,illustration3 ,,traction ,,engine4 ,,farm ,,engines ,,and ,,how ,,to ,,run ,,them ,,the ,,young ,,engineer',s ,,guide ,a ,,simple1 ,,practical ,,hand ,,book1 ,,for ,,experts ,,as ,,well ,,as ,,for ,,amateurs1 ,,fully ,,describing ,,every ,,part ,,of ,,an ,,engine ,,and ,,boiler1 ,,giving ,,full ,,directions ,,for ,,the ,,safe ,,and ,,economical ,,management ,,of ,,both2 ,,also ,,several ,,hundred ,,questions ,,and ,,answers ,,often ,,given ,,in ,,examinations ,,for ,,an ,,engineer',s ,,license1 ,,and ,,chapters ,,on ,,farm ,,engine ,,economy1 ,,with ,,special ,,attention ,,to ,,traction ,,and ,,gasoline ,,farm ,,engines1 ,,and ,a ,,chapter ,,on ,the ,science of ,successful ,threshing ,,by ,,james ,h4 ,,stephenson ,and ,other ,expert ,engineers ,,with ,,numerous ,,illustrations ,,showing ,,the ,,different ,,parts ,,of ,a ,,boiler ,,and ,,engine1 ,,and ,,nearly ,,every ,,make ,,of ,,traction ,,engine1 ,,with ,a ,,brief ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,distinctive ,,points ,,in ,,each ,,make4 ,illustration ,,chicago ,,frederick ,j4 ,,drake ,,co4 ,,publishers ,,copyright1 #aijc ,,by ,,frederick ,j4 ,,drake ,,co4 ,,chicago1 ,,ill41 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,preface ,this book makes no pretensions to originality4 ,it has taken the best from every source4 ,the author believes the matter has been arranged in a more simple and effective manner1 and that more information has been crowded into these pages than will be found within the pages of any similar book4 ,the professional engineer1 in writing a book for young engineers1 is likely to forget that the novice is unfamiliar with many terms which are like daily bread to him4 ,the present writers have tried to avoid that pitfall1 and to define each term as it naturally needs definition4 ,moreover1 the description of parts and the definitions of terms have preceded any suggestions on operation1 the authors believing that the young engineer should become thoroughly familiar with his engine and its manner of working1 before he is told what is best to do and not to do4 ,if he is forced on too fast he is likely to get mixed4 ,the test questions at the end of ,chapter ,,iii4 will show how perfectly the preceding pages have been mastered1 and the student is not ready to go on till he can answer all these questions readily4 ,the system of questions and answers has its uses and its limitations4 ,the authors have tried to use that system where it would do most good1 and employ the straight narrative discussion method where questions could not help and would only interrupt the progress of thought4 ,little technical matter has been introduced1 and that only for practical purposes4 ,the authors have had traction engines in mind for the most part1 but the directions will apply equally well to any kind of steam engine4 ,the thanks of the publishers are due to the various traction engine and threshing machine manufacturers for cuts and information1 and especially to the ,threshermen's ,review for ideas contained in its 8,farm ,engine ,economy10 to the ,j4 ,i4 ,case ,threshing ,machine ,co4 for the use of copyrighted matter in their 8,the ,science of ,successful ,threshing10 and to the manager of the ,columbus ,machine ,co4 for valuable personal information furnished the authors on gasoline engines and how to run them4 ,the proof has been read and corrected by ,mr4 ,t4 ,r4 ,butman1 known in ,chicago for #be years as one of the leading experts on engines and boilers1 especially boilers4 ,,the ,,young ,,engineers' ,,guide ,,chapter ,i4 ,,buying ,,an ,,engine4 ,there are a great many makes of good engines on the market to-day1 and the competition is so keen that no engine maker can afford to turn out a very poor engine4 ,this is especially true of traction engines4 ,the different styles and types all have their advantages1 and are good in their way4 ,for all that1 one good engine may be valueless for you1 and there are many ways in which you may make a great mistake in purchasing an engine4 ,the following points will help you to choose wisely3 #a4 ,consider what you want an engine for4 ,if it is a stationary engine1 consider the work to be done1 the space it is to occupy1 and what conveniences will save your time4 ,remember1 ,,time ,,is ,,money1 and that means that ,,space ,,is ,,also ,,money4 ,choose the kind of engine that will be most convenient for the position in which you wish to place it and the purpose or purposes for which you wish to use it4 ,if buying a traction engine1 consider also the roads and an engine's pulling qualities4 #b4 ,if you are buying a traction engine for threshing1 the first thing to consider is ,,fuel4 ,which will be cheapest for you1 wood1 coal or straw8 ,is economy of fuel much of an object with you--one that will justify you in greater care and more scientific study of your engine8 ,other things being equal1 the direct flue1 firebox1 locomotive boiler and simple engine will be the best1 since they are the easiest to operate4 ,they are not the most economical under favorable conditions1 but a return flue boiler and a compound engine will cost you far more than the possible saving of fuel unless you manage them in a scientific way4 ,indeed1 if not rightly managed they will waste more fuel than the direct flue locomotive boiler and the simple engine4 #c4 ,do not try to economize on the size of your boiler1 and at the same time never get too large an engine4 ,if a #f-;horse power boiler will just do your work1 an #h-;horse power will do it better and more economically1 because you won't be overworking it all the time4 ,engines should seldom be crowded4 ,at the same time you never know when you may want a higher capacity than you have1 or how much you may lose by not having it4 ,of course you don't want an engine and boiler that are too big1 but you should always allow a fair margin above your anticipated requirements4 #d4 ,do not try to economize on appliances4 ,you should have a good pump1 a good injector1 a good heater1 an extra steam gauge1 an extra fusible plug ready to put in1 a flue expander and a beader4 ,you should also certainly have a good force pump and hose to clean the boiler1 and the best oil and grease you can get4 ,never believe the man who tells you that something not quite the best is just as good4 ,you will find it the most expensive thing you ever tried--if you have wit enough to find out how expensive it is4 #e4 ,if you want my personal advice on the proper engine to select for various purposes1 ,i should say by all means get a gasoline engine for small powers about the farm1 such as pumping1 etc4 ,it is the quickest to start1 by far the most economical to operate1 and the simplest to manage4 ,the day of the small steam engine is past and will never return1 and ten gasoline engines of this kind are sold for every steam engine put out4 ,if you want a traction engine for threshing1 etc41 stick to steam4 ,gasoline engines are not very good hill climbers because the application of power is not steady enough2 they are not very good to get out of mud holes with for the same reason1 and as yet they are not perfected for such purposes4 ,you might use a portable gasoline engine1 however1 though the application of power is not as steady as with steam and the flywheels are heavy4 ,in choosing a traction steam engine1 the direct flue locomotive boiler and simple engine1 though theoretically not so economical as the return flue boiler and compound engine1 will in many cases prove so practically because they are so much simpler and there is not the chance to go wrong with them that there is with the others4 ,if for any reason you want a very quick steamer1 buy an upright4 ,if economy of fuel is very important and you are prepared to make the necessary effort to secure it1 a return flue boiler will be a good investment1 and a really good compound engine may be4 ,where a large plant is to be operated and a high power constant and steady energy is demanded1 stick to steam1 since the gasoline engines of the larger size have not proved so successful1 and are certainly by no means so steady2 and in such a case the exhaust steam can be used for heating and for various other purposes that will work the greatest economy4 ,for such a plant choose a horizontal tubular boiler1 set in masonry1 and a compound engine 7the latter if you have a scientific engineer74 ,in general1 in the traction engine1 look to the convenience of arrangement of the throttle1 reverse lever1 steering wheel1 friction clutch1 independent pump and injector1 all of which should be within easy reach of the footboard1 as such an arrangement will save annoyance and often damage when quick action is required4 ,the boiler should be well set2 the firebox large1 with large grate surface if a locomotive type of boiler is used1 and the number of flues should be sufficient to allow good combustion without forced draft4 ,a return flue boiler should have a large main flue1 material of the required #e-af-;inch thickness1 a mud drum1 and four to six hand-holes suitably situated for cleaning the boiler4 ,there should be a rather high average boiler pressure1 as high pressure is more economical than low4 ,for a simple engine1 #hj pounds and for a compound #abe pounds should be minimum4 ,a stationary engine should have a solid foundation built by a mason who understands the business1 and should be in a light1 dry room--never in a dark cellar or a damp place4 ,every farm traction engine should have a friction clutch4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,boilers4 ,the first boilers were made as a single cylinder of wrought iron set in brick work1 with provision for a fire under one end4 ,this was used for many years1 but it produced steam very slowly and with great waste of fuel4 ,the first improvement to be made in this was a fire flue running the whole length of the interior of the boiler1 with the fire in one end of the flue4 ,this fire flue was entirely surrounded by water4 ,then a boiler was made with two flues that came together at the smoke-box end4 ,first one flue was fired and then the other1 alternately1 the clear heat of one burning the smoke of the other when it came into the common passage4 ,the next step was to introduce conical tubes by which the water could circulate through the main fire flue 7,galloway boiler74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,,orr ,,sembower',s ,,standard ,,horizontal ,,boiler1 ,,with ,,full-,,arch ,,front ,,setting4 ,the object of all these improvements was to get larger heating surface4 ,to make steam rapidly and economically1 the heating surface must be as large as possible4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,,gaar1 ,,scott ,,co4',s ,,locomotive ,,boiler4 ,but there is a limit in that the boiler must not be cumbersome1 it must carry enough water1 and have sufficient space for steam4 ,the stationary boiler now most commonly used is cylindrical1 the fire is built in a brick furnace under the sheet and returns through fire tubes running the length of the boiler4 7,fig4 #a47 ,,locomotive ,,fire ,,tube ,,type ,,of ,,boiler4 ,the earliest of the modern steam boilers to come into use was the locomotive fire tube type1 with a special firebox4 ,by reference to the illustration 7,fig4 #b7 you will see that the boiler cylinder is perforated with a number of tubes from #b to #d inches in diameter running from the large firebox on the left1 through the boiler cylinder filled with water1 to the smoke-box on the right1 above which the smokestack rises4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,,the ,,huber ,,fire ,,box4 ,it will be noticed that the walls of the firebox are double1 and that the water circulates freely all about the firebox as well as all about the fire tubes4 ,the inner walls of the firebox are held firmly in position by stay bolts1 as will be seen in ,fig4 #c1 which also shows the position of the grate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,,huber ,,return ,,flue ,,boiler4 ,,return ,,flue ,,type ,,of ,,boiler4 ,the return flue type of boiler consists of a large central fire flue running through the boiler cylinder to the smoke box at the front end1 which is entirely closed4 ,the smoke passes back through a number of small tubes1 and the smokestack is directly over the fire at the rear of the boiler1 though there is no communication between the fire at the rear of the boiler and it except through the main flue to the front and back through the small return flues4 ,fig4 #d illustrates this type of boiler1 though it shows but one return flue4 ,the actual number may be seen by the sectional view in ,fig4 #e4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,,section ,,view ,,of ,,huber ,,return ,,flue ,,boiler4 ,the fire is built in one end of the main flue1 and is entirely surrounded by water1 as will be seen in the illustration4 ,the long passage for the flame and heated gases enables the water to absorb a maximum amount of the heat of combustion4 ,there is also an element of safety in this boiler in that the small flues will be exposed first should the water become low1 and less damage will be done than if the large crown sheet of the firebox boiler is exposed1 and this large crown sheet is the first thing to be exposed in that type of boiler4 ,,water ,,tube ,,type ,,of ,,boiler4 ,the special difference between the fire tube boiler and the water tube boiler is that in the former the fire passes through the tubes1 while in the latter the water is in the tubes and the fire passes around them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,,freeman ,,vertical ,,boiler4 ,in this type of boiler there is an upper cylinder 7or more than one7 filled with water2 a series of small tubes running at an angle from the front or fire door end of the upper cylinder to a point below and back of the grates1 where they meet in another cylinder or pipe1 which is connected with the other end of the upper cylinder4 ,the portions of the tubes directly over the fire will be hottest1 and the water here will become heated and rise to the front end of the upper cylinder1 while to fill the space left1 colder water is drawn in from the back pipe1 from the rear end of the upper cylinder1 down to the lower ends of the water tubes1 to pass along up through them to the front end again4 ,this type of boiler gives great heating surface1 and since the tubes are small they will have ample strength with much thinner walls4 ,great freedom of circulation is important in this type of boiler1 there being no contracted cells in the passage4 ,this is not adapted for a portable engine4 ,,upright ,,or ,,vertical ,,type ,,of ,,boiler4 ,in the upright type of boiler the boiler cylinder is placed on end1 the fire is built at the lower end1 which is a firebox surrounded by a water jacket1 and the smoke and gases of combustion rise straight up through vertical fire flues4 ,the amount of water carried is relatively small1 and the steam space is also small1 while the heating surface is relatively large if the boiler is sufficiently tall4 ,you can get up steam in this type of boiler quicker than in any other1 and in case of the stationary engine1 the space occupied is a minimum4 ,the majority of small stationary engines have this type of boiler1 and there is a traction engine with upright boiler which has been widely used1 but it is open to the objection that the upper or steam ends of the tubes easily get overheated and so become leaky4 ,there is also often trouble from mud and scale deposits in the water leg1 the bottom area of which is very small4 ,,definition ,,of ,,terms ,,used ,,in ,,connection ,,with ,,boilers4 ,shell--,the main cylindrical steel sheets which form the principal part of the boiler4 ,boiler-heads--,the ends of the boiler cylinder4 ,tube ,sheets--,the sheets in which the fire tubes are inserted at each end of the boiler4 ,fire-box--,a nearly square space at one end of a boiler1 in which the fire is placed4 ,properly it is surrounded on all sides by a double wall1 the space between the two shells of these walls being filled with water4 ,all flat surfaces are securely fastened by stay bolts and crown bars1 but cylindrical surfaces are self-bracing4 ,water-leg--,the space at sides of fire-box and below it in which water passes4 ,crown-sheet--,the sheet of steel at the top of the firebox1 just under the water in the boiler4 ,this crown sheet is exposed to severe heat1 but so long as it is covered with water1 the water will conduct the heat away1 and the metal can never become any hotter than the water in the boiler4 ,if1 however1 it is not covered with water1 but only by steam1 it quickly becomes overheated1 since the steam does not conduct the heat away as the water does4 ,it may become so hot it will soften and sag1 but the great danger is that the thin layer of water near this overheated crown sheet will be suddenly turned into a great volume of steam and cause an explosion4 ,if some of the pressure is taken off1 this overheated water may suddenly burst into steam and cause an explosion1 as the safety valve blows off1 for example 7since the safety valve relieves some of the pressure74 ,smoke-box--,the space at the end of the boiler opposite to that of the fire1 in which the smoke may accumulate before passing up the stack in the locomotive type1 or through the small flues in the return type of boiler4 ,steam-dome--,a drum or projection at the top of the boiler cylinder1 forming the highest point which the steam can reach4 ,the steam is taken from the boiler through piping leading from the top of this dome1 since at this point it is least likely to be mixed with water1 either through foaming or shaking up of the boiler4 ,even under normal conditions the steam at the top of the dome is drier than anywhere else4 ,mud-drum--,a cylindrical-shaped receptacle at the bottom of the boiler similar to the steam-dome at the top1 but not so deep4 ,impurities in the water accumulate here1 and it is of great value on a return flue boiler4 ,in a locomotive boiler the mud accumulates in the water leg1 below the firebox4 ,man-holes--,are large openings into the interior of a boiler1 through which a man may pass to clean out the inside4 ,hand-holes--,are smaller holes at various points in the boiler into which the nozzle of a hose may be introduced for cleaning out the interior4 ,all these openings must be securely covered with steam-tight plates1 called man-hole and hand-hole plates4 ,a boiler jacket--,a non-conducting covering of wood1 plaster1 hair1 rags1 felt1 paper1 asbestos or the like1 which prevents the boiler shell from cooling too rapidly through radiation of heat from the steel4 ,these materials are usually held in place against the boiler by sheet iron4 ,an intervening air-space between the jacket and the boiler shell will add to the efficiency of the jacket4 ,a steam-jacket--,a space around an engine cylinder or the like which may be filled with live steam so as to keep the interior from cooling rapidly4 ,ash-pit--,the space directly under the grates1 where the ashes accumulate4 ,dead-plates--,solid sheets of steel on which the fire lies the same as on the grates1 but with no openings through to the ash-pit4 ,dead-plates are sometimes used to prevent cold air passing through the fire into the flues1 and are common on straw-burning boilers4 ,they should seldom if ever be used on coal or wood firing boilers4 ,grate ,surface--,the whole space occupied by the grate-bars1 usually measured in square feet4 ,forced ,draft--,a draft produced by any means other than the natural tendency of the heated gases of combustion to rise4 ,for example1 a draft caused by letting steam escape into the stack4 ,heating ,surface--,the entire surface of the boiler exposed to the heat of the fire1 or the area of steel or iron sheeting or tubing1 on one side of which is water and on the other heated air or gases4 ,steam-space--,the cubical contents of the space which may be occupied by steam above the water4 ,water-space--,the cubical contents of the space occupied by water below the steam4 ,diaphragm-plate--,a perforated plate used in the domes of locomotive boilers to prevent water dashing into the steam supply pipe4 ,a dry-pipe is a pipe with small perforations1 used for taking steam from the steam-space1 instead of from a dome with diaphragm-plate4 ,,the ,,attachments ,,of ,a ,,boiler4#a ,before proceeding to a consideration of the care and management of a boiler1 let us briefly indicate the chief working attachments of a boiler4 ,unless the nature and uses of these attachments are fully understood1 it will be impossible to handle the boiler in a thoroughly safe and scientific fashion1 though some engineers do handle boilers without knowing all about these attachments4 ,their ignorance in many cases costs them their lives and the lives of others4 ,footnote #a3 ,unless otherwise indicated1 cuts of fittings show those manufactured by the ,lunkenheimer ,co41 ,cincinnati1 ,ohio4 ,the first duty of the engineer is to see that the boiler is filled with water4 ,this he usually does by looking at the glass water-gauge4 ,,the ,,water ,,gauge ,,and ,,cocks4 ,illustration3 ,,two-,,rod ,,water ,,gauge4 ,there is a cock at each end of the glass tube4 ,when these cocks are open the water will pass through the lower into the glass tube1 while steam comes through the other4 ,the level of the water in the gauge will then be the same as the level of the water in the boiler1 and the water should never fall out of sight below the lower end of the glass1 nor rise above the upper end4 ,below the lower gauge cock there is another cock used for draining the gauge and blowing it off when there is a pressure of steam on4 ,by occasionally opening this cock1 allowing the heated water or steam to blow through it1 the engineer may always be sure that the passages into the water gauge are not stopped up by any means4 ,by closing the upper cock and opening the lower1 the passage into the lower may be cleared by blowing off the drain cock2 by closing the lower gauge cock and opening the upper the passage from the steam space may be cleared and tested in the same way when the drain cock is opened4 ,if the glass breaks1 both upper and lower gauge cocks should be closed instantly4 ,illustration3 ,,gauge ,,or ,,try ,,cock4 ,in addition to the glass water gauge1 there are the try-cocks for ascertaining the level of the water in the boiler4 ,there should be two to four of these4 ,they open directly out of the boiler sheet1 and by opening them in turn it is possible to tell approximately where the water stands4 ,there should be one cock near the level of the crown sheet1 or slightly above it1 another about the level of the lower gauge cock1 another about the middle of the gauge1 another about the level of the upper gauge1 and still another1 perhaps1 a little higher4 ,but one above and one below the water line will be sufficient4 ,if water stands above the level of the cock1 it will blow off white mist when opened2 if the cock opens from steam-space1 it will blow off blue steam when opened4 ,the try-cocks should be opened from time to time in order to be sure the water stands at the proper level in the boiler1 for various things may interfere with the working of the glass gauge4 ,try-cocks are often called gauge cocks4 ,illustration3 ,,try ,,cock4 ,,the ,,steam ,,gauge4 ,the steam gauge is a delicate instrument arranged so as to indicate by a pointer the pounds of pressure which the steam is exerting within the boiler4 ,it is extremely important1 and a defect in it may cause much damage4 ,illustration3 ,,pressure ,,gauge4 ,the steam gauge was invented in #ahdi by ,eugene ,bourdon1 of ,france4 ,he discovered that a flat tube bent in a simple curve1 held fast at one end1 would expand and contract if made of proper spring material1 through the pressure of the water within the tube4 ,the free end operates a clock-work that moves the pointer4 ,it is important that the steam gauge be attached to the boiler by a siphon1 or with a knot in the tube1 so that the steam may operate on water contained in the tube1 and the water cannot become displaced by steam1 since steam might interfere with the correct working of the gauge by expanding the gauge tube through its excessive heat4 ,steam gauges frequently get out of order1 and should be tested occasionally4 ,this may conveniently be done by attaching them to a boiler which has a correct gauge already on it4 ,if both register alike1 it is probable that both are accurate4 ,illustration3 ,,steam ,,gauge ,,siphon4 ,illustration3 ,,front ,,cylinder ,,cock4 ,there are also self-testing steam gauges4 ,with all pressure off1 the pointer will return to #j4 ,then a series of weights are arranged which may be hung on the gauge and cause the pointer to indicate corresponding numbers4 ,the chief source of variation is in the loosening of the indicator needle4 ,this shows itself usually when the pressure is off and the pointer does not return exactly to zero4 ,,safety ,,valve4 ,the safety valve is a valve held in place by a weighted lever#b or by a spiral spring 7on traction engines7 or some similar device1 and is adjustable by a screw or the like so that it can be set to blow off at a given pressure of steam1 usually the rated pressure of the boiler1 which on traction engines is from #aaj to #acj pounds4 ,the valve is supplied with a handle by which it can be opened1 and it should be opened occasionally to make sure it is working all right4 ,when it blows off the steam gauge should be noted to see that it agrees with the pressure for which the safety valve was set4 ,if they do not agree1 something is wrong2 either the safety valve does not work freely1 or the steam gauge does not register accurately4 ,footnote #b3 ,this kind of safety valve is now being entirely discarded as much more dangerous than the spring or pop valve4 ,illustration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,kunkle ,,pop ,,valve4 ,illustration3 ,,safety ,,valve4 ,the cut shows the ,kunkle safety valve4 ,to set it1 unscrew the jam nut and apply the key to the pressure screw4 ,for more pressure1 screw down2 for less1 unscrew4 ,after having the desired pressure1 screw the jam nut down tight on the pressure screw4 ,to regulate the opening and closing of the valve1 take the pointed end of a file and apply it to the teeth of the regulator4 ,if valve closes with too much boiler pressure1 move the regulator to the left4 ,if with too little1 move the regulator to the right4 ,this can be done when the valve is at the point of blowing off4 ,illustration3 ,,phantom ,,view ,,of ,,marsh ,,independent ,,steam ,,pump4 ,other types of valves are managed in a similar way1 and exact directions will always be furnished by the manufacturers4 ,,filling ,,the ,,boiler ,,with ,,water4 ,there are three ways in which a boiler is commonly filled with water4 ,first1 before starting a boiler it must be filled with water by hand1 or with a hand force-pump4 ,there is usually a filler plug1 which must be taken out1 and a funnel can be attached in its place4 ,open one of the gauge cocks to let out the air as the water goes in4 ,when the boiler has a sufficient amount of water1 as may be seen by the glass water gauge1 replace the filler plug4 ,after steam is up the boiler should be supplied with water by a pump or injector4 ,,the ,,boiler ,,pump4 ,there are two kinds of pumps commonly used on traction engines1 the ,independent pump1 and the ,cross-head pump4 ,the ,independent pump is virtually an independent engine with pump attached4 ,there are two cylinders1 one receiving steam and conveying force to the piston2 the other a water cylinder1 in which a plunger works1 drawing the water into itself by suction and forcing it out through the connection pipe into the boiler by force of steam pressure in the steam cylinder4 ,illustration3 ,,straight ,,globe ,,valve4 ,illustration3 ,,angle ,,globe ,,valve4 ,it is to be noted that all suction pumps receive their water by reason of the pressure of the atmosphere on the surface of the water in the supply tank or well4 ,this atmospheric pressure is about #ae pounds to the square inch1 and is sufficient to support a column of water #bh to #cc feet high1 #cc feet being the height of a column of water which the atmosphere will support theoretically at about sea level4 ,at greater altitudes the pressure of the atmosphere decreases4 ,pumps do not work very well when drawing water from a depth over #bj or #bb feet4 ,water can be forced to almost any height by pressure of steam on the plunger1 and it is taken from deep wells by deep well pumps1 which suck the water #bj to #be feet1 and force it the rest of the way by pressure on a plunger4 ,the amount of water pumped is regulated by a cock or globe valve in the suction pipe4 ,a ,cross-head boiler pump is a pump attached to the cross-head of an engine4 ,the force of the engine piston is transmitted to the plunger of the pump4 ,the pump portion works exactly the same1 whether of the independent or cross-head kind4 ,the cut represents an independent pump that uses the exhaust steam to heat the water as it is pumped 7,marsh pump74 ,illustration3 ,,valve ,,with ,,internal ,,screw4 ,every boiler feed-pump must have at least two check valves4 ,a check valve is a small swinging gate valve 7usually7 contained in a pipe1 and so arranged that when water is flowing in one direction the valve will automatically open to let the water pass1 while if water should be forced in the other direction1 the valve will automatically close tight and prevent the water from passing4 ,illustration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,swing ,,check ,,valve4 ,there is one check valve in the supply pipe which conducts the water from the tank or well to the pump cylinder4 ,when the plunger is drawn back or raised1 a vacuum is created in the pump cylinder and the outside atmospheric pressure forces water through the supply pipe into the cylinder1 and the check valve opens to let it pass4 ,when the plunger returns1 the check valve closes1 and the water is forced into the feed-pipe to the boiler4 ,illustration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,case ,,heater4 ,there are usually two check valves between the pump cylinder and the boiler1 both swinging away from the pump or toward the boiler4 ,in order that the water may flow steadily into the boiler there is an air chamber1 which may be partly filled with water at each stroke of the plunger4 ,as the water comes in1 the air must be compressed1 and as it expands it forces the water through the feed pipe into the boiler in a steady stream4 ,there is one check valve between the pump cylinder and the air chamber1 to prevent the water from coming back into the cylinder1 and another between the air chamber and the boiler1 to prevent the steam pressure forcing itself or the water from the boiler or water heater back into the air chamber4 ,illustration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,penberthy ,,injector4 ,illustration3 ,u4 ,s4 ,,automatic ,,injector4 7,american ,injector ,co47 ,all three of these check valves must work easily and fit tight if the pump is to be serviceable4 ,they usually close with rubber facings which in time will get worn1 and dirt is liable to work into the hinge and otherwise prevent tight and easy closing4 ,they can always be opened for inspection1 and new ones can be put in when the old are too much worn4 ,only cold water can be pumped successfully1 as steam from hot water will expand1 and so prevent a vacuum being formed4 ,thus no suction will take place to draw the water from the supply source4 ,there should always be a globe valve or cock in the feed pipe near the boiler to make it possible to cut out the check valves when the boiler is under pressure4 ,it is never to be closed except when required for this purpose4 ,before passing into the boiler the water from the pump goes through the heater4 ,this is a small cylinder1 with a coil of pipe inside4 ,the feed pipe from the pump is connected with one end of this inner coil of pipe1 while the other end of the coil leads into the boiler itself4 ,the exhaust steam from the engine cylinder is admitted into the cylinder and passes around the coil of pipe1 afterwards coming out of the smoke stack to help increase the draft4 ,as the feed water passes through this heater it becomes heated nearly to boiling before it enters the boiler1 and has no tendency to cool the boiler off4 ,heating the feed water results in an economy of about #aj per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,automatic ,,injector4 ,the ,injector is another means of forcing water from a supply tank or well into the boiler1 and at the same time heating it1 by use of steam from the boiler4 ,it is a necessity when a cross-head pump is used1 since such a pump will not work when the engine is shut down4 ,it is useful in any case to heat the water before it goes into the boiler when the engine is not working and there is no exhaust steam for the heater4 ,there are various types of injectors1 but they all work on practically the same principle4 ,the steam from the boiler is led through a tapering nozzle to a small chamber into which there is an opening from a water supply pipe4 ,this steam nozzle throws out its spray with great force and creates a partial vacuum in the chamber1 causing the water to flow in4 ,as the pressure of the steam has been reduced when it passes into the injector1 it cannot1 of course1 force its way back into the boiler at first1 and finds an outlet at the overflow4 ,when the water comes in1 however1 the steam jet strikes the water and is condensed by it4 ,at the same time it carries the water and the condensed steam along toward the boiler with such force that the back pressure of the boiler is overcome and a stream of heated water is passed into it4 ,in order that the injector may work1 its parts must be nicely adjusted1 and with varying steam pressures it takes some ingenuity to get it started4 ,usually the full steam pressure is turned on and the cock admitting the water supply is opened a varying amount according to the pressure4 ,first the valve between the check valve and the boiler should be opened1 so that the feed water may enter freely2 then open wide the valve next the steam dome1 and any other valve between the steam supply pipe and the injector2 lastly open the water supply valve4 ,if water appears at the overflow1 close the supply valve and open it again1 giving it just the proper amount of turn4 ,the injector is regulated by the amount of water admitted4 ,illustration3 ,,plain ,,whistle4 ,in setting up an injector of any type1 the following rules should be observed3 ,all connecting pipes as straight and short as possible4 ,the internal diameter of all connecting pipes should be the same or greater than the diameter of the hole in the corresponding part of the injector4 ,when there is dirt or particles of wood or other material in the source of water supply1 the end of the water supply pipe should be provided with a strainer4 ,indeed1 invariably a strainer should be used4 ,the holes in this strainer must be as small as the smallest opening in the delivery tube1 and the total area of the openings in the strainer must be much greater than the area of the water supply 7cross-section74 ,the steam should be taken from the highest part of the dome1 to avoid carrying any water from the boiler over with it4 ,wet steam cuts and grooves the steam nozzle4 ,the steam should not be taken from the pipe leading to the engine unless the pipe is quite large4 ,before using new injectors1 after they are fitted to the boiler it is advisable to disconnect them and clean them out well by letting steam blow through them or forcing water through4 ,this will prevent lead or loose scale getting into the injector when in use4 ,set the injector as low as possible1 as it works best with smallest possible lift4 ,ejectors and jet pumps are used for lifting and forcing water by steam pressure1 and are employed in filling tanks1 etc4 ,,blast ,,and ,,blow-,,off ,,devices4 ,in traction engines there is small pipe with a valve1 leading into the smoke stack from the boiler4 ,when the valve is opened1 the steam allowed to blow off into the smoke stack will create a vacuum and so increase the draft4 ,blast or blow pipes are used only in starting the fire1 and are of little value before the steam pressure reaches #ae pounds or so4 ,the exhaust nozzle from the engine cylinder also leads into the smoke stack1 and when the engine is running the exhaust steam is sufficient to keep up the draft without using the blower4 ,blow-off cocks are used for blowing sediment out of the bottom of a boiler1 or blowing scum off the top of the water to prevent foaming4 ,a boiler should never be blown out at high pressure1 as there is great danger of injuring it4 ,better let the boiler cool off somewhat before blowing off4 ,,spark ,,arrester4 ,traction engines are supplied as a usual thing with spark arresters if they burn wood or straw4 ,coal sparks are heavy and have little life1 and with some engines no spark arrester is needed4 ,but there is great danger of setting a fire if an engine is run with wood or straw without the spark arrester4 ,illustration3 ,,diamond ,,spark ,,arrester4 ,spark arresters are of different types4 ,the most usual form is a large screen dome placed over the top of the stack4 ,this screen must be kept well cleaned by brushing1 or the draft of the engine will be impaired by it4 ,in another form of spark arrester1 the smoke is made to pass through water1 which effectually kills every possible spark4 ,the ,diamond ,spark ,arrester does not interfere with the draft and is so constructed that all sparks are carried by a counter current through a tube into a pail where water is kept4 ,the inverted cone1 as shown in cut1 is made of steel wire cloth1 which permits smoke and gas to escape1 but no sparks4 ,there is no possible chance to set fire to anything by sparks4 ,it is adapted to any steam engine that exhausts into the smoke stack4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,the ,,simple ,,engine4 ,the engine is the part of a power plant which converts steam pressure into power in such form that it can do work4 ,properly speaking1 the engine has nothing to do with generating steam4 ,that is done exclusively in the boiler1 which has already been described4 ,illustration3 ,,view ,,of ,,simple ,,cylinder4 7,j4 ,i4 ,case ,threshing ,machine ,co47 ,the steam engine was invented by ,james ,watt1 in ,england1 between #agfe and #agij1 and he understood all the essential parts of the engine as now built4 ,it was improved1 however1 by ,seguin1 ,ericsson1 ,stephenson1 ,fulton1 and many others4 ,let us first consider3 ,,the ,,steam ,,cylinder1 ,,its ,,parts ,,and ,,connections4 ,the cylinder proper is constructed of a single piece of cast iron bored out smooth4 ,the cylinder heads are the flat discs or caps bolted to the ends of the cylinder itself4 ,sometimes one cylinder head is cast in the same piece with the engine frame4 ,the piston is a circular disc working back and forth in the cylinder4 ,it is usually a hollow casting1 and to make it fit the cylinder steam tight1 it is supplied on its circumference with piston rings4 ,these are made of slightly larger diameter than the piston1 and serve as springs against the sides of the cylinder4 ,the follower plate and bolts cover the piston rings on the piston head and hold them in place4 ,illustration3 ,,connecting ,,rod ,,and ,,cross-,,head4 7,j4 ,i4 ,case ,threshing ,machine ,co47 ,the piston rod is of wrought iron or steel1 and is fitted firmly and rigidly into the piston at one end4 ,it runs from the piston through one head of the cylinder1 passing through a steam-tight 8stuffing box40 ,one end of the piston rod is attached to the cross-head4 ,the cross-head works between guides1 and has shoes above and below4 ,it is practically a joint1 necessary in converting straight back and forth motion into rotary4 ,the cross-head itself works straight back and forth1 just as the piston does1 which is fastened firmly to one end4 ,at the other end is attached the connecting rod1 which works on a bearing in the cross-head1 called the wrist pin1 or cross-head pin4 ,the connecting rod is wrought iron or steel1 working at one end on the bearing known as the wrist pin1 and on the other on a bearing called the crank pin4 ,the crank is a short lever which transmits the power from the connecting rod to the crank shaft4 ,it may also be a disc1 called the crank disc4 ,illustration3 ,,cross-,,head4 7,j4 ,i4 ,case ,threshing ,machine ,co47 ,let us now return to the steam cylinder itself4 ,the steam leaves the boiler through a pipe leading from the top of the steam dome1 and is let on or cut off by the throttle valve1 which is usually opened and closed by some sort of lever handle4 ,it passes on to the ,steam-chest1 usually a part of the same casting as the cylinder4 ,it has a cover called the steam-chest cover1 which is securely bolted in place4 ,the steam valve1 usually spoken of simply as the valve1 serves to admit the steam alternately to each end of the cylinder in such a manner that it works the piston back and forth4 ,there are many kinds of valves1 the simplest 7shown in the diagram7 being the ,d-valve4 ,it slides back and forth on the bottom of the steam-chest1 which is called the valve seat1 and alternately opens and closes the two steam ports1 which are long1 narrow passages through which the steam enters the cylinder1 first through one port to one end1 then through the other port to the other end4 ,the exhaust steam also passes out at these same ports4 ,the exhaust chamber in the type of engine now under consideration is an opening on the lower side of the valve1 and is always open into the exhaust port1 which connects with the exhaust pipe1 which finally discharges itself through the exhaust nozzle into the smoke stack of a locomotive or traction engine1 or in other types of engines1 into the condenser4 ,the valve is worked by the valve stem1 which works through the valve stem stuffing-box4 ,of course the piston does not work quite the full length of the cylinder1 else it would pound against the cylinder heads4 ,the clearance is the distance between the cylinder head at either end and the piston when the piston has reached the limit of its stroke in that direction4 ,in most engines the valve is so set that it opens a trifle just before the piston reaches the limit of its movement in either direction1 thus letting some steam in before the piston is ready to move back4 ,this opening1 which usually amounts to #a-cb to #c-af of an inch1 is called the lead4 ,the steam thus let in before the piston reaches the limit of its stroke forms cushion1 and helps the piston to reverse its motion without any jar1 in an easy and silent manner4 ,of course the cushion must be as slight as possible and serve its purpose1 else it will tend to stop the engine1 and result in loss of energy4 ,some engines have no lead4 ,setting a valve is adjusting it on its seat so that the lead will be equal at both ends and sufficient for the needs of the engine4 ,by shortening the movement of the valve back and forth1 the lead can be increased or diminished4 ,this is usually effected by changing the eccentric or valve gear4 ,the lap of a slide valve is the distance it extends over the edges of the ports when it is at the middle of its travel4 ,lap on the steam side is called outside lap2 lap on the exhaust side is called inside lap4 ,the object of lap is to secure the benefit of working steam expansively4 ,having lap1 the valve closes one steam port before the other is opened1 and before the piston has reached the end of its stroke2 also of course before the exhaust is opened4 ,thus for a short time the steam that has been let into the cylinder to drive the piston is shut up with neither inlet nor outlet1 and it drives the piston by its own expansive force4 ,when it passes out at the exhaust it has a considerably reduced pressure1 and less of its force is wasted4 ,let us now consider the ,,valve ,,gear4 ,the mechanism by which the valve is opened and closed is somewhat complicated1 as various things are accomplished by it besides simply opening and closing the valve4 ,if an engine has a reverse lever1 it works through the valve gear2 and the governor which regulates the speed of the engine may also operate through the valve gear4 ,it is therefore very important4 ,the simplest valve gear depends for its action on a fixed eccentric4 ,an eccentric consists of a central disc called the sheave1 keyed to the main shaft at a point to one side of its true center1 and a grooved ring or strap surrounding it and sliding loosely around it4 ,the strap is usually made of brass or some anti-friction metal4 ,it is in two parts1 which are bolted together so that they can be tightened up as the strap wears4 ,the eccentric rod is either bolted to the strap or forms a single piece with it1 and this rod transmits its motion to the valve4 ,it will be seen1 therefore1 that the eccentric is nothing more than a sort of disc crank1 which1 however1 does not need to be attached to the end of a shaft in the manner of an ordinary crank4 ,the distance between the center of the eccentric sheave and the center of the shaft is called the throw of the eccentric or the eccentricity4 ,the eccentric usually conveys its force through a connecting rod to the valve stem1 which moves the valve4 ,the first modification of the simple eccentric valve gear is ,,the ,,reversing ,,gear4 ,it is very desirable to control the movement of the steam valve1 so that if desired the engine may be run in the opposite direction2 or the steam force may be brought to bear to stop the engine quickly2 or the travel of the valve regulated so that it will let into the cylinder only as much steam as is needed to run the engine when the load is light and the steam pressure in the boiler high4 ,there is a great variety of reversing gears2 but we will consider one of the commonest and simplest first4 ,illustration3 ,,huber ,,single ,,eccentric ,,reverse4 ,if the eccentric sheave could be slipped around on the shaft to a position opposite to that in which it was keyed to shaft in its ordinary motion1 the motion of the valve would be reversed1 and it would let steam in front of the advancing end of the piston1 which would check its movement1 and start it in the opposite direction4 ,the link gear1 invented by ,stephenson1 accomplishes this in a natural and easy manner4 ,there are two eccentrics placed just opposite to each other on the crank shaft1 their connecting rods terminating in what is called a link1 through which motion is communicated to the valve stem4 ,the link is a curved slide1 one eccentric being connected to one end1 the other eccentric to the other end1 and the link-block1 through which motion is conveyed to the valve1 slides freely from one end to the other4 ,lower the link so that the block is opposite the end of the first rod1 and the valve will be moved by the corresponding eccentric2 raise the link1 so that the block is opposite the end of the other rod1 and the valve will be moved by the other eccentric4 ,in the middle there would be a dead center1 and if the block stopped here1 the valve would not move at all4 ,at any intermediate point1 the travel of the valve would be correspondingly shortened4 ,illustration3 ,,valve ,,and ,,link ,,reverse4 ,such is the theoretical effect of a perfect link2 but the dead center is not absolute1 and the motion of the link is varied by the point at which the rod is attached which lifts and lowers it1 and also by the length of this rod4 ,in full gear the block is not allowed to come quite to the end of the link1 and this surplus distance is called the clearance4 ,the radius of a link is the distance from the center of the driving shaft to the center of the link1 and the curve of the link is that of a circle with that radius4 ,the length of the radius may vary considerably1 but the point of suspension is important4 ,if a link is suspended by its center1 it will certainly cut off steam sooner in the front stroke than in the back4 ,usually it is suspended from that point which is most used in running the engine4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,woolf ,,reverse ,,valve ,,gear4 ,the ,woolf reversing gear employs but one eccentric1 to the strap of which is cast an arm having a block pivoted at its end4 ,this block slides in a pivoted guide1 the angle of which is controlled by the reverse lever4 ,to the eccentric arm is attached the eccentric rod1 which transmits the motion to the valve rod through a rocker arm on simple engines and through a slide1 as shown in cut1 on compound engines4 ,the ,meyer valve gear does not actually reverse an engine1 but controls the admission of steam by means of an additional valve riding on the back of the main valve and controlling the cut-off4 ,the main valve is like an ordinary ,d-valve1 except that the steam is not admitted around the ends1 but through ports running through the valve1 these ports being partially opened or closed by the motion of the riding valve1 which is controlled by a separate eccentric4 ,if this riding valve is connected with a governor1 it will regulate the speed of an engine2 and by the addition of a link the gear may be made reversible4 ,the chief objection to it is the excessive friction of the valves on their seats4 ,,governors4 ,a governor is a mechanism by which the supply of steam to the cylinder is regulated by revolving balls1 or the like1 which runs faster or slower as the speed of the engine increases or diminishes4 ,thus the speed of an engine is regulated to varying loads and conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,showing ,,valve ,,of ,,waters ,,governor4 ,the simplest type of governor1 and the one commonly used on traction engines1 is that which is only a modification of the one invented by ,watt4 ,two balls revolve around a spindle in such a way as to rise when the speed of the engine is high1 and fall when it is low1 and in rising and falling they open and close a valve similar to the throttle valve4 ,the amount that the governor valve is opened or closed by the rise and fall of the governor balls is usually regulated by a thumb screw at the top or side1 or by what is called a handle nut1 which is usually held firm by a check nut directly over it1 which should be screwed firm against the handle nut4 ,motion is conveyed to the governor balls by a belt and a band wheel working on a mechanism of metred cogs4 ,there is considerable friction about a governor of this type and much energy is wasted in keeping it going4 ,the valve stem or spindle passes through a steam-tight stuffing box1 where it is liable to stick if the packing is too tight2 and if this stuffing box leaks steam1 there will be immediate loss of power4 ,illustration3 ,,pickering ,,horizontal ,,governor4 ,such a governor as has just been described is called a throttle valve governor4 ,on high grade engines the difficulties inherent in this type of governor are overcome by making the governor control1 not a valve in the steam supply pipe1 but the admission of steam to the steam cylinder through the steam valve and its gear4 ,such engines are described as having an 8automatic cut-off40 ,sometimes the governor is attached to the link1 sometimes to a separate valve1 as in the ,meyer gear already described4 ,usually the governor is attached to the fly-wheel1 and consequently governors of this type are called fly-wheel governors4 ,an automatic cut-off governor is from #ae per cent to #bj per cent more effective than a throttle valve governor4 ,,crank1 ,,shaft ,,and ,,journals4 ,we have already seen how the piston conveys its power through the piston rod1 the cross-head1 and the connecting rod1 to the crank pin and crank1 and hence to the shaft4 ,the key1 gib1 and strap are the effective means by which the connecting rod is attached1 first to the wrist pin in the cross-head1 and secondly to the crank pin on the crank4 ,the strap is usually made of two or three pieces of wrought iron or steel bolted together so as to hold the brasses1 which are in two parts and loosely surround the pin4 ,the brasses do not quite meet1 and as they wear may be tightened up4 ,this is effected by the gib1 back of which is the key1 which is commonly a wedge which may be driven in1 or a screw1 which presses on the back of the gib1 which in turn forces together the brasses2 and thus the length of the piston gear is kept uniform in spite of the wear1 becoming neither shorter nor longer4 ,when the brasses are so worn that they have been forced together1 they must be taken out and filed equally on all four of the meeting ends1 and shims1 or thin pieces of sheet iron or the like placed back of them to equalize the wear1 and prevent the piston gear from being shortened or otherwise altered4 ,illustration3 ,,connecting ,,rod ,,and ,,boxes4 7,a4 ,w4 ,stevens ,co47 ,the crank is a simple lever attached to the shaft by which the shaft is rotated4 ,there are two types of crank in common use1 the side crank1 which works by what is virtually a bend in the shaft4 ,there is also what is called the disc crank1 a variation of the side crank1 in which the power is applied to the circumference of a disc instead of to the end of a lever arm4 ,the boss of a crank is that part which surrounds the shaft and butts against the main bearing1 and is usually about twice the diameter of the crank shaft journal4 ,the web of the crank is the portion between the shaft and the pin4 ,to secure noiseless running1 the crank pin should be turned with great exactness1 and should be set exactly parallel with the direction of the shaft4 ,when the pressure on the pin or any bearing is over #hjj pounds per square inch1 oil is no longer able to lubricate it properly4 ,hence the bearing surface should always be large enough to prevent a greater pressure than #hjj pounds to the square inch4 ,to secure the proper proportions the crank pin should have a diameter of one-fourth the bore of the cylinder1 and its length should be one-third that of the cylinder4 ,the shaft is made of wrought iron or steel1 and must not only be able to withstand the twisting motion of the crank1 but the bending force of the engine stroke4 ,to prevent bending1 the shaft should have a bearing as near the crank as possible4 ,the journals are those portions of the shaft which work in bearings4 ,the main bearings are also called pedestals1 pillow blocks1 and journal boxes4 ,they usually consist of boxes made of brass or some other anti-friction material carried in iron pedestals4 ,the pillow blocks are usually adjustable4 ,,the ,,fly-,,wheel4 ,this is a heavy wheel attached to the shaft4 ,its object is to regulate the variable action of the piston1 and to make the motion uniform even when the load is variable4 ,by its inertia it stores energy1 which would keep the engine running for some time after the piston ceased to apply any force or power4 ,,lubricators4 ,all bearings must be steadily and effectively lubricated1 in order to remove friction as far as possible1 or the working power of the engine will be greatly reduced4 ,besides1 without complete and effective lubrication1 the bearings will 8cut10 or wear in irregular grooves1 etc41 quickly ruining the engine4 ,bearings are lubricated through automatic lubricator cups1 which hold oil or grease and discharge it uniformly upon the bearing through a suitable hole4 ,illustration3 ,,the 8,,detroit0 ,,zero ,,double ,,connection ,,lubricator4 ,,description4 ,c #a--;,body or ,oil ,reservoir4 ,c #c--;,filler ,plug4 ,c #d--,water ,valve4 ,c #e--,plug for inserting ,sight-,feed ,glass4 ,c #f--,sight-,feed ,drain ,stem4 ,c #g--,regulating ,valve4 ,c #h--;,drain ,valve4 ,c #i--,steam ,valve4 ,c#aj--,union ,nut4 ,c#aa--,tail ,piece4 ,h--,sight-,feed ,glass4 ,a sight feed ordinary cup permits the drops of oil to be seen as they pass downward through a glass tube1 and also the engineer may see how much oil there is in the cup4 ,such a cup is suitable for all parts of an engine except the crank pin1 cross-head1 and1 of course1 the cylinder4 ,the crank pin oiler is an oil cup so arranged as to force oil into the bearing only when the engine is working1 and more rapidly as the engine works more rapidly4 ,in one form1 which uses liquid oil1 the oil stands below a disc1 from which is the opening through the shank to the bearing4 ,as the engine speeds up1 the centrifugal force tends to force the oil to the top of the cup and so on to the bearing1 and the higher the speed the greater the amount of oil thrown into the crank pin4 ,hard oil or grease has of late been coming into extensive use4 ,it is placed in a compression cup1 at the top of which a disc is pressed down by a spring1 and also by some kind of a screw4 ,from time to time the screw is tightened up by hand1 and the spring automatically forces down the grease4 ,illustration3 ,,glass ,,oil ,,cup4 ,illustration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,ideal ,,grease ,,cup4 ,the ,cylinder ,lubricator is constructed on a different principle1 and uses an entirely different kind of oil1 called 8cylinder oil40 ,a sight-feed automatic oiler is so arranged that the oil passes through water drop by drop1 so that each drop can be seen behind glass before it passes into the steam pipe leading from the boiler to the cylinder4 ,the oil mingles with the steam and passes into the steam chest1 and thence into the cylinder1 lubricating the valve and piston4 ,the discharge of the oil may not only be watched1 but regulated1 and some judgment is necessary to make sure that enough oil is passing into the cylinder to prevent it from cutting4 ,the oil is forced into the steam by the weight of the column of water1 since the steam pressure is the same at both ends4 ,there is a small cock by which this water of condensation may be drained off when the engine is shut down in cold weather4 ,oilers are also injured by straining from heating caused by the steam acting on cold oil when all the cocks are closed4 ,there is a relief cock to prevent this strain1 and it should be slightly opened1 except when oiler is being filled4 ,illustration3 ,,acorn ,,oil ,,pump4 ,there are a number of different types of oilers1 with their cocks arranged in different ways2 but the manufacturer always gives diagrams and instructions fully explaining the working of the oiler4 ,oil pumps serving the same purpose are now often used4 ,,differential ,,gear4 ,the gearing by which the traction wheels of a traction engine are made to drive the engine is an important item4 ,of course1 it is desirable to apply the power of the engine to both traction wheels2 yet if both hind wheels were geared stiff1 the engine could not turn from a straight line1 since in turning one wheel must move faster than the other4 ,the differential or compensating gear is a device to leave both wheels free to move one ahead of the other if occasion requires4 ,the principle is much the same as in case of a rachet on a geared wheel1 if power were applied to the ratchet to make the wheel turn2 if for any reason the wheel had a tendency of its own to turn faster than the ratchet forced it1 it would be free to do so4 ,when corners are turned the power is applied to one wheel only1 and the other wheel is permitted to move faster or slower than the wheel to which the gearing applies the power4 ,there are several forms of differential gears1 differing largely as to combination of spur or bevel cogs4 ,one of the best known uses four little beveled pinions1 which are placed in the main driving wheel as shown in the cut4 ,beveled cogs work into these on either side of the main wheel4 ,if one traction wheel moves faster than the other these pinions move around and adjust the gears on either side4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,huber ,,spur ,,compensating ,,gear4 ,illustration3 ,,aultman ,,taylor ,,bevel ,,compensating ,,gear4 ,illustration3 ,,differential ,,gear1 ,,showing ,,cushion ,,springs ,,and ,,bevel ,,pinion4 ,,friction ,,clutch4 ,the power of an engine is usually applied to the traction wheel by a friction clutch working on the inside of the fly-wheel4 7,see plan of ,frick ,engine47 ,the traction wheels are the two large1 broad-rimmed hind wheels1 and are provided with projections to give them a firm footing on the road4 ,traction engines are also provided with mud shoes and wheel cleaning devices for mud and snow4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,frick ,,company ,,traction ,,engine4 ,plan view of 8,eclipse0 ,traction ,engine1 showing arrangement of ,patent ,reverse ,gear and ,friction ,clutch for ,driving ,pinion4 ,,the ,,fusible ,,plug4 ,the fusible plug is a simple screw plug1 the center of which is bored out and subsequently filled with some other metal that will melt at a lower temperature than steel or iron4 ,this plug is placed in the crown sheet of a locomotive boiler as a precaution for safety4 ,should the crown sheet become free of water when the fire is very hot1 the soft metal in the fusible plug would melt and run out1 and the overheated steam would escape into the firebox1 putting out the fire and giving the boiler relief so that an explosion would be avoided4 ,in some states a fusible plug is required by law1 and one is found in nearly every boiler which has a crown sheet4 ,return flue boilers and others which do not have crown sheets 7as for example the vertical7 do not have fusible plugs4 ,to be of value a fusible plug should be renewed or changed once a month4 ,,stuffing ,,boxes4 ,any arrangement to make a steam-tight joint about a moving rod1 such as a piston rod or steam valve rod1 would be called a stuffing box4 ,usually the stuffing box gives free play to a piston rod or valve rod1 without allowing any steam to escape4 ,a stuffing box is also used on a pump piston sometimes1 or a compressed air piston4 ,in all these cases it consists of an annular space around the moving rod which can be partly filled by some pliable elastic material such as hemp1 cotton1 rubber1 or the like2 and this filling is held in place and made tighter or looser by what is called a gland1 which is forced into the partly filled box by screwing up a cap on the outside of the cylinder4 ,stuffing boxes must be repacked occasionally1 since the packing material will get hard and dead1 and will either leak steam or cut the rod4 ,,cylinder ,,cocks4 ,these cocks are for the purpose of drawing the water formed by condensation of steam out of the cylinder4 ,they should be opened whenever the engine is stopped or started1 and should be left open when the engine is shut down1 especially in cold weather to prevent freezing of water and consequent damage4 ,attention to these cocks is very important4 ,these are small cocks arranged about the pump and at other places for the purpose of testing the inside action4 ,by them it is possible to see if the pump is working properly1 etc4 ,,steam ,,indicator4 ,the steam indicator is an instrument that can be attached to either end of a steam cylinder1 and will indicate the character of the steam pressure during the entire stroke of the piston4 ,it shows clearly whether the lead is right1 how much cushion there is1 etc4 ,it is very important in studying the economical use and distribution of steam1 expansive force of steam1 etc4 ,,list ,,of ,,attachments ,,for ,,traction ,,engine ,,and ,,boiler4 ,the following list of brasses1 etc41 which are packed with the ,case traction engine will be useful for reference in connection with any similar traction engine and boiler4 ,the young engineer should rapidly run over every new engine and locate each of these parts1 which will be differently placed on different engines3 #a ,steam ,gauge with siphon4 #a ,safety ,valve4 #a ,large ,lubricator4 #a ,small ,lubricator for ,pump4 #a ,glass ,water ,gauge complete with glass and rods4 #b ,gauge ,cocks4 #a ,whistle4 #a ,injector ,complete4 #a ,globe ,valve for ,blow-off4 #a ,compression ,grease ,cup for ,cross ,head4 #a ,grease ,cup for ,crank ,pin4 #a ,oiler for ,reverse ,block4 #a ,glass ,oiler for ,guides4 #a ,small ,oiler for ,eccentric ,rod4 #a ,cylinder ,cock 7#a is left in place47 #b ,stop ,cocks to drain ,heater4 #a ,stop ,cock for ,hose ,coupling on ,pump4 #a ,bibb ,nose ,cock for ,pump4 #a ,pet ,cock for ,throttle4 #b ,pet ,cocks for ,steam ,cylinder of ,pump4 #a ,pet ,cock for ,water ,cylinder of ,pump4 #a ,pet ,cock for ,feed ,pipe from ,pump4 #a ,pet ,cock for ,feed ,pipe from ,injector4 #a ,governor ,belt4 #a ,flue ,cleaner4 #ae ft4 #a in4 ,suction ,hose4 #e ft4 ,sprinkling ,hose4 #a ,strainer for ,suction ,hose4 #a ,strainer for ,funnel4 #d ft4 #f in4 of in4 ,hose for ,injector4 #e ft4 #f in4 of in4 ,hose for ,pump4 #b ,nipples #b in4 for ,hose4 #b in4 ,hose ,clamps4 #b in4 ,hose ,strainers4 ,,test ,,questions ,,on ,,boiler ,,and ,,engine ,q4 ,how is the modern stationary fire-flue boiler arranged8 ,q4 ,how does the locomotive type of boiler differ8 ,q4 ,what is a return flue boiler8 ,q4 ,what is a water-tube boiler and how does it differ from a fire-flue tubular boiler8 ,q4 ,what is a vertical boiler and what are its advantages8 ,q4 ,what is the shell8 ,q4 ,what are the boiler heads8 ,q4 ,what are the tube sheets8 ,q4 ,what is the firebox8 ,q4 ,what is the water leg8 ,q4 ,what is the crown-sheet8 ,q4 ,where is the smoke-box located8 ,q4 ,what is the steam dome intended for8 ,q4 ,what is the mud-drum for8 ,q4 ,what are man-holes and hand-holes for8 ,q4 ,what is a boiler jacket8 ,q4 ,what is a steam jacket8 ,q4 ,where is the ash-pit8 ,q4 ,what are dead-plates8 ,q4 ,how is grate surface measured8 ,q4 ,what is forced draft8 ,q4 ,how is heating surface measured8 ,q4 ,what is steam space8 ,q4 ,what is water space8 ,q4 ,what is a diaphragm plate8 ,q4 ,what is the first duty of an engineer in taking charge of a new boiler8 ,q4 ,what are the water gauge and try cocks for1 and how are they placed8 ,q4 ,what is the steam gauge and how may it be tested8 ,q4 ,what is a safety valve8 ,should it be touched by the engineer8 ,how may he test it with the steam gauge8 ,q4 ,how is a boiler first filled with water8 ,q4 ,how is it filled when under pressure8 ,q4 ,what is an independent pump8 ,what is a crosshead pump8 ,q4 ,what is a check valve1 and what is its use1 and where located8 ,q4 ,what is a heater and how does it work8 ,q4 ,what is an injector1 and what is the principle of its operation8 ,q4 ,where are the blow-off cocks located8 ,how should they be used8 ,q4 ,in what cases should spark arrester be used8 ,q4 ,who invented the steam engine1 and when8 ,q4 ,what are the essential parts of a steam engine8 ,q4 ,what is the cylinder1 and how is it used8 ,q4 ,what is the piston1 and how does it work8 ,the piston-rings8 ,q4 ,what is the piston rod and how must it be fastened8 ,q4 ,what is the crosshead1 and how does it move8 ,what are guides or ways8 ,shoes8 ,q4 ,what is the connecting rod8 ,wrist pin8 ,crank pin8 ,q4 ,what is the crank8 ,crank shaft8 ,q4 ,where is the throttle valve located1 and what does opening and closing it do8 ,q4 ,what is the steam chest for1 and where is it placed8 ,q4 ,what is a steam valve8 ,valve seats8 ,ports8 ,q4 ,what is the exhaust8 ,exhaust chamber8 ,exhaust port8 ,exhaust nozzle8 ,what is a condenser8 ,q4 ,how is the valve worked1 and what duties does it perform1 and how8 ,q4 ,what is clearance8 ,q4 ,what is lead8 ,q4 ,what is cushion8 ,q4 ,how would you set a valve8 ,what is lap8 ,q4 ,how is a steam valve moved back and forth in its seat8 ,q4 ,how may an engine be reversed8 ,q4 ,what is a governor1 and how does it work8 ,q4 ,what is an eccentric8 ,eccentric sheave8 ,strap8 ,rod8 ,q4 ,what is the throw of an eccentric8 ,q4 ,how does the link reversing gear work8 ,q4 ,how does the ,woolf reverse gear work8 ,q4 ,how does the ,meyer valve gear work8 ,will it reverse an engine8 ,q4 ,what are the chief difficulties in the working of a governor8 ,q4 ,what are key1 gib1 and strap8 ,brasses8 ,q4 ,what is the boss of a crank8 ,web8 ,q4 ,how may noiseless running of a crank be secured8 ,q4 ,what are journals8 ,pedestals8 ,pillow blocks8 ,journal boxes8 ,q4 ,what is the object in having a fly wheel8 ,q4 ,what different kinds of lubricators are there8 ,where may hard oil or grease be used8 ,is the oil used for lubricating the cylinder the same as that used for rest of the engine8 ,q4 ,how does a cylinder lubricator work8 ,q4 ,what is differential gear1 and what is it for8 ,q4 ,what is the use of a fusible plug1 and how is it arranged8 ,q4 ,what are stuffing-boxes1 and how are they constructed8 ,q4 ,what are cylinder cocks1 and what are they used for8 ,q4 ,what are pet cocks8 ,q4 ,what is a steam indicator8 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,how ,,to ,,manage ,a ,,traction ,,engine ,,boiler4 ,we will suppose that the young engineer fully understands all parts of the boiler and engine1 as explained in the preceding chapters4 ,it is well to run over the questions several times1 to make sure that every point has been fully covered and is well understood4 ,we will suppose that you have an engine in good running order4 ,if you have a new engine and it starts off nice and easy 7the lone engine without load7 with twenty pounds steam pressure in the boiler1 you may make up your mind that you have a good engine to handle and one that will give but little trouble4 ,but if it requires fifty or sixty pounds to start it1 you want to keep your eyes open1 for something is tight4 ,but don't begin taking the engine to pieces1 for you might get more pieces than you know what to do with4 ,oil every bearing fully1 and then start your engine and let it run for a while4 ,then notice whether you find anything getting warm4 ,if you do1 stop and loosen up a very little and start again4 ,if the heating still continues1 loosen again as before4 ,but remember1 loosen but little at a time1 for a box or journal will heat from being too loose as quickly as from being too tight1 and if you have found a warm box1 don't let that box take all your attention1 but keep your eye on the other bearings4 ,in the case of a new engine1 the cylinder rings may be a little tight1 and so more steam pressure will be required to start the engine2 but this is no fault1 for in a day or two they will be working all right if kept well oiled4 ,in starting a new engine trouble sometimes comes from the presence of a coal cinder in some of the boxes1 which has worked in during shipment4 ,before starting a new engine1 the boxes and oil holes should therefore be thoroughly cleaned out4 ,for this purpose the engineer should always have some cotton waste or an oiled rag ready for constant use4 ,a new engine should be run slowly and carefully until it is found to be in perfect running order4 ,if you are beginning on an old engine in good running order1 the above instructions will not be needed2 but it is well to take note of them4 ,now if your engine is all right1 you may run the pressure up to the point of blowing off1 which is #ajj to #acj pounds1 at which most safety valves are set at the factory4 ,it is not uncommon for a new pop to stick1 and as the steam runs up it is well to try it by pulling the relief lever4 ,if on letting it go it stops the escaping steam at once1 it is all right4 ,if1 however1 the steam continues to escape the valve sticks in the chamber4 ,usually a slight tap with a wrench or hammer will stop it at once2 but don't get excited if the steam continues to escape4 ,as long as you have plenty of water in the boiler1 and know that you have it1 you are all right4 ,,starting ,,up ,a ,,boiler4 ,almost the only danger from explosion of a boiler is from not having sufficient water in the boiler4 ,the boiler is filled in the first place1 as has already been explained1 by hand through a funnel at the filler plug1 or by a force pump4 ,the water should stand an inch and a half in the glass of the water gauge before the fire is started4 ,it should be heated up slowly so as not to strain the boiler or connections4 ,when the steam pressure as shown by the steam gauge is ten or fifteen pounds1 the blower may be used to increase the draft4 ,if you let the water get above the top of the glass1 you are liable to knock out a cylinder head2 and if you let the water get below the bottom of the glass1 you are likely to explode your boiler4 ,the glass gauge is not to be depended upon1 however1 for a number of things may happen to interfere with its working4 ,some one may inadvertently turn off the gauge cocks1 and though the water stands at the proper height in the glass1 the water in the boiler will be very different4 ,a properly made boiler is supplied with two to four try-cocks1 one below the proper water line1 and one above it4 ,if there are more than two they will be distributed at suitable points between4 ,when the boiler is under pressure1 turn on the lower try-cock and you should get water4 ,you will know it because it will appear as white mist4 ,then try the upper try-cock1 and you will get steam1 which will appear blue4 ,,never ,,fail ,,to ,,use ,,the ,,try-,,cocks ,,frequently4 ,this is necessary not only because you never know when the glass is deceiving you2 but if you fail to use them they will get stopped up with lime or mud1 and when you need to use them they will not work4 ,in order also to keep the water gauge in proper condition1 it should be frequently blown out in the following manner3 ,shut off the top gauge cock and open the drain cock at the bottom of the gauge4 ,this allows the water and steam to blow through the lower cock of the water gauge1 and you know that it is open4 ,any lime or mud that has begun to accumulate will also be carried off4 ,after allowing the steam to escape a few seconds1 shut off the lower gauge cock1 and open the upper one1 and allow it to blow off about the same time4 ,then shut the drain cock and open both gauge cocks1 when you will see the water seek its level1 and you can feel assured that it is reliable and in good working condition4 ,this little operation you should perform every day you run your engine4 ,if you do you will not think you have sufficient water in the boiler1 but will know4 ,the engineer who always knows he has water in the boiler will not be likely to have an explosion4 ,especially should you never start your fire in the morning simply because you see water in the gauge4 ,you should know that there is water in the boiler4 ,now if your pump and boiler are in good working condition1 and you leave the globe valve in the supply pipe to the pump open1 with the hose in the tank1 you will probably come to your engine in the morning and find the boiler nearly full of water1 and you will think some one has been tampering with the engine4 ,the truth is1 however1 that as the steam condensed1 a vacuum was formed1 and the water flowed in on account of atmospheric pressure1 just as it flows into a suction pump when the plunger rises and creates a vacuum in the pump4 ,check valves are arranged to prevent anything passing out of the boiler1 but there is nothing to prevent water passing in4 ,the only other cause of an explosion1 beside poor material in the manufacture of the boiler1 is too high steam pressure1 due to a defective safety valve or imperfect steam gauge4 ,the steam gauge is likely to get out of order in a number of ways1 and so is the safety valve4 ,to make sure that both are all right1 the one should frequently be tested by the other4 ,the lever of the safety valve should frequently be tried from time to time1 to make sure the valve opens and closes easily1 and whenever the safety valve blows off1 the steam gauge should be noted to see if it indicates the pressure at which the safety has been set4 ,,when ,,your ,,engine ,,is ,,all ,,right1 ,,let ,,it ,,alone4 ,some engineers are always loosening a nut here1 tightening up a box there1 adjusting this1 altering that4 ,when an engine is all right they keep at it till it is all wrong4 ,as a result they are in trouble most of the time4 ,when an engine is running all right1 ,,let ,,it ,,alone4 ,don't think you are not earning your salary because you are merely sitting still and looking on4 ,if you must be at work1 keep at it with an oily rag1 cleaning and polishing up4 ,that is the way to find out if anything is really the matter4 ,as the practised hand of the skilled engineer goes over an engine1 his ears wide open for any peculiarity of sound1 anything that is not as it should be will make itself decidedly apparent4 ,on the other hand1 an engineer who does not keep his engine clean and bright by constantly passing his hand over it with an oily rag1 is certain to overlook something1 which perhaps in the end will cost the owner a good many dollars to put right4 ,says an old engineer#c we know1 8,when ,i see an engineer watching his engine closely while running1 ,i am most certain to see another commendable feature in a good engineer1 and that is1 when he stops his engine he will pick up a greasy rag and go over his engine carefully1 wiping every working part1 watching or looking carefully at every point that he touches4 ,if a nut is working loose1 he finds it2 if a bearing is hot1 he finds it2 if any part of his engine has been cutting1 he finds it4 ,he picks up a greasy rag instead of a wrench1 for the engineer that understands his business and attends to it never picks up a wrench unless he has something to do with it40 ,footnote #c3 ,j4 ,h4 ,maggard1 author of 8,rough and ,tumble ,engineering10 to whom we are indebted for a number of valuable suggestions in this chapter4 ,this same engineer goes on with some more most excellent advice4 ,says he3 8,now1 if your engine runs irregularly1 that is1 if it runs up to a higher speed than you want1 and then runs down1 you are likely to say at once1 #8,oh1 ,i know what the trouble is1 it is the governor4' ,well1 suppose it is4 ,what are you going to do about it8 ,are you going to shut down at once and go to tinkering with it8 ,no1 don't do that4 ,stay close to the throttle valve and watch the governor closely4 ,keep your eye on the governor stem1 and when the engine starts off on one of its speed tilts1 you will see the stem go down through the stuffing box and then stop and stick in one place until the engine slows down below its regular speed1 and it then lets loose and goes up quickly and your engine lopes off again4 ,you have now located the trouble4 ,it is in the stuffing box around the little brass rod or governor stem4 ,the packing has become dry and by loosening it up and applying oil you may remedy the trouble until such time as you can repack it with fresh packing4 ,candle wick is as good for this purpose as anything you can use4 8,but if the governor does not act as ,i have described1 and the stem seems to be perfectly free and easy in the box1 and the governor still acts queerly1 starting off and running fast for a few seconds and then suddenly concluding to take it easy and away goes the engine again1 see if the governor belt is all right1 and if it is it would be well for you to stop and see if a wheel is not loose4 ,it might be either the little belt wheel or one of the little cog wheels4 ,if you find these are all right1 examine the spool on the crank shaft from which the governor is run1 and you will probably find it loose4 ,if the engine has been run for any length of time1 you will always find the trouble in one of these places2 but if it is a new one1 the governor valve might work a little tight in the valve chamber1 and you may have to take it out and use a little emery paper to take off the rough projections on the valve4 ,never use a file on this valve if you can get emery paper1 and ,i should advise you always to have some of it with you4 ,it will often come handy40 ,this is good advice in regard to any trouble you may have with an engine4 ,watch the affected part closely2 think the matter over carefully1 and see if you cannot locate the difficulty before you even stop your engine4 ,if you find the trouble and know that you have found it1 you will soon be able to correct the defect1 and no time will be lost4 ,at the same time you will not ruin your engine by trying all sorts of remedies at random in the thought that you may ultimately hit the right thing4 ,the chances are that before you do hit the right point1 you will have put half a dozen other matters wrong1 and it will take half a day to get the matter right again4 ,as there are many different types of governors in use1 it would be impossible to give exact directions for regulating that would apply to them all2 but the following suggestions applying to the ,waters governor 7one widely used on threshing engines7 will give a general idea of the method for all3 ,there are two little brass nuts on the top of the stem of the governor1 one a thumb nut and the other a loose jam nut4 ,to increase the speed1 loosen the jam nut and then turn the thumb nut back slowly1 watching the motion of the engine all the time4 ,when the required speed has been obtained1 then tighten up as snug as you can with your fingers 7not using a wrench74 ,to decrease the speed1 loosen the jam nut as before1 running it up a few turns1 and then turn down the thumb nut till the speed meets your requirements1 when the thumb nut is made fast as before4 ,in any case1 be very careful not to press down on the stem when turning the thumb nut1 as this will make the engine run a little slower than will be the case when your hand has been removed4 ,if your engine does not start with an open throttle1 look to see if the governor stem has not been screwed down tight4 ,this is usually the case with a new engine1 which has been screwed down for safety in transportation4 ,,water ,,for ,,the ,,boiler4 ,there is nothing that needs such constant watching and is likely to cause so much trouble if it is not cared for1 as the supply of water4 ,hard well water will coat the inside of the boiler with lime and soon reduce its steaming power in a serious degree1 to say nothing of stopping up pipes1 cocks1 etc4 ,at the same time1 rain water that is perfectly pure 7theoretically7 will be found to have a little acid or alkali in it that will eat through the iron or steel and do equal damage4 ,however1 an engineer must use what water he can4 ,he cannot have it made to order for him1 but he must take it from well1 from brook1 or cistern1 or roadside ditch1 as circumstances may require4 ,the problem for the engineer is not to get the best water1 but to make the best use of whatever water he can get1 always1 of course1 choosing the best and purest when there is such a thing as choosing4 ,in the first place1 all supply pipes in water that is muddy or likely to have sticks1 leaves1 or the like in it1 should be furnished with strainers4 ,if sticks or leaves get into the valve1 the expense in time and worry to get them out will be ten times the cost of a strainer4 ,if the water is rain water1 and the boiler is a new one1 it would be well to put in a little lime to give the iron a slight coating that will protect it from any acid or alkali corrosion4 ,if the water is hard1 some compound or sal ammonia should be used4 ,no specific directions can be given1 since water is made hard by having different substances dissolved in it1 and the right compound or chemical is that which is adapted to the particular substance you are to counteract4 ,an old engineer says his advice is to use no compound at all1 but to put a hatful of potatoes in the boiler every morning4 ,occasionally using rain water for a day or two previous to cleaning is one of the best things in the world to remove and throw down all scale4 ,it beats compounds at every point4 ,it is nature's remedy for the bad effects of hard water4 ,the important thing1 however1 is to clean the boiler thoroughly and often4 ,in no case should the lime be allowed to bake on the iron4 ,if it gets thick1 the iron or steel is sure to burn1 and the lime to bake so hard it will be almost impossible to get it off4 ,but if the boiler is cleaned often1 such a thing will not happen4 ,mud or sediment can be blown off by opening the valve from the mud drum or the firebox at the bottom of the boiler when the pressure is not over #ae or #bj pounds2 and at this pressure much of the lime distributed about the boiler may be blown off4 ,but this is not enough4 ,the inside of the boiler should be scraped and thoroughly washed out with a hose and force-pump just as often as the condition of the water requires it4 ,in cleaning the boiler1 always be careful to scrape all the lime off the top of the fusible plug4 ,,the ,,pump4 ,in order to manage the pump successfully1 the young engineer must understand thoroughly its construction as already described4 ,it is also necessary to understand something of the theory of atmospheric pressure1 lifting power1 and forcing power4 ,first see that the cocks or globe valves 7whichever are used7 are open both between the boiler and the pump and between the pump and the water supply4 ,the globe valve next the boiler should never be closed1 except when examining the boiler check valve4 ,then open the little pet cock between the two upper horizontal check valves4 ,be sure that the check valves are in good order1 so that water can pass only in one direction4 ,a clear1 sharp click of the check valves is certain evidence that the pump is working well4 ,if you cannot hear the click1 take a stick or pencil between your teeth at one end1 put the other end on the valve1 stuff your fingers in your ears1 and you will hear the movement of the valve as plainly as if it were a sledge-hammer4 ,the small drain cock between the horizontal check valves is used to drain hot water out of the pump in starting1 for a pump will never work well with hot water in it2 and to drain off all water in closing down in cold weather1 to prevent damage from freezing4 ,it also assists in testing the working of the pump4 ,in starting up it may be left open4 ,if water flows from the drain cock1 we know the pump is working all right1 and then close the drain cock4 ,if you are at any time in doubt as to whether water is going into the boiler properly1 you may open this drain cock and see if cold water flows freely4 ,if it does1 everything is working as it should4 ,if hot water appears1 you may know something is wrong4 ,also1 to test the pump1 place your hand on the two check valves1 and if they are cold1 the pump is all right2 if they are hot1 something is wrong1 since the heat must come from the boiler1 and no hot water or steam should ever be allowed to pass from the boiler back to the pump4 ,a stop cock next the boiler is decidedly preferable to a globe valve1 since you can tell if it is open by simply looking at it2 whereas you must put your hand on a globe valve and turn it4 ,trouble often arises through inadvertently closing the valve or cock next the boiler1 in which case1 of course1 no water can pass into the boiler1 and the pump is likely to be ruined1 since the water must get out somewhere4 ,some part of the pump would be sure to burst if worked against a closed boiler cock or valve4 ,should the pump suddenly cease to work or stop1 first see if you have any water in the tank4 ,if there is water1 stoppage may be due to air in the pump chamber1 which can get in only through the stuffing-box4 ,if this is true1 tighten up the pump plunger stuffing-box nut a little4 ,if now the pump starts off well1 you have found the difficulty2 but at the first opportunity you ought to repack the stuffing-box4 ,if the stuffing-box is all right1 examine the supply suction hose4 ,see that nothing is clogging the strainer1 and ascertain whether the water is sucked in or not4 ,if it is sucked in and then is forced out again 7which you can ascertain by holding your hand lightly over the suction pipe71 you may know something is the matter with the first check valve4 ,probably a stick or stone has gotten into it and prevents it from shutting down4 ,if there is no suction1 examine the second check valve4 ,if there is something under it that prevents its closing1 the water will flow back into the pump chamber again as soon as the plunger is drawn back4 ,you can always tell whether the trouble is in the second check or in the hot water check valve by opening the little drain cock4 ,if hot water flows from it1 you may know that the hot water check valve is out of order2 if only cold water flows1 you may be pretty sure the hot water check is all right4 ,if there is any reason to suspect the hot water check valve1 close the stop cock or valve next the boiler before you touch the check in any way4 ,to tamper with the hot water check while the steam pressure is upon it would be highly dangerous1 for you are liable to get badly burned with escaping steam or hot water4 ,at the same time1 be very sure the stop cock or valve next the boiler is open again before you start the pump4 ,another reason for check valves refusing to work besides having something under them1 is that the valve may stick in the valve chamber because of a rough place in the chamber1 or a little projection on the valve4 ,light tapping with a wrench may remedy the matter4 ,if that does not work1 try the following plan suggested by an old engineer#d3 8,take the valve out1 bore a hole in a board about one-half inch deep1 and large enough to permit the valve to be turned4 ,drop a little emery dust in this hole4 ,if you haven't any emery dust1 scrape some grit from a whetstone4 ,if you have no whetstone1 put some fine sand or gritty soil in the hole1 put the valve on top of it1 put your brace on the valve and turn it vigorously for a few minutes1 and you will remove all roughness40 ,footnote #d3 ,j4 ,h4 ,maggard4 ,sometimes the burr on the valve comes from long use2 but the above treatment will make it as good as new4 ,,injectors4 ,all injectors are greatly affected by conditions1 such as the lift1 the steam pressure1 the temperature of the water1 etc4 ,an injector will not use hot water well1 if at all4 ,as the lift is greater1 the steam pressure required to start is greater1 and at the same time the highest steam pressure under which the injector will work at all is greatly decreased4 ,the same applies to the lifting of warm water3 the higher the temperature1 the greater the steam pressure required to start1 and the less the steam pressure which can be used as a maximum4 ,it is important for the sake of economy to use the right sized injector4 ,before buying a new injector1 find out first how much water you need for your boiler1 and then buy an injector of about the capacity required1 though of course an injector must always have a maximum capacity in excess of what will be required4 ,if the feed water is cold1 a good injector ought to start with #be pounds steam pressure and work up to #aej pounds for a #b-;foot lift4 ,if the lift is eight feet1 it will start at #cj pounds and work up to #acj4 ,if the water is heated to #ajj degrees ,fahrenheit it will start for a #b-;foot lift with #bf pounds and work up to #abj pounds1 or for an #h-;foot lift1 it will start with #cc pounds and work up to #ajj4 ,these figures apply to the single tube injector4 ,the double tube injector should work from #ad pounds to #bej1 and from #ae to #baj under same conditions as above4 ,the double tube injector is not commonly used on farm engines1 however4 ,care should be taken that the injector is not so near the boiler as to become heated1 else it will not work4 ,if it gets too hot1 it must be cooled by pouring cold water on the outside1 first having covered it with a cloth to hold the water4 ,if the injector is cool1 and the steam pressure and lift are all right1 and still the injector does not work1 you may be sure there is some obstruction somewhere4 ,shut off the steam from the boiler1 and run a fine wire down through the cone valve or cylinder valve1 after having removed the cap or plug nut4 ,starting an injector always requires some skill1 and injectors differ4 ,some start by manipulating the steam valve2 some require that the steam be turned on first1 and then the water turned on in just the right amount1 usually with a quick short twist of the supply valve4 ,often some patience is required to get just the right turn on it so that it will start4 ,of course you must be sure that all joints are air-tight1 else the injector will not work under any conditions4 ,never use an injector where a pump can be used1 as the injector is much more wasteful of steam4 ,it is for an emergency or to throw water in a boiler when engine is not running4 ,no lubricator is needed on an injector4 ,,the ,,heater4 ,the construction of the heater has already been explained4 ,it has two check valves1 one on the side of the pump and one on the side of the boiler1 both opening toward the boiler4 ,the exhaust steam is usually at a temperature of #bae to #bbj degrees when it enters the heater chamber1 and heats the water nearly or quite to boiling point as it passes through4 ,the injector heats the water almost as hot4 ,the heater requires little attention1 and the check valves seldom get out of order4 ,the pump is to be used when the engine is running1 and the injector when the engine is closed down4 ,the pump is the more economical2 but when the engine is not working the exhaust steam is not sufficient to heat the water in the heater2 and pumping cold water into the boiler will quickly bring down the pressure and injure the boiler4 ,,economical ,,firing4 ,the management of the fire is one of the most important things in running a steam engine4 ,on it depend two things of the greatest consequence--success in getting up steam quickly and keeping it at a steady pressure under all conditions2 and economy in the use of fuel4 ,an engineer who understands firing in the most economical way will probably save his wages to his employer over the engineer who is indifferent or unscientific about it4 ,therefore the young engineer should give the subject great attention4 ,first1 let us consider firing with coal4 ,all expert engineers advise a 8thin0 fire4 ,this means that you should have a thin bed of coals1 say about four inches thick1 all over the grate4 ,there should be no holes or dead places in this1 for if there are any1 cold air will short-circuit into the fire flues and cool off the boiler4 ,the best way of firing is to spread the coal on with a small hand shovel1 a very little at a time1 scattering it well over the fire4 ,another way1 recommended by some1 is to have a small pile of fresh fuel at the front of the grate1 pushing it back over the grate when it is well lighted4 ,to manage this well will require some practice and skill1 and for a beginner1 we recommend scattering small shovelsful all over the fire4 ,all lump coal should be broken to a uniform size4 ,no piece larger than a man's fist should be put in a firebox4 ,seldom use the poker above the fire1 for nothing has such a tendency to put out a coal fire as stirring it with a poker above4 ,and when there is a good glow all over the grate below1 the poker is not needed below4 ,when the grate becomes covered with dead ashes1 they should be cautiously but fully removed1 and clinkers must be lifted out with the poker from above1 care being exercised to cover up the holes with live coals4 ,hard coal if used should be dampened before being put on the fire4 ,when the fire is burning a little too briskly1 close the draft but do not tamper with the fire itself4 ,should it become important on a sudden emergency to check the fire at any time quickly1 never dash water upon it1 but rather throw plenty of fresh fuel upon it4 ,fresh fuel always lowers the heat at first4 ,if all drafts are closed tight1 it will lower the heat considerably for quite a time4 ,in checking a fire1 it must be remembered that very sudden cooling will almost surely crack the boiler4 ,if there is danger of an explosion it may be necessary to draw the fire out entirely2 but under no circumstances should cold water be thrown on4 ,after drawing the fire close all doors and dampers4 ,,firing ,,with ,,wood4 ,always keep the fire door shut as much as possible1 as cold air thus admitted will check the fire and ruin the boiler4 ,firing with wood is in many ways the exact reverse of firing with coal4 ,the firebox should be filled full of wood at all times4 ,the wood should be thrown in in every direction1 in pieces of moderate size1 and as it burns away1 fresh pieces should be put in at the front so that they will get lighted and ready to burn before being pushed back near the boiler4 ,it often helps a wood fire1 too1 to stir it with a poker4 ,wood makes much less ash than coal1 and what little accumulates in the grate will not do much harm4 ,sometimes green wood will not burn because it gets too much cold air4 ,in that case the sticks should be packed as close together as possible1 still leaving a place for the air to pass4 ,also a wood fire1 especially one with green wood1 should be kept up to a high temperature all the time2 for if it is allowed to drop down the wood will suddenly cease to burn at all4 ,,firing ,,with ,,straw4 ,in firing with straw it is important to keep the shute full of straw all the time so that no cold air can get in on top of the fire4 ,don't push the straw in too fast1 either1 but keep it moving at a uniform rate1 with small forkfulls4 ,now and then it is well to turn the fork over and run it down into the fire to keep the fire level4 ,ashes may be allowed to fill up in rear of ash box1 but fifteen inches should be kept clear in front to provide draft4 ,the brick arch may be watched from the side opening in the firebox1 and should show a continuous stream of white flame coming over it4 ,if too much straw is forced in1 that will check the flame4 ,the flame should never be checked4 ,if damp straw gets against the ends of the flues1 it should be scraped off with the poker from side door4 ,clean the tubes well once a day4 ,the draft must always be kept strong enough to produce a white heat1 and if this cannot be done otherwise1 a smaller nozzle may be used on the exhaust pipe2 but this should be avoided when possible1 since it causes back pressure on the engine4 ,never let the front end of the boiler stand on low ground4 ,engine should be level1 or front end high1 if it has a firebox locomotive boiler2 if a return flue boiler1 be careful to keep it always level4 ,in burning straw take particular notice that the spark screen in stack does not get filled up4 ,,the ,,ash ,,pit4 ,in burning coal it is exceedingly important that the ashes be kept cleaned out1 as the hot cinders falling down on the heap of ashes almost as high as the grate will overheat the grate in a very short time and warp it all out of shape1 so ruining it4 ,with wood and straw1 on the contrary1 an accumulation of ashes will often help and will seldom do any harm1 because no very hot cinders can drop down below the grates1 and the hottest part of the fire is some distance above the grates4 ,,starting ,a ,,fire4 ,you must make up your mind that it will take half an hour to an hour or so to get up steam in any boiler that is perfectly cold4 ,the metal expands and shrinks a great deal with the heat and cold1 and a sudden application of heat would ruin a boiler in a short time4 ,hence it is necessary for reasons of engine economy to make changes of temperature1 either cooling off or heating up1 gradually4 ,first see that there is water in the boiler4 ,start a brisk fire with pine kindlings1 gradually putting on coal or wood1 as the case may be1 and spreading the fire over the grate so that all parts will be covered with glowing coals4 ,when you have #ae or #bj pounds of steam1 start the blower4 ,as has already been described1 the blower is a pipe with a nozzle leading from the steam space of the boiler to the smoke stack1 and fitted with a globe valve4 ,the force of the steam drives the air out of the stack1 causing a vacuum1 which is immediately filled by the hot gases from the firebox coming through the boiler tubes4 ,little is to be gained by using the blower with less than #ae pounds of steam1 as the blower has so little strength below that1 that it draws off about as much steam as is made and nothing is gained4 ,the blower is seldom needed when the engine is working1 as the exhaust steam should be sufficient to keep the fire going briskly4 ,if it is not1 you should conclude that something is the matter4 ,there are times1 however1 when the blower is required even when the engine is going4 ,for example1 if you are working with very light load and small use of steam1 the exhaust may be insufficient to keep up the fire2 and this will be especially true if the fuel is very poor4 ,in such a case1 turn on the blower very slightly4 ,but remember that you are wasting steam if you can get along without the blower4 ,examine the nozzle of the blower now and then to see that it does not become limed up1 or turned so as to direct the steam to one side of the stack1 where its force would be wasted4 ,beware1 also1 of creating too much draft2 for too much draft will use up fuel and make little steam4 ,,smoke4 ,coal smoke is nothing more or less than unburned carbon4 ,the more smoke you get1 the less will be the heat from a given amount of fuel4 ,great clouds of black smoke from an engine all the time are a very bad sign in an engineer4 ,they show that he does not know how to fire4 ,he has not followed the directions already given1 to have a thin1 hot fire1 with few ashes under his grate4 ,instead1 he throws on great shovelsful of coal at a time1 and has the coal up to the firebox door4 ,his fuel is always making smoke1 which soon clogs up the smoke flues and lessens the amount of steam he is getting4 ,if he had kept his fire very 8thin10 but very hot1 throwing on a small hand shovel of coal at a time1 seldom poking his fire except to lift out clinkers or clean away dead ashes under the grate1 and keeping his ashpit free from ashes1 there would be only a little puff of black smoke when the fresh coal went on1 and then the smoke would quickly disappear1 while the fire flues would burn clean and not get clogged up with soot4 ,it is important1 however1 to keep the small fire flues especially well cleaned out with a good flue cleaner2 for all accumulation of soot prevents the heat from passing through the steel1 and so reduces the heating capacity of the boiler4 ,cleaning the tubes with a steam blower is never advisable1 as it forms a paste on the tube that greatly impairs its commodity4 ,,sparks4 ,with coal there is little danger of fires caused by sparks from the engine4 ,what sparks there are are heavy and dead1 and will even fall on a pile of straw without setting it on fire4 ,on a very windy day1 however1 when you are running your engine very hard1 especially if it is of the direct locomotive boiler type1 you want to be careful even with coal4 ,with wood it is very different2 and likewise with straw4 ,wood and straw sparks are always dangerous1 and an engine should never be run for threshing with wood or straw without using a spark-arrester4 ,it sometimes happens that when coal is used it will give out1 and you will be asked to finish your job with wood4 ,in such a case1 it is the duty of an engineer to state fully and frankly the danger of firing with wood without a spark arrester1 and he should go on only when ordered to do so by the proprietor1 after he has been fully warned4 ,in that case all responsibility is shifted from the engineer to the owner4 ,,the ,,fusible ,,plug4 ,the careful engineer will never have occasion to do anything to the fusible plug except to clean the scale off from the top of it on the inside of the boiler once a week1 and put in a fresh plug once a month4 ,it is put in merely as a precaution to provide for carelessness4 ,the engineer who allows the fusible plug to melt out is by that very fact marked as a careless man1 and ought to find it so much the harder to get a job4 ,as has already been explained1 the fusible plug is a plug filled in the middle with some metal that will melt at a comparatively low temperature4 ,so long as it is covered with water1 no amount of heat will melt it1 since the water conducts the heat away from the metal and never allows it to rise above a certain temperature4 ,when the plug is no longer covered with water1 however1--in short1 when the water has fallen below the danger line in the boiler--the metal in the plug will fuse1 or melt1 and make an opening through which the steam will blow into the firebox and put out the fire4 ,however1 if the top of the fusible plug has been allowed to become thickly coated with scale1 this safety precaution may not work and the boiler may explode4 ,in any case the fusible plug is not to be depended on4 ,at the same time a good engineer will take every precaution1 and one of these is to keep the top of the plug well cleaned4 ,also he will have an extra plug all ready and filled with composition metal1 to put in should the plug in the boiler melt out4 ,then he will refill the old plug as soon as possible4 ,this may be done by putting a little moist clay in one end to prevent the hot metal from running through1 and then pouring into the other end of the plug as much melted metal as it will hold4 ,when cold1 tamp down solidly4 ,,leaky ,,flues4 ,one common cause of leaky flues is leaving the fire door open so that currents of cold air will rush in on the heated flues and cause them1 or some other parts of the boiler1 to contract too suddenly4 ,the best boiler made may be ruined in time by allowing cold currents of air to strike the heated interior4 ,once or twice will not do it2 but continually leaving the fire door open will certainly work mischief in the end4 ,of course1 if flues in a new boiler leak1 it is the fault of the boiler maker4 ,the tubes were not large enough to fill the holes in the tube sheets properly4 ,but if a boiler runs for a season or so and then the flues begin to leak1 the chances are that it is due to the carelessness of the engineer4 ,it may be he has been making his fires too hot2 it may be leaving the firebox door open2 it may be running the boiler at too high pressure2 it may be blowing out the boiler when it is too hot2 or blowing out the boiler when there is still some fire in the firebox2 it may be due to lime encrusted on the inside of the tube sheets1 causing them to overheat4 ,flues may also be made to leak by pumping cold water into the boiler when the water inside is too low2 or pouring cold water into a hot boiler will do it4 ,some engineers blow out their boilers to clean them1 and then being in a hurry to get to work1 refill them while the metal is hot4 ,the flues cannot stand this1 since they are thinner than the shell of the boiler and cool much more quickly2 hence they will contract much faster than the rest of the boiler and something has to come loose4 ,once a flue starts to leaking1 it is not likely to stop till it has been repaired2 and one leaky flue will make others leak4 ,now what shall you do with a leaky flue8 ,to repair a leaky flue you should have a flue expander and a calking tool1 with a light hammer4 ,if you are small enough you will creep in at the firebox door with a candle in your hand4 ,first1 clean off the ends of the flues and flue sheet with some cotton waste4 ,then force the expander into the leaky flue1 bringing the shoulder well up against the end of the flue4 ,then drive in the tapering pin4 ,be very careful not to drive it in too far1 for if you expand the flue too much1 you will strain the flue sheet and cause other flues to leak4 ,you must use your judgment and proceed cautiously4 ,it is better to make two or three trials than to spoil your boiler by bad work4 ,the roller expander is preferable to the ,prosser in the hands of a novice4 ,the tube should be expanded only enough to stop the leak4 ,farther expanding will only do injury4 ,when you think the flue has been expanded enough1 hit the pin a side blow to loosen it4 ,then turn the expander a quarter round1 and drive in the pin again4 ,loosen up and continue till you have turned the expander entirely around4 ,finally remove the expander1 and use the calking tool to bead the end4 ,it is best1 however1 to expand all leaky flues before doing any beading4 ,the beading is done by placing the guide or gauge inside the flue1 and then pounding the ends of the flue down against the flue sheet by light blows4 ,be very careful not to bruise the flue sheet or flues1 and use no heavy blows1 nor even a heavy hammer4 ,go slowly and carefully around the end of each flue2 and if you have done your work thoroughly and carefully the flues will be all right4 ,but you should test your boiler before steaming up1 to make sure that all the leaks are stopped1 especially if there have been bad ones4 ,there are various ways to testing a boiler4 ,if waterworks are handy1 connect the boiler with a hydrant and after filling the boiler1 let it receive the hydrant pressure4 ,then examine the calked flues carefully1 and if you see any seeping of water1 use your beader lightly till the water stops4 ,in case no waterworks with good pressure are at hand1 you can use a hydraulic pump or a good force pump4 ,the amount of pressure required in testing a boiler should be that at which the safety valve is set to blow off1 say #aaj to #acj lbs4 ,this will be sufficient4 ,if you are in the field with no hydrant or force pump handy1 you may test your boiler in this way3 ,take off the safety valve and fill the boiler full of water through the safety valve opening4 ,then screw the safety back in its place4 ,you should be sure that every bit of space in the boiler is filled entirely full of water1 with all openings tightly closed4 ,then get back in the boiler and have a bundle of straw burned under the firebox1 or under the waist of the boiler1 so that at some point the water will be slightly heated4 ,this will cause pressure4 ,if your safety valve is in perfect order1 you will know as soon as water begins to escape at the safety valve whether your flues are calked tight enough or not4 ,the water is heated only a few degrees1 and the pressure is cold water pressure4 ,in very cold weather this method cannot be used1 however1 as water has no expansive force within five degrees of freezing4 ,the above methods are not intended for testing the safety of a boiler1 but only for testing for leaky flues4 ,if you wish to have your boiler tested1 it is better to get an expert to do it4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,how ,,to ,,manage ,a ,,traction ,,engine4 ,a traction engine is usually the simplest kind of an engine made4 ,if it were not1 it would require a highly expert engineer to run it1 and this would be too costly for a farmer or thresherman contractor4 ,therefore the builders of traction engines make them of the fewest possible parts1 and in the most durable and simple style4 ,still1 even the simplest engine requires a certain amount of brains to manage it properly1 especially if you are to get the maximum of work out of it at the lowest cost4 ,if the engine is in perfect order1 about all you have to do is to see that all bearings are properly lubricated1 and that the automatic oiler is in good working condition4 ,but as soon as an engine has been used for a certain time1 there will be wear1 which will appear first in the journals1 boxes and valve1 and it is the first duty of a good engineer to adjust these4 ,to adjust them accurately requires skill2 and it is the possession of that skill that goes to make a real engineer4 ,your first attention will probably be required for the cross-head and crank boxes or brasses4 ,the crank box and pin will probably wear first2 but both the cross-head and crank boxes are so nearly alike that what is said of one will apply to the other4 ,you will find the wrist box in two parts4 ,in a new engine these parts do not quite meet4 ,there is perhaps an eighth of an inch waste space between them4 ,they are brought up to the box in most farm engines by a wedge-shaped key4 ,this should be driven down a little at a time as the boxes wear1 so as to keep them snug up to the pin1 though not too tight4 ,you continue to drive in the key and tighten up the boxes as they wear until the two halves come tight together4 ,then you can no longer accomplish anything in this way4 ,when the brasses have worn so that they can be forced no closer together1 they must be taken off and the ends of them filed where they come together4 ,file off a sixteenth of an inch from each end4 ,do it with care1 and be sure you get the ends perfectly even4 ,when you have done this you will have another eighth of an inch to allow for wear4 ,now1 by reflection you will see that as the wrist box wears1 and the wedge-shaped key is driven in1 the pitman 7or piston arm7 is lengthened to the amount that the half of the box farthest from the piston has worn away4 ,when the brasses meet1 this will amount to one-sixteenth of an inch4 ,now if you file the ends off and the boxes wear so as to come together once more1 the pitman will have been shortened one-eighth of an inch2 and pretty soon the clearance of the piston in the cylinder will have been offset1 and the engine will begin to pound4 ,in any case1 the clearance at one end of the cylinder will be one-sixteenth or one-eighth of an inch less1 and in the other end one-sixteenth or one-eighth of an inch more4 ,when this is the case you will find that the engine is not working well4 ,to correct this1 when you file the brasses either of the cross-head box or the crank box you must put in some filling back of the brass farthest from the piston1 sufficient to equalize the wear that has taken place1 that is1 one-sixteenth of an inch each time you have to file off a sixteenth of an inch4 ,this filling may be some flat pieces of tin or sheet copper1 commonly called shims1 and the process is called shimming4 ,as to the front half of the box1 no shims are required1 since the tapering key brings that box up to its proper place4 ,great care must be exercised when driving in the tapering key or wedge to tighten up the boxes1 not to drive it in too hard4 ,many engineers think this is a sure remedy for 8knocking0 in an engine1 and every time they hear a knock they drive in the crank box key4 ,often the knock is from some other source1 such as from a loose fly wheel1 or the like4 ,your ear is likely to deceive you2 for a knock from any part of an engine is likely to sound as if it came from the crank box4 ,if you insist on driving in the key too hard and too often1 you will ruin your engine4 ,in tightening up a key1 first loosen the set screw that holds the key2 then drive down the key till you think it is tight2 then drive it back again1 and this time force it down with your fist as far as you can4 ,by using your fist in this way after you have once driven the pin in tight and loosened it again you may be pretty certain you are not going to get it so tight it will cause the box to heat4 ,,what ,,causes ,,an ,,engine ,,to ,,knock4 ,the most common sign that something is loose about an engine is 8knocking10 as it is called4 ,if any box wears a little loose1 or any wheel or the like gets a trifle loose1 the engine will begin to knock4 ,when an engine begins to knock or run hard1 it is the duty of the engineer to locate the knock definitely4 ,he must not guess at it4 ,when he has studied the problem out carefully1 and knows where the knock is1 then he may proceed to remedy it4 ,never adjust more than one part at a time4 ,as we have said1 a knock is usually due to looseness somewhere4 ,the journals of the main shaft may be loose and cause knocking4 ,they are held in place by set bolts and jam nuts1 and are tightened by simply screwing up the nuts4 ,but a small turn of a nut may make the box so tight it will begin to heat at once4 ,great care should be taken in tightening up such a box to be sure not to get it too tight4 ,once a box begins to cut1 it should be taken out and thoroughly cleaned4 ,knocking may be due to a loose eccentric yoke4 ,there is packing between the two halves of the yoke1 and to tighten up you must take out a thin layer of this packing4 ,but be careful not to take out too much1 or the eccentric will stick and begin to slip4 ,another cause of knocking is the piston rod loose in the cross-head4 ,if the piston rod is keyed to the cross-head it is less liable to get loose than if it were fastened by a nut2 but if the key continues to get loose1 it will be best to replace it with a new one4 ,unless the piston rod is kept tight in the cross-head1 there is liability of a bad crack4 ,a small strain will bring the piston out of the cross-head entirely1 when the chances are you will knock out one or both cylinder-heads4 ,if a nut is used1 there will be the same danger if it comes off4 ,it should therefore be carefully watched4 ,the best way is to train the ear to catch any usual sound1 when loosening of the key or nut will be detected at once4 ,another source of knocking is looseness of the cross-head in the guides4 ,provision is usually made for taking up the wear2 but if there is not1 you can take off the guides and file them or have them planed off4 ,you should take care to see that they are kept even1 so that they will wear smooth with the crosshead shoes4 ,if the fly-wheel is in the least loose it will also cause knocking1 and it will puzzle you not a little to locate it4 ,it may appear to be tight2 but if the key is the least bit too narrow for the groove in the shaft1 it will cause an engine to bump horribly1 very much as too much 8lead0 will4 ,,lead4 ,we have already explained what 8lead0 is4 ,it is opening of the port at either end of the steam cylinder allowed by the valve when the engine is on a dead centre4 ,to find out what the lead is1 the cover of the steam chest must be taken off1 and the engine placed at each dead centre in succession4 ,if the lead is greater at one end than it is at the other1 the valve must be adjusted to equalize it4 ,as a rule the engine is adjusted with a suitable amount of lead if it is equalized4 ,the correct amount of lead varies with the engine and with the port opening4 ,if the port opening is long and narrow1 the lead should obviously be less than if the port is short and wide4 ,if the lead is insufficient1 there will not be enough steam let into the cylinder for cushion1 and the engine will knock4 ,if there is too much lead the speed of the engine will be lessened1 and it will not do the work it ought4 ,to adjust the lead de novo is by no means an easy task4 ,,how ,,to ,,set ,a ,,simple ,,valve4 ,in order to set a valve the engine must be brought to a dead centre4 ,this cannot be done accurately by the eye4 ,an old engineer#e gives the following directions for finding the dead centre accurately4 ,says he3 8,first provide yourself with a #8tram4' ,this is a rod of one-fourth inch iron about eighteen inches long1 with two inches at one end bent over to a sharp angle4 ,sharpen both ends to a point4 ,fasten a block of hard wood somewhere near the face of the fly-wheel1 so that when the straight end of your tram is placed at a definite point in the block1 the hooked end will reach the crown of the fly-wheel4 ,the block must be held firmly in its place1 and the tram must always touch it at exactly the same point4 ,footnote #e3 ,j4 ,h4 ,maggard4 8,you are now ready to set about finding the dead centre4 ,in doing this1 remember to turn the fly-wheel always in the same direction4 8,bring the engine over till it nearly reaches one of the dead centres1 but not quite4 ,make a distinct mark across the cross-head and guides4 ,also go around to the flywheel1 and placing the straight end of the tram at the selected point on the block of wood1 make a mark across the crown or centre of face of the fly-wheel4 ,now turn your engine past the centre1 and on to a point at which the mark on the cross head will once more exactly correspond with the line on the guides1 making a single straight line4 ,once more place the tram as before and make another mark across the crown of the fly-wheel4 ,by use of dividers1 find the exact centre between the two marks made on the fly-wheel1 and mark this point distinctly with a centre punch4 ,now bring the fly-wheel to the point where the tram1 set with its straight end at the required point on the block of wood1 will touch this point with the hooked end1 and you will have one of the dead centres4 8,turn the engine over and proceed in the same way to find the other dead centre40 ,now1 setting the engine on one of the dead centres1 remove the cover of the steam chest and proceed to set your valve4 ,assuming that the engine maker gave the valve the proper amount of lead in the first place1 you can proceed on the theory that it is merely necessary to equalize the lead at both ends4 ,assume some convenient lead1 as one-sixteenth of an inch1 and set the valve to that4 ,then turn the engine over and see if the lead at the other end is the same4 ,if it is the same1 you have set the valve correctly4 ,if it is less at the other end1 you may conclude that the lead at both ends should be less than one-sixteenth of an inch1 and must proceed to equalize it4 ,this you can do by fitting into the open space a little wedge of wood1 changing the valve a little until the wedge goes in to just the same distance at each end4 ,then you may know that the lead at one end is the same as at the other end4 ,you can mark the wedge for forcing it against the metal1 or mark it against the seat of the valve with a pencil4 ,the valve is set by loosening the set screws that hold the eccentric on the shaft4 ,when these are loosened up the valve may be moved freely4 ,when it is correctly set the screws should be tightened1 and the relative position of the eccentric on the shaft may be permanently marked by setting a cold chisel so that it will cut into the shaft and the eccentric at the same time and giving it a smart blow with the hammer1 so as to make a mark on both the eccentric and the shaft4 ,should your eccentric slip at any time in the future1 you can set your valve by simply bringing the mark on the eccentric so that it will correspond with the mark on the shaft4 ,many engines have such a mark made when built1 to facilitate setting a valve should the eccentric become loose4 ,these directions apply only to setting the valve of a single eccentric engine4 ,,how ,,to ,,set ,a ,,valve ,,on ,a ,,double ,,eccentric ,,engine4 ,in setting a valve on a reversible or double eccentric engine1 the link may cause confusion1 and you may be trying to set the valve to run one way when the engine is set to run the other4 ,the valve on such an engine is exactly the same as on a single eccentric engine4 ,set the reverse lever for the engine to go forward4 ,then set the valve exactly as with a single eccentric engine4 ,when you have done so1 tighten the eccentric screws so that they will hold temporarily1 and set the reverse lever for the engine to go backward4 ,then put the engine on dead centres and see if the valve is all right at both ends4 ,if it is1 you may assume that it is correctly set1 and tighten eccentric screws1 marking both eccentrics as before4 ,as we have said1 most engines are marked in the factory1 so that it is not a difficult matter to set the valves1 it being necessary only to bring the eccentric around so that the mark on it will correspond with the mark on the shaft4 ,you can easily tell whether the lead is the same at both ends by listening to the exhaust4 ,if it is longer at one end than the other1 the valve is not properly set4 ,,slipping ,,of ,,the ,,eccentric ,,or ,,valve4 ,if the eccentric slips the least bit it may cause the engine to stop1 or to act very queerly4 ,therefore the marks on the shaft and on the eccentric should be watched closely1 and of course all grease and dirt should be kept wiped off1 so that they can be seen easily4 ,then the jam nuts should be tightened up a little from time to time4 ,if the engine seems to act strangely1 and yet the eccentrics are all right1 look at the valve in the steam chest4 ,if the valve stem has worked loose from the valve1 trouble will be caused4 ,it may be held in place by a nut1 and the nut may work off2 or the valve may be held by a clamp and pin1 and the pin may work loose4 ,either will cause loss of motion1 and perhaps a sudden stopping of the engine4 ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,cylinder ,,steam ,,cocks4 ,it is a comparatively simple matter to test a steam cylinder by use of the cylinder cocks4 ,to do this1 open both cocks1 place the engine on the forward center1 and turn on a little steam4 ,if the steam blows out at the forward cock1 we may judge that our lead is all right4 ,now turn the engine to the back center and let on the steam4 ,it should blow out the same at the back cock4 ,a little training of the ear will show whether the escape of steam is the same at both ends4 ,then reverse the engine1 set it on each center successfully1 and notice whether the steam blows out from one cock at a time and in the same degree of force4 ,if the steam blows out of both cocks at the same time1 or out of one cock on one center1 but not out of the other cock on its corresponding center1 we may know something is wrong4 ,the valve does not work properly4 ,we will first look at the eccentrics and see that they are all right4 ,if they are1 we must open the steam chest1 first turning off all steam4 ,probably we shall find that the valve is loose on the valve rod1 if our trouble was that the steam blew out of the cock but did not out of the other when the engine was on the opposite center4 ,if our trouble was that steam blew out of both cocks at the same time1 we may conclude either that the cylinder rings leak or else the valve has cut its seat4 ,it will be a little difficult to tell which at first sight4 ,in any case it is a bad thing1 for it means loss of power and waste of steam and fuel4 ,to tell just where the trouble is you must take off the cylinder head1 after setting the engine on the forward center4 ,let in a little steam from the throttle4 ,if it blows through around the rings1 the trouble is with them2 but if it blows through the valve port1 the trouble is with the valve and valve seat4 ,if the rings leak you must get a new set if they are of the self-adjusting type4 ,but if they are of the spring or adjusting type you can set them out yourself2 but few engines now use the latter kind of rings1 so a new pair will probably be required4 ,if the trouble is in the valve and valve seat1 you should take the valve out and have the seat planed down1 and the valve fitted to the seat4 ,this should always be done by a skilled mechanic fully equipped for such work1 as a novice is almost sure to make bad work of it4 ,the valve seat and valve must be scraped down by the use of a flat piece of very hard steel1 an eighth of an inch thick and about #c by #d inches in size4 ,the scraping edge must be absolutely straight4 ,it will be a slow and tedious process1 and a little too much scraping on one side or the other will prevent a perfect fit4 ,both valve and valve seat must be scraped equally4 ,novices sometimes try to reseat a valve by the use of emery4 ,this is very dangerous and is sure to ruin the valve1 as it works into the pores of the iron and causes cutting4 ,,lubrication4 ,a knowledge of the difference between good oil and poor oil1 and of how to use oil and grease1 is a prime essential for an engineer4 ,first let us give a little attention to the theory of lubrication4 ,the oil or grease should form a lining between the journal and its pin or shaft4 ,it is in the nature of a slight and frictionless cushion at all points where the two pieces of metal meet4 ,now if oil is to keep its place between the bearing and the shaft or pin it must stick tight to both pieces of metal1 and the tighter the better4 ,if the oil is light the forces at work on the bearings will force the oil away and bring the metals together4 ,as soon as they come together they begin to wear on each other1 and sometimes the wear is very rapid4 ,this is called 8cutting40 ,if a little sand or grit gets into the bearing1 that will help the cutting wonderfully1 and more especially if there is no grease there4 ,for instance1 gasoline and kerosene are oils1 but they are so light they will not stick to a journal1 and so are valueless for lubricating4 ,good lubricating oil will cost a little more than cheap oil which has been mixed with worthless oils to increase its bulk without increasing its cost4 ,the higher priced oil will really cost less in the end1 because there is a larger percentage of it which will do service4 ,a good engineer will have it in his contract that he is to be furnished with good oil4 ,now an engine requires two different kinds of oil1 one for the bearings1 such as the crank1 pin1 the cross-head and journals1 and quite a different kind for lubricating the steam cylinder4 ,it is extremely important that the steam cylinder should be well lubricated2 and this cannot be done direct4 ,the oil must be carried into the valve and cylinder with steam4 ,the heat of the steam1 moreover1 ranging from about #cbj degrees ,fahr4 for #ij lbs4 pressure to #cej degrees for #abe lbs4 of pressure1 will quickly destroy the efficacy of a poor oil1 and a good cylinder oil must be one that will stick to the cylinder and valve seat under this high temperature4 ,it must have staying qualities4 ,the link reverse is one of the best for its purpose2 but it requires a good quality of oil on the valve for it to work well4 ,if the valve gets a little dry1 or the poor oil used does not serve its purpose properly1 the link will begin to jump and pound4 ,this is a reason why makers are substituting other kinds of reverse gear in many ways not as good1 but not open to this objection4 ,if a link reverse begins to pound when you are using good oil1 and the oiler is working properly1 you may be sure something is the matter with the valve or the gear4 ,a good engineer will train his ear so that he will detect by simply listening at the cylinder whether everything is working exactly as it ought4 ,for example1 the exhaust at each end of the cylinder1 which you can hear distinctly1 should be the same and equal4 ,if the exhaust at one end is less than it is at the other1 you may know that one end of the cylinder is doing more work than the other4 ,and also any little looseness or lack of oil will signify itself by the peculiar sound it will cause4 ,while the cylinder requires cylinder oil1 the crank1 cross-head and journals require engine oil1 or hard grease4 ,the use of hard grease is rapidly increasing1 and it is highly to be recommended4 ,with a good automatic spring grease cup hard grease will be far less likely to let the bearings heat than common oil will4 ,at the same time it will be much easier to keep an engine clean if hard grease is used4 ,an old engineer#f gives the following directions for fitting a grease cup on a box not previously arranged for one3 8,remove the journal1 take a gouge and cut a clean groove across the box1 starting at one corner1 about one-eighth of an inch from the point of the box1 and cut diagonally across1 coming out at the opposite corner on the other end of the box4 ,then start at the opposite corner and run through as before1 crossing the first groove in the center of the box4 ,groove both halves of the box the same1 being careful not to cut out at either end1 as this will allow the grease to escape from the box and cause unnecessary waste4 ,the shimming or packing in the box should be cut so as to touch the journal at both ends of the box1 but not in the center or between these two points4 ,so when the top box is brought down tight this will form another reservoir for the grease4 ,if the box is not tapped directly in the center for the cup1 it will be necessary to cut another groove from where it is tapped into the grooves already made4 ,a box prepared in this way and carefully polished inside1 will require little attention if you use good grease40 ,footnote #f3 ,j4 ,h4 ,maggard4 ,a ,,hot ,,box4 ,when a box heats in the least degree1 it is a sign that for lack of oil or for some other reason the metals are wearing together4 ,the first thing to do1 of course1 is to see that the box is supplied with plenty of good oil or grease4 ,if this does not cause the box to cool off1 take it apart and clean it thoroughly4 ,then coat the journal with white lead mixed with good oil4 ,great care should be exercised to keep all dirt or grit out of your can of lead and away from the bearing4 ,replace the oil or grease cup1 and the box will soon cool down4 ,,the ,,friction ,,clutch4 ,nearly all traction engines are now provided with the friction clutch for engaging the engine with the propelling gear4 ,the clutch is usually provided with wooden shoes1 which are adjustable as they wear2 and the clutch is thrown on by a lever1 conveniently placed4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,w4 ,,stevens ,,co4 ,,friction ,,clutch4 ,before running an engine1 you must make sure that the clutch shoes are properly adjusted4 ,great care must be taken to be sure that both shoes will come in contact with the friction wheel at the same instant2 for if one shoe touches the wheel before the other the clutch will probably slip4 ,the shoes should be so set as to make it a trifle difficult to draw the lever clear back4 ,to regulate the shoes on the ,rumely engine1 for example1 first throw the friction in4 ,the nut on the top of the toggle connecting the sleeve of the friction with the shoe must then be loosened1 and the nut below the shoe tightened up1 forcing the shoe toward the wheel4 ,both shoes should be carefully adjusted so that they will engage the band wheel equally and at exactly the same time4 ,to use the friction clutch1 first start the engine1 throwing the throttle gradually wide open4 ,when the engine is running at its usual speed1 slowly bring up the clutch until the gearing is fully engaged1 letting the engine start slowly and smoothly1 without any jar4 ,traction engines having the friction clutch are also provided with a pin for securing a rigid connection1 to be used in cases of necessity1 as when the clutch gets broken or something about it gives out1 or you have difficulty in making it hold when climbing hills4 ,this pin is a simple round or square pin that can be placed through a hole in one of the spokes of the band wheel until it comes into a similar opening in the friction wheel4 ,when the pin is taken out1 so as to disconnect the wheels1 it must be entirely removed1 not left sticking in the hole1 as it is liable to catch in some other part of the machinery4 ,illustration3 ,,aultman ,,taylor ,,friction ,,clutch4 ,,miscellaneous ,,suggestions4 ,be careful not to open the throttle valve too quickly1 or you may throw off the driving belt4 ,you may also stir up the water and cause it to pass over with the steam1 starting what is called 8priming40 ,always open your cylinder cocks when you stop1 to make sure all water has been drained out of the cylinder2 and see that they are open when you start1 of course closing them as soon as the steam is let in4 ,when you pull out the ashes always have a pail of water ready1 for you may start a fire that will do no end of damage4 ,if the water in your boiler gets low and you are waiting for the tank to come up1 don't think you 8can keep on a little longer10 but stop your engine at once4 ,it is better to lose a little time than run the risk of an explosion that will ruin your reputation as an engineer and cause your employer a heavy expense4 ,never start the pump when the water in the boiler is low4 ,be sure the exhaust nozzle does not get limed up1 and be sure the pipe where the water enters the boiler from the heater is not limed up1 or you may split a heater pipe or knock out a check valve4 ,never leave your engine in cold weather without draining off all the water2 and always cover up your engine when you leave it4 ,never disconnect the engine with a leaky throttle4 ,keep the steam pressure steady1 not varying more than #aj to #ae lbs4 ,if called on to run an old boiler1 have it thoroughly tested before you touch it4 ,always close your damper before pulling through a stack yard4 ,examine every bridge before you pull on to it4 ,do not stop going down a steep grade4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,handling ,a ,,traction ,,engine ,,on ,,the ,,road4 ,it is something of a trick to handle a traction engine on the road4 ,the novice is almost certain to run it into a ditch the first thing1 or get stuck on a hill1 or in a sand patch or a mudhole4 ,some attention must therefore be paid to handling a traction engine on the road4 ,in the first place1 never pull the throttle open with a jerk1 nor put down the reverse lever with a snap4 ,handle your engine deliberately and thoughtfully1 knowing beforehand just what you wish to do and how you will do it4 ,a traction engine is much like an ox2 try to goad it on too fast and it will stop and turn around on you4 ,it does its best work when moving slowly and steadily1 and seldom is anything gained by rushing4 ,the first thing for an engineer to learn is to handle his throttle4 ,when an engine is doing work the throttle should be wide open2 but on the road1 or in turning1 backing1 etc41 the engineer's hand must be on the throttle all the time and he must exercise a nice judgment as to just how much steam the engine will need to do a certain amount of work4 ,this the novice will find out best by opening the throttle slowly1 taking all the time he needs1 and never allowing any one to hurry him4 ,as an engineer learns the throttle1 he gradually comes to have confidence in it4 ,as it were1 he feels the pulse of the animal and never makes a mistake4 ,such an engineer always has power to spare1 and never wastes any power4 ,he finds that a little is often much better than too much4 ,the next thing to learn is the steering wheel4 ,it has tricks of its own1 which one must learn by practice4 ,most young engineers turn the wheel altogether too much4 ,if you let your engine run slowly you will have time to turn the wheel slowly1 and accomplish just what you want to do4 ,if you hurry you will probably have to do your work all over again1 and so lose much more time in the end than if you didn't hurry4 ,always keep your eyes on the front wheels of the engine1 and do not turn around to see how your load is coming on4 ,your load will take care of itself if you manage the front wheels all right1 for they determine where you are to go4 ,in making a hard turn1 especially1 go slow4 ,then you will run no chance of losing control of your engine1 and you can see that neither you nor your load gets into a ditch4 ,,getting ,,into ,a ,,hole4 ,you are sure sooner or later to get into a hole in the road1 for a traction engine is so heavy it is sure to find any soft spot in the road there may be4 ,as to getting out of a hole1 observe in the first place that you must use your best judgment4 ,first1 never let the drive wheels turn round without doing any work4 ,the more they spin round without helping you1 the worse it will be for you4 ,your first thought must be to give the drive wheels something they can climb on1 something they can stick to4 ,a heavy chain is perhaps the very best thing you can put under them4 ,but usually on the road you have no chain handy4 ,in that case1 you must do what you can4 ,old hay or straw will help you2 and so will old rails or any old timber4 ,spend your time trying to give your wheels something to hold to1 rather than trying to pull out4 ,when the wheels are all right1 the engine will go on its way without any trouble whatever4 ,and do not half do your work of fixing the wheels before you try to start4 ,see that both wheels are secure before you put on a pound of steam4 ,make sure of this the first time you try1 and you will save time in the end4 ,if you fix one wheel and don't fix the other1 you will probably spoil the first wheel by starting before the other is ready4 ,should you be where your engine will not turn1 then you are stuck indeed4 ,you must lighten your load or dig a way out4 ,,bad ,,bridges4 ,a traction engine is so heavy that the greatest care must be exercised in crossing bridges4 ,if a bridge floor is worn1 if you see rotten planks in it1 or liability of holes1 don't pull on to that bridge without taking precautions4 ,the best precaution is to carry with you a couple of planks sixteen feet long1 three inches thick in the middle1 tapering to two inches at the ends2 also a couple of planks eight feet long and two inches thick1 the latter for culverts and to help out on long bridges4 ,before pulling on to a bad looking bridge1 lay down your planks1 one for each pair of wheels of the engine to run on4 ,be exceedingly careful not to let the engine drop off the edge of these planks on the way over1 or pass over the ends on to the floor of the bridge4 ,if one pair of planks is too short1 use your second pair4 ,another precaution which it is wise to take is to carry fifty feet of good1 stout hemp rope1 and when you come to a shaky bridge1 attach your separator to the engine by this rope at full length1 so that the engine will have crossed the bridge before the weight of the separator comes upon it4 ,cross a bad bridge very slowly4 ,nothing will be gained by hurrying4 ,there should especially be no sudden jerks or starts4 ,,sand ,,patches4 ,a sandy road is an exceedingly hard road to pull a load over4 ,in the first place1 don't hurry over sand4 ,if you do you are liable to break the footing of the wheels1 and then you are gone4 ,in the second place1 keep your engine as steady and straight as possible1 so that both wheels will always have an equal and even bearing4 ,they are less liable to slip if you do4 ,it is useless to try to 8wiggle0 over a sand patch4 ,slow1 steady1 and even is the rule4 ,if your wheels slip in sand1 a bundle of straw or hay1 especially old hay1 will be about the best thing to give them a footing4 ,,hills4 ,in climbing hills take the same advice we have given you all along3 ,go slow4 ,nothing is gained by rushing at a hill with a steam engine4 ,such an engine works best when its force is applied steadily and evenly1 a little at a time4 ,if you have a friction clutch1 as you probably will have1 you should be sure it is in good working order before you attempt to climb hills4 ,it should be adjusted to a nicety1 as we have already explained4 ,when you come to a bad hill it would probably be well to put in the tight gear pin2 or use it altogether in a hilly country4 ,when the friction clutch first came into use1 salesmen and others used to make the following recommendation 7a recommendation which we will say right here is bad74 ,they said1 when you come to an obstacle in the road that you can't very well get your engine over1 throw off your friction clutch from the road wheels1 let your engine get under good headway running free1 and then suddenly put on the friction clutch and jerk yourself over the obstacle4 ,now this is no doubt one way to get over an obstacle2 but no good engineer would take his chances of spoiling his engine by doing any such thing with it4 ,some part of it would be badly strained by such a procedure2 and if this were done regularly all through a season1 an engine would be worth very little at the end of the season4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,points ,,for ,,the ,,young ,,engineer4 ,,questions ,,and ,,answers4 ,,the ,,boiler4 ,q4 ,how should water be fed to a boiler8 ,a4 ,in a steady stream1 by use of a pump or injector working continuously and supplying just the amount of water required4 ,by this means the water in the boiler is maintained at a uniform level1 and produces steam most evenly and perfectly4 ,q4 ,why should pure water be used in a boiler8 ,a4 ,because impure water1 or hard water1 forms scales on the boiler flues and plates1 and these scales act as non-conductors of heat4 ,thus the heat of the furnace is not able to pass easily through the boiler flues and plates to the water1 and your boiler becomes what is called 8a hard steamer40 ,q4 ,what must be done to prevent the formation of scale8 ,a4 ,first1 use some compound that will either prevent scale from forming1 or will precipitate the scale forming substance as a soft powder that can easily be washed off4 ,sal soda dissolved in the feed water is recommended1 but great care should be exercised in the use of sal soda not to use too much at a time1 as it may cause a boiler to foam4 ,besides using a compound1 clean your boiler often and regularly with a hand hose and a force pump1 and soak it out as often as possible by using rain water for a day or two1 especially before cleaning4 ,rain water will soften and bring down the hard scale far better than any compound4 ,q4 ,how often should you clean your boiler8 ,a4 ,as often as it needs it1 which will depend upon the work you do and the condition of the water4 ,once a week is usually often enough if the boiler is blown down a little every day4 ,if your water is fairly good1 once a month will be often enough4 ,a boiler should be blown off about one gauge at a time two or three times a day with the blow-off if the water is muddy4 ,q4 ,how long should the surface blow-off be left open8 ,a4 ,only for a few seconds1 and seldom longer than a minute4 ,the surface blow-off carries off the scum that forms on the water1 and other impurities that rise with the scum4 ,q4 ,how do you clean a boiler by blowing off8 ,a4 ,when the pressure has been allowed to run down open the blow-off valve at the bottom of the boiler and let the water blow out less than a minute1 till the water drops out of sight in the water gauges1 or about two and one-half inches4 ,blowing off more is only a waste of heat and fuel4 ,q4 ,what harm will be done by blowing off a boiler under a high pressure of steam8 ,a4 ,the heat in the boiler while there is such a pressure will be so great that it will bake the scale on the inside of the boiler1 and it will be very difficult to remove it afterward4 ,after a boiler has been blown off the scale should be for the most part soft1 so that it can be washed out by a hose and force pump4 ,q4 ,why should a hot boiler never be filled with cold water8 ,a4 ,because the cold water will cause the boiler to contract more in some places than in others1 and so suddenly that the whole will be badly strained4 ,leaky flues are made in this way1 and the life of a boiler greatly shortened4 ,as a rule a boiler should be filled only when the metal and the water put into it are about at the same temperature4 ,q4 ,after a boiler has been cleaned1 how should the manhole and manhole plates be replaced8 ,a4 ,they are held in position by a bolt passing through a yoke that straddles the hole2 but to be steam and water tight they must have packing all around the junction of the plate with the boiler4 ,the best packing is sheet rubber cut in the form of a ring just the right size for the bearing surface4 ,hemp or cotton packing are also used1 but they should be free from all lumps and soaked in oil4 ,do not use any more than is absolutely needed4 ,be careful1 also1 to see that the bearings of the plate and boiler are clean and smooth1 with all the old packing scraped off4 ,candle wick saturated with red lead is next best to rubber as packing4 ,q4 ,what are the chief duties of an engineer in care of a boiler8 ,a4 ,first1 to watch all gauges1 fittings1 and working parts1 to see that they are in order2 try the gauge cocks to make sure the water is at the right height2 try the safety valve from time to time to be sure it is working2 see that there are no leaks1 that there is no rusting or wearing of parts1 or to replace parts when they do begin to show wear2 to examine the check valve frequently to make sure no water can escape through it from the boiler2 take precautions against scale and stoppage of pipes by scale2 and keep the fire going uniformly1 cleanly1 and in an economical fashion4 ,q4 ,what should you do if the glass water gauge breaks8 ,a4 ,turn off the gauge cocks above and below1 the lower one first so that the hot water will not burn you4 ,you may put in a new glass and turn on gauge cocks at once4 ,turn on the lower or water cock first1 then the upper or steam cock4 ,you may go on without the glass gauge1 however1 using the gauge cocks or try cocks every few minutes to make sure the water is at the right height1 neither too high nor too low4 ,q4 ,why is it necessary to use the gauge cocks when the glass gauge is all right8 ,a4 ,first1 because you cannot otherwise be sure that the glass gauge is all right2 and1 secondly1 because if you do not use them frequently they are likely to become scaled up so that you cannot use them in case of accident to the glass gauge4 ,q4 ,if a gauge cock gets leaky1 what should be done8 ,a4 ,nothing until the boiler has cooled down4 ,then if the leak is in the seat1 take it out and grind and refit it2 if the leak is where the cock is screwed into the boiler1 tighten it up another turn and see if that remedies the difficulty4 ,if it does not you will probably have to get a new gauge cock4 ,q4 ,why not screw up a gauge cock while there is a pressure of steam on8 ,a4 ,the cock might blow out and cause serious injury to yourself or some one else4 ,make it a rule never to fool with any boiler fittings while there is a pressure of steam on the boiler4 ,it is exceedingly dangerous4 ,sometimes a gauge cock gets broken off accidentally while the boiler is in use4 ,if such an accident happens1 bank the fire by closing the draft and covering the fire with fresh fuel or ashes4 ,stop the engine and let the water blow out of the hole till only steam appears2 then try to plug the opening with a long whitewood or poplar1 or even a pine stick 7six or eight feet long71 one end of which you have whittled down to about the size of the hole4 ,when the steam has been stopped the stick may be cut off close to the boiler and the plug driven in tight4 ,if necessary you may continue to use the boiler in this condition until a new cock can be put in4 ,q4 ,what should you do when a gauge cock is stopped up8 ,a4 ,let the steam pressure go down1 and then take off the front part and run a small wire into the passage1 working the wire back and forth until all scale and sediment has been removed4 ,q4 ,what should you do when the steam gauge gets out of order4 ,a4 ,if the steam gauge does not work correctly1 or you suspect it does not1 you may test it by running the steam up until it blows off at the safety valve4 ,if the steam gauge does not indicate the pressure at which the safety valve is set to pop off1 and you have reason to suppose the safety valve is all right1 you may conclude that there is something the matter with the steam gauge4 ,in that case either put in a new one1 or1 if you have no extra steam gauge on hand1 shut down your boiler and engine till you can get your steam gauge repaired4 ,sometimes this can be done simply by adjusting the pointer1 which may have got loose1 and you can test it by attaching it to another boiler which has a steam gauge that is all right and by which you can check up yours4 ,it is ,,very ,,dangerous to run your boiler without a steam gauge1 depending on the safety valve4 ,never allow the slightest variation in correctness of the steam gauge without repairing it at once4 ,it will nearly always be cheaper in these days to put in a new gauge rather than try to repair the old one4 ,q4 ,what should you do if the pump fails to work8 ,a4 ,use the injector4 ,q4 ,what should you do if there is no injector8 ,a4 ,stop the engine at once and bank the fire with damp ashes1 especially noting that the water does not fall below the bottom of the glass gauge4 ,then examine the pump4 ,first see if the plunger leaks air2 if it is all right1 examine the check valves1 using the little drain cock as previously explained to test the upper ones1 for the valves may have become worn and will leak2 third1 if the check valves are all right1 examine the supply pipe1 looking at the strainer1 observing whether suction takes place when the pump is worked1 etc4 ,there may be a leak in the suction hose somewhere during its course where air can get in1 or it may become weak and collapse under the force of the atmosphere1 or the lining of the suction pipe may have become torn or loose4 ,the slightest leak in the suction pipe will spoil the working of the pump4 ,old tubing should never be used1 as it is sure to give trouble4 ,finally1 examine the delivery pipe4 ,close the cock or valve next the boiler1 and examine the boiler check valve2 notice whether the pipe is getting limed up4 ,if necessary1 disconnect the pipe and clean it out with a stiff wire4 ,if everything is all right up to this point1 you must let the boiler cool off1 blow out the water1 disconnect the pipe between the check and the boiler1 and thoroughly clean the delivery pipe into the boiler4 ,stoppage of the delivery pipe is due to deposits of lime from the heating of the water in the heater4 ,stoppage from this source will be gradual1 and you will find less and less water going into your boiler from your pump until none flows at all4 ,from this you may guess the trouble4 ,q4 ,how may the communication with the water gauge always be kept free from lime8 ,a4 ,by blowing it off through the drain cock at the bottom4 ,first close the upper cock and blow off for a few seconds1 the water passing through the lower cock2 then close the lower cock and open the upper one1 allowing the steam to blow through this and the drain cock for a few seconds4 ,if you do this every day or oftener you will have no trouble4 ,q4 ,should the water get low for any reason1 what should be done8 ,a4 ,close all dampers tight so as to prevent all draft1 and bank the fire with fresh fuel or with ashes 7damp ashes are the best if danger is great74 ,then let the boiler cool down before putting in fresh water4 ,banking the fire is better than drawing or dumping it1 as either of these make the heat greater for a moment or two1 and that additional heat might cause an explosion4 ,dashing cold water upon the fire is also very dangerous and in every way unwise4 ,again1 do not open the safety valve1 for that also1 by relieving some of the pressure on the superheated water1 might cause it to burst suddenly into steam and so cause an explosion4 ,q4 ,under such circumstances1 would you stop the engine8 ,a4 ,no2 for a sudden checking of the outflow of steam might bring about an explosion4 ,do nothing but check the heat as quickly and effectively as you can by banking or covering the fires4 ,q4 ,why not turn on the feed water8 ,a4 ,because the crown sheet of the boiler has become overheated1 and any cold water coming upon it would cause an explosion4 ,if the pump or injector are running1 of course you may let them run1 and the boiler will gradually refill as the heat decreases4 ,under such circumstances low water is due to overheating the boiler4 ,q4 ,would not the fusible plug avert any disaster from low water8 ,a4 ,it might1 and it might not4 ,the top of it is liable to get coated with lime so that the device is worthless4 ,you should act at all times precisely as if there were no fusible plug4 ,if it ever does avert an explosion you may be thankful1 but averting explosions by taking such means as we have suggested will be far better for an engineer's reputation4 ,q4 ,would not the safety valve be a safeguard against explosion8 ,a4 ,no2 only under certain conditions4 ,it prevents too high a pressure for accumulating in the boiler when there is plenty of water2 but when the water gets low the safety valve may only hasten the explosion by relieving some of the pressure and allowing superheated water to burst suddenly into steam1 thus vastly expanding instantly4 ,q4 ,should water be allowed to stand in the boiler when it is not in use8 ,a4 ,it is better to draw it off and clean the boiler1 to prevent rusting1 formation of scale1 hardening of sediment1 etc41 if boiler is to be left for any great length of time4 ,q4 ,what should you do if a grate bar breaks or falls out8 ,a4 ,you should always have a spare grate bar on hand to put in its place2 but if you have none you may fill the space by wedging in a stick of hard wood cut the right shape to fill the opening4 ,cover this wood with ashes before poking the fire over it1 and it will last for several hours before it burns out4 ,you will find it exceedingly difficult to keep up the fire with a big hole in the grate that will let cold air into the furnace and allow coal to drop down4 ,in case the grate is of the rocker type the opening may be filled by shaping a piece of flat iron1 which can be set in without interfering with the rocking of the grate2 or the opening may be filled with wood as before if the wood is covered well with ashes4 ,of course the use of wood will prevent the grate from rocking and the poker must be used to clean4 ,q4 ,why should an engineer never start a boiler with a hot fire1 and never let his fire get hotter than is needed to keep up steam8 ,a4 ,both will cause the sheets to warp and the flues to become leaky1 because under high heat some parts of the boiler will expand more rapidly than others4 ,for a similar reason1 any sudden application of cold to a boiler1 either cold water or cold air through the firebox door1 will cause quicker contraction of certain parts than other parts1 and this will ruin a boiler4 ,q4 ,how should you supply a boiler with water8 ,a4 ,in a regular stream continually4 ,only by making the water pass regularly and gradually through the heater will you get the full effect of the heat from the exhaust steam4 ,if a great deal of water is pumped into the boiler at one time1 the exhaust steam will not be sufficient to heat it as it ought4 ,then if you have a full boiler and shut off the water supply1 the exhaust steam in the heater is wasted1 for it can do no work at all4 ,besides1 it hurts the boiler to allow the temperature to change1 as it will inevitably do if water is supplied irregularly4 ,,whatever ,,you ,,do1 ,,never ,,attempt ,,to ,,tighten ,a ,,screw ,,or ,,calk ,a ,,boiler ,,under ,,steam ,,pressure4 ,,if ,,anything ,,is ,,loose ,,it ,,is ,,liable ,,to ,,blow ,,out ,,in ,,your ,,face ,,with ,,disastrous ,,consequences4 ,q4 ,if boiler flues become leaky1 can an ordinary person tighten them8 ,a4 ,yes1 if the work is done carefully4 ,see full explanation previously given1 p4 #ag4 ,great care should be taken not to expand the flues too much1 for by so doing you are likely to loosen other flues and cause more leaks than you had in the first place4 ,small leaks inside a boiler are not particularly dangerous1 but they should be remedied at the earliest possible moment1 since they reduce the power of the boiler and put out the fire4 ,besides1 they look bad for the engineer4 ,q4 ,how should flues be cleaned8 ,a4 ,some use a steam blower2 but a better way is to scrape off the metal with one of the many patent scrapers1 which just fill the flue1 and when attached to a rod and worked back and forth a few times the whole length of the flue do admirable service4 ,q4 ,what harm will dirty flues do8 ,a4 ,two difficulties arise from dirty flues4 ,if they become reduced in size the fire will not burn well4 ,then1 the same amount of heat will do far less work because it is so much harder for it to get through the layer of soot and ashes1 which are non-conductors4 ,q4 ,what would you do if the throttle broke8 ,a4 ,use reverse lever4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,points ,,for ,,the ,,young ,,engineer4--7,,cont47 ,,questions ,,and ,,answers4 ,,the ,,engine4 ,q4 ,what is the first thing to do with a new engine8 ,a4 ,with some cotton waste or a soft rag saturated with benzine or turpentine clean off all the bright work2 then clean every bearing1 box and oil hole1 using a force pump with air current first1 if you have a pump1 and then wiping the inside out clean with an oily rag1 using a wire if necessary to make the work thorough4 ,if you do not clean the working parts of the engine thus before setting it up1 grit will get into the bearings and cause them to cut4 ,parts that have been put together need not be taken apart2 but you should clean everything you can get at1 especially the oil holes and other places that may receive dirt during transportation4 ,after the oil holes have been well cleaned1 the oil cups may be wiped off and put in place1 screwing them in with a wrench4 ,q4 ,what kind of oil should you use8 ,a4 ,cylinder oil only for the cylinder2 lard oil for the bearings1 and hard grease if your engine is provided with hard grease cup for the cross-head and crank4 ,the only good substitute for cylinder oil is pure beef suet tried out4 ,merchantable tallow should never be used1 as it contains acid4 ,q4 ,can fittings be screwed on by hand only8 ,a4 ,no2 all fittings should be screwed up tight with a wrench4 ,q4 ,when all fittings are in place1 what must be done before the engine can be started8 ,a4 ,see that the grates in the firebox are in place and all right2 then fill the boiler with clean water until it shows an inch to an inch and a half in the water gauge4 ,start your fire1 and let it burn slowly until there is a pressure in the boiler of #aj or #ae lbs4 ,then you can turn on the blower to get up draft4 ,in the meantime fill all the oil cups with oil2 put grease on the gears2 open and close all cocks to see that they work all right2 turn your engine over a few times to see that it works all right2 let a little steam into the cylinder with both cylinder cocks open--just enough to show at the cocks without moving the engine--and slowly turn the engine over1 stopping it on the dead centers to see if the steam comes from only one of the cylinder cocks at a time1 and that the proper one2 reverse the engine and make the same test4 ,also see that the cylinder oiler is in place and ready for operation4 ,see that the pump is all right and in place1 with the valve in the feedpipe open and also the valve in the supply pipe4 ,by going over the engine in this way you will notice whether everything is tight and in working order1 and whether you have failed to notice any part which you do not understand4 ,if there is any part or fitting you do not understand1 know all about it before you go ahead4 ,having started your fire with dry wood1 add fuel gradually1 a little at a time1 until you have a fire covering every part of the grate4 ,regulate the fire by the damper alone1 never opening the firebox door even if the fire gets too hot4 ,q4 ,in what way should the engine be started8 ,a4 ,when you have from #be to #dj lbs4 of pressure open the throttle valve a little1 allowing the cylinder cocks to be open also4 ,some steam will condense at first in the cold cylinder1 and this water must be allowed to drain off4 ,see that the crank is not on a dead center1 and put on just enough steam to start the engine4 ,as soon as it gets warmed up1 and only dry steam appears at the cocks1 close the cylinder cocks1 open the throttle gradually till it is wide open1 and wait for the engine to work up to its full speed4 ,q4 ,how is the speed of the engine regulated8 ,a4 ,by the governor1 which is operated by a belt running to the main shaft4 ,the governor is a delicate apparatus1 and should be watched closely4 ,it should move up and down freely on the stem1 which should not leak steam4 ,if it doesn't work steadily1 you should stop the engine and adjust it1 after watching it for a minute or two to see just where the difficulty lies4 ,q4 ,are you likely to have any hot boxes8 ,a4 ,there should be none if the bearings are all clean and well supplied with oil4 ,however1 in starting a new engine you should stop now and then and examine every bearing by laying your hand upon it4 ,remember the eccentric1 the link pin1 the cross-head1 the crank pin4 ,if there is any heat1 loosen the boxes up a trifle1 but only a very little at a time4 ,if you notice any knocking or pounding1 you have loosened too much1 and should tighten again4 ,q4 ,what must you do in regard to water supply8 ,a4 ,after the engine is started and you know it is all right1 fill the tank on the engine and start the injector4 ,it may take some patience to get the injector started1 and you should carefully follow the directions previously given and those which apply especially to the type of injector used4 ,especially be sure that the cocks admitting the water through the feed pipe and into the boiler are open4 ,q4 ,why are both a pump and an injector required on an engine8 ,a4 ,the pump is most economical1 because it permits the heat in the exhaust steam to be used to heat the feed water1 while the injector heats the water by live steam4 ,there should also be an injector1 however1 for use when the engine is not working1 in order that the water in the boiler may be kept up with heated water4 ,if a cross-head pump is used1 of course1 it will not operate when the engine is not running2 and in case of an independent pump the heater will not heat the water when the engine is not running because there is little or no exhaust steam available4 ,there is an independent pump 7the ,marsh pump7 which heats the water before it goes into the boiler1 and this may be used when the engine is shut down instead of the injector4 ,q4 ,what is the next thing to test8 ,a4 ,the reversing mechanism4 ,throw the reverse lever back1 and see if the engine will run equally well in the opposite direction4 ,repeat this a few times to make sure that the reverse is in good order4 ,q4 ,how is a traction engine set going upon the road8 ,a4 ,most traction engines now have the friction clutch4 ,when the engine is going at full speed1 take hold of the clutch lever and slowly bring the clutch against the band wheel4 ,it will slip a little at first1 gradually engaging the gears and moving the outfit4 ,hold the clutch lever in one hand1 while with the other you operate the steering wheel4 ,by keeping your hand on the clutch lever you may stop forward motion instantly if anything goes wrong4 ,when the engine is once upon the road1 the clutch lever may set in the notch provided for it1 and the engine will go at full speed4 ,you can then give your entire attention to steering4 ,q4 ,what should you do if the engine has no friction clutch8 ,a4 ,stop the engine1 placing the reversing lever in the center notch4 ,then slide the spur pinion into the gear and open the throttle valve wide4 ,you are now ready to control the engine by the reversing lever4 ,throw the lever forward a little1 bringing it back1 and so continue until you have got the engine started gradually4 ,when well under way throw the reverse lever into the last notch1 and give your attention to steering4 ,q4 ,how should you steer a traction engine8 ,a4 ,in all cases the same man should handle the throttle and steer the engine4 ,skill in steering comes by practice1 and about the only rule that can be given is to go slow1 and under no circumstances jerk your engine about4 ,good steering depends a great deal on natural ability to judge distances by the eye and power by the feel4 ,a good engineer must have a good eye1 a good ear1 and a good touch 7if we may so speak74 ,if either is wanting1 success will be uncertain4 ,q4 ,how should an engine be handled on the road8 ,a4 ,there will be no special difficulty in handling an engine on a straight1 level piece of road1 especially if the road is hard and without holes4 ,but when you come to your first hill your troubles will begin4 ,before ascending a hill1 see that the water in the boiler does not stand more than two inches in the glass gauge4 ,if there is too much water1 as it is thrown to one end of the engine by the grade it is liable to get into the steam cylinder4 ,if you have too much water1 blow off a little from the bottom blow-off cock4 ,in descending a hill never stop your engine for a moment1 since your crown sheet will be uncovered by reason of the water being thrown forward1 and any cessation in the jolting of the engine which keeps the water flowing over the crown sheet will cause the fusible plug to blow out1 making delay and expense4 ,make it a point never to stop your engine except on the level4 ,before descending a hill1 shut off the steam at the throttle1 and control the engine by the friction brake2 or if there is no brake1 do not quite close the throttle1 but set the reverse lever in the center notch1 or back far enough to control the speed4 ,it is seldom necessary to use steam in going down hill1 however1 and if the throttle is closed even with no friction brake1 the reverse may be used in such a way as to form an air brake in the cylinder4 ,get down to the bottom of a hill as quickly as you can4 ,before descending a hill it would be well to close your dampers and keep the firebox door closed tight all the time4 ,cover the fire with fresh fuel so as to keep the heat down4 ,the pump or injector must be kept at work1 however1 since as you have let the water down low1 you must not let it fall any lower or you are likely to have trouble4 ,in ascending a hill1 do just the reverse1 namely3 ,keep your fire brisk and hot1 with steam pressure ascending2 and throw the reverse lever in the last notch1 giving the engine all the steam you can1 else you may get stuck4 ,if you stop you are likely to overheat forward end of fire tubes4 ,you are less liable to get stuck if you go slowly than if you go fast4 ,regulate speed by friction clutch4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,points ,,for ,,the ,,young ,,engineer4--7,,cont47 ,,miscellaneous4 ,q4 ,what is ,foaming8 ,a4 ,the word is used to describe the rising of water in large bubbles or foam4 ,you will detect it by noticing that the water in the glass gauge rises and falls1 or is foamy4 ,it is due to sediment in the boiler1 or grease and other impurities in the feed supply4 ,shaking up the boiler will start foaming sometimes2 at other times it will start without apparent cause4 ,in such cases it is due to the steam trying to get through a thick crust on the surface of the water4 ,q4 ,how may you prevent foaming8 ,a4 ,it may be checked for a moment by turning off the throttle1 so giving the water a chance to settle4 ,it is generally prevented by frequently using the surface blow-off to clear away the scum4 ,of course the water must be kept as pure as possible1 and especially should alkali water be avoided4 ,q4 ,what is priming8 ,a4 ,priming is not the same as foaming1 though it is often caused by foaming4 ,priming is the carrying of water into the steam cylinder with the steam4 ,it is caused by various things beside foaming1 for it may be found when the boiler is quite clean4 ,a sudden and very hot fire may start priming4 ,priming sometimes follows lowering of the steam pressure4 ,often it is due to lack of capacity in the boiler1 especially lack of steam space1 or lack of good circulation4 ,q4 ,how can you detect priming8 ,a4 ,by the clicking sound it makes in the steam cylinder4 ,the water in the gauge will also go up and down violently4 ,there will also be a shower of water from the exhaust4 ,q4 ,what is the proper remedy for priming8 ,a4 ,if it is due to lack of capacity in the boiler nothing can be done but get a new boiler4 ,in other cases it may be remedied by carrying less water in the boiler when that can be done safely1 by taking steam from a different point in the steam dome1 or if there is no dome by using a long dry pipe with perforation at the end4 ,a larger steam pipe may help it2 or it may be remedied by taking out the top row of flues4 ,leaky cylinder rings or a leaky valve may also have something to do with it4 ,in all cases these should be made steam tight4 ,if the exhaust nozzle is choked up with grease or sediment1 clean it out4 ,a traction engine with small steam ports would prime quickly under forced speed4 ,q4 ,how would you bank your fires8 ,a4 ,push the fire as far to the back of the firebox as possible and cover it over with very fine coal or with dry ashes4 ,as large a portion as possible of the grate should be left open1 so that the air may pass over the fire4 ,close the damper tight4 ,by banking your fires at night you keep the boiler warm and can get up steam more quickly in the morning4 ,q4 ,when water is left in the boiler with banked fire in cold weather1 what precautions ought to be taken8 ,a4 ,the cocks in the glass water gauge should be closed and the drain cock at the bottom opened1 for fear the water in the exposed gauge should freeze4 ,likewise all drain cocks in steam cylinder and pump should be opened4 ,q4 ,how should a traction engine be prepared for laying up during the winter8 ,a4 ,first1 the outside of the boiler and engine should be thoroughly cleaned1 seeing that all gummy oil or grease is removed4 ,then give the outside of the boiler and smokestack a coat of asphalt paint1 or a coat of lampblack and linseed oil1 or at any rate a doping of grease4 ,the outside of the boiler should be cleaned while it is hot1 so that grease1 etc41 may be easily removed while soft4 ,after the outside has been attended to1 blow out the water at low pressure and thoroughly clean the inside in the usual way1 taking out the handhole and manhole plates1 and scraping off all scale and sediment4 ,after the boiler has been cleaned on the inside1 fill it nearly full of water1 and pour upon the top a bucket of black oil4 ,then let the water out through the blow-off at the bottom4 ,as the water goes down it will have a coating of oil down the sides of the boiler4 ,all the brass fittings should be removed1 including gauge cocks1 check valves1 safety valve1 etc4 ,disconnect all pipes that may contain water1 to be sure none remains in any of them4 ,open all stuffing boxes and take out packing1 for the packing will cause the parts they surround to rust4 ,finally1 clean out the inside of the firebox and the fire flues1 and give the ash-pan a good coat of paint all over1 inside as well as out4 ,the inside of the cylinder should be well greased1 which can be done by removing the cylinder head4 ,see that the top of the smoke stack is covered to keep out the weather4 ,all brass fittings should be carefully packed and put away in a dry place4 ,a little attention to the engine when you put it up will save twice as much time when you take it out next season1 and besides save many dollars of value in the life of the engine4 ,q4 ,how should belting be cared for8 ,a4 ,first1 keep belts free from dust and dirt4 ,never overload belts4 ,do not let oil or grease drip upon them4 ,never put any sticky or pasty grease on a belt4 ,never allow any animal oil or grease to touch a rubber belt1 since it will destroy the life of the rubber4 ,the grain or hair side should run next the pulley1 as it holds better and is not so likely to slip4 ,rubber belts will be greatly improved if they are covered with a mixture of black lead and litharge1 equal parts1 mixed with boiled oil1 and just enough japan to dry them quickly4 ,this mixture will do to put on places that peel4 ,q4 ,what is the proper way to lace a belt8 ,a4 ,first1 square the ends with a proper square1 cutting them off to a nicety4 ,begin to lace in the middle1 and do not cross the laces on the pulley side4 ,on that side the lacings should run straight with the length of the belt4 ,the holes in the belt should be punched if possible with an oval punch1 the long diameter coinciding with the length of the belt4 ,make two rows of holes in each end of the belt1 so that the holes in each row will alternate with those in preceding row1 making a zigzag4 ,four holes will be required for a three-inch belt in each end1 two holes in each row2 in a six-inch belt1 place seven holes in each end1 four in the row nearest the end4 ,to find the length of a belt when the exact length cannot be measured conveniently1 measure a straight line from the center of one pulley to the center of the other4 ,add together half the diameter of each pulley1 and multiply that by #c 7#c4adaf74 ,the result added to twice the distance between the centers will give the total length of the belt4 ,a belt will work best if it is allowed to sag just a trifle4 ,the seam side of a rubber belt should be placed outward1 or away from the pulley4 ,if such a belt slips1 coat the inside with boiled linseed oil or soap4 ,cotton belting may be preserved by painting the pulley side while running with common paint1 afterward applying soft oil or grease4 ,if a belt slips apply a little oil or soap to the pulley side4 ,q4 ,how does the capacity of belts vary8 ,a4 ,in proportion to width and also to the speed4 ,double the width and you double the capacity2 also1 within a certain limit1 double the speed and you double the capacity4 ,a belt should not be run over #e1jjj feet per minute4 ,one four-inch belt will have the same capacity as two two-inch belts4 ,q4 ,how are piston rods and valve rods packed so that the steam cannot escape around them8 ,a4 ,by packing placed in stuffing-boxes4 ,the stuffing is of some material that has a certain amount of elasticity1 such as lamp wick1 hemp1 soap stone1 etc41 and certain patent preparations4 ,the packing is held in place by a gland1 as it is called1 which acts to tighten the packing as the cap of the stuffing-box is screwed up4 ,q4 ,how would you repack a stuffing-box8 ,a4 ,first remove the cap and the gland1 and with a proper tool take out all the old packing4 ,do not use any rough instrument like a file1 which is liable to scratch the rod1 for any injury to the smooth surface of the rod will make it leak steam or work hard4 ,if patent packing is used1 cut off a sufficient number of lengths to make the required rings4 ,they should be exactly the right length to go around inside the stuffing-box4 ,if too long1 they cannot be screwed up tight1 as the ends will press together and cause irregularities4 ,if too short1 the ends will not meet and will leak steam4 ,cut the ends diagonally so that they will make a lap joint instead of a square one4 ,when the stuffing-box has been filled1 place the gland in position and screw up tight4 ,afterwards loosen the nuts a trifle1 as the steam will cause the packing to expand1 usually4 ,the stuffing-box should be just as loose as it can be and not allow leakage of steam4 ,if steam leaks1 screw up the box a little tighter4 ,if it still leaks1 do not screw up as tight as you possibly can1 but repack the box4 ,if the stuffing-box is too tight1 either for the piston rod or valve steam1 it will cause the engine to work hard1 and may groove the rods and spoil them4 ,if hemp packing is used1 pull the fibres out straight and free1 getting rid of all knots and lumps4 ,twist together a few of the fibres1 making three cords1 and braid these three cords together and soak them with oil or grease1 wind around the rod till stuffing-box is sufficiently full1 replace the gland1 and screw up as before4 ,stuffing-box for water piston of pump may be packed as described above1 but little oil or grease will be needed4 ,never pack the stuffing-box too tight1 or you may flute the rod and spoil it4 ,always keep the packing in a clean place1 well covered up1 never allowing any dust to get into it1 for the dust or grit is liable to cut the rod4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,economy ,,in ,,running ,a ,,farm ,,engine4 ,it is something to be able to run a farm engine and keep out of trouble4 ,it is even a great deal if everything runs smoothly day in and day out1 if the engine looks clean1 and you can always develop the amount of power you need4 ,you must be able to do this before you can give the fine points of engineering much consideration4 ,when you come to the point where you are always able to keep out of trouble1 you are probably ready to learn how you can make your engine do more work on less fuel than it does at present4 ,in that direction the best of us have an infinite amount to learn4 ,it is a fact that in an ordinary farm engine only about #d per cent of the coal energy is actually saved and used for work2 the rest is lost1 partly in the boiler1 more largely in the engine4 ,so we see what a splendid chance there is to save4 ,if we are asked where all the lost energy goes to1 we might reply in a general sort of way1 a good deal goes up the smokestack in smoke or unused fuel2 some is radiated from the boiler in the form of heat and is lost without producing any effect on the steam within the boiler2 some is lost in the cooling of the steam as it passes to the steam cylinder2 some is lost in the cooling of the cylinder itself after each stroke2 some is lost through the pressure on the back of the steam valve1 causing a friction that requires a good deal of energy in the engine to overcome2 some is lost in friction in the bearings1 stuffing-boxes1 etc4 ,at each of these points economy may be practiced if the engineer knows how to do it4 ,we offer a few suggestions4 ,,theory ,,of ,,steam ,,power4 ,as economy is a scientific question1 we cannot study it intelligently without knowing something of the theory of heat1 steam and the transmission of power4 ,there will be nothing technical in the following pages2 and as soon as the theory is explained in simple language1 any intelligent person will know for himself just what he ought to do in any given case4 ,first1 let us define or describe heat according to the scientific theory4 ,scientists suppose that all matter is made up of small particles called molecules1 so small that they have never been seen4 ,each molecule is made up of still smaller particles called atoms4 ,there is nothing smaller than an atom1 and there are only about sixty-five different kinds of atoms1 which are called elements2 or rather1 any substance made up of only one kind of atom is called an element4 ,thus iron is an element1 and so is zinc1 hydrogen1 oxygen1 etc4 ,but a substance like water is not an element1 but a compound1 since its molecules are made up of an atom of oxygen united with two atoms of hydrogen4 ,wood is made up of many different kinds of atoms united in various ways4 ,air is not a compound1 but a mixture of oxygen1 nitrogen and a few other substances in small quantities4 ,the reason why air is a mixture and not a compound is an interesting one1 and brings us to our next point4 ,in order to form a compound1 two different kinds of atoms must have an attraction for each other4 ,there is no attraction between oxygen and nitrogen2 but there is great attraction between oxygen and carbon1 and when they get a chance they rush together like long separated lovers4 ,anthracite coal is almost pure carbon4 ,so is charcoal4 ,soft coal consists of carbon with which various other things are united1 one of them being hydrogen4 ,this is interesting and important1 because it accounts for a curious thing in firing up boilers with soft coal4 ,we have already said that water is oxygen united with hydrogen4 ,when soft coal burns1 not only does the carbon unite with oxygen1 but the hydrogen unites with oxygen and forms water1 or steam4 ,while the boilers are cold they will condense the water or steam in the smoke1 just as a cold plate in a steamy room will condense water from the steamy air1 so sweating4 ,now the scientists suppose that two or three atoms stick together by reason of their attraction for each other and form molecules4 ,these molecules in turn stick together and form liquids and solids4 ,the tighter they stick1 the harder the substance4 ,at the same time1 these molecules are more or less loose1 and are constantly moving back and forth4 ,in a solid like iron they move very little2 but a current of electricity through iron makes the molecules move in a peculiar way4 ,in a liquid like water1 the molecules cling together very loosely1 and may easily be pulled apart4 ,in any gas1 like air or steam1 the molecules are entirely disconnected1 and are constantly trying to get farther apart4 ,heat1 says the scientist1 is nothing more or less than the movement of the molecules back and forth4 ,heat up a piece of iron in a hot furnace1 and the molecules keep getting further and further apart1 and the iron gets softer and softer1 till it becomes a liquid4 ,if we take some liquid like water and heat it1 the molecules get farther and farther apart1 till the water boils1 as we say1 or turns into steam4 ,as steam the molecules have broken apart entirely1 and are beating back and forth so rapidly that they have a tendency to push each other farther and farther apart4 ,this pushing tendency is the cause of steam pressure4 ,it also explains why steam has an expansive power4 ,heat1 then1 is the movement of the molecules back and forth4 ,there are three fixed ranges in which they move2 the small range makes a solid2 the next range makes a liquid2 the third range makes a gas1 such as steam4 ,these three states of matter as affected by heat are very sharp and definite4 ,the point at which a solid turns to a liquid is called the melting point4 ,the melting point of ice is #cb ,fahr4 ,the point at which it turns to a gas is called the boiling point4 ,with water that is #bab ,fahr4 ,the general tendency of heat is to push apart1 or expand2 and when the heat is taken away the substances contract4 ,let us consider our steam boiler4 ,we saw that some different kinds of atoms have a strong tendency to rush together2 for example1 oxygen and carbon4 ,the air is full of oxygen1 and coal and wood are full of carbon4 ,when they are raised to a certain temperature1 and the molecules get loose enough so that they can tear themselves away from whatever they are attached to1 they rush together with terrible force1 which sets all surrounding molecules to vibrating faster than ever4 ,this means that heat is given out4 ,another important thing is that when a solid changes to a liquid1 or a liquid to a gas1 it must take up a certain amount of heat to keep the molecules always just so far apart4 ,that heat is said to become latent1 for it will not show in a thermometer1 it will not cause anything to expand1 nor will it do any work4 ,it merely serves to hold the molecules just so far apart4 ,,how ,,energy ,,is ,,lost4 ,we may now see some of the ways in which energy is lost4 ,first1 the air which goes into the firebox consists of nitrogen as well as oxygen4 ,that nitrogen is only in the way1 and takes heat from the fire1 which it carries out at the smokestack4 ,again1 if the air cannot get through the bed of coals easily enough1 or there is not enough of it so that every atom of carbon1 etc41 will find the right number of atoms of oxygen1 some of the atoms of carbon will be torn off and united with oxygen1 and the other atoms of carbon1 left without any oxygen to unite with1 will go floating out at the smokestack as black smoke4 ,also1 the carbon and the oxygen cannot unite except at a certain temperature1 and when fresh fuel is thrown on the fire it is cold1 and a good many atoms of carbon after being loosened up1 get cooled off again before they have a chance to find an atom of oxygen1 and so they1 too1 go floating off and are lost4 ,if the smoke could be heated up1 and there were enough oxygen mixed with it1 the loose carbon would still burn and produce heat1 and there would be an economy of fuel4 ,this has given rise to smoke consumers1 and arranging two boilers1 so that when one is being fired the heat from the other will catch the loose carbon before it gets away and burn it up4 ,so we have these points3 #a4 ,enough oxygen or air must get into a furnace so that every atom of carbon will have its atom of oxygen4 ,this means that you must have a good draft and that the air must have a chance to get through the coal or other fuel4 #b4 ,the fuel must be kept hot enough all the time so that the carbon and oxygen can unite4 ,throwing on too much cold fuel at one time will lower the heat beyond the economical point and cause loss in thick smoke4 #c4 ,if the smoke can pass over a hot bed of coals1 or through a hot chamber1 the carbon in it may still be burned4 ,this suggests putting fuel at the front of the firebox1 a little at a time1 so that its smoke will have to pass over a hot bed of coals and the waste carbon will be burned4 ,when the fresh fuel gets heated up1 it may be pushed farther back4 ,from a practical point of view these points mean1 ,no dead plates in a furnace to keep the air from going through coal or wood2 a thin fire so the air can get through easily2 place the fresh fuel where its smoke will have a chance to be burned2 and do not cool off the furnace by putting on much fresh fuel at a time4 7,later we will give more hints on firing47 ,,how ,,heat ,,is ,,distributed4 ,we have described heat as the movement of molecules back and forth at a high rate of speed4 ,if these heated molecules beat against a solid like iron1 its molecules are set in motion1 one knocks the next1 and so on1 just as you push one man in a crowd1 he pushes the next1 and so on till the push comes out on the other side4 ,so heat passes through iron and appears on the other side4 ,this is called 8conduction40 ,all space is supposed to be filled with a substance in which heat1 light1 etc41 may be transmitted1 called the ether4 ,when the molecules of a sheet of iron are heated1 or set vibrating1 they transmit the vibration through the air1 or ether4 ,this is called 8radiation40 ,heat is 8conducted0 through solid and liquid substances1 and 8radiated0 through gases4 ,now some substances conduct heat readily1 and some do so with the greatest difficulty4 ,iron is a good conductor2 carbon1 or soot on the flues of a boiler1 and lime or scale on the inside of a boiler1 are very poor conductors4 ,so the heat will go through the iron and steel to the water in a boiler quickly and easily1 and a large per cent of the heat of the furnace will get to the water in a boiler4 ,when a boiler is old and is clogged with soot and coated with lime1 the heat cannot get through easily1 and goes off in the smokestack4 ,the air coming out of the smokestack will be much hotter2 and that extra heat is lost4 ,iron is a good radiator1 too4 ,so if the outer shell of a boiler is exposed to the air1 a great deal of heat will run off into space and be lost4 ,here1 then1 is where you need a non-conductor1 as it is called1 such as lime1 wood1 or the like4 ,economy says1 cover the outside of a boiler shell with a non-conductor4 ,this may be brickwork in a set boiler2 in a traction boiler it means a jacket of wood1 plaster1 hair1 or the like4 ,the steam pipe1 if it passes through outer air1 should be covered with felt2 and the steam cylinder ought to have its jacket1 too4 ,at the same time all soot and all scale should be scrupulously cleaned away4 ,,properties ,,of ,,steam4 ,as we have already seen1 steam is a gas4 ,it is slightly blue in color1 just as the water in the ocean is blue1 or the air in the sky4 ,we must distinguish between steam and vapor4 ,vapor is small particles of water hanging in the air4 ,they seem to stick to the molecules composing the air1 or hang there in minute drops4 ,water hanging in the air is1 of course1 water still4 ,its molecules do not have the movement that the molecules of a true gas do1 such as steam is4 ,steam1 moreover1 has absorbed latent heat1 and has expansive force2 but vapor has no latent heat1 and no expansive force4 ,so vapor is dead and lifeless1 while steam is live and full of energy to do work4 ,when vapor gets mixed with steam it is only in the way2 it is a sort of dead weight that must be carried2 and the steam power is diminished by having vapor mixed with it4 ,now all steam as it bubbles up through water in boiling takes up with it a certain amount of vapor4 ,such steam is called 8wet0 steam4 ,when the vapor is no longer in it1 the steam is called 8dry0 steam4 ,it is dry steam that does the best work1 and that every engineer wants to get4 ,while water will be taken up to great heights in the air and form clouds1 in steam it will not rise very much1 and at a certain height above the level of the water in a boiler the steam will be much drier than near the surface4 ,for this reason steam domes have been devised1 so that the steam may be taken out at a point as high as possible above the water in the boiler1 and so be as dry as possible4 ,also 8dry tubes0 have been devised1 which let the steam pass through many small holes that serve to keep back the water to a certain extent4 ,however1 there will be more or less moisture in all steam until it has been superheated1 as it is called4 ,this may be done by passing it through the hot part of the furnace1 where the added heat will turn all the moisture in the steam into steam1 and we shall have perfectly dry steam4 ,the moment1 however1 that steam goes through a cold pipe1 or one cooled by radiation1 or goes into a cold cylinder1 or a cylinder cooled by radiation1 some of the steam will turn to water1 or condense1 as it is called4 ,so we have the same trouble again4 ,much moisture passing into the cylinder with the steam is called 8priming40 ,in that case the dead weight of water has become so great as to kill a great part of the steam power4 ,,how ,,to ,,use ,,the ,,expansive ,,power ,,of ,,steam4 ,we have said that the molecules in steam are always trying to get farther and farther apart4 ,if they are free in the air1 they will soon scatter2 but if they are confined in a boiler or cylinder they merely push out in every direction1 forming 8pressure40 ,when steam is let into the cylinder it has the whole accumulated pressure in the boiler behind it1 and of course that exerts a strong push on the piston4 ,shut off the boiler pressure and the steam in the cylinder will still have its own natural tendency to expand4 ,as the space in the cylinder grows larger with the movement of the piston from end to end1 the expansive power of the steam becomes less and less1 of course4 ,however1 every little helps1 and the push this lessened expansive force exerts on the piston is so much energy saved4 ,if the full boiler pressure is kept on the piston the whole length of the stroke1 and then the exhaust port is immediately opened1 all this expansive energy of the steam is lost4 ,it escapes through the exhaust nozzle into the smokestack and is gone4 ,possibly it cannot get out quickly enough1 and causes back pressure on the cylinder when the piston begins its return stroke1 so reducing the power of the engine4 ,to save this the skilled engineer 8notches up0 his reverse lever1 as they say4 ,the reverse lever controls the valve travel4 ,when the lever is in the last notch the valve has its full travel4 ,when the lever is in the center notch the valve has no travel at all1 and no steam can get into the cylinder2 on the other side the lever allows the valve to travel gradually more and more in the opposite direction1 so reversing the engine4 ,as the change from one direction to the other direction is1 of course1 gradual1 the valve movement is shortened by degrees1 and lets steam into the cylinder for a correspondingly less time4 ,at its full travel it perhaps lets steam into the cylinder for three-quarters of its stroke4 ,for the last quarter the work is done by the expansive power of the steam4 ,set the lever in the half notch1 and the travel of the valve is so altered that steam can get into the cylinder only during half the stroke of the piston1 the work during the rest of the stroke being done by the expansive force of the steam4 ,set the lever in the notch next to the middle notch1 or the quarter notch1 and steam will get into the cylinder only during a quarter of the stroke of the piston1 the work being done during three-quarters of the stroke by the expansive force of the steam4 ,obviously the more the steam is expanded the less work it can do4 ,but when it escapes at the exhaust there will be very little pressure to be carried away and lost4 ,therefore when the load on his engine is light the economical engineer will 8notch up0 his engine with the reverse lever1 and will use up correspondingly less steam and save correspondingly more fuel4 ,when the load is unusually heavy1 however1 he will have to use the full power of the pressure in the boiler1 and the waste cannot be helped4 ,,the ,,compound ,,engine4 ,the compound engine is an arrangement of steam cylinders to save the expansive power of steam at all times by letting the steam from one cylinder where it is at high pressure into another after it exhausts from the first1 in this second cylinder doing more work purely by the expansive power of the steam4 ,the illustration shows a sectional view of a compound engine having two cylinders1 one high pressure and one low4 ,the low pressure cylinder is much larger than the high pressure4 ,there is a single plate between them called the center head1 and the same piston rod is fitted with two pistons1 one for each cylinder4 ,the steam chest does not receive steam from the boiler1 but from the exhaust of the high pressure cylinder4 ,the steam from the boiler goes into a chamber in the double valve1 from which it passes to the ports of the high pressure cylinder4 ,at the return stroke the exhaust steam escapes into the steam chest1 and from there it passes into the low pressure cylinder4 ,there may be one valve riding on the back of another2 but the simplest form of compound engine is built with a single double valve1 which opens and closes the ports for both cylinders at one movement4 ,illustration3 ,,woolf ,,tandem ,,cylinder4 ,theoretically the compound engine should effect a genuine economy4 ,in practice there are many things to operate against this4 ,of course if the steam pressure is low to start with1 the amount of pressure lost in the exhaust will be small4 ,but if it is very high1 the saving in the low pressure cylinder will be relatively large4 ,if the work can be done just as well with a low pressure1 it would be a practical waste to keep the pressure abnormally high in order to make the most of the compound engine4 ,an engine must be a certain size before the saving of a compound cylinder will be appreciable4 ,in these days nearly all very large engines are compound1 while small engines are simple4 ,another consideration to be taken into account is that a compound is more complicated and so harder to manage2 and when any unfavorable condition causes loss it causes proportionately more loss on a compound than on a simple engine4 ,for these and other reasons compound engines have been used less for traction purposes than simple engines have4 ,it is probable that a skilled and thoroughly competent engineer1 who would manage his engine in a scientific manner1 would get more out of a compound than out of a simple2 and this would be especially true in regions where fuel is high4 ,if fuel is cheap and the engineer unskilled1 a compound engine would be a poor economizer4 ,,friction4 ,we have seen that the molecules of water have a tendency to stick in the steam as vapor or moisture4 ,all molecules that are brought into close contact have more or less tendency to stick together1 and this is called friction4 ,the steam as it passes along the steam pipe is checked to a certain extent by the friction on the sides of the pipe4 ,friction causes heat1 and it means that the heat caused has been taken from some source of energy4 ,the friction of the steam diminishes the energy of the steam4 ,so1 too1 the fly wheel moving against the air suffers friction with the air1 besides having to drive particles of air out of its path4 ,all the moving parts of an engine where one metal moves on another suffer friction1 since where the metals are pressed very tightly together they have more tendency to stick than when not pressed so tightly4 ,when iron is pressed too tightly1 as under the blows of a hammer in a soft state1 it actually welds together solidly4 ,there is a great deal of friction in the steam cylinder1 since the packing rings must press hard against the walls of the cylinder to prevent the steam from getting through4 ,there is a great deal of friction between the ,d valve and its seat1 because of the high steam pressure on the back of the valve4 ,there is friction in the stuffing boxes both of the valve and the piston4 ,there is friction at all the bearings4 ,there are various ways in which friction may be reduced4 ,the most obvious is to adjust all parts so nicely that they will bind as little as possible4 ,the stuffing-boxes will be no tighter than is necessary to prevent leaking of steam2 and so with the piston rings4 ,journal boxes will be tight enough to prevent pounding1 but no tighter4 ,to obtain just the right adjustment requires great patience and the keen powers of observation and judgment4 ,the makers of engines try to reduce friction as much as possible by using anti-friction metals in the boxes4 ,iron and steel have to be used in shafts1 gears1 etc41 because of the strength that they possess2 but there are some metals that stick to each other and to iron and steel much less than iron or steel stick to each other when pressed close together4 ,these metals are more or less soft2 but they may be used in boxes and journal bearings4 ,they are called anti-friction metals4 ,the hardest for practical purposes is brass1 and brass is used where there is much wear4 ,where there is less wear various alloys of copper1 tin1 zinc1 etc41 may be used in the boxes4 ,one of these is babbit metal1 which is often used in the main journal box4 ,all these anti-friction metals wear out rapidly1 and they must be put in so that they can be adjusted or renewed easily4 ,but the great anti-friction agent is oil4 ,oil is peculiar in that while the molecules seem to stick tightly together and to a metal like iron or steel1 they roll around upon each other with the utmost ease4 ,an ideal lubricator is one that sticks so tight to the journal that it forms a sort of cushion all around it1 and prevents any of its molecules coming into contact with the molecules of the metal box4 ,all the friction then takes place between the different molecules of oil1 and this friction is a minimum4 ,the same principle has been applied to mechanics in the ball bearing4 ,a number of little balls roll around between the journal and its box1 preventing the two metals from coming into contact with each other2 while the balls1 being spheres1 touch each other only at a single point1 and the total space at which sticking can occur is reduced to a minimum4 ,as is well known1 there is great difference in oils4 ,some evaporate1 like gasoline and kerosene1 and so disappear quickly4 ,others do not stick tightly to the journal1 so are easily forced out of place1 and the metals are allowed to come together4 ,what is wanted1 then1 is a heavy1 sticky oil that will not get hard1 but will always form a good cushion between bearings4 ,steam cylinders cannot be oiled directly1 but the oil must be carried to the steam chest and cylinder in the steam4 ,a good cylinder oil must be able to stand a high temperature4 ,while it is diffused easily in the steam1 it must stick tightly to the walls of the steam cylinder and to the valve seat1 and keep them lubricated4 ,once it is stuck to the metal1 the heat of the steam should not evaporate it and carry it away4 ,again1 a cylinder oil should not have any acid in it which would have a tendency to corrode the metal4 ,nearly all animal fats do have some such acid4 ,so tallow and the like should not be placed where they can corrode iron or steel4 ,lard and suet alone are suitable for use on an engine4 ,when it comes to lubricating traction gears1 other problems appear4 ,a heavy grease will stick to the gears and prevent them from cutting2 but it will stick equally to all sand and grit that may come along1 and that1 working between the cogs1 may cut them badly4 ,so some engineers recommend the use on gears of an oil that does not gather so much dirt4 ,the friction of the valve on its seat due to the pressure of the steam on its back has given rise to many inventions for counteracting it4 ,the most obvious of these is what is called 8the balanced valve40 ,in the compound engine1 where the steam pressure is obtained upon both sides of the valve1 it rides much more lightly on its seat--so lightly1 indeed1 that when steam pressure is low1 as in going down hill or operating under a light load1 plunger pistons must be used to keep the valve down tight on its seat4 ,the poppet valves were devised to obviate the undue friction of the ,d valve2 but the same loss of energy is to a certain extent transferred1 and the practical saving is not always equal to the theoretical4 ,on large stationary engines rotary valves and other forms1 such as are used on the ,corliss engine1 have come into common use2 but they are too complicated for a farm engine1 which must be as simple as possible1 with least possible liability of getting out of order4 ,,chapter ,,xi4 ,,economy ,,in ,,running ,a ,,farm ,,engine4--7,,cont47 ,,practical ,,points4 ,the first practical point in the direction of farm engine economy is to note that the best work can be done only when every part of the engine and boiler are in due proportion4 ,if the power is in excess of the work to be done there is loss2 if the grate surface is too large cold air gets through the fuel and prevents complete combustion1 and if the grate surface is too small1 not enough air gets in2 if the steaming power of the boiler is too large1 heat is radiated away that otherwise could be saved1 for every foot of exposed area in the boiler is a source of loss2 if the steaming power of the boiler is too low for the work to be done1 it requires extra fuel to force the boiler to do its work1 and any forcing means comparatively large loss or waste4 ,it will be seen that not only must the engine and boiler be built with the proper proportions1 but they must be bought with a nice sense of proportion to the work expected of them4 ,this requires excellent judgment and some experience in measuring work in horsepowers4 ,,grate ,,surface ,,and ,,fuel4 ,the grate surface in a firebox should be not less than two-thirds of a square foot per horsepower1 for average size traction engines4 ,if the horsepower of an engine is small1 proportionately more grate surface will be needed2 if it is large1 the grate surface may be proportionately much smaller4 ,an engine boiler #ghbjj rev41 with #ajj lbs4 pressure1 should have a grate surface not less than six square feet1 and seven would be better4 ,in a traction engine there is always a tendency to make the grate surface as small as possible1 so that the engine will not be cumbersome4 ,another reason why the grate surface should be sufficiently large is that forced draft is a bad thing1 since it has a tendency to carry the products of combustion and hot gases through the smokestack and out into space before they have time to complete combustion and especially before the heat of the gases has time to be absorbed by the boiler surface4 ,a large grate surface1 then1 with a moderate draft1 is the most economical4 ,the draft depends on other things1 however4 ,if a great deal of fine fuel is thrown on a fire1 the air must be forced through1 because it cannot get through in the natural way4 ,this results in waste4 ,so a fire should be as open as possible4 ,coal should be 8thin0 on the grates2 wood should be thrown in so that there will be plenty of air spaces2 straw should be fed in just so that it will burn up completely as it goes in4 ,moderate size coal is better than small or fine4 ,dust in coal checks the draft4 ,a good engineer will choose his fuel and handle his fire so that he can get along with as little forced draft as possible4 ,in a straw burning engine a good circulation of air can be obtained1 if the draft door is just below the straw funnel1 by extending the funnel into the furnace six inches or so4 ,this keeps the straw from clogging up the place where the air enters and enables it to get at the fuel so much more freely that the combustion is much more complete4 ,we have already suggested that in firing with coal1 the fresh fuel be deposited in front1 so that the smoke will have to pass over live coals and so the combustion will be more complete4 ,then when the coal is well lighted it can be poked back over the other portions of the grate4 ,this method has another advantage1 in that the first heating is usually sufficient to separate the pure coal from the mineral substances which form clinkers1 and most of the clinkers will be deposited at that one point in the grate4 ,here they can easily be lifted out1 and will not seriously interfere with the burning of the coal as they would if scattered all over the grate4 ,clinkers in front can easily be taken out by hooking the poker over them toward the back of the firebox and pulling them up and to the front4 ,they often come out as one big mass which can be easily lifted out4 ,the best time to clean the grate is when there is a good brisk fire4 ,then it will not cause steam to go down4 ,stirring a fire does little good4 ,for one thing1 it breaks up the clinkers and allows them to run down on the grate bars when they stick and finally warp the bars4 ,if the fire is not stirred the clinkers can be lifted out in large masses4 ,stirring a fire also creates a tendency to choke up or coke1 and interferes with the even and regular combustion of the coal at all points4 ,the highest heat that can be produced is a yellow heat4 ,when there is a good yellow heat1 forced draft will only carry off the heat and cause waste4 ,it will not cause still more rapid combustion4 ,when the heat is merely red1 increased draft will raise the temperature4 ,combustion is not complete until the flame shows yellow4 ,however1 if the draft is slight and time is given1 red heat will be nearly as effective1 but it will not carry the heated gases over so large a part of the heating surface of the boiler4 ,with a very large grate surface1 red heat will do very well4 ,certainly it will be better than a forced draft1 or an effort at heating beyond the yellow point4 ,,boiler ,,heating ,,surface4 ,the heat of the furnace does its work only as the heated gases touch the boiler surface4 ,the iron conducts the heat through to the water1 which is raised to the boiling point and turned into steam4 ,now the amount of heat that the boiler will take up is directly in proportion to the amount of exposed surface and to the time of exposure4 ,if the boiler heating surface is small1 and the draft is forced so that the gases pass through rapidly1 they do not have a chance to communicate much heat4 ,also if the heating surface is too large1 so that it cannot all be utilized1 the part not used becomes a radiating surface1 and the efficiency of the boiler is impaired4 ,practice has shown that the amount of heating surface practically required by a boiler is #ab to #ae square feet per horsepower4 ,in reckoning heating surface1 all area which the heated gases touch is calculated4 ,another point in regard to heating surface in the production of steam is this1 that only such surface as is exposed to a heat equal to turning the water into steam is effective4 ,if there is a pressure of #aej lbs4 the temperature at which the water would turn to steam would be #ceg degrees1 and any gases whose temperature was below #ceg degrees would have no effect on the heating surface except to prevent radiation4 ,thus in a return flue boiler the heated gases become cooled often to such an extent before they pass out at the smokestack that they do not help the generation of steam4 ,yet a heat just below #ceg degrees would turn water into steam under #adi lbs4 pressure4 ,though it has work in it1 the heat is lost4 ,another practical point as to economy in large heating surface is that it costs money to make1 and is cumbersome to move about4 ,it may cost more to move a traction engine with large boiler from place to place than the saving in fuel would amount to4 ,so the kind of roads and the cost of fuel must be taken into account and nicely balanced4 ,however1 it may be said that a boiler with certain outside dimensions that will generate #bj horsepower will be more economical than one of the same size that will generate only #aj horsepower4 ,in selecting an engine1 the higher the horsepower for the given dimensions1 the more economical of both fuel and water4 ,the value of heating surface also depends on the material through which the heat must penetrate1 and the rapidity with which the heat will pass4 ,we have already pointed out that soot and lime scale permit heat to pass but slowly and if they are allowed to accumulate will greatly reduce the steaming power of a boiler for a given consumption of fuel4 ,another point is that the thinner the iron or steel1 the better will the heat get through even that4 ,so it follows that flues1 being thinner1 are better conductors than the sides of the firebox4 ,long flues are better than short ones in that the long ones allow less soot1 etc41 to accumulate than the short ones do1 and afford more time for the boiler to absorb the heat of the gases4 ,again1 we have stated that heating surface is valuable only as it is exposed to the gases at a sufficiently high temperature4 ,some boilers have a tendency to draw the hot gases most rapidly through the upper flues1 while the lower flues do not get their proportion of the heat4 ,this results in a loss1 for the heat to give its full benefit should be equally distributed4 ,to prevent the heat being drawn too rapidly through upper flues1 a baffle plate may be placed in the smoke box just above the upper flues1 thus preventing them from getting so much of the draft4 ,again1 if the exhaust nozzle is too low down1 the draft through the lower flues may be greater than through the upper4 ,this is remedied by putting a piece of pipe on the exhaust to raise it higher in the smokestack4 ,,expansion ,,and ,,condensation4 ,we have already pointed out that economy results if we hook up the reverse lever so that the expansive force of the steam has an opportunity to work during half or three-quarters of the stroke4 ,one difficulty arising from this method is that the walls of the cylinder cool more rapidly when not under the full boiler pressure4 ,condensation in the cylinder is a practical difficulty which should be met and overcome as far as possible4 ,high speed gives some advantage4 ,a judicious use of cushion helps condensation somewhat also1 because when any gas like steam or air is compressed1 it gives off heat1 and this heat in the cushion will keep up the temperature of the cylinder4 ,this cannot be carried very far1 however1 for the back pressure of cushion will reduce the energy of the engine movement4 ,,lead ,,and ,,clearance4 ,too much clearance will detract from the power of an engine1 as there is just so much more waste space to be filled with hot steam4 ,too little clearance will cause pounding4 ,likewise there will be loss of power in an engine if the lead is too great or too little4 ,the proper amount of lead differs with conditions4 ,a high speed engine requires more than a low speed1 and if an engine is adjusted for a certain speed1 it should be kept uniformly at that speed1 as variation causes loss4 ,the more clearance an engine has the more lead it needs4 ,also the quicker the valve motion1 the less lead required4 ,sometimes when a large engine is pulling only a light load and there is no chance to shorten the cut-off1 a turn of the eccentric disk for a trifle more lead will effect some economy4 ,cut-off should be as sharp as possible4 ,a slow cut-off in reducing pressure before cut-off is complete1 causes a loss of power in the engine4 ,,the ,,exhaust4 ,if the exhaust from the cylinder does not begin before the piston begins its return stroke1 there will be back pressure due to the slowness with which the valve opens4 ,the exhaust should be earlier in proportion to the slowness of the valve motion1 and also1 in proportion to the speed of the engine1 since the higher the speed the less time there is for the steam to get out4 ,it follows that an engine whose exhaust is arranged for a low speed cannot be run at a high speed without causing loss from back pressure4 ,in using steam expansively the relative proportion between the back pressure and the force of the steam is of course greater4 ,so in using steam expansively the back pressure must be at a minimum1 and this is especially true in the compound engine4 ,so many things affect this1 that it becomes one of the reasons why it is hard to use a compound engine with as great economy as theory would indicate4 ,another thing1 the smallness of the exhaust nozzle in the smokestack affects the back pressure4 ,the smaller the nozzle1 the greater the draft a given amount of steam will create2 but the more back pressure there will be1 due to the inability of the exhaust steam to get out easily4 ,so the exhaust nozzle should be as large as circumstances will permit4 ,it is a favorite trick with engineers testing the pulling power of their engines to remove the exhaust nozzle entirely for a few minutes when the fire is up4 ,the back pressure saved will at once show in the pulling power of the engine1 and every one will be surprised4 ,of course the fire couldn't be kept going long without the nozzle on4 ,we have already pointed out that a natural draft is better than a forced one4 ,here is another reason for it4 ,,leaks4 ,leaks always cause a waste of power4 ,they may usually be seen when about the boiler2 but leaks in the piston and valve will often go unnoticed4 ,it is to be observed that if a valve does not travel a short distance beyond the end of its seat1 it will wear the part it does travel on1 while the remaining part will not wear and will become a shoulder4 ,such a shoulder will nearly always cause a leak in the valve1 and besides will add the friction1 and otherwise destroy the economy of the engine4 ,likewise the piston will wear part of the cylinder and leave a shoulder at either end if it does not pass entirely beyond the steam-tight portion of the inside of the cylinder4 ,that it may always do this and yet leave sufficient clearance1 the counterbore has been devised4 ,all good engines are bored larger at each end so that the piston will pass beyond the steam-tight portion a trifle at the end of each stroke4 ,of course it must not pass far enough to allow any steam to get through4 ,self-setting piston rings are now generally used4 ,they are kept in place by their own tension4 ,there will always be a little leakage at the lap4 ,the best lap is probably a broken joint rather than a diagonal one4 ,moreover1 as the rings wear they will have a tendency to get loose unless they are thickest at a point just opposite to the lap1 since this is the point at which it is necessary to make up for the tension lost by the lapping4 ,,chapter ,,xii4 ,,different ,,types ,,of ,,engines4 ,,stationary4 ,so far we have described and referred exclusively to the usual form of the farm traction engine1 which is nearly always the simplest kind of an engine1 except in one particular1 namely1 the reverse which gives a variable cut-off4 ,stationary engines1 however1 are worked under such conditions that various changes in the arrangement may be made which gives economy in operating1 or other desirable qualities4 ,we will now briefly describe some of the different kinds of stationary engines4 ,illustration3 ,d4 ,,june ,,co4',s ,,stationary ,,four-,,valve ,,engine4 ,,throttling ,,and ,,automatic ,,cut-,,off ,,types4 ,engines may be divided into two classes1 namely1 throttling and automatic cut-off engines4 ,the throttling engine regulates the speed of the engine by cutting off the supply of steam from the boiler1 either by the hand of the engineer on the throttle or by a governor working a special throttling governor valve4 ,railroad locomotives are throttling engines1 and moreover they have no governor1 the speed being regulated by the engineer at the throttle valve4 ,traction engines are usually throttling engines provided with a governor4 ,an automatic cut-off engine regulates its speed by a governor connected with the valve1 and does it by shortening the time during which steam can enter the cylinder4 ,this is a great advantage1 in that the expansive power of steam is given a chance to work1 while in the throttling engine steam is merely cut off4 ,the subject has been fully discussed under 8,economy in ,running a ,farm ,engine40 ,an automatic cut-off engine is much the most economical4 ,while on traction engines the governor is usually of the ball variety1 on stationary engines improved forms of governors are also placed in the fly wheel1 and work in various ways1 according to the requirements of the valve gear4 ,,the ,,corliss ,,engine4 ,the ,corliss engine is a type now well known and made by many different manufacturers4 ,it is considered one of the most economical stationary engines made1 but cannot be used for traction purposes4 ,it may be compound1 and may be used with a condenser4 ,it cannot be used as a high speed engine1 since the valves will not work rapidly enough4 ,the peculiarity of a ,corliss engine is the arrangement of the valves4 ,it has four valves instead of one1 and they are of the semi-rotary type4 ,they consist of a small1 long cylinder which rocks back and forth1 so as to close and open the port1 which is rather wide and short compared to other types4 ,there is a valve at each end of the cylinder opening usually into the clearance space1 to admit steam2 and two more valves below the cylinder for the exhaust4 ,these exhaust valves allow any water of condensation to run out of the cylinder4 ,moreover1 as the steam when it leaves the cylinder is much colder than when it enters1 the exhaust always cools the steam ports1 and when the same ports are used for exhaust and admission the fresh steam has to pass through ports that have been cooled and cause condensation4 ,in the ,corliss engine the exhaust does not have an opportunity to cool the live steam ports and the condensation is reduced4 ,this works considerable economy4 ,also the ,corliss valves have little friction from steam pressure on their own backs1 since the moment they are lifted from their seats they work freely4 ,the valves are controlled by a governor so as to make the automatic cut-off engine4 ,the ,corliss type of frame for engine is often used on traction engines and means the use of convex shoes on cross-head and concave ways or guides4 ,in locomotive type1 cross-head slides in four square angle guides4 ,,the ,,high ,,speed ,,engine4 ,a high speed engine means one in which the speed of the piston back and forth is high1 rather than the speed of rotation1 there being sometimes a difference4 ,high speed engines came into use because of the need of such to run dynamos for electric lighting4 ,without a high speed engine an intermediate gear would have to be used1 so as to increase the speed of the operating shaft4 ,in the high speed engine this is done away with4 ,as an engine's power varies directly as its speed as well as its cylinder capacity or size1 an engine commonly used for ten horsepower would become a twenty horsepower engine if the speed could be doubled4 ,so high speed engines are very small and compact1 and require less metal to build them4 ,therefore they should be much cheaper per horsepower4 ,a high speed engine differs from a low speed in no essential particular1 except the adjustment of parts4 ,a high steam pressure must be used2 a long1 narrow valve port is used1 so that the full steam pressure may be let on quickly at the beginning of the stroke when the piston is reversing its motion and needs power to get started quickly on its return2 the slide valve must be used1 since the semi-rotary ,corliss would be too wide and short for a quick opening4 ,some high speed engines are built which use four valves1 as does the ,corliss4 ,the friction of the slide valve is usually 8balanced0 in some way1 either by 8pressure plates0 above the valve1 which prevent the steam from getting at the top and pressing the valve down1 or by letting the steam under the valve1 making it slide on narrow strips1 since the pressure above would then be reduced in proportion with the smallness of the bearing surface below1 and if the bearing surface were very small the pressure above would be correspondingly small1 perhaps only enough to keep the valve in place4 ,some automatic cut-off gear is almost always used4 ,a high speed engine may attain #ijj revolutions per minute1 #fjj being common4 ,in many ways it is economical4 ,,condensing ,,and ,,non-,,condensing4 ,in the traction engine the exhaust is used in the smokestack to help the draft1 since the smokestack must necessarily be short4 ,a stationary engine is usually provided with a boiler set in brickwork1 and a furnace with a high chimney1 which creates all the draft needed4 ,in other words1 the heated gases wasted in a traction engine are utilized to make the draft4 ,it then becomes desirable to save the power in the exhaust steam in some way4 ,some of this can be used to heat the feed water1 but only a fraction of it4 ,now when the exhaust steam issues into the air it must overcome the pressure of the atmosphere1 nearly #ae lbs4 to the square inch1 which is a large item to begin with4 ,this can be saved by letting the steam exhaust into a condenser1 where a spray of cold water or the like suddenly condenses the steam so that a vacuum is created4 ,there is then no back pressure on the exhaust steam1 theoretically4 ,practically a perfect vacuum cannot be created1 and there is a back pressure of #b or #c lbs4 per square inch4 ,by the use of a condenser a back pressure of about #ab lbs4 is taken off the head of the piston on its return stroke1 a matter of considerable economy4 ,but an immense amount of water is required to run a condenser1 namely1 #bj times as much for a given saving of power as is required in a boiler to make that power4 ,so condensers are used only where water is cheap4 ,,compound ,,and ,,cross-,,compound4 ,we have already explained the economy effected by the compound engine1 in which a large low pressure cylinder is operated by the exhaust from a small high pressure cylinder4 ,in the cut used for illustration the low pressure cylinder is in direct line with the high pressure cylinder1 and one piston rod connects both pistons4 ,this arrangement is called the 8tandem40 ,sometimes the low pressure cylinder is placed by the side of the high pressure1 or at a distance from it1 and operates another piston and connecting rod4 ,by using a steam chest to store the exhaust steam and varying the cut-off of the two cylinders1 the crank of the low pressure may be at an angle of #ij degrees with the crank of the high pressure1 and there can be no dead center4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,woolf ,,compound4 ,when a very high pressure of steam is used the exhaust from the low pressure cylinder may be used to operate a third cylinder2 and the exhaust from that to operate a fourth4 ,engines so arranged are termed triple and quadruple expansion engines1 or multiple expansion4 ,the practical saving of a compound engine when its value can be utilized to the full is #aj per cent to #bj per cent4 ,small engines are seldom compounded1 large engines nearly always4 ,,chapter ,,xiii4 ,,gas ,,and ,,gasoline ,,engines4 ,the gas and gasoline engines 7they are exactly the same except that one generates the gas it needs from gasoline1 while the other takes common illuminating gas1 the use of gas or gasoline being interchangeable on the same engine by readjustment of some of the parts7 are operated on a principle entirely different from steam4 ,while they are arranged very much as a steam engine1 the power is given by an explosion of gas mixed with air in the cylinder4 ,instead of being a steady pressure like that furnished by steam1 it is a sudden pressure given to one end of the piston usually once in four strokes or two revolutions1 one stroke being required to draw the gasoline in1 the second to compress it1 the third to receive the effect of the explosion 7this is the only power stroke71 the fourth to push out the burned gases preparatory to admitting a new charge4 ,the fact that force is given the cylinder at such wide intervals makes it necessary to have an extra heavy flywheel to keep the engine steady1 and the double cylinder engine which can give a stroke at least every revolution is still better and is indispensable when the flywheel cannot be above a certain weight4 ,for small horsepowers1 such as are required for pumping1 feed grinding1 churning1 etc41 the gas engine is so much more convenient and so very much cheaper in operation than the small steam engine that it is safe to say that within a very few years the gas engine will have completely displaced the small steam engine4 ,in fact1 the discovery of the gas engine permits the same economies for the small engine that the progress in steam engineering has made possible for the large steam engine4 ,as yet the gas engine has made little or no progress against the large steam plant1 with its ,corliss engine1 its triple expansion1 its condenser1 and all the other appliances which are not practicable with the small engine4 ,,comparison ,,of ,,steam ,,and ,,gas ,,engines4 ,the following points prepared by an experienced farm engine manufacturer will show clearly the advantages of the gas engine over the steam engine for general use about a farm3 ,in the first place1 the farmer uses power1 as a rule1 at short intervals1 and also uses small power4 ,should he install a steam engine and wish power for an hour or two1 it would be necessary for him to start a fire under the boiler and get up steam before he could start the engine4 ,this would take at least an hour4 ,at the end of the run he would have a good fire and good steam pressure1 but no use for it1 and would have to let the fire die out and the pressure run down4 ,this involves a great waste of water1 time and fuel4 ,with a gasoline engine he is always ready and can start to work within a few minutes after he makes up his mind to do so1 and he does not have to anticipate his wants in the power line for half a day4 ,aside from this1 in some states1 notably ,ohio1 the law compels any person operating an engine above ten horsepower to carry a steam engineer's license4 ,this does not apply to a gasoline engine4 ,again1 the gasoline engine is as portable as a traction engine1 and can be applied to all the uses of a traction engine and to general farm use all the rest of the year4 ,at little expense it can be fitted up to hoist hay1 to pump water1 to husk and shell corn1 to saw wood1 and even by recent inventions to plowing4 ,it is as good about a farm as an extra man and a team of horses4 ,a gasoline engine can be run on a pint of gasoline per hour for each horsepower1 and as soon as the work is done there is no more consumption of fuel and the engine can be left without fear1 except for draining off the water in the water jacket in cold weather4 ,a steam engine for farm use would require at least four pounds of coal per horsepower per hour1 and in the majority of cases it would be twice that1 taking into consideration the amount of fuel necessary to start the fire and that left unburned after the farmer is through with his power4 ,if you know the cost of crude gasoline at your point and the cost of coal1 you can easily figure the exact economy of a gasoline engine for your use4 ,to the economy of fuel question may be added the labor or cost of pumping or hauling water4 ,the only point wherein a farmer might find it advantageous to have a steam plant would be where he is running a dairy and wished steam and hot water for cleansing his creamery machinery4 ,this can be largely overcome by using the water from the jackets which can be kept at a temperature of about #age degrees1 and if a higher temperature is needed he can heat it with the exhaust from the engine4 ,the time will certainly come soon when no farmer will consider himself up to date until he has a gasoline engine4 ,some persons unaccustomed to gasoline may wonder if a gasoline engine is as safe as a steam engine4 ,the fact is1 they are very much safer1 and do not require a skilled engineer to run them4 ,the gasoline tank is usually placed outside the building1 where the danger from an explosion is reduced to a minimum4 ,the only danger that may be encountered is in starting the engine1 filling the supply tank when a burner near at hand is in flame1 etc4 ,once a gasoline engine is started and is supplied with gasoline1 it may be left entirely alone without care for hours at a time without danger and without adjustment4 ,with a steam engine there is always danger1 unless a highly skilled man is watching the engine every moment4 ,if the water gets a little low he is liable to have an explosion2 if it gets a little too high he may knock out a cylinder head in his engine2 the fire must be fed every few minutes2 the grates cleaned4 ,there is always something to be done about a steam engine4 ,so here is another point of great saving in a gasoline engine1 namely1 the saving of one man's time4 ,the man who runs the gasoline engine may give nearly all his time to other work1 such as feeding a corn-sheller1 a fodder chopper1 or the like4 ,kerosene may also be used in the same way with a special type of gas engine4 ,the amounts of fuel required of the different kinds possible in a gas engine are compared as follows by ,roper3 ,illuminating gas1 #ag to #bj cubic feet per horsepower per hour4 ,pittsburg natural gas1 as low as #aa cubic feet4 #gd gasoline1 known as stove gasoline1 one-tenth of a gallon4 ,refined petroleum1 one-tenth of a gallon4 ,if a gas producing plant using coal supplies the gas1 one pound of coal per horsepower per hour is sufficient on a large engine4 ,,description ,,of ,,the ,,gas ,,or ,,gasoline ,,engine4 ,the gas engine consists of a cylinder and piston1 piston rod1 cross-head1 connecting rod1 crank and flywheel1 very similar to those used in the steam engine4 ,there is a gas valve1 an exhaust valve1 and in connection with the gas valve a self-acting air valve4 ,the gas valve and the exhaust valve are operated by lever arm or cam worked from the main shaft1 arranged by spiral gear or the like so that it gets one movement for each two revolutions of the main shaft4 ,such an engine is called 8four cycle0 7meaning one power stroke to each four strokes of the piston71 and works as follows3 ,as the piston moves forward the air and fuel valves are simultaneously opened and closed1 starting to open just as the piston starts forward and closing just as the piston completes its forward stroke4 ,gas and air are simultaneously sucked into the cylinder1 by this movement4 ,as the cylinder returns it compresses the charge taken in during the forward stroke until it again reaches back center4 ,the mixture in the ,otto engine is compressed to about #gj pounds per square inch4 ,ignition then takes place1 causing the mixture to explode and giving the force from which the power is derived4 ,as the crank again reaches its forward center the piston uncovers a port which allows the greater part of the burnt gases to escape4 ,as the piston comes back1 the exhaust valve is opened1 enabling the piston to sweep out the remainder of the burnt gases4 ,by the time the crank is on the back center the exhaust valve is closed and the engine is ready to take another charge1 having completed two revolutions or four strokes4 ,the side shaft which performs the functions of opening and closing the valves1 getting its motion in the ,columbus engine by a pair of spiral gears1 makes but one revolution to two of the crank shaft4 ,illustration3 ,,fairbanks1 ,,morse ,,co4',s ,,gasoline ,,engine4 ,a is engine cylinder4 ,h is gasoline supply tank located outside of building and under ground4 ,i is air-suction pipe4 ,e is gasoline pump4 ,o is suction pipe from gasoline tank4 ,n is pipe from pump ,e leading to reservoir ,p4 ,q is igniter tube4 ,r is chimney surrounding tube4 ,t is tank supplying ,bunsen burner for heating tube4 ,gas engines are governed in various ways4 ,one method is to attach a ball governor similar to the ,waters on the steam engine4 ,when the speed is too high1 the balls go out1 and a valve is closed or partly closed1 cutting off the fuel supply4 ,since the engine takes in fuel only once in four strokes1 the governing cannot be so close as on the steam engine1 since longer time must elapse before the governor can act4 ,another type of governor operates by opening the exhaust port and holding it open4 ,the piston then merely draws in air through the exhaust port1 but no gas4 ,this is called the 8hit or miss0 governing type4 ,one power stroke is missed completely4 ,the heat caused by the explosion within the cylinder is very great1 some say as high as #c1jjj degrees4 ,such a heat would soon destroy the oil used to lubricate the cylinder and make the piston cut1 as well as destroying the piston packing4 ,to keep this heat down the cylinder is provided with a water jacket1 and a current of water is kept circulating around it to cool it off4 ,when gas is used1 the gas is passed through a rubber bag1 which helps to make the supply even4 ,it is admitted to the engine by a valve similar to the throttle valve on an engine4 ,gasoline is turned on by a similar valve1 or throttle4 ,it does not have to be gasefied1 but is sucked into the cylinder in the form of a spray4 ,as soon as the engine is started1 the high heat of the cylinder caused by the constant explosions readily turns the gasoline to gas as it enters4 ,the supply tank of gasoline is placed outside the building1 or at a distance1 and stands at a point below the feed4 ,a small pump pumps it up to a small box or feed tank1 which has an overflow pipe to conduct any superfluous gasoline back to the supply tank4 ,in the gasoline box or feed tank a conical-shaped basin is filled with gasoline to a certain height1 which can be regulated4 ,whatever this conical basin contains is sucked into the cylinder with the air4 ,by regulating the amount in the basin the supply of gasoline in the cylinder can be regulated to the amount required for any given amount of work4 ,in the ,columbus engine this regulation is accomplished by screwing the overflow regulator up or down4 ,there are two methods of igniting the charge in the cylinder in order to explode it4 ,one is by what is called a gasoline or gas torch4 ,a hollow pin or pipe is fixed in the top of the cylinder4 ,the upper part of this pin or pipe runs up into a gasoline or gas lamp of the ,bunsen type where it is heated red hot4 ,when the gas and air in the cylinder are compressed by the back stroke of the piston1 some of the mixture is forced up into this pipe or tube until it comes in contact with the heated portion and is exploded1 together with the rest of the charge in the cylinder4 ,of course this tube becomes filled with burnt gases which must be compressed before the explosive mixture can reach the heated portion1 and no explosion is theoretically possible until the piston causes compression to the full capacity of the cylinder4 ,the length of the tube must therefore be nicely regulated to the requirements of the particular engine used4 ,the other method is by an electric spark from a battery4 ,two electrodes of platinum or some similar substance are placed in the compression end of the cylinder4 ,the spark might be caused by bringing the electrodes sufficiently near together at just the right moment1 but the more practical and usual way is to break the current1 closing it sharply by means of a lever worked by the gearing at just the moment the piston is ready to return after compressing the charge4 ,the electric spark is by long odds the most desirable method of ignition1 being safer and easier to take care of1 but it requires some knowledge of electricity and electric connection to keep it always in working order4 ,,operation ,,of ,,gas ,,and ,,gasoline ,,engines4 ,to all intents and purposes the operation of a gas or gasoline engine is the same as that of a steam engine with the care of the boiler eliminated4 ,the care of the engine itself is practically the same1 though the bearings are relatively larger in a gasoline or gas engine and do not require adjustment so often4 ,some manufacturers will tell you that a gas engine requires no attention at all4 ,any one who went on that theory would soon ruin his engine4 ,to keep a gasoline engine in working order so as to get the best service from it and make it last as long as possible1 you should give it the best of care4 ,an engine of this kind needs just as much oiling and cleaning as a steam engine4 ,all bearings must be lubricated and kept free from dirt1 great care must be taken that the piston and cylinder are well lubricated4 ,in addition1 the engineer must see that the valves all work perfectly tight1 and when they leak in any way they must be taken out and cleaned4 ,usually the valve seats are cast separate from the cylinder1 so that they can be removed and ground when they have worn4 ,also the water jacket must be kept in order so that the cylinder cannot become too hot4 ,,starting ,a ,,gasoline ,,engine4 ,it is something of a trick to get a gasoline or gas engine started--especially a gasoline engine--and some skill must be developed in this or there will be trouble4 ,this arises from the fact that when an engine has not been running the cylinder is cold and does not readily gasefy the gasoline4 ,at best only a part of a charge of gasoline can be gasefied1 and if the cylinder is very cold indeed the charge will not explode at all till the cylinder is warmed up4 ,when preparing to start an engine1 first see that the nuts or studs holding cylinder head to cylinder are tight1 as the heating and cooling of the cylinder are liable to loosen them4 ,then oil all bearings with a hand oil can1 and carefully wipe off all outside grease4 ,when all is ready1 work the gasoline pump to get the air out of the feed pipes and fill the reservoir4 ,first1 the engine must be turned so that the piston is as far back as it will go1 and to prevent air being pressed back the exhaust must be held open1 or a cock in priming cup on top of cylinder opened4 ,if gasoline priming is needed1 the gasoline must be poured into the priming cup after closing the cock into the cylinder1 for it would do no good to merely let the gasoline run down into the cylinder in a cold stream3 it must be sprayed in4 ,if the exhaust has been held open1 and the priming charge of gasoline is to be drawn in through the regular supply pipe and valve1 the exhaust should be closed and the throttle turned on to a point indicated by the manufacturer of the engine4 ,we suppose that the igniter is ready to work4 ,if the hot tube is used1 the tube should be hot2 if the electric igniter is used1 the igniter bar should be in position to be snapped so as to close the circuit and cause a spark when the charge has been compressed4 ,if all is ready1 open the cock from which the supply of gasoline is to be obtained1 and at the same time turn the engine over so as to draw the charge into the cylinder4 ,if a priming cock has been opened1 that must be closed by hand as soon as the cylinder is filled and the piston ready to return for compression4 ,if the regular feed is used1 the automatic valve will close of itself4 ,bring the flywheel over to back center so that piston will compress the charge4 ,with the flywheel in the hand1 bring the piston back sharply two or three times1 compressing the charge4 ,this repeated compression causes a little heat to be liberated1 which warms up the cylinder inside4 ,if the cylinder is very cold this compression may be repeated until the cylinder is sufficiently warm to ignite4 ,when performing this preparatory compression the piston may be brought nearly up to the dead center but not quite4 ,at last bring it over the dead center1 and just as it passes over1 snap the electric ignition bar4 ,if an explosion follows the engine will be started4 ,if the hot tube is used1 the flywheel may be brought around sharply each time so that the piston will pass the dead center1 as an explosion will follow complete compression4 ,if the explosion does not follow1 the flywheel may be turned back again and brought up sharply past the dead center4 ,each successive compression will warm up the cylinder a little till at last an explosion will take place and the engine will be started4 ,more gasoline will be needed to start in cold weather than in warm1 and the starting supply should be regulated accordingly4 ,moreover1 when the engine gets to going1 the cylinder will warm up1 more of the gasoline will vaporize1 and a smaller supply will be needed4 ,then the throttle can be turned so as to reduce the supply4 ,after the engine is started1 the water jacket should be set in operation1 and you should see that the cylinder lubrication is taking place as it ought4 ,as the above method of starting the engine will not always work well1 especially in cold weather1 what are called 8self-starters0 are used4 ,they are variously arranged on different engines1 but are constructed on the same general principle4 ,this is1 first1 to pump air and gasoline into the cylinder instead of drawing it in by suction4 ,sometimes the gasoline is forced in by an air compression tank4 ,the engine is turned just past the back center1 care having been taken to make sure that the stroke is the regular explosion stroke4 ,this may be told by looking at the valve cam or shaft4 ,if an electric igniter is used1 it is set ready to snap by hand4 ,if the tube igniter is used1 a detonator is arranged in the cylinder1 to be charged by the head of a snapping parlor match which can be exploded by hand4 ,holding the flywheel with one hand with piston just past back center1 fill the compressed end of the cylinder by working the pump or turning on the air in compression tank till you feel a strong pressure on the piston through the flywheel4 ,then snap igniter or detonator and the engine is off4 ,if throttle valve has not been opened1 it may now be immediately opened4 ,the skill comes in managing the flywheel with one hand1 or one hand and a foot1 and the igniter1 etc41 with the other hand4 ,care must be exercised not to get caught when the flywheel starts off4 ,the foot must never be put through the arm of the wheel1 the wheel merely being held when necessary by the ball of the big toe1 so that if the flywheel should start suddenly it would merely slip off the toe without carrying the foot around or unbalancing the engineer4 ,until one gets used to it1 it is better to have some one else manage the flywheel1 while you look after the gasoline supply1 igniter1 etc4 ,when used to it1 one man can easily start any gasoline engine up to #ae horsepower4 ,,what ,,to ,,do ,,with ,a ,,gasoline ,,engine ,,when ,,it ,,doesn',t ,,work4 ,questions and ,answers4 ,q4 ,if the engine suddenly stops1 what would you do8 ,a4 ,first1 see that the gasoline feed is all right1 plenty of gasoline in the tank1 feed pipe filled1 gasoline pump working1 and then if valves are all in working order4 ,perhaps there may be dirt in the feed reservoir1 or the pipe leading from it may be stopped up4 ,if everything is right so far1 examine the valves to see that they work freely and do not get stuck from lack of good oil1 or from use of poor oil4 ,raise them a few times to see if they work freely4 ,carefully observe if the air valve is not tight in sleeve of gas valve4 ,q4 ,what would be the cause of the piston's sticking in the cylinder8 ,a4 ,either it was not properly lubricated1 or it got too hot1 the heat causing it to expand4 ,q4 ,are boxes on a gasoline engine likely to get hot8 ,a4 ,yes1 though not so likely as on a steam engine4 ,they must be watched with the same care as they would be on a steam engine4 ,if the engine stops1 turn it by hand a few times to see that it works freely without sticking anywhere4 ,q4 ,is the electric sparking device likely to get out of order8 ,a4 ,yes4 ,you can always test it by loosening one wire at the cylinder and touching it to the other to see that a spark passes between them4 ,if there is no spark1 there is trouble with the battery4 ,q4 ,how should the batteries be connected up8 ,a4 ,a wire should pass from carbon of ,no4 #a to copper of ,no4 #b2 from carbon of ,no4 #b to copper of ,no4 #c1 etc41 always from copper to carbon1 never from carbon to carbon or copper to copper4 ,wire from last carbon to spark coil and from coil to switch1 and from switch to one of the connections on the engine4 ,wire from copper of ,no4 #a to the other connection on the engine4 ,in wiring1 always scrape the ends of the wire clean and bright where the connection is to be made with any other metal4 ,q4 ,what precautions can be taken to keep batteries in order8 ,a4 ,the connections between the cells can be changed every few days1 ,no4 #a being connected with ,no4 #c1 ,no4 #c with ,no4 #e1 etc41 alternating them1 but always making a single line of connection from one connection on cylinder to first copper1 from the carbon of that cell to copper of next cell1 and so on till the circuit to the cylinder is completed4 ,when the engine is not in operation1 always throw out the switch1 to prevent possible short circuiting4 ,if battery is feeble at first1 fasten wires together for half an hour at engine till current gets well started4 ,q4 ,is there likely to be trouble with the igniter inside cylinder8 ,a4 ,there may be4 ,you will probably find a plug that can be taken out so as to provide a peep hole4 ,never put your eye near this hole1 for some gasoline may escape and when spark is made it will explode and put out your eye4 ,always keep the eye a foot away from the hole4 ,practice looking at the spark when you know it is all right and no gasoline is near1 in order that you may get the right position at which to see the spark in case of trouble4 ,in any case1 always take pains to force out any possible gas before snapping igniter to see if the spark works all right4 ,q4 ,if there is no spark1 what should be done8 ,a4 ,clean the platinum points4 ,this may be done by throwing out switch and cutting a piece of pine one-eighth of an inch thick and one-half inch wide1 and rubbing it between the points4 ,it may be necessary to push cam out a trifle to compensate for wear4 ,q4 ,how can you look into peep hole without endangering eyesight8 ,a4 ,by use of a mirror4 ,q4 ,if the hot tube fails to work1 what may be done8 ,a4 ,conditions of atmosphere1 pressure1 etc41 vary so much that the length of the tube cannot always be determined4 ,if a tube of the usual length fails to work1 try one a little longer or shorter1 but not varying over #a inches4 ,q4 ,when gas is used1 what may interfere with gas supply8 ,a4 ,water in the gas pipes4 ,this is always true of gas pipes not properly drained1 especially in cold weather when condensation may take place4 ,if water accumulates1 tubes must be taken apart and blown out1 and if necessary a drain cock can be put in at the lowest point4 ,q4 ,what trouble is likely to be had with the valves8 ,a4 ,in time the seats will wear1 and must be taken out and ground with flour or emery4 ,q4 ,should the cylinder of a gasoline engine be kept as cool as it can be kept with running water8 ,a4 ,no4 ,it should be as hot as the hand can be borne upon it1 or about #ajj degrees4 ,if it is kept cooler than this the gasoline will not gasefy well4 ,if a tank is used1 the circulation in the tank will justify the temperature properly4 ,the water may be kept at #age degrees of temperature1 and used for hot water heating4 ,the exhaust gases are also hot and may be used for heating by carrying in pipes coiled in a hot water heater4 ,q4 ,are water joints likely to leak8 ,a4 ,yes4 ,the great heating given the cylinder is liable to loosen the water joints4 ,they are best packed with asbestos soaked in oil1 sheets #a-af inch thick4 ,old packing should always be thoroughly cleaned off when new packing is put in4 ,q4 ,how may the bearings be readjusted when worn8 ,a4 ,usually there are liners to adjust bearing4 ,in crank box adjust as in steam engine by tightening the key4 ,q4 ,if you hear a loud explosion in the exhaust pipe after the regular explosion1 should you be alarmed8 ,a4 ,no4 ,all gas or gasoline engines give them at times and they are harmless4 ,if the gas or gasoline fed to the engine is not sufficient to make an explosive mixture1 the engine will perhaps miss the explosion1 and live gas will go into the exhaust pipe4 ,after two or three of these have accumulated an explosion may take place and the burned gases coming out of the port as hot flames will explode the live gas previously exhausted4 ,any missing of the regular explosion by the engine1 through trouble with battery1 or the like1 will cause the same condition4 ,q4 ,when you get exhaust pipe explosions1 what should you do8 ,a4 ,turn on the fuel till the exhaust is smoky4 ,then you know you have fuel enough and more than enough4 ,if the explosions still continue1 conclude that the igniter spark is too weak1 or does not take place4 ,q4 ,what precaution must be taken in cold weather8 ,a4 ,the water must be carefully drained out of jacket4 ,q4 ,will common steam engine cylinder oil do for a gasoline engine8 ,a4 ,no4 ,the heat is so great that only a special high grade mineral oil will do4 ,any oil containing animal fat will be worse than useless4 ,q4 ,how can you tell if right amount of gas or gasoline is being fed to engine to give highest power8 ,a4 ,turn on as much as possible without producing smoke4 ,a smokeless mixture is better than one which causes smoke4 ,q4 ,if you have reason to suppose gas may be in the cylinder1 should you try to start cylinder8 ,a4 ,no4 ,empty the gas all out by turning the engine over a few times by hand1 holding exhaust open if necessary4 ,q4 ,how long will a battery run without recharging8 ,a4 ,the time varies4 ,usually not over three or four months4 ,q4 ,is it objectionable to connect an electric bell with an engine battery8 ,a4 ,certainly4 ,never do it4 ,q4 ,if your engine doesn't run1 how many things are likely to be the trouble8 ,a4 ,not more than four--compression1 spark1 gas supply1 valves4 ,,chapter ,,xiv4 ,,how ,,to ,,run ,a ,,threshing ,,machine4 ,a threshing machine1 though large1 is a comparatively simple machine1 consisting of a cylinder with teeth working into other teeth which are usually concaved 7this primary part really separates the grain from the husk71 and rotary fan and sieves to separate grain from chaff1 and some sort of stacker to carry off the straw4 ,the common stacker merely carries off the straw by some endless arrangement of slats working in a long box2 while the so-called 8wind stacker0 is a pneumatic device for blowing the straw through a large pipe4 ,it has the advantage of keeping the straw under more perfect control than the common stacker4 ,the separation of the grain from the straw is variously effected by different manufacturers1 there being three general types1 called apron1 vibrating1 and agitating4 ,the following list of parts packed inside the ,j4 ,i4 ,case separator 7of the agitative type7 when it is shipped will be useful for reference in connection with any type of separator3 #b ,hopper arms1 ,right and ,left1 #a ,hopper bottom1 #a ,hopper rod with thumb nut1 #b ,feed tables1 #b ,feed table legs1 #b ,band cutter stands and bolts1 #a ,large crank shaft1 #a ,grain auger with #abbc ,t4 pulley and #aaed ,t41 ,box1 #a ,tailings auger1 #a ,elevator spout1 #a ,elevator shake arm1 complete1 #a ,set fish-backs1 for straw-rack1 #a ,elevator pulley1 #ebi ,t41 #a ,beater pulley1 #f-;inch #abed ,t41 or #d-;inch #abee ,t41 #a ,elevator drive pulley #afgc ,t41 #a ,crank pulley to drive grain auger #afje ,t41 #a ,cylinder pulley to drive crank #d-;inch #igc ,t41 or #f-;inch #ajhe ,t41 #a ,cylinder pulley to drive fan #acdg ,t41 #acdh ,t41 or #afcc ,t41 #a ,fan pulley1 #abdd ,t41 or #abca ,t41 #a ,belt tightener1 complete1 with pulley1 #a ,belt reel1 #ejaf ,t41 or #afdb ,t41 with crank and bolt1 #d ,shoe sieves1 #d ,shoe rods1 with nuts and washers1 #a ,conveyor extension1 #a ,sheet iron tail board1 #b ,tail board castings #afed ,t41 and #afee ,t4 ,in addition to these are the parts of the stacker4 ,as each manufacturer furnishes all needed directions for putting the parts together1 we will suppose the separator is in working condition4 ,a new machine should be set up and run for a couple of hours before attempting to thresh any grain4 ,the oil boxes should be carefully cleaned1 and all dirt1 cinders1 and paint removed from the oil holes4 ,the grease cups on cylinder1 beater and crank boxes should be screwed down after being filled with hard oil1 moderately thin oil being used for other parts of the machine4 ,before putting on the belts1 turn the machine by hand a few times to see that no parts are loose4 ,look into the machine on straw rack and conveyor4 ,first connect up belt with engine and run the cylinder only for a time4 ,screw down the grease cup lugs when necessary1 and see that no boxes heat4 ,take off the tightener pulley1 clean out oil chambers and thoroughly oil the spindle4 ,then oil each separate bearing in turn1 seeing that oil hole is clean1 and that pulley or journal works freely4 ,the successive belts may then be put on one at a time1 until the stacker belt is put on after its pulleys have been oiled4 ,especially note which belts are to run crossed--usually the main belt and the stacker belt4 ,you can tell by noting which way the machinery must run to keep the straw moving in the proper direction4 ,oiling on the first run of a machine is especially important1 as the bearings are a trifle rough and more liable to heat than after machine has been used for some time4 ,it is well to oil a shaft while it runs1 since the motion helps the oil to work in over the whole surface4 ,the sieves1 concaves1 check board and blinds must be adjusted to the kind of grain to be threshed4 ,when they have been so adjusted the machine is ready to thresh4 ,,setting ,,separator4 ,it is important that the machine be kept perfectly steady1 and that it be level from side to side1 though its being a little higher or lower at one end or the other may not matter much4 ,if the level sidewise is not perfect the grain will have a tendency to work over to one side4 ,a spirit level should be used4 ,illustration3 ,,sectional ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,agitator ,,separator4 ,one or more of the wheels should be set in holes1 according to the unevenness of the ground1 and the rear wheels should be well blocked4 ,get the holes ready1 judging as well as possible what will give a true level and a convenient position4 ,haul the machine into position and see that it is all right before uncoupling the engine4 ,if holes need redigging to secure proper level1 machine may be pulled out and backed in again by the engine4 ,when machine is high in front it can easily be leveled when engine or team have been removed1 by cramping the front wheels and digging in front of one and behind the other1 then pulling the tongue around square4 ,block the right hind wheel to prevent the belt drawing machine forward4 ,always carry a suitable block to have one handy4 ,in starting out of holes or on soft ground1 cramp the front axle around1 and it will require only half the power to start that would be required by a straight pull4 ,in setting the machine1 if the position can be chosen1 choose one in which the straw will move in the general direction of the wind1 but a little quartering1 so that dust and smoke from engine will be carried away from the men and the straw stack4 ,in this position there is less danger from fire when wood is used4 ,,the ,,cylinder4 ,the cylinder is arranged with several rows of teeth working into stationary teeth in what is called the concave4 ,it is important that all these teeth be kept tight1 and that the cylinder should not work from side to side4 ,the teeth are liable to get loose in a new machine1 and should be tightened up frequently4 ,a little brine on each nut will cause it to rust slightly and help to hold it in place4 ,if the cylinder slips endwise even a sixteenth of an inch1 the teeth will be so much nearer the concaves on one side and so much farther away from them on the other side4 ,where they are close1 they will crack the grain2 where they are wide apart they will let the straw go through without threshing or taking out the grain4 ,so it is important that the cylinder and its teeth run true and steady4 ,if the teeth get bent in any way1 they must be straightened4 ,the speed of the cylinder is important1 since its pulley gives motion to the other parts of the machine1 and this movement must be up to a certain point to do the work well4 ,a usual speed for the cylinder pulley is #a1jge revolutions per minute1 up to #a1aej4 ,there is always an arrangement for adjusting the cylinder endwise1 so that teeth will come in the middle4 ,this should be adjusted carefully when necessary4 ,the end play to avoid heating may be about #a-fd of an inch4 ,it may be remembered that the cylinder teeth carry the straw to the concaves1 and the concaves do the threshing4 ,,the ,,concaves4 ,the concaves are to be adjusted to suit the kind of grain threshed4 ,when desiring to adjust concaves1 lift them up a few times and drop so as to jar out dust4 ,wedging a block of wood between cylinder teeth and concaves will in some types of separator serve to bring up concaves when cylinder is slowly turned by hand4 ,there are from two to six rows of teeth in the concave1 and usually the number of rows is adjustable or variable4 ,two rows will thresh oats1 where six are required for flax and timothy4 ,four rows are commonly used for wheat and barley4 ,the arrangement of rows of teeth and blanks is important4 ,when four rows are used1 one is commonly placed well back1 one front1 blank in the middle4 ,when straw is dry and brittle1 cylinder can be given 8draw0 by placing blank in front4 ,always use as few teeth and leave them as low as possible to thresh clean1 since with more teeth than necessary set higher than required the straw will be cut up and a great deal of chopped straw will get into the sieves1 all of which also requires additional power4 ,sometimes the teeth can be taken out of one row1 so that one1 three1 or five rows may be used4 ,for especially difficult grain like ,turkey wheat1 a concave with corrugated teeth may be used1 in sets of three rows each up to nine rows4 ,the corrugated teeth are used for alfalfa in localities where much is raised4 ,,the ,,beater ,,and ,,check ,,board4 ,after the cylinder has loosened the grain from the husk and straw1 it must still be separated4 ,some threshers have a grate under the cylinder and behind it4 ,in any case the beater causes the heavy grain to work toward the bottom1 and the check board keeps the grain from being carried to rear on top of the straw1 where it would not have a chance to become separated4 ,if the grain is very heavy or damp1 there may be a tendency for the straw to stick to the cylinder and be carried around too far4 ,in such a case the beater should be adjusted to give more space1 and the check board raised to allow the straw to pass to the rear freely4 ,,straw ,,rack4 ,the straw rack and conveyor carry the straw and grain to the rear with a vibratory movement1 causing the grain to be shaken out4 ,to do good work the straw rack must move with a sufficient number of vibrations per minute1 say #bcj4 ,a speed indicator on the crank shaft will show the number of vibrations best4 ,great care must be taken with this part of the thresher1 or a great deal of grain will be carried into the straw4 ,the less the straw is cut up1 the better this portion of the machine works2 so the smallest practicable number of teeth in the concave should be used4 ,the crank boxes and pitmans should be adjusted so that there is no pounding4 ,if the rear vibrating arms drop too low they get below the dead center and are liable to break1 at any rate causing severe pounding and hard running4 ,to prevent this1 the crank boxes can be moved forward by putting leather between them and the posts1 or should be otherwise adjusted4 ,the trouble being due to the pitmans having worn short1 the pitmans may be lengthened in some way by putting pieces of leather over the end or the like1 or new pitmans may be introduced4 ,,the ,,fan4 ,the chief difficulty likely to arise with the fan is blowing over grain4 ,to prevent this blinds are usually arranged1 which may be adjusted while the machine is running so as to prevent the grain from being blown over4 ,at the same time it is important to clean the grain1 so the adjustment should not go to one extreme or the other4 ,in windy weather the blinds should be closed more on one side than on the other4 ,the speed of the fan must be adjusted to the requirements of the locality4 ,as much blast should be used as the grain will stand1 and heavy feeding requires more wind than light feeding1 since the chaff checks the blast to a certain extent4 ,care should be taken that the wind board over the grain auger does not get bent1 and it should be adjusted so that the strongest part of the blast will come about the middle of the sieve4 ,,sieves4 ,there is usually one conveyor sieve1 which causes the grain to move along1 and shoe sieves1 which are required to clean the grain thoroughly4 ,different kinds of sieves are provided for different kinds of grain1 and the proper selection and adjustment of these sieves as to mesh1 etc41 is of the utmost importance4 ,much depends on the way the sieves are set1 and on the rate at which the thresher is fed1 or the amount of work it is really doing4 ,the best guide is close observation and experience1 both your own and that of other threshermen4 ,,conveyor ,,extension4 ,this carries the coarse chaff from the conveyor sieve to the stacker4 ,the conveyor sieve should be coarse enough to let all the good grain through1 as whatever is carried on to the extension must be returned with the tailings to the cylinder4 ,this means so much waste work4 ,the conveyor extension is removable1 and should always be tight before machine is started4 ,see that it is4 ,when necessary1 the grain may be run over a screen1 which differs from a sieve in that the mesh is small and intended to let dust and small chaff through while the grain does not pass4 ,the refuse from the screen is dropped onto the ground4 ,all screens have a tendency to become clogged1 and in this condition obstruct the grain and wind4 ,it is desirable not to use them except when necessary1 and if used they should be frequently cleaned4 ,,tailings ,,elevator4 ,the tailings are carried back to the cylinder by an elevator usually worked with a chain4 ,this chain should be kept tight enough not to unhook1 yet not so tight as to bind4 ,to put the chain into the elevator1 tie a weight on a rope and drop it down the lower part of the elevator4 ,the chain may be fastened to the rope and a man at the top can then pull the chain up1 while another feeds it in at the bottom4 ,when chain has been drawn up to the top1 the rope should be dropped down upper portion of elevator and used at bottom to pull chain down after it has been adjusted over the sprocket4 ,some one at the bottom should continue to feed the chain in as it is pulled down1 so that it will go into the elevator straight4 ,when the chain has been pulled through it may be hooked and adjusted to lower sprocket1 and tightened up by screws at top4 ,turn the chain around once by hand to make sure there are no kinks in it4 ,the tailings should be small1 containing no light chaff and little full-size grain4 ,they are a good indication of how the sieves are working4 ,if much good grain is coming through1 see if it gets over the conveyor sieve by way of the extension to the tailings auger1 or over the shoe sieve4 ,if the sieves are not right1 they may be adjusted in various ways1 according to the directions of the manufacturer4 ,grain returned in the tailings is liable to get cracked in the cylinder1 and much chaff in the tailings chokes the cylinder4 ,for every reason1 the tailings should be kept as low as possible4 ,,self-,,feeder4 ,the self-feeder is arranged to cut the bands of the sheaves and feed the grain to the cylinder automatically4 ,it has a governor to prevent crowding in too much grain1 and usually a change of pulleys for slow or fast feeding1 as circumstances may require4 ,in starting a new governor the friction pulley and inside of the band should have paint scraped off1 and a little oil should be put on face of friction wheel4 ,the carrier should not start till the machine attains full threshing motion1 and to prevent this a few sheaves should be laid upon it4 ,the knife arms should be raised or lowered to adjust them to the size of the sheaves and condition of the grain for cutting bands4 ,the cranks and carrier shaft boxes should be oiled regularly1 but the friction bands should not be oiled after it once becomes smooth4 ,,the ,,wind ,,stacker4 ,the wind stacker is arranged to swing by a hand-wheel or the like1 and also automatically4 ,great care should be taken not to use the hand moving apparatus when the stacker is set for automatic moving1 as a break is liable to follow4 ,there is a clutch to stop the stacker1 however4 ,at times it will be more convenient to leave off the belt that causes the automatic movement4 ,by the use of various pulleys the speed of the stacker may be altered1 and it should be run no faster than is necessary to do the work required1 which will depend on the character of the straw4 ,any extra speed used will add to the cost of running the engine and is a loss in economy4 ,in moving machine with wind stacker in place1 care should be taken to see that it rests in its support before machine moves4 ,the canvas curtain under the decking1 used to turn the straw into the hopper1 may need a piece of wood fastened to its lower edge to keep it more stiff when stiff rye straw is passing4 ,the bearings of the fan and jack shafts should be kept well lubricated with hard oil1 and the bevel gears should be kept well greased with axle grease applied with a stick4 ,other bearings and worm gear of automatic device should be oiled with soft oil4 ,the attached stacker is simple in operation1 and if it is desired not to use the automatic swinging device but swing by hand1 the automatic gear may be thrown out4 ,an independent stacker is managed in much the same way4 ,,attachments4 ,a weigher1 bagger1 and a high loader are usually used with a separator4 ,their operation is simple1 and depends upon the particular type or make4 ,,belting4 ,the care of the belting is one of the most important things about the management of a threshing machine1 and success or failure will depend largely on the condition in which the belts are kept4 ,of course the hair side should be run next the band wheel4 ,once there was disagreement among engineers on this point1 but it has been conclusively proven that belts wear longer this way and get better friction1 for the simple reason that the flesh side is more flexible than the hair side1 and when on the outside better accommodates itself to the shape of the pulley4 ,if the hair side is outermost1 it will be stretched more or less in going around the pulley and in time will crack4 ,rubber belts must be run with the seam on the outside4 ,when leather belts become hard they should be softened with neatsfoot oil4 ,a flexible belt is said to transmit considerably more power than a hard one4 ,pulleys must be kept in line or the belt will slip off4 ,when pulleys are in line the belt has a tendency to work to the tightest point4 ,hence pulleys are usually made larger in the middle1 which is called 8crowning40 ,belts on a separator should be looked over every day1 and when any lacing is worn1 it should be renewed at once4 ,this will prevent breaks during working1 with loss of time4 ,some threshermen carry an extra set of belts to be ready in case anything does break1 and they assert that they save money by so doing4 ,lacing is not stronger in proportion as it is heavy4 ,if it is heavy and clumsy it gets strained in going round the pulley1 and soon gives out4 ,the ideal way to lace a belt is to make it as nearly like the rest of the belt as possible1 so that it will go over the pulleys without a jar4 ,the ends of the belt should be cut off square with a try square1 and a small punch used for making holes4 ,holes should be equally spaced1 and outside ones not so near the edge as to tear out4 ,the rule is a hole to every inch of the belt1 and in a leather belt they may be as close as a quarter of an inch to the ends without tearing out4 ,other things being equal1 the nearer the ends the holes are the better1 as belt will then pass over pulley more easily4 ,the chief danger of tearing is between the holes4 ,a stacker web belt may be laced by turning the ends up and lacing them together flat at right angles to rest of belt4 ,rubber or cotton belting that does not run over idler or tightener pulleys so that both sides must be smooth may be laced in this way4 ,this lacing lasts two or three times as long with such belts as any other1 for the reason that the string is not exposed to wear and there is no straining in passing round pulleys4 ,the ordinary method of lacing a leather belt is to make the laces straight on the pulley side1 all running in the same direction as the movement of the belt1 and crossing them on the outside diagonally in both directions4 ,when belts run on pulleys on both sides1 as they do on the belt driving beater and crank1 and also on wind stacker1 a hinge lacing may be made by crossing the lacing around the end of the belt to the next adjacent hole opposite1 the lacing showing the same on both sides4 ,this allows the belt to bend equally well either way4 ,the best way to fasten a lacing is to punch a hole where the next row of lace holes would come when the belt is cut off1 and after passing the lace through this hole1 bring the end around and force it through again1 cutting the end off short after it has passed through4 ,this hole must be small enough to hold the lace securely1 and care should be taken that it is in position to be used as a lace-hole the next time a series of holes is required4 ,new belts stretch a good deal1 and the ends of the lacing should not be cut off short till the stretch is taken out of the belts4 ,belting that has got wet will shrink and lacing must be let out before belt is put on again4 ,tight belts have been known to break the end of a shaft off1 and always cause unnecessary friction4 ,cotton or ,gandy belting should not be punched for lacing1 but holes made with a pointed awl1 since punching cuts some of the threads and weakens belt4 ,,how ,,to ,,become ,a ,,good ,,feeder4 ,the art of becoming a good feeder will not be learned in a day4 ,the bundles should be tipped well up against the cylinder cap1 and flat bundles turned on edge1 so that cylinder will take them from the top4 ,it is not hard to spread a bundle1 and in fast threshing a bundle may be fed on each side1 each bundle being kept pretty well to its own side1 while the cylinder is kept full the entire width4 ,a good feeder will keep the straw carrier evenly covered with straw1 and will watch the stacker1 tailings and grain elevator and know the moment anything goes wrong4 ,,waste4 ,no threshing machine will save every kernel of the grain1 but the best results can be attained only by care and judgment in operating4 ,it is easy to exaggerate the loss of grain1 for if a very small stream of grain is seen going into the straw it will seem enormous1 though it will not amount to a bushel a day4 ,there are practically a million kernels of wheat in a bushel1 or #fjj handfuls1 and even if a handful is wasted every minute1 it would not be enough to counterbalance the saving in finishing a job quickly4 ,of course1 waste must be watched1 however1 and checked if too great4 ,first determine whether the grain is carried over in the straw or the waste is at the shoe sieve4 ,if the waste is in the conveyor sieve1 catch a handful of the chaff1 and if grain is found1 see whether the sieve is the proper mesh4 ,too high a speed will cause the grain to be carried over4 ,if too many teeth are used in the concave1 the conveyor sieve will be forced to carry more chaff than it can handle4 ,the blast may be too strong and carry over grain1 so adjust the blinds that the blast will be no stronger than is necessary to clean the wheat well and keep sieves free4 ,if grain is still carried over1 the conveyor sieve may be adjusted for more open work1 but care should be taken not to overwork the shoe sieve4 ,be careful that the wind board is not bent so that some grain will go into the fan and be thrown out of the machine altogether4 ,if the grain is not separated from the straw thoroughly1 it may be due to 8slugging0 the cylinder 7result of poor feeding71 causing a variable motion4 ,it may also be because speed of crank is not high enough4 ,check board should be adjusted as low as possible to prevent grain being carried on top of straw4 ,see that cylinder and concave teeth are properly adjusted so as not to cut up straw1 while at the same time threshing out all the grain4 ,sometimes heads not threshed out by the cylinder will be threshed out by the fan of the wind stacker1 and the fault will be placed on the separating portions instead of on the imperfect cylinder4 ,grain passes through the cylinder at the rate of about a mile a minute4 ,the beater reduces this to #a1ejj feet per minute4 ,after passing the check board the straw moves about #cf feet per minute4 ,at these three different speeds the straw passes the #ag feet length of the machine in about #be seconds4 ,the problem is to stop the grain while the straw is allowed to pass out4 ,evidently there must be a small percentage of loss1 and there is always a limit as to what it will pay to try to save4 ,each man must judge for himself4 ,,balancing ,a ,,cylinder4 ,a cylinder should be so balanced that it will come to rest at any point4 ,in a rough way a cylinder may be balanced by placing the journals on two carpenter's squares laid on saw-horses4 ,gently roll the cylinder back and forth and every time it stops1 make a chalk mark on the uppermost bar4 ,if the same bar comes up three times in succession it probably is light1 and a wedge should be driven under center band at chalk mark4 ,continue experimenting until cylinder will come to rest at any point4 ,,covering ,,pulleys4 ,this is easily done1 but care must be taken that the leathers are tight or they will soon come off4 ,to cover a cylinder pulley1 take off what remains of the old cover1 pull out the nails1 and renew the wedges if necessary4 ,select a good piece of leather a little wider than face of pulley and about four inches longer than enough to go around4 ,soak it in water for about an hour4 ,cut one end square and nail it to the wedges1 using nails just long enough to clinch4 ,put a clamp made of two pieces of wood and two bolts on the leather1 block the cylinder to keep it from turning1 and by means of two short levers pry over the clamp to stretch the leather4 ,nail to the next wedges1 move the clamp and nail to each in turn1 finally nailing to the first one again before cutting off4 ,trim the edges even with the rim of the pulley4 ,the same method may be used with riveted covers4 ,,care ,,of ,a ,,separator4 ,a good separator ought to last ten years1 and many have been in use twice that time4 ,after the season is over the machine ought to be thoroughly cleaned and stored in a dry place4 ,dirt on a machine holds moisture and will ruin a separator during a winter if it is left on4 ,it also causes the wood to rot and sieves and iron work to rust4 ,once in two years at least a separator ought to have a good coat of first-class coach varnish4 ,before varnishing1 clean off all grease and oil with benzine and see that paint is bright4 ,at the beginning of the season give the machine a thorough overhauling1 putting new teeth in cylinder if any are imperfect1 and new slats in stacker web or straw rack if they are needed4 ,worn boxes should be taken up or rebabbitted1 and conveyor and shoe eccentrics replaced if worn out4 ,tighten nuts1 replace lost bolts1 leaving the nut always turned square with the piece it rests on4 ,every separator ought to be covered with a canvas during the season4 ,it will pay4 ,the right and left sides of a threshing machine are reckoned from the position of the feeder as he stands facing the machine4 ,in case of fire1 the quickest way is to let the engine pull the machine out by the belt4 ,take blocks away from wheels1 place a man at end of tongue to steer1 and back engine slowly4 ,if necessary1 men should help the wheels to start out of holes or soft places4 ,watch the forks of the pitchers to see that none are loose on the handles1 especially if a self-feeder is used4 ,a pitchfork in a separator is a bad thing4 ,,chapter ,,xv4 ,,questions ,,asked ,,engineers ,,when ,,applying ,,for ,a ,,license4#g ,footnote #g3 ,furnished by courtesy of a friend of ,aultman ,taylor ,co4 ,q4 ,if you were called on to take charge of a plant1 what would be your first duty8 ,a4 ,to ascertain the exact condition of the boiler and all its attachments 7safety valve1 steam gauge1 pump1 injector71 and engine4 ,q4 ,how often would you blow off and clean your boilers if you had ordinary water to use8 ,a4 ,once a month4 ,q4 ,what steam pressure will be allowed on a boiler #ej inches diameter inch thick1 #fj1jjj ,t4 ,s4 #a-f of tensile strength factor of safety8 ,a4 ,one-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of plate1 divided by one-half of the diameter of boiler1 gives safe working pressure4 ,q4 ,how much heating surface is allowed per horse power by builders of boilers8 ,a4 ,twelve to fifteen feet for tubular and flue boilers4 ,q4 ,how do you estimate the strength of a boiler8 ,a4 ,by its diameter and thickness of metal4 ,q4 ,which is the better1 single or double riveting8 ,a4 ,double riveting is from sixteen to twenty per cent stronger than single4 ,q4 ,how much grate surface do boiler makers allow per horse power8 ,a4 ,about two-thirds of a square foot4 ,q4 ,of what use is a mud drum on a boiler1 if any8 ,a4 ,for collecting all the sediment of the boiler4 ,q4 ,how often should it be blown out8 ,a4 ,three or four times a day4 ,q4 ,of what use is a steam dome on a boiler8 ,a4 ,for storage of dry steam4 ,q4 ,what is the object of a safety valve on a boiler8 ,a4 ,to relieve pressure4 ,q4 ,what is your duty with reference to it8 ,a4 ,to raise it twice a day and see that it is in good order4 ,q4 ,what is the use of check valve on a boiler8 ,a4 ,to prevent water from returning back into pump or injector which feeds the boiler4 ,q4 ,do you think a man-hole in the shell on top of a boiler weakens it any8 ,a4 ,yes1 to a certain extent4 ,q4 ,what effect has cold water on hot boiler plates8 ,a4 ,it will fracture them4 ,q4 ,where should the gauge cock be located8 ,a4 ,the lowest gauge cock ought to be placed about an inch and a half above the top row of flues4 ,q4 ,how would you have your blow-off located8 ,a4 ,in the bottom of mud-drum or boiler4 ,q4 ,how would you have your check valve arranged8 ,a4 ,with a stop cock between check and boiler4 ,q4 ,how many valves are there in a common plunger force pump8 ,a4 ,two or more--a receiving and a discharge valve4 ,q4 ,how are they located8 ,a4 ,one on the suction side1 the other on the discharge4 ,q4 ,how do you find the proper size of safety valves for boilers8 ,a4 ,three square feet of grate surface is allowed for one inch area of spring loaded valves2 or two square feet of grate surface to one inch area of common lever valves4 ,q4 ,give the reasons why pumps do not work sometimes8 ,a4 ,leak in suction1 leak around the plunger1 leaky check valve1 or valves out of order1 or lift too long4 ,q4 ,how often ought boilers to be thoroughly examined and tested8 ,a4 ,twice a year4 ,q4 ,how would you test them8 ,a4 ,with hammer and with hydrostatic test1 using warm water4 ,q4 ,describe the single acting plunger pump2 how it gets and discharges its water8 ,a4 ,the plunger displaces the air in the water pipe1 causing a vacuum which is filled by the atmosphere forcing the water therein2 the receiving valve closes and the plunger forces the water out through the discharge valve4 ,q4 ,what is the most economical boiler-feeder8 ,a4 ,the 7,trix7 ,exhaust ,injector4#h ,footnote #h3 ,so says one expert4 ,others may think otherwise4 ,q4 ,what economy is there in the ,exhaust ,injector8 ,a4 ,from #ae to #be per cent saving in fuel4 ,q4 ,where is the best place to enter the boiler with the feed water8 ,a4 ,below the water level1 but so that the cold water can not strike hot plates4 ,if injector is used this is not so material as feed water is always hot4 ,q4 ,what are the principal causes of priming in boilers8 ,a4 ,to high water1 not steam room enough1 misconstruction1 engine too large for boiler4 ,q4 ,how do you keep boilers clean or remove scale therefrom8 ,a4 ,the best 8scale solvent0 and 8feed water purifier0 is an honest1 intelligent engineer who will regularly open up his boilers and clean them thoroughly1 soaking boilers in rain water now and then4 ,q4 ,if you found a thin plate1 what would you do8 ,a4 ,put a patch on it4 ,q4 ,would you put it on the inside or outside8 ,a4 ,inside4 ,q4 ,why so8 ,a4 ,because the action that has weakened the plate will then set on the patch1 and when this is worn it can be repeated4 ,q4 ,if you found several thin places1 what would you do8 ,a4 ,patch each and reduce the pressure4 ,q4 ,if you found a blistered plate8 ,a4 ,put a patch on the fire side4 ,q4 ,if you found a plate on the bottom buckled8 ,a4 ,put a stay through the center of buckle4 ,q4 ,if you found several of the plates buckled8 ,a4 ,stay each and reduce the pressure4 ,q4 ,what is to be done with a cracked plate8 ,a4 ,drill a hole at each end of crack1 caulk the crack and put a patch over it4 ,q4 ,how do you change the water in the boiler when the steam is up8 ,a4 ,by putting on more feed and opening the surface blow cock4 ,q4 ,if the safety valve was stuck how would you relieve the pressure on the boiler if the steam was up and could not make its escape8 ,a4 ,work the steam off with engine after covering fires heavy with coal or ashes1 and when the boiler is sufficiently cool put safety valve in working order4 ,q4 ,if water in boiler is suffered to get too low1 what may be the result8 ,a4 ,burn top of combustion chamber and tubes1 perhaps cause an explosion4 ,q4 ,if water is allowed to get too high1 what result8 ,a4 ,cause priming1 perhaps cause breaking of cylinder covers or heads4 ,q4 ,what are the principal causes of foaming in boilers8 ,a4 ,dirty and impure water4 ,q4 ,how can foaming be stopped8 ,a4 ,close throttle and keep closed long enough to show true level of water4 ,if that level is sufficiently high1 feeding and blowing off will usually suffice to correct the evil4 ,q4 ,what would you do if you should find your water gone from sight very suddenly8 ,a4 ,draw the fires and cool off as quickly as possible4 ,never open or close any outlets of steam when your water is out of sight4 ,q4 ,what precautions should you take to blow down a part of the water in your boiler while running with a good fire8 ,a4 ,never leave the blow-off valve1 and watch the water level4 ,q4 ,how much water would you blow off at once while running8 ,a4 ,never blow off more than one gauge of water at a time while running4 ,q4 ,what general views have you in regard to boiler explosions--what is the greatest cause8 ,a4 ,ignorance and neglect are the greatest causes of boiler explosions4 ,q4 ,what precaution should the engineer take when necessary to stop with heavy fires8 ,a4 ,close dampers1 put on injector or pump and if a bleeder is attached1 use it4 ,q4 ,where is the proper water level in boilers8 ,a4 ,a safe water level is about two and a half inches over top row of flues4 ,q4 ,what is an engineer's first duty on entering the boiler room8 ,a4 ,to ascertain the true water level4 ,q4 ,when should a boiler be blown out8 ,a4 ,after it is cooled off1 never while hot4 ,q4 ,when laying up a boiler what should be done8 ,a4 ,clean thoroughly inside and out2 remove all oxidation and paint places with red lead2 examine all stays and braces to see if any are loose or badly worn4 ,q4 ,what is the last thing to do at night before leaving plant8 ,a4 ,look around for greasy waste1 hot coals1 matches1 or anything which could fire the building4 ,q4 ,what would you do if you had a plant in good working order8 ,a4 ,keep it so1 and let well enough alone4 ,q4 ,of what use is the indicator8 ,a4 ,the indicator is used to determine the indicated power developed by an engine1 to serve as a guide in setting valves and showing the action of the steam in the cylinder4 ,q4 ,how would you increase the power of an engine8 ,a4 ,to increase the power of an engine1 increase the speed2 or get higher pressure of steam1 use less expansion4 ,q4 ,how do you find the horsepower of an engine8 ,a4 ,multiply the speed of piston in feet per minute by the total effective pressure upon the piston in pounds and divide the product by #cc1jjj4 ,q4 ,which has the most friction1 a perfectly fitted1 or an imperfectly fitted valve or bearing8 ,a4 ,an imperfect one4 ,q4 ,how hot can you get water under atmospheric pressure with exhaust steam8 ,a4 #bab degrees4 ,q4 ,does pressure have any influence on the boiling point8 ,a4 ,yes4 ,q4 ,which do you think is the best economy1 to run with your throttle wide open or partly shut8 ,a4 ,always have the throttle wide open on a governor engine4 ,q4 ,at what temperature has iron the greatest tensile strength8 ,a4 ,about #fjj degrees4 ,q4 ,in what position on the shaft does the eccentric stand in relation to the crank8 ,a4 ,the throw of the eccentric should always be in advance of the crank pin4 ,q4 ,about how many pounds of water are required to yield one horsepower with our best engines8 ,a4 ,from #be to #cj4 ,q4 ,what is meant by atmospheric pressure8 ,a4 ,the weight of the atmosphere4 ,q4 ,what is the weight of atmosphere at sea level8 ,a4 #ad4g pounds4 ,q4 ,what is the coal consumption per hour per indicated horsepower8 ,a4 ,varies from one and a half to seven pounds4 ,q4 ,what is the consumption of coal per hour on a square foot of grate surface8 ,a4 ,from #aj to #ab pounds4 ,q4 ,what is the water consumption in pounds per hour per indicated horsepower8 ,a4 ,from #be to #fj pounds4 ,q4 ,how many pounds of water can be evaporated with one pound of best soft coal8 ,a4 ,from #g to #aj pounds4 ,q4 ,how much steam will one cubic inch of water evaporate under atmospheric pressure8 ,a4 ,one cubic foot of steam 7approximately74 ,q4 ,what is the weight of a cubic foot of fresh water8 ,a4 ,sixty-two and a half pounds4 ,q4 ,what is the weight of a cubic foot of iron8 ,a4 #dhf4f pounds4 ,q4 ,what is the weight of a square foot of one-half inch boiler plate8 ,a4 #bj pounds4 ,q4 ,how much wood equals one ton of soft coal for steam purposes8 ,a4 ,about #d1jjj pounds of wood4 ,q4 ,how long have you run engines8 ,q4 ,have you ever done your own firing8 ,q4 ,what is the source of all power in the steam engine8 ,a4 ,the heat stored up in the coal4 ,q4 ,how is the heat liberated from the coal8 ,a4 ,by burning it2 that is1 by combustion4 ,q4 ,of what does coal consist8 ,a4 ,carbon1 hydrogen1 nitrogen1 sulphur1 oxygen and ash4 ,q4 ,what are the relative proportions of these that enter into coal8 ,a4 ,there are different proportions in different specimens of coal1 but the following shows the average per cent3 ,carbon1 #hj2 hydrogen1 #e2 nitrogen1 #a2 sulphur1 #b2 oxygen1 #g2 ash1 #e4 ,q4 ,what must be mixed with coal before it will burn8 ,a4 ,atmospheric air4 ,q4 ,what is air composed of8 ,a4 ,it is composed of nitrogen and oxygen in the proportion of #gg of nitrogen to #bc of oxygen4 ,q4 ,what parts of the air mix with what parts of the coal8 ,a4 ,the oxygen of the air mixes with the carbon and hydrogen of the coal4 ,q4 ,how much air must mix with the coal8 ,a4 #aej cubic feet of air for every pound of coal4 ,q4 ,how many pounds of air are required to burn one pound of carbon8 ,a4 ,twelve4 ,q4 ,how many pounds of air are required to burn one pound of hydrogen8 ,a4 ,thirty-six4 ,q4 ,is hydrogen hotter than carbon8 ,a4 ,yes1 four and one-half times hotter4 ,q4 ,what part of the coal gives out the most heat8 ,a4 ,the hydrogen does part for part1 but as there is so much more of carbon than hydrogen in the coal we get the greatest amount of heat from carbon4 ,q4 ,in how many different ways is heat transmitted8 ,a4 ,three2 by radiation1 by conduction and by convection4 ,q4 ,if the fire consisted of glowing fuel1 show how the heat enters the water and forms steam8 ,a4 ,the heat from the glowing fuel passes by radiation through the air space above the fuel to the furnace crown4 ,there it passes through the iron of the crown by conduction4 ,there it warms the water resting on the crown1 which then rises and parts with its heat to the colder water by conduction till the whole mass of water is heated4 ,then the heated water rises to the surface and parts with its steam1 so a constant circulation of water is maintained by convection4 ,q4 ,what does water consist of8 ,a4 ,oxygen and hydrogen4 ,q4 ,in what proportion8 ,a4 ,eight of oxygen to one of hydrogen by weight4 ,q4 ,what are the different kinds of heat8 ,a4 ,latent heat1 sensible heat and sometimes total heat4 ,q4 ,what is meant by latent heat8 ,a4 ,heat that does not affect the thermometer and which expands itself in changing the nature of a body1 such as turning ice into water or water into steam4 ,q4 ,under what circumstances do bodies get latent heat8 ,a4 ,when they are passing from a solid state to a liquid or from a liquid to a gaseous state4 ,q4 ,how can latent heat be recovered8 ,a4 ,by bringing the body back from a state of gas to a liquid or from that of a liquid to that of a solid4 ,q4 ,what is meant by a thermal unit8 ,a4 ,the heat necessary to raise one pound of water at #ci degrees ,fn4 #a degree ,fahrenheit4 ,q4 ,if the power is in coal1 why should we use steam8 ,a4 ,because steam has some properties which make it an invaluable agent for applying the energy of the heat to the engine4 ,q4 ,what is steam8 ,a4 ,it is an invisible elastic gas generated from water by the application of heat4 ,q4 ,what are its properties which make it so valuable to us8 ,a4 #a4--,the ease with which we can condense it4 #b4--;,its great expansive power4 #c4--,the small space it occupies when condensed4 ,q4 ,why do you condense the steam8 ,a4 ,to form a vacuum and so destroy the back pressure that would otherwise be on the piston and thus get more useful work out of the steam4 ,q4 ,what is vacuum8 ,a4 ,a space void of all pressure4 ,q4 ,how do you maintain a vacuum8 ,a4 ,by the steam used being constantly condensed by the cold water or cold tubes1 and the air pump as constantly clearing the condenser out4 ,q4 ,why does condensing the used steam form a vacuum8 ,a4 ,because a cubic foot of steam1 at atmospheric pressure1 shrinks into about a cubic inch of water4 ,q4 ,what do you understand by the term horse power8 ,a4 ,a horse power is equivalent to raising #cc1jjj pounds one foot per minute1 or #eej pounds raised one foot per second4 ,q4 ,how do you calculate the horse power of tubular or flue boilers8 ,a4 ,for tubular boilers1 multiply the square of the diameter by length1 and divide by four4 ,for flue boilers1 multiply the diameter by the length and divide by four2 or1 multiply area of grate surface in square feet by #a4 ,q4 ,what do you understand by lead on an engine's valve8 ,a4 ,lead on a valve is the admission of steam into the cylinder before the piston completes its stroke4 ,q4 ,what is the clearance of an engine as the term is applied at the present time8 ,a4 ,clearance is the space between the cylinder head and the piston head with the ports included4 ,q4 ,what are considered the greatest improvements on the stationary engine in the last forty years8 ,a4 ,the governor1 the ,corliss valve gear and the triple compound expansion4 ,q4 ,what is meant by triple expansion engine8 ,a4 ,a triple expansion engine has three cylinders using the steam expansively in each one4 ,q4 ,what is a condenser as applied to an engine8 ,a4 ,the condenser is a part of the low pressure engine and is a receptacle into which the exhaust enters and is there condensed4 ,q4 ,what are the principles which distinguish a high pressure from a low pressure engine8 ,a4 ,where no condenser is used and the exhaust steam is open to the atmosphere4 ,q4 ,about how much gain is there by using the condenser8 ,a4 #ag to #be per cent where cost of water is not figured4 ,q4 ,what do you understand by the use of steam expansively8 ,a4 ,where steam admitted at a certain pressure is cut off and allowed to expand to a lower pressure4 ,q4 ,how many inches of vacuum give the best results in a condensing engine8 ,a4 ,usually considered #be4 ,q4 ,what is meant by a horizontal tandem engine8 ,a4 ,one cylinder being behind the other with two pistons on same rod4 ,q4 ,what is a ,corliss valve gear8 ,a4 7,describe the half moon or crab claw gear1 or oval arm gear with dash pots47 ,q4 ,from what cause do belts have the power to drive shafting8 ,a4 ,by friction or cohesion4 ,q4 ,what do you understand by lap8 ,a4 ,outside lap is that portion of valve which extends beyond the ports when valve is placed on the center of travel1 and inside lap is that portion of valve which projects over the ports on the inside or towards the middle of valve4 ,q4 ,what is the use of lap8 ,a4 ,to give the engine compression4 ,q4 ,where is the dead center of an engine8 ,a4 ,the point where the crank and the piston rod are in the same right line4 ,q4 ,what is the tensile strength of ,american boiler iron8 ,a4 #dj1jjj to #fj1jjj pounds per square inch4 ,q4 ,what is very high tensile strength in boiler iron apt to go with8 ,a4 ,lack of homogeneousness and lack of toughness4 ,q4 ,what is the advantage of toughness in boiler plate8 ,a4 ,it stands irregular strains and sudden shocks better4 ,q4 ,what are the principal defects found in boiler iron8 ,a4 ,imperfect welding1 brittleness1 low ductility4 ,q4 ,what are the advantages of steel as a material for boiler plates8 ,a4 ,homogeneity1 tensile strength1 malleability1 ductility and freedom from laminations and blisters4 ,q4 ,what are the disadvantages of steel as a material for boiler plates8 ,a4 ,it requires greater skill in working than iron1 and has1 as bad qualities1 brittleness1 low ductility and flaws induced by the pressure of gas bubbles in the ingot4 ,q4 ,when would you oil an engine8 ,a4 ,before starting it and as often while running as necessary4 ,q4 ,how do you find proper size of any stay bolts for a well made boiler8 ,a4 ,first1 multiply the given steam pressure per square inch by the square of the distance between centers of stay bolts1 and divide the product by #f1jjj1 and call the answer 8the quotient40 ,second1 divide 8the quotient0 by 4#ghed1 and extract the square root of the last quotient2 the answer will give the required diameter of stay bolts at the bottom of thread4 ,q4 ,in what position would you place an engine1 to take up any slack motion of the reciprocating parts8 ,a4 ,place engine in the position where the least wear takes place on the journals4 ,that is1 in taking up the wear of the crank-pin brasses1 place the engine on either dead center1 as1 when running1 there is but little wear upon the crank-pin at these points4 ,if taking up the cross-head pin brasses--without disconnecting and swinging the rod--place the engine at half stroke1 which is the extreme point of swing of the rod1 there being the least wear on the brasses and cross-head pin in this position4 ,q4 ,what benefits are derived by using flywheels on steam engines8 ,a4 ,the energy developed in the cylinder while the steam is doing its work is stored up in the flywheel1 and given out by it while there is no work being done in the cylinder--that is1 when the engine is passing the dead centers4 ,this tends to keep the speed of the engine shaft steady4 ,q4 ,name several kinds of reducing motions1 as used in indicator practice8 ,a4 ,the pantograph1 the pendulum1 the brumbo pulley1 the reducing wheel4 ,q4 ,how can an engineer tell from an indicator diagram whether the piston or valves are leaking8 ,a4 ,leaky steam valves will cause the expansion curve to become convex2 that is1 it will not follow hyperbolic expansion1 and will also show increased back pressure4 ,but if the exhaust valves leak also1 one may offset the other1 and the indicator diagram would show no leak4 ,a leaky piston can be detected by a rapid falling in the pressure on the expansion curve immediately after the point of cut-off4 ,it will also show increased back pressure4 ,a falling in pressure in the upper portion of the compression curve shows a leak in the exhaust valve4 ,q4 ,what would be the best method of treating a badly scaled boiler1 that was to be cleaned by a liberal use of compound8 ,a4 ,first open the boiler up and note where the loose scale1 if any1 has lodged4 ,wash out thoroughly and put in the required amount of compound4 ,while the boiler is in service1 open the blow-off valve for a few seconds1 two or three times a day1 to be assured that it does not become stopped up with scale4 ,after running the boiler for a week1 shut it down1 and1 when the pressure is down and the boiler cooled off1 run the water out and take off the hand-hole plates4 ,note what effect the compound has had on the scale1 and where the disengaged scale has lodged4 ,wash out thoroughly and use judgment as to whether it is advisable to use a less or greater quantity of compound1 or to add a small quantity daily4 ,continue the washing out at short intervals1 as many boilers have been burned by large quantities of scale dropping on the crown sheets and not being removed4 ,q4 ,if a condenser was attached to a side-valve engine1 that had been set to run non-condensing1 what changes1 if any1 would be necessary8 ,a4 ,more lap would have to be added to the valve to cut off the steam at an earlier point of the stroke2 if not1 the initial pressure into the cylinder would be throttled down and the economy1 to be gained from running condensing1 lessened4 ,q4 ,if you are carrying a vacuum equal to #bg inches of mercury1 what should the temperature of the water in the hot well be8 ,a4 #ajh degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,q4 ,define specific gravity4 ,a4 ,the specific gravity of a substance is the number which expresses the relation between the weights of equal volume of that substance1 and distilled water of #fj degrees ,fahrenheit4 ,q4 ,find the specific gravity of a body whose volume is #ab cubic inches1 and which floats in water with #g cubic inches immersed4 ,a4 ,when a body floats in water1 it displaces a quantity of water equal to the weight of the floating body4 ,thus1 if a body of #ab cubic inches in volume floats with #g cubic inches immersed1 #g cubic inches of water must be equal in weight to #ab cubic inches of the substance and one cubic inch of water to twelve-sevenths cubic inches of the substance4 ,as specific gravity equals weight of one volume of substance divided by weight of equal volume of water1 then specific gravity of the substance in this case equals #a divided by twelve-sevenths4 ,,useful ,,information4 ,to find circumference of a circle1 multiply diameter by #c4adaf4 ,to find diameter of a circle1 multiply circumference by 4#cahca4 ,to find area of a circle multiply square of diameter by 4#ghed4 ,to find area of a triangle1 multiply base by one-half the perpendicular height4 ,to find surface of a ball1 multiply square of diameter by #c4adaf4 ,to find solidity of a sphere1 multiply cube of diameter by 4#ebcf4 ,to find side of an equal square1 multiply diameter by 4#hhfb4 ,to find cubic inches in a ball multiply cube of diameter by 4#ebcf4 ,doubling the diameter of a pipe increases its capacity four times4 ,a gallon of water 7,u4 ,s4 standard7 weighs #h #a-c pounds and contains #bca cubic inches4 ,a cubic foot of water contains #g gallons1 #agbh cubic inches1 and weighs #fb pounds4 ,to find the pressure in pounds per square inch of a column of water multiply the height of the column in feet by 4#dcd4 ,steam rising from water at its boiling point 7#bab degrees7 has a pressure equal to the atmosphere 7#ad4g pounds to the square inch74 ,a standard horse power3 ,the evaporation of #cj lbs4 of water per hour from a feed water temperature of #ajj degrees ,f4 into steam at #gj lbs4 gauge pressure4 ,to find capacity of tanks any size2 given dimensions of a cylinder in inches1 to find its capacity in ,u4 ,s4 gallons3 ,square the diameter1 multiply by the length and by 4#jjcd4 ,to ascertain heating surface in tubular boilers1 multiply two-thirds of the circumference of boiler by length of boiler in inches and add to it the area of all the tubes4 ,one-sixth of tensile strength of plate multiplied by thickness of plate and divided by one-half the diameter of boiler gives safe working pressure for tubular boilers4 ,for marine boilers add #bj per cent for drilled holes4 ,to find the horsepower of an engine1 the following four factors must be considered3 ,mean effective or average pressure on the cylinder1 length of stroke1 diameter of cylinder1 and number of revolutions per minute4 ,find the area of the piston in square inches by multiplying the diameter by #c4adaf and multiply the result by the steam pressure in pounds per square inch2 multiply this product by twice the product of the length of the stroke in feet and the number of revolutions per minute2 divide the result by #cc1jjj1 and the result will be the horsepower of the engine4 7,theoretically a horsepower is a power that will raise #cc1jjj pounds one foot in one minute47 ,the power of fuel is measured theoretically from the following basis3 ,if a pound weight fall #ghj feet in a vacuum1 it will generate heat enough to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree4 ,conversely1 power that will raise one pound of water one degree in temperature will raise a one pound weight #ghj feet4 ,the heat force required to turn a pound of water at #cb degrees into steam would lift a ton weight #djj feet high1 or develop two-fifths of one horsepower for an hour4 ,the best farm engine practically uses #ce pounds of water per horsepower per hour1 showing that one pound of water would develop only one-thirty-fifth of a horsepower in an hour1 or #g #a-g per cent of the heat force liberated4 ,the rest of the heat force is lost in various ways1 as explained in the body of this book4 ,the following#i will assist in determining the amount of power supplied to an engine3 ,footnote #i3 ,j4 ,h4 ,maggard in 8,rough and ,tumble ,engineering40 8,for instance1 a #a-;inch belt of the standard grade with the proper tension1 neither too tight or too loose1 running at a maximum speed of #hjj feet a minute will transmit one horsepower1 running #a1fjj feet two horsepower and #b1djj feet three horsepower4 ,a #b-;inch belt at the same speed1 twice the power4 8,now if you know the circumference of your flywheel1 the number of revolutions your engine is making and the width of belt1 you can figure very nearly the amount of power you can supply without slipping your belt4 ,for instance1 we will say your flywheel is #dj inches in diameter or #aj4e feet nearly in circumference and your engine was running #bbe revolutions a minute1 your belt would be traveling #bbeaj4e feet #bcfb4e feet1 or very nearly #b1djj feet1 and if one inch of belt would transmit three horsepower running this speed1 a #f-;inch belt would transmit eighteen horsepower1 a #g-;inch belt twenty-one horsepower1 an #h-;inch belt twenty-four horsepower1 and so on4 ,with the above as a basis for figuring you can satisfy yourself as to the power you are furnishing4 ,to get the best results a belt wants to sag slightly1 as it hugs the pulley closer1 and will last much longer40 ,,keying ,,pulleys4#aj ,a key must be of equal width its whole length and accurately fit the seats on shaft and in pulley4 ,the thickness should vary enough to make the taper correspond with that of the seat in the pulley4 ,the keys should be driven in tight enough to be safe against working loose4 ,the hubs of most of the pulleys on the machine run against the boxes1 and in keying these on1 about #a-cb of an inch end play to the shaft should be allowed1 because there is danger of the pulley rubbing so hard against the end of the box as to cause it to heat4 ,a key that is too thin but otherwise fits all right can be made tight by putting a strip of tin between the key and the bottom of the seat in the pulley4 ,drawing ,keys4 ,if a part of the key stands outside of the hub1 catch it with a pair of horseshoe pinchers and pry with them against the hub1 at the same time hitting the hub with a hammer so as to drive pulley on4 ,a key can sometimes be drawn by catching the end of it with a claw hammer and driving on the hub of pulley4 ,if pulley is against box and key cut off flush with hub1 take the shaft out and use a drift from the inside1 or if seat is not long enough to make this possible1 drive the pulley on until the key loosens4 ,,babbitting ,,boxes4#aj ,to babbitt any kind of a box1 first chip out all of the old babbitt and clean the shaft and box thoroughly with benzine4 ,this is necessary or gas will be formed from the grease when the hot metal is poured in and leave 8blow holes40 ,in babbitting a solid box cover the shaft with paper1 draw it smooth and tight1 and fasten the lapped ends with mucilage4 ,if this is not done the shrinkage of the metal in cooling will make it fast on the shaft1 so that it can't be moved4 ,if this happened it would be necessary to put the shaft and box together in the fire and melt the babbitt out or else break the box to get it off4 ,paper around the shaft will prevent this and if taken out when the babbitt has cooled the shaft will be found to be just tight enough to run well4 ,footnote #aj3 ,courtesy ,j4 ,i4 ,case ,threshing ,machine ,co41 from 8,science of ,successful ,threshing40 ,before pouring the box1 block up the shaft until it is in line and in center of the box and put stiff putty around the shaft and against the ends of the box to keep the babbitt from running out4 ,be sure to leave air-holes at each end at the top1 making a little funnel of putty around each4 ,also make a larger funnel around the pouring hole1 or1 if there is none1 enlarge one of the air-holes at the end and pour in that4 ,the metal should be heated until it is just hot enough to run freely and the fire should not be too far away4 ,when ready to pour the box1 don't hesitate or stop1 but pour continuously and rapidly until the metal appears at the air holes4 ,the oil hole may be stopped with a wooden plug and if this plug extends through far enough to touch the shaft1 it will leave a hole through the babbitt so that it will not be necessary to drill one4 ,a split box is babbitted in the same manner except that strips of cardboard or sheet-iron are placed between the two halves of the box and against the shaft to divide the babbitt4 ,to let the babbitt run from the upper half to the lower1 cut four or six ,v-shaped notches1 a quarter of an inch deep1 in the edges of the sheet-iron or cardboard that come against the shaft4 ,cover the shaft with paper and put cardboard liners between the box to allow for adjustment as it wears4 ,bolt the cap on securely before pouring4 ,when the babbitt has cooled1 break the box apart by driving a cold chisel between the two halves4 ,trim off the sharp edges of the babbitt and with a round-nose chisel cut oil grooves from the oil hole towards the ends of the box and on the slack side of the box or the one opposite to the direction in which the belt pulls4 ,the ladle should hold six or eight pounds of metal4 ,if much larger it is awkward to handle and if too small it will not keep the metal hot long enough to pour a good box4 ,the cylinder boxes on the separator take from two to three pounds of metal each4 ,if no putty is at hand1 clay mixed to the proper consistency may be used4 ,use the best babbitt you can get for the cylinder boxes4 ,if not sure of the quality1 use ordinary zinc4 ,it is not expensive and is generally satisfactory4 ,,miscellaneous4 ,lime may be taken out of an injector by soaking it over night in a mixture of one part of muriatic acid and ten parts soft water4 ,if a larger proportion of acid is used it is likely to spoil the injector4 ,a good blacking for boilers and smokestacks is asphaltum dissolved in turpentine4 ,to polish brass1 dissolve #e cents' worth of oxalic acid in a pint of water and use to clean the brass4 ,when tarnish has been removed1 dry and polish with chalk or whiting4 ,it is said that iron or steel will not rust if it is placed for a few minutes in a warm solution of washing soda4 ,grease on the bottom of a boiler will stick there and prevent the water from conducting away the heat4 ,when steel is thus covered with grease it will soon melt in a hot fire1 causing a boiler to burst if the steel is poor1 or warping it out of shape if the steel is good4 ,sulphate of lime in water1 causing scale1 may be counteracted and scale removed by using coal oil and sal soda4 ,when water contains carbonate of lime1 molasses will remove the scale4 ,,code ,,of ,,whistle ,,signals4 ,one short sound means to stop4 ,two short sounds means the engine is about to begin work4 ,three medium short sounds mean that the machine will soon need grain and grain haulers should hurry4 ,one rather long sound followed by three short ones means the water is low and water hauler should hurry4 ,a succession of short1 quick whistles means distress or fire4 ,,weight ,,per ,,bushel ,,of ,,grain4 ,the following table gives the number of pounds per bushel required by law or custom in the sale of grain in the several states3 ,s h e ,b l u l c e ,t ,b k ,c ,m d i a ,b w l i m ,w r e h o ,f l ,o ,c o h l a e v l l a ,r o t e e n a e a e t y r h a y s t r x t s e n y t 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 ---------------------------------------- -- ,arkansas #dhfjebfj444444efefdefj ,california #ej44dj444444cbedeb44fj ,connecticut 4444#de444444cbefef44ef ,district of ,columbia#dgfbdhfj4444cbefefdefj ,georgia #dj4444fj4444ceefefdefj ,illinois #dhfjebfjefdecbefef44fj ,indiana #dhfjejfj4444cbefefdefj ,iowa #dhfjebfjefdhcbefefdefj ,kansas #ejfjej444444cbefefdefj ,kentucky #dhfjebfjef44cbefefdefj ,louisiana #cb4444444444cb44ef44fj ,maine #dhfddh444444cj44ef44fj ,manitoba #dh44dhfjefcd44efef44fj ,maryland #dhfddh444444cbefefdefj ,massachusetts #dhdh44444444cbefef44fj ,michigan #dh44dhfjef44cbefefdefj ,minnesota #dhfjdbfj44dhcbefef44fj ,missouri #dhfjebfjefejcbefefdefj ,nebraska #dhfjebfj4444cdefefdefj ,new ,york #dhfbdhfj4444cbefehddfj ,new ,jersey #dh44ejfd4444cjefef44fj ,new ,hampshire 44#fj44444444cjefef44fj ,north ,carolina #dh44ejfd4444cjefed44fj ,north ,dakota #dh44dbfjef44cbefef44fj ,ohio #dhfjejfj4444cbejefdefj ,oklahoma #dh44dbfjef44cbefef44fj ,oregon #df44dbfj4444cfefef44fj ,pennsylvania #dg44dhfb4444cjefef44fj ,south ,dakota #dh44ebfjefejcbefef44fj ,south ,carolina #dhfjeffj4444ccefef44fj ,vermont #dhfddh44fj44cbefefdbfj ,virginia #dhfjdhfd4444cbefefdefj ,west ,virginia #dhfjebfj4444cbefefdefj ,wisconsin #dh44dhfj4444cbefef44fj ---------------------------------------- -- ,,chapter ,,xvi4 ,,different ,,makes ,,of ,,traction ,,engines4 ,j4 ,i4 ,,case ,,traction ,,engines4 ,these engines are among the simplest and at the same time most substantial and durable traction engines on the market4 ,they are built of the best materials throughout1 and are one of the easiest engines for a novice to run4 ,they are of the side crank type1 with spring mounting4 ,the engine is supported by a bracket bolted to the side of the boiler1 and a pillow block bearing at the firebox end bolted to the side plate of the boiler4 ,the valve is the improved ,woolf1 a single simple valve being used1 worked by a single eccentric4 ,the eccentric strap has an extended arm pivoted in a wooden block sliding in a guide4 ,the direction of this guide can be so changed by the reverse lever as to vary the cut-off and easily reverse the engine when desired4 ,the engine is built either with a simple cylinder or with a tandem compound cylinder4 ,in the operation of the differential gear1 the power is first transmitted to spur gear1 containing cushion springs1 from thence by the springs to a center ring and four bevel pinions which bear equally upon both bevel gears4 ,the whole differential consequently will move together as but one wheel when engine is moving straight forward or backward2 but when turning a corner the four pinions revolve in the bevel gears just in proportion to the sharpness of the curve4 ,there is a friction clutch working on the inside of the flywheel by means of two friction shoes that can be adjusted as they wear4 ,there is a feed water heater with three tubes in a watertight cylinder into which the exhaust steam is admitted4 ,the three tubes have smaller pipes inside so that the feed water in passing through forms a thin cylindrical ring4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,i4 ,,case ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the traction wheels are driven from the rims4 ,the front wheels have a square band on the center of the rim1 to prevent slipping sidewise4 ,the smokestack is cast iron in one piece4 ,the firebox will burn wood1 coal or straw1 a fire brick arch being used for straw1 making this fuel give a uniform heat4 ,the boiler is of the simple locomotive type1 with water leg around the firebox and numerous fire flues connecting the firebox with the smokestack in front4 ,there is safety plug in crown sheet and the usual fittings4 ,the water tank is under the platform4 ,the steering wheel and band wheel are on right side of engine4 ,an independent ,marsh pump and injector are used4 ,the ,marsh pump is arranged to heat the feed water when exhaust heater cannot be used4 ,the governor is the ,waters1 the safety valve the ,kunkle4 ,,the ,,frick ,,co4',s ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the most noticeable feature of this engine is that it has a frame mounted on the traction wheels entirely independent of the boiler1 thus relieving the boiler of all strain4 ,this is an undeniable advantage1 since usually the strain on the boiler is great enough without forcing the boiler to carry the engine and gears4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,frick ,,co4',s ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the gearing to the traction wheels is simple and direct1 and a patent elastic spring or cushion connection is used which avoids sudden strain and possible breakage of gears4 ,steel traction wheels and riveted spokes4 ,differential gear in main axle1 with locking device when both traction wheels are required to pull out of a hole4 ,the reverse gear is single eccentric1 the eccentric turning on the shaft4 ,it is well adapted to using steam expansively4 ,the crown sheet is so arranged as not to be left bare of water in going up or down hills4 ,working parts are covered dust proof4 ,engine has self-oiling features and sight feed lubricator4 ,friction clutch in flywheel4 ,safety brake on main axle4 ,engineer's platform mounted on springs and every part of engine requiring attention can be reached conveniently from platform4 ,crank is center type4 ,cross-head pump is used4 ,usual fittings4 ,illustration3 ,,gaar1 ,,scott ,,co4',s ,,traction ,,engine4 ,these engines are built with boiler of locomotive type for burning wood and coal1 and of return flue type for burning straw4 ,they are also built of three general types1 8,corliss-pattern0 frame1 8,standard0 and 8,compound40 ,the engine is side crank1 mounted on brackets attached to the sides of the boiler4 ,the bedplate1 cylinder and guides are bored at one operation and cannot get out of alignment4 ,cylinder has wide ports and free exhaust1 and piston has self-setting rings4 ,the genuine link reverse gear is used1 as on locomotives1 and it undoubtedly has many advantages over any other1 including an easily adjustable variable cut-off by correct setting of reverse lever4 ,the differential gear is heavy and effective4 ,a patent steering attachment1 with spiral roll1 holds chains taut and gives positive motion4 ,friction clutch is mounted on engine shaft and connects with the hub of the pinion on this shaft4 ,rigid pinion is also provided4 ,cross-head pump and injector are used1 and ,pickering governor with improved spring speeder1 permitting quick and easy change of speed2 also ,sawyer's lever for testing safety4 ,steam passes direct from dome to cylinder1 without loss from cooling or condensing4 ,the steel water tank can be filled by a jet pump operated by steam4 ,d4 ,,june ,,co4',s ,,traction ,,engine4 ,this is one of the very few traction engines built with upright boiler1 but it has been on the market many years and has been widely used with great success as a general road locomotive4 ,the engine is mounted on the water tank4 ,the weight of the boiler comes on the hind wheels1 and makes this type of engine superior for pulling4 ,it is claimed that it has no equal on the market as a puller4 ,the upright type of boiler has the advantage that the crown sheet is never exposed and it is claimed flues will last longer than in horizontal type4 ,it works equally well whether it stands level or not1 an advantage that no other type has4 ,this type gets up steam more quickly than any other--it is said1 from cold water1 in twenty minutes4 ,the steam is superheated in a way to economize fuel and water4 ,by being mounted on the tank1 the engine does not get hot as it would if mounted on the boiler1 and the corresponding straining of parts is avoided4 ,a patent water spark arrester is used which is an absolute protection4 ,illustration3 ,d4 ,,june ,,co4',s ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the engine is geared to the traction by a chain1 which can easily be repaired as the links wear4 ,the friction clutch works inside flywheel4 ,engine has a new reversible eccentric1 and differential gear1 with usual fittings4 ,,nichols ,,shepard ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the builders of this engine lay special stress upon the care with which the boiler and similar parts are constructed4 ,the important seams are double riveted1 and the flue sheet is half inch steel1 drilled instead of punched for the flues1 and fitted with seamless steel flues1 all of the best steel4 ,illustration3 ,,nichols ,,shepard ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the boiler is the direct flue locomotive type4 ,the crown sheet slopes backward to allow it to be covered with water in descending hills4 ,boiler has round-bottom firebox4 ,axle passes around below the boiler1 and springs are provided4 ,the engine is mounted on a long heater1 which is attached to the side of the boiler4 ,the locomotive link reverse is used1 with a plain slide valve4 ,cross-head pump and injector are used1 and improved pop safety valve4 ,cylinder is jacketed1 and cross-head guides are rigid with cylinder1 so that perfect alignment is always secured4 ,engines are built to burn coal or wood4 ,a straw burner is provided with firebrick arch4 ,compound engines are also built4 ,,the ,,huber ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the ,huber boiler is of the return flue type1 and the gates are in the large central tube4 ,this does away with the low-hanging firebox1 and enables the engine to cross streams and straddle stumps as the low firebox type cannot do4 ,the cylindrical shape of the boiler also adds considerably to its strength4 ,the water tank is carried in front1 and swings around so as to open the smoke box1 so that repairs may be made on the fire tubes at this end easily in the open air4 ,with water front return flue boilers the workman has to crawl through entire length of central flue4 ,as there is no firebox1 the boiler is mounted above the axle1 not by bolting a plate to the side of the firebox4 ,the boiler is made fast to the axle1 which is mounted on wheels with spring cushion gear1 the springs being placed in the wheel itself1 between the two bearings of the wheel or the hub on trunnions1 which form the spindle for the hub4 ,the wheel revolves on the trunnion instead of on the axle1 and there is no wear on the axle4 ,the traction gear has a spring connection so that in starting a load there is little danger of breakage4 ,the compensating gear is all spur4 ,the intermediate gear has a ten-inch bearing1 with an eccentric in the center for adjusting the gear above and below4 ,there is a spring draw bar and elastic steering device4 ,an improved friction clutch works on inside of flywheel4 ,engine has a special governor adapted to varying work over rough roads1 etc4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,huber ,,traction ,,engine4 ,a single eccentric reverse gear is used1 with arm and wood slide block 7,woolf72 and there is a variable exhaust1 by which a strong draft may be quickly created by shutting off one of two exhaust nozzles4 ,when both exhausts are open1 back pressure is almost entirely relieved4 ,the steam is carried in a pipe down through the middle of the central flue1 so that superheating is secured1 which it is claimed makes a saving of over #h per cent in fuel and water4 ,the stack is double walled with air space between the walls4 ,a special straw-burning engine is constructed with a firebox extension in front1 and straw passes over the end of a grate in such a way as to get perfect combustion4 ,this make of engine is peculiarly adapted to burning straw successfully4 ,a4 ,w4 ,,stevens' ,,traction ,,engine4 ,this engine has locomotive pattern boiler1 with sloping crown sheet1 and especially high offset over firebox1 doubling steam space that will give dry steam at all times4 ,a large size steam pipe passes from dome in rear through boiler to engine in front1 superheating steam and avoiding condensation from exposure4 ,grate is a rocking one1 easily cleaned and requiring little attention1 and firedoor is of a pattern that remains air-tight and need seldom be opened4 ,the engine is mounted upon the boiler1 arranged for rear gear traction attachment4 ,engine frame1 cylinder1 guides1 etc41 are cast in one solid piece4 ,illustration3 ,a4 ,w4 ,,stevens' ,,traction ,,engine4 ,it has a special patented single eccentric reverse1 and ,pickering horizontal governor4 ,there is a friction clutch1 ,marsh steam pump1 and injector4 ,other fittings are complete1 and engine is well made throughout4 ,,aultman-,,taylor ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the ,aultman-,taylor ,traction ,engine is an exceptionally well made engine of the simplest type1 and has been on the market over #be years4 ,there are two general types1 the wood and coal burners with locomotive boilers1 and return flue boiler style for burning straw4 ,a compound engine is also made with the ,woolf single valve gear4 ,illustration3 ,,aultman-,,taylor ,,traction ,,engine4 ,a special feature of this engine is that the rear axle comes behind the firebox instead of between the firebox and the front wheels4 ,this distributes the weight of the engine more evenly4 ,the makers do not believe in springs for the rear axle1 since they have a tendency to wear the gear convex or round1 and really accomplish much less than they are supposed to4 ,another special point is the bevel traction gear4 ,the engine is mounted on the boiler well toward the front1 and the flywheel is near the stack 7in the locomotive type74 ,by bevel gears and a long shaft the power is conducted to the differential gear in connection with the rear wheels4 ,the makers claim that lost motion can be taken up in a bevel gear much better than in a spur gear4 ,besides1 the spur gear is noisy and not nearly so durable4 ,much less friction is claimed for this type of gear4 ,the governor is the ,pickering2 cross-head pump is used1 with ,u4 ,s4 injector2 heater1 and other fittings complete4 ,a band friction clutch is used1 said to be very durable4 ,diamond special spark arrester is used except in straw burners4 ,the platform and front bolster are provided with springs4 ,the makers especially recommend their compound engine1 claiming a gain of about #be per cent4 ,the use of automatic band cutters and feeders1 automatic weighers and baggers1 and pneumatic stackers with threshing machine outfits make additional demands on an engine that is best met by the compound type4 ,with large outfits1 making large demands1 the compound engine gives the required power without undue weight4 ,,avery ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the ,avery is an engine with a return flue boiler and full water front1 and also is arranged with a firebox besides4 ,there is no doubt that it effects the greatest economy of fuel possible1 and is adaptable equally for wood1 coal1 or straw4 ,the boiler is so built that a man may readily crawl through the large central flue and get at the front ends of the return tubes to repair them4 ,illustration3 ,,avery ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the side gear is used with a crank disc instead of arm4 ,the reverse is the ,grime1 a single eccentric with device for shifting for reverse4 ,the friction clutch has unusually long shoes1 working inside the flywheel1 with ample clearance when lever is off4 ,a specialty is made of extra wide traction wheels for soft country4 ,the traction gear is of the spur variety4 ,there is also a double speed device offered as an extra4 ,the water tank is carried in front1 and lubricator1 steering wheel 7on same side as band wheel for convenience in lining up with separator71 reverse lever1 friction clutch1 etc41 are all right at the hand of the engineer4 ,the traction gear is of the spur variety1 adjusted to be evenly distributed to both traction wheels through the compensating gear1 and to get the best possible pull in case of need4 ,for pulling qualities and economy of fuel1 this engine is especially recommended4 ,,buffalo ,,pitts ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the ,buffalo ,pitts ,engine is built either single cylinder or double cylinder4 ,the boiler is of the direct flue locomotive type1 with full water bottom firebox4 ,the straw burners are provided with a firebrick arch in the firebox4 ,boilers are fully jacketed4 ,illustration3 ,,buffalo ,,pitts ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the single and double cylinder engines differ only in this one particular1 the double cylinder having the advantage of never being on a dead center and starting with perfect smoothness and gently1 seldom throwing off belt4 ,the frame has bored guides1 in same piece with cylinder1 effecting perfect alignment4 ,the compensating gear is of the bevel type1 half shrouded and so close together that sand and grit are kept out4 ,three pinions are used1 which it is claimed prevent rocking caused by two or four pinions4 ,cross-head has shoes unusually long and wide4 ,the engine frame is of the box pattern1 and is also used as a heater1 feed water for either injector or steam pump passing through it4 ,valve is of the plain locomotive slide type4 ,the friction clutch has hinged arms working into flywheel with but slight beveling on flywheel inner surface1 and being susceptible of easy release4 ,it is a specially patented device4 ,the ,woolf single eccentric reverse gear is used4 ,engine is fully provided with all modern fittings and appliances in addition to those mentioned4 ,it was the only traction engine exhibited at ,pan-,american ,exposition which won gold medal or highest award4 ,it claims extra high grade of workmanship and durability4 ,,the ,,reeves ,,traction ,,engines4 ,these engines are made in two styles1 simple double cylinder and cross compound4 ,the double cylinder and cross compound style have been very successfully adapted to traction engine purposes with certain advantages that no other style of traction engine has4 ,with two cylinders and two pistons placed side by side1 with crank pins at right angles on the shaft1 there can be no dead centers1 at which an engine will be completely stuck4 ,then sudden starting is liable to throw off the main belt4 ,with a double cylinder engine the starting is always gradual and easy1 and never fails4 ,the same is equally true of the cross compound1 which has the advantage of using the steam expansively in the low pressure cylinder4 ,in case of need the live steam may be introduced into the low pressure cylinder1 enormously increasing the pulling power of the engine for an emergency1 though the capacity of the boiler does not permit long use of both cylinders in this way4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,reeves ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the engine is placed on top of the firebox portion of the boiler1 and the weight is nicely balanced so that it comes on both sides alike4 ,the gearing is attached to the axle and countershaft which extend across the engine4 ,the compensating gear is strong and well covered from dirt4 ,the gearing is the gear type1 axle turning with the drivers4 ,there is an independent pump2 also injector1 and all attachments4 ,the band wheel being on the steering wheel or right side of the engine1 makes it easy to line up to a threshing machine4 ,engine frame is of the ,corliss pattern2 boiler of locomotive type1 and extra strongly built4 ,,the ,,rumely ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the most striking peculiarity is that the engine is mounted on the boiler differently from most side crank traction engines1 the cylinder being forward and the shaft at the rear4 ,this brings the gearing nearer the traction wheels and reduces its weight and complication4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,rumely ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the boiler is of the round bottom firebox type1 with dome in front and an ash pan in lower part of firebox1 and is unusually well built and firmly riveted4 ,the traction wheels are usually high1 and the flywheel is between one wheel and the boiler4 ,the engine frame is of the girder pattern1 with overhanging cylinder attached to one end4 ,the boiler is of the direct flue locomotive type1 fitted for straw1 wood1 or coal4 ,beam axle of the engine is behind the firebox1 and is a single solid steel shaft4 ,front axle is elliptical1 and so stronger than any other type4 ,a double cylinder engine is now being built as well as the single cylinder4 ,the governor regulates the double cylinder engine more closely than single cylinder types1 and in the ,rumely is very close to the cut-off where a special simple reverse is used with the double cylinder engine4 ,engine is supplied with cross-head pump and injector1 ,arnold shifting eccentric reverse gear1 friction clutch1 and large cylindrical water tank on the side4 ,it also has the usual engine and boiler fittings4 ,,port ,,huron ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the ,port ,huron traction engine is of the direct flue locomotive type1 built either simple or compound1 and of medium weight and excellent proportions for general purpose use4 ,the compound engine 7tandem ,woolf cylinders7 is especially recommended and pushed as more economical than the simple cylinder engine4 ,as live steam can be admitted to the low pressure cylinder1 so turning the compound into a simple cylinder engine with two cylinders1 enormous power can be obtained at a moment's notice to help out at a difficult point4 ,illustration3 ,,port ,,huron ,,traction ,,engine4 ,two injectors are furnished with this engine1 and the use of the injector is recommended1 contrary to the general belief that a pump is more economical4 ,the company contends that the long exhaust pipe causes more back pressure on the cylinder than would be represented by the saving of heat in the heater4 ,however1 a cross-head pump and special condensing heater will be furnished if desired4 ,on the simple engine a piston valve is used1 the seat of the valve completely surrounding it and the ports being circular openings1 the result1 it is claimed1 being a balanced valve4 ,the valve reverse gear is of the ,woolf pattern1 the engine frame of the girder type1 ,waters governor1 with special patent speed changer1 specially balanced crank disc1 patent straw burner arrangement for straw burning engines1 special patent spark extinguisher1 special patent gear lock1 and special patents on front axle1 drive wheel and loco cab4 ,the usual fittings are supplied4 ,,minneapolis ,,traction ,,engine4 ,the ,minneapolis traction engine is built both simple and compound4 ,all sizes and styles have the return flue boiler1 for wood1 coal or straw4 ,both axles extend entirely and straight under the boiler1 giving complete support without strain4 ,the cylinder1 steam chest and guides form one piece1 and are mounted above a heater1 secured firmly to the boiler2 valve single simple ,d pattern4 ,special throttle of the butterfly pattern1 large crank pin turned by special device after it is driven in1 so insuring perfect adjustment2 special patent exhaust nozzle made adjustable and so as always to throw steam in center of stack2 friction clutch with three adjustable shoes4 ,boiler is supplied with a superheater pipe4 ,woolf valve and reverse gear4 ,special heavy brass boxes and stuffing-boxes4 ,sight feed lubricator and needle feed oiler2 ,gardner spring governor4 ,complete with usual fittings4 ,this is a simply constructed but very well made engine4 ,illustration3 ,,minneapolis ,,traction ,,engine4 ,,index4 ,,page ,a ,ash pit1 #gj ,attachments for traction engine1 #eb ,automatic cut-off engines1 #acg ,b ,babbitt boxes1 how to1 #ahi ,blast devices1 #cj ,blow-off devices1 #cj ,boiler and engine1 test questions1 #eb ,boiler1 attachments1 #bj ,boiler1 heating surface of1 #acb ,boiler1 how to manage1 #ef ,boiler1 locomotive1 #ac ,boiler1 questions1 and answers1 #ie ,boiler1 return flue1 #ae ,boiler1 starting a1 #eg ,boiler1 vertical1 #ag ,boiler1 water for1 #fb ,boilers1 #aa ,boilers1 how to fill with water1 #bd ,boilers1 terms connected with1 #ag ,boss1 #dc ,box1 a hot1 #hg ,boxes1 how to babbitt1 #ahi ,bridges1 how to cross safely1 #ic ,buying an engine1 #g ,c ,clearance1 #ce ,clearance and lead1 #acd ,compound and cross-compound engines1 #ada ,compound engines1 #abd ,condensation and expansion1 #acd ,condenser1 #ce ,condensing engines1 #adj ,connecting rod1 #cd ,corliss engines1 #ach ,crank1 #cd1 #da1 #db ,cross-head1 #cc ,cushion1 #ce ,cylinder cocks1 #ej ,cylinder cocks1 how to use1 #hc ,cylinder head1 #cc ,cylinder lubricators1 #de ,d ,differential gear1 #df ,double eccentric1 how to set valve1 #hb ,e ,eccentric1 #cf ,eccentric rod1 #cf ,eccentric1 slipping of1 #hc ,economy in running farm engine1 #aaf1 #acj ,engine and boiler1 test questions1 #eb ,engine1 compound1 #abd ,engines1 different types of1 #acg ,engine1 how to manage1 #gg ,engine1 simple1 #cb ,exhaust chamber1 #ce ,exhaust1 the1 #ace ,exhaust nozzle1 #ce ,expansion and condensation1 #acd ,expansive power of steam1 how to use1 #abb ,f ,farm1 engine1 economy in running1 #aaf1 #acj ,fire1 starting1 #gj ,firing1 economical1 #fg ,firing with coal1 #fh ,firing with straw1 #fi ,firing with wood1 #fi ,fly-wheel1 #dd ,friction1 #abf ,friction clutch1 #dg1 #hh ,fuel and grate surface1 #acj ,fusible plug1 #dh1 #gb ,g ,gas and gasoline engines1 #adc ,gas engines compared with steam1 #add ,gasoline engines1 description of1 #adf ,gasoline engines1 how to operate1 #aej ,gasoline engines1 what to do when they don't work1 #aec ,gauge1 water1 #bj ,gauge1 steam1 #bb ,governors1 #dj ,grain1 weight per bushel1 #aib ,grate surface1 #acj ,h ,heater1 #fg ,heating surface of a boiler1 #acb ,high speed engines1 #aci ,hills1 how to pass with engine1 #id ,hole1 how to get out of1 #ib ,hot box1 a1 #hg ,how energy is lost1 #aai ,how heat is distributed1 #abj ,i ,indicator1 steam1 #ej ,injectors1 #bh-ff ,j ,journals1 #da1 #dd ,k ,key1 gib1 and strap1 #db ,knock1 what makes an engine1 #gi ,l ,lap of a valve1 #ce ,lead1 #ce1 #hj ,lead and clearance1 #acd ,leaks1 #acf ,leaky flues1 #gc ,license1 questions asked applicants for1 #agc ,link gear1 #cg ,lubrication1 #he ,lubricators1 #dd ,m ,meyer valve gear1 #dj ,n ,non-condensing engines1 #adj ,p ,pillow blocks1 #dd ,piston1 #cc ,ports1 #cd ,practical points of economy1 #acj ,pulleys1 how to key1 #ahi ,pumps1 boiler1 #be1 #fc ,q ,questions and answers1 #ie1 #agc1 #ajd ,questions and answers1 the boiler1 #ie ,questions and answers1 the engine1 #ajd ,questions1 test1 on engine and boiler1 #eb ,r ,reversing gear1 #cg ,road1 how to handle traction engine on the1 #ia ,s ,safety valves1 #bc ,sand patches1 how to get over with engine1 #ic ,setting a valve1 #ce1 #ha ,shaft1 #da ,smoke1 #ga ,spark arresters1 #ca ,sparks1 #gb ,stationary engines1 #acg ,steam-chest1 #cd ,steam cylinder1 #cc ,steam1 how to use expansive power of1 #abb ,steam1 properties of1 #aba ,steam valve1 #cd ,stuffing box1 #ce1 #ej ,t ,threshing machines1 how to run1 #aeh ,attachments1 #afg ,balancing a cylinder1 #agj ,belting1 #afg ,concaves1 #afb ,conveyor extension1 #afd ,covering pulleys1 #aga ,cylinder1 #afa ,fan1 #afc ,how to feed1 #afi ,self-feeder1 #afe ,separator1 how to set1 #afj ,separator1 care of1 #aga ,sieves1 #afd ,straw rack1 #afc ,tailings elevator1 #afe ,waste1 #afi ,wind stacker1 #aff ,theory of steam power1 #aaf ,throttling engines1 #acg ,throttle1 #cd ,throw of an eccentric1 #cf ,traction engines1 different makes1 #aic ,traction1 engine1 how1 to handle on the road1 #ia ,traction1 engine1 how1 to manage1 #gg ,v ,valve gear1 #cf ,valve1 how to set simple1 #ha ,valve seat1 #cd ,valve1 setting1 #ce ,valve stem1 #ce ,valve1 steam1 #cd ,w ,whistle signals1 code of1 #aia ,woolf reversing gear1 #ci ,y ,young engineers1 points for1 #ie1 #ajd1 #aaj 8,,announcement0 ,a ,,new ,,work ,,up-,,to-,,date1 ,,will ,,be ,,published ,march #aeth1 #aijc4 ,a book every carpenter and builder1 machinist1 mechanic and apprentice will want4 ,the life work of that well-known writer1 ,mr4 ,fred ,t4 ,hodgson4 ,illustration 8,,practical ,,uses ,,of ,,the ,,steel ,,square0 ,a ,modern ,treatise by ,fred ,t4 ,hodgson4 ,an exhaustive work including a brief history of the ,square2 a description of many of the ,squares that are now1 and have been in the market1 including some very ingenious devices for laying out ,bevels for ,rafters1 ,braces and other inclined work2 also chapters on the ,square as a calculating machine1 showing how to measure ,solids1 ,surfaces and ,distances--very useful to builders and estimators4 ,chapters on roofing and how to form them by the aid of the ,square2 ,octagon1 ,hexagon1 ,hip and other ,roofs are shown and explained1 and the manner of getting the rafters and jacks given2 ,chapters on heavy timber framing1 showing how the ,square is used for laying out ,mortises1 ,tenons1 ,shoulders1 ,inclined ,work1 ,angle ,corners and similar work4 ,the work abounds with hundreds of fine illustrations and explanatory diagrams1 which will prove a perfect mine of instruction for the mechanic1 young or old4 ,two large volumes1 bound in fine cloth1 printed on a superior quality of paper from new large type4 ,each copy bears the ,union ,label1 being made entirely by ,union labor4 ,,price1 #b ,vols1 in a ,box1 ,cloth ,binding #b4jj ,,price1 #b ,vols1 in a ,box1 ,half-morocco ,leather ,binding #c4jj ,,publishers' ,,note--,we wish to state this work is entirely new and must not be mistaken for ,mr4 ,hodgson's former works on the 8,steel ,square10 which were published some twenty years ago4 ,be sure and ask for 8,practical ,uses of the ,steel ,square10 by ,fred ,t4 ,hodgson1 which bears the imprint of ,send for descriptive circulars4 ,,frederick ,j4 ,,drake ,,co41 ,publishers of ,hodgson's 8,modern ,carpentry10 8,common-,sense ,handrailing10 etc4 ,common-,sense ,handrailings and ,how to ,build ,them ,by ,,fred ,t4 ,,hodgson ,,illustrated ,illustration ,this new volume contains three distinct treatises on the subject1 each of which is complete in itself4 ,the system of forming the lines for obtaining the various curves1 wreaths1 ramps and face moulds for handrails are the simplest in use and those employed by the most successful handrailers4 ,mr4 ,hodgson has placed this unusually intricate subject before his readers in a very plain and easily understood manner1 and any workman having a fair knowledge of 8lines0 and who can construct an ordinary straight stairway can readily grasp the whole system of 8handrailing0 after a small study of this work4 ,the building of stairs and properly making and placing over them a graceful handrail and suitable balusters and newel posts is one of the greatest achievements of the joiner's art and skill1 yet it is an art that is the least understood of any of the constructive processes the carpenter or joiner is called upon to accomplish4 ,in but very few of the plans made by an architect are the stairs properly laid down or divided off2 indeed1 most of the stairs as laid out and planned by the architect1 are impossible ones owing to the fact that the circumstances that govern the formation of the rail1 are either not understood1 or not noticed by the designer1 and the expert handrailer often finds it difficult to conform the stairs and rail to the plan4 ,generally1 however1 he gets so close to it that the character or the design is seldom changed4 ,the stairs are the great feature of a building as they are the first object that meets the visitor and claims his attention1 and it is essential1 therefore1 that the stair and its adjuncts should have a neat and graceful appearance1 and this can only be accomplished by having the rail properly made and set up4 ,this little book gives such instructions in the art of handrailing as will enable the young workman to build a rail so that it will assume a handsome appearance when set in place4 ,there are eleven distinct styles of stairs shown1 but the same principle that governs the making of the simplest rail1 governs the construction of the most difficult1 so1 once having mastered the simple problems in this system1 progress in the art will become easy1 and a little study and practice will enable the workman to construct a rail for the most tortuous stairway4 ,the book is copiously illustrated with nearly one hundred working diagrams together with full descriptive text4 #abmo ,,cloth1 ,,price1 #a4jj ,,frederick ,j4 ,,drake #f ,,co41 ,publishers #baa-bac ,east ,madison ,st41 ,,chicago ,modern ,carpentry ,a ,,practical ,,manual ,,for ,,carpenters ,,and ,,wood ,,workers ,,generally ,by ,fred ,t4 ,hodgson1 ,architect1 ,editor of the ,national ,builder1 ,practical ,carpentry1 ,steel ,square and ,its ,uses1 etc41 etc4 ,illustration ,a new1 complete guide1 containing hundreds of quick methods for performing work in carpentry1 joining and general wood-work4 ,like all of ,mr4 ,hodgson's works1 it is written in a simple1 every-day style1 and does not bewilder the working-man with long mathematical formulas or abstract theories4 ,the illustrations1 of which there are many1 are explanatory1 so that any one who can read plain ,english will be able to understand them easily and to follow the work in hand without difficulty4 ,the book contains methods of laying roofs1 rafters1 stairs1 floors1 hoppers1 bevels1 joining mouldings1 mitering1 coping1 plain hand-railing1 circular work1 splayed work1 and many other things the carpenter wants to know to help him in his every day vocation4 ,it is the most complete and very latest work published1 being thorough1 practical and reliable4 ,one which no carpenter can afford to be without4 ,the work is printed from new1 large type plates on a superior quality of cream wove paper1 durably bound in ,english cloth4 ,price #a4jj ,,frederick ,j4 ,,drake ,,co4 #baa-bac ,e4 ,madison ,st41 ,chicago4 ,scientific ,horse1 ,mule and ,ox ,shoeing ,by ,j4 ,g4 ,holmstrom1 ,author of ,modern ,blacksmithing ,illustration ,a standard treatise1 adapted to the demand of ,veterinarians1 ,farriers and the ,amateur ,horseshoer4 ,illustrated4 ,the book is concisely written2 no long articles over the experiments of others1 but gives the best methods known up to date4 ,although there are principles laid down in the book that will stand so long as the horse is a horse1 the author does not lay any claim to infalibility or perfection2 he has simply laid a foundation upon which the ironer of horses' feet may build and develop a perfect structure4 ,among some of the valuable contents are3-- ,anatomy of the ,foot4 ,the ,shoe and ,how to ,make it4 ,right and ,wrong ,filling4 ,how to ,nail the ,shoe4 ,how to ,fit and ,recalk ,old ,shoes4 ,interfering4 ,preparing the ,foot for ,shoeing4 ,shoeing a ,trotter4 ,mule ,shoeing4 ,ox ,shoeing4 ,diseases of the ,horse4 ,hot and ,cold ,fitting4 ,how to ,shoe ,vicious ,horses4 ,kneesprung4 ,stringhalt4 ,contraction4 ,sand ,cracks1 etc41 etc4 ,many of the fine illustrations used are reproduced by permission from books issued by the ,u4 ,s4 ,department of ,agriculture4 ,large #abmo1 ,cloth1 with ,special ,cover ,design1 #a4jj ,sold by ,booksellers generally1 or sent postpaid upon receipt of price4 ,,frederick ,j4 ,,drake ,,co41 ,publisher4 #baa-bac ,east ,madison ,st41 ,,chicago ,,all ,,technical ,,terms ,,avoided ,practical ,telephone ,hand ,book and ,guide to ,telephonic ,exchange ,,how ,,to ,,construct ,,and ,,maintain ,,telephone ,,lines ,by ,t4 ,s4 ,,baldwin1 ,m4 ,a4 ,illustrated4 ,illustration ,containing chapters on 8,the ,use of the ,telephone1 ,series and ,bridging phones1 ,line ,construction1 ,materials to be used1 ,locating and ,correction of ,faults in ,instruments and ,lines40 ,this is the best book ever published on ,farm ,telephones and has been the sensation of the past year in telephone circles4 ,it is the only book ever issued which treats the subject exhaustively and comprehensively4 ,it is of inestimable value to promoters of rural party lines because it contains all of the arguments that are necessary to show the advantages of rural party lines4 ,it also tells how such lines should be constructed and cared for4 ,the great growth of the telephone industry during the past few years1 and in response to the demand for a comprehensive book1 giving a clear1 terse idea of the different principles governing the construction1 installation1 care and management of the various telephones and their appliances1 the ,practical ,telephone ,hand ,book has been compiled4 ,it is written in a most clear and careful style and aims to give a complete review of the subject of telephony4 ,no expense has been spared in gathering valuable information1 and it has been the aim of the author to make this treatise the most complete elementary book ever written on this subject for all persons interested in this great achievement of modern science4 ,the text is profusely illustrated by cuts of commercial apparatus and carefully prepared diagrams of circuits4 ,no diagram is given without a full explanation4 ,the apparatus and methods used in making all the tests required in commercial telephone work1 including the exchange1 are fully treated4 #ab ,mo4 ,cloth1 fully illustrated1 price #a4be ,,bookkeeping ,,self-,,taught ,by ,,phillip ,c4 ,,goodwin ,illustration ,few1 if any of the technical works1 which purport to be self-instructing have justified the claims made for them1 and invariably the student either becomes discouraged and abandons his purpose and aim1 or he is compelled to enlist the offices of a professional teacher1 which in the great majority of instances is impracticable when considered in relation to the demands upon time and the condition of life to which the great busy public is subjected4 ,mr4 ,goodwin's treatise on ,bookkeeping is an entirely new departure from all former methods of self-instruction and one which can be studied systematically and alone by the student with quick and permanent results1 or taken up in leisure moments with an absolute certainty of acquiring the science in a very short time and with little effort4 ,the book is both a marvel of skill and simplicity4 ,every feature and every detail leading to the climax of scientific perfection are so thoroughly complete in this logical procedure and the analysis so thorough and deftly made that the self-teaching student is led by almost imperceptible1 but sure and certain steps to the basic principles of the science1 which the author in a most comprehensive and lucid style lays bare to intelligence of1 even the most mediocre order4 ,the work is the most masterly exposition of the scientific principles of ,bookkeeping and their practical application which has ever appeared in the ,english language1 and it should be in the hands of every school boy or girl1 every clerk1 farmer1 teacher and business or professional man2 for a knowledge of ,bookkeeping1 even though it may not be followed as a profession1 is a necessity felt by every person in business life and a recognized prime factor of business success4 ,in addition to a very simple yet elaborate explanation in detail of the systems of both single and double entry ,bookkeeping1 beginning with the initial transactions and leading the student along to the culminating exhibit of the balance sheet1 the work contains a glossary of all the commercial terms employed in the business world1 together with accounts in illustration1 exercises for practice and one set of books completely written up4 #abmo ,cloth4 ,price #a4jj4 ,sent postpaid to any address upon receipt of price4 ,frederick ,j4 ,drake ,co41 ,publishers #baa-bac ,,east ,,madison ,,st41 ,,chicago 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's ,notes4 ,italic text is denoted by underscores and bold text by equals signs4 ,variant spelling1 punctuation1 and inconsistent hyphenation have been preserved as printed2 simple typographical errors have been corrected4 ,the following list notes the changes made or shows the changed text below the original text4 ,page #ba3 ,they open directly ut ,they open directly out ,page #eb3 7#a is left in place47 added closing parenthesis ,page #eb3 #ae ft4 lin4 ,suction ,hose #ae ft4 #a in4 ,suction ,hose ,page #ee3 used for rest of engine8 used for rest of the engine8 ,page #ei3 imperfect team gauge imperfect steam gauge ,page #ei3 tightning up a box there tightening up a box there ,page #if3 ,blown off more is only a waste of heat ,blowing off more is only a waste of heat ,page #aag3 long separated overs long separated lovers ,page #acj3 should have a great surface should have a grate surface ,advertisements3 ,special ,cover ,design1 #a4jj added decimal point ,advertisements3 ,few1 if any of of the technical works ,few1 if any of the technical works