reformers had been wholly 
free from pride and impatience2 ,i see  
no means of reaching a sound judgment on
 such a point2 but at least it would    
seem that the guilt for the great       
division was as much in ,catholics as in
 ,protestants4  ,in so far as there     
really was necessity of choosing between
 moral purity with schism on the one    
hand1 and organic unity with sales of   
indulgences and the like on the other1  
there can be no doubt which the whole   
teaching of ,christ required ,his       
followers to choose4  ,i will have mercy
 and not sacrifice2 the ,sabbath was    
made for man1 not man for the ,sabbath2 
yet the ,sabbath and the sacrifice were 
of ,divine appointment4  ,if then a     
fragment of the ,church1 confronted as  
it believes1 with such a choice1 breaks 
off and organises itself afresh1        
intending to maintain in purity all the 
,church's life and means of grace1 ,i   
cannot assert that it is for all its    
generations deprived of ,christ's       

sacramental presence4 ,but assuredly the
 loss of the continuous order which so  
impressively symbolises the ,divine     
origin of the ,church and of its        
,sacraments tends to undermine the      
intention to preserve the whole truth   
and to obscure belief in it4  ,for      
,orders1 as we understand them1 are the 
pledge of the unity of the ,church      
across all space and through all time1  
so that the priest who celebrates1 does 
so as the organ and instrument of the   
universal ,church1 and the congregation 
at every ,eucharist is not the few      
persons gathered together in that       
building1 but ,angels and ,archangels   
and all the company of ,heaven1 with    
whom we join in prayer and worship4     
,,iv4--,consonantly with this ,i would  
come to my fourth principle--that the   
whole question of ,orders and           
,sacraments must be considered in       
reference to the ,church's life through 
the ages1 and not with direct reference 
to the gift received by any individual  

at any given service4  ,how are we to   
secure 7this is our problem7 that from  
generation to generation men shall      
continue to feel that in the service of 
the ,holy ,communion ,christ comes to   
them as by ,his own appointment1 and    
they have only to be ready to meet with 
,him2 and that in meeting with ,him they
 are united with the whole ,church in   
the ,holy ,communion1 the ,communion of 
,saints8  ,i believe that the continued 
recitation of the ,creeds in our own and
 other branches of the ,church is the   
main safeguard1 not only for ourselves  
but also for those who do not say the   
,creeds1 against that combination of    
,pelagianism and ,unitarianism to which 
men always tend to drift2 similarly ,i  
can conceive that1 just because we      
uphold the full conception of           
sacramental worship1 others are enabled 
to receive sacramental grace at their   
communions4  ,it may be so2 ,i know not4
  ,of course it cannot be received if it
 is not there2 but even if it is there1 

its full benefit will not be enjoyed    
except by those who believe in its full 
power4  ,two men may stand opposite the 
same picture2 both see the same lines   
and colours1 the accidents2 but it may  
be that only one sees the artistic      
reality or substance--the ,beauty--while
 the other is blind to it4  ,but the man
 who finds it does not put it there2 the
 artist put it there2 and if he had not 
done so no one could find it there2 so  
too the reality of the ,sacrament is the
 work of ,god4  ,but our fruition of it 
depends on our faith1 and even on the   
exact content of our faith4  ,now ,i do 
not for a moment believe that that faith
 in the full doctrine of sacramental    
grace can survive through the centuries1
 if it is once separated from the whole 
order which expresses it4 ,therefore1   
while ,i am not entitled to deny1 as ,i 
am equally not concerned to assert1 that
 the members of other denominations at  
their communion service receive the same
 gift that we do2 still ,i say that as  

trustees for the ,catholic order1 and   
considering the matter in the light of  
the centuries1 we have no right to      
sacrifice any of those means by which   
this full doctrine has been given to us1
 and by which perhaps it has been also  
preserved for them4  ,v4--,fifthly1 ,i  
would suggest that in any scheme for    
practical reunion no man must be        
required to repudiate his own spiritual 
ancestry4  ,after all1 if the ,church is
 the fellowship of the baptized1 then   
our brethren of the separation1 as we   
sometimes call them1 are members of the 
,church2 but they are not members of our
 branch of the ,church2 and their faith 
is corporate and active in their        
membership of their own bodies2         
consequently we are bound to hold that  
they and their bodies are parts of the  
,catholic ,church in this time of the   
division--the division which is due to  
sin4  ,if it is true that it was        
largely1 and perhaps mainly1 the fault  
of the medieval ,church that the split  

became a necessity2 if it is true that  
it was partly1 and perhaps mainly1 the  
fault of the ,church of ,england that   
the ,wesleyan movement 7for example7    
ever broke off1 because we refused to   
make room for what was in its early     
stages most undoubtedly a movement of   
the ,spirit of ,god in the world1 then  
we have no right to condemn those who by
 reason of our sin1 at least as much as 
their own1 are outside our fellowship2  
and we must recognise that1 just as in  
,st4 ,paul's argument about the true    
,israel1 blindness in part happened to  
,israel1 and so ,god used the ,gentiles 
to provoke them to jealousy--so         
blindness in part happened to           
,catholicism1 and ,god is using the     
,protestant bodies to provoke us to     
jealousy4  ,we must1 ,i believe1        
maintain that our order is for us the   
only possible order for the reunited    
,church4  ,but order is not everything4 
,the wall of the ,holy ,city is minute4 
,when the time for reunion comes1 we    

must insist upon our own part of the    
truth in such a way as to avoid all     
condemnation of other bodies for having 
been separated during this time--at     
least1 all condemnation which we do not 
pronounce quite equally upon ourselves4 
,what has happened in the divisions of  
the ,church is a severance from one     
another of elements which are every one 
of them necessary to the healthy life of
 the ,body4  ,if one set of people could
 only get dry food and no drink1 and    
another set could only get drink and no 
food1 neither would be healthy4  ,they  
would have to combine their stores      
before health was possible4  ,catholics 
have preserved perhaps a fuller sense of
 worship and of the gifts of ,god2      
,protestants have perhaps a truer zeal  
for righteousness and a more intimate   
access to ,god in prayer4  ,let us not  
judge the past2 ,god will judge4  ,but  
let us recognise our need of one another
 and accept from each other the positive
 truth and life which ,god has given to 

either4  ,,vi4--,meanwhile1 in the time 
of the division1 different bodies have  
developed different types of religious  
life4  ,there is a wealth of spiritual  
activity in the world now such as it is 
difficult to imagine under a rigidly    
united ,church2 but we can easily       
preserve that if we are ready that there
 should be within the ,united ,catholic 
,church different ,orders--an ,order of 
,st4 ,george ,fox for example1          
testifying to the great ideal which     
,christ brought into the world1 not as  
,i think1 and as ,i have already        
explained1 the right ideal to be        
followed by all men in all sorts of     
circumstances1 but undoubtedly the one  
method by which in the end the work of  
,god can be finally accomplished1 and   
for testimony to which ,i believe some  
men1 and indeed the whole ,society of   
,friends1 are even now called by ,god4  
,also there may well be an ,order of    
,st4 ,john ,wesley1 insisting more      
especially upon the need of individual  

conversion1 which the ,church1 as a vast
 organisation concerned with world      
movements1 is perpetually tempted to    
leave too much on one side4 ,these      
,orders can quite well govern themselves
 to a very large extent1 and order their
 worship in very many ways1 just as is  
the case in the ,orders familiar in the 
medieval ,church1 and in the ,church of 
,rome at this time4   ,these are the    
principles which ,i would venture to    
submit4  ,probably not one of them will 
win universal assent even in our own    
communion4  ,but amid all our amiable   
sentiments it is time for somebody to   
say something definite1 or as definite  
as the complexity of the problem allows4
  ,in criticising and rejecting         
individual utterances we may at last    
reach a corporate mind4  ,but let me add
 one particular warning about the way we
 go3 for in my own mind ,i am quite sure
 that the ,communion is just the place  
where we need to be divided until our   
unity is real4  ,people say ,how        

terrible to be separated there4  ,yes1  
terrible indeed6  ,it is the measure of 
the sin of schism4 ,but we must not try 
to escape the consequences of the sin   
until we have got rid of the sin itself4
  ,i say nothing of the problem of the  
mission field or of the possibility of  
exceptional occasions4 ,but ,i am quite 
sure that in normal ,church life1 where 
all people have access to their own     
services1 intercommunion can only be    
disastrous1 as tending to obscure the   
need for real unity1 and the difference 
between the various excellences whose   
combination is to be desired4    ,it    
must of course be recognised that the   
problem of intercommunion in the mission
 field is of urgent practical           
importance4  ,on the present situation1 
the ,archbishop of ,canterbury's        
statement1 ,kikuyu4   ,but let us come  
back to what after all is the only true 
guarantee and the only condition of     
reunion--the achievement of holiness2   
that holiness needs1 as we have seen1 to

 be safeguarded1 and the safeguarding of
 it is peculiarly entrusted to us1 the  
ministers of the ,church4  ,what need   
then for personal dedication6  ,for upon
 the degree in which we are wholly given
 to our work depends in large measure   
the time when ,god will reunite ,his    
,church4  ,we keep separate even from   
many right activities1 but only in order
 to keep pure that spirit by which we   
are to permeate the whole life of the   
world1 bringing it to bear1 so far as we
 are able in our detachment1 upon every 
sort of problem1 private or             
public--industrial1 commercial1         
political1 international--till at last  
the whole world is governed by that     
spirit1 and there is no need for        
separation any more nor for any special 
place of worship nor special order of   
religious ministers2 for then the world 
and the ,church will be                 
indistinguishable in the ,holy ,city of 
,god1 wherein is no temple1 because the 
,lord ,god ,almighty and the ,lamb are  

the temple of it4                       
99,,lecture ,v99                        
99,,the ,,citizenship ,,of ,,heaven99   
,our citizenship is in                  
heaven4--,philippians iii4 #bj4  ,he    
that hath seen me hath seen the         
,father4--,s4 ,john xiv4 #i4   ,we have 
considered in outline the functions of  
the ,state and of the ,church1 the two  
great instruments of ,god for the       
furthering of ,his kingdom4  ,let us now
 turn to consider1 still in mere        
outline1 for nothing more is possible1  
the nature of that ,kingdom itself4     
,there are very many ways in which the  
subject might be approached1 but ,i     
think that it will be most consonant    
with the general line of our thought in 
these meditations that we should        
consider it as the home of man's spirit1
 the fulfilment of his spiritual being4 
,and to that end1 inasmuch as the       
,kingdom can only be known by living    
according to the principles of its      
citizenship1 and our present effort is  

by its very nature intellectual only1 we
 must try to reach it in thought as the 
goal towards which the whole spiritual  
life of man is tending4  ,no life can be
 set forth in scientific terms4 ,the    
moment it is analysed1 the vitalising   
power is gone4  ,and even the poet1 who 
has far more chance than the logician of
 making us realise what the life        
signifies for those who live it1 is     
still speaking of it from outside4  ,it 
is only by life itself that we can truly
 know the ,kingdom of ,god4  ,we find1  
all through the ,new ,testament1 a      
contrast drawn between earth and heaven4
 ,and it is worth while to consider the 
logical principle of that contrast1 even
 though the result is somewhat dry and  
barren4  ,the place of careful analysis 
here is analogous to that which         
criticism holds in relation to art4 ,the
 critical analysis of a work of art will
 never of itself enable us to appreciate
 it1 if we are without the cultivated   
artistic faculty2 but it may enrich our 

appreciation4  ,we may thereby find more
 than we should otherwise have found of 
the elements that are combined together 
to make up the total effect4  ,and then 
in the unity of the renewed experience  
we receive more enjoyment than we had   
done before4  ,so1 too1 the ,kingdom of 
,god1 which for us is something that we 
still hope to reach1 and of which the   
foretaste that we have as yet received  
is a very slight earnest of the glory   
that shall be revealed1 may be a goal   
more potent in its attraction to our    
wills1 when we have seen it as the      
fulfilment of the principles of our     
whole spiritual life as these are       
discoverable in other departments and   
activities4  ,the goods of this world1  
as we have already noticed1 are such    
that the more one has the less there is 
for others4  ,the goods of heaven are of
 such a kind that the more one has the  
more there is on that account for       
others4 ,so it is with the true virtues 
of the spiritual life1 with love and joy

 and peace1 the fruits of the spirit4   
,so it is too with other excellences    
which belong to man as a spiritual      
being1 and which are out of the reach of
 our animal nature3 loyalty1 beauty and 
knowledge4  ,now the principle of this  
whole spiritual life is precisely the   
principle of unity1 not as distinct from
 variety but as distinct either from    
antagonism or transitoriness4  ,the two 
things that distress the soul of man are
 enmities1 and the passing away of that 
which he loves4 ,it is by rising above  
these evils1 which beset us in this     
earthly state1 that the satisfaction of 
the soul is found4  ,there are four main
 departments of the spiritual life which
 aspire in this way to rise above the   
evils which beset our mortal state4     
,they are ,science and ,art and         
,morality and ,religion4  ,as we know   
them in our experience1 they are all of 
them due on the human side to a         
dissatisfaction with our experience as  
we find it4  ,the scientific man is     

disturbed by the apparent chaos in his  
experience1 and he sets out to give     
order to it1 and he is satisfied in so  
far as he discovers that all the while  
it was not chaotic1 as it seemed1 but   
orderly4 ,the artist is craving for a   
beauty which1 in his ordinary           
experience1 he does not find4 ,he       
selects1 he concentrates attention on   
certain aspects1 to reach a satisfaction
 which the world otherwise seems not to 
give4  ,the man of moral aspiration is  
dissatisfied with the world as he sees  
it1 and he sets himself therefore to    
alter both himself and it1 that it may  
be modelled more in accordance with the 
heart's desire4  ,and the religious man 
finds all of these sources of           
dissatisfaction working together within 
his soul2 he seeks1 and in faith finds1 
that which gives him both peace and     
power4  ,let us then begin with what is 
in itself the least rich of these forms 
of human activity1 and consider how it  
is that ,science reaches its unity4     

,let us first recall that there are two 
forms of multiplicity or division which 
we are seeking to overcome3 that which  
arises from the clash of various ideals 
or desires1 the antagonism of man with  
man2 and that which arises from the     
changeableness of the world as we see   
it4 ,with regard to the latter1 science 
does indeed reach real unities2 but they
 are unities which leave ,time out of   
sight4 ,sometimes1 no doubt1 the subject
 matter which is handled is itself      
non-temporal1 but not in the sense of   
being eternal4  ,so1 for example1       
geometry is entirely without relation to
 time4 ,there is no temporal sequence   
between the equality of the sides and   
the equality of the angles in the       
isosceles triangle4  ,but where the     
subject studied is something that       
changes in ,time1 it remains true that  
the aim of science is to reach an       
unchanging principle4  ,so1 for example1
 the student of biology may be trying to
 discover the unchanging principle which

 governs the successive variations of   
species4 ,but when he has found it he   
has not really mastered the             
transitoriness2 he has not in any way   
gathered up the past and dead into his  
present experience2 he has merely found 
the principle which applies to every    
stage as that stage comes4  ,he reaches 
some superiority to the transitoriness  
of things1 only by abstracting from     
,time altogether4  ,and1 similarly1 the 
unity between men which is produced by a
 common absorption in such pursuits does
 not strike very deep4 ,for a man's     
temperament has nothing in the world to 
do with his scientific conclusions1 or  
at least ought not to have4  ,in the    
ideal pursuit of knowledge1 all of the  
things that set men at variance count   
for nothing whatever4  ,consequently the
 differences1 just because they are     
ignored1 are not overcome1 with the     
result that1 as at the beginning of this
 war1 we may find professors of the     
various nations1 who had been linked    

together1 as one might think1 closely   
enough in the pursuit of knowledge1     
hurling manifestoes at one another      
across their national frontiers4  ,when 
we pass to the second of the great      
departments1 a real progress may be     
noted in just these points4  ,for in the
 experience of the artist ,time is      
genuinely mastered4 ,we get some        
illustration of this from the absorption
 which marks the aesthetic contemplation
 of a picture or a statue4  ,for the    
time that we are really held by it1 we  
forget about time altogether4  ,but the 
case is clearer with regard to those    
arts which handle temporal              
processes--music and poetry4 ,for it is 
the whole point1 let us say1 of a drama1
 that it shall follow a certain         
succession2 it is vital to its          
significance that the scenes shall be in
 that order and no other4  ,if you have 
two plays1 each in three acts1 in one of
 which the first act is cheerful in     
tone1 and the second is neutral1 and the

 third depressing1 while in the other   
the first act is depressing1 the second 
neutral1 and the third cheerful1 the    
total effect of the two plays is not the
 average of the three acts in each case1
 which would be neutral for both1 but is
 in the one particularly depressing1 and
 in the other particularly cheering4    
,for the play is grasped as a whole4    
,it makes a single impression1 if it is 
a good play4 ,we know what it means--not
 indeed because we can state it in other
 words1 for it is the only expression of
 its own meaning2 but it has a definite 
significance for us4  ,and the name of  
the play comes to stand for that        
significance4  ,this is especially      
noticeable in tragedy1 where the        
,greeks1 with their sure instinct1 chose
 a story whose plot is known to the     
spectator in advance1 so that we have   
throughout the play both the impression 
of the entire story and the particular  
impression of each scene as it comes and
 passes4  ,it is significant that the   

,greeks did so choose for tragedy       
stories whose plot was known1 while     
their comedians invented their own      
plots4  ,and most will agree that we    
enjoy a great play better when we have  
read it in advance1 or when we have     
already seen it on the stage before2    
because then we do reach something that 
may serve perhaps as the nearest image  
that we can get for eternity--a grasp of
 the whole stretch of time1 realised in 
its successiveness and in the meaning   
which that successiveness gives to it1  
and having the sense of the whole       
throughout and seeing each moment1 as it
 comes1 in the light not only of the    
past but of the future too4  ,on this   
side1 then1 art is able1 for the moment 
at least1 and with regard to a period   
definitely limited by our capacities of 
comprehension1 to master ,time and give 
us a unity which includes its           
successiveness within it2 so that the   
past1 and even the future1 are gathered 
up into the real experience of the      

present1 and we are not only conscious  
of what is before our eyes1 but are     
conscious of it as a part of the whole  
to which it belongs4  ,in a similar way 
we notice that while different          
temperaments are needed for the         
production of different types of art1   
yet in appreciation all are united4     
,for example1 it would be quite         
impossible for the great ,russian novels
 to be produced in any other country    
than ,russia2 it would have been quite  
impossible for the great ,german        
philosophy to have been produced in any 
other nation than ,germany2 it would    
have been quite impossible for the great
 ,english poetry to have been produced  
in any other nation than ,england4      
,these literatures belong to the soil   
out of which they spring4  ,but the     
people of all the other nations can     
appreciate them1 and all are glad       
because they are different4  ,and so far
 as the artistic side of our nature     
governs our whole being1 it is capable  

of linking us together in a real        
fellowship1 which includes and is based 
upon our differences and the            
appreciation of them1 and is therefore  
firmly rooted1 because what might have  
been the source of antagonism is become 
itself the bond of unity4  ,but we must 
notice that each of these only reaches a
 very provisional attainment4  ,if      
science likes to mark off a certain     
department of reality for its           
investigation1 it can reach something   
like finality concerning just that      
department4  ,i suppose that mechanics  
is something like a complete system of  
truth1 so far as the mechanical aspect  
of things can be isolated from all other
 aspects4  ,but then1 nothing in the    
world is mechanical and only mechanical4
  ,nothing in the world is chemical and 
only chemical4  ,there are always other 
qualities there1 from which abstraction 
has been made4  ,science therefore      
inevitably sets before itself as its    
goal the understanding of the universe1 

and it could not reach any absolute     
certainty concerning any real fact      
except so far as it had obtained        
omniscience4  ,in mathematics it reaches
 certainty1 because in mathematics the  
object is what it is defined to be1 and 
nothing else4  ,but no given material   
thing is just a triangle4 ,it may even  
be disputed whether any given thing can 
be1 according to the definition1 a      
triangle at all4  ,science then is      
marked by a restlessness until it       
reaches this omniscience4  ,it began    
when the first man said ,why8  ,the     
moment that question is asked1 ,science 
is launched upon its course4  ,but the  
answer to that question merely prompts  
anyone of scientific instincts to say   
,why8 to the answer4  ,why is there a   
war8  ,historical science will point to 
the diplomatic documents1 and from them 
to the course of history moulding       
national aspiration4  ,then if we say1  
,why was the cause of war such8  ,and1  
why were there such national            

aspirations8 we shall find ourselves    
soon investigating the literature of the
 countries and then their climates2 from
 this we are shortly involved in        
astronomy and geology and all the other 
sciences4  ,you can have nothing that is
 final until you reach omniscience4     
,and so ,science moves1 perpetually     
saying ,why8 to every statement that is 
made4  ,far in the distance1 in the     
infinite distance1 is its goal of a     
complete satisfaction gained through    
understanding the universe in its       
entirety4  ,art can similarly only      
achieve a provisional attainment of its 
goal2 but the attainment while it lasts 
is more substantial4  ,its method1 as   
distinct from that of science1 is mental
 rest4 ,the aim of the artist is to     
concentrate attention upon the object1  
holding it there by various devices4    
,that is why pictures are put into      
frames4  ,something abruptly irrelevant1
 although not discordant1 is put round  
the object to help us fix our minds upon

 it4  ,that is why poetry is written in 
metre4  ,the mind is abruptly brought   
back by the recurrence of the rhythm or 
the recurrence of the sound in rhyme1   
and held within the total composition4  
,we notice that it is precisely where   
the subject matter of the poem is slight
 that the rhythm needs to be strongly   
marked or the system of rhyme           
complicated2 where the subject matter   
itself has a strong appeal1 any rhyming 
seems to be out of place and tiresome4  
,the aim is simply to grip the attention
 and hold it upon the object and make us
 see it as it is2 not after the fashion 
of science1 connecting it with other    
things1 but understanding it by getting 
to know it in and for itself as         
thoroughly as may be4  ,now in thus     
concentrating attention upon some one   
object and claiming complete absorption 
in that object1 art is implicitly       
claiming to give a perfect mental       
satisfaction and an absolute peace4     
,but it can never succeed in that unless

 the object upon which it is            
concentrating our attention is an       
adequate symbol for the whole truth of  
things in which the whole of our nature 
will find such satisfaction4    ,this is
 why no great work of art over becomes  
out of date1 whereas the work of a great
 scientist is always liable to do so1   
because his successors revise it in the 
light of ever widening knowledge4       
,moreover1 these activities of the mind 
or spirit fail to govern our lives as a 
whole precisely because they are        
contemplative and not active4  ,we stand
 before the world gazing at it1 setting 
our minds indeed to work upon it in     
certain ways1 yet not fundamentally     
changing it4  ,but we are active beings1
 with wills as well as contemplative    
minds1 and our volitional action lies   
very largely outside the range which    
these activities and interests can      
control4  ,and therefore it is that so  
little real unity is reached by means of
 them4  ,in ,morality the practical     

instincts and impulses are for the first
 time included4 ,morality is the science
 or the art1 or both1 of living in      
society2 of living1 that is to say1 as  
fellow members with other beings1 who   
also have aspirations and ideals as     
legitimate as our own1 so that our own  
claim to pursue our own ideals must be  
won by recognition of their equal claim 
to pursue theirs4  ,and the man who1    
with full mastery of himself1 if such a 
man exists1 is following out a great    
purpose that is adequate to satisfy his 
whole nature1 is a man who has achieved 
the conquest of ,time in the completest 
way4  ,it is essential to the pursuit of
 a purpose that we move from stage to   
stage1 as we adapt means to our end1 and
 yet all of it is one thing1 thought and
 experienced as one4 ,indeed a test that
 we always instinctively apply to a     
biography is whether it enables us to   
see the different stages of a man's life
 as constituting one spiritual whole4   
,that is just what we desire the        

biographer to set forth before us4  ,at 
the same time ,morality conquers        
antagonism because it is the life of    
fellowship4 ,it begins with the         
recognition that other men have as much 
right to live as we have1 and we buy our
 rights precisely by conceding theirs4  
,its root principle is the recognition  
of this brotherhood or                  
fellow-membership4  ,and yet it1 too1   
never reaches its goal2 it fails in two 
ways2 every man in this world1 however  
perfectly he may achieve mastery of his 
own nature--and it may be doubted if any
 man has ever done even that by his own 
strength--is so conditioned by          
circumstances that he is never able to  
make his life a perfect masterpiece of  
art2 and as regards the whole fellowship
 of which he is a member1 and his own   
relation to it1 he can find no absolute 
rules except the command to reach a     
state of mind which he cannot reach by  
his own will4  ,there are no moral laws 
that are absolute except the law to love

 one's neighbour as oneself4 ,all the   
rest have exceptions somewhere4 ,thou   
shall not kill1 was the formula of the  
old law4  ,but we have altered it into1 
,thou shalt do no murder4  ,it is always
 wrong to murder1 because murder is such
 killing as is wrong4  ,but it is not   
always wrong to kill4 ,and so we find no
 principle that can be made entirely    
binding and universal1 except the law to
 love our neighbour as ourselves4  ,but 
how are we to do it8  ,is there any man 
who seriously thinks that by taking     
thought he can make himself love        
somebody else8  ,all of these three     
then1 and the last as emphatically as   
any1 in spite of its comprehending a    
greater section of human nature1 fail to
 reach their own achievement4  ,in the  
fourth stage1 in ,religion1 all would   
find their fulfilment4  ,for the purpose
 of ,god1 if there be a ,god1 is the    
principle of unity which the scientist  
is seeking4  ,the nature of ,god1 if    
there be a ,god1 is that perfect beauty 

which would be the culmination of the   
life of ,art4  ,the righteousness of    
,god1 if there be a ,god1 is the        
satisfaction of the moral aspiration4   
,but we are not left so to conjecture   
what life would be like if we could     
carry our own spiritual faculties to    
their own highest development4 ,we are  
given the express image of the person of
 ,god4  ,he that hath seen ,me hath seen
 the ,father4  ,we shall not indeed have
 perfect knowledge of the sphere of     
religion until we have seen how the     
whole of history and every detail of our
 lives is1 after all1 the result and    
work of creative ,love2 but while       
,science and ,art and ,morality struggle
 towards their goal and only realise    
their need for it1 ,god gives ,himself  
as the satisfaction of that need4  ,it  
is ,his gift1 not our discovery2 but we 
see that in this principle all ,time is 
gathered up1 for if the life of ,christ 
is the manifestation of the nature of   
,god1 then it is the manifestation of   

the root-principle of all history4    ,i
 am aware that the argument here is per 
saltum1 but space forbids its full      
development4  ,i hope soon to have      
completed a book which will fill in the 
outline sketch offered in this ,lecture4
  ,meanwhile ,i would refer to my essay 
on ,the ,divinity of ,christ in         
,foundations1 specially pp4 #bac-bbc1   
#bdb-bfc4   ,then we see1 too1 how all  
men may be united in perfect fellowship1
 because all men loving ,god will find  
themselves loving those whom ,god so    
loves4  ,this hope or conviction remains
 in the region of faith1 not of         
knowledge2 what of that8  ,in the other 
departments also we have found no       
knowledge4  ,we have only found         
approximation towards it4  ,we have1 as 
it were1 converging lines which never   
meet2 and we have also the point at     
which we see they would meet if         
produced4  ,is that not enough8  ,here  
we find is the principle that will give 
unity1 as we work it out1 to the whole  

scheme of our spiritual life4  ,morality
 says1 ,love all men4  ,how can ,i8     
,science says1 ,realise the truth which 
explains the universe4 ,how can ,i8     
,but ,i can gaze upon the manifestation 
of ,god in ,jesus ,christ2 ,i can       
meditate upon ,his ,cross and           
,resurrection4 ,i can see here and there
 how it may be true that this is indeed 
the explanation of all the sorrow1 even 
of all the sin4  ,for if it is true that
 the supreme manifestation of the love  
of ,god was historically conditioned by 
the supreme sin of humanity in the      
treason of ,judas1 then surely one      
begins to see how even out of the       
grossest evil the glory of ,god wins    
triumph for itself1 which we too may    
share if we are first drawn to share the
 sacrifice4  ,as ,i become absorbed in  
that contemplation ,i find in the first 
place a new power to love all men1 as ,i
 remember that ,he died for them just as
 ,he died for me4  ,in the degree in    
which ,i really believe that this is the

 manifestation of the power of ,god and 
the governing authority of the universe1
 ,i find this thought over-ruling other 
thoughts and temptations to hostility or
 enmity4  ,as ,i remember that those    
whom ,i am inclined to despise or hate  
are those for whom ,he thought it worth 
while to die1 my contempt and my hatred 
are rebuked and cancelled4  ,and        
similarly1 if ,i realise--or in the     
degree in which ,i realise--that here is
 set forth the power that governs all   
things1 that this is the way in which   
,god rules the world1 and that ,calvary 
is the mode of ,his omnipotence1 ,i     
begin to find myself indifferent1 and   
that increasingly1 to those things which
 are called sorrow and pain4  ,but we   
shall only find this as we expect to    
find it4  ,all through our spiritual    
life we may be perpetually in contact1  
as it were1 with the means of receiving 
what is good1 and never receive it      
because we are not expecting it4  ,we   
have not expected peace of mind from our

 worship1 we have not expected a sense  
of security against evil2 that is why we
 have not found it2 but it is our fault4
  ,and certainly most of us have not    
expected to find fellowship from        
worship4  ,we have known something of   
the grace of ,jesus ,christ1 perhaps    
even of the love of ,god2 but of the    
fellowship of the ,holy ,spirit1 of the 
sense of being linked to one another    
because all dominated by that one power1
 most of us have found nothing1 because 
we have not expected it4  ,but if we are
 expecting this1 all the testimony of   
the saints in every generation goes to  
show that we shall find what we have    
expected4  ,the power that can give us  
security against the transitoriness of  
the world and against the instincts of  
antagonism is there in the faith that we
 place in ,god4  ,i will put my trust in
 ,god1 the ,psalmist says1 ,i will not  
fear what flesh can do unto me4  ,this  
is not because flesh will not do such   
hurt as it can to the man who puts his  

trust in ,god--the ,jews crucified      
,christ--but because to the man who puts
 his trust in ,god1 anything whatever   
that happens becomes part of ,god's     
purpose for his life1 and therefore he  
will not fear it4 ,for all things1      
sorrow as well as joy1 pain as well as  
pleasure1 sin as well as righteousness1 
all things work together for good to    
them that love ,god4                    
99,,lecture ,,vi99                      
99,,god ,,in ,,history99   ,i am the    
,alpha and the ,omega1 saith the ,lord  
,god1 which is and which was and which  
is to come1 the ,almighty4--,revelation 
i4 #h4   ,we have considered the two    
great instruments of ,god by which ,he  
fashions the spiritual life of man1 and 
we have considered that spiritual life  
itself in the outline at least of its   
four main departments2 and now1 as we   
close our line of thought1 we need still
 to consider how it is that1 in these   
fields and by these instruments1 ,god   
carries forward ,his work4  ,the        

conception of ,god as at work in human  
history1 guiding it1 controlling it1 and
 judging men by its course1 is the great
 contribution of ,israel to the religion
 of the world4  ,it is linked of course 
with that belief in the union of perfect
 righteousness with the divine1 power   
which we usually speak of under the     
somewhat cumbrous title of ,ethical     
,monotheism4  ,we remember what was     
really at stake in that great day upon  
,mount ,carmel when ,elijah confronted  
the priests of ,baal2 it was whether the
 conception of ,god as righteous and    
demanding righteousness should prevail1 
or the conception of ,god as a          
capricious ,being1 needing only to be   
propitiated1 and in connection with     
whose very worship licentiousness was   
tolerated and even encouraged4  ,but1   
after all1 the greatest souls1 at least 
in every highly-developed religion1 have
 believed that ,god is righteous in     
,himself4 ,what gives to ,israel its    
supreme significance in the spiritual   

history of mankind is the conviction    
that this righteous ,god is daily and   
hourly at work in the history of men2   
and that conviction gives to the faith  
of ,israel a primacy and supremacy over 
all the other partial faiths1 even      
though they may be superior in certain  
departments4  ,if we think of some of   
the conceptions by means of which we try
 to bring before our minds the meaning  
of the word ,god1 we may find that with 
regard to several of them1 other nations
 had advanced further than ,israel      
before the coming of the ,lord4  ,god is
 ,spirit4  ,the ,hindu knew that1 and   
knows it still1 quite as much as        
,israel4  ,god is ,law4  ,the more      
thoughtful at least among the ancient   
,romans1 and particularly the great     
,roman ,stoics1 knew that with a        
vividness that was scarcely ever        
attained in ,israel4  ,god is ,beauty4  
,assuredly the ancient ,greeks knew that
 as ,israel never realised it at all4   
,but the conception of ,israel that ,god

 is at work in history means that the   
,god of ,israel gives to these other    
gods or conceptions of ,god1 each its   
own time and place of emergence and     
decay4  ,the ,god who is revealed to us 
in the ,old ,testament is ,himself the  
,being who appoints that the ,indian or 
the ,roman or the ,greek should reach   
these particular convictions2 and in    
these partial apprehensions of the      
,divine1 before the full revelation     
came1 the faith of ,israel is           
determinative and regulative for all the
 other faiths2 and moreover1 it is this 
faith that ,god is at work in the actual
 daily history of men1 which makes the  
faith of ,israel the natural and proper 
introduction to the ,incarnation1 where 
,god ,himself took flesh and lived among
 men and died at a time and in a        
place--in ,palestine and under ,pontius 
,pilate4  ,this exaltation of the ,holy 
,god1 actually at work within men and at
 their side1 while it leads to a sense  
of awe before the ,holiness of the      

,almighty1 also leads to a sense of the 
dignity of this world1 and of man's life
 in it1 which is lacking1 as a rule1    
from other great religions1 and that too
 in proportion as those other religions 
are spiritual4  ,for the ,hindu1 for    
example1 this world and all that is in  
it is mere illusion4  ,he is spiritual  
enough but he is not material enough2   
and we find there that contempt for the 
things of the body which invariably     
issues in a contempt for moral conduct2 
for our moral conduct here1 while we    
live upon this planet1 is wrought out   
through our bodies4 ,but the religion of
 ,israel1 and especially its completion 
in the ,incarnation1 wherein ,god       
,himself came in the flesh1 gives at    
once a dignity to this world of ours1 to
 our bodies1 and to all the material    
side of life4  ,when ,christ stood      
before ,pilate1 the ,kingdom of ,god was
 in appearance1 at least1 undergoing    
judgment at the hands of the kingdom of 
this world2 but it is not merely a      

contrast of good with evil4  ,it is a   
contrast of the perfect with the very   
imperfect1 but yet not merely evil1     
power4 ,pilate is not ,satan2 and the   
,lord ,himself1 in the moment of ,his   
trial1 recognises that the authority by 
which ,he is condemned is an authority  
that is derived from ,god--,thou        
couldest have no power at all against   
,me1 except it were given thee from     
above4  ,the kingdoms of this world1    
which are to become the kingdoms of our 
,god and of ,his ,christ1 are not simply
 something evil4  ,the contrast of      
,church and ,world is not the contrast  
between good and evil2 but it is the    
contrast between two stages in the work 
which ,god is accomplishing in history1 
and those two may often come into       
conflict4  ,let us then ask what is the 
central principle of ,god's guidance of 
,his people1 so far as it may be deduced
 from the tiny fragment of history that 
we really know4  ,in that fragment at   
least1 we may say1 ,i think1 with little

 hesitation1 that its method and its aim
 is spiritual growth1 or1 if you like to
 put it an expansion and enrichment of  
personality4  ,we are sometimes inclined
 to think our own personality is        
something that is given to us from the  
outset1 and entirely belongs to us2 but 
that idea will not stand examination for
 a moment4  ,individual personality is a
 social product4  ,it can only be       
developed under social influences4  ,a  
man may be born with many great talents1
 but if his environment does not        
encourage their development1 these      
talents will remain for the most part   
undeveloped and unknown--either to      
himself or to anybody else4  ,indeed the
 greater the talent with which a man is 
endowed1 the more difference is made to 
him by the kind of surroundings in which
 he is put4  ,a man of very few gifts   
and little natural capacity will be much
 the same1 whether he has abundant      
opportunity for mental and spiritual    
growth or little opportunity2 but the   

man of great capacities1 needing for    
their development the encouragement of  
surroundings1 is an entirely different  
being according as those surroundings   
are favourable or the reverse2 and so we
 reach the curious result that the      
greatest personality1 while no doubt he 
must have brought into the world        
something given to him by ,god that was 
capable of development1 is yet more     
entirely dependent upon the society in  
which he is living than people with a   
less wide range of gifts4  ,again1 it is
 only within a society which has        
developed some character for itself1    
which has indeed a personality of its   
own1 that individual personality can    
reach very much development4 ,you cannot
 have genius in a savage tribe4 ,genius 
is the focal expression of the          
personality of a whole people4  ,it is  
that people coming to life1 and         
possessed of voice2 and you do not find 
it where there is little social         
development4  ,it is only as the tribe  

or the nation begins to have some       
definite character of its own that it is
 itself sufficiently organised to       
develop from its own individual member  
those gifts1 and elicit those           
activities1 which are the signs of      
genius4  ,we find then1 that individual 
personality1 or spiritual life1 is      
dependent upon the spiritual life of    
society2 and we need to notice that this
 society has every mark by which we     
distinguish personality in the          
individual4  ,it has aspirations3 it has
 a predominant character2 it has claims1
 and it has duties4 ,it has in fact1 in 
the literal sense of the word1 corporate
 personality1 and just as the many      
instincts and impulses which are to be  
found in human nature1 and may be very  
discordant with one another1 are welded 
together to make up the single life of a
 human being1 so the whole gifts and    
instincts and ambitions and aspirations 
of all the individual citizens are      
welded together1 to make up the         

personality of the whole society4       
,moreover1 every nation is in itself not
 only the combination of individual     
citizens1 but also of minor groups      
within itself1 all of which have these  
same marks1 and all of which are in the 
real genuine sense persons1 spiritual   
individuals with a life of their own4   
,now1 as we look over the history of the
 development which thus goes on side by 
side in the individual and in society1  
we find that its principle in the       
fragment of history that we really know 
has been that isolated excellences      
should be brought to perfection first2  
and after something like perfection has 
been reached in the separate departments
 taken singly1 the combination of them  
is brought about1 in order that the     
richer and fuller life may be perfected1
 in which all of them find a place4     
,european history derives its whole life
 from ,palestine1 ,greece and ,rome2 and
 in each of those three peoples1 some   
one excellence was developed to a       

peculiar degree4  ,rome perfected and   
has bequeathed to us the instincts for  
social order1 as embodied in law4 ,the  
history of the ,roman people is of      
significance1 precisely because one may 
there trace the growth and working out  
of this instinct for social or political
 life4 ,there has never been anything to
 rival it in history4 ,no modern nation 
has shown the same extraordinary        
political sense and sanity4  ,the       
,romans were not great political        
philosophers4 ,they did not think very  
much about the principles on which they 
acted2 but simply because of their      
peculiar gift in this direction they    
welded together a social order which    
lasted throughout their ,empire in a    
wonderful way2 and to this day the law  
of ,europe is to an enormous extent the 
law of ancient ,rome4  ,to ancient      
,greece1 it is hard to say what we do   
not owe4  ,her peculiar characteristic  
is intellectual passion2 a passion for  
reaching perfection in just what the    

intellect is particularly qualified to  
grasp1 truth and beauty4 ,no doubt the  
ancient ,greeks themselves thought a    
great deal about their ordinary politics
 and their military activities1 and the 
wars between the various ,states2 but   
these matter very little4  ,the ,greek  
people are significant for evermore not 
because of the ,athenian trireme or the 
,macedonian phalanx1 but because        
,aeschylus stood in astonished awe      
before the operation of the ,divine     
,justice2 because ,sophocles reflected  
the whole of human life1 even its       
ugliest manifestations1 in the mirror of
 a soul so calm and pure1 that as we    
look at that reflection all life seems  
bathed in peace and beauty2 because     
,euripides entered into the sorrows of  
simple folk2 because ,thucydides1 with a
 still unrivalled zeal for the genuine  
truth of history1 said the wise word    
about nearly every political condition  
that has arisen since his time2 because 
,plato dreamed a ,vision of all time and

 all existence1 proclaimed that it can  
never be just to do harm to any man     
whatever harm he may have done to us2   
proclaimed also that ,god is in no way  
unrighteous1 but in all ways absolutely 
righteous1 nor is anything more like to 
,god than whosoever among men shall     
become perfectly righteous2 foreseeing  
also that if a perfectly righteous man  
should come on earth he would die1      
scourged and crucified4  ,there is      
nowhere before the ,new ,testament      
anything that comes nearer to its own   
highest truths1 not in the ,old         
,testament itself1 than what you will   
find in ,plato4    ,republic i4         
#cce99;d992 ,theaetetus #agf99;c992     
,republic ii4 #cfa99;e994   ,this       
influence1--the influence of this       
intellectual passion--has been the      
driving force in nearly all the         
movements since that time4 ,it has been 
said there is nothing in the world which
 moves that is not ,greek in origin1 and
 it is almost true2 it is from the      

,greeks that we have learnt the use of  
reason to modify experience and they    
derived it from the intellectual passion
 for truth and beauty4  ,to ,palestine  
we owe the inspiring and governing faith
 of which ,i have already spoken--the   
one faith that can give real            
significance to these other two1 faith  
in the ,holy ,god at work in history4   
,it is noticeable that each of these    
countries was conspicuously weak in     
those other qualities which were not    
especially entrusted to it4 ,ancient    
,rome was not at all specially religious
 and was conspicuously unintellectual4  
,the people of ,greece again are not    
conspicuously religious1 though in their
 cults there is a haunting beauty2 and  
they were not at all politically        
successful2 the history of ,athens1 the 
flower of ,greece1 is the history of a  
,state in which almost every generation 
threw up a supreme genius who proceeded 
to change the constitution in accordance
 with his magnificent ideas2 the result 

was political instability of an         
appalling character4  ,and ,palestine   
has contributed very little to us as    
regards social organisation1 and is     
markedly lacking in the scientific and  
artistic gifts4 ,we have only to        
consider the great images that are set  
before us1 let us say in the ,book of   
,ezekiel1 or again in the ,book of      
,revelation1 to see that there is no    
attempt in these efforts of the         
imagination to achieve a beautiful or   
harmonious whole4  ,the symbolic        
elements are added one to another       
because of the value of their meaning2  
but there is no effort to visualise the 
whole2 and if we try to make it1 we     
quickly find that such a thing was never
 intended4    ,it is of course true that
 the ,greek genius gave us what we now  
mean by civilisation1 namely1 the       
combination of political unity and      
personal freedom4  ,on this see the     
admirable first chapter of ,mr4 ,edwyn  
,bevan's ,the ,house of ,seleucus4  ,but

 it remains true that the race from     
whose intellectual genius this whole    
product sprang had not in any           
considerable degree the capacity for    
controlling their own invention4   ,each
 of these then reached a genuine        
supremacy in its own department2 and the
 history of ,europe is to an enormous   
extent the history of the inter-action  
of these three forces as they mingle and
 combine in the polities of the         
barbarian invaders who wrecked the      
,roman ,empire4  ,we watch the periods  
of domination of each successively4     
,christianity grew up within the ,roman 
,empire1 and the fascination of that    
great ,empire cast a glamour about it in
 the minds even of those who destroyed  
it1 so that the life which emerges out  
of chaos in the ,middle ,ages is        
predominantly very ,latin4  ,the        
,renaissance is precisely the invasion  
of ,greek influence1 and the            
,reformation is very largely the        
rediscovery of the ,hebrew4  ,for a     

while the three new forces worked       
together1 carrying men's thought and    
action forward2 and then in the #ahth   
century it would seem that there was1 in
 ,england at any rate1 a torpor due to  
their exhaustion2 when revival came it  
was because ,wesley and his friends     
revived the ,hebrew element in our life1
 because ,newman and ,pusey with their  
friends revived the ,latin element1 and 
because ,f4 ,d4 ,maurice and the ,broad 
,church movement revived the            
,hellenistic1 and this1 with its passion
 for more adequate comprehension and    
expression1 is the dominant force of our
 time4  ,we watch these three influences
 still at work2 but as they interact    
upon one another and within the persons 
of the new races1 a new product is      
gradually being produced1 and in those  
corporate personalities which we call   
nations1 we see a character being born  
which is something that history has not 
known before4   ,the first requirement  
of personality is always                

freedom--freedom as we have already said
 in its two senses1 that conduct is not 
dictated from without but is governed by
 the whole person1 and not by isolated  
elements2 and the corporate persons need
 freedom just as much as the individual2
 hence the need1 the vital and absolute 
need1 for political sovereignty in any  
,state which is conscious of itself as a
 person1 that is as having a single     
spiritual life4  ,but that life and     
freedom are exercised only in the       
citizens who are members of the ,state4 
,we cannot surely assert that the       
corporate person is immortal1 as the    
individual is2 and therefore1 to destroy
 a ,state is to inflict a more          
irreparable loss than to kill a man1    
which is one reason at least1 perhaps   
the chief reason1 why a man should die  
for the political freedom of his        
country1 and even1 if need be1 kill for 
it2 but1 as freedom is the first        
requirement of personality1 fellowship  
is its first duty1 for it is true of    

corporate personalities quite as much as
 of individuals that they only find     
themselves and fulfil themselves in     
their inter-action upon one another1 and
 the nations of the world do in fact    
need one another1 and need one another's
 full life4  ,in economics we found out 
long ago that in order to be wealthy1 a 
country needs rich neighbours who may   
afford good markets4 ,it is so in every 
other department4  ,we need the gifts of
 the other peoples4  ,we need that they 
shall be free and vigorous4  ,indeed the
 chief lesson which the world at this   
time needs to learn is just this--that  
all the nations of the world need one   
another1 each needing also that the     
others should be free1 in order that    
they may bring their contributions to   
the common life in which all share4     
,but we should1 ,i think1 be reading the
 signs of the times amiss if we did not 
also take account of the fact that there
 has been growing up lately a new type  
of corporate personality1 not known to  

history before1 and exemplified by your 
own ,united ,states and by the ,british 
,empire2 the conception of sovereign    
,states linked together in a single     
life1 and exercising therein a joint    
sovereignty in dealing with those who   
lie outside the federation1 is something
 of which history bears no record2 and  
we need to try to understand its        
principle1 and see what it is capable of
 contributing to the life of men in     
order that we may not fail to use our   
opportunity1 and bring our contribution4
    ,see ,appendix ,v4  ,on ,providence 
in ,history4    ,there is our outline   
sketch of the way in which the history  
of our own civilisation has grown1      
within which the ,church and ,nation are
 at work4 ,we are members of both4 ,what
 duty falls upon us as the result of    
that dual membership8  ,the ,christian  
citizen is called of necessity to fulfil
 one of three functions--prophet1 priest
 and king4  ,the prophet is one who is  
called to testify to the ideal          

unflinchingly1 not considering          
consequences1 not perhaps considering   
ways and means of reaching the ideal1   
but simply insisting on its nature and  
calling men and nations to penitence so 
far as they fail to reach it4  ,it may  
require more courage than the office of 
the king or statesman1 and yet in itself
 it is the easiest1 because it is       
relatively simple4  ,in all modern      
nations1 and more so in the degree in   
which they are democratic1 every citizen
 partakes of the duty of kingship4 ,he  
has some share in determining how his   
nation shall act1 either in the         
management of its own internal affairs  
or in its dealings with other people1   
and one who has this responsibility and 
is also a ,christian1 is involved in the
 absolute duty of trying to think1 and  
to think with genuine effort1 how he may
 be actually guiding his nation toward  
the ideal4 ,he must not be content with 
pious platitudes leading to no action1  
nor content to consider only his own    

country's welfare2 but as a member of   
the ,church of ,christ which embraces   
all mankind1 he is called to think out  
and1 having thought1 to pursue in act   
the methods by which his nation may     
genuinely be doing its part to build up 
the one great ,temple of ,god--,his     
,holy ,city4  ,the priest is prophet and
 statesman1 both at once4  ,he1 as      
minister of the ,word of ,god1 must     
perpetually insist upon the true ideal1 
and bid men to guard against all        
self-contentment so far as they fail to 
reach it2 and yet he must be ready to   
take his stand by the side of every     
individual or group of individuals1 even
 of the nation itself1 nerving each to  
do the best of which it then and there  
in the circumstances of the day is      
capable4  ,and meanwhile he is a        
wretched human being like the rest1     
terribly liable to pride if he upholds  
an ideal higher than is usually         
recognised2 terribly liable to          
worldliness1 alike in his own soul and  

in his teaching1 if for a single moment 
he forsakes the ,divine ,presence2 and  
uniquely exposed to the deadliest of all
 temptations2 for while we preach what  
neither we nor anybody else can         
practise1 we are sorely tempted to be   
content with spiritual mediocrity       
ourselves4  ,but above all1 at this time
 the necessity1 ,i think1 is for a clear
 testimony concerning the purpose of    
,god for ,his people1 and ,his kingdom  
that shall surely come4  ,we have made  
our precepts so tame2 our efforts for   
peace and fellowship have been so much  
less exhilarating than other men's      
efforts for war2 we have been very mild2
 and that is not the spirit of ,christ1 
or of ,his ,kingdom4  ,the spirit of    
,christ is the spirit of all heroism in 
all ages4  ,in #ahdh1 a little republic 
was founded in ,rome to stand for       
justice and purity of government amid   
the corrupt ,states all round4  ,it was 
attacked by those ,states1 and at last  
it yielded2 on the day when the         

capitulation was signed masses of people
 were gathered together in the great    
,piazza outside ,st4 ,peter's1 and there
 rode among them the man whose faith and
 heroism had sustained that siege for   
more weeks than the wiseacres thought it
 could last days4  ,when the cheering   
had subsided1 he made no acknowledgment1
 but simply said3       ,i am going out 
from ,rome4  ,i offer neither quarters1 
nor     provisions1 nor wages4 ,i offer 
hunger1 thirst1 forced marches1         
battles1 death4  ,let him who loves his 
country with his heart     not with his 
lips only follow me4   ,and they        
streamed out after him into the hills4  
,his name was ,garibaldi2 and because of
 his heroism and theirs the kingdom of  
,italy is in the world to-day4  ,but the
 invitation of ,christ is in exactly    
that spirit--,i offer neither quarters1 
nor provisions1 nor wages4  ,i offer    
hunger1 thirst1 forced marches1 battles1
 death4  ,if any man would come after   
,me1 let him deny himself1 and take up  

his cross1 and follow ,me4  ,the cross1 
when our ,lord spoke those words1 was   
quite a real thing4  ,to take up the    
cross did not mean bearing life's little
 inconveniences with equanimity4  ,it   
meant literally to put the rope round   
one's neck1 and be ready simply for     
anything that might come4  ,that is the 
spirit in which we are summoned to work 
for ,christ4  ,can we rise to it8  ,the 
,prince of ,peace was not a mild man4   
,this is the vision that ,his disciple  
had of ,him3       ,his head and ,his   
hair were white1 as white wool1 white as
 snow2     and ,his eyes were as a flame
 of fire2 and ,his feet like unto       
burnished brass1 as if it had been      
refined in a furnace2 and ,his     voice
 as the voice of many waters4  ,and ,he 
had in ,his right hand     seven stars3 
and out of ,his mouth proceeded a sharp 
two-edged     sword2 and ,his           
countenance was as the sun shineth in   
its     strength4  ,and when ,i saw     
,him1 ,i fell at ,his feet as one dead4 

,can we present the figure of ,christ as
 endowed with anything like that        
compelling power8  ,if so1 we are worthy
 ministers4 ,it not1 we are making dull 
the one great adventure of the world4   
,there is only one way in which we can  
succeed4  ,it is that we cling to faith 
in ,god1 the ,author of the drama1 in   
which we play our part2 ,god1 ,himself  
the ,guide along the path we are to     
follow2 ,god1 not only the ,guide1 but  
the very ,way in which we are to walk2  
,god1 not only the ,guide and ,way1 but 
the ,strengthener within our souls1     
enabling us to follow2 and ,god the     
,guide1 the ,way1 the ,strengthener1    
,himself also the ,goal to which we     
would come4  ,for in ,him we move and   
live and have our being4      ,yea thro'
 life1 death1 thro' sorrow and thro'    
sinning       ,he shall suffice me1 for 
,he hath sufficed2     ,christ is the   
end1 for ,christ was the beginning1     
,christ the beginning1 for the end is   
,christ4   ,i am the ,alpha and the     

,omega1 saith the ,lord ,god1 which is  
and which was and which is to come1 the 
,almighty4                              
99,,appendix ,i99                       
99,,on ,,the ,,apocalyptic              
,,consciousness99   ,it is very         
difficult for the modern reader to      
recover the frame of mind in which      
,apocalypse has its origin1 but we may  
do this more easily if we look for      
parallels outside the field of religious
 history4  ,it has been well said that  
the mediaeval man looked upwards and    
downwards--to ,hell and to ,heaven2 his 
view of the world is on a vertical      
plane2 the modern man has a horizontal  
view1 looking to the past and           
future--the past as it has existed1 and 
the future as it shall exist1 in the    
history of human society upon this      
earth4  ,we need if possible to combine 
these two1 but it is a very difficult   
achievement4  ,with our point of view we
 inevitably read ,apocalypse as if it   
were a literal history of the future    

written before the event2 but this is   
not its primary significance4  ,the     
religious consciousness from which it   
springs was highly indifferent to the   
lapse of time3 very likely the seer     
expected the speedy realisation of his  
vision so far as he thought about things
 in that way at all1 but this was not   
his primary concern4  ,let us take a    
parallel1 as was suggested a moment ago1
 from another field4  ,the socialistic  
movement in its early days seemed       
committed to an immediate expectation of
 the millennium following upon a        
catastrophic change in the structure of 
human society4  ,the arrival of the     
millennium now seems postponed          
indefinitely and evolution has taken the
 place of revolution as a method1 and   
yet a socialist who is really in the    
movement does not feel any breach of    
continuity2 he knows that he is one in  
spirit with the earlier writers and that
 they were never mainly concerned either
 with the date at which the millennium  

would come or the means by which they   
imagined it brought about1 but precisely
 with the contrast between the ideal as 
they conceived it and the actual as they
 saw it4  ,we may take another instance 
from a slightly different department of 
thought4 ,dante imagined that the ,mount
 of ,purgatory was the immediate        
antipodes of the ,hill of ,zion1 but if 
some traveller had gone round the world 
and assured him that the ,mount of      
,purgatory was not there1 it would not  
in the smallest degree have affected his
 doctrine of ,purgatory4  ,so it is with
 the apocalyptists2 there is an immense 
amount of machinery provided by which   
this world is to be abruptly changed    
into the ,kingdom of ,god1 and because  
that ,kingdom is so present to the      
consciousness of the writer1 he can     
speak of it as even now about to appear 
upon the earth4  ,but this is not what  
chiefly interests him3 his point of view
 is vertical1 not horizontal2 all       
time-spans are foreshortened into a     

moment1 because his whole interest is in
 the contrast between the ,kingdom of   
,god and the kingdoms of this world2 we 
therefore do him wrong in supposing that
 the postponement of his hope is any    
grievous disappointment1 or any proof of
 real error4  ,the date of its          
fulfilment was never a matter of much   
concern to him4  ,so we may1 ,i think1  
reverently believe that our ,lord       
,himself passes through the experience  
of the apocalyptists at moments of great
 exultation1 as1 for example1 when the  
seventy return and say that the devils  
are made subject to them1 or when ,he   
realises the imminence of the fall of   
,jerusalem1 and therefore the removal of
 the chief barrier to ,his ,kingdom's   
progress4  ,all time is foreshortened2  
,satan falls from ,heaven and the ,son  
of ,man appears in glory2 but this is no
 forecast of history as we understand   
history4  ,one evangelist tells us of a 
parable which ,he uttered precisely     
because of ,his perception that the     

disciples erroneously supposed that the 
,kingdom of ,god was immediately to     
appear4  ,all ,his insistence upon the  
coming ,kingdom is focussed in the      
,passion1 as has been shown in the text4
  ,when the revelation of ,god's inmost 
nature was completed in the completion  
of ,his own self-sacrifice1 this brought
 with it the power that could change the
 kingdoms of this world into the        
,kingdom of our ,god and of ,his        
,christ4  ,from then onwards ,he cometh 
with the clouds2 but the completion of  
,his ,kingdom when every eye shall see  
,him1 and they which pierced ,him1 lies 
still in the future4 ,the contrast of   
tenses in this passage can hardly be    
accidental2 from the moment when ,he was
 lifted up from the earth in the        
,passion1 ,resurrection and ,ascension  
7which are the revelation in successive 
phases of the one unchanging glory of   
,god7 ,his coming is a present fact2 but
 our perception of ,his coming is       
something still growing as ,his ,spirit 

guides us into all the truth1 until at  
last we know even as we are known4      
99,,appendix ,,ii99                     
99,,on ,,moral ,,and ,,spiritual        
,,authority99   ,it may be objected that
 the ,church should never in any        
circumstances employ force--at any rate1
 physical force4  ,but ,i believe the   
objection is due1 partly to a latent    
,manichaeism which holds that matter is 
always evil1 or at least unspiritual1   
and partly to a very just fear that     
force may be wrongly used if its use is 
permitted at all4  ,yet there are some  
cases where the ,church would plainly be
 not only at liberty1 but morally bound1
 to use force4  ,suppose a clergyman    
begins to give teaching that is         
absolutely at variance with the doctrine
 of the ,church1 the ,church may appeal 
to his better feelings and ask him to   
resign2 but if he will not1 the ,church 
must assuredly have the right to turn   
him out1 and that1 if necessary1 by     
force4  ,no doubt in a civilised country

 what the ,church does as a rule is to  
ask the ,state to act against the man1  
on the ground that he has broken        
contract and holds his position on false
 pretences4  ,this is what the          
,mediaeval ,church called handing the   
offender over to the secular arm4  ,but 
let us imagine the situation in a       
,mission ,church where a convert has1   
for penance1 been excluded from         
attendance at public worship for a      
period4  ,suppose he insists upon       
coming2 then certainly the congregation 
would be right forcibly to remove him4  
,again1 supposing the use of force as   
discipline may be of advantage to moral 
development 7and up to a certain stage  
,i am sure it may71 and supposing there 
is no civilised ,state to employ it1 the
 ,church will be right to do what is    
best for the character of those for whom
 it is concerned4  ,but no doubt all    
this is purely preparatory to the       
positive spiritual work of the ,church1 
which must always take the form of      

appeal and not of force4  ,there is1    
however1 so much confusion on the       
subject of moral and spiritual authority
 in general1 that it may not be out of  
place to add here some remarks upon it4 
,the word authority is derived from a   
,latin word which may perhaps be best   
translated by weight4  ,when we speak of
 a man of weight1 or an opinion that    
carries weight1 we have something very  
near the original meaning of the term   
authority4 ,sometimes we are inclined to
 think of authority as best represented 
by the political ruler1 or the military 
commander4 ,but these are not really    
typical kinds of authority4  ,they are  
very special cases where authority is   
clothed with compelling force4 ,but in  
the spheres of which we are thinking    
there is not necessarily present any    
compelling force at all4 ,when we think 
of authority in religion1 in its        
connection with morals and such         
questions1 there is no force1 at any    
rate necessarily1 present at all1 and   

the ,church's authority in the true     
sense is not any the less because it    
does not practise the methods of the    
,inquisition3 nor was it any greater in 
the days when to its own proper         
authority it added coercive power1      
appealing to people in the name of what 
is in itself not authority strictly     
speaking1 at all4  ,for if ,i believe   
just because the ,church is an assembly 
of the saints of ,god and its           
formularies are summaries of their      
experience1 then ,i am believing on the 
ground of the ,church's authority4  ,but
 if ,i believe because an officer of the
 ,church threatens me with the rack in  
the case of disbelief1 ,i am believing  
not because the ,church has authority1  
but because ,i dislike physical pain4   
,so authority always in the end means   
weight--what carries weight with our    
judgment4 ,we can weigh one authority   
against another2 we may weigh the       
authority of one theologian with that of
 another by considering which has shown 

the greater knowledge of the subject in 
question and the sounder judgment in    
dealing with it4  ,in moral questions we
 do as a matter of fact perpetually come
 back to the man of moral weight4  ,and 
what constitutes his weight is to begin 
with a certain uprightness in his own   
character1 and then a certain sympathy  
and insight which enables him to        
understand how he would apply to the    
circumstances of other people the       
principles by which he lives in his own4
  ,so1 for example1 ,aristotle in the   
end determines all moral questions by   
reference to the standard which the man 
of moral sense would use2 everything in 
the last resort is determined simply by 
his judgment4  ,virtue1 he says1 resides
 in a mean between two vicious extremes1
 and the mean is to be determined by a  
principle which the man of moral sense  
would use4  ,later on1 after an         
interlude of two or three books wisely  
interpolated1 he comes to ask1 ,who is  
the man of moral sense8 and he turns out

 to be the man who has the right        
principle enabling him to determine the 
mean between vicious extremes2 that is  
to say1 that his standard of judgment in
 the end is simply the good1 sensible   
man1 and for practical purposes that    
does well enough1 because for practical 
purposes we do know whose judgment we   
value1 we do know who it is whose       
approval we should care to win1 whose   
approval would of itself assure us that 
our conduct was right1 and whose        
disapproval would of itself go far at   
least to assure us that our conduct was 
wrong1 or at any rate that the matter   
needed careful reconsideration4  ,there 
is indeed another method than this of   
reliance upon the authority of a wise   
man1 and it is represented by the other 
great thinker of ,greece1 by ,plato4    
,plato's ideal method in moral questions
 was to try to determine the purpose of 
the whole universe and then determine   
how in any given circumstances a man may
 serve that purpose4  ,the basis of his 

morals1 in other words1 was what we     
should call theological2 and so far as  
we are able to apply this1 it is the    
only finally satisfactory method2 so far
 as we can say that the principles of   
,christianity imperatively demand some  
particular action or attitude of mind1  
we shall not care how little other      
authority we can quote1 but shall say   
that we can see quite clearly that our  
allegiance to ,christ and ,his religion 
involves a certain point of view for us2
 and if no one else has taken that point
 of view1 provided we can find no flaw  
in our reasoning1 we shall say none the 
less1 ,this is the point of view which  
we1 as ,christians1 are bound to take4  
,that has been the method by which1 as a
 matter of fact1 most ,christian reforms
 have been carried out4  ,that was the  
way by which1 in an instance to which ,i
 shall return in a moment1 slavery was  
abolished4 ,slavery had been tolerated  
by the ,christian ,church for centuries4
  ,the authority of the ,christian      

,church might therefore have been quoted
 as substantially in favour of it4  ,a  
very large number of ,christians did1 in
 fact1 favour retaining it1 because1 of 
course1 the abolition of the slave trade
 was an interference with property1 and 
heartrending appeals were made in the   
name of the unfortunate widow with a few
 strong blacks1 as in our day appeals   
are made against legislation in the name
 of the widow who has shares in         
breweries4  ,but ,wilberforce's point of
 view was simply this1 that whatever the
 ,church may have said through all these
 centuries1 when you look at the        
,christian principle of the right way to
 treat human beings it condemns slavery2
 and if all the ,christians in all the  
ages had denied that1 it would not have 
altered the fact that1 as we see it--so 
,wilberforce and his friends would have 
urged--as we see it1 slavery is         
condemned2 that is enough for us2 we go 
forward in the certainty that we are    
carrying out the will of ,god4          

,wilberforce brought people round to his
 point of view2 now you will hardly find
 a ,christian to defend slavery as an   
institution4  ,some day1 perhaps1 it    
will be the same with war4  ,but in most
 moral questions the authority to which 
we appeal is not that of the good and   
wise individual1 but that of the moral  
sense of our civilisation4  ,we can very
 seldom give an adequate reason for     
those points on which we have the       
strongest moral convictions4 ,for       
example1 in argument ,i suppose we      
should most of us find it very difficult
 to produce a case for monogamy as      
against polygamy anything like so strong
 as the feeling which we have in favour 
of the one against the other4 ,that     
feeling is implanted in us by the       
experience of our civilisation1 a       
civilisation which has1 in fact1 emerged
 from one into the other1 and these very
 strong instinctive feelings1 which are 
common to great masses of people and for
 which usually any one individual in all

 that mass can only give a most         
inadequate reason1 are something to     
which an enormous volume of human       
experience has contributed4 ,generation 
after generation has come to feel that  
certain relations of the sexes are1 as a
 matter of fact1 the only ones that can 
be maintained with real wholesomeness1  
and this belief becomes so strong in the
 community that it is received with the 
air we breathe all through the formative
 years of our life1 and the result is an
 intense conviction for which1 as ,i    
say1 we can hardly give any argument--an
 intense conviction that one sort of    
thing is right and the other wrong2 and 
what most of us mean by our conscience  
is just this body of feeling concerning 
right and wrong which has been implanted
 in us as the result of the accumulated 
experience of civilisation4  ,from the  
point of view of the individual it is   
usually more an emotion than a reasoned 
judgment2 and it is much more of the    
nature of prejudice than of an          

argumentative conclusion4  ,when people 
talk about conscientious objections to  
obeying the law1 it is always quite     
impossible to distinguish between their 
prejudice and their conscience2 there is
 no standard by which to determine4     
,but the fact that it is unreasoned in  
the individual does not mean that it is 
irrational1 or without reason in itself4
  ,what has been built up by the steady 
pressure of whole centuries of          
experience has enormous weight of pure  
reason behind it1 even though the       
individual cannot himself give the      
reason1 and even though there may be no 
individual alive who can give it2 it has
 come out of the logic of experience2 it
 has been built up in the strictly      
scientific way by a whole series of     
facts4  ,there is an enormous inductive 
background1 an enormous scientific basis
 for the moral convictions of the       
better1 more self-controlled members of 
any civilised society4  ,the moral      
verdict of society1 and the conscience  

of the individual1 which is his own     
echo1 for the most part1 of that moral  
verdict1 is a thing of quite enormous   
authority4  ,but1 it will be urged1 the 
authorities clash4 ,the verdict of      
,european civilisation is for monogamy2 
the verdict of certain other            
civilisations is quite as emphatically  
against it4  ,does this mean that the   
whole distinction of right and wrong is 
a mere matter of convention8  ,no1 it   
does not4  ,but even if it did1 the     
thing would not be as bad as people     
often imagine1 because convention is not
 something artificial in the sense of   
contrary to nature or fictitious2 a     
convention is simply the expression of  
human nature working on a large scale4  
,man is a being whose nature it is to   
set up conventions1 and a convention is 
a product of human nature1 a property   
and mark of human nature1 just as much  
gravitation is a property and mark of   
mechanical nature2 and it only becomes  
contrary to nature and a nuisance when  

it has survived the purpose for which it
 originally grew up4 ,but none the less 
there is something more than any        
convention or social growth about the   
distinction of right and wrong2 the     
distinction in itself is absolute and   
fundamental4  ,it is the distinction    
between recognising oneself as member of
 a community and not so recognising     
oneself4  ,morality is always           
recognition of a claim on the part of   
other persons1 the recognition that     
their point of view and their interests 
have to be taken into account in the    
determination of my conduct4  ,as man is
 by nature social1 as by nature he is   
designed to live in communities1 the    
distinction of right and wrong1 that is 
the recognition of the claim of the     
community and of the members in it1 is  
absolute and final4  ,but what is the   
content of the two terms right and      
wrong1 what actual action shall be      
called right and what wrong on any given
 occasion1 may vary easily according to 

circumstances1 according to the degree  
of social development and the like4     
,there is conduct which is right at one 
stage of society and wrong at another1  
precisely because at one stage it tends 
to the health of society1 while at      
another it will be bad for the health of
 society2 just as there are ways in     
which it is good from time to time to   
train children in which it would not be 
well to train grown-up people2 and there
 is conduct which is appropriate to     
earlier stages of society1 because      
beneficial to society1 which becomes    
inappropriate and harmful at any other  
stage4  ,what is right and what is wrong
 may depend very largely upon           
circumstances1 stage of development1    
spiritual receptiveness1 and a host of  
other things2 but the distinction       
between right and wrong itself remains  
unaffected by all these1 and absolutely 
fundamental and invariable4  ,now1 how  
is it that in society progress is       
actually made in morals8  ,the appeal to

 authority can always be made in two    
ways4 ,it can be made in the most       
obvious form in the interest of mere    
stagnation1 by saying1 ,what was good   
enough for our fathers is good enough   
for us1 a thing nobody ever does say2 or
 by saying1 ,what is good enough for us 
is good enough for our children1 a thing
 which numbers of people say4  ,while   
the first form may be some safeguard    
against wild experiments--and wild      
experiments in morals are more dangerous
 than wild experiments anywhere else in 
life1 for a reason ,i will mention in a 
moment--yet the tendency of this appeal 
is to pure stagnation4  ,but the right  
appeal is to ask1 not what the great men
 of the past actually did1 but what were
 the principles upon which they acted4  
,what we want to be doing with the      
prophets of the last generation is not  
saying again1 like parrots1 just what   
they said1 but finding out the          
principles and spirit of their life and 
applying that same spirit to            

circumstances which are changed just    
because those prophets lived and        
wrought4  ,they would not have been     
prophets1 they would not have been great
 men1 if they had not changed in some   
degree the world they lived in4  ,then  
just because they have changed the world
 their action may no longer be          
appropriate2 it is not the action which 
they themselves would now take if they  
were still alive and retained their     
power of development4  ,what we do then 
is to appeal1 not to their conduct but  
to the principle of their conduct4  ,so 
when ,wilberforce started the campaign  
against slavery what he did was to      
appeal from the conduct of the ,church  
to the principle of that conduct which  
it professed and admitted4  ,in other   
spheres it admitted the sanctity of     
human personality2 but it had never     
applied this principle to the particular
 problem of slavery4  ,in this way the  
appeal to authority is both just1 safe1 
and progressive4 ,it is only a fool who 

will throw away all that the experience 
of the ages has built up4  ,but the     
wisest man of all is surely he who1     
rejoicing in that great inheritance1 can
 still appeal not to its outward form1  
but to its indwelling1 living spirit1   
and carry forward the work which the    
past has done4  ,the ages in the past   
that we value are not those in which    
people were mainly concerned to praise  
their predecessors1 but those in which  
men were agreed to press forward to     
whatever new life ,god has in store4 ,so
 it must be here3 if we would be true to
 the great men of the past1 to the      
authority of those who have built up our
 moral life1 it will not be by standing 
still1 but by moving on in the direction
 to which they point4  ,the appeal to   
authority1 then1 will not be an appeal  
to practice1 but always an appeal to    
principle2 and so we shall be saved from
 that danger of moral experiment1 a     
danger that is so immensely great       
because the individual who has made the 

experiment has thereby very often spoilt
 himself4  ,one cannot experiment in the
 moral life with the detachment that we 
use in science4  ,i may try mixing a    
couple of fluids together to see what   
happens1 and ,i can regard the result   
quite accurately2 but ,i cannot try the 
experiment of stealing1 or of murder1 in
 order to see what the real moral value 
of the thing is1 because in the process 
of doing the act ,i shall vitiate my own
 soul2 here the material in which we    
experiment is itself the instrument by  
which we have to judge2 and the man who 
has once done an evil thing himself1    
very seldom has the same clearness of   
vision concerning its good and evil as  
the man who has kept true to some lofty 
purpose4  ,the mere experiment1 the mere
 trying what it feels like to be a      
murderer--not that anyone would take so 
extreme an instance as that--is always a
 method condemned in advance to         
futility1 because in the process of     
making the experiment we destroy our    

power of judging the result4  ,we want  
therefore to rely upon some authority2  
being unable to experiment for          
ourselves1 we must follow the general   
rule that ,i have stated2 the authority 
to which we appeal must be an authority 
of principle and not of practice4  ,but 
what of the authority of our ,lord      
,himself8  ,to us who have accepted it1 
or who are trying to accept it1 it is   
final2 yet still1 surely1 in the spirit 
rather than in the letter4  ,why did ,he
 teach by a series of amazing paradoxes 
if it was not to prevent us setting up a
 code of rules as ,his legislation1 if  
it was not to force us back upon the    
spirit of ,his teaching1 behind the     
detailed regulations in which that      
spirit was embodied8 ,even here it is   
still true that the appeal is to the    
authority of ,his ,spirit and not to    
that of detailed action or individual   
precept4  ,and beyond all this1 it is   
certain that ,he ,himself wins ,his     
authority by first submitting ,himself  

to the moral judgment of ,his people4   
,he rejects1 in the second and third of 
the ,messianic temptations after ,his   
baptism1 the method of coercion4  ,he   
rejects this1 and stands before men     
submitting ,himself to their moral      
judgment1 to their conscience1 to their 
capacity to understand pure goodness and
 love1 as that capacity has grown       
through the civilisation which ,god     
,himself had guided as the preparation  
for ,his final revelation in ,his ,son4 
,so ,he submits ,himself first of all to
 our moral judgment2 and thus our       
conscience1 coming down to us1 as it    
does1 out of the ,divinely-guided       
history of the past1 is the supreme     
authority2 if we choose ,him to be the  
,guide of our life it is because our    
conscience has first pronounced ,him to 
be the highest and the holiest1 which we
 must needs love when we see it4        
99,,appendix ,,iii99                    
99,,on ,,justice ,,and ,,education99    
,as long as there are great numbers of  

citizens whose faculties are undeveloped
 it is impossible for society to be     
justly ordered4 ,the democracies of the 
world have been curiously blind to this 
truth1 as they have to the parallel     
truth that education is essential to    
true liberty4  ,as long as there is a   
vast difference between a man's actual  
worth to society and his potential      
worth1 there will be two just claims    
concerning him1 and no possibility of   
adjudicating between them4  ,to treat a 
man who is in fact useless as though he 
were useful1 is to injure the community 
by encouraging a parasite2 to treat him 
as useless1 when only lack of           
opportunity has prevented his becoming  
useful1 is to injure him4  ,a vast      
amount of the existing social order is  
an attempt to compromise between these  
two injuries1 by inflicting a little of 
both4 ,the only real solution is to be  
found in a complete educational system  
which will raise the actual worth of    
every man to the level of his potential 

work precisely by enabling him to       
realise his potentialities4  ,but       
education which is to have this effect1 
without producing mere selfishness and  
aggressiveness and thereby defeating its
 own object1 must be a moralising force2
 and that means1 if the argument of     
,appendix ,,ii is sound1 that its       
processes must be largely sub-conscious4
 ,in fact1 one root of the great sin of 
,germany is to be found in the effort to
 control life through the highly        
developed conscious intellect4  ,the    
specialised training of administrators  
and the attempt to guide human action by
 scientific method is doomed to failure4
  ,if it were possible to collect all   
the relevant facts1 it might be right   
merely to form an inductive conclusion  
and act upon it4  ,but in regard of any 
human problem it is never possible to   
collect all the facts2 they are at once 
too numerous and too subtly             
differentiated4 ,consequently the       
,english method1 though grotesquely     

deficient just where the ,german is     
strong1 is yet morally preferable and   
politically more successful4  ,it takes 
a boy and throws him into a society of  
boys which largely governs itself2      
appalling risks are taken and disasters 
are not unknown2 boy standards are      
allowed to prevail1 with the result that
 form-work is regarded as a tiresome    
though inevitable adjunct rather than   
the chief business of school life4      
,perhaps it is as well to mention here  
that the exaltation of games over work1 
however disastrous in its exaggeration1 
is yet morally sound2 for the boy feels 
that in his games he plays for his house
 and school1 while his work is done for 
himself4  ,wise seniors will tell him   
from the pulpit that he should work hard
 at school so as to fit himself for the 
service of the community in later years2
 and this is true enough2 but the boy   
will be a terrible prig if he is        
continually conscious of its truth4     
,the same principle determines our      

,university ideal4  ,the primary test   
for a degree is residence--that is1 an  
adequate share in a general life4       
,colleges may require attendance at     
lectures1 but the ,university does not4 
,it demands that a candidate for a      
degree should have some knowledge--not  
very much1 it is true--but it never asks
 where or how he got it2 it only asks if
 he has kept his terms4  ,at the end of 
the process there are some failures1 of 
course2 but those who represent the     
system's success1 and they are the great
 majority1 though they may not have any 
large amount of knowledge1 have acquired
 the instinct to act wisely in almost   
any emergency with which they may be    
confronted4  ,very often they could not 
give any theoretical ground for acting  
as they do1 for their wisdom is largely 
sub-conscious or instinctive2 but the   
action is right all the same4  ,in      
,england we are at the present time     
witnessing the collision of two         
educational types1 of which ,i have     

outlined the older and more traditional4
  ,but this collision is itself of such 
exceeding interest that1 at the risk of 
some repetition1 ,i would venture to    
sketch out the two opposing types and   
attempt to indicate the mode of their   
interaction4  ,the aim of education may 
be defined as the attempt to train men  
and women to understand the world they  
live in1 so that they may be able to    
assist or resist the tendencies of their
 time in the light of ideals and        
standards resting on the widest possible
 foundation of knowledge and experience4
  ,now1 our educational history for the 
last hundred years has been the result  
of the interaction between two          
predominant educational types1 which ,i 
may call1 simply for the purposes of    
description1 the traditional and the    
modern4  ,the traditional type comes    
down to us 7with modifications1 no      
doubt7 by a continuous history from the 
,middle ,ages1 and its chief            
representatives in ,england at the      

present time are those large private    
institutions which are called public    
schools1 and the two older universities4
  ,the first great mark of this type of 
education is that in practice--whatever 
its theory may have been--in practice it
 is corporate4  ,it has believed in     
educating people rather through         
influence than through instruction1 and 
it has believed in educating them in    
direct relation to their social context 
and setting4  ,now that1 in a country of
 aristocratic organisation1 inevitably  
involved an exclusive and aristocratic  
type of education4  ,if you have got a  
society stratified in layers one above  
the other1 and you are then going to    
educate people in direct relation to    
their social context1 your educational  
system is bound to be similarly         
stratified4  ,that is inevitable1 and   
consequently1 through the social        
conditions of the time1 the education   
which is most strongly corporate in tone
 and spirit has also tended to be       

aristocratic4  ,as ,i have said1 this   
method deals with people rather through 
influence than through instruction4 ,of 
course1 it does not ignore instruction1 
but it is true that not very long ago ,i
 heard a very distinguished lady asked  
whether a certain school was what we    
call a public school2 ,oh1 yes1 she     
replied1 it is a real public school4  ,i
 mean they don't learn anything there4  
,the instruments which for the most part
 this education has used have been the  
great literatures of all ages1 and      
particularly the literatures of ,greece 
and ,rome1 and their civilisations4     
,these literatures and civilisations    
have a great advantage over all others  
as instruments of education1 because1   
while they are in many ways closely akin
 to our own1 which are descended from   
them1 they are complete and can be      
studied in their entirety4 ,the aim of  
this type of education has been to bring
 the student's mind into closest        
possible contact with the greatest minds

 of the human race in all ages1 with the
 minds that have done or attempted most 
7in history71 with the minds that have  
thought most accurately and deeply 7in  
science and philosophy71 with the minds 
that have felt most tenderly and truly  
7in poetry74  ,it may1 or may not1      
succeed in that aim4  ,it may attempt it
 in the case of individual students who 
are particularly ill-suited for it2 but 
that is its aim1 and no one is going to 
say that it is an ignoble aim4  ,in     
doing this1 it has supplied to those who
 have been most able to profit by it    
standards of judgment1 standards of     
criticism4 ,this enables a man to stand 
apart from the tendencies of the moment 
and to pronounce judgment on them in the
 light of what has been best in human   
experience4  ,those are the strongest   
points1 as ,i consider1 of the old      
traditional type4  ,but it has certain  
faults1 one of which ,i have already    
mentioned1 which is a fault in our day  
if it was not a fault in the day in     

which this type of education became     
predominant4 ,i mean that it is liable  
to be exclusive1 to shut up people      
within the limits of their own class so 
that they are unable to acquire any     
living acquaintance with the great      
movements going on in the world around  
them4  ,the other system has not these  
particular evils2 this more modern type 
of education1 so far as you can draw    
lines across history at all1 may be said
 to begin with ,rousseau2 it is         
predominantly individual rather than    
corporate1 intellectual rather than     
spiritual1 democratic rather than       
aristocratic2 it supplies people with   
knowledge of facts rather than with     
standards of judgment4  ,it is          
individual rather than corporate1 for it
 began to take possession of the world  
when the forces of progress were almost 
all of them strongly individualistic2 at
 that time the demand of democracy was  
for the abolition of privileges1 the    
breaking down of class restrictions and 

the insistence that the individual must 
be able to live his own life2 with all  
of which we entirely agree1 though we   
think it needs a good deal of           
supplementing2 and1 consequently1 its   
tendency has been to suggest to people  
that the aim of education is that they  
may get on in the world4  ,the          
instrument which it has used has been   
for the most part instruction1 and its  
appeal has been1 not as in the          
traditional system to sympathy and      
imagination1 but to intelligence and    
memory4  ,this1 it seems to me1 is      
precisely because it believes in the    
career open to talent1 and so far cuts  
across all social divisions4  ,its ideal
 is the educational ladder4  ,now there 
would be no objection to the educational
 ladder if people went down it as well  
as up1 if1 that is to say1 men of small 
ability and character always sank in the
 social scale and men of great ability  
and character always rose4 ,but so long 
as you have social classes maintained in

 their position1 not by ability and     
character alone1 but by the mere        
accident of possession1 so long it will 
be true that to lift a man by education 
from one social stratum to another is to
 expose him to a terrible               
temptation--the temptation to despise   
his own people4 ,and when once a man's  
native sympathies have been rooted up1  
it is hard for any more to grow4  ,there
 is real danger that the more modern    
type of education may serve to produce a
 race of self-seekers4  ,but this modern
 type has great advantages4  ,it is     
alive and in touch with the world at the
 moment2 and the people who receive     
education of this kind will probably be 
very vitally aware of most of the living
 interests of their own time4  ,but it  
fails to supply standards of judgment4  
,now1 of course1 no existing institution
 belongs purely and entirely to either  
of these types2 but we can all think    
easily of institutions in which one or  
the other is the predominant            

characteristic4  ,and one of our        
troubles is that most parents like the  
faults and dislike the virtues of both  
types4  ,they like the aristocratic and 
exclusive tone of the traditional type2 
and they like the pushfulness and       
get-on-in-the-world tone of the modern  
type4  ,the great problem before the    
educational world in the next period is 
to draw the two types and tendencies in 
education closer together1 to leave the 
whole strength of both unimpaired1 but  
to unite them4  ,it is not easy to do4  
,it is a very big problem1 easily       
stated1 but very hard to solve in       
practice4 ,i would suggest that one of  
the flaws of the modern tendency is that
 it leaves people very strongly aware of
 what is going on at the moment1 but not
 always equally aware of what has been  
thought by the greatest men in the      
history of the world4  ,this is very    
liable to lead people to suppose that   
whatever is modern is on that account   
good4 ,now that is exactly as foolish as

 to suppose that whatever is ancient is 
therefore good4  ,the fact its antiquity
 or modernity has nothing to do with its
 value at the present moment4  ,of      
course1 it is true that any institution 
which has lasted through many centuries 
is likely to be of use again1 though we 
may always have just reached the point  
at which it begins to be an incubus4    
,of course1 it is true that an idea     
which arises out of the stress of life  
at the moment is very likely to be very 
well adapted to the realities of that   
moment in which it arises1 but1 also1 it
 may be well adapted to assist a        
downward course4  ,what we want is that 
the people shall know the facts and also
 have the power to judge them--to be    
able1 as ,i said1 to assist or resist   
the tendencies of their time1 in the    
light of the best ideals and standards4 
,there is a very strong inclination     
among many of us 7,i am personally very 
much aware of it in myself7 to think    
that the new thing must be good2 and yet

 one remembers the words of ,clough3--  
',old things need not be therefore      
true1'     ,oh1 brother men6 nor yet the
 new4   ,again1 the old type which      
trains people through their social      
setting is very largely co-operative in 
its methods4  ,it merges the individual 
in his school1 or his college1 so that  
he comes quite genuinely to care more   
keenly for the welfare of his house and 
school and college than for his own     
progress4 ,nobody who has had any       
intercourse at all with the life of     
public schools or universities can doubt
 that4  ,the modern method1 on the      
whole1 ,i suppose1 trusts mainly rather 
to competition4 ,it aims at assisting   
people to put out their best energy by  
pitting them against one another4  ,i   
want to raise a very serious question to
 which ,i am not prepared to give an    
answer4  ,i want all people interested  
in education to consider it4  ,is it    
worth while to get the greatest effort  
out of a person at the cost of teaching 

him that he is to make efforts in his   
own interest8  ,i am very doubtful4  ,i 
heard a little while ago a distinguished
 schoolmaster describe the visit of the 
father of one of the boys in his house2 
the boy was being very idle1 and this   
distinguished man said1 ,i wish you     
would speak to him as seriously as ever 
you can2 the father said1 ,i will4  ,he 
saw the boy and when he came back he    
said1 ,i spoke to him very seriously1 in
 fact ,i spoke to him quite religiously4
  ,i said ',you must be getting along1  
you know1 or other people will be       
pushing past you4'  ,the religion would 
appeal to be of a ,darwinian type4  ,now
 ,i wish to express a purely personal   
conviction with regard to these two     
types of teaching1 and it is this3 while
 we have got to incorporate all1 or at  
any rate1 nearly all1 that the more     
modern type of education has given us1  
it has got to be used in such a way as  
to leave the great marks of the         
traditional type predominant4           

,education1 ,i hold1 should remain      
primarily corporate rather than         
individual1 primarily spiritual 7that   
is1 effective through influence1 and    
through an appeal to sympathy and       
imagination71 rather than primarily     
intellectual 7that is1 effective through
 an appeal to intelligence and memory71 
primarily concerned with giving people  
the power to pronounce judgment on any  
facts with which they may come in       
contact rather than supplying them      
simply with the facts4  ,it should be   
primarily co-operative and not primarily
 competitive4  ,it is mainly the new    
democratic movements in education which 
have emphasised this view4 ,indeed1 the 
,workers' ,educational ,association has 
understood more definitely than any     
other body ,i am aware of1 that what it 
finds of supreme value in the great     
centres of education is the spirit of   
the place rather than the instruction2  
and those of us who have received the   
best1 or at all events have been in a   

position to receive the best1 that      
,oxford can give1 and those who have had
 just a taste of her treasures at the   
,summer ,school1 will agree that ,oxford
 does more for us than any lectures do4 
,but while we say that1 we need also to 
insist on a greater energy and          
efficiency1 a greater and more living   
contact with the world of to-day in     
some1 at least1 of the centres of the   
old traditional type4  ,yet it is the   
traditional type that must control1     
because the traditional type on the     
whole stands for spirit against         
machinery4  ,i have no doubt it is true 
that the old schools and universities   
are amateurish in method2 and ,i have no
 doubt that we ought to organise        
ourselves more efficiently4  ,there is a
 good deal of waste that may be saved2  
but ,i shall regret the day when we     
become efficient at the cost of our     
spirit4  ,i believe that in the         
,university ,tutorial ,classes organised
 by the ,workers' ,educational          

,association you will find upon the     
whole the soundest educational          
principles which are at this moment     
operative anywhere in ,england4 ,the    
classes choose their own subjects1 and1 
as a general rule1 they choose those    
subjects about which nobody knows the   
truth4  ,those are always the best      
instruments of education2 for if anyone 
knows the truth1 he has only to say what
 it is and his hearers believe him4     
,that may be instruction1 but it is not 
education4 ,real education is always    
best conducted as a joint search for    
truth2 and in these ,tutorial ,classes  
we have1 not one teacher and thirty     
hearers1 but thirty-one fellow students1
 one of whom has commenced the study    
earlier than the rest1 and can therefore
 act as guide4  ,these are wide-reaching
 problems2 and1 indeed1 there is no     
limit to the range of the influence of  
education4  ,it is the supreme          
regenerative force4  ,what is the chief 
obstacle of all who work for progress in

 any department of life8  ,always the   
apathy of those whom we especially wish 
to help4  ,and why are they apathetic8  
,simply because they have had no        
opportunity of finding out what is the  
life from which they are excluded4  ,but
 open by the merest chink the door of   
that treasure-house wherein are         
contained the garnered stores of        
literature and science1 of history and  
art1 and they will be foremost in       
demanding that they shall no longer be  
excluded from the birthright of the sons
 of civilisation4 ,these are the good   
things of which no one is deprived      
because another possesses them2 they are
 the true social goods of which         
possession by one redounds to the       
enrichment of all4  ,it is the taste of 
them that can most stimulate the zeal   
for progress2 and as it supplies the    
motive power1 so it supplies also the   
directive wisdom4  ,the perfecting and  
expansion of our education is just what 
is most vital for social progress       

to-day1 and for the establishment of    
real justice in our social life1 for it 
alone can bring within the reach of all 
that knowledge which is at once the     
source of power and the guarantee that  
the power shall be beneficent4          
99,,appendix ,,iv99                     
99,,on ,,orders ,,and ,,catholicity99   
,the position taken in the text of these
 lectures might be summarised as        
follows3 ,it is the living body which   
gives authority to its ,orders2 it is   
not the possession of valid ,orders     
which gives authority to the body4 ,in  
support of this view ,i have the kind   
permission of ,dr4 ,headlam to quote the
 following from his article--,notes on  
,reunion3 ,the ,kikuyu ,conference1 in  
the ,church ,quarterly ,review for      
,january1 #aiad4  ,on ,december #bjth1  
#aiab1 the ,bishop of ,madras delivered 
an informal speech to the members of the
 ,national ,conference of ,missionaries1
 at ,calcutta4  ,this created in ,india 
and elsewhere a considerable amount of  

sensation4  ,as in that speech he       
referred to something which the present 
writer had written and to an article in 
the ,church ,quarterly ,review by ,dr4  
,frere1 and as his speech has been very 
widely misunderstood1 ,i think ,i may be
 allowed to refer briefly to the points 
he raised4  ,the views which he         
propounded were those which ,i had put  
forward in the ',prayer ,book           
,dictionary1' and ,i should like to be  
allowed to quote them again3    ,the    
,reorganisation of ,worship1 by ,w4 ,h4 
,frere1 ,d4,d41 ,superior of the        
,community of the ,resurrection1        
,mirfield 7,church ,quarterly ,review1  
,october1 #aiab74   ,if we combine the  
,patristic theory of ,orders with the   
rule of ordination1 we shall be able to 
put the idea of ,apostolic ,succession  
into its right place4  ,it is really a  
deduction from the right theory of      
,orders1 and the mistake has been to    
make ,orders depend upon ,apostolic     
,succession and transmission4  ,the     

authority to consecrate and ordain1 or  
to perform all spiritual offices1       
resides in and comes from the ,church to
 which ,god gives ,his ,holy ,spirit4   
,from the beginning this work of the    
,church has been exercised by those who 
have received a commission for it1 and  
the rule of the ,church has been that   
that commission should always be given  
by those who have received authority    
from others with a similar commission4  
,the historical fact1 therefore1 of     
,apostolic ,succession has resulted from
 the rule of the ,church being always   
regularly carried out4  ,if this be     
correct1 the following further          
deductions may be made3  #a4 ,the idea  
of 'transmission' is an additional and  
late conception which1 instead of       
expressing the idea of ,succession1 has1
 by its exaggeration of it led to a     
rigid and mechanical theory of the      
,ministry4  #b4 ,as the grace of ,orders
 depends upon the authority of the      
,church and not upon mechanical         

transmission1 all objections from       
supposed irregularities of ordination   
are beside the point1 and the opinions  
of churchmen and others who have        
maintained that in certain circumstances
 a presbyter may ordain are explained4  
,ordination depends upon the authority  
of the ,church1 and not the ,church upon
 ordination4  #c4 ,the idea of          
,succession1 which results from the     
,church's rule of ordination1 is an     
historical fact1 and not a doctrine4    
,it represents an external connection   
with the first beginnings of            
,christianity of infinite value for the 
,church2 and nothing should be done to  
break such a connection1 as it acts like
 a link for binding together the        
,churches as parts of a living whole4   
#d4 ,one part of the work of ,christian 
reunion should be to restore and secure 
the links of ,succession throughout the 
whole ,christian world2 but no rigidity 
or mechanical theory of ,orders need    
compel us to deny divine grace to those 

separated from us4    ,the ,prayer ,book
 ,dictionary 7,sir ,isaac ,pitman and   
,sons1 ,ltd41 #aiab71 p4 #db4   ,the    
particular point that ,i wish to        
emphasise is that there are two things  
to be separated--the one the rule of the
 ,church1 the other the theory of that  
rule4  ,i do not believe that it would  
be possible on any ,catholic principle  
to depart from the rule of the ,church  
with regard to ,orders2 ,i should go    
further and say that ,i believe that no 
real reunion would ultimately be        
possible except on the basis of that    
rule4  ,at the present time1 however1   
continuous emphasis is laid on the      
theory of ,orders1 and that theory is   
often put as an extreme form of a       
mechanical conception of the ,apostolic 
,succession4  ,now it is quite true that
 from the beginning ,bishops have been  
looked upon as 'the successors' of the  
,apostles1 but ,i can find no           
authoritative interpretation of that    
phrase other than that they perform at  

the present day those functions of the  
,apostles which were not miraculous or  
extraordinary4  ,neither the formularies
 of the ,church of ,england nor1 so far 
as ,i am aware1 those of any other      
,church1 lay down any theory of         
ministry1 and to impose1 therefore1 any 
such theory on the ,church is to depart 
from ,catholic tradition4    ,see1 for  
example1 ,van ,espen1 i4 #af1 #a4       
,council of ,trent1 ,sessio xxiii41     
,cap4 iv4   ,an incidental result of    
this is that our attitude towards       
,sacraments of ,nonconformist bodies    
will not partake of that rigid character
 which is so characteristic of some in  
the present day4  ,we are glad to see   
that ,dr4 ,sanday takes exception to    
these4  ',it seems to me to be a very   
delicate matter1 and1 indeed1 scarcely  
admissible for one ,christian body to   
take upon itself to pronounce upon the  
validity or otherwise of the            
ministrations of another4 ,i think that 
at least the question ought not to be   

put in that bald and sweeping form4'    
,it is interesting to note that ,dr4    
,pusey would have been equally averse to
 such language4 ,he of course accepts   
the doctrine of ,apostolic ,succession  
in very definite form1 but he writes as 
follows3  ',but while maintaining that  
they only are commissioned to administer
 the ,sacraments who have received that 
commission from those appointed in      
succession to bestow it1 we have never  
denied that ,god may make ,his own      
sacraments efficacious even when        
irregularly administered2 we should     
trust it might be so4'  ,it would be of 
great advantage if we were to speak of  
non-episcopal orders and sacraments as  
'irregular1' which we know they are1 not
 as 'invalid1' about which we know      
nothing4   ,with these words of ,dr4    
,headlam ,i am in profound agreement4   
,but there is another quite different   
matter to which ,i would allude4 ,if the
 ,church is indeed to be the vehicle of 
the power of ,christ in its plenitude1  

it must be ,catholic not only in        
principle and right1 but in actual fact4
 ,deeper than all divisions of ,catholic
 and ,protestant is the division of the 
great human family--,european1 ,indian1 
,chinese1 and so forth4 ,these great    
civilisations must each bring its own   
gift1 consecrated by the ,spirit of     
,christ1 to the life of the whole ,body 
before that ,body reveals the measure of
 the fulness of the stature of ,christ4 
,a merely ,european ,church cannot be   
fully ,catholic1 nor can it ever do1    
even for ,europe1 what the ,catholic    
,church is called by ,god to do for the 
nations which become its provinces4     
99,,appendix ,v99                       
99,,on ,,providence ,,in ,,history99    
,the most outstanding facts in the      
history known to us1 which plainly      
reveal the providential guidance of its 
course1 are the careers of ,alexander   
the ,great and ,napoleon4  ,there had   
developed in ,greece the whole spirit of
 civilisation in reference to the small 

problems of the city-state2 the whole   
principle of civilisation which had been
 thus worked out was now established2   
,greek civilisation was so perfectly    
developed that it had even a perfect    
theory of itself in ,plato and          
,aristotle4 ,just at this moment there  
appears upon the scene the absolutely   
amazing figure--,alexander of ,macedon1 
himself the pupil of the man in whom the
 ,greek spirit reached its final        
formulation4  ,he carries that spirit in
 his astounding triumphs through ,asia  
,minor and ,syria to the ,western       
,provinces of ,india4 ,as a military    
achievement the mere leading of his     
troops to the banks of the ,indus is one
 of the supreme wonders of the world4   
,no doubt he was conscious of a mission 
to spread the gifts which ,greece held  
in trust for humanity2 but also no doubt
 he was very much concerned with the    
political fabric which his conquests set
 up4  ,the moment his work is finished1 
he himself dies4 ,politically his       

,empire was not established and it      
immediately fell to pieces4             
,spiritually it remained4  ,it supplied 
the inspiration of ,chandra gupta1 and  
the career of ,asoka is unintelligible  
apart from ,alexander4  ,the arrival of 
the ,greeks in ,india is1 ,i am assured1
 the beginning of all that we now       
understand by ,indian art4  ,far more   
important to the history of the world   
was the bringing of ,greek culture into 
,palestine2 this culture in itself was  
no doubt decadent1 and the ,chasidim and
 ,pharisees were right enough to resist 
it3 yet the leaven of this humanising   
influence is an essential part of the   
preparation for the ,incarnation in the 
soil of ,judaism4  ,it is to be noticed 
that ,galilee was a region particularly 
affected by the ,greek influence and the
 settlement of ,decapolis was still     
mainly ,greek in the ,gospel period4    
,asoka and ,st4 ,paul are not at all the
 kind of successors that ,alexander     
would have anticipated or desired1 but  

his conscious desires were utilised by  
,providence to serve an end of which he 
never dreamed4 ,his early death before  
his ,empire could be consolidated in a  
political sense is as markedly          
providential as his emergence at the    
precise moment of history when he       
appears upon the scene4  ,the case is   
similar with ,napoleon4  ,alexander at  
his death was #cb years old4  ,napoleon 
was #eb4  ,he also appears at a critical
 moment1 is active precisely as long as 
he can serve what we now see to have    
been the cause of progress1 and is then 
removed4  ,the great feature of the     
period is the growth of the sentiment of
 nationality4  ,this is the sense of    
membership in a people united by common 
characteristics and a common purpose2 it
 is therefore always democratic in      
spirit though it need not at all        
necessarily be democratic in machinery4 
,the old ,european constitutions1 which 
had been valuable enough in their time1 
were becoming a barrier to its further  

development2 the flood of progress burst
 the dam in ,france1 and soon after     
there appears the supreme genius1 not   
himself a ,frenchman1 who was to carry  
the spirit of which ,france had just    
become consciously possessed through the
 entire length and breadth of ,europe4  
,napoleon1 like ,alexander1 was         
conscious of his mission2 he thought of 
himself as being the organ of the       
,revolution2 he is reported to have said
 that moral principles did not apply to 
him2 they applied only to persons1 and  
he was a force4  ,but there can be no   
doubt that he was as much concerned with
 establishing a vast ,french ,empire as 
he was with merely carrying the         
principles of the ,french ,revolution   
into the other nations4  ,he is allowed 
success so long as the work of          
destruction is still needed2 his        
activities first as general and then as 
ruler began the unification alike of    
,italy and ,germany2 but as soon as the 
spiritual work which he was to do is    

fully accomplished1 the political       
construction1 which was as a great      
scaffolding surrounding it1 falls to    
pieces1 and he is driven into exile to  
end his days in solitude and impotence4 
,perhaps some day people will look back 
upon the horror that now lies upon the  
world and not only believe that ,god was
 active in it1 but see the blessings    
which ,he was conferring by its means4  
,,printed ,,in ,,great ,,britain ,,by   
,,richard ,,clay ,,and ,,sons1          
,,limited1                 ,,brunswick  
,,street1 ,,stamford ,,street1 ,s4,e4   
,,and ,,bungay1 ,,suffolk4              
99      99      99      99      99      
99      99      99                      
99,by the ,rev4 ,,william ,,temple499   
,,the ,,faith ,,and ,,modern ,,thought4 
,,six ,,lectures4 ,with an ,introduction
 by ,professor ,michael ,sadler4  ,,the 
,,kingdom ,,of ,,god4  ,a ,,course ,,of 
,,four ,,lectures4  ,,the ,,nature ,,of 
,,personality4  ,a ,,course ,,of        
,,lectures4  ,,studies ,,in ,,the       

,,spirit ,,and ,,truth ,,of             
,,christianity4 ,,being ,,university    
,,and ,,school ,,sermons4  ,,repton     
,,school ,,sermons4 ,,studies ,,in ,,the
 ,,religion ,,of ,,the ,,incarnation4   
,,foundations4 ,a ,,statement ,,of      
,,christian ,,belief ,,in ,,terms ,,of  
,,modern ,,thought4 ,by ,seven ,oxford  
,men3 ,b4 ,h4 ,,streeter1 ,r4 ,,brook1  
,w4 ,h4 ,,moberly1 ,r4 ,g4 ,,parsons1   
,a4 ,e4 ,j4 ,,rawlinson1 ,n4 ,s4        
,,talbot1 ,w4 ,,temple4    ,,london3    
,,macmillan  ,,co41 ,,ltd4