,,the ,,history ,,of ,,modern ,,painting ,illustration3 ,mansell ,photo ,,leslie ,,my ,,uncle ,,toby ,,and ,,the ,,widow ,,wadman ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,modern ,,painting ,,by ,,richard ,,muther ,,professor ,,of ,,art ,,history ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,breslau ,,in ,,four ,,volumes ,illustration ,,volume ,,two ,,revised ,,edition ,,continued ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,xix ,,century ,,london3 ,,published ,,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,dent ,,co4 ,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,co4 ,,mcmvii ,,contents ,,page ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ix ,,book ,,iii ,,the ,,triumph ,,of ,,the ,,moderns ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,draughtsmen ,the general alienation of painting from the interests of life during the first half of the nineteenth century4--,the draughtsmen and caricaturists the first who brought modern life into the sphere of art4--,england3 ,gillray1 ,rowlandson1 ,george ,cruikshank1 ,punch1 ,john ,leech1 ,george du ,maurier1 ,charles ,keene4--,germany3 ,johann ,adam ,klein1 ,johann ,christian ,erhard1 ,ludwig ,richter1 ,oscar ,pletsch1 ,albert ,hendschel1 ,eugen ,neureuther1 ,die ,fliegende ,bltter1 ,wilhelm ,busch1 ,adolf ,oberlnder4--,france3 ,louis ,philibert ,debucourt1 ,carle ,vernet1 ,bosio1 ,henri ,monnier1 ,honor ,daumier1 ,gavarni1 ,guys1 ,gustave ,dor1 ,cham1 ,marcellin1 ,randon1 ,gill1 ,hadol1 ,draner1 ,lonce ,petit1 ,grvin4--,need of a fresh discovery of the world by painters4--,incitement to this by the ,english #a ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,english ,,painting ,,to #ahej ,england little affected by the retrospective tendency of the ,continent4--,james ,barry1 ,james ,northcote1 ,henry ,fuseli1 ,william ,etty1 ,benjamin ,robert ,haydon4--,painting continues on the course taken by ,hogarth and ,reynolds4--,the portrait painters3 ,george ,romney1 ,thomas ,lawrence1 ,john ,hoppner1 ,william ,beechey1 ,john ,russell1 ,john ,jackson1 ,henry ,raeburn4--,benjamin ,west and ,john ,singleton ,copley paint historical pictures from their own time4--,daniel ,maclise4--,animal painting3 ,john ,wootton1 ,george ,stubbs1 ,george ,morland1 ,james ,ward1 ,edwin ,landseer4--,the painting of genre3 ,david ,wilkie1 ,w4 ,collins1 ,gilbert ,stuart ,newton1 ,charles ,robert ,leslie1 ,w4 ,mulready1 ,thomas ,webster1 ,w4 ,frith4--,the influence of these genre pictures on the painting of the ,continent #ec ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,military ,,picture ,why the victory of modernity on the ,continent came only by degrees4--,romantic conceptions4--sthetic theories and the question of costume4--,painting learns to treat contemporary costume by first dealing with uniform4--,france3 ,gros1 ,horace ,vernet1 ,hippolyte ,bellang1 ,isidor ,pils1 ,alexander ,protais1 ,charlet1 ,raffet1 ,ernest ,meissonier1 ,guillaume ,rgamey1 ,alphonse de ,neuville1 ,aim ,morot1 ,edouard ,dtaille4--,germany3 ,albrecht ,adam1 ,peter ,hess1 ,franz ,krger1 ,karl ,steffeck1 ,th4 ,horschelt1 ,franz ,adam1 ,joseph v4 ,brandt1 ,heinrich ,lang #ib ,,chapter ,,xix ,,italy ,,and ,,the ,,east ,why painters sought their ideal in distant countries1 though they did not plunge into the past4--,italy discovered by ,leopold ,robert1 ,victor ,schnetz1 ,ernest ,hbert1 ,august ,riedel4--,the ,east was for the ,romanticists what ,italy had been for the ,classicists4--,france3 ,delacroix1 ,decamps1 ,prosper ,marilhat1 ,eugne ,fromentin1 ,gustave ,guillaumet4--,germany3 ,h4 ,kretzschmer1 ,wilhelm ,gentz1 ,adolf ,schreyer1 and others4--,england3 ,william ,muller1 ,frederick ,goodall1 ,f4 ,j4 ,lewis4--,italy3 ,alberto ,pasini #aah ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,painting ,,of ,,humorous ,,anecdote ,after seeking exotic subjects painting returns home1 and finds amongst peasants a stationary type of life which has preserved picturesque costume4--,munich3 ,the transition from the military picture to the painting of peasants4--,peter ,hess1 ,heinrich ,brkel1 ,carl ,spitzweg4--,hamburg3 ,hermann ,kauffmann4--,berlin3 ,friedrich ,eduard ,meyerheim4--,the influence of ,wilkie1 and the novel of village life4--,munich3 ,johann ,kirner1 ,carl ,enhuber4--,dsseldorf3 ,adolf ,schroedter1 ,peter ,hasenclever1 ,jacob ,becker1 ,rudolf ,jordan1 ,henry ,ritter1 ,adolf ,tidemand4--,vienna3 ,peter ,krafft1 ,j4 ,danhauser1 ,ferdinand ,waldmller4--,belgium3 ,influence of ,teniers4--,ignatius van ,regemorter1 ,ferdinand de ,braekeleer1 ,henri ,coene1 ,madou1 ,adolf ,dillens4--,france3 ,franois ,biard #adj ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,picture ,,with ,a ,,social ,,purpose ,why modern life in all countries entered into art only under the form of humorous anecdote4--,the conventional optimism of these pictures comes into conflict with the revolutionary temper of the age4--,france3 ,delacroix' ,freedom1 ,jeanron1 ,antigna1 ,adolphe ,leleux1 ,meissonier's ,barricade1 ,octave ,tassaert4--,germany3 ,gisbert ,flggen1 ,carl ,hbner4--,belgium3 ,eugne de ,block1 ,antoine ,wiertz #age ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,village ,,tale ,germany3 ,louis ,knaus1 ,benjamin ,vautier1 ,franz ,defregger1 ,mathias ,schmidt1 ,alois ,gabl1 ,eduard ,kurzbauer1 ,hugo ,kauffmann1 ,wilhelm ,riefstahl4--,the ,comedy of ,monks3 ,eduard ,grtzner4--,tales of the ,exchange and the ,manufactory3 ,ludwig ,bokelmann1 ,ferdinand ,brtt4--,germany begins to transmit the principles of genre painting to other countries4--,france3 ,gustave ,brion1 ,charles ,marchal1 ,jules ,breton4--,norway and ,sweden stand in union with ,dsseldorf3 ,karl ,d',uncker1 ,wilhelm ,wallander1 ,anders ,koskull1 ,kilian ,zoll1 ,peter ,eskilson1 ,august ,jernberg1 ,ferdinand ,fagerlin1 ,v4 ,stoltenberg-,lerche1 ,hans ,dahl4--,hungary fructified by ,munich3 ,ludwig ,ebner1 ,paul ,boehm1 ,otto von ,baditz1 ,koloman ,dry1 ,julius ,agghzi1 ,alexander ,bihari1 ,ignaz ,ruskovics1 ,johann ,jank1 ,tihamr ,margitay1 ,paul ,vag1 ,arpad ,fessty1 ,otto ,koroknyai1 ,d4 ,skuteczky4--,difference between these pictures and those of the old ,dutch masters4--,from ,hogarth to ,knaus4--,why ,hogarth succumbed1 and genre painting had to become painting pure and simple4--,this new basis of art created by the landscapists #aid ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,landscape ,,painting ,,in ,,germany ,the significance of landscape for nineteenth-century art4--,classicism3 ,joseph ,anton ,koch1 ,leopold ,rottmann1 ,friedrich ,preller and his followers4--,romanticism3 ,karl ,friedrich ,lessing1 ,karl ,blechen1 ,w4 ,schirmer1 ,valentin ,ruths4--,the discovery of ,ruysdael and ,everdingen4--,the part of mediation played by certain artists from ,denmark and ,norway3 ,j4 ,c4 ,dahl1 ,christian ,morgenstern1 ,ludwig ,gurlitt4--,andreas ,achenbach1 ,eduard ,schleich4--,the ,german landscape painters begin to travel everywhere4--,influence of ,calame4--,h4 ,gude1 ,niels ,bjrnson ,mller1 ,august ,cappelen1 ,morten-,mller1 ,erik ,bodom1 ,l4 ,munthe1 ,e4 ,a4 ,normann1 ,ludwig ,willroider1 ,louis ,douzette1 ,hermann ,eschke1 ,carl ,ludwig1 ,otto v4 ,kameke1 ,graf ,stanislaus ,kalkreuth1 ,oswald ,achenbach1 ,albert ,flamm1 ,ascan ,lutteroth1 ,ferdinand ,bellermann1 ,eduard ,hildebrandt1 ,eugen ,bracht4--,why many of their pictures1 compared with those of the old ,dutch masters1 indicate an expansion of the geographical horizon1 rather than a refinement of taste4--,the victory over interesting-subject-matter and sensational effect by the paysage intime #bcj ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,paysage ,,intime ,classical landscape painting in ,france3 ,hubert ,robert1 ,henri ,valenciennes1 ,victor ,bertin1 ,xavier ,bidault1 ,michallon1 ,jules ,cogniet1 ,watelet1 ,thodore ,aligny1 ,edouard ,bertin1 ,paul ,flandrin1 ,achille ,benouville1 ,j4 ,bellel4--,romanticism and the resort to national scenery3 ,victor ,hugo1 ,georges ,michel1 the ,ruysdael of ,montmartre1 ,charles de la ,berge1 ,camille ,roqueplan1 ,camille ,flers1 ,louis ,cabat1 ,paul ,huet4--,the ,english the first to free themselves from composition and the tone of the galleries3 ,turner4--,john ,crome1 the ,english ,hobbema1 and the ,norwich school3 ,cotman1 ,crome junior1 ,stark1 ,vincent4--,the water colour artists3 ,john ,robert ,cozens1 ,girtin1 ,edridge1 ,prout1 ,samuel ,owen1 ,luke ,clennel1 ,howitt1 ,robert ,hills4--,the influence of aquarelles on the ,english conception of colour4--,john ,constable and open-air painting4--,david ,cox1 ,william ,muller1 ,peter de ,wint1 ,creswick1 ,peter ,graham1 ,henry ,dawson1 ,john ,linnell4--,richard ,parkes ,bonington as the link between ,england and ,france #beg ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,landscape ,,from #ahcj ,constable in the ,louvre and his influence on the creators of the ,french paysage intime4--,thodore ,rousseau1 ,corot1 ,jules ,dupr1 ,diaz1 ,daubigny and their followers4--,chintreuil1 ,jean ,desbrosses1 ,achard1 ,franais1 ,harpignies1 mile ,breton1 and others4--,animal painting3 ,carle ,vernet1 ,gricault1 ,r4 ,brascassat1 ,troyon1 ,rosa ,bonheur1 ,jadin1 ,eugne ,lambert1 ,palizzi1 ,auguste ,lanon1 ,charles ,jacque #bid ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,jean ,,fran,,ois ,,millet ,his importance1 and the task left for those who followed him4--,millet's principle ,le beau c'est le vrai had to be transferred from peasant painting to modern life1 from ,barbizon to ,paris #cfj ,,book ,,iv ,,the ,,realistic ,,painters ,,and ,,the ,,modern ,,idealists ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,realism ,,in ,,france ,gustave ,courbet and the modern painting of artisan life4--,alfred ,stevens and the painting of ,society4--,his followers ,auguste ,toulmouche1 ,james ,tissot1 and others4--,in opposition to the ,cinquecento the study of the old ,germans1 the ,lombards1 the ,spaniards1 the ,flemish artists1 and the ,rococo masters becomes now a formative influence4--,gustave ,ricard1 ,charles ,chaplin1 ,gaillard1 ,paul ,dubois1 ,carolus ,duran1 ,lon ,bonnat1 ,roybet1 ,blaise ,desgoffe1 ,philippe ,rousseau1 ,antoine ,vollon1 ,franois ,bonvin1 ,thodule ,ribot #cia ,,bibliography #dce ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,plates ,,in ,,colour ,,page ,,leslie3 ,my ,uncle ,toby and the ,widow ,wadman ,frontispiece ,,romney3 ,serena #ec ,,lawrence3 ,caroline of ,brunswick1 ,queen of ,george ,,iv #fj ,,maclise3 ,the ,waterfall1 ,cornwall #fd ,,morland3 ,horses in a ,stable #fi ,,landseer3 ,jack in ,office #gf ,,fromentin3 ,algerian ,falconers #acb ,,rottmann3 ,lake ,kopas #bcd ,,turner3 ,the old ,tmraire #bfh ,,constable3 ,willy ,lott's ,house #bge ,,bonington3 ,la ,place de ,molards1 ,geneva #bij ,,corot3 ,landscape #caf ,,millet3 ,the ,wood-,sawyers #cgj ,,in ,,black ,,and ,,white ,,achenbach1 ,,andreas4 ,sea ,coast after a ,storm #bdg ,fishing ,boats in the ,north ,sea #bdi ,,adam1 ,,albrecht4 ,albrecht ,adam and his ,sons #aab ,a ,stable in ,town #aac ,,baade1 ,,knut4 ,moonlight ,night on the ,coast #bec ,,becker1 ,,jacob4 ,a ,tempest #afe ,,berge1 ,,charles ,,de ,,la4 ,landscape #bfc ,,boilly1 ,,leopold4 ,the ,toilette #b ,the ,newsvendor #c ,the ,marionettes #d ,,bonheur1 ,,rosa4 ,the ,horse-,fair #cea ,ploughing in ,nivernois #cec ,,bonington1 ,,richard ,,parkes4 ,the ,windmill of ,saint-,jouin #bij ,reading ,aloud #bia ,portrait of ,richard ,parkes ,bonington #bic ,,bonnat1 ,l,,on4 ,adolphe ,thiers #dbc ,victor ,hugo #dbd ,,bonvin1 ,,fran,,ois4 ,the ,cook #dbg ,the ,work-,room #dbh ,,breton1 ,,mile4 ,the ,return of the ,reapers #bbe ,the ,gleaner #bbf ,,brion1 ,,gustave4 ,jean ,valjean #bba ,,bunbury1 ,,william ,,henry4 ,richmond ,hill #i ,b,,rkel1 ,,heinrich4 ,portrait of ,heinrich ,brkel #adc ,brigands ,returning #add ,a ,downpour in the ,mountains #ade ,a ,smithy in ,upper ,bavaria #adf ,,busch1 ,,wilhelm4 ,portrait of ,wilhelm ,busch #bi ,,cabat1 ,,louis4 ,le ,jardin ,beaujon #bfd ,,calame1 ,,alexandre4 ,landscape #bej ,,chaplin1 ,,charles4 ,the ,golden ,age #dah ,portrait of ,countess ,aimery de la ,rochefoucauld #dai ,,charlet1 ,,nicolas ,,touissaint4 ,un homme qui bot seul n'est pas digne de vivre #ie ,,chintreuil1 ,,antoine4 ,landscape3 ,morning #cdc ,,constable1 ,,john4 ,portrait of ,john ,constable #bgd ,church ,porch1 ,bergholt #bge ,dedham ,vale #bgg ,the ,romantic ,house #bgh ,the ,cornfield #bgi ,cottage in a ,cornfield #bhc ,the ,valley ,farm #bhe ,,copley1 ,,john ,,singleton4 ,the ,death of the ,earl of ,chatham #fe ,,corot1 ,,camille4 ,portrait of ,camille ,corot #cjf ,the ,bridge of ,st4 ,angelo1 ,rome #cjg ,corot at ,work #cjh ,daphnis and ,chloe #cji ,vue de ,toscane #caj ,at ,sunset #caa ,the ,ruin #cab ,evening #cac ,an ,evening in ,normandy #cad ,the ,dance of the ,nymphs #cae ,a ,dance #caf ,la ,route d',arras #cag ,,courbet1 ,,gustave4 ,portrait of ,gustave ,courbet #cic ,the ,man with a ,leather ,belt4 ,portrait of ,himself as a ,youth #cid ,a ,funeral at ,ornans #cie ,the ,stone-,breakers #cig ,the ,return from ,market #djj ,the ,battle of the ,stags #dja ,a ,woman ,bathing #djb ,deer in ,covert #djc ,girls lying on the ,bank of the ,seine #djd ,a ,recumbent ,woman #dje ,berlioz #djf ,the ,hind on the ,snow #djg ,my ,studio after ,seven ,years of ,artistic ,life #dji ,the ,wave #dab ,,cox1 ,,david4 ,crossing the ,sands #bhf ,the ,shrimpers #bhg ,,crome1 ,,john 7,,old ,,crome74 ,a ,view near ,norwich #bgc ,,cruikshank1 ,,george4 ,monstrosities of #ahbb #f ,,danhauser1 ,,josef4 ,the ,gormandizer #agi ,,daubigny1 ,,charles ,,fran,,ois4 ,portrait of ,charles ,franois ,daubigny #cce ,springtime #ccf ,a ,lock in the ,valley of ,optevoz #ccg ,on the ,oise #cch ,shepherd and ,shepherdess #cci ,landscape3 ,evening #cda ,,daumier1 ,,honor4 ,portrait of ,honor ,daumier #cg ,the ,connoisseurs #ch ,the ,mountebanks #ci ,in the ,assize ,court #dj ,la voil 444 ma ,maison de ,campagne #da ,menelaus the ,victor #db ,,debucourt1 ,,louis ,,philibert4 ,in the ,kitchen #cc ,the ,promenade #cd ,,decamps1 ,,alexandre4 ,the ,swineherd #abg ,coming out from a ,turkish ,school #abi ,the ,watering-,place #aca ,,defregger1 ,,franz4 ,portrait of ,franz ,defregger #bjh ,speckbacher and his ,son #bji ,the ,wrestlers #baj ,sister and ,brothers #baa ,the ,prize ,horse #bac ,andreas ,hofer appointed ,governor of the ,tyrol #bae ,d,,taille1 ,,edouard4 ,salut aux ,blesss #aaa ,,diaz1 ,,narcisse ,,virgilio4 ,portrait of ,narcisse ,diaz #cbh ,the ,descent of the ,bohemians #cbi ,among the ,foliage #cca ,the ,tree ,trunk #ccb ,forest ,scene #ccc ,,dubois1 ,,paul4 ,portrait of my ,sons #dba ,,dupr1 ,,jules4 ,portrait of ,jules ,dupr #cah ,the ,house of ,jules ,dupr at ,l'isle-,adam #cai ,the ,setting ,sun #cbj ,the ,bridge at ,l'isle-,adam #cba ,near ,southampton #cbb ,the ,punt #cbc ,sunset #cbd ,the ,hay-,wain #cbe ,the old ,oak #cbf ,the ,pool #cbg ,,duran1 ,,carolus4 ,portrait of ,carolus ,duran #dbb ,,enhuber1 ,,carl4 ,the ,pensioner and his ,grandson #afc ,,erhard1 ,,johann ,,christoph4 ,portrait of ,johann ,christoph ,erhard #ba ,a ,peasant ,scene #bb ,a ,peasant ,family #bc ,,fl,,mm1 ,,albert4 ,a ,summer ,day #bea ,,fl,,ggen1 ,,gisbert4 ,the ,decision of the ,suit #ahf ,,frith1 ,,william ,,powell4 ,poverty and ,wealth #hi ,,fromentin1 ,,eug,,ne4 ,portrait of ,eugne ,fromentin #acc ,arabian ,women returning from drawing ,water #acd ,the ,centaurs #ace ,,gaillard1 ,,ferdinand4 ,portrait #dbj ,,gavarni 7,,sulpice ,,guillaume ,,chevalier74 ,portrait of ,gavarni #dc ,thomas ,vireloque #dd ,fourberies de ,femmes #de ,phdre at the ,thtre ,franais #dh ,ce qui me manque moi8 ,une t'ite mre comme a1 qu'aurait soin de mon linge #di ,,gillray1 ,,james4 ,affability #e ,,gr,,vin1 ,,alfred4 ,nos ,parisiennes #ea ,,gr,,tzner1 ,,eduard4 ,twelfth ,night #bai ,,guillaumet1 ,,gustave4 ,the ,sguia1 near ,biskra #acf ,a ,dwelling in the ,sahara #acg ,,gurlitt1 ,,ludwig4 ,on the ,sabine ,mountains #bde ,,guys1 ,,constantin4 ,study of a ,woman #ej ,,harpignies1 ,,henri4 ,moonrise #cdd ,h,,bert1 ,,ernest4 ,the ,malaria #abc ,,hess1 ,,peter4 ,the ,reception of ,king ,otto in ,nauplia #aad ,a ,morning at ,partenkirche #adb ,h,,bner1 ,,carl4 ,july #ahg ,,huet1 ,,paul4 ,portrait of ,paul ,huet #bfe ,the ,inundation at ,st4 ,cloud #bff ,,hugo1 ,,victor4 ,ruins of a ,medival ,castle on the ,rhine #bfa ,,jacque1 ,,charles4 ,the ,return to the ,byre 7,etching7 #cee ,a ,flock of ,sheep on the ,road #cef ,millet at ,work in his ,studio #cfe ,millet's ,house at ,barbizon #cff ,,kauffmann1 ,,hermann4 ,woodcutters ,returning #aed ,a ,sandy ,road #aee ,returning from the ,fields #aef ,,keene1 ,,charles4 ,the ,perils of the ,deep #ag ,from ,our ,people #ai ,,kirner1 ,,johann4 ,the ,fortune ,teller #afb ,,klein1 ,,johann ,,adam4 ,a ,travelling ,landscape ,painter #bj ,,knaus1 ,,louis4 ,portrait of ,louis ,knaus #aie ,in great ,distress #aif ,the ,card-,players #aig ,the ,golden ,wedding #aii ,behind the ,scenes #bja ,,kobell1 ,,william4 ,a ,meeting #ada ,,koch1 ,,joseph ,,anton4 ,portrait of ,josef ,anton ,koch #bca ,,krafft1 ,,peter4 ,the ,soldier's ,return #agj ,,landseer1 ,,sir ,,edwin4 ,a ,distinguished ,member of the ,humane ,society #gb ,the last ,mourner at the ,shepherd's ,grave #gc ,high ,life #gd ,low ,life #ge ,,lawrence1 ,,sir ,,thomas4 ,mrs4 ,siddons #eg ,princess ,amelia #eh ,the ,english ,mother #ei ,the ,countess ,gower #fa ,,leech1 ,,john4 ,the ,children of ,mr4 and ,mrs4 ,blenkinsop #aa ,little ,spicey and ,tater ,sam #aa ,from ,children of the ,mobility #ab ,,leleux1 ,,adolphe4 ,mot d'ordre #aha ,,leslie1 ,,charles ,,robert4 ,sancho and the ,duchess #hg ,,lessing1 ,,carl ,,friedrich4 ,portrait of ,carl ,friedrich ,lessing #bci ,the ,wayside ,madonna #bdj ,,maclise1 ,,daniel4 ,noah's ,sacrifice #fg ,malvolio and the ,countess #fh ,,madou1 ,,jean ,,baptiste4 ,in the ,ale-house #agb ,the ,drunkard #agc ,,marchal1 ,,charles4 ,the ,hiring ,fair #bbc ,,marcke1 ,,emile ,,van4 ,la ,falaise #ced ,,marilhat1 ,,prosper4 ,a ,halt #acb ,,du ,,maurier1 ,,george4 ,the ,dancing ,lesson #ac ,a ,recollection of ,dieppe #ad ,down to ,dinner #ae ,a ,wintry ,walk #af ,,meissonier1 ,,ernest4 ,portrait of ,ernest ,meissonier #aja #ahad #ajc ,the ,outpost #aje ,,meyerheim1 ,,friedrich ,,eduard4 ,portrait of ,friedrich ,eduard ,meyerheim #aeg ,children at ,play #aeh ,the ,king of the ,shooting ,match #aei ,the ,morning ,hour #afj ,the ,knitting ,lesson #afa ,,michel1 ,,georges4 ,a ,windmill #bfb ,,millais1 ,,sir ,,john ,,everett4 ,george du ,maurier #ab ,,millet1 ,,jean ,,fran,,ois4 ,portrait of ,himself #cfa ,the ,house at ,gruchy #cfc ,the ,winnower #cfg ,a ,man making ,faggots #cfh ,the ,gleaners #cfi ,vine-dresser ,resting #cga ,at the ,well #cgc ,burning ,weeds #cge ,the ,angelus #cgg ,the ,shepherdess and her ,sheep #cgh ,the ,shepherd at the ,pen at ,nightfall #cgi ,a ,woman feeding ,chickens #chj ,the ,shepherdess #cha ,the ,labourer ,grafting a ,tree #chc ,a ,woman ,knitting #chd ,the ,rainbow #che ,the ,barbizon ,stone #chg ,,monnier1 ,,henri4 ,a ,chalk ,drawing #ce ,joseph ,proudhomme #cf ,,morgenstern1 ,,christian4 ,a ,peasant ,cottage 7,etching7 #bdc ,,morland1 ,,george4 ,the ,corn ,bin #fi ,going to the ,fair #gj ,the ,return from ,market #ga ,,muller1 ,,william4 ,prayer in the ,desert #ach ,the ,amphitheatre at ,xanthus #bhh ,,mulready1 ,,william4 ,fair ,time #hh ,crossing the ,ford #ia ,,de ,,neuville1 ,,alphonse4 ,portrait of ,alphonse de ,neuville #ajg ,le ,bourget #aji ,,newton1 ,,gilbert ,,stuart4 ,yorick and the ,grisette #hc ,,oberl,,nder1 ,,adolf4 ,variations on the ,kissing ,theme4 ,rethel #cj ,variations on the ,kissing ,theme4 ,gabriel ,max #cj ,variations on the ,kissing ,theme4 ,hans ,makart #ca ,portrait of ,adolf ,oberlnder #ca ,variations on the ,kissing ,theme4 ,genelli #cb ,variations on the ,kissing ,theme4 ,alma ,tadema #cb ,,pettenkofen1 ,,august ,,von4 ,a ,hungarian ,village 7,pencil ,drawing7 #bbd ,,preller1 ,,friedrich4 ,portrait of ,friedrich ,preller #bce ,ulysses and ,leucothea #bcg ,,raeburn1 ,,sir ,,henry4 ,sir ,walter ,scott #fc ,,raffet1 ,,auguste ,,marie4 ,portrait of ,auguste ,marie ,raffet #if ,the ,parade #ig #ahjg #ih ,polish ,infantry #ii ,the ,midnight ,review #ajj ,,reid1 ,,sir ,,george4 ,portrait of ,charles ,keene #ah ,,ribot1 ,,th,,odule4 ,the ,studio #dbi ,at a ,norman ,inn #dcj ,keeping ,accounts #dca ,st4 ,sebastian1 ,martyr #dcb ,,ricard1 ,,gustave4 ,madame de ,calonne #dag ,,richter1 ,,ludwig4 ,portrait of ,ludwig ,richter #bd ,home #be ,the ,end of the ,day #bf ,spring #bg ,after ,work it's good to rest #bh ,,riedel1 ,,august4 ,the ,neapolitan ,fisherman's ,family #abd ,judith #abe ,,robert1 ,,hubert4 ,monuments and ,ruins #bei ,,robert1 ,,leopold4 ,portrait of ,leopold ,robert #aai ,fishers of the ,adriatic #abj ,the ,coming of the ,reapers to the ,pontine ,marshes #aba ,,romney1 ,,george4 ,portrait of ,george ,romney #ee ,lady ,hamilton as ,euphrosyne #ef ,,rottmann1 ,,karl4 ,portrait of ,karl ,rottmann #bcb ,the ,coast of ,sicily #bcc ,,rousseau1 ,,th,,odore4 ,portrait of ,thodore ,rousseau #bie ,morning #bif ,landscape1 ,morning ,effect #big ,the ,village of ,becquigny in ,picardy #bii ,la ,hutte #cja ,evening #cjb ,sunset #cjc ,the ,lake among the ,rocks at ,barbizon #cjd ,a ,pond1 ,forest of ,fontainebleau #cje ,,rowlandson1 ,,thomas4 ,harmony #g ,,schirmer1 ,,johann ,,wilhelm4 ,an ,italian ,landscape #bda ,,schnetz1 ,,victor4 ,an ,italian ,shepherd #abb ,,spitzweg1 ,,carl4 ,portrait of ,carl ,spitzweg #adg ,at the ,garret ,window #adh ,a ,morning ,concert #adi ,the ,postman #aea ,,stevens1 ,,alfred4 ,the ,lady in ,pink #dac ,la ,bte bon ,dieu #dad ,the ,japanese ,mask #dae ,the ,visitors #daf ,,tassaert1 ,,octave4 ,portrait of ,octave ,tassaert #ahb ,after the ,ball #ahc ,the ,orphans #ahd ,the ,suicide #ahe ,,tidemand1 ,,adolf4 ,the ,sectarians #afg ,adorning the ,bride #afi ,,troyon1 ,,constant4 ,portrait of ,constant ,troyon #cde ,in ,normandy3 ,cows ,grazing #cdf ,crossing the ,stream #cdg ,the ,return to the ,farm #cdh ,a ,cow scratching ,herself #cdi ,,turner1 ,,joseph ,,mallord ,,william4 ,portrait of ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner #bfg ,a ,shipwreck #bfh ,dido building ,carthage #bfi ,jumiges #bgj ,landscape with the ,sun rising in a ,mist #bga ,venice #bgb ,,vautier1 ,,benjamin4 ,portrait of ,benjamin ,vautier #bjb ,the ,conjurer #bjc ,the ,dancing ,lesson #bje ,november #bjg ,,vernet1 ,,horace4 ,the ,wounded ,zouave #ic ,,vollon1 ,,antoine4 ,portrait of ,antoine ,vollon #dbe ,a ,carnival ,scene #dbf ,,waldm,,ller1 ,,ferdinand4 ,the ,first ,step #aga ,,wallander1 ,,wilhelm4 ,the ,return #bbg ,,webster1 ,,thomas4 ,the ,rubber #he ,,west1 ,,benjamin4 ,the ,death of ,nelson #fd ,,wiertz1 ,,antoine4 ,the ,orphans #ahi ,the ,things of the ,present as seen by ,future ,ages #aia ,the ,fight round the ,body of ,patroclus #aib ,,wilkie1 ,,david4 ,blind-,man's-,buff #gg ,a ,guerilla ,council of ,war in a ,spanish ,posada #gi ,the ,blind ,fiddler #hj ,the ,penny ,wedding #ha ,the ,first ,earring #hb ,,de ,,wint1 ,,peter4 ,nottingham #bhi ,,book ,,iii ,,the ,,triumph ,,of ,,the ,,moderns ,,chapter ,,xvi ,,the ,,draughtsmen ,inasmuch as modern art1 in the beginning of its career1 held commerce almost exclusively with the spirits of dead men of bygone ages1 it had set itself in opposition to all the great epochs that had gone before4 ,all works known to the history of art1 from the cathedral pictures of ,stephan ,lochner down to the works of the followers of ,watteau1 stand in the closest relationship with the people and times amid which they have originated4 ,whoever studies the works of ,drer knows his home and his family1 the ,nuremberg of the sixteenth century1 with its narrow lanes and gabled houses2 the whole age is reflected in the engravings of this one artist with a truth and distinctness which put to shame those of the most laborious historian4 ,drer and his contemporaries in ,italy stood in so intimate a relation to reality that in their religious pictures they even set themselves above historical probability1 and treated the miraculous stories of sacred tradition as if they had been commonplace incidents of the fifteenth century4 ,or1 to take another instance1 with what a striking realism1 in the works of ,ostade1 ,brouwer1 and ,steen1 has the entire epoch from which these great artists drew strength and nourishment remained vivid in spirit1 sentiment1 manners1 and costume4 ,every man whose name has come down to posterity stood firm and unshaken on the ground of his own time1 resting like a tree with all its roots buried in its own peculiar soil2 a tree whose branches rustled in the breeze of its native land1 while the sun which fell on its blossoms and ripened its fruits was that of ,italy or ,germany1 of ,spain or the ,netherlands1 of that time2 never the weak reflection of a planet that formerly had shone in other zones4 ,it was not until the beginning of the nineteenth century that this connection with the life of the present and the soil at home was lost to the art of painting4 ,it cannot be supposed that later generations will be able to form a conception of life in the nineteenth century from pictures produced in this period1 or that these pictures will become approximately such documents as the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries possess in the works of ,drer1 ,bellini1 ,rubens1 or ,rembrandt4 ,the old masters were the children of their age to the very tips of their fingers4 ,they were saturated with the significance1 the ideals1 and the aims of their time1 and they saturated them with their own aims1 ideals1 and significance4 ,on the other hand1 if any one enters a modern picture gallery and picks out the paintings produced up to #ahej1 he will often receive the impression that they belong to earlier centuries4 ,they are without feeling for the world around1 and seem even to know nothing of it4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,boilly4 ,,the ,,toilette4 ,even ,david1 the first of the moderns1 has left no work1 with the exception of his ,marat1 which has been baptized with the blood of the ,french ,revolution4 ,to express the sentiment of ,liberty militant he made use of the figures of ,roman heroes4 ,the political freedom of the people1 so recently won1 so fresh in men's minds1 he illustrated by examples from ,roman history4 ,at a later time1 when the allied forces entered ,paris after the defeat of ,napoleon1 he made use of the story of ,leonidas at ,thermopyl4 ,only in portrait painting was any kind of justice done to modern life by the painters in the grand style4 ,true it is that there lived1 at the time1 a few little masters who furtively turned out for the market modest little pictures of the life around them1 paintings of buildings and kitchen interiors4 ,the poor ,alsatian painter ,martin ,drolling1 contemptuously designated a dish painter by the critics1 showed in his kitchen pictures that1 in spite of ,david1 something of the spirit of ,chardin and the great ,dutchmen was still alive in ,french art4 ,but he has given his figures and his pots and pans and vegetables the pose and hard outline of ,classicism4 ,a few of his portraits are better and more delicate1 particularly that of the actor ,baptiste1 with his fine head1 like that of a diplomatist4 ,at the exhibition of #ahhi1 this picture1 with its positive and firmly delineated characterisation1 made the appeal of a ,holbein of #ahjb4 ,another little master1 ,granet1 painted picturesque ruins1 low halls1 and the vaults of churches2 he studied attentively the problem of light in inner chambers1 and thereby drew upon himself the reproach of ,david1 that his drawing savoured of colour4 ,in ,leopold ,boilly ,parisian life--still like that of a country town--and the arrival of the mail1 the market1 and the busy life of the streets1 found an interpreter1--bourgeois no doubt1 but true to his age4 ,in the time of the ,revolution he painted a ,triumph of ,marat1 the tribune of the people1 who is being carried on the shoulders of his audience from the palais de justice in ,paris1 after delivering an inflammatory oration4 ,in #ahjg1 when the exhibition of ,david's ,coronation picture had thrown all ,paris into excitement1 ,boilly conceived the notion of perpetuating in a rapid sketch the scene of the exhibition1 with the picture and the crowd pressing round it4 ,his speciality1 however1 was little portrait groups of honest bourgeois in their stiff ,sunday finery4 ,boilly knew with accuracy the toilettes of his age1 the gowns of the actresses1 and the way they dressed their heads2 he cared nothing whatever about sthetic dignity of style1 but represented each subject as faithfully as he could1 and as honestly and sincerely as possible4 ,for that reason he is of great historical value1 but he is not painter enough to lay claim to great artistic interest4 ,the execution of his pictures is petty and diffidently careful1 and his neat1 ,philistine painting has a suggestion of china and enamel1 without a trace of the ease and spirit with which the eighteenth century carolled over such work4 ,the heads of his women are the heads of dolls1 and his silk looks like steel4 ,his forerunners are not the ,dutchmen of the good periods1 ,terborg and ,metsu1 but the contemporaries of ,van der ,werff4 ,he and ,drolling and ,granet were rather the last issue of the fine old ,dutch schools1 rather descendants of ,chardin than pioneers1 and amongst the younger men there was at first no one who ventured to sow afresh the region which had been devastated by ,classicism4 ,gricault certainly was incited to his ,raft of the ,medusa not by ,livy or ,plutarch1 but by an occurrence of the time which was reported in the newspapers2 and he ventured to set an ordinary shipwreck in the place of the ,deluge or a naval battle1 and a crew of unknown mortals in the place of ,greek heroes4 ,but then his picture stands alone amongst the works of the ,romanticists1 and is too decidedly transposed into a classical key to count as a representation of modern life4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,boilly4 ,,the ,,newsvendor4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,boilly4 ,,the ,,marionettes4 ,in its striving after movement and colour1 ,romanticism put forward the picturesque and passionate ,middle ,ages in opposition to the stiff and frigid neo-,greek or neo-,roman ideal2 but it joined with ,classicism in despising the life of the present4 ,even the political excitement at the close of the ,restoration and the ,revolution of ,july had but little influence on the leading spirits of the time4 ,accustomed to look for the elements of pictorial invention in religious myths1 in the fictions of poets1 or in the events of older history1 they paid no attention to the mighty social drama enacted so near to them4 ,the fiery spirit of ,delacroix certainly led him to paint his picture of the barricades1 but he drew his inspiration from a poet1 from an ode of ,auguste ,barbier1 and he gave the whole an air of romance and allegory by introducing the figure of ,liberty4 ,he lived in a world of glowing passions1 amid which all the struggles of his age seemed to have for him only a petty material interest4 ,for that reason he has neither directly nor indirectly drawn on what he saw around him4 ,he painted the soul1 but not the life of his epoch4 ,he was attracted by ,teutonic poets and by the ,middle ,ages4 ,he set art free from ,greek subject-matter and ,italian form1 to borrow his ideas from ,englishmen and ,germans and his colour from the ,flemish school4 ,he is inscrutably silent about ,french society in the nineteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,queen ,charlotte4 ,george ,,iii4 ,,gillray4 ,,affability4 ,well1 ,friend1 where a' you going1 hay8--what's your name1 hay8--where d'ye live1 hay8--hay8 ,and this alienation from the living world is even more noticeable in ,ingres4 ,his ,mass of ,pius ,,vii in the ,sistine ,chapel is the only one of his many works which deals with a subject of contemporary life1 and it was blamed by the critics because it deviated so far from the great style4 ,as an historical painter1 and when better employed as a painter of portraits1 ,ingres has crystallised all the life and marrow of the past in his icy works1 and he appears in the midst of the century like a marvellous and sterile sphinx4 ,nothing can be learnt from him concerning the needs and passions and interests of living men4 ,his own century might writhe and suffer and struggle and bring forth new thoughts1 but he knew nothing about them1 or if he did he never allowed it to be seen4 ,illustration3 ,,cruickshank4 ,,monstrosities ,,of #ahbb4 ,delaroche approached somewhat nearer to the present1 for he advanced from antiquity and the ,middle ,ages to the seventeenth century2 and the historical picture1 invented by him1 virtually dominated ,french art under ,napoleon ,,iii1 in union with the dying ,classicism4 ,even then there was no painter who yet ventured to portray the manners and types of his age with the fresh insight and merciless observation of ,balzac4 ,all those scenes from the life of great cities1 their fashion and their misery1 which then began to form the substance of drama and romance1 had as yet no counterpart in painting4 ,illustration3 ,,rowlandson4 ,,harmony4 ,illustration3 ,,bunbury4 ,,richmond ,,hill4 ,the ,belgians preserved the same silence4 ,during the whole maturity of ,classicism1 from #ahjj to #ahcj1 ,franois1 ,paelinck1 van ,hanselaere1 ,odevaere1 de ,roi1 ,duvivier1 etc41 with their coloured ,greek statues1 ruled the realm of figure painting as unmitigated dictators2 and amongst the historical painters who followed them1 ,wappers1 in his ,episode1 was the only one who drew on modern life for a subject4 ,there was a desire to revive ,rubens4 ,decaisne1 ,wappers1 de ,keyzer1 ,bifve1 and ,gallait lit their candle at his sun1 and were hailed as the holy band who were to lead ,belgian art to a glorious victory4 ,but their original national tendency deviated from real life instead of leading towards it4 ,for the sake of painting cuirasses and helmets they dragged the most obscure national heroes to the light of day1 just as the ,classicists had done with ,greeks and ,romans4 ,german painting wandered through the past with even less method1 taking its material1 not from native1 but from ,french1 ,english1 and ,flemish history4 ,from ,carstens down to ,makart1 ,german painters of influence carefully shut their eyes to reality1 and drew down the blinds so as to see nothing of the life that surged below them in the street1 with its filth and splendour1 its laughter and misery1 its baseness and noble humanity4 ,and from an historical point of view this alienation from the world is susceptible of an easy explanation4 ,illustration3 ,,leech4 ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,mr4 ,,and ,,mrs4 ,,blenkinsop4 ,illustration3 ,,leech4 ,,little ,,spicey ,,and ,,tater ,,sam4 ,in ,france1 as in all other countries1 the end of the ancien rgime1 the tempest of the ,revolution1 and the consequent modification of the whole of life--of sentiments1 habits1 and ideas1 of dress and social conditions--at first implied such a sudden change in the horizon that artists were necessarily thrown into confusion4 ,when the monarchy entered laughingly upon its struggle of life and death1 the survivors from the time of ,louis ,,xvi1 charming little masters who had been great masters in that careless and graceful epoch1 were suddenly made witnesses of a revolution more abrupt than the world had yet seen4 ,savage mobs forced their way into gardens1 palaces1 and reception-rooms1 pike in hand1 and with the red cap upon their heads4 ,the walls echoed with their rude speech1 and plebeian orators played the part of oracles of freedom and brotherhood like old ,roman tribunes of the people4 ,what was there yesterday was no longer to be seen2 a thick powder-smoke hung between the past and the present4 ,and the present itself had not yet assumed determinate shape2 it hovered1 as yet unready1 between the old and the new forms of civilization4 ,the storms of the ,revolution put an end to the comfortable security of private life4 ,thus it was that the ready-made and more easily intelligible shapes and figures of a world long buried out of sight1 with which men believed themselves to have an elective affinity1 at first seemed to the artists to have an infinitely greater value than the new forms which were in the throes of birth4 ,painters became ,classicists because they had not yet the courage to venture on the ground where the century itself was going through a process of fermentation4 ,illustration3 ,,leech4 ,,from ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,mobility4 ,illustration3 ,magazine of ,art4 ,,sir ,,john ,,millais ,,pinxt4 ,,george ,,du ,,maurier4 ,the ,romanticists despised it1 for they thought the fermenting must had yielded flat lemonade instead of fiery wine4 ,the artist must live in art before he can produce art4 ,and the more the life of nations has been beautiful1 rich1 and splendid1 the more nourishment and material has art been able to derive from it4 ,but when they came the ,romanticists found--in ,france as in ,germany--everything1 except a piece of reality which they could deem worthy of being painted4 ,the whole of existence seemed to this generation so poor and bald1 the costume so inartistic and so like a caricature1 the situation so hopeless and petty1 that they were unable to tolerate the portrayal of themselves either in poetry or art4 ,it was the time of that wistfully sought phantom which1 as they believed1 was to be found only in the past4 ,the powerful passions of the ,middle ,ages were set in opposition to a flaccid period that was barren of action4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,du ,,maurier4 ,,the ,,dancing ,,lesson4 ,and then came the overwhelming pressure of the old masters4 ,after the forlorn condition of colouring brought about by ,david and ,carstens1 it was so vitally necessary to restore the artistic tradition and technique of the old masters1 that it was at first thought necessary to adopt the old subject-matter also--especially the splendid robes of the city of the lagoons--in order to test the newly acquired secrets of the palette4 ,faltering unsteadily under influences derived from the old artists1 modern painting did not yet feel itself able to create finished works of art out of the novel elements which the century placed at its disposal4 ,it still needed to be carried in the arms of a ,venetian or ,flemish nurse4 ,and sthetic criticism bestowed its blessing on these attempts4 ,the ,romanticists had been forced to the treatment of history and the deification of the past by disgust with the grey and colourless present2 the younger generation were long afterwards held captive in this province by sthetic views of the dignity of history4 ,to paint one's own age was reckoned a crime4 ,one had to paint the age of other people4 ,for this purpose the prix de ,rome was instituted4 ,the spirit which produced the pictures of ,cabanel and ,bouguereau was the same that induced ,david to write to ,gros1 that the battles of the empire might afford the material for occasional pictures done under the inspiration of chance1 but not for great and earnest works of art worthy of an historical painter4 ,that sthetic criticism which taught that1 whatever the subject be1 and whatever personages may be represented1 if they belong to the present time the picture is merely a genre picture1 still held the field4 ,whilst the world was laughing and crying1 the painter1 with the colossal power of doing everything1 amused himself by trying not to appear the child of his own time4 ,no one perceived the refinement and grace1 the corruption and wantonness1 of modern life as it is in great cities4 ,no one laid hold on the mighty social problems which the growing century threw out with a seething creative force4 ,whoever wishes to know how the men of the time lived and moved1 what hopes and sorrows they bore in their breasts1 whoever seeks for works in which the heart-beat of the century is alive and throbbing1 must have his attention directed to the works of the draughtsmen1 to the illustrations of certain periodicals4 ,it was in the nineteenth century as in the ,middle ,ages4 ,as then1 when painting was still an ecclesiastical art1 the slowly awakening feeling for nature1 the joy of life was first expressed in miniatures1 woodcuts1 and engravings1 so also the great draughtsmen of the nineteenth century were the first who set themselves with their whole strength to bring modern life and all that it contained earnestly and sincerely within the range of art1 the first who held up the glass to their own time and gave the abridged chronicle of their age4 ,their calling as caricaturists led them to direct observation of the world1 and lent them the aptitude of rendering their impressions with ease2 and that at a time when the academical methods of depicting physiognomy obtained elsewhere in every direction4 ,it necessitated their representing subjects to which1 in accordance with the sthetic views of the period1 they would not otherwise have addressed themselves2 it led them to discover beauties in spheres of life by which they would otherwise have been repelled4 ,london1 the capital of a free people ruling in all quarters of the globe1 the home of millions1 where intricate old corners and back streets left more space than in other cities for old-fashioned characters1 for odd1 eccentric creatures and better-class charlatans of every description1 afforded a ground peculiarly favourable for caricature4 ,in this province1 therefore1 ,england holds the first place beyond dispute4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,du ,,maurier4 ,a ,,recollection ,,of ,,dieppe4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,du ,,maurier4 ,,down ,,to ,,dinner4 ,direct from ,hogarth come the group of political caricaturists1 in whom the sour1 bilious temper of ,john ,bull lives on in a new and improved edition4 ,men like ,james ,gillray were a power in the political warfare of their time2 bold liberals who fought for the cause of freedom with a divine rage and slashing irony1 while at the same time they were masterly draughtsmen in a vehement and forceful style4 ,the worst of it is1 that the interest excited by political caricature is always of a very ephemeral nature4 ,the antagonism of ,pitt and ,fox1 ,shelburne and ,burke1 the avarice and stupidity of ,george ,,iii1 the ,union1 the conjugal troubles of the ,prince of ,wales1 and the war with ,france1 seem very uninteresting matters in these days4 ,on the other hand1 ,rowlandson1 who was not purely a politician1 appeals to us in an intelligible language even after a hundred years have gone by4 ,like ,hogarth1 he was the antithesis of a humorist4 ,something bitter and gloomily pessimistic runs through all he touches4 ,he is brutal1 with an inborn power and an indecorous coarseness4 ,his laughter is loud and his cursing barbarous4 ,ear-piercing notes escape from the widely opened lips of his singers1 and the tears come thickly from the eyes of his sentimental old ladies who are hanging on the declamation of a tragic actress4 ,his comedy is produced by the simplest means4 ,as a rule any sort of contrast is enough3 fat and thin1 big and little1 young wife and old husband1 young husband and old wife1 shying horse and helpless rider on a ,sunday out4 ,or else he brings the physical and moral qualities of his figures into an absurd contrast with their age1 calling1 or behaviour3 musicians are deaf1 dancing masters bandy-legged1 servants wear the dresscoats and orders of lords1 hideous old maids demean themselves like coquettes1 parsons get drunk1 and grave dignitaries of state dance the cancan4 ,and so1 when the servant gets a thrashing1 and the coquette a refusal1 and the diplomatist loses his orders by getting a fall1 it is their punishment for having forgotten their proper place4 ,they are all of them careers on slippery ground1 with the same punishments as ,hogarth delighted to depict4 ,but ,rowlandson became another man when he set himself to represent the life of the people4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,du ,,maurier4 ,a ,,wintry ,,walk4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,keene4 ,,from ,,our ,,people4 ,,the ,,perils ,,of ,,the ,,deep4 ,born in ,july #agef1 in a narrow alley of old ,london1 he grew up amidst the people4 ,as a young man he saw ,paris1 ,germany1 and the ,low ,countries4 ,he went regularly to all clubs where there was high play4 ,as man1 painter1 and draughtsman alike1 he stood in the midst of life4 ,street scenes in ,paris and ,london engage his pencil1 especially scenes from ,vauxhall ,gardens1 the meeting-place of fashionable ,london1 and there is often a touch of ,menzel in the palpitating life of these pictures--in these lords and ladies1 fops and ballad-singers1 who pass through the grounds of the gardens in a billowy stream4 ,his illustrations include everything3 soldiers1 navvies1 life at home and in the tavern1 in town and in village1 on the stage and behind the scenes1 at masquerades and in ,parliament4 ,when he died at seventy1 on #bbnd ,april #ahbg1 the obituaries were able to say of him with truth that he had drawn all ,england in the years between #aggd and #ahji4 ,and all these leaves torn from the life of sailors and peasants1 these fairs and markets1 beggars1 huntsmen1 smiths1 artizans1 and day labourers1 were not caricatures1 but sketches keenly observed and sharply executed from life4 ,his countrymen have at times a magnificent ,michelangelesque stir of life which almost suggests ,millet4 ,he was fond of staying at fashionable watering-places1 and came back with charming scenes from high life4 ,but his peculiar field of observation was the poor quarter of ,london4 ,here are the artizans1 the living machines4 ,endurance1 persistence1 and resignation may be read in their long1 dismal1 angular faces4 ,here are the women of the people1 wasted and hectic4 ,their eyes are set deep in their sockets1 their noses sharp and their skin blotched with red spots4 ,they have suffered much and had many children2 they have a sodden1 depressed1 stoically callous appearance2 they have borne much1 and can bear still more4 ,and then the devastations of gin6 that long train of wretched women who of an evening prostitute themselves in the ,strand to pay for their lodging6 those terrible streets of ,london1 where pallid children beg1 and tattered spectres1 either sullen or drunken1 rove from public-house to public-house1 with torn linen and rags hanging about them in shreds6 ,the cry of misery rising from the pavement of great cities was first heard by ,rowlandson1 and the pages on which he drew the poor of ,london are a living dance of death of the most ghastly veracity4 ,but1 curiously enough1 this same man1 who as an observer could be so uncompromisingly sombre1 and so rough and brutal as a caricaturist1 had also a wonderfully delicate feeling for feminine charm4 ,in the pages he has devoted to the ,german waltz there lives again the chivalrous elegance of the period of ,werther1 and that peculiarly ,english grace which is so fascinating in ,gainsborough4 ,his young girls are graceful and wholesome in their round straw hats with broad ribbons2 his pretty little wives in their white aprons and coquettish caps recall ,chardin4 ,one feels that he has seen ,paris and appreciated the fine fragrance of ,watteau's pictures4 ,illustration3 ,mag4 of ,art4 ,,sir ,,geo4 ,,reid4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,charles ,,keene4 ,mention should also be made of ,henry ,william ,bunbury1 who excelled in the drawing of horses and ponies4 ,a long ,story is an excellent example of his powers as a caricaturist pure and simple4 ,the variations rung on the theme of boredom and the self-centred and animated stupidity of the narrator have been vividly observed1 and are earnestly rendered4 ,rowlandson has the savage indignation of ,swift2 ,bunbury is not savage1 but he has the same ,english seriousness and something of the same brutality4 ,the faces here are crapulous and distorted1 and the subject is treated without lightness or good-nature4 ,perhaps the ,english do not take their pleasures so very seriously1 but undoubtedly they jest in earnest4 ,yet ,bunbury's incisiveness and his thorough command of what it is his design to express assure him a distinct position as an artist4 ,his ,richmond ,hill shows the pleasanter side of ,english character4 ,the breeze billowing in the trees1 the little lady riding by on her cob1 the buxom dames in the shay1 and the man spinning past on his curricle1 give the scene a spirit of life and movement1 besides rendering it an historical document of the period of social history that lies between ,the ,virginians and ,vanity ,fair4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,keene4 ,,from ,,our ,,people4 ,as a political caricaturist ,george ,cruikshank has the same significance for ,england as ,henri ,monnier has for ,france1 and the drawings of the latter often go straight back to the great ,english artist4 ,but his first works in #ahae were children's books1 and such simple delineations from the world of childhood and the life of society have done more to preserve his name than political caricatures4 ,their touch of satire is only very slight4 ,cruikshank's ladies panting under heavy chignons1 his serious and exceedingly prosy dames pouring out tea for serious and not less ceremonious gentlemen1 whilst the girls are galloping round ,hyde ,park on their thoroughbreds1 accompanied by a brilliant escort of fashionable young men--they are all of them not so much caricatures as pictures freshly caught from life4 ,he had a great sense for toilettes1 balls1 and parties4 ,and he could draw with artistic observation and tender feeling the babbling lips and shining eyes of children1 the shy confidence of the little ones1 their timid curiosity and their bashful advances4 ,and thus he opened up the way along which his disciples advanced with so much success4 ,illustration3 ,,klein4 ,a ,,travelling ,,landscape ,,painter4 ,the style of illustration has adapted itself to the altered character of ,english life4 ,what at first constituted the originality of ,english caricaturists was their mordant satire4 ,everything was painted in exceedingly vivid colours4 ,whatever was calculated to bring out an idea in comic or brutal relief--great heads and little bodies1 an absurd similarity between persons and animals1 the afflorescence of costume--was seized upon eagerly4 ,these artists fought for the weary and heavy-laden1 and mercilessly lashed the cut-throats and charlatans4 ,they delighted in spontaneous obscenity1 exuberant vigour1 and undisguised coarseness4 ,men were shaken by a broad ,aristophanic laughter till they seemed like epileptics4 ,at the time when the ,empire style came into ,england1 ,gillray could dare to represent by speaking likenesses some of the best-known ,london beauties1 in a toilette which the well developed ,madame ,tallien could not have worn with more assurance4 ,such things were no longer possible when ,england grew out of her awkward age4 ,after the time of ,gillray a complete change came over the spirit of ,english caricature4 ,everything brutal or bitterly personal was abandoned4 ,the clown put on his dress-clothes1 and ,john ,bull became a gentleman4 ,even by ,cruikshank's time caricature had become serious and well-bred4 ,and his disciples were indeed not caricaturists at all1 but addressed themselves solely to a delicately poetic representation of subjects4 ,they know neither ,rowlandson's innate force and bitter laughter1 nor the gallows humour and savagery of ,hogarth2 they are amiable and tenderly grave observers1 and their drawings are not caricatures1 but charming pictures of manners4 ,punch1 which was founded in #ahda1 has perhaps caught the social and political physiognomy of ,england in the middle of the nineteenth century with the greatest delicacy4 ,it is a household paper1 a periodical read by the youngest girls4 ,all the piquant things with which the ,parisian papers are filled are therefore absolutely excluded4 ,it scrupulously ignores the style of thing to which the ,journal ,amusant owes three-fourths of its matter4 ,every number contains one big political caricature1 but otherwise it moves almost entirely in the region of domestic life4 ,students flirting with pretty barmaids1 neat little dressmakers carrying heavy bonnet-boxes and pursued by old gentlemen--even these are scenes which go a little too far for the refined tone of the paper which has been adapted to the drawing-room4 ,illustration3 ,,johann ,,christoph ,,erhard4 ,next to ,cruikshank1 the ,nestor of caricature1 must be mentioned ,john ,leech1 who between #ahda and #ahfd was the leading artist on ,punch4 ,in his drawings there is already to be found the high-bred and fragrant delicacy of the ,english painting of the present time4 ,they stand in relation to the whimsical and vigorous works of ,rowlandson as the fine esprit of a rococo abb to the coarse and healthy wit of ,rabelais4 ,the mildness of his own temperament is reflected in his sketches4 ,others have been the cause of more laughter1 but he loved beauty and purity4 ,men are not often drawn by him1 or if he draws them they are always pretty fellows1 born gentlemen4 ,his young women are not coquettish and chic1 but simple1 natural1 and comely4 ,the old ,english brutality and coarseness have become amiable1 subtle1 refined1 mild1 and seductive in ,john ,leech4 ,he is a fine and delicate spirit1 who seems very ethereal beside ,hogarth and ,rowlandson1 those giants fed on roast-beef2 he prefers to occupy himself with sport and boating1 the season and its fashions1 and is at home in public gardens1 at balls1 and at the theatre4 ,here a pretty baby is being taken for an airing in ,hyde ,park by a tidy little nurse-maid1 and there on mamma's arm goes a charming schoolgirl1 who is being enthusiastically greeted by good-looking boys2 here again a young wife is sitting by the fireside with a novel in her hand and her feet out of her slippers1 while she looks dreamily at the glimmering flame4 ,or a girl is standing on the shore in a large straw hat1 with her hand shading her eyes and the wind fluttering her dress4 ,even his ,children of the ,mobility are little angels of grace and purity1 in spite of their rags4 ,the background1 be it room1 street1 or landscape1 is merely given with a few strokes1 but it is of more than common charm4 ,every plate of ,leech has a certain fragrance and lightness of touch and a delicacy of line which has since been attained only by ,frederick ,walker4 ,his simplicity of stroke recalls the old ,venetian woodcuts4 ,there is not an unnecessary touch4 ,everything is in keeping1 everything has a significance4 ,illustration3 ,,erhard4 ,a ,,peasant ,,scene4 ,leech's successor1 ,george du ,maurier1 is less delicate--that is to say1 not so entirely and loftily sthetic4 ,he is less exclusively poetic1 but lives more in actual life1 and suffers less from the raw breath of reality4 ,at the same time1 his drawing is pithier and more incisive2 one discerns his ,french training4 ,in #aheg du ,maurier was a pupil of ,gleyre1 and returned straight to ,england when ,leech's place on ,punch became vacant by his death4 ,since that time du ,maurier has been the head of the ,english school of drawing--of the diarists of that society which is displayed in ,hyde ,park during the season1 and found in ,london theatres and dining-rooms1 and in well-kept ,english pleasure grounds1 at garden parties and tennis meetings1 the leaders of clubs and drawing-rooms4 ,his snobs rival those of ,thackeray1 but he has also a special preference for the fair sex--for charming women and girls who race about the lawn at tennis in large hats and bright dresses1 or sit by the fire in fashionable apartments1 or hover through a ball-room waltzing in their airy skirts of tulle4 ,the coquettishness of his little ones is entirely charming1 and so too is the superior and comical exclusiveness of his sthetically brought-up children1 who will associate with no children not sthetic4 ,illustration3 ,,erhard4 ,a ,,peasant ,,family4 ,but the works of ,charles ,keene are the most ,english of all4 ,here the ,english reveal that complete singularity which distinguishes them from all other mortals4 ,both as a draughtsman and as a humorist ,keene stands with the greatest of the century1 on the same level as ,daumier and ,hokusai4 ,an old bachelor1 an original1 a provincial living in the vast city1 nothing pleased him better than to mix with the humbler class1 to mount on the omnibus seat beside the driver1 to visit a costermonger1 or sit in a dingy suburban tavern4 ,he led a ,bohemian life1 and was1 nevertheless1 a highly respectable1 economical1 and careful man4 ,trips into the country and little suppers with his friends constituted his greatest pleasures4 ,he was a member of several glee clubs1 and when he sat at home played the ,scotch bagpipes1 to the horror of all his neighbours4 ,during his last years his only company was an old dog1 to which he1 like poor ,tassaert1 clung with a touching tenderness4 ,all the less did he care about the world4 ,grace and beauty are not to be sought in his drawings4 ,for him ,society did not exist4 ,as du ,maurier is the chronicler of drawing-rooms1 ,keene was the fine and unsurpassed observer of the people and of humble ,london life1 and he extended towards them a friendly optimism and a brotherly sympathy4 ,an endless succession of the most various1 the truest1 and the most animated types is contained in his work3 mighty guardsmen swagger1 cane in hand1 burly and solemn2 cabmen and omnibus drivers1 respectable middle-class citizens1 servants1 hairdressers1 the ,city police1 waiters1 muscular ,highlanders1 corpulent self-made ,city men1 the seething discontent of ,whitechapel2 and here and there amidst them all incomparable old tradesmen's wives1 and big1 raw-boned village landladies in the ,highlands4 ,keene has something so natural and self-evident in his whole manner of expression1 that no one is conscious of the art implied by such drawing4 ,amongst those living in his time only ,menzel could touch him as a draughtsman1 and it was not through chance that each1 in spite of their differences of temperament1 greatly admired the other4 ,keene bought every drawing of ,menzel's that he could get1 and ,menzel at his death possessed a large collection of ,keene's sketches4 ,illustration3 ,,ludwig ,,richter4 ,in the beginning of the century ,germany had no draughtsmen comparable for realistic impressiveness with ,rowlandson4 ,at a time when the great art lay so completely bound in the shackles of the ,classic school1 drawing1 too1 appeared only in traditional forms4 ,the artist ventured to draw as he liked just as little as he ventured to paint anything at all as he saw it2 for both there were rules and strait-waistcoats4 ,almost everything that was produced in those years looks weak and flat to-day1 forced in composition and amateurish in drawing4 ,where ,rowlandson with his brusque powerful strokes recalls ,michael ,angelo or ,rembrandt1 the ,germans have something laboured1 diffident1 and washed out4 ,yet even here a couple of unpretentious etchers rise as welcome and surprising figures out of the tedious waste of academic production1 though they were little honoured by their contemporaries4 ,in their homely sketches1 however1 they have remained more classic than those who put on the classical garment as if for eternity4 ,what the painter refused to paint1 and the patrons of art who sought after ideas would not allow to count as a picture1 because the subject seemed to them too poor1 and the form too commonplace and undignified--military scenes at home and abroad1 typical and soldierly figures from the great time of the war of ,liberation1 the life of the people1 the events of the day--was what the ,nuremberg friends1 ,johann ,adam ,klein and ,johann ,christoph ,erhard1 diligently engraved upon copper with sympathetic care1 and so left posterity a picture of ,german life in the beginning of the century that seems the more sincere and earnest because it has paid toll neither to style in composition nor to idealism4 ,this invaluable ,klein was a healthy and sincere realist1 from whom the sthetic theories of the time recoiled without effect1 and he had no other motive than to render faithfully whatever he saw4 ,even in ,vienna1 whither he came as a young man in #ahaa1 it was not the picture galleries which roused him to his first studies1 but the picturesque national costumes of the ,wallachians1 ,poles1 and ,hungarians1 and their horses and peculiar vehicles4 ,a sojourn among the country manors of ,styria gave him opportunity for making a number of pretty sketches of rural life4 ,in the warlike years #ahac and #ahad1 with their marching and their bivouacs1 he went about all day long drawing amongst the soldiers4 ,even in ,rome it was not the statues that fascinated him1 but the bright street scenes1 the ecclesiastical solemnities1 and the picturesque caravans of country people4 ,and when he settled down in ,nuremburg1 and afterwards in ,munich1 he did not cease to be sensitive to all impressions that forced themselves on him in varying fulness4 ,the basis of his art was faithful and loving observation of life as it was around him1 the pure joy the genuine artist has in making a picture of everything he sees4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,,richter4 ,,home4 ,poor ,erhard1 who at twenty-six ended his life by suicide1 was a yet more delicate and sensitive nature4 ,the marching of ,russian troops through his native town roused him to his first works1 and even in these early military and canteen scenes he shows himself an exceptionally sharp and positive observer4 ,the costumes1 the uniforms1 the teams and waggons1 are drawn with decision and accuracy4 ,from ,vienna he made walking tours to the picturesque regions of the ,schneeberg1 wandered through ,salzburg and ,pinzgau1 and gazed with wonder at the idyllic loveliness of nature as she is in these regions1 on the cosy rooms of the peasants with their great tiled stoves and the sun-burnt figures of the country people4 ,he had a heart for nature1 an intimate1 poetic1 and profound love for what is humble and familiar--for homely meadows1 trees1 and streams1 for groves and hedgerows1 for quiet gardens and sequestered spots4 ,he approached everything with observation as direct as a child's4 ,both ,klein and he endeavoured to grasp a fragment of nature distinctly1 and without any kind of transformation or generalisation2 and this fresh1 unvarnished1 thoroughly ,german feeling for nature gives them1 rather than ,mengs and ,carstens1 the right to be counted as ancestors of the newer ,german art4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,,richter4 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,day4 ,klein and ,erhard having set out in advance1 others1 such as ,haller von ,hallerstein1 ,l4 ,c4 ,wagner1 ,f4 ,rechberger1 ,f4 ,moessmer1 ,k4 ,wagner1 ,e4 ,a4 ,lebsche1 and ,august ,geist1 each after his own fashion1 made little voyages of discovery into the world of nature belonging to their own country4 ,but ,erhard1 who died in #ahbb1 has found his greatest disciple in a young ,dresden master1 whose name makes the familiar appeal of an old lullaby which suddenly strikes the ear amid the bustle of the world--in ,ludwig ,richter1 familiar to all ,germans4 ,richter himself has designated ,chodowiecki1 ,gessner1 and ,erhard as those whose contemplative love of nature guided him to his own path4 ,what ,leech1 that charming draughtsman of the child-world1 was to the ,english1 ,ludwig ,richter became for the ,germans4 ,not that he could be compared with ,leech in artistic qualities4 ,beside those of the ,british artist his works are like the exercises of a gifted amateur3 they have a petty correctness and a bourgeois neatness of line4 ,but ,germans are quite willing to forget the artistic point of view in relation to their ,ludwig ,richter4 ,sunny and childlike as he is1 they love him too much to care to see his artistic failings4 ,here is really that renowned ,german ,gemth of which others make so great an abuse4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,,richter4 ,,spring4 ,i am certainly living here in a rather circumscribed fashion1 but in a very cheerful situation outside the town1 and ,i am writing you this letter 7it is ,sunday afternoon7 in a shady arbour1 with a long row of rose-bushes in bloom before me4 ,now and then they are ruffled by a pleasant breeze--which is also the cause of a big blot being on this sheet1 as it blew the page over4 ,this one passage reveals the whole man4 ,can one think of ,ludwig ,richter living in any town except ,dresden1 or imagine him except in this dressing-gown1 seated on a ,sunday afternoon in his shady arbour with the rose-bushes1 and surrounded by laughing children8 ,that profound domestic sentiment which runs through his works with a biblical fidelity of heart is reflected in the homeliness of the artist1 who has remained all his life a big1 unsophisticated child2 and his autobiography1 in its patriarchal simplicity1 is like a refreshing draught from a pure mountain spring4 ,richter survived into the present as an original type from a time long vanished4 ,what old-world figures did he not see around him as a boy1 when he went about1 eager for novelty1 with his grandfather1 the copperplate printer1 who in his leisure hours studied alchemy and the art of producing gold1 and was surrounded by an innumerable quantity of clocks1 ticking1 striking1 and making cuckoo notes in his dark workroom2 or as he listened to his blind1 garrulous grandmother1 around whom the children and old wives of the neighbourhood used to gather to hear her tales4 ,that was in #ahaj1 and two generations later1 as an old man surrounded by his grandsons1 he found once more the old1 merry child life of his own home4 ,and it was once more a fragment of the good old times1 when on ,christmas ,eve the little band came shouting round the house of gingerbread from ,hansel and ,gretel which grandfather had built out of real gingerbread after his own drawing4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,,richter4 ,,after ,,work ,,it',s ,,good ,,to ,,rest4 ,if my art never entered amongst the lilies and roses on the summit of ,parnassus1 it bloomed by the roads and banks1 on the hedges and in the meadows1 and travellers resting by the wayside were glad of it1 and little children made wreaths and crowns of it1 and the solitary lover of nature rejoiced in its colour and fragrance1 which mounted like a prayer to ,heaven4 ,richter had the right to inscribe these words in his diary on his eightieth birthday4 ,through his works there echoes a humming and chiming like the joyous cry of children and the twitter of birds4 ,even his landscapes are filled with that blissful and solemn feeling that ,sunday and the spring produce together in a lonely walk over field and meadow4 ,the ,gemthlichkeit1 the cordiality1 of ,german family-life1 with a trait of contemplative romance1 could find such a charming interpreter in none but him1 the old man who went about in his long loose coat and had the face of an ordinary village schoolmaster4 ,only he who retained to his old age that childlike heart--to which the kingdom of heaven is given even in art--could really know the heart of the child's world1 which even at a later date in ,germany was not drawn more simply or more graciously4 ,his illustrations present an almost exhaustive picture of the life of the ,german people at home and in the world1 at work and in their pleasure1 in suffering and in joy4 ,he follows it through all grades and all seasons of the year4 ,everything is true and genuine1 everything seized from life in its fulness3 the child splashing in a tub2 the lad shouting as he catches the first snowflake in his hat2 the lovers seated whispering in their cosy little chamber1 or wandering arm in arm on their homeward way through the corn amid the evening landscape touched with gold2 the girl at her spinning-wheel and the hunter in the forest1 the travelling journeyman1 the beggar1 the well-to-do ,philistine4 ,the scene is the sitting-room or the nursery1 the porch twined with vine1 the street with old-fashioned overhanging storeys and turrets1 the forest and the field with splendid glimpses into the hazy distance4 ,children are playing round a great tree1 labourers are coming back from the field1 or the family is taking its rest in some hour of relaxation4 ,a peaceful quietude and chaste purity spread over everything4 ,certainly ,richter's drawing has something pedantic and unemphatic1 that weak1 generalising roundness which1 beside the sharp1 powerful stroke of the old artists1 has the spirit of a drawing-master4 ,but what he has to give is always influenced by delicate and loving observation1 and never stands in contradiction to truth4 ,he does not give the whole of nature1 but neither does he give what is unnatural4 ,he is one of the first of ,germans whose art did not spring from a negation of reality1 produced by treating it on an arbitrary system1 but rested instead upon tender reverie1 transfigured into poetry4 ,when in the fifties he stayed a summer in pleasant ,loschwitz1 he wrote in his diary3 ,o ,god1 how magnificent is the wide country round1 from my little place upon the hill6 ,so divinely beautiful1 and so sensuously beautiful6 ,the deep blue heaven1 the wide green world1 the bright and fair ,may landscape alive with a thousand voices4 ,illustration3 ,,wilhelm ,,busch4 ,in all that generation1 to whom existence seemed so sad1 ,ludwig ,richter is one of the few who really felt content with the earth1 and held the life around them to be the best and healthiest material for the artist4 ,and that is the substance of the plate to which he gave the title ,rules of ,art4 ,a wide landscape stretches away with mighty oaks slanting down1 and a purling spring from which a young girl is drawing water1 whilst a high-road1 enlivened by travellers young and old1 runs over hill and dale into the sunny distance4 ,in the midst of this free rejoicing world the artist is seated with his pencil4 ,and above stands the motto written by ,richter's hand-- ,und die ,sonne ,homer's1 siehe sie lchelt auch uns4 ,by the success of ,richter certain disciples were inspired to tread the same ground1 although none of them equalled him in his charming human qualities4 ,and least of all ,oskar ,pletsch1 whose self-sufficient smile is soon recognised in all its emptiness4 ,everything which in ,richter was genuine and original is in him flat1 laboured1 and prearranged4 ,his landscapes1 which in part are very pretty1 are derived from ,r4 ,schuster2 what seems good in the children is ,richter's property1 and what ,pletsch contributed is the conventionality4 ,albert ,hendschel also stood on ,richter's shoulders1 but his popularity is more justifiable4 ,even in these days one takes pleasure in his sketch-books1 in which he immortalised the joy and sorrow of youth in such a delicious way4 ,illustration3 ,braun1 ,munich4 ,,oberl,,nder4 ,,variations ,,on ,,the ,,kissing ,,theme4 ,,rethel4 ,eugen ,neureuther worked in ,munich1 and as an etcher revelled in the charming play of arabesques and ornamental borders1 and told of pleasant little scenes from the life of the ,bavarian people in his pretty peasant quatrains4 ,illustration3 ,braun1 ,munich4 ,,oberl,,nder4 ,,variations ,,on ,,the ,,kissing ,,theme4 ,,gabriel ,,max4 ,the rise of caricature in ,germany dates from the year #ahdh4 ,though there are extant from the first third of the century no more than a few topical papers of no artistic importance1 periodical publications1 which soon brought a large number of vigorous caricaturists into notice1 began to appear from that time1 owing to the political agitations of the period4 ,kladderadatsch was brought out in ,berlin1 and ,fliegende ,bltter was founded in ,munich1 and side by side with it ,mnchener ,bilderbogen4 ,but later generations will be referred par excellence to ,fliegende ,bltter for a picture of ,german life in the nineteenth century4 ,what the painters of those years forgot to transmit is here stored up3 a history of ,german manners which could not imaginably be more exact or more exhaustive4 ,from the very first day it united on its staff of collaborators almost all the most important names in their own peculiar branch4 ,schwind1 ,spitzweg1 that genial humorist1 and many others whom the ,german people will not forget1 won their spurs here1 and were inexhaustible in pretty theatre scenes1 satires on ,german and ,italian singing1 memorial sketches of ,fanny ,elsler1 of the inventor of the dress coat1 etc41 which enlivened the whole civilized world at that time4 ,this elder generation of draughtsmen on ,fliegende ,bltter were1 indeed1 not free from the guilt of producing stereotyped figures4 ,the travelling ,englishman1 the ,polish ,jew1 the counter-jumper1 the young painter1 the rich boor1 the stepmother1 the housemaid1 and the nervous countess are everywhere the same in the first volumes4 ,in caricature1 just as in great art1 they still worked a little in accordance with rules and conventions4 ,to observe life with an objective unprejudiced glance1 and to hold it fast in all its palpitating movement1 was reserved for men of later date4 ,illustration3 ,braun1 ,munich4 ,,oberl,,nder4 ,,variations ,,on ,,the ,,kissing ,,theme4 ,,hans ,,makart4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,adolf ,,oberl,,nder4 ,two of the greatest humorists of the world in illustrative art1 ,wilhelm ,busch and ,adolf ,oberlnder1 stand at the head of those who ushered in the flourishing period of ,german caricature4 ,they are masters1 and take in with their glance the entire social world of our time1 and in their brilliant prints they have made a history of civilisation for the epoch which will be more vivid and instructive for posterity than the most voluminous works of the greatest historians4 ,their heads are known by ,lenbach's pictures4 ,one has an exceptionally clever1 expressive countenance--a thorough painter's head4 ,the humorist may be recognised by the curious narrowing of one eye1 the well-known eye of the humorist that sees everything1 proves everything1 and holds fast every absurdity in the gestures1 every eccentricity in the bearing of his neighbour4 ,that is ,wilhelm ,busch4 ,illustration3 ,braun1 ,munich4 ,,oberl,,nder4 ,,variations ,,on ,,the ,,kissing ,,theme4 ,,genelli4 ,illustration3 ,braun1 ,munich4 ,,oberl,,nder4 ,,variations ,,on ,,the ,,kissing ,,theme4 ,,alma ,,tadema4 ,in the large orbs of the other--orbs which seem to grow strangely wide by long gazing as at some fixed object--there is no smile of deliberate mischief1 and it is not easy to associate the name of ,oberlnder with this ,saturnian round face1 with its curiously timid glance4 ,one is reminded of the definition of humour as smiling amid tears4 ,even in those days when he came every year to ,munich and painted in ,lenbach's studio1 ,busch was a shy and moody man1 who thawed only in the narrowest circle of his friends3 now he has buried himself in a market-town in the province of ,hanover1 in ,wiedensahl1 which1 according to ,ritter's ,gazetteer1 numbers eight hundred and twenty-eight inhabitants4 ,he lives in the house of his brother-in-law1 the clergyman of the parish1 and gives himself up to the culture of bees4 ,his laughter has fallen silent1 and it is only a journal on bees that now receives contributions from his hand4 ,but what works this hermit of ,wiedensahl produced in the days when he migrated from ,dsseldorf and ,antwerp to ,munich1 and began in #ahei his series of sketches for ,fliegende ,bltter6 ,the first were stiff and clumsy1 the text in prose and not particularly witty4 ,but the earliest work with a versified text1 ,der ,bauer und der ,windmller1 contains in the germ all the qualities which later found such brilliant expression in ,max und ,moritz1 in ,der ,heilige ,antonius1 ,die ,fromme ,helene1 and ,die ,erlebnisse ,knopps1 des ,junggesellen1 and made ,busch's works an inexhaustible fountain of mirth and enjoyment4 ,busch unites an uncommonly sharp eye with a marvellously flexible hand4 ,wild as his subjects generally are1 he solves the greatest difficulties as easily as though they were child's play4 ,his heroes appear in situations of the most urgent kind1 which place their bodily parts in violent and exceedingly uncomfortable positions3 they thrash others or get thrashed themselves1 they stumble or fall4 ,and in what a masterly way are all these anomalies seized1 the boldest foreshortenings and the most flying movements6 ,untrained eyes see only a scrawl1 but for those who know how to look1 a drawing by ,busch is life itself1 freed from all unnecessary detail1 and marked down in its great characteristic lines4 ,and amid all this simplification1 what knowledge there is under the guise of carelessness1 and what fine calculation6 ,busch is at once simpler and more inventive than the ,english4 ,with a maze of flourishes run half-mad1 and a few points and blotches1 he forms a sparkling picture4 ,with the fewest possible means he hits the essential point1 and for that reason he is justly called by ,grand ,cartaret the classic of caricaturists1 le roi de la charge et la bouffonnerie4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,debucourt4 ,,in ,,the ,,kitchen4 ,oberlnder1 without whom it would be impossible to imagine ,fliegende ,bltter1 has not fallen silent4 ,he works on1 fresh and splendid as on the first day4 ,a gifted nature like ,busch1 he possesses1 at the same time1 that fertility of which ,drer said3 ,a good painter is inwardly complete and opulent1 and were it possible for him to live eternally1 then by virtue of those inward ideas of which ,plato writes he would be always able to pour something new into his works4 ,it is now thirty years ago that he began his labours for ,fliegende ,bltter1 and since that time some drawing of his1 which has filled every one with delight1 has appeared almost every week4 ,kant said that ,providence has given men three things to console them amid the miseries of life--hope1 sleep1 and laughter4 ,if he is right1 ,oberlnder is amongst the greatest benefactors of mankind4 ,every one of his new sketches maintains the old precious qualities4 ,it might be said that1 by the side of the comedian ,busch1 ,oberlnder seems a serious psychologist4 ,wilhelm ,busch lays his whole emphasis on the comical effects of simplicity2 he knows how to reduce an object in a masterly fashion to its elemental lines1 which are comic in themselves by their epigrammatic pregnancy4 ,he calls forth peals of laughter by the farcical spirit of his inventions and the boldness with which he renders his characters absurd4 ,he is also the author of his own letterpress4 ,his drawings are unimaginable without the verse1 without the finely calculated and dramatic succession of situations growing to a catastrophe4 ,oberlnder gets his effect purely by means of the pictorial elements in his representation1 and attains a comical result1 neither by the distorted exaggeration of what is on the face of the matter ridiculous1 nor by an elementary simplification1 but by a refined sharpening of character4 ,it seems uncanny that a man should have such eyes in his head2 there is something almost visionary in the way he picks out of everything the determining feature of its being4 ,and whilst he faintly exaggerates what is characteristic and renders it distinct1 his picture is given a force and power of conviction to which no previous caricaturist has attained1 with so much discretion at the same time4 ,no one has attained the drollness of ,oberlnder's people1 animals1 and plants4 ,he draws la ,max1 la ,makart1 ,rethel1 ,genelli1 or ,piloty1 hunts in the desert or theatrical representations1 ,renaissance architecture run mad or the most modern ,european mashers4 ,he is as much at home in the ,cameroons as in ,munich1 and in transferring the droll scenes of human life to the animal world he is a classic4 ,he sports with hens1 herrings1 dogs1 ducks1 ravens1 bears1 and elephants as ,hokusai does with his frogs4 ,beside such animals all the ,reinecke series of ,wilhelm ,kaulbach look like drawings from the copybook of little ,moritz4 ,and landscapes which in their tender intimacy of feeling seem like anticipations of ,cazin sometimes form the background of these creatures4 ,one can scarcely err in supposing that posterity will place certain plates from the work of this quiet1 amiable man beside the best which the history of drawing has anywhere to show4 ,illustration3 ,,debucourt4 ,,the ,,promenade4 ,the ,charivari takes its place with ,punch and ,fliegende ,bltter4 ,in the land of ,rabelais also caricature has flourished since the opening of the century1 in spite of official masters who reproached her with desecrating the sacred temple of art1 and in spite of the gendarmes who put her in gaol4 ,here1 too1 it was the draughtsmen who first broke with sthetic prejudices1 and saw the laughing and the weeping dramas of life with an unprejudiced glance4 ,debucourt and ,carle ,vernet1 the pair who made their appearance immediately after the storms of the ,revolution1 are alike able and charming artists1 who depict the pleasures of the salon in a graceful style2 and they rival the great satirists on the other side of the ,channel in the incisiveness of their drawing1 and frequently even surpass them by the added charm of colour4 ,illustration3 ,quantin1 ,paris4 ,,monnier4 ,a ,,chalk ,,drawing4 ,carle ,vernet1 originally an historical painter1 remembered that he had married the daughter of the younger ,moreau1 and set himself to portray the doings of the jeunesse dore of the end of the eighteenth century in his incroyables and his merveilleuses4 ,crazy1 eccentric1 and superstitious1 he divided his time afterwards between women and his club-fellows1 horses and dogs4 ,he survives in the history of art as the chronicler of sport1 hunting1 racing1 and drawing-room and caf scenes4 ,louis ,philibert ,debucourt was a pupil of ,vien1 and had painted genre pictures in the spirit of ,greuze before he turned in #aghe to colour engraving4 ,in this year appeared the pretty ,menuet de la ,marie1 with the peasant couples dancing1 and the dainty chtelaine who laughingly opens the ball with the young husband4 ,after that he had found his specialty1 and in the last decade of the eighteenth century he produced the finest of his colour engravings4 ,in #agib there is the wonderful promenade in the gallery of the ,palais ,royal1 with its swarming crowd of young officers1 priests1 students1 shop-girls1 and cocottes2 in #agig ,grandmother's ,birthday1 ,friday ,forenoon at the ,parisian ,bourse1 and many others4 ,the effects of technique which he achieved by means of colour engraving are surprising4 ,a freshness like that of water colour lies on these yellow straw hats1 lightly rouged cheeks1 and rosy shoulders4 ,to white silk cloaks trimmed with fur he gives the iridescence of a robe by ,netscher4 ,if there survived nothing except ,debucourt from the whole art of the eighteenth century1 he would alone suffice to give an idea of the entire spirit of the time4 ,only one note would be wanting1 the familiar simplicity of ,chardin4 ,the smiling grace of ,greuze1 the elegance of ,watteau1 and the sensuousness of ,boucher--he has them all1 although they are weakened in him1 and precisely by his affectation is he the true child of his epoch4 ,the crowd which is promenading beneath the trees of the ,palais ,royal in #agib is no longer the same which fills the drawing-rooms of ,versailles and ,petit ,trianon in the pages of ,cochin4 ,the faces are coarser and more plebeian4 ,red waistcoats with breloques as large as fists1 and stout canes with great gold tops1 make the costume of the men loud and ostentatious1 while eccentric hats1 broad sashes1 and high coiffures bedizen the ladies more than is consistent with elegance4 ,at the same time1 ,debucourt gives this democracy an aristocratic bearing4 ,his prostitutes look like duchesses4 ,his art is an attenuated echo of the rococo period4 ,in him the dcadence is embodied1 and all the grace and elegance of the century is once more united1 although it has become more bourgeois4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,monnier4 ,,joseph ,,proudhomme4 ,the ,empire again was less favourable to caricature4 ,not that there was any want of material1 but the censorship kept a strict watch over the welfare of ,france4 ,besides1 the artists who made their appearance after ,david lived on ,olympus1 and would have nothing to do with the common things of life4 ,neither draughtsmen nor engravers could effect anything so long as they saw themselves overlooked by a ,greek or ,roman phantom as they bent over their paper or their plate of copper1 and felt it their duty to suggest the stiff lines of antique statues beneath the folds of modern costume4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,honor ,,daumier4 ,bosio was the genuine product of this style4 ,every one of his pictures has become tedious1 because of a spurious classicism to which he adhered with inflexible consistency4 ,he cannot draw a grisette without seeing her with ,david's eyes4 ,it deprives his figures of truth and interest4 ,something of the correctness of a schoolmistress is peculiar to them4 ,his grace is too classic1 his merriment too well-bred1 and everything in them too carefully arranged to give the idea of scenes rapidly depicted from life4 ,beauty of line is offered in place of spontaneity of observation1 and even the character of the drawing is lost in a pedantic elegance which envelopes everything with the uniformly graceful veil of an insipidly fluent outline4 ,as soon as ,romanticism had broken with the classic system1 certain great draughtsmen1 who laid a bold hand on modern life without being shackled by sthetic formul1 came to the front in ,france4 ,henri ,monnier1 the eldest of them1 was born a year after the proclamation of the ,empire4 ,cloaks1 plumes1 and sabretasches were the first impressions of his youth2 he saw the return of triumphant armies and heard the fanfare of victorious trumpets4 ,the ,old ,guard remained his ideal1 the inglorious kingship of the ,restoration his abhorrence4 ,he was a supernumerary clerk in the ,department of ,justice when in #ahbh his first brochure1 ,moeurs administratives dessines d'aprs nature par ,henri ,monnier1 disclosed to his superiors that the eyes of this poor young man in the service of the ,ministry had seen more than they should have done4 ,dismissed from his post1 he was obliged to support himself by his pencil1 and became the chronicler of the epoch4 ,in ,monnier's prints breathes the happy ,paris of the good old times1 a ,paris which in these days scarcely exists even in the provinces4 ,his ,joseph ,proudhomme1 from his shoe-buckles to his stand-up collar1 from his white cravat to his blue spectacles1 is as immortal as ,eisele und ,beisele1 ,schulze und ,mller1 or ,molire's ,bourgeois ,gentilhomme4 ,monnier himself is his own ,proudhomme4 ,he is the ,philistine in ,paris1 enjoying little ,parisian idylls with a bourgeois complacency4 ,with him there is no distinction between beautiful and ugly2 he finds that everything in nature can be turned to account4 ,how admirably the different worlds of ,parisian society are discriminated in his ,quartiers de ,paris6 ,how finely he has portrayed the grisette of the period1 with her following of young tradesmen and poor students6 ,as yet she has not blossomed into the fine lady1 the luxurious blase woman of the next generation4 ,she is still the bashful modiste or dressmaker's apprentice whose outings in the country are described by ,paul de ,kock1 a pretty child in a short skirt who lives in an attic and dresses up only when she goes to the theatre or into the country on a ,sunday4 ,monnier gives her an air of good-nature1 something delightfully childlike4 ,in the society of her adorers she is content with the cheapest pleasures1 drinks cider and eats cakes1 rides on a donkey or breakfasts amid the trees1 and hardly coquets at all when a fat old gentleman follows her on the boulevards4 ,these innocent flirtations remind one as little of the more recent lorettes of ,gavarni as these in their turn anticipate the drunken street-walkers of ,rops4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,daumier4 ,,the ,,connoisseurs4 ,under ,louis ,philippe began the true modern period of ,french caricature1 the flourishing time when really great artists devoted themselves to it4 ,it never raised its head more proudly than under the bourgeois king1 whose onion head always served the relentless ,philippon as a target for his wit4 ,it was never armed in more formidable fashion2 it never dealt more terrible blows4 ,charles ,philippon's famous journal ,la ,caricature was the most powerful lever that the republicans used against the ,july government2 it was equally feared by the ,ministry1 the bourgeoisie1 and the throne4 ,when the ,charivari followed ,la ,caricature in #ahcb1 political cartoons began to give way to the simple portraiture of manners in ,french life4 ,the powder made for heavy guns exploded in a facile play of fireworks improvised for the occasion4 ,french society in the nineteenth century has to thank principally ,daumier and ,gavarni for being brought gradually within the sphere of artistic representation4 ,these men are usually called caricaturists1 yet they were in reality the great historians of their age4 ,through long years they laboured every week and almost every day at their great history1 which embraced thousands of chapters--at a true zoology of the human species2 and their work1 drawn upon stone in black and white1 proves them not merely genuine historians1 but really eminent artists who merit a place beside the greatest4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,daumier4 ,,the ,,mountebanks4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,eugne ,montrosier1 the owner of the picture47 ,when in his young days ,daubigny trod the pavement of the ,sistine ,chapel in ,rome1 he is said to have exclaimed in astonishment1 ,that looks as if it had been done by ,daumier6 and from that time ,daumier was aptly called the ,michael ,angelo of caricature4 ,even when he is laughing there is a ,florentine inspiration of the terrible in his style1 a grotesque magnificence1 a might suggestive of ,buonarotti4 ,in the period before #ahdh he dealt the constitutional monarchy crushing blows by his drawings4 ,le ,ventre legislatif marks the furthest point to which political caricature ever ventured in ,france4 ,but when he put politics on one side and set himself free from ,philippon1 this same man made the most wonderful drawings from life4 ,his ,robert ,macaire giving instructions to his clerk as a tradesman1 sending his patients exorbitant bills as doctor to the poor1 lording it over the bourse as banker1 taking bribes as juryman1 and fleecing a peasant as land-agent1 is the incarnation of the bourgeois monarchy1 a splendid criticism on the money-grubbing century4 ,politicians1 officials1 artists1 actors1 honest citizens1 old-clothes-mongers1 newspaper-boys1 impecunious painters1 the most various and the basest creatures are treated by his pencil1 and appear on pages which are often terrible in their depth and truthfulness of observation4 ,the period of ,louis ,philippe is accurately portrayed in these prints1 every one of which belongs to the great volume of the human tragicomedy4 ,in his motions parisiennes and ,bohmiens de ,paris he deals with misfortune1 hunger1 the impudence of vice1 and the horror of misery4 ,his ,histoire ancienne ridiculed the absurdity of ,classicism la ,david at a time when it was still regarded as high treason to touch this sacred fane4 ,these modern figures with the classical pose1 which to some extent parodied ,david's pictures1 were probably what first brought his contemporaries to a sense of the stiffness and falsity of the whole movement2 and at a later period ,offenbach also contributed his best ideas with much the same result4 ,moreover1 ,daumier was a landscape-painter of the first order4 ,no one has more successfully rendered the appearance of bridges and houses1 of quays and streets under a downpour1 of nature enfeebled as it is in the precincts of ,paris4 ,he was an instantaneous photographer without a rival1 a physiognomist such as ,breughel was in the sixteenth century1 ,jan ,steen and ,brouwer in the seventeenth1 and ,chodowiecki in the eighteenth1 with the difference that his drawing was as broad and powerful as ,chodowiecki's was delicate and refined4 ,this inborn force of line1 suggestive of ,jordaens1 places his sketches as high1 considered as works of art1 as they are invaluable as historical documents4 ,the treatment is so summary1 the outline so simplified1 the pantomime1 gesticulation1 and pose always so expressive2 and ,daumier's influence on several artists is beyond doubt4 ,millet1 the great painter of peasants1 owes much to the draughtsman of the bourgeois4 ,precisely what constitutes his style1 the great line1 the simplification1 the intelligent abstention from anecdotic trifles1 are things which he learnt from ,daumier4 ,during the years when he drew for the ,charivari1 ,gavarni was the exact opposite of ,daumier4 ,in the one was a forceful strength1 in the other a refined grace2 in the one brusque and savage observation and almost menacing sarcasm1 in the other the wayward mood of the butterfly flitting lightly from flower to flower4 ,daumier might be compared with ,rabelais2 ,gavarni1 the spirituel journalist of the grand monde and the demi-monde1 the draughtsman of elegance and of rous and lorettes1 might be compared with ,molire4 ,born of poor parentage in ,paris in #ahja1 and in his youth a mechanician1 he supported himself from the year #ahce by fashion prints and costume drawings4 ,he undertook the conduct of a fashion journal1 ,les ,gens du ,monde1 and began it with a series of drawings from the life of the jeunesse dore3 les ,lorettes1 les ,actrices1 les ,fashionables1 les ,artistes1 les tudiants de ,paris1 les ,bals masqus1 les ,souvenirs du ,carnaval1 la ,vie des ,jeunes ,hommes4 ,a new world was here revealed with bold traits4 ,the women of ,daumier are good1 fat mothers1 always busy1 quick-witted1 and of an enviable constitution2 women who are careful in the management of their household1 and who go to market and take their husband's place at his office when necessary4 ,in ,gavarni the women are piquant and given to pouting1 draped in silk and enveloped in soft velvet mantles4 ,they are fond of dining in the cabinet particulier1 and of scratching the name of their lover1 for the time being1 upon crystal mirrors4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,daumier4 ,,in ,,the ,,assize ,,court4 ,illustration3 ,quantin1 ,paris4 ,,daumier4 ,,la ,,voil 444 ,,ma ,,maison ,,de ,,campagne4 ,gavarni was the first who seized the worldly side of modern life2 he portrayed elegant figures full of chic1 and gave them a garb which fitted them exactly4 ,in his own dress he had a taste for what was dandified1 and he plunged gaily into the enjoyment of the ,parisian life which eddied around in a whirl of pleasure4 ,the present generation feels that the air in such old journals of fashion is heavy4 ,in every work of art there is1 in addition to what endures1 a fine perfume that evaporates after a certain number of years1 and is no longer perceptible to those who come afterwards4 ,what is fresh and modern to-day looks to-morrow like the dried flowers which the botanist keeps in a herbarium4 ,and those who draw the fashions of their age are specially liable to this swift decay4 ,thus many of ,gavarni's lithographs have the effect of pallid pictures of a vanished world4 ,but the generation of #ahcj honoured in him the same charmeur1 the same master of enamoured grace1 which that of #agcj had done in ,watteau4 ,he was sought after as an inventor of fashions1 whom the tailor ,humann1 the ,worth of the ,july ,monarchy1 regarded as his rival4 ,he was the discoverer of all the fairy costumes which formed the chief attraction at masquerades and theatres1 the delicate gourmet of the eternal feminine2 and having dangled much after women1 he knew how to render the wave of a petticoat1 the seductive charm of a well-proportioned leg1 and the coquettishness of a new coiffure with the most familiar connoisseurship4 ,he has been called the ,balzac of draughtsmen4 ,and the sentences at the bottom of his sketches1 for which he is also responsible1 are as audacious as the pictures themselves4 ,thus1 when the young exquisite in the series ,la ,vie des ,jeunes ,hommes stands with his companion before a skeleton in the anthropological museum1 the little woman opines with a shudder1 ,when one thinks that this is a man1 and that women love that6 ,illustration3 ,quantin1 ,paris4 ,,daumier4 ,,menelaus ,,the ,,victor4 ,but that is only one side of the sphinx4 ,he is only half known when one thinks only of the draughtsman of ladies' fashions who celebrated the free and easy graces of the demi-monde and the wild licence of the carnival4 ,at bottom ,gavarni was not a frivolous butterfly1 but an artist of a strangely sombre imagination1 a profound and melancholy philosopher who had a prescience of all the mysteries of life4 ,all the mighty problems which the century produced danced before his spirit like spectral notes of interrogation4 ,the transition was made when1 as an older man1 he depicted the cold1 sober wakening that follows the wild night4 ,constantin ,guys had already worked on these lines4 ,he was an unfortunate and ailing man1 who passed his existence1 like ,verlaine1 in hospital1 and died in an almshouse4 ,guys has not left much behind him1 but in that little he shows himself the true forerunner of the moderns1 and it is not a mere chance that ,baudelaire1 the ancestor of the dcadence1 established ,guys' memory4 ,these women who wander aimlessly about the streets with weary movements and heavy eyes deadened with absinthe1 and who flit through the ball-room like bats1 have nothing of the innocent charm of ,monnier's grisettes4 ,they are the uncanny harbingers of death1 the demoniacal brides of ,satan4 ,guys exercised on ,gavarni an influence which brought into being his ,invalides du sentiment1 his ,lorettes vieilles1 and his ,fourberies de femmes4 ,the pleasure of all creatures is mingled with bitterness4 ,the frivolous worldling became a misanthrope from whom no secret of the foul city was hidden2 a pessimist who had begun to recognise the human brute1 the swamp-flower of over-civilisation1 the bitter fruit which is inwardly full of ashes1 in the queen of the drawing-room as in the prostitute of the gutter4 ,henceforth he only recognises a love whose pleasures are to be reckoned amongst the horrors of death4 ,his works could be shown to no lady1 and yet they are in no sense frivolous3 they are terrible and puritanic4 ,if ,daumier by preference showed mastery in his men1 ,gavarni showed it in his women as no other has done4 ,he is not the powerful draughtsman that ,daumier is2 he has not the feeling for large movement1 but with what terrible directness he analyses faces6 ,he has followed woman through all seasons of life and in every grade1 from youth to decay1 and from brilliant wealth to filthy misery1 and he has written the story of the lorette in monumental strophes3 caf chantant1 villa in the ,champs ,elyses1 equipage1 grooms1 ,bois de ,boulogne1 procuress1 garret1 and radish-woman1 that final incarnation which ,victor ,hugo called the sentence of judgment4 ,illustration3 ,,gavarni4 ,and ,gavarni went further on this road4 ,his glance became sharper and sharper1 and the seriousness of meditation subdued his merriment2 he came to the study of his age with the relentless knife of a vivisectionist4 ,fate had taught him the meaning of the struggle for existence4 ,a journal he had founded in the thirties overwhelmed him with debts4 ,in #ahce he sat in the prison of ,clichy1 and from that time he meditated on the miserable1 tattered creatures whom he saw around him1 with other eyes4 ,he studied the toiling masses1 and roamed about in slums and wine-caves amongst pickpockets and bullies4 ,and what ,paris had not yet revealed to him1 he learnt in #ahdi in ,london4 ,even there he was not the first-comer4 ,gricault1 who as early as #ahba dived into the misery of the vast city1 and brought out a series of lithographs1 showed him the way4 ,beggars cowering half dead with exhaustion at a baker's door1 ragged pipers slouching round deserted quarters of the town1 poor crippled women wheeled in barrows by hollow-eyed men past splendid mansions and surrounded by the throng of brilliant equipages--these are some of the scenes which he brought home with him from ,london4 ,but ,gavarni excels him in trenchant incisiveness4 ,what is to be seen in ,london gratis1 runs the heading of a series of sketches in which he conjures up on paper1 in such a terrible manner1 the new horrors of this new period3 the starvation1 the want1 and the measureless suffering that hides itself with chattering teeth in the dens of the great city4 ,he went through ,whitechapel from end to end1 and studied its drunkenness and its vice4 ,how much more forcible are his beggars than those of ,callot6 ,the grand series of ,thomas ,vireloque is a dance of death in life2 and in it are stated all the problems which have since disturbed our epoch4 ,by this work ,gavarni has come down to us as a contemporary1 and by it he has become a pioneer4 ,the enigmatical figure of ,thomas ,vireloque starts up in these times1 following step by step in the path of his prototype3 he is the philosopher of the back streets1 the ragged scoundrel with dynamite in his pocket1 the incarnation of the bte humaine1 of human misery and human vice4 ,here ,gavarni stands far above ,hogarth and far above ,callot4 ,the ideas on social politics of the first half of the century are concentrated in ,thomas ,vireloque4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,gavarni4 ,,thomas ,,vireloque4 ,of course the assumption of government by ,napoleon ,,iii marked a new phase in ,french caricature4 ,it became more mundane and more highly civilised4 ,all the piquancy and brilliance1 waywardness and corruption1 looseness and amenity1 mirth and affectation of this refined city life1 which in those days threw its dazzling splendour over all ,europe1 found intelligent and subtle interpreters in the young generation of draughtsmen4 ,the ,journal pour rire comes under consideration as the leading paper4 ,it was founded in #ahdh1 and in #ahef assumed the title of ,journal amusant1 under which it is known at the present day4 ,illustration3 ,hetzel1 ,paris4 ,,gavarni4 ,,fourberies ,,de ,,femmes4 ,au premier ,mosieu4--,attendez-moi ce soir1 de quatre cinq heures1 quai de l',horloge du ,palais4--,votre ,,augustine4 ,au deuxime ,mosieu4--,ce soir1 quai des ,lunettes1 entre quatre et cinq heures4--,votre ,,augustine4 ,au troisime ,mosieu4--,quai des ,morfondus1 ce soir1 de quatre heures cinq4--,votre ,,augustine4 un quatrime ,mosieu4--,je t'attends ce soir1 quatre heures4--,ton ,,augustine4 ,gustave ,dor1 to the lessening of his importance1 moved on this ground only in his earliest period4 ,he was barely sixteen and still at school in his native town ,burg1 in ,alsace1 when he made an agreement with ,philippon1 who engaged him for three years on the ,journal pour rire4 ,his first drawings date from #ahdd3 ,les animaux socialistes1 which were very suggestive of ,grandville1 and ,dsagrments d'un voyage d'agrment--something like the ,german ,herr und ,frau ,buchholz in der ,schweiz--which made a considerable sensation by their grotesque wit4 ,in his series ,les diffrents publics de ,paris and ,la ,mnagerie ,parisienne he represented with an incisive pencil the opera1 the ,thtre des ,italiens1 the circus1 the ,odon and the ,jardin des ,plantes4 ,but since that time the laurels of historical painting have given him no rest4 ,he turned away from his own age as well as from caricature1 and made excursions into all zones and all periods4 ,he visited the ,inferno with ,dante1 lingered in ,palestine with the patriarchs of the ,old ,testament1 and ran through the world of wonders with ,perrault4 ,the facility of his invention was astonishing1 and so too was the aptness with which he seized for illustration on the most vivid scenes from all authors4 ,but he has too much ,classicism to be captivating for very long4 ,his compositions dazzle by an appearance of the grand style1 but attain only an outward and scenical effect4 ,his figures are academic variations of types originally established by the ,greeks and the ,cinquescentisti4 ,he forced his talent when he soared into regions where he could not stand without the support of his predecessors4 ,even in his ,don ,quixote the figures lose in character the larger they become4 ,everything in ,dor is calligraphic1 judicious1 without individuality1 without movement and life1 composed in accordance with known rules4 ,there is a touch of ,wiertz in him1 both in his imagination and in his design1 and his youthful works1 such as the ,swiss ,journey1 in which he merely drew from observation without pretensions to style1 will probably last the longest4 ,in broad lithographs and charming woodcuts1 ,cham has been the most exhaustive in writing up the diary of modern ,parisian life during the period #ahdh-gh4 ,the celebrated caricaturist--he has been called the most brilliant man in ,france under ,napoleon ,,iii--had worked in the studio of ,delaroche at the same time as ,jean ,franois ,millet4 ,after #ahdb he came forward as ,cham 7his proper name was ,count ,amade de ,no7 with drawings which soon made him the artist most in demand on the staff of the ,charivari4 ,neither so profound nor so serious as ,gavarni1 he has a constant sparkle of vivacity1 and is a draughtsman of wonderful verve4 ,in his reviews of the month and of the year1 everything which interested ,paris in the provinces of invention and fashion1 art and literature1 science and the theatre1 passes before us in turn3 the omnibuses with their high imperials1 table-turning and spirit-rapping1 the opening of the ,grands ,magasins du ,louvre1 ,madame ,ristori1 the completion of the ,suez ,canal1 the first newspaper kiosks1 ,new ,year's ,day in ,paris1 the invention of ironclads1 the tunnelling of ,mont ,cenis1 ,gounod's ,faust1 ,patti and ,nilsson1 the strike of the tailors and hat-makers1 jockeys and racing4 ,everything that excited public attention had a close observer in ,cham4 ,his caricatures of the works of art in the ,salon were full of spirit1 and the ,international ,exhibition of #ahfg found in him its classic chronicler4 ,here all the mysterious ,paris of the third ,napoleon lives once more4 ,emperors and kings file past1 the band of ,strauss plays1 gipsies are dancing1 equipages roll by1 and every one lives1 loves1 flirts1 squanders money1 and whirls round in a malstrom4 ,but the end of the exhibition betokened the end of all that splendour4 ,in ,cham's plates which came next one feels that there is thunder in the air4 ,neither fashions nor theatres1 neither women nor pleasure1 could prevent politics from predominating more and more3 the fall of ,napoleon was drawing near4 ,illustration3 ,quantin1 ,paris4 ,,gavarni4 ,,ph,,dre ,,at ,,the ,,th,,tre ,,fran,,ais4 ,illustration3 ,quantin1 ,paris4 ,,gavarni4 ,,ce ,,qui ,,me ,,manque ,,moi8 ,,une ',,tite ,m,,re ,,comme ,a1 ,,qu',,aurait ,,soin ,,de ,,mon ,,linge4 ,there was a greater division of labour amongst those who followed ,cham1 since one chose little women as a speciality1 another the theatre1 and another high-life4 ,assisted by photography1 ,nadar turned again to portraiture1 which had been neglected since ,daumier1 and enjoyed a great success with his series ,les ,contemporains de ,nadar4 ,marcellin is the first who spread over his sketches from the world of fashions and the theatre all the chic and fashionable glitter which lives in the novels of those years4 ,he is the chronicler of the great world1 of balls and soires2 he shows the opera and the ,thtre des ,italiens1 tells of hunting and racing1 attends the drives in the ,corso1 and at the call of fashion promptly deserts the stones of ,paris to look about him in chteaux and country-houses1 seaside haunts in ,france1 and the little watering-places of ,germany1 where the gaming-tables formed at that time the rendezvous of well-bred ,paris4 ,baden-,baden1 where all the lions of the day1 the politicians and the artists and all the beauties of the ,paris salons1 met together in ,july1 offered the draughtsman a specially wide field for studies of fashion and chic4 ,here began the series ,histoires des variations de la mode depuis le ,,xvi sicle jusqu' nos jours4 ,in a place where all classes of society1 the great world and the demi-monde1 came into contact1 ,marcellin could not avoid the latter1 but even when he verged on this province he always knew how to maintain a correct and distinguished bearing4 ,he was peculiarly the draughtsman of society1 of that brilliant1 pleasure-loving1 tainted1 and yet refined society of the ,second ,empire which turned ,paris into a great ball-room4 ,illustration3 ,quantin1 ,paris4 ,,guys4 ,,study ,,of ,a ,,woman4 ,randon is as plebeian as ,marcellin is aristocratic4 ,his speciality is the stupid recruit who is marched through the streets with his squad1 or the retired tradesman of small means1 as ,daudet has hit him off in ,m4 ,chbe1 the old gentleman seated on a bench in the ,bois de ,boulogne3 ,let the little ones come to me with their nurses4 ,his province includes everything that has nothing to do with chic4 ,the whole life of the ,parisian people1 the horse-fairs1 the races at ,poissy1 and all the more important occurrences by which the appearance of the city has been transformed1 may be followed in his drawings4 ,when he travelled he did not go to watering-places1 but to the provinces1 to ,cherbourg and ,toulon1 or to the manufacturing towns of ,belgium and ,england1 where he observed life at the railway stations and the custom-house1 at markets and in barracks1 at seaports and upon the street4 ,goods that are being piled together1 sacks that are being hoisted1 ships being brought to anchor1 storehouses1 wharfs1 and docks--everywhere there is as much life in his sketches as in a busy beehive4 ,nature is a great manufactory1 and man a living machine4 ,the world is like an ant-hill1 the dwelling of curious insects furnished with teeth1 feelers1 indefatigable feet1 and marvellous organs proper for digging1 sawing1 building1 and all things possible1 but furnished also with an incessant hunger4 ,soon afterwards there came ,hadol1 who made his dbut in #ahee1 with pictures of the fashions2 ,stop1 who specially represented the provinces and ,italy2 ,draner1 who occupied himself with the ,parisian ballet and designed charming military uniforms for little dancing girls4 ,lonce ,petit drew peasants and sketched the charms of the country in a simple1 familiar fashion--the mortal tedium of little towns1 poor villages1 and primitive inns1 the gossip of village beldames before the house-door1 the pompous dignity of village magistrates or of the head of the fire brigade4 ,he is specially noteworthy as a landscape artist4 ,the trees on the straight1 monotonous road rise softly and delicately into the air1 and the sleepy sameness of tortuous village streets is pregnantly rendered by a few strokes of the pencil4 ,the land is like a great kitchen garden4 ,the fields and the arable ground with their dusty1 meagre soil chant a mighty song of hard labour1 of the earnest1 toilsome existence of the peasant folk4 ,illustration3 ,journal ,amusant4 ,,gr,,vin4 ,,nos ,,parisiennes4 ,tiens6 ne me parle pas de lui1 je ne peux pas le souffrir1 mme en peinture6 ,cependant1 s'il t'offrait de t'epouser8 a1 c'est autre chose4 ,andrieux and ,morland discovered the femme entretenue1 though afterwards her best known delineator was ,grvin1 an able1 original1 facile1 and piquant draughtsman1 whom some--exaggerating beyond a doubt--called the direct successor of ,gavarni4 ,grvin's women are a little monotonous1 with their ringleted chignons1 their expressionless eyes which try to look big1 their perverse little noses1 their defiant1 pouting lips1 and the cheap toilettes which they wear with so much chic4 ,but they too have gone to their rest with the grisettes of ,monnier and ,gavarni1 and have left the field to the women of ,mars and ,forain4 ,in these days ,grvin's work seems old-fashioned1 since it is no longer modern and not yet historical2 nevertheless it marks an epoch1 like that of ,gavarni4 ,the bals publics1 the bals de l',opra1 those of the ,jardin ,mabille1 the ,closerie des ,lilas1 the races1 the promenades in the ,bois de ,vincennes1 the seaside resorts1 all places where the demi-monde pitched its tent in the time of ,napoleon ,,iii1 were also the home of the artist4 ,how they love in ,paris and ,winter in ,paris were his earliest series4 ,his finest and greatest drawings1 the scenes from the ,parisian hotels and ,the ,english in ,paris1 appeared in #ahfg1 the year of the ,exhibition4 ,his later series1 published as albums--,les filles d've1 ,le monde amusant1 ,fantaisies parisiennes1 ,paris vicieux1 ,la ,chane des ,dames--are a song of songs upon the refinements of life4 ,it does not lie within the plan of this book to follow the history of drawing any further4 ,our intention was merely to show that painting had to follow the path trodden by ,rowlandson and ,cruikshank1 ,erhard and ,richter1 ,daumier and ,gavarni1 if it was to be art of the nineteenth century1 and not to remain for ever dependent on the old masters4 ,absolute beauty is not good food for art2 to be strong it must be nourished on the ideas of the century4 ,when the world had ceased to draw inspiration from the masterpieces of the past merely with the object of depicting by their aid scenes out of long-buried epochs1 there was for the first time a prospect that mere discipleship would be overcome1 and that a new and original painting would be developed through the fresh and independent study of nature4 ,the passionate craving of the age had to be this3 to feel at home on the earth1 in this long-neglected world of reality1 which hides the unsuspected treasure of vivid works of art4 ,the rising sun is just as beautiful now as on the first day1 the streams flow1 the meadows grow green1 the vibrating passions are at war now as in other times1 the immortal heart of nature still beats beneath its rough covering1 and its pulsation finds an echo in the heart of man4 ,it was necessary to descend from ideals to existing fact1 and the world had to be once more discovered by painters as in the days of the first ,renaissance4 ,the question was how by the aid of all the devices of colour to represent the multifarious forms of human activity3 the phases and conditions of life1 fashion as well as misery1 work and pleasure1 the drawing-room and the street1 the teeming activity of towns and the quiet labour of peasants4 ,the essential thing was to write the entire natural history of the age4 ,and this way1 the way from museums to nature1 and from the past to the world of living men1 was shown by the ,english to the ,french and ,german painters4 ,illustration3 ,mansell ,photo4 ,,romney4 ,,serena4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,,english ,,painting ,,to #ahej ,the ,english school has an advantage over others in being young3 its tradition is barely a century old1 and1 unlike the ,continental schools1 it is not hampered by antiquated ,greek and ,latin theories4 ,what fortunate conditions it has for breaking away into really modern work6 whereas in other nations the weight of tradition presses hard on the boldest innovators4 ,the ,english do not look back2 on the contrary1 they look into life around them4 ,so wrote ,burger-,thor in one of his ,salons in #ahfg4 ,yet ,england was not unaffected by the retrospective tendency on the ,continent4 ,perhaps it might even be demonstrated that this movement had its earliest origin on ,british soil4 ,england had its ,empire style in architecture fifty years before there was any empire in ,france2 it had its ,classical painting when ,david worked at ,cupids with ,boucher1 and it gave the world a ,romanticist at the very time when the literature of the ,continent became ,classical4 ,the ,lady of the ,lake1 ,marmion1 ,the ,lord of the ,isles1 ,the ,fair ,maid of ,perth1 ,old ,mortality1 ,ivanhoe1 ,quentin ,durward1 who is there that does not know these names by heart8 ,we have learnt history from ,walter ,scott1 and that programme of the artistic crafts which ,lorenz ,gedon drew up in #ahgf1 when he arranged the department ,works of our ,fathers in the ,munich ,exhibition1 had been carried out by ,scott as early as #ahaf4 ,for ,scott laid out much of the money he received for his romances in building himself a castle in the style of the baronial strongholds of the ,middle ,ages3 ,towers and turrets all imitated from a royal building in ,scotland1 windows and gables painted with the arms of the clans1 with lions couchant1 rooms filled with high sideboards and carved chests1 targes1 plaids1 ,highland broadswords1 halberts1 and suits of armour1 and adorned with antlers hung up as trophies4 ,here was a ,makartesque studio very many years before ,makart4 ,amongst the painters there were ,classicists and ,romanticists2 but they were neither numerous nor of importance4 ,what ,england produced in the way of great art in the beginning of last century could be erased from the complete chart of ,british painting without any essential gap being made in the course of its development4 ,reynolds had had to pay dear for approaching the ,italians in his ,ugolino1 his ,macbeth1 and his ,young ,hercules4 ,and a yet more arid mannerism befell all the others who followed him on the way to ,italy1 among them ,james ,barry1 who1 after studying for years in ,italy1 settled down in ,london in #agga1 with the avowed intention of providing ,england with a classical form of art4 ,he believed that he had surpassed his own models1 the ,italian classic painters1 by six pompous representations of the ,culture and ,progress of ,human ,knowledge1 which he completed in #aghc1 in the theatre of the ,society for the ,encouragement of ,arts4 ,the many-sided ,james ,northcote1 equally mediocre in everything1 survives rather by his biographies of ,reynolds and ,titian than by the great canvases which he painted for ,boydell's ,shakespeare ,gallery4 ,that which became best known was ,the ,murder of the ,children in the ,tower4 ,henry ,fuseli1 who was also much occupied with authorship and as preceptor ,britanni1 always mentioned with great respect by his numerous pupils1 produced a series of exceedingly thoughtful and imaginative works1 to which he was incited by ,klopstock and ,lavater4 ,by preference he illustrated ,milton and ,shakespeare1 and amongst this series of pictures his painting of ,titania with the ,ass1 from ,shakespeare's ,midsummer ,night's ,dream1 in the ,london ,national ,gallery1 is probably the best4 ,his pupil ,william ,etty was saturated with the traditions of the ,venetian school2 he is the ,british ,makart1 and followed rather heavily and laboriously in the track of ,titian1 exploring the realms of nude beauty1 and toiling to discover that secret of blooming colour which gleams from the female forms of the ,venetians4 ,the assiduous ,benjamin ,robert ,haydon1 a spirit ever seeking1 striving1 and reflecting1 became1 like ,gros in ,france1 a victim of the grand style4 ,he would naturally have preferred to paint otherwise1 and more simply4 ,the ,national ,gallery possesses a charming picture by him of a ,london street 7for some years past on loan at ,leicester71 which represents a crowd watching a ,punch and ,judy show4 ,but1 like ,gros1 he held it a sin against the grand style to occupy himself with such matters4 ,he thought it only permissible to paint sacred subjects or subjects from ancient history upon large spaces of canvas2 and he sank ever deeper into his theories1 reaching the profoundest abyss of abstract science when he made diligent anatomical studies of the muscles of a lion1 in order to fashion the heroic frames of warriors on the same plan4 ,his end1 on #bfth ,june #ahdf1 was like that of the ,frenchman4 ,there was found beside his body a paper on which he had written3 ,god forgive me4 ,amen4 ,finis1 with the quotation from ,shakespeare's ,lear3 ,stretch me no longer on the rack of this rough world4 ,all these masters are more interesting for their human qualities than for their works1 which1 with their extravagant colour1 forced gestures1 and follies of every description1 contain no new thing worthy of further development4 ,even when they sought to make direct copies from ,continental performances1 they did not attain the graceful sweep of their models4 ,the refinements which they imitated became clumsy and awkward in their hands1 and they remained half bourgeois and half barbaric4 ,the liberating influence of ,english art was not found in the province of the great painting1 and it is probably not without significance that the few who tried to import it came to grief in the experiment4 ,there can be no doubt that such art goes more against the grain of the ,english nature than of any other4 ,even in the days of scholastic philosophy the ,english asserted the doctrine that there are only individuals in nature4 ,in the beginning of modern times a new era1 grounded on the observation of nature1 was promulgated from ,england4 ,bacon had little to say about beauty3 he writes against the proportions and the principle of selection in art1 and therefore against the ideal4 ,handsome men1 he says1 have seldom possessed great qualities4 ,and in the same way the ,english stage had just as little bent for the august and rhythmical grandeur of classical literature4 ,when he stabbed ,polonius1 ,garrick never dreamed of moving according to the taste of ,boileau1 and was probably as different from the ,greek leader of a chorus as ,hogarth from ,david4 ,the peculiar merits of ,english literature and science have been rooted from the time of their first existence in their capacity for observation4 ,this explains the contempt for regularity in ,shakespeare1 the feeling for concrete fact in ,bacon4 ,english philosophy is positive1 exact1 utilitarian1 and highly moral4 ,hobbes and ,locke1 ,john ,stuart ,mill and ,buckle1 in ,england take the place of ,descartes1 ,spinoza1 ,leibnitz1 and ,kant upon the ,continent4 ,amongst ,english historians ,carlyle is the only poet3 all the rest are learned prose-writers who collect observations1 combine experiences1 arrange dates1 weigh possibilities1 reconcile facts1 discover laws1 and hoard and increase positive knowledge4 ,the eighteenth century had seen the rise of the novel as the picture of contemporary life2 in ,hogarth this national spirit was first turned to account in painting4 ,in the beginning of the nineteenth century1 again1 the good qualities of ,english art consisted not in bold ideality1 but in sharpness of observation1 sobriety1 and flexibility of spirit4 ,illustration3 ,,george ,,romney4 ,their proper domain was still to be found in portraiture1 and if none of the new portrait painters can be compared with the great ancestors of ,english art1 they are none the less superior to all their contemporaries on the ,continent4 ,george ,romney1 who belongs rather to the eighteenth century1 holds the mean course between the refined classic art of ,sir ,joshua and the imaginative poetic art of ,thomas ,gainsborough4 ,less personal and less profound in characterisation1 he was1 on the other hand1 the most dexterous painter of drapery in his age3 a man who knew all the secrets of the trade1 and possessed1 at the same time1 that art which is so much valued in portrait painters--the art of beautifying his models without making his picture unlike the original4 ,professional beauties beheld themselves presented in their counterfeit precisely as they wished to appear1 and accorded him1 therefore1 a fervent adoration4 ,and after his return from ,italy in #agge his fame was so widespread that it outstripped ,gainsborough's and equalled that of ,reynolds4 ,court beauties and celebrated actresses left no stone unturned to have their portraits introduced into one of his compositions2 for ,romney eagerly followed the fashion of allegorical portraiture which had been set by ,reynolds1 representing persons with the emblem of a god or of one of the muses4 ,romney has painted the famous ,lady ,hamilton1 to say nothing of others1 as ,magdalen1 ,joan of ,arc1 a ,bacchante1 and an ,odalisque4 ,illustration3 ,mag4 of ,art4 ,,romney4 ,,lady ,,hamilton ,,as ,,euphrosyne4 ,great as his reputation had been at the close of the eighteenth century1 it was outshone twenty years later by that of ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence4 ,born in ,bristol in #agfi1 ,lawrence had scarcely given up the calling of an actor before he saw all ,england in raptures over his genius as a painter4 ,the catalogue of his portraits is a complete list of all who were at the time pre-eminent for talent or beauty4 ,he received fabulous sums1 which he spent with the grace of a man of the world4 ,in #ahae he was commissioned to paint for the ,windsor ,gallery the portraits of all the ,victors of ,waterloo1 from the ,duke of ,wellington to the ,emperor ,alexander4 ,the ,congress at ,aix-la-,chapelle gave him an opportunity for getting the portraits of representatives of the various ,courts4 ,all the capitals of ,europe1 which he visited for this purpose1 received him with princely honours4 ,he was member of all the ,academies under the sun1 and ,president of that in ,london2 but1 as a natural reaction1 this over-estimation of earlier years has been followed by an equally undeserved undervaluation of his works in these days4 ,beneath the fashionable exterior of his ceremonial pictures naturalness and simplicity are often wanting1 and so too are the deeper powers of characterisation1 firm drawing1 and real vitality4 ,a feminine coquetry has taken the place of character4 ,his drawing has a banal effect1 and his colouring is monotonous in comparison with that realism which ,reynolds shares with the old masters4 ,it is easy to confound the majority of his pictures of ceremonies with those of ,winterhalter1 and his smaller portraits with pretty fashion plates2 yet one cannot but admire his ease of execution and nobility of composition4 ,several of his pictures of women1 in particular1 are touched by an easy grace and a fine charm of poetic sensuousness in which he approaches ,gainsborough4 ,not many at that time could have painted such pretty children's heads1 or given young women such an attractive and familiar air of life4 ,with what a girlish glance of innocence and melancholy does ,mrs4 ,siddons look out upon the world from the canvas of ,lawrence3 how piquant is her white ,greek garment1 with its black girdle and the white turban4 ,and what subtle delicacy there is in the portrait of ,miss ,farren as she flits with muff and fur-trimmed cloak through a bright green summer landscape4 ,the reputation of ,lawrence will rise once more when his empty formal pieces have found their way into lumber-rooms1 and a greater number of his pictures of women--pictures so full of indescribable fascination1 so redolent of mysterious charm--are accessible to the public4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,lawrence4 ,,mrs4 ,,siddons4 ,as minor stars1 the soft and tender ,john ,hoppner1 the attractively superficial ,william ,beechey1 the celebrated pastellist ,john ,russell1 and the vigorously energetic ,john ,jackson had their share with him in public favour1 whilst ,henry ,raeburn shone in ,scotland as a star of the first magnitude4 ,he was a born painter4 ,wilkie says in one of his letters from ,madrid1 that the pictures of ,velasquez put him in mind of ,raeburn2 and certain works of the ,scot1 such as the portrait of ,lord ,newton1 the famous bon vivant and doughty drinker1 are indeed performances of such power that comparison with this mighty name is no profanation4 ,at a time when there was a danger that portrait painting would sink in the hands of ,lawrence into an insipid painting of prettiness1 ,raeburn stood alone by the simplicity and naturalistic impressiveness of his portraiture4 ,the three hundred and twenty-five portraits by him which were exhibited in the ,royal ,scottish ,academy in #ahgf1 gave as exhaustive a picture of the life of ,edinburgh at the close of the century as those of ,sir ,joshua gave of the life of ,london4 ,all the celebrated ,scotchmen of his time--,robertson1 ,hume1 ,ferguson1 and ,scott--were painted by him4 ,altogether he painted over six hundred portraits2 and1 small though the number may seem compared with the two thousand of ,reynolds1 ,raeburn's artistic qualities are almost the greater4 ,the secret of his success lies in his vigorous healthiness1 in the indescribable furia of his brush1 in the harmony and truth of his colour-values4 ,his figures are informed by a startling intensity of life4 ,his old pensioners1 and his sailors in particular1 have something kingly in the grand air of their calm and noble countenances4 ,armstrong has given him a place between ,frans ,hals and ,velasquez1 and occasionally his conception of colour even recalls the modern ,frenchmen1 as it were ,manet in his ,hals period4 ,he paints his models1 just as they come into contact with him in life1 in the frank light of day and without any attempt at the dusk of the old masters2 of raiment he gives only as much as the comprehension of the picture demands1 and depicts character in large and simple traits4 ,illustration3 ,,lawrence4 ,,princess ,,amelia4 ,the importance of ,west and ,copley1 two ,americans who were active in ,england1 is that they were the first to apply the qualities acquired in ,english portrait painting to pictures on a large scale4 ,benjamin ,west has undoubtedly been over-praised by his contemporaries1 and by a critic of the present day he has1 not unfairly1 been designated the king of mediocrity4 ,at his appearance he was interesting to ,europeans merely as an anthropological curiosity1--as the first son of barbaric ,america who had used a paint brush4 ,a thoroughly ,american puff preceded his entry into the ,eternal ,city in #agfj4 ,it was reported that as the son of a quaker farmer he had grown up amongst his father's slaves in the immediate neighbourhood of the ,indians1 and had painted good portraits in ,philadelphia and ,new ,york without having ever seen a work of art4 ,people were delighted when1 on being brought into the ,vatican1 he clapped his hands and compared the ,apollo ,belvidere to an ,indian chief4 ,in the art of making himself interesting the young savage was ahead of all his patrons2 and as he followed the ruling classical tendency with great aptitude1 within the course of a year he was made an honorary member of the ,academies of ,parma1 ,bologna1 and ,florence1 and praised by the critics of ,rome as ranking with ,mengs as the first painter of his day4 ,in #agfc1 at a time when ,hogarth and ,reynolds1 ,wilson and ,gainsborough1 were in the fulness of their powers1 he went to ,london2 and as people are always inclined to value most highly what they do not possess1 he soon won an important position for himself1 even beside these masters4 ,hogarth produced nothing but genre pictures1 ,wilson only landscapes1 and ,reynolds and ,gainsborough portraits3 ,west brought to the ,english what they did not as yet possess--a great art4 ,illustration3 ,,lawrence4 ,,the ,,english ,,mother4 ,his first picture--in the ,london ,national ,gallery--,pylades and ,orestes brought as ,hostages before ,iphigenia1 is a tiresome product of that ,classicism which upon the ,continent found its principal representatives in ,mengs and ,david3 it is stiff in drawing1 its composition is suggestive of a bas-relief1 and its cold grey colouring is classically academic4 ,his other pictures from antique and sacred history stand much on the same level as those of ,wilhelm ,kaulbach1 with whose works they share their stilted dignity1 their systematically antiquarian structure1 and their mechanical combination of forms borrowed in a spiritless fashion from the ,cinquecentisti4 ,fortunately ,west has left behind him something different from these ambitious attempts2 for on the occasions when he turned away from the great style he created works of lasting importance4 ,this is specially true of some fine historical pictures dealing with his own age1 which will preserve his name for ever4 ,the ,death of ,general ,wolfe at the storming of ,quebec on #acth ,september #agei--;exhibited at the opening of the ,royal ,academy in #agfh--;is by its very sobriety a sincere1 honest1 and sane piece of work1 which will maintain its value as an historical document4 ,it was just at this time that so great a part was played by the question of costume1 and ,west encountered the same difficulties which ,gottfried ,schadow was obliged to face when he represented ,ziethen and the ,old ,dessauer in the costume of their age4 ,the connoisseurs held that such a sublime theme would only admit of antique dress4 ,if ,west in their despite represented the general and his soldiers in their regulation uniform1 it seems at the present time no more than the result of healthy common sense1 but at that time it was an artistic event of great importance1 and one which was only accomplished in ,france after the work of several decades4 ,in that country ,grard and ,girodet still clung to the belief that they could only raise the military picture to the level of the great style by giving the soldiers of the ,empire the appearance of ,greek and ,roman statues4 ,gros is honoured as the man who first ceased from giving modern soldiers an air of the antique4 ,but the ,american ,englishman had anticipated him by forty years4 ,as in ,gricault's ,raft of the ,medusa1 it was only the pyramidal composition in ,west's picture that betrayed the painter's alliance with the ,classical school2 in other respects it forecast the realistic programme for decades to come1 and indicated the course of development which leads through ,gros onwards4 ,if in ,gros men are treated purely as accessories to throw a hero into relief1 in ,west they stand out in action4 ,they behave in the picture spontaneously as they do in life4 ,that is to say1 there is in ,west's work of #agfh the element through which ,horace ,vernet's pictures of #ahcj are to be distinguished from those of ,gros4 ,this realistic programme was carried out with yet greater consistency by ,west's younger compatriot ,john ,singleton ,copley1 who after a short sojourn in ,italy migrated to ,england in #agge4 ,his chief works in the ,london ,national ,gallery depict in the same way events from contemporary history--,the ,death of the ,earl of ,chatham1 #gth ,april #aggh and ,the ,death of ,major ,pierson1 #fth ,january #agha1--;and it is by no means impossible that when ,david1 in the midst of the classicising tendencies of his age1 ventured to paint ,the ,death of ,marat and ,the ,death of ,lepelletier1 he was led to do so by engravings after ,copley4 ,in the representation of such things other painters of the epoch had draped their figures in antique costume1 called genii and river-gods into action1 and given a ,roman character to the whole4 ,copley1 like ,west1 offers a plain1 matter-of-fact representation of the event1 without any rhetorical pathos4 ,and what raises him above ,west is his liquid1 massive colour1 suggestive of the old masters4 ,in none of his works could ,west set himself free from the dead grey colour of the ,classical school1 whereas ,copley's ,death of ,william ,pitt is the result of intimate studies of ,titian and the ,dutch4 ,the way the light falls on the perukes of the men and the brown1 wainscoted walls puts one in mind of ,rembrandt's ,anatomical ,lecture2 only1 instead of a pathetic scene from the theatre1 we have a collection of good portraits in the manner of the ,dutch studies of shooting matches4 ,illustration3 ,mansell ,photo ,,lawrence4 ,,caroline ,,of ,,brunswick1 ,,queen ,,of ,,george ,,iv4 ,illustration3 ,,lawrence4 ,,the ,,countess ,,gower4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,raeburn4 ,,sir ,,walter ,,scott4 ,that this unhackneyed conception of daily life has its special home in ,england is further demonstrated by the work of ,daniel ,maclise1 who depicted ,the ,meeting of ,wellington and ,blcher1 ,the ,death of ,nelson1 and other patriotic themes upon walls and canvases several yards square1 with appalling energy1 promptitude1 and expenditure of muscle4 ,by these he certainly did better service to national pride than to art4 ,nevertheless1 with their forcible1 healthy realism they contrast favourably with the mythological subjects so universally produced on the ,continent at that time4 ,beside the portrait painters of men stand the portrait painters of animals4 ,since the days of ,elias ,riedinger animal painting had fallen into general disesteem on the ,continent4 ,thorwaldsen1 the first of the ,classicists who allowed animals to appear in his works 7as he did in his ,alexander frieze71 dispensed with any independent studies of nature1 and contented himself with imitating the formal models on the frieze of the ,parthenon2 or1 in lack of a ,grecian exemplar1 simply drew out of the depths of his inner consciousness4 ,especially remarkable is the sovran contempt with which he treated the most familiar domestic creatures4 ,german historical painting knew still less what to make of the brute creation1 because it only recognised beauty in the profundity of ideas1 and ideas have nothing to do with beasts4 ,its four-footed creatures have a philosophic depth of contemplation1 and are bad studies after nature4 ,kaulbach's ,reinecke and the inclination to transplant human sentiments into the world of brutes delayed until the sixties any devoted study of the animal soul4 ,france1 too1 before the days of ,troyon1 had nothing to show worth mentioning4 ,but in ,england1 the land of sport1 animal painting was evolved directly from the old painting of the chase1 without being seduced from its proper course4 ,fox-hunting has been popular in ,england since the time of ,charles ,i4 ,racing came into fashion not long after1 and with racing came that knowledge of horseflesh which has been developed in ,england further than elsewhere4 ,since the seventeenth century red deer have been preserved in the ,english parks4 ,it is therefore comprehensible that ,english art was early occupied with these animals1 and since it was sportsmen who cared most about them1 the painter was at first their servant4 ,he had not so much to paint pictures as reminiscences of sport and the chase4 ,his first consideration in painting a horse was to paint a fine horse2 as to its being a fine picture1 that was quite a secondary matter4 ,john ,wootton and ,george ,stubbs were in this sense portrayers of racehorses4 ,the latter1 however1 took occasion to emancipate himself from his patrons by representing the noble animal1 not standing at rest by his manger1 or with a groom on his back and delighting in the consciousness of his own beauty1 but as he was in action and amongst pictorial surroundings4 ,illustration3 ,,west4 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,nelson4 ,illustration3 ,mansell ,photo ,,maclise4 ,,the ,,waterfall1 ,,cornwall4 ,illustration3 ,,copley4 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,the ,,earl ,,of ,,chatham4 ,illustration3 ,,maclise4 ,,noah',s ,,sacrifice4 ,soon afterwards ,george ,morland made his appearance4 ,he made a specialty of old nags1 and was perhaps the most important master of the brush that the ,english school produced at all4 ,his pictures have the same magic as the landscapes of ,gainsborough4 ,he painted life on the high-road and in front of village inns--scenes like those which ,isaac ,ostade had represented a century before3 old horses being led to water amid the sunny landscape of the downs1 market carts rumbling heavily through the rough and sunken lanes1 packhorses coming back to their stalls of an evening tired out with the day's exertions1 riders pulling up at the village inn or chatting with the pretty landlady4 ,and he has done these things with the delicacy of an old ,dutch painter4 ,it is impossible to say whether ,morland had ever seen the pictures of ,adriaen ,brouwer2 but this greatest master of technique amongst the ,flemings can alone be compared with ,morland in verve and artistic many-sidedness2 and ,morland resembled him also in his adventurous life and his early death4 ,to the spirit and dash of ,brouwer he joins the refinement of ,gainsborough in his landscapes1 and ,rowlandson's delicate feeling for feminine beauty in his figures4 ,he does not paint fine ladies1 but women in their everyday clothes1 and yet they are surrounded by a grace recalling ,chardin3 young mothers going to see their children who are with the nurse1 smart little tavern hostesses in their white aprons and coquettish caps busily serving riders with drink1 and charming city madams in gay summer garb sitting of a ,sunday afternoon with their children at a tea-garden4 ,over the works of ,morland there lies all the chivalrous grace of the time of ,werther1 and that fine ,anglo-,saxon aroma exhaled by the works of ,english painters of the present day4 ,genuine as is the fame which he enjoys as an animal painter1 it is these little social scenes which show his finest side2 and only coloured engraving1 which was brought to such a high pitch in the ,england of those days1 is able to give an idea of the delicacy of hue in the originals4 ,illustration3 ,,maclise4 ,,malvolio ,,and ,,the ,,countess4 ,illustration3 ,mansell ,co4 ,,morland4 ,,horses ,,in ,a ,,stable4 ,morland's brother-in-law1 the painter and engraver ,james ,ward1 born in #agfi and dying in #ahei1 united this old ,english school with the modern4 ,the portrait which accompanies the obituary notice in the ,art ,journal is that of a very aged gentleman1 with a grey beard and thick1 white1 bristly hair4 ,the pictures which he painted when he had this appearance--and they are the most familiar--were exceedingly weak and insipid works4 ,in comparison with ,morland's broad1 liquid1 and harmonious painting1 that of ,ward seems burnished1 sparkling1 flaunting1 anecdotic1 and petty4 ,but ,james ,ward was not always old ,james ,ward4 ,in his early days he was one of the greatest and manliest artists of the ,english school1 with whom only ,briton ,rivire can be compared amongst the moderns4 ,when his ,lioness appeared in the ,royal ,academy ,exhibition of #ahaf he was justly hailed as the best animal painter after ,snyders1 and from that time one masterpiece followed another for ten long years4 ,what grace and power there are in his horses and dogs6 ,in pictures of this sort ,stubbs was graceful and delicate2 ,ward painted the same horse in as sporting a manner and with the same knowledge1 but with an artistic power such as no one had before him4 ,his field of work was wide-reaching4 ,he painted little girls with the thoroughly ,english feeling of ,morland1 and had the whole animal world for his domain4 ,lions1 snakes1 cats1 pigs1 oxen1 cows1 sheep1 swans1 fowls1 frogs are the characters in his pictures4 ,and characters they were1 for he never humanised the looks of his four-footed models1 as others did later4 ,the home of his animals is not the drawing-room1 but the woods and meadows1 the air and the gardens4 ,his broad1 weighty manner was transformed first into extravagant virtuosity and then into pettiness of style during the last thirty years of his life1 when he became senile4 ,his reputation paled more than he deserved before the star of the world-famous ,landseer4 ,illustration3 ,,morland4 ,,the ,,corn ,,bin4 ,the most popular animal painter1 not merely of ,england but of the whole century1 was ,edwin ,landseer4 ,for fifty years his works formed the chief features of attraction in the ,royal ,academy4 ,engravings from him had such a circulation in the country that in the sixties there was scarcely a house in which there did not hang one of his horses or dogs or stags4 ,even the ,continent was flooded with engravings of his pictures1 and ,landseer suffered greatly from this popularity4 ,he is much better than the reproductions with their fatal gloss allow any one to suppose1 and his pictures can be judged by them just as little as can ,raphael's ,school of ,athens from ,jacobi's engraving4 ,illustration3 ,portfolio4 ,,morland4 ,,going ,,to ,,the ,,fair4 ,edwin ,landseer came of a family of artists4 ,his father1 who was an engraver1 sent him out into the free world of nature as a boy1 and made him sketch donkeys and goats and sheep4 ,when he was fourteen he went to ,haydon1 the prophet on matters of art2 and1 on the advice of this singular being1 studied the sculptures of the ,parthenon4 ,he anatomised animals under my eyes1 writes ,haydon1 copied my anatomical drawings1 and applied my principles of instruction to animal painting4 ,his genius1 directed in this fashion1 has1 as a matter of fact1 arrived at satisfactory results4 ,landseer was the spoilt child of fortune4 ,there is no other ,english painter who can boast of having been made a member of the ,royal ,academy at twenty-four4 ,in high favour at ,court1 honoured by the fashionable world1 and tenderly treated by criticism1 he went on his way triumphant4 ,the region over which he held sway was narrow1 but he stood out in it as in life1 powerful and commanding4 ,the exhibition of his pictures which took place after his death in #ahgc contained three hundred and fourteen oil paintings and one hundred and forty-six sketches4 ,the property which he left amounted to #afj1jjj2 and a further sum of #ee1jjj was realised by the sale of his unsold pictures4 ,even ,meissonier1 the best paid painter of the century1 did not leave behind him five and a half million francs4 ,one reason of ,landseer's artistic success is perhaps due to that in him which was inartistic--to his effort to make animals more beautiful than they really are1 and to make them the medium for expressing human sentiment4 ,all the dogs and horses and stags which he painted after #ahee1 and through which he was made specially familiar to the great public1 are arrayed in their ,sunday clothes1 their glossiest hide and their most magnificent horns4 ,and in addition to this he ,darwinises them3 that is to say1 he tries to make his animals more than animals2 he lends a human sentimental trait to animal character2 and that is what distinguishes him to his disadvantage from really great animal painters like ,potter1 ,snyders1 ,troyon1 ,jadin1 and ,rosa ,bonheur4 ,he paints the human temperament beneath the animal mask4 ,his stags have expressive countenances1 and his dogs appear to be gifted with reason and even speech4 ,at one moment there is a philosophic dignity in their behaviour1 and at another a frivolity in their pleasures4 ,landseer discovered the sentimentality of dogs1 and treated them as capable of culture4 ,his celebrated picture ,jack in ,office is almost insulting in its characterisation3 there they are1 ,jack the sentry1 an old female dog like a poor gentlewoman1 another dog like a professional beggar1 and so on4 ,and this habit of bringing animals on the stage1 as if they were the actors of tragical1 melodramatic1 or farcical scenes1 made him a peculiar favourite with the great mass of people4 ,nor were his picture-stories merely easy to read and understand2 the characteristic titles he invented for each of them--,alexander and ,diogenes1 ,a ,distinguished ,member of the ,humane ,society1 and the like--excited curiosity as much as the most carefully selected name of a novel4 ,but this search after points and sentimental anecdotes only came into prominence in his last period1 when his technique had degenerated and given way to a shiny polish and a forced elegance which obliged him to provide extraneous attractions4 ,his popularity would not be so great1 but his artistic importance would be quite the same1 if these last pictures did not exist at all4 ,illustration3 ,,morland4 ,,the ,,return ,,from ,,market4 ,but the middle period of ,landseer1 ranging from #ahdj to #ahej1 contains masterpieces which set him by the side of the best animal painters of all times and nations4 ,the well-known portrait of a ,newfoundland dog of #ahch2 that of the ,prince ,consort's favourite greyhound of #ahda2 ,the ,otter ,speared of #ahdd1 with its panting and yelping pack brought to a standstill beneath a high wall of rock2 the dead doe which a fawn is unsuspectingly approaching1 in ,a ,random ,shot1 #ahdh2 ,the ,lost ,sheep of #ahej1 that wanders frightened and bleating through a wide and lonely landscape covered with snow1--these and many other pictures1 in their animation and simple naturalness1 are precious examples of the fresh and delicate observation peculiar to him at that time4 ,landseer's portrait reveals to us a robust and serious man1 with a weather-beaten face1 a short white beard1 and a snub bulldog nose4 ,standing six feet high1 and having the great heavy figure of a ,teuton stepping out of his aboriginal forest1 he was indeed much more like a country gentleman than a ,london artist4 ,he was a sportsman who wandered about all day long in the air with a gun on his arm1 and he painted his animal pictures with all the love and joy of a child of nature4 ,that accounts for their strength1 their convincing power1 and their vivid force4 ,it is as if he had become possessed of a magic cap with which he could draw close to animals without being observed1 and surprise their nature and their inmost life4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,landseer4 ,a ,,distinguished ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,humane ,,society4 ,landseer's subject-matter and conception of life are indicated by the pictures which have been named4 ,old masters like ,snyders and ,rubens had represented the contrast between man and beast in their boar and lion hunts4 ,it was not wild nature that ,landseer depicted1 but nature tamed4 ,rubens1 ,snyders1 and ,delacroix displayed their horses1 dogs1 lions1 and tigers in bold action1 or in the flame of passion4 ,but ,landseer generally introduced his animals in quiet situations--harmless and without fear--in the course of their ordinary life4 ,illustration3 ,mag4 of ,art4 ,,landseer4 ,,the ,,last ,,mourner ,,at ,,the ,,shepherd',s ,,grave4 ,horses1 which ,leonardo1 ,rubens1 ,velasquez1 ,wouwerman1 and the earlier ,english artists delighted to render1 he painted but seldom1 and when he painted them it was with a less penetrating comprehension4 ,but lions1 which had been represented in savage passion or in quiet dignity by artists from ,rubens to ,decamps1 were for him also a subject of long and exhaustive studies1 which had their results in the four colossal lions round the base of the ,nelson ,column in ,trafalgar ,square4 ,here the ,englishman makes a great advance on ,thorwaldsen1 who designed the model for the monument in ,lucerne without ever having seen a lion4 ,landseer's brutes1 both as they are painted and as they are cast in bronze1 are genuine lions1 cruel and catlike1 although in savageness and bold passion they are not to be compared with those of ,delacroix1 nor with those of his elder compatriot1 ,james ,ward4 ,on the other hand1 stags and roes were really first introduced into painting by ,landseer4 ,those of ,robert ,hills1 who had previously been reckoned the best painter of stags1 are timid1 suspicious creatures1 while ,landseer's are the true kings of the forest1 the shooting of which ought to be punished as an act of assassination4 ,his principal field of study was the ,highlands4 ,here he painted these proud creatures fighting on the mountain slopes1 swimming the lake1 or as they stand at a gaze in their quiet beauty4 ,with what a bold spirit they raise their heads to snuff the mountain air1 whilst their antlers show their delight in battle and the joy of victory4 ,and how gentle and timid is the noble1 defenceless roe in ,landseer's pictures4 ,illustration3 ,,landseer4 ,,high ,,life4 ,he had also a delight in painting sheep lost in a snow-storm4 ,but dogs were his peculiar specialty4 ,landseer discovered the dog4 ,that of ,snyders was a treacherous1 snarling cur2 that of ,bewick a robber and a thief4 ,landseer has made the dog the companion of man1 an adjunct of human society1 the generous friend and true comrade who is the last mourner at the shepherd's grave4 ,landseer first studied his noble countenance and his thoughtful eyes1 and in doing so he opened a new province to art1 in which ,briton ,rivire went further at a later period4 ,but yet another and still wider province was opened to continental nations by the art of ,england4 ,in an epoch of archological resuscitations and romantic regrets for the past1 it brought ,french and ,german painters to a consciousness that the man of the nineteenth century in his daily life might be a perfectly legitimate subject for art4 ,engravings after the best pictures of ,wilkie hang round the walls of ,louis ,knaus's reception-room in ,berlin4 ,and that in itself betrays to us a fragment of the history of art4 ,the painters who saw the ,english people with the eyes of ,walter ,scott1 ,fielding1 ,goldsmith1 and ,dickens were a generation in advance of those who depicted the ,german people in the spirit of ,immermann1 ,auerbach1 ,gustav ,freytag1 and ,fritz ,reuter4 ,the ,english advanced quietly on the road trodden by ,hogarth in the eighteenth century1 whilst upon the ,continent the nineteenth century had almost completed half its course before art left anything which will allow future generations to see the men of the period as they really were4 ,since the days of ,fielding and ,goldsmith the novel of manners had been continually growing4 ,burns1 the poet of the plough1 and ,wordsworth1 the singer of rustic folk1 had given a vogue to that poetry of peasant life and those village tales which have since gone the round of all ,europe4 ,england began at that time to become the richest country in the world1 and great fortunes were made4 ,painters were thus obliged to provide for the needs of a new and wealthy middle class4 ,this fact gives us the explanation both of the merits and the faults which are characteristic of ,english genre painting4 ,illustration3 ,,landseer4 ,,low ,,life4 ,in the first quarter of the nineteenth century ,david ,wilkie1 the ,english ,knaus1 was the chief genre painter of the world4 ,born in #aghe in the small ,scotch village of ,cults1 where his father was the clergyman1 he passed a happy childhood1 and possibly had to thank his youthful impressions for the consistent cheerfulness1 the good-humour and kindliness that smile out of his pictures1 and make such a contrast with ,hogarth's biting acerbity4 ,at fourteen he entered the ,edinburgh ,school of ,art1 where he worked for four years under the historical painter ,john ,graham4 ,having returned to ,cults1 he painted his landscapes4 ,a fair which he saw in the neighbouring village gave the impulse for his earliest picture of country life1 ,pitlessie ,fair4 ,he sold it for five and twenty pounds1 and determined in #ahje to try his luck with this sum in ,london4 ,in the very next year his ,village ,politicians excited attention in the exhibition4 ,from that time he was a popular artist4 ,every one of his numerous pictures--,the ,blind ,fiddler1 ,the ,card ,players1 ,the ,rent ,day1 ,the ,cut ,finger1 ,the ,village ,festival--called forth a storm of applause4 ,after a short residence in ,paris1 where the ,louvre gave him a more intimate knowledge of the ,dutch1 came his masterpieces1 ,blind-,man's ,buff1 ,distraining for ,rent1 ,reading the ,will1 ,the ,rabbit on the ,wall1 ,the ,penny ,wedding1 ,the ,chelsea ,pensioners1 and so forth4 ,even later1 after he had become an ,academician1 he kept to plain and simple themes1 in spite of the reproaches of his colleagues1 who thought that art was vulgarised by the treatment of subjects that contained so little dignity4 ,it was only at the end of his life that he became untrue to himself4 ,his reverence for ,teniers and ,ostade was not sufficient to outweigh the impression made on him during a tour taken in #ahbe through ,italy1 ,spain1 ,holland1 and ,germany1 by the artistic treasures of the ,continent1 and especially ,murillo and ,velasquez4 ,he said he had long lived in darkness1 but from that time forth could say with the great ,correggio3 ,anch' io sono pittore4 ,he renounced all that he had painted before which had made him famous1 and showed himself to be one of the many great artists of those years who had no individuality1 or ventured to have none4 ,he would have been the ,burns of painting had he remained as he was4 ,and thus he offered further evidence that the museums and the ,muses are contradictory conceptions2 since the modern painter always runs the risk of falling helplessly from one influence into another1 where he is bent on combining the historical student of art with the artist4 ,of the pictures that he exhibited after his return in #ahbi1 two dealt with ,italian and three with ,spanish subjects4 ,the critics were loud in praise2 he had added a fresh branch of laurel to his crown4 ,yet1 historically considered1 he would stand on a higher pedestal if he had never seen more than a dozen good pictures of ,teniers1 ,ostade1 ,metsu1 ,jan ,steen1 and ,brouwer4 ,now he began to copy his travelling sketches in a spiritless fashion2 he only represented pifferari1 smugglers1 and monks1 who1 devoid of all originality1 might have been painted by one of the ,dsseldorfers4 ,even ,john ,knox ,preaching1 which is probably the best picture of his last period1 is no exception4 ,he seemed to me1 writes ,delacroix1 who saw him in ,paris after his return from ,spain1--he seemed to me to have been carried utterly out of his depth by the pictures he had seen4 ,how is it that a man of his age can be so influenced by works which are radically opposed to his own8 ,however1 he died soon after1 and1 as ,i have been told1 in a very melancholy state of mind4 ,death overtook him in #ahda1 on board the steamer ,oriental1 just as he was returning from a tour in ,turkey4 ,at half-past eight in the evening the vessel was brought to1 and as the lights of the beacon mingled with those of the stars the waters passed over the corpse of ,david ,wilkie4 ,illustration3 ,mansell ,photo ,,landseer4 ,,jack ,,in ,,office4 ,illustration3 ,,wilkie4 ,,blind-,,man',s ,,buff4 ,in judging his position in the history of art1 only those works come into consideration which he executed before that journey of #ahbe4 ,then he drew as a labour of love the familiar scenes of the household hearth1 the little dramas1 the comic or touching episodes that take place in the village1 the festivals1 the dancing1 and the sports of the country-folk1 and their meeting in the ale-house4 ,at this time1 when as a young painter he merely expressed himself and was ignorant of the efforts of continental painting1 he was an artist of individuality4 ,in the village he became a great man1 and here his fame was decided2 he painted rustics4 ,even when he first saw the old masters in the ,national ,gallery their immediate effect on him was merely to influence his technique4 ,and by their aid ,wilkie gradually became an admirable master of technical detail4 ,his first picture1 ,pitlessie ,fair1 in its hardness of colour recalled a ,dutch painter of the type of ,jan ,molenaer2 but from that time his course was one of constant progress4 ,in ,the ,village ,politicians the influence of ,teniers first made itself felt1 and it prevailed until #ahaf4 ,in this year1 when he painted the pretty sketch for ,blind-,man's ,buff1 a warm gold hue took the place of the cool silver tone2 and instead of ,teniers1 ,ostade became his model4 ,the works in his ,ostade manner are rich in colour and deep and clear in tone4 ,finally1 it was ,rembrandt's turn to become his guiding-star1 and ,the ,parish ,beadle1 in the ,national ,gallery--a scene of arrest of the year #ahbb--;clearly shows with what brilliant success he tried his luck with ,rembrandt's dewy chiaroscuro4 ,it was only in his last period that he lost all these technical qualities4 ,his ,knox of #ahcb is hard and cold and inharmonious in colour4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,wilkie4 ,a ,,guerilla ,,council ,,of ,,war ,,in ,a ,,spanish ,,posada4 ,so long as he kept from historical painting1 art meant for him the same thing as the portrayal of domestic life4 ,painting1 he said1 had no other aim than to reproduce nature and to seek truth4 ,undoubtedly this must be applied to ,wilkie himself with considerable limitation4 ,wilkie painted simple fragments of nature just as little as ,hogarth2 he invented scenes4 ,nor was he even gifted with much power of invention4 ,but he had a fund of innocent humour1 although there were times when it was in danger of becoming much too childlike4 ,blind-,man's ,buff1 ,the ,village ,politicians1 and ,the ,village ,festival1 pictures which have become so popular through the medium of engraving1 contain all the characteristics of his power of playful observation4 ,he had no ambition to be a moralist1 like ,hogarth1 but just as little did he paint the rustic as he is4 ,he dealt only with the absurdities and minor accidents of life4 ,his was one of those happy dispositions which neither sorrow nor dream nor excite themselves1 but see everything from the humorous side3 he enjoyed his own jests1 and looked at life as at a pure comedy2 the serious part of it escaped him altogether4 ,his peasantry know nothing of social problems2 free from want and drudgery1 they merely spend their time over trifles and amuse themselves--themselves and the frequenters of the exhibition1 for whom they are taking part in a comedy on canvas4 ,if ,hogarth had a biting1 sarcastic1 scourging1 and disintegrating genius1 ,wilkie is one of those people who cause one no lasting excitement1 but are always satisfied to be humorous1 and laugh with a contented appreciation over their own jokes4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,wilkie4 ,,the ,,blind ,,fiddler4 ,and in general such is the keynote of this ,english genre4 ,all that was done in it during the years immediately following is more or less comprised in the works of the ,scotch little master2 otherwise it courts the assistance of ,english literature1 which is always rich in humorists and excellent writers of anecdote and story4 ,in painting1 as in literature1 the ,english delight in detail1 which by its dramatic1 anecdotic1 or humorous point is intended to have the interest of a short story4 ,or perhaps one should rather say that1 since the ,english came to painting as novices1 they began tentatively on that first step on which art had stood in earlier centuries as long as it was still the people's spelling-book4 ,it is a typical form of development1 and repeats itself constantly4 ,all painting begins in narrative4 ,first it is the subject which has a fascination for the artist1 and by the aid of it he casts a spell over his public4 ,the simplification of motives1 the capacity for taking a thing in at a single glance1 and finding a simple joy in its essentially pictorial integrity1 is of later growth4 ,even with the ,dutch1 who were so eminently gifted with a sense for what is pictorial1 the picture of manners was at first epical4 ,church festivals1 skating parties1 and events which could be represented in an ample and detailed fashion were the original materials of the genre picture1 which only later contented itself with a purely artistic study of one out of countless groups4 ,this period of apprenticeship1 which may be called the period of interesting subject-matter1 was what ,england was now going through2 and ,england had to go through it1 since she had the civilisation by which it is invariably produced4 ,illustration3 ,,wilkie4 ,,the ,,penny ,,wedding4 ,just as the first genre pictures of the ,flemish school announced the appearance of a bourgeoisie1 so in the ,england of the beginning of the century a new plebeian1 middle-class society had taken the place of the patrons of earlier days1 and this middle class set its seal upon manners and communicated its spirit to painting4 ,prosperity1 culture1 travel1 reading1 and leisure1 everything which had been the privilege of individuals1 now became the common property of the great mass of men4 ,they prized art1 but they demanded from it substantial nourishment4 ,that two colours in connection with straight and curved lines are enough for the production of infinite harmonies was still a profound secret4 ,you are free to be painters if you like1 artists were told1 but only on the understanding that you are amusing and instructive2 if you have no story to tell we shall yawn4 ,when they comply with these demands1 artists are inclined to grow fond of sermonising and develop into censors of the public morals1 almost into lay preachers4 ,or1 if the aim of painting lies in its narrative power1 there is a natural tendency to represent the pleasant rather than the unpleasant facts of life1 which is the cause of this one-sided character of genre painting4 ,everything that is not striking and out of the way--in other words1 the whole poetry of ordinary life--is left untouched4 ,wilkie only paints the rustic on some peculiar occasion1 at merry-making and ceremonial events2 and he depicts him as a being of a different species from the townsman1 because he seeks to gain his effects principally by humorous episodes1 and aims at situations which are proper to a novel4 ,illustration3 ,,wilkie4 ,,the ,,first ,,earring4 ,baptisms and dances1 funerals and weddings1 carousals and bridal visits are his favourite subjects2 to which may be added the various contrasts offered by peasant life where it is brought into contact with the civilisation of cities--the country cousin come to town1 the rustic closeted with a lawyer1 and the like4 ,a continual roguishness enlivens his pictures and makes comical figures out of most of these good people4 ,he amuses himself at their expense1 exposes their little lies1 their thrift1 their folly1 their pretensions1 and the absurdities with which their narrow circle of life has provided them4 ,he pokes fun1 and is sly and farcical4 ,but the hard and sour labour of ordinary peasant life is left on one side1 since it offers no material for humour and anecdote4 ,illustration3 ,,newton4 ,,yorick ,,and ,,the ,,grisette4 ,through this limitation painting renounced the best part of its strength4 ,to a man of pictorial vision nature is a gallery of magnificent pictures1 and one which is as wide and far-reaching as the world4 ,but whoever seeks salvation in narrative painting soon reaches the end of his material4 ,in the life of any man there are only three or four events that are worth the trouble of telling2 ,wilkie told more1 and he became tiresome in consequence4 ,we are willing to accept these anecdotes as true1 but they are threadbare4 ,things of this sort may be found in the gaily-bound little books which are given as ,christmas presents to children4 ,it is not exhilarating to learn that worldly marriages have their inconveniences1 that there is a pleasure in talking scandal about one's friends behind their backs1 that a son causes pain to his mother by his excesses1 and that egoism is an unpleasant failing4 ,all that is true1 but it is too true4 ,we are irritated by the intrusiveness of this course of instruction4 ,wilkie paints insipid subjects1 and by one foolery after another he has made painting into a toy for good children4 ,and good children play the principal parts in these pictures4 ,as a painter1 one of ,george ,morland's pupils1 ,william ,collins1 threw the world into ecstasies by his pictures of children4 ,out of one hundred and twenty-one which he exhibited in the ,academy in the course of forty years the principal are3 the picture of ,the ,little ,flute-,player1 ,the ,sale of the ,pet ,lamb1 ,boys with a ,bird's ,nest1 ,the ,fisher's ,departure1 ,scene in a ,kentish ,hop-,garden1 and the picture of the swallows4 ,the most popular were ,happy as a ,king--a small boy whom his elder playmates have set upon a garden railing1 from which he looks down laughing proudly--and ,rustic ,civility--children who have drawn up like soldiers1 by a fence1 so as to salute some one who is approaching4 ,but it is clear from the titles of such pictures that in this province ,english genre painting did not free itself from the reproach of being episodic4 ,collins was richer in ideas than ,meyer of ,bremen4 ,his children receive earrings1 sit on their mother's knee1 play with her in the garden1 watch her sewing1 read aloud to her from their spelling-book1 learn their lessons1 and are frightened of the geese and hens which advance in a terrifying fashion towards them in the poultry-yard4 ,he is an admirable painter of children at the family table1 of the pleasant chatter of the little ones1 of the father watching his sleeping child of an evening by the light of the lamp1 with his heart full of pride and joy because he has the consciousness of working for those who are near to him4 ,being naturally very fond of children1 he has painted the life of little people with evident enjoyment of all its variations1 and yet not in a thoroughly credible fashion4 ,chardin painted the poetry of the child-world4 ,his little ones have no suspicion of the painter being near them4 ,they are harmlessly occupied with themselves1 and in their ordinary clothes4 ,those of ,collins look as if they were repeating a copybook maxim at a school examination4 ,they know that the eyes of all the sightseers in the exhibition are fixed upon them1 and they are doing their utmost to be on their best behaviour4 ,they have a lack of unconsciousness4 ,one would like to say to them3 ,my dear children1 always be good4 ,but no one is grateful to the painter for taking from children their childishness1 and for bringing into vogue that codling which had its way for so long afterwards in the pictures of children4 ,gilbert ,stuart ,newton1 an ,american by birth1 who lived in ,england from #ahbj to #ahce1 devoted himself to the illustration of ,english authors4 ,like ,wilkie1 he has a certain historical importance1 because he devoted himself with great zeal to a study of the ,dutchmen of the seventeenth century and to the ,french painters of the eighteenth1 at a time when these masters were entirely out of fashion on the ,continent and sneered at as representatives of the deepest corruption4 ,dow and ,terborg were his peculiar ideals2 and although the colour of his pictures is certainly heavy and common compared with that of his models1 it is artistic1 and shows study when one thinks of contemporary productions on the ,continent4 ,his works 7,lear attended by ,cordelia1 ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield restoring his ,daughter to her ,mother1 ,the ,prince of ,spain's ,visit to ,catalina from ,gil ,blas1 and ,yorick and the ,grisette from ,sterne71 like the pictures of the ,dsseldorfers1 would most certainly have lost in actuality but for the interest provided by the literary passages2 yet they are favourably distinguished from the literary illustrations of the ,dsseldorfers by the want of any sort of idealism4 ,while the painters of the ,continent in such pictures almost invariably fell into a rounded1 generalising ideal of beauty1 ,newton had the scene played by actors and painted them realistically4 ,the result was a theatrical realism1 but the way in which the theatrical effects are studied and the palpableness of the histrionic gestures are so convincingly true to nature that his pictures seem like records of stage art in ,london about the year #ahcj4 ,illustration3 ,,webster4 ,,the ,,rubber4 ,illustration3 ,c4 ,r4 ,,leslie4 ,,sancho ,,and ,,the ,,duchess4 ,charles ,robert ,leslie1 known as an author by his pleasant book on ,constable and a highly conservative ,handbook for ,young ,painters1 had a similar reprtoire1 and rendered in oils ,shakespeare1 ,cervantes1 ,fielding1 ,sterne1 ,goldsmith1 and ,molire1 with more or less ability4 ,the ,national ,gallery has an exceedingly prosaic and colourless picture of his1 ,sancho ,panza in the ,apartment of the ,duchess4 ,some that are in the ,south ,kensington ,museum are better2 for example1 ,the ,taming of the ,shrew1 ,the ,dinner at ,mr4 ,page's ,house from ,the ,merry ,wives of ,windsor1 and ,sir ,roger de ,coverley4 ,his finest and best-known work is ,my ,uncle ,toby and the ,widow ,wadman1 which charmingly illustrates the pretty scene in ,tristram ,shandy3 ',i protest1 madam1' said my ,uncle ,toby1 ',i can see nothing whatever in your eye4' ',it is not in the white6' said ,mrs4 ,wadman4 ,my ,uncle ,toby looked with might and main into the pupil4 ,as in ,newton's works1 so in ,leslie's too1 there is such a strong dose of realism that his pictures will always keep their value as historical documents--not for the year #afcj but for #ahcj4 ,as a colourist he was--in his later works at any rate--a delicate imitator of the ,dutch chiaroscuro2 and in the history of art he occupies a position similar to that of ,diez in ,germany1 and was esteemed in the same way1 even in later years1 when the young ,pre-,raphaelite school began its embittered war against brown sauce--the same war which a generation afterwards was waged in ,germany by ,liebermann and his followers against the school of ,diez4 ,illustration3 ,,mulready4 ,,fair ,,time4 ,mulready1 thirty-two of whose pictures are preserved in the ,south ,kensington ,museum1 is in his technique almost more delicate than ,leslie1 and he has learnt a great deal from ,metsu4 ,by preference he took his subjects out of ,goldsmith4 ,choosing the ,wedding ,gown and ,the ,whistonian ,controversy would make pretty illustrations for an dition de luxe of ,the ,vicar of ,wakefield4 ,otherwise he too had a taste for immortalising children1 by turns lazy and industrious1 at their tea or playing by the water's edge4 ,from ,thomas ,webster1 the fourth of these kindly1 childlike masters1 yet more inspiriting facts are to be obtained4 ,he has informed the world that at a not very remote period of ,english history all the agricultural labourers were quite content with their lot4 ,no one ever quarrelled with his landlord1 or sat in a public-house and let his family starve4 ,the highest bliss of these excellent people was to stay at home and play with their children by the light of a wax-candle4 ,webster's rustics1 children1 and schoolmasters are the citizens of an ideal planet1 but the little country is a pleasant world4 ,his pictures are so harmless in intention1 so neat and accurate in drawing1 and so clear and luminous in colour that they may be seen with pleasure even at the present day4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,frith4 ,,poverty ,,and ,,wealth4 ,the last of the group1 ,william ,powell ,frith1 was the most copious in giving posterity information about the manners and costumes of his contemporaries1 and would be still more authentic if life had not seemed to him so genial and roseate4 ,his pictures represent scenes of the nineteenth century1 but they seem like events of the good old times4 ,at that period people were undoubtedly good and innocent and happy4 ,they had no income-tax and no vices and worries1 and all went to heaven and felt in good spirits4 ,and so they do in ,frith's pictures1 only not so naturally as in ,ostade and ,beham4 ,for example1 he goes on the beach at a fashionable ,english watering-place during the season1 in ,july or ,august4 ,the geniality which predominates here is quite extraordinary4 ,children are splashing in the sea1 young ladies flirting1 niggers playing the barrel-organ and women singing ballads to its strains2 every one is doing his utmost to look well1 and the pair of beggars who are there for the sake of contrast have long become resigned to their fate4 ,in his racecourse pictures everything is brought together which on such occasions is representative of ,london life3 all types1 from the baronet to the ragman2 all beauties1 from the lady to the street-walker4 ,a rustic has to lose his money1 or a famished acrobat to turn his pockets inside out to assure himself that there is really nothing in them4 ,his picture of the gaming-table in ,homburg is almost richer in such examples of dry observation and humorous and spirited episode4 ,illustration3 ,,mulready4 ,,crossing ,,the ,,ford4 ,this may serve to exemplify the failures of these painters of genre4 ,not light and colour1 but anecdote1 comedy1 and genial tale-telling are the basis of their labours4 ,and yet1 notwithstanding this attempt to express literary ideas through the mediums of a totally different art1 their work is significant4 ,while continental artists avoided nothing so much as that which might seem to approach nature1 the ,english1 revolting from the thraldom of theory1 gathered subjects for their pictures from actual life4 ,these men1 indeed1 pointed out the way to painters from every country2 and they1 once on the right road1 were bound ultimately to arrive at the point from which they no longer looked on life through the glasses of the anecdotist1 but saw it with the eye of the true artist4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,,the ,,military ,,picture ,while ,english painting from the days of ,hogarth and ,wilkie embraced rustic and middle-class life1 the victory of modernity on the ,continent could only be accomplished slowly and by degrees4 ,the question of costume played an important part in it4 ,artists love antiquated costume because1 as they say1 it gives them greater sweep and freedom4 ,but ,i should like to suggest that in historical representations of their own age an eye should be kept on propriety of delineation rather than on freedom and sweep4 ,otherwise one might just as well allow an historian to talk to us about phalanxes1 battlements1 triarii1 and argyraspids in place of battalions1 squadrons1 grenadiers1 and cuirassiers4 ,the painters of the great events of the day ought1 especially1 to be more true to fact4 ,in battle-pieces1 for example1 they ought not to have cavalry shooting and sabreing about them in leather collars1 in round and plumed hats1 and the vast jack-boots which exist no longer4 ,the old masters drew1 engraved1 and painted in this way because people really dressed in such a manner at the time4 ,it is said that our costume is not picturesque1 and therefore why should we choose it8 ,but posterity will be curious to know how we clothed ourselves1 and will wish to have no gap from the eighteenth century to its own time4 ,illustration3 ,,vernet4 ,,the ,,wounded ,,zouave4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,charlet4 ,,un ,,homme ,,qui ,,bo,t ,,seul ,n',,est ,,pas ,,digne ,,de ,,vivre4 ,these words1 which the well-known ,vienna librarian ,denis wrote in #agig in his ,lesefrchte1 show how early came the problem which was at high-water mark for a generation afterwards4 ,the painting of the nineteenth century could only become modern when it succeeded in recognising and expressing the characteristic side of modern costume4 ,but to do that it took more than half a century4 ,it was1 after all1 natural that to people who had seen the graceful forms and delicate colours of the rococo time1 the garb of the first half of the century should seem the most unfortunate and the least enviable in the whole history of costume4 ,what person of artistic education is not of the opinion1 runs a passage in ,putmann's book on the ,dsseldorf school in #ahce1--what person of artistic education is not of the opinion that the dress of the present day is tasteless1 hideous1 and ape-like8 ,moreover1 can a true style be brought into harmony with hoop-petticoats and swallow-tail coats and such vagaries8 ,in our time1 therefore1 art is right in seeking out those beautiful fashions of the past1 about which tailors concern themselves so little4 ,how much longer must we go about1 unpicturesque beings1 like ugly black bats1 in swallow-tail coats and wide trousers8 ,the peasant's blouse1 indeed1 can be accepted as one of the few picturesque dresses which have yet been preserved in ,germany from the inauspicious influence of the times4 ,the same plaint is sung by ,hotho in his history of ,german and ,netherlandish painting2 the costume of his age he declares to be thoroughly prosaic and tiresome4 ,it is revolting to painters and an offence to the educated eye4 ,art must necessarily seek salvation in the past1 unless it is to wait1 and give brush and palette a holiday1 until that happy time when the costume of nations comes to its pictorial regeneration4 ,only one zone1 the realm of blouse and military uniform1 was beyond the domain of tail-coat and trousers1 and still furnished art with rich material4 ,since it was by working on uniform that plastic artists first learnt how to treat contemporary costume1 so it was the military picture that first entered the circle of modern painting4 ,by exalting the soldier into a warrior1 and the warrior into a hero1 it was here possible1 even in the times of ,david and ,carstens1 to effect a certain compromise with the ruling classical ideas4 ,grard1 ,girodet--to some extent even ,gros--made abundant use of the mask of the ,greek or ,roman warrior1 with the object of admitting the battle-piece into painting in the grand style4 ,the real heroes of the ,napoleonic epoch had not this plastic appearance nor these epic attitudes4 ,classicism altered their physiognomies and gave them1 most illogically1 the air of old marble statues4 ,it was ,horace ,vernet who freed battle painting from this anathema4 ,this1 but little else1 stands to his credit4 ,together with his son-in-law ,paul ,delaroche1 ,horace ,vernet is the most genuine product of the ,juste-milieu period4 ,the king with the umbrella founded the ,museum of ,versailles1 that monstrous dept of daubed canvas1 which is a horrifying memory to any one who has ever wandered through it4 ,however1 it is devoted toutes les gloires de la ,france4 ,in a few years a suite of galleries1 which it takes almost two hours merely to pass through from end to end1 was filled with pictures of all sizes1 bringing home the history of the country1 from ,charlemagne to the ,african expedition of ,louis ,philippe1 under all circumstances which are in any way flattering to ,french pride4 ,for miles numberless manufacturers of painting bluster from the walls4 ,as pictor celerrimus ,horace ,vernet had the command-in-chief1 and became so famous by his chronicle of the conquest of ,algiers that for a long time he was held by trooper1 ,philistine1 and all the kings and emperors of ,europe as the greatest painter in ,france4 ,he was the last scion of a celebrated dynasty of artists1 and had taken a brush in his hand from the moment he threw away his child's rattle4 ,a good deal of talent had been given him in his cradle3 sureness of eye1 lightness of hand1 and an enviable memory4 ,his vision was correct1 if not profound2 he painted his pictures without hesitation1 and is favourably distinguished from many of his contemporaries by his independence3 he owes no one anything1 and reveals his own qualities without arraying himself in those of other people4 ,only these qualities are not of an order which gives his pictures artistic interest4 ,the spark of ,gricault's genius1 which seems to have been transmitted to him in the beginning1 was completely quenched in his later years4 ,having swiftly attained popularity by the aid of lithography which circulated his ,mazeppa through the whole world1 he became afterwards a bad and vulgar painter1 without poetry1 light1 or colour2 a reporter who expressed himself in banal prose and wounded all the finer spirits of his age4 ,i loathe this man1 said ,baudelaire1 as early as #ahdf4 ,illustration3 ,,auguste ,,marie ,,raffet4 ,devoid of any sense of the tragedy of war1 which ,gros possessed in such a high degree1 ,vernet treated battles like performances at the circus4 ,his pictures have movement without passion1 and magnitude without greatness4 ,if it had been required of him1 he would have daubed all the boulevards2 his picture of ,smala is certainly not so long1 but there would have been no serious difficulty in lengthening it by half a mile4 ,this incredible stenographical talent won for him his popularity4 ,he was decorated with all the orders in the world4 ,the bourgeois felt happy when he looked at ,vernet's pictures1 and the paterfamilias promised to buy a horse for his little boy4 ,the soldiers called him mon colonel1 and would not have been surprised if he had been made a ,marshal of ,france4 ,a lover of art passes the pictures of ,vernet with the sentiment which the old colonel owned to entertaining towards music4 ,are you fond of music1 colonel8 asked a lady4 ,madame1 ,i am not afraid of it4 ,illustration3 ,,raffet4 ,,the ,,parade4 ,the trivial realism of his workmanship is as tedious as the unreal heroism of his soldiers4 ,in the manner in which he conceived the trooper1 ,vernet stands between the ,classicists and the moderns4 ,he did not paint ancient warriors1 but ,french soldiers3 he knew them as a corporal knows his men1 and by this respect for prescribed regulation he was prevented from turning them into ,romans4 ,but though he disregarded ,classicism1 in outward appearance1 he did not drop the heroic tone4 ,he always saw the soldier as the bold defender of his country1 the warrior performing daring deeds1 as in the ,battle of ,alexander2 and in this way he gave his pictures their unpleasant air of bluster4 ,for neither modern tactics nor modern cannon admit of the prominence of the individual as it is to be seen in ,vernet's pictures4 ,the soldier of the nineteenth century is no longer a warrior1 but the unit in a multitude2 he does what he is ordered1 and for that he has no need of the spirit of an ancient hero2 he kills or is killed1 without seeing his enemy or being seen himself4 ,the course of a battle advances1 move by move1 according to mathematical calculation4 ,it is therefore false to represent soldiers in heroic attitudes1 or even to suggest deeds of heroism on the part of those in command4 ,in giving his orders and directing a battle a general has to behave pretty much as he does at home at his writing-table4 ,and he is never in the battle1 as he is represented by ,horace ,vernet2 on the contrary1 he remains at a considerable distance off4 ,therefore1 even with the dimensions of which ,vernet availed himself1 the exact portrait of a modern battle is exclusively an affair for panorama1 but never for the flat surface of a picture4 ,a picture must confine itself1 either to the field-marshal directing the battle from a distance upon a hill in the midst of his staff1 or else to little pictorial episodes in the individual life of the soldier4 ,the gradual development from unreal battle-pieces to simple episodic paintings can be followed step by step in the following works4 ,illustration3 ,,raffet4 #ahjg4 ,what was painted for the ,versailles ,museum in connection with deeds of arms in the ,crimean ,war and the ,italian campaign kept more or less to the blustering official style of ,horace ,vernet4 ,in the galleries of ,versailles the battles of ,wagram1 ,loano1 and ,altenkirche 7#ahcg-ci71 and an episode from the retreat from ,russia 7#ahea71 represent the work of ,hippolyte ,bellang4 ,these are huge lithochromes which have been very carefully executed4 ,adolphe ,yvon1 who is responsible for ,the ,taking of ,malakoff1 ,the ,battle of ,magenta1 and ,the ,battle of ,solferino1 is a more tedious painter1 and remained during his whole life a pupil of ,delaroche2 he laid chief stress on finished and rounded composition1 and gave his soldiers no more appearance of life than could be forced into the accepted academic convention4 ,the fame of ,isidor ,pils1 who immortalised the disembarkation of the ,french troops in the ,crimea1 the battle of ,alma1 and the reception of ,arab chiefs by ,napoleon ,,iii1 has paled with equal rapidity4 ,he could paint soldiers1 but not battles1 and1 like ,yvon1 he was too precise in the composition of his works4 ,in consequence they have as laboured an effect in arrangement as they have in colour4 ,he was completely wanting in sureness and spontaneity4 ,it is only his water-colours that hold one's attention2 and this they do at any rate by their unaffected actuality1 and in spite of their dull and heavy colour4 ,alexandre ,protais verged more on the sentimental4 ,he loved soldiers1 and therefore had the less toleration for war1 which swept the handsome young fellows away4 ,two pendants1 ,the ,morning before the ,attack and ,the ,evening after the ,battle1 founded his reputation in #ahfc4 ,the first showed a group of riflemen waiting in excitement for the first bullets of the enemy2 the second represented the same men in the evening delighted with their victory1 but at the same time--and here you have the note of ,protais--mournful over the loss of their comrades4 ,the ,prisoners and ,the ,parting of #ahgb owed their success to the same lachrymose and melodramatic sensibility4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,raffet4 ,,polish ,,infantry4 ,illustration3 ,,raffet4 ,,the ,,midnight ,,review4 ,c'est la grande revue ,qu'aux ,champs-,elyses ,a l'heure de minuit ,tient ,csar dcd4 ,a couple of mere lithographists1 soldiers' sons1 in whom a repining for the ,napoleonic legend still found its echo1 were the first great military painters of modern ,france4 ,charlet and ,raffet1 wrote ,brger-,thor in his ,salon of #ahde1 are the two artists who best understand the representation of that almost vanished type1 the trooper of the ,empire2 and after ,gros they will assuredly endure as the principal historians of that warlike era4 ,charlet1 the painter of the old bear ,napoleon ,i1 might almost be called the ,branger of painting4 ,the little ,corporal1 the great ,emperor appears and reappears in his pictures and drawings without intermission2 his work is an epic in pencil of the grey coat and the little hat4 ,from his youth he employed himself with military studies1 which were furthered in ,gros' studio1 which he entered in #ahag4 ,the ,grco-,roman ideal did not exist for him1 and he was indifferent to beauty of form4 ,his was one of those natures which have a natural turn for actual fact2 he had a power for characterisation1 and in his many water-colours and lithographs he was merely concerned with the proper expression of his ideas4 ,how it came that ,delacroix had so great a respect for him was nevertheless explained when his ,episode in the ,retreat from ,russia1 in the ,world ,exhibition of #ahhi1 emerged from the obscurity of the ,lyons ,museum2 it is perhaps his best and most important picture4 ,when it appeared in the ,salon of #ahcf1 ,alfred de ,musset wrote that it was not an episode but a complete poem2 he went on to say that the artist had painted the despair in the wilderness1 and that1 with its gloomy heaven and disconsolate horizon1 the picture gave the impression of infinite disaster4 ,after fifty years it had lost none of its value4 ,since the reappearance of this picture it has been recognised that ,charlet was not merely the specialist of old grey heads with their noses reddened with brandy1 the ,molire of barracks and canteens1 but that he understood all the tragical sublimity of war1 from which ,horace ,vernet merely produced trivial anecdotes4 ,illustration3 ,mag4 of ,art4 ,,ernest ,,meissonier4 ,beside him stands his pupil ,raffet1 the special painter of the grande arme4 ,he mastered the brilliant figure of ,napoleon2 he followed it from ,ajaccio to ,st4 ,helena1 and never left it until he had said everything that was to be said about it4 ,he showed the little ,corsican as the general of the ,italian campaign1 ghastly pale and consumed with ambition2 the ,bonaparte of the ,pyramids and of ,cairo2 the ,emperor ,napoleon on the parade-ground reviewing his ,grenadiers2 the triumphal hero of #ahjg with the ,cuirassiers dashing past1 brandishing their sabres with a hurrah2 the ,titan of ,beresina riding slowly over the waste of snow1 and1 in the very midst of disaster1 spying a new star of fortune2 the war-god of #ahac1 the great hypnotiser greeted even by the dying with a cry of ,long life to the ,emperor2 the adventurer of #ahad1 riding at the head of shattered troops over a barren wilderness2 the vanquished hero of #ahae1 who1 in the midst of his last square1 in the thick of his beloved battalions1 calls fickle fate once more into the lists2 and the captive lion who1 from the bridge of the ship1 casts a last look on the coast of ,france as it fades in the mist4 ,he has called the ,emperor from the grave1 as a ghostly power1 to hold a midnight review of the grande arme4 ,and with love and passion and enthusiasm he has followed the instrument of these victories1 the ,french soldiers1 the swordsmen of seven years' service1 through bivouac and battle1 on the march and on parade1 as patrols and outposts4 ,the ragged and shoeless troops of the ,empire are portrayed in his plates1 with a touch of real sublimity1 in defeat and in victory4 ,the empty inflated expression of martial enthusiasm has been avoided by him2 everything is true and earnest4 ,in a masterly fashion he could make soldiers deploy in masses4 ,no one has known in the same way how to render the impression of the multitude of an army1 the notion of men standing shoulder to shoulder1 the welding of thousands of individuals into one complete entity4 ,in ,raffet a regiment is a thousand-headed living being that has but one soul1 one moral nature1 one spirit1 one sentiment of willing sacrifice and heroic courage4 ,his death was as adventurous as his life2 he passed away in a hotel in ,genoa1 and was brought back to ,french soil as part of the cargo of a merchant ship4 ,for a long time his fame was thrown into the shade1 at first by the triumphs of ,horace ,vernet1 and then by those of ,meissonier1 until at length a fitting record was devoted to him by the piety of his son ,auguste4 ,never had ,ernest ,meissonier to complain of want of recognition4 ,after his rococo pictures had been deemed worth their weight in gold he climbed to the summit of his fame1 his universal celebrity and his popularity in ,france1 when he devoted himself in the sixties to the representation of ,french military history4 ,the year #ahei took him to ,italy in the train of ,napoleon ,,iii4 ,meissonier was chosen to spread the martial glory of the ,emperor1 and1 as the nephew was fond of drawing parallels between himself and his mighty uncle1 ,meissonier was obliged to depict suitable occasions from the life of the first ,napoleon4 ,his admirers were very curious to know how the great little painter would acquit himself in such a monumental task4 ,first came the ,battle of ,solferino1 that picture of the ,muse ,luxembourg which represents ,napoleon ,,iii overlooking the battle from a height in the midst of his staff4 ,after lengthy preparations it appeared in the ,salon of #ahfd1 and showed that the painter had not been untrue to himself3 he had simply adapted the minute technique of his rococo pictures to the painting of war1 and he remained the ,dutch little master in all the battle-pieces which followed4 ,napoleon ,,iii had no further deeds of arms to record1 so the intended parallel series was never accomplished4 ,it is true1 indeed1 that he took the painter with the army in #ahgj2 but after the first battle was lost1 ,meissonier went home3 he did not wish to immortalise the struggles of a retreat4 ,henceforward his brush was consecrated to the first ,napoleon4 #ahje depicts the triumphant advance to the height of fame2 #ahjg shows ,napoleon when the summit has been reached and the soldiers are cheering their idol in exultation2 #ahad represents the fall3 the star of fortune has vanished2 victory1 so long faithful to the man of might1 has deserted his banners4 ,there is still a look of indomitable energy on the pale face of the ,emperor1 as1 in utter despair1 he aims his last shot against the traitor destiny2 but his eyes seem weary1 his mouth is contorted1 and his features are wasted with fever4 ,illustration3 ,,meissonier4 #ahad4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,georges ,petit1 the owner of the copyright47 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,meissonier4 ,,the ,,outpost4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,georges ,petit1 the owner of the copyright47 ,meissonier has treated all these works with the carefulness which he expended on his little rococo pictures4 ,to give an historically accurate representation of ,napoleon's boots he did not content himself with borrowing them from the museum4 ,walking and riding--for he was a passionate horseman--he wore for months together boots of the same make and form as those of the little ,corporal4 ,to get the colour of the horses of the ,emperor and his marshals1 in their full-grown winter coat1 and to paint them just as they must have appeared after the hardships and negligence of a campaign1 he bought animals of the same race and colour as those ridden by the ,emperor and his generals1 according to tradition1 and picketed them for weeks in the snow and rain4 ,his models were forced to wear out the uniforms in sun and storm before he painted them2 he bought weapons and harness at fancy prices when he could not borrow them from museums4 ,and there is no need to say that he copied all the portraits of ,napoleon1 ,ney1 ,soult1 and the other generals that were to be had1 and read through whole libraries before beginning his ,napoleon series4 ,to paint the picture #ahad1 which is generally reckoned his greatest performance--,napoleon at the head of his staff riding through a snow-clad landscape--he first prepared the scenery on a spot in the plain of ,champagne1 corresponding to the original locality1 just as he did in earlier years with his interiors of the rococo period2 he even had the road laid out on which he wished to paint the ,emperor advancing4 ,then he waited for the first fall of snow1 and had artillery1 cavalry1 and infantry to march for him upon this snowy path1 and actually contrived that overturned transport waggons1 discarded arms1 and baggage should be decoratively strewn about the landscape4 ,from these laborious preparations it may be understood that he spent almost as many millions of francs upon his pictures as he received4 ,in his article1 ,what an ,old ,work of ,art is ,worth1 ,julius ,lessing has admirably dealt with the hidden ways of taste and commerce applied to art4 ,amongst all painters of modern times ,meissonier is the only one whose pictures1 during his own lifetime1 fetched prices such as are only reached by the works of famous old masters of the greatest epochs4 ,and yet he sold them straight from his easel1 and never to dealers4 ,meissonier avenged himself magnificently for the privations of his youth4 ,in #ahcb1 when he gave up his apprenticeship with ,menier1 the great chocolate manufacturer1 to become a painter1 he had fifteen francs a month to spend4 ,he had great difficulty in disposing of his drawings and illustrations for five or ten francs1 and was often obliged to console himself with a roll for the want of a dinner4 ,only ten years later he was able to purchase a small place in ,poissy1 near ,st4 ,germain1 where he went for good in #ahej1 to give himself up to work without interruption4 ,gradually this little property became a pleasant country seat1 and in due course of time the stately house in ,paris1 in the ,boulevard ,malesherbes1 was added to it4 ,his ,napoleon1 #ahad1 for which the painter himself received three hundred thousand francs1 was bought at an auction by one of the owners of the ,grands ,magasins du ,louvre for eight hundred and fifty thousand francs2 ,napoleon ,,iii at ,solferino brought him two hundred thousand1 and ,the ,charge of the ,cuirassiers three hundred thousand4 ,and in general1 after #ahej1 he only painted for such sums4 ,it was calculated that he received about five thousand francs for every centimetre of painted canvas1 and left behind him pictures which1 according to present rate1 were worth more than twenty million francs1 without having really become a rich man2 for1 as a rule1 every picture that he painted cost him several thousand4 ,and ,meissonier never sacrificed himself to money-making and the trade4 ,he never put a stroke on paper without the conviction that he could not make it better1 and for this artistic earnestness he was universally honoured1 even by his colleagues1 to his very death4 ,as master beyond dispute he let the ,classicists1 ,romanticists1 ,impressionists1 and ,symbolists pass by the window of his lonely studio1 and always remained the same4 ,a little man with a firm step1 an energetic figure1 eyes that shone like coals1 thick1 closely cropped hair1 and the beard of a river-god1 that always seemed to grow longer1 at eighty years of age he was as hale and active as at thirty4 ,by a systematic routine of life he kept his physique elastic1 and was able to maintain that unintermittent activity under which another man would have broken down4 ,during long years ,meissonier went to rest at eight every evening1 slept till midnight1 and then worked at his drawings by lamplight into the morning4 ,in the course of the day he made his studies from nature and painted4 ,diffident in society and hard of access1 he did not permit himself to be disturbed in his indefatigable diligence by any social demands4 ,a sharp ride1 a swim or a row was his only relaxation4 ,in #ahdh1 as captain of the ,national ,guard1 he had taken part in the street and barricade fighting2 and again in #ahga1 when he was sixty-six1 he clattered through the streets of the capital1 with the dangling sword he had so often painted and a gold-laced cap stuck jauntily on one side1 as a smart staff-officer4 ,even the works of his old age showed no exhaustion of power1 and there is something great in attaining ripe years without outliving one's reputation4 ,as late as the spring of #ahij1 only a short time before his death1 he was the leader of youth1 when it transmigrated from the ,palais des ,champs ,elyses to the ,champ de ,mars2 and he exhibited in this new ,salon his ,october #ahjf1 with which he closed his ,napoleonic epic and his general activity as a painter4 ,halting on a hill1 the ,emperor in his historical grey coat1 mounted on a powerful grey1 is thoughtfully watching the course of the battle1 without troubling himself about the ,cuirassiers who salute him exultantly as they storm by1 or about the brilliant staff which has taken up position behind him4 ,not a feature moves in the sallow1 cameo-like face of the ,corsican4 ,the sky is lowering and full of clouds4 ,in the foreground lie a couple of dead soldiers1 in whose uniform every button has been painted with the same conscientious care that was bestowed on the buttons of the rococo coats of fifty years before4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,alphonse ,,de ,,neuville4 ,beyond this inexhaustible correctness ,i can really see nothing that can be said for ,meissonier's fame as an artist4 ,he1 whose name is honoured in both hemispheres1 was most peculiarly the son of his own work4 ,the genius for the infinitesimal has never been carried further4 ,he knew everything that a man can learn4 ,the movements in his pictures are correct1 the physiognomies interesting1 the delicacy of execution indescribable1 and his horses have been so exactly studied that they stand the test of instantaneous photography4 ,but painter1 in the proper sense1 he never was4 ,precisely through their marvellous minuteness of execution--a minuteness which is merely attractive as a trial of patience and as an example of what the brush can do--his pictures are wanting in unity of conception1 and they leave one cold by the hardness of their contours1 the aridness of their colour1 and the absence of all vibrating1 nervous feeling4 ,in a cavalry charge1 with the whirling dust and the snorting horses1 who thinks of costume8 ,and who thinks of anything else when ,meissonier paints a charge8 ,here are life and movement1 and there a museum of military uniforms4 ,when ,manet saw ,meissonier's ,cuirassiers he said1 ,everything is iron here except the cuirasses4 ,his rococo pictures are probably his best performances2 they even express a certain amount of temperament4 ,his military pictures make one chilly4 ,reproduced in woodcuts they are good illustrations for historical works1 but as pictures they repel the eye1 because they lack air and light and spirit4 ,they rouse nothing except astonishment at the patience and incredible industry that went to the making of them4 ,one sees everything in them--everything that the painter can have seen--to the slightest detail2 only one does not rightly come into contact with the artist himself4 ,his battle-pieces stand high above the scenic pictures of ,horace ,vernet and ,hippolyte ,bellang1 but they have nothing of the warmth of ,raffet or the vibrating life of ,neuville4 ,there is nothing in them that is contagious and carries one away1 or that appeals to the heart4 ,patience is a virtue3 genius is a gift4 ,precious without originality1 intelligent without imagination1 dexterous without verve1 elegant without charm1 refined and subtile without delicacy1 ,meissonier has all the qualities that interest1 and none of those which lay hold of one4 ,he was a painter of a distinctness which causes astonishment1 but not admiration2 an artist for epicures1 but for those of the second order1 who pay the more highly for works of art in proportion as they value their artifice4 ,his pictures recall the unseasonable compliment which ,charles ,blanc made to ,ingres3 ,cher matre1 vous avez devin la photographie trente ans avant qu'il y eut des photographes4 ,or else one thinks of that malicious story of which ,jules ,dupr is well known as the author4 ,suppose1 said he1 that you are a great personage who has just bought a ,meissonier4 ,your valet enters the salon where it is hanging4 ',ah6 ,monsieur1' he cries1 'what a beautiful picture you have bought6 ,that is a masterpiece6' ,another time you buy a ,rembrandt1 and show it to your valet1 in the expectation that he will at any rate be overcome by the same raptures4 ,mais non6 ,this time the man looks embarrassed4 ',ah6 ,monsieur1' he says1 'il faut s'y connatre1' and away he goes4 ,guillaume ,regamey1 who is far less known1 supplies what is wanting in ,meissonier4 ,sketchy and of a highly strung nervous temperament1 he could not adapt himself to the picture-market2 but the history of art honours him as the most spirited draughtsman of the ,french soldier1 after ,gricault and ,raffet4 ,he did not paint him turned out for parade1 ironed and smartened up1 but in the worst trim4 ,syria1 the ,crimea1 ,italy1 and the ,east are mingled with the difference of their types and the brightness of their exotic costumes4 ,he had a great love for the catlike1 quick-glancing chivalry of ,turcos and ,sapphis2 but especially he loved the cavalry4 ,his ,chasseurs d',afrique are part and parcel of their horses1 like centaurs1 and many of his cavalry groups recall the frieze of the ,parthenon4 ,unfortunately he died at thirty-eight1 shortly before the war of #ahgj1 the historians of which were the younger painters1 who had grown up in the shadow of ,meissonier4 ,illustration3 ,,de ,,neuville4 ,,le ,,bourget4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,goupil1 the owners of the copyright47 ,illustration3 ,d,,taille4 ,,salut ,,aux ,,bless,s4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,goupil1 the owners of the copyright47 ,the most important of the group1 ,alphonse de ,neuville1 had looked at war very closely as an officer during the siege of ,paris1 and in this way he made himself a fine illustrator1 who in his anecdotic pictures specially understood the secret of painting powder-smoke and the vehemence of a fusillade4 ,the ,bivouac before ,le ,bourget brought him his first success4 ,the ,last ,cartridges1 ,le ,bourget1 and ,the ,graveyard of ,saint-,privat made him a popular master4 ,neuville is peculiarly the ,french painter of fighting4 ,he did not know1 as ,charlet did1 the soldier in time of peace1 the peasant lad of yesterday who only cares about his stomach and has little taste for martial adventure4 ,his soldier is an elegant and enthusiastic youthful hero4 ,he even neglected the troops of the line2 his preference was for the ,chasseur1 whose cap is stuck jauntily on his head and whose trousers fall better4 ,he loved the plumes1 the high boots of the officers1 the sword-knots1 canes1 and eye-glasses4 ,everything received grace from his dexterous hand2 he even saw in the trooper a gallant and ornamental bibelot1 which he painted with chivalrous verve4 ,the pictures of ,aim ,morot1 the painter of ,the ,charge of the ,cuirassiers1 possibly smell most of powder4 ,neuville's frequently over-praised rival1 ,meissonier's favourite pupil1 ,edouard ,dtaille1 after he had started with pretty little costume pictures from the ,directoire period1 went further on the way of his teacher with less laboriousness and more lightness1 with less calculation and more sincerity4 ,the best of his works was ,salut aux ,blesss--the representation of a troop of wounded ,prussian officers and soldiers on a country road1 passing a ,french general and his staff1 who with graceful chivalry lift their caps and salute the wounded men4 ,dtaille's great pictures1 such as ,the ,presentation of the ,colours1 and his panoramas were as accurate as they were tedious and arid1 although they are far superior to most of the efforts which the ,germans made to depict scenes from the war of #ahgj4 ,illustration3 ,soldan1 ,nrnberg4 ,,albrecht ,,adam ,,and ,,his ,,sons4 ,in ,germany the great period of the wars of liberation first inspired a group of painters with the courage to enter the province of battle-painting1 which had been so much despised by their classical colleagues4 ,germany had been turned into a great camp4 ,prussian1 ,french1 ,austrian1 ,russian1 and ,bavarian troops passed in succession through the towns and villages3 long trains of cannon and transport waggons came in their wake1 and friends and foes were billeted amongst the inhabitants2 the ,napoleonic epoch was enacted4 ,such scenes followed each other like the gay slides in a magic lantern1 and once more gave to some among the younger generation eyes for the outer world4 ,there was awakened in them the capacity for receiving impressions of reality and transferring them swiftly to paper4 ,two hundred years before1 the emancipation of ,dutch art from the ,italian house of bondage had been accomplished in precisely the same fashion4 ,the ,dutch struggle for freedom and the ,thirty ,years' ,war had filled ,holland with numbers of soldiery4 ,the doings of these mercenaries1 daily enacted before them in rich costume and with manifold brightness1 riveted the pictorial feeling of artists4 ,echoes of war1 fighting scenes1 skirmishes and tumult1 the incidents of camp life1 arming1 billeting1 and marauding episodes are the first independent products of the ,dutch school4 ,then the more peaceable doings of soldiers are represented4 ,at ,haarlem1 in the neighbourhood of ,frans ,hals1 were assembled the painters of social pieces1 as they are called2 pieces in which soldiers1 bold and rollicking officers1 make merry with gay maidens at wine and play and love4 ,from thence the artist came to the portrayal of a peasantry passing their time in the same rough1 free and easy life1 and thence onward to the representation of society in towns4 ,illustration3 ,,adam4 ,a ,,stable ,,in ,,town4 ,german painting in the nineteenth century took the same road4 ,eighty years ago foreign troops1 and the extravagantly picturesque and often ragged uniforms of the ,republican army1 the characteristic and often wild physiognomies of the ,french soldiers1 gave artists their first fresh and variously hued impressions4 ,painters of military subjects make their studies1 not in the antiquity class of the academy1 but upon the parade-ground and in the camp4 ,later1 when the warlike times were over1 they passed from the portrayal of soldiers to that of rustics2 and so they laid the foundation on which future artists built4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,hess4 ,,the ,,reception ,,of ,,king ,,otto ,,in ,,nauplia4 ,in ,berlin ,franz ,krger and in ,munich ,albrecht ,adam and ,peter ,hess were figures of individual character1 belonging to the spiritual family of ,chodowiecki and ,gottfried ,schadow2 and1 entirely undisturbed by classical theories or romantic reverie1 they penetrated the life around them with a clear and sharp glance4 ,they lacked1 indeed1 the temperament to comprehend either the high poetic tendencies of the old ,munich school or the sentimental enthusiasm of the old ,dsseldorf4 ,on the other hand1 they were unhackneyed artists1 facing facts in a completely unprejudiced spirit3 entirely self-reliant1 they refused to form themselves upon any model derived from the old masters2 they had never had a teacher and never enjoyed academic instruction4 ,this nave straightforwardness makes their painting a half-barbaric product2 something which has been allowed to run wild4 ,but in a period of archological resuscitations1 pedantic brooding over the past and slavish imitation of the ancients1 it seems1 for this very reason1 the first independent product of the nineteenth century4 ,as vigorous1 matter-of-fact realists they know nothing of more delicate charms1 but represented fact for all it was worth and as honestly and conscientiously as was humanly possible4 ,they are lacking in the distinctively pictorial character1 but they are absolutely untouched by the ,classicism of the epoch4 ,they never dream of putting the uniforms of their warriors upon antique statues4 ,it is this downright honesty that renders their pictures not merely irreplaceable as documents for the history of civilisation1 and in spite of their unexampled frigidity1 hardness1 and gaudiness1 lends them1 even from the standpoint of art1 a certain innovating quality4 ,in a pleasantly written autobiography ,albrecht ,adam has himself described the drift of historical events which made him a painter of battles4 ,he was a confectioner's apprentice in ,nrdlingen when1 in the year #ahjj1 the marches of the ,french army began in the neighbourhood4 ,in an inn he began to sketch sergeants and ,grenadiers1 and went proudly home with the pence that he earned in this way4 ,adam1 when there's war1 ,i'll take you into the field with me1 said an old major-general1 who was the purchaser of his first works4 ,that came to pass in #ahji1 when the ,bavarians went with ,napoleon against ,austria4 ,after a few weeks he was in the thick of raging battle4 ,he saw ,napoleon1 the ,crown-,prince ,ludwig1 and ,general ,wrede1 was present at the battles of ,abensberg1 ,eckmhl1 and ,wagram1 and came to ,vienna with his portfolios full of sketches4 ,there his portraits and pictures of the war found favour with the officers1 and ,eugne ,beauharnais1 ,viceroy of ,italy1 took him to ,upper ,italy and afterwards to ,russia4 ,he was an eye-witness of the battles at ,borodino and on the ,moskwa1 and saved himself from the conflagration of ,moscow by his courage and determination4 ,a true soldier1 he mounted a horse when he was sixty-two years of age to be present on the ,italian expedition of the ,austrian army under ,radetzky in #ahdh4 ,his battle-pieces are therefore the result of personal experience4 ,when campaigning he led the same life as the soldiers whom he portrayed1 and as he proceeded in this portrayal with the objective quietness and fidelity of an historian1 his artistic productions are invaluable as documents4 ,even where he could not draw as an eye-witness he invariably made studies afterwards1 endeavouring to collect the most reliable material upon the spot1 and preparing it with the utmost conscientiousness4 ,the ground occupied by bodies of troops1 the marshalling of them1 and the conflict of masses1 together with the smallest episodes1 are represented with simplicity and reality4 ,in the portrayal of the soldier's life in time of peace he was inexhaustible4 ,just as vividly could he render horses undergoing the strain of the march and in the tumult of battle as in the stall1 the farm-horse of the transport waggon no less than the noble creature ridden for parade4 ,that his colour was sharp and hard1 and his pictures therefore devoid of harmony1 is to be explained by the helplessness of the age in regard to colouring4 ,only his last pictures1 such as ,the ,battle on the ,moskwa1 have a certain harmony of hue2 and there is no doubt that this is to be set to the account of his son ,franz4 ,after ,adam1 the father of ,german battle-painters1 ,peter ,hess made an epoch by the earnestness and actuality of his pictures4 ,he too accompanied ,general ,wrede on the #ahac-ae campaigns1 and has left behind him exceedingly healthy1 sane1 and objectively viewed ,cossack scenes1 bivouacs1 and the like1 belonging to this period2 though in his great pictures he aimed at totality of effect just as little as ,adam4 ,confused by the complexity of his material1 he only ventured to single out individual incidents1 and then put them together on the canvas after the fashion of a mosaic2 and1 to make the nature of the action as clear as possible1 he assumed as his standpoint the perspective view of a bird4 ,of course1 pictures produced in this way make an effect which is artistically childish1 but as the primitive endeavours of modern ,german art they will keep their place4 ,the best known of his pictures are those inspired by the choice of ,prince ,otto of ,bavaria as ,king of ,greece1 especially ,the ,reception of ,king ,otto in ,nauplia1 which is to be found in the new ,pinakothek in ,munich4 ,in spite of its hard1 motley1 and quite impossible colouring1 and its petty pedantry of execution1 this is a picture which will not lose its value as an historical source4 ,vigorous ,franz ,krger had been long known in ,berlin1 by his famous pictures of horses1 before the ,emperor of ,russia in #ahbi commissioned him to paint1 on a huge canvas1 the great parade on the ,opernplatz in ,berlin1 where he had reviewed his regiment of ,cuirassiers before the ,king of ,prussia4 ,from that time such parade pictures became ,krger's specialty2 especially famous is the great parade of #ahci1 with the likenesses of those who at the time played a political or literary part in ,berlin4 ,in these works he has left a true reflection of old ,berlin1 and bridged over the chasm between ,chodowiecki and ,menzel3 this is specially the case with his curiously objective water-colour portrait heads4 ,mention should be made of ,karl ,steffeck as a pupil of ,krger1 and ,theodor ,horschelt--in addition to ,franz ,adam--as a pupil of ,adam4 ,by ,steffeck1 a healthy1 vigorous realist1 there are some well-painted portraits of horses1 and by ,th4 ,horschelt1 who in #aheh took part in the fights of the ,russians against the ,circassians in the ,caucasus1 there survive some of the spirited and masterly pen-and-ink sketches which he published collectively in his ,memories from the ,caucasus4 ,franz ,adam1 who first published a collection of lithographs on the ,italian campaign of #ahdh in connection with ,raffet1 and in the ,italian war of #ahei painted his first masterpiece1 a scene from the battle of ,solferino1 owes his finest successes--although he had taken no part in it--to the war of #ahgj4 ,in respect of harmony of colouring he is perhaps the finest painter of battle-pieces ,germany has produced4 ,as ,i shall later have no opportunity of doing so1 ,i must mention here the works of ,josef ,brandt1 the best of ,franz ,adam's pupils4 ,they are painted with verve and chivalrous feeling4 ,there is a flame and a sparkle1 both in the forms of his warriors and of his horses1 in his pictures of old ,polish cavalry battles4 ,everything is aristocratic3 the distinction of the grey colouring no less than the ductile drawing with its chivalrous sentiment4 ,in everything there breathes life1 vigour1 fire1 and freshness3 the ,east of ,eugne ,fromentin translated into ,polish4 ,heinrich ,lang1 a spirited draughtsman1 who had the art of seizing the most difficult positions and motions of a horse1 embodied the wild tumult of cavalry charges 7,the ,charge of the ,bredow ,brigade1 ,the ,charge at ,floing1 etc47 in rapid pictures of incisive power1 though otherwise the heroic deeds of the ,germans in #ahgj resulted in but few heroic deeds in art4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,xix ,,italy ,,and ,,the ,,east ,in the beginning of the century the man who did not wear a uniform was not a proper subject for art unless he lived in ,italy as a peasant or a robber4 ,that is to say1 painters were either archologists or tourists2 when they did not dive into the past they sought their romantic ideal in the distance4 ,italy1 where monumental painting had first seen the light1 was the earliest goal for travellers1 and satisfied the desire of artists1 since1 for the rest of the world1 it was still enveloped in poetic mystery4 ,only in ,rome1 in ,naples1 and in ,tuscany was it thought possible to meet with human beings who had not become vulgar and hideous under the influence of civilisation4 ,there they still preserved something of the beauty of ,grecian statues4 ,there artists were less afraid of being diverted from absolute beauty by the study of nature1 and thus an important principle was carried4 ,instead of copying directly from antique statues1 as ,david and ,mengs had done before them1 painters began to study the descendants of those who had been the models of the old ,roman sculptors2 and so it was that1 almost against their will1 they turned from museums to look rather more closely into nature1 and from the past to cast a glance into the present4 ,to ,leopold ,robert belongs the credit of having opened out this new province to an art which was enclosed in the narrow bounds of ,classicism4 ,he owes his success with the public of the twenties and his place in the history of art entirely to the fact that in spite of his strict classical training he was one of the first to interest himself1 however little1 in contemporary life4 ,hundreds of artists had wandered into ,italy and seen nothing but the antique until this young man set out from ,neufchtel in #ahah and became the painter of the ,italian people4 ,what struck him at the first glance was the character of the people1 together with their curious habits and usages1 and their rude and picturesque garb4 ,he wished to render this with all fidelity1 and especially to do honour to the absolute nobility of that people which still bore a trace of the heroic greatness of their forefathers4 ,above all1 he fancied that he could find this phenomenon of atavism amongst the bandits2 and as ,sonnino1 an old brigand nest1 had been taken and the inhabitants removed to ,engelsburg shortly after his arrival1 a convenient opportunity was offered to him for making his studies in this place4 ,the pictures of brigand life which he painted in the beginning of the twenties soon found a most profitable market4 ,dear ,m4 ,robert1 said the fashionable guests who visited his studio by the dozen1 could you paint a little brigand1 if it is not asking too much8 ,robbers with sentimental qualms were particularly prized3 for instance1 at the moment when they were fondling their wives1 or praying remorsefully to ,god1 or watching over the bed of a sick child4 ,from brigands he made a transition to the girls of ,sorrento1 ,frascati1 ,capri1 and ,procida1 and to shepherd lads1 fishers1 pilgrims1 hermits1 and pifferari4 ,early in the twenties1 when he made an exhibition of a number of these little pictures in ,rome1 it effectually prepared the way for his fame2 and when he sent a succession of larger pictures to the ,paris ,salon in #ahbd-ca he was held as one of the most brilliant masters of the ,french school1 to whom ,romanticists and ,classicists paid the same honour4 ,in the first of these pictures1 painted in #ahbd1 he had represented a number of peasants listening to a ,neapolitan fisherman improvising to the accompaniment of a harmonica4 ,the ,return from a ,pilgrimage to the ,madonna dell' ,arco of #ahbg is the painting of a triumphal waggon yoked with oxen4 ,upon it are seated lads and maidens adorned with foliage1 and in their gay ,sunday best4 ,an old lazzarone is playing the mandolin1 and girls are dancing with tambourines1 whilst a young man springs round clattering his castanets1 and a couple of boys1 to complete the seasons of life1 head the procession4 ,his third picture1 ,the ,coming of the ,reapers to the ,pontine ,marshes1 was the chief work in the ,salon of #ahca after the ,freedom of ,delacroix4 ,heine accorded him a classical passage of description1 and the orthodox academical critics were liberal with most unmerited praise1 treating the painter as a dangerous revolutionary who was seducing art into the undignified naturalism of ,ribera and ,caravaggio4 ,robert1 the honest1 lamblike man1 who strikes us now as being a conscientious follower of the school of ,david6 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,leopold ,,robert4 ,how little did the artistic principles which he laid down in his letters accord with his own paintings6 ,i try1 he wrote to a friend in #ahai1 to follow ,nature in everything4 ,nature is the only teacher who should be heard4 ,she alone inspires and moves me1 she alone appeals to me3 it is ,nature that ,i seek to fathom1 and in her ,i ever hope to find the special impulse for work4 ,she is a miracle to him1 and one that is greater than any other1 a book in which the simple may read as well as the great4 ,he could not understand how painters could take the old masters as their model instead of ,nature1 who is the only great exemplar6 ,what is to be seen in his pictures is merely an awkward transference of ,david's manner of conception and representation to the painting of ,italian peasants--a scrupulously careful adaptation of classical rules to romantic subjects4 ,he looked at modern ,italians solely through the medium of antique statuary1 and conducts us to an ,italy which can only be called ,leopold ,robert's ,italy1 since it never existed anywhere except in ,robert's map4 ,all his figures have the movement of some familiar work of antique sculpture1 and that expression of cherished melancholy which went out of fashion after the time of ,ary ,scheffer4 ,never does one see in his pictures a casual and unhackneyed gesture in harmony with the situation4 ,it seems as if he had dressed up antique statues or ,david's ,horatii and his ,sabine women in the costume of the ,italian peasantry1 and grouped them for a tableau vivant in front of stage scenery1 and in accordance with ,parisian rules of composition4 ,his peasants and fishers make beautiful1 noble1 and often magnificent groups4 ,but one can always give the exact academic rules for any particular figure standing here and not there1 or in one position and not in another4 ,his pictures are much too official1 and obtrusively affect the favourite pyramid form of composition4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,,robert4 ,,fishers ,,of ,,the ,,adriatic4 ,but as they are supposed to be pictures of ,italian manners1 the contrast between nature and the artificial construction is almost more irritating than it is in ,david's mythological representations4 ,it is as if ,robert had really never seen any ,italian peasants1 though he maintains all the while that he is depicting their life4 ,the hard outlines and the sharp bronze tone of his works are a ghastly evidence of the extent to which the sense of colour had become extinct in the school of ,david4 ,it was merely form that attracted him2 the sun of ,italy left him indifferent4 ,the absence of atmosphere gives his figures an appearance of having been cut out of picture sheets4 ,o great artists of ,holland1 masters of atmospheric effect and of contour bathed in light1 what would you have said to such heartless silhouettes6 ,in his youth ,robert had been a line engraver1 and he adapted the prosaic technique of line engraving to painting4 ,however1 he was a transitional painter1 and as such he has an historical interest4 ,he was a modern ,tasso1 too1 and on the strength of the adventurous relationship to ,princess ,charlotte ,napoleon1 which ultimately drove him to suicide1 he could be used with effect as the hero of a novel4 ,through the downfall of the school of ,david his star has paled--one more proof that only ,nature is eternal1 and that conventional painting falls into oblivion with the age that saw it rise4 ,i wished to find a genre which was not yet known1 and this genre has had the fortune to please4 ,it is always an advantage to be the first4 ,with these words he has himself indicated1 in a way which is as modest as it is accurate1 the ground of his reputation amongst contemporaries1 and why it is that the history of art cannot quite afford to forget him4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,,robert4 ,,the ,,coming ,,of ,,the ,,reapers ,,to ,,the ,,pontine ,,marshes4 ,amongst the multitude of those who1 incited by ,robert's brilliant successes1 made the ,spanish staircase in ,rome the basis of their art1 ,victor ,schnetz1 by his ,vow to the ,madonna of #ahca1 specially succeeded in winning public favour4 ,at a later time his favourite themes were the funerals of children1 inundations1 and the like2 but his arid method of painting contrasts with the sentimental melancholy of these subjects in a fashion which is not particularly agreeable4 ,illustration3 ,,schnetz4 ,,an ,,italian ,,shepherd4 ,it was ,ernest ,hbert who first saw ,italy with the eyes of a painter4 ,he might be called the ,perugino of this group4 ,he was the most romantic of the pupils of ,delaroche1 and owed his conception of colour to that painter4 ,his spiritual father was ,ary ,scheffer4 ,the latter has discovered the poetry of sentimentality2 ,hbert the poetry of disease4 ,his pictures are invariably of great technical delicacy4 ,his style has something femininely gracious1 almost languishing3 his colouring is delicately fragrant and tenderly melting4 ,he is1 indeed1 a refined artist who occupies a place by himself1 however mannered the melancholy and sickliness of his figures may be4 ,in ,the ,malaria of #ahej they were influenced by the subject itself4 ,the barge gliding over the waters of the ,pontine ,marshes1 with its freight of men1 women1 and children1 seems like a gloomy symbol of the voyage of life2 the sorrow of the passengers is that of resignation3 dying they droop their heads like withering flowers4 ,but later the fever became chronic in ,hbert4 ,the interesting disease returned even where it was out of place1 as it does still in the pictures of his followers4 ,the same fate befell the painters of ,italy which befalls tourists4 ,what ,robert had seen in the country as the first comer whole generations saw after him1 neither more nor less than that4 ,the pictures were always variations on the old theme1 until in the sixties ,bonnat came with his individual and realistic vision4 ,illustration3 ,portfolio4 ,h,,bert4 ,,the ,,malaria4 ,in ,germany1 where the yearning for ,italy had been ventilated in an immoderate quantity of lyrical poems ever since the time of ,wackenroder's ,herzensergiessungen1 ,august ,riedel represented this phase of modern painting2 and as ,leopold ,robert is still celebrated1 ,riedel ought not to be forgotten4 ,riedel lived too long 7#ahjj-ahhc71 and1 as he painted nothing but bad pictures during the last thirty years of his life1 what he had done in his youth was forgotten4 ,at that time he was the first apostle of ,leopold ,robert in ,germany1 and as such he has his importance as an innovator4 ,when he began his career in the ,munich ,academy in #ahai ,peter ,langer1 a ,classicist of the order of ,mengs1 was still director there4 ,riedel also painted classical subjects and church pictures--,christ on the ,mount of ,olives1 ,the ,resurrection of ,lazarus1 and ,peter and ,paul healing the ,lame4 ,but when he returned from ,italy in #ahbc he reversed the route which others had taken3 the classic land set him free from ,classicism1 and opened his eyes to the beauty of life4 ,instead of working on saints in the style of ,langer1 he painted beautiful women in the costume of modern ,italy4 ,his ,neapolitan ,fisherman's ,family was for ,germany a revelation similar to that which ,robert's ,neapolitan ,improvisator had been for ,france4 ,the fisherman1 rather theatrically draped1 is sitting on the shore1 while his wife and his little daughter listen to him playing the zither4 ,the blue sea1 dotted with white sails1 and distant ,ischia and ,cape ,missene1 form the background2 and a blue heaven1 dappled with white clouds1 arches above4 ,everything was of an exceedingly conventional beauty1 but denoted progress in comparison with ,robert4 ,it already announced that search for brilliant effects of light which henceforward became a characteristic of ,riedel1 and gave him a peculiar position in his own day4 ,even hardened connoisseurs1 wrote ,emil ,braun from ,rome about this time1 stand helpless before this magic of colouring4 ,it is often long before they are able to persuade themselves that such glory of colour can be produced by the familiar medium of oil painting1 and with materials that any one can buy at a shop where pigments are sold4 ,riedel touched a problem--diffidently1 no doubt--which was only taken up much later in its full extent4 ,and if ,cornelius said to him1 ,you have fully attained what ,i have avoided with the greatest effort during the course of my whole life1 it is none the less true that ,riedel's ,italian girls in the full glow of sunlight have remained1 in spite of their stereotyped smile1 so reminiscent of ,sichel1 better able to stand the test of galleries than the pictures of the ,michael-,angelo of ,munich4 ,before his ,neapolitan ,fisherman's ,family1 which went the world over like a melody from ,auber's ,masaniello1 before his ,judith carrying the head of ,holofernes in the brightest light of morning1 before his ,girls ,bathing in the dimness of the forest1 and before his ,sakuntala1 painted with refined effects of light1 the cartoon painters mumbled and grumbled1 and raised hue and cry over the desecration of ,german art2 but ,riedel's friends were just as loud in proclaiming the witchery of his colour1 and the ,southern sunlight which he had conjured on to his palette1 to be splendid beyond the powers of comprehension4 ,it is difficult at the present day to understand the fame that he once had as a pyrotechnist in pigments4 ,but the results which he achieved by himself in colouring1 long before the influence of the ,belgians in ,germany1 will always give him a sure place in the history of ,german art4 ,and these qualities were unconsciously inherited by his successors1 who troubled their heads no further about the pioneer and founder4 ,illustration3 ,,riedel4 ,,the ,,neapolitan ,,fisherman',s ,,family4 ,illustration3 ,,riedel4 ,,judith4 ,those who painted the ,east with its clear radiance1 its interesting people1 and its picturesque localities1 stand in opposition to the ,italian enthusiasts4 ,they are the second group of travellers4 ,gros had given ,french art a vision of that distant magic land1 but he had had no direct disciples4 ,painters were as yet in too close bondage to their classical proclivities to receive inspiration from ,napoleon's expedition into ,egypt4 ,but the travels of ,chateaubriand and the verse of ,byron1 and then the ,greek war of liberation1 and1 above all1 the conquest of ,algiers1 once more aroused an interest in these regions1 and1 when the revolution of the ,romanticists had once taken place1 taught art a way into the ,east4 ,authors1 journalists1 and painters found their place in this army of travellers4 ,the first view of men and women standing on the shore in splendid costume1 with turbans or high sheepskin hats1 and surrounded by black slaves1 or mounted upon horses richly caparisoned1 or listening to the roll of drums and the muezzin resounding from the minarets1 was like a scene from ,the ,arabian ,nights4 ,the bazaars and the harems1 the quarters of the ,janizaries and gloomy dungeons were visited in turn4 ,veiled women were seen1 and mysterious houses where every sound was hushed4 ,at first the ,moors1 obedient to the stern laws of the ,koran1 fled before the painters as if before evil spirits1 but the ,moorish women were all the more ready to receive these conquerors with open arms4 ,artists plunged with rapture into a new world2 they anointed themselves with the oil of roses1 and tasted all the sweets of ,oriental life4 ,the ,east was for the ,byronic enthusiasts of #ahcj what ,italy had been for the ,classicists4 ,could anything be imagined more romantic8 ,you went on board a steamer provided with all modern comforts and all the appliances of the nineteenth century1 and it carried you thousands of years back in the history of the world2 you set foot on a soil where the word progress did not exist--in a land where the inhabitants still sat in the sun as if cemented to the ground1 and wore the same costumes in which their forefathers had sat there two thousand years ago4 ,here the ,romanticists not only found nature decked in the rich hues which satisfied their passion for colour1 but discovered a race of people possessed of that beauty which1 according to the ,classicists1 was only to be seen in the ,italian peasants4 ,they beheld men of innate dignity and remarkable distinction of pose and gesture4 ,thus a new experience was added to life4 ,there was the ,east1 where splendour and simplicity1 cruelty and beauty1 softness of temper and savage austerity1 and brilliant colour and blinding light are more completely mingled than anywhere else in the world2 there was the ,east1 where rich tints laugh in the midst of squalor and misery1 the brightness of earlier days in the midst of outworn usages1 and the pride of art in the midst of ruined villages4 ,it was so great1 so unfathomable1 and so like a fairy tale that it gave every one the chance of discovering in it some new qualities4 ,for ,delacroix1 the ,byron of painting1 it was a splendid setting for passion in its unfettered wildness and its unscrupulous daring4 ,he1 who had lived exclusively in the past1 now turned to the observation of living beings1 as may be seen in his ,algerian ,women1 his ,jewish ,wedding1 his ,emperor of ,morocco1 and his ,convulsionaries of ,tangier4 ,amongst the ,orientals he also found the hotly flaming sensuousness and primitive wildness which beset his imagination with its craving for everything impassioned4 ,the great charmeur1 the master of pictorial caprice1 ,decamps1 found his province in the ,east1 because its sun was so lustrous1 its costume so bright1 and its human figures so picturesque4 ,if ,delacroix was a powerful artist1 ,decamps was no more than a painter1--but painter he was to his finger-tips4 ,he was indifferent to nothing in nature or history3 he showed as much enthusiasm for a pair of tanned beggar-boys playing in the sunshine at the corner of a wall as for ,biblical figures and old-world epics4 ,he has painted hens pecking on a dung-heap1 dogs on the chase and in the kennel1 monkeys as scholars1 and musicians in all the situations which ,teniers and ,chardin loved4 ,his ,battle of ,tailleborg of #ahcg has been aptly termed the only picture of a battle in the ,versailles ,museum4 ,he looked on everything as material for painting1 and never troubled as to how another artist would have treated the subject4 ,there is an individuality in every one of his works2 not an individuality of the first order1 but one that is decidedly charming and that assures him a very high place amongst his contemporaries4 ,having made a success in #ahbi with an imaginary picture of the ,east1 he had a wish to see how far the reality corresponded with his ideas of ,turkey1 and in the same year--therefore before ,delacroix--he went on that journey to the ,greek ,archipelago1 ,constantinople1 and ,asia ,minor which became a voyage of discovery for ,french painting4 ,in the ,salon of #ahca was exhibited his ,patrol of ,smyrna1 which at once made him one of the favourite ,french painters of the time4 ,soon afterwards came the picture of the ,pasha on his ,rounds1 accompanied by a lean troop of running and panting guards1 that of the great ,turkish ,bazaar1 in which he gave such a charming representation of the gay and noisy bustle of an ,oriental fair1 those of the ,turkish ,school1 the ,turkish ,caf1 ,the ,halt of the ,arab ,horsemen1 and ,the ,turkish ,butcher's ,shop4 ,in everything which he painted from this time forward--even in his ,biblical pictures--he had before his eyes the ,east as it is in modern times4 ,like ,horace ,vernet1 he painted his figures in the costume of modern ,arabs and ,egyptians1 and placed them in landscapes with modern ,arab buildings4 ,but the largeness of line in these landscapes is expressive of something so patriarchal and ,biblical1 and of such a dreamy1 mystical poetry1 that1 in spite of their modern garb1 the figures seem like visions from a far distance4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,decamps4 ,,the ,,swineherd4 ,decamps' painting never became trivial4 ,all his pictures soothe and captivate the eye1 however much they disappoint1 on the first glance1 the expectations which the older descriptions of them may have excited4 ,fifty years ago it was said that ,delacroix painted with colour and ,decamps with light2 that his works were steeped in a bath of sunshine4 ,this vibrating light1 this transparent atmosphere1 which contemporaries admired1 is not to be found in ,decamps' pictures4 ,their brilliancy of technique is admirable1 but he was no painter of light4 ,the world of sunshine in which everything is dipped1 the glow and lustre of objects in shining1 liquid1 and tremulous air1 is what ,gustave ,guillaumet first learnt to paint a generation later4 ,decamps attained the effect of light in his pictures by the darkening of shadows1 precisely in the manner of the old school4 ,to make the sky bright1 he threw the foreground into opaque and heavy shade4 ,and as1 in consequence of the ground of bole used to produce his beautiful red tones1 the dark parts of his pictures gradually became as black as pitch1 and the light parts dead and spotty1 he will rather seem to be a contemporary of ,albert ,cuyp than of ,manet4 ,as draughtsman to a ,german baron making a scientific tour in the ,east1 ,prosper ,marilhat1 the third of the painters of ,oriental life1 was early in following this career4 ,he visited ,greece1 ,asia ,minor1 and ,egypt1 and returned to ,paris in #ahcc intoxicated with the beauties of these lands4 ,especially dear to him was ,egypt1 and in his pictures he called himself1 ,marilhat the ,egyptian4 ,decamps had been blinded by the sharp contrast between light and shadow in ,oriental nature1 by the vivid blaze of colour in its vegetation1 and by the tropical glow of the ,southern sky4 ,marilhat took novelties with a more quiet eye1 and kept close to pure reality4 ,he has not so much virtuosity as ,decamps1 and in colour he is less daring1 but he is perhaps more poetic1 and on that account1 in the years #ahcc-dd1 he was prized almost more4 ,the exhibition of #ahdd1 in which eight of his pictures appeared1 closed his career4 ,he had expected the ,cross of the ,legion of ,honour1 but did not get it1 and this disappointment affected him so deeply that he became first hypochondriacal and then mad4 ,his early death at thirty-six set ,decamps free from a powerful rival4 ,eugne ,fromentin went further in the same direction as ,marilhat4 ,he knew nothing of the preference for the glowing hues of the tropics nor of the fantastic colouring of the ,romanticists4 ,he painted in the spirit of a refined social period in which no loud voice is tolerated1 but only light and familiar talk4 ,the ,east gave him his grace2 the proud and fiery nature of the ,arab horse was revealed to him4 ,in his portraits ,fromentin looks like a cavalry officer4 ,in his youth he had studied law1 but that was before his acquaintance with the landscape painter ,cabat brought him to his true calling1 and a sojourn made on three different occasions--in #ahde1 #ahdh1 and #aheb--on the borders of ,morocco decided for him his specialty4 ,by his descriptions of travels1 ,a ,year in ,sahel1 which appeared in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 he became known as a writer3 it was only after #aheg1 however1 that he became famous as a painter4 ,fromentin's ,east is ,algiers4 ,while ,marilhat tried to render the marvellous clearness of the ,southern light1 and ,decamps depicted the glowing heat of the ,east1 its dark brooding sky in the sultry hours of summer and the grand outlines of its landscape1 ,fromentin has tried--and perhaps with too much system--to express the grace and brilliant spirit of the ,east4 ,taste1 refinement1 ductility1 distinction of colouring1 and grace of line are his special qualities4 ,his ,arabs galloping on their beautiful white horses have an inimitable chivalry2 they are true princes in every pose and movement4 ,the execution of his pictures is always spirited1 easy1 and in keeping with their high-bred tone4 ,whatever he does has the nervous vigour of a sketch1 with that degree of finish which satisfies the connoisseur4 ,there is always a coquetry in his arrangement of colour1 and his tones are light and delicate if they are not deep4 ,in the landscape his little ,arab riders have the effect of flowers upon a carpet4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,decamps4 ,,coming ,,out ,,from ,a ,,turkish ,,school4 7,by permission of ,mme4 ,moreau-,nlaton1 the owner of the picture47 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,decamps4 ,,the ,,watering ,,place4 ,afterwards1 when naturalism was at its zenith1 ,fromentin was much attacked for this wayward grace4 ,he was accused of making a superficial appeal to the eye1 and of offering everything except truth4 ,and for its substantive fidelity ,fromentin's ,east cannot certainly be taken very seriously4 ,he was a man of fine culture1 and in his youth he had studied the old ,dutch masters more than nature2 he even saw the light of the ,east through the ,dutch chiaroscuro4 ,his pictures are subtle works of art1 nervous in drawing and dazzling in brilliancy of construction1 but they are washed in rather than painted1 and stained rather than coloured4 ,in his book he speaks himself of the cool1 grey shadows of the ,east4 ,but in his pictures they turn to a reddish hue or to brown4 ,an effort after beauty of tone in many ways weakened his ,arab scenes4 ,he looked at the people of the ,east too much with the eyes of a ,parisian4 ,and the more his recollections faded1 the more did he begin to create for himself an imaginary ,africa4 ,he painted grey skies simply because he was tired of blue2 he tinted white horses with rosy reflections1 chestnuts with lilac1 and dappled-greys with violet4 ,the grace of his works became more and more an affair of affectation1 until at last1 instead of being ,oriental pictures1 they became ,parisian fancy goods1 which merely recalled the fact that ,algiers had become a ,french town4 ,illustration3 ,,marilhat4 ,a ,,halt4 ,but after all what does it matter whether pictures of the ,east are true to nature or not8 ,other people whose names are not ,fromentin can provide such documents4 ,in his works ,fromentin has expressed himself1 and that is enough4 ,take up his first book1 ,l't dans la ,sahara3 by its grace of style it claims a place in ,french literature4 ,or read his classic masterpiece1 ,les matres d'autrefois1 published in #ahgf after a tour through ,belgium and ,holland3 it will remain for ever one of the finest works ever written on art4 ,a connoisseur of such refinement1 a critic who gauged the artistic works of ,belgium and ,holland with such subtlety1 necessarily became in his own painting an epicure of beautiful tones4 ,this man1 who never made an awkward movement nor uttered a brutal word1 this sensitive1 distinguished spirit could be no more than a subtle artist who had eyes for nothing but the aristocratic side of ,eastern life4 ,as a painter1 however1 he might wish to be true to nature2 he could be no more than this4 ,his art1 compact of grace and distinction1 was the outcome of his own nature4 ,he is a descendant of those delicately feminine1 seductively brilliant1 facile and spontaneous1 sparkling and charming painters who were known in the eighteenth century as peintres des ftes galantes4 ,he is the ,watteau of the ,east1 and in this capacity one of the most winning and captivating products of ,french art4 ,illustration3 ,e4 ,,fromentin4 ,,arabian ,,falconers4 ,finally1 ,guillaumet1 the youngest and last of the group1 found in the ,east peace3 a scion of the ,romanticists1 there is none the less a whole world of difference between him and them4 ,while the ,romanticists1 as sons of a flaccid1 inactive period1 lashed themselves into enthusiasm for the passion and wild life of the ,east1 ,guillaumet1 the child of a hurried and neurotic epoch1 sought here an opiate for his nerves4 ,where they saw contrasts he found harmony2 and he did not find it1 like ,fromentin1 in what is understood as chic4 ,manet's conception of colour had taught him that nature is everywhere in accord and harmoniously delicate4 ,he writes3 ,je commence distinguer quelques formes3 des silhouettes indcises bougent le long des murs enfums sous des poutres luisantes de sui4 ,les dtails sortent du demi-jour1 s'animent graduellement avec la magie des ,rembrandt4 ,mme mystre des ombres1 mmes ors dans les reflets--c'est l'aube4444 ,des terrains poudreux inonds de soleil2 un amoncellement de murailles grises sous un ciel sans nuage2 une cit somnolente baigne d'une lumire gale1 et dans le frmissement visible des atomes ariens quelques ombres venant a et l dtacher une forme1 accuser un geste parmi les groupes en burnous qui se meuvent sur les places 444 tel m'apparait le ksar1 vers dix heures du matin4444 ,l'oeil interroge3 rien ne bouge4 ,l'oreille coute3 aucun bruit4 ,pas un souffle1 si ce n'est le frmissement presque imperceptible de l'air au-dessus du sol embras4 ,la vie semble avoir disparu1 absorbe par la lumire4 ,c'est le milieu du jour4444 ,mais le soir approche4444 ,les troupeaux rentrent dans les douars2 ils se pressent autour des tentes1 peine visibles1 confondus sous cette teinte neutre du crpuscule1 faite avec les gris de la nuit qui vient et les violets tendres du soir qui s'en va4 ,c'est l'heure mystrieuse1 o les couleurs se mlent1 o les contours se noient1 o toute chose s'assombrit1 o toute voix se tait1 o l'homme1 la fin du jour1 laisse flotter sa pense devant ce qui s'teint1 s'efface et s'evanouit4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,eug,,ne ,,fromentin4 ,this description of a day in ,algiers in ,guillaumet's ,tableaux algriens interprets the painter ,guillaumet better than any critical appreciation could possibly do4 ,for him the ,east is the land of dreams and melting softness1 a far-off health-resort for neurotic patients1 where one lies at ease in the sun and forgets the excitements of ,paris4 ,it was not what was brilliant and pictorial in sparkling jewels and bright costume that attracted him at all1 but the silence1 the mesmeric spell of the ,east1 the vastness of the infinite horizon1 the imposing majesty of the desert1 and the sublime and profound peace of the nights of ,africa4 ,the ,evening ,prayer in the ,desert was the name of the first picture that he brought back with him in #ahfc4 ,there is a wide and boundless plain2 the straight line of the horizon is broken by a few mountain forms and by the figures of a party belonging to a caravan2 but1 bowed as they are in prayer1 these figures are scarcely to be distinguished4 ,the smoke of the camp ascends like a pillar into the air4 ,the monotony of the wilderness seems to stretch endlessly to the right and to the left1 like a grand and solemn ,nirvana smiting the human spirit with religious delirium4 ,illustration3 ,,fromentin4 ,,arabian ,,women ,,returning ,,from ,,drawing ,,water4 ,for ,decamps and ,marilhat the ,east was a great1 red copper-block beneath a blue dome of steel2 a beautiful monster1 bright and glittering4 ,guillaumet has no wish to dazzle4 ,his pictures give one the impression of intense and sultry heat4 ,his light is really le frmissement visible des atomes ariens4 ,moreover1 he did not see the chivalry of the ,east like ,fromentin4 ,the latter was fascinated by the nomad1 the pure ,arab living in tent or saddle1 the true aristocrat of the desert1 mounted on his white palfrey1 hunting wild beasts through fair blue and green landscapes4 ,poor folk who never owned a horse are the models of ,guillaumet4 ,with their dogs--wild creatures who need nothing--they squat in the sun as if with their own kin3 they are the lower1 primitive population1 the pariahs of the wilderness2 tattered men whose life-long siesta is only interrupted by the anguish of death1 animal women whose existence flows by as idly as in the trance of opium4 ,after the ,french ,romanticists had shown the way1 other nations contributed their contingent to the painters of ,oriental subjects4 ,in ,germany poetry had discovered the ,east4 ,rckert imitated the measure and the ideas of the ,oriental lyric1 and the ,greek war of liberation quickened all that passionate love for the soil of old ,hellas which lives in the ,german soul4 ,wilhelm ,mller sang his songs of the ,greeks1 and in #ahbe ,leopold ,schefer brought out his tale ,die ,persierin4 ,but just as the ,oriental tale was a mere episode in ,german literature1 an exotic grafted on the native stem1 so the ,oriental painting produced no leading mind in the country1 but merely a number of good soldiers who dutifully served in the troops of foreign commanders4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,fromentin4 ,,the ,,centaurs4 ,kretszchmer of ,berlin led the way with ethnographical representations1 and was joined at a later time by ,wilhelm ,gentz and ,adolf ,schreyer of ,frankfort4 ,gentz1 a dexterous painter1 and1 as a colourist1 perhaps the most gifted of the ,berlin school in the sixties1 is1 in comparison with the great ,frenchmen who portrayed the ,east1 a thoroughly arid realist4 ,he brought to his task a certain amount of rough vigour and restless diversity1 together with ,north ,german sobriety and ,berlin humour4 ,schreyer1 who lived in ,paris1 belonged to the following of ,fromentin4 ,the ,arab and his steed interested him also4 ,his pictures are bouquets of colour1 dazzling the eye4 ,arabs in rich and picturesque costume repose on the ground or are mounted on their milk-white steeds1 which rear and prance with tossing manes and wide-stretched nostrils4 ,the desert undulates away to the far horizon1 now pale and now caressed by the softened rays of the setting sun1 which tip the waves of sand with burnished gold4 ,schreyer was--for a ,german--a man with an extraordinary gift for technique and a brilliantly effective sense of life4 ,the latter remark is specially true of his sketches4 ,at a later date--in #ahge1 after being with ,lembach and ,makart in ,cairo--the ,viennese ,leopold ,mller found the domain of his art beneath the clear sky1 in the brightly coloured land of the ,nile4 ,even his sketches are often of great delicacy of colour1 and the ethnographical accuracy which he also possessed has long made him the most highly valued delineator of ,oriental life and a popular illustrator of works on ,egypt4 ,the learned and slightly pedantic vein in his works he shares with ,grme1 but by his greater charm of colour he comes still nearer to ,fromentin4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,guillaumet4 ,,the ,s,,guia1 ,,near ,,biskra4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,guillaumet4 ,a ,,dwelling ,,in ,,the ,,sahara4 ,the route to the ,east was shown to the ,english by the glowing landscapes of ,william ,mller2 but the ,english were just as unable to find a ,byron amongst their painters4 ,frederick ,goodall has studied the classical element in the ,east1 and endeavoured to reconstruct the past from the present4 ,best known amongst these artists was ,j4 ,f4 ,lewis1 who died in #ahgf and was much talked of in earlier days4 ,for long years he wandered through ,asia ,minor1 filling his portfolios with sketches and his trunks with ,oriental robes and weapons4 ,when he returned there was a perfect scramble for his pictures4 ,they revealed a new world to the ,english then1 but no one scrambles for them now4 ,john ,lewis was exceedingly diligent and conscientious2 he studied the implements1 the costumes1 and the popular types of the ,east with incredible industry4 ,in his harem pictures as in his representations of ,arabian camp life everything is painted1 down to the patterns of embroidery1 the ornaments of turbans1 and the pebbles on the sand4 ,even his water-colours are triumphs of endurance2 but patience and endurance are not sufficient to make an interesting artist4 ,john ,lewis stands in respect of colour1 too1 more or less on a level with ,gentz4 ,he has seized neither the dignity of the ,mussulman nor the grace of the ,bedouin1 but has contented himself with a faithful though somewhat glaring reproduction of accessories4 ,houghton was the first who1 moving more or less parallel with ,guillaumet1 succeeded in delicately interpreting the great peace and the mystic silence of the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,w4 ,m,,ller4 ,,prayer ,,in ,,the ,,desert4 ,the ,east was in this way traversed in all directions4 ,the first comers who beheld it with eager1 excited eyes collected a mass of gigantic legends1 with no decided aim or purpose and driven by no passionate impulse1 merely eager to pluck here or there an exotic flower1 or lightly to catch some small part of the glamour that overspread all that was ,eastern1 piled up dreams upon dreams1 and gave it a gorgeous and fantastic life4 ,there were deserts shining in the sun1 waves lashed by the storm1 the nude forms of women1 and all the ,asiatic splendour of the ,east3 dark-red satin1 gold1 crystal1 and marble were heaped in confusion and executed in terrible fantasies of colour in the midst of darkness and lightning4 ,after this generation had passed like a thunderstorm the chic of ,fromentin was delicious4 ,he profited by the taste which others had excited4 ,painters of all nationalities overran the ,east4 ,the great dramas were transformed into elegies1 pastorals1 and idylls2 even ethnographical representations had their turn4 ,guillaumet summed up the aims of that generation4 ,his dreamy and tender painting was like a beautiful summer evening4 ,the radiance of the blinding sky was mitigated1 and a peaceful sun at the verge of the horizon covered the steppes of sand1 which it had scorched a few hours before1 with a network of rosy beams4 ,they were all scions of the ,romantic movement4 ,the yearning which filled their spirits and drove them into distant lands was only another symptom of their dissatisfaction with the present4 ,classicism had dealt with ,greek and ,roman history by the aid of antique statues1 and next used the colours of the ,flemish masters to paint ,italian peasantry4 ,romanticism had touched the motley life of the ,middle ,ages and the richly coloured ,east2 but both had anxiously held aloof from the surroundings of home and the political and social relations of contemporaries4 ,it was obvious that art's next task was to bring down to earth again the ideal that had hovered so long over the domain of ancient history1 and then winged its flight to the realms of the ,east4 ,ah la vie1 la vie6 le monde est l2 il rit1 crie1 souffre1 s'amuse1 et on ne le rend pas4 ,in these words the necessity of the step has been indicated by ,fromentin himself4 ,the successful delivery of modern art was first accomplished1 the problem stated in #aghi was first solved1 when the subversive upheaval of the ,third ,estate1 which had been consummating itself more and more imperiously ever since the ,revolution1 found distinct expression in the art of painting4 ,art always moves on parallel lines with religious conceptions1 with politics1 and with manners4 ,in the ,middle ,ages men lived in the world beyond the grave1 and so the subjects of painting were ,madonnas and saints4 ,according to ,louis ,,xiv1 everything was derived from the ,king1 as light from the sun1 and so royalty by the grace of ,god was reflected in the art of his epoch4 ,the royal sun suffered total eclipse in the ,revolution1 and with this mighty change of civilisation art had to undergo a new transformation4 ,the #aghi of painting had to follow on the politics of #aghi3 the proclamation of the liberty and equality of all individuals4 ,only painting which recognised man in his full freedom1 no privileged class of gods and heroes1 ,italians and ,easterns1 could be the true child of the ,revolution1 the art of the new age4 ,belgium and ,germany made the first diffident steps in this direction4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,,the ,,painting ,,of ,,humorous ,,anecdote ,at the very time when the ,east attracted the ,french ,romanticists1 the ,german and ,belgian painters discovered the rustic4 ,romanticism1 driven into strange and tropical regions by its disgust of a sluggish1 colourless and inglorious age1 now planted a firm foot upon native soil4 ,amid rustics there was to be found a conservative type of life which perpetuated old usages and picturesque costume4 ,it is not easy for a dilettante to enter into sympathetic relationship with these early pictures of peasant life4 ,they are gaudy in tone1 smooth as metal1 and the figures stand out hard against the atmosphere1 as if they had been cut from a picture-sheet4 ,but the historian has no right to be merely a dilettante4 ,it would be unfair of him to make the artistic conceptions of the present time the means of depreciating the past4 ,for1 after all1 works of the past are only to be measured with those of their own age1 and when one once remembers what an importance these modest little masters had for their time it is no longer difficult to treat them with justice4 ,in an age when futile and aimless intentions lost their way in theory and imitation of the great painting there blossomed here1 and for the first time1 a certain individuality of mind and temper4 ,while ,cornelius1 ,kaulbach1 and their fellows formed a style which was ideal in a purely conventional sense1 and epitomised the art of the great masters according to method1 the genre painters seized upon the endless variety of nature1 and1 after a long period of purely reproductive painting1 made the first diffident attempt to set art free from the curse of system and the servile repetition of antiquated forms4 ,even as regards colour they have the honour of preparing the way for a restoration in the technique of painting4 ,their own defects in technique were not their fault1 but the consequence of that fatal interference of ,winckelmann through which art lost its technical traditions4 ,they did not enjoy the advantages of issuing from a long line of ancestors4 ,in a certain sense they had to make a beginning in the history of art by themselves2 for between them and the older ,german painting they only met with men who held the ability to paint as a shame and a disgrace4 ,with the example of the old ,dutch and ,flemish masters before them1 they had to knit together the bonds which these men had cut2 and considering the sthetic ideas of the age1 this reference to ,netherlandish models was an event of revolutionary importance4 ,in doing this they may have been partially influenced by ,wilkie1 who made his tour in ,germany in #ahbe1 and whose pictures had a wide circulation through the medium of engraving4 ,and from another side attention was directed to the old ,dutch masters by ,schnaase's letters of #ahcd4 ,while the entire artistic school which took its rise from ,winckelmann gave the reverence of an empty1 formal idealism to classical antiquity and the ,cinquecento1 applying their standards to all other periods1 ,schnaase was the first to give an impulse to the historical consideration of art4 ,in this way he revealed wide and hitherto neglected regions to the creative activity of modern times4 ,the result of his book was that the ,netherlandish masters were no longer held to be the apes of vulgar nature1 but took their place as exquisite artists from whom the modern painter had a great deal to learn4 ,illustration3 ,,kobell4 ,a ,,meeting4 ,in ,munich the conditions of a popular1 national art were supplied by the very site of the town4 ,since the beginning of the century ,munich had been peculiarly the type of a peasant city1 the capital of a peasant province2 it had a peasantry abounding in old-fashioned singularities1 gay and motley in costume as in their ways of life1 full of bright and easy-going good-humour1 and gifted with the ,bavarian force of character4 ,here it was1 then1 that the resort to national traits was first made4 ,and if1 in the event1 this painting of rustic life produced many monstrosities1 it remained throughout the whole century an unfailing source from which the art of ,munich drew fresh and vivid power4 ,even in the twenties there was an art in ,munich which was native to the soil1 and in later years shot up all the more vigorously through being for a time cramped in its development by the exotic growths of the school of ,cornelius4 ,it was as different from the dominant historical painting as the magots of ,teniers from the mythological machinery of ,lebrun1 and it was treated by official criticism with the same contempt4 ,cornelius and his school directed the attention of educated people so exclusively to themselves1 and so entirely proscribed the literature of the day1 that what took place outside their own circle in ,munich was but little discussed4 ,the vigorous group of naturalists had not much to offer critics who wished to display their knowledge by picking to pieces historical pictures1 interpreting philosophical cartoons1 and pointing to similarities of style between ,cornelius and ,michael ,angelo4 ,but for the historian1 seeking the seeds of the present in the past1 they are figures worthy of respect4 ,setting their own straightforward conception of nature against the eclecticism of the great painters1 they laid the foundation of an independent modern art4 ,the courtly1 academic painting of ,cornelius derived its inspiration from the ,sistine ,chapel2 the naturalism of these genre painters was rooted in the life of the ,bavarian people4 ,the great painters dwelt alone in huge monumental buildings2 the naturalists1 who sought their inspiration in the life of peasants1 in the life of camps1 and in landscape1 without troubling themselves about antique or romantic subjects1 furnished the material for the first collections of modern art4 ,both as artists and as men they were totally different beings4 ,cornelius and his school stand on the one side1 cultured1 imperious1 fancying themselves in the possession of all true art1 and abruptly turning from all who are not sworn to their flag2 on the other side stand the naturalists1 brisk and cheery1 rough it may be1 but sound to the core1 and with a sharp eye for life and nature4 ,illustration3 ,,peter ,,hess4 ,a ,,morning ,,at ,,partenkirche4 ,painting in the grand style owed its origin to the personal tastes of the king and to the great tasks to which it was occasionally set2 independent of princely favour1 realistic art found its patrons amongst the ,south ,german nobility and1 at a later date1 in the circle of the ,munich ,art ,union1 and seems the logical continuation of that military painting which1 at the opening of the century1 had its representatives in ,nuremberg1 ,augsburg1 and ,munich4 ,the motley swarm of foreign soldiers which overran the soil of ,germany incited ,albrecht ,adam1 ,peter ,hess1 ,johann ,adam ,klein1 and others1 to represent what they saw in a fashion which was sincere and simple if it was also prosy4 ,and when the warlike times were over it was quite natural that some of the masters who had learnt their art in camps should turn to the representation of peasant life1 where they were likewise able to find gay1 pictorial costumes4 ,wilhelm ,kobell1 whose etchings of the life of the ,bavarian people are more valuable than his battle-pieces1 was one of the first to make this transition4 ,in #ahbj sturdy ,peter ,hess painted his ,morning at ,partenkirche1 in which he depicted a simple scene of mountain life--girls at a well in the midst of a sunny landscape--in a homely but poetic manner4 ,when this breach had been made1 ,brkel was able to take the lead of the ,munich painters of rustic subjects4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,heinrich ,b,,rkel4 ,heinrich ,brkel's portrait reveals a square-built giant1 whose appearance contrasts strangely with that of his celebrated contemporaries4 ,the academic artists sweep back their long hair and look upwards with an inspired glance4 ,brkel looks down with a keen eye at the hard1 rough1 and stony earth4 ,the academic artists had a mantle--the mantle of ,rauch's statues--picturesquely draped about their shoulders2 ,brkel dressed like anybody else4 ,no attribute is added which could indicate that he was a painter2 neither palette1 nor brush1 nor picture2 beside him on the table there is--a mug of beer4 ,there he sits without any sort of pose1 with his hand resting on his knee--rough1 athletic1 and pugnacious--for all the world as if he were quite conscious of his peculiarities4 ,even the photographer's demand for a pleasant smile had no effect upon him4 ,this portrait is itself an explanation of ,brkel's art4 ,his was a healthy1 self-reliant nature1 without a trace of romance1 sentimentality1 affected humour1 or sugary optimism4 ,amongst all his ,munich contemporaries he was the least academic in his whole manner of feeling and thinking4 ,sprung from the people1 he became their painter4 ,he was born1 #bith ,may #ahjb1 in ,pirmasens1 where his father combined a small farm with a public-house and his mother kept a shop2 and he had been first a tradesman's apprentice1 and then assistant clerk in a court of justice1 before he came to ,munich in #ahbb4 ,here the ,academy rejected him as without talent2 but while it shut the door against the pupil1 life revealed itself to the master4 ,he went to the ,schleissheimer ,gallery1 and sat there copying the pictures of ,wouwerman1 ,ostade1 ,brouwer1 and ,berghem1 and developed his powers1 by the study of these ,netherlandish masters1 with extraordinary rapidity4 ,his first works--battles1 skirmishes1 and other martial scenes--are amateurish and diffident attempts2 it is evident that he was without any kind of guidance or direction4 ,all the more astonishing is the swiftness with which he acquired firm command of abilities1 admirable for that age1 and the defiant spirit of independence with which he went straight from pictures to nature1 though hardly yet in possession of the necessary means of expression4 ,he painted and drew the whole new world which opened itself before him3 far prospects over the landscape1 mossy stones in the sunlight1 numbers of cloud-pictures1 peasants' houses with their surroundings1 forest paths1 mountain tracks1 horses1 and figures of every description4 ,the life of men and animals gave him everywhere some opportunity for depicting it in characteristic situations4 ,and later1 when he had settled down again in ,munich1 he did not cease from wandering in the ,south ,german mountains with a fresh mind4 ,up to old age he made little summer and winter tours in the ,bavarian highlands4 ,tegernsee1 ,rottach1 ,prien1 ,berchtesgaden1 ,south ,tyrol1 and ,partenkirche were visited again and again1 on excursions for the week or the day2 and he returned from them all with energetic studies1 from which were developed pictures that were not less energetic4 ,illustration3 ,b,,rkel4 ,,brigands ,,returning4 ,illustration3 ,b,,rkel4 ,a ,,downpour ,,in ,,the ,,mountains4 ,for1 as every artist is the result of two factors1 of which one lies in himself and the other in his age and surroundings1 the performances of ,brkel are to be judged1 not only according to the requirements of the present day1 but according to the conditions under which they were produced4 ,what is weak in him he shares with his contemporaries2 what is novel is his own most peculiar and incontestable merit4 ,in a period of false idealism worked up in a museum--false idealism which had aped from the true the way in which one clears one's throat1 as ,schiller has it1 but nothing more indicative of genius--in a period of this accomplishment ,brkel preferred to expose his own insufficiency rather than adorn himself with other people's feathers2 at a time which prided itself on representing with brush and pigment things for which pen and ink are the better medium1 he looked vividly into life2 at a time when all ,germany lost itself aimlessly in distant latitudes1 he brought to everything an honest and objective fidelity which knew no trace of romantic sentimentalism2 and by these fresh and realistic qualities he has become the father of that art which rose in ,munich in a later day4 ,positive and exact in style1 and far too sincere to pretend to raise himself to the level of the old masters by superficial imitation1 he was the more industrious in penetrating the spirit of nature and showing his love for everything down to its minutest feature2 weak in the sentiment for colour1 he was great in his feeling for nature4 ,that was ,heinrich ,brkel1 and his successors had to supplement what was wanting in him1 but not to wage war against his influence4 ,illustration3 ,b,,rkel4 ,a ,,smithy ,,in ,,upper ,,bavaria4 ,the peculiarity of all his works1 as of those of the early ,dutch and ,flemish artists1 is the equal weight which he lays on figures and on landscape4 ,in his eyes the life of man is part of a greater whole2 animals and their scenic surroundings are studied with the same love1 and in his most felicitous pictures these elements are so blended that no one feature predominates at the expense of another4 ,seldom does he paint interiors1 almost always preferring to move in free and open nature4 ,but here his field is extraordinarily wide4 ,those works in which he handled ,italian subjects form a group by themselves4 ,brkel was in ,rome from #ahbi to #ahcb1 the very years in which ,leopold ,robert celebrated his triumphs there2 but curious is the difference between the works of the ,munich and those of the ,swiss painter4 ,in the latter are beautiful postures1 poetic ideas1 and all the academical formulas2 in the former unvarnished1 naturalistic bluntness of expression4 ,even in ,italy he kept romantic and academic art at a distance4 ,they had no power over the rough1 healthy1 and sincere nature of the artist4 ,he saw nothing in ,italy that he had not met with at home1 and he painted things as he saw them1 honestly and without beatification4 ,to find material ,brkel did not need to go far4 ,picture to yourself a man wandering along the banks of the ,isar1 and gazing about him with a still and thoughtful look4 ,a healthy peasant lass with a basket1 or a plough moving slowly in the distance behind a sweating yoke of horses1 is quite enough to fill him with feelings and ideas4 ,his peculiar domain was the high-road1 which in the thirties and the forties1 before the railways had usurped its traffic1 was filled with a much more manifold life than it is to-day4 ,waggons and mail-carts passed along before the old gateways2 in every village there were taverns inviting the wayfarer to rest1 and blacksmiths sought for custom on the road4 ,there were vehicles of every description1 horses at the forge1 posting-stages1 change of teams1 the departure of marketing folk1 and passengers taking their seats or alighting4 ,here horses were being watered1 and an occasion was given for brief dialogues between the coachman and his fares4 ,there travellers surprised by a shower were hurrying under their umbrellas into an inn2 or1 in wintry weather1 they were waiting impatiently1 wrapped up in furs1 whilst a horse was being shod4 ,illustration3 ,,carl ,,spitzweg4 ,the beaten tracks through field and forest offered much of the same sort4 ,peasants were driving to market with a cart-load of wood4 ,horses stood unyoked at a drinking-trough whilst the driver1 a muscular fellow with great sinews1 quietly enjoyed his pipe4 ,along some shadowy woodland path a team drew near to a forge or a lonely charcoal-burner's hut1 where the light flickered1 and over which there soared a bare and snowy mountain peak4 ,such pictures of snow-clad landscape were a specialty of ,brkel's art1 and in their simplicity and harmony are to be ranked with the best that he has done4 ,heavily freighted wood-carts passing through a drift1 waggons brought to a standstill in the snow1 raw-boned woodmen perspiring as they load them in a wintry forest1 are the accessory objects and figures4 ,illustration3 ,albert1 ,munich4 ,,spitzweg4 ,,at ,,the ,,garret ,,window4 ,but life in the fields attracted him also4 ,having a love of representing animals1 he kept out of the way of mowers1 reapers1 and gleaners4 ,his favourite theme is the hay1 corn1 or potato harvest1 which he paints with much detail and a great display of accessory incidents4 ,maids and labourers1 old and young1 are feverishly active in the construction of hay-cocks1 or1 in threatening weather1 pile up waggons1 loaded as high as a house1 with fresh trusses4 ,in this enumeration all the rustic life of ,bavaria has been described4 ,it is only the ,sunday and holiday themes1 the peculiar motives of the genre painter1 that are wanting4 ,and in itself this is an indication of what gives ,brkel his peculiar position4 ,by their conception his works are out of keeping with everything which the contemporary generation of great painters and the younger genre painters were attempting4 ,the great painters had their home in museums2 ,brkel lived in the world of nature4 ,the genre painters1 under the influence of ,wilkie1 were fond of giving their motive a touch of narrative interest1 like the ,english4 ,cheerful or mournful news1 country funerals1 baptisms1 and public dinners offered an excuse for representing the same sentiment in varying keys4 ,their starting-point was that of an illustrator2 it might be very pretty in itself1 but it was too jovial or whimpering for a picture4 ,brkel's works have no literary background2 they are not composed of stories with a humorous or sentimental tinge1 but depict with an intimate grasp of the subject the simplest events of life4 ,he neither offered the public lollipops1 nor tried to move them and play upon their sensibilities by subjects which could be spun out into a novel4 ,he approached his men1 his animals1 and his landscapes as a strenuous character painter1 without gush1 sentimentality1 or romanticism4 ,in contradistinction from all the younger painters of rustic subjects1 he sternly avoided what was striking1 peculiar1 or in any way extraordinary1 endeavouring to paint everyday life in the house or the farmyard1 in the field or upon the highway1 in all plainness and simplicity4 ,at first1 indeed1 he thought it necessary to satisfy the demands of the age by1 at any rate1 painting in a broad and epical manner4 ,the public collections chiefly possess pictures of his which contain many figures3 ,the ,return from the ,mountain ,pasture1 ,coming ,back from the ,bear ,hunt1 ,the ,cattle ,show1 and ,from the ,fair2 scenes before an inn at festivals1 or waggoners setting out1 and the like4 ,but in these works the scheme of composition and the multitude of figures have a somewhat overladen and old-fashioned effect4 ,on the other hand1 there are pictures scattered about in private collections which are of a simplicity which was unknown at the time3 dusty roads with toiling horses1 lonely charcoal burners' huts in the dimness of the forest1 villages in rain or snow1 with little figures shivering from frost or damp as they flit along the street4 ,from the very beginning1 free from the vices of genre and narrative painting and the search after interesting subjects1 he has1 in these pictures1 renounced the epical manner of representing a complicated event4 ,like the moderns1 he paints things which can be grasped and understood at a glance4 ,illustration3 ,,spitzweg4 ,a ,,morning ,,concert4 ,but1 after all1 ,brkel occupies a position which is curiously intermediate4 ,his colour relegates him altogether to the beginning of the century4 ,he was himself conscious of the weakness of his age in this respect1 and stands considerably above the school of ,cornelius1 even where its colouring is best4 ,yet1 in spite of the most diligent study of the ,dutch masters1 he remained1 as a colourist1 hard and inartistic to the end4 ,having far too much regard for outline1 he is not light enough with what should be lightly touched1 nor fugitive enough with what is fleeting4 ,what the moderns leave to be indistinctly divined he renders sharp and palpable in his drawing4 ,he trims and rounds off objects which have a fleeting form1 like clouds4 ,but although inept in technique1 his works are more modern in substance than anything that the next generation produced4 ,they have an intimacy of feeling beyond the reach of the traditional genre painting4 ,in his unusually fresh1 simple1 and direct studies of landscape he did not snatch at dazzling and sensational effects1 but tried to be just to external nature in her work-a-day mood2 and1 in the very same way1 in his figures he aimed at the plain reproduction of what is given in nature4 ,the hands of his peasants are the real hands of toil--weather-stained1 heavy1 and awkward4 ,there are no movements that are not simple and actual4 ,others have told droller stories2 ,brkel unrolls a true picture of the surroundings of the peasant's life4 ,others have made their rustics persons suitable for the drawing-room1 and cleaned their nails2 ,brkel preaches the strict1 austere1 and pious study of nature4 ,an entirely new age casts its shadow upon this close devotion to life4 ,in their intimacy and simplicity his pictures contain the germ of what afterwards became the task of the moderns4 ,all who came after him in ,germany were the sons of ,wilkie until ,wilhelm ,leibl1 furnished with a better technical equipment1 started in spirit from the point at which ,brkel had left off4 ,carl ,spitzweg1 in whose charming little pictures tender and discreet sentiment is united with realistic care for detail1 must likewise be reckoned with the few who strove and laboured in quiet1 apart from the ruling tendency1 until their hour came4 ,thrown entirely on his own resources1 without a teacher1 he worked his way upwards under the influence of the older painters4 ,by dint of copying he discovered their secrets of colour1 and gave his works1 which are full of poetry1 a remarkable impress of sympathetic delicacy1 suggestive of the old masters4 ,one turns over the leaves of the album of ,spitzweg's sketches as though it were a story-book from the age of romance1 and at the same time one is astonished at the master's ability in painting4 ,he was a genius who united in himself three qualities which seem to be contradictory--realism1 fancy1 and humour4 ,he might be most readily compared with ,schwind1 except that the latter was more of a romanticist than a realist1 and ,spitzweg is more of a realist than a romanticist4 ,the artists' yearning carries ,schwind to distant ages and regions far from the world1 and a positive sense of fact holds ,spitzweg firmly to the earth4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,spitzweg4 ,,the ,,postman4 ,like ,jean ,paul1 he has the boundless fancy which revels in airy dreams1 but he is also like ,jean ,paul in having a cheery1 provincial satisfaction in the sights of his own narrow world4 ,he has all ,schwind's delight in hermits and anchorites1 and witches and magic and nixies1 and he plays with dragons and goblins like ,boecklin2 but1 for all that1 he is at home and entirely at his ease in the society of honest little schoolmasters and poor sempstresses1 and gives shape to his own small joys and sorrows in a spirit of contemplation4 ,his dragons are only comfortable1 ,philistine dragons1 and his troglodytes1 who chastise themselves in rocky solitudes1 perform their penance with a kindly irony4 ,in ,spitzweg a fine humour is the causeway between fancy and reality4 ,his tender little pictures represent the ,germany of the forties1 and lie apart from the rushing life of our time1 like an idyllic hamlet slumbering in ,sunday quietude4 ,indeed1 his pictures come to us like a greeting from a time long past4 ,there they are3 his poor poet1 a little1 lean old man1 with a sharp nose and a night-cap1 sits at his garret window scanning verses on his frozen fingers1 enveloped in a blanket drawn up to his chin1 and protected from the inclemency of the weather by a great red umbrella2 his clerk1 grown grey in the dust of parchments1 sharpens his quill with dim-sighted eyes1 and feels himself part of a bureaucracy which rules the world2 his book-worm stands on the highest ladder in the library1 with books in his hand1 books in his pockets1 books under his arms1 and books jammed between his legs1 and neglects the dinner-hour in his peaceful enjoyment1 until an angry torrent of scolding is poured over his devoted head by the housekeeper2 there is his old gentleman devoutly sniffing the perfume of a cactus blossom which has been looked forward to for years2 there is his little man enticing his bird with a lump of sugar2 the widower glancing aside from the miniature of his better half at a pair of pretty maidens walking in the park2 the constable whiling away the time at the town-gate in catching flies2 the old-fashioned bachelor1 solemnly presenting a bouquet to a kitchen-maid who is busied at the market-well1 to the amusement of all the gossips watching him from the windows2 the lovers who in happy oblivion pass down a narrow street by the stall of a second-hand dealer1 where amidst antiquated household goods a gilded statuette of ,venus reposes in a rickety cradle2 the children holding up their pinafores as they beg the stork flying by to bring them a little brother4 ,spitzweg1 like ,jean ,paul1 makes an effect which is at once joyous and tender1 bourgeois and idyllic4 ,the postillion gives the signal on his horn that the moment for starting has arrived2 milk-maids look down from the green mountain summit into the far country2 hermits sit before their cells forgotten by the world2 old friends greet each other after years of separation2 ,dachau girls in their holiday best pray in woodland chapels2 school children pass singing through a still mountain valley2 maidens chatter of an evening as they fetch water from the moss-grown well1 or the arrival of the postman in his yellow uniform brings to their windows the entire population of an old country town4 ,the little man with the miserable figure of a tailor had been an apothecary until he was thirty years of age1 but he had an independent and distinctive artistic nature which impresses itself on the memory in a way that is unforgettable4 ,it is only necessary to see his portrait as he sits at his easel in his dressing-gown with his meagre beard1 his long nose1 and the droll look about the corners of his eyes1 to feel attracted by him before one knows his works4 ,spitzweg reveals in them his own life3 the man and the painter are one in him4 ,there is a pretty little picture of him as an elderly bachelor1 looking out of the window in the early morning and nodding across the roofs to an old sempstress who had worked the whole night through without noticing that the day had broken2 that is the world he lived in1 and the world which he has painted4 ,as a kind-hearted1 inflexible ,benedick1 full of droll eccentricities1 he lived in the oldest quarter of ,munich in a fourth-storey attic4 ,his only visitor was his friend ,moritz ,schwind1 who now and then climbed the staircase to the little room that looked over the roofs and gables and pinnacles to distant1 smoky towers4 ,his studio was an untidy confusion of prosaic discomfort and poetic cosiness4 ,illustration3 ,,kauffmann4 ,,woodcutters ,,returning4 ,here he sat1 an ossified hermit1 bourgeois1 and book-worm1 as if he were in a spider's nest1 and here at a little window he painted his delightful pictures4 ,here he took his homely meal at the rickety little table where he sat alone in the evening buried in his books4 ,a pair of heavy silver spectacles with keen glasses sparkled on his thick nose1 and the great head with its ironically twinkling eyes rested upon a huge cravat attached to a pointed stand-up collar4 ,when disturbed by strangers he spoke slowly and with embarrassment1 though in the society of ,schwind he was brilliant and satirical4 ,then he became as mobile as quicksilver1 and paced up and down the studio with great strides1 gesticulating and sometimes going through a dramatic performance in vivid mimicry of those of whom he happened to be talking4 ,his character has the same mixture of ,philistine contentment and genial comedy which gleams from his works with the freshness of dew4 ,a touch of the sturdy ,philistinism of ,eichendorf is in these provincial idylls of ,germany2 but at the same time they display an ability which even at the present day must compel respect4 ,the whole of ,romanticism chirps and twitters in the ,spitzweg ,album1 as from behind the wires of a birdcage4 ,everything is here united3 the fragrance of the woods and the song of birds1 the pleasures of travelling and the sleepy life of provincial towns1 moonshine and ,sunday quiet1 vagabonds1 roving musicians1 and the guardians of law1 learned professors and students singing catches1 burgomasters and town-councillors1 long-haired painters and strolling players1 red dressing-gowns1 green slippers1 night-caps1 and pipes with long stems1 serenades and watchmen1 rushing streams and the trill of nightingales1 rippling summer breezes and comely lasses1 stroking back their hair of a morning1 and looking down from projecting windows to greet the passers-by4 ,in common with ,schwind he shows a remarkable capacity for placing his figures in their right surroundings4 ,all these squares1 alleys1 and corners1 in which his provincial pictures are framed1 seem--minutely and faithfully executed as they are--to be localities predestined for the action1 though they are painted freely from memory4 ,just as he forgot none of the characteristic figures which he had seen in his youth1 so he held in his memory the whimsical and marvellous architecture of the country towns of ,swabia and ,upper ,bavaria which he had visited for his studies1 with such a firm grip that it was always at his command2 and he used it as a setting for his figures as a musician composes an harmonious accompaniment for a melody4 ,illustration3 ,,kauffmann4 ,a ,,sandy ,,road4 ,illustration3 ,,kauffmann4 ,,returning ,,from ,,the ,,fields4 ,to look at his pictures is like wandering on a bright ,sunday morning through the gardens and crooked1 uneven alleys of an old ,german town4 ,at the same time one feels that ,spitzweg belonged to the present and not to the period of the ingenuous ,philistines4 ,it was only after he had studied at the university and passed his pharmaceutical examination that he turned to painting4 ,nevertheless he succeeded in acquiring a sensitiveness to colour to which nothing in the period can be compared4 ,he worked through ,burnett's ,treatise on ,painting1 visited ,italy1 and in #ahea made a tour1 for the sake of study1 to ,paris1 ,london1 and ,antwerp1 in company with ,eduard ,schleich4 ,in the gallery of ,pommersfelden he made masterly copies from ,berghem1 ,gonzales ,coquez1 ,ostade1 and ,poelenburg1 and lived to see the appearance of ,piloty4 ,but much as he profited by the principles of colour which then became dominant1 he is like none of his contemporaries1 and stands as far from ,piloty's brown sauce as from the frigid hardness of the old genre painters4 ,he was one of the first in ,germany to feel the really sensuous joy of painting1 and to mix soft1 luxuriant1 melting colours4 ,there are landscapes of his which1 in their charming freshness1 border directly on the school of ,fontainebleau4 ,spitzweg has painted bright green meadows in which1 as in the pictures of ,daubigny1 the little red figures of peasant women appear as bright and luminous patches of colour4 ,his woodland glades penetrated by the sun have a pungent piquancy of colour such as is only to be found elsewhere in ,diaz4 ,and where he diversified his desolate mountain glens and steeply rising cliffs with the fantastic lairs of dragons and with eccentric anchorites1 he sometimes produced such bold colour symphonies of sapphire blue1 emerald green1 and red1 that his pictures seem like anticipations of ,boecklin4 ,spitzweg was a painter for connoisseurs4 ,his refined cabinet pieces are amongst the few ,german productions of their time which it is a delight to possess1 and they have the savour of rare delicacies when one comes across them in the dismal wilderness of public galleries4 ,brkel's realistic programme was taken up with even greater energy by ,hermann ,kauffmann1 who belonged to the ,munich circle from #ahbg to #ahcc1 and then painted until his death in #ahhh in his native ,hamburg4 ,his province was for the most part that of ,brkel3 peasants in the field1 waggoners on the road1 woodmen at their labour1 and hunters in the snowy forest4 ,for the first few years after his return home he used for his pictures the well-remembered motives taken from the ,south ,german mountain district4 ,a tour in ,norway1 undertaken in #ahdc1 gave him the impulse for a series of ,norwegian landscapes which were simple and direct1 and of more than common freshness4 ,in the deanery at ,holstein he studied the life of fishers4 ,otherwise the neighbourhood of ,hamburg is almost always the background of his pictures3 ,harburg1 ,kellinghusen1 ,wandsbeck1 and the ,alster ,valley4 ,concerning him ,lichtwark is right in insisting upon the correctness of intuition1 the innate soundness of perception which one meets with in all his works4 ,illustration3 ,,friedrich ,,eduard ,,meyerheim4 ,in ,berlin the excellent ,eduard ,meyerheim went on parallel lines with these masters4 ,an old tradition gives him the credit of having introduced the painting of peasants and children into ,german art4 ,but in artistic power he is not to be compared with ,brkel or ,kauffmann4 ,they were energetic realists1 teeming with health1 and in everything they drew they were merely inspired by the earnest purpose of grasping life in its characteristic moments4 ,but ,meyerheim1 good-humoured and childlike1 is decidedly inclined to a sentimentally pathetic compromise with reality4 ,at the same time his importance for ,berlin is incontestable4 ,hitherto gipsies1 smugglers1 and robbers were the only classes of human society1 with the exception of knights1 monks1 noble ladies1 and ,italian women1 which1 upon the banks of the ,spree1 were thought suitable for artistic representation4 ,friedrich ,eduard ,meyerheim sought out the rustic before literature had taken this step1 and in #ahcf he began with his ,king of the ,shooting ,match1 a series of modest pictures in which he was never weary of representing in an honest and sound-hearted way the little festivals of the peasant1 the happiness of parents1 and the games of children4 ,he had grown up in ,dantzic1 and played as a child in the tortuous lanes of the old free imperial city1 amid trumpery shops1 general dealers1 and artisans4 ,later1 when he settled down in ,berlin1 he painted the things which had delighted him in his youth4 ,the travels which he made for study were not extensive3 they hardly led him farther beyond the boundaries of the ,mark than ,hesse1 the ,harz district1 ,thringen1 ,altenburg1 and ,westphalia4 ,here he drew with indefatigable diligence the pleasant village houses and the churches shadowed by trees2 the cots1 yards1 and alleys2 the weather-beaten town ramparts1 with their crumbling walls2 the unobtrusive landscapes of ,north ,germany1 lovely valleys1 bushy hills1 and bleaching fields1 traversed by quiet streams fringed with willows1 and enlivened by the figures of peasants1 who still clung to so much of their old costume4 ,his pictures certainly do not give an idea of the life of the ,german people at the time4 ,for the peasantry have sat to ,meyerheim only in their most pious mood1 in ,sunday toilette1 and with their souls washed clean4 ,clearness1 neatness1 and prettiness are to be found everywhere in his pictures4 ,but little as they correspond to the truth1 they are just as little untrue through affectation1 for their idealism sprang from the harmless and cheerful temperament of the painter1 and from no convention of the schools4 ,illustration3 ,,meyerheim4 ,,children ,,at ,,play4 ,a homely1 idyllic poetry is to be found in his figures and his interiors4 ,his women and girls are chaste and gracious4 ,it is evident that ,meyerheim had a warm sympathy for the sorrows and joys of humble people2 that he had an understanding for this happy family life1 and liked himself to take part in these merry popular festivals2 that he did not idealise the world according to rules of beauty1 but because in his own eyes it really was so beautiful4 ,his ,king of the ,shooting ,match of #ahcf 7,berlin ,national ,gallery7 has as a background a wide and pleasant landscape1 with blue heights in the distance and the cheerful summer sunshine resting upon them4 ,in the foreground are a crowd of figures1 neatly composed after studies4 ,the crowned king of the match1 adorned for a festival1 stands proudly on the road by which the procession of marksmen is advancing1 accompanied by village music4 ,an old peasant is congratulating him1 and the pretty village girls and peasant women1 in their gay rustic costumes1 titter as they look on1 while the neighbours are merrily drinking his health4 ,then there is the ,morning ,lesson1 representing a carpenter's house1 where an old man is hearing his grandson repeat a school task2 ,children at ,play1 a picture of a game of hide-and-seek amongst the trees2 ,the ,knitting ,lesson1 and the picture of a young wife by the bed of a naked boy who has thrown off the bedclothes and is holding up one of his rosy feet2 and ,the ,road to ,church1 where the market-place is shadowed with lime trees and the fresh young girlish figures adorned in their ,sunday best4 ,these are all pictures which in lithograph and copperplate engraving once flooded all ,germany and enraptured the public at exhibitions4 ,illustration3 ,,meyerheim4 ,,the ,,king ,,of ,,the ,,shooting ,,match4 ,but the ,german genre picture of peasant life only became universally popular after the village novel came into vogue at the end of the thirties4 ,walter ,scott was not only a ,romanticist1 but the founder of the peasant novel3 he was the first to study the life and the human character of the peasantry of his native land1 their rough and healthy merriment1 their humorous peculiarities1 and their hot-headed love of quarrelling2 and he led the ,romanticists from their idyllic or sombre world of dreams nearer to the reality and its poetry4 ,a generation later ,immermann created this department of literature in ,germany by the ,oberhof-,episode of his ,mnchhausen4 ,the ,village ,magistrate was soon one of those typical figures which in literature became the model of a hundred others4 ,in #ahcg ,jeremias ,gotthelf began in his ,bauernspiegel those descriptions of ,bernese rustic life which found general favour through their downright common sense4 ,berthold ,auerbach1 ,otto ,ludwig1 and ,gottfried ,keller were then active1 and ,fritz ,reuter lit upon a more clear-cut form for his tales in dialect4 ,illustration3 ,,meyerheim4 ,,the ,,morning ,,hour4 ,the influence which these writers had upon painting was enormous4 ,it now turned everywhere to the life of the people1 and took its joy and pleasure in devoting itself to reality4 ,and the rustic was soon a popular figure much sought after in the picture market4 ,yet this reliance on poetry and fiction had its disadvantage4 ,for in ,germany1 also1 a vogue was given to that genre painting which1 instead of starting with a simple1 straightforward representation of what the artist had seen1 offered an artistically correct composition of what he had invented1 and indulged in a rambling display of humorous narrative and pathetic pieces4 ,in ,carlsruhe ,johann ,kirner was the first to work on these lines1 adapting the life of the ,swabian peasantry to the purposes of humorous anecdote4 ,in ,munich ,carl ,enhuber was especially fertile in the invention of comic episodes amongst the rustics of the ,bavarian highlands1 and his ponderous humour made him one of the favourite heroes of the ,art ,union4 ,every one was in raptures over his ,partenkirche ,fair1 over the charlatan in front of the village inn1 who 7like a figure after ,gerhard ,dow7 is bringing home to the multitude by his lofty eloquence the fabulous qualities of his soap for removing spots2 over that assembly of peasants which gave the painter an opportunity for making clearly recognisable people to be found everywhere in any little town1 from the judge of the county court and the local doctor down to the watchmen4 ,his second hit was ,the ,interrupted ,card ,party3 the blacksmith1 the miller1 the tailor1 and other dignitaries of the village are so painfully disturbed in their social reunion by the unamiable wife of the tailor that her happy spouse makes his escape under the table4 ,the house servant holds out his blue apron to protect his master1 whilst the miller and the blacksmith try to look unconcerned2 but a small boy who has accompanied his mother with a mug discovers the concealed sinner by his slipper1 which has come off4 ,the ,session ,day contains a still greater wealth of comical types3 here is the yard of a country assize court1 filled with people1 some of them waiting their turn1 some issuing in contentment or dejection4 ,most contented1 of course1 are a bridal pair from the mountains--a stout peasant lad and a buxom maiden--who have just received official consent to their marriage4 ,disastrous country excursions--townspeople overtaken by rain on their arrival in the mountains--were also a source of highly comical situations4 ,illustration3 ,,meyerheim4 ,,the ,,knitting ,,lesson4 ,in ,dsseldorf the reaction against the prevailing sentimentality necessarily gave an impulse to art on these humorous lines4 ,when it seemed as if the mournfulness of the thirties would never be ended1 ,adolf ,schroedter1 the satirist of the band of ,dsseldorf artists in those times1 broke the spell when he began to parody the works of the great painters4 ,when ,lessing painted ,the ,sorrowing ,royal ,pair1 ,schroedter painted ,the ,triumphal ,procession of ,king ,bacchus2 when ,hermann ,stilke produced his knights and crusaders1 ,schroedter illustrated ,don ,quixote as a warning2 and when ,bendemann gave the world ,the ,lamentation of ,jeremiah and ,the ,lamentation of the ,jews1 ,schroedter executed his droll picture ,the ,sorrowful ,tanners1 in which the tanners are mournfully regarding a hide carried away by the stream4 ,since he was a humorist1 and humour is rather an affair for drawing than painting1 the charming lithographs1 ,the ,deeds and ,opinions of ,piepmeyer the ,delegate1 published in conjunction with ,detmold1 the ,hanoverian barrister1 and author of the ,guide to ,connoisseurship1 are perhaps to be reckoned as his best performances4 ,hasenclever followed the dilettante ,schroedter as a delineator of the stolid ,peter type1 and painted the ,study and similar pictures for ,kortum's ,jobsiade with great technical skill1 and1 at the same time1 with little humour and much complacency4 ,by the roundabout route of illustration artists were gradually brought more directly into touch with life1 and painted side by side with melodramatic brigands1 rustic folk1 or a student at a tavern on the ,rhine1 absurd people reading the newspapers1 comic men sneezing1 or the smirking ,philistine tasting wine4 ,illustration3 ,,kirner4 ,,the ,,fortune ,,teller4 ,illustration3 ,,enhuber4 ,,the ,,pensioner ,,and ,,his ,,grandson4 ,illustration3 ,,jacob ,,becker4 ,a ,,tempest4 ,jacob ,becker went to the ,westerwald to sketch little village tragedies1 and won such popularity with his ,shepherd ,struck by ,lightning that for a long time the interest of the public was often concentrated on this picture in the collection of the ,staedel ,institute4 ,rudolf ,jordan of ,berlin settled on ,heligoland1 and became by his ,proposal of ,marriage in ,heligoland one of the most esteemed painters of ,dsseldorf4 ,and in #aheb ,henry ,ritter1 his pupil1 who died young1 enjoyed a like success with his ,middy's ,sermon1 which represents a tiny midshipman with comical zeal endeavouring to convert to temperance three tars who are staggering against him4 ,a ,norwegian1 ,adolf ,tidemand1 became the ,leopold ,robert of the ,north1 and1 like ,robert1 attained an international success when1 after #ahde1 he began to present his compatriots1 the peasants1 fishers1 and sailors of the shores of the ,north ,sea1 to the public of ,europe4 ,there was no doubt that a true ethnographical course of instruction in the life of a distant race1 as yet unknown to the rest of ,europe1 was to be gathered from his pictures1 as from those of ,robert1 or from the ,oriental representations of ,vernet4 ,in ,tidemand's pictures the ,germans learnt the ,norwegian usage of ,christmas1 accompanied the son of the ,north on his fishing of a night1 joined the bridal party on the ,hardanger ,fjord1 or listened to the sexton giving religious instruction2 sailed with fishing girls in a skiff to visit the neighbouring village1 or beheld grandmother and the children dance on ,sunday afternoon to father's fiddle4 ,norwegian peasant life was such an unknown world of romance1 and the costume so novel1 that ,tidemand's art was greeted as a new discovery4 ,that the truth of his pictures went no further than costume was only known at a later time4 ,tidemand saw his native land with the eyes of a ,romanticist1 as ,robert saw ,italy1 and1 in the same one-sided way1 he only visited the people on festive occasions4 ,though a born ,norwegian1 he1 too1 was a foreigner1 a man who was never familiar with the life of his country people1 who never lived at home through the raw autumn and the long winter1 but came only as a summer visitor1 when nature had donned her bridal garb1 and naturally took away with him the mere impressions of a tourist4 ,as he only went to ,norway for recreation1 it is always holiday-tide and ,sabbath peace in his pictures4 ,he represents the same idyllic optimism and the same kindly view of the people as did ,bjrnson in his earliest works2 and it is significant that the latter felt himself at the time so entirely in sympathy with ,tidemand that he wrote one of his tales1 ,the ,bridal ,march1 as text to ,tidemand's picture ,adorning the ,bride4 ,to seek the intimate poetry in the monotonous life of the peasant1 and to go with him into the struggle for existence1 was what did not lie in ,tidemand's method of presentation2 he did not live amongst the people sufficiently long to penetrate to their depths4 ,the sketches that resulted from his summer journeys often reveal a keen eye for the picturesque1 as well as for the spiritual life of this peasantry2 but later in ,dsseldorf1 when he composed his studies for pictures with the help of ,german models1 all the sharp characterisation was watered down4 ,what ought to have been said in ,norwegian was expressed in a ,german translation1 where the emphasis was lost4 ,his art is ,dsseldorf art with ,norwegian landscapes and costumes2 a course of lectures on the manners and customs of ,norwegian villages composed for ,germans4 ,the only thing which distinguishes ,tidemand to his advantage from the ,german ,dsseldorfers is that he is less humorously and sentimentally disposed4 ,pictures of his1 such as ,the ,lonely ,old ,people1 ,the ,catechism1 ,the ,wounded ,bear ,hunter1 ,the ,grandfather's ,blessing1 ,the ,sectarians1 etc41 create a really pleasant and healthy effect by a certain actual simplicity which they undoubtedly have4 ,other men would have made a melodrama out of ,the ,emigrant's ,departure 7,national ,gallery in ,christiania74 ,tidemand portrays the event without any sort of emphasis1 and feels his way with tact on the boundary between sentiment and sentimentality4 ,there is nothing false or hysterical in the behaviour of the man who is going away for life1 nor in those who have come to see him off4 ,in ,vienna the genre painters seem to owe their inspiration especially to the theatre4 ,what was produced there in the province of grand art during the first half of the century was neither better nor worse than elsewhere4 ,the ,classicism of ,mengs and ,david was represented by ,heinrich ,fger1 who had a more decided leaning towards the operatic4 ,the representative-in-chief of ,nazarenism was ,josef ,fhrich1 whose frescoes in the ,altlerchenfeld ,church are1 perhaps1 better in point of colour than the corresponding efforts of the ,munich artists1 though they are likewise in a formal way derivative from the ,italians4 ,vienna had its ,wilhelm ,kaulbach in ,carl ,rahl1 its ,piloty in ,christian ,ruben1 who1 like the ,munich artist1 had a preference for painting ,columbus1 and was meritorious as a teacher4 ,it was only through portrait painting that ,classicism and ,romanticism were brought into some sort of relation with life2 and the ,vienna portraitists of this older rgime are even better than their ,german contemporaries1 as they made fewer concessions to the ruling idealism4 ,amongst the portrait painters was ,lampi1 after whom followed ,moritz ,daffinger with his delicate miniatures2 but the most important of them all was ,friedrich ,amerling1 who had studied under ,lawrence in ,london and under ,horace ,vernet in ,paris1 and brought back with him great acquisitions in the science of colour4 ,in the first half of the century these assured him a decided advantage over his ,german colleagues4 ,it was only later1 when he was sought after as the fashionable painter of all the crowned heads1 that his art degenerated into mawkishness4 ,illustration3 ,,tidemand4 ,,the ,,sectarians4 ,genre painting was developed here as elsewhere from the military picture4 ,as early as #ahac ,peter ,krafft1 an academician of the school of ,david1 had exhibited a great oil-painting1 ,the ,soldier's ,farewell--the interior of a village room with a group of life-size figures4 ,the son of the family1 in grey uniform1 with a musket in his hand1 is tearing himself from his young wife1 who has a baby on her arm and is trying in tears to hold him back4 ,his old father sits in a corner with folded hands beside his mother1 who is also crying1 and has hid her face4 ,in #ahbj ,krafft added ,the ,soldier's ,return as a pendant to this picture4 ,it represents the changes which have taken place in the family during the warrior's absence3 his old mother is at rest in her grave2 his grey-headed father has become visibly older1 his little sister has grown up1 and the baby in arms is carrying the musket after his father4 ,they are both exceedingly tiresome pictures2 the colour is cold and grey1 the figures are pseudo-classical in modern costume1 and the pathos of the subject seems artificial and forced4 ,nevertheless a new principle of art is declared in them4 ,krafft was the first in ,austria to recognise what a rich province had been hitherto ignored by painting4 ,he warned his pupils against the themes of the ,romanticists4 ,these1 as he said1 were worked out1 since no one would do anything better than the ,last ,supper of ,leonardo da ,vinci or the ,madonnas of ,raphael4 ,and he warmly advocated the conviction that nothing could be done for historical painting so long as it refused to choose subjects from modern life4 ,krafft was an admirable teacher with a sober and clear understanding1 and he invariably directed his pupils to the immediate study of life and nature4 ,the consequence of his career was that ,carl ,schindler1 ,friedrich ,treml1 ,fritz ,l',allemand1 and others set themselves to treat in episodic pictures the military life of ,austria1 from the recruiting stage to the battle1 and from the soldier's farewell to his return to his father's house4 ,a further result was that the ,viennese genre painting parted company with the academical and historic art4 ,just at this time ,tschischka and ,schottky began to collect the popular songs of the ,viennese4 ,castelli gave a poetic representation of bourgeois life1 and ,ferdinand ,raimund brought it upon the stage in his dramas4 ,bauernfeld's types from the life of the people enjoyed a rapid popularity4 ,josef ,danhauser1 ,peter ,fendi1 and ,ferdinand ,waldmller went on parallel lines with these authors4 ,in their genre pictures they represented the ,austrian people in their joys and sorrows1 in their merriment and heartiness and good-humour2 the people1 be it understood1 of ,raimund's popular farces1 not those of the pavement of ,vienna4 ,josef ,danhauser1 the son of a ,viennese carpenter1 occupied himself with the artisan and bourgeois classes4 ,david ,wilkie gave him the form for his work and ,ferdinand ,raimund his ideas4 ,his studio scenes1 with boisterous art students caught by their surly teacher at the moment when they are playing their worst pranks1 gave pleasure to the class of people who1 at a later date1 took so much delight in ,emanuel ,spitzer4 ,his ,gormandizer is a counterpart to ,raimund's ,verschwender2 and when1 in a companion picture1 the gluttonous liver is supping up the monastery broth amongst beggars1 and his former valet remains true to him even in misfortune1 ,grillparzer's ,treuer ,diener seines ,herrn serves as a model for this type4 ,girls confessing their frailty to their parents had been previously painted by ,greuze4 ,amongst those of his pictures which had done most to amuse the public was the representation of the havoc caused by a butcher's dog storming into a studio4 ,in his last period he turned with ,collins to the nursery1 or wandered through the suburbs with a sketch-book1 immortalising the doings of children in the streets1 and drawing character heads of the school-teacher tavern habitus and the lottery adventurer4 ,illustration3 ,,tidemand4 ,,adorning ,,the ,,bride4 ,and this was likewise the province to which ,waldmller devoted himself4 ,chubby peasant children are the heroes of almost all his pictures4 ,a baby is sprawling with joy on its mother's lap1 while it is contemplated with proud satisfaction by its father1 or it is sleeping under the guardianship of a little sister2 a boy is despatched upon the rough path which leads to school1 and brings the reward of his conduct home with rapturous or dejected mien1 or he stammers ,many happy returns of the day to grandpapa4 ,waldmller paints ,the ,first ,step1 the joys of ,christmas ,presents1 and ,the ,distribution of ,prizes to ,poor ,school ,children2 he follows eager juveniles to the peep-show2 he is to be met at ,the ,departure of the ,bride and at ,the ,wedding2 he is our guide to the simple ,peasant's ,room1 and shows the benefit of ,almsgiving4 ,though his pictures may seem old-fashioned in subject nowadays1 their artistic qualities convey an entirely modern impression4 ,born in #agic1 he anticipated the best artists of later days in his choice of material4 ,both in his portraits and in his country scenes there is a freshness and transparency of tone which was something rare among the painters of that time4 ,illustration3 ,,peter ,,krafft4 ,,the ,,soldier',s ,,return4 ,friedrich ,gauermann wandered in the ,austrian ,alps1 in ,steiermark1 and ,salzkammergut1 making studies of nature1 the inhabitants1 and the animal world4 ,in contradistinction from ,waldmller1 painter of idylls1 and the humorist ,danhauser1 he aimed above all at ethnographical exactness4 ,with sincere and unadorned observation ,gauermann represents the local peculiarities of the peasantry1 differentiated according to their peculiar valleys2 life on the pasture and at the market1 when some ceremonial occasion--a shooting match1 a ,sunday observance1 or a church consecration--has gathered together the scattered inhabitants4 ,genre painting in other countries worked with the same types4 ,the costume was different1 but the substance of the pictures was the same4 ,in ,belgium ,leys had already worked in the direction of painting everyday life2 for although he had painted figures from the sixteenth century1 they were not idealised1 but as rough and homely as in reality4 ,when the passion for truthfulness increased1 as it did in the following years1 there came a moment when the old ,german tradition1 under the shelter of which ,leys yet took refuge1 was shaken off1 and artists went directly to nature without seeking the mediation of antiquated style4 ,at that time ,belgium was one of the most rising and thriving countries in ,europe4 ,it had private collections by the hundred4 ,wealthy merchants rivalled one another in the pride of owning works by their celebrated painters4 ,this necessarily exerted an influence on production4 ,pretty genre pictures of peasant life soon became the most popular wares2 as for their artistic sanction1 it was possible to point to ,brouwer and ,teniers1 the great national exemplars4 ,at first1 then1 the painters worked with the same elements as ,teniers4 ,the common themes of their pictures were the ale-house with its thatched roof1 the old musician with his violin1 the mountebank standing in the midst of a circle of people1 lovers1 or drinkers brawling4 ,only the costume was changed1 and everything coarse1 indecorous1 or unrestrained was scrupulously excluded ad usum ,delphini4 ,that the deep colouring of the old masters became meagre and motley was in ,belgium also an inevitable result of the helplessness in regard to colour which had been brought on by ,classicism4 ,the pictorial furia of ,adriaen ,brouwer gave way to a polished porcelain painting which hardly bore a trace of the work of the hand4 ,harsh and gaudy reds and greens were especially popular4 ,illustration3 ,,waldm,,ller4 ,,the ,,first ,,step4 ,the first who began a modest career on these lines was ,ignatius van ,regemorter4 ,as one recognises the pictures of ,wouwerman by the dappled-grey horse1 ,regemorter's may be recognised by the violin4 ,every year he turned out one picture at least in which music was being played1 and people were dancing with a rather forced gaiety4 ,then came ,ferdinand de ,braekeleer1 who painted the jubilees of old people1 or children and old women amusing themselves at public festivities4 ,teniers was his principal model1 but his large joviality was transformed into a chastened merriment1 and his broad laughter into a discreet smile4 ,braekeleer's peasantry and proletariat are of an idyllic mildness2 honest1 pious souls who1 with all their poverty1 are as moral as they are happy4 ,henri ,coene elaborated such themes as ,oh1 what beautiful ,grapes6 or ,a ,pinch of ,snuff for the ,parson6 ,illustration3 ,,madou4 ,,in ,,the ,,ale-,,house4 ,madou's merit lies in having extended ,belgian genre painting somewhat beyond these narrow bounds2 he introduced a greater variety of types verging more on reality than that everlasting honest man painted by ,ferdinand de ,braekeleer4 ,madou was a native of ,brussels4 ,there he was born in #agif1 and he died there in #ahgg4 ,when he began his career ,wappers had just made his appearance4 ,madou witnessed his successes1 but did not feel tempted to follow him4 ,whilst the latter in his large pictures in the grand style aimed at being ,rubens redivivus1 ,madou embodied his ideas in fleeting pencil sketches4 ,a great number of lithographs of scenes from the past bore witness to his conception of history4 ,there was nothing in them that was dignified1 nothing that was stilted1 no idealism and no beauty2 in their tabards and helmets the figures moved with the natural gestures of ordinary human beings4 ,by the side of great seigneurs1 princes1 and knights1 and amid helmets and hose1 drunken scoundrels1 tavern politicians1 and village cretins started into view1 and grimaced and danced and scuffled4 ,in ,belgium his plates occupy a position similar to that of the first lithographs of ,menzel in ,germany4 ,but ,madou lingered for a still briefer period in the ,pantheon of history2 the tavern had for him a yet greater attraction4 ,the humorous books which he published in ,paris and ,brussels first showed him in his true light4 ,having busied himself for several years exclusively with drawings1 he made his dbut in #ahdb as a painter4 ,it is difficult to decide how much ,madou produced after that date4 ,the long period between #ahdb and #ahgg yields a crowded chronicle of his works4 ,even in the seventies he was just as vigorous as at the beginning1 and though he was regarded as a jester during his lifetime he was honoured as a great painter after his death4 ,at the auction of his unsold works1 pictures fetched #bb1jjj francs1 sketches reached #cbjj1 water-colours #baej1 and drawings #gej4 ,the present generation has reduced this over-estimation to its right measure1 but it has not shaken ,madou's historical importance4 ,he has a firm position as the man who conquered modern life in the interests of ,belgian art1 and he is the more significant for the genre painting of his age1 as he eclipsed all his contemporaries1 even in ,germany and ,england1 in the inexhaustible fund of his invention4 ,illustration3 ,,madou4 ,,the ,,drunkard4 ,a merry world is reflected in his pictures4 ,one of his most popular figures is the ranger1 a sly old fox with a furrowed1 rubicund visage and huge ears1 who roves about more to the terror of love-making couples than of poachers1 and never aims at any one except for fun at the rural justice1 a portly gentleman in a gaudy waistcoat1 emerging quietly at the far end of the road4 ,he introduces a varied succession of braggarts1 poor fellows1 down-at-heel and out-at-elbows1 old grenadiers joking with servant girls1 old marquesses taking snuff with affected dignity1 charlatans at their booth1 deaf and dumb flute-players1 performing dogs1 and boys sick over their first pipe4 ,here and there are fatuous or over-wise politicians solemnly opening a newly printed paper1 with their legs astraddle and their spectacles resting on their noses4 ,rascals with huge paunches and blue noses fall asleep on their table in the ale-house1 and enliven the rest of the company by their snoring4 ,at times the door is opened and a scolding woman appears with a broom in her hand4 ,on these occasions the countenance of the toper is a comical sight4 ,at the sound of the beloved voice he endeavours to raise himself1 and anxiously follows the movements of his better half as he clings reeling to the table1 or plants himself more firmly in his chair with a resigned and courageous ,j'y suis1 j'y reste4 ,being less disposed to appear humorous1 ,adolf ,dillens makes a more sympathetic impression4 ,he1 too1 had begun with forced anecdotes1 but after a tour to ,zealand opened his eyes to nature2 he laid burlesque on one side1 and depicted what he had seen in unhackneyed pictures3 sound and healthy men of patriarchal habits4 ,even his method of painting became simpler and more natural2 his colouring1 hitherto borrowed from the old masters1 became fresher and brighter4 ,he emancipated himself from ,rembrandt's chiaroscuro1 and began to look at nature without spectacles4 ,there is something poetic in his method of observation3 he really loved these good people and painted them in the unadorned simplicity of their life--cheery old age that knows no wrinkles and laughing youth that knows no sorrows4 ,he is indeed one-sided1 for a good fairy has banished all trouble from his happy world2 but his pictures are the product of a fresh and amiable temperament4 ,his usual themes are a friendly gathering at the ale-house1 a conversation beneath the porch1 skating1 scenes in cobblers' workshops1 a gust of wind blowing an umbrella inside out2 and if he embellishes them with little episodic details1 this tendency is so innocent that nobody can quarrel with him4 ,in ,france it was ,franois ,biard1 the ,paul de ,kock of ,french painting1 who attained most success in the thirties by humorous anecdote4 ,he devoted his whole life to the comical representation of the minor trespasses and misfortunes of the commonplace bourgeoisie4 ,he had the secret of displaying his comicalities with great aptitude1 and of mocking at the ridiculous eccentricities of the ,philistine in an obvious and downright fashion4 ,strolling players made fools of themselves at their toilette2 lads were bathing whilst a gendarme carried off their clothes2 a sentry saluted a decorated veteran1 whose wife gratefully acknowledged the attention with a curtsey2 the village grandee held a review of volunteers with the most pompous gravity2 a child was exhibited at the piano to the admiration of its yawning relatives4 ,one of his chief pictures was called ,posada ,espagnol4 ,the hero was a monk winking at a beauty of forty who was passing by while he was being shaved4 ,women were sitting and standing about1 when a herd of swine dashing in threw everything over and put the ladies to flight1 and so called forth one of those comic effects of terror in which ,paul de ,kock took such delight4 ,biard was inexhaustible in these expedients for provoking laughter2 and as he had travelled far he had always in reserve a slave-market1 a primeval forest1 or an ice-field to appease the curiosity of his admirers when there was nothing more to laugh at4 ,from the ,german standpoint he had importance as an artist whose flow of ideas would have furnished ten genre painters2 and if he is the only representative of the humorously anecdotic picture in ,france1 the reason is that there earlier than elsewhere art was led into a more earnest course by the tumult of ideas on social politics4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,,the ,,picture ,,with ,a ,,social ,,purpose ,that modern life first entered art1 in all countries1 under the form of humorous anecdote is partly the consequence of the one-sided sthetic ideas of the period4 ,in an age that was dominated by idealism it was forgotten that ,murillo had painted lame beggars sitting in the sun1 ,velasquez cripples and drunkards1 and ,holbein lepers2 that ,rembrandt had so much love for humble folk1 and that old ,breughel with a strangely sombre pessimism turned the whole world into a terrible hospital4 ,the modern man was hideous1 and art demanded absolute beauty4 ,if he was to be introduced into painting1 despite his want of beaut suprme1 the only way was to treat him as a humorous figure which had to be handled ironically4 ,mercantile considerations were also a power in determining this form of humour4 ,at a time when painting was forced to address itself to a public which was uneducated in art1 and could only appreciate anecdotes1 such comicalities had the best prospect of favour and a rapid sale4 ,the object was to provoke laughter1 at all hazards1 by drollness of mien1 typical stupidity1 and absurdity of situation4 ,the choice of figures was practically made according as they were more or less serviceable for a humorous purpose4 ,children1 rustics1 and provincial ,philistines seemed to be most adapted to it4 ,the painter treated them as strange and nave beings1 and brought them before the public as a sort of performing dogs1 who could go through remarkable tricks just as if they were human beings4 ,and the public laughed over whimsical oddities from another world1 as the courtiers of ,louis ,,xiv had laughed in ,versailles when ,m4 ,jourdain and ,m4 ,dimanche were acted by the king's servants upon the stage of ,molire4 ,meanwhile painters gradually came to remark that this humour l'huile was bought at too dear a price4 ,for humour1 which is like a soap-bubble1 can only bear a light method of representation1 such as ,hokusai's drawing or ,brouwer's painting1 but becomes insupportable where it is offered as a laborious composition executed with painstaking realism4 ,and ethical reasons made themselves felt independently of these artistic considerations4 ,the drollness of these pictures did not spring from the characters1 but from an effort to amuse the public at the expense of the painted figures4 ,as a general rule a peasant is a serious1 square-built1 angular fellow4 ,for his existence he does battle with the soil2 his life is no pleasure to him1 but hard toil4 ,but in these pictures he appeared as a figure who had no aim or purport2 in his brain the earnestness of life was transformed into a romping game4 ,painters laughed at the little world which they represented4 ,they were not the friends of man1 but parodied him and transformed life into a sort of ,punch and ,judy show4 ,and even when they did not approach their figures with deliberate irony1 they never dreamed of plunging with any sincere love of truth into the depths of modern life4 ,they painted modern matter without taking part in it1 like good children who know nothing of the bitter facts that take place in the world4 ,when the old ,dutch painters laughed1 their laughter had its historical justification4 ,in the pictures of ,ostade and ,dirk ,hals there is seen all the primitive exuberance and wild joy of life belonging to a people who had just won their independence and abandoned themselves after long years of war with a sensuous transport to the gladness of existence4 ,but the smile of these modern genre painters is forced1 conventional1 and artificial2 the smile of a later generation which only took the trouble to smile because the old ,dutch had laughed before them4 ,they put on rose-coloured glasses1 and through these gaudy spectacles saw only a gay masque of life1 a fair but hollow deception4 ,they allowed their heroes to pass such a merry existence that the question of what they lived upon was never touched4 ,when they painted their tavern pictures they anxiously suppressed the thought that people who drained their great mugs so carelessly possibly had sick children at home1 hungry and perishing with cold in a room without a fire4 ,their peasants are the favoured sons of fortune3 they sowed not1 neither did they reap1 nor gathered into barns1 but their ,heavenly ,father fed them4 ,poverty and vice presented themselves merely as amiable weaknesses1 not as great modern problems4 ,just at this time the way was being paved for the ,revolution of #ahdh3 the people fought and suffered1 and for years before literature had taken part in this struggle4 ,before the ,revolution the battle had been between the nobility and the middle class2 but now that the latter had to some extent taken the place of the nobility of earlier days1 there rose the mighty problem of strife between the unproductive and the productive1 between rich and poor4 ,in ,england1 the birthplace of the modern capitalistic system1 in a country where great industry and great landed property first ousted the independent yeomanry and called forth ever sharper division between those who possessed everything and those who possessed nothing1 the unsolved problem of the nineteenth century found its earliest utterance4 ,more than sixty years ago1 in the year of ,goethe's death1 a new literature arose there1 the literature of social politics4 ,with ,ebenezer ,elliott1 who had been himself a plain artisan1 the ,fourth ,estate made its entry into literature2 a workman led the train of socialistic poets4 ,thomas ,hood wrote his ,song of the ,shirt1 that lyric of the poor sempstress which soon spread all over the ,continent4 ,carlyle1 the friend and admirer of ,goethe1 came forward in #ahdc as the burning advocate of the poor and miserable in ,past and ,present4 ,he wrote there that this world was no home to the working-man1 but a dreary dungeon full of mad and fruitless plagues4 ,it was an utterance that shook the world like a bomb4 ,benjamin ,disraeli's ,sybil followed in #ahde4 ,as a novel it is a strange mixture of romantic and naturalistic chapters1 the latter seeming like a prophetic announcement of ,zola's ,germinal4 ,as a reporter ,charles ,dickens had in his youth the opportunity of learning the wretchedness of the masses in ,london1 even in the places where they lurked distrustfully in dark haunts4 ,in his ,christmas stories and his ,london sketches he worked these scenes of social distress into thrilling pictures4 ,the poor man1 whose life is made up of bitter weeks and scanty holidays1 received his citizenship in the ,english novel4 ,in ,france the year #ahcj was an end and a beginning--the close of the struggles begun in #aghi1 and the opening of those which led to the decisive battle of #ahdh4 ,with the roi bourgeois1 whom ,lafayette called the best of republicans1 the ,third ,estate came into possession of the position to which it had long aspired2 it rose from the ranks of the oppressed to that of the privileged classes4 ,as a new ruling class it made such abundant capital with the fruits of the ,revolution of ,july that even in #ahcj ,brne wrote from ,paris3 ,the men who fought against all aristocracy for fifteen years have scarcely conquered--they have not yet wiped the sweat from their faces--and already they want to found for themselves a new aristocracy1 an aristocracy of money1 a knighthood of fortune4 ,to the same purpose wrote ,heine in #ahcg3 ,the men of thought who1 during the eighteenth century1 were so indefatigable in preparing the ,revolution1 would blush if they saw how self-interest is building its miserable huts on the site of palaces that have been broken down1 and how1 out of these huts1 a new aristocracy is sprouting up which1 more ungraciously than the old1 has its primary cause in money-making4 ,there the radical ideas of modern socialism were touched4 ,the proletariat and its misery became henceforward the subject of ,french poetry1 though they were not observed with any naturalistic love of truth1 but from the romantic standpoint of contrast4 ,branger1 the popular singer of chansons1 composed his ,vieux ,vagabond1 the song of the old beggar who dies in the gutter2 ,auguste ,barbier wrote his ,ode to ,freedom1 where la sainte canaille are celebrated as immortal heroes1 and with the scorn of ,juvenal lashes those who drew profit from the ,revolution1 those bourgeois in kid gloves who watched the sanguinary street fights comfortably from the window4 ,in #ahdb-dc ,eugne ,sue published his ,mystres de ,paris1 a forbidding and nonsensical book1 but one which made an extraordinary sensation1 just because of the disgusting openness with which it unveiled the life of the lower strata of the people4 ,even the great spirits of the ,romantic school began to follow the social and political strife of the age with deep emotion and close sympathy4 ,already in the course of the thirties socialistic ideas forced their way into the ,romantic school from every side4 ,their source was ,saint ,simon1 whose doctrines first found a wide circulation under ,louis ,philippe4 ,according to ,saint ,simon1 the task of the new ,christianity consisted in improving as quickly as possible the fate of the class which was at once the poorest and the most numerous4 ,his pupils regarded him as the ,messiah of the new era1 and went forth into the world as his disciples4 ,george ,sand1 the boldest feminine genius in the literature of the world1 mastered these seething ideas and founded the artisan novel in her ,compagnon du ,tour de ,france4 ,it is the first book with a real love of the people--the people as they actually are1 those who drink and commit deeds of violence as well as those who work and make mental progress4 ,in her periodical1 ,l'claireur de l',indre1 she pleads the cause both of the artisan in great towns and of the rustic labourer2 in #ahdd she declared herself as a ,socialist1 without qualification1 in her great essay ,politics and ,socialism1 and she brought out her celebrated ,letters to the ,people in #ahdh4 ,the democratic tide of ideas came to ,victor ,hugo chiefly through the religious apostle ,lamennais1 whose book1 written in prison1 ,de l',esclavage ,moderne1 gave the same fuel to the ,revolution of #ahdh as the works of ,rousseau had done to that of #aghi4 ,the peasant bears the whole burden of the day1 exposes himself to rain and sun and wind1 to make ready by his work the harvest which fills our barns in the late autumn4 ,if there are those who think the lighter of him on that account1 and will not accord him freedom and justice1 build a high wall round them1 so that their noisome breath may not poison the air of ,europe4 ,from the forties there mutters through ,hugo's poems the muffled sound of the ,revolution which was soon to burst over ,paris1 and thence to move1 like a rolling thunderstorm1 across ,europe4 ,in place of the tricolor under which the bourgeoisie and the artisan class had fought side by side eighteen years before1 the banner of the artisan was hoisted blood-red against the ruling bourgeoisie4 ,this ,zeitgeist1 this spirit of the age which had grown earnest1 necessarily guided art into another course2 the painted humour and childlike optimism of the first genre painters began to turn out a lie4 ,in spite of ,schiller1 art cannot be blithe with sincerity when life is earnest4 ,it can laugh with the muscles of the face1 but the laughter is mirthless2 it may haughtily declare itself in favour of some consecrated precinct1 in which nothing of the battles and struggles of the outside world is allowed to echo2 but1 for all that1 harsh reality demands its rights4 ,josef ,danhauser's modest little picture of #ahcf1 ,the ,gormandizer1 is an illustration of this4 ,in a sumptuously furnished room a company of high station and easy circumstances are seated at dinner4 ,the master of the house1 a sleek little man1 is draining his glass1 and a young dandy is playing the guitar4 ,but an unwelcome disturbance breaks in4 ,the figure of a beggar1 covered with rags and with a greasy hat in his hand1 appears at the door4 ,the ladies scream1 and a dog springs barking from under a chair1 whilst the flunkey in attendance angrily prepares to send the impudent intruder about his business4 ,that was the position which art had hitherto taken up towards the social question4 ,it shrank peevishly back as soon as rude and brutal reality disturbed its peaceful course4 ,people wished to see none but cheerful pictures of life around them4 ,illustration3 ,,danhauser4 ,,the ,,gormandizer4 ,for this reason peasants were invariably painted in neat and cleanly dress1 with their faces beaming with joy1 an embodiment of the blessing of work and the delights of country life4 ,even beggars were harmless1 peacefully cheerful figures1 sparkling with health and beauty1 and enveloped in sthetic rags4 ,but as political1 religious1 and social movements have always had a vivid and forcible effect on artists1 painters in the nineteenth century could not in the long run hold themselves aloof from this influence4 ,the voice of the disinherited made itself heard sullenly muttering and with ever-increasing strength4 ,the parable of ,lazarus lying at the threshold of the rich man had become a terrible reality4 ,conflict was to be seen everywhere around1 and it would have been mere hardness of heart to have used this suffering people any longer as an agreeable subject for merriment4 ,a higher conception of humanity1 the entire philanthropic character of the age1 made the jests at which the world had laughed seem forced and tasteless4 ,modern life must cease altogether before it can be a humorous episode for art1 and it had become earnest reality through and through4 ,painting could no longer affect trivial humour2 it had to join issue1 and speak of what was going on around it4 ,it had to take its part in the struggle for aims that belonged to the immediate time4 ,powerfully impressed by the ,revolution of ,july1 it made its first advance4 ,the ,government had been thrown down after a blood-stained struggle1 and a liberated people were exulting2 and the next ,salon showed more than forty representations of the great events1 amongst which that of ,delacroix took the highest place in artistic impressiveness4 ,the principal figure in his picture is a youthful woman1 with a red ,phrygian cap1 holding a musket in one hand and a tricolor in the other4 ,naked to the hip1 she strides forward over the corpses1 giving challenge to battle1 a beautiful vehement body with a face in bold profile and an insolent grief upon her features1 a strange mixture of ,phryne1 poissarde1 and the goddess of ,liberty4 ,thus has ,heine described the work while still under a vivid impression of the event it portrayed4 ,in the thick of the powder smoke stands ,liberty upon the barricade1 at her right a ,parisian gamin with a pistol in his hand1 a child but already a hero1 at her left an artisan with a gun on his arm3 it is the people that hastens by1 exulting to die the death for the great ideas of liberty and equality4 ,the painter himself had an entirely unpolitical mind4 ,he had drawn his inspiration for the picture1 not from experience1 but out of ,la ,cure1 those verses of ,auguste ,barbier that are ablaze with wrath-- ,c'est que la ,libert n'est pas une comtesse ,du noble faubourg ,saint-,germain1 ,une femme qu'un cri fait tomber en faiblesse1 ,qui met du blanc et du carmin2 ,c'est un forte femme aux puissantes mamelles1 la voix rauque1 aux durs appas1 ,qui1 du brun sur la peau1 du feu dans les prunelles1 ,agile et marchant grands pas1 ,se plait aux cris du peuple1 aux sanglantes mles1 ,aux longs roulements des tambours1 l'odeur de la poudre1 aux lointaines voles ,des cloches et des canons sourds4 ,and by this allegorical figure he has certainly weakened its grip and directness2 but it was a bold1 naturalistic achievement all the same4 ,by this work the great ,romanticist became the father of the naturalistic movement1 which henceforward1 supported by the revolutionary democratic press1 spread more and more widely4 ,the critics on these journals began to reproach painters with troubling themselves too little about social and political affairs4 ,the actuality and social significance of art1 it was written1 is the principal thing4 ,what is meant by ,beauty8 ,we demand that painting should influence society1 and join in the work of progress4 ,everything else belongs to the domain of ,utopias and abstractions4 ,the place of whimsicalities is accordingly taken by sentimental and melodramatic scenes from the life of the poor4 ,rendered enthusiastic by the victory of the people1 and inspired by democratic sentiments1 some painters came to believe that the sufferings of the artisan class were the thing to be represented1 and that there was nothing nobler than work4 ,illustration3 ,,leleux4 ,,mot ,d',,ordre4 ,one of the first to give an example was ,jeanron4 ,his picture of ,the ,little ,patriots1 produced in connection with the ,revolution of ,july1 was a glorification of the struggle for freedom2 his ,scene in ,paris a protest against the sufferings of the people4 ,he sought his models amongst the poor of the suburb1 painted their ragged clothes and their rugged heads without idealisation4 ,for him the aim of art was not beauty1 but the expression of truth--a truth1 no doubt1 which made political propaganda4 ,it was ,jeanron's purpose to have a socialistic influence4 ,one sees it in his blacksmiths and peasants1 and in that picture ,the ,worker's ,rest which in #ahdg induced ,thor's utterance3 ,it is a melancholy and barren landscape from the neighbourhood of ,paris1 a plebeian landscape which hardly seems to belong to itself1 and which gives up all pretensions to beauty merely to be of service to man4 ,jeanron is always plebeian1 even in his landscapes3 he loves the plains which are never allowed to repose1 on which there is always labour2 there are no beautiful flowers in his fields1 as there is no gold ornament on the rags of his beggars and labourers4 ,and afterwards1 during the early years of the reign of ,louis ,philippe1 when the tendency became once more latent1 the ,revolution of ,february worked out what the ,revolution of ,july had begun4 ,mediocre painters like ,antigna became famous because they bewailed the sorrows of the common man in small and medium-sized pictures4 ,others began to display a greater interest in rustics1 and to take them more seriously than they had done in earlier works4 ,adolphe ,leleux made studies in ,brittany1 and discovered earnest episodes in the daily life of the peasant1 which he rendered with great actuality4 ,and after sliding back into ,romanticism1 as he did with his ,arragon smugglers1 he enjoyed his chief success in #ahdi with that picture at the ,luxembourg to which he was incited by the sad aspect of the streets of ,paris during the rising of #ahdh4 ,the men who1 driven by hunger and misery1 fought upon the barricades may be found in ,leleux's ,mot d',ordre4 ,after the coup d'tat of #ahea even ,meissonier1 till then exclusively a painter of rococo subjects1 encroached on this province4 ,in his picture of the barricades 7#b ,december #ahea7 heaps of corpses are lying stretched out in postures which could not have been merely invented4 ,the execution1 too1 has a nervous force which betrays that even so calculating a spirit as ,meissonier was at one time moved and agitated4 ,in his little smokers and scholars and waiting-men he is an adroit but cold-blooded painter3 here he has really delivered himself of a modern epic4 ,his ,barricade 7formerly in the ,van ,praet ,collection7 is the one thrilling note in the master's work1 which was elsewhere so quiet4 ,alexandre ,antigna1 originally an historical painter1 turned from historical disasters to those which take place in the life of the lower strata of the people4 ,a dwelling of a poor family is struck by lightning2 poor people pack up their meagre goods with the haste of despair on the outbreak of fire2 peasants seek refuge from a flood upon the roof of their little house2 petty shopkeepers are driving with their wares across the country1 when their nag drops down dead in the shafts2 or an old crone1 cowering at the street corner1 receives the pence which her little daughter has earned by playing on the fiddle4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,octave ,,tassaert4 ,but the artist in whose works the philanthropic if sentimental humour of the epoch is specially reflected is that remarkable painter1 made up of contradictions1 ,octave ,tassaert4 ,borrowing at one and the same time from ,greuze1 ,fragonard1 and ,prudhon1 he painted subjects mythological1 ribald1 and religious1 boudoir pictures1 and scenes of human misery4 ,tassaert was a ,fleming1 a grandson of that ,tassaert who educated ,gottfried ,schadow and died as director of the ,berlin ,academy in #aghh4 ,his name has been for the most part forgotten2 it awakes only a dim recollection in those who see ,the ,unhappy ,family in the ,luxembourg ,muse4 ,but forty years ago he was amongst the most advanced of his day1 and enjoyed the respect of men like ,delacroix1 ,rousseau1 ,troyon1 and ,diaz4 ,he took ,chardin and ,greuze as his models1 and is a real master in talent4 ,he was the poet of the suburbs1 who spoke in tender complaining tones of the hopes and sufferings of humble people4 ,he painted the elegy of wretchedness3 suicide in narrow garrets1 sick children1 orphans freezing in the snow1 seduced and more or less repentant maidens--a sad train4 ,he was called the ,correggio of the attic1 the ,prudhon of the suburbs4 ,his labours are confined to eleven years1 from #ahdf to #aheg4 ,after that he sent no more to the ,salon and sulkily withdrew from artistic life4 ,he had no wish ever to see his pictures again1 and sold them--forty-four altogether--to a dealer for two thousand francs and a cask of wine4 ,with a glass in his hand he forgot his misanthropy4 ,he lived almost unknown in a little house in the suburbs with a nightingale1 a dog1 and a little shop-girl for his sole companions4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,tassaert4 ,,after ,,the ,,ball4 ,but his nightingale died1 and then the dog1 who should have followed at his funeral4 ,he could not survive the blow4 ,he broke his palette1 threw his colours into the fire1 lit a pan of charcoal that he might die like ,the ,unhappy ,family1 and was found suffocated on the following day4 ,on a scrap of paper he had written1 without regard to metre or orthography1 a few verses to his nightingale and his dog4 ,there is much that is magniloquent and sentimental in ,tassaert's pictures4 ,his poor women perish with the big eyes of the heroines of ,ary ,scheffer4 ,nevertheless he belongs to the advance line of modern art1 and suffered shipwreck merely because he gave the signal too early4 ,the sad reality prevails in his work4 ,merciless as a surgeon operating on a diseased limb1 he made a dissecting-room of his art1 which is often brutal where his brush probes the deepest wounds of civilisation4 ,there is nothing in his pictures but wretched broken furniture1 stitched rags1 and pale faces in which toil and hunger have ploughed their terrible furrows4 ,he painted the degeneration of man perishing from lack of light and air4 ,himself a ,fleming1 he has found his greatest follower in another ,netherlander1 ,charles de ,groux1 whose sombre pessimism dominates modern ,belgian art4 ,in ,germany1 where the socialistic writings of the ,french and ,english had a wide circulation1 ,gisbert ,flggen1 in ,munich known as the ,german ,wilkie1 was perhaps the first who as early as the forties went somewhat further than the humorous representation of rustics1 and entered into a certain relation with the social ideas of his age in such pictures as ,the ,interrupted ,marriage ,contract1 ,the ,unlucky ,gamester1 ,the ,msalliance1 ,decision of the ,suit1 ,the ,disappointed ,legacy ,hunter1 ,the ,execution for ,rent1 and the like4 ,under his influence ,danhauser in ,vienna deserted whimsicalities for the representation of social conflicts in middle-class life4 ,to say nothing of his ,gormandizer1 he did this in ,the ,opening of the ,will1 where in a somewhat obtrusive manner the rich relations of the deceased are grouped to the right and the poor relations to the left1 the former rubicund1 sleek1 and insolent1 the latter pale1 spare1 and needily clad4 ,an estimable priest is reading the last testament1 and informs the poor relatives with a benevolent smile that the inheritance is theirs1 whereon the rich give way to transports of rage4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,tassaert4 ,,the ,,orphans4 ,yet more clearly1 although similarly transposed into a sentimental key1 is the mood of the time just previous to #ahdh1 reflected in the works of ,carl ,hbner of ,dsseldorf4 ,ernest ,wilkomm in the beginning of the forties had represented in his sensational genre pictures1 particularly in the ,white ,slaves1 the contrast between afflicted serfs and cruel landlords1 between rich manufacturers and famishing artisans2 ,robert ,prutz had written his ,engelchen1 in which he had announced the ruin of independent handicraft by the modern industrial system4 ,soon afterwards the famine among the ,silesian weavers1 the intelligence of which in #ahdd flew through all ,germany1 set numbers of people reflecting on the social question4 ,freiligrath made it the subject of his verses1 ,aus dem ,schlesischen ,gebirge1 the song of the poor weaver's child who calls on ,rbezahl--one of his most popular poems4 ,and yet more decisively does the social and revolutionary temper of the age find an echo in ,heine's ,webern1 composed in #ahdd4 ,even ,geibel was impelled to his poem ,mene ,tekel by the spread of the news1 though it stands in curious opposition to his manner of writing elsewhere4 ,carl ,hbner therefore was acting very seasonably when he likewise treated the distress of the ,silesian weavers in his first picture of #ahde4 ,hbner knew the life of the poor and the heavy-laden2 his feelings were with them1 and he expressed what he felt4 ,this gives him a position above and apart from the rest in the insipidly smiling school of ,dsseldorf1 and sets his name at the beginning of a new chapter in the history of ,german genre painting4 ,his next picture1 ,the ,game ,laws1 sprang from an occasion which was quite as historical3 a gamekeeper had shot a poacher4 ,in #ahdf followed ,the ,emigrants1 ,the ,execution for ,rent in #ahdg1 and in #ahdh ,benevolence in the ,cottage of the ,poor4 ,these were works in which he continued to complain of the misery of the working classes1 and the contrast between ostentatious wealth and helpless wretchedness1 and to preach the crusade for liberty and human rights4 ,in opposition to the usual idyllic representations1 he spoke openly for the first time of the material weight oppressing large classes of men4 ,undoubtedly1 however1 the artistic powers of the painter corresponded but little to the good intentions of the philanthropist4 ,illustration3 ,,tassaert4 ,,the ,,suicide4 ,in #ahec even the historical painter ,piloty entered this path in one of his earliest pictures1 ,the ,nurse3 the picture represents a peasant girl in service as a nurse in the town1 with her charge on her arm1 entering the dirty house of an old woman with whom she is boarding her own child4 ,the rich child1 already dressed out like a little lady1 is exuberant in health1 whilst her own is languishing in a dark and cold room without food or warm clothing4 ,in ,belgium ,eugne de ,block first took up these lines4 ,the artistic development of his character is particularly interesting1 inasmuch as he went through various transformations4 ,first he had come forward in #ahcf with the representation of a brawl amongst peasants1 a picture which contrasted with the tameness of contemporary painting by a native power suggestive of ,brouwer4 ,then1 following the example of ,madou and ,braekeleer1 he occupied himself for a long time with quips and jests4 ,at a time when every one had a type to which he remained true as long as he lived1 ,block chose poachers and game-keepers1 and represented their mutual cunning1 now enveloping them1 after the example of ,braekeleer1 in the golden light and brown shadows of ,ostade1 now throwing over them a tinge of ,gallait's cardinal red4 ,but this forced humour did not satisfy him long2 he let comicalities alone1 and became the serious observer of the people4 ,a tender compassion for the poor may be noticed in his works1 though without doubt it often turns to a tearful sentimentalism4 ,he was an apostle of humanity who thundered against pauperism and set himself up as spokesman on the social question2 a tribune of the people1 who by his actions confirmed his reputation as a democratic painter4 ,this it is which places him near that other socialistic agitator who in those days was filling ,brussels with his fame4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,fl,,ggen4 ,,the ,,decision ,,of ,,the ,,suit4 ,it was in #ahce that a young man wrote to one of his relatives from ,italy the proud words3 ,i will measure my strength with ,rubens and ,michael ,angelo4 ,illustration3 ,h,,bner4 ,,july4 ,having gained the ,prix de ,rome1 he was enabled to make a sojourn in the ,eternal ,city4 ,he was thinking of his return4 ,he was possessed of a lofty ambition1 and dreamt of rivalling the fame of the old masters4 ,as a victor he made an entry into his native land1 into the good town of ,dinant1 which received him like a mother4 ,he was accompanied by a huge roll of canvas like a declaration of war4 ,but he needed a larger battle-field for his plans4 ,i imagine1 said he1 that the universe has its eyes upon me4 ,so he went on to ,paris with his ,patroclus and a few other pictures4 ,no less than six thousand artists had seen the work in ,rome3 a prince of art1 ,thorwaldsen1 had said when he beheld it3 ,this young man is a giant4 ,and the young man was himself of that opinion4 ,with the gait of a conqueror he entered ,paris1 in the belief that artists would line the streets to receive him4 ,but when the portals of the ,salon of #ahci were opened he did not see his picture there4 ,it was skied over a door1 and no one noticed it4 ,thophile ,gautier1 ,gustave ,planch1 and ,brger-,thor wrote their articles without even mentioning it with one word of praise or blame4 ,for one moment he thought of exhibiting it out of doors in front of the ,louvre1 of calling together a popular assembly and summoning all ,france to decide4 ,but an application to the minister was met with a refusal1 and he returned to ,brussels hanging his head4 ,there he puffed his masterpiece1 ,the ,fight round the ,body of ,patroclus1 in magniloquent phrases upon huge placards4 ,a poet exclaimed1 ,hats off3 here is a new ,homer4 ,the ,moniteur gave him a couple of articles4 ,but when the ,exhibition came1 artists were again unable to know what to make of it4 ,the majority were of an opinion that ,michael ,angelo was brutally parodied by these swollen muscles and distorted limbs4 ,and no earthquake disturbed the studios1 as the painter had expected4 ,however1 he was awarded a bronze medal and thanked in an honest citizen-like fashion for the distinguished talent which he had displayed4 ,then his whole pride revolted4 ,he circulated caricatures and cried out3 ,this medal will be an eternal blot on the century4 ,then he published in the ,charivari an open letter to the king4 ,michael ,angelo1 he wrote1 never allowed himself to pass final judgment on the works of contemporary artists1 and so ,his ,majesty1 who hardly understands as much about art as ,michael ,angelo1 would do well not to decide on the worth of modern pictures after a passing glance4 ,antoine ,wiertz1 the son of a gendarme who had once been a soldier of the great ,republic1 was born in ,dinant in #ahjf4 ,by his mother he was a ,walloon1 and he had ,german blood in him through his father1 whose family had originally come from ,saxony4 ,german moral philosophy and treatises on education had formed the reading of his youthful years4 ,he had not to complain of want of assistance4 ,at the declaration of ,belgian independence he was five-and-twenty2 so his maturity fell in the proud epoch when the young nation laid out everything to add artistic to political splendour4 ,even as a boy1 their only child1 he was idolised by his parents1 the old gendarme and the honest charwoman4 ,his first attempts were regarded by his relations as marvels4 ,the neighbours went into raptures over a frog he had modelled1 which looked just as if it were alive4 ,the landlord of a tavern ordered a signboard from him1 and when it was finished the whole population stood before it in admiration4 ,a certain ,herr ,maibe1 who was artistically inclined1 had his attention directed to the young genius1 undertook all the expenses of his education1 and sent him to the ,antwerp ,academy4 ,there he obtained a government scholarship1 and gained in #ahcb the ,prix de ,rome4 ,from the first he was quite clear as to his own importance4 ,illustration3 ,american ,art ,review4 ,,wiertz4 ,,the ,,orphans4 ,even as a pupil at the ,antwerp ,academy he wrote in a letter to his father contemptuously of his fellow-students' reverence for the old masters4 ,they imagine1 said he1 that the old masters are invincible gods1 and not men whom genius may surpass4 ,and instead of admonishing him to be modest1 his father answered with pride3 ,be a model to the youth of the future1 so that in later centuries young painters may say1 ',i will raise myself to fame as the great ,wiertz did in ,belgium4' ,such dangerous flattery would have affected stronger characters4 ,it needed only the ,italian journey to send him altogether astray4 ,michael ,angelo made him giddy1 as had been the case with ,cornelius1 ,chenavard1 and many another4 ,with all the ambition of a self-taught man he held every touch of his brush to be important1 and was indignant if others refused to think the same4 ,after his failures in ,paris and ,brussels he began to find high treason in every criticism1 and started a discussion on the pernicious influence of journalism upon art and literature4 ,we find him saying3 ,if any one writes ill of me when ,i am dead1 ,i will rise from the grave to defend myself4 ,in his hatred of criticism he resolved to exhibit no more1 lived a miserable existence till his death in #ahfe1 and painted hasty and careless portraits1 pour la soupe1 when he was in pressing need of money4 ,these brought him at first from three to four hundred1 and later a thousand francs4 ,he indulged in colossal sketches1 for the completion of which the ,state built him in #ahej a tremendous studio1 the present ,muse ,wiertz4 ,it stands a few hundred paces from the ,luxembourg station1 to the extreme north of the town1 in a beautiful though rather neglected little park1 a white building with a pillared portico and a broad perron leading up to it4 ,here he sat in a fantastically gorgeous costume1 for ever wearing his great ,rubens hat4 ,philanthropic lectures on this world and the next1 on the well-being of the people and the diseases of modern civilisation1 were the fruits of his activity4 ,whoever loves painting for painting's sake need never visit the museum4 ,there there are battles1 conflagrations1 floods1 and earthquakes2 heaven and earth are in commotion4 ,giants hurl rocks at one another1 and try1 like ,jupiter1 to shake the earth with their frown4 ,all of them delight in force1 and bring their muscles into play like athletes4 ,but the painter himself is no athlete1 no giant as ,thorwaldsen called him1 and no genius as he fancied himself to be4 ,le singe des gnies1 he conceived the notion of great art purely in its relation to space1 and believed himself greater than the greatest because his canvases were of greater dimensions4 ,when the ministry thought of making him ,director of the ,antwerp ,academy1 after the departure of ,wappers1 he wrote the following characteristic sentences3 ,i gather from the newspapers that ,i may be offered the place of ,wappers4 ,if in the moment when the profound philosopher is pondering over sublime ideas people were to say to him1 ,will you teach us the ,a1 ,b1 ,c8 ,i believe that he whose dwelling-place is in the clouds would fall straight from heaven to earth4 ,living in an atmosphere of flattery at home1 and overpowered by the incense which was there offered to his genius1 he could not set himself free from the fixed idea of competing with ,michael ,angelo and ,rubens4 ,below his picture of ,the ,childhood of ,mary he placed the words3 ,counterpart to the picture by ,rubens in ,antwerp treating the same subject4 ,he offered his ,triumph of ,christ to the cathedral there under the condition of its being hung beside ,rubens' ,descent from the ,cross4 ,the ,rising up of ,hell he wished to exhibit of an evening in the theatre when it was opened for a performance4 ,during the waits the audience were to contemplate the picture while a choir sang with orchestral accompaniment4 ,but all these offers were declined with thanks4 ,such failures make men pessimists2 but it was through them that ,wiertz1 after being an historical painter1 became the child of his age4 ,he began to hurl thunderbolts against the evils of modern civilisation4 ,he preaches and lashes and curses and suffers4 ,the forms of which he makes use are borrowed from the old masters4 ,the man of ,michael ,angelo1 with his athletic build1 his gigantic muscles1 his nude body1 the man of the ,renaissance and not the man of the nineteenth century1 strides through his works2 it is only in the subject-matter of his pictures that the modern spirit has broken through the old formula4 ,all the questions which have been thrown out by the philosophy and civilisation of the nineteenth century are reflected as vast problems in his vast pictures4 ,he fashions his brush into a weapon with which he fights for the disinherited1 for the pariahs1 for the people4 ,he is bent on being the painter of democracy--a great danger for art4 ,illustration3 ,,wiertz4 ,,the ,,things ,,of ,,the ,,present ,,as ,,seen ,,by ,,future ,,ages4 ,he agitates in an impassioned way against the horrors of war4 ,his picture ,food for ,powder begins this crusade4 ,a cannon is lying idle on the wall of a fortress1 and around this slumbering iron monster children are playing at soldiers1 with no suspicion that their sport will soon be turned into bitter earnest1 and that in war they will themselves become food for this demon4 ,in another picture1 ,the civilisation of the ,nineteenth ,century1 soldiers intoxicated with blood and victory have broken into a chamber by night and are stabbing a mother with her child4 ,a third1 ,the ,last ,cannon ,shot1 hints dimly at the future pacification of the world4 ,a ,scene in ,hell1 however1 is the chief of the effusions directed against war4 ,the ,emperor ,napoleon in his grey coat and his historical three-cornered hat is languishing in hell2 wavering flames envelop him as with a flowing purple mantle1 and an innumerable multitude of mothers and sisters1 wives and betrothed maidens1 children and fathers1 from whom he has taken their dearest are pressing round him4 ,fists are clenched against him1 and screams issue from toothless1 raging mouths4 ,he1 on the other hand1 with his arms crossed on his breast1 and his haughty visage stern and gloomy1 stands motionless1 looking fixedly with satanic eyes upon the thousands whose happiness he has destroyed4 ,illustration3 ,,wiertz4 ,,the ,,fight ,,round ,,the ,,body ,,of ,,patroclus4 ,in his ,thoughts and ,visions of a ,decapitated ,head1 ,wiertz1 moved by ,victor ,hugo's ,le dernier jour d'un condamn1 makes capital punishment a subject of more lengthy disquisition4 ,the picture1 which is made up of three parts1 is supposed to represent the feelings of a man1 who has been guillotined1 during the first three minutes after execution4 ,the border of the picture contains a complete dissertation3 ,the man who has suffered execution sees his body dried up and in corruption in a dark corner2 and sees also1 what it is only given to spirits of another world to perceive1 the secrets of the transmutation of matter4 ,he sees all the gases which have formed his body1 and its sulphurous1 earthy1 and ammoniacal elements1 detach themselves from its decaying flesh and serve for the structure of other living beings4444 ,when that abominable instrument the guillotine is one day actually abolished1 may ,god be praised1 and so on4 ,beside this painted plea against capital punishment hangs ,the ,burnt ,child1 as an argument in favour of crches4 ,a poor working woman has for one moment left her garret4 ,meanwhile a fire has broken out1 and she returns to find the charred body of her boy4 ,in the picture ,hunger1 ,madness1 and ,crime he treats of human misery in general1 and touches on the question of the rearing of illegitimate children4 ,there is a young girl forced to live on the carrots which a rich man throws into the gutter4 ,in consequence of a notification to pay taxes she goes out of her mind1 and with hellish laughter cuts to pieces the baby who has brought her to ruin4 ,cremation is recommended in the picture ,buried too soon3 there is a vault1 and in it a coffin1 the lid of which has been burst open from the inside2 through the cleft may be seen a clenched hand1 and in the darkness of the coffin the horror-stricken countenance of one who is piteously crying for help4 ,in the ,novel ,reader he endeavours to show the baneful influence of vicious reading upon the imagination of a girl4 ,she is lying naked in bed1 with loosened hair and a book in her hand2 her eyes are reddened with hysterical tears1 and an evil spirit is laying a new book on the couch1 ,antonine1 by ,alexandre ,dumas ,fils4 ,the ,retort of a ,belgian ,lady--an anticipation of ,neid--glorifies homicide committed in the defence of honour4 ,a ,dutch officer having taken liberties with a ,belgian woman1 she blows out his brains with a pistol4 ,in ,the ,suicide the fragments of a skull may be seen flying in all directions4 ,how the young man who has just destroyed himself came to this pass may be gathered from the book entitled ,materialism1 which lies on his table4 ,and thus he goes on1 though the spectator feels less and less inclined to take any serious interest in these lectures4 ,for although the intentions of ,wiertz had now and then a touch of the sublime1 he was neither clear as to the limits of what could be represented nor did he possess the capacity of expressing what he wished in artistic forms4 ,like many a ,german painter of those years1 he was a philosopher of the brush1 a scholar in disguise1 who wrote out his thoughts in paint instead of ink4 ,wiertz made painting a vehicle for more than it can render as painting3 with him it begins to dogmatise2 it is a book1 and it awakens a regret that this rich mind was lost to authorship4 ,there he might1 perhaps1 have done much that was useful towards solving the social and philosophical questions of the day2 as he is1 he has nothing to offer the understanding1 and only succeeds in offending the eye4 ,a human brain with both great and trivial ideas lays itself bare4 ,but1 like ,cornelius1 from the mere fulness of his ideas he was unable to give them artistic expression4 ,he groped from ,michael ,angelo to ,rubens1 and from ,raphael to ,ary ,scheffer1 without realising that the artistic utterance of all these masters had been an individual gift4 ,the career of ,wiertz is an interesting psychological case4 ,he was an abnormal phenomenon1 and he cannot be passed over in the history of art1 because he was one of the first who treated subjects from modern life in large pictures4 ,never before had a genuinely artistic age brought forth such a monster1 yet it is impossible to ignore him1 or deny that he claims a certain degree of importance in the art history of the past century4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,,the ,,village ,,tale ,during the decade following the year #ahdh genre painting in ,germany threw off the shackles of the anecdotic style1 and continued a development similar to that of history1 which1 in the same country1 flourished long after it was moribund elsewhere4 ,after the elder artists1 who showed so much zeal in producing perfectly ineffective little pictures1 executed with incredible pains and a desperate veracity of detail1 there followed1 from #ahej1 a generation who were technically better equipped4 ,they no longer confined themselves to making tentative efforts in the manner of the old masters1 but either borrowed their lights directly from the historical painters in ,paris1 or were indirectly made familiar with the results of ,french technique through ,piloty4 ,subjects of greater refinement were united with a treatment of colour which was less offensive4 ,the childlike innocence which had given pleasure in ,meyerheim and ,waldmller was now thought to be too childlike by far4 ,the merriment which radiated from the pictures of ,schroedter or ,enhuber found no echo amidst a generation which was tired of such cheap humour3 the works of ,carl ,hbner were put aside as lachrymose and sentimental efforts4 ,when the world had issued from the period of ,romanticism there was no temptation to be funny over modern life nor to make socialistic propaganda2 for after the ,revolution of #ahdh people had become reconciled to the changed order of affairs and to life as it actually was--its cares and its worries1 its mistakes and its sins4 ,it was the time when ,berthold ,auerbach's village tales ran through so many editions2 and1 hand in hand with these literary productions1 painting also set itself to tell little stories from the life of sundry classes of the people1 amongst which rustics were always the most preferable from their picturesqueness of costume4 ,at the head of this group of artists stands ,louis ,knaus1 and if it is difficult to hymn his praises at the present day1 that is chiefly because ,knaus mostly drew upon that sarcastic and ironical characteristic which is such an unpleasant moral note in the pictures of ,hogarth1 ,schroedter1 and ,madou4 ,the figures of the old ,dutch masters behave as if the glance of no stranger were resting upon them3 it is possible to share their joys and sorrows1 which are not merely acted4 ,we feel at our ease with them because they regard us as one of themselves4 ,in ,knaus there is always an artificial bond between the figures and the frequenters of the exhibition4 ,they plunge into the greatest extravagances to excite attention1 tickle the spectator to make him laugh1 or cry out to move him to tears4 ,with the exception of ,wilkie1 no genre painter has explained his purpose more obtrusively or in greater detail4 ,even when he paints a portrait1 by way of variation1 he stands behind with a pointer to explain it4 ,on this account the portraits of ,mommsen and ,helmholtz in the ,berlin ,national ,gallery are made too official4 ,each of them is visibly conscious that he is being painted for the ,national ,gallery1 and by emphasis and the accumulation of external characteristics ,knaus took the greatest pains to lift these personalities into types of the nineteenth-century scholar4 ,illustration3 ,l4 ,knaus4 ,since popular opinion is wont to represent the philologist as one careless of outward appearance1 and the investigator of natural philosophy as an elegant man of the world1--,mommsen must wear boots which have seen much service1 and those of ,helmholtz must be of polished leather2 the shirt of the one must be genially rumpled1 and that of the other must fit him to perfection4 ,by such obvious characterisation the ,sunday public was satisfied1 but those who were represented were really deprived of character4 ,it is not to be supposed that in ,mommsen's room the manuscripts of all his principal works would lie so openly upon the writing-table and beneath it1 so that every one might see them3 it is not probable that his famous white locks would flutter so as he sat at the writing-table4 ,even the momentary gesture of the hand has in both pictures something obtrusively demonstrative4 ,behold1 with this pen ,i have written the history of ,rome1 says ,mommsen4 ,behold1 there is the famous ophthalmometer which ,i invented1 says ,helmholtz4 ,but as a genre painter ,knaus has fallen still more often into such intolerable stage gesticulation4 ,the picture ,his ,highness upon his ,travels is usually mentioned as that in which he reached his zenith in characterisation4 ,yet is not this characterisation in the highest degree exaggerated8 ,is not the expression apportioned to every figure1 like parts to a theatrical company1 and does not the result seem to be strained beyond all measure8 ,just look at the children1 see how each plays a part to catch your eye4 ,a little girl is leaning shyly on her elder sister1 who has bashfully thrust her finger into her mouth3 some are looking on with rustic simplicity1 others with attention3 a child smaller than the others is puckering up its face and crying miserably4 ,the prince1 in whose honour the children are drawn up1 passes the group with complete indifference1 while his companion regards the people haughtily through his eyeglass4 ,the schoolmaster bows low1 in the hope that his salary may be raised1 whilst the stupid churchwarden looks towards the prince with a jovial smile1 as though he were awaiting his colleague from the neighbouring village4 ,of course1 they are all very intelligible types2 but they are no more than types4 ,for the painter the mere accident of the moment is the source of all life4 ,would that six-year-old peasant child who stands with the greatest dignity in ,knaus's picture as ,the ,village ,prince have ever stood in that fashion1 with a flower between his teeth and his legs thrust apart1 unless he had been carefully taught this self-conscious pose by the painter himself8 ,so that there may not be the slightest doubt as to which of the shoemaker's apprentices is winning and which is losing1 one of them has to have a knowing smirk1 whilst the other is looking helplessly at his cards4 ,and how that little ,maccabee is acting to the public in ,the ,first ,profit6 ,the old man in threadbare clothes1 who stands in an ante-chamber rubbing his hands in the picture ,i can ,wait2 the frightened little girl who sees her bit of bread-and-butter imperilled by geese in ,in ,great ,distress1--they have all the same deliberate comicality1 they are all treated with the same palpable carefulness1 the same pointed and impertinently satirical sharpness4 ,even in ,the ,funeral he is not deserted by the humorous proclivity of the anecdotist1 and the schoolmaster has to brandish the bton with which he is conducting the choir of boys and girls as comically as possible4 ,knaus uses too many italics1 and underlines as if he expected his public to be very dull of understanding4 ,in this way he appeals to simple-minded people1 and irritates those of more delicate taste4 ,the peasant sits in his pictures like a model2 he knows that he must keep quiet1 and neither alter his pose nor his grimace1 because otherwise ,knaus will be angry4 ,all his pictures show signs of the superior and celebrated city gentleman1 who has only gone into the country to interest himself in the study of civilisation3 there he hunts after effectively comical features1 and1 having arranged his little world in tableaux vivants1 he coolly surrenders it to the derision of the cultivated spectator4 ,illustration3 ,,knaus4 ,,in ,,great ,,distress4 7,by permission of the ,berlin ,photographic ,co41 the owners of the copyright47 ,illustration3 ,,knaus4 ,,the ,,card ,,players4 7,by permission of the ,berlin ,photographic ,co41 the owners of the copyright47 ,but such a judgment1 which seems like a condemnation1 could not be maintained from the historical standpoint4 ,germany could not forget ,knaus1 if it were only for the fact that in the fifties he sided with those who first spread the unusual opinion that painting was incomprehensible without sound ability in the matter of colour4 ,he was not content1 like the elder generation1 to arrange the individual characters in his pictures in well-disposed groups4 ,he took care to make his works faultless in colouring1 so that in the fifties he not only roused the enthusiasm of the great public by his poetic invention1 but made even the ,parisian painters enthusiastic by his easy mastery of technique4 ,to the following effect wrote ,edmond ,about in #ahee3 ,i do not know whether ,herr ,knaus has long nails2 but even if they were as long as those of ,mephistopheles1 ,i should still say that he was an artist to his fingers' ends4 ,his pictures please the ,sunday public and the ,friday public1 the critics1 the bourgeois1 and 7,god forgive me67 the painters4 ,what is seductive to the great multitude is the clearly expressed dramatic idea1 while artists and connoisseurs are won by his knowledge and thorough ability4 ,herr ,knaus has the capacity of satisfying every one4 ,his pictures attract the most incompetent eyes1 because they tell pleasant anecdotes2 but they likewise fascinate the most jaded by perfect execution of detail4 ,the whole talent of ,germany is contained in the person of ,herr ,knaus4 ,so ,germany lives in the ,rue de l',arcade in ,paris4 ,in the fifties all the technical ability which was to be gained from the study of the old ,dutch masters and from constant commerce with the modern ,french reached its highest point in ,knaus4 ,even in his youth the great ,netherlandish painters1 ,ostade1 ,brouwer1 and ,teniers1 must have had more effect upon him than his teachers1 ,sohn and ,schadow1 since his very first pictures1 ,the ,peasants' ,dance of #ahej and ,the ,card ,sharpers of #ahej1 had little in common with the ,dsseldorf school1 and therefore so much the more with the ,netherlandish chiaroscuro4 ,the ,card ,sharpers is precisely like an ,ostade modernised4 ,by his migration to ,paris in #aheb he sought to acquire the utmost perfection of finish2 and when he returned home1 after a sojourn of eight years1 he had at his command such a sense for effect and fine harmony of tone1 such a knowledge of colour1 and such a disciplined and refined taste1 that his works indicate an immeasurable advance on the motley harshness of his predecessors4 ,his ,golden ,wedding of #aheh--perhaps his finest picture--had nothing of the antiquated technique of the older type of ,dsseldorf pictures of peasant life2 technically it stood on a level with the works of the ,french4 ,illustration3 ,,knaus4 ,,the ,,golden ,,wedding4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,goupil ,co41 the owners of the copyright47 ,and ,knaus has remained the same ever since3 a separate personality which belongs to history4 ,he painted peasant pictures of tragic import and rustic gaiety2 he recognised a number of graceful traits in child-life1 and1 having seen a great deal of the world1 he made a transition1 after he had settled in ,berlin1 from the character picture of the ,black ,forest to such as may be painted from the life of cities4 ,he even ventured to touch on religious subjects1 and taught the world the limitations of his talent by his ,holy ,families1 composed out of reminiscences of all times and all schools1 and by his ,daniel in the ,lions' ,den4 ,knaus is whole-heartedly a genre painter2 though that1 indeed1 is what he has in common with many other people4 ,but thirty years ago he had a genius for colour amid a crowd of narrative and character painters1 and this makes him unique4 ,he is a man whose significance does not merely lie in his talent for narrative1 but one who did much for ,german art4 ,it may be said that in giving the genre picture unsuspected subtleties of colour he helped ,german art to pass from mere genre painting to painting pure and simple4 ,in this sense he filled an artistic mission1 and won for himself in the history of modern painting a firm and sure place1 which even the opponent of the illustrative vignette cannot take from him4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,knaus4 ,,behind ,,the ,,scenes4 ,vautier1 who must always be named in the same breath with ,knaus1 is in truth the exact opposite of the ,berlin master4 ,he also is essentially a genre painter1 and his pictures should not be merely seen but studied in detail2 but where ,knaus has merits ,vautier is defective1 and where ,knaus is jarring ,vautier has merits4 ,in technique he cannot boast of similar qualities4 ,he is always merely a draughtsman who tints1 but has never been a colourist4 ,as a painter he has less value1 but as a genre painter he is more sympathetic4 ,in the pictures of ,knaus one is annoyed by the deliberate smirk1 by his exaggerated and heartlessly frigid observation4 ,vautier gives pleasure by characterisation1 more delicately reserved in its adjustment of means1 and profound as it is simple1 by his wealth of individual motives and their charm1 and by the sensitiveness with which he renders the feelings and relationship of his figures4 ,a nave1 good-humoured1 and amiable temperament is betrayed in his works4 ,he is genially idyllic where ,knaus creates a pungently satirical effect1 and a glance at the portraits of the two men explains this difference4 ,illustration3 ,kunst fr ,alle4 ,,benjamin ,,vautier4 ,knaus with his puckered forehead1 and his searching look shooting from under heavy brows1 is like a judge or a public prosecutor4 ,vautier1 with his thoughtful blue eyes1 resembles a prosperous banker with a turn for idealism1 or a writer of village tales la ,berthold ,auerbach4 ,knaus worried himself over many things1 brooded much and made many experiments2 ,vautier was content with the acquisition of a plain and simple method of painting1 which appeared to him a perfectly sufficient medium for the expression of that which he had realised with profound emotion4 ,the one is a reflective and the other a dreamy nature4 ,vautier was a man of a happy temperament1 one with whom the world went well from his youth upwards1 who enjoyed an existence free from care1 and who had accustomed himself as a painter to see the world in a rosy light4 ,there is something sound and pure in his characters1 in his pictures something peaceful and cordial2 it does not1 indeed1 make his paltry pedantic style of painting any the better1 but from the human standpoint it touches one sympathetically4 ,his countrymen may be ashamed of ,vautier as a painter when they come across him amongst aliens in foreign exhibitions1 but they rejoice in him none the less as a genre painter4 ,it is as if they had been met by the quiet1 faithful gaze of a ,german eye amid the fiery glances of the ,latin nations4 ,it is as if they suddenly heard a simple ,german song1 rendered without training1 and yet with a great deal of feeling4 ,a generation ago ,knaus could exhibit everywhere as a painter2 as such ,vautier was only possible in ,germany during the sixties4 ,but in ,knaus it is impossible to get rid of the impress of the ,berlin professor1 while from ,vautier's pictures there smiles the kindly sentiment of ,german home-life4 ,vautier's world1 no doubt1 is as one-sided as that of old ,meyerheim4 ,his talkative ,paul ,prys1 his brides with their modest shyness1 his smart young fellows throwing amorous glances1 his proud fathers1 and his sorrow-stricken mothers are1 it may be1 types rather than beings breathing positive and individual life4 ,such a golden radiance of grace surrounds the pretty figures of his bare-footed rustic maidens as never pertained to those of the real world1 but belongs rather to the shepherdess of a fairy tale who marries the prince4 ,his figures must not be measured by the standard of realistic truth to nature4 ,but they are the inhabitants of a dear1 familiar world in which everything breathes of prettiness and lovable good-humour4 ,it is almost touching to see with what purity and beauty life is reflected in ,vautier's mind4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,vautier4 ,,the ,,conjurer4 ,how dainty are these brown-eyed ,swabian peasant girls1 how tender and sympathetic the women1 and how clean and well-behaved the children6 ,you could believe that ,vautier mixed with his peasants like a friend or a benevolent god-father1 that he delighted in their harmless pleasures1 that he took part in their griefs and cares4 ,in his pictures he does not give an account of his impressions with severity or any deliberate attempt to amuse1 but with indulgence and cordiality4 ,it is not his design to excite or to thrill1 to waken comedy through whimsicalities or mournfulness by anything tragical4 ,life reveals to him merely pleasant things1 as it did to ,goethe during his tour in ,italy1 and even in its tragedies only people who bear the inevitable with dignity4 ,he never expressed boisterous grief3 everything is subdued1 and has that tenderness which is associated with the mere sound of his ,christian name1 ,benjamin4 ,knaus has something of ,menzel1 ,vautier of ,memlinc3 he has it even in the loving familiarity with which he penetrates minute detail4 ,in their religious pictures the old ,german and ,netherlandish masters painted everything1 down to the lilies worked on the ,virgin's loom1 or the dust lying on the old service-book2 and this thoroughly ,german delight in still life1 this complacent rendering of minuti1 is found again in ,vautier4 ,men and their dwellings1 animated nature and atmosphere1 combine to make a pleasant world in his pictures4 ,vautier was one of the first to discover the magic of environment1 the secret influence which unites a man to the soil from which he sprang1 the thousand unknown1 magnetic associations existing between outward things and the spirit1 between the intuitions and the actions of man4 ,the environment is not there like a stage scene in front of which the personages come and go2 it lives and moves in the man himself4 ,one feels at home in these snug and cosy rooms1 where the ,black ,forest clock is ticking1 where little1 tasteless photographs look down from the wall with an honest1 patriarchal air1 where the floor is scoured so clean1 and greasy green hats hang on splendid antlers4 ,there is the great family bed with the flowered curtains1 the massive immovable bench by the stove1 the solid old table1 around which young and old assemble at meal-times4 ,there are the great cupboards for the treasures of the house1 the prayer-book given to grandmother at her confirmation1 the filigree ornaments1 the glasses and coffee-cups1 which are kept for show1 not for daily use4 ,over the bedstead are hung the little pictures of saints painted on glass1 and the consecrated tokens4 ,from the window one overlooks other appurtenances of the house2 gaudy scarlet runners clamber in from the little garden1 blossoming fruit-trees stand in its midst1 and the gable of the well-filled barn rises above it4 ,everything has an air of peace and prosperity1 the mood of a ,sunday forenoon2 one almost fancies that one can catch the chime of the distant church bells through the blissful stillness4 ,but completeness of effect and pictorial harmony are not to be demanded3 the illustrated paper is better suited to his style than the exhibition4 ,illustration3 ,,vautier4 ,,the ,,dancing ,,lesson4 7,by permission of the ,berlin ,photographic ,co41 the owners of the copyright47 ,the third member of the alliance is ,franz ,defregger1 a man of splendid talent2 of all the masters of the great ,munich school of ,piloty1 he is at once the simplest and the healthiest4 ,true it is1 no doubt1 that when posterity sifts and weighs his works1 much of him1 also1 will be found too light4 ,defregger's art has suffered from his fame and from the temptations of the picture market4 ,moreover1 he had not ,vautier's fine sense of the limitations of his ability1 but often represented things which he did not understand4 ,he was less of a painter than any of the artists of ,piloty's school1 and more completely tethered by the size of his picture4 ,he could not go beyond a certain space of canvas without suffering for it2 and he bound his talent on the bed of ,procrustes when he attempted to paint ,madonnas1 or placed himself with his ,hofer pictures in the rank of historical painters4 ,but as a genre painter he stands beside ,vautier1 in the first line2 and by these little genre pictures--the simpler and quieter the better--and some of his genially conceived and charming portrait studies1 he will survive4 ,those are things which he understood and felt4 ,he had himself lived amid the life he depicted1 and so it was that what he depicted made such a powerful appeal to the heart4 ,illustration3 ,,vautier4 ,,november4 ,the year #ahfi made him known4 ,the ,munich ,exhibition had in that year a picture on a subject from the history of the ,hofer rising of #ahji4 ,it represented how the little son of ,speckbacher1 one of the ,tyrolese leaders1 had come after his father1 armed with a musket2 and at the side of an old forester he is entering the room in which ,speckbacher is just holding a council of war4 ,the father springs up angry at his disobedience1 but also proud of the little fellow's pluck4 ,from this time ,defregger's art was almost entirely devoted to the ,tyrolese people4 ,to paint the smart lads and neat lasses of ,tyrol in joy and sorrow1 love and hate1 at work and merry-making1 at home or outside on the mountain pasture1 in all their beauty1 strength1 and robust health1 was the life-long task for which he more than any other man had been created4 ,he had1 over ,knaus and most other painters of village tales1 the enormous advantage of not standing personally outside or above the people1 and not regarding them with the superficial curiosity of a tourist--for he belonged to them himself4 ,others1 if ironically disposed1 saw in the rustic the stupid1 comic peasant2 or1 if inclined to sentimentalism1 introduced into the rural world the moods and feelings of society1 traits of drawing-room sensitiveness1 the heavy air of the town4 ,models in national costume were grouped for pictures of ,upper ,bavarian rustic life4 ,but ,defregger1 who up to the age of fifteen had kept his father's cattle on the pastures of the ,ederhof1 had shared the joys and sorrows of the peasantry long enough to know that they are neither comic nor sentimental people4 ,the roomy old farmhouse where he was born in #ahce lay isolated amid the wild mountains4 ,he went about bare-footed and bare-headed1 waded through deep snow when he made his way to school in winter1 and wandered about amid the highland pastures with the flocks in summer4 ,milkmaids and wood-cutters1 hunters and cowherds1 were his only companions4 ,at fifteen he was the head labourer of the estate1 helped to thresh the corn1 and worked on the arable land and in the stable and the barn like others4 ,when he was twenty-three he lost his father and took over the farm himself3 he was thus a man in the full sense of the word before his artistic calling was revealed to him4 ,and this explains his qualities and defects4 ,when he came to ,piloty after the sale of his farm and his aimless sojourn in ,innsbruck and ,paris he was mature in mind2 he was haunted by the impressions of his youth1 and he wanted to represent the land and the people of ,tyrol4 ,but he was too old to become a good painter4 ,on the other hand1 he possessed the great advantage of knowing what he wanted4 ,the heroes of history did not interest him2 it was only the ,tyrolese woodmen who persisted in his brain4 ,he left ,piloty's studio almost as he had entered it--awkward1 and painting heavily and laboriously1 and but very little impressed by ,piloty's theatrical sentiment4 ,his youth and his recollections were rooted in the life of the people2 and with a faithful eye he caught earnest or cheerful phases of that life1 and represented them simply and cordially3 and if he had had the strength to offer a yet more effectual resistance to the prevalent ideal of beauty1 there is no doubt that his stories would seem even more fresh and vigorous4 ,illustration3 ,,franz ,,defregger4 ,the ,dance was the first picture which followed that of ,speckbacher1 and it was circulated through the world in thousands of reproductions4 ,there are two delightful figures in it3 the pretty milkmaid who looks around her1 radiant with pleasure1 and the wiry old ,tyrolese who is lifting his foot1 cased in a rough hobnail shoe1 to dance to the ,schuhplattler4 ,at the same time he painted ,the ,prize ,horse returning to his native village from the show decked and garlanded and greeted exultantly by old and young as the pride of the place4 ,the ,last ,summons was again a scene from the ,tyrolese popular rising of #ahji4 ,all who can still carry a rifle1 a scythe1 or a pitchfork have enrolled themselves beneath the banners1 and are marching out to battle over the rough village street4 ,the wives and children are looking earnestly at the departing figures1 whilst a little old woman is pressing her husband's hand4 ,everything was simply and genially rendered without sentimentality or emphasis1 and the picture even makes an appeal by its colouring4 ,as a sequel ,the ,return of the ,victors was produced in #ahgf3 a troop of the ,tyrolese levy is marching through its native mountain village1 with a young peasant in advance1 slightly wounded1 and looking boldly round4 ,tyrolese banners are waving1 and the fifes and drums and clarionet players bring up the rear4 ,the faces of the men beam with the joy of victory1 and women and children stand around to welcome those returning home4 ,joy1 however1 is harder to paint faithfully than sorrow4 ,it is so easy to see that it has been artificially worked up from the model2 nor is ,defregger's picture entirely innocent on this charge4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,defregger4 ,,speckbacher ,,and ,,his ,,son4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,defregger4 ,,the ,,wrestlers4 ,andreas ,hofer going to his ,death was his first concession to ,piloty4 ,defregger had become professor at the ,munich ,academy1 and was entered in the directory as historical painter4 ,the figures were therefore painted life size2 and in the grouping and the choice of the psychic moment the style aimed at grand painting4 ,the result was the same emptiness which blusters through the historical pictures of the school of ,delaroche1 ,gallait1 and ,piloty4 ,the familiar stage effect and stilted passion has taken the place of simple and easy naturalism4 ,nor was he able to give life to the great figures of a large canvas as he had done in the smaller picture of the ,return of the ,victors4 ,this is true of ,the ,peasant ,muster of #ahhc--which represented the ,tyrolese1 assembled in an arms manufactory1 learning that the moment for striking had arrived--and of the last picture of the series1 ,andreas ,hofer receiving the ,presents of the ,emperor ,francis in the ,fortress of ,innsbruck4 ,all the great ,hofer pictures1 which in earlier days were honoured as his best performances1 have done less for his memory than for that of the sturdy hero4 ,the genre picture was ,defregger's vocation4 ,there lay his strength1 and as soon as he left that province he renounced his fine qualities4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,defregger4 ,,sister ,,and ,,brothers4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,defregger4 ,,the ,,prize ,,horse4 ,and a holiday humour1 a tendency to beautify what he saw1 is spread over even his genre pictures4 ,they make one suppose that there is always sunshine in the happy land of ,tyrol1 that all the people are chaste and beautiful1 all the young fellows fine and handsome1 all the girls smart1 every household cleanly and well-ordered1 all married folk and children honest and kind2 whereas in reality these milk-maids and woodmen are far less romantic in their conduct2 and so many a townsman who avoids contact with the living people goes into raptures over them as they are pictures4 ,with ,vautier he shares this one-sidedness as well as his defective colour4 ,almost all his pictures are hard1 dry1 and diffident in colouring1 but1 as with ,vautier1 the man atones for the painter4 ,from ,defregger one asks for no qualities of colour and no realistic ,tyrolese1 since he has rendered himself in his pictures1 and gives one a glimpse into his own heart2 and a healthy1 genial1 and kindly heart it is4 ,his idealism is not born of laboriously acquired principles of beauty2 it expresses the temperament of a painter--a temperament which unconsciously sees the people through a medium whereby they are glorified4 ,a rosy glow obscures sadness1 ugliness1 wretchedness1 and misery1 and shows only strength and health1 tenderness and beauty1 fidelity and courage4 ,he treasured sunny memories of the cheerful radiance which rested on his home in the hour of his return2 he painted the joy which swelled in his own breast as he beheld again the rocks of his native country1 heard once more the peaceful chime of its ,sabbath bells4 ,and this is what gives his works their human1 inward truth1 little as they may be authentic documents as to the population of ,tyrol4 ,later this will be more impartially recognised than it possibly can be at present4 ,the larger the school of any artist1 the more it will make his art trivial2 and thus for a time the originality of the master himself seems to be mere trifling4 ,the ,tyrolese were depreciated in the market by ,defregger's imitators2 only too many have aped his painting of stiff leather breeches and woollen bodices1 without putting inside them the vivid humanity which is so charming in a genuine ,defregger4 ,but his position in the history of art is not injured by this4 ,he has done enough for his age2 he has touched the hearts of many by his cheerful1 fresh1 and healthy art1 and he would be certain of immortality had he thrown aside his brush altogether from the time when the progress of painting left him in the rear4 ,with ,defregger1 the head of the ,tyrolese school1 ,gabl and ,mathias ,schmidt1 standing at a measurable distance from him1 may find a well-merited place4 ,mathias ,schmidt1 born in the ,tyrolese ,alps in the same year as ,defregger1 began with satirical representations of the local priesthood4 ,a poor image-carver has arrived with his waggon at an inn1 on the terrace of which are sitting a couple of well-fed ecclesiastics1 and by them he is ironically called to account as he offers a crucifix for sale4 ,a young priest1 as an austere judge of morals1 reproves a pair of lovers who are standing before him1 or asks a young girl such insidious questions at the bridal examination that she lowers her eyes1 blushing4 ,his greatest picture was ,the ,emigration of the ,zillerthal ,protestants4 ,amongst later works1 without controversial tendencies1 ,the ,hunter's ,greeting and ,the ,lathered ,parson may be named4 ,the latter is surprised by two pretty girls while shaving4 ,to these may be added ,the ,parson's ,patch1 a picture of a robust housekeeper hastily mending a weak spot in the pastor's inexpressibles just before service4 ,shortly after ,defregger had painted his picture of ,speckbacher1 ,alois ,gabl came forward with his ,haspinger preaching ,revolt1 and followed it up by smaller pictures with a humorous touch1 representing a levy of recruits in ,tyrol1 the dance at the inn interrupted by the entrance of the parson1 magnates umpiring at the shooting butts1 a bar with laughing girls1 and the like4 ,in #ahgj1 ,eduard ,kurzbauer1 who died young1 in his ,fugitives ,overtaken executed a work representing an entire class of painted illustrations4 ,a young man who has eloped with a girl is discovered with her by her mother in a village inn4 ,the old lady is looking reproachfully at her daughter1 who is overwhelmed by shame and penitence2 the young man is much moved1 the old servant grave and respectful1 the young landlady curious1 and the postilion who has driven the eloping pair has a sly smirk4 ,elsewhere ,kurzbauer1 who is a fresh and lively anecdotist1 painted principally episodes1 arraying his figures in the peasant garb of the ,black ,forest3 a rejected suitor takes a sad farewell of a perverse blonde who disdains his love2 or the engagement of two lovers is hindered by the interference of the father4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,defregger4 ,,andreas ,,hofer ,,appointed ,,governor ,,of ,,the ,,tyrol4 ,hugo ,kauffmann1 the son of ,hermann ,kauffmann1 planted himself in the interior of village taverns or in front of them1 and made his dressed-up models figure as hunters1 telling incredible tales1 dancing to the fiddle1 or quarrelling over cards4 ,another ,north ,german1 ,wilhelm ,riefstahl1 showed how the peasants in ,appenzell or ,bregenz conduct themselves at mournful gatherings1 at their devotions in the open air1 and at ,all ,souls' ,day ,celebrations1 and afterwards extended his artistic dominion over ,rgen1 ,westphalia1 and the ,rhine country with true ,mecklenburg thoroughness4 ,he was a careful1 conscientious worker1 with a discontent at his own efforts in his composition1 a certain ponderousness in his attempts at genre2 but his diligently executed pictures--full of colour and painted in a peculiarly ,german manner--are highly prized in public galleries on account of their instructive soundness4 ,after the various classes of the ,german peasantry had been naturalised in the picture market by these narrative painters1 ,eduard ,grtzner1 when religious controversy raged in the seventies1 turned aside to discover drolleries in monastic life4 ,this he did with the assistance of brown and yellowish white cowls1 and the obese and copper-nosed models thereto pertaining4 ,he depicts how the cellarer tastes a new wine1 and the rest of the company await his verdict with anxiety2 how the entire monastery is employed at the vintage1 at the broaching of a wine cask or the brewing of the beer2 how they tipple2 how bored they are over their chess or their dice1 their cards or their dominoes2 how they whitewash old frescoes or search after forbidden books in the monastery library4 ,this1 according to ,grtzner1 is the routine in which the life of monks revolves4 ,at times amidst these figures appear foresters who tell of their adventures in the chase1 or deliver hares at the cloister kitchen4 ,and the more ,grtzner was forced year after year to make up for his decline as a colourist1 by cramming his pictures with so-called humour1 the greater was his success4 ,it was only long afterwards that genre painting in broad-cloth came into vogue by the side of this genre in peasant blouse and monastic cowl1 and stories of the exchange and the manufactory by the side of village and monastic tales4 ,here ,dsseldorf plays a part once more in the development of art4 ,the neighbourhood of the great manufacturing towns on the ,rhine could not but lead painters to these subjects4 ,ludwig ,bokelmann1 who began by painting tragical domestic scenes--card players1 and smoking shop-boys1 in the style of ,knaus--made the pawnshop a theme for art in #ahge1 and dexterously crowded into his picture all the types which popular fancy brings into association with the conception3 business-like indifference1 poverty ashamed1 fallen prosperity1 bitter need1 avarice1 and the love of pleasure4 ,in #ahgg1 when the failure of the house of ,spitzeder made a sensation in the papers1 he painted his picture ,the ,savings ,bank before the ,announcement of ,failure1 which gave him another opportunity for ranging in front of the splendid building an assembly of deluded creditors of all classes1 and of showing how they expressed their emotion according to temperament and education1 by excited speeches1 embittered countenances1 gloomy resignation1 or vivid gesticulation4 ,much attention was likewise excited by ,the ,arrest4 ,in this picture a woman was being watched for by a policeman1 whilst the neighbours--male and female--loitered round with the requisite expression of horror1 indignation1 sympathy1 or indifferent curiosity4 ,the opening of a will1 the last moments of an electioneering struggle1 scenes in the entrance hall of a court of justice1 the emigrants' farewell1 the gaming-table at ,monte ,carlo1 and a village fire1 were other newspaper episodes from the life of great towns which he rendered in paint4 ,his earlier associate in ,dsseldorf1 ,ferdinand ,brtt1 after first painting rococo pictures1 owed his finest successes to the ,stock ,exchange4 ,it1 too1 had its types3 the great patrician merchants and bankers of solid reputation1 the jobbers1 break-neck speculators1 and decayed old stagers2 and1 as ,brtt rendered these current figures in a very intelligible manner1 his pictures excited a great deal of attention4 ,acquittals and condemnations1 acts of mortgage1 emigration agents1 comic electors1 and prison visits1 as further episodes from the social1 political1 and commercial life of great towns1 fill up the odd corners of his little local chronicle4 ,thus the ,german genre painting ran approximately the same course as the ,english had done at the beginning of the century4 ,at that time the kingdom of ,german art was not of this world4 ,classicism taught men to turn their eyes on the art of a past age4 ,art in ,germany had progressed slowly1 and at first with an uncertain and hesitating step1 before it learnt that what blossoms here1 and thrives and fades1 should be the subject of its labours4 ,gradually it brought one sphere of reality after the other into its domain4 ,observation took the place of abstraction1 and the discoverer that of the inventor4 ,the painter went amongst his fellow-creatures1 opened his eyes and his heart to share their fortunes and misfortunes1 and to reproduce them in his own creation4 ,he discovered the peculiarities of grades of life and professional classes4 ,every one of the beautiful ,german landscapes with its peasantry1 every one of the monastic orders and every manufacturing town found its representative in genre painting4 ,the country was mapped out4 ,each one took over his plot1 which he superintended1 conscientiously1 like an ethnographical museum4 ,and just as fifty years before1 ,germany had been fertilised by ,england1 so it now gave in its turn the principles of genre painting to the powers of the second rank in art4 ,even ,france was in some degree influenced4 ,as if to indicate that ,alsace would soon become ,german once more1 after #ahej there appeared in that province certain painters who busied themselves with the narration of anecdote from rustic life quite in the manner of ,knaus and ,vautier4 ,gustave ,brion1 the grand-nephew of ,frederica of ,sesenheim1 settled in the ,vosges1 and there gave intelligence of a little world whose life flowed by1 without toil1 in gentle1 patriarchal quietude1 interrupted only by marriage feasts1 birthdays1 and funeral solemnities4 ,he appears to have been rather fond of melancholy and solemn subjects4 ,his interiors1 with their sturdy and honest people1 bulky old furniture1 and large green faence stoves1 which are so dear to him1 are delightful in their familiar homeliness and their cordial ,alsatian and ,german character1 and recall ,vautier2 in fact1 he might well be termed the ,french ,vautier4 ,he lives in them himself--the quiet old man1 who in his last years occupied himself solely with the management of his garden and the culture of flowers1 or sat by the hour in an easy-chair at the window telling stories to his old dog ,putz4 ,but pictorial unity of effect must be asked from him as little as from ,vautier4 ,charles ,marchal1 too1 was no painter1 but an anecdotist1 with a bias towards the humorous or sentimental2 and so very refined and superior was he that he saw none but pretty peasant girls1 who might easily be mistaken for young ladies1 if they exchanged their kerchiefs and bodices for a ,parisian toilette4 ,his chief picture was ,the ,hiring ,fair of #ahfd3 pretty peasant girls are standing in a row along the street1 bargaining with prospective masters before hiring themselves out4 ,illustration3 ,,gr,,tzner4 ,,twelfth ,,night4 ,the most famous of this group of artists is ,jules ,breton1 who after various humorous and sentimental pieces placed himself in #ahec in the front rank of the ,french painters of rustics by his ,return of the ,reapers 7,muse ,luxembourg74 ,his ,gleaners in #ahee1 ,blessing the ,fields in #aheg1 and ,the ,erection of the ,picture of ,christ in the ,churchyard were pretty enough to please the public1 and sufficiently sound in technique not to be a stumbling-block to artists4 ,after #ahfa he conceived an enthusiasm for sunsets1 and was never weary of depicting the hour when the fair forms of peasant maidens stand gracefully out against the quiet golden horizon4 ,jules ,breton wrote many poems1 and a vein of poetry runs through his pictures4 ,they tell of the sadness of the land when the fields sleep dreamily beneath the shadows of the evening1 touched by the last ray of the departing sun2 but they tell of it in verses where the same rhymes are repeated with wearisome monotony4 ,breton is a charming and sympathetic figure1 but he never quite conquered ,classicism4 ,his gleaners moving across the field in the evening twilight bear witness to an attentive1 deliberate study of the works of ,leopold ,robert2 and unfortunately much of the emphasis and classical style of ,robert has been transmitted to ,breton's rustic maidens4 ,they have most decidedly a lingering weakness for pose1 and a sharp touch of the formula of the schools4 ,there is an affectation of style in their garb1 and their hands are those of bonnes who have never even handled a rake4 ,breton1 as ,millet said of him1 paints girls who are too beautiful to remain in the country4 ,his art is a well-bred1 idyllic painting1 with gilt edges2 it is pleasing and full of delicate figures which are always elegant and always correct1 but it is a little like flat lemonade2 it is monotonous and only too carefully composed1 destitute of all masculinity and seldom avoiding the reef of affectation4 ,norway and ,sweden were fructified from ,dsseldorf immediately4 ,when ,tidemand had shown the way1 the academy on the ,rhine was the high school for all the sons of the ,north during the fifties4 ,they set to translating ,knaus and ,vautier into ,swedish and ,norwegian1 and caught the tone of their originals so exactly that they almost seem more ,dsseldorfian than the ,dsseldorfers themselves4 ,karl ,d',uncker1 who arrived in #ahea and died in #ahff1 was led by the influence of ,vautier to turn to little humorous incidents4 ,after ,the ,two ,deaf ,friends 7two old people very hard of hearing1 who are making comical efforts to understand each other7 and ,the ,vagabond ,musician and his ,daughter before the ,village ,magistrates there followed in #aheh the scene in ,the ,pawnshop1 which divided the honours of the year with ,knaus's ,golden ,wedding4 ,he is an artistic compromise between ,knaus and ,schroedter1 a keen observer and a humorous narrator1 who takes special pleasure in the sharp opposition of characteristic figures4 ,in his ,pawnshop and his ,third ,class ,waiting ,room vagabonds mingle in the crowd beside honest people1 beggars beside retired tradesmen1 old procuresses beside pure and innocent girls1 and heartless misers beside warm-hearted philanthropists4 ,in these satirically humorous little comedies ,swedish costume has been rightly left out of sight4 ,this ethnographical element was the forte of ,bengt ,nordenberg1 who as a copyist of ,tidemand gradually became the ,riefstahl of the ,north4 ,his ,golden ,wedding in ,blekingen1 his ,bridal ,procession1 his ,collection of ,tithes1 ,the ,pietists1 and ,the ,promenade at the ,well1 are of the same ethnographical fidelity and the same anecdotic dryness4 ,he gets his best effects when he strikes an idyllic1 childlike note or one of patriarchal geniality4 ,the ,bridal ,procession received in the village with salvoes and music1 ,the ,newly ,married ,pair making a first visit to the parents of one of them1 the picture of schoolboys playing tricks upon an old organist1 that of children mourning over a lamb slain by a wolf1 are1 in the style of the sixties1 the works of a modest and amiable anecdotist1 who had a fine sense for the peaceful1 familiar side of everyday life in town and country4 ,illustration3 ,,brion4 ,,jean ,,valjean4 ,in ,wilhelm ,wallander1 as in ,madou1 noise and frolic and jest have the upper hand4 ,his pictures are like saucy street ditties sung to a barrel-organ4 ,the crowd at the market-place1 the gossip in the spinning-room on a holiday evening1 hop-pickings1 dances1 auctions on old estates1 weddings1 and the guard turning out1 are his favourite scenes4 ,even when he came to ,dsseldorf he was preceded by his fame as a jolly fellow and a clever draughtsman1 and when he exhibited his ,market in ,vingaker he was greeted as another ,teniers4 ,his ,hop-,harvest is like a waxwork show of teasing lads and laughing lasses4 ,he was an incisive humorist and a spirited narrator1 who under all circumstances was more inclined to jest than to touch idyllic and elegiac chords4 ,in his pictures peasant girls never wander solitary across the country1 for some lad who is passing by always has a joke to crack with them2 it never happens that girls sit lonely by the hearth1 there is always a lover to peep out laughing from behind the cupboard door4 ,anders ,koskull cultivated the genre picture of children in a more elegiac fashion2 he has poor people sitting in the sun1 or peasant families in the ,sunday stillness laying wreaths upon the graves of their dear ones in the churchyard4 ,kilian ,zoll1 like ,meyer of ,bremen1 painted very childish pictures of women spinning1 children with cats1 the joys of grandmother1 and the like4 ,peter ,eskilson turned to the representation of an idyllic age of honest yeomen1 and has given in his best known work1 ,a ,game of ,skittles in ,faggens1 a pleasant picture from peasant life in the age of pig-tails4 ,the object of ,august ,jernberg's study was the ,westphalian peasant with his slouching hat1 long white coat1 flowered waistcoat1 and large silver buttons4 ,he was specially fond of painting dancing bears surrounded by a crowd of amused spectators1 or annual fairs1 for which a picturesque part of old ,dsseldorf served as a background4 ,ferdinand ,fagerlin has something attractive in his simplicity and good-humour4 ,if he laughs1 as he delights in doing1 his laughter is cordial and kind-hearted1 and if he touches an elegiac chord he can guard against sentimentalism4 ,in contrast with ,d',uncker and ,wallander1 who always hunted after character pieces1 he devotes himself to expression with much feeling1 and interprets it delicately even in its finer nuances4 ,henry ,ritter1 who influenced him powerfully in the beginning of his career1 drew his attention to ,holland1 and ,fagerlin's quiet art harmonises with the ,dutch phlegm4 ,within the four walls of his fishermen's huts there are none but honest grey-beards and quiet women1 active wives and busy maidens1 vigorous sailors and lively peasant lads4 ,but his pictures are sympathetic in spite of this one-sided optimism1 since the sentiment is not too affected nor the anecdotic points too heavily underlined4 ,amongst the ,norwegians belonging to this group is ,v4 ,stoltenberg-,lerche1 who with the aid of appropriate accessories adapted the interiors of cloisters and churches to genre pictures1 such as ,tithe ,day in the ,cloister1 ,the ,cloister ,library1 and ,the ,visit of a ,cardinal to the ,cloister1 and so forth4 ,hans ,dahl1 a juste-milieu between ,tidemand and ,emanuel ,spitzer1 carried the ,dsseldorf village idyll down to the present time4 ,knitting the ,stocking 7girls knitting on the edge of a lake71 ,feminine ,attraction 7a lad with three peasant maidens who are dragging a boat to shore in spite of his resistance71 ,a ,child of ,nature 7a little girl engaged to sit as model to a painter amongst the mountains1 and running away in alarm71 ,the ,ladies' ,boarding ,school on the ,ice1 ,first ,pay ,duty1 etc41 are some of the witty titles of his wares1 which are scattered over ,europe and ,america4 ,everything is sunny1 everything laughs1 the landscapes as well as the figures2 and if ,dahl had painted fifty years ago1 his fair maidens with heavy blond plaits1 well-bred carriage1 and delicate hands that have never been disfigured by work1 would undoubtedly have assured him no unimportant place beside old ,meyerheim in the history of the development of the genre picture4 ,an offshoot from the ,munich painting of rustics shot up into a vigorous sapling in ,hungary4 ,the process of refining the raw talents of the ,magyar race had been perfected on the shores of the ,isar1 and the ,hungarians showed gratitude to their masters by applying the principles of the ,munich genre to ,magyar subjects when they returned home4 ,the ,hungarian rooms of modern exhibitions have consequently a very local impress4 ,everything seems aboriginal1 ,magyar to the core1 and purely national4 ,gipsies are playing the fiddle and ,hungarian national songs ring forth1 acrobats exhibit1 slender sons of ,pusta sit in ,hungarian village taverns over their tokay1 muscular peasant lads jest with buxom1 black-eyed girls1 smart hussars parade their irresistible charms before lively damsels1 and recruits endeavour to imbibe a potent enthusiasm for the business of war from the juice of the grape4 ,stiff peasants1 limber gipsies1 old people dancing1 smart youths1 the laughing faces of girls and bold fellows with flashing eyes1 quarrelsome heroes quick with the knife1 tipsy soldiers and swearing sergeants1 drunkards1 suffering women and poor orphans1 pawnshops and vagabonds1 legal suits1 electioneering scenes1 village tragedies and comic proposals1 artful shop-boys1 and criminals condemned to death1 the gay confusion of fairs and the merry return from the harvest and the vintage1 waxed moustaches1 green and red caps and short pipes1 tokay1 ,banat wheat1 ,alfoeld tobacco1 and ,sarkad cattle1--such are the elements worked up1 as the occasion demanded1 either into little tales or great and thrilling romances4 ,and the names of the painters are as thoroughly ,magyar as are the figures4 ,beside ,ludwig ,ebner1 ,paul ,boehm1 and ,otto von ,baditz1 which have a ,german sound1 one comes across such names as ,koloman ,dry1 ,julius ,agghzi1 ,alexander ,bihari1 ,ignaz ,ruskovics1 ,johann ,jank1 ,tihamr ,margitay1 ,paul ,vag1 ,arpad ,fessty1 ,otto ,koroknyai1 ,d4 ,skuteczky1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,marchal4 ,,the ,,hiring ,,fair4 ,but setting aside the altered names and the altered locality and garb1 the substance of these pictures is precisely the same as that of the ,munich pictures of twenty years before3 dance and play1 maternal happiness1 wooing1 and the invitation to the wedding4 ,instead of the ,schuhplattler they paint the ,czarda1 instead of the drover's cottage the taverns of ,pesth1 instead of the blue ,bavarian uniform the green of the ,magyar ,hussars4 ,their painting is tokay adulterated with ,isar water1 or ,isar water with a flavour of tokay4 ,what seems national is at bottom only their antiquated standpoint4 ,it is a typical development repeating itself in the nineteenth century through all branches of art2 the sun rises in the ,west and sets in the ,east4 ,any other progress than that of the gradual expansion of subject-matter cannot be established in favour of the productions of all this genre painting4 ,in colour and in substance they represent a phase of art which the leading countries of ,europe had already left behind about the middle of the century1 and which had to be overcome elsewhere1 if painting was again to be what it had been in the old1 good periods4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,pettenkofen4 ,a ,,hungarian ,,village 7,,pencil ,,drawing74 ,for as yet all these genre painters were the children of ,hogarth2 their productions were the outcome of the same spirit1 plebeian and alien to art1 which had come into painting when the middle classes began to hold a more important position in society4 ,yet their artistic significance ought not to be and cannot be contested4 ,in an age which was prouder of its antiquarian knowledge than of its own achievements1 which recognised the faithful imitation of the method of all past periods1 the mere performance of a delicate task1 as the highest aim of art1 these genre painters were the first to portray the actual man of the nineteenth century2 the first to desert museums and appeal to nature1 and thus to lay the foundation of modern painting4 ,they wandered in the country1 looked at reality1 sought to imitate it1 and often displayed in their studies a marvellous directness of insight4 ,but these vigorous initial studies were too modest to find favour and esteem with a public as yet insufficiently educated for the appreciation of art4 ,whilst in ,england the exhibitions of the ,royal ,academy and in ,france those of the ,paris ,salon created1 comparatively early1 a certain ground for the comprehension of art1 the genre painters of other countries worked up to and into the sixties without the appropriate social combinations4 ,after #ahbh the ,art ,unions began to usurp the position of that refined society which had formerly played the ,mcenas as the leading dictators of taste4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,breton4 ,,the ,,return ,,of ,,the ,,reapers4 ,albrecht ,adam1 who was chiefly responsible for the foundation of the ,munich ,union1 has himself spoken clearly in his autobiography of the advantages and disadvantages of this step4 ,often1 he writes1 often have ,i asked myself whether ,i have done good or not by this scheme1 and to this hour ,i have not been able to make up my mind4 ,the cultivation of art clearly received an entirely different bias from that which it had in earlier days4 ,what was formerly done by artistic and judicious connoisseurs was now placed for the most part in the hands of the people4 ,like so much else in the world1 that had its advantages1 but in practice the shady side of the matter became very obvious4 ,the disadvantages were specially these3 the people for a long time could only understand such paintings as represented a story in a broad and easy fashion2 paintings which in the narrative cohesion of the subject represented might be read off at a glance1 since the mere art of reading had been learnt at school1 rather than those which deserved and required careful study4 ,the demand for anecdotic subject was only waived in the case of ethnographical painting1 in ,italian and ,oriental genre2 for here the singular types1 pictorial costumes1 and peculiar customs of foreign countries were in themselves enough to provoke curiosity4 ,what was prized in the picture was merely something external1 the subject of representation1 not the representation itself1 the matter and not the manner1 that which concerned the theme1 that which fell entirely beyond the province of art4 ,the illustrated periodicals which had been making their appearance since the forties gave a further impetus to this phase of taste4 ,the more inducement there was to guess charades1 the more injury was done to the sensuous enjoyment of art2 for the accompanying text of the author merely translated the pictures back into their natural element4 ,painters1 however1 were not unwilling to reconcile themselves to the circumstances1 because1 as a result of their technical insufficiency1 they were forced1 on their side1 to try to lend their pictures the adjunct of superficial interest by anecdotic additions4 ,literary humour had to serve the purpose of pictorial humour1 and the talent of the narrator was necessary to make up for their inadequate artistic qualities4 ,as the historical painters conveyed the knowledge of history in a popular style1 the genre painters set up as agreeable tattlers1 excellent anecdotists3 they were in turn droll1 meditative1 sentimental1 and pathetic1 but they were not painters4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,breton4 ,,the ,,gleaner4 ,and painters1 under these conditions1 they could not possibly become4 ,for though it is often urged in older books on the history of art that modern genre painting far outstripped the old ,dutch genre in incisiveness of characterisation1 depth of psychological conception1 and opulence of invention1 these merits are bought at the expense of all pictorial harmony4 ,in the days of ,rembrandt the ,dutch were painters to their fingers' ends1 and they were able to be so because they appealed to a public whose taste was adequately trained to take a refined pleasure in the contemplation of works of art which had sterling merits of colour4 ,mieris painted the voluptuous ruffling of silken stuffs2 ,van der ,meer1 the mild light stealing through little windows into quiet chambers1 and playing upon burnished vessels of copper and pewter1 on majolica dishes and silver chattels1 on chests and coverings2 ,de ,hoogh1 the sunbeam streaming like a golden shaft of dust from some bright lateral space into a darker ante-chamber4 ,each one set before himself different problems1 and each ran through an artistic course of development4 ,illustration3 ,,wallender4 ,,the ,,return4 ,the more recent masters are mature from their first appearance2 the ,hungarians paint exactly like the ,swedes and the ,germans1 and their pictures have ideas for the theme1 but never such as are purely artistic4 ,like simple woodland birds1 they sing melodies which are1 in some ways1 exceedingly pretty2 but their plumage is not equal to their song4 ,no man can be painter and genre painter at the same time4 ,the principal difference between them is this3 a painter sees his picture1 rather than what may be extracted from it by thought2 the genre painter1 on the other hand1 has an idea in his mind1 an invention1 and plans out a picture for its expression4 ,the painter does not trouble his head about the subject and the narrative contents2 his poetry lies in the kingdom of colour4 ,there reigns in his works--take ,brouwer1 for example--an authentic1 uniformly plastic1 and penetrative life welling from the artist's soul4 ,but the leading motive for the genre painter is the subject as such4 ,for example1 he will paint a children's festival precisely because it is a children's festival4 ,but one must be a ,jan ,steen to accomplish such a task in a soundly artistic manner4 ,the observation of these more recent painters meanwhile ventured no further than detail1 and did not know what to do with the picture as a whole4 ,they got over their difficulties because they invented the scene1 made the children pose in the places required by the situation1 and then composed these studies4 ,the end was accomplished when the leading heroes of the piece had been characterised and the others well traced4 ,the colouring was merely an unessential adjunct1 and in a purely artistic sense not at all possible4 ,for a picture which has come into being through a piecing together from separate copies of set models1 and of costumes1 vessels1 interiors1 etc41 may be ever so true to nature in details1 but this mosaic work is bound systematically to destroy the pictorial appearance1 unity1 and quietude of the whole4 ,knaus is perhaps the only one who1 as a fine connoisseur of colour1 concealed this scrap-book drudgery1 and achieved a certain congruity of colour in a really artistic manner by a subtilised method of harmony4 ,but as regards the pictures of all the others1 it is clear at once that1 as ,heine wrote1 they have been rather edited than painted4 ,the effectiveness of the picture was lost in the detail1 and even the truth of detail was lost in the end in the opulence of subject1 seductive as that was upon the first glance4 ,for1 as it was held that the incident subjected to treatment--the more circumstantial the better--ought to be mirrored through all grades and variations of emotion in the faces1 in the gestures of a family1 of the gossips1 of the neighbours1 of the public in the street1 the inevitable consequence was that the artist1 to make himself understood1 was invariably driven to exaggerate the characterisation1 and to set in the place of the unconstrained expression of nature that which has been histrionically drilled into the model4 ,not less did the attempt to unite these set figures as a composition in one frame lead to an intolerable stencilling4 ,the rules derived from historical painting in a time dominated by that form of art were applied to our chequered and many-sided modern life4 ,since the structure of this composition prescribed laws from which the undesigned manifestation of individual objects is free1 the studies after nature had to be readjusted in the picture according to necessity4 ,there were attitudes in a conventional sense beautiful1 but unnatural and strained1 and therefore creating an unpleasing effect4 ,an arbitrary construction1 a forced method of composition1 usurped the place of what was flexible1 various1 and apparently casual4 ,the painters did not fit the separate part as it really was into the totality which the coherence of life demands3 they arranged scenes of comedy out of realistic elements just as a stage manager would put them together4 ,and this indicates the further course which development was obliged to take4 ,when ,hogarth was left behind1 painting had once more gained the independence which it had had in the great periods of art4 ,the painter was forced to cease from treating secondary qualities--such as humour and narrative power--as though they were of the first account2 and the public had to begin to understand pictures as paintings and not as painted stories4 ,an empty subject well painted is to be preferred to an interesting theme badly painted4 ,pictures of life must drive out tableaux vivants1 and human beings dislodge character types which curiosity renders attractive4 ,rather let there be a moment of breathing reality rendered by purely artistic means of expression than the most complete village tale defectively narrated2 rather the simplest figure rendered with actuality and no thought of self than the most suggestive and ingenious characterisation4 ,a conception1 coloured by the temperament of the artist1 of what was simple and inartificial1 expressing nature at every step1 had to take the place of laborious composition crowded with figures1 the plainness and truth of sterling art to overcome what was overloaded and arbitrary1 and the fragment of nature seized with spontaneous freshness to supplant episodes put together out of fragmentary observations4 ,only such painting as confined itself1 like that of the ,dutch1 to the bare empirical observation of surrounding reality1 renouncing literary byplay1 spirited anecdotic fancies1 and all those rules of beauty which enslave nature1 could really become the basis of modern art3 and this the landscape painters created4 ,when once these masters resolved to paint from nature1 and no longer from their inner consciousness1 there inevitably came a day when some one amongst them wished to place in the field or the forest1 which he had painted after nature1 a figure1 and then felt the necessity of bringing that figure into his picture just as he had seen it1 without giving it an anecdote mission or forcing it arbitrarily into his compositions4 ,the landscapist found the woodcutter in the forest1 and the woodcutter seemed to him the ideal he was seeking2 the peasant seemed to him to have the right to stand amid the furrows he had traced with his plough4 ,he no longer drove the fisher and the sailor from their barks1 and had no scruple in representing the good peasant woman1 laden with wood1 striding forwards in his picture just as she strode through the forest4 ,and so entry was made into the way of simplicity2 the top-heavy burden of interesting subject-matter was thrown aside1 and the truth of figures and environments was gained4 ,the age contained all the conditions for bringing landscape painting such as this to maturity4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,,landscape ,,painting ,,in ,,germany ,that landscape would become for the nineteenth century even more important than it was for the ,holland of the seventeenth century had been clearly announced since the days of ,watteau and ,gainsborough1 and since this tendency1 in spite of all coercive rules1 could be only momentarily delayed by ,classicism1 it came to pass that the era which began with ,winckelmann's conception of vulgar nature ended a generation later with her apotheosis4 ,the thirty years from #aghj to #ahaj denoted no more than a brief imprisonment for modern landscape1 the luxuriantly blooming child being arbitrarily confined meanwhile in the strait-waistcoat of history4 ,at first the phrase of ,gotthold ,ephraim ,lessing1 which declared that landscape was no subject for painting because it had no soul1 held painters altogether back from injuring their reputation by such pictures4 ,and when1 after the close of the century1 some amongst them overcame this dread1 ,poussin the ,classicist was of course set up as the only model4 ,for an age which did not paint men but only statues1 nature was too natural4 ,as the figure painter subordinated everything to style and moulded the human body accordingly1 landscape became mannered to suit an historical idea1 and was used merely as a theatrical background for ,greek tragedies4 ,as the draughtsmen of the age freed the human figure from all individual blemishes1 and thereby abandoned the most essential points of life and credibility which are bound up with personality1 the landscapists wished to purify nature from everything accidental1 with the result that dreary commonplaces were produced from her1 the infinitely manifold4 ,as the former sought the chief merit of their works in well-balanced composition1 the latter regarded trees and mountains1 temples and palaces1 clouds and rivers1 merely as counters which only needed to be changed in their mutual position according to acquired rules of composition to make new pictures4 ,they did not reflect that nature possesses a more original force than the most able self-conscious work of man1 or1 as ,ludwig ,richter has so well expressed it1 that what ,god ,almighty has made is always more beautiful than what men can invent4 ,there were summary rules for landscapes in the ,poussin style1 the beauty of which was sought above all in an opulent play of noble lines1 corresponding to the fine and flowing lines of ,carstens' figures4 ,but the conception was all the more pedantic whilst the drawing was hard and dry and the colour feeble and vitreous4 ,the most familiar of the group is the old ,tyrolese ,josef ,anton ,koch1 who came to ,rome in #agif1 and1 during two years1 had an opportunity of allying himself with ,carstens4 ,his pictures are usually composed with motives taken from the ,sabine ,mountains4 ,a landscape with ,the ,rape of ,hylas is possessed by the ,staedel ,institute in ,frankfort1 a ,sacrifice of ,noah by the ,museum in ,leipzig1 and a landscape from the ,sabine ,mountains by the ,new ,pinakothek in ,munich4 ,all three show little promise in technique2 it was only in water-colour that he painted with more freedom4 ,illustration3 ,,josef ,,anton ,,koch4 ,without a doubt nature in ,italy is favourable to this heroic style of landscape4 ,in ,south ,italy the country is at once magnificent and peaceful4 ,the naked walls of rock display their majestic lines with a sharp contour2 the sea is blue1 and there is no cloud in the sky4 ,as far as the eye reaches everything is dead and nugatory in its colour1 and rigid and inanimate in form3 a plastic landscape1 full of style but apparently devoid of soul4 ,nowhere is there anything either stupendous or familiar1 though1 at the same time1 there is no country on the earth where there is such a sweep of proud majestic lines4 ,it was not the composition of ,poussin1 but the classic art of ,claude--which aimed at being nothing but the transparent mirror of sunny and transparent nature--that gave perfect expression to this classic landscape2 and in the nineteenth century ,karl ,rottmann1 according to what one reads1 has most completely represented this same classical form of art4 ,his twenty-eight ,italian landscapes in the arcades of the ,munich ,hofgarten are said to display a sense of the beauty of line and a greatness of conception paralleled by few other landscape works of the century4 ,and those who draw their critical appreciations from books will probably continue to make this statement1 with all the greater right since the world has been assured that the ,arcade pictures are but a shadow of earlier splendour4 ,to a spectator who has not been primed and merely judges with his own eyes without knowing anything about ,rottmann's celebrity1 these pictures with their hard1 inept colouring and their pompous synthetic composition seem in the majority of cases to be excessively childish1 though it is not contested that before their restoration by ,leopold ,rottmann and their present state of decay they may very possibly have been good4 ,rottmann's ,grecian landscapes in the ,new ,pinakothek are not ranked high even by his admirers4 ,standing in the beginning entirely upon ,koch's ground1 he was led in these pictures to give more importance to colour and light1 and even to introduce unusual phenomena1 such as lowering skies1 with rainbows1 sunsets1 moonlight scenes1 thunderstorms1 and the like4 ,this mixture of classical principles of drawing with effect-painting in the style of ,eduard ,hildebrandt brought a certain confusion into his compositions1 to say nothing of the fact that he never got rid of his harsh and heavy colour1 ,bengal lights1 and a crudeness of execution suggestive of tapestry4 ,his water-colours1 probably1 contain the only evidence from which it may be gathered that ,rottmann really had an eminent feeling for great characteristic lines1 and did not unsuccessfully go through the school of ,claude with his finely moulded1 rhythmically perfected1 and yet simple conception of nature4 ,illustration3 ,grphische ,knst4 ,,karl ,,rottmann4 ,otherwise ,friedrich ,preller is the only one of all the stylists deriving from ,koch who rose to works consistent in execution4 ,to him only was it granted to assure his name a lasting importance by exhaustively working out a felicitous subject4 ,the ,odyssey landscapes extend through his whole life4 ,during a sojourn in ,naples in #ahcj he was struck by the first idea4 ,after his return home he composed for ,doctor ,hrtel in ,leipzig the first series as wall decoration in tempera in #ahcb-cd4 ,then there followed his journeys to ,rgen and ,norway1 where he painted wild strand and fell landscapes of a sombre austerity4 ,after this interruption1 so profitably extending his feeling for nature1 he returned to the ,odyssey4 ,the series grew from seven to sixteen cartoons1 which were to be found in #aheh at the ,munich ,international ,exhibition4 ,the ,grand ,duke of ,weimar then commissioned him to paint the complete sequence for a hall in the ,weimar ,museum4 ,in #ahei-fj ,preller prepared himself afresh in ,italy1 and as an old man completed the work which he had planned in youth4 ,this ,weimar series1 executed in encaustic painting1 is artistically the maturest that he ever did4 ,of the entire school he only had the secret of giving his figures a semblance of life1 and concealed the artificiality of his compositions4 ,nature in his pictures has an austere1 impressive sublimity1 and is the worthy home of gods and heroes4 ,during his long life he had made so many and such incessant studies of nature in ,north and ,south--even at seventy-eight he was seen daily with his sketch-book in the ,campagna--that he could venture to work with great1 simple lines without the danger of becoming empty4 ,at the time when these pictures were painted the rendering of still-life in landscape had in general been long buried1 although even to-day it has scattered representatives in the younger ,preller1 ,albert ,hertel1 and ,edmund ,kanoldt4 ,as antique monuments came into fashion with ,classicism1 ,german ruins became the mode at the beginning of the romantic period and the return to the national past4 ,for ,koch and his followers landscape was only of value when1 as the background of classical works of architecture1 it directed one's thoughts to the antique3 shepherds had to sit with their flock around them on the ruins of the temple of ,vesta1 or cows to find pasture between the truncated pillars of the ,roman ,forum4 ,but now it could only find its justification by allying itself with medival ,german history1 by the portrayal of castles and strongholds4 ,illustration3 ,,rottmann4 ,,the ,,coast ,,of ,,sicily4 ,what is beautiful8--,a landscape with upright trees1 fair vistas1 atmosphere of azure blue1 ornamental fountains1 stately palaces in a learned architectural style1 with well-built men and women1 and well-fed cows and sheep4 ,what is ugly8--,ill-formed trees with aged1 crooked1 and cloven stems1 uneven and earthless ground1 sharp-cut hills and mountains which are too high1 rude or dilapidated buildings1 with their ruins lying strewn in heaps1 a sky with heavy clouds1 stagnant water1 lean cattle in the field1 and ungraceful wayfarers4 ,in these words ,grard de ,lairesse1 the ancestor of ,classicism1 defined his ideal of landscape1 and in the last clause1 where he speaks of ugliness1 he prophetically indicated the landscape ideal of the ,romanticists1 as this is given for the first time in literature in ,tieck's ,sternbald4 ,for the young knight in ,sternbald who desires to become a painter exclaims with enthusiasm3 ,then would ,i depict lonely and terrible regions1 rotting and broken bridges1 between two rough cliffs facing a precipice1 through which the forest stream forces its foaming course1 lost travellers whose garments flutter in the moist wind1 the dreaded figures of robbers ascending from the gully1 waggons fallen upon and plundered1 and battle against the travellers4 ,which is all exactly the opposite to what ,lairesse demanded from the landscapist4 ,alexander ,humboldt has shown that the men of antiquity only found beauty in nature so far as she was kindly1 smiling1 and useful to them4 ,but to the ,romanticists nature was uncomely where she was the servant of civilisation1 and beautiful only in tameless and awe-inspiring savageness4 ,the light1 therefore1 was never to be that of simple day1 but the gloom of night and of the mountain glens4 ,such phenomena are neither to be seen in ,berlin nor in ,breslau1 and to be a ,romanticist was to love the opposite of all that one sees around one4 ,tieck1 who lived in the cold daylight of ,berlin with its modern ,north ,german rationalism1 has therefore--and not by chance--first felt the yearning for moonlight landscapes of primval forest2 ,lessing1 from ,breslau1 was the first to give it pictorial expression4 ,illustration3 ,k4 ,,rottmann4 ,,lake ,,kopa,s4 ,even in the twenties ,koch's classical heroic landscapes1 executed with an ideal sweep of line1 were contrasted with castle chapels1 ruins1 and cloister courts composed in a similarly arbitrary manner4 ,landscape was no longer to make its appeal to the understanding by lines1 as in the work of the ,classicists1 but to touch the spirit by colour4 ,the various hues of moonlight seemed specially made to awaken sombre emotions4 ,but as yet the technique of painting was too inadequately trained to express this preconceived mood through nature itself4 ,to make his intentions clearer1 therefore1 the painter showed the effect of natural scenery on the figures in his pictures1 illustrating the mood of the landscape in the accessories4 ,lessing's early works represent in art that self-consciously elegiac and melancholy sentimental rendering of a mood introduced into literature by ,sternbald1 in his knights1 squires1 noble maidens1 and other romantic requisites4 ,the melancholy lingers upon rocks savagely piled upon each other1 tumble-down chapels and ruined castles1 in swamps and sombre woods1 in old1 decaying trees1 half-obliterated paths1 and ghostly gravestones2 it veils the sky with a dark grey cerement4 ,amid hills and glens with wayside crosses1 mills1 and charcoal-burners' huts may be seen lonely wanderers1 praying pilgrims1 priests hurrying from the cloister to bring the last consolation to the dying1 riders who have lost their way1 and mercenary soldiers lying dead4 ,his first picture of #ahbh revealed a desolate churchyard beneath a dark and lowering heaven1 from which a solitary sunbeam bursts forth to illumine a grave-stead4 ,then followed the castle by the sea standing upon strangely moulded cliffs heaped in confusion2 the churchyard in the snow where the nuns in the cloisters are following a dead sister to the grave2 the churchyard cloister1 likewise in snow1 where an old man has dug a fresh grave2 the cloister in the light of evening with a priest visiting the sick2 the landscape with the weary1 grey-headed crusader1 riding on a weary horse through a lonely mountain district1 probably meant as an illustration to ,uhland's ballad ,das ,rosennest-- ,rhe hab ich nie gefunden1 ,als ein ,jahr im finstern ,thurm2 and then came the desolate tableland with the robbers' den burnt to ashes1 and the landscape with the oak and the shrine of the ,virgin1 before which a knight and noble lady are making their devotions4 ,as yet all these pictures were an arbitrary potpourri from ,walter ,scott1 ,tieck1 and ,uhland1 and their ideal was the ,wolf's ,glen in the ,freischtz4 ,illustration3 ,,friedrich ,,preller4 ,the next step which ,romanticism had to take was to discover such primval woodland scenes in actual nature1 and as ,italian landscape seems1 as it were1 to have been made for ,claude1 nature1 as she is in ,germany1 makes a peculiar appeal to this romantic temperament4 ,in certain parts of ,saxon ,switzerland the rocks look as if giants of the prime had played ball with them or piled them one on top of the other in sport4 ,lessing found in #ahcb a landscape corresponding to the romantic ideal of nature in the ,eifel district1 whither he had been induced to go by a book by ,nggerath1 ,das ,gebirge im ,rheinland und ,westfalen nach ,mineralogischem und ,chemischem ,bezuge4 ,up to that time he had only known the romantic ideal of nature through ,scott1 ,tieck1 and ,uhland1 just as the ,classicists had taken their ideal from ,homer1 ,theocritus1 and ,virgil3 in the ,eifel district it came before him in tangible form4 ,flat1 swampy tracts of shrub and spruce alternated with dark woods1 where gigantic firs1 weird pines1 and primval oaks raised their branches to the sky4 ,at the same time he beheld the rude and lonely sublimity of nature in union with a humanity which was as yet uncultivated1 and for that reason all the simpler and the healthier1 judged by the ,romanticist's distaste for civilisation4 ,defiant cones of rock and huge masses of mountain wildly piled upon each other overlooked valleys in which a stalwart race of peasants passed their days in patriarchal simplicity4 ,here1 for the first time1 a sense for actual landscape was developed in him2 hitherto it had been alloyed by a taste for knights1 robbers1 and monks4 ,oh1 had ,i been born in the seventeenth century1 he wrote1 ,i would have wandered after the ,thirty ,years' ,war throughout ,germany1 plundered1 ruined1 and run wild as she then was4 ,hitherto only composed ,italian landscapes had been painted1 the soil of home ostensibly offering no sujets1 or1 in other words1 not suiting those tendencies which subordinated everything to style3 so ,lessing was now the first painter of ,german landscape4 ,his ,eifel ,landscape in the ,berlin ,national ,gallery1 which was followed by a series of such pictures1 introduces the first period of ,german landscape painting4 ,the forms of the ground and of the rough sides of rock are rendered sharply and decisively1 from geological knowledge4 ,on principle he became an opponent of all artistic influence derived from ,italy1 and located himself in the ,eifel district4 ,the landscapes which he painted there are founded on immediate studies of nature1 and are sustained by large and earnest insight4 ,he draws the picture of this quarter in strong and simple lines3 the sadness of the heath and the dark mist1 the dull breath of which rises from swampy moorland4 ,still he painted only scenes in which nature had taken the trouble to be fantastic4 ,the eye of the painter did not see her bright side1 approaching her only when she looked gloomy or was in angry humour4 ,either he veils the sky with vast clouds or plunges into the darkness of an untrodden forest4 ,gnarled trees spread around1 their branches stretching out fantastically twisted2 the unfettered tumult of the powers of nature1 the dull sultry atmosphere before the burst of the storm or its moaning subsidence1 are the only moments which he represents4 ,but the whole baggage of unseasonable ,romanticism1 the nuns and monks1 pious knights and sentimental robbers1 at first used to embody the mood of nature1 were thrown overboard4 ,a quieter and more melancholy though thoroughly manly seriousness1 something strong and pithy1 lies in the representations of ,lessing4 ,the ,romanticists had lost all sense of the dumb silent life of nature4 ,they only painted the changing adornment of the earth3 heroes and the works of men1 palaces1 ruins1 and classic temples4 ,nature served merely as a stage scene3 the chief interest lay in the persons1 the monuments1 and the historical ideas associated with them4 ,even in the older pictures of ,lessing the mood was exclusively given by the lyrical accessories4 ,but now it was placed more and more in nature herself1 and rings in power like an organ peal1 from the cloudy sky1 the dim lights1 and the swaying tree-tops4 ,for the first time it is really nature that speaks from the canvas1 sombre and forceful4 ,in this respect his landscapes show progress4 ,they show the one-sidedness1 but also the poetry of the ,romantic view of nature4 ,and they are no less of an advance in technique2 for in making the discovery that his haunting ideal existed in reality1 ,lessing first began to study nature apart from preconceived and arbitrary rules of composition1 and--learnt to paint4 ,illustration3 ,albert1 ,munich4 ,,preller4 ,,ulysses ,,and ,,leucothea4 ,up to #ahdj there stood at his side a master no less powerful1 the refractory1 self-taught ,karl ,blechen1 who only took up painting when he was five-and-twenty1 and became one of the most original of ,german landscapists1 in spite of a ruined life prematurely closing in mental darkness and suicide4 ,he possessed a delicate feeling for nature1 inspiration1 boldness1 and a spirited largeness of manner1 although his technique was hard1 awkward1 and clumsy to the very end4 ,he might be called the ,alfred ,rethel of landscape painting4 ,he was not moved by what was kindly or formally beautiful in nature1 but by loneliness1 melancholy1 and solitude4 ,many of his landscapes break away from peaceful melancholy1 and are like the pictures in some horrible nightmare1 ghastly and terrifying2 on the other hand1 he often surprises us by the pleasure he takes in homely everyday things1 a characteristic hitherto of rare occurrence4 ,whereas ,lessing never crossed the ,alps for fear of losing his originality1 ,blechen was the first who saw even modern ,italy without the spectacles of ideal style4 ,from his ,italian pictures it would not be supposed that he had previously studied the landscapes of the ,classicists1 or that beside him in ,berlin ,schinkel worked on the entirely abstract and ideal landscape4 ,as a painter ,blechen has even discovered the modern world4 ,for ,lessing landscape with a purpose was something hideous and insupportable4 ,he cared exclusively for nature untouched by civilisation1 painted the murmuring wood and the raging storm1 here and there at most a shepherd who indicated the simplest and the oldest employment on the earth's surface4 ,but the ,blechen ,exhibition of #ahha contained an entirely singular phenomenon as regards the thirties1 an evening landscape before the iron works in ,eberswald3 a long1 monotonous plain with a sluggish river1 behind which the dark outlines of vomiting manufactory chimneys rise sullenly into the bright evening sky4 ,even in that day ,blechen painted what others scarcely ventured to draw3 nature working in the service of man1 and thereby--to use ,tieck's expression--robbed of her austere dignity4 ,illustration3 ,,carl ,,friedrich ,,lessing4 ,lessing's most celebrated follower1 ,schirmer1 appears in general as a weakened and sentimental ,lessing4 ,he began in #ahbh with ,a ,primval ,german ,forest1 but a journey to ,italy caused him in #ahdj to turn aside from this more vigorous path4 ,henceforth his efforts were directed to nobility of form and line1 to turning out ,southern ideal landscapes with classically romantic accessories4 ,the twenty-six ,biblical landscapes drawn in charcoal1 belonging to the ,dsseldorf ,kunsthalle1 the four landscapes in oil with the history of the ,good ,samaritan in the ,kunsthalle of ,carlsruhe1 and the twelve pictures on the history of ,abraham in the ,berlin ,national ,gallery1 are the principal results of this second period--his period of ideal style4 ,they are tame efforts at a compromise between ,lessing and ,preller1 and therefore of no consequence to the history of the development of landscape painting4 ,amongst the many who regarded him as a model1 ,valentin ,ruths of ,hamburg is one of the most natural and delicate4 ,his pictures1 however1 did not display any new impulse to widen the boundary by proceeding more in the direction of healthy and honestly straightforward observation of nature1 or by emancipating himself from the school of regular composition and the rendering of an arbitrary mood4 ,illustration3 ,,lessing4 ,,the ,,wayside ,,madonna4 ,meanwhile this impulse came from another quarter4 ,at the very time when the genre artists were painting their earliest pictures of rustic life under the influence of ,teniers and ,ostade1 the landscapists also began to return to the old ,dutch masters1 following ,everdingen in particular4 ,thus another strip of nature was conquered1 another step made towards simplicity4 ,the landscape ideal of the ,classicists had been architecture1 that of the ,romanticists poetry2 from this time forward it became pure painting4 ,little ,denmark1 which fifty years before had exercised through ,carstens that fateful influence on ,germany which led painters from the treatment of contemporary life and sent them in pursuit of the antique1 now made recompense for the evil it had done4 ,during the twenties and thirties it produced certain landscapists who guided the ,germans to look with a fresh and unfettered gaze1 undisturbed by the ideal1 at nature in their own country1 after the aberrations of ,classicism and the one-sidedness of the ,romanticists4 ,under ,eckersberg the ,academy of ,copenhagen was the centre of a healthy realism founded on the ,dutch1 and some of the painters who received their training there and laboured in later years in ,dresden1 ,dsseldorf1 and ,munich spread abroad the principles of this school4 ,illustration3 ,,schirmer4 ,,an ,,italian ,,landscape4 ,j4 ,c4 ,dahl taught as professor in the ,academy of ,dresden4 ,at the present time his ,norwegian landscapes seem exceedingly old-fashioned1 but in the thirties they evidently must have been something absolutely new1 for they raised a hue and cry amongst the ,german painters as the most wild naturalism4 ,in #aghh ,johann ,christian ,clausen ,dahl was born in ,bergen4 ,he was the son of one of those ,norwegian giants who are one day tillers of the soil and on the morrow fishers or herdsmen and hunters1 who cross the sea in their youth as sailors and clear the waste land when they return home4 ,as he wandered with his father through the dense1 solitary pine forests1 along abrupt precipices1 sullen lakes1 rushing waterfalls1 silvery shining glaciers1 the majesty of ,northern nature was revealed to him1 and he rendered them in little coloured drawings1 which1 in spite of their awkward technique1 bear witness to an extraordinary freshness of observation4 ,the course of study at the ,copenhagen ,academy1 whither he proceeded in his twentieth year1 enabled him to become acquainted with ,everdingen and ,ruysdael1 and these two old masters1 who had also painted ,norwegian landscapes1 stimulated him to further efforts4 ,dahl became the first representative of ,norwegian landscape painting1 and remained true to his country even when in #ahai he undertook a professorship in ,dresden4 ,italy and ,germany occupied his brush as much as ,norway1 but he was only himself when he worked amongst the ,norwegian cliffs4 ,breadth of painting and softness of atmosphere are wanting in all his pictures4 ,they are hard and dry in their effect1 and not seldom entirely conventional2 especially the large works painted after #ahcj4 ,in them he gave the impression of a bewildering1 babbling personality4 ,they have been swiftly conceived and swiftly painted1 but without artistic love and fine feeling4 ,in his later years ,dahl did not allow himself the time to bury himself in nature quietly and with devotion1 and finally--especially in his moonlight pictures--took to using a violet-blue1 which has a very conventional effect4 ,everdingen sought by preference for what was forceful and violently agitated in nature2 ,ruysdael felt an enthusiasm for rushing mountain streams4 ,but for ,dahl even these romantic elements of ,northern nature were not enough4 ,he approached nature1 not to interpret her simply1 but to arrange his effects4 ,in his picture the wild ,norwegian landscape had to be wilder and more restless than in reality it is4 ,not patient enough to win all its secrets from the savage mountain torrent1 he forced together his effects1 made additions1 brought confusion into his picture as a whole1 and a crudeness into the particular incidents4 ,his large pictures have a loud effect contrasted with the simple intuition of nature amongst the ,netherlanders4 ,many of them are merely fantastically irrational compositions of motives which have been learned by heart4 ,but there were also years in which ,dahl stood in the front rank of his age1 and even showed it the way to new aims4 ,he certainly held that position from #ahbj to #ahcj in those pictures in which1 instead of making romantic adaptations of ,ruysdael and ,everdingen1 he resembled them by rendering the weirdness and eeriness and the rough and wild features of ,norwegian scenery3 red-brown heaths and brownish green turf-moors1 stunted oaks and dark pine forests1 erratic blocks sown without design amid the roots of trees1 branches snapped by the storm and hanging as they were broken1 and trunks felled by the tempest and lying where they fell4 ,in certain pictures in the ,bergen and ,copenhagen ,galleries he pointed out the way to new aims4 ,the tendency to gloom and seriousness which reigns in those ,dutch ,romanticists has here yielded to what is simple and familiar1 to the homely joy of the people of the ,north in the crisp1 bright day and the wayward sunbeams4 ,he loves the glimmer of light upon the birch leaves and the peacefully rippling sea4 ,like ,adrian van der ,neer1 he studied with delight the wintry sky1 the snow-clad plains1 and the night and the moonshine4 ,he began to feel even the charm of spring4 ,poor peasant cots are brightly and pleasantly perched upon moist1 green hills1 as though he had quite forgotten what his age demanded in artistic composition4 ,or the summer day spreads opulent and real between the cliffs1 and the warm air vibrates over the fields4 ,peasants and cattle1 glimmering birches and village spires1 stand vigorously forth in the landscape2 even the execution is so simple that with all his richness of detail he succeeds in attaining a great effect4 ,it is felt that this painting has developed amid a virgin nature1 surrounded by the poetry of the fjord1 the lofty cliff1 and the torrent4 ,in the same measure the ,dutch had not the feeling for quietude and habitable1 humble1 and familiar places4 ,and perhaps it was not by chance that this reformer came from the most virgin country of ,europe1 from a country that had had no share in any great artistic epoch of the past4 ,illustration3 ,,morgenstern4 ,a ,,peasant ,,cottage 7,,etching74 ,caspar ,david ,friedrich1 that singular painter who carried on his artistic work in ,greifswald1 and later in ,dresden also1 is1 if anything1 almost more original and startling4 ,like ,dahl1 he studied under ,eckersberg1 at the ,academy in ,copenhagen1 and it was this elder artist who opened his eyes to nature1 in which he saw moods and humours as romantic as they were modern4 ,his work was not seen in a right light until shown in the ,german ,centenary ,exhibition of #aijf1 when his just place was first1 in the history of art1 assigned to him4 ,for ,munich a similar importance was won by the ,hamburg painter ,christian ,morgenstern1 who1 like all artists of this group1 imitated the ,dutch in the tone of his colour1 though as a draughtsman he remained a fresh and healthy son of nature4 ,even what he accomplished in all navet between #ahbf and #ahbi1 through direct study of ,hamburg landscape1 is something unique in the ,german production of that age4 ,his sketches and etchings of these years assure him a high place amongst the earliest ,german mood painters1 and show that as a landscapist he had at that time made the furthest advance towards simplicity and intimacy of feeling4 ,a journey to ,norway1 undertaken in #ahbi1 and a sojourn at the ,copenhagen ,academy1 where he worked up his ,norwegian studies1 only extended his ability without altering his principles2 and when he came to ,munich in the beginning of the thirties his new and personal intuition of nature made a revolution in artistic circles4 ,the landscape painters learnt from him that ,everdingen1 ,ruysdael1 and ,rembrandt were contemporaries of ,poussin1 that foliage need not be an exercise of style1 and is able properly to indicate the nature of the tree4 ,he discovered the beauty of the ,bavarian plateau for the ,munich school4 ,even the first picture that he brought with him from ,hamburg displayed a wide plain shadowed by clouds--a part of the ,lneberg heath--and to this type of subject he remained faithful even in later days4 ,himself a child of the plains1 he sought for kindred motives in ,bavaria1 and found them in rich store on the shore of the ,isar1 in the quarries near ,polling1 at ,peissenberg1 and in the mossy region near ,dachau4 ,his pictures have not the power of commanding the attention of an indifferent spectator1 but when they have been once looked into they are seen to be poetic1 quiet1 harmless1 sunny1 and thoughtful4 ,he delighted in whatever was ordinary and unobtrusive1 the gentle nature of the wood1 the surroundings of the village1 everything homely and familiar4 ,if ,rottmann revelled in the forms of ,southern nature1 ,morgenstern abided by his native ,germany2 where ,lessing only listened to the rage of the hurricane1 ,morgenstern hearkened to the quiet whisper of the breeze4 ,the shadows of the clouds and the radiance of the sun lie over the dark heath1 the moonlight streams dreamily over the quiet streets of the village1 the waves break1 at one moment rushing noisily and at another gently caressing the shore4 ,later1 when he turned to the representation of the mountains1 he lost the intimacy of feeling which was in the beginning peculiar to him4 ,in mountain pictures1 often as he attempted ravines1 waterfalls1 and snowy ,alpine summits1 he never succeeded in doing anything eminently good4 ,these pictures have something petty and dismembered1 and not the great1 simple stroke of his plains and skies4 ,what ,morgenstern was for ,munich1 ,ludwig ,gurlitt was for ,dsseldorf--the most eminent of the great ,northern colony which migrated thither in the thirties4 ,his name is not to be found in manuals1 and the pictures of his later period which represent him in public galleries seldom give a full idea of his importance4 ,after a journey to ,greece in #ahei he took to a brown tone1 in which much is conventional4 ,moreover1 his retired life--he resided from #ahdh to #aheb in a ,saxon village1 and from #ahei to #ahgc in ,siebleben1 near ,gotha--contributed much to his being forgotten by the world4 ,but the history of art which seeks operative forces must do him honour as the first healthy1 realistic landscape painter of ,germany1 and--still more--as one who opened the eyes of a number of younger painters who have since come to fame4 ,gurlitt was a native of ,holstein1 and1 like ,morgenstern1 received his first instruction in ,hamburg1 where at that time ,bendixen1 ,vollmer1 the ,lehmanns1 and the ,genslers formed an original group of artists4 ,after this1 as in the case of ,morgenstern also1 there followed a longer sojourn in ,norway and ,copenhagen4 ,in ,dsseldorf1 where he then went1 a ,jutland heath study made some sensation on his arrival4 ,it was the first landscape seen in ,dsseldorf which had not been composed1 and ,schadow is said to have come to ,gurlitt's studio1 accompanied by his pupils1 to behold the marvel4 ,in #ahcf he migrated to ,munich1 where ,morgenstern had worked before him1 and here he produced a whole series of works1 which reveals an artist exceedingly independent in sentiment1 and one who even preserves his individuality in the presence of the ,dutch4 ,his pictures were grey in tone1 and not yellowish1 like those of the ,dutch2 moreover1 they were less composed and less intelligently dressed out with accessories than the pictures of ,dahl2 they were glances into nature resulting from earnest1 realistic striving4 ,even when he began to paint ,italian pictures1 as he did after #ahdc1 he preserved a straightforward simplicity which was not understood by criticism in that age1 though it makes the more sympathetic appeal at the present day4 ,the strength of his realism lay1 as was the case with all artists of those years1 rather in drawing2 but at times he reaches1 even in painting1 a remarkable clearness and delicacy1 which at one time verges on the silver tone of ,canaletto1 at another on the fine grey of ,constable4 ,illustration3 ,,gurlitt4 ,,on ,,the ,,sabine ,,mountains4 ,realism begins in ,german art with the entry of these ,northern painters into ,dsseldorf and ,munich4 ,they were less affected by sthetic prejudices1 and fresher and healthier than the ,germans4 ,gurlitt was specially their intellectual leader1 the soul1 the driving force of the great movement which now followed4 ,roused by him1 ,andreas ,achenbach emancipated himself from the landscape of style1 and1 in the years from #ahce to #ahci1 painted ,norwegian pictures even before he knew ,norway4 ,roused by ,gurlitt1 ,achenbach set forth upon the pilgrimage thither1 the journey which was a voyage of discovery for ,german landscape painting4 ,until ,achenbach's death in #aije he yearly exhibited works which were no longer in touch with the surrounding efforts of younger men1 and there was an inclination to make little of his importance as a pioneer4 ,what is wanting in his pictures is artistic zeal2 what he seems to have too much of is routine4 ,andreas ,achenbach is1 as his portrait shows1 a man of great acuteness4 ,from his clear1 light blue eyes he looks sharply and sagaciously into the world around2 his short1 thick-set figure1 proud and firm of carriage1 in spite of years1 bears witness to his tough energy4 ,his forehead1 like ,menzel's1 is rather that of an architect than of a poet2 and his pictures correspond to his outward appearance4 ,each one of his earlier good pictures was a battle fought and won4 ,realism incarnate1 a man from whom all visionary enthusiasm lay at a world-wide distance1 he conquered nature by masculine firmness and unexampled perseverance4 ,he appears as a matre-peintre1 a man of cool1 exact talent with a clear and sober vision4 ,the chief characteristic of his organism was his eminent capacity for appreciating the artistic methods of other artists1 and adapting what was essential in them to his own manner of production4 ,one breathes more freely before the works of the masters of ,barbizon1 and merely sees good pictures in those of ,achenbach4 ,the former are captivating by their intimate penetration1 where he is striking by his bravura of execution4 ,his landscapes have no chance inspiration1 no geniality4 ,everything is harmonised for the sake of pictorial effect4 ,the structure and scaffolding are of monumental stability4 ,yet fine as his observation undoubtedly is1 he has never surprised the innermost working of nature1 but merely turned her to account for the production of pictures4 ,for the ,french artists colour is the pure expression of nature and of her inward humour1 but for ,achenbach it is just the means for attaining an effectiveness similar to that of the ,dutch4 ,penetrating everything thoroughly with those sparkling blue eyes of his1 he learnt to render conscientiously and firmly the forms of the earth and its outward aspect1 but the moods of its life appealing to the spirit like music were never disclosed to him4 ,the paintings of the ,dutch attracted him to art1 not the impulse to give token to his own peculiar temperament4 ,he thinks more of producing pictures which may equal those of his forerunners in their merits than of rendering the impression of nature which he has himself received4 ,his intelligence quickens at the study of the rules and theories set up by the ,dutch1 and he seeks for spots in nature where he may exercise these principles1 but remains chill at the sight of sky and water1 trees and mountains4 ,it is not mere love of nature that has guided his brush1 but a refined calculation of pictorial effect2 and as he never went beyond this endeavour after rounded expression1 as it was understood by the ,dutch1 though he certainly set ,german landscape free from a romantic subjection to style like ,schirmer's1 he never led it to immediate personal observation of nature4 ,it is not the fragrance of nature that is exhaled from his pictures1 but the odour of oil and varnish2 and as the means he made use of to attain his effects never alter1 the result is frequently conventional and methodic4 ,illustration3 ,,achenbach4 ,,sea ,,coast ,,after ,a ,,storm4 ,but this does not alter the fact that1 when the development of ,german landscape painting is in question1 the name of ,andreas ,achenbach will be always heard in connection with it4 ,he united technical qualities of the higher order with the capacity of impressing the public1 and therefore he completed the work that the ,danes had begun4 ,he was the reformer who gave evidence that it was not alone by cliffs and baronial castles and murmuring oaks that sentiment was to be awakened2 he hated everything unhealthy1 mawkish1 and vague1 and by showing the claws of the lion of realism in the very heart of the romantic period he came to have the significance of a hero in ,german landscape painting4 ,he forced demure ,lower ,german landscape to surrender to him its charms2 he revealed the fascination of ,dutch canal scenes1 with their quaint architecture and their characteristic human figures2 he went to the stormy1 raging ,north ,sea1 and opposed the giant forces of boisterous1 unfettered nature to the tame pictures of the school of ,schirmer4 ,achenbach's earliest ,north ,sea pictures were exhibited at the very time when ,heine's ,north ,sea series made its appearance1 and they soon ousted the wrecks of the ,french painter ,gudin1 which1 up to that time1 had dominated the picture market4 ,for the first time in the nineteenth century sea-pieces were so painted that the water really seemed a fluent1 agitated element1 the waves of which did not look as if they had been made of lead1 and the froth and foam of cotton wool4 ,the things which he was specially felicitous in painting were ,rhine-land villages with red-tiled roofs1 ,dutch canals with yellow sandbanks and running waves breaking at the wooden buttresses of the harbour1 ,norwegian scenes with stubborn cliffs and dark pines1 wild torrents and roaring waterfalls4 ,he did not paint them better than ,everdingen and ,ruysdael had done1 but he painted them better than any of his contemporaries had it in their power to do4 ,as ,gurlitt is connected with the present by ,achenbach1 ,morgenstern is connected with it by ,eduard ,schleich4 ,the ,munich picture rendering a mood took the place of ,rottmann's architectural pictures4 ,instead of the fair forms of the earth's surface1 artists began to study the play of sunlight on the plain and amid the flight of the clouds1 and instead of the build of the landscape they turned to notice its atmospheric mood4 ,through ,morgenstern ,schleich was specially directed to ,ruysdael and ,goyen4 ,in ,ruysdael he was captivated by that profound seriousness and that sombre observation of nature which corresponded to something in his own humour2 in ,goyen by the pictorial harmony of sunlight1 air1 water1 and earth4 ,schleich has visited ,france1 ,belgium1 ,hungary1 and ,italy1 yet it is only by exception that he has painted anything but what the most immediate vicinity of ,munich might offer4 ,he chose the plainest spot in nature--a newly tilled field1 a reedy pond1 a stretch of brown moorland1 a pair of cottages and trees2 and under the guidance of ,goyen he observed the changes of the sky with great care--the retreat of thunderclouds1 the sun shrouded by thin veils of haze1 the tremulous moonlight1 or the hovering of the morning and evening mists4 ,the ,isar district and the mossy ,dachauer soil were his favourite places of sojourn4 ,he had a special preference for rain and moonlight and the mood of autumn1 in rendering which he toned brown and grey hues to fine ,dutch harmonies4 ,his keynote was predominantly serious and elegiac1 but he also loved scenes in which there was a restless and violent change of light4 ,over a wide plateau the sunlight spreads its radiance1 whilst from the side an army of dense thunderclouds approaches1 threatening storm and casting dark shadows4 ,over a monotonous plain1 broken by solitary clumps of trees1 the warm summer rain falls dripping down4 ,trees and shrubs throw light shadows1 and the plain glistens in the beams of the sun4 ,or else there is a wide expanse of moor4 ,darkling the clouds advance1 the rushes bend before the wind1 and narrow strips of moonlight glitter amid the slender reeds4 ,by such works ,schleich became the head of the ,munich school of landscape without having ever directed the study of pupils4 ,through him and through ,achenbach capacity for the fresh observation of the life of nature was given to ,german painters4 ,illustration3 ,,achenbach4 ,,fishing ,,boats ,,in ,,the ,,north ,,sea4 ,undoubtedly amongst the younger group of artists there was a great difference in regard to choice of subject4 ,the modern rendering of mood has only had its origin in ,germany2 it could not finally develop itself there4 ,just as figure painting1 after making so vigorous a beginning with ,brkel1 turned to genre painting in the hands of ,enhuber and ,knaus1 until it returned to its old course in ,leibl1 landscape also went through the apprentice period of interesting subject1 until it once more recognised the poetry of simpleness4 ,the course of civilisation itself led it into these lines4 ,when ,morgenstern painted his first pictures the post-chaise still rattled from village to village1 but now the whistle of the railway engine screams shrill as the first signal of a new age throughout ,europe4 ,up to that time the possibility of travelling had been greatly circumscribed by the difficulties of traffic4 ,but facilitated arrangements of traffic brought with them such a desire for travel as had never been before4 ,in literature the revolution displayed itself by the rise of books of travels as a new branch of fiction4 ,hacklnder sent many volumes of touring sketches into the market4 ,theodor ,mgge made ,norway1 ,sweden1 and ,denmark the scene of his tales4 ,but ,america was the land where the ,sesame was to be found1 for ,germany had been set upon the war-trail with ,cooper's ,indians1 it had ,charles ,sealsfield to describe the grotesque mountain land of ,mexico1 the magic of the prairie1 and the landscapes of ,susquehannah and the ,mississippi1 and read ,gerstcker's1 ,balduin ,mllhausen's1 and ,otto ,ruppius' transatlantic sketches with unwearying excitement4 ,the painters who found their greatest delight in seeing the world with the eyes of a tourist also became cosmopolitan4 ,illusration3 ,,calame4 ,,landscape4 ,in ,geneva ,alexander ,calame brought ,germany to the knowledge of what is to be seen in ,switzerland4 ,calame was1 indeed1 a dry1 unpoetic landscapist4 ,he began as a young tradesman by making little coloured views of ,switzerland which foreigners were glad to bring away with them as mementoes of their visits1 just as they now do photographs4 ,even his later pictures can only lay claim to the merit of such mementoes of ,switzerland4 ,his colour is insipid and monotonous1 his atmosphere heavy1 his technique laborious4 ,by painting he understood the illumination of drawings1 and his drawing was that of an engraver4 ,an excellent drawing-master1 he possessed an unusual mastery of perspective4 ,on the other hand1 all warmth and inward life are wanting in his works4 ,sentiment has been replaced by correct manipulation1 and in the deep blue mirror of his ,alpine lakes1 as in the luminous red of his ,alpine summits1 there is always to be seen the illuminator who has first drawn the contours with a neat pencil and pedantic correctness4 ,his pictures are grandiose scenes of nature felt in a petty way--in science too it is often the smallest spirit that seeks the greatest heroes4 ,the ,ruins of ,pstum1 like ,the ,thunderstorm on the ,handeck and ,the ,range of ,monte-,rosa at ,sunrise1 merely attain an external1 scenical effect which is not improved by crude and unnatural contrasts of light4 ,and as1 in later years1 when orders accumulated1 he fell a victim to an astounding fertility1 many of his works give one the impression of a dexterous calligrapher incessantly repeating the same ornamental letters4 ,un ,calame1 deux ,calame1 trois ,calame--que de calamits1 ran the phrase every year in the ,paris ,salon4 ,illustration3 ,,flamm4 ,a ,,summer ,,day4 ,but if ,france remained cool he found the more numerous admirers in ,germany4 ,when1 in #ahce1 he exhibited his first pictures in ,berlin1 a view of the ,lake of ,geneva1 his appearance was at once hailed with the warmest sympathy4 ,the dexterity1 the rounded form1 the finish of his pictures1 were exactly what gave pleasure1 and the distinctness of his drawing made its impression4 ,his lithograph studies of trees and his landscape copies attained the importance of canonical value1 and for whole decades remained in use as a medium of instruction in drawing4 ,amongst ,german painters ,carl ,ludwig1 ,otto von ,kameke1 and ,count ,stanislaus ,kalkreuth were specially incited by ,calame to turn to the sublimity of ,alpine nature4 ,desolate wastes of cliffs1 still1 clear blue lakes1 wild1 plunging torrents1 and mountain summits covered with glaciers and glowing to rose colour in the reflection of the setting sun are the elements of their pictures as of those of the ,genevan master4 ,after ,achenbach there came a whole series of artists from the ,north who began to depict the mountains of their native ,norway under the strong colour effects of the ,northern sun4 ,the majestic formations of the fjords1 the emerald green walls of rock1 the cloven valleys1 the terrible forest wildernesses1 and the mountains of ,norway dazzlingly illuminated and reflecting themselves like glittering jewels in the quiet waters of sapphire blue lakes1 were interesting enough to afford nourishment for more than one landscapist4 ,knud ,baade1 who worked from #ahdb in ,munich1 after a lengthy sojourn at the ,copenhagen ,academy and with ,dahl in ,dresden1 delighted in moonlight scenes1 gloomy fir forests1 and midnight suns4 ,the sea rises in waves mountain high1 and tosses mighty vessels like withered leaves or dashes foaming against the cliffs of the shore4 ,fantastic clouds chase each other across the sky1 and the wan moonlight rocks unsteadily upon the waves4 ,more seldom he paints the sea lit up afar by the moon1 or the fjord with its meadows and silver birches2 and in such plain pictures he makes a far more attractive effect than in those which are wild and ambitious1 for his diffident1 petty execution is1 as a rule1 but little suited to restless and1 as it were1 dramatic scenes of nature4 ,having come to ,dsseldorf in #ahda1 ,hans ,gude became the ,calame of the ,north4 ,achenbach taught him to approach the phenomena of nature boldly and realistically1 and not to be afraid of a rich and soft scale of colour4 ,schirmer1 the representative of ,italian still landscape1 guided him to the acquisition of a certain large harmony and sense for style in the structure of his pictures1 to beauty of line and effective disposition of great masses of light and shade4 ,this quiet1 sure-footed1 and robust realism1 which had1 at the same time1 a gift of style1 became the chief characteristic of his ,northern landscapes1 in which1 however1 the mutable and fleeting moods of nature were all the more neglected4 ,here are ,norwegian mountain landscapes with lakes1 rivers1 and waterfalls1 then pictures of the shore under the most varied phases of light1 or grand cliff scenery with a sombre sky and a sea in commotion4 ,hans ,gude1 living from #ahfd in ,carlsruhe1 and from #ahhj in ,berlin1 is one of those painters whom one esteems1 but for whom it is not possible to feel great enthusiasm--one of those conscientious workers who from their very solidity run the risk of becoming tedious4 ,his landscapes are good gallery pictures1 soberly and prosaically correct1 and never irritating1 though at the same time they seldom kindle any warm feeling4 ,like ,gude1 ,niels ,bjrnson ,mller devoted himself to pictures of the shore and the sea4 ,undisturbed by men in his sequestered retreat1 ,august ,capellen gave way to the melancholy charms of the ,norwegian forest4 ,he represented the tremulous clarity of the air above the cliffs1 old1 shattered tree-trunks and green water plants1 sleepy ponds1 and far prospects bounded by blue mountains2 but he would have made an effect of greater originality had he thought less of ,schirmer's noble line and compositions arranged in the grand style4 ,morten-,mller became the specialist of the fir forest4 ,his native woods where the valleys stretch towards the high mountain region offered him motives1 which he worked up in large and excessively scenical pictures4 ,his strong point was the contrast between sunlight playing on the mountain tops and mysterious darkness reigning in the forest depths1 and his pictures have many admirers on account of their elegiac melancholy1 their minor key of touching sadness4 ,the ,norwegian spring changing the earth into one carpet of moorland1 broken by marshes1 found its delineator in ,erik ,bodom4 ,ludwig ,munthe became the painter of wintry landscape in thaw1 when the snow is riddled with holes and a dirty brown crust of earth peeps from the dazzling mantle4 ,a desolate field1 a pair of crippled trees stretching their naked branches to the dark-grey sky1 a swarm of crows and a drenched road marked with the tracks of wheels1 a tawny yellow patch of light gleaming through the cloud-bank and reflected in the wayside puddles1 such are the elements out of which one of ,munthe's landscapes is composed4 ,through ,eilert ,adelsten ,normann representations of the fjords gained currency in the picture market4 ,his specialty was the delineation of the steep and beetling rocky fastnesses of ,lofodden with their various reflections of light and colour1 the midnight sun glaring over the deep clear sea1 the contrast between the blue-black masses of the mountains and the gleaming fields of snow4 ,illustration3 ,,baade4 ,,moonlight ,,night ,,on ,,the ,,coast4 ,others1 such as ,ludwig ,willroider1 ,louis ,douzette1 and ,hermann ,eschke1 set themselves to observe the ,german heath and the ,german forest from similar points of view2 the one painted great masses of mountain and giant trees1 the other the setting sun1 and the third the sea4 ,oswald ,achenbach1 ,albert ,flamm1 and ,ascan ,lutteroth set out once more on the pilgrimage to the ,south1 where1 in contrast to their predecessors1 they studied no longer the classic lines of nature in ,italy1 but the splendour of varied effects of colour in the neighbourhood of ,vesuvius and the ,bay of ,naples4 ,the most enterprising turned their backs on ,europe altogether1 and began to paint the primval forests of ,south ,america1 to which ,alexander ,humboldt had drawn attention1 the azure and scarlet wonders of the tropics1 and the gleam and sparkle of the icy world at the ultimate limits of the ,polar regions4 ,ferdinand ,bellermann was honoured as a new ,columbus when in #ahdb he returned home with his sketches1 botanically accurate as they were1 of the marvels of the virgin forest4 ,eduard ,hildebrandt1 who in #ahdc had already gone through the ,canary ,islands1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 ,north ,africa1 ,egypt1 ,nubia1 ,sahara1 and the ,northern sea of ice1 at the mandate of ,frederich ,wilhelm ,,iv in #ahfb undertook a voyage round the world to learn from personal view the phenomena that the sea1 the air1 and the solid earth bring forth beneath the most various skies4 ,eugen ,bracht traversed ,egypt1 ,syria1 and ,palestine1 and returned with a multitude of studies from the sombre and majestic landscape of the desert1 and from that world of ruins and mountains in the ,east1 and developed them at home into as many pictures4 ,a modicum of praise is due to all these masters for having continually widened the circuit of subject-matter1 and gradually disclosed the whole world2 and if their works cannot be reckoned as the products of a delicate landscape painting1 that is a result of the same taste which prescribed anecdotic and narrative subjects to the genre picture of those years4 ,the landscape painters conquered the earth1 but1 above all1 those parts of it which were geographically remarkable4 ,this they did in the interest of the public4 ,they went with a ,baedeker in their pocket into every quarter of the globe1 brought with them all the carmine necessary for sunsets1 and set up their easels at every place marked with an asterisk in the guidebook4 ,and in these fair regions they noted everything that was to be seen with the said ,baedeker's assistance4 ,through satisfying the interest of the tourist by a rendering1 faithful to a hair's breadth1 of topographically instructive points1 they could best reckon on the sale of their productions4 ,at the same time1 their pictures betray that1 during this generation1 historical painting was throned on a summit whence it could dictate the sthetic catechism4 ,the historical picture represented a humanity that carried about with it the consciousness of its outward presence1 draped itself in front of the glass1 and made an artificial study of every gesture and every expression of emotion4 ,genre painting followed1 and rendered the true spirit of life1 illustrating it histrionically1 but without surprising it in its unconstrained working4 ,and so trees1 mountains1 and clouds also were forced to lay aside the innocence of unconscious being and wrap themselves in the cloak of affectation4 ,simple reality in its quiet1 delicate beauty1 the homely mood of nature1 touching the forms of landscape with the play of light and air1 had nothing to tell an age overstrained by the heroics of history and the grimaces of genre painting4 ,a more powerful stimulus was necessary4 ,so the landscapists also were forced to seek nature where she was histrionic and came forth in blustering magnificence2 they were forced to send off brilliant pyrotechnics to fire out sun1 moon1 and stars in order to be heard1 or1 more literally1 seen4 ,instruction or theatrical effect--the aim of historical painting--had also to be that of the landscape painter4 ,and as railroads are cosmopolitan arrangements1 he was in a position to satisfy both demands with promptitude4 ,as historical painters in the chase of striking subjects directed their gaze to the farthest historical horizon1 and the genre painters sought to take their public captive principally through what was alien and strange1 ,oriental and ,italian1 the landscape painters1 too1 found their highest aim in the widest possible expansion of the geographical horizon4 ,have these good people not been born anywhere in particular8 asked ,courbet1 when he contemplated the ,german landscapes in the ,munich ,exhibition of #ahfi4 ,what would first strike the inhabitant of a ,northern country in foreign lands was made the theme of the majority of the pictures4 ,but as the historical painting1 in illustrating all the great dramatic scenes from the ,trojan ,war to the ,french ,revolution1 yielded at one time to a pdagogical doctrinaire tendency and at another to theatrical impassionedness1 so landscape painting on its cosmopolitan excursions became partly a dry synopsis of famous regions1 only justifiable as a memento of travel1 partly a tricked-out piece of effect which1 like everything obtrusive1 soon lost its charm4 ,pictures of the first description which chiefly borrowed their motives from ,alpine nature1 so imposing in its impressiveness of form--grand masses of rock1 glaciers1 snow-fields1 and abrupt precipices--only needed to have the fidelity of a portrait4 ,where that was given1 the public1 guided by the instinct for what is majestic and beautiful in nature1 stood before them quite content1 while ,alpine travellers instructed the laity that the deep blue snow of the picture was no exaggeration1 but a phenomenon of the mountain world which had been correctly reproduced4 ,in all these cases there can be no possible doubt about geographical position1 but there is seldom any need to make inquiries after the artist4 ,the interest which they excite is purely of a topographical order2 otherwise they bear the stamp of ordinary prose1 of the aridity and unattractiveness which always creeps in as a consequence of pure objectivity4 ,works of the second description1 which depict exotic regions1 striking by the strangeness of various phenomena of light and the splendour and glow of colour1 are generally irritating by their professional effort to display mood4 ,the old masters revealed mood without intending to do so1 because they approached nature piously and with a wealth of feeling4 ,the new masters obtain a purely external effect1 because they strain after a mood in their painting without feeling it2 and though art does not exclude the choice of exotic subjects1 it is not healthy when a tendency of this sort becomes universal4 ,really superior art will1 from principle1 never seek the charm of what is strange and distant1 since it possesses the magical gift of bestowing the deepest interest on what lies nearest to it4 ,in addition to this1 such effects are as hard to seize as the moment of most intense excitement in the historical picture4 ,as an historical painter ,delacroix could render it1 and ,turner as a landscape painter1 but geniuses like ,delacroix and ,turner are not born every day4 ,as these phenomena were painted at the time in ,germany1 the right mood was not excited by them1 but merely a frigid curiosity4 ,almost all landscapes of these years create an effect merely through their subject2 they are entertaining1 astonishing1 instructive1 but the poetry of nature has not yet been aroused4 ,it could only reveal itself when the preponderance of interest in mere subject was no longer allowed4 ,as the figure painters at last disdained through narrative and points to win the applause of those who had no sensitiveness for art1 so the landscape painters were obliged to cease from giving geographical instruction by the representation of nature as beloved by tourists1 and to give up forcing a mood in their pictures by a subterfuge4 ,the necessary degree of artistic absorption could only go hand in hand with a revolt against purely objective interest of motive1 and with a strenuous effort at the representation of familiar nature in the intimate charm of its moods of light and atmosphere4 ,it was necessary for refinement of taste to follow on the expression of subject-matter2 and this impulse had to bring artists back to the path struck by ,dahl1 ,morgenstern1 and ,gurlitt4 ,to unite the simple1 moving1 and tender observation of those older artists with richer and more complex methods of expression was the task given to the next generation in ,france1 where paysage intime1 the most refined and delicate issue of the century1 grew to maturity in the very years when ,german landscape painting roamed through the world with the joy of an explorer4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,paysage ,,intime ,how it was that the secrets of paysage intime were reserved for our own century--and this assuredly by no mere accident--can only be delineated in true colours when some one writes a special history of landscape painting1 a book which at the present time would be the most seasonable in the literature of art4 ,wereschagin once declared that in the province of landscape the works of the old masters seem like the exercises of pupils in comparison with the performances of modern art2 and certain it is that the nineteenth century1 if it is inferior to previous ages in everything else1 may1 at any rate1 offer them an equivalent in landscape4 ,it was only city life that could produce this passionately heightened love of nature4 ,it was only in the century of close rooms and over-population1 neurosis and holiday colonies1 that landscape painting could attain to this fulness1 purity1 and sanctity4 ,it was only our age of hurry and work that made possible a relation between nature and the human soul1 which really has something of what the ,earth ,spirit vouchsafed to ,faust3 to gaze into her heart as into the bosom of a friend4 ,in ,france also1 the tendency which since the eighteenth century had made itself felt in waves rising ever higher1 had been for a short time abruptly interrupted by ,classicism4 ,of the pre-revolutionary landscapists ,hubert ,robert was the only one who survived into the new era4 ,his details of nature and his rococo savour were pardoned to him for the sake of his classic ruins4 ,at first there was not one of the newer artists who was impelled to enter this province4 ,a generation which had become ascetic1 and which dreamed only of rude1 manly virtue1 expressed through the plastic and purified forms of the human body1 had lost all sense for the charms of landscape4 ,and when the first landscapes appeared once more1 after several years1 they were1 as in ,germany1 solemn stage-tragedy scenes1 abstract lofty regions such as ,poussin ostensibly painted4 ,only in ,poussin a great feeling for nature held together the conventional composition1 in spite of all his straining after style2 whereas nothing but frigid rhetoric and sterile formalism reigns in the works of these newer painters1 works which were created at second-hand4 ,the type of the beautiful which had been borrowed from the antique was worked into garden and forest with a laboured effort at style1 as it had been worked into the human form and the flow of drapery4 ,a prix de ,rome was founded for historical landscapes4 ,henri ,valenciennes was the ,lentre of this ,classicism1 the admired teacher of several generations4 ,the beginner in landscape painting modelled himself upon ,valenciennes as the figure painter upon ,gurin4 ,his ,trait lmentaire de perspective pratique1 in which he formulated the principles of landscape1 contains his personal views as well as the sthetics of the age4 ,although1 as he premises1 he is convinced that there is in reality only one kind of painting1 historical painting1 it is true that an able historical painter ought not entirely to neglect landscape4 ,rembrandt1 of course1 and the old ,dutch painters were without any sort of ideal1 and only worked for people without soul or intelligence4 ,how far does a landscape with cows and sheep stand below one with the funeral of ,phocion1 or a rainy day by ,ruysdael below a picture of the ,deluge by ,poussin6 ,hardly does ,claude ,lorrain find grace in the eyes of ,valenciennes4 ,he has painted with a pretty fidelity to nature the morning and evening light4 ,but just for that very reason his pictures make no appeal to the intelligence4 ,he has no tree where a ,dryad could dwell1 no spring in which nymphs could splash4 ,gods1 demigods1 nymphs1 satyrs1 even heroes are too sublime for these regions2 shepherds could dwell there at best4 ,claude1 indeed1 loved ,italy1 but knew the old writers all too little1 and they are the groundwork for landscape painters4 ,as ,david said to his pupil ,gros1 ,look through your ,plutarch1 ,valenciennes advised his own pupils to study ,theocritus1 ,virgil1 and ,ovid3 only from these authors might be learnt what were the regions suitable for gods and heroes4 ,vos exemplaria grca ,nocturna versate manu1 versate diurna4 ,if1 for example1 the landscapist would paint ,morning1 let him portray the moment when ,aurora rises laughing from the arms of her aged spouse1 when the hours are yoking four fiery steeds to the car of the sun-god1 or ,ulysses kneels imploring before ,nausicaa4 ,for ,noon the myth of ,icarus or of ,phaton might be turned to account4 ,evening may be represented by painting ,phoebus hastening his course as he nears the horizon in flaming desire to cast himself into the arms of ,thetis4 ,having once got his themes from the old poets1 the landscape painter must know the laws of perspective to execute his picture2 he must be familiar with ,poussin's rules of composition1 and occasionally he ought even to study nature4 ,then he needs a weeping willow for an elegy1 a rock for the death of ,phaton1 and an oak for the dance of the nymphs4 ,to find such motives he should make journeys to the famed old lands of civilisation2 best of all on the road which art itself has traversed--first to ,asia ,minor1 then to ,greece1 and then to ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,hubert ,,robert4 ,,monuments ,,and ,,ruins4 ,these sthetics produced ,victor ,bertin and ,xavier ,bidault1 admired by their contemporaries for richness of composition and a splendid selection of sites4 ,their methodical commonplaces1 their waves and valleys and temples1 bear the same relation to nature as the talking machine of ,raimundus ,lullus does to philosophy4 ,the scholastic landscape painter triumphed2 a school it was which nourished itself on empty formulas1 and so died of anmia4 ,bidault1 who in his youth made very good studies1 is1 with his stippled leaves and polished stems1 his grey skies looking sometimes like lead and sometimes like water1 the peculiar essence of a tiresome ,classicism2 and he is the same ,bidault who1 as president of the hanging committee1 for years rejected the landscapes of ,thodore ,rousseau from the ,salon4 ,it is only the figure of ,michallon1 who died young1 that still survives from this group4 ,he too belongs to the school of ,valenciennes1 through his frigid1 meagre1 and pedantically correct style2 but he is distinguished from the rest1 for he endeavoured to acquire a certain truth to nature in the drawing of plants1 and was accounted a bold innovator at the time4 ,he did not paint the plant in itself1 but burs1 thistles1 dandelions1 everything after its kind1 and through this botanical exactness he acquired in the beginning of the century a fame which it is now hard to understand4 ,in the persons of ,jules ,cogniet and ,watelet the gates of the school were rather more widely opened to admit reality4 ,having long populated their classic valleys with bloodless1 dancing nymphs and figurants of divine race1 they abandoned historical for picturesque landscape1 and dared to represent scenes from the environs of ,paris1 castles and windmills4 ,but as they clung even here to the classical principles of composition1 it is only nature brushed and combed1 trimmed and coerced by rules1 that is reflected in their painting4 ,even in #ahbb1 when ,delacroix exhibited his ,dante's ,bark1 the ineffable ,watelet shone in his full splendour4 ,amongst his pictures there was a view of ,bar-sur-,seine1 which the catalogue appropriately designated not simply as a vue1 but as a vue ajuste4 ,till his last breath ,watelet was convinced that nature did not understand her own business1 and was always in need of a painter to revise her errors and correct them4 ,beside this group who adapted ,french localities for classical landscapes there arose in the meantime another group1 and they proceeded in the opposite direction4 ,their highest aim was to go on pilgrimage to sacred ,italy1 the classic land1 which1 with their literary training and their one-sided sthetics1 they invariably thought more beautiful and more worthy of veneration than any other4 ,but they tried to break with ,valenciennes' arbitrary rules of composition1 and to seize the great lines of ,italian landscape with fidelity to fact4 ,in going back from ,valenciennes to ,claude they endeavoured to pour new life into a style of landscape painting which was its own justification1 compromised as it had been by the ,classic school4 ,they made a very heretical appearance in the eyes of the strictly orthodox pupils of ,valenciennes4 ,they were called the ,gothic school1 which was as much as to say ,romanticists1 and the names of ,thodore ,aligny and ,edouard ,bertin were for years mentioned with that of ,corot in critiques4 ,they brought home very pretty drawings from ,greece1 ,italy1 ,egypt1 ,palestine1 and ,syria1 and ,bertin did this especially4 ,aligny is even not without importance as a painter4 ,he aimed at width of horizon and simplicity of line more zealously than the traditional school had done4 ,he is1 indeed1 a man of sombre1 austere1 and earnest talent1 and the solemn rhythm of his pictures would have more effect if the colour were not so dry1 and if a fixed and monotonous light were not uniformly shed over everything in place of a vibrating atmosphere4 ,alexandre ,desgoffe1 ,paul ,flandrin1 ,benouville1 ,bellel1 and others drew from the same sources with similar conviction and varying talent4 ,paul ,flandrin1 in particular1 was in his youth a good painter in the manner of #afij4 ,his composition is noble and his execution certain1 recalling ,poussin4 ,ingres1 his master1 said of him1 ,if ,i were not ,ingres ,i would be ,flandrin4 ,it was only later that the singular charm of ,claude ,lorrain and the ,roman majesty of ,poussin were transformed under the brush of ,flandrin into arid still-life1 into landscapes of pasteboard and wadding4 ,but not from this quarter could the health of a school which had become anmic be in any way restored4 ,french landscape had to draw a new power of vitality from the ,french soil itself4 ,it was saved when its eyes were opened to the charms of home1 and this revelation was brought about by ,romanticism4 ,in the ,salon notices1 from #ahbb onwards1 the complaints of critics are repeated with increasing violence--complaints that1 instead of fair regions1 noble character1 and monumental lines1 nothing but malarious lakes1 desolate wastes1 and terrible cliffs should be painted1 which1 in the language of ,classicism1 means that ,french landscape painting had taken firm hold of the soil in ,france4 ,the day when ,racine was declared by the young ,romanticists to be a maker of fine phrases put an end to the whole school of ,david and to ,classical landscape at the same time4 ,it fell into oblivion1 as1 sooner or later1 every artistic movement which does not rest on the nature and personality of the artist inevitably must4 ,the young revolutionaries no longer believed that an alliance with mythological subjects and grand composition could compensate for the lack of air and light4 ,they were tired of pompous1 empty1 and distant scenery4 ,they only thought of nature1 and that amid which they lived seemed the less to forego its charms the more ,italy came under suspicion as the home of all these ugly1 unpleasant1 and academical pictures4 ,that was the birthday of ,french landscape4 ,at the very time when ,delacroix renewed the rpertoire of grand painting1 enriching art with a world of feeling which was not merely edited1 a parallel movement began in landscape4 ,dante's ,bark was painted in #ahbb1 ,the ,massacre of ,chios in #ahbd4 ,almost at the same hour a tornado swept through the branches of the old ,french oaks1 and bent the rustling corn2 the sky was covered with clouds1 and the waters1 which had been hard-bound for so long1 sped purling once more along their wonted course4 ,the little paper temples1 built on classic heights1 toppled down1 and there rose lowly rustic cottages1 from the chimneys of which the smoke mounted wavering to the sky4 ,nature awoke from her wintry sleep1 and the spring of modern landscape painting broke with its sadness and its smiles4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,victor ,,hugo4 ,,ruins ,,of ,a ,,medi,,val ,,castle ,,on ,,the ,,rhine4 ,this is where the development of ,french art diverges from that of ,german4 ,after it had stood under the influence of ,poussin1 the ,german long continued to have a suspicious preference for scenery that was devoid of soul1 for beautiful views1 as the phrase is1 and it penetrated much later into the spirit of familiar nature4 ,but as early as the twenties this spirit had revealed itself to the ,french4 ,it was only in the province of poetry that they went through the period of enthusiasm for exotic nature--and even there not to the same extent as ,germany4 ,only in ,chateaubriand's ,atala are there to be found pompously pictorial descriptions of strange landscapes which have been in no degree inwardly felt4 ,chiefly it was the virgin forests of ,north ,america that afforded material for splendid pictures1 which he describes in grandiloquent and soaring prose4 ,a nature which is impressive and splendid serves as the scenery of these dramas of human life4 ,but with ,lamartine the reaction was accomplished4 ,he is the first amongst the poets of ,france who conceived landscape with an inward emotion1 and brought it into harmony with his moods of soul4 ,his poetry was made fervent and glorified by love for his home1 for his own province1 for ,south ,burgundy4 ,even in the region of art a poet was the first initiator4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,michel4 ,a ,,windmill4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,de ,,la ,,berge4 ,,landscape4 ,victor ,hugo1 the father of ,romanticism in literature1 cannot be passed over in the history of landscape painting4 ,since #ahia1 when that remarkable exhibition of painter-poets was opened in ,paris--an exhibition in which ,thophile ,gautier1 ,prosper ,merime1 the two de ,goncourts1 and others were represented by more or less important works--the world learnt what a gifted draughtsman1 what a powerful dramatist in landscape1 was this great ,romanticist4 ,even in the reminiscences of nature--spirited and suggestive of colour as they are--which he drew with a rapid hand in the margin of his manuscripts1 the fiery glow of ,romanticism breaks out4 ,the things of which he speaks in the text appear in black shadows and ghostly light4 ,old castles stand surrounded by clouds of smoke or the blinding glare of fire1 moonrise makes phantom silhouettes of the trees1 waves lashed by the storm dash together as they spout over vessels2 and there are gloomy seas and dark unearthly shores1 fairy palaces1 proud citadels1 and cathedrals of fabled story4 ,whenever one of his finished drawings is bequeathed to the ,louvre1 ,hugo is certain to receive a place in the history of art as one of the champions of ,romanticism4 ,the movement was so universal amongst the painters that it is difficult at the present time to perceive the special part that each individual played in the great drama4 ,this is especially true of ,georges ,michel1 a genius long misunderstood1 a painter first made known in wider circles by the ,world ,exhibition in #ahhi1 and known to the narrower circle of art lovers only since his death in #ahdc4 ,at that time a dealer had bought at an auction the works left behind by a half-famished painter--pictures with no signature1 and only to be identified because they collectively treated motives from the surroundings of ,paris4 ,a large1 wide horizon1 a hill1 a windmill1 a cloudy sky were his subjects1 and all pointed to an artist schooled by the ,dutch4 ,curiosity was on the alert1 inquiry was made1 and it was found that the painter was named ,georges ,michel1 and had been born in #agfc2 that at twelve years of age he had shirked school to go drawing1 had run away with a laundress at fifteen1 was already the father of five children when he was twenty1 had married again at sixty-five1 and had worked hard to his eightieth year4 ,old men remembered that they had seen early works of his in the ,salon4 ,it was said that ,michel had produced a great deal immediately after the ,revolution1 but exceedingly tedious pictures1 which differed in no respect from those of the other ,classicists2 for instance1 from ,demarne and ,swebach1 garnished with figures4 ,it was only after #ahad that he disappeared from the ,salon2 not1 as has been now discovered1 because he had no more pictures to exhibit1 but because he was rejected as a revolutionary4 ,during his later years ,michel had been most variously employed3 for one thing1 he had been a restorer of pictures4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,cabat4 ,,le ,,jardin ,,beaujon4 ,in this calling many ,dutch pictures had passed through his hands1 and they suggested to him the unseasonable idea of looking more closely into nature in the neighbourhood than he had done in his youth--nature not as she was in ,italy1 but in the environs of the city4 ,while ,valenciennes and his pupils made so many objections to painting what lay under their eyes1 ,georges ,michel remained in the country1 and was the first to light on the idea of placing himself in the midst of nature1 and not above her2 no longer to arrange and adapt1 but to approach her by painting her with directness4 ,if any one spoke of travelling to ,italy1 he answered3 ,the man who cannot find enough to paint during his whole life in a circuit of four miles is in reality no artist4 ,did the ,dutch ever run from one place to another8 ,and yet they are good painters1 and not merely that1 but the most powerful1 bold1 and ideal artists4 ,every day he made a study in the precincts of ,paris1 without any idea that he would count in these times among the forerunners of modern art4 ,he shares the glory of having discovered ,montmartre with ,alphonse ,karr1 ,grard de ,nerval1 and ,monselet4 ,after his death such studies were found in the shops of all the second-hand dealers of the ,northern ,boulevard2 they were invariably without a frame1 as they had never seemed worth framing1 and when they were very dear they were to be had for forty francs4 ,connoisseurs appreciated his wide horizons1 stormy skies1 and ably sketched sea-shores4 ,for1 in spite of his poverty1 ,michel had now and then deserted ,montmartre and found means to visit ,normandy4 ,painfully precise in the beginning1 while he worked with ,swebach and ,demarne1 he had gradually become large and bold1 and employed all means in giving expression to what he felt4 ,he was a dreamer1 who brought into his studies a unison of lights1 and1 now and then1 beams of sun which would have delighted ,albert ,cuyp4 ,a genuine offspring of the old ,dutch masters--of the grand and broad masters1 not of those who worked with a fine brush--already he was aiming at l'expression par l'ensemble1 and since the ,paris ,universal ,exhibition he has been fittingly honoured as the forerunner of ,thodore ,rousseau4 ,his pictures1 as it seems1 were early received in various studios1 and there they had considerable effect in setting artists thinking4 ,but as he ceased to date his pictures after #ahad it is1 nevertheless1 difficult to be more precise in determining the private influence which this ,ruysdael of ,montmartre exerted on men of the younger generation4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,paul ,,huet4 ,one after the other they began to declare the ,italian pilgrimage to be unnecessary4 ,they buried themselves as hermits in the villages around the capital4 ,the undulating strip of country1 rich in wood and water1 which borders on the heights of ,saint-,cloud and ,ville d',avray1 is the cradle of ,french landscape painting4 ,in grasping nature they proceeded by the most various ways1 whilst they drew everything scrupulously and exactly which an observing eye may discern1 or wedded their own temperament with the moods of nature4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,huet4 ,,the ,,inundation ,,at ,,st4 ,,cloud4 ,that remarkable artist ,charles de la ,berge seems like a forerunner of the ,english ,pre-,raphaelite school4 ,he declared the ideal of art to consist in painting everything according to nature1 and overlooking nothing2 in carrying drawing to the most minute point1 and yet preserving the impression of unison and harmony in the picture--which is as easy to say as it is difficult to perform4 ,his brief life was passed in this struggle4 ,his pictures are miracles of patience3 to see that it is only necessary to know the ,sunset of #ahci1 in the ,louvre4 ,there is something touching in the way this passionate worker had branches and the bark of trees brought to his room1 even when he lay on his deathbed1 to study the contortions of wood and the interweaving of fibres with all the zeal of a naturalist4 ,the efforts of de la ,berge have something of the religious devotion with which ,jan van ,eyck or ,altdorfer gazed at nature4 ,but he died too young to effect any result4 ,he copied the smallest particulars of objects with the utmost care1 and in the reproduction even of the smallest aimed at a mathematical precision1 neutralising his qualities of colour1 which were otherwise of serious value1 by such hair-splitting detail4 ,camille ,roqueplan1 the many-sided pupil of ,gros1 made his first appearance as a landscape painter with a sunset in #ahbb4 ,he opposed the genuine windmills of the old ,dutch masters to those everlasting windmills of ,watelet1 with their leaden water and their meagre landscape4 ,in his pictures a green plain1 intersected by canals1 stretches round2 a fresh and luminous grey sky arches above4 ,that undaunted traveller ,camille ,flers1 who had been an actor and ballet dancer in ,brazil before his appearance as a painter1 represented the rich pastures of ,normandy with truth1 but was diffident in the presence of nature where she is grand4 ,his pupil1 ,louis ,cabat1 was hailed with special enthusiasm by the young generation on account of his firm harmonious style4 ,his pictures showed that he had been a zealous student of the great ,dutch artists1 and that it was his pride to handle his brush in their manner1 expressing as much as possible without injuring pictorial effect4 ,he is on many sides in touch with ,charles de la ,berge4 ,later he even had the courage to see ,italy with fresh eyes1 and in a simple manner to record his impressions without regard for the rules and theories of the ,classicists4 ,but the risk was too great4 ,he became once more an admirer of imposing landscape1 an adherent of ,poussin1 and as such he is almost exclusively known to us of a younger generation4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,,turner4 ,paul ,huet was altogether a ,romanticist4 ,in de la ,berge there is the greatest objectivity possible1 in ,huet there is impassioned expression4 ,his heart told him that the hour was come for giving passion utterance2 he wanted to render the energy of nature1 the intensity of her life1 with the whole might of vivid colouring4 ,in his pictures there is something of ,byronic poetry2 the conception is rich and powerful1 the symphony of colour passionately dramatic4 ,in every one of his landscapes there breathes the human soul with its unrest1 its hopelessness1 and its doubts4 ,huet was the child of an epoch1 which at one moment exulted to the skies and at another sorrowed to death in the most violent contrast2 and he has proclaimed this temper of the age with all the freedom and power possible1 where it is only earth and sky1 clouds and trees that are the medium of expression4 ,most of his works1 like ,romanticism in general1 have an earnest1 passionate1 and sombre character2 nothing of the ceremonial pompousness peculiar to ,classical landscapes4 ,he has a passion for boisterous storms and waters foaming over1 clouds with the lightning flashing through them1 and the struggle of humanity against the raging elements4 ,in this effort to express as much as possible he often makes his pictures too theatrical in effect4 ,in one of his principal works1 the ,view of ,rouen1 painted in #ahcc1 the breadth of execution almost verges on emptiness and panoramic view4 ,huet was in the habit of heaping many objects together in his landscapes4 ,he delighted in expressive landscapes in the sense in which1 at that time1 people delighted in expressive heads4 ,this one-sidedness hindered his success4 ,when he appeared in the twenties his pictures were thought bizarre and melancholy4 ,and later1 when he achieved greater simplicity1 he was treated by the critics merely with the respect that was paid to the ,old ,guard1 for now a pleiad of much brighter stars beamed in the sky4 ,illustration3 ,,turner4 ,a ,,shipwreck4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,,turner4 ,,the ,,old ,t,m,,raire4 ,but we must not forget that ,michel and ,huet showed the way4 ,rousseau and his followers left them far behind1 as ,columbus threw into oblivion all who had discovered ,america before him1 or ,gutenberg all who had previously printed books4 ,the step on which these initiators had stood was more or less that of ,andreas ,achenbach and ,blechen4 ,they are good and able painters1 but they still kept the ,flemish and ,dutch masters too much in their memory4 ,it is easy to detect in them reminiscences of ,ruysdael and ,hobbema and the studies of gallery pictures grown dim with age4 ,they still coloured objects brown1 and made spring as mournful as winter1 and morning as gloomy as evening2 they had yet no sense that morning means the awakening of life1 the youth of the sun1 the springtide of the day4 ,they still composed their pictures and finished and rounded them off for pictorial effect4 ,the next necessary step was no longer to look at ,ruysdael and ,cuyp1 but at nature--to lay more emphasis on sincerity of impression1 and therefore the less upon pictorial finish and rounded expression--to paint nature1 not in the style of galleries1 but in its freshness and bloom4 ,and the impulse to this last step1 which brought ,french landscape painting to its highest perfection1 was given by ,england4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,turner4 ,,dido ,,building ,,carthage4 ,the most highly gifted work produced in this province between the years #ahjj and #ahcj is of ,english origin4 ,at the time when landscape painting was in ,france and ,germany confined in a strait-waistcoat by ,classicism1 the ,english went quietly forward in the path trodden by ,gainsborough in the eighteenth century4 ,in these years ,england produced an artist who stands apart from all others as a peculiar and inimitable phenomenon in the history of landscape painting1 and at the same time it produced a school of landscape which not only fertilised ,france1 but founded generally the modern conception of colour4 ,that phenomenon is ,joseph ,mallord ,william ,turner1 the great pyrotechnist1 one of the most individual and intellectual landscape painters of all time4 ,what a singular personality6 ,and how vexatious he is to all who merely care about correctness in art6 ,such persons divide the life of ,turner into two halves1 one in which he was reasonable and one in which he was a fool4 ,they grant him a certain talent during the first fifteen years of his activity1 but from the moment when he is complete master of his instrument1 from the moment when the painter begins in glowing enthusiasm to embody his personal ideal1 they would banish him from the kingdom of art1 and lock him up in a madhouse4 ,when in the forties the ,munich ,pinakothek was offered a picture by ,turner1 glowing with colour1 people1 accustomed to the contours of ,cornelius1 knew no better than to laugh at it superciliously4 ,it is said that in his last days he sent a landscape to an exhibition4 ,the committee1 unable to discover which was the top or which the bottom1 hung it upside-down4 ,later1 when ,turner came into the exhibition and the mistake was about to be rectified1 he said3 ,no1 let it alone2 it really looks better as it is4 ,one frequently reads that ,turner suffered from a sort of colour-blindness1 and as late as #ahgb ,liebreich wrote an article printed in ,macmillan1 which gave a medical explanation of the alleged morbid affection of the great landscape painter's eyes4 ,only thus could the ,german account for his pictures1 which are impressionist1 although they were painted about the middle of the century4 ,the golden dreams of ,turner were held to be eccentricities of vision1 since no one was capable of following this painter of momentary impressions in his majesty of sentiment1 and the impressiveness and poetry of his method of expression4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,turner4 ,,jumi,,ges4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,turner4 ,,landscape ,,with ,,the ,,sun ,,rising ,,in ,a ,,mist4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,turner4 ,,venice4 ,in reality ,turner was the same from the beginning4 ,he circled round the fire like a moth1 and craved1 like ,goethe1 for more light2 he wanted to achieve the impossible and paint the sun4 ,to attain his object nothing was too difficult for him4 ,he restrained himself for a long time2 placed himself amongst the followers of the painter of light par excellence2 studied1 analysed1 and copied ,claude ,lorrain2 completely adopted his style1 and painted pictures which threw ,claude into eclipse by their magnificence and luminous power of colour4 ,the painting of ,dido building ,carthage is perhaps the most characteristic of this phase of his art4 ,one feels that the masses of architecture are merely there for the sake of the painter2 the tree in the foreground has only been planted in this particular way so that the background may recede into farther distance4 ,the colour is splendid1 though still heavy4 ,by the union of the principles of classic drawing with an entirely modern feeling for atmosphere something chaotic and confused is frequently introduced into the compositions of these years4 ,but at the hour when it was said to him1 ,you are the real ,claude ,lorrain1 he answered1 ,now ,i am going to leave school and begin to be ,turner4 ,henceforth he no longer needs ,claude's framework of trees to throw the light beaming into the corners of his pictures4 ,at first he busied himself with the atmospheric phenomena of the land of mist4 ,then when the everlasting grey became too splenetic for him he repaired to the relaxing1 luxuriant sensuousness of ,southern seas1 and sought the full embodiment of his dreams of light in the land of the sun4 ,it is impossible in words to give a representation of the essence of ,turner2 even copies merely excite false conceptions4 ,rockets shot up1 shocks of cannon thundered1 balls of light mounted1 crackers meandered through the air and burst1 wheels hissed1 each one separately1 then in pairs1 then altogether1 and even more turbulently one after the other and together4 ,thus has ,goethe described a display of fireworks in ,the ,elective ,affinities1 and this passage perhaps conveys most readily the impression of ,turner's pictures4 ,to collect into a small space the greatest possible quantity of light1 he makes the perspective wide and deep and the sky boundless1 and uses the sea to reflect the brilliancy4 ,he wanted to be able to render the liquid1 shining depths of the sky without employing the earth as an object of comparison1 and these studies which have merely the sky as their object are perhaps his most astonishing works4 ,everywhere1 to the border of the picture1 there is light4 ,and he has painted all the gradations of light1 from the silvery morning twilight to the golden splendour of the evening red4 ,volcanoes hiss and explode and vomit forth streams of lava1 which set the trembling air aglow1 and blind the eyes with flaring colours4 ,the glowing ball of the sun rises behind the mist1 and transforms the whole ether into fine golden vapour2 and vessels sail through the luminous haze4 ,in reality one cannot venture on more than a swift glance into blinding masses of light1 but the impression remained in the painter's memory4 ,he painted what he saw1 and knew how to make his effect convincing4 ,and at the same time his composition became ever freer and easier1 the work of his brush ever more fragrant and unfettered1 the colouring and total sentiment of the picture ever more imaginative and like those of a fairy-tale4 ,his world is a land of sun1 where the reality of things vanishes1 and the light shed between the eye and the objects of vision is the only thing that lives4 ,at one time he took to painting human energy struggling with the phenomena of nature1 as in ,storm at ,sea1 ,fire at ,sea1 and ,rain1 ,steam1 and ,speed2 at another he painted poetic revels of colour born altogether from the imagination1 like the ,sun of ,venice4 ,he is the greatest creator in colour1 the boldest poet amongst the landscape painters of all time6 ,in him ,england's painting has put forth its greatest might1 just as in ,byron and ,shelley1 those two great powers1 the ,english imagination unrolled its standard of war most proudly and brilliantly4 ,there is only one ,turner1 and ,ruskin is his prophet4 ,illusration3 ,l',art4 ,,old ,,crome4 ,a ,,view ,,near ,,norwich4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,john ,,constable4 ,as a man1 too1 he was one of those original characters seldom met with nowadays4 ,he was not the fastidious gourmet that might have been expected from his pictures1 but an awkward1 prosaic1 citizen-like being4 ,he had a sturdy1 thick-set figure1 with broad shoulders and tough muscles1 and was more like a captain in the merchant service than a disciple of ,apollo4 ,he was sparing to the point of miserliness1 unformed by any kind of culture1 ignorant even of the laws of orthography1 silent and inaccessible4 ,like most of the great landscape painters of the century1 he was city-bred4 ,in a gloomy house standing back in a foggy little alley of ,old ,london1 in the immediate vicinity of dingy1 monotonous lodging-houses1 he was born1 the son of a barber1 on #bcrd ,april #agge4 ,his career was that of a model youth4 ,at fifteen he exhibited in the ,royal ,academy2 when he was eighteen1 engravings were already being made after his drawings4 ,at twenty he was known1 and at twenty-seven he became a member of the ,academy4 ,his first earnings he gained by the neat and exact preparation of little views of ,english castles and country places--drawings which1 at the time1 took the place of photographs1 and for which he received half a crown apiece and his supper4 ,thus he went over a great part of ,england1 and upon one of his excursions he is said to have had a love-affair la ,lucy of ,lammermoor1 and to have so taken it to heart that he resolved to remain a bachelor for the rest of his life4 ,in #ahjh he became ,professor of ,perspective at the ,academy1 and delivered himself1 it is said1 of the most confused utterances on his subjects4 ,his father had now to give up the barber's business and come to live with him1 and he employed him in sawing1 planing1 and nailing together boards1 which were painted yellow and used as frames for his pictures4 ,the same miserly economy kept him from ever having a comfortable studio4 ,he lived in a miserable lodging where he received nobody1 had his meals at a restaurant of the most primitive order1 carried his dinner wrapped up in paper when he went on excursions1 and was exceedingly thankful if any one added to it a glass of wine4 ,his diligence was fabulous4 ,every morning he rose on the stroke of six1 locked his door1 and worked with the same dreadful regularity day after day4 ,his end was as unpoetic as his life4 ,after being several times a father without ever having had a wife1 he passed his last years with an old housekeeper1 who kept him strictly under the yoke4 ,if he was away from the house for long together he pretended that he was travelling to ,venice for the sake of his work1 until at last the honest housekeeper learnt1 from a letter which he had put in his overcoat pocket and forgotten1 that the object of all these journeys was not ,venice at all1 but ,chelsea4 ,there she found him in an attic which he had taken for another mistress1 and where he was living under the name of ,booth4 ,in this little garret1 almost more miserable than the room in the back street where he was born1 the painter of light ended his days2 and1 to connect an atom of poetry with so sad a death1 ,ruskin adds that the window looked towards the sunset1 and the dying eyes of the painter received the last rays of the sun which he had so often celebrated in glowing hymns4 ,he left countless works behind him at his death1 several thousands of pounds1 and an immortal fame4 ,this thought of glory after death occupied him from his youth4 ,only thus is it possible to understand why he led the life of a poor student until his end1 why he did things which bordered on trickery in the sale of his ,liber ,studiorum1 and kept for himself all those works by which he could have made a fortune4 ,he left them--taken altogether1 three hundred and sixty-two oil-paintings and nineteen thousand drawings--to the nation1 and #bj1jjj to the ,royal ,academy1 and merely stipulated that the two best pictures should be hung in the ,national ,gallery between two ,claude ,lorrains4 ,another thousand pounds was set aside for the erection of a monument in ,st4 ,paul's4 ,there1 in that temple of fame1 he lies buried near ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 the great ancestor of ,english painting1 and he remains a phenomenon without forerunners and without descendants4 ,illustration3 ,,constable4 ,,willy ,,lott',s ,,house4 ,illustration3 ,,constable4 ,,church ,,porch1 ,,bergholt4 ,for it does not need to be said that ,turner1 with his marked individuality1 could have no influence on the further development of ,english painting4 ,the dramatic fervour of ,romanticism was here expressed just as little as ,classicism4 ,it was only the poets who fled into the wilderness of nature1 and sang the splendour and the mysteries of the mountains1 the lightning and the storm1 the might of the elements4 ,in painting there is no counterpart to ,scott's descriptions of the ,highlands or ,wordsworth's rhapsodies upon the ,english lakes1 or to the tendency of landscape painting which was represented in ,germany by ,lessing and ,blechen4 ,wordsworth is majestic and sublime1 and ,english painting lovely and full of intimate emotion4 ,it knows neither ancient ,alpine castles nor the sunsets of ,greece4 ,turner1 as a solitary exception1 represented nature stately1 terrible1 stormy1 glorious1 mighty1 grand1 and sublime2 all the others1 like ,gainsborough1 loved simplicity1 modest grace1 and virginal quietude4 ,england has nothing romantic4 ,at the very time when ,lessing painted his landscapes1 ,ludwig ,tieck experienced a bitter disappointment when he trod the soil where ,shakespeare wrote the witch scenes in ,macbeth4 ,a sombre1 melancholy1 primval maze was what he had expected1 and there lay before him a soft1 luxuriant1 and cultivated country4 ,what distinguishes ,english landscape is a singular luxuriance1 an almost unctuous wealth of vegetation4 ,drive through the country on a bright day on the top of a coach1 and look around you2 in all directions as far as the eye can reach an endless green carpet is spread over gentle valleys and undulating hills2 cereals1 vegetables1 clover1 hops1 and glorious meadows with high rich grasses stretch forth2 here and there stand a group of mighty oaks flinging their shadows wide1 and around are pastures hemmed in by hedges1 where splendid cattle lie chewing the cud4 ,the moist atmosphere surrounds the trees and plants like a shining vapour4 ,there is nothing more charming in the world1 and nothing more delicate than these tones of colour2 one might stand for hours looking at the clouds of satin1 the fine rial bloom1 and the soft transparent gauze which catches the sunbeams in its silver net1 softens them1 and sends them smiling and toying to the earth4 ,on both sides of the carriage the fields extend1 each more beautiful than the last1 in constant succession1 interwoven with broad patches of buttercups1 daisies1 and meadowsweet4 ,a strange magic1 a loveliness so exquisite that it is well-nigh painful1 escapes from this inexhaustible vegetation4 ,the drops sparkle on the leaves like pearls1 the arched tree-tops murmur in the gentle breeze4 ,luxuriantly they thrive in these airy glades1 where they are ever rejuvenated and bedewed by the moist air of the sea4 ,and the sky seems to have been made to enliven the colours of the land4 ,at the tiniest sunbeam the earth smiles with a delicious charm1 and the bells of flowers unfold in rich1 liquid colour4 ,the ,english look at nature as she is in their country1 with the tender love of the man nurtured in cities1 and yet with the cool observation of the man of business4 ,the merchant1 enveloped the whole day long in the smoke of the city1 breathes the more freely of an evening when the steam-engine brings him out into green places4 ,with a sharp practical glance he judges the waving grain1 and speculates on the chances of harvest4 ,and this spirit of attentive1 familiar observation of nature1 which is in no sense romantic1 reigns also in the works of the ,english landscape painters4 ,they did not think of becoming cosmopolitan like their ,german comrades1 and of presenting remarkable points1 the more exotic the better1 for the instruction of the public4 ,like ,gainsborough1 they relied upon the intimate charm of places which they knew and loved4 ,and as a centre ,norwich first took the place of ,suffolk1 which ,gainsborough had glorified4 ,illustration3 ,,constable4 ,,dedham ,,vale4 ,john ,crome1 known as ,old ,crome1 the founder of the powerful ,norwich school of landscape1 is a healthy and forcible master4 ,born poor1 in a provincial town a hundred miles from ,london1 in #agfi1 and at first an errand boy to a doctor1 whose medicines he delivered to the patients1 and then an apprentice to a sign-painter1 he lived completely cut off from contemporary ,england4 ,norwich was his native town and his life-long home4 ,he did not know the name of ,turner1 nor anything of ,wilson1 and perhaps never heard the name of ,gainsborough4 ,thus his pictures are neither influenced by the contemporary nor by the preceding ,english art4 ,whatever he became he owed to himself and to the ,dutch4 ,early married1 and blessed with a numerous family1 he tried to gain his bread by drawing-lessons1 given in the great country-houses in the neighbourhood1 and in this way had the opportunity of seeing many ,dutch pictures4 ,in later life he came to know ,paris at a time when all the treasures of the world were collected in the ,louvre1 and this enthusiasm for the ,dutch found fresh nourishment4 ,even on his deathbed he spoke of ,hobbema4 ,hobbema1 he said1 my dear ,hobbema1 how ,i have loved you6 ,hobbema is his ancestor1 the art of ,holland his model4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,constable4 ,,the ,,romantic ,,house4 ,his pictures were collectively exact views of places which he loved1 and neither composed landscapes nor paintings of beautiful regions4 ,crome painted frankly everything which ,norfolk1 his own county1 had to offer him--weather-beaten oaks1 old woods1 fishers' huts1 lonely pools1 wastes of heath4 ,the way he painted trees is extraordinary4 ,each has its own physiognomy1 and looks like a living thing1 like some gloomy ,northern personality4 ,oaks were his peculiar specialty1 and in later years they only found a similarly great interpreter in ,thodore ,rousseau4 ,at the same time his pictures of the simplest scenes have a remarkable largeness of conception1 and a subtlety of colour recalling the old masters1 and reached by no other painter in that age4 ,an uncompromising realist1 he drew his portraits of nature with almost pedantic pains1 but preserved their relation of colour throughout4 ,and as a delicate adept in colouring he finally harmonised everything in the manner of the ,dutch to a juicy brown tone1 which gives his beautiful wood and field pictures a discreet and refined beauty1 a beauty in keeping with the art of galleries4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,constable4 ,,the ,,cornfield4 ,crome took a long time before he made a way for himself4 ,his whole life long he sold his work merely at moderate prices3 for no picture did he ever receive more than fifty pounds4 ,even his end was uneventful4 ,he had begun as a manual worker1 and he died in #ahba as a humble townsman whose only place of recreation was the tavern1 and who passed his leisure in the society of sailors1 shopkeepers1 and artisans4 ,yet the principles of his art survived him4 ,in #ahje he had founded in ,norwich1 far from all ,academies1 a society of artists1 who gave annual exhibitions and had a common studio1 which each used at fixed hours4 ,cotman1 whose specialty was ash-trees1 the younger ,crome1 ,stark1 and ,vincent1 are the leading representatives of the vigorous school of ,norwich2 and by them the name of this town became as well known as an art-centre in ,europe as ,delft and ,haarlem had been in former times4 ,their relation to the ,dutch was similar to that of ,georges ,michel in ,france1 or that of ,achenbach in ,germany4 ,they painted what they saw1 rounded it with a view to pictorial effect1 and harmonised the whole in a delicate brown tone4 ,they felt more attracted by the form of objects than by their colour2 the latter was1 in the manner of the ,dutch1 merely an epidermis delicately toned down4 ,the next step of the ,english painters was that they became the first to get the better of this ,dutch phase1 and to found that peculiarly modern landscape painting which no longer sets out from the absolutely concrete reality of objects1 but from the milieu1 from the atmospheric effect2 which values in a picture less what is ready-made and perfectly rounded in drawing than the freshly seized impression of nature4 ,hardly twenty years have gone by since open-air painting was introduced into ,germany4 ,at present1 things are no longer painted as they are in themselves but as they appear in their atmospheric environment4 ,artists care no longer for landscapes which float in a neutral brown sauce2 they represent objects flooded with light and air4 ,people no longer wish for brown trees and meadows1 for the eye has perceived that trees and meadows are green4 ,the world is no longer satisfied with the indeterminate light of the studio and the conventional tone of the picture gallery2 it requires some indication of the hour of the day1 since it is felt that the light of morning is different from the light of noon4 ,and it is the ,english who made these discoveries1 which have lent to modern landscape painting its most delicate and fragrant charm4 ,the very mist of ,england1 the damp and the heaviness of the atmosphere1 necessarily forced ,english landscape painters1 earlier than those of other nations1 to the observation of the play of light and air4 ,in a country where the sky is without cloud1 in a pure1 dry1 and sparkling air1 nothing is seen except lines4 ,shadow is wanting1 and without shadow light has no value4 ,for that reason the old classical masters of ,italy were merely draughtsmen2 they knew how to prize the value of sunshine no more than a millionaire the value of a penny4 ,but the ,english understood the charm even of the most scanty ray of light which forces its way like a wedge through a wall of clouds4 ,the entire appearance of nature1 in their country1 where a damp mist spreads its pearly grey veil over the horizon even upon calm and beautiful summer days1 guided them to see the vehicle of some mood of landscape in the subtlest elements of light and air4 ,the technique of water-colour painting which1 at that very time1 received such a powerful impetus1 encouraged them to give expression to what they saw freshly and simply even in their oil-paintings1 and to do so without regard for the scale of colour employed by the old masters4 ,john ,robert ,cozens1 the greatest genius who ever painted a landscape1 had been the first to occupy himself with water-colour painting as understood in the modern sense4 ,tom ,girtin had experimented with new methods4 ,henry ,edridge and ,samuel ,prout had come forward with their picturesque ruins1 ,copley ,fielding and ,samuel ,owen with sea-pieces1 ,luke ,clennel and ,thomas ,heaphy with graceful portrayals of country life1 ,howitt and ,robert ,hills with their animal pictures4 ,from #ahje there existed a ,society of ,painters in ,water-,colours1 and this extensive pursuit of water-colour painting could not fail to have an influence upon oil-painting also4 ,the technique of water-colour accustomed ,english taste to that brightness of tone which at first seemed so bizarre to the ,germans1 habituated as they were to the prevalence of brown4 ,instead of dark1 brownish-green tones1 the water-colour painters produced bright tones4 ,direct study of nature1 and the completion of a picture in the presence of nature and in the open air1 guided their attention to light and atmosphere more quickly than that of the oil-painters4 ,an easier technique1 giving more scope for improvisation1 of itself suggested the idea that rounded finish with a view to pictorial effect was not the final aim of art1 but that it was of the most immediate importance to catch the first freshness of impression1 that flower so hard to pluck and so prone to wither4 ,the first who applied these principles to oil-painting was ,john ,constable1 one of the greatest pioneers in his own province and one of the most powerful individualities of the century4 ,east ,bergholt1 the pretty little village where ,constable's cradle stood1 is fourteen miles distant from ,sudbury1 the birthplace of ,gainsborough4 ,here he was born on #aath ,june #aggf1 at the very time when ,gainsborough settled in ,london4 ,his father was a miller1 a well-to-do man1 who had three windmills in ,bergholt4 ,the other famous miller's son in the history of art is ,rembrandt4 ,at first a superior career was chosen for him2 it was intended that he should become a clergyman4 ,but he felt more at home in the mill than in the schoolroom1 and became a miller like his fathers before him4 ,observation of the changes of the sky is an essential part of a miller's calling1 and this occupation of his youth seems to have been not without influence on the future artist2 no one before him had observed the sky with the same attention4 ,illustration3 ,,constable4 ,,cottage ,,in ,a ,,cornfield4 ,a certain ,dunthorne1 an eccentric personage to whom the boy often came1 gave him--always in the open air--his first instruction2 and another of his patrons1 ,sir ,george ,beaumont1 as an sthetically trained connoisseur1 criticised what he painted4 ,when ,constable showed him a study he asked3 ,where do you mean to place your brown tree8 ,for the first law in his sthetics was this3 a good painting must have the colour of a good fiddle2 it must be brown4 ,sojourn in ,london was without influence on ,constable4 ,he was twenty-three years of age1 a handsome young fellow with dark eyes and a fine expressive countenance1 when1 in #agii1 he wrote to his teacher ,dunthorne3 ,i am this morning admitted a student at the ,royal ,academy2 the figure which ,i drew for admittance was the ,torso4 ,i am now comfortably settled in ,cecil ,street1 ,strand1 ,no4 #bc4 ,he was known to the ,london girls as the handsome young miller of ,bergholt4 ,he undertook the most varied things1 copied pictures of ,reynolds1 and painted an altar-piece1 ,christ blessing ,little ,children1 which was admired by no one except his mother4 ,in addition he studied ,ruysdael1 whose works made a great impression on him1 in the ,national ,gallery4 ,in #ahjb he appears for the first time in the ,catalogue of the ,royal ,academy as the exhibitor of a landscape1 and from this time to the year of his death1 #ahcg1 he was annually represented there1 contributing altogether one hundred and four pictures4 ,in the earliest--windmills and village parties--every detail is carefully executed2 every branch is painted on the trees1 and every tile on the houses2 but as yet one can breathe no air in these pictures and see no sunshine4 ,but he writes1 in #ahjc1 a very important letter to his old friend ,dunthorne4 ,for the last two years1 he says1 ,i have been running after pictures1 and seeking the truth at second-hand4 ,i have not endeavoured to represent nature with the same elevation of mind with which ,i set out1 but have rather tried to make my performance look like the work of other men4 ,i am come to a determination to make no idle visits this summer1 nor to give up my time to commonplace people4 ,i shall return to ,bergholt1 where ,i shall endeavour to get a pure and unaffected manner of representing the scenes that may employ me4 ,there is little or nothing in the exhibition worth looking up to4 ,there is room enough for a natural painter4 ,he left ,london accordingly1 and worked1 in #ahjd1 the whole summer quite alone among the oaks and solitudes of ,helmingham ,park4 ,i have taken quiet possession of the parsonage1 finding it empty4 ,a woman comes from the farmhouse1 where ,i eat1 and makes my bed1 and ,i am left at liberty to wander where ,i please during the day4 ,and having now returned to the country he became himself again4 ,painting1 he writes1 is with me but another word for feeling2 and ,i associate 'my careless boyhood' with all that lies upon the banks of the ,stour2 those scenes made me a painter1 and ,i am grateful4 ,he had passed his whole youth amid the lovely valleys and luxuriant meadows of ,bergholt1 where the flocks were at pasture and the beetles hummed2 he had wandered about the soft banks of the ,stour1 in the green woods of ,suffolk1 amongst old country-houses and churches1 farms and picturesque cottages4 ,this landscape which he had loved as a boy he also painted4 ,he was the painter of cultivated ,english landscape1 the portrayer of country life1 of canals and boats1 of windmills and manor-houses4 ,he had a liking for all simple nature which reveals everywhere the traces of human activity--for arable fields and villages1 orchards and cornfields4 ,a strip of meadow1 a watergate with a few briars1 a clump of branching1 fibrous trees1 were enough to fill him with ideas and feelings4 ,gainsborough had already painted the like2 but ,constable denotes an advance beyond ,gainsborough as beyond ,crome4 ,intimate in feeling as ,gainsborough undoubtedly was1 he had a tendency to beautify the objects of nature2 he selected and gave them a delicacy of arrangement and a grace of line which in reality they did not possess4 ,constable was the first to renounce every species of adaptation and arbitrary arrangement in composition4 ,his boldness in the rendering of personal impressions raises him above ,crome4 ,crome gets his effect principally by his accuracy3 he represented what he saw2 ,constable showed how he saw the thing4 ,while the former1 following ,hobbema1 has an air reminiscent of galleries and old masters1 ,constable saw the world with his own eyes1 and was the first entirely independent modern landscape painter4 ,in his young days he had made copies after ,claude1 ,rubens1 ,reynolds1 ,ruysdael1 ,teniers1 and ,wilson1 which might have been mistaken for the originals1 but later he had learnt much from ,girtin's water-colour paintings4 ,from that time he felt that he was strong enough to trust his own eyes4 ,he threw to the winds all that had hitherto been considered as the chief element of beauty1 and gave up the rounding of his pictures for pictorial effect2 cut trees right through the middle to get into his picture just what interested him1 and no more4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,constable4 ,,the ,,valley ,,farm4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,cox4 ,,crossing ,,the ,,sands4 ,he set himself right in the midst of verdure2 the nightingales sang1 the leaves murmured1 the meadows grew green1 and the clouds gleamed4 ,in the fifteenth-century art there were the graceful spring trees of ,perugino2 in the seventeenth1 the bright spring days of those two ,flemings ,jan ,silberecht and ,lucas ,uden2 in the nineteenth1 ,constable became the first painter of spring4 ,if ,sir ,george ,beaumont now asked him where he meant to put his brown tree1 he answered3 ,nowhere1 because ,i don't paint brown trees any more4 ,he saw that foliage is green in summer1 and--painted it so2 he saw that summer rain and morning dew makes the verdure more than usually intense1 and--he painted what he saw4 ,he noticed that green leaves sparkle1 gleam1 and glitter in the sun--and painted them accordingly2 he saw that the light1 when it falls upon bright-looking walls1 dazzles like snow in the sunshine--and painted it accordingly4 ,there was a good deal of jeering at the time about ,constable's snow1 and yet it was not merely all succeeding ,english artists who continued to put their faith in this painting of light1 but the masters of ,barbizon too1 and ,manet afterwards4 ,illustration3 ,mansell ,,bonington4 ,,la ,,place ,,des ,,moulards1 ,,geneva4 ,the problem of painting light and air1 which the older school had left unsolved1 was taken up by him first in its complete extent4 ,crome had shown great reserve in approaching the atmospheric elements4 ,constable was the first landscape painter who really saw effects of light and air and learnt to paint them4 ,his endeavour was to embody the impression of a mood of light with feeling1 without lingering on the reproduction of those details which are only perceptible to an analytical eye4 ,whereas in the old ,dutch masters the chief weight is laid on the effect of the drawing of objects1 here it rests upon light1 no matter upon what it plays4 ,thus ,constable freed landscape painting from the architectonic laws of composition4 ,they were no longer needed when the principle was once affirmed that the atmospheric mood gave greater value to the picture than subject4 ,he not only studied the earth and foliage in their various tones1 according as they were determined by the atmosphere1 but observed the sky1 the air1 and the forms of cloud with the conscientiousness of a student of natural philosophy4 ,the comments which he wrote upon them are as subtle as those in ,ruskin's celebrated treatise on the clouds4 ,a landscape1 according to him1 is only beautiful in proportion as light and shadow make it so2 in other words1 he was the first to understand that the mood of a landscape1 by which it appeals to the human spirit1 depends less on its lines and on objects in themselves than on the light and shadow in which it is bathed1 and he was the first painter who had the secret of painting these subtle gradations of atmosphere4 ,in his pictures the wind is heard murmuring in the trees1 the breeze is felt as it blows over the corn1 the sunlight is seen glancing on the leaves and playing on the clear mirror of the waters4 ,thus ,constable for the first time painted nature in all its freshness4 ,his principle of artistic creation is entirely opposed to that which was followed by the ,pre-,raphaelites at a later date4 ,whilst the latter tried to reconstruct a picture of nature by a faithful1 painstaking execution of all details--a process by which the expression of the whole usually suffers--,constable's pictures are broadly and impressively painted1 often of rude and brutal force1 at times solemn1 at times elegant1 but always cogent1 fresh1 and possessing a unity of their own4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,cox4 ,,the ,,shrimpers4 ,a genius in advance of its age is only first recognised in its full significance when following generations have come abreast with it4 ,and that ,constable was made to feel4 ,in #ahcg he died in poverty at ,hampstead1 in the modest country retreat where he spent the greatest part of his life4 ,he said that his painting recalled no one1 and was neither polished nor pretty1 and asked3 ,how can ,i hope to be popular8 ,i work only for the future4 ,and that belonged to him4 ,illustration3 ,portfolio4 ,m,,ller4 ,,the ,,amphitheatre ,,at ,,xanthus4 ,constable's powerful individuality has brought forth enduring fruit1 and helped ,english landscape painting to attain that noble prime which it enjoyed during the forties and fifties4 ,with his rich1 brilliant1 bold1 and finely coloured painting1 ,david ,cox stands out as perhaps the greatest of ,constable's successors4 ,like ,constable1 he was a peasant1 and observed nature with the simplicity of one who was country-bred4 ,he was born in #aghc1 the son of a blacksmith1 in a humble spot near ,birmingham1 and1 after a brief sojourn in ,london1 migrated with his family to ,hereford1 and later to ,harborne1 also in the neighbourhood of ,birmingham4 ,the strip of country which he saw from his house was almost exclusively his field of study4 ,he knew that a painter can pass his life in the same corner of the earth1 and that the scene of nature spread before him will never be exhausted4 ,farewell1 pictures1 farewell1 he is reported to have said when he took his last walk1 on the day before his death1 round the walls of ,harborne4 ,he has treated of the manner in which he understood his art in his ,treatise on ,landscape ,painting1 written in #ahad4 ,his ideal was to see the most cogent effect in nature1 and leave everything out which did not harmonise with its character2 and in ,cox's pictures it is possible to trace the steps by which he drew nearer to this ideal the more natural he became4 ,the magic of his brush was never more captivating than in the works of his last years1 when1 fallen victim to a disease of the eye1 he could no longer see distinctly and only rendered an impression of the whole scene4 ,cox is a great and bold master4 ,the townsman when he first comes into the country1 after being imprisoned for months together in a wilderness of brick and mortar1 does not begin at once to count the trees1 leaves1 and the stones lying on the ground4 ,he draws a long breath and exclaims1 ,what balm6 ,cox1 too1 has not painted details in the manner of the ,pre-,raphaelites4 ,he represented the soft wind sweeping over the ,english meadows1 the fresh purity of the air1 the storms that agitate the landscape of ,wales4 ,a delicate silver-grey is spread over most of his pictures1 and his method of expression is powerful and nervous4 ,by preference he has celebrated1 both in oil-paintings and in boldly handled water-colours1 the boundless depths of the sky in its thousand variations of light1 now deep blue in broad noon and now eerily gloomy and disturbed4 ,the fame of being the greatest of ,english water-colour painters is his beyond dispute1 yet if he had painted in oils from his youth upwards he would probably have become the most important ,english landscapist4 ,his small pictures are pure and delicate in colour1 and fresh and breezy in atmospheric effect4 ,it is only in large pictures that power is at times denied him4 ,in his later years he began to paint in oils1 and in this medium he is a less important artist1 though a very great painter4 ,william ,mller1 who died young1 stood as leader at his side4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,de ,,wint4 ,,nottingham4 ,he was one of the most dexterous amongst the dexterous1 next to ,turner the greatest adept of ,english painting4 ,had he been simpler and quieter he might be called a genius of the first order4 ,but he has sometimes a touch of what is theatrical2 it does not always break out1 but it does so occasionally4 ,he has an inclination for pageantry1 and nothing of that self-sufficiency and quiet tenderness with which ,constable and ,cox devoted themselves to home scenery4 ,he was at pains to give a trace of largeness and sublimity to modest and unpretentious ,english landscape1 to give to the most familiar subject a tinge of preciosity4 ,his pictures are grandiose in form1 and show an admirable lightness of hand1 but light and air are wanting in them1 the local colour of ,england and its atmosphere4 ,as a foreigner--he was the son of a ,danzig scholar1 who had migrated to ,bristol--,mller has not seen ,english landscape with ,constable's native sentiment4 ,he was not content with an ,english cornfield or an ,english village2 the familiar homeliness of the country in its work-a-day garb excited no emotion in him4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,bonington4 ,,the ,,windmill ,,of ,,saint-,,jouin4 ,something in ,mller's imagination1 which caused him to love decided colours and sudden contrasts rather than delicate gradations1 attracted him to ,southern climes4 ,his natural place was in the ,east1 which had not at that time been made the vogue4 ,here1 like ,decamps and ,marilhat1 he found those vivid rather than delicate effects which appealed to his eye4 ,he was twice in the ,south--the first time in ,athens and ,egypt in #ahch1 and once again in ,smyrna1 ,rhodes1 and ,lycia in #ahdc-dd4 ,in the year during which he had yet to live he collected those ,oriental pictures which form his legacy1 containing the best that he did4 ,certain of them1 such as ,the ,amphitheatre at ,xanthus1 are painted with marvellous verve2 they are not the work of a day1 but of an hour4 ,all these mountain castles upon abrupt cliffs1 these views of the ,acropolis and of ,egypt1 are real masterpieces of broad painting1 their colour clear and their light admirable4 ,not one of the many ,frenchmen who were in the ,south at this time has represented its sunshine and its brilliant atmosphere with such flattering1 voluptuous tones4 ,peter de ,wint1 who was far more true and simple1 was1 like ,constable and ,cox1 entirely wedded to his own birthplace4 ,at any rate1 his sojourn in ,france lasted only for a short time1 and left no traces in his art4 ,from youth to age he was the painter of ,england in its work-a-day garb--of the low hills of ,surrey1 of the plains of ,lincolnshire1 or of the dark canals of the ,thames1 which he specially portrayed in unsurpassable water-colour paintings4 ,his ancestor in art is ,philips de ,koning1 the pupil of ,rembrandt1 the master of ,dutch plains and wide horizons4 ,illustration3 ,studio4 ,,bonington4 ,,reading ,,aloud4 ,after ,cox and de ,wint came ,creswick1 more laborious1 more patient1 more studious of detail1 furnished perhaps with a sharper eye for the green tones of nature1 though with less feeling for atmosphere4 ,it cannot be said that he advanced art1 but merely that he added a regard for light and sunshine1 unknown to the period before #ahbj1 to the study of ,hobbema and ,waterloo4 ,with those who would not have painted as they did but for ,constable1 ,peter ,graham and ,dawson may be likewise ranked2 and these artists peculiarly devoted themselves to the study of sky and water4 ,henry ,dawson painted the most paltry and unpromising places--a reach of the ,thames close to ,london1 or a quarter in the smoky precincts of ,dover1 or ,greenwich2 but he painted them with a power such as only ,constable possessed4 ,in particular he is unequalled in his masterly painting of clouds4 ,constable had seldom done this in the same way4 ,he delighted in an agitated sky1 in clouds driven before the wind and losing their form in indeterminate contours2 in nature he saw merely reflections of his own restless spirit1 striving after colour and movement4 ,dawson painted those clouds which stand firm in the sky like piles of building--cloud-cathedrals1 as ,ruskin has called them4 ,there are pictures of his consisting of almost nothing but great clouds4 ,but that wide space1 the earth1 which our eyes regard as their own peculiar domain1 is wanting4 ,colours and forms are nowhere to be seen1 but only clouds and undulating yellowish mist in which objects vanish like pallid spectres4 ,john ,linnell carried the traditions of this great era on to the new period3 at first revelling in golden light1 in sunsets and rosy clouds of dusk1 and at a later time1 in the manner of the ,pre-,raphaelites1 bent on the precise execution of bodily form4 ,the young master1 who died at twenty-seven1 ,richard ,parkes ,bonington1 unites these ,english classic masters with the ,french4 ,an ,englishman by birth and origin1 but trained as a painter in ,france1 where he had gone when fifteen years of age1 he seems from many points of view one of the most gracious products of the ,romantic movement in ,france1 though at the same time he has qualities over which only the ,english had command at that period1 and not the ,french4 ,he entered ,gros's studio in ,france1 which was then the favourite meeting-place of all the younger men of revolutionary tendencies1 but repeated journeys to ,london did not allow him to forget ,constable4 ,in ,normandy and ,picardy he painted his first landscapes1 following them up with a series of ,venetian sea-pieces and little historical scenes4 ,then consumption seized him and took but a brief time in striking him down4 ,on #bcrd ,september #ahbh he died in ,london1 whither he had gone to consult a specialist4 ,in consequence of his early death his talent never ripened1 but he was a simple1 natural1 pure1 and congenial artist for all that4 ,i knew him well and loved him much4 ,his ,english composure1 which nothing could disturb1 robbed him of none of the qualities which make life pleasant4 ,when ,i first came across him ,i was myself very young1 and was making studies in the ,louvre4 ,it was about #ahaf or #ahag4 ,he was in the act of copying a ,flemish landscape--a tall youth who had grown rapidly4 ,he had already an astonishing dexterity in water-colours1 which were then an ,english novelty4 ,some which ,i saw later at a dealer's were charming1 both in colour and composition4 ,other modern artists are perhaps more powerful and more accurate than ,bonington1 but no one in this modern school1 perhaps no earlier artist1 possessed the ease of execution which makes his works1 in a certain sense1 diamonds by which the eye is pleased and fascinated1 quite independently of the subject and the particular representation of nature4 ,and the same is true of the costume pictures which he painted later4 ,even here ,i could never grow weary of marvelling at his sense of effect1 and his great ease of execution4 ,not that he was quickly satisfied2 on the contrary1 he often began over again perfectly finished pieces which seemed wonderful to us4 ,but his dexterity was so great that in a moment he produced with his brush new effects1 which were as charming as the first4 ,with these words his friend and comrade1 the great ,eugne ,delacroix1 drew the portrait of ,bonington4 ,bonington was at once the most natural and the most delicate in that ,romantic school in which he was one of the first to make an appearance4 ,he had a fine eye for the charm of nature1 saw grace and beauty in her everywhere1 and represented the spring and the sunshine in bright and clear tones4 ,no ,frenchman before him has so painted the play of light on gleaming costumes and succulent meadow grasses4 ,even his lithographs from ,paris and the provinces are masterpieces of spirited1 impressionist observation--qualities which he owed1 not to ,gros1 but to ,constable4 ,he was the first to communicate the knowledge of the great ,english classic painters to the youth of ,france1 and they of ,barbizon and ,ville d',avray continued to spin the threads which connect ,constable with the present4 ,illustration3 ,,richard ,,parkes ,,bonington4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,,landscape ,,from #ahcj ,that same ,salon of #ahbb in which ,delacroix exhibited his ,dante's ,bark brought to ,frenchmen a knowledge of the powerful movement which had taken place on the opposite side of the ,channel4 ,english water-colour painting was brilliantly represented by ,bonington1 who sent his ,view of ,lillebonne and his ,view of ,havre4 ,copley ,fielding1 ,robson1 and ,john ,varley also contributed works2 and these easy1 spirited productions1 with their skies washed in broadly and their bright1 clear tones1 were like a revelation to the young ,french artists of the period4 ,the horizon was felt to be growing clear4 ,in #ahbd1 at the time when ,delacroix's ,massacre of ,chios appeared1 the sun actually rose1 bringing a flood of light4 ,the ,english had learnt the way to ,france1 and took the ,louvre by storm4 ,john ,constable was represented by three pictures1 and ,bonington1 ,copley ,fielding1 ,harding1 ,samuel ,prout1 and ,varley were also accorded a place4 ,this exhibition gave the deathblow to ,classical landscape painting4 ,michallon had died young in #ahbb2 and men like ,bidault and ,watelet could do nothing against such a battalion of colourists4 ,constable alone passed sentence upon them of eternal condemnation4 ,familiar neither with ,georges ,michel nor with the great ,dutch painters1 the ,french had not remarked that a landscape has need of a sky expressive of the spirit of the hour and the character of the season4 ,even what was done by ,michel seemed a kind of diffident calligraphy when set beside the fresh strand-pieces of ,bonington1 the creations of the water-colour artists1 bathed as they were in light1 and the bold pictures of the ,bergholt master1 with their bright green and their cloudy horizon4 ,the ,french landscape painters1 who had been so timid until then1 recognised that their painting had been a convention1 despite all their striving after truth to nature4 ,constable had been the first to free himself from every stereotyped rule1 and he was an influence in ,france4 ,the younger generation were in ecstasies over this intense green1 the agitated clouds1 this effervescent power inspiring everything with life4 ,though as yet but little esteemed even in ,england1 ,constable received the gold medal in ,paris1 and from that time took a fancy to ,parisian exhibitions1 and still in #ahbg exhibited in the ,louvre by the side of ,bonington1 who had but one year more in which to give admirable lessons by his bright plains and clear shining skies4 ,at the same time ,bonington's friend and compatriot1 ,william ,reynolds1 then likewise domiciled in ,paris1 contributed some of his powerful and often delicate landscape studies1 the tender grey notes of which are like anticipations of ,corot4 ,this influence of the ,english upon the creators of paysage intime has long been an acknowledged fact1 since ,delacroix himself1 in his article ,questions sur le ,beau in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes in #ahed1 has affirmed it frankly4 ,the very next years announced what a ferment ,constable had stirred in the more restless spirits4 ,the period from #ahbg to #ahcj showed the birth-throes of ,french landscape painting4 ,in #ahca it was born4 ,in this year1 for ever marked in the annals of ,french1 and indeed of ,european art1 there appeared together in the ,salon1 for the first time1 all those young artists who are now honoured as the greatest in the century3 all1 or almost all1 were children of ,paris1 the sons of small townsmen or of humble artisans2 all were born in the old quarter of the city or in its suburbs1 in the midst of a desolate wilderness of houses1 and destined for that very reason to be great landscape painters4 ,for it is not through chance that paysage intime immediately passed from ,london1 the city of smoke1 to ,paris1 the second great modern capital1 and reached ,germany from thence only at a much later time4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,th,,odore ,,rousseau4 ,do you remember the time1 asks ,brger-,thor of ,thodore ,rousseau in the dedicatory letter to his ,salon of #ahdd1--;do you still recall the years when we sat on the window-ledges of our attics in the ,rue de ,taitbout1 and let our feet dangle at the edge of the roof1 contemplating the chaos of houses and chimneys1 which you with a twinkle in your eye compared to mountains1 trees1 and outlines of the earth8 ,you were not able to go to the ,alps1 into the cheerful country1 and so you created picturesque landscapes for yourself out of these horrible skeletons of wall4 ,do you still recall the little tree in ,rothschild's garden1 which we caught sight of between two roofs8 ,it was the one green thing that we could see2 every fresh shoot of the little poplar wakened our interest in spring1 and in autumn we counted the falling leaves4 ,from this mood sprang modern landscape painting with its delicate reserve in subject1 and its vigorously heightened love of nature4 ,up to the middle of the century nature was too commonplace and ordinary for the ,germans2 and it was therefore hard for them to establish a spiritual relationship with her4 ,landscape painting recognised its function in appealing to the understanding by the execution of points of geographical interest1 or exciting a frigid curiosity by brilliant fireworks4 ,but these children of the city1 who with a heartfelt sympathy counted the budding and falling leaves of a single tree descried from their little attic window2 these dreamers1 who in their imagination constructed beautiful landscapes from the moss-crusted gutters of the roof and the chimneys and chimney smoke1 were sufficiently schooled1 when they came into the country1 to feel the breath of the great mother of all1 even where it was but faintly exhaled4 ,where a man's heart is full he does not think about geographical information1 and no roll of tom-toms is needed to attract the attention of those whose eyes are opened4 ,their spirit was sensitive1 and their imagination sufficiently alert to catch with ecstasy1 even from the most delicate and reserved notes1 the harmony of that heavenly concert which nature executes on all its earthly instruments1 at every moment and in all places4 ,illustration3 ,,rousseau4 ,,morning4 ,illustration3 ,,rousseau4 ,,landscape1 ,,morning ,,effect4 ,thus they had none of them any further need for extensive pilgrimage2 to seek impulse for work they had not far to go4 ,croissy1 ,bougival1 ,saint-,cloud1 and ,marly were their ,arcadia4 ,their farthest journeys were to the banks of the ,oise1 the woods of ,l',isle ,adam1 ,auvergne1 ,normandy1 and ,brittany4 ,but they cared most of all to stay in the forest of ,fontainebleau1 which--by one of those curious chances that so often recur in history--played for a second time a highly important part in the development of ,french art4 ,a hundred years before1 it was the brilliant centre of the ,french ,renaissance1 the resort of those ,italian artists who found in the palace there a second ,vatican1 and in ,francis ,i another ,leo ,x4 ,in the nineteenth century1 too1 the ,renaissance of ,french painting was achieved in ,fontainebleau1 only it had nothing to do with a school of mannered figure painters1 but with a group of the most delicate landscape artists4 ,from a sense of one's duty to art one studies in the palace the elegant goddesses of ,primaticcio1 the laughing bacchantes of ,cellini1 and all the golden1 festal splendour of the ,cinquecento2 but the heart is not touched till one stands outside in the forest on the soil where ,rousseau and ,corot and ,millet and ,diaz painted4 ,how much may be felt and thought when one saunters of a dreamy evening1 lost in one's own meditations1 across the heath of the plateau de la ,belle ,croix and through the arching oaks of ,bas ,brau to ,barbizon1 the ,mecca of modern art1 where the secrets of paysage intime were revealed to the ,parisian landscape painters by the nymph of ,fontainebleau6 ,there was a time when men built their ,gothic cathedrals soaring into the sky1 after the model of the majestic palaces of the trees4 ,the dim and sacred mist of incense hovered about the lofty pointed arches1 and through painted windows the broken daylight shone1 inspiring awe2 the fair picture of a saint beckoned from above the altar1 touched by the gleam of lamps and candles2 gilded carvings glimmered strangely1 and overwhelming strains from the fugues of ,bach reverberated in the peal of the organ throughout the consecrated space4 ,but now the ,gothic cathedrals are transformed once more into palaces of trees4 ,the towering oaks are the buttresses1 the tracery of branches the choir screen1 the clouds the incense1 the wind sighing through the boughs the peal of the organ1 and the sun the altar-piece4 ,man is once more a fire-worshipper1 as in his childhood2 the church has become the world1 and the world has become the church4 ,how the spirit soars at the trill of a blackbird beneath the leafy roof of mighty primval oaks6 ,one feels as though one had been transplanted into the ,saturnian age1 when men lived a joyous1 unchequered life in holy unison with nature4 ,for this park is still primval1 in spite of all the carriage roads by which it is now traversed1 in spite of all the guides who lounge upon the granite blocks of the hollows of ,opremont4 ,yellowish-green ferns varying in tint cover the soil like a carpet4 ,the woods are broken by great wastes of rock4 ,perhaps there is no spot in the world where such splendid beeches and huge majestic oaks stretch their gnarled branches to the sky--in one place spreading forth in luxuriant glory1 and in another scarred by lightning and bitten by the wintry cold4 ,it is just such scenes of ravage that make the grandest1 the wildest1 and the most sombre pictures4 ,the might of the great forces of nature1 striking down the heads of oaks like thistles1 is felt nowhere in the same degree4 ,barbizon itself is a small village three miles to the north of ,fontainebleau1 and1 according to old tradition1 founded by robbers who formerly dwelt in the forest4 ,on both sides of the road connecting it with the charming little villages of ,dammarie and ,chailly there stretch long rows of chestnut1 apple1 and acacia trees4 ,there are barely a hundred houses in the place4 ,most of them are overgrown with wild vine1 shut in by thick hedges of hawthorn1 and have a garden in front1 where roses bloom amid cabbages and cauliflowers4 ,at nine o'clock in the evening all ,barbizon is asleep1 but before four in the morning it awakes once more for work in the fields4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,rousseau4 ,,the ,,village ,,of ,,becquigny ,,in ,,picardy4 ,historians of after-years will occupy themselves in endeavouring to discover when the first immigration of ,parisian painters to this spot took place4 ,it is reported that one of ,david's pupils painted in the forest of ,fontainebleau and lived in ,barbizon4 ,the only lodging to be got at that time was in a barn1 which the former tailor of the place1 a man of the name of ,ganne1 turned into an inn in #ahbc4 ,here1 after #ahcj1 ,corot1 ,rousseau1 ,diaz1 ,brascassat1 and many others alighted when they came to follow their studies in ,barbizon from the spring to the autumn4 ,of an evening they clambered up to their miserable bedroom1 and fastened to the head of the bed with drawing-pins the studies made in the course of the day4 ,it was only later that ,pre ,copain1 an old peasant1 who had begun life as a shepherd with three francs a month1 was struck with the apt idea of buying in a few acres and building upon them small houses to let to painters4 ,by this enterprise the man became rich1 and gradually grew to be a capitalist1 lending money to all who1 in spite of their standing as celebrated ,parisian artists1 did not enjoy the blessings of fortune4 ,but the general place of assembly was still the old barn employed in ,ganne's establishment1 and in the course of years its walls were covered with large charcoal drawings1 studies1 and pictures4 ,here1 in a patriarchal1 easy-going1 homely fashion1 artists gathered together with their wives and children of an evening4 ,festivities also were held in the place1 in particular that ball when ,ganne's daughter1 a godchild of ,madame ,rousseau1 celebrated her wedding4 ,rousseau and ,millet were the decorators of the room2 the entire space of the barn served as ball-room1 the walls being adorned with ivy4 ,corot1 always full of fun and high spirits1 led the polonaise1 which moved through a labyrinth of bottles placed on the floor4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,rousseau4 ,,la ,,hutte4 ,they painted in the forest4 ,but they did not take the trouble to carry the instruments of their art home again4 ,they kept breakfast1 canvas1 and brushes in holes in the rocks4 ,never before1 probably1 have men so lost themselves in nature4 ,at every hour of the day1 in the cool light of morning1 at sunny noon1 in the golden dusk1 even in the twilight of blue moonlight nights1 they were out in the field and the forest1 learning to surprise everlasting nature at every moment of her mysterious life4 ,the forest was their studio1 and revealed to them all its secrets4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,rousseau4 ,,evening4 ,the result of this life en plein air became at once the same as it had been with ,constable4 ,earlier artists worked with the conception and the technique of ,waterloo1 ,ruysdael1 and ,everdingen1 and believed themselves incapable of doing anything without gnarled1 heroic oaks4 ,even ,michel was hard-bound in the gallery style of the ,dutch1 and for ,decamps atmosphere was still a thing unknown or non-existent4 ,he placed a harsh light1 opaque as plaster1 against a background as black as coal4 ,even the colours of ,delacroix were merely tones of the palette2 he wanted to create preconceived decorative harmonies1 and not simply to interpret reality4 ,following the ,english1 the masters of ,fontainebleau made the discovery of air and light4 ,they did not paint the world1 like the other ,romanticists1 in exuberantly varying hues recalling the old masters3 they saw it entour d'air1 and tempered by the tones of the atmosphere4 ,and since their time the harmony of light and air with that of which they are the life and illumination has become the great problem of painting4 ,through this art grew young again1 and works of art received the breathing life1 the fresh bloom1 and the delicate harmony which are to be found everywhere in nature itself1 and which are only reached with much difficulty by any artificial method of tuning into accord4 ,after ,constable they were the first who recognised that the beauty of a landscape does not lie in objects themselves1 but in the lights that are cast upon them4 ,of course1 there is also an articulation of forms in nature4 ,when ,boecklin paints a grove with tall and solemn trees in the evening1 when he forms to himself a vision of the mysterious haunts of his ,fire-worshippers1 there is scarcely any need of colour4 ,the outline alone is so majestically stern that it makes man feel his littleness utterly1 and summons him to devotional thoughts4 ,but the subtle essence by which nature appeals either joyously or sorrowfully to the spirit depends still more on the light or gloom in which she is bathed2 and this mood is not marked by an inquisitive eye3 the introspective gaze1 the imagination itself1 secretes it in nature4 ,and here a second point is touched4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,rousseau4 ,,sunset4 ,the peculiarity of all these masters1 who on their first appearance were often despised as realists or naturalists1 consists precisely in this3 they never represented1 at least in the works of their later period in which they thoroughly expressed themselves1--they never represented actual nature in the manner of photography1 but freely painted their own moods from memory1 just as ,goethe when he stood in the little house in the ,kikelhahn near ,ilmenau1 instead of elaborating a prosaic description of the ,kikelhahn1 wrote the verses ,ueber allen ,wipfeln ist ,ruh4 ,in this poem of ,goethe one does not learn how the summits looked1 and there is no allusion to the play of light1 and yet the forest1 dimly illuminated by the rays of the setting sun1 is presented clearly to the inward eye4 ,any poet before ,goethe's time would have made a broad and epical description1 and produced a picture by the addition of details2 but here the very music of the words creates a picture of rest and quietude4 ,the works of the ,fontainebleau artists are ,goethe-like poems of nature in pigments4 ,they are as far removed from the sthetic aridness of the older landscape of composition1 pieced together from studies1 as from the flat1 prosaic fidelity to nature of that entirely null and void1 spuriously realistic painting of the so-called guardians of woods and waters4 ,they were neither concerned to master nature and compose a picture from her according to conventional rules1 nor pedantically to draw the portrait of any given region4 ,they did not think of topographical accuracy1 or of preparing a map of their country4 ,a landscape was not for them a piece of scenery1 but a condition of soul4 ,they represent the victory of lyricism over dry though inflated prose4 ,impressed by some vision of nature1 they warm to their work and produce pictures that could not have been anticipated4 ,and thus they fathomed art to its profoundest depths4 ,their works were fragrant poems sprung from moods of spirit which had risen in them during a walk in the forest4 ,perhaps only ,titian1 ,rubens1 and ,watteau had previously looked upon nature with the same eyes4 ,and as in the case of these artists1 so also in that of the ,fontainebleau painters1 it was necessary that a genuine realistic art1 a long period of the most intimate study of nature1 should have to be gone through before they reached this height4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,rousseau4 ,,the ,,lake ,,among ,,the ,,rocks ,,at ,,barbizon4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,rousseau4 ,a ,,pond1 ,,forest ,,of ,,fontainebleau4 ,in the presence of nature one saturates one's self with truth2 and after returning to the studio one squeezes the sponge1 as ,jules ,dupr expressed it4 ,only after they had satiated themselves with the knowledge of truth1 only after nature with all her individual phenomena had been interwoven with their inmost being1 could they1 without effort1 and without the purpose of representing determined objects1 paint from personal sentiment1 and give expression to their humour1 in the mere gratification of impulse4 ,thence comes their wide difference from each other4 ,painters who work according to fixed rules resemble one another1 and those who aim at a distinct copy of nature resemble one another no less4 ,but each one of the ,fontainebleau painters1 according to his character and his mood for the time being1 received different impressions from the same spot in nature1 and at the same moment of time4 ,each found a landscape and a moment which appealed to his sentiment more perceptibly than any other4 ,one delighted in spring and dewy morning1 another in a cold1 clear day1 another in the threatening majesty of storm1 another in the sparkling effects of sportive sunbeams1 and another in evening after sundown1 when colours have faded and forms are dim4 ,each one obeyed his peculiar temperament1 and adapted his technique to the altogether personal expression of his way of seeing and feeling4 ,each one is entirely himself1 each one an original mind1 each picture a spiritual revelation1 and often one of touching simplicity and greatness3 homo additus natur4 ,and having dedicated themselves1 more than all their predecessors1 to personality creating in and for itself1 they have become the founders of the new creed in art4 ,that strong and firmly rooted master ,thodore ,rousseau was the epic poet1 the plastic artist of the ,pleades4 ,le chne des roches was one of his masterpieces1 and he stands himself amid the art of his time like an oak embedded in rocks4 ,his father was a tailor who lived in the ,rue ,neuve-,saint ,eustache1 ,nr4 #d au quatrime4 ,as a boy he is said to have specially devoted himself to mathematics1 and to have aimed at becoming a student at the ,polytechnic ,institute4 ,thus the dangerous1 doctrinaire tendency1 which beset him in his last years1 of making art more of a science than is really practicable1 and of referring everything to some law1 lay even in his boyish tastes4 ,he grew up in the studio of the ,classicist ,lethire1 and looked on whilst the latter painted both his large ,louvre pictures1 ,the ,death of ,brutus and ,the ,death of ,virginia4 ,he even thought himself of competing for the ,prix de ,rome4 ,but the composition of his historical landscape was not a success4 ,then he took his paint-boxes1 left ,lethire's studio1 and wandered over to ,montmartre4 ,even his first little picture1 ,the ,telegraph ,tower of #ahbf1 announced the aim which he was tentatively endeavouring to reach4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,camille ,,corot4 ,at the very time when ,watelet's metallic waterfalls and zinc trees were being drawn up in line1 when the pupils of ,bertin hunted the ,calydonian boar1 or drowned ,zenobia in the waves of the ,araxes1 ,rousseau1 set free from the ambition of winning the ,prix de ,rome1 was painting humble plains within the precincts of ,paris1 with little brooks in the neighbourhood which had nothing that deserved the name of waves4 ,his first excursion to ,fontainebleau occurred in the year #ahcc1 and in #ahcd he painted his first masterpiece1 the ,cts de ,grandville1 that picture1 replete with deep and powerful feeling for nature1 which seems the great triumphant title-page of all his work4 ,a firm resolve to accept reality as it is1 and a remarkable eye for the local character of landscape and for the structure and anatomy of the earth--all qualities revealing the ,rousseau of later years--were here to be seen in their full impressiveness and straightforward actuality4 ,he received for this work a medal of the third class4 ,at the same time his works were excluded from making any further appearance in the ,salon for many years to come4 ,concession might be made to a beginner2 but the master seemed dangerous to the academicians4 ,two pictures1 ,cows descending in the ,upper ,jura and ,the ,chestnut ,avenue1 which he had destined for the ,salon of #ahce1 were rejected by the hanging committee1 and during twelve years his works met with a similar fate1 although the leading critical intellects of ,paris1 ,thor1 ,gustave ,planch1 and ,thophile ,gautier1 broke their lances in his behalf4 ,amongst the rejected of the present century1 ,thodore ,rousseau is probably the most famous4 ,at that period he was selling his pictures for five and ten louis-d'or4 ,it was only after the ,february ,revolution of #ahdh1 when the ,academic ,committee had fallen with the bourgeois king1 that the doors of the ,salon were opened to him again1 and in the meanwhile his pictures had made their way quietly and by their unassisted merit4 ,in the sequestered solitude of ,barbizon he had matured into an artistic individuality of the highest calibre1 and become a painter to whom the history of art must accord a place by the side of ,ruysdael1 ,hobbema1 and ,constable4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,corot4 ,,the ,,bridge ,,of ,,st4 ,,angelo1 ,,rome4 ,he painted everything in ,barbizon--the plains and the hills1 the river and the forest1 all the seasons of the year and all the hours of the day4 ,the succession of his moods is as inexhaustible as boundless nature herself4 ,skies gilded by the setting sun1 phases of dewy morning1 plains basking in light1 woods in the russet-yellow foliage of autumn3 these are the subjects of ,thodore ,rousseau--an endless procession of poetic effects1 expressed at first by the mere instinct of emotion and later with a mathematical precision which is often a little strained1 though always irresistibly forcible4 ,marvellous are his autumn landscapes with their ruddy foliage of beech2 majestic are those pictures in which he expressed the profound sentiment of solitude as it passes over you in the inviolate tangle of the forest1 inviting the spirit to commune with itself2 but especially characteristic of ,rousseau are those plains with huge isolated trees1 over which the mere light of common day rests almost coldly and dispassionately4 ,illustration3 ,,corot ,,at ,,work4 ,it is an artistic or psychological anomaly that in this romantic generation a man could be born in whom there was nothing of the ,romanticist4 ,thodore ,rousseau was an experimentalist1 a great worker1 a restless and seeking spirit1 ever tormented and unsatisfied with itself1 a nature wholly without sentimentality and impassionless1 the very opposite of his predecessor ,huet4 ,huet made nature the mirror of the passions1 the melancholy and the tragic suffering which agitate the human spirit with their rage4 ,whilst he celebrated the irresistible powers and blind forces1 the elemental genii which rule the skies and the waters1 he wanted to waken an impression of terror and desolation in the spirit of the beholder4 ,he piled together masses of rock1 lent dramatic passion to the clouds1 and revelled with delight in the sharpest contrasts4 ,rousseau's pervasive characteristic is absolute plainness and actuality4 ,such a simplicity of shadow had never existed before4 ,since the ,renaissance artists had systematically heightened the intensity of shadows for the sake of effect2 ,rousseau relied on the true and simple doctrine that may be formulated in the phrase3 the more light there is the fainter and more transparent are the shadows1 not the darker1 as ,decamps and ,huet painted them4 ,or1 to speak more generally1 in nature the intensity of shadows stands in an inverse relation to the intensity of the light4 ,illustration3 ,,corot4 ,,daphnis ,,and ,,chloe4 ,rousseau does not force on the spectator any preconceived mood of his own1 but leaves him before a picture with all the freedom and capacity for personal feeling which he would have received from the spectacle of nature herself4 ,the painter does not address him directly1 but lets nature have free play1 just as a medium merely acts as the vehicle of a spirit4 ,so personal in execution and so absolutely impersonal in conception are ,rousseau's pictures4 ,huet translated his moods by the assistance of nature2 ,rousseau is an incomparable witness1 confining himself strictly to the event1 and giving his report of it in brief1 virile speech1 in clear-cut style4 ,huet puts one out of humour1 because it is his own humour which he is determined to force4 ,rousseau seldom fails of effect1 because he renders the effect which has struck him1 faithfully and without marginal notes4 ,only in the convincing power of representation1 and never in the forcing of a calculated mood1 does the mood of his landscape lie4 ,or1 to take an illustration from the province of portrait painting1 when ,lenbach paints ,prince ,bismarck1 it is ,lenbach's ,bismarck2 as an intellectual painter he has given an entirely subjective rendering of ,bismarck1 and compels the spectator so to see him4 ,holbein1 when he painted ,henry ,,viii1 proceeded in the opposite way3 for him characterisation depended on his revealing his own character as little as possible2 he completely subordinated himself to his subject1 surrendered himself1 and religiously painted all that he saw1 leaving it to others to carry away from the picture what they pleased4 ,and ,thodore ,rousseau1 too1 was possessed by the spirit of the old ,german portrait painter4 ,he set his whole force of purpose to the task of letting nature manifest herself1 free from any preconceived interpretation4 ,his pictures are absolutely without effective point1 but there is so much power and deep truth1 so much simplicity1 boldness1 and sincerity in his manner of seeing and painting nature1 and of feeling her intense and forceful life1 that they have become great works of art by this alone1 like the portraits of ,holbein4 ,more impressive tones1 loftier imagination1 more moving tenderness1 and more intoxicating harmonies are at the command of other masters1 but few had truer or more profound articulation1 and not one has been so sincere as ,thodore ,rousseau4 ,rousseau saw into the inmost being of nature1 as ,holbein into ,henry ,,viii1 and the impression he received1 the emotion he felt1 is a thing which he communicates broadly1 boldly1 and entirely4 ,he is a portrait painter who knows his model through and through2 moreover1 he is a connoisseur of the old masters who knows what it is to make a picture4 ,every production of ,rousseau is a deliberate and well-considered work1 a cannon-shot1 and no mere dropping fusilade of small arms2 not a light feuilleton1 but an earnest treatise of strong character4 ,though a powerful colourist1 he works by the simplest means1 and has at bottom the feeling of a draughtsman2 which is principally the reason why1 at the present day1 when one looks at ,rousseau's pictures1 one thinks rather of ,hobbema than of ,billotte and ,claude ,monet4 ,his absolute mastery over drawing even induced him in his last years to abandon painting altogether4 ,he designated it contemptuously as falsehood1 because it smeared over the truth1 the anatomy of nature4 ,illustration3 ,,corot4 ,,vue ,,de ,,toscane4 ,in ,rousseau there was even more the genius of a sculptor than of a portrait painter4 ,his spirit1 positive1 exact1 like that of a mathematician1 and far more equipped with artistic precision than pictorial qualities1 delighted in everything sharply defined1 plastic1 and full of repose3 moss-grown stones1 oaks of the growth of centuries1 marshes and standing water1 rude granite blocks of the forest of ,fontainebleau1 and trees bedded in the rocks of the glens of ,opremont4 ,in a quite peculiar sense was the oak his favourite tree--the mighty1 wide-branching1 primval oak which occupies the centre of one of his masterpieces1 ,a ,pond1 and spreads its great gnarled boughs to the cloudy sky in almost every one of his pictures4 ,it is only ,rembrandt's three oaks that stand in like manner1 firm and broad of stem1 as though they were living personalities of the ,north1 in a lonely field beneath the hissing rain4 ,to ensure the absolute vitality of organisms was for ,rousseau the object of unintermittent toil4 ,illustration3 ,,corot4 ,,at ,,sunset4 ,plants1 trees1 and rocks were not forms summarily observed and clumped together in an arbitrary fashion2 for him they were beings gifted with a soul1 breathing creatures1 each one of which had its physiognomy1 its individuality1 its part to play1 and its distinction of being in the great harmony of universal nature4 ,by the harmony of air and light with that of which they are the life and the illumination ,i will make you hear the trees moaning beneath the ,north wind and the birds calling to their young4 ,to achieve that aim he thought that he could not do too much4 ,as ,drer worked seven times on the same scenes of the ,passion until he had found the simplest and most speaking expression1 so ,rousseau treated the same motives ten and twenty times4 ,restless are his efforts to discover different phases of the same subject1 to approach his model from the most various points of view1 and to do justice to it on every side4 ,he begins an interrupted picture again and again1 and adds something to it to heighten the expression1 as ,leonardo died with the consciousness that there was something yet to be done to his ,joconda4 ,sometimes a laboured effect is brought into his works by this method1 but in other ways he has gained in this struggle with reality a power of exposition1 a capacity of expression1 a force of appeal1 and such a remarkable insight for rightness of effect that every one of his good pictures could be hung without detriment in a gallery of old masters2 the nineteenth century did not see many arise who could bear such a proximity in every respect4 ,his landscapes are as full of sap as creation itself2 they reveal a forcible condensation of nature4 ,the only words which can be used to describe him are strength1 health1 and energy4 ,it ought to be3 in the beginning was the ,power4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,corot4 ,,the ,,ruin4 ,from his youth upwards ,thodore ,rousseau was a masculine spirit2 even as a stripling he was a man above all juvenile follies--one might almost say1 a philosopher without ideals4 ,in literature ,turgenief's conception of nature might be most readily compared with that of ,rousseau4 ,in ,turgenief's ,diary of a ,sportsman1 written in #aheb1 everything is so fresh and full of sap that one could imagine it was not so much the work of a human pen as a direct revelation from the forest and the steppes4 ,though men are elsewhere habituated to see their joys and sorrows reflected in nature1 the sentiment of his own personality falls from ,turgenief when he contemplates the eternal spectacle of the elements4 ,he plunges into nature and loses the consciousness of his own being in hers2 and he becomes a part of what he contemplates4 ,for him the majesty of nature lies in her treating everything1 from the worm to the human being1 with impassiveness4 ,man receives neither love nor hatred at her hands2 she neither rejoices in the good that he does nor complains of sin and crime1 but looks beyond him with her deep1 earnest eyes because he is an object of complete indifference to her4 ,the last of thy brothers might vanish off the face of the earth and not a needle of the pine branches would tremble4 ,nature has something icy1 apathetic1 terrible2 and the fear which she can inspire through this indifference of hers ceases only when we begin to understand the relationship in which we are to our surroundings1 when we begin to comprehend that man and animal1 tree and flower1 bird and fish1 owe their existence to this one ,mother4 ,so ,turgenief came to the same point as ,spinoza4 ,illustration3 ,,corot4 ,,evening4 ,and ,rousseau did the same4 ,the nature of ,thodore ,rousseau was devoid of all excitable enthusiasm4 ,thus the world he painted became something austere1 earnest1 and inaccessible beneath his hands4 ,he lived in it alone1 fleeing from his fellows1 and for this reason human figures are seldom to be found in his pictures4 ,he loved to paint nature on cold1 grey impassive days1 when the trees cast great shadows and forms stand out forcibly against the sky4 ,he is not the painter of morning and evening twilight4 ,there is no awakening and no dawn1 no charm in these landscapes and no youth4 ,children would not laugh here1 nor lovers venture to caress4 ,in these trees the birds would build no nests1 nor their fledglings twitter4 ,his oaks stand as if they had so stood from eternity4 ,die unbegrieflich hohen ,werke ,sind herrlich wie am ersten ,tag4 ,like ,turgenief1 ,rousseau ended in ,pantheism4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,corot4 ,,an ,,evening ,,in ,,normandy4 ,he familiarised himself more and more with the endless variety of plants and trees1 of the earth and the sky at the differing hours of the day3 he made his forms even more precise4 ,he wished to paint the organic life of inanimate nature--the life which heaves unconsciously everywhere1 sighing in the air1 streaming from the bosom of the earth1 and vibrating in the tiniest blade of grass as positively as it palpitates through the branches of the old oaks4 ,these trees and herbs are not human1 but they are characterised by their peculiar features1 just as though they were men4 ,the poplars grow like pyramids1 and have green and silvered leaves1 the oaks dark foliage and gnarled far-reaching boughs4 ,the oaks stand fixed and immovable against the storm1 whilst the slender poplars bend pliantly before it4 ,this curious distinction in all the forms of nature1 each one of which fulfils a course of existence like that of man1 was a problem which pursued ,rousseau throughout his life as a vast riddle4 ,observe his trees3 they are not dead things2 the sap of life mounts unseen through their strong trunks to the smallest branches and shoots1 which spread from the extremity of the boughs like clawing fingers4 ,the soil works and alters2 every plant reveals the inner structure of the organism which produced it4 ,and this striving even became a curse to him in his last period4 ,nature became for him an organism which he studied as an anatomist studies a corpse1 an organism all the members of which act one upon the other according to logical laws1 like the wheels of a machine2 and for the proper operation of this machine the smallest plants seemed as necessary as the mightiest oaks1 the gravel as important as the most tremendous rock4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstaengl4 ,,corot4 ,,the ,,dance ,,of ,,the ,,nymphs4 ,convinced that there was nothing in nature either indifferent or without its purpose1 and that everything had a justification for its existence and played a part in the movement of universal life1 he believed also that in everything1 however small it might be1 there was a special pictorial significance2 and he toiled to discover this1 to make it evident1 and often forgot the while that art must make sacrifices if it is to move and charm4 ,in his boundless veneration for the logical organism of nature he held1 as a kind of categorical imperative1 that it was right to give the same importance to the infinitely small as to the infinitely great4 ,the notion was chimerical1 and it wrecked him4 ,in his last period the only things that will preserve their artistic reputation are his marvellously powerful drawings4 ,no one ever had such a feeling for values1 and thus he knew how to give his drawings--quite apart from their pithy weight of stroke--an effect of light which was forcibly striking4 ,just as admirable were the water-colours produced under the influence of ,japanese picture-books4 ,the pictures of petty detail which belong to these years have only an historical interest1 and that merely because it is instructive to see how a great genius can deceive himself4 ,one of his last works1 the view of ,mont ,blanc1 with the boundless horizon and the countless carefully and scrupulously delineated planes of ground1 has neither pictorial beauty nor majesty4 ,in the presence of this bizarre work one feels astonishment at the artist's endurance and strength of will1 but disappointment at the result4 ,he wanted to win the secret of its being from every undulation of the ground1 from every blade of grass1 and from every leaf2 he was anxiously bent upon what he called planimtrie1 upon the importance of horizontal planes1 and he accentuated detail and accessory work beyond measure4 ,his pantheistic faith in nature brought ,thodore ,rousseau to his fall4 ,those who did not know him spoke of his childish stippling and of the decline of his talent4 ,those who did know him saw in this stippling the issue of the same endeavours which poor ,charles de la ,berge had made before him1 and of the principles on which the landscape of the ,english ,pre-,raphaelites was being based about this time4 ,if one looks at his works and then reads his life one almost comes to have for him a kind of religious veneration4 ,there is something of the martyr in this insatiable observer1 whose life was one long struggle1 and to whom the study of the earth's construction and the anatomy of branches was almost a religion4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,corot4 ,a ,,dance4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,b4 ,c4 ,,corot4 ,,landscape4 ,at first he had to struggle for ten years for bread and recognition4 ,it seems hardly credible that his landscapes1 even after #ahdh1 when they had obtained entry into the ,salon1 were a source of irritation there for years1 simply because they were green4 ,the public was so accustomed to brown trees and brown grass1 that every other colour in the landscape was an offence against decency1 and before a green picture the ,philistine immediately cried out1 ,spinage6 ,allez1 c'tait dur d'ouvrir la brche1 said he1 in his later years4 ,and at last1 at the ,world ,exhibition of #ahee1 when he had made it clear to ,europe who ,thodore ,rousseau was1 the evening of his life was saddened by pain and illness4 ,he had married a poor unfortunate creature1 a wild child of the forest1 the only feminine being that he had found time to love during his life of toil4 ,after a few years of marriage she became insane1 and whilst he tended her ,rousseau himself fell a victim to an affection of the brain which darkened his last years4 ,death came to his release in #ahfg4 ,as he lay dying his mad wife danced and trilled to the screaming of her parrot4 ,he rests dans le plain calme de la nature in the village churchyard at ,chailly1 near ,barbizon1 buried in front of his much-loved forest4 ,millet erected the headstone--a simple cross upon an unhewn block of sandstone1 with a tablet of brass on which are inscribed the words3 ,illustration3 ,hanjstaengl4 ,,corot4 ,,la ,,route ,d',,arras4 ,,th,,odore ,,rousseau1 ,,peintre4 ,rousseau c'est un aigle4 ,quant moi1 je ne suis qu'une alouette qui pousse de petites chansons dans mes nuages gris4 ,with these words ,camille ,corot has indicated the distinction between ,rousseau and himself4 ,they denote the two opposite poles of modern landscape4 ,what attracted the plastic artists1 ,rousseau1 ,ruysdael1 and ,hobbema--the relief of objects1 the power of contours1 the solidity of forms--was not ,corot's concern4 ,whilst ,rousseau never spoke about colour with his pupils1 but as ceterum censeo invariably repeated1 ,enfin1 la forme est la premire chose observer1 ,corot himself admitted that drawing was not his strong point4 ,when he tried to paint rocks he was but moderately effective1 and all his efforts at drawing the human figure were seldom crowned with real success1 although in his last years he returned to the task with continuous zeal4 ,apart from such peculiar exceptions as that wonderful picture ,the ,toilet1 his figures are always the weakest part of his landscapes1 and only have a good effect when in the background they reveal their delicate outlines1 half lost in rosy haze4 ,he was not much more felicitous with his animals1 and in particular there often appear in his pictures great heavy cows1 which are badly planted on their feet1 and which one wishes that he had left out4 ,amongst trees he did not care to paint the oak1 the favourite tree with all artists who have a passion for form1 nor the chestnut1 nor the elm1 but preferred to summon1 amid the delicate play of sunbeams1 the aspen1 the poplar1 the alder1 the birch with its white slender stem and its pale1 tremulous leaves1 and the willow with its light foliage4 ,in ,rousseau a tree is a proud1 toughly knotted personality1 a noble1 self-conscious creation2 in ,corot it is a soft tremulous being rocking in the fragrant air1 in which it whispers and murmurs of love and joy4 ,his favourite season was not the autumn1 when the turning leaves1 hard as steel1 stand out with firm lines1 quiet and motionless1 against the clear sky1 but the early spring1 when the farthest twigs upon the boughs deck themselves with little leaves of tender green1 which vibrate and quiver with the least breath of air4 ,he had1 moreover1 a perfectly wonderful secret of rendering the effect of the tiny blades of grass and the flowers which grow upon the meadows in ,june2 he delighted to paint the banks of a stream with tall bushes bending to the water1 and he loved water itself in undetermined clearness and in the shifting glance of light1 leaving it here in shadow and touching it there with brightness2 the sky in the depths beneath wedded to the bright border of the pool or the vanishing outlines of the bank1 and the clouds floating across the sky1 and here and there embracing a light shining fragment of the blue4 ,he loved morning before sunrise1 when the white mists hover over pools like a light veil of gauze1 and gradually disperse as the sun breaks through1 but he had a passion for evening which was almost greater3 he loved the soft vapours which gather in the gloom1 thickening until they become pale grey velvet mantles1 as peace and rest descend upon the earth with the drawing on of night4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,jules ,,dupr4 ,in contradistinction from ,rousseau his specialty was everything soft and wavering1 everything that has neither determined form nor sharp lines1 and that1 by not appealing too clearly to the eye1 is the more conducive to dreamy reveries4 ,it is not the spirit of a sculptor that lives in ,corot1 but that of a poet1 or still better1 the spirit of a musician1 since music is the least plastic of the arts4 ,it is not surprising to read in his biography that1 like ,watteau1 he had almost a greater passion for music than for painting1 and that when he painted he had always an old song or an opera aria upon his lips1 that when he spoke of his pictures he had a taste for drawing comparisons from music1 and that he had a season-ticket at the ,conservatoire1 never missed a concert1 and played upon the violin himself4 ,indeed1 there is something of the tender note of this instrument in his pictures1 which make such a sweetly solemn appeal through their delicious silver tone4 ,beside ,rousseau1 the plastic artist1 ,pre ,corot is an idyllic painter of melting grace2 beside ,rousseau1 the realist1 he seems a dreamy musician2 beside ,rousseau1 the virile spirit earnestly making experiments in art1 he appears like a bashful schoolgirl in love4 ,rousseau approached nature in broad daylight1 with screws and levers1 as a cool-headed man of science2 ,corot caressed and flattered her1 sung her wooing love-songs till she descended to meet him in the twilight hours1 and whispered to him1 her beloved1 the secrets which ,rousseau was unable to wring from her by violence4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,jules ,,dupr ,,at ,l',,isle-,,adam4 ,corot was sixteen years senior to ,rousseau4 ,he still belonged to the eighteenth century1 to the time when1 under the dictatorship of ,david1 ,paris transformed herself into imperial ,rome4 ,david1 ,grard1 ,gurin1 and ,prudhon1 artists so different in talent1 were the painters whose works met his first eager glances1 and no particular acuteness is needed to recognise in the ,nymphs and ,cupids with which ,corot in after-years1 especially in the evening of his life1 dotted his fragrant landscapes1 the direct issue of ,prudhon's charming goddesses1 the reminiscences of his youth nourished on the antique4 ,he1 too1 was a child of old ,paris1 with its narrow streets and corners4 ,his father was a hairdresser in the ,rue du ,bac1 number #cg1 and had made the acquaintance of a girl who lived at number #a in the same street1 close to the ,pont ,royal1 and was shop-girl at a milliner's4 ,he carried on his barber's shop until #aggh1 when ,camille1 the future painter1 was two years old4 ,then ,madame ,corot herself undertook the millinery establishment in which she had once worked4 ,there might be read on the front of the narrow little house1 number #a of the ,rue du ,bac1 ,madame ,corot1 ,marchande de ,modes4 ,m4 ,corot1 a polite and very correct little man1 raised the business to great prosperity4 ,the ,tuileries were opposite1 and under ,napoleon ,i ,corot became ,court modiste4 ,as such he must have attained a certain celebrity1 as even the theatre took his name in vain4 ,a piece which was then frequently played at the ,comdie ,franaise contains the passage3 ,i have just come from ,corot1 but could not speak to him2 he was locked up in his private room occupied in composing a new spring hat4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,dupr4 ,,the ,,setting ,,sun4 ,camille went to the high school in ,rouen1 and was then destined1 according to the wish of his father1 to adopt some serious calling by which money was to be made4 ,he began his career with a yard-measure in a linen-draper's establishment1 ran through the suburbs of ,paris with a book of patterns under his arm selling cloth--,couleur olive--and in his absence of mind made the clumsiest mistakes4 ,after eight years of opposition his father consented to his becoming a painter4 ,you will have a yearly allowance of twelve hundred francs1 said old ,corot1 and if you can live on that you may do as you please4 ,at the ,pont ,royal1 behind his father's house1 he painted his first picture1 amid the tittering of the little dressmaker's apprentices who looked on with curiosity from the window1 but one of whom1 ,mademoiselle ,rose1 remained his dear friend through life4 ,this was in #ahbc1 and twenty years went by before he returned to ,french soil in the pictures that he painted4 ,victor ,bertin became his teacher2 in other words1 ,classicism1 style1 and coldness4 ,he sought diligently to do as others2 he drew studies1 composed historical landscapes1 and painted as he saw the academicians painting around him4 ,to conclude his orthodox course of training it only remained for him to make the pilgrimage to ,italy1 where ,claude ,lorrain had once painted and ,poussin had invented the historical landscape4 ,in #ahbe--when he was twenty-eight--he set out with ,bertin and ,aligny1 remained long in ,rome1 and came to ,naples4 ,the ,classicists1 whose circle he entered with submissive veneration1 welcomed him for his cheerful1 even temper and the pretty songs which he sang in fine tenor voice4 ,early every morning he went into the ,campagna1 with a colour-box under his arm and a sentimental ditty on his lips1 and there he drew the ruins with an architectural severity1 just like ,poussin4 ,in #ahbg1 after a sojourn of two years and a half in ,italy1 he was able to make an appearance in the ,salon with his carefully balanced landscapes4 ,in #ahce and #ahdc he stayed again in ,italy1 and only after this third pilgrimage were his eyes opened to the charms of ,french landscape4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,the ,,bridge ,,at ,l',,isle-,,adam4 ,one can pass rapidly over this first section of ,corot's work4 ,his pictures of this period are not without merit1 but to speak of them with justice they should be compared with contemporary ,classical productions4 ,then one finds in them broad and sure drawing1 and can recognise a powerful hand and notice an astonishing increase of ability4 ,even on his second sojourn in ,italy he painted no longer as an ethnographical student1 and no longer wasted his powers on detail4 ,but it is in the pictures of his last twenty years that ,corot first becomes the ,theocritus of the nineteenth century4 ,the second ,corot has spoilt one's enjoyment for the first4 ,but who would care to pick a quarrel with him on that score6 ,beside his later pictures how hard are those studies from ,rome1 which the dying painter left to the ,louvre1 and which1 as his maiden efforts1 he regarded with great tenderness all through his life4 ,how little they have of the delicate1 harmonious light of his later works6 ,the great historical landscape with ,homer in it1 where light and shadow are placed so trenchantly beside each other1 the landscape ,aricia1 ,saint ,jerome in the ,desert1 the picture of the young girl sitting reading beside a mountain stream1 ,the ,beggar with that team in mad career which ,decamps could not have painted with greater virtuosity1--they are all good pictures by the side of those of his contemporaries1 but in comparison with real ,corots they are like the exercises of a pupil1 in their hard1 dry painting1 their black1 coarse tones1 and their chalky wall of atmosphere4 ,there is neither breeze nor transparency nor life in the air2 the trees are motionless1 and look as if they were heavily cased in iron4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,dupr4 ,,near ,,southampton4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,jules ,beer1 the owner of the picture47 ,corot was approaching his fortieth year1 an age at which a man's ideas are generally fixed1 when the great revolution of ,french landscape painting was accomplished under the influence of the ,english and of ,rousseau4 ,trained in academical traditions1 he might have remained steadfast in his own province4 ,to follow the young school he had completely to learn his art again1 and alter his method of treatment with the choice of subjects1 and this casting of his slough demanded another fifteen years4 ,when he passed from ,italian to ,french landscape1 after his return from his third journey to ,rome in #ahdc1 his pictures were still hard and heavy4 ,he had already felt the influence of ,bonington and ,constable1 by the side of whose works his first exhibited picture had hung in #ahbg4 ,but he still lacked the power of rendering light and air1 and his painting had neither softness nor light4 ,even in the choice of subject he was still undecided1 returning more than once to the historical landscape and working on it with unequal success4 ,his masterpiece of #ahdc1 ,the ,baptism of ,christ1 in the ,church of ,saint ,nicolas du ,chardonnet in ,paris1 is no more than a delicate imitation of the old masters4 ,the ,christ upon the ,mount of ,olives of #ahdd1 in the ,museum of ,langres1 is the first picture which seems like a convert's confession of faith4 ,in the centre of the picture1 before a low hill1 ,christ kneels upon the ground praying2 ,his disciples are around ,him1 and to the right1 vanishing in the shadows1 the olive trees stretch their gnarled branches over the darkened way4 ,a dark blue sky1 in which a star is flickering1 broods tremulously over the landscape4 ,one might pass the ,christ over unobserved2 but for the title ,he would be hard to recognise4 ,but the star shining far away1 the transparent clearness of the night sky1 the light clouds1 and the mysterious shadows gliding swiftly over the ground1--these have no more to do with the false and already announce the true ,corot4 ,from this time he found the way on which he went forward resolute and emancipated4 ,illustration3 ,,dupr4 ,,the ,,punt4 ,for five-and-twenty years it was permitted to him to labour in perfect ripeness1 freedom1 and artistic independence4 ,one thinks of ,corot as though he had been a child until he was fifty and then first entered upon his adolescence4 ,up to #ahdf he took from his father the yearly allowance of twelve hundred francs given him as a student1 and in that year1 when he received the ,cross of the ,legion of ,honour1 ,m4 ,corot doubled the sum for the future1 observing3 ,well1 ,camille seems to have talent after all4 ,about the same time his friends remarked that he went about ,barbizon one day more meditatively than usual4 ,my dear fellow1 said he to one of them1 ,i am inconsolable4 ,till now ,i had a complete collection of ,corots1 and it has been broken to-day1 for ,i have sold one for the first time4 ,and even at seventy-four he said3 ,how swiftly one's life passes1 and how much must one exert one's self to do anything good6 ,the history of art has few examples to offer of so long a spring4 ,corot had the privilege of never growing old2 his life was a continual rejuvenescence4 ,the works which made him ,corot are the youthful works of an old man1 the matured creations of a grey-headed artist1 who--like ,titian--remained for ever young2 and for their artistic appreciation it is not without importance to remember this4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,dupr4 ,,sunset4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,jules ,beer1 the owner of the picture47 ,of all the ,fontainebleau painters ,corot was the least a realist3 he was the least bound to the earth1 and he was never bent upon any exact rendering of a part of nature4 ,no doubt he worked much in the open air1 but he worked far more in his studio2 he painted many scenes as they lay before him1 but more often those which he only saw in his own mind4 ,he is reported to have said on his deathbed3 ,last night ,i saw in a dream a landscape with a sky all rosy4 ,it was charming1 and still stands before me quite distinctly2 it will be marvellous to paint4 ,how many landscapes may he not have thus dreamed1 and painted from the recollected vision6 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,dupr4 ,,the ,,hay-,,wain4 ,for a young man this would be a very dangerous method4 ,for ,corot it was the only one which allowed him to remain ,corot1 because in this way no unnecessary detail disturbed the pure1 poetic reverie4 ,he had spent his whole life in a dallying courtship with nature1 ever renewed4 ,as a child he looked down from his attic window upon the wavering mists of the ,seine2 as a schoolboy in ,rouen he wandered lost in his own fancies along the borders of the great river2 when he had grown older he went every year with his sister to a little country-house in ,ville d',avray1 which his father had bought for him in #ahag4 ,here he stood at the open window1 in the depth of the night1 when every one was asleep1 absorbed in looking at the sky and listening to the plash of waters and the rustling of leaves4 ,here he stayed quite alone4 ,no sound disturbed his reveries1 and unconsciously he drank in the soft1 moist air and the delicate vapour rising from the neighbouring river4 ,everything was harmoniously reflected in his quick and eager spirit1 and his eyes beheld the individual trait of nature floating in the universal life4 ,he began not merely to see nature1 but to feel her presence1 like that of a beloved woman1 to receive her very breath and to hear the beating of her heart4 ,one knows the marvellous letter in which he describes the day of a landscape painter to ,jules ,dupr3 ,on se lve de bonne heure1 trois heures du matin1 avant le soleil2 on va s'asseoir au pied d'un arbre1 on regarde et on attend4 ,on ne voit pas grand'chose d'abord4 ,la nature ressemble une toile blanchtre o s'esquissent peine les profils de quelques masses3 tout est embaum1 tout frisonne au souffle frachi de l'aube4 ,bing6 le soleil s'claircit 444 le soleil n'a pas encore dchir la gaze derrire laquelle se cachent la prairie1 le vallon1 les collines de l'horizon4444 ,les vapeurs nocturnes rampent encore commes des flocons argents sur les herbes d'un vert transi4 ,bing6444 ,bing6444 un premier rayon de soleil 444 un second rayon de soleil4444 ,les petites fleurettes semblent s'veiller joyeuses4444 ,elles out toutes leur goutte de rose qui tremble 444 les feuilles frileuses s'agitent au souffle du matin 444 dans la feuille1 les oiseaux invisibles chantent4444 ,il semble que ce sont les fleurs qui font la prire4 ,les ,amours ailes de papillons s'battent sur la prairie et font onduler les hautes herbes4444 ,on ne voit rien 444 tout y est4 ,le paysage est tout entier derrire la gaze transparente du brouillard1 qui1 au reste 444 monte 444 monte 444 aspir par le soleil 444 et laisse1 en se levant1 voir la rivire lame d'argent1 les prs1 les arbres1 les maisonettes1 le lointain fuyant4444 ,on distingue enfin tout ce que l'on divinait d'abord4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,dupr4 ,,the ,,old ,,oak4 ,at the end there is an ode to evening which is perhaps to be reckoned amongst the most delicate pages of ,french lyrics3 ,la nature s'assoupit 444 cependant l'air frais du soir soupire dans les feuilles 444 la rose emperle le velours des gazons4444 ,les nymphes fuient 444 se cachent 444 et dsirent tre vues4444 ,bing6 une toile du ciel qui pique une tte dans l'tang4444 ,charmante toile1 dont le frmissement de l'eau augmente le scintillement1 tu me regardes 444 tu me souris en clignant de l'oeil4444 ,bing6 une seconde toile apparat dans l'eau2 un second oeil s'ouvre4 ,soyez les bienvenues1 fraches et charmantes toiles4444 ,bing6 ,bing6 ,bing6 trois1 six1 vingt toiles4444 ,toutes les toiles du ciel se sont donn rendez-vous dans cet heureux tang4444 ,tout s'assombrit encore4444 ,l'tang seul scintille4444 ,c'est un fourmillement d'toiles4444 ,l'illusion se produit4444 ,le soleil tant couch1 le soleil intrieur de l'me1 le soleil de l'art se lve4444 ,bon6 voil mon tableau fait4 ,illustration3 ,,dupr4 ,,the ,,pool4 ,any one who has never read anything about ,corot except these lines may know him through them alone4 ,even that little word ,bing comprises and elucidates his art by its clear1 silvery resonance4 ,the words vibrate like the strings of a violin that have been gently touched1 and they want ,mozart's music as an accompaniment4 ,i do not know any one who has described all the feminine tenderness of nature1 the dishevelled leaves of the birches1 the heaving bosom of the air1 the fresh virginity of morning1 the weary1 sensuous charm of evening1 with such seductive tenderness and such highly strung feeling1 so voluptuously and yet so coyly4 ,to these impressions of ,rouen1 ,ville d',avray1 and ,barbizon were added finally those of ,paris4 ,for ,corot was born in ,paris1 and1 often as he left it1 he always came back2 he passed the greatest part of his life there1 and there it was1 perhaps1 that in his last period he created his most poetic works4 ,in these years he had no more need of actual landscapes2 he needed only a sky and they rose before him4 ,every evening after sundown he left his studio just at the time when the dusk fell veiling everything4 ,he raised his eyes to the sky1 the only part of nature which remained visible4 ,and how often does this twilight sky of ,paris recur in ,corot's pictures6 ,at the end of his life he could really give himself over to a dream4 ,the drawings and countless studies of his youth bear witness to the care1 patience1 and exactitude of his preparation4 ,they gave him in after-years1 when he was sure of his hand1 the right to simplify1 because he knew everything thoroughly4 ,thus ,boecklin paints his pictures without a model1 and thus ,corot painted his landscapes4 ,the hardest problems are solved apparently as if he were improvising2 and for that very reason the sight of a ,corot gives such unspeakable pleasure1 such an impression of charming ease4 ,it is only a hand which has used a brush for forty years that can paint thus4 ,all effects are attained with the minimum expenditure of strength and material4 ,the drawing lies as if behind colour that has been blown on to the canvas2 it is as if one looked through a thin gauze into the distance4 ,whoever has studied reality so many years1 with patient and observant eye1 as ,corot did1 whoever has daily satiated his imagination with the impressions of nature1 may finally venture on painting1 not this or that scenery1 but the fragrance1 the very essence of things1 and render merely his own spirit and his own visions free from all earthly and retarding accessories4 ,there is a temptation to do honour to ,corot's pictures merely as the confessions of a beautiful soul4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,narcisse ,,diaz4 ,but ,corot was as great and strong as a ,hercules4 ,in his blue blouse1 with his woollen cap and the inevitable short ,corot pipe in his mouth--a pipe which has become historical--one would have taken him for a carter rather than a celebrated painter4 ,at the same time he remained during his whole life--a girl3 twenty years senior to all the great landscape painters of the epoch1 he was at once a patriarch in their eyes and their younger comrade4 ,his long white hair surrounded the innocent face of a ruddy country girl1 and his kind and pleasant eyes were those of a child listening to a fairy-tale4 ,in #ahdh1 during the fighting on the barricades1 he asked with childish astonishment3 ,what is the matter8 ,are we not satisfied with the ,government8 ,and during the war in #ahgj this great hoary-headed child of seventy-four bought a musket1 to join in fighting against ,germany4 ,benevolence was the joy of his old age4 ,every friend who begged for a picture was given one1 while for money he had the indifference of a hermit who has no wants and neither sows nor reaps1 but is fed by his ,heavenly ,father4 ,he ran breathlessly after an acquaintance to whom1 contrary to his wont1 he had refused five thousand francs3 ,forgive me1 he said2 ,i am a miser1 but there they are4 ,and when a picture-dealer brought him ten thousand francs he gave him the following direction3 ,send them1 he said1 to the widow of my friend ,millet2 only1 she must believe that you have bought pictures from him4 ,his one passion was music1 his whole life an eternal song4 ,corot was a happy man1 and no one more deserved to be happy4 ,in his kind-hearted vivacity and even good spirits he was a favourite with all who came near him and called him familiarly their ,papa ,corot4 ,everything in him was healthy and natural2 his was a harmonious nature1 living and working happily4 ,this harmony is reflected in his art4 ,and he saw the joy in nature which he had in himself4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,diaz4 ,,the ,,descent ,,of ,,the ,,bohemians4 ,everything that was coarse or horrible in nature he avoided1 and his own life passed without romance or any terrible catastrophes4 ,he has no picture in which there is a harassed tree vexed by the storm4 ,corot's own spirit was touched neither by passions nor by the strokes of fate4 ,there is air in his landscapes1 but never storm2 streams1 but not torrents2 waters1 but not floods2 plains1 but not rugged mountains4 ,all is soft and quiet as his own heart1 whose peace the storm never troubled4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,diaz4 ,,among ,,the ,,foliage4 ,no man ever lived a more orderly1 regular1 and reasonable life4 ,he was only spendthrift where others were concerned4 ,no evening passed that he did not play a rubber of whist with his mother1 who died only a little before him1 and was loved by the old man with the devoted tenderness of a child4 ,from an early age he had the confirmed habits which make the day long and prevent waste of time4 ,the eight years which he passed in the linen-drapery establishment of ,m4 ,delalain had accustomed him to punctuality4 ,every morning he rose very early1 and at three minutes to eight he was in his studio as punctually as he had been in earlier years at the counter1 and went through his daily task without feverish haste or idleness1 humming with that quietude which makes the furthest progress4 ,for that reason he had also an aversion to everything passionate in nature1 to everything irregular1 sudden1 or languid1 to the feverish burst of storm as to the relaxing languor of summer heat4 ,he loved all that is quiet1 symmetrical1 and fresh1 peaceful and blithe1 everything that is enchanting by its repose3 the bright1 tender sky1 the woods and meadows tinged with green1 the streamlets and the hills1 the regular awakening of spring1 the soft1 quiet hours of evening twilight1 the dewy laughing morning1 the delicate mists which form slowly the over surface of still waters1 the joy of clear1 starry nights1 when all voices are silent and every breeze is at rest2 and the cheerfulness of his own spirit is reflected in everything4 ,illustration3 ,,diaz4 ,a ,,tree ,,trunk4 ,one might go further1 and say that ,corot's goodness is mirrored in his pictures4 ,corot loved humanity and wished it well1 and he shrank from no sacrifice in helping his friends4 ,and even so did he love the country1 and wished to see it animated1 enlivened1 and blest by human beings4 ,that is the great distinction between him and ,chintreuil1 who is otherwise so like him4 ,chintreuil also painted nature when she quivers smiling beneath the gentle and vivifying glance of spring1 but figures are wanting in his pictures4 ,as a timid1 fretful1 unsociable man1 he imagined that nature also felt happiest in solitude4 ,the scenery in which ,chintreuil delighted was thick1 impenetrable copse1 lonely haunts in the tangle of the thicket1 from which now and then a startled hind stretches out its head1 glancing uneasily4 ,corot1 who could not endure solitude1 being always the centre of a cheery social gathering1 made nature a sociable being4 ,men1 women1 and children give animation to his woods and meadows4 ,and at times he introduces peasants at work in the fields1 but how little do they resemble the peasants of ,millet6 ,the rustics of the master of ,gruchy are as hard and rough as they are actual2 the burden of life has bowed their figures and lined their faces prematurely2 they are old before their time1 and weary every evening4 ,corot's labourers never grow weary3 lightly touched in rather than painted1 dreamt of rather than seen1 they carry on an ethereal existence in the open air1 free and contented2 they have never suffered1 just as ,corot himself knew no sufferings4 ,but as a rule human beings were altogether out of place in the happy fields conjured up by his fairy fantasy2 and then came the moment when ,prudhon lived again4 ,the nymphs and bacchantes whom he had met as a youth by the tomb of ,virgil visited him in the evening of life in the forest of ,fontainebleau and in the meadows of ,ville d',avray4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,diaz4 ,,forest ,,scene4 ,in his pictures he dreamed of pillars and altars near which mythical figures moved once more1 dryads sleeping by the stream1 dancing fauns1 junctque nymphis grati decentes in classical raiment4 ,in this sense he was a ,classicist all his life4 ,his nymphs1 however1 are no mere accessories2 they have nothing in common with the faded troop of classic beings whose old age in the ruins of forsaken temples was so long tended by the ,academy4 ,in ,corot they are the natural habitants of a world of harmony and light1 the logical complement of his visions of nature3 in the same way ,beethoven at the close of the ,ninth ,symphony introduced the human voice4 ,no sooner has he touched in the lines of his landscapes than the nymphs and tritons1 the radiant children of the ,greek idyllic poets1 desert the faded leaves of books to populate ,corot's groves1 and refresh themselves in the evening shadows of his forests4 ,illustration3 ,,charles ,,fran,,ois ,,daubigny4 ,for the evening dusk1 the hour after sunset1 is peculiarly the hour of ,corot2 his very preference for the harmonious beauty of dying light was the effluence of his own harmonious temperament4 ,when he would1 ,corot was a colourist of the first order4 ,the ,world ,exhibition of #ahhi contained pictures of women by his hand which resembled ,feuerbach in their strict and austere beauty of countenance1 and which recalled ,delacroix in the liquid fulness of tone and their fantastic and variously coloured garb4 ,but1 compared with the orgies of colour indulged in by ,romanticism1 his works are generally characterised by the most delicate reserve in painting4 ,a bright silvery sheet of water and the ivory skin of a nymph are usually the only touches of colour that hover in the pearly grey mist of his pictures4 ,as a man ,corot avoided all dramas and strong contrasts2 everything abrupt or loud was repellent to his nature4 ,thus it was that the painter1 too1 preferred the clear grey hours of evening1 in which nature envelops herself as if in a delicate1 melting veil of gauze4 ,here he was able to be entirely ,corot1 and to paint without contours and almost without colours1 and bathe in the soft1 dusky atmosphere4 ,he saw lines no longer2 everything was breath1 fragrance1 vibration1 and mystery4 ,ce n'est plus une toile et ce n'est plus un peintre1 c'est le bon ,dieu et c'est le soir4 ,elysian airs began to breathe1 and the faint echo of the prattling streamlet sounded gently murmuring in the wood2 the soft arms of the nymphs clung round him1 and from the neighbouring thicket tender1 melting melodies chimed forth like olian harps-- ,rege dich1 du ,schilfgeflster2 ,hauche leise1 ,rohrgeschwister2 ,suselt1 leichte ,weidenstruche2 ,lispelt1 ,pappelzitterzweige ,unterbroch'nen ,trumen zu4 ,his end was as harmonious as his life and his art4 ,rien ne trouble sa fin1 c'est le soir d'un beau jour4 ,his sister1 with whom the old bachelor had lived1 died in the ,october of #ahgd1 and ,corot could not endure loneliness4 ,on #bcrd ,february #ahge--when he had just completed his seventy-ninth year--he was heard to say as he lay in bed drawing with his fingers in the air3 ,mon ,dieu1 how beautiful that is2 the most beautiful landscape ,i have ever seen4 ,when his old housekeeper wanted to bring him his breakfast he said with a smile3 ,to-day ,pre ,corot will breakfast above4 ,even his last illness robbed him of none of his cheerfulness1 and when his friends brought him as he lay dying the medal struck to commemorate his jubilee as an artist of fifty years' standing1 he said with tears of joy in his eyes3 ,it makes one happy to know that one has been so loved2 ,i have had good parents and dear friends4 ,i am thankful to ,god4 ,with those words he passed away to his true home1 the land of spirits--not the paradise of the ,church1 but the ,elysian fields he had dreamt of and painted so often3 ,largior hic campos ther et lumine vestit purpureo4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,daubigny4 ,,springtime4 ,when they bore him from his house in the ,faubour-,poissonire and a passer-by asked who was being buried1 a fat shopwoman standing at the door of her house answered3 ,i don't know his name1 but he was a good man4 ,beethoven's ,symphony in ,c minor was played at his funeral1 according to his own direction1 and as the coffin was being lowered a lark rose exulting to the sky4 ,the artist will be replaced with difficulty1 the man never1 said ,dupr at ,corot's grave4 ,on #bgth ,may #ahhj an unobtrusive monument to his memory was unveiled at the border of the lake at ,ville d',avray1 in the midst of the dark forest where he had so often dreamed4 ,he died in the fulness of his fame as an artist1 but it was the forty pictures collected in the ,centenary ,exhibition of #ahhi which first made the world fully conscious of what modern art possessed in ,corot3 a master of immortal masterpieces1 the greatest poet and the tenderest soul of the nineteenth century1 as ,fra ,angelico was the tenderest soul of the fifteenth1 and ,watteau the greatest poet of the eighteenth4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,daubigny4 ,a ,,lock ,,in ,,the ,,vally ,,of ,,optevoz4 ,jules ,dupr1 a melancholy spirit1 who was inwardly consumed by a lonely existence spent in passionate work1 stands as the ,beethoven of modern painting beside ,corot1 its ,mozart4 ,if ,thodore ,rousseau was the epic poet of the ,fontainebleau school1 and ,corot the idyllic poet1 ,dupr seems its tragic dramatist4 ,rousseau's nature is hard1 rude1 and indifferent to man4 ,for ,corot ,god is the great philanthropist1 who wishes to see men happy1 and lets the spring come and the warm winds blow only that children may have their pleasure in them4 ,his soul is1 as ,goethe has it in ,werther1 as blithe as those of sweet spring mornings4 ,jules ,dupr has neither ,rousseau's reality nor ,corot's tenderness2 his tones are neither imperturbable nor subdued4 ,quant derrire un tronc d'arbre ou derrire une pierre1 vous ne trouvez pas un homme quoi a sert-il de faire du paysage4 ,in ,corot there is a charm as of the light melodies of the ,zauberflte2 in ,dupr the ear is struck by the shattering notes of the ,sinfonie ,eroica4 ,rousseau looks into the heart of nature with widely dilated pupils and a critical glance4 ,corot woos her smiling1 caressing1 and dallying2 ,dupr courts her uttering impassioned complaint and with tears in his eyes4 ,in him are heard the mighty fugues of ,romanticism4 ,the trees live1 the waves laugh and weep1 the sky sings and wails1 and the sun1 like a great conductor1 determines the harmony of the concert4 ,even the two pictures with which he made an appearance in the ,salon in #ahce1 after he had left the ,svres china manufactory and become acquainted with ,constable during a visit to ,england--the ,near ,southampton and ,pasture-land in the ,limousin--displayed him as an accomplished master4 ,in ,near ,southampton everything moves and moans4 ,across an undulating country a dark tempest blusters1 like a wild host1 hurrying and sweeping forward in the gloom1 tearing and scattering everything in its path1 whirling leaves from the slender trees4 ,clouds big with rain hasten across the horizon as if on a forced march4 ,the whole landscape seems to partake in the flight2 the brushwood seems to bow its head like a traveller4 ,in the background a few figures are recognisable3 people overtaken by the storm at their work2 horses with their manes flying in the wind2 and a rider seeking refuge for himself and his beast4 ,a stretch of sluggish water ruffles its waves as though it were frowning4 ,everything is alive and quaking in this majestic solitude1 and in the mingled play of confused lights1 hurrying clouds1 fluttering branches1 and trembling grass4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,daubigny4 ,,on ,,the ,,oise4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,daubigny4 ,,shepherd ,,and ,,shepherdess4 ,pasture-land in the ,limousin had the same overpowering energy2 it was an admirable picture in #ahce1 and it is admirable still4 ,the fine old trees stand like huge pillars2 the grass1 drenched with rain1 is of an intense green2 nature seems to shudder as if in a fever4 ,and through his whole life ,dupr was possessed by the lyrical fever of ,romanticism4 ,as the last champion of ,romanticism he bore the banner of the proud generation of #ahcj through well-nigh two generations1 and until his death in #ahhi stood on the ground where ,paul ,huet had first placed ,french landscape2 but ,huet attained his pictorial effects by combining and by calculation1 while ,dupr is always a great1 true1 and convincing poet4 ,every evening he was seen in ,l',isle ,adam1 where he settled in #ahdi1 wandering alone across the fields1 even in drenching rain4 ,one of his pupils declares that once1 when they stood at night on the bridge of the ,oise during a storm1 ,dupr broke into a paroxysm of tears at the magnificent spectacle4 ,he was a fanatic rejoicing in storms1 one who watched the tragedies of the heaven with quivering emotion1 a passionate spirit consumed by his inward force1 and1 like his literary counterpart ,victor ,hugo1 he sought beauty of landscape only where it was wild and magnificent4 ,he is the painter of nature vexed and harassed1 and of the majestic silence that follows the storm4 ,the theme of his pictures is at one time the whirling torture of the yellow leaves driven before the wind in eddying confusion2 tormented and quivering they cleave to the furrows in the mad chase1 fall into dykes1 and cling against the trunks of trees1 to find refuge from their persecutor4 ,at another time he paints how the night wind whistles round an old church and whirls the screaming weather-cock round and round1 how it moans and rattles with invisible hand against the doors1 forces its way through the windows1 and1 once shut in its stony prison1 seeks a way out again1 howling and wailing4 ,he paints sea-pieces in which the sea rages and mutters like some hoarse old monster2 the colour of the water is dirty and pallid2 the howling multitude of waves storms on like an innumerable army before which every human power gives way4 ,stones are torn loose and hurled crashing upon the shore4 ,the clouds are dull and ghostly1 here black as smoke1 there of a shining whiteness1 and swollen as though they must burst4 ,he celebrates the commotion of the sky1 nature in her angry majesty1 and the most brilliant phenomena of atmospheric life4 ,rousseau's highest aim was to avoid painting for effect1 and ,corot only cared for grace of tone2 a picture of his consists of a little grey and a certain je ne sais quoi4 ,jules ,dupr is peculiarly the colour-poet of the group1 and sounds the most resonant notes in the romantic concert4 ,his light does not beam in gently vibrating silver tones1 but is concentrated in glaring red suns4 ,ah1 la lumire1 la lumire6 ,beside the flaming hues of evening red he paints the darkest shadows4 ,he revels in contrasts4 ,his favourite key of colour is that of a ghostly sunset1 against which a gnarled oak or the dark sail of a tiny vessel rises like a phantom4 ,trembling and yet with ardent desire he looks at the tumult of waters1 and hears the roll and resonance of the moon-silvered tide4 ,he delights in night1 rain1 and storm4 ,corot's gentle rivulets become a rolling and whirling flood in his pictures1 a headlong stream carrying all before it4 ,the wind no longer sighs1 but blusters across the valley1 spreading ruin in its path4 ,the clouds which in ,corot are silvery and gentle1 like white lambs1 are in ,dupr black and threatening1 like demons of hell4 ,in ,corot the soft morning breeze faintly agitates the tender clouds in the sky2 in ,dupr a damp1 cold wind of evening blows a spectral grey mist into the valley1 and the hurricane tears apart the thunderclouds4 ,wenn ich fern auf nackter ,haide wallte1 ,wo aus dmmernder ,geklfte ,schooss ,der ,titanensang der ,strme schallte ,und die ,nacht der ,wolken mich umschloss1 ,wenn der ,sturm mit seinen ,wetterwogen ,mir vorber durch die ,berge fuhr ,und des ,himmels ,flammen mich umflogen1 ,da erscheinst du1 ,seele der ,natur4 ,illustration3 ,,daubigny4 ,,landscape3 ,,evening4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,chintreuil4 ,,landscape3 ,,morning4 ,the first of the brilliant pleiad who did not come from ,paris itself is ,diaz1 who in his youth worked with ,dupr in the china manufactory of ,svres4 ,of noble ,spanish origin--,narciso ,virgilio ,diaz de la ,pea ran his high-sounding name in full--he was born in ,bordeaux in #ahjg1 after his parents had taken refuge from the ,revolution across the ,pyrenees1 and in his landscapes1 too1 perhaps1 his ,spanish blood betrays him now and then4 ,diaz has in him a little of ,fortuny4 ,beside the great genius wrestling for truth and the virile seriousness of ,rousseau1 beside the gloomy1 powerful landscapes of ,dupr with their deep1 impassioned poetry1 the sparkling and flattering pictures of ,diaz seem to be rather light wares4 ,for him nature is a keyboard on which to play capricious fantasies4 ,his pictures have the effect of sparkling diamonds1 and one must surrender one's self to this charm without asking its cause2 otherwise it evaporates4 ,diaz has perhaps rather too much of the talent of a juggler1 the sparkle of a magic kaleidoscope4 ,you paint stinging nettles1 and ,i prefer roses1 is the characteristic expression which he used to ,millet4 ,his painting is piquant and as iridescent as a peacock's tail1 but in this very iridescence there is often an unspeakable charm4 ,it has the rocket-like brilliancy and the glancing chivalry which were part of the man himself1 and made him the best of good company1 the enfant terrible1 the centre of all that was witty and spirited in the circle of ,fontainebleau4 ,he1 too1 was long acquainted with poverty1 as were his great brother-artists ,rousseau and ,dupr4 ,shortly after his birth he lost his father4 ,madame ,diaz1 left entirely without means1 came to ,paris1 where she supported herself by giving lessons in ,spanish and ,italian4 ,when he was ten years old the boy was left an orphan alone in the vast city4 ,a ,protestant clergyman in ,bellevue then adopted him4 ,and now occurred the misfortune which he was so fond of relating in after-years4 ,in one of his wanderings through the wood he was bitten by a poisonous insect1 and from that time he was obliged to hobble through life with a wooden leg1 which he called his pilon4 ,from his fifteenth year he worked1 at first as a lame errand boy1 and afterwards as a painter on china1 together with ,dupr1 ,raffet1 and ,cabat1 in the manufactory of ,svres4 ,before long he was dismissed as incompetent1 for one day he took it into his head to decorate a vase entirely after his own taste4 ,then poverty began once more4 ,often when the evening drew on he wandered about the boulevards under cover of the darkness1 opened the doors of carriages which had drawn up at the pavement1 and stretched out his hand to beg4 ,what does it matter8 he said2 one day ,i shall have carriages and horses1 and a golden crutch2 my brush will win them for me4 ,he exhibited a picture on speculation at a picture-dealer's1 in the hope of making a hundred francs2 it was ,the ,descent of the ,bohemians1 that picturesque band of men1 women1 and children1 who advance singing1 laughing1 and shouting by a steep woodland road1 to descend on some neighbouring village like a swarm of locusts4 ,a ,parisian collector bought it for fifteen hundred francs4 ,diaz was saved1 and he migrated to the forest of ,fontainebleau4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,harpignies4 ,,moonrise4 ,his biography explains a great deal in the character of the painter's art4 ,his works are unequal4 ,in his picture ,last ,tears1 which appeared in the ,world ,exhibition of #ahee1 and which stands to his landscapes as a huge block of copper to little ingots of gold1 he entered upon a course in which he wandered long without any particular artistic result4 ,he wanted to be a figure-painter1 and with this object he concocted a style of painting by a mixture of various traditions1 seeking to unite ,prudhon1 ,correggio1 and ,leonardo4 ,from the master of ,cluny he borrowed the feminine type with a snub nose and long almond-shaped eyes1 treated the hair like da ,vinci1 and placed over it the sfumato of ,allegri4 ,his drawing1 usually so pictorial in its light sweep1 became weak in his effort to be correct1 and his colouring grew dull and monotonous by its imitation of the style of the ,classicists4 ,but during this period ,diaz made a great deal of money1 sold his pictures without intermission1 and avenged himself1 as he had determined to do1 upon his former poverty4 ,he1 who had begged upon the boulevards1 was able to buy weapons and costumes at the highest figure1 and build himself a charming house in the ,place ,pigalle4 ,in all that concerns his artistic position these works1 which brought him an income of fifty thousand francs1 and1 for a long time1 the fame of a new ,prudhon1 are nevertheless without importance4 ,faltering between the widely divergent influences of the old masters1 he did not get beyond a wavering eclecticism1 and was too weak in drawing to attain results worth mentioning4 ,it is as a landscape painter that he will be known to posterity4 ,he is said to have been the terror of all game as long as he was the house-mate of ,rousseau and ,millet in ,fontainebleau1 and wandered through the woods there with a gun on his arm to get a cheap supper4 ,it is reported1 too1 that when his pictures were rejected by the ,salon in those days he laughingly made a hole in the canvas with his wooden leg1 saying3 ,what is the use of being rich8 ,i can't have a diamond set in my pilon6 ,it was however in the years before #ahee1 when he had nothing to do with any picture-dealer1 that the immortal works of ,diaz were executed4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,constant ,,troyon4 ,the mention of his name conjures up before the mind the recesses of a wood1 reddened by autumn1 a wood where the sunbeams play1 gilding the trunks of the trees2 naked white forms repose amid mysterious lights1 or on paths of golden sand appear gaily draped odalisques1 their rich costume glittering in the rays of the sun4 ,few have won from the forest1 as he did1 its beauty of golden sunlight and verdant leaves4 ,others remained at the entrance of the forest2 he was the first who really penetrated to its depths4 ,the branches met over his head like the waves of the sea1 the blue heaven vanished1 and everything was shrouded4 ,the sunbeams fell like the rain of ,dana through the green leaves1 and the moss lay like a velvet mantle on the granite piles of rock4 ,he settled down like a hermit in his verdant hollow4 ,the leaves quivered green and red1 and covered the ground1 shining like gold in the furtive rays of the evening sun4 ,nothing was to be seen of the trees1 nothing of the outline of their foliage1 nothing of the majestic sweep of their boughs1 but only the mossy stems touched by the radiance of the sun4 ,the pictures of ,diaz are not landscapes1 for the land is wanting2 they are tree scapes1 and their poetry lies in the sunbeams which dance playing round them4 ,have you seen my last stem8 he would himself inquire of the visitors to his studio4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,troyon4 ,,in ,,normandy3 ,,cows ,,grazing4 ,these woodland recesses were the peculiar specialty of ,diaz1 and he but seldom abandoned them to paint warm1 dreamy pictures of summer4 ,for1 like a true child of the ,south1 he only cared to see nature on beautiful days4 ,he knows nothing of spring with its light mist1 and still less of the frozen desolation of winter4 ,the summer alone does he know1 the summer and the autumn2 and the summers of ,diaz are an everlasting song1 like the springs of ,corot4 ,beautiful nymphs and other beings from the golden age give animation to his emerald meadows and his sheltered woods bathed in the sun3 here are little1 homely-looking nixies1 and there are pretty ,cupids and ,venuses and ,dianas of charming grace4 ,and none of these divinities think about anything or do anything2 they are not piquant1 like those of ,boucher and ,fragonard1 and they know neither coquetry nor smiles4 ,they are merely goddesses of the palette2 their wish is to be nothing but shining spots of colour1 and they love nothing except the silvery sunbeams which fall caressingly on their naked skin4 ,if the painter wishes for more vivid colour they throw around them shining red1 blue1 yellowish-green1 or gold-embroidered clothes1 and immediately are transformed from nymphs into ,oriental women1 as in a magic theatre4 ,a fragment of soft silk1 gleaming with gold1 and a red turban were means sufficient for him to conjure up his charming and fanciful land of ,turks4 ,sometimes even simple mortals--wood-cutters1 peasant girls1 and gipsies--come into his pictures1 that the sunbeams may play upon them1 while their picturesque rags form piquant spots of colour4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,troyon4 ,,crossing ,,the ,,stream4 ,diaz belongs to the same category as ,isabey and ,fromentin1 a fascinating artist1 a great charmeur1 and a feast to the eyes4 ,when in the far ,south1 amid the eternal summer of ,mentone1 he closed his dark1 shining eyes for ever1 at dawn on #ahth ,november #ahgf1 a breath of sadness went through the tree-tops of the old royal forest of ,fontainebleau4 ,the forest had lost its hermit1 the busy woodsman who penetrated farthest into its green depths2 and it preserves his memory gratefully4 ,only go1 in ,october1 through the copse of ,bas ,brau1 lose yourself amid the magnificent foliage of these century-old trees that glimmer with a thousand hues like gigantic bouquets1 dark green and brown1 or golden and purple1 and at the sight of this brilliant gleam of autumn tones you can only say1 ,a ,diaz6 ,the youngest of the group1 ,daubigny1 came when the battle was over1 and plays a slighter rle1 since he cannot be reckoned any longer among the discoverers2 nevertheless he has a physiognomy of his own1 and one of peculiar charm4 ,the others were painters of nature2 ,daubigny is the painter of the country4 ,if one goes from ,munich to ,dachau to see the apple trees blossom and the birches growing green1 to breathe in the odour of the cow-house and the fragrance of the hay1 to hear the tinkle of cow-bells1 the croaking of frogs1 and the hum of gnats1 one does not say1 ,i want to see nature1 but ,i am going into the country4 ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau was the worshipper of nature1 while ,georges ,sand1 in certain of her novels1 has celebrated country life4 ,in this sense ,daubigny is less an adorer of nature than a man fond of the country4 ,his pictures give the feeling one has in standing at the window on a country excursion1 and looking at the laughing and budding spring4 ,one feels no veneration for the artist1 but one would like to be a bird to perch on those boughs1 a lizard to creep amongst this green1 a cockchafer to fly humming from tree to tree4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,troyon4 ,,the ,,return ,,to ,,the ,,farm4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,troyon4 ,a ,,cow ,,scratching ,,herself4 ,daubigny1 possibly1 has not the great and free creative power of the older artists1 their magnificent simplicity in treating objects3 the feminine element1 the susceptibility to natural beauty1 preponderates in him1 and not the virile1 creative power of embodiment1 which at once discovers in itself a telling force of expression for the image received from nature4 ,he seeks after no poetic emotions1 like ,dupr2 he has not the profound1 penetrative eye for nature1 like ,rousseau2 in his charm and amiability he approaches ,corot1 except that mythological beings are no longer at home in his landscapes4 ,they would take no pleasure in this odour of damp grass1 the smell of the cow-byres1 and the dilapidated old skiffs which rock1 in ,daubigny's pictures1 fastened to a swampy bank4 ,corot1 light1 delicate1 and simple as a boy1 sitting on a school-bench all his life1 is always veiled and mysterious4 ,daubigny1 heavier and technically better equipped1 has more power and less grace2 he dreams less and paints more4 ,corot made the apotheosis of nature3 his silvery grey clouds bore him to the ,elysian fields1 where nothing had the heaviness of earth and everything melted in poetic vapour4 ,daubigny1 borne by no wings of ,icarus1 seems like ,antus beside him2 he is bodily wedded to the earth4 ,dupr made the earth a mirror of the tears and passions of men4 ,corot surprised her before the peasant is up of a morning1 in the hours when she belongs altogether to the nymphs and the fairies4 ,in ,daubigny the earth has once more become the possession of human beings4 ,it is not often that figures move in his pictures4 ,even ,rousseau more often finds a place in his landscapes for the rustic1 but nature in him is hard1 unapproachable1 and deliberately indifferent to man4 ,she looks down upon him austerely1 closing and hardening her heart against him4 ,in ,daubigny nature is familiar with man1 stands near him1 and is kindly and serviceable4 ,the skiffs rocking at the river's brink betray that fishers are in the neighbourhood2 even when they are empty his little houses suggest that their inhabitants are not far off1 that they are but at work in the field and may come back at any moment4 ,in ,rousseau man is merely an atom of the infinite2 here he is the lord of creation4 ,rousseau makes an effect which is simple and powerful1 ,dupr one which is impassioned and striking1 ,corot is divine1 ,diaz charming1 and ,daubigny idyllic1 intimate1 and familiar4 ,he closed a period and enjoyed the fruits of what the others had called into being4 ,one does not admire him--one loves him4 ,he had passed his youth with his nurse in a little village1 surrounded with white-blossoming apple trees and waving fields of corn1 near ,l',isle ,adam4 ,here as a boy he received the impressions which made him a painter of the country1 and which were too strong to be obliterated by a sojourn in ,italy4 ,the best picture that he painted there showed a flat stretch of land with thistles4 ,a view of the island of ,st4 ,louis was the work with which he first appeared in the ,salon in #ahch4 ,daubigny is the painter of water1 murmuring silver-grey between ashes and oaks1 and reflecting the clouds of heaven in its clear mirror4 ,he is the painter of the spring in its fragrance1 when the meadows shine in the earliest verdure1 and the leaves but newly unfolded stand out against the sky as bright green patches of colour1 when the limes blossom and the crops begin to shoot4 ,a field of green corn waving gently beneath budding apple trees in the breeze of spring1 still rivers in which banks and bushy islands are reflected1 mills beside little streams rippling in silvery clearness over shining white pebbles1 cackling geese1 and washerwomen neatly spreading out their linen1 are things which ,daubigny has painted with the delicate feeling of a most impressionable lover of nature4 ,at the same time he had the secret of shedding over his pictures the most marvellous tint of delicate1 vaporous air2 especially in those representations1 at once so poetic and so accurate1 of evening by the water's edge1 or of bright moonlight nights1 when all things are sharply illuminated1 and yet softly shrouded with a dream-like exhalation4 ,his favourite light was that of cool evening dusk1 after the sun and every trace of the after-glow has vanished from the sky4 ,valmandois1 where he passed his youth1 and afterwards the ,oise1 with its green banks and vineyards and hedged gardens1 the most charming and picturesque river in ,north ,france1 are most frequently rendered in his pictures4 ,every day1 when nature put on her spring garb1 he sailed along the banks in a small craft1 with his son ,charles4 ,his most vigorous works were executed in the cabin of this vessel3 spirited sketches of regions delicately veiled in mist and bound with a magical charm of peace1 regions with the moon above them1 shedding its clear1 silver light--refined etchings which assure him a place of honour in the history of modern etching4 ,the painter of the banks of the ,oise saw everything with the curiosity and the love of a child1 and remained always a nave artist in spite of all his dexterity4 ,illustration3 ,,rosa ,,bonheur4 ,,the ,,horse-,,fair4 7,by permission of ,mr4 ,l4 ,h4 ,lefvre1 the owner of the copyright47 ,illustration3 ,,rosa ,,bonheur4 ,,ploughing ,,in ,,nivernois4 ,after these great masters had opened up the path a tribe of landscape painters set themselves to render1 each in his own way1 the vigorous power1 the tender charm1 and the plaintive melancholy of the earth4 ,some loved dusk and light1 the simple reproduction of ordinary places in their ordinary condition2 others delighted in the struggle of the elements1 the violent scudding of clouds1 the parting glance of the sun1 the sombre hours when nature shrouds her face with the mourning veil of a widow4 ,although he never tasted the pleasures of fame1 ,antoine ,chintreuil was the most refined of them all--an excessively sensitive spirit1 who seized with as much delicacy as daring swiftly transient effects of nature1 such as seldom appear3 the moment when the sun casts a fleeting radiance in the midst of clouds1 or when a shaft of light quivers for an instant through a dense mist2 the effect of green fields touched by the first soft beams of the sun1 or that of a rainbow spanning a fresh spring landscape4 ,his pupil ,jean ,desbrosses was the painter of hills and valleys4 ,achard followed ,rousseau in his pictures of lonely1 austere1 and mournful regions4 ,franais painted familiar corners in the neighbourhood of ,paris with grace1 although more heavily than ,corot1 and without the shining light which is poured through the works of that rare genius4 ,the pictures of ,harpignies are rather dry1 and betray a heavy hand4 ,he is rougher than his great predecessors1 less seductive and indeed rather staid1 but he has a convincing reality1 and is loyal and simple4 ,he is valuable as an honest1 genial artist1 a many-sided and sure-footed man of talent1 somewhat inclined to ,classicism4 mile ,breton1 the brother of ,jules1 delighted in the agitation of the elements1 wild1 out-of-the-way regions1 and harsh climate4 ,his execution is broad1 his tones forcible1 and he has both simplicity and largeness4 ,apart from his big1 gloomy landscapes1 ,lonce ,chabry has also painted sea-pieces1 with dark waves dashing against the cleft rocks4 ,illustration3 ,,van ,,marcke4 ,,la ,,falaise4 ,the representation of grazing animals plays a great part in the art of almost all of these painters4 ,some carried the love of animal painting so far that they never painted a landscape without introducing into the foreground their dearly loved herds of cows or flocks of sheep4 ,the key of the landscape1 the cheerful and sunny brilliancy of colour or the still melancholy of the evening dusk1 is harmoniously repeated in the habits and being of these animals4 ,thus1 too1 new paths were opened to animal painting1 which had suffered1 no less than landscape1 from the yoke of conventionality4 ,up to the close of the eighteenth century ,french artists had contented themselves with adapting to ,french taste the light and superficial art of ,nicolaus ,berghem4 ,demarne1 one of the last heirs of this ,dutch artist1 brought1 even in the period of the ,revolution1 a little sunshine1 blitheness1 and country air amongst the large pictures in the classical manner4 ,the animal painting of the ancien rgime expired in his arms1 and the noble style of ,classicism obstructed the rise of the new animal painting4 ,the fact that the great ,jupiter1 father of gods and men1 assumed the form of a four-footed creature when he led weak1 feminine beings astray had no doubt given a certain justification to the animal picture during the reign of the school of ,david4 ,but the artists preferred to hold aloof from it1 either because animals are hard to idealise in themselves1 or because the received antique sculpture of animals was difficult to employ directly in pictures4 ,in landscapes1 which gods and heroes alone honoured with their presence1 idealised animals would have been altogether out of place4 ,only animals which are very difficult to draw correctly1 such as sphinxes1 sirens1 and winged horses--beings which the old tragedians were fond of turning to account--are occasionally allowed to exist in the pictures of ,bertin and ,paul ,flandrin4 ,carle ,vernet1 who composed cavalry charges and hunting scenes1 had not talent enough seriously to make a breach1 or to find disciples to follow his lead4 ,gricault1 the forerunner of ,romanticism1 was likewise the first eminent painter of horses2 and although his great ,raft of the ,medusa is heavily fettered by the system of ,classicism1 his jockey pictures and horse races are as fresh1 as vivid1 and as unforced as if they had been painted yesterday instead of seventy years ago4 ,in dashing animation1 verve1 and temperament ,gricault stands alone in these pictures2 he is the very opposite of ,raymond ,brascassat1 who was the first specialist of animal pieces with a landscape setting1 and was much praised in the thirties on account of his neat and ornamental style of treatment4 ,brascassat was the ,winterhalter of animal painting1 neither ,classicist nor ,romanticist nor ,realist1 but the embodiment of mediocrity2 a man honestly and sincerely regarding all nature with the eyes of a ,philistine4 ,his fame1 which has so swiftly faded1 was founded by those patrons of art who above all demand that a picture should be the bald1 banal reproduction of fact1 made with all the accuracy possible4 ,illustration3 ,,charles ,,jacque4 ,,the ,,return ,,to ,,the ,,byre 7,,etching74 7,by permission of ,m4 ,frdric ,jacque1 the owner of the copyright47 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,charles ,,jacque4 ,a ,,flock ,,of ,,sheep ,,on ,,the ,,road4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,frdric ,jacque1 the owner of the copyright47 ,it was only when the landscape school of ,fontainebleau had initiated a new method of vision1 feeling1 and expression that ,france produced a new great painter of animals4 ,as ,dupr and ,rousseau tower over their predecessors ,cabat and ,flandrin in landscape1 so ,constant ,troyon rises above ,brascassat in animal painting4 ,in the latter there may be found a scrupulous pedantic observation in union with a thin1 polished1 academic1 and carefully arranged style of painting2 in the former1 a large and broad technique in harmony with wild nature1 and a directness and force of intuition without parallel in the history of art4 ,brascassat belongs to the same category as ,denner1 ,troyon to that of ,frans ,hals and ,brouwer4 ,there would be no purpose in saying anything of his labours in the china manufactory of ,svres1 of his industrial works1 and of the little classical views with which he made a first appearance in the ,salon in #ahcc1 or of the impulse which he received from ,roqueplan4 ,he first found his own powers when he made the acquaintance of ,thodore ,rousseau and ,jules ,dupr1 and migrated with them into the forest of ,fontainebleau4 ,at the headquarters of the new school his ideas underwent a revolution4 ,here1 in the first instance1 as a landscape painter1 he was attracted by the massive forms of cattle1 which make such a harmonious effect of colour in the atmosphere and against verdure1 and the philosophic quietude of which gives such admirable completion to the dreamy spirit of nature4 ,a journey to ,holland and ,belgium in #ahdg1 in the course of which he became more familiar with the old animal painters1 confirmed him in the resolve of devoting himself exclusively to this province4 ,he was captivated not so much by ,paul ,potter as by ,albert ,cuyp1 with his rich and powerful colouring1 and his technique1 which is at once so virile and so easy4 ,but above all ,rembrandt became his great ideal1 and filled him with wonder4 ,in his first masterpiece of #ahdi1 ,the ,mill1 the influence of the great ,dutch artist is clearly recognisable1 and from that time up to #ahee it remained dominant4 ,in this year1 during a prolonged sojourn in ,normandy1 he became ,troyon1 and painted ,oxen going to their ,work1 that mighty picture in the ,louvre which displays him in the zenith of his creative power4 ,till then no animal painter had rendered with such a combination of strength and actuality the long1 heavy gait1 the philosophical indifference1 and the quiet resignation of cattle1 the poetry of autumnal light1 and the mist of morning rising lightly from the earth and veiling the whole land with grey1 silvery hues4 ,the deeply furrowed smoking field makes an undulating ascent1 so that one seems to be looking at the horizon over the broad face of the earth4 ,a primitive1 ,homeric feeling rests over it4 ,troyon is perhaps not so correct as ,potter1 nor so lucid as ,albert ,cuyp1 but he is more forcible and impressive than either4 ,no one has ever seized the poetry of these heavy masses of flesh1 with their strong colour and largeness of outline1 as he has done4 ,what places him far above the old painters is his fundamental power as a landscapist1 a power unequalled except in ,rousseau4 ,his landscapes have always the smell of the earth1 and they smack of rusticity4 ,at one time he paints the atmosphere1 veiling the contours of objects with a light mist recalling ,corot1 and yet saturated with clear sunshine2 at another he sends his heavy1 fattened droves in the afternoon across field-paths bright in the sunlight and dark green meadows1 or places them beneath a sky where dense thunderclouds are swiftly rolling up4 ,troyon is no poet1 but a born painter1 belonging to the irrepressibly forceful family of ,jordaens and ,courbet1 a matre peintre of strength and plastic genius1 as healthy as he is splendid in colour4 ,his ,cow scratching ,herself and his ,return to the ,farm will always be counted amongst the most forcible animal pictures of all ages4 ,when he died in #ahfe1 after passing twelve years with a clouded intellect1 ,rosa ,bonheur sought to fill the place which he had left vacant4 ,she had already won the sympathies of the great public1 as she united in her pictures all the qualities which were missed in ,troyon1 and had the art of pleasing where he was repellent4 ,for a long time ,troyon's works were held by amateurs to be wanting in finish4 ,they did not acknowledge to themselves that finish in artistic creations is1 after all1 only a work of patience1 rather industrial than artistic1 and at bottom invented for the purpose of enticing half-trained connoisseurs4 ,rosa ,bonheur had this diligence1 and is indebted to it for the spread of her fame through all ,europe1 when ,troyon was only known as yet to the few4 ,the position has now been altered4 ,without doubt it is a pleasure to look at her fresh and sunny maiden picture of #ahdj1 ,ploughing in ,nivernois1 with its yoke of six oxen1 its rich red-brown soil turned up into furrows1 and its wide1 bright1 simple1 and laughing landscape beneath the clear blue sky4 ,she had all the qualities which may be appreciated without one's being an epicure of art--great anatomical knowledge1 dexterous technique1 charming and seductive colouring4 ,and it is an isolated fact in the history of art that a woman has painted pictures so good as the ,hay ,harvest in ,auvergne of #ahec1 with its brutes which are almost life-size1 or the ,horse ,fair of #ahee1 which is perhaps her most brilliant work1 and for which she made studies1 going in man's clothes for eighteen months1 at all the ,parisian manges1 amongst stable-boys and horse-dealers4 ,until her death1 from the ,chteau ,by1 between ,thomery and ,fontainebleau1 she carried on an extensive transpontine export1 and her pictures are by no means the worst of those which find their way from the ,continent to ,england and ,america4 ,she was perhaps the only feminine celebrity of the century who painted her pictures1 instead of working at them like knitting4 ,but ,troyon is a strong master who suffers no rival4 ,his landscapes1 with their deep verdure1 their powerful animals1 and their skies traversed by heavy clouds1 are the embodiment of power4 ,rosa ,bonheur is an admirable painter with largeness of style and beauty of drawing1 whose artistic position is between ,troyon and ,brascassat4 ,troyon's only pupil was mile van ,marcke1 half a ,belgian1 who met the elder master in ,svres1 and for a long time worked by his side at ,fontainebleau4 ,he united the occupation of a painter with that of a landed proprietor4 ,the cattle which he bred on an extensive scale at his property1 ,bouttencourt in ,normandy1 had a celebrity amongst ,french landowners1 as he had the reputation of rearing the best fat cattle4 ,he too had not the impressiveness of ,troyon1 though he was1 none the less1 a healthy and forcible master4 ,his animals have no passions1 no movement1 and no battles4 ,they seem lost in endless contemplation1 gravely and sedately chewing the cud4 ,around them stretch the soft green ,norman pastures1 and above them arches the wide sky1 which at the horizon imperceptibly melts into the sea4 ,jadin is a painter of horses and dogs who had once a great reputation1 though to-day his name is almost1 if not entirely forgotten4 ,he was fond of painting hunting scenes1 and is not wanting in life and movement2 but he is too impersonal to play a part in the history of painting4 ,having named him1 some mention must likewise be made of ,eugne ,lambert1 the painter of cats1 and ,palizzi1 who painted goats4 ,lambert1 who was fond of introducing his little heroes as the actors of comical scenes1 is by admission the chief amongst all those who were honoured amongst the different nations with the title of ,raphaels of the ,cat4 ,palizzi1 an incisive master of almost brutal energy1 a true son of the wild ,abruzzo hills1 delighted1 like his compatriots ,morelli and ,michetti1 in the blazing light of noon1 shining over rocky heights1 and throwing a dazzle of gold on the dark green copse4 ,lanon1 a rather arid painter1 though a draughtsman with a broad and masculine stroke1 was the greatest descendant of ,delacroix in the representation of tigers1 lions1 bears1 and hippopotamuses4 ,an unobtrusive artist1 though one of very genial talent1 was ,charles ,jacque1 the ,troyon of sheep4 ,he has been compared with the rageur of ,bas ,brau1 the proud oak which stands alone in a clearing4 ,a man of forcible character1 over whom age had no power1 he survived until #ahid as the last representative of the noble school of ,barbizon4 ,he has painted sheep in flocks or separately1 in the pasture1 on the verge of the field-path1 or in the fold2 and he loved most of all to paint them in the misty hours of evening twilight1 at peace and amid peaceful nature4 ,but in spirited etchings he has likewise represented old weather-beaten walls1 the bright films of spring1 the large outlines of peasant folk1 the tender down of young chickens1 the light play of the wind upon the sea1 murmuring brooks1 and quiet haunts of the wood4 ,like ,millet1 he had in an eminent degree the gift of simplification1 the greatest quality that an artist can have4 ,with three or four strokes he could plant a figure on its feet1 give life to an animal1 or construct a landscape4 ,he was the most intimate friend of ,jean ,franois ,millet1 and painted part of what ,millet painted also4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,,jean ,,fran,,ois ,,millet ,whence has ,millet come8 ,it was the time when art1 still blind to the life around1 could find no subjects worthy of it except in the past and in the distance4 ,then ,millet came and overthrew an art vegetating in museums or astray in tropical countries4 ,it was the time when ,leopold ,robert in ,italy tested the noble pose of the school of ,david upon the peasant1 and when the ,german painters of rustics recognised in the labourer an object for pleasantries and pathetic little scenes4 ,then ,millet stepped forward and painted1 with profound simplicity1 the people at work in the field1 or in their distress1 without sentimentality and without beautifying or idealising them4 ,that great utterance1 ,i work1 the utterance of the nineteenth century1 is here spoken aloud for the first time4 ,rousseau and his fellow-artists were the painters of the country4 ,millet became the painter of the labourer4 ,he1 the great peasant1 is the creator of that painting of peasants which is entwined with the deepest roots of intimate landscape4 ,misunderstood in the beginning1 it proclaimed for the first time the new gospel of art before which the people of all nations bow at the present date4 ,what others did later was merely to advance on the path opened by ,millet4 ,and as time passes the figure of this powerful man shines more and more brilliantly4 ,the form of ,jean ,franois ,millet rises so powerfully1 so imperiously1 and so suddenly that one might almost imagine him to have come from ,ibsen's third kingdom2 for he is without forerunners in art4 ,an attempt has been made to bring him into relation with the social and political movement of ideas in the forties1 but certainly this is unjust4 ,millet was in no sense revolutionary4 ,during his whole life he repudiated the designs which some of the democratic party imputed to him1 as well as the conclusions which they drew from his works4 ,millet's life in itself explains his art4 ,never have heart and hand1 a man and his work1 tallied with each other as they did in him4 ,he does not belong to those painters who1 even when one admires them1 give one nevertheless a sense that they could just as easily have produced something different4 ,let any one consider his works and read the letters published in ,sensier's book3 the man whom one knows from the letters lives in his works1 and these works are the natural illustration of the book in which the man has depicted himself4 ,in the unity of man and artist lies the source of his strength1 the secret of his greatness4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,jean ,,fran,,ois ,,millet4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself4 ,even the circumstances over which he triumphed necessitated his being the painter that he actually was1 if he became one at all4 ,he was not born in a city where a child's eyes are everywhere met by works of art--pictures which no doubt early awaken the feeling for art1 but which just as easily disturb a free outlook into nature4 ,moreover1 he did not spring from one of those families where art is itself practised1 or where art is discussed and taste early guided upon definite lines4 ,he was a peasant1 whose father and grandfather were peasants before him1 and whose brothers were farm labourers4 ,he was born in #ahad1 far away from ,paris1 in a little ,norman village hard by the sea1 and there he grew up4 ,the regular and majestic plunge of the waves against the granite rocks of the coast1 the solemn murmurs of the ebb and flow of the sea1 the moaning of the wind in the apple trees and the old oaks of his father's garden1 were the first sounds which struck upon the ear in ,gruchy1 near ,cherbourg4 ,it has been adduced that his father loved music1 and had had success as the leader of the village choir4 ,but though there may have always been a dim capacity for art in the youngster's blood1 there was nothing calculated to strengthen it in his education4 ,millet's sturdy father had no idea of making an artist of his son2 the boy saw no artist at work in the neighbourhood2 nature and instinct guided him alone4 ,for a man brought up in a city and trained at an academy all things become hackneyed4 ,many centuries of artistic usage have dimmed their original freshness2 and he finds a ready-made phrase coined for everything4 ,millet stood before the world like the first man in the day of creation4 ,everything seemed new to him2 he was charmed and astonished1 and a wild flood of impressions burst in upon him4 ,he did not come under the influence of any tradition1 but approached art like the man in the age of stone who first scratched the outline of a mammoth on a piece of ivory1 or like the primval ,greek who1 according to the legend1 invented painting by making a likeness of his beloved with a charred stick upon a wall4 ,no one encouraged him in his first attempts4 ,no one dreamt that this young man was destined to any life other than that of a peasant4 ,from the time he was fourteen until he was eighteen he did every kind of field labour upon his father's land in the same way as his brothers--hoeing1 digging1 ploughing1 mowing1 threshing1 sowing the seed1 and dressing the ground4 ,but he always had his eyes about him2 he drew upon a white patch of wall1 without guidance1 the picture of a tree1 an orchard1 or a peasant whom he had chanced to meet on a ,sunday when going to church4 ,and he drew so correctly that every one recognised the likenesses4 ,a family council was held upon the matter4 ,his father brought one of his son's drawings to a certain ,m4 ,mouchel in ,cherbourg1 a strange personage who had once been a painter and had the reputation of being a connoisseur2 and he was to decide whether ,franois had really enough talent for painting to gain his bread by it4 ,so ,millet1 the farm-hand1 was twenty when he received his first lessons in drawing4 ,he was learning the ,a ,b ,c of art1 but humanly speaking he was already ,millet4 ,what had roused his talent and induced him to take a stump of charcoal in his hand was not the study of any work of art1 but the sight of nature--nature1 the great mother of all1 who had embraced him1 nature with whom and through whom he lived4 ,through her1 visions and emotions were quickened in him1 and he felt the secret impulse to give them expression4 ,illustration3 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,house ,,at ,,gruchy4 ,of what concerned the manual part of his art he understood nothing1 and his two teachers in ,cherbourg1 ,mouchel and ,langlois1 who were half-barbarians themselves1 gave him the less knowledge1 as only two months later1 in #ahce1 his father died1 and the young man returned to his own people as a farm-labourer once more4 ,and it was only after an interruption of three years that a subsidy from the community of ,cherbourg1 which was collected by his teacher ,langlois1 and a small sum saved by his parents--six hundred francs all told--enabled him to journey up to ,paris4 ,he was twenty-three years of age1 a broad-chested ,hercules in stature1 for till that time he had breathed nothing but the pure1 sharp sea air2 his handsome face was framed in long fair locks1 which fell wildly about his shoulders4 ,what had this peasant to do in the capital6 ,in ,delaroche's school he was called l'homme des bois4 ,he had all the awkwardness of a provincial1 and the artist was only to be surmised from the fire in the glance of his large dark blue eyes4 ,at first ,delaroche took peculiar pains with his new pupil4 ,but to submit to training is to follow the lead of another person4 ,a man like ,millet1 who knew what he wanted1 was no longer to be guided upon set lines4 ,the pictures of ,delaroche made no appeal to him4 ,they struck him as being huge vignettes1 theatrical effects without any real sentiment4 ,and ,delaroche soon lost patience with the clumsy peasant1 whom he--most unfairly--regarded as stiff-necked and obstinate4 ,other aims floated before ,millet1 and he could not now learn to produce academical compositions1 so1 as these were alone demanded in the school of ,delaroche1 he never cleared himself from a reputation for mediocrity4 ,it was the period of the war between the ,classicists and the ,romanticists4 ,an ,ingres1 a ,delacroix6 was the battle-cry that rang through the ,parisian studios4 ,for ,millet neither of these movements had any existence4 ,his memory only clung to the plains of ,normandy1 and the labourers1 shepherds1 and fishermen of his home1 with whom he mingled in spirit once more4 ,incessantly he believed himself to hear what he has called le cri de la terre1 and neither ,romanticists nor ,classicists caught anything of this cry of the earth4 ,he lived alone with his own thoughts1 associating with none of his fellow-artists1 and indeed keeping out of their way4 ,always prepared for some scornful attempt at witticism1 he turned his easel round whenever he was approached1 or gruffly cut all criticism short with the remark3 ,what does my painting matter to you8 ,i don't trouble my head about your bread and grease4 ,thus it was that ,delaroche certainly taught him very little of the technique of painting1 though1 at the same time1 he taught him no mannerism4 ,he did not learn to paint pretty pictures with beautiful poses1 flattering colour1 and faces inspired with intellect4 ,he left the studio as he had entered it in #ahcg1 painting with an awkward1 thick1 heavy1 and laborious brush1 though with the fresh1 untroubled vision which he had had in earlier days4 ,he was still the stranger1 the incorrigible ,norman peasant4 ,for a time he exerted himself to make concessions to the public4 ,at seven-and-twenty he had married a ,cherbourg girl1 who died of consumption three years afterwards4 ,without acquaintances in ,paris1 and habituated to domestic life from his youth upwards1 he married a second time in #ahde4 ,he had to earn his bread1 to please1 to paint what would sell4 ,so he toiled over pretty pictures of nude women1 like those which ,diaz had painted with such great success--fair shepherdesses and gallant herdsmen1 and bathing girls1 in the genre of ,boucher and ,fragonard4 ,and he who did this spoke of both of them afterwards as pornographists4 ,but the attempt was vain1 for he satisfied neither others nor himself4 ,the peasant of ,gruchy could not be piquant1 easy1 and charming2 on the contrary1 he remained helpless1 awkward1 and crude4 ,your women bathing come from the cow-house was the appropriate remark of ,diaz in reference to these pictures4 ,when ,burger-,thor1 who was the first to take notice of ,millet1 declared1 on the occasion of ,the ,milkmaid being exhibited in #ahdd1 that ,boucher himself was surpassed in this picture1 the critic took a literary licence1 because he had a human pity for the poor painter4 ,how little the picture has of the fragrance of the old masters6 how laboured it seems6 how obvious it is that it was painted without pleasure6 ,millet was not long at pains to conceal his personality4 ,an ,oedipus and ,the ,jewish ,captives in ,babylon were his last rhetorical exercises4 ,in #ahdh he came forward with a manifesto--,the ,winnower1 a peasant in movement and bearing1 in his whole character and in the work on which he is employed4 ,millet returns here to the thoughts and feelings of his youth2 for the future he will paint nothing but peasants in all the situations of their rude and simple life4 ,in #ahdi he made a great resolve4 ,illustration3 ,f4 ,,jacque4 ,,millet ,,at ,,work ,,in ,,his ,,studio4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,f4 ,jacque1 the owner of the copyright47 ,the sale of his ,winnower had brought him five hundred francs1 and these five hundred francs gave him courage to defy the world4 ,better turn bricklayer than paint against conviction4 ,charles ,jacque1 the painter of animals1 who lived opposite to him in the ,rue ,rochechouard1 wanted to quit ,paris in #ahdi on account of the outbreak of cholera4 ,he proposed that ,millet should go with him into the country for a short time2 he did so1 and the peasant's son of former times became once more a peasant1 to end his days amongst peasants4 ,in the middle of the forest of ,fontainebleau1 said ,jacque1 there is a little nest1 with a name ending in 'zon'--not far off and cheap1--,diaz has been telling me a great deal about it4 ,millet consented4 ,one fine ,june day they got into a heavy1 rumbling omnibus1 with their wives and their five children1 and they arrived in ,fontainebleau that evening after two hours' journey4 ,to-morrow we are going in search of our 'zon4' ,and the next day they went forward on foot to ,barbizon1 ,millet with his two little girls upon his shoulders1 and his wife carrying in her arms the youngest child1 a boy of five months old1 having her skirt drawn over her head as a protection against the rain4 ,illustration3 ,f4 ,,jacque4 ,,millet',s ,,house ,,at ,,barbizon4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,f4 ,jacque1 the owner of the copyright47 ,as yet the forest had no walks laid out as it has to-day2 it was virgin nature1 which had never been disturbed4 ,mon ,dieu1 mon ,dieu1 que c'est beau6 cried ,millet1 exulting4 ,once more he stood in the presence of nature1 the old love of his youth4 ,the impressions of childhood rushed over him4 ,born in the country1 he had to return to the country to be himself once again4 ,he arrived at ,ganne's inn just as the dinner-hour had assembled twenty persons at the table1 artists with their wives and children4 ,new painters6 ,the pipe1 the pipe6 was the cry which greeted the fresh arrivals4 ,diaz rose1 and1 in spite of his wooden leg1 did the honours of the establishment to the two women with the dignity of a ,spanish nobleman1 and then turned gravely to ,millet and ,jacque1 saying3 ,citizens1 you are invited to smoke the pipe of peace4 ,whenever the colony of ,barbizon received an addition this was always taken down from its sacred place above the door4 ,an expressly appointed jury had then to decide from the ascending rings of smoke whether the new-comer was to be reckoned amongst the ,classicists or the ,colourists4 ,jacque was with one voice declared to be a ,colourist4 ,as to ,millet's relation to the schools1 there was a discrepancy of opinion4 ,eh bien1 said ,millet1 si vous tes embarrasss1 placez-moi dans la mienne4 ,whereupon ,diaz1 as the others would not let this pass1 cried3 ,be quiet2 it is a good retort1 and the fellow looks powerful enough to found a school which will bury us all4 ,he was right1 even though it was late before his prophecy was fulfilled4 ,illustration3 ,quantin1 ,paris4 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,winnower4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,charles ,millet47 ,millet was thirty-five when he settled in ,barbizon2 he had reached the age which ,dante calls the middle point of life4 ,he had no further tie with the outward world2 he had broken all the bridges behind him1 and relied upon himself4 ,he only went back to ,paris on business1 and he always did so unwillingly and for as short a time as possible4 ,he lived at ,barbizon in the midst of nature and in the midst of his models1 and to his last day unreservedly gave himself up to the work which in youth he had felt himself called to fulfil4 ,neither criticism1 mockery1 nor contempt could lead him any more astray2 even if he had wished it1 he would have been incapable of following the paths of official art4 ,mes critiques1 said he as though by way of excuse1 sont gens instruits et de got1 mais je ne peux me mettre dans leur peau1 et comme je n'ai jamais vu de ma vie autre chose que les champs1 je tche de dire comme je peux ce que j'y ai prouv quand j'y travaillais4 ,when such a man triumphs1 when he succeeds in forcing upon the world his absolutely personal art1 it is not ,mahomet who has come to the mountain1 but the mountain to ,mahomet4 ,millet's life has been1 in consequence1 a continuous series of renunciations4 ,it is melancholy to read in ,sensier's biography that such a master1 even during his ,paris days1 was forced to turn out copies at twenty francs and portraits at five1 and to paint tavern signs or placards for the booths of rope-dancers and horse-dealers1 each one of which brought him in a roll of thick sous4 ,when the ,revolution of ,june broke out his capital consisted of thirty francs1 which the owner of a small shop had paid him for a sign1 and on this he and his family lived for a fortnight4 ,in ,barbizon he boarded with a peasant and lived with his family in a tiny room where wheat was stored and where bread was baked twice in the week2 then he took a little house at a hundred and sixty francs a year4 ,in winter he sat in a workroom without a fire1 in thick straw shoes and with an old horse-cloth over his shoulders4 ,living like this he painted ,the ,sower1 that marvellous strophe in his great poem on the earth4 ,by the produce of a vegetable garden he endeavoured to increase his income1 lived on credit with grocer and butcher1 and at last had creditors in every direction--in particular ,gobillot1 the baker of ,chailly1 from whom he often hid at his friend ,jacque's4 ,he was forced to accept a loaf from ,rousseau for his famishing family1 and small sums with which he was subsidised by ,diaz4 ,i have received the hundred francs1 he writes in a letter to ,sensier1 and they came just at the right time2 neither my wife nor ,i had tasted food for four-and-twenty hours4 ,it is a blessing that the little ones1 at any rate1 have not been in want4 ,illustration3 ,neurdein ,frres1 photo4 ,,millet4 ,a ,,man ,,making ,,faggots4 ,illustration3 ,levy et ses ,fils1 photo4 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,gleaners4 ,all his efforts to exhibit in ,paris were vain4 ,even in #ahei ,death and the ,woodcutter was rejected by the ,salon4 ,the public laughed1 being accustomed to peasants in a comic opera1 and1 at best1 his pictures were honoured by a caricature in a humorous paper4 ,even the most delicate connoisseurs had not the right historical perspective to appreciate the greatness of ,millet1 so far was it in advance of the age4 ,and all this is so much the sadder when one thinks of the price which his works fetched at a later period1 when one reads that drawings for which he could get with difficulty from twenty to forty francs are the works for which as many thousands are now offered4 ,it was only from the middle of the fifties that he began to sell at the rate of from two hundred and fifty to three hundred francs a picture4 ,rousseau was the first to offer him a large sum1 buying his ,woodcutter for four thousand francs1 on the pretext that an ,american was the purchaser4 ,dupr helped him to dispose of ,the ,gleaners for two thousand francs4 ,an agreement which the picture-dealer ,arthur ,stevens1 brother of ,stevens the painter1 concluded with him had to be dissolved six months afterwards1 since ,millet's time had not yet come4 ,at last1 in #ahfc1 when he painted four large decorative pictures--,the ,four ,seasons1 which are1 by the way1 his weakest works--for the dining-room of the architect ,feydau1 superfluity came in place of need4 ,he was then in a position1 like ,rousseau and ,jacque1 to buy himself a little house in ,barbizon1 close to the road by which the place is entered and opposite ,ganne's inn4 ,wild vine1 ivy1 and jessamine clambered round it1 and two bushes of white roses twisted their branches around the window4 ,it was surrounded by a large garden1 in which field-flowers bloomed amongst vegetables and fruit-trees1 whilst a border of white roses and elders led to another little house which he used as a studio4 ,behind was a poultry-yard1 and behind that again a thickly grown little shrubbery4 ,here he lived1 simple and upright1 with his art and his own belongings1 as a peasant and a father of a family1 like an ,old ,testament patriarch4 ,his father had had nine children1 and he himself had nine4 ,while he painted the little ones played in the garden1 the elder daughters worked1 and when the younger children made too much noise1 ,jeanne1 who was seven years old1 would say with gravity1 ,chut6 ,papa travaille4 ,after the evening meal he danced his youngest boy upon his knee and told ,norman tales1 or they all went out together into the forest1 which the children called la fort noire1 because it was so wild1 gloomy1 and magnificent4 ,millet's poverty was not quite so great as might be supposed from ,sensier's book4 ,chintreuil1 ,thodore ,rousseau1 and many others were acquainted with poverty likewise1 and bore it with courage4 ,it may even be said that1 all things considered1 success came to ,millet early4 ,the real misfortune for an artist is to have had success1 to have been rich1 and later to see himself forgotten when he is stricken with poverty4 ,millet's course was the opposite4 ,from the beginning of the sixties his reputation was no longer in question4 ,at the ,world ,exhibition of #ahfg he was showered with all outward honours4 ,he was represented by nine pictures and received the great medal4 ,the whole world knew his name1 subsistence was abundantly assured to him1 and all the younger class of artists honoured him like a god4 ,in the ,salon of #ahfi he was on the hanging committee4 ,the picture-dealers1 who had passed him by in earlier days1 now beset his doors2 he lived to see his ,woman with the ,lamp for which he had received a hundred and fifty francs1 sold for thirty-eight thousand five hundred at ,richard's sale4 ,allons1 ils commencent comprendre que c'est de la peinture serieuse4 ,m4 de ,chennevires commissioned him to take part in the paintings in the ,panthon1 and he began the work4 ,but strength was denied him2 he was prostrated by a violent fever1 and on #bjth ,january #ahge1 at six o'clock in the morning1 ,millet was dead4 ,he was then sixty4 ,illustration3 ,mansell ,co4 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,wood ,,sawyers4 ,his funeral1 indeed1 was celebrated with no great parade1 for it took place far from ,paris4 ,it was a cold1 dull morning1 and there was mist and rain4 ,not many friends had come1 only a few painters and critics4 ,at eleven o'clock the procession was set in order4 ,and it moved in the rain quickly over the two centimtres from ,barbizon to ,chailly4 ,even those who had hastened from various villages1 drawn by curiosity1 could not half fill the church4 ,but in ,paris the announcement of death raised all the greater stir4 ,when forty newspapers were displayed in a picture-dealer's shop on the morning after his demise1 all ,paris assembled and the excitement was universal4 ,in the critical notices he was named in the same breath with ,watteau1 ,leonardo1 ,raphael1 and ,michael ,angelo4 ,the auction which was held soon afterwards in the ,htel ,drouot for the disposal of the sketches which he had left behind him brought his family three hundred and twenty-one thousand francs4 ,and in these days1 the very drawings and pastels which were bought for six thousand francs immediately after his death have on the average risen in value to thirty thousand1 while the greater number of his pictures rose to a figure beyond the reach of ,european purchasers1 and passed across the ocean to the happy land of dollars4 ,under such circumstances to speak any longer of ,millet being misunderstood1 or to sing hymns of praise upon him as a counterblast to the undervaluation of ,millet in the beginning1 would be knocking at an open door4 ,it is merely necessary to inquire in an entirely objective spirit what position he occupies in the history of modern painting1 and what future generations will say of him4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,millet4 ,,vine-,,dresser ,,resting4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,charles ,millet47 ,millet's importance is to some extent ethical2 he is not the first who painted peasants1 but he is the first who has represented them truthfully1 in all their ruggedness1 and likewise in their greatness--not for the amusement of others1 but as they claim a right to their own existence4 ,the spirit of the rustic is naturally grave and heavy1 and the number of his ideas and emotions is small4 ,he has neither wit nor sentimentalism4 ,and when in his leisure moments he sometimes gives way to a broad1 noisy merriment1 his gaiety often resembles intoxication1 and is not infrequently its consequence4 ,his life1 which forces him to earn his bread by the sweat of his brow1 always reminds him of the hard fundamental conditions of existence4 ,he looks at everything in a spirit of calculation and strict economy4 ,even the earth he stands on wakens in him a mood of seriousness4 ,it is gravely sublime1 this nature with its wide horizon and its boundless sky4 ,at certain seasons it wears a friendly smile1 especially for those who have escaped for a few hours from town4 ,but for him who always lives in its midst it is not the good1 tender mother that the townsman fancies4 ,it has its oppressive heats in summer and its bitter winter frosts2 its majesty is austere4 ,and nowhere more austere than in ,millet's home1 amid those plains of ,normandy1 swept by the rude wind1 where he spent his youth as a farm labourer4 ,from this peasant life1 painting1 before his time1 had collected merely trivial anecdotes with a conventional optimism4 ,it was through no very adequate conception of man that peasants1 in those earlier pictures1 had always to be celebrating marriages1 golden weddings1 and baptisms1 dancing rustic dances1 making comic proposals1 behaving themselves awkwardly with advocates1 or scuffling in the tavern for the amusement of those who frequent exhibitions4 ,they had really won their right to existence by their labour4 ,the most joyful thing ,i know1 writes ,millet in a celebrated letter to ,sensier in #ahea1 is the peace1 the silence1 that one enjoys in the woods or on the tilled lands4 ,one sees a poor1 heavily laden creature with a bundle of faggots advancing from a narrow path in the fields4 ,the manner in which this figure comes suddenly before one is a momentary reminder of the fundamental condition of human life1 toil4 ,on the tilled land around one watches figures hoeing and digging4 ,one sees how this or that one rises and wipes away the sweat with the back of his hand4 ',in the sweat of thy face shalt thou eat bread4' ,is that merry1 enlivening work1 as some people would like to persuade us8 ,and yet it is here that ,i find the true humanity1 the great poetry4 ,perhaps in his conception of peasant life ,millet has been even a little too serious2 perhaps his melancholy spirit has looked too much on the sad side of the peasant's life4 ,for ,millet was altogether a man of temperament and feelings4 ,his family life had made him so even as a boy4 ,to see this1 one needs only to read in ,sensier's book of his old grandmother1 who was his godmother likewise1 to hear how he felt in after-years the news of his father's death and of his mother's1 and how he burst into tears because he had not given his last embrace to the departed4 ,of course1 a man who was so sad and dreamy might be expected to lay special stress on the dark side of rustic life1 its toil and trouble and exhaustion4 ,he had not that easy spirit which amara lento temperat risu4 ,the passage beneath the peasant-picture in ,holbein's ,dance of ,death might stand as motto for his whole work-- la sueur de ton visage ,tu gagneras ta pauvre vie2 ,aprs travail et long usage ,voici la mort qui te convie4 ,illustration3 ,mansell1 photo4 ,,millet4 ,,at ,,the ,,well4 ,illustration3 ,neudein ,frres1 photo4 ,,millet4 ,,burning ,,weeds4 ,this grave and sad trait in ,millet's character sets him1 for example1 in abrupt contrast with ,corot4 ,corot had a cheerful temperament1 which noticed what was kindly in nature everywhere4 ,his favourite hour was morning1 when the sun rises and the lark exults1 when the mists are dissipated and the shining dew lies upon the grass like pearls4 ,his favourite season was spring1 bringing with the new leaves life and joy upon the earth4 ,and if he sometimes peopled this laughing world with peasant lads and maidens in place of the joyous creatures of his fancy1 they were only those for whom life is a feast rather than a round of hard toil4 ,compared with so sanguine a man as ,corot1 ,millet is melancholy all through2 whilst the former renders the spring1 the latter chooses the oppressive and enervating sultriness of summer4 ,from experience he knew that hard toil which makes men old before their time1 which kills body and spirit1 and turns the image of ,god into an ugly1 misshapen1 and rheumatic thing2 and perhaps he has been one-sided in seeing only this in the life of the peasant4 ,nevertheless1 it is inapposite to cite as a parallel to ,millet's paintings of the peasant that cruel description of the rustic made in the time of ,louis ,,xiv by ,labruyre3 ,one sees scattered over the field dwarfed creatures that look like some strange kind of animal1 black1 withered1 and sun-burnt1 fastened to the earth1 in which they grub with invincible stubbornness2 they have something resembling articulate language1 and when they raise themselves they show a human countenance1--as a matter of fact they are men4 ,at night they retire to their holes1 where they live on black bread1 water1 and roots4 ,they save other men the trouble of sowing1 ploughing1 and gathering in the harvest1 and so gain the advantage of not themselves being in want of the bread that they have sown4 ,yes1 ,millet's peasants toil1 and they toil hard1 but in bowing over the earth at their work they are1 in a sense1 proudly raised by their whole peasant nature4 ,millet has made human beings out of the manikins of illustrated humour1 and in this lies his ethical greatness4 ,as his whole life passed without untruth or artificiality1 so his whole endeavour as an artist was to keep artificiality and untruth at a distance4 ,after a period of genre painting which disposed of things in an arbitrary manner1 he opened a way for the new movement with its unconditional devotion to reality4 ,the historical painters having conjured up the past with the assistance of old masterpieces1 it was something to the credit of the genre painters that1 instead of looking back1 they began to look around them4 ,fragments of reality were arranged--in correspondence with the principle of ,classical landscape painting--according to the rules of composition known to history to make tableaux vivants crowded with figures2 and such pictures related a cheerful or a moving episode of the painter's invention4 ,millet's virtue is to have set emotion in the place of invention1 to have set a part of nature grasped in its totality with spontaneous freshness in the place of composition pieced together from scattered observation and forcing life into inconsistent relations--to have set painting in the place of history and anecdote4 ,as ,rousseau and his fellows discovered the poetry of work-a-day nature1 ,millet discovered that of ordinary life4 ,the foundation of modern art could only be laid on painting which no longer subjected the world to one-sided rules of beauty1 but set itself piously to watch for the beauty of things as they were1 and renounced all literary episodes4 ,millet does not appear to think that any one is listening to him2 he communes with himself alone4 ,he does not care to make his ideas thoroughly distinct and salient by repetitions and antitheses2 he renders his emotion1 and that is all4 ,and thus painting receives new life from him3 his pictures are not compositions that one sees1 but emotions that one feels2 it is not a painter who speaks through them1 but1 a man4 ,from the first he had the faculty of seeing things simply1 directly1 and naturally2 and to exercise himself in this faculty he began with the plainest things3 a labourer in the field1 resting upon his spade and looking straight before him2 a sower amid the furrows1 on which flights of birds are settling down2 a man standing in a ploughed field1 putting on his coat2 a woman stitching in a room2 a girl at the window behind a pot of marguerites4 ,he is never weary of drawing land broken up for cultivation1 and oftener still he draws huddled flocks of sheep upon a heath1 their woolly backs stretching with an undulatory motion1 and a shepherd lad or a girl in their midst4 ,the ,sower 7#ahej71 ,the ,peasants going to their ,work1 ,the ,hay-trussers1 ,the ,reapers1 ,a ,sheep-shearer1 ,the ,labourer grafting a ,tree 7#ahee71 ,a ,shepherd1 and ,the ,gleaners 7#aheg7 are his principal works in the fifties4 ,and what a deep intuition of nature is to be found in ,the ,gleaners6 ,they have no impassioned countenances1 and their movements aim at no declamatory effect of contrast4 ,they do not seek compassion1 but merely do their work4 ,it is this which gives them loftiness and dignity4 ,they are themselves products of nature1 plants of which the commonest is not without a certain pure and simple beauty4 ,look at their hands4 ,they are not hands to be kissed1 but to be cordially pressed4 ,they are brave hands1 which have done hard work from youth upwards--reddened with frost1 chapped by soda1 swollen with toil1 or burnt by the sun4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,angelus4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,georges ,petit1 the owner of the copyright47 ,the ,labourer grafting a ,tree of #ahee is entirely idyllic4 ,in the midst of one of those walled-in spaces which are half courtyard and half garden1 separating in villages the barns from the house1 there is standing a man who has cut a tree and is grafting a fresh twig4 ,his wife is looking on1 with their youngest child in her arms4 ,everything around bears the mark of order1 cleanliness1 and content4 ,their clothes have neither spot nor hole1 and wear well under the anxious care of the wife4 ,here is the old ,french peasant1 true to the soil1 and living and dying in the place of his birth3 it is a picture of patriarchal simplicity4 ,in #ahei appeared ,the ,angelus1 that work which chimes like a low-toned and far-off peal of bells4 ,i mean1 he said--,i mean the bells to be heard sounding1 and only natural truth of expression can produce the effect4 ,nothing is wanting in these creations1 neither simplicity nor truth4 ,the longer they are looked at1 the more something is seen in them which goes beyond reality4 ,the ,man with the ,mattock1 the celebrated picture of #ahfc1 is altogether a work of great style2 it recalls antique statues and the figures of ,michael ,angelo1 without in any way resembling them4 ,in his daring veracity ,millet despised all the artificial grace and arbitrary beatification which others introduced into rustic life2 and while1 in turning from it1 he rested only on the most conscientious reverence for nature1 his profound draughtsmanlike knowledge of the human form has given a dignity and a large style to the motions of the peasant which no one discovered before his time4 ,there is a simplicity1 a harmony1 and a largeness in the lines of his pictures such as only the greatest artists have had4 ,he reached it in the same way as ,rousseau and ,corot reached their style in landscape3 absorbed and saturated by reality1 he was able1 in the moment of creation1 to dispense with the model without suffering for it1 and to attain truth and condensation without being hindered by petty detail4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,shepherdess ,,and ,,her ,,sheep4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,charles ,millet47 ,he himself went about in ,barbizon like a peasant4 ,and he might have been seen wandering over the woods and fields with an old1 red cloak1 wooden shoes1 and a weather-beaten straw hat4 ,he rose at sunrise1 and wandered about the country as his parents had done4 ,he guarded no flocks1 drove no cows1 and no yokes of oxen or horses2 he carried neither mattock nor spade1 but rested on his stick2 he was equipped only with the faculty of observation and poetic intuition4 ,he went about like the people he met1 roamed round the houses1 entered the courtyards1 looked over the hedges1 knew the gleaners and reapers1 the girls who took care of the geese1 and the shepherds in their big cloaks1 as they stood motionless amongst their flocks1 resting on a staff4 ,he entered the wash-house1 the bake-house1 and the dairies where the butter was being churned4 ,he witnessed the birth of a calf or the death of a pig1 or leant with folded arms on the garden wall and looked into the setting sun1 as it threw a rosy veil over field and forest4 ,he heard the chime of vesper bells1 watched the people pray and then return home4 ,and he returned also1 and read the ,bible by lamplight1 while his wife sewed and the children slept4 ,when all was quiet he closed the book and began to dream4 ,once more he saw all that he had come across in the course of the day4 ,he had gone out without canvas or colours2 he had merely noted down in passing a few motives in his sketch-book3 as a rule he never took his pencil from his pocket1 but merely meditated1 his mind being compelled to notice all that his eye saw4 ,then he went through it again in his memory4 ,on the morrow he painted4 ,illustration3 ,quantin1 ,paris4 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,shepherd ,,at ,,the ,,pen ,,at ,,nightfall4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,charles ,millet47 ,his study seems to have been an incessant exercise of the eye to see and to retain the essential1 the great lines in nature as in the human body4 ,advancing upon ,daumier's path1 he divested figures of all that is merely accidental1 and simplified them1 to bring the character and ground-note more into relief4 ,this simplification1 this marvellous way of expressing forcibly as much as possible with the smallest means1 no one has ever understood like ,millet4 ,there is nothing superfluous1 nothing petty1 and everything bears witness to an epic spirit attracted by what is great and heroic4 ,his drawing was never encumbered by what was subsidiary and anecdotic2 his mind was fixed on the decisive lines which characterise a movement1 and give it rhythm4 ,it was just this feeling for rhythm which his harmonious nature possessed in the very highest degree4 ,he did not give his peasants ,grecian noses1 and he never lost himself in arid and trivial observation2 he simplified and sublimated their outlines1 making them the heroes and martyrs of toil4 ,his figures have a majesty of style1 an august grandeur2 and something almost resembling the antique style of relief is found in his pictures4 ,it is no doubt characteristic that the only works of art which he had in his studio were plaster casts of the metopes of the ,parthenon4 ,he himself was like a man of antique times1 both in the simplicity of his life and in his outward appearance--a peasant in wooden shoes who had1 set upon his shoulders1 the head of the ,zeus of ,otricoli4 ,and as his biography reads like an ,homeric poem1 so his great and simple art sought for what was primitive1 aboriginal1 and heroic4 ,note the ,michelangelesque motions of ,the ,sower4 ,the peasant1 striding on with a firm tread1 seems to show by his large movements his consciousness of the grandeur of his daily toil3 he is the heroic embodiment of man1 swaying the earth1 making it fruitful and subservient to his own purposes4 ,il marche dans la plaine immense1 ,va1 vient1 lance la graine au loin1 ,rouvre sa main et recommence2 ,et je mdite1 obscur tmoin1 ,pendant que dployant ses voiles ,l'ombre o se mle une rumeur ,semble largir jusqu'aux toiles ,le geste auguste du semeur4 ,note the epical quietude of ,the ,gleaners1 the three ,fates of poverty1 as ,gautier called them1 the priestly dignity of ,the ,woodcutter1 the almost ,indian solemnity of ,the ,woman leading her ,cow to ,grass4 ,she stands in her wooden shoes as if on a pedestal1 her dress falls into sculpturesque folds1 and a grave and melancholy hebetude is imprinted on her countenance4 ,millet is the ,michael ,angelo of peasants4 ,in their large simplicity his pictures make the appeal of religious painting1 at once plastic and mystical4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,millet4 ,a ,,woman ,,feeding ,,chickens4 ,but it is in no sense merely through instinct that ,millet has attained this altitude of style4 ,although the son of a peasant1 and himself a peasant and the painter of peasants1 he knew thoroughly well what he wanted to do2 and this aim of his he has not only formulated practically in his pictures1 but has made theoretically clear in his letters and treatises4 ,for ,millet was not simply a man who had a turn for dreaming2 he had1 at the same time1 a brooding1 philosophic mind1 in which the ideas of a thinker were harboured beside the emotions of a poet4 ,in the portrait of himself1 given on the title-page of ,sensier's book1 a portrait in which he has something sickly1 something ethereal and tinged with romance1 only one side of his nature is expressed4 ,the great medallion of ,chappu reveals the other side3 the keen1 consecutive thinker1 to be found in the luminous and remorselessly logical letters4 ,in this respect he is the true representative of his race4 ,in opposition to the esprit and graceful levity of the ,parisian1 a quieter and more healthy human understanding counts as the chief characteristic of the ,norman2 and this clear and precise capacity for thought was intensified in ,millet by incessant intellectual training4 ,illustration3 ,mansell1 photo4 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,shepherdess4 ,even as a child he had received a good education from his uncle1 who was an ecclesiastic1 and he learnt enough ,latin to read the ,georgics of ,virgil and other ancient authors in the original text4 ,he knows them almost by heart1 and cites them continually in his letters4 ,when he came to ,paris he spent long hours in the galleries1 not copying this or that portion of a picture1 but fathoming works of art to their inmost core with a clear eye4 ,in ,cherbourg he devoured the whole of ,vasari in the library1 and read all he could find about ,drer1 ,leonardo1 ,michael ,angelo1 and ,poussin4 ,even in ,barbizon he remained throughout his whole life an eager reader4 ,shakespeare fills him with admiration2 ,theocritus and ,burns are his favourite poets4 ,theocritus makes it evident to me1 he says1 that one is never more ,greek than when one simply renders one's own impressions1 let them come whence they may4 ,when not painting or studying nature he had always a book in his hand1 and knew no more cordial pleasure than when a friend increased his little library by the present of a fresh one4 ,though in his youth he tilled the ground and ploughed1 and in later days lived like a peasant1 he was better instructed than most painters2 he was a philosopher1 a scholar4 ,his manner in speaking was leisurely1 quiet1 persuasive1 full of conviction1 and impregnated by his own peculiar ideas1 which he had thoroughly thought out4 ,my dear ,millet1 wrote a critic1 you must sometimes see good-looking peasants and pretty country girls4 ,to which ,millet replied3 ,no doubt2 but beauty does not lie in the face4 ,it lies in the harmony between man and his industry4 ,your pretty country girls prefer to go up to town2 it does not suit them to glean and gather faggots and pump water4 ,beauty is expression4 ,when ,i paint a mother ,i try to render her beautiful by the mere look she gives her child4 ,he goes on to say that what has been once clearly seen is beautiful if it is simply and sincerely interpreted4 ,everything is beautiful which is in its place1 and nothing is beautiful which appears out of place4 ,therefore no emasculation of characters is ever beautiful4 ,apollo is ,apollo and ,socrates is ,socrates4 ,mingle them and they both lose1 and become a mixture which is neither fish nor flesh4 ,this was what brought about the decadence of modern art4 ,au lieu de naturaliser l'art1 ils artialisent la nature4 ,the ,luxembourg ,gallery had shown him that he ought not to go to the theatre to create true art4 ,je voudrais que les tres que je reprsente aient l'air vous leur position2 et qu'il soit impossible d'imaginer qu'il leur puisse venir l'ide d'tre autre chose que ce qu'ils sont4 ,on est dans un milieu d'un caractre ou d'un autre1 mais celui qu'on adopte doit primer4 ,on devrait tre habitu ne recevoir de la nature ses impressions de quelque sorte qu'elles soient et quelque temperament qu'on ait4 ,il faut tre imprgn et satur d'elle1 et ne penser que ce qu'elle vous fait penser4 ,il faut croire qu'elle est assez riche pour fournir tout4 ,et o puiserait-on1 sinon la source8 ,pourquoi donc perptuit proposer aux gens1 comme but suprme atteindre1 ce que de hautes intelligences ont dcouvert en elle4 ,voila donc qu'on rendrait les productions de quelques-uns le type et le but de toutes les productions venir4 ,les gens de gnie sont comme dous de la baguette divinatoire2 les uns dcouvrent que1 dans la nature1 ici se trouve cela1 les autres autre chose ailleurs1 selon le temperament de leur flair4 ,leurs productions vous assurent dans cette ide que celui-l trouve qui est fait pour trouver1 mais il est plaisant de voir1 quand le trsor est dterr et enlev1 que des gens viennent perptuit gratter cette place-l4 ,il faut savoir dcouvrir o il y a des truffes4 ,un chien qui n'a pas de flair ne peut que faire triste chasse1 puisqu'il ne va qu'en voyant chasser celui qui sent la bte et qui naturellement va le premier4444 ,un immense orgueil ou une immense sottise seulement peut faire croire certains hommes qu'ils sont de force redresser les prtendus manques de got et les erreurs de la nature4 ,les oeuvres que nous aimons1 ce n'est qu' cause qu'elles procdent d'elle4 ,les autres ne sont que des oeuvres pdantes et vides4 ,on peut partir de tous les points pour arriver au sublime1 et tout est propre l'exprimer1 si on a une assez haute vise4 ,alors ce que vous aimez avec le plus d'emportement et de passion devient votre beau vous et qui s'impose aux autres4 ,que chacun apporte le sien4 ,l'impression force l'expression4 ,tout l'arsenal de la nature est la disposition des hommes4 ,qui oserait dcider qu'une pomme de terre est infrieure une grenade4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,labourer ,,grafting ,a ,,tree4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,charles ,millet47 ,thus he maintains that when a stunted tree grows upon sterile soil it is more beautiful in this particular place1 because more natural1 than a slender tree artificially transplanted4 ,the beautiful is that which is in keeping4 ,whether this is to be called realism or idealism ,i do not know4 ,for me1 there is only one manner of painting1 and that is to paint with fidelity4 ,in what concerns poetry old ,boileau has already expressed this in the phrase3 ,nothing is beautiful except truth2 and ,schiller has thrown it into the phrase1 ,let us1 ultimately1 set up truth for beauty4 ,for the art of the nineteenth century ,millet's words mean the erection of a new principle1 of a principle that had the effect of a novel force1 that gave the consciousness of a new energy of artistic endeavour1 that was a return to that which the earth was to ,antus4 ,and by formulating this principle--the principle that everything is beautiful so far as it is true1 and nothing beautiful so far as it is untrue1 that beauty is the blossom1 but truth the tree--by clearly formulating this principle for the first time1 ,millet has become the father of the new ,french and1 indeed1 of ,european art1 almost more than by his own pictures4 ,for--and here we come to the limitations of his talent--has ,millet as a painter really achieved what he aimed at8 ,no less a person than ,fromentin has put this question in his ,matres d'autrefois4 ,on his visit to ,holland he chances for a moment to speak of ,millet1 and he writes3-- ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,millet4 ,a ,,woman ,,knitting4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,charles ,millet47 ,an entirely original painter1 high-minded and disposed to brooding1 kind-hearted and genuinely rustic in nature1 he has expressed things about the country and its inhabitants1 about their toil1 their melancholy1 and the nobleness of their labour1 which a ,dutchman would never have discovered4 ,he has represented them in a somewhat barbaric fashion1 in a manner to which his ideas gave a more expressive force than his hand possessed4 ,the world has been grateful for his intentions2 it has recognised in his method something of the sensibility of a ,burns who was a little awkward in expression4 ,but has he left good pictures behind him or not8 ,has his articulation of form1 his method of expression1 ,i mean the envelopment without which his ideas could not exist1 the qualities of a good style of painting1 and does it afford an enduring testimony8 ,he stands out as a deep thinker if he is compared with ,potter and ,cuyp2 he is an enthralling dreamer if he is opposed to ,terborch and ,metsu1 and he has something peculiarly noble compared with the trivialities of ,steen1 ,ostade1 and ,brouwer4 ,as a man he puts them all to the blush4 ,does he outweigh them as a painter8 ,illustration3 ,neurdein ,frres1 photo4 ,,millet4 ,,the ,,rainbow4 ,if any one thinks of ,millet as a draughtsman he will answer this question without hesitation in the affirmative4 ,his power is firmly rooted in the drawings which constitute half his work4 ,and he has not merely drawn to make sketches or preparations for pictures1 like ,leonardo1 ,raphael1 ,michael ,angelo1 ,watteau1 or ,delacroix2 his drawings were for him real works of art complete in themselves2 and his enduring and firmly grounded fame rests upon them4 ,michael ,angelo1 ,raphael1 ,leonardo1 ,rubens1 ,rembrandt1 ,prudhon1 ,millet2 that is1 more or less1 the roll of the greatest draughtsmen in the history of art4 ,his pastels and etchings1 his drawings in chalk1 pencil1 and charcoal1 are astonishing through their eminent delicacy of technique4 ,the simpler the medium the greater is the effect achieved4 ,the ,woman ,churning in the ,louvre2 the quietude of his men reaping1 and of his woman-reaper beside the heaps of corn2 ,the ,water ,carriers1 who are like ,greek kanephor2 the peasant upon the potato-field1 lighting his pipe with a flint and a piece of tinder2 the woman sewing by the lamp beside her sleeping child2 the vine-dresser resting2 the little shepherdess sitting dreamily on a bundle of straw near her flock at pasture1--in all these works in black and white he is as great as he is as a colourist and as a painter in open air4 ,there are no sportive and capricious sunbeams1 as in ,diaz4 ,millet's sun is too serious merely to play over the fields2 it is the austere day-star1 ripening the harvest1 forcing men to sweat over their toil and with no time to waste in jest4 ,and as a landscape painter he differs from ,corot in the same vital manner4 ,corot1 the old bachelor1 dallies with nature2 ,millet1 nine times a father1 knows her only as the fertile mother1 nourishing all her children4 ,the temperament of the brooding1 melancholy man breaks out in his very conception of nature3 ,oh1 if they knew how beautiful the forest is6 ,i stroll into it sometimes of an evening1 and always return with a sense of being overwhelmed4 ,it has a quiet and majesty which are terrible1 so that ,i have often a feeling of actual fear4 ,i do not know what the trees talk about amongst themselves1 but they say to each other something which we do not understand1 because we do not speak the same language4 ,that they are not making bad jokes seems certain4 ,he loved what ,corot has never painted--the sod1 the sod as sod1 the sod which steams beneath the rays of the fertilising sun4 ,and yet1 despite all difference of temperament1 he stands beside ,corot as perhaps the greatest landscape painter of the century4 ,his landscapes are vacant and devoid of charm2 they smell of the earth rather than of jessamine1 yet it is as if the ,earth-,spirit itself were invisibly brooding over them4 ,a few colours enable him to attain that great harmony which is elsewhere peculiar to ,corot alone1 and which1 when his work was over1 he so often discussed with his neighbour ,rousseau4 ,with a few brilliant and easily executed shadings he gives expression to the vibration of the atmosphere1 the lustre of the sky at sunset1 the massive structure of the ground1 the blissful tremor upon the plain at sunrise4 ,at one time he renders the morning mist lying over the fields1 at another the haze of sultry noon1 veiling and as it were absorbing the outlines and colours of all objects1 the light of sunset streaming over field and woodland with a tender1 tremulous glimmering1 the delicate silver tone which veils the landscape on clear moonlight nights4 ,there is not another artist of the century who renders night as ,millet does in his pastels4 ,one of the most charming and poetic works is the biblical and mystical night-piece ,the ,flight into ,egypt4 ,as he strides forward ,saint ,joseph holds upon his arm the ,child1 whose head is surrounded by a shining halo1 whilst the ,mother moves slowly along the banks of the ,nile riding upon an ass4 ,the stars twinkle1 the moon throws its tremulous light uncertainly over the plain4 ,joseph and ,mary are ,barbizon peasants1 and yet these great figures breathe of the ,sistine ,chapel and of ,michael ,angelo4 ,and which of the old masters has so eloquently rendered the sacred silence of night as ,millet has done in his ,shepherd at the ,pen8 ,the landscapes which he has drawn awaken the impression of spaciousness as only ,rembrandt's etchings have done1 and that of fine atmosphere as only ,corot's pictures4 ,a marvellously transparent and tender evening sky rests over his picture of cows coming down to drink at the lake1 and a liquid moonlight washes over the crests of the waves around ,the ,sailing ,boat4 ,the garden in stormy light with a high-lying avenue spanned by a rainbow--the motive which he developed for the well-known picture in the ,louvre--is found again and again in several pastels1 which progress from a simple to a more complicated treatment of the theme4 ,everything is transparent and delicate1 full of air and light1 and the air and light are themselves full of magic and melting charm4 ,illustration3 ,s4 ,low ,co4 ,,the ,,barbizon ,,stone4 ,but it is a different matter when one attempts to answer ,fromentin's question in the form in which it is put4 ,for without in any way detracting from ,millet's importance1 one may quietly make the declaration3 ,no1 ,millet was not a good painter4 ,later generations1 with which he will no longer be in touch through his ethical greatness1 if they consider his paintings alone1 will scarcely understand the high estimation in which he is held at present4 ,for although many works which have come into private collections in ,boston1 ,new ,york1 and ,baltimore are1 in their original form1 withdrawn from judgment1 they are certainly not better than the many works brought together in the ,millet ,exhibition of #ahhf or the ,world ,exhibition of #ahhi4 ,and these had collectively a clumsiness1 and a dry and heavy colouring1 which are not merely old-fashioned1 primitive1 and antediluvian in comparison with the works of modern painters1 but which fall far below the level of their own time in the quality of colour4 ,the conception in ,millet's paintings is always admirable1 but never the technique2 he makes his appeal as a poet only1 and never as a painter4 ,his painting is often anxiously careful1 heavy1 and thick1 and looks as if it had been filled in with masonry2 it is dirty and dismal1 and wanting in free and airy tones4 ,sometimes it is brutal and hard1 and occasionally it is curiously indecisive in effect4 ,even his best pictures--,the ,angelus not excepted--give no sthetic pleasure to the eye4 ,the most ordinary fault in his painting is that it is soft1 greasy1 and woolly4 ,he is not light enough with what should be light1 nor fleeting enough with what is fleeting4 ,and this defect is especially felt in his treatment of clothes4 ,they are of a massive1 distressing solidity1 as if moulded in brass1 and not woven from flax and wool4 ,the same is true of his air1 which has an oily and material effect4 ,even in ,the ,gleaners the aspect is cold and gloomy2 it is without the intensity of light which is shed through the atmosphere1 and streams ever changing over the earth4 ,and this is a declaration of what was left for later artists to achieve4 ,the problem of putting real human beings in their true surroundings was stated by ,millet1 solved in his pastels1 and left unsolved in his oil paintings4 ,this same problem had to be taken up afresh by his successors1 and followed to its furthest consequences4 ,at the same time1 it was necessary to widen the choice of subject4 ,for it is characteristic of ,millet1 the great peasant1 that his art is exclusively concerned with peasants4 ,his sensitive spirit1 which from youth upwards had compassion for the hard toil and misery of the country folk1 was blind to the sufferings of the artisans of the city1 amid whom he had lived in ,paris in his student days4 ,the ouvrier1 too1 has his poetry and his grandeur4 ,as there is a cry of the earth1 so is there also a cry1 as loud and as eloquent1 which goes up from the pavement of great cities4 ,millet lived in ,paris during a critical and terrible time4 ,he was there during the years of ferment at the close of the reign of ,louis ,philippe4 ,around him there muttered all the terrors of ,socialism and ,communism4 ,he was there during the ,february ,revolution and during the days of ,june4 ,while the artisans fought on the barricades he was painting ,the ,winnower4 ,the misery of ,paris and the sufferings of the populace did not move him4 ,millet1 the peasant1 had a heart only for the peasantry4 ,he was blind to the sufferings1 blind to the charms of modern city life4 ,paris seemed to him a miserable1 dirty nest4 ,there was no picturesque aspect of the great town that fascinated him4 ,he felt neither its grace1 its elegance and charming frivolity1 nor remarked the mighty modern movement of ideas and the noble humanity which set their seal upon that humanitarian century4 ,the development of ,french art had to move in both of these directions4 ,it was partly necessary to take up afresh with improved instruments the problem of the modern conception of colour1 touched on by ,millet2 it was partly necessary to extend from the painting of peasants to modern life the principle formulated by ,millet1 ,le beau c'est le vrai1 to transfer it from the forest of ,fontainebleau to ,paris1 from the solitude to life1 from the evening gloom to sunlight1 from the softness of romance to hard reality4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the fourth book of this work will be devoted to the consideration of those masters who1 acting on this principle1 extended beyond the range of ,millet and brought the art which he had created to fuller fruition4 ,,book ,,iv ,,the ,,realistic ,,painters ,,and ,,the ,,modern ,,idealists ,,chapter ,,xxvii ,,realism ,,in ,,france ,to continue in ,paris what ,millet had begun in the solitude of the forest of ,fontainebleau there was need of a man of the unscrupulous animal power of ,gustave ,courbet4 ,the task assigned to him was similar to that which fell to ,caravaggio in the seventeenth century4 ,in that age1 when the eclectic imitation of the ,cinquecento had reached the acme of mannerism1 when ,carlo ,dolci and ,sassoferato devoted themselves in mythological pictures to watering down the types of ,raphael by idealising1 ,caravaggio painted scenes amongst dregs of the people and the unbridled soldiery of his age4 ,at a period when these artists indulged in false1 artificial1 and doctrinaire compositions1 which1 on a barren system1 merely traced the performances of classic masters back to certain rules of art1 ,caravaggio created works which may have been coarse1 but which had an earnest and fruitful veracity1 and gave the entire art of the seventeenth century another direction by their healthy and powerful naturalism4 ,when ,courbet appeared the situation was similar3 ,ingres1 in whose frigid works the whole ,cinquecento had been crystallised1 was at the zenith of his fame4 ,couture had painted his ,decadent ,romans and ,cabanel had recorded his first successes4 ,beside these stood that little ,neo-,grecian school with ,louis ,hamon at its head--a school whose prim style of china painting had the peculiar admiration of the public4 ,courbet1 with all his brutal weight1 pushed between the large symmetrical figures of the thoroughbred ,classicists and the pretty confectionery of the ,neo-,grecian painters of beauty4 ,but the old panacea is never without effect3 in all periods when art has overlived its bloom and falls into mannerism it is met by a strong cross-current of realism pouring into it new life-blood4 ,in painting1 nature had been made artificial1 and it was time for art to be made natural4 ,painters still strayed in the past1 seeking to awaken the dead1 and give life once more to history4 ,the time had come for accentuating the claims of the present more sharply than before1 and for setting art amid the seething life of modern cities3 it was a development naturally and logically following that of political life2 it is historically united with the unintermittent struggle for universal suffrage4 ,courbet merely fought the decisive battle in the great fight which ,jeanron1 ,leleux1 ,octave ,tassaert1 and others had begun as skirmishing outposts4 ,as a painter he towered over these elder artists1 whose sentimental pictures had not been taken seriously as works of art1 and challenged attention all the more by painting life-size4 ,in this manner the last obstacle was removed which had stood in the way of the treatment of modern subjects4 ,scanty notice had been taken of ,millet's little peasant figures1 which were merely reckoned as accessories to the landscape4 ,but ,courbet's pictures first taught the ,academy that the picture of manners1 which had seemed so harmless1 had begun to usurp the place of historical painting in all its pride4 ,at the same time--and this made ,courbet's appearance of still more consequence than that of his predecessors--a most effective literary propaganda went hand in hand with that which was artistic4 ,millet had been silent and was known only by his friends4 ,he had never arranged for an exhibition of his works1 and quietly suffered the rejections of the hanging committee and the derision of the public4 ,courbet blustered1 beat the big drum1 threw himself into forcible postures like a strong man juggling with cannon-balls1 and announced in the press that he was the only serious artist of the century4 ,no one could ever embter le bourgeois with such success1 no one has called forth such a howl of passion1 no one so complacently surrendered his private life to the curiosity of the great public1 with the swaggering attitude of an athlete displaying his muscles in the circus4 ,as regards this method of making an appearance--a method by which he became at times almost grotesque--one may take whatever view one pleases2 but when he came he was necessary4 ,in art revolutions are made with the same brutality as in life4 ,people shout and sing1 and break the windows of those who have windows to break4 ,for every revolution has a character of inflexible harshness4 ,wisdom and reason have no part in the passions necessary for the work of destruction and rebuilding4 ,caravaggio was obliged to take to his weapons1 and make sanguinary onslaughts4 ,in our civilised nineteenth century everything was accomplished according to law1 but not with less passion4 ,one has to make great demands to receive even a little2 this has been true in all times1 and this is precisely what ,courbet did4 ,he was a remarkable character striving for high aims1 an eccentric man of genius1 a modern ,narcissus for ever contemplating himself in his vanity1 and yet he was the truest friend1 the readiest to sacrifice himself2 for the crowd a cynic and a reckless talker2 at home an earnest and mighty toiler1 bursting out like a child and appeased the very next moment2 outwardly as brutal as he was inwardly sensitive1 as egotistic as he was proud and independent2 and being what he was1 he formulated his purposes as incisively by his words as in his works4 ,full of fire and enthusiasm1 destroying and inciting to fresh creation--a nature like ,lorenz ,gedon1 whom he also resembled in appearance--he became the soul and motive power of the great realistic movement which flooded ,europe from the beginning of the fifties4 ,altogether he was the man of whom art had need at that time3 a doctor who brought health with him1 shed it abroad1 and poured blood into the veins of art4 ,both as man and artist his entry upon the arena is in some degree like the breaking in of an elemental force of nature4 ,he comes from the country in wooden shoes1 with the self-reliance of a peasant who is afraid of nothing4 ,he is a great and powerful man1 as sound and natural as the oxen of his birthplace4 ,he had broad shoulders1 with which he pushed aside everything standing in his way4 ,his was an instinct rather than a reflecting brain1 a peintre-animal1 as he was called by a ,frenchman4 ,and such a plebeian was wanted to beat down the academic ,olympus4 ,in making him great and strong1 nature had herself predestined him for the part he had to play3 a man makes a breach the more easily for having big muscles4 ,furnished with the strength of a ,samson wrecking the temple of the ,philistines1 he was himself ,the ,stone-breaker of his art1 and1 like the men he painted1 he has done a serviceable day's work4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,gustave ,,courbet4 ,gustave ,courbet1 the strong son of ,franche-,comt1 was born in #ahai1 in ,ornans1 a little town near ,besanon4 ,like his friend and fellow-countryman ,proudhon1 the socialist1 he had a strain of ,german blood in his veins1 and in their outward appearance it gave them both something ,teutonic1 rugged1 and heavy1 contrasting with ,french ease and elegance4 ,on his massive frame was set a thick1 athletic neck1 and a broad countenance with black hair1 and big1 strong eyes like those of a lion-tamer1 which sparkled like black diamonds4 ,a strong man1 who had never been stinted1 he was of medium height1 broad-shouldered1 bluff1 ruddy like a slaughterman1 and1 as the years passed1 disposed to acquire a more liberal circumference of body4 ,he went about working like ,sisyphus1 and never without a short pipe in his mouth1 the classic brle-gueule1 loaded with strong caporal4 ,his movements were broad and heavy1 and1 being a little short in his breathing1 he wheezed when he was excited1 and perspired over his painting4 ,his dress was comfortable1 but not elegant2 and his head was formed for a cap rather than the official tall hat4 ,in speech he was cynical1 and often broke into a contemptuous laugh4 ,both in his studio and at his tavern he moved more freely in his shirt-sleeves1 and at the ,munich ,exhibition of #ahfi he seemed to the ,german painters like a thorough old ,bavarian1 when he sat down to drink with them at the ,deutsches ,haus in his jovial way1 and1 by a rather ,teutonic than ,latin capacity for disposing of beer1 threw the most inveterate of the men of ,munich into the shade4 ,originally destined for the law1 he determined in #ahcg to become a painter1 and began his artistic studies under ,flageoulot1 a mediocre artist of the school of ,david1 who had drifted into the provinces1 and boastfully called himself le roi du dessin4 ,in #ahci he came to ,paris1 already full of self-reliance1 fire and strength4 ,on his first turn through the ,luxembourg ,gallery he paused before ,delacroix's ,massacre of ,chios1 glowing as it is in colour1 and said it was not bad1 but that he could do that style of thing whenever he liked4 ,after a short time he acquired a power of execution full of bravura by studying the old masters in the ,louvre4 ,self-taught in art1 he was in life a democrat and in politics a republican4 ,in #ahdh1 during a battle in ,june1 he had a fair prospect of being shot with a party of insurgents whom he had joined1 if certain right-minded citizens had not interceded for their neighbour1 who was popular as a man and already much talked about as a painter4 ,in the beginning of the fifties he was to be found every evening at a brasserie much frequented by artists and students in the ,rue ,hautefeuille in the ,quartier ,latin1 in the society of young authors of the school of ,balzac4 ,he had his studio at the end of the street1 and is said to have been at the time a strong1 fine1 spirited young man1 who made free use of the drastic slang of the studios4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,courbet4 ,,the ,,man ,,with ,a ,,leather ,,belt4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself ,,as ,a ,,youth4 ,his notable features1 writes ,thophile ,silvestre of ,courbet at this time1--his notable features seem as though they had been modelled from an ,assyrian bas-relief4 ,his well-shaped and brilliant dark eyes1 shadowed by long silken lashes1 have the soft quiet light of an antelope's4 ,the moustache1 scarcely traceable beneath his slightly curved aquiline nose1 is joined by a fan-shaped beard1 and borders his thick1 sensuous lips2 his complexion is olive-brown1 but of a changing1 sensitive tone4 ,the round1 curiously shaped head and prominent cheek-bones denote stubbornness1 and the flexible nostrils passion4 ,a great dispute over realism usually took the place of dessert at meal-times4 ,courbet never allowed himself to be drawn into controversy4 ,he threw his opinion bluntly out1 and when he was opposed cut the conversation short in an exceedingly forcible manner4 ,it was another murder of the innocents when he spoke of the celebrities of his time4 ,he designated historical painting as nonsense1 style as humbug1 and blew away all ideals1 declaring that it was the greatest impudence to wish to paint things which one has never seen1 and of the appearance of which one cannot have the faintest conception4 ,fancy was rubbish1 and reality the one true muse4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,courbet4 ,a ,,funeral ,,at ,,ornans4 ,our century1 he says1 will not recover from the fever of imitation by which it has been laid low4 ,phidias and ,raphael have hooked themselves on to us4 ,the galleries should remain closed for twenty years1 so that the moderns might at last begin to see with their own eyes4 ,for what can the old masters offer us8 ,it is only ,ribera1 ,zurbaran1 and ,velasquez that ,i admire2 ,ostade and ,craesbeeck also allure me2 and for ,holbein1 ,i feel veneration4 ,as for ,m4 ,raphael1 there is no doubt that he has painted some interesting portraits1 but ,i cannot find any ideas in him4 ,and the artistic kin1 the heirs1 or more properly the slaves of this great man1 are really preceptors of the lowest art4 ,what do they teach us8 ,nothing4 ,a good picture will never come from their cole des ,beaux-,arts4 ,the most precious thing is the originality1 the independence of an artist4 ,schools have no right to exist2 there are only painters4 ,independently of system and without attaching myself to any party1 ,i have studied the art of the old masters and of the more modern4 ,i have tried to imitate the one as little as ,i have tried to copy the other1 but out of the total knowledge of tradition ,i have wished to draw a firm and independent sense of my own individuality4 ,my object was by gaining knowledge to gain in ability2 to have the power of expressing the ideas1 the manners1 and the aspect of our epoch according to an appreciation of my own1 not merely to be a painter1 but a man also--in a word1 to practise living art is the compass of my design4 ,i am not only a socialist1 but also a democrat and a republican--that is to say1 a supporter of every revolution2 and moreover1 a sheer realist1 which means a loyal adherent to the vrit vraie4 ,but the principle of realism is the negation of the ideal4 ,and following all that comes from this negation of the ideal1 ,i shall arrive at the emancipation of the individual1 and1 finally1 at democracy4 ,realism1 in its essence1 is democratic art4 ,it can only exist by the representation of things which the artist can see and handle4 ,for painting is an entirely physical language1 and an abstract1 invisible1 non-existent object does not come within its province4 ,the grand painting which we have stands in contradiction with our social conditions1 and ecclesiastical painting in contradiction with the spirit of the century4 ,it is nonsensical for painters of more or less talent to dish up themes in which they have no belief1 themes which could only have flourished in some epoch other than our own4 ,better paint railway stations with views of the places through which one travels1 with likenesses of great men through whose birthplace one passes1 with engine-houses1 mines1 and manufactories2 for these are the saints and miracles of the nineteenth century4 ,these doctrines fundamentally tallied with those which the ,neapolitan and ,spanish naturalists vindicated in the seventeenth century against the eclectics4 ,for men like ,poussin1 ,leseur1 and ,sassoferato1 ,raphael was an angel and not a man1 and the ,vatican the academy of painters4 ,but ,velasquez when he came to ,rome found it wearisome4 ,what do you say of our ,raphael8 ,do you not think him best of all1 now that you have seen everything that is fair and beautiful in ,italy8 ,don ,diego inclined his head ceremoniously1 and observed3 ,to confess the truth1 for ,i like to be candid and open1 ,i must acknowledge that ,i do not care about ,raphael at all4 ,there are reported utterances of ,caravaggio which correspond almost word for word with those of ,courbet4 ,he1 too1 declaimed against the antique and ,raphael1 in whose shadow he saw so many shallow imitators sitting at their ease1 and he declared1 in a spirit of sharp opposition1 that the objects of daily life were the only true teachers4 ,he would owe all to nature and nothing to art4 ,he held painting without the model to be absurd4 ,so long as the model was out of sight1 his hands and his spirit were idle4 ,moreover1 he called himself a democratic painter1 who brought the fourth estate into honour2 he would rather be the first of vulgar painters than second amongst the superfine4 ,and just as these naturalists in the seventeenth century were treated by the academical artists as rhyparographists1 ,courbet's programme did not on the whole facilitate his acceptance in formal exhibitions as he desired that it should4 ,a play must be acted1 a manuscript printed1 and a picture viewed4 ,so ,courbet had no desire to remain an outsider4 ,when the picture committee of the ,world ,exhibition of #ahee gave his pictures an unfavourable position1 he withdrew them and offered them to public inspection separately in a wooden hut in the vicinity of the ,pont de ,jena1 just at the entry of the exhibition4 ,upon the hut was written in big letters3 ,,realism--,g4 ,,courbet4 ,and in the interior the theories which he had urged hitherto by his tongue and his pen1 at the tavern and in his pamphlets1 were demonstrated by thirty-eight large pictures1 which elucidate his whole artistic development4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,courbet4 ,,the ,,stone-,,breakers4 ,lot's ,daughters and ,love in the ,country were followed in #ahdd by the portrait of himself and the picture of his dog1 in #ahde by ,a ,guitarrero1 in #ahdf by the ,portrait of ,m4 ,m----1 and in #ahdg by ,the ,walpurgisnacht2 all works in which he was still groping his way4 ,the ,sleeping ,bathers1 ,the ,violoncello ,player1 and a landscape from his native province1 belonging to the year #ahdh1 made a nearer approach to his realistic aim1 and with the date #ahdi there are seven portraits1 landscapes1 and pictures from popular national life3 ,the ,painter1 ,m4 ,h4 ,t---- looking over ,engravings1 ,the ,vintage in ,ornans below the ,roche du ,mont1 ,the ,valley of the ,bue seen from the ,roche du ,mont1 ,view of the ,chteau of ,saint-,denis1 ,evening in the ,village of ,scey-en-,varay1 and ,peasants returning from ,mass near ,flagey4 ,all these works had passed the doors of the ,salon without demur4 ,the first picture which brought about a collision of opinion was ,a ,fire in ,paris1 and1 according to the account given by contemporaries1 it must have been one of his finest works4 ,firemen1 soldiers1 artisans in jacket and blouse1 were exerting themselves1 according to ,paul d',abrest who describes the picture1 around a burning house2 even women helped in the work of rescue1 and formed part of the chain handing buckets from the pump4 ,opposite stood a group of young dandies with girls upon their arms looking inactively upon the scene4 ,an artillery captain1 who was amongst ,courbet's acquaintances1 had through several nights sounded the alarm for his men and exercised them on the scaffolding of a wall1 so that the painter could make his studies4 ,courbet transferred his studio to the barracks and made sketches by torch-light4 ,but he had reckoned without the police2 scarcely was the picture finished before it was seized1 as the ,government recognised in it1 for reasons which did not appear1 an incitement to the people of the town4 ,this was after the coup d'tat of #ahea4 ,so ,courbet's manifesto was not ,the ,fire in ,paris4 ,the ,stone-breakers1 two men in the dress of artisans1 in a plain evening landscape1 occupied once more the first place in the exhibition of #ahee1 having already made the effect1 amongst its classical surroundings in the ,salon of #ahea1 of a rough1 true1 and honest word1 spoken amid elaborate society phrases4 ,there was also to be seen ,afternoon at ,ornans1--a gathering of humble folk sitting after meal-time at a table laid out in a rustic kitchen4 ,a picture which became celebrated under the title of ,bonjour1 ,m4 ,courbet dealt with a scene from ,courbet's native town4 ,courbet1 just arrived1 is alighting from a carriage in his travelling costume1 looking composedly about him with a pipe in his mouth4 ,a respectable prosperous gentleman1 accompanied by a servant in livery1 who is carrying his overcoat1 is stretching out his hand to him4 ,this gentleman is ,m4 ,bryas1 the ,mcenas of ,ornans1 who for long was ,courbet's only patron1 and who had a whim for having his portrait taken by forty ,parisian painters in order to learn the manners of the various artists4 ,and there was further to be seen the ,demoiselles de ,village of #aheb1 three country beauties giving a piece of cake to a peasant-girl4 ,finally1 as masterpieces1 there were ,the ,funeral at ,ornans1 which now hangs in the ,louvre1 and that great canvas1 designated in the catalogue as a true allegory1 ,my ,studio after ,seven ,years of ,artistic ,life1 the master himself painting a landscape4 ,behind him is a nude model1 and in front of him a beggar-woman with her child4 ,around are portrait figures of his friends1 and the heroes of his pictures1 a poacher1 a parson1 a sexton1 labourers1 and artisans4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,courbet4 ,,the ,,return ,,from ,,market4 ,the exhibition was1 at all events1 a success with young painters1 and ,courbet set up a teaching studio1 at the opening of which he again issued a kind of manifesto in the ,courrier du ,dimanche4 ,beauty1 he wrote1 lies in nature1 and it is to be met with under the most various forms4 ,as soon as it is found it belongs to art1 or rather to the artist who discovers it4 ,but the painter has no right to add to this expression of nature1 to alter the form of it and thereby weaken it4 ,the beauty offered by nature stands high above all artistic convention4 ,that is the basis of my views of art4 ,it is said that his first model was an ox4 ,when his pupils wanted another1 ,courbet said3 ,very well1 gentlemen1 next time let us study a courtier4 ,the break-up of the school is supposed to have taken place when one day the ox ran away and was not to be recaptured4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,courbet4 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,the ,,stags4 ,courbet did not trouble himself over such ridicule1 but painted quietly on1 the many-sidedness of his talent soon giving him a firm seat in every saddle4 ,after the scandal of the separate exhibition of #ahee he was excluded from the ,salon until #ahfa1 and during this time exhibited in ,paris and ,besanon upon his own account4 ,the ,funeral at ,ornans was followed by ,the ,return from ,market1 a party of peasants on the high-road1 and in #ahfj by ,the ,return from the ,conference1 in which a number of ,french country priests have celebrated their meeting with a hearty lunch and set out on the way back in a condition which is far too jovial4 ,in #ahfa1 when the gates of the ,champs ,elyses were thrown open to him once more1 he received the medal for his ,battle of the ,stags1 and regularly contributed to the ,salon until #ahgj4 ,in these years he attempted pictures with many figures less frequently1 and painted by preference hunting and animal pieces1 landscapes1 and the nude figures of women4 ,the ,woman with the ,parrot1 a female figure mantled with long hair1 lying undressed amid the cushions of a couch playing with her gaudily feathered favourite1 ,the ,fox ,hunt1 a coast scene in ,provence1 the portrait of ,proudhon and his family1 ,the ,valley of the ,puits-,noir1 ,roche ,pagnan1 ,the ,roe ,hunt1 ,the ,charity of a ,beggar1 the picture of women bathing in the gloom of the forest1 and ,the ,wave1 afterwards acquired by the ,luxembourg1 belong to his principal works in the sixties4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,courbet4 ,a ,,woman ,,bathing4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,sainctelette1 of ,brussels1 the owner of the picture47 ,these works gradually made him so well known that after #ahff his pictures came to have a considerable sale4 ,the critics began to take him seriously4 ,castagnary made his dbut in the ,sicle with a study of ,courbet2 ,champfleury1 the apostle of literary realism1 devoted to him a whole series of feuilletons in the ,messager de l',assemble1 and from his intercourse with him ,proudhon derived the fundamental principles of his book on ,realism4 ,the son of ,franche-,comt triumphed1 and there was a beam in his laughing eyes1 always like those of a deer4 ,his talent began more and more to unfold its wings in the sun of success1 and his power of production seemed inexhaustible4 ,when the custom arose of publishing in the ,parisian papers accounts of the budget of painters1 he took care to communicate that in six months he had made a hundred and twenty-three thousand francs4 ,incessantly busy1 he had in his hand at one moment the brush and at another the chisel4 ,and when he gave another special exhibition of his works in #ahfg1 at the time of the great ,world ,exhibition--he had a mania for wooden booths--he was able to put on view no less than a hundred and thirty-two pictures in addition to numerous pieces of sculpture4 ,in #ahfi the committee of the ,munich ,exhibition set apart a whole room for his works4 ,with a self-satisfied smile he put on the ,order of ,michael1 and was the hero of the day whom all eyes followed upon the boulevards4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,courbet4 ,,deer ,,in ,,covert4 ,the nature of the bullfighter was developed in him more strongly than before1 and he stretched his powerful limbs1 prepared to do battle against all existing opinions4 ,naturally the events of the following years found no idle spectator in such a firebrand as ,courbet2 and accordingly he rushed into those follies which embittered the evening of his life4 ,the matre peintre d',ornans became ,courbet le colonnard4 ,first came the sensational protest with which he returned to the ,emperor ,napoleon the ,order of the ,legion of ,honour4 ,four weeks after ,courbet had plunged into this affair the war broke out4 ,eight weeks later came ,sedan and the proclamation of the ,republic1 and shortly afterwards the siege of ,paris and the insurrection4 ,on #dth ,september #ahgj the ,provisional ,government appointed him ,director of the ,fine ,arts4 ,afterwards he became a member of the ,commune1 and dominated everywhere1 with the brle-gueule in his mouth1 by the power of his voice2 and ,france has to thank him for the rescue of a large number of her most famous treasures of art4 ,he had the rich collections of ,thiers placed in the ,louvre1 to protect them from the rough and ready violence of the populace4 ,but to save the ,luxembourg he sacrificed the column of the ,vendme4 ,when the ,commune fell1 however1 ,courbet alone was held responsible for the destruction of the column4 ,he was brought before the court-martial of ,versailles1 and1 although ,thiers undertook his defence1 he was condemned to six months' imprisonment4 ,having undergone this punishment he received his freedom once more1 but the artist had still to suffer a mortal blow4 ,the pictures which he had destined for the ,salon of #ahgc were rejected by the committee1 because ,courbet was held morally unworthy to take part in the exhibition4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,courbet4 ,,girls ,,lying ,,on ,,the ,,bank ,,of ,,the ,,seine4 ,soon after this an action was brought against him1 on the initiative of certain reactionary papers1 for the payment of damages connected with the overthrow of the ,vendme column1 and the painter lost his case4 ,for the recovery of these damages1 which were assessed at three hundred and thirty-four thousand francs1 the ,government brought to the hammer his furniture and the pictures that were in his studio1 at a compulsory sale at the ,htel ,drouot1 where they fetched the absurdly trifling figure of twelve thousand one hundred and eighteen francs fifty centimes4 ,the loss of his case drove him from ,france to ,switzerland4 ,he gave the town of ,vevay1 where he settled1 a bust of ,helvetia1 as a mark of his gratitude for the hospitality it had extended towards him4 ,but the artist was crushed in him4 ,they have killed me1 he said2 ,i feel that ,i shall never do anything good again4 ,and thus the jovial1 laughing ,courbet1 that honoured leader of a brilliant pleiad of disciples1 the friend and companion of ,corot1 ,decamps1 ,gustave ,planch1 ,baudelaire1 ,thophile ,gautier1 ,silvestre1 ,proudhon1 and ,champfleury2 the enthusiastic patriot and idol of the fickle ,parisians1 passed his last years in melancholy solitude1 forgotten by his adherents and scorned by his adversaries4 ,he was attacked by a disease of the liver1 and privation1 disillusionment1 and depression came all at once4 ,moreover1 the ,french ,government began again to make claims for indemnification4 ,his heart broke in a prolonged mortal struggle4 ,shortly before his death he said to a friend3 ,what am ,i to live upon1 and how am ,i to pay for the column8 ,i have saved ,thiers more than a million francs1 and the ,state more than ten millions1 and now they are at my heels--they are baiting me to death4 ,i can do no more4 ,to work one must have peace of spirit1 and ,i am a ruined man4 ,and ,champfleury writes1 referring to the last visit which he paid to the dying exile on #aith ,december #ahgg3 ,his beard and hair were white1 and all that remained of the handsome1 all-powerful ,courbet whom ,i had known was that notable ,assyrian profile1 which he raised to the snow of the ,alps1 as ,i sat beside him and saw it for the last time4 ,the sight of such pain and misery as this premature wreck of the whole man was overwhelming4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,courbet4 ,a ,,recumbent ,,woman4 ,the ,lake of ,geneva1 over which he looked from his window in ,vevay1 was the subject of the last picture that he painted in ,switzerland4 ,far from home and amid indifferent strangers he closed his eyes1 which had once been so brilliant1 in endless grief of spirit4 ,the apostle of ,realism died of a broken heart1 the herculean son of ,franche-,comt could not suffer disillusionment4 ,courbet passed away1 more or less forgotten1 upon ,new ,year's ,eve in #ahgg1 in that chilly hour of morning when the lake which he had learnt to love trembles beneath the first beams of the sun4 ,it was only in ,belgium1 where he had often stayed and where his influence was considerable1 that the intelligence of his death woke a painful echo4 ,in ,paris it met with no word of sympathy4 ,courbetism was extinguished2 as impressionists and independents his adherents had gathered round new flags4 ,zola has done him honour in ,l',oeuvre in the person of old ,bongrand1 that half-perished veteran who is only mentioned now and then with veneration4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,courbet4 ,,berlioz4 ,and the course of development has indeed been so rapid since ,courbet's appearance that in these days one almost fails to understand1 apart from historical reasons1 the grounds which in #ahee made his separate exhibition of his works an event of epoch-making importance4 ,it was not ,cham alone who at that time devoted a large cartoon to ,courbet1 as he did in ,the ,opening of ,courbet's ,studio and ,concentrated ,realism4 ,all the comic journals of ,paris were as much occupied with him as with the crinoline1 the noiseless pavement1 the new tramways1 or the balloon4 ,haussard1 the principal representative of criticism1 in discussing ,the ,funeral at ,ornans1 spoke of these burlesque masks with their fuddled red noses1 this village priest who seems to be a tippler1 and the harlequin of a veteran who is putting on a hat which is too big for him4 ,all this1 he continued1 suggested a masquerade funeral1 six metres long1 in which there was more to laugh at than to weep over4 ,even ,paul ,mantz declared that the most extravagant fancy could not descend to such a degree of jejune triviality and repulsive hideousness4 ,in a revue d'anne produced at the ,odon1 the authors1 ,philoxne ,hoyer and ,thodore de ,banville1 make a realist say-- ,faire vrai ce n'est rien pour tre raliste1 ,c'est faire laid qu'il faut6 ,or1 monsieur1 s'il vous plait1 ,tout ce que je dessine est horriblement laid6 ,ma peinture est affreuse1 et1 pour qu'elle soit vraie1 ,j'en arrache le beau comme on fait de l'ivraie4 ,j'aime les teints terreux et les nez de carton1 ,les fillettes avec de la barbe au menton1 ,les trognes de ,varasque et de coquecigrues1 ,les dorillons1 les cors aux pieds et les verrues6 ,voil le vrai6 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,courbet4 ,,the ,,hind ,,on ,,the ,,snow4 ,so it went on through the sixties also4 ,when the ,empress ,eugnie passed through the exhibition on the opening day of the ,salon of #ahff1 with an elegant walking-stick in her hand1 she was so indignant at ,courbet's ,naked ,women that the picture had to be immediately removed4 ,in the beginning of the seventies1 when he exhibited in ,germany1 a few young ,munich painters recognised in his pictures something like the cry of a conscience4 ,but otherwise artists and laymen shook their heads1 not knowing what to make of them4 ,some smiled and went indifferently on1 while others were indignant in their condemnation of this degradation of art4 ,for ,courbet went to the lowest depths of society1 and took his themes from a class where man really ceases to be man1 and the image of ,god prolongs a miserable existence as a moving mass of flesh4 ,living bodies with dead souls1 which exist only for the sake of their animal needs2 in one place sunk in misery and wretchedness1 and in another having never risen from their brutal savagery--that is the society from which ,courbet chooses his motives1 to gloss over the debility of his imagination and his want of any kind of training4 ,had he possessed the talent for composition1 then perhaps his lifeless technique would have become interesting2 as it is he offers a merely arbitrary succession of figures in which coherence is entirely wanting4 ,in ,the ,stone-breakers it was an offence that he should have treated such an excessively commonplace subject at all as mere artisans in ragged and dirty clothes4 ,and by ,the ,funeral at ,ornans it was said that he meant to sneer at the religious ceremony1 since the picture had a defiant and directly brutal vulgarity4 ,the painter was alleged to have taken pains to expose the repulsive1 ludicrous1 and grotesque elements in the members of the funeral party1 and to have softened no feature which could excite an unseasonable merriment4 ,in the ,demoiselles de ,village the design had been to contrast the stilted1 provincial nature of these village misses with the healthy simplicity of a peasant child4 ,in the picture1 painted in #aheg1 of the two grisettes lying in the grass on the bank of the ,seine he had intentionally placed the girls in the most unrefined attitudes1 that they might appear as trivial as possible4 ,and umbrage was taken at his two naked wrestlers because he had not painted wrestlers more or less like those of classic times1 but the persons who exhibit the strength of their herculean frames at the ,hippodrome1 and therefore given the most vulgar rendering of nudity that was at all possible4 ,and in his naked women it was said that this love of ugly and brutal forms became actually base4 ,all these judgments are characteristic symptoms of the same sort of taste which rose in the seventeenth century against ,caravaggio4 ,even his principal work1 the altar-piece to ,st4 ,matthew1 which now hangs in the ,berlin ,museum1 excited so much indignation that it had to be removed from the ,church of ,st4 ,luigi dei ,francesi in ,rome4 ,annibale ,carracci has a scornful caricature in which the ,neapolitan master appears as a hairy savage1 with a dwarf at his side and two apes upon his knees1 and1 in this fashion1 intended to brand the hideousness of his rival's art and his ape-like imitation of misshapen nature4 ,francesco ,albani called him the ,antichrist of ,painting1 and a ruination to art4 ,and ,baglione adds3 ,now a number of young men sit down to copy a head after nature2 they study neither the foundations of drawing1 nor concern themselves about the more profound conditions of art1 merely contenting themselves with a crude reproduction of nature1 and therefore they do not even know how to group two figures appropriately1 nor to bring any theme into an artistic composition4 ,no one any longer visits the temples of art1 but every one finds his masters and his models for a servile imitation of nature in the streets and open places4 ,the nineteenth century formed a different estimate of ,caravaggio4 ,in opposing his fortune-telling gipsies1 his tipplers1 gamblers1 musicians1 and dicing mercenaries to the noble figures of the academical artists1 with their generalised and carefully balanced forms1 their trivial1 nugatory countenances1 and their jejune colouring1 he accomplished the legitimate and necessary reaction against a shallow and empty idealistic mannerism4 ,no one is grateful to the eclectic artists for the learned efforts which it cost them to paint so tediously3 in ,caravaggio there is the fascination of a strong personality and a virile emphasis in form1 colour1 and light4 ,the ,carracci and ,albani were the issue of their predecessors2 ,caravaggio is honoured as a fearless pioneer who opened a new chapter in the history of art4 ,illustration3 ,,courbet4 ,,my ,,studio ,,after ,,seven ,,years ,,of ,,artistic ,,life4 ,courbet met with a similar fate4 ,if one approaches him after reading the criticisms of his pictures already cited1 a great disillusionment is inevitable4 ,having imagined a grotesque monster1 one finds to one's astonishment that there is not the slightest occasion either for indignation or laughter in the presence of these powerful1 sincere1 and energetic pictures4 ,one has expected caricatures and a repulsive hideousness1 and one finds a broad and masterly style of painting4 ,the heads are real without being vulgar1 and the flesh firm and soft and throbbing with powerful life4 ,courbet is a personality4 ,he began by imitating the ,flemish painters and the ,neapolitans4 ,but far more did he feel himself attracted by the actual world1 by massive women and strong men1 and wide fertile fields smelling of rich1 rank earth4 ,as a healthy and sensuously vigorous man he felt a voluptuous satisfaction in clasping actual nature in his herculean arms4 ,of course1 by the side of his admirable pictures there are others which are heavy and uncouth4 ,but if one is honest one paints according to one's inherent nature1 as old ,navez1 the pupil of ,david1 was in the habit of saying4 ,courbet was honest1 and he was also a somewhat unwieldy being1 and therefore his painting too has something bluff and cumbrous4 ,but where in all ,french art is there such a sound painter1 so sure of his effects and with such a large bravura1 a matre peintre who was so many-sided1 extending his dominion as much over figure-painting as landscape1 over the nude as over nature morte8 ,there is no artist so many of whose pictures may be seen together without surfeit1 for he is novel in almost every work4 ,he has painted not a few pictures of which it may be said that each one is sui generis1 and on the variations of which elsewhere entire reputations might have been founded4 ,with the exception of ,millet1 no one had observed man and nature with such sincere and open eyes4 ,with the great realists of the past ,courbet shares the characteristic of being everywhere and exclusively a portrait painter4 ,a pair of stone-breakers1 kneeling as they do in his picture1 with their faces protected by wire-masks1 were figures which every one saw working at the street corner1 and ,courbet represented the scene as faithfully as he could1 as sincerely and positively as was at all possible4 ,afternoon in ,ornans is a pleasant picture1 in which he took up again the good tradition of ,lenain4 ,and in ,the ,funeral at ,ornans he has painted exactly the manner in which such ceremonies take place in the country4 ,the peasants and dignitaries of a little country town--portrait figures such as the masters of the fifteenth century brought into their religious pictures--have followed the funeral train1 and behave themselves at the grave just as peasants would4 ,they make no impassioned gesticulations1 and form themselves into no fine groups1 but stand there like true rustics1 sturdy and indifferent4 ,they are men of flesh and blood1 they are like the people of real life1 and they have been subjected to no alteration3 on the one side are the women tearfully affected by the words of the preacher1 on the other are the men bored by the ceremony or discussing their own affairs4 ,in the ,demoiselles de ,village he gives a portrait of his own sisters1 as they went to a dance of a ,sunday afternoon4 ,the ,girls lying on the ,bank of the ,seine are grisettes of #ahej1 such as ,gavarni often drew2 they are both dressed in doubtful taste1 one asleep1 the other lost in a vacant reverie4 ,his naked women make a very tame effect compared with the colossal masses of human flesh in that cascade of nude women of the plumpest description who in ,rubens' ,last ,judgment plunge in confusion into hell1 like fish poured out from a bucket4 ,but they are amongst the best nude female figures which have been created in the nineteenth century4 ,courbet was a painter of the family of ,rubens and ,jordaens4 ,he had the preference shown by the old ,flemish artists for healthy1 plump1 soft flesh1 for fair1 fat1 and forty1 the three ,f's of feminine beauty1 and in his works he gave the academicians a lesson well worth taking to heart2 he showed them that it was possible to attain a powerful effect1 and even grace itself1 by strict fidelity to the forms of reality4 ,illustration3 ,neuerdein1 photo4 ,,courbet4 ,,the ,,wave4 ,his portraits--and he had the advantage of painting ,berlioz and ,baudelaire1 ,champfleury and ,proudhon--are possibly not of conspicuous eminence as likenesses4 ,as ,caravaggio1 according to ,bellori1 had only spirit1 eyes and diligence for flesh-tints1 skin1 blood1 and the natural surface of objects1 a head was merely a morceau like anything else for ,courbet too1 and not the central point of a thinking and sensitive being4 ,the physical man1 ,taine's human animal1 was more important in his eyes than the psychical4 ,he painted the epidermis without giving much suggestion of what was beneath4 ,but he painted this surface in such a broad and impressive manner that the pictures are interesting as pictorial masterpieces if not as analyses of character4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,stevens4 ,,the ,,lady ,,in ,,pink4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,stevens4 ,,la ,b,,te ,,bon ,,dieu4 ,to these his landscapes and animal pieces must be added as the works on which his talent displayed itself in the greatest purity and most inherent vigour3 ,the ,battle of the ,stags1 that most admirable picture ,the ,hind on the ,snow1 ,deer in ,covert1 views of the moss-grown rocks and sunlit woods of ,ornans and the green valleys of the ,franche-,comt4 ,he had the special secret of painting with a beautiful tone and a broad1 sure stroke dead plumage and hunting-gear1 the bristling hide of wild-boars1 and the more delicate coat of deer and of dogs4 ,as a landscape painter he does not belong to the family of ,corot and ,dupr4 ,his landscapes are green no doubt1 but they have limitations2 the leaves hang motionless on the branches1 undisturbed by a breath of wind4 ,courbet has forgotten the most important thing1 the air4 ,whatever the time of the year or the day may be1 winter or summer1 evening or morning1 he sees nothing but the form of things1 regarding the sun as a machine which has no other purpose than to mark the relief of objects by light and shade4 ,moreover1 the lyricism of the ,fontainebleau painters was not in him4 ,he paints without reverie1 and knows nothing of that tender faltering of the landscape painter in which the poet awakes1 but has merely the equanimity of a good and sure worker4 ,in regard to nature1 he has the sentiments of a peasant who tills his land1 is never elegiac or bucolic1 and would be most indignant if a nymph were to tread on the furrows of his fields4 ,he paints with a pipe in his mouth and a spade in his hand1 the plain and the hills1 potatoes and cabbages1 rich turf and slimy rushes1 oxen with steaming nostrils heavily ploughing the clods1 cows lying down and breathing at ease the damp air of the meadows drenched with rain4 ,he delights in fertile patches of country1 and in the healthy odour of the cow-house4 ,a material heaviness and a prosaic sincerity are stamped upon all4 ,but his painting has a solidity delightful to the eye4 ,it is inspiriting to meet a man who has such a resolute and simple love of nature1 and can interpret her afresh in powerful and sound colour without racking his brains4 ,his attachment to the spot of earth where he was born is a leading characteristic of his art4 ,he borrowed from ,ornans the motives of his most successful creations1 and was always glad to return to his parents' house4 ,the patriotism of the church-spire1 provincialism1 and a touching and vivid sense of home are peculiar to all his landscapes4 ,but in his sea-pieces1 to which he was incited by a residence in ,trouville in the summer of #ahfe1 he has opened an altogether new province to ,french art4 ,eugne ,le ,poittevin1 who exhibited a good deal in ,berlin in the forties1 and therefore became very well known in ,germany1 cannot count as a painter4 ,thodore ,gudin1 whose signature is likewise highly valued in the market1 was a frigid and rough-and-ready scenical painter4 ,his little sea-pieces have a professional manner1 and the large naval battles and fires at sea which he executed by the commission of ,louis ,philippe for the ,museum of ,versailles are frigid1 pompous1 and spectacular sea-pieces parallel with ,vernet's battle-pieces4 ,ziem1 who gave up his time to ,venice and the ,adriatic1 is the progenitor of ,eduard ,hildebrandt4 ,his water and sky take all the colours of the prism1 and the objects grouped between these luminous elements1 houses1 ships1 and men1 equally receive a share of these flattering and iridescent tones4 ,this gives something seductive and dazzling to his sketches1 until it is at last perceived that he has only painted one picture1 repeating it mechanically in all dimensions4 ,courbet was the first ,french painter of sea-pieces who had a feeling for the sombre majesty of the sea4 ,the ocean of ,gudin and ,ziem inspires neither wonder nor veneration2 that of ,courbet does both4 ,his very quietude is expressive of majesty2 his peace is imposing1 his smile grave2 and his caress is not without a menace4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,stevens4 ,,the ,,japanese ,,mask4 ,courbet has positively realised the programme which he issued in that pamphlet of #ahee4 ,when he began his activity1 eclectic idealism had overgrown the tree of art4 ,but ,courbet stripped off the parasitic vegetation to reach the firm and serviceable timber4 ,and having once grasped it he showed the muscles of an athlete in making its power felt4 ,something of the old ,flemish sturdiness lived once more in his bold creations4 ,if he and ,delacroix were united1 the result would be ,rubens4 ,delacroix had the fervour and passionate tamelessness1 while ,courbet contributed the ,flemish weight4 ,each made use of blood1 purple1 thrones1 and ,golgothas in composing the dramas they had imagined4 ,the latter pictured creation with the absolutism of complete objectivity4 ,delacroix rose on the horizon like a brilliant meteor catching flame from the light of vanished suns2 he reflected their radiance1 had almost their magnitude1 and followed the same course amid the same coruscation and blaze of light4 ,courbet stands firm and steady upon the earth4 ,the former had the second sight known to visionaries1 the latter opened his eyes to the world that can be felt and handled4 ,neurotic and distempered1 ,delacroix worked feverishly4 ,as a sound1 full-blooded being ,courbet painted1 as a man drinks1 digests1 and talks1 with an activity that knows no exertion1 a force that knows no weariness4 ,delacroix was a small1 weakly man1 and his whole power rested in his huge head4 ,that of ,courbet1 as in animals of beauty and power1 was dispersed through his whole frame2 his big arms and athletic hands render the same service to his art as his eyes and his brain4 ,and as1 like all sincere artists1 he rendered himself1 he was the creator of an art which has an irrepressible health and overflows with an exuberant opulence4 ,his pictures brought a savour of the butcher's shop into ,french painting1 which had become anmic4 ,he delighted in plump shoulders and sinewy necks1 broad breasts heaving over the corset1 the glow of the skin dripping with warm drops of water in the bath1 the hide of deer and the coat of hares1 the iridescent shining of carp and cod-fish4 ,delacroix1 all brain1 caught fire from his inward visions2 ,courbet1 all eye and maw1 with the sensuousness of an epicure and the satisfaction of a gourmet1 gloats over the shining vision of things which can be devoured--a ,gargantua with a monstrous appetite1 he buried himself in the navel of the generous earth4 ,plants1 fruit1 and vegetables take voluptuous life beneath his brush4 ,he triumphs when he has to paint a djeuner with oysters1 lemons1 turkeys1 fish1 and pheasants4 ,his mouth waters when he heaps into a picture of still-life all manner of delicious eatables4 ,the only drama that he has painted is ,the ,battle of the ,stags1 and this will end in brown sauce amid a cheerful clatter of knives and forks4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,stevens4 ,,the ,,visitors4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,faure1 the owner of the picture47 ,even as a landscape painter he is luxurious and phlegmatic4 ,in his pictures the earth is a corpulent nurse1 the trees fine and well-fed children1 and all nature healthy and contented4 ,his art is like a powerful body fed with rich nourishment4 ,in such organisms the capacity for enthusiasm and delicacy of sentiment are too easily sacrificed to their physical satisfaction1 but their robust health ensures them the longer life4 ,here is neither the routine and external technique and the correct1 academic articulation of form belonging to mannerists1 nor the strained1 neurotic1 sickly refinement of the decadents1 but the powerful utterance of inborn1 instinctive talent1 and the strong cries of nature which rise out of it will be understood at all times1 even the most distant4 ,it is hardly necessary to add that the appearance of a genius of this kind was fraught with untold consequences to the further development of ,french painting4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,ricard4 ,,madame ,,de ,,calonne4 ,what is held beautiful in nature must likewise be beautiful in pictorial art when it is faithfully represented1 and nature is beautiful everywhere4 ,in announcing this and demonstrating it in pictures of life-size1 ,courbet won for art all the wide dominion of modern life which had hitherto been so studiously avoided--the dominion in which it had to revel if it was to learn to see with its own eyes4 ,one fragment of reality after another would then be drawn into the sphere of representation1 and no longer in the form of laboriously composed genre pictures1 but after the fashion of really pictorial works of art4 ,what ,millet had done for the peasant1 and ,courbet for the artisan1 ,alfred ,stevens did for society3 he discovered the ,parisienne4 ,until #ahej the graceful life of the refined classes1 which ,gavarni1 ,marcellin1 and ,cham had so admirably drawn1 found no adequate representation in the province of painting4 ,the ,parisienne1 who is so chic and piquant1 and can hate and kiss with such fervour1 fascinated every one1 but ,grecian profile was a matter of prescription4 ,auguste ,toulmouche painted little women in fashionable toilette1 but less from any taste he had for the graceful vision than from delight in genre painting4 ,they were forced to find forbidden books in the library1 to resist worldly marriages1 or behave in some such interesting fashion1 to enter into the kingdom of art4 ,it was reserved for a foreigner to reveal this world of beauty1 chic1 and grace4 ,alfred ,stevens was a child of ,brussels4 ,he was born in the land of ,flemish matrons on #aath ,may #ahbh1 and was the second of three children4 ,joseph1 the elder brother1 became afterwards the celebrated painter of animals2 ,arthur1 the youngest1 became an art-critic and a picture-dealer2 he was one of the first who brought home to the public comprehension the noble art of ,rousseau1 ,corot1 and ,millet4 ,stevens' father fought as an officer in the great army at the battle of ,waterloo1 and is said to have been an accomplished critic4 ,some of the ablest sketches of ,delacroix1 ,devria1 ,charlet1 and ,roqueplan found their way into his charming home4 ,roqueplan1 who often came to ,brussels1 took the younger ,stevens with him to his ,parisian studio4 ,he was a tall1 graceful young man1 who1 with his vigorous upright carriage1 his finely chiselled features1 and his dandified moustache1 looked like an officer of dragoons or cuirassiers4 ,he was a pleasure-loving man of the world1 and was soon the lion of ,parisian drawing-rooms4 ,the grace of modern life in great cities became the domain of his art4 ,the ,parisienne1 whom his ,french fellow-artists passed by without heed1 was a strange1 interesting phenomenon to him1 who was a foreigner--an exotic and exquisitely artistic bibelot1 which he looked upon with eyes as enraptured as those with which ,decamps had looked upon the ,east4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,chaplin4 ,,the ,,golden ,,age4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,goupil ,co41 the owners of the copyright47 ,his very first picture1 exhibited in #ahee1 was called ,at ,home4 ,a charming little woman is warming her feet at the fire2 she has returned from visiting a friend1 and it has been raining or snowing outside4 ,her delicate hands are frozen in spite of her muff1 her cheeks have been reddened by the wind1 and she has a pleasant sense of comfort as her rosy lips breathe the warm air of the room4 ,from the time of this picture women took possession of ,stevens' easel4 ,his way was prescribed for him1 and he never left it4 ,robert ,fleury1 the president of the judging committee in the ,salon1 said to him3 ,you are a good painter1 but alter your subjects2 you are stifling in a sphere which is too small2 how wide and grand is that of the past6 ,whereon ,stevens is said to have showed him a volume of photographs from ,velasquez4 ,look here at ,velasquez1 he said4 ,this man never represented anything but what he had before his eyes--people in the ,spanish dress of the seventeenth century4 ,and as the justification of my genre may be found in this ,spanish painter1 it may be found also in ,rubens1 ,raphael1 ,van ,dyck1 and all the great artists4 ,all these masters of the past derived their strength and the secret of their endurance from the faithful reproduction of what they had themselves seen3 it gives their pictures a real historical as well as an artistic value4 ,one can only render successfully what one has felt sincerely and seen vividly before one's eyes in flesh and blood4 ,in these sentences he is at one with ,courbet1 and by not allowing himself to be led astray into doing sacrifice to the idols of historical painting he continues to live as the historical painter of the ,parisienne4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,chaplin4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,countess ,,aimery ,,de ,,la ,,rochefoucauld4 ,in his whole work he sounds a pan to the delicate and all-powerful mistress of the world1 and it is significant that it was through woman that art joined issue with the interests of the present4 ,millet1 the first who conquered a province of modern life1 was at the same time the first great painter of women in the century4 ,stevens shows the other side of the medal4 ,in ,millet woman was a product of nature2 in ,stevens she is the product of modern civilisation4 ,the woman of ,millet lives a large animal life1 in the sweat of her brow1 bowed to the earth4 ,she is the primval mother who works1 bears children1 and gives them nourishment4 ,she stands in the field like a caryatid1 like a symbol of fertile nature4 ,in ,stevens woman does not toil and is seldom a mother4 ,he paints the woman who loves1 enjoys1 and knows nothing of the great pangs of child-birth and hunger4 ,the one woman lives beneath the wide1 open sky1 dans le grand air2 the other is only enveloped in an atmosphere of perfume4 ,she is ancient ,cybele in the pictures of ,millet2 in those of ,stevens the holy ,magdalene of the nineteenth century1 to whom much will be forgiven1 because she has loved much4 ,the pictures of ,stevens represent1 for the first time1 the potent relations of woman to the century4 ,whilst most works of this time are silent concerning ourselves1 his art will speak of our weaknesses and our passions4 ,in a period of archaic painting he upheld the banner of modernity4 ,on this account posterity will honour him as one of the first historians of the nineteenth century1 and will learn from his pictures all that ,greuze has revealed to the present generation about the civilisation of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,gaillard4 ,,portrait4 ,and perhaps more1 for ,stevens never moralised--he merely painted4 ,painter to his finger tips1 like ,delacroix1 ,roqueplan1 and ,isabey1 he stood in need of no anecdotic substratum as an adjunct4 ,the key of his pictures was suggested by no theme of one sort or another1 but by his treatment of colour4 ,the picture was evolved from the first tone he placed upon the canvas1 which was the ground-note of the entire scale4 ,he delighted in a thick pasty handling1 in beautiful hues1 and in finely chased detail4 ,and he was as little inclined to sentimentality as to pictorial novels4 ,everything is discreet1 piquant1 and full of charm4 ,he was a delicate spirit1 avoiding tears and laughter4 ,subdued joy1 melancholy1 and everything delicate and reserved are what he loves2 he will have nothing to do with stereotyped arrangement nor supernumerary figures1 but although a single person dominates the stage he never repeats himself4 ,he has followed woman through all her metamorphoses--as mother or in love1 weary or excited1 proud or humbled1 fallen or at the height of success1 in her morning-gown or dressed for visiting or a promenade1 now on the sea-shore1 now in the costume of a ,japanese1 or dallying with her trinkets as she stands vacantly before the glass4 ,the surroundings invariably form an accompaniment to the melody4 ,a world of exquisite things is the environment of the figures4 ,rich stuffs1 charming petit-riens from ,china and ,japan1 the most delicate ivory and lacquer-work1 the finest bronzes1 ,japanese fire-screens1 and great vases with blossoming sprays1 fill the boudoir and drawing-room of the ,parisienne4 ,in the pictures of ,stevens she is the fairy of a paradise made up of all the most capricious products of art4 ,a new world was discovered1 a painting which was in touch with life2 the symphony of the salon was developed in a delicate style4 ,a tender feminine perfume1 something at once melancholy and sensuous1 was exhaled from the pictures of ,stevens1 and by this shade of demi-monde haut-got he won the great public4 ,they could not rise to ,millet and ,courbet1 and ,stevens was the first who gave general pleasure without paying toll to the vicious taste for melodramatic1 narrative1 and humorous genre painting4 ,even in the sixties he was appreciated in ,england1 ,france1 ,germany1 ,russia1 and ,belgium1 and represented in all public and private collections2 and through the wide reception offered to his pictures he contributed much to create in the public a comprehension for good painting4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,dubois4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,my ,,sons4 7,by permission of the ,artist47 ,in the same way ,james ,tissot achieved the representation of the modern woman4 ,stevens1 a ,belgian1 painted the ,parisienne2 ,tissot1 a ,frenchman1 the ,englishwoman4 ,it was not till they went into foreign countries that these artists perceived the grace of what was not deemed suitable to art at home4 ,in ,paris from the year #ahei ,tissot had painted scenes from the fifteenth century1 to which he was moved by ,leys1 and he studied with archological accuracy the costume and furniture of the late ,gothic period4 ,when he migrated to ,england in #ahga he gave up the romantic proclivities of his youth1 and devoted himself to the representation of fashionable society4 ,his oil paintings fascinate us by their delicate feeling for cool transparent tone values1 whilst his water-colours--restaurant1 theatre1 and ball scenes--assure him a place among the pioneers of modernity4 ,at first ,stevens found no successors amongst ,parisian painters4 ,a few1 indeed1 painted interiors in graceful ,paris1 but they were only frigid compositions of dresses and furniture1 without a breath of that delicate aroma which exhales from the works of the ,belgian4 ,the portrait painters alone approached that modern grace which still awaited its historian and poet4 ,an exceedingly delicate artist1 ,gustave ,ricard1 in whose portraits the art of galleries had a congenial revival1 was called the modern ,van ,dyck in the sixties4 ,living nature did not content him2 he wished to learn how it was interpreted by the old masters1 and therefore frequented galleries1 where he sought counsel sometimes from the ,english portrait-painters1 sometimes from ,leonardo1 ,rubens1 and ,van ,dyck4 ,in this way ,ricard became a gourmet of colour1 who knew the technique of the old masters as few others have done1 and his works have an attractive golden gallery-tone of great distinction4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,carolus ,,duran4 ,in ,charles ,chaplin ,fragonard was revived4 ,he was the specialist of languishing flesh and poudre de riz1 the refined interpreter of aristocratic beauty1 one on whose palette there might still be found a delicate reflection of the ftes galantes of the eighteenth century4 ,in ,germany he was principally known by those dreamy1 frail1 and sensual maidens1 well characterised by the phrase of the ,empress ,eugnie4 ,m4 ,chaplin1 she said1 ,i admire you4 ,your pictures are not merely indecorous1 they are more4 ,but ,chaplin had likewise the other qualities of the rococo painter4 ,he was a decorative artist of the first rank1 and1 like ,fragonard1 he carelessly scattered round him on all sides grace and beauty1 charm and fascination4 ,in #aheg he decorated the ,salon des ,fleurs in the ,tuileries1 in #ahfa-fe the bathroom of the ,empress in the ,palais de l',elyse1 and from #ahfe a number of private houses in ,paris1 ,brussels1 and ,new ,york2 and there is in all these works a refined haut-got of modern ,parisian elegance and fragrant rococo grace4 ,he revived no nymphs1 and made no pilgrimage to the island of ,cythera2 he was more of an epicurean4 ,but ,fragonard's fine tones and ,fragonard's sensuousness were peculiar to him4 ,he had a method of treating the hair1 of introducing little patches1 of setting a dimple in the chin1 and painting the arms and bosom1 which had vanished since the rococo period from the power of ,french artists4 ,rosebuds and full-blown roses blossom like girls la ,greuze1 and fading beauties1 who are all the more irresistible1 are the elements out of which his refined1 indecorous1 and yet fragrant art is constituted4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,bonnat4 ,,adolphe ,,thiers4 7,by permission of the ,artist47 ,the great engraver ,gaillard brought ,hans ,holbein once more into honour4 ,he was the heir of that method of painting1 the eternal matrix of which ,jan van ,eyck left to the world in unapproachable perfection4 ,his energetic but conscientiously minute brush noted every wrinkle of the face1 without doing injury to the total impression by this labour of detail4 ,indeed1 his pictures are as great in conception and as powerful in characterisation as they are small in size4 ,gaillard is a profound physiognomist who attained the most vivid analysis of character by means of the utmost precision4 ,paul ,dubois takes us across the ,alps2 in his portraits he is the same great quattrocentist that he was from the beginning in his plastic works4 ,his ground is that of the excellent and subtle period when ,leonardo1 who had been in the beginning somewhat arid1 grew delicate and allowed a mysterious sphinx-like smile to play round the lips of his women4 ,manifestly he has studied ,prudhon and had much intercourse with ,henner in those years when the latter1 after his return from ,italy1 directed attention once more to the old ,lombards4 ,from the time when he made his dbut in #ahgi1 with the portrait of his sons1 he received great encouragement1 and stands out in these days as the most mature painter of women that the present age has to show4 ,only the great ,english portrait painters ,watts and ,millais1 who are inferior to him in technique1 have excelled him in the embodiment of personalities4 ,as the most skilful painter of drapery1 the most brilliant decorator of feminine beauty1 ,carolus ,duran was long celebrated4 ,the studies which he had made in ,italy had not caused him to forget that he took his origin from across the ,flemish border2 and when he appeared with his first portraits1 in the beginning of the seventies1 it was believed that an eminent colourist had been born to ,french painting4 ,at that time he had a fine feeling for the eternal feminine and its transitory phases of expression1 and he was as dexterous in seizing a fleeting gesture or a turn of the head as he was in the management of drapery and the play of its hues4 ,then1 again1 he made a gradual transition from delicate and discreetly coquettish works to the crude arts of upholstery4 ,yet even in his last period he has painted some masculine portraits--those of ,pasteur1 and of the painters ,franais1 ,fritz ,thaulow1 and ,ren ,billotte--which are striking in their vigorous simplicity and unforced characterisation after the glaring virtuosity of his pictures of women4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,bonnat4 ,,victor ,,hugo4 7,by permission of the ,artist47 ,lon ,bonnat1 the pupil of ,madrazos1 brought about the fruitful connection between ,french painting and that of the old ,spaniards4 ,by this a large quantity of the fresh blood of naturalism was poured into it once more4 ,born in the ,south of ,france and educated in ,spain1 he had conceived there a special enthusiasm for ,ribera1 and these youthful impressions were so powerful that he remained faithful to them in ,paris4 ,as early as his residence in ,italy1 which included the three years from #aheh to #ahfj1 his individuality had been fortified in a degree which prevented him from wasting himself on large academical compositions like the holders of the ,prix de ,rome2 on the contrary1 he painted scenes from the varied life of the ,roman people4 ,several religious pictures1 such as ,the ,martyrdom of ,saint ,andrew 7#ahfc71 ,saint ,vincent de ,paul 7#ahff71 and the ,job of the ,luxembourg1 showed that he was steadily progressing on the road paved by ,spagnoletto4 ,he had a virtuosity in conjuring on to the canvas visages furrowed by the injustices of life--grey hair1 waving grey beards1 and the starting sinews and muscles of old weather-beaten frames4 ,in the beginning of the seventies1 when he had to paint a ,crucifixion for the jury-chamber in the ,paris ,palais de ,justice1 he executed a virile figure1 the muscles and anatomy of which were as clearly marked as the buttresses in a ,gothic cathedral4 ,as in the paintings of ,caravaggio1 a sharp1 glaring light fell upon certain parts of the body1 whilst others remained dark and colourless in the gloomy background4 ,he applied the same principles to his portraits4 ,a ,french ,lenbach1 he painted in ,france a gallery of celebrated men4 ,with an almost tangible reality he painted ,hugo1 ,madame ,pasta1 ,dumas1 ,gounod1 ,thiers1 ,grvy1 ,pasteur1 ,puvis de ,chavannes1 ,jules ,ferry1 ,carnot1 ,cardinal ,lavigerie1 and others4 ,over two hundred persons1 famous or not1 have sat to him1 and he has painted them with an exceedingly intelligent power1 masculine taste1 and a learning which never loses itself in unnecessary detail4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,antoine ,,vollon4 ,the delicate physiognomy of women1 the frou-frou of exquisite toilettes1 the dreaminess1 the fragrance1 the coquetry of the modern ,sphinx1 were no concern of his4 ,on the other hand1 his masculine portraits will always keep their interest1 if only on historical grounds4 ,in all of them he laid great stress on characteristic accessories1 and could indicate in the simplest way the thinker1 the musician1 the scholar1 and the statesman4 ,one remembers his pictures as though they were phrases uttered with conviction1 though a ,german does not hesitate to place ,lenbach far above ,bonnat as a psychologist4 ,the latter has not the power of seizing the momentary effect1 the intimacy1 the personal note1 the palpitating life peculiar to ,lenbach4 ,with the intention of saying all things he often forgets the most important--the spirit of the man and the grace of the woman4 ,his pictures are great pieces of still-life--exceedingly conscientious1 but having something of the conscientiousness of an actuary copying a tedious protocol4 ,the portrait of ,lon ,cogniet1 the teacher of the master1 with his aged face1 his spectacled eyes1 and his puckered hands 7,muse ,luxembourg71 is perhaps the only likeness in which ,bonnat rivals ,lenbach in depth of characterisation4 ,his pictorial strength is always worthy of respect2 but1 for the sake of variety1 the esprit is for once on the side of the ,german4 ,ruled by a passion for the ,spanish masters1 such as ,bonnat possessed1 ,roybet painted cavaliers of the seventeenth century1 and other historical pictures of manners1 which are distinguished1 to their advantage1 from older pictures of their type1 because it is not the historical anecdote but the pictorial idea which is their basis4 ,all the earlier painters were rather bent upon archological accuracy than on pictorial charm in the treatment of such themes4 ,roybet revelled in the rich hues of old costumes1 and sometimes attained1 before he strained his talent in the ,procrustean bed of pictures of great size1 a bloom and a strong1 glowing tone which rival the old masters4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,vollon4 ,a ,,carnival ,,scene4 ,in all periods which have learnt to see the world through a pictorial medium1 still-life has held an important place in the practice of art4 ,a technical instinct1 which is in itself art1 delights in investing musical instruments1 golden and silver vessels1 fruit and other eatables1 glasses and goblets1 coverings of precious work1 gauntlets and armour1 all imaginable petit-riens1 with an artistic magic1 in recognising and executing pictorial problems everywhere4 ,after the transition from historical and genre painting had been made to painting proper there once more appeared great painters of still-life in ,france as there did in ,chardin's days4 ,yet ,blaise ,desgoffe1 who painted piecemeal and with laborious patience goldsmith's work1 crystal vases1 ,venetian glass1 and such things1 is certainly rather petty4 ,in ,france he was the chief representative of that precise and detailed painting which understands by art a deceptive imitation of objects1 and sees its end attained when the holiday public gathers round the pictures as the birds gathered round the grapes of ,zeuxis4 ,it is as if an old master had revived in ,philippe ,rousseau4 ,he had the same earnest qualities as the ,dutch and ,flemish ,classic masters--a broad1 liquid1 pasty method of execution1 a fine harmony of clear and powerful tones--and with all this a marvellous address in so composing objects that no trace of composition is discernible4 ,his work arose from the animal picture4 ,his painting of dogs and cats is to be ranked with the best of the century4 ,he makes a fourth with ,gillot1 ,chardin1 and ,decamps1 the great painters of monkeys4 ,as a decorator of genius1 like ,hondekoeter1 he embellished a whole series of dining-halls with splendidly coloured representations of poultry1 and1 like ,snyders1 he heaped together game1 dead and living fowl1 fruit1 lobsters1 and oysters into huge life-size masses of still-life4 ,behind them the cook may be seen1 and thievish cats steal around4 ,but1 like ,kalf1 he has also painted1 with an exquisite feeling for colour1 ,japanese porcelain bowls with bunches of grapes1 quinces1 and apricots1 metal and ivory work1 helmets and fiddles1 against that delicate grey-brown-green tone of background which ,chardin loved4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,bonvin4 ,,the ,,cook4 ,antoine ,vollon became the greatest painter of still-life in the century4 ,indeed1 ,vollon is as broad and nervous as ,desgoffe is precise and pedantic4 ,flowers1 fruit1 and fish--they are all painted in with a firm hand1 and shine out of the dark background with a full liquid freshness of colour4 ,he paints dead salt-water fish like ,abraham van ,beyeren1 grapes and crystal goblets like ,davids de ,heem1 dead game like ,frans ,snyders1 skinned pigs like ,rembrandt and ,maes4 ,he is a master in the representation of freshly gathered flowers1 delicate vegetables1 copper kettles1 weapons1 and suits of armour4 ,since ,chardin no painter depicted the qualities of the skin of fresh fruit1 its life and its play of colour1 and the moist bloom that rests upon it1 with such fidelity to nature4 ,his fish in particular will always remain the wonder of all painters and connoisseurs4 ,but landscapes1 ,dutch canal views1 and figure-pictures are also to be found amongst his works4 ,he has painted everything that is picturesque1 and the history of art must do him honour as1 in a specifically pictorial sense1 one of the greatest in the century4 ,a soft grey-brown wainscoting1 a black and white ,pierrot costume1 and a white table-cloth and dark green vegetables--such is the harmony of colour which he chiefly loved in his figure-pictures4 ,on the same purely pictorial grounds nuns became very popular in painting1 as their white hoods and collars standing out against a black dress gave the opportunity for such a fine effect of tone4 ,this was the province in which poor ,franois ,bonvin laboured4 ,deriving from the ,dutch1 he conceived an enthusiasm for work1 silence1 the subdued shining of light in interiors1 cold days1 the slow movements and peaceful faces of nuns1 and painted kitchen scenes with a strong personal accent4 ,before he took up painting he was for a long time a policeman1 and was employed in taking charge of the markets4 ,here he acquired an eye for the picturesqueness of juicy vegetables1 white collars1 and white hoods1 and when he had a day free he studied ,lenain and ,chardin in the ,louvre4 ,bonvin's pictures have no anecdotic purport4 ,drinkers1 cooks1 orphan children in the schoolroom1 sempstresses1 choristers1 sisters of mercy1 boys reading1 women in church1 nuns conducting a sewing-class--,bonvin's still1 picturesque1 congenial world is made up of elements such as these4 ,what his people may think or do is no matter3 they are only meant to create an effect as pictorial tones in space4 ,during his journey to ,holland he had examined ,metsu1 ,frans ,hals1 ,pieter de ,hoogh1 ,terborg1 and ,van der ,meer with an understanding for their merits1 but it was ,chardin in both his phases--as painter of still-life and of familiar events--who was in a special sense revived in ,bonvin4 ,all his pictures are simple and quiet2 his figures are peaceful in their expression1 and have an easy geniality of pose2 his hues have a beauty and fulness of tone recalling the old masters4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,bonvin4 ,,the ,,work-,,room4 ,even ,thodule ,ribot1 the most eminent of the group1 one of the most dexterous executants of the ,french school1 a master who for power of expression is worthy of being placed between ,frans ,hals and ,ribera1 made a beginning with still-life4 ,he was born in #ahbc1 in a little town of the department of ,eure4 ,early married and poor1 he supported himself at first by painting frames for a firm of mirror manufacturers1 and only reserved the hours of the evening for his artistic labours4 ,in particular he is said to have accustomed himself to work whole nights through by lamplight1 while he nursed his wife during a long illness1 watching at her bedside4 ,the lamplight intensified the contrasts of light and shadow4 ,thus ,ribot's preference for concentrated light and strong shadows is partially due1 in all probability1 to what he had gone through in his life1 and in later days ,ribera merely bestowed upon him a benediction as his predecessor in the history of art4 ,illustration3 ,,ribot4 ,,the ,,studio4 ,his first pictures from the years #ahfa to #ahfe were1 for the most part1 scenes from household and kitchen life3 cooks1 as large as life1 plucking poultry1 setting meat before the fire1 scouring vessels1 or tasting sauces2 sometimes1 also1 figures in the streets2 but even here there was a strong accentuation of the element of still-life4 ,there were men with cooking utensils1 food1 dead birds1 and fish4 ,then after #ahfe there followed a number of religious pictures which1 in their hard1 peasant-like veracity and their impressive1 concentrated life1 stood in the most abrupt contrast with the conventionally idealised figures of the academicians4 ,his ,jesus in the ,temple1 no less than ,saint ,sebastian and ,the ,good ,samaritan--all three in the ,muse ,luxembourg--are works of simple and forceful grandeur1 and have a thrilling effect which almost excites dismay4 ,sebastian is no smiling saint gracefully embellished with wounds1 but a suffering man1 with the blood streaming from his veins1 stretched upon the earth2 yet half-raising himself1 a cry of agony upon his lips1 and his whole body contorted by spasms of pain4 ,in his ,jesus in the ,temple1 going on parallel lines with ,menzel1 he proclaims the doctrine that it is only possible to pour new life-blood into traditional figures by a tactful choice of models from popular life around4 ,and in ,the ,good ,samaritan1 also1 he was only concerned to paint1 with naturalistic force1 the body of a wounded man lying in the street1 a thick-set ,french peasant robbed of his clothes4 ,from the seventies his specialty was heads--separate figures of weather-beaten old folk1 old women knitting or writing1 old men reading or lost in thought2 and these will always be ranked with the greatest masterpieces of the century4 ,ribot attains a remarkable effect when he paints those expressive faces of his1 which seem to follow you with their looks1 and are thrown out from the darkness of his canvas4 ,a black background1 in which the dark dresses of his figures are insensibly lost1 a luminous head with such eyes as no one of the century has ever painted1 wrinkled skin and puckered old hands rising from somewhere--one knows not whence--these are things which all lend his figures something phantasmal1 superhuman1 and ghostly4 ,ribot is the great king of the under-world1 to which a sunbeam only penetrates by stealth4 ,before his pictures one has the sense of wandering in a deep1 deep shaft of some mine1 where all is dark and only now and then a lantern glimmers4 ,no artist1 not even ,ribera1 has been a better painter of old people1 and only ,velasquez has painted children who have such sparkling life4 ,ribot worked in ,colombes1 near ,paris1 to which place he had early withdrawn1 in a barn where only tiny dormer-windows let in two sharp rays of light4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,ribot4 ,,at ,a ,,norman ,,inn4 ,by placing his canvas beneath one window and his model beneath the other1 in a dim light which allowed only one golden ray to fall upon the face1 he isolated it completely from its surroundings1 and in this way painted the parts illuminated with the more astonishing effect4 ,no one had the same power in modelling a forehead1 indicating the bones beneath the flesh1 and rendering all the subtleties of skin4 ,a terrible and intense life is in his figures4 ,his old beggars and sailors especially have something kingly in the grand style of their noble and quiet faces4 ,an old master with a powerful technique1 a painter of the force and health of ,jordaens1 has manifested himself once more in ,ribot4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,ribot4 ,,keeping ,,accounts4 ,courbet's principles1 accordingly1 had won all down the line1 in the course of a few years4 ,it is only ,ribera1 ,zurbaran1 and ,velasquez that ,i admire2 ,ostade and ,craesbeeck also allure me2 and for ,holbein ,i feel veneration4 ,as for ,m4 ,raphael1 there is no doubt that he has painted some interesting portraits1 but ,i cannot find any ideas in him4 ,in these words he had prophesied as early as #ahee the course which ,french art would take in the next decade4 ,when ,courbet appeared the grand painting stood in thraldom to the beaut suprme1 and the sthetic conceptions of the time affected the treatment of contemporary subjects4 ,artists had not realism enough to give truth and animation to these themes4 ,when ,cabanel1 ,hamon1 and ,bouguereau occasionally painted beggars and orphans1 they were bloodless phantoms1 because by beautifying the figures they deprived them of character in the effort to give them1 approximately1 the forms of historical painting4 ,because painters did not regard their own epoch1 because they had been accustomed to consider living beings merely as elements of the second and third rank1 they never discovered the distinctiveness of their essential life4 ,like a traveller possessed by one fixed mania1 they made a voyage round the world1 thinking only how they might adapt living forms to those which their traditional training recommended as peculiarly right and alone worthy of art4 ,even portrait painting was dominated by this false method1 of rendering figures as types1 of improving the features and the contour of bodies1 and giving men the external appearance of fair1 ideal figures4 ,but now the sway of the ,cinquecento has been finally broken4 ,a fresh breeze of realism from across the ,pyrenees has taken the place of the sultry ,italian sirocco4 ,from the pictures of the ,neapolitans1 the ,spaniards1 and the ,dutch it has been learnt that the joys and sorrows of the people are just as capable of representation as the actions of gods and heroes1 and under the influence of these views a complete change in the cast has taken place4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,ribot4 ,,st4 ,,sebastian1 ,,martyr4 ,the figures which in #ahee filled ,courbet's picture ,the ,studio--beggar-women1 agricultural labourers1 artisans1 sailors1 tippling soldiers1 buxom girls1 porters1 rough members of the proletariat of uncouth stature--now crowd the stage of ,french art1 and impart even to the heroes of history1 bred through centuries from degenerated gods1 something of their full-blooded1 rough1 hearty1 and plebeian force of life4 ,the artists of ,italian taste only gave the rights of citizenship to universal forms2 every reminiscence of national customs or of local character was counted vulgar2 they did not discover the gold of beauty in the rich mines of popular life1 but in the classic masters of foreign race4 ,but now even what is unearthly is translated into the terms of earth4 ,if religious pictures are to be painted1 artists take men from the people for their model1 as ,caravaggio did before them--poor old peasants with bones of iron1 and bronzed1 weather-beaten faces1 porters with figures bowed and scarred by labour1 men of rough1 common nature1 though of gnarled and sinewy muscles4 ,the pictures of martyrs1 once artificial compositions of beautiful gesture and vacant1 generalised countenances1 receive a tone local to the scaffold1 a trait of merciless veracity--the heads the energy of a relief1 the gestures force and impressiveness1 the bodies a science in their modelling which would have rejoiced ,ribera4 ,as ,caravaggio said that the more wrinkles his model had the more he liked him1 so no one is any longer repelled by horny hands1 tattered rags1 and dirty feet4 ,in the good periods of art it is well known that the beauty or uncomeliness of a work has nothing to do with the beauty or uncomeliness of the model1 and that the most hideous cripple can afford an opportunity for making the most beautiful work4 ,the old doctrine of ,leonardo1 that every kind of painting is portrait painting1 and that the best artists are those who can imitate nature in the most convincing way1 comes once more into operation4 ,the apotheosis of the model has taken the place of idealism4 ,and during these same years ,england reached a similar goal by another route4 ,,bibliography ,,bibliography ,,chapter ,,xvi ,leopold ,boilly3 ,jules ,houdoy3 ,l',art1 #ahgg1 iv #fc1 #ha4 ,on the ,history of ,caricature in ,general3 ,j4 ,p4 ,malcolm3 ,an ,historical ,sketch of the ,art of ,caricaturing4 ,london1 #ahac4 ,th4 ,wright3 ,a ,history of ,caricature and ,grotesque in ,literature and ,art4 ,london1 #ahge4 ,arsne ,alexandre3 ,l',art du rire4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,e4 ,bayard3 ,la caricature et les caricaturistes4 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,fuchs und ,krmer3 ,die ,karikatur der europischen ,vlker vom ,altertum bis zur ,neuzeit4 ,berlin1 #aija4 ,on the ,english ,caricaturists3 ,victor ,champier3 ,la caricature anglaise contemporaine1 ,l',art1 #ahge1 i #bi1 #bic1 ii #cjj1 iii #bgg and #bif4 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,les livres caricatures en ,angleterre1 ,le ,livre1 ,novembre #ahha4 ,augustin ,filon3 ,la caricature en ,angleterre1 ,w4 ,hogarth1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ae ,janvier #ahhe4 ,graham ,everitt3 ,english ,caricaturists and ,graphic ,humorists of the ,nineteenth ,century4 ,how they illustrated and interpreted their ,times4 ,with #fg ,illustrations4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,rowlandson3 ,c4 ,m4 ,westmacott3 ,the ,spirit of the ,public ,journals4 #c vols4 #ahbe-ahbf4 ,joseph ,grego3 ,thomas ,rowlandson1 the ,caricaturist4 ,a selection from his works1 with anecdotal descriptions of his famous ,caricatures and a sketch of his ,life1 ,times1 and ,contemporaries4 ,with about #djj ,illustrations4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,thomas ,rowlandson the ,humorist1 ,portfolio1 #ahia1 #ada4 ,cruikshank3 ,cruikshankiana4 ,engravings by ,richard ,dighton4 ,london1 #ahee4 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,g4 ,cruikshank1 ,portfolio1 #ahgb1 #gg4 ,g4 ,w4 ,reid3 ,complete ,catalogue of the ,engraved ,works of ,george ,cruikshank4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,g4 ,a4 ,sala3 ,george ,cruikshank1 a ,life ,memory1 ,gentleman's ,magazine1 #ahgh4 ,william ,bates3 ,george ,cruikshank1 the ,artist1 the ,humorist1 and the ,man4 ,with ,illustrations and ,portraits4 ,london and ,birmingham1 #ahgh4 ,frederick ,wedmore3 ,cruikshank1 ,temple ,bar1 ,april #ahgh4 ,w4 ,b4 ,jerrold3 ,the ,life of ,george ,cruikshank4 #b vols4 #ahhb4 ,h4 ,thornber3 ,the ,early ,work of ,george ,cruikshank4 #ahhg4 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,a ,memoir of ,george ,cruikshank4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,r4 ,f4 ,h4 ,douglas3 ,catalogue of ,works by ,cruikshank4 ,london1 #aijc4 ,john ,leech3 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,un humoriste anglais1 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahge1 i #ecb4 ,john ,brown3 ,john ,leech1 and ,other ,papers4 ,edinburgh1 #ahhb4 ,f4 ,g4 ,kitton3 ,john ,leech1 ,artist and ,humorist4 ,london1 #ahhd4 b,george ,du ,maurier3_/b ,l',art1 #ahgf1 iv #bgi4 ,see also ,english ,society at ,home4 ,fol4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,charles ,keene3 ,claude ,phillips3 ,charles ,keene1 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahia1 i #cbg4 ,g4 ,l4 ,layard3 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,charles ,keene4 ,london1 #ahib4 ,on the ,german ,draughtsmen3 ,beitrge zur ,geschichte der ,caricatur1 ,zeitschrift fr ,museologie1 #ahha1 #ac ff4 ,j4 ,grand-,carteret3 ,les moeurs et la caricature en ,allemagne1 en ,autriche1 en ,suisse4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,r4 v4 ,seydlitz3 ,die moderne ,caricatur in ,deutschland1 ,zur guten ,stunde1 ,mai #ahia4 ,hermann3 ,die deutsche ,karikatur im #ai ,jahrhundert4 ,bielefeld1 #aija4 ,johann ,christian ,erhard3 ,alois ,apell3 ,das ,werk von ,johann ,christian ,erhard4 ,leipzig1 #ahff-ge4 ,johann ,adam ,klein3 ,f4 ,m43 ,verzeichniss der von ,johann ,adam ,klein gezeichneten und radirten ,bltter4 ,stuttgart1 #ahec4 ,john3 ,das ,werk von ,johann ,adam ,klein4 ,munich1 #ahfc4 ,ludwig ,richter3 ,richter-,album4 #b vols4 ,leipzig1 #ahfa4 ,jahn1 in ,richter-,album1 and in the ,biographische ,aufstze4 ,leipzig1 #ahfg4 ,w4 ,heinrichsen3 ,ueber ,richters ,holzschnitte4 ,carlsruhe1 #ahgj4 ,johann ,f4 ,hoff3 ,adrian ,ludwig ,richter1 ,maler und ,radirer4 ,list and description of his works1 with a biographical sketch by ,h4 ,steinfeld4 ,dresden1 #ahga4 ,l4 ,richter's ,landschaften4 ,text by ,h4 ,lcke4 ,leipzig1 #ahge4 ,georg ,scherer3 ,aus der ,jugendzeit4 ,leipzig1 #ahge4 ,ernst und ,scherz4 ,leipzig1 #ahge4 ,deutsche ,art und ,sitte4 ,published by ,g4 ,scherer4 ,leipzig1 #ahgf4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,deutsche ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 i4 ,nrdlingen1 #ahgg1 pp4 #eg ff4 ,a4 ,springer3 ,zum #hj ,geburtstag ,ludwig ,richter's1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahhc1 pp4 #cgg-chf4 ,j4 ,e4 ,wessely3 ,adrian ,ludwig ,richter zum #hj ,geburtstag4 ,a ,monograph4 ,graphische ,knste1 #ahhd1 vi #a4 ,obituary3 ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 #ahhd1 ,no4 #age2 ,allgemeine ,kunst-,chronik1 #ahhd1 #bf2 ,g4 ,weisse1 ,deutsches ,knstlerblatt1 iii #a4 ,lebenserinnerungen eines deutschen ,malers3 ,autobiography of ,ludwig ,richter4 ,published by ,heinrich ,richter4 ,frankfurt a4 ,m41 #ahhf4 ,robert ,waldmller3 ,ludwig ,richter's religise ,entwickelung4 ,gegenwart1 #cg1 pp4 #aih1 #bah4 ,veit ,valentin3 ,kunst1 ,knstler1 und ,kunstwerke4 #ahhi4 ,richard ,meister3 ,land und ,leute in ,ludwig ,richter's ,holzschnitt-,bildern4 ,leipzig1 #ahhi4 ,die vervielfltigende ,kunst der ,gegenwart4 ,edited by ,c4 v4 ,ltzow4 ,vol4 i4 ,woodcut ,engravings4 ,wien1 #ahij4 ,h4 ,gerlach3 ,ludwig ,richters ,leben1 dem deutschen ,volke erzhlt4 ,dresden1 #ahia4 ,budde3 ,ludwig ,richter1 ,preussische ,jahrbcher4 ,bd4 #hg4 ,berlin1 #ahig4 ,p4 ,mohn3 ,ludwig ,richter1 ,knstlermonographien1 ,edited by ,knackfuss4 ,bd4 #ad4 #b ,aufl4 ,bielefeld1 #ahih4 ,j4 ,erler3 ,ludwig ,richter1 der ,maler des deutschen ,hauses4 ,leipzig1 #ahih4 ,david ,ludwig ,koch3 ,ludwig ,richter4 ,stuttgart1 #aijc4 ,albert ,hendschel3 ,j4 ,e4 ,wessely3 ,aus ,albert ,hendschels ,bildermappe1 ,vom ,fels zum ,meer1 #ahhc1 iii #c4 ,obituary3 ,le ,portefeuille1 #ahhd1 #cj4 ,f4 ,luthmer3 ,albert ,hendschel4 ,vom ,fels zum ,meer1 ,december #ahhd4 ,w4 ,busch3 ,paul ,lindau3 ,nord und ,sd1 #ahgh1 iv #beg4 ,eduard ,daelen3 ,w4 ,busch1 ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahhg1 ii #bag4 ,see ,busch-,album1 ,humoristischer ,hausschatz4 ,collection of the twelve most popular works1 with #adjj pictures4 ,mnchen1 #ahhe4 ,adolf ,oberlnder3 ,adolf ,bayersdorfer3 ,adolf ,oberlnder1 ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahhh1 iv #di4 ,robert ,stiassny3 ,zur ,geschichte der deutschen ,caricatur1 ,neue ,freie ,presse1 #bjth ,august #ahhi4 ,hermann ,essenwein3 ,adolf ,oberlnder1 ,moderne ,illustratoren4 ,bd4 #e4 ,munich1 #aijc4 ,see ,oberlnder-,album4 #g vols4 ,munich1 ,braun ,schneider1 #ahha-hi4 ,on the ,french ,draughtsmen3 ,champfleury3 ,histoire gnrale de la caricature4 #e vols4 ,paris1 #ahef-hj4 ,j4 ,grand-,carteret3 ,les moeurs et la caricature en ,france4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,armand ,dayot3 ,les ,matres de la caricature au ,,xix sicle4 #aae facsimils de grand caricatures en noir1 #e facsimils de lithographies en couleurs4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,henri ,braldi3 ,les graveurs du ,,xix sicle4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,paul ,mantz3 ,la caricature moderne1 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahhh1 i #bhf4 ,augustin de ,buisseret3 ,les caricaturistes franais1 ,l',art1 #ahhh1 ii #ia4 ,moreau3 ,j4 ,f4 ,mahrault3 ,l'oeuvre de ,moreau le jeune4 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,a4 ,moureau3 ,les ,moreau in ,les artistes clbres4 #aijc4 ,emanuel ,bocher3 ,jean ,michel ,moreau le jeune4 ,paris1 #ahhb4 ,debucourt3 ,roger ,portalis and ,henri ,braldi3 ,les graveurs du ,,xviii sicle1 vol4 i4 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,henri ,bouchot1 in ,les artistes clbres4 #aije4 ,carle ,vernet3 ,amde ,durande3 ,joseph ,carle1 et ,horace ,vernet4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,a4 ,genevay3 ,carle ,vernet1 ,l',art1 #ahgg1 i #gc1 #if4 ,henri ,monnier3 ,philippe ,burty3 ,l',art1 #ahgg1 ii #agg4 ,champfleury3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahgg1 i #cfc4 ,champfleury3 ,henri ,monnier1 sa vie et son oeuvre4 ,paris1 #ahgi4 ,daumier3 ,champfleury3 ,l'oeuvre de ,daumier1 ,essai de catalogue1 ,l',art1 #ahgh1 ii #bag1 #beb1 #bid4 ,eugne ,montrosier3 ,la caricature politique1 ,h4 ,daumier1 ,l',art1 #ahgh1 ii #be4 ,h4 ,billung3 ,h4 ,daumier1 ,kunstchronik1 #bd1 #ahgi4 ,arsne ,alexandre3 ,honor ,daumier1 l'homme et son oeuvre4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,h4 ,frantz3 ,daumier and ,gavarni4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,erich ,klossowski3 ,h4 ,daumier4 ,stuttgart1 #aijf4 ,guys3 ,baudelaire3 ,le peintre de la vie moderne1 in the volume ,l',art romantique of his complete works4 ,paris1 #ahfi4 ,gavarni3 ,manires de voir et faons de penser1 par ,gavarni1 prcd d'une tude par ,charles ,yriarte4 ,paris1 #ahfi4 ,edmond et ,jules de ,goncourt3 ,gavarni1 l',homme et l',oeuvre4 ,paris1 #ahgc4 ,armelhault et ,bocher3 ,catalogue raisonn de l',oeuvre de ,gavarni4 ,paris1 #ahgc4 ,g4 ,a4 ,simcox3 ,portfolio1 #ahgd1 p4 #ef4 ,georges ,duplessis3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahge1 ii #aeb1 #baa4 ,georges ,duplessis3 ,gavarni1 tude1 orne de #ad dessins indits4 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,ph4 de ,chennevires3 ,souvenirs d'un ,directeur des ,beaux-,arts1 ,i,i,iime partie4 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,bruno ,walden3 ,unsere ,zeit1 #ahha1 ii #ibf4 ,eugne ,forgues3 ,gavarni1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,see also ,sainte-,beuve1 ,nouveaux ,lundis4 ,henri ,braldi1 ,graveurs du ,,xix sicle4 ,oeuvres choisies de ,gavarni4 #d vols4 ,paris1 #ahde-dh4 ,gustave ,dor3 ,k4 ,delorme1 ,gustave ,dor1 peintre1 sculpteur1 dessinateur1 graveur4 ,avec gravures et photographies hors texte4 ,paris1 ,baschet1 #ahgi4 ,jules ,claretie3 ,peintres et sculpteurs contemporains1 ,,ii ,srie4 ,paris1 #ahhd1 p4 #aje4 ,obituary3 ,magazine of ,art1 ,march #ahhc2 ,fernand ,brouet3 ,revue artistique1 ,march #ahhc2 ,dubufe3 ,nouvelle ,revue1 ,march and ,april #ahhc2 ,a4 ,michel3 ,revue ,alsacienne1 ,february #ahhc2 ,chronique des ,arts1 #ahhc1 p4 #d2 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahhc2 ,a4 ,hustin1 ,l',art1 #ahhc1 p4 #dbd4 ,van ,deyssel3 ,gustave ,dor1 ,de ,dietsche ,warande1 iv #e4 ,blanche ,roosevelt3 ,life and ,reminiscences of ,gustave ,dor4 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,claude ,phillips3 ,gustave ,dor1 ,portfolio1 #ahia1 p4 #bdi4 ,cham3 ,marius ,vachon3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahgi1 ii #ddc4 ,felix ,ribeyre3 ,cham1 sa vie et son oeuvre4 ,paris1 #ahhd4 ,cham-,album4 #c vols4 ,paris4 ,without date4 ,grvin3 ,ad4 ,racot3 ,portraits d'aujourd'hui4 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,,chapter ,,xvii ,barry3 ,the ,works of ,james ,barry1 ,esq4--to which is prefixed some account of the ,life and the ,writings of the ,author4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahji4 ,j4 ,j4 ,hittorf3 ,notice historique et biographique de ,sir ,j4 ,barry4 #ahfj4 ,alfred ,barry3 ,the ,life and ,works of ,sir ,j4 ,barry4 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,sidney ,colvin3 ,james ,barry1 ,portfolio1 #ahgc1 p4 #aej4 ,h4 ,trueman ,wood3 ,pictures of ,james ,barry at the ,society of ,arts4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,benjamin ,west3 ,john ,galt3 ,the ,life1 ,studies1 and ,works of ,benjamin ,west4 ,london1 #ahbj4 ,second ,edition1 #ahbf4 ,sidney ,colvin3 ,portfolio1 #ahgc1 p4 #aej4 ,see also ,cornelius ,gurlitt3 ,die amerikanische ,malerei in ,europa1 ,die ,kunst unserer ,zeit1 #ahic4 ,fuseli3 ,j4 ,knowles3 ,life and ,works of ,henry ,fuseli4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahca4 ,sidney ,colvin3 ,henry ,fuseli1 ,portfolio1 #ahgc1 p4 #ej4 ,stothard3 ,anna ,eliza ,bray3 ,life of ,thomas ,stothard4 ,london1 #ahea4 ,opie3 ,john ,j4 ,rogers3 ,opie and his ,works1 being a ,catalogue of #gfj ,pictures by ,john ,opie1 ,r4 ,a4 ,preceded by a biographical sketch4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,claude ,phillips3 ,john ,opie1 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahib1 i #bii4 ,northcote3 ,john ,thackeray ,bunce3 ,james ,northcote1 ,r4 ,a41 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,june #ahgf4 ,copley3 ,a4 ,t4 ,perkins3 ,a ,sketch of the ,life and a ,list of the ,works of ,john ,singleton ,copley4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,haydon3 ,life of ,b4 ,r4 ,haydon1 ,historical ,painter1 from his ,autobiography1 edited by ,tom ,taylor4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahec4 ,maclise3 ,james ,dafforne3 ,pictures by ,maclise4 ,london1 #ahga4 ,james ,dafforne3 ,leslie and ,maclise4 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,etty3 ,a4 ,gilchrist3 ,life of ,w4 ,etty1 ,r4 ,a4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahee4 ,p4 ,g4 ,hamerton3 ,etty1 ,portfolio1 #ahge1 p4 #hh4 ,w4 ,c4 ,monkhouse3 ,pictures by ,william ,etty1 with ,descriptions4 ,london1 #ahgd4 ,edward ,armitage3 ,j4 ,beavington-,atkinson3 ,portfolio1 #ahgj1 p4 #di4 ,romney3 ,william ,hagley3 ,the ,life of ,george ,romney4 ,london1 #ahji4 ,rev4 ,john ,romney 7son of the painter73 ,memoirs of the life and ,writings of ,george ,romney4 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,p4 ,selvatico3 ,il pittore ,sir ,giorgio ,romney ed ,emma ,lyon1 ,arte ed ,artisti1 p4 #adc4 ,padova1 #ahfc4 ,sidney ,colvin3 ,george ,romney1 ,portfolio1 #ahgc1 pp4 #ah and #cd4 ,lord ,ronald ,gower3 ,romney and ,lawrence4 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,t4 ,h4 ,ward and ,w4 ,roberts3 ,romney1 ,a biographical and critical essay1 with a catalogue raisonn of his works4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,g4 ,paston3 ,george ,romney1 etc4 7,little ,books on ,art74 ,london1 #aijc4 ,thomas ,lawrence3 ,d4 ,e4 ,williams3 ,the ,life and ,correspondence of ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence4 #b vols4 ,with #c ,portraits4 ,london1 #ahca4 ,f4 ,lewis3 ,imitations of ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence's ,finest ,drawings4 #a vol4 ,reproductions in crayon4 ,london1 #ahci4 ,a4 ,genevay3 ,l',art1 #ahge1 iii #che4 ,th4 de ,wyzewa3 ,thomas ,lawrence et la ,socit anglaise de son temps1 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahia1 i #aai1 ii #aab1 #cce4 ,lord ,ronald ,gower3 ,romney and ,lawrence4 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,raeburn3 ,portraits by ,sir ,henry ,raeburn1 photographed by ,thomas ,asman1 with biographical sketches4 ,fol4 ,edinburgh4 ,no date4 ,exhibition of ,portraits by ,sir ,henry ,raeburn1 ,art ,journal1 #ahgf1 p4 #cdi4 ,alexander ,fraser3 ,henry ,raeburn1 ,portfolio1 #ahgi1 p4 #bjj4 ,andrew ,william ,raeburn3 ,life of ,sir ,henry ,raeburn4 ,with #b ,portraits4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,sir ,w4 ,armstrong3 ,sir ,henry ,raeburn1 etc4 ,london1 #aija4 ,george ,morland3 ,john ,hassell3 ,life of the late ,george ,morland4 ,london1 #ahjd4 ,william ,collins1 ,memoirs of ,george ,morland4 ,london1 #ahjf4 ,f4 ,w4 ,blagdon3 ,authentic ,memoirs of the late ,george ,morland4 ,london1 #ahjf4 ,g4 ,dawe3 ,the ,life of ,george ,morland4 ,london1 #ahjg4 ,walter ,armstrong3 ,george ,morland1 ,portfolio1 #ahhe1 p4 #a4 ,some ,notes on ,george ,morland3 ,from the ,papers of ,james ,ward1 ,r4 ,a41 ,portfolio1 #ahhf1 p4 #ih4 ,other ,biographies by ,r4 ,richardson1 #ahie4 ,j4 ,t4 ,nettleship1 #ahih2 and ,williamson1 #aijd4 ,james ,ward3 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,portfolio1 #ahhf1 pp4 #h1 #cb1 #de4 ,landseer3 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,the ,early ,works of ,edwin ,landseer4 #af ,photographs4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,new ,edition under the title3 ,memoirs of ,sir ,edwin ,landseer4 ,london1 #ahgd4 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,portfolio1 #ahga1 p4 #afe4 ,james ,dafforne3 ,pictures by ,sir ,edwin ,landseer1 ,r4 ,a4 ,with descriptions and a biographical sketch of the painter4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,james ,dafforne3 ,studies and ,sketches by ,sir ,edwin ,landseer1 ,art ,journal1 #ahge1 passim4 ,catalogue of the ,works of ,sir ,edwin ,landseer1 ,art ,journal1 #ahge1 p4 #cag4 ,j4 ,beavington-,atkinson3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahge1 pp4 #abi and #afc4 ,m4 ,m4 ,heaton3 ,academy1 #ahgi1 p4 #cgh4 ,edw4 ,leonidas3 ,sir ,edwin ,landseer1 ,nederlandsche ,kunstbode1 #ahha1 p4 #ej4 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,sir ,edwin ,landseer4 ,london1 #ahha4 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,landseer1 the ,dog ,painter1 ,portfolio1 #ahhe1 p4 #cb4 ,j4 ,a4 ,manson3 ,sir ,edwin ,landseer4 ,london1 #aijb4 fb,on the ,english ,genre ,painters3_/f_/b ,frederick ,wedmore3 ,the ,masters of ,genre ,painting4 ,with #af ,illustrations4 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,wilkie3 ,allan ,cunningham3 ,life of ,wilkie4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahdc4 ,mrs4 ,c4 ,heaton3 ,the ,great ,works of ,sir ,david ,wilkie4 #bf ,photographs4 ,london and ,cambridge1 #ahfh4 ,a4 ,l4 ,simpson3 ,the ,story of ,sir ,david ,wilkie4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,j4 ,w4 ,mollet3 ,sir ,david ,wilkie4 ,london1 #ahha4 ,feuillet de ,conches3 ,sir ,david ,wilkie1 ,artiste1 ,august #ahhc4 ,f4 ,rabbe1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,e4 ,pinnington3 ,sir ,david ,wilkie1 etc4 7,famous ,scots ,series74 ,london1 #aijj4 ,w4 ,bayne3 ,sir ,david ,wilkie1 etc4 7,makers of ,british ,art74 ,london1 #aijc4 ,william ,collins3 ,w4 ,wilkie ,collins3 ,memoirs of the ,life of ,william ,collins1 ,esq4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahdh4 ,william ,powell ,frith3 ,my ,autobiography and ,reminiscences4 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,further ,reminiscences4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,mulready3 ,sir ,henry ,cole3 ,biography of ,william ,mulready1 ,r4 ,a4 ,notes of ,pictures1 etc4 ,no date4 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,memorials of ,mulready4 #ad ,photographs4 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,james ,dafforne3 ,pictures by ,mulready4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,william ,mulready1 ,portfolio1 #ahhg1 pp4 #he and #aai4 ,r4 ,liebreich3 ,turner and ,mulready4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,leslie3 ,james ,dafforne3 ,pictures by ,leslie4 ,plates4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,autobiographical recollections1 edited by ,tom ,taylor4 ,london1 #ahfj4 ,,chapter ,,xviii ,in ,general3 ,arsne ,alexandre3 ,histoire de la peinture militaire en ,france4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,horace ,vernet3 ,l4 ,ruutz-,rees3 ,horace ,vernet and ,paul ,delaroche4 ,illustrations4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,amde ,durande3 ,josephe1 ,carle1 et ,horace ,vernet1 ,correspondence et ,biographies4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,theophile ,silvestre3 ,les artistes franais1 p4 #cee4 ,jules ,claretie3 ,peintres et sculpteurs contemporains4 ,paris1 #ahgc1 p4 #fe4 ,a4 ,dayot3 ,les ,vernet4 ,paris1 #ahih4 ,charlet3 ,de la ,combe3 ,charlet1 sa vie et ses lettres4 ,paris1 #ahef4 ,eugne ,veron3 ,l',art1 #ahge1 i #aic1 #bag4 ,f4 ,l'homme1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,raffet3 ,auguste ,bry3 ,raffet1 sa vie et ses oeuvres4 ,paris1 #ahgd4 ,georges ,duplessis3 ,l',art1 #ahgi1 i #gf4 ,notes et croquis de ,raffet1 mis en ordre et publis par ,auguste ,raffet fils4 ,paris1 ,amand-,durand1 #ahgi4 ,henri ,braldi3 ,raffet1 ,peintre ,national4 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,f4 ,l'homme1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,a4 ,dayot3 ,raffet et son oeuvre1 etc4 ,paris1 #ahib4 fbb,on the ,young ,military ,painters3_/b_/f ,eugne ,montrosier3 ,les ,peintres militaires1 contenant les biographies de ,neuville1 ,detaille1 ,berne-,bellecour1 ,protais1 etc4 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,jules ,richard3 ,en campagne4 ,tableaux et dessins de ,meissonier1 ,detaille1 ,neuville1 etc4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,bellang3 ,francis ,wey3 ,exposition des oeuvres d',hippolyte ,bellang1 tude biographique4 ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,jules ,adeline3 ,hippolyte ,bellang et son oeuvre4 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,protais3 ,jules ,claretie3 ,peintres et sculpteurs contemporains4 ,paris1 #ahgc1 p4 #aej4 ,pils3 ,l4 ,becq de ,fouquires3 ,isidore ,pils1 sa vie et ses oeuvres4 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,roger-,ballu3 ,l'oeuvre de ,pils1 ,l',art1 #ahgf1 i #bcb-beh4 ,neuville3 ,alfred de ,lostalot3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahhe1 ii #afd4 ,detaille3 ,jules ,claretie3 ,l',art et les artistes franais contemporains4 ,paris1 #ahgf1 p4 #ef4 ,jules ,claretie3 ,peintres et sculpteurs contemporains1 ,,ii ,srie4 ,paris1 #ahhd1 p4 #bdi4 ,g4 ,goetschy3 ,les jeunes peintres militaires4 ,paris1 #ahgh4 ,rgamey3 ,e4 ,chesneau3 ,notice sur ,g4 ,rgamey4 ,paris1 #ahgj4 ,eugne ,montrosier3 ,l',art1 #ahgi1 ii #be4 ,albrecht ,adam3 ,albrecht ,adam3 ,autobiography1 #aghf-ahfb4 ,edited by ,h4 ,holland4 ,stuttgart1 #ahhf4 ,das ,werk der ,mnchener ,knstlerfamilie ,adam4 ,reproductions after originals by the painters ,albrecht1 ,benno1 ,emil1 ,eugen1 ,franz and ,julius ,adam4 ,text by ,h4 ,holland4 ,nuremberg1 ,soldan1 #ahij4 ,p4 ,hess3 ,h4 ,holland3 ,p4 v4 ,hess4 ,mnchen1 #ahga4 ,originally in ,oberbayerisches ,archiv1 vol4 xxxi4 ,f4 ,krger3 ,a4 ,rosenberg3 ,aus dem alten ,berlin1 ,franz ,krger-,ausstellung1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahha1 xvi #ccg4 ,h4 ,mackowski1 in ,das ,museum1 vi #da4 ,see ,vor #ej ,jahren1 ,portrtskizzen berhmter und bekannter ,persnlickkeiten von ,f4 ,krger4 ,berlin1 #ahhc4 ,franz ,adam3 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,franz ,adam1 ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahhg1 ii #abj4 ,thodor ,horschelt3 ,ed4 ,ille3 ,zur ,erinnerung an den ,schlachtenmaler ,thodor ,horschelt4 ,mnchen1 #ahga4 ,h4 ,holland3 ,thodor ,horschelt1 sein ,leben und seine ,werke4 ,mnchen1 #ahhi4 ,heinrich ,lang3 ,h4 ,e4 von ,berlepsch3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahib4 ,on the more recent ,dsseldorf ,painters3 ,adolf ,rosenberg3 ,dsseldorfer ,kriegs- und ,militrmaler1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahhi1 xxiv #bbh4 ,,chapter ,,xix ,leopold ,robert3 ,e4 ,j4 ,delcluze3 ,notice sur la vie et les ouvrages de ,leopold ,robert4 ,paris1 #ahch4 ,feuillet de ,conches3 ,leopold ,robert1 sa vie1 ses oeuvres1 et sa correspondance4 ,paris1 #ahdh4 ,charles ,clement3 ,leopold ,robert d'aprs sa correspondance indite4 ,paris1 #ahge4 ,riedel3 ,h4 ,holland1 in the ,allgemeine ,deutsche ,biographie1 #ahhi1 and books which are there cited4 ,on the ,painters of the ,east in ,general3 ,charles ,gindriez3 ,l',algrie et les artistes1 ,l',art1 #ahge1 iii #cif2 #ahgf1 i #acc4 ,hermann ,helferich3 ,moderne ,orientmaler1 ,freie ,bhne1 #ahib4 ,decamps3 ,marius ,chaumelin3 ,decamps1 sa vie et son oeuvre4 ,marseilles1 #ahfa4 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,mouvement moderne en peinture3 ,decamps4 ,paris1 #ahfa4 ,ad4 ,moreau3 ,decamps et son oeuvre1 avec des gravures en facsimil des planches originales les plus rares4 ,paris1 #ahfi4 ,m4 ,e4 ,im-,thurn3 ,scheffer et ,decamps4 ,nmes1 #ahgf4 7,extr4 des ,mm4 de l',acadmie du ,gard1 anne #ahge47 ,charles ,clement1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,marilhat3 ,g4 ,gonnot3 ,marilhat et son oeuvre4 ,clermont1 #ahhd4 ,fromentin3 ,jean ,rousseau3 ,l',art1 #ahgg1 i #aa1 #be4 ,l4 ,gonse3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahgh-ahhj4 ,published separately under the title ,eugne ,fromentin peintre et crivain4 ,ouvrage augment d'un ,voyage en ,egypte et d'autres notes et moreaux indits de ,fromentin1 et illustr de #af gravures hors texte et #de dans le texte4 ,paris1 ,quantin1 #ahha4 ,guillaumet3 ,paul ,leroi3 ,l',art1 #ahhb1 iii #bbh4 ,exposition des oeuvres de ,guillaumet4 ,prface par ,roger-,ballu4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,gustave ,guillaumet3 ,tableaux algriens4 ,prcd d'une notice sur la vie et les oeuvres de ,guillaumet4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,adolphe ,badin3 ,l',art1 #ahhh1 i #c1 #ci1 #ec4 ,ary ,renan3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahhg1 i #djd4 ,wilhelm ,gentz3 ,l4 v4 ,donop3 ,ausstellung der ,werke von ,gentz in der ,berliner ,nationalgalerie4 ,berlin1 ,mittler1 #ahij4 ,obituary in ,chronique des ,arts1 #ahij1 #bi4 ,adolf ,rosenberg3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahia1 p4 #h4 ,adolf ,schreyer3 ,richard ,graul3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahhh1 xxiii #aec4 ,richard ,graul1 in ,graphische ,knste1 #ahhi1 xii #aba1 and in ,velhagen und ,klasings ,monatshefte1 #ahic4 ,,chapter ,,xx ,h4 ,brkel3 ,c4 ,a4 ,r43 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahgj1 v #afa4 ,alfred ,lichtwark3 ,hermann ,kauffmann und die ,kunst in ,hamburg4 ,mnchen1 #ahic4 ,spitzweg3 ,c4 ,a4 ,regnet3 ,mnchener ,knstler1 #ahga1 ii #bfh-bgf4 ,graf ,schack3 ,meine ,gemldegalerie1 #ahha1 pp4 #ahi-aia4 ,o4 ,berggruen3 ,graphische ,knste1 #ahhc1 v4 ,f4 ,pecht1 ,supplement ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 ,october #ahhe1 and ,geschichte der ,mnchener ,kunst1 #ahhh1 p4 #aed4 ,mnchener ,kunstvereinsbericht1 #ahhe1 p4 #fi4 ,c4 ,a4 ,regnet3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahhf1 xxi #gg4 ,spitzweg-,album4 ,mnchen1 ,hanfstaengl1 #ahij4 ,spitzweg-,mappe1 with preface by ,f4 ,pecht4 ,mnchen1 ,braun ,schneider1 #ahij4 ,h4 ,holland3 ,allgemeine deutsche ,biographie1 #ahic4 ,hermann ,kauffmann3 ,alfred ,lichtwark3 ,hermann ,kauffmann und die ,kunst in ,hamburg1 #ahjj-ahej4 ,mnchen1 #ahic4 ,eduard ,meyerheim3 ,autobiography1 supplemented by ,p4 ,meyerheim4 ,introduction by ,l4 ,pietsch4 ,with preface by ,b4 ,auerbach and the likeness of ,eduard ,meyerheim4 ,berlin1 ,stilke1 #ahhj4 ,a4 ,rosenberg3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahha1 xvi #a4 ,ludwig ,pietsch3 ,die ,knstlerfamilie ,meyerheim1 ,westermanns ,monatshefte1 #ahhi1 p4 #cig4 ,enhuber3 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahfh1 iii #ec ,on the ,viennese ,genre ,picture3 ,c4 v4 ,ltzow3 ,geschichte der k4 k4 ,akademie der bildenden ,knste4 ,vienna1 #ahgg4 ,r4 v4 ,eitelberger3 ,das ,wiener ,genrebild vor dem ,jahre #ahdh1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahgg1 xii #ajf4 ,also in his collected studies on the history of art1 i #ff4 ,dr4 ,cyriak ,bodenstein3 ,hundert ,jahre ,kunstgeschichte ,wiens1 #aghh-ahhh4 ,wien1 #ahhh4 ,albert ,ilg3 ,kunstgeschichtliche ,charakterbilder aus ,oesterreich-,ungarn 7,the ,nineteenth ,century1 by ,a4 ,nossig74 ,wien1 #ahic4 ,ludwig ,hevesi3 ,die sterreichische ,kunst im #ai ,jahrhundert4 ,leipzig1 #aijb4 ,danhauser3 ,albert ,ilg3 ,raimund und ,danhauser1 in ,kabdebo's ,osterreichisch-ungarische ,kunstchronik4 ,vienna1 #ahhj1 iii #afa4 ,waldmller3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahff1 i #cc4 ,oskar ,berggruen3 ,graphische ,knste1 x #eg4 ,r4 v4 ,eitelberger3 ,j4 ,danhauser und ,ferdinand ,waldmller1 in ,kunst und ,knstler ,wiens1 p4 #gc4 7,vol4 i of his works on the history of art4 ,vienna1 #ahgi47 ,gauermann3 ,r4 v4 ,eitelberger3 ,friedrich ,gauermann1 in ,kunst und ,knstler ,wiens1 #ahgh1 p4 #ib4 7,vol4 i of his works on the history of art4 ,vienna1 #ahgi47 ,schrdter3 ,obituary by ,kaulen in the ,deutsches ,kunstblatt1 #ahhd1 #aa and #ab4 ,m4 ,g4 ,zimmermann1 in the ,allgemeine ,deutsche ,biographie4 ,hasenclever3 ,a4 ,fahne3 ,hasenclevers ,illustrationen zur ,jobsiade4 ,bonn1 #aheb4 ,rudolf ,jordan3 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahhg1 ii #bda4 ,tidemand3 ,c4 ,dietrichson3 ,adolf ,tidemand1 hans ,liv og hans ,vaerker4 #b vols4 ,christiania1 #ahgh-gi4 ,adolf ,tidemand1 utvalgte ,vaerker4 #bd etchings by ,l4 ,h4 ,fischer4 ,christiania1 #ahgh4 ,madou3 ,camille ,lemonnier3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahgj1 i #che4 ,ferdinand de ,braekeleer3 ,l4 v4 ,keymeulen3 ,ferdinand de ,braekeleer1 ,revue artistique1 #ahhc1 pp4 #agj1 #aga4 ,biard3 ,l4 ,boivin3 ,notice sur ,m4 ,biard1 ses aventures1 son voyage en ,japonie avec ,mme4 ,biard1 ,examen critique de ses tableaux4 ,paris1 #ahdb4 ,obituary in the ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 ix #ahgd4 ,supplementary ,sheet1 p4 #gfi4 ,,chapter ,,xxi ,in ,general3 ,emil ,reich3 ,die brgerliche ,kunst und die besitzlosen ,klassen4 ,leipzig1 #ahib4 ,tassaert3 ,bernard ,prost3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahhf1 i #bh4 ,carl ,hbner3 ,m4 ,blanckarts3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 xv #acab4 ,wiertz3 ,louis ,labarre3 ,antoine ,wiertz1 tude biographique4 ,brussels1 #ahff4 ,ed4 ,f43 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahff1 i #bgc4 ,h4 ,grimm3 ,der ,maler ,wiertz1 in #ae ,essays1 ,new ,series1 ,berlin1 #ahge1 p4 #a4 ,j4 ,beavington-,atkinson3 ,portfolio1 #ahge1 pp4 #abd1 #acc1 #aeb4 ,c4 ,e4 ,clement3 ,antoine ,jos4 ,wiertz1 ,american ,art ,review1 #ahha1 #ac4 ,catalogue du ,muse ,wiertz1 prcd d'une notice biographique par ,em4 de ,laveleye4 ,brussels1 #ahhb4 ,l4 ,schulze ,waldhausen3 ,anton ,wiertz1 ,deutsches ,kunstblatt1 #ahhb1 #e2 #ahhc1 #ab4 ,w4 ,claessens3 ,wiertz4 ,brussels1 ,l4 ,hochsteyn1 #ahhc4 ,l4 ,dietrichson3 ,en abnorm ,kunstner4 ,fra ,kunstverden1 ,kopenhagen1 #ahhe1 p4 #bji4 ,max ,nordau3 ,vom ,kreml bis zur ,alhambra4 ,leipzig1 #ahhf1 pp4 #bja-bej4 ,robert ,mielke3 ,antoine ,wiertz1 ,das ,atelier1 #ahic1 ,no4 #ff4 ,,chapter ,,xxii ,knaus3 ,alfred de ,lostalot3 ,louis ,knaus1 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahhb1 i #bfi1 #caf4 ,v4 ,k4 ,schembera3 ,louis ,knaus1 ,die ,heimath1 vii #dj4 ,l4 ,pietsch3 ,ludwig ,knaus4 ,photographs after originals by the master4 ,berlin ,photographische ,gesellschaft4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,zu ,knaus #fj ,geburtstag1 ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahij1 v #fe4 ,g4 ,voss3 ,tgliche ,rundschau1 #ahhi1 p4 #bcc4 ,l4 ,pietsch1 ,louis ,knaus in the ,knstlermonographien1 ed4 by ,knackfuss4 ,bielefeld1 #ahif4 ,vautier3 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,deutsche ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,third ,series4 ,nrdlingen1 #ahha1 p4 #cea4 ,e4 ,heilbuth3 ,knaus und ,vautier4 ,text to ,behrens' work upon the gallery1 reprinted in ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahib1 #b4 ,adolf ,rosenberg1 ,vautier in the ,knstlermonographien1 ed4 by ,knackfuss4 ,bd4 #bc4 ,bielefeld1 #ahig4 ,defregger3 ,p4 ,k4 ,rosegger3 ,wie ,defregger ,maler wurde4 ,oesterr4-ungarische ,kunstchronik1 #ahgi1 iii #b4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,franz ,defregger1 sein ,leben und ,wirken1 ,vom ,fels zum ,meer1 iii #a4 ,k4 ,raupp3 ,franz ,defregger und seine ,schule1 ,wartburg1 viii #d1 #e4 ,ludwig ,pietsch3 ,franz ,defregger1 ,westermanns ,monatshefte1 ,february #ahhi4 ,f4 ,pecht3 ,deutsche ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,mnchen1 #ahhh4 ,adolf ,rosenberg1 in the ,knstlermonographien1 ed4 by ,knackfuss4 ,bd4 #ah4 ,bielefeld1 #ahic4 ,franz ,hermann ,meissner in the ,kunstlerbuch4 ,berlin1 #aija4 ,see also ,karl ,stieler und ,f4 ,defregger1 ,von ,dahoam4 ,mnchen1 #ahhh4 ,riefstahl3 ,h4 ,holland3 ,wilhelm ,riefstahl4 ,altenburg1 #ahhi4 ,m4 ,haushofer3 ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahhi1 iv #ig4 ,w4 ,lbke3 ,nord und ,sd1 #ahij1 #afc4 ,h4 ,e4 v4 ,berlepsch3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahij1 #h4 ,grtzner3 ,g4 ,ramberg3 ,vom ,fels zum ,meer1 #ahij1 #b4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahij1 #ab4 ,j4 ,janitsch3 ,nord und ,sd1 #ahib1 #ahb4 ,fritz von ,ostini1 in the ,knstlermonographien1 ed4 by ,knackfuss4 ,bd4 #eh4 ,leipzig1 #aijb4 ,bokelmann3 ,adolf ,rosenberg3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahib4 ,gustave ,brion3 ,paul ,leroi3 ,l',art1 #ahgh1 i #aj4 ,jules ,breton3 ,autobiography4 ,vie d'un artiste4 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,the ,swedish ,genre ,painters3 ,georg ,nordensvan3 ,svensk ,konst och ,svenska ,konstnrer i #ai;de ,arhundradet4 ,stockholm1 #ahib4 7,german ,translation37 ,die schwedische ,kunst im #ai ,jahrhundert4 ,leipzig1 #aijc4 ,the ,hungarian ,genre ,painters3 ,a4 ,ipolyi3 ,die bildende ,kunst in ,ungarn1 ,ungarische ,revue1 #ahhb1 #e4 ,szana ,tamz3 ,magyar ,mvszek4 ,budapest1 #ahhg4 ,heinrich ,glcksmann3 ,die ungarische ,kunst der ,gegenwart1 ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahib1 vii #abi1 #ade4 ,,chapter ,,xxiii ,j4 ,a4 ,koch3 ,david ,friedrich ,strauss3 ,kleine ,schriften biographischen1 literarischen1 und kunstgeschichtlichen ,inhalts4 ,leipzig1 #ahfb1 p4 #cjc4 ,th4 ,frimmel1 in ,dohmes ,kunst und ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 ,no4 #i4 ,leipzig1 #ahhd4 ,c4 v4 ,ltzow3 ,aus ,kochs ,jugendzeit1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahgd1 ix #fe4 ,see also ,j4 ,a4 ,koch3 ,moderne ,kunstchronik4 ,briefe zweier ,freunde in ,rom und in der ,tartarei ber das moderne ,kunstleben4 ,karlsruhe1 #ahcd4 ,reinhart3 ,otto ,baisch3 ,johann ,christian ,reinhart und seine ,kreise1 ein ,lebens- und ,kulturbild4 ,leipzig1 #ahhb4 ,friedrich ,schiller und der ,maler ,johann ,christian ,reinhart4 ,supplement to the ,leipziger ,zeitung1 #ahhc1 #hi1 #ij4 ,rottmann3 ,a4 ,teichlein3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahfi1 iv #g1 #gb4 ,a4 ,bayersdorfer3 ,karl ,rottmann4 ,mnchen1 #ahga4 ,reprinted in ,a4 ,bayersdorfer's ,leben und ,schriften4 ,mnchen1 #aijb4 ,o4 ,berggruen3 ,die ,galerie ,schack1 ,graphische ,knste1 v #a4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,deutsche ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,nrdlingen1 #ahgi1 ii pp4 #a-bf4 ,c4 ,a4 ,regnet1 in ,dohmes ,kunst und ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 ,no4 #aj4 ,see also ,rottmann's ,italienische ,landschaften4 ,after the ,frescoes in the ,arcades of the ,royal ,garden in ,munich1 carried out by ,steinbock4 ,mnchen1 ,bruckmann1 #ahgf4 ,preller3 ,r4 ,schne3 ,fr4 ,preller's ,odysseelandschaften4 ,leipzig1 #ahfc4 ,l4 v4 ,donop3 ,der ,genelli-,fries von ,fr4 ,preller4 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahgd1 ix #cba4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,deutsche ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,nrdlingen1 #ahgg1 vol4 i pp4 #bga-bhi4 ,c4 ,ruland3 ,zur ,erinnerung an ,friedrich ,preller4 ,weimar1 #ahgh4 ,obituary in ,unsere ,zeit1 #ahgi1 #h4 ,m4 ,jordan3 ,katalog der ,preller ,ausstellung in der ,berliner ,nationalgalerie1 #ahgi4 ,a4 ,drr3 ,preller und ,goethe1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahha1 xvi #ceg-cfe4 ,j4 ,beavington-,atkinson3 ,frederick ,preller1 ,art ,journal1 #ahha1 #i4 ,w4 ,lbke3 ,friedrich ,preller1 ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 #ahhb1 ,no4 #aag4 ,preller und ,goethe1 ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 #ahhb1 ,no4 #cdb4 ,o4 ,roquette3 ,preller und ,goethe1 ,gegenwart1 #ahhc1 #db4 ,friedrich ,j4 ,frommann3 ,zur ,charakteristik ,friedrich ,prellers1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahhd1 ,no4 #ca4 ,see also ,homer's ,odyssee mit #dj ,original compositionen von ,friedrich ,preller4 ,leipzig1 #ahgb4 ,popular edition with biography1 ,leipzig1 #ahha4 ,italienisches ,landschaftsbuch1 zehn ,originalzeichnungen von ,friedrich ,preller4 ,carried out in wood-cut by ,h4 ,kaeseberg and ,k4 ,oertel1 with ,text by ,max ,jordan4 ,leipzig1 #ahge4 ,friedrich ,prellers ,figurenfries zur ,odyssee4 #af ,compositions reproduced in #bd coloured lithographs4 ,leipzig1 #ahge4 ,k4 ,f4 ,lessing3 ,karl ,koberstein3 ,karl ,friedrich ,lessing1 ,nord und ,sd1 #ad1 #ahhj1 p4 #cab4 ,k4 ,f4 ,lessing's ,briefe mitgetheilt von ,th4 ,frimmel1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahha1 #f4 ,rudolf ,redtenbacher3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahha1 xvi #b4 ,m4 ,schasler3 ,unsere ,zeit1 #ahhj1 #aj4 ,w4 ,dohme3 ,westermanns illustrierte ,monatshefte1 #ahhj1 ix #gbi4 ,a4 ,rosenberg3 ,lessing-,ausstellung in der ,berliner ,nationalgalerie1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahhj1 ,no4 #e4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,deutsche ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 iii4 ,nrdlingen1 #ahha1 p4 #bid4 ,blechen3 ,robert ,dohme1 in ,allgemeine ,deutsche ,biographie1 #ahge4 ,ludwig ,pietsch3 ,wie ich ,schriftsteller wurde4 ,berlin1 #ahic1 passim4 ,h4 ,mackowsky1 in the ,museum1 viii4 ,berlin1 ,spemann4 ,schirmer3 ,johann ,wilhelm ,schirmer3 ,dsseldorfer ,lehrjahre1 ,deutsche ,rundschau1 #ahgh4 ,alfred ,woltmann1 in ,allgemeine ,deutsche ,biographie4 ,works cited in it4 ,dahl3 ,andreas ,aubert3 ,maleren ,professor ,dahl #aghh-aheg1 et ,stykke av aarhundredets ,kunst- og ,kulturhistorie4 ,kristiania1 ,aschehoug1 #ahic4 ,morgenstern3 ,obituary by ,pecht3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahfg1 ii #hj4 ,alfred ,lichtwark3 ,hermann ,kauffmann und die ,kunst in ,hamburg von #ahjj bis #ahej4 ,mnchen1 #ahic4 ,andreas ,achenbach3 ,ludwig ,pietsch3 ,nord und ,sd1 #ahhj1 xv #cha4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,deutsche ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,third ,series4 ,nrdlingen1 #ahha1 p4 #cbh4 ,theodor ,levin3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahhf1 xxi1 ,no4 #a4 ,eduard ,schleich3 ,c4 ,a4 ,regnet3 ,zu ,eduard ,schleichs ,gedchtniss1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahgd1 ix #afa4 ,o4 ,berggruen3 ,die ,galerie ,schack1 ,graphische ,knste1 v #a4 ,alexander ,calame3 ,e4 ,h4 ,gaullier3 ,alexander ,calame4 ,genve1 #ahed4 7,le ,muse ,suisse1 vol4 i47 ,h4 ,delaborde3 ,la peinture de paysage en ,suisse2 ,alexander ,calame3 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 ,fvrier1 #ahfe4 ,j4 ,m4 ,ziegler3 ,mittheilungen ber den ,landschaftsmaler ,alexander ,calame4 ,zurich1 #ahff4 ,c4 ,meyer3 ,alexander ,calame1 ,dioskuren4 ,stuttgart1 #ahff4 ,a4 ,bachelin3 ,alexander ,calame4 ,lausanne1 #ahhj4 ,wilhelm ,rossmann1 in the text to work of engravings from the ,dresden ,gallery4 #ahha1 etc4 ,e4 ,rambert3 ,alexander ,calame1 sa vie et son oeuvre d'aprs les sources originales4 ,paris1 #ahhd4 ,adolf ,rosenberg3 ,grenzboten1 #ahhd1 ii #cga4 ,gude3 ,a4 ,rosenberg3 ,die ,dsseldorfer ,schule4 ,grenzboten1 #ahha1 #ce4 ,af4 ,dietrichson3 ,h4 ,gude liv og voerker4 ,kristiania1 #ahii4 ,eduard ,hildebrandt3 ,bruno ,meyer3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahfi1 iv #bfa1 #ccf4 ,f4 ,arndt3 ,eduard ,hildebrandt1 der ,maler des ,kosmos1 ,sein ,leben und seine ,werke4 ,second ,edition4 ,berlin1 #ahfi4 ,ada ,pinelli3 ,hildebrandt und ,schirmer4 ,berlin1 #ahga4 ,louis ,douzette3 ,adolf ,rosenberg3 ,graphische ,knste1 #ahia1 xiv #ac4 ,,chapter ,,xxiv ,in ,general3 ,victor de ,laprade3 ,le sentiment de la nature chez les modernes4 ,second ,edition4 ,paris1 #ahgj4 ,aligny3 ,aligny et la paysage historique1 ,l',art1 #ahhb1 i #bea2 ii #cc4 ,see also the etchings ,vues des ,sites les plus clbres de la ,grce antique4 ,paris1 #ahde4 ,victor ,hugo3 ,les dessins de ,victor ,hugo1 ,l',art1 #ahgg1 i #ej4 ,h4 ,helferich3 ,malende ,dichter1 ,kunst fr ,alle1 #ahia1 #ba4 ,paul ,huet3 ,philippe ,burty3 ,paul ,huet1 ,notice biographique4 ,paris1 #ahfi4 ,e4 ,legouv3 ,notice sur ,paul ,huet4 ,paris1 #ahgh4 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,peintres et statuaires romantiques4 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,lon ,mancino3 ,un prcurseur1 ,l',art1 #ahhc1 i #di4 ,on the ,english3 ,william ,bell ,scott3 ,our ,british ,landscape-,painters1 from ,samuel ,scott to ,d4 ,cox4 ,with #af ,engravings4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,j4 ,comyns ,carr3 ,modern ,landscape4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,paris and ,london1 #ahhc4 ,turner3 ,alice ,watts3 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner4 ,london1 #ahea4 ,john ,burnet and ,peter ,cunningham3 ,turner and his ,works4 ,london1 #aheb4 ,edition of ,henry ,murray4 ,london1 #ahei4 ,john ,ruskin3 ,notes on the ,turner ,collection4 ,london1 #aheg4 ,walter ,thornbury3 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahfb4 ,new ,edition1 #ahig4 ,philip ,g4 ,hamerton3 ,turner et ,claude ,lorrain1 ,l',art1 #ahgf1 iv pp4 #bgj1 #bhi4 ,philip ,g4 ,hamerton3 ,turner1 ,portfolio1 #ahgf1 pp4 #bh-ahh2 #ahgg1 pp4 #dd-ade2 #ahgh1 pp4 #b-agh4 ,a4 ,brunet-,desbaines3 ,the ,life of ,turner4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,john ,ruskin3 ,notes on his ,collection of ,drawings by the late ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 also a list of the engraved works of that master4 ,london4 ,fine ,art ,society1 #ahgh4 ,f4 ,wedmore3 ,turner's ,liber ,studiorum1 ,academy1 #ahgi1 ,nos4 #cgg1 #chi1 #cii1 and in ,l',art1 #ahgi1 #bcb-bcd4 ,philip ,g4 ,hamerton3 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,cosmo ,monkhouse3 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,hart3 ,turner1 the ,dream-,painter4 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,a4 ,w4 ,hunt3 ,turner in ,yorkshire1 ,art ,journal1 #ahha1 ,new ,series1 #a1 #b4 ,w4 ,g4 ,rawlinson3 ,turner's ,liber ,studiorum1 ,art ,journal1 #ahha1 ,new ,series1 #d4 ,james ,dafforne3 ,the ,works of ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner4 ,with a biographical sketch4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,g4 ,radford3 ,turner in ,wharfedale1 ,portfolio1 ,may1 #ahhd4 ,philip ,g4 ,hamerton3 ,j4 ,m4 ,w4 ,turner1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,robert de la ,sizeranne3 ,deux heures la ,turner ,gallery4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,f4 ,wedmore3 ,turner and ,ruskin4 #b vols4 ,london1 #aijj4 ,reproductions3 ,the ,harbours of ,england4 ,london1 #ahef4 ,liber ,studiorum1 illustrative of ,landscape ,composition4 ,london1 #aheh-ei4 ,the ,turner ,gallery4 ,london1 #ahfb4 ,turner's ,celebrated ,landscapes4 ,reproduced by the ,autotype ,process4 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,a4 ,w4 ,callcott3 ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,callcott's ,italian and ,english ,landscapes4 ,lithographed by ,t4 ,c4 ,dibdin4 ,london1 #ahdg4 ,james ,dafforne3 ,pictures by ,sir ,a4 ,w4 ,callcott1 ,r4 ,a4 ,with descriptions and a biographical sketch of the painter4 ,london4 ,no date4 ,john ,crome3 ,etchings of ,views in ,norfolk4 ,with a biographical memoir by ,dawson ,turner4 ,norwich1 #ahch4 ,j4 ,wodderspoon3 ,john ,crome and his ,works4 ,norwich1 #aheh4 ,frederick ,wedmore3 ,john ,crome1 ,l',art1 #ahgf1 iii #bhh4 ,mary ,m4 ,heaton3 ,john ,crome1 ,portfolio1 #ahgi1 pp4 #cc and #dh4 ,r4 ,l4 ,binyon3 ,john ,crome and ,john ,sell ,colman4 ,london1 #ahig4 ,on ,english ,water-,colour ,painting3 ,cosmo ,monkhouse3 ,the ,earlier ,english ,water-,colour ,painters4 ,london1 ,seeley ,co41 #ahij4 ,john ,lewis ,roget3 ,a ,history of the ,old ,water-,colour ,society4 #b vols4 ,london1 ,longmans1 ,green ,co41 #ahia4 ,samuel ,palmer3 ,the ,life and ,letters of ,samuel ,palmer1 ,painter and ,etcher4 ,edited by ,a4 ,h4 ,palmer4 ,with ,illustrations4 #ahia4 ,constable3 ,charles ,robert ,leslie3 ,the ,memoirs of ,john ,constable4 ,london1 #ahde4 ,h4 ,perrier3 ,de ,hugo v4 d4 ,goes ,constable1 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 ,march1 #ahgc4 ,frederick ,wedmore1 ,l',art1 #ahgh1 ii #afi4 ,g4 ,m4 ,brock-,arnold3 ,thomas ,gainsborough and ,john ,constable1 in ,illustrated ,biographies of the ,great ,artists4 ,london1 ,low1 #ahha4 ,p4 ,g4 ,hamerton3 ,constable's ,sketches1 ,portfolio1 #ahij1 p4 #afb4 ,robert ,hobart3 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,reproductions3 ,various subjects of ,landscape1 characteristic of ,english ,scenery1 from pictures painted by ,john ,constable4 #bb ,plates4 ,london1 #ahcj4 ,second ,edition1 ,london1 #ahcc4 ,english ,landscape1 from pictures painted by ,john ,constable4 #bj ,plates engraved by ,d4 ,lucas4 ,london4 ,no date4 ,english ,landscape ,scenery3 #dj mezzotinto engravings from pictures painted by ,john ,constable4 ,fol4 ,london1 #ahee4 ,david ,cox3 ,n4 ,neal ,solly3 ,memoir of the ,life of ,david ,cox4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,basil ,champneys3 ,david ,cox1 ,portfolio1 #ahgc1 p4 #hi4 ,j4 ,beavington-,atkinson1 ,portfolio1 #ahgf1 p4 #i4 ,frederick ,wedmore3 ,gentleman's ,magazine1 ,march1 #ahgh4 ,w4 ,hall3 ,david ,cox4 ,london1 #ahha4 ,william ,j4 ,muller3 ,n4 ,neal ,solly3 ,memoir of the ,life of ,william ,james ,muller4 ,london1 #ahge4 ,j4 ,beavington-,atkinson3 ,william ,muller1 ,portfolio1 #ahge1 pp4 #afd1 #ahe4 ,frederick ,wedmore3 ,w4 ,muller and his ,sketches1 ,portfolio1 #ahhb1 p4 #g4 ,peter de ,wint3 ,walter ,armstrong3 ,memoir of ,peter de ,wint4 ,illustrated by #bd ,photogravures4 ,london1 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahhh4 ,henry ,dawson3 ,alfred ,dawson3 ,the ,life of ,henry ,dawson1 ,landscape ,painter1 #ahaa-ahgh4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,john ,linnell3 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,portfolio1 #ahgb1 p4 #de4 ,bonington3 ,al4 ,bouvenne3 ,catalogue de l'oeuvre grav et lithographi de ,r4 ,p4 ,bonington4 ,paris1 #ahgc4 ,paul ,mantz3 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahgf1 ii #bhh4 ,edmond ,saint-,raymond3 ,bonington et les ctes normandes de ,saint ,jouin1 ,l',art1 #ahgi1 i #aig4 ,p4 ,g4 ,hamerton3 ,a ,sketchbook of ,bonington at the ,british ,museum1 ,portfolio1 #ahha1 p4 #fh4 ,,chapter ,,xxv ,in ,general3 ,roger-,ballu3 ,le paysage franais au ,,xix sicle1 ,nouvelle ,revue1 #ahha4 ,john ,w4 ,mollet3 ,the ,painters of ,barbizon4 7#a4 ,corot1 ,daubigny1 ,dupr2 #b4 ,millet1 ,rousseau1 ,diaz47 ,in ,illustrated ,biographies of the ,great ,artists4 ,london1 ,low1 #ahij4 ,david ,croal ,thomson3 ,the ,barbizon ,school of ,painters3 ,corot1 ,rousseau1 ,diaz1 ,millet1 ,daubigny1 etc4 ,with ,one ,hundred and ,thirty ,illustrations4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,see also the articles by ,g4 ,gurlitt in ,die ,gegenwart1 #ahia1 the ,text of ,h4 ,helferich to ,behrens' work on the gallery1 etc4 ,thodore ,rousseau3 ,a4 ,teichlein3 ,thodore ,rousseau und die ,anfnge des ,paysage intime1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahfh1 iii #bha4 ,alfred ,sensier3 ,souvenirs sur ,thodore ,rousseau1 suivis d'une confrence sur le ,paysage et orn du portrait du matre4 ,paris1 #ahgb4 ,philippe ,burty3 ,thodore ,rousseau1 paysagiste1 ,l',art1 #ahha1 p4 #cgd4 ,emile ,michel1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,walter ,gensel3 ,millet und ,rousseau1 ,bd4 #eg in the ,knstlermonographien ed4 by ,knackfuss4 ,bielefeld1 #aijb4 ,corot3 ,edmond ,about3 ,voyage travers ,l',exposition des ,beaux-,arts4 ,paris1 #ahee4 ,henri ,dumesnil3 ,corot1 souvenirs intimes3 avec un portrait dessin par ,aim ,millet1 grav par ,alphonse ,leroy4 ,paris1 ,rapilly1 #ahge4 ,charles ,blanc3 ,les ,artistes de mon temps4 ,paris1 #ahgi4 ,leleux3 ,corot ,montreux1 ,bibliothque universelle et ,revue suisse1 ,september #ahhc4 ,alfred ,robaut3 ,corot1 peintures dcoratives1 ,l',art1 #ahhc1 p4 #djg4 ,jean ,rousseau3 ,camille ,corot3 avec gravures4 ,paris1 #ahhd4 ,armand ,silvestre3 ,galerie ,durand-,ruel3 avec #bh gravures l'eauforte d'aprs des tableaux de ,corot4 ,paris4 ,no date4 ,albert ,wolff3 ,la capitale de l',art4 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,charles ,bigot3 ,peintres contemporains4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,l4 ,roger-,mils3 ,corot1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,album classique des chefs d'oeuvre de ,corot4 ,paris1 #ahif4 ,julius ,meier-,grfe3 ,corot und ,courbet4 ,stuttgart1 #aijf4 ,dupr3 ,les hommes du jour3 ,m4 ,jules ,dupr1 #ahaa-ahgi1 par un critique d'art4 ,paris1 #ahgi4 ,r4 ,mnard3 ,l',art1 #ahgi1 iii #caa2 iv #bda4 ,a4 ,michel3 ,l',art1 #ahhc1 p4 #dfj4 ,jules ,claretie3 ,peintres et sculpteurs contemporains1 ,,ii ,srie4 ,paris1 #ahhd1 p4 #agg4 ,a4 ,hustin1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,diaz3 ,jules ,claretie3 ,narcisse ,diaz1 ,l',art1 #ahge1 iii #bjd4 ,exposition des oeuvres de ,narcisse ,diaz l'cole des ,beaux-,arts4 ,notice biographique par ,m4 ,jules ,claretie4 ,paris1 #ahgg4 ,roger-,ballu3 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahgg1 i #bij4 ,jean ,rousseau3 ,l',art1 #ahgg1 i #di4 ,t4 ,chasrel3 ,l'exposition de ,narcisse ,diaz1 ,l',art1 #ahgg1 ii #ahi4 ,hermann ,billung3 ,narcisse ,virgilio ,diaz1 ein ,lebensbild1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahgi1 xiv #ig4 ,a4 ,hustin1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,daubigny3 ,karl ,daubigny3 ,ch4 ,daubigny et son oeuvre4 ,paris1 #ahge4 ,frdric ,henriet3 ,charles ,daubigny et son oeuvre4 ,paris1 #ahgh4 ,frdric ,henriet1 in ,l',art1 #ahha1 p4 #ccj4 ,a4 ,hustin1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,robert ,j4 ,wickenden3 ,charles ,franois ,daubigny1 ,century ,magazine1 ,july #ahib4 ,chintreuil3 ,frdric ,henriet3 ,chintreuil3 ,esquisse biographique4 ,paris1 #aheh4 ,a4 de la ,fisliere1 ,champfleury1 et ,f4 ,henriet3 ,la vie et l'oeuvre de ,chintreuil4 ,paris1 #ahgd4 ,portfolio1 #ahgd1 p4 #ii4 ,harpignies3 ,charles ,tardieu3 ,henry ,harpignies1 ,l',art1 #ahgi1 xvi #bfi1 #bha4 ,franais3 ,j4 ,g4 ,prat3 ,franois ,louis ,franais1 ,l',art1 #ahhb1 i #dh1 #ha1 #cfh4 ,brascassat3 ,m4 ,cabat3 ,notice sur ,brascassat4 ,paris1 #ahfb4 ,charles ,marionneau3 ,r4 ,brascassat1 sa vie et son oeuvre4 ,paris1 #ahgb4 ,troyon3 ,henri ,dumesnil3 ,constant ,troyon1 ,souvenirs intimes4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,a4 ,hustin3 ,l',art1 #ahhi1 i #gg2 ii #he4 ,a4 ,hustin1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,rosa ,bonheur3 ,laruelle3 ,rosa ,bonheur1 sa vie1 ses oeuvres4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,ren ,peyrol3 ,rosa ,bonheur1 her ,life and ,work4 ,with three engraved ,plates and ,illustrations1 ,the ,art ,annual4 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,roger-,mils3 ,rosa ,bonheur4 ,paris1 #aija4 ,emile van ,marcke3 ,emile ,michel3 ,l',art1 #ahia1 i #ade4 ,eugne ,lambert3 ,chiens et chats1 ,text by ,g4 de ,cherville4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,lancon3 ,alfred de ,lostalot3 ,un peintre animalier1 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahhg1 ii #cai4 ,charles ,jacque3 ,jules ,claretie3 ,peintres et sculpteurs contemporains1 ,,ii ,srie4 ,paris1 #ahhd1 p4 #big4 ,,chapter ,,xxvi ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,jean ,franois ,millet1 ,gazette des ,beaux-,arts1 #ahge1 i #dbi4 ,ph4 ,l4 ,couturier3 ,millet et ,corot4 ,saint-,quentin1 #ahgf4 ,a4 ,piedagnel3 ,jean ,franois ,millet4 ,souvenirs de ,barbizon4 ,avec #a portrait1 #i ,eaux-fortes1 et un facsimil d'autographe4 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,a4 ,sensier3 ,la vie et l'oeuvre de ,jean ,franois ,millet4 ,manuscrit publi par ,p4 ,mantz1 avec de nombreux fascimils1 #ab heliographies hors texte1 et #dh gravures4 ,paris1 ,quantin1 #ahha4 ,w4 ,e4 ,h43 ,millet as an ,art-,critic1 ,magazine of ,art1 #ahhc1 p4 #bg4 ,charles ,yriarte3 ,jean ,franois ,millet4 ,portrait et #bd ,gravures4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,andr ,michel3 ,jean ,franois ,millet et l'exposition de ses oeuvres a l'cole des 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