,transcrib]'s note3 ,m9or spell+ inconsi/5cies1 ma9ly hyph5at$ words1 h be5 h>moniz$4 ,italic text has be5 m>k$ ) und]scores4 ,obvi\s typos h be5 correct$4 ,please see ! end ( ?is book = fur!r notes4 ,,! ,,/ory ,,( ,,! ,,hills4 ,illu/ration ,illu/ration3 ,,norham ,,ca/le4 ,,aft] ,,turn]4 ,,! ,,/ory ,,( ,,! ,,hills4 ,a ,,book ,,ab\t ,,m\nta9s ,,= ,,g5]al ,,read]s4 ,,by ,,rev4 ,h4 ,n4 ,,hut*9son1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,au?or ,,( ,,! ,,autobiography ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,) ,sixte5 ,full-page ,illu/rations4 ,!y are z a great & noble ar*itecture1 fir/ giv+ %elt]1 com=t1 & re/2 & cov]$ also ) mighty sculpture & pa9t$ leg5d4--,,rusk94 ,new ,york3 ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co4 ,,& ,,london4 #ahib4 ,copyright1 #ahia1 ,,by ,,macmillan ,,& ,,co4 ,univ]sity ,press3 ,,john ,,wilson ,,& ,,son1 ,,cambridge1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,to ,,all ,,:o ,,love ,,m\nta9s ,,& ,,hills ,?is little ,book is ,d$icat$1 ,,9 ,,! ,,hope ,,t ,,ev5 ,a ,,slight ,,k ,,( ,,_! ,,place ,,9 ,,nature1 ,,& ,,previ\s ,,hi/ory1 ,,may ,,add ,,to ,,! ,,wond] ,,& ,,delight ,,) ,,:i* ,,we ,,look ,,^u ,,^! ,,noble ,,features ,,( ,,! ,,surface ,,( ,,! ,,e>?4 ,,preface4 ,n[ t travell+ is no long] a luxury = ! ri*1 & ?\s&s ( p g e summ] to sp5d _! holidays among ! m\nta9s ( ,europe1 & ladies climb ,mont ,blanc or ramble among ! ,c>pa?ians1 !re mu/ be _m :o w\ld l to "k some?+ ( ! secret ( ! hills1 _! orig91 _! ar*itecture1 & ! =ces t made !m :at !y are4 ,= su* ?is book is *iefly writt54 ,^? w be/ und]/& x :o take x ) !m on _! travels1 & endeav\r by its use to int]pret :at !y see among ! m\nta9s2 & !y w f9d t a little obs]vation goes a long way to help !m to read m\nta9 hi/ory4 ,x is hop$1 h[ev]1 t all1 bo? "y & old1 :o take an intellig5t int]e/ 9 ! _w ar\nd1 ?\gh !y may nev] h se5 a m\nta91 may f9d ^! pages wor? read+4 ,if read]s d n f9d "h answ]s to all _! que/ions1 !y may be rem9d$ t x is n possible )9 ! pres5t limits to give m ?an a brief sket* ( ! subject1 leav+ ! gaps to be fill$ 9 by a /udy ( ! l>g] & m important works on geology4 ,! au?or1 assum+ t ! read] kn[s no?+ ( ?is fasc9at+ sci5ce1 has endeav\r$ to int]pret into ord9>y language ! /ory ( ! hills z x is writt5 9 ! rocks ( :i* !y are made4 ,x c sc>cely be d5i$ t a little k ( natural objects greatly adds to our appreciation ( !m1 besides af=d+ a deep s\rce ( pleasure1 9 reveal+ ! h>mony1 law1 & ord] by :i* all ?+s 9 ?is wond]ful _w are gov]n$4 ,m\nta9s1 :5 once we beg9 to obs]ve !m1 seem to become m ?an ev] our companions1--to take u into _! c\nsels1 & to tea* u _m a lesson ab\t ! great "p !y play 9 ! ord] ( ?+s4 ,& surely our admiration ( _! beauty is n less5$1 b r increas$1 :5 we le>n h[ mu* we & all liv+ ?+s owe to ! life-giv+ /reams t fl[ cont9ually f !m4 ,! writ] has1 some:at reluctantly1 omitt$ c]ta9 p>ts ( ! subject :i*1 ?\gh v int]e/+ to ! geologi/1 c h>dly be made attractive to g5]al read]s4 ,?us1 ! cause ( e>? movem5ts1 by :i* m\nta9s are pu%$ up f> above ! pla9s t lie at _! feet1 is at pres5t a matt] ( speculation2 & x is difficult to express 9 ord9>y language ! ideas t h be5 put =w>d on ?is subject4 ,aga91 ! curi\s int]nal *anges1 :i* we f9d to h tak5 place 9 ! rocks ( :i* m\nta9s are compos$1 are v int]e/+ to ^? :o "k some?+ ( ! m9]als ( :i* rocks are made up1 & _! *emical composition2 b x 0 f\nd impossible to r5d] ^! matt]s suffici5tly simple4 ,s aga9 ) reg>d to ! geological /ructure ( m\nta9-*a9s4 ,?is _h to be v briefly treat$1 9 ord] to avoid introduc+ details :i* w\ld be too complicat$ = a book ( ?is k9d4 ,! au?or desires to ackn[l$ge 8 obligations to ! writ+s ( ,sir ,a4 ,geikie2 ,pr(essor ,bonney1 ,pr(essor ,gre51 & ,pr(essor ,%al]1 ( ,h>v>d ,univ]sity2 ! volumes ( ! ,alp9e ,j\rnal2 ,! ,e>?1 by ,reclus2 ! ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,canon ,isaac ,taylor's ,words & ,places1 h also be5 made use (2 & if 9 e case ! ref]5ce is n giv51 ! writ] hopes ! omission w be p>don$4 ,a few passages f ,mr4 ,rusk9's ,mod]n ,pa9t]s h be5 quot$1 9 ! hope t o!rs may be l$ to read t wond]ful book1 & to le>n m ab\t m\nta9s & cl\ds1 & _m o!r ?+s1 at ! feet ( "o ( ! greate/ tea*]s ( ! c5tury4 ,"s ( our engrav+s are tak5 f ! ju/ly celebrat$ photographs ( ! ,high ,alps1#a by ! late ,mr4 ,w4 ,donk91 ^: premature dea? among ! ,caucasus ,m\nta9s 0 deeply deplor$ by all4 ,^? reproduc$ 7 k9dly l5t by 8 bro!r1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,donk91 ( ,rugby4 ,to ,messrs4 ,val5t9e ,son ( ,dundee1 ,mr4 ,wilson ( ,ab]de51 & to ,messrs4 ,fri? we are indebt$ = p]mission to reproduce "s ( _! admirable photographs2 also to ,messrs4 ,james ,h[ ,sons ( ,f>r+don ,/reet1 = ?ree excell5t photographs ( rock-sections tak5 ) ! microscope4 #a ,publi%$ by ,messrs4 ,spoon]1 ( ! ,/r&4 ,,cont5ts4 ,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,z ,,!y ,,are4 ,,*apt] ,,page ,i4 ,,m\nta9s ,,& ,,m5 #c ,,ii4 ,,! ,,uses ,,( ,,m\nta9s #cc ,,iii4 ,,sun%9e ,,& ,,/orm ,,on ,,! ,,m\nta9s #gj ,,iv4 ,,m\nta9 ,,plants ,,& ,,animals #ajc ,"p ,,ii4 ,,*apt] ,,page ,,h[ ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,7 ,,made4 ,v4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,mat]ials ,,7 ,,br\ght ,,toge!r #aci ,,vi4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,7 ,,upheav$ #agd ,,vii4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,7 ,,c>v$ ,,out #bje ,,viii4 ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9s #bdb ,,ix4 ,,m\nta9 ,,ar*itecture #bhb ,x4 ,,! ,,ages ,,( ,,m\nta9s ,,& ,,o!r ,,que/ions #cah ,,illu/rations4 ,,norham ,,ca/le4 ,aft] ,turn] ,frontispiece ,,b5 ,,lomond4 ,f a ,photograph by ,j4 ,val5t9e #af ,,cl\ds ,,on ,,b5 ,,nevis #ch ,,sn[ ,,on ,,! ,,high ,,alps4 ,f a ,photograph by ,mr4 ,donk9 #fd ,a ,,/orm ,,on ,,! ,,lake ,,( ,,?un4 ,aft] ,turn] #hf ,,! ,,matt]horn4 ,f a ,photograph by ,mr4 ,donk9 #ih ,,on ,a ,,glaci]4 #aaf ,,r$ ,,de]4 ,aft] ,ansdell #acc ,,*alk ,,rocks1 ,,flambor\gh ,,head4 ,f a ,photograph by ,g4 ,w4 ,wilson #aeb ,,microphotographs ,,illu/rat+ ,,rock ,,=mation #agb ,,! ,,skaegg$als=s1 ,,norway4 ,f a ,photograph by ,j4 ,val5t9e #aib ,,! ,,m] ,,de ,,glace ,,& ,,mont ,,buet4 ,f a ,photograph by ,mr4 ,donk9 #bbi ,,! ,,eruption ,,( ,,vesuvius ,,9 #ahgb4 ,f an ,in/antane\s ,photograph #bej ,,column> ,,basalt ,,at ,,clam%ell ,,cave1 ,,/affa4 ,f a ,photograph by ,j4 ,val5t9e #bhj ,,mont ,,blanc1 ,,sn[fields1 ,,glaci]s1 ,,& ,,/reams4 #cab ,,m\nta9 ,,9 ,,! ,,yosemite ,,valley4 #ccf ,,illu/rations ,,ii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,,section ,,across ,,! ,,weald ,,( ,,k5t ,,& ,,surrey4 #bcg ,fig4 #b4 ,,! ,,highl&s ,,( ,,scotl& ,,on ,a ,,true ,,scale 7aft] ,geikie47 #bcg ,fig4 #a4 ,,! ,,ranges ,,( ,,! ,,great ,,bas91 ,,we/]n ,,/ates ,,( ,,nor? ,,am]ica1 ,,%[+ ,a ,,s]ies ,,( ,,great ,,fractures ,,& ,,tilt$ ,,masses ,,( ,,rock4 #bgb ,fig4 #b4 ,,section ,,?r\gh ,,sn[don4 #bgb ,,sections ,,( ,,m\nta9-,,ranges1 ,,%[+ ,,_! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,! ,,am\nt ,,( ,,rock ,,worn ,,away #cjf ,,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,z ,,!y ,,are4 ,,! ,,/ory ,,( ,,! ,,hills4 ,"p ,i4 ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,z ,,!y ,,are4 ,,*apt] ,i4 ,,m\nta9s ,,& ,,m54 ,happy1 ,i said1 ^: home is "h2 ,fair =tunes to ! ,m\nta9e]4 ,9 old times p look$ ) awe ^u ! m\nta9s1 & reg>d$ !m ) feel+s ak9 to horror or dread4 ,a v slight acqua9tance ) ! classical writ]s ( antiquity w suffice to conv9ce any "o t ,greeks & ,romans did s reg>d !m4 ,!y 7 n s famili> ) m\nta9s z we are2 = !re 7 no roads ?r\gh !m1 z n[ ?r\gh ! ,alps1 or ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1--to say no?+ ( ! all-p]vad+ railway4 ,x w\ld1 h[ev]1 be a great mi/ake to suppose t ! anci5ts did n obs]ve & enjoy ! beauties ( ,nature4 ,! fair & f]tile pla91 ! v9e-clad slopes ( ! l[] hill-ranges1 & ! _m-tw9kl+ smile ( ocean 7 se5 & lov$ by all :o _h a m9d to appreciate ! beautiful4 ,! poems ( ,hom] & ,virgil w\ld alone be suffici5t to prove ?is4 ,b ! high] ranges1 untrodd5 by ! foot ( man1 7 gaz$ at1 n ) admiration1 b ) religi\s awe2 = m5 look$ ^u m\nta9s z ! abode ( ! gods4 ,!y dwelt 9 ! ri* pla91 :i* !y cultivat$1 & beside ! sweet wat]s ( "s riv]2 = food & dr9k are ! fir/ necessities ( life4 ,b !y left ! high hills alone1 & 9 fancy peopl$ !m ) ! ,immortals :o rul$ _! de/9y1--controll+ also ! w9ds & ! lightn+1 ! ra9 & ! cl\ds1 :i* seem to h _! home among ! m\nta9s4 ,a *ildlike fe> ( ! unkn[n1 c\pl$ ) religi\s awe1 made !m avoid ! l(ty & b>r5 hills1 f :i* little 0 to be got b wild honey & a scanty supply ( game4 ,!re 7 also dang]s to be enc\nt]$ f ! fury ( ! /orm & ! avalan*e2 b ! saf] gr\nd ( ! pla9s bel[ w\ld rew>d _! toil ) an ample supply ( corn & o!r necess>ies ( life4 ,9 classical times1 & also 9 ! ,middle ,ages1 ! m\nta9s1 z well z gl5s & riv]s1 7 suppos$ to be peopl$ ) fairies1 nymphs1 elves1 & all sorts ( /range be+s2 & ev5 n[ travell]s among ! m\nta9s ( ,switz]l&1 ,norway1 ,wales1 or ,scotl& f9d t x is n long s9ce ! simple folk ( ^! regions believ$ 9 ! exi/5ce ( su* be+s1 & attribut$ to _! ag5cy _m ?+s :i* !y c\ld n o!rwise expla94 ,( all ! nations ( antiquity ! ,jews seem to h %[n ! greate/ appreciation ( m\nta9 sc5]y2 & 9 no anci5t writ+s d we f9d s _m or s eloqu5t allusions to ! hills z 9 ! ,old ,te/am5t4 ,b "h aga9 "o _c fail to trace ! same feel+s ( religi\s awe4 ,! ,law 0 giv5 to _! =efa!rs 9 ! des]t amid/ ! ?und]s ( ,s9ai4 ,to !m ! e>? 0 lit]ally ,jehovah's foot/ool1 & ! cl\ds 7 ,8 tab]nacle4 ,if ,he d b t\* ! hills1 !y %all smoke4 ,b ?is awe 0 n unmix$ ) o!r & m com=t+ ?\ghts4 ,!y felt t ^? cl\d-capp$ t[]s 7 symbols ( /r5g? & ! abode ( ,him :o w\ld help !m 9 _! ne$4 ,= s we f9d ! psalmi/s reg>d+ !m2 & ) our v diff]5t conceptions ( ! e>?'s natural features1 we c b dimly p]ceive & realise ! full =ce & mean+ ( ! words1 ,i w lift up m9e eyes unto ! hills1 f :5ce come? my help4 ,to take ano!r example f antiquity1 we f9d t ! ,himalayas & ! s\rce ( ! ,ganges h f v e>ly times be5 consid]$ z holy by ! p ( ,india4 ,?\s&s ( pilgrims f all p>ts ( t va/ c\ntry /ill cont9ue to seek salvation 9 ! holy wat]s ( ! ,ganges1 & at its sacr$ s\rces 9 ! sn[y ,himalayas4 ,& to ^? :o "k ,india ! wondr\s sn[clad peaks ( ! ,himalayas /ill seem to be surr\nd$ ) some:at ( ! same halo ( glory z ( old4 ,m\nta9s are intimately associat$ ) ! hi/ory ( nations1 & h contribut$ mu* to ! m\ld+ ( ! human m9d & ! "* ( ^? :o dwell among !m2 !y h alike inspir$ ! m9d ( ! arti/1 ! poet1 ! re=m]1 & ! vision>y seek+ repose = 8 s\l1 t1 dwell+ f> f ! /rife & turmoil ( ! _w1 he may contemplate alone ! glory ( ! ,et]nal ,be+4 ,!y h be5 ! refuge ( ! afflict$ & ! p]secut$2 !y h brac$ ! m9ds & bodies ( h]oes :o h dwelt = a "t among !m be=e desc5d+ once m to ! pla9 t !y might play "s noble "p 9 ! progress ( ! _w4 ,moses1 :ile lead+ ! flock ( 8 fa!r-9-law to ! back ( ! wild]ness1 came to ,m\nt ,horeb & receiv$ ! div9e summons to return to ,egypt & lead ,israel out ( bondage4 ,david1 ) 8 six hundr$ foll[]s1 flee+ f ! face ( ,saul1 f\nd a refuge 9 ! hill c\ntry2 & ! life ( p]il & adv5ture :i* he l$ dur+ ^! ye>s ( p]secution 0 a "p ( 8 tra9+ = ! great future task ( rul+ ,israel1 :i* he p]=m$ s well4 ,elijah summon$ ! false prophets ( ,baal & ,a%]ah to ,m\nt ,c>mel & slew !m at ! brook ,ki%on2 & a little lat] we f9d him at ,m\nt ,horeb li/5+1 n to ! w9d or to ! e>?quake or to ! fire1 b to ! /ill small voice tell+ him to return & ano9t ,jehu to be k+4 ,or1 to take ano!r example f a lat] age1 we f9d t ,mahomet's fav\rite resort 0 a cave at ! foot ( ,m\nt ,hira1 nor? ( ,mecca2 "h 9 d>k & wild surr\nd+s 8 m9d 0 wr\ght up to rhapsodic en?usiasm4 ,& _m1 l ^! lead]s ( m51 h receiv$ 9 m\nta9 retreats a firmness & t5acity ( purpose giv+ !m ! "r to be lead]s1 & ! p[] to r$ress human wrongs2 or1 x may be1 a temp] ( m9d & _s enabl+ !m to so> into regions ( ?\ght & contemplation untrodd5 by ! c>eless & m luxuri\s multitudes :o dwell on ! pla9s bel[4 ,p]haps ,mr4 ,lewis ,morris 0 unconsci\sly (f]+ 8 te/imony to ! influ5ce ( m\nta9s :5 he wrote ^? words :i* he puts into ! m\? ( poor ,m>syas1-- ,m x is ?an ease1 ,palace & pomp1 hon\rs & luxuries1 ,to h se5 :ite pres5ces ^u ! hills1 ,to h he>d ! voices ( ! et]nal gods4#b #b ,epic ( ,hades4 ,! ?und] & lightn+1 /orm & cl\d1 z well z ! s(t beauty ( col\r1 & ! h>mony ( m\nta9 outl9e1 h be5 a "p1 & a v important "p1 ( _! tra9+4 ,! exhil>at+ air1 ! /ruggle ) ! elem5ts 9 _! fi]c5ess1 ! rugg$ /r5g? ( granite1 seem to h possess$ ! v s\ls ( su* m51 & made !m l ! /rong ones1--! immortal be+s to :om 9 all previ\s ages ! races ( mank9d h assign$ _! abode 9 ! hills1 z ! ,greek gods 7 suppos$ to dwell on ,m\nt ,olympus4 ,on ^! heights su* m5 seem to h ga9$ some?+ ( ! /r5g? ( ,him :o dwells 9 ! heav5s f> above _! highe/ peaks1--! /r5g? ( ! hills1 :i*1 z ! ,hebrew poet says1 is ,8 also4 ,we h spok5 ( ! attitude ( ! human m9d t[>ds m\nta9s 9 ! pa/2 let u n[ consid] ! light 9 :i* !y are reg>d$ at ! pres5t "t by all ?\ghtful & cultivat$ p4 ,& x does n require a mom5t's consid]ation to p]ceive t a v great *ange has tak5 place4 ,in/ead ( reg>d+ !m ) horror or av]sion1 we look ^u !m ) wond] & delight2 we wat* !m h\r by h\r :5ev] = a brief season ( holiday we take up our abode ne> or among !m4 ,we come back to !m ye> by ye> to brea! once m ! pure air :i* s frequ5tly re/ores ! invalid to heal? & br+s back ! col\r to fad$ *eeks4 ,we love to wat* ! ev]-v>y+ lights & %ades ^u !m1 z ! day goes by4 ,b x is t[>ds ev5+ t ! mo/ en*ant+ sc5es are to be witness$1 :5 ! s9k+ sun %$s its gold5 rays ^u _! slopes1 or t+es _! summits ) floods ( crimson light2 & !n pres5tly1 aft] ! sun has gone d[n1 pale mi/s beg9 to rise1 & ! hills seem m maje/ic ?an ev]4 ,lat] on1 z ! full moon appe>s f beh9d a bank ( cl\d1 ^? wond]ful moonlight effects may be se5 :i* mu/ be famili> to all :o "k ! m\nta9s z !y are 9 summ] or autumn1--sc5es su* z ! writ] has frequ5tly witness$ 9 ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 b :i* only ! poet c adequately describe4 ,!re are few sights 9 ,nature :i* m p[]fully impress ! m9d ?an a sunset among ! m\nta9s4 ,g5]al ,sir ,ri*>d ,/ra*ey concludes 8 description ( ! ,himalayas ) ! foll[+ /rik+ passage3 ,"h may ! eye1 z x sweeps along ! horizon1 embrace a l9e ( sn[clad m\nta9s su* z exi/ 9 no o!r "p ( ! _w1 /ret*+ ov] "o ?ird ( ! entire circle1 at a di/ance ( =ty or fifty miles1 _! peaks t[]+ ov] a sea ( int]v5+ ranges pil$ "o beh9d ano!r1 ^: ext5t on ei!r h& is lo/ 9 ! remote di/ance1 & ( :i* ! ne>e/ rises f a gulf f> d[n b5ea? ! spectator's feet1 :]e may be se5 ! silv] l9e t m>ks a riv]'s c\rse1 or crimson fields ( am>an? & ! dwell+s ( man4 ,sole repres5tative ( animal life1 "s great eagle floats high ov]head 9 ! pure d>k-blue sky1 or1 unus$ to man1 fe>lessly sweeps d[n )9 a few y>ds to gaze at ! /rang] :o intrudes among ^! solitudes ( ,nature4 ,z ! sun s9ks1 ! cold grey %ad[ ( ! summit :]e we /& is ?r[n =w>d1 sl[ly /eal+ ov] ! di/ant hills1 & veil+ _! gl[+ purples z x goes1 c>ries ! night up to ! feet ( ! great sn[y peaks1 :i* /ill rise radiant 9 ! rosy light above ! n[ d>k5+ _w4 ,f ea/ to we/ 9 succession ! spl5d\r fades away f "o po9t aft] ano!r1 & ! va/ %ad[ ( ! e>? is rapidly drawn across ! :ole vault ( heav54 ,"o m dep>t+ day is add$ to ! c\ntless s]ies :i* has sil5tly witness$ ! dea?like *ange t passes ov] ! et]nal sn[s1 z !y are left rais+ _! cold pale fronts aga9/ ! n[ lead5 sky2 till sl[ly ) ! deep5+ night ! _w ( m\nta9s rises aga91 z x 71 to a new life1 "u ! *ang$ light ( ! ?\s& />s :i* /ud ! firmam5t & %9e ) a brilliancy unkn[n except 9 ! cle> r>efi$ air ( ^! sublime heights4 ,ye> by ye> a l>g] numb] ( busy work]s f our great t[ns1 avail+ !mselves ( ! increas$ facilities = travel1 come to ! m\nta9s to sp5d _! summ] holidays1--"s to ! ,swiss ,alps1 o!rs to ,wales1 ,cumb]l&1 ,norway1 or ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&4 ,!re are few untrodd5 valleys 9 ^! regions1 few ( ! m important m\nta9s :i* h n be5 climb$4 ,our k ( m\nta9s1 ?anks to ! lab\rs ( a zeal\s army ( work]s1 is n[ consid]able4 ,! pr(essors ( physical sci5ce h be5 busy mak+ important obs]vations on ! condition ( ! atmosph]e 9 ! high] regions2 geograph]s h not$ _! heights & mapp$ _! lead+ cont\rs4 ,geologi/s h done a va/ am\nt ( "w 9 asc]ta9+ ! composition & arrangem5t ( ! rocks ( :i* m\nta9 *a9s are compos$1 9 obs]v+ _! peculi> /ructures1 9 record+ ! *anges :i* are cont9ually effect+ _! wa/e & decay1 & ?us int]pret+ ! /ory ( ! hills z x is writt5 9 ! v rocks ( :i* !y are built up4 ,naturali/s h collect$ & not$ ! peculi> plants & animals :i* h _! home among ! hills1 & s ! =ms ( life1 bo? animal & vegetable1 :i* inhabit ! m\nta9s ( ,europe1 & "s o!r c\ntries1 are n[ fairly well kn[n4 ,! hi/orian1 ! antiqu>y1 & ! /ud5t ( languages h made int]e/+ discov]ies ) reg>d to ! m\nta9 races ( mank9d4 ,& only to m5tion ?is c\ntry1 su* writ]s z ,scott1 ,wordswor?1 & ,rusk9 h giv5 u 9 v]se & prose descriptions ( m\nta9 sc5]y :i* w take a p]man5t place 9 lit]ature2 :ile ,turn]1 our great l&scape-pa9t]1 has express$ ! glories ( m\nta9 sc5]y 9 pictures :i* speak m eloqu5tly ?an _m words4 ,?us we see t :atev] l9e ( inquiry be *os51 our subject is full ( v>i$ int]e/4 ,) reg>d to ! *>act]i/ics ( m\nta9 races1 x is n easy to say to :at ext5t p 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ! _w :o live among m\nta9s %>e ! same virtues or ! same fail+s2 b ! mo/ obvi\s traits 9 ! "* ( ! m\nta9e] seem to be ! result ( 8 natural surr\nd+s4 ,?us we f9d m\nta9e]s g5]ally end[$ ) h>dihood1 /r5g?1 & brav]y4 ,to sp5d "o's days on ! hillsides = a l>ge "p ( ! ye>1 z %eph]ds & o!rs d 9 ,scotl& or ,wales1 & to walk "s miles e day 9 pure brac+ air1 mu/ be heal?y & t5d to develop ! muscles ( ! body2 & s we f9d ! highl&]s ( all c\ntries are usually muscul>1 /rong1 & capable ( endurance4 ,& !re c be little d\bt t m\nta9 races are kept up to a high /&>d ( /r5g? & endurance by a rigor\s & con/ant we$+ out ( ! weakly ones1 especially among *ildr54 ,& if only ! /rong] live to gr[ up & become p>5ts1 ! *ances are t _! *ildr5 w be /rong too4 ,?us ,nature ex]cises a k9d ( selection2 & we h consequ5tly ! survival ( ! fitte/4 ,?is selection1 toge!r ) ! heal?y lives !y lead1 is probably suffici5t to acc\nt = _! /r5g? & h>d9ess4 ,z might be expect$1 m\nta9e]s are celebrat$ = _! fight+ qualities4 ,! fi]ce ,afghans :o h (t5 fac$ a ,briti% army1 & sometimes victori\sly2 ! brave ,swiss peasantry1 :o h m ?an once f\ght nobly = fre$om2 ! ,highl&]s1 :o h contribut$ s l>gely to ! success ( ,briti% arms 9 ne>ly all p>ts ( ! _w1 & ^: =efa!rs defi$ ev5 ! all-conqu]+ ,roman 9 _! m\nta9 /rongholds1--^! & _m o!rs all %[ ! same val\r & p[] ( endurance4 ,etymologi/s1 ^: le>n$ rese>*es into ! mean+ ( words h ?r[n s mu* light on ! ages be=e hi/ory 0 writt51 tell u t ! ,picts 7 s call$ f _! fight+ qualities1 & t ! ^w ,pict is d]iv$ f ! ,gaelic peicta1 a fight+ man4 ,& ,julius ,cs> says ! *ief god ( ! ,britons 0 ! god ( w>4 ,9 "s c\ntries--z1 = in/ance1 ,greece1 ,italy1 & ,spa9--! m\nta9s are infe/$ ) b&itti & robb]s1 :o (t5 become a t]ror to ! neighb\rhood4 ,9 m peaceful & ord]ly c\ntries1 h[ev]1 we f9d among m\nta9e]s _m noble qualities1--su* z pati5ce1 hone/y1 simplicity ( life1 ?rift1 a dignifi$ self-reliance1 toge!r ) true c\rtesy & hospitality4 ,?is is high praise2 b :o t kn[s m\nta9 peasants w\ld say x is undes]v$8 ,h[ _m a tir$ travell] among ! hills ( ,scotl& or ,wales has _h reason to be grateful = welcome1 food1 & re/ 9 "s little cottage 9 a f>-away gl56 ,h[ _m fri5d%ips h ?us be5 =m$6 ,h[ _m a pleasant talk has beguil$ ! "t dur+ a /orm or %[]6 ,! old feuds are =gott5 n[ t ! ,saxon /rang] & invad] is at peace ) ! ,celtic p :om 8 =efa!rs drove into ! hills4 ,! ca/les1 once c5tres ( oppression or sc5es ( viol5ce1 lie 9 peaceful & picturesque ru9s1 & add n a little to ! int]e/ ( "o's travels 9 ! ,nor?4 ,:at true c\rtesy & consid]ation "o meets ) at ! h&s ( ^! hone/ folk1 among :om ! old k9dly usages h n di$ out6 ,(t5 too poor to be afflict$ ) ! gre$ & ?ir/ = weal?1 :i* frequ5tly m>ks ! man ( ! pla9 z comp>$ ) ! man ( ! hills1--! ,l[l&] z comp>$ ) ! ,highl&]1--!y exhibit _m ( ^? simple virtues :i* "o h>dly expects to meet ) among busy t[nspeople1 all b5t on mak+ money1 or z ! phrase is1 gett+ on 9 life4 ,illu/ration3 ,,b5 ,,lomond4 ,,f ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,j4 ,,val5t9e4 ,! m\nta9 *e]1 ! fro/y skies1 ,bre$ pur] wits1 inv5tive eyes2 ,& !n ! moral ( ! place ,h9ts summits ( h]oic grace4 ,m5 9 ^! crags a fa/ness f9d ,to fight corruption ( ! m9d2 ,! insanity ( t[ns to /em ,) simpl5ess = /ratagem4 ,mr4 ,sk5e1 ! ,scot* hi/orian1 records a t\*+ case ( ! devotion ( ,highl&]s to _! *ief4 ,he says1-- ,!re is p]haps no in/ance 9 :i* ! atta*m5t ( ! clan to _! *ief 0 s /rongly manife/$ z 9 ! case ( ! ,macph]sons ( ,cluny aft] ! disa/] ( '! ,=ty-five4' ,! *ief hav+ be5 deeply engag$ 9 t insurrection1 8 life became ( c\rse =feit$ to ! laws2 b nei!r ! hope ( rew>d nor ! fe> ( dang] c\ld induce any "o ( 8 p to betray him4 ,= n9e ye>s he liv$ conceal$ 9 a cave a %ort di/ance f 8 own h\se2 x 0 situat$ 9 ! front ( a woody precipice ( :i* ! trees & %elv+ rocks conceal$ ! entrance4 ,! cave _h be5 dug by 8 own p1 :o work$ at night & convey$ ! /ones & rubbi% into a neighb\r+ lake1 9 ord] t no ve/ige ( _! lab\r might appe> & lead to ! discov]y ( ! retreat4 ,9 ?is asylum he cont9u$ to live secure1 receiv+ by night ! occasional visits ( 8 fri5ds1 & sometimes by day1 :5 ! soldi]s _h begun to slack5 ! vig\r ( _! pursuit4 ,upw>ds ( "o ?\s& p]sons 7 privy to 8 concealm5t1 & a rew>d ( #a1jjj 0 (f]$ to any "o :o %\ld give in=mation aga9/ him4444 ,b al?\gh ! soldi]s 7 animat$ by ! hope ( rew>d1 & _! (fic]s by promise ( promotion = ! appreh5sion ( ?is proscrib$ individual1 yet s true 7 8 p1 s inflexibly /rict 9 _! promise ( secrecy1 & s dextr\s 9 convey+ to him ! necess>ies he requir$ 9 8 long conf9em5t1 n a trace ( him c\ld be discov]$1 nor an individual base en\gh to give a h9t to 8 detrim5t4 ,! m\nta9e] is a true g5tleman4 ,h[ev] poor1 h[ev] ignorant or sup]/iti\s1 "o p]ceives 9 him a ref9em5t ( mann] :i* _c fail to comm& admiration4 ,8 read9ess to %>e 8 be/ ) ! /rang] & to r5d] any s]vice 9 8 p[] are pleas+ traits 9 8 "*4 ,b !re is "o sad feature ab\t m\nta9e]s ( ! pres5t day :i* "o frequ5tly notices 9 di/ricts :]e _m t\ri/s come1--especially ,engli% or ,am]ican4 ,!y are1 we regret to say1 los+ _! indep5d5ce1 _! simple1 old-fa%ion$ ways1 & becom+ s]vile & gre$y1--at lea/ 9 ! t[ns & villages4 ,su* *anges seem1 alas6 inevitable :5 ri* t[nspeople1 b5t on pleasure or sport1 invade ! recesses ( ! hills :]e pov]ty usually reigns4 ,on ! "o h&1 we h p1 (t5 ) long purses1 eag] = enjoym5t1 wait+ to be f$1 h\s$1 or o!rwise ent]ta9$2 on ! o!r h&1 poor p1 anxi\s to make hay :ile ! sun %9es & to extract z mu* money z possible f ! visitors1 :o (t5 all[ !mselves to be unm]cifully fleec$4 ,!n !re are 9 ! ,highl&s ! sportsm51 :o require a l>ge foll[+ ( gillies to att5d !m 9 _! w&]+s1 pay !m highly = _! s]vices1 & dismiss !m at ! end ( ! season2 & s ! m5 are 9 _m cases left )\t employm5t all ! w9t] & spr+4 ,is x1 !n1 surpris+ t !y give way to a natural t5d5cy to idl5ess1 & fall into o!r bad habits8 ,any visitor :o sp5ds a w9t]1 or "p ( "o1 9 ! ,highl&s w be bett] able to realise ! ext5t ( ?is evil1 :i* is by no means small2 & "o _c help regrett+ t ! sportsm5's pleasure & ! t\ri/'s holiday %\ld involve results ( su* grave consequ5ce4 ,we are incl9$ to ?9k t 9 ^! days sport is ov]done1 & wi% x c\ld be foll[$ )\t tak+ ! hillman away f ! "w he w\ld o!rwise f9d1 & :i* w\ld r5d] him a m useful memb] ( society4 ,) ! agitation go+ on 9 "s p>ts aga9/ de]-=e/s we d n feel mu* sympa?y1 because !y are bas$ on ! errone\s idea t cr(t]s c\ld make a liv+ out ( ! l& ?us enclos$2 :]eas ^? :o "k ! l& & its value = agricultural purposes tell u t ) ! exception ( a few small pat*es "h & !re1 h>dly wor? m5tion+1 x c\ld n possibly be made to produce en\gh to ma9ta9 cr(t]s & _! families4 ,nev]!less1 ano!r way ( look+ at ! matt] is ?is3 t ! man :o m]ely m9i/]s to ! pleasure ( o!rs ri*] ?an himself loses "s ( ! self-respect & indep5d5ce :i* he w\ld acquire by work+ 9 8 own way = a liv+4 ,! same *anges = ! worse are /ill m manife/ 9 ,switz]l&2 & ev5 9 "s p>ts ( ,norway ! p are be+ simil>ly spoil$4 ,mr4 ,rusk91 speak+ ( ! =m] c\ntry1 says3 ,i believe t e franc n[ sp5t by travell]s among ! ,alps t5ds m or less to ! und]m9+ ( :atev] special greatness !re is 9 ! ,swiss "*2 & ! p]sons ,i met 9 ,switz]l& ^: position & modes ( life r5d] !m be/ able to give me true in=mation respect+ ! pres5t /ate ( _! c\ntry1 among _m causes ( national det]ioration1 spoke ) *ief fe> ( ! influx ( ,engli% weal?1 gradually connect+ all indu/ry ) ! wants ( /rang]s1 & invit+ all idl5ess to dep5d ^u _! casual help1 ?us resolv+ ! anci5t consi/5cy & pa/oral simplicity ( ! m\nta9 life into ! two irregul> trades ( ! innkeep] & m5dicant4#c #c ,mod]n ,pa9t]s1 vol4 iv4 ,m\nta9 p h /ill _! sup]/itions2 s9ce ! introduction ( railways _m ( ! old leg5ds & popul> my?s h di$ out1 b ev5 :at is left is int]e/+ to ! /ud5t ( folk-lore1--inde$1 we might say1 to e "o4 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1 speak+ ( ,scot* m\nta9 sc5]y says1-- ,to ! influ5ce ( sc5]y ( ?is k9d on ! m9d ( a p at once obs]vant & imag9ative1 su* leg5ds z t ( ! ,titans %\ld 9 all likelihood be ascrib$4 ,x w\ld be int]e/+ to trace back ^! leg5ds to _! cradle1 & to m>k h[ mu* !y owe to ! "* ( ! sc5]y among/ :i* !y took _! rise4 ,p]haps x w\ld be f\nd t ! rugg$ outl9es ( ! ,boeotian hills _h no small %>e 9 ! fram+ ( ,hesiod's graphic /ory ( t primeval w>f>e :]e9 ! combatants f\ght ) huge rocks1 :i*1 d>k5+ ! air z !y flew1 at la/ buri$ ! discomfit$ ,titans deep b5ea? ! surface ( ! l&4 ,nor w\ld x be difficult to trace a close connection betwe5 ! pres5t sc5]y ( our own c\ntry & "s ( ! "t-hon\r$ tradition>y /ories ( giants & h]o k+s1 w>locks & wit*es1 or betwe5 ! do+s ( ! ,sc&9avian ,hrim?urs>1 or ,fro/ ,giants1 & ! m *>act]i/ic features ( ! l&scapes & climate ( ! ,nor?4#d #d ,sc5]y ( ,scotl&4 ,! foll[+ passage f ,rusk9 br+s out m /rongly ! effects ( m\nta9s on m51--a subject to :i* he has giv5 mu* att5tion3-- ,we %all f9d1 on ! "o h&1 ! m\nta9s ( ,greece & ,italy1 =m+ all ! lovelie/ dreams1 fir/ ( ,pagan1 !n ( ,*ri/ian my?ology1 on ! o!r1 ^? ( ,sc&9avia1 to be ! fir/ s\rces ( :atev] m5tal 7z well z milit>y7 p[] 0 br\ght by ! ,normans into ,s\!rn ,europe4 ,norm&y itself is1 to all int5ts & purposes1 a hill c\ntry4444 ,we h ?us "o bran* ( ! ,nor!rn religi\s imag9ation ris+ among ! ,sc&9avian fiords1 temp]$ 9 ,france by v>i\s enc\nt]s ) elem5ts ( ,arabian1 ,italian1 ,prov5al1 or o!r ,s\!rn poetry1 & !n react+ ^u ,s\!rn ,engl&2 :ile o!r =ms ( ! same rude religi\s imag9ation1 re/+ l cl\ds ^u ! m\nta9s ( ,scotl& & ,wales1 met & m+l$ ) ! ,norman ,*ri/ianity1 reta9+ ev5 to ! late/ times "s d>k col\r ( sup]/ition1 b giv+ all its poetical & milit>y pa?os to ,scotti% poetry1 & a peculi> /]nness & wildness ( tone to ! ,re=m$ fai?1 9 its manife/ations among ! ,scotti% hills4#e #e ,mod]n ,pa9t]s1 vol4 iv4 ,! ,alps1 l mo/ o!r m\nta9\s c\ntries1 h _! fair %>e ( leg5ds1 "s ( :i* are v grotesque4 ,we h select$ ! foll[+1 z relat$ by ,pr(essor ,bonney4#f ,! wild huntsman's yell is /ill he>d 9 _m places by ! %udd]+ peasants z 8 phantom tra9 sweeps by ! *let4 ,!re is also ! wild goat-h]d1 a wick$ lad1 :o crucifi$ an old he-goat & drove 8 flock to wor%ip x2 lightn+ consum$ him2 & n[ he w&]s =ev] ov] ! ,alps1 mis]ably wail+4 #f ,! ,alp9e ,regions ( ,switz]l& 7,deighton1 ,bell1 ,co471 a mo/ int]e/+ book1 especially = travell]s4 ,:5 ! glaci] ( ,gtroz bur/1 ! ,ar*fi5d himself 0 se5 swimm+ d[n ! ,rhone1 ) a drawn sword 9 "o h& & a gold5 ball 9 ! o!r2 :5 opposite to ,m>tigny he halt$1 & at 8 bidd+ ! wat]s rose & swept away "p ( ! t[n4 ,a va/ multitude ( imps 0 se5 ab\t ! same "t on a m\nta9 9 ! ,val de ,bagnes by two m5dicant fri>s f ,sion1 :o1 he>+ ( ?is unlawful assembly1 _h gone out z detectives to le>n :at mis*ief 0 hat*+4 ,_m places also h _! spectral animals1 ! ,valois1 accord+ to ,ts*udi1 be+ ! headqu>t]s ( ^! leg5ds4 ,!re are also pygmies to be se5 9 ! lonely m\nta9s1 l ! ,norwegian trolls1 & br[nies :o make or m> ! h\se1 accord+ z ! goodwife is neat or a slatt]n4 ,_m ,alp9e /ories h ref]5ce to ! sudd5 de/ruction ( pa/ures by ! fall ( rocks or ice4 ,"h is "o f ! ,cl>id5 ,alps3-- ,once ^u a "t ^! 7 f]tile pa/ures1 on :i* dwelt a s5n4 ,he grew ri*1 s t none c\ld mat* him 9 weal?2 b at ! same "t he grew pr\d & haughty1 & spurn$ bo? ! laws ( ,nature & ! comm&m5ts ( ,god4 ,he 0 s fooli%ly fond ( 8 mi/ress t he pav$ ! way f ! *let to ! byre ) *eeses1 le/ %e %\ld soil h] feet1 & c>$ s little = 8 "m t :5 %e lay at 8 door fa9t+ ) hung]1 he (f]$ h] only milk to dr9k 9 :i* he _h ?r[n ! f\le/ refuse4 ,righte\sly indignant1 %e turn$ away1 call+ ^u ,heav5 to puni% su* an insult4 ,be=e %e rea*$ h] home1 ! rocks & ice _h desc5d$1 cru%+ b5ea? !m h] wick$ son1 8 mi/ress1 & possessions4 ,9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,monte ,rosa !re is a tradition t a valley exi/s 9 ! he>t ( t m\nta9 ! entrance to :i* has be5 seal$ up by impassable glaci]s1 ?\gh ! floor ( ! cirque )9 is /ill a ri* pa/urage4 ,9 a c]ta9 valley !y po9t out a spr+ :i* bur/s f ! gr\nd1 z ! outlet ( ! torr5t by :i* x is wat]$4 ,once1 said !y1 a *asseur f\nd ! b$ ( ?is /ream dry1 & creep+ up its subt]ranean *annel1 arriv$ on ! floor ( ! valley4 ,x 0 a huntsman's p>adise2 *amois 7 !re 9 pl5ty1 be>s also1 & ev5 b\quet9s1 w&]+ ov] ! ri*e/ pa/ures4 ,he retrac$ 8 /eps to ann\nce ! good news2 b :5 he return$ aga91 ! wat]s _h resum$ _! c\rse1 & ! place has ev] s9ce rema9$ inaccessible4 ,m\nta9s play a v important "p 9 human hi/ory4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !y are natural b>ri]s sep>at+ ! nations ( ! _w f "o ano!r1 & t5d+ to keep !m conf9$ )9 c]ta9 def9ite b\nds2 we say1 t5d+ to keep !m ?us conf9$1 because1 z e "o kn[s1 ^! b>ri]s h aga9 & aga9 be5 surm\nt$ by conqu]+ armies4 ,! rugg$ ,alps c\ld n w>d (f ,hannibal1 :o made 8 way ?r\gh !m to m>* ^u ! capital ( ! ,roman empire4 ,9 l mann] ,napoleon defi$ ?is great natural ramp>t1 made a road ?r\gh x1 & came to ,italy4 ,no m\nta9s w\ld seem to be q impassable2 b al?\gh liable 9 ! c\rse ( ages to be occasionally ov]run1 !y af=d good protection & produce a feel+ ( security4 ,! ,himalayas sep>ate our great ,indian empire f t ( ,*9a2 & we d n at pres5t appreh5d an invasion f t qu>t]4 ,! ,suliman ,m\nta9s divide u f ! ,afghans1 & ! great ,russian & ,p]sian empires f>!r we/4 ,/ill1 we "k t 9 ! elev5? c5tury a great ,mahometan invasion ( ,india took place2 our own armies h m ?an once p5etrat$ to ,kabul4 ,p]haps ! common g>d5 wall sep>at+ adjac5t suburban resid5ces furni%es a suitable illu/ration ( ! great natural walls :i* divide1 n h\seholds or families1 b mu* l>g] families ?an ^!1--! nations ( ! _w4 ,j z unruly boys sometimes climb ov] ! neighb\r's wall & play games 9 a g>d5 :i* is n _! own2 or z burgl>s may surm\nt ^! ob/acles to _! progress1 & f9d+ a way into ! h\se by a back door or kit*5 w9d[1 comm5ce _! ravages1--s a neighb\r+ 7b n neighb\rly7 nation1 b5t on conque/1 may invade "s natural g>d5 ( ! _w1 su* z ,india1 by =c+ _! way ?r\gh physical b>ri]s :i* = ord9>y purposes s]ve to protect ^? )94 ,! ,?ian ,%an ,m\nta9s divide ,russia f ,*9a's sph]e ( influ5ce4 ,! ,caucasus ,m\nta9s sep>ate ,russia f ,asia ,m9or4 ,au/ro-,hung>y is b\nd$ by ! ,c>pa?ians1 ,spa9 by ! ,pyr5ees4 ,! ,alps ( ,switz]l& sep>ate f\r nations n v fri5dly to ea* o!r2 & la/ly1 9 our own c\ntry ! ,*eviot ,hills1 toge!r ) ! ,twe$1 =m ! b\nd>y betwe5 ,scotl& & ,engl&4 ,:]e !re are no m\nta9s or hills1 riv]s sometimes s]ve z b\nd>ies1 b ( c\rse !y d n answ] ! purpose s well4 ,sometimes a nation actually builds a wall = a b\nd>y4 ,( ?is ! great wall ( ,*9a & ! ,roman wall betwe5 ! ,*eviots & ! ,solway ,fir? are famili> examples4 ,9 ! second place1 m\nta9s h always be5 a refuge & %elt] = conqu]$ races2 & ! primitive tribes :o once liv$ 9 ! pla9s h be5 =c$ by adv]se circum/ances to take to ! hills4 ,?is has tak5 place ov] & ov] aga94 ,we "k t ! ,celtic p n[ liv+ 9 ,brittany1 ,devon%ire1 ,cornwall1 ,wales1 ,scotl&1 & ,irel&1 ?\gh n[ consid]ably mix$1 are ! desc5dants ( ! old ,celtic inhabitants ( ,france & ,brita94 ,b !re is a great deal ( unwritt5 hi/ory = :i* we may look 9 va9 to ! ord9>y s\rces ( in=mation1 su* z books1 & :i* is only to be read 9 q diff]5t records1--9 antiquities buri$ up 9 peat-b$s1 9 bogs1 9 ru9s & anci5t =ts1 or camps2 & la/ b n lea/1 9 ! names ( places1 riv]s1 or m\nta9s4 ,! hills1 ! valleys1 ! riv]s1 are ! only writ+-tablets on :i* unlett]$ nations h be5 able to inscribe _! annals4 ,= ?is k9d ( hi/ory we mu/ g to ! antiqu>y1 &1 above all1 to ! philologi/1 :o tells u ! mean+ ( ! names ( places1 & :o ! p 7 :o gave ! names t we see on our maps4 ,! great advances :i* h ( late ye>s be5 made 9 our k ( ! primeval races ( m51 or at lea/ ( nations b little kn[n 9 ! annals ( hi/ory1 are l>gely due to ! int]pretation ( ! obscure records pres]v$ 9 local names4 ,! ,celtic1 ! ,ib]ian1 ! ,teutonic1 ! ,sc&9avian1 & ,sclavonic races h ?us = ! mo/ "p made kn[n to u _! migrations1 conque/s1 & defeats4 ,& s by /udy+ ! names ( places1 riv]s1 & hills1 z well z by c>eful collection ( works ( art1 implem5ts1 co9s1 su* z may be se5 9 _m a museum1 x has be5 possible to read a great deal ( e>ly hi/ory :i* w\ld o!rwise h be5 lo/4 ,^? :o h /udi$ ^! matt]s say !y c trace wave aft] wave ( population :i* has ?us left its m>k1--,gaelic1 ,cymric 7or ,wel%71 ,saxon1 ,anglian1 ,norwegian1 ,dani%1 ,norman1 & ,flemi%4 ,?us x c be prov$ f ! names on ! map t almo/ ! :ole ( ,engl& 0 once ,celtic1 :]eas n[ ! ,celts are almo/ entirely conf9$ to ! hills4 ,! ,peak ( ,d]by%ire & ! m\nta9s ( ,cumb]l& reta9 a great] numb] ( ,celtic names ?an ! di/ricts surr\nd+ !m2 & ! hills ( ,devon%ire long s]v$ z a b>ri] to protect ! ,celts ( ,cornwall f ,anglo-,saxon conqu]ors4 ,b ev5 m\nta9 races are (t5 a good deal mix$1 & 9 ! ,pyr5ees we f9d ! desc5dants ( ! ,ib]ians1 :o1 a v long "t ago1 7 driv5 f ! l[l&s ( ,france & ,spa94 ,^! ,ib]ians are a v int]e/+ race1 ( %ort /ature1 ) long heads1 & d>k hair & eyes4 ,?is old type is to be met ) 9 ,wales & ! ,highl&s ev5 9 ! pres5t day4 ,& s we le>n--if ^! conclusions are s\nd--t ev5 ! ,celts 9 _! e>ly days 7 invad]s1 & drove be=e !m an old] population4 ,?is race1 x seems1 liv$ 9 ,europe a v long "t ago1 be=e ! discov]y ( metals1 :5 p made axes1 hamm]s1 & spe>-heads out ( fl9ts or o!r /ones2 & s !y are said to belong to ! ,/one ,age4 ,_! rema9s are f\nd 9 _m ( ! caves :i* ( late ye>s h be5 explor$4 ,possibly ! anci5t p ( ,switz]l& :o liv$ 9 wood5 h\ses1 erect$ on piles ne> ! %ores ( lakes 7probably = safety71 7 also ( ! same /ock4 ,x is curi\s to f9d h[ p liv+ 9 sep>ate valleys among ! m\nta9s ( ,switz]l& h1 9 ! c\rse ( "t1 become s mu* unlike _! neighb\rs t !y c h>dly und]/& ea* o!r's spee*1 s effectually h ! m\nta9s kept !m ap>t4 ,9 "s di/ricts almo/ e valley has its sep>ate dialect4 ,switz]l& is only twice ! size ( ,wales1 yet ! local names are d]iv$ f half a doz5 diff]5t languages1 ?ree or f\r ( :i* are /ill spok5 by ! p4 ,9 ! ,alps1 too1 ! same mixture ( ,celtic ) an old] ,ib]ian /ock has be5 detect$4 ,a curi\s rev]sal ( ! usual ord] ( ?+s is notic$ by ! late ,dean ,/anley 9 8 ,s9ai & ,pale/9e4 ,he po9ts out t ! ,jews took possession ( _m ( ! hills ( ,pale/9e soon aft] ! invasion "u ,jo%ua1 b c\ld n drive out ! peoples ( ! pla9s1 because !y 7 bett] arm$1 & _h *>iots ( iron 9 great numb]4 ,! conqu]ors 9 ?is case kept to ! hills2 :ile ! ,canaanites1 ,phili/9es1 & o!r inhabitants ( ! c\ntry reta9$ = a long "t _! hold ( ! l[] gr\nd4 ,,*apt] ,,ii4 ,,! ,,uses ,,( ,,m\nta9s4 ,! valleys only fe$2 ! m\nta9s fe$ & gu>d & /r5g!n u4--,,rusk94 ,x is n an exagg]ation to say t !re are no physical features ( ! surface ( ! e>? :i* r5d] su* a v>iety ( s]vices z m\nta9s4 ,! op]ations :i* !y p]=m involve su* f>-rea*+ consequ5ces t x is difficult to say :]e _! effects cease4 ,inde$1 x might almo/ be ma9ta9$ t !y are ! ma9spr+ ( ! _w1--z f> z its surface is conc]n$1--= x w\ld f>e ill ) mank9d if !y 7 remov$ or 9 "s way de/roy$4 ,?+s w\ld !n v soon come to a /&/ill4 ,! soil w\ld become exhau/$2 /reams w\ld cease to fl[2 & ! _w w\ld become a k9d ( /agnant pool4 ,! ?ree ma9 s]vices ( ! hills are ^!3-- ,i4 ,m\nta9s help to cond5se wat]-vap\r f ! atmosph]e1 ?us br++ back to ! e>? moi/ure :i* x loses cont9ually by evaporation4 ,,ii4 ,m\nta9s are elevat$ res]voirs ( wat] 9 "o =m or ano!r1 & ?us n only fe$ ! /reams & riv]s1 b give !m =ce & direction z well4 ,,iii4 ,m\nta9s suff] !mselves to be sl[ly worn away 9 ord] t ! face ( ! e>? may be r5ew$2 9 o!r words1 !y die t we1 & all creat$ ?+s1 may live4 ,i4 ,m\nta9s help to cond5se wat]-vap\r f ! atmosph]e1 ?us br++ back to ! e>? ! moi/ure :i* x loses cont9ually by evaporation4 ,e "o kn[s t !re is abundance ( wat]-vap\r 9 ! atmosph]e1 b ! "q arises1 ,h[ does x get !re8 ,! answ] to ?is lies 9 ! simple fact t e surface ( wat] expos$ to ! air und]goes loss by evaporation4 ,if y wi% to satisfy y\rself on ?is po9t1 place a sauc] ( wat] 9 y\r room1 & 9 a few days x w all be gone4 ,we hang clo!s out to dry1 & s avail ourselves ( ?is curi\s p[] t air has ( tak+ up wat] 9 ! =m ( vap\r4 ,/eam1 or wat]-vap\r1 is really invisible1 ?\gh we frequ5tly talk ( see+ ! /eam issu+ f a locomotive2 b :at we really see is a cl\d ( cond5s$ /eam1 & su* cl\ds1#g l ^? t we see float+ 9 ! air1 are really masses ( little t9y p>ticles ( wat] :i* c reflect or ?r[ back ! light :i* falls ^u !m1 & ?us !y become visible4 ,aga91 a kettle ( wat]1 if left too long on ! fire w entirely boil away4 ,x is all turn$ into /eam1 & ! /eam is someh[ hidd5 away 9 ! air1 ?\gh a little ( x w be cond5s$ into slight cl\ds by ! cold] air outside ! kettle4 #g ,x has lately be5 prov$ t cl\ds c only =m 9 air :i* conta9s du/1 & t ea* little susp5d$ p>ticle ( wat] conta9s a speck ( du/ or a t9y g]m ( "s sort = its nucleus4 ,b h[ c wat] /[ itself away 9 ! air )\t be+ se5 or felt8 ,an illu/ration may help to expla9 ?is4 ,suppose y scatt] a spoonful ( small %ot ov] a c>pet or a d>k-col\r$ table-clo?2 y w\ld probably n be able to see !m at a little di/ance4 ,n[1 ga!r !m toge!r 9 a heap1 & y see !m at once4 ,! heap ( %ot 9 "s ways resembles a drop ( wat]1 = 9 a drop ( wat] ! t9y p>ticles 7or molecules7 ( :i* x is compos$ are close toge!r2 b by heat+ wat] y cause !m to fly asund] & scatt] !mselves 9 v>i\s directions4 ,!y are lo/ to sight1 & moreov] h no p[] ( attract+ ea* o!r or ( act+ 9 conc]t2 ea* "o !n takes its own c\rse1 :]eas 9 ! drop ( wat] !y 7 9 "s wond]ful way b\nd toge!r by mutual attraction4 ,!y dance 9 gr\ps2 b ! rude =ce ( heat w scatt] ^! little danc+ gr\ps1 & break !m up into t /ate :i* we call a /ate ( vap\r4 ,! =ces ( heat & cohesion are directly at v>iance2 & x is j a "q ( degree :e!r ! "o or ! o!r gets ! ma/]y 9 ?is tug ( w>4 ,! m y heat ! wat]1 ! fa/] ! little gr\ps ( molecules break up & disappe> 9 ! air4 ,!y mu/ 9 "s way g mov+ betwe5 ! p>ticles ( air1 & collisions keep tak+ place ) inconceivable rapidity4 ,& n[ ano!r "q arises2 namely1 h[ mu* wat]-vap\r c ! air take8 ,t dep5ds *iefly on its temp]ature4 ,air :5 heat$ w take up a great deal ( /eam2 & ! m y heat air1 ! m x c take up4 ,:5 air at a giv5 temp]ature c take up no m1 x is said to be saturat$ = t temp]ature2 b if ! temp]ature be rais$1 x w imm$iately beg9 to take up m4 ,= ea* degree ( temp]ature !re is a c]ta9 am\nt ( wat]-vap\r :i* c be absorb$1 & no m4 ,b suppose we take "s air :i* is already saturat$ & l[] its temp]ature by giv+ x a sudd5 *ill1 :at w happ58 ,x w imm$iately give up "p ( its /eam1 or wat]-vap\r2 namely1 ! exact am\nt :i* x is unable to conta9 at ! l[] temp]ature4#h #h ,pressure also has an important influ5ce1 b 0 omitt$ above = ! sake ( simplicity4 ,!re are v>i\s ways 9 :i* y c te/ ?is matt] = y\rself4 ,= in/ance1 take a h&-glass1 & brea! on x4 ,y "k :at w happ53 a film ( moi/ure =ms ^u x2 & y "k ! reason :y4 ,x is simply t ! cold glass gives a *ill to "o's brea? 7:i* be+ w>m is highly *>g$ ) wat]-vap\r f ! lungs71 & s "s ( ! vap\r is at once cond5s$4 ,n[1 ?is s]ves v well to expla9 h[ m\nta9s cat* wat]-vap\r1 & cond5se x4 ,!y are1 z x 71 a cold look+-glass2 & ! hot brea? ( ! pla9s1 z x /rikes _! sides1 receiv+ a sudd5 *ill1 ?r[s d[n "p ( ! vap\r x conta9s4 ,on ! high] p>ts ( m\nta9-ranges ! cold is s great t ! wat] assumes ! =m ( sn[4 ,m\nta9s1 z e "o kn[s1 are cold] ?an ! pla9s bel[4 ,no "o c>es to /ay v long on a m\nta9-top1 = fe> ( cat*+ cold4 ,x may be wor? :ile to consid] :y !y are cold4 ,p]haps y answ]1 ,because !y are s high4 ,t is true1 b n a complete answ] to our "q4 ,we mu/ look at ! matt] a little m closely4 ,! e>? is a w>m body surr\nd$ by space 9 :i* ! cold is inconceivably int5se2 b j z we protect our bodies aga9/ cold ) g>m5ts1 s ! e>? is wrapp$ up 9 an atmosph]e :i* s]ves m or less to keep 9 ! heat4 ,all w>m bodies give out heat z lum9\s bodies give out light2 b ! rays ( heat1 unlike ^? ( light1 are q invisible to our eyes1 s t we are unaw>e ( !m4 ,^! d>k heat-rays1 z !y are call$1 d n make any impression on ! ret9a1 because our eyes are n capable ( respond+ to !m z !y d to ! ord9>y rays ( light4 ,b !re is a delicate little in/rum5t kn[n z ! !rmopile1 :i* responds to1 & s detects ^! invisible rays2 & if our eyes 7 s5sitive to su* vibrations z ^!1 we %\ld see heat-rays 7:i* l light & s\nd are due to vibrations7 /ream+ f e object1 j z light does f a c&le-flame4 ,^? p>ts ( ! e>? :i* are lea/ cov]$ or protect$ by ! atmosph]e lose heat mo/ rapidly1--9 ! same way t on a fro/y day "o's f+]s become cold unless cov]$ up4 ,n[1 !re is less air ov] m\nta9s2 & 9 ^? high] regions above ! peaks :at air !re is1 is m r>efi$1 & !re=e less capable ( /opp+ ! heat-rays com+ f ! e>?4 ,pr(essor ,tyndall has %[n t wat]-vap\r 9 ! air has a great p[] ( /opp+ d>k heat-rays2 & ! l[] regions1 :i* conta9 m vap\r1 /op or absorb a good deal ( heat :i* w\ld o!rwise escape into space4 ,look at a map ( any cont95t1 & y w see ! riv]s /ream+ away f ! m\nta9s4 ,all ^? va/ quantities ( wat] come f ! atmosph]e2 & m\nta9s d a l>ge %>e ( ! "w ( cond5s+ x f ! /ate ( vap\r to t ( wat]4 ,take ! map ( ,india1 & look at ! great range ( ! ,himalayas4 ,at _! feet is ! hot valley ( ! ,ganges1 :i* meets t ( ! ,brahmapootra ,riv]4 ,an imm5se am\nt ( evaporation takes place f ^! mighty riv]s1 s t ! air above !m becomes lad5 ) wat]-vap\r4 ,f>!r s\? is ! tropical ,indian ,ocean1 f :i* ! direct rays ( ! sun draw up /ill va/] quantities ( wat]4 ,& s :5 s\? w9ds bl[ ov] ,india1 !y are full ( wat]-vap\r2 & pres5tly !y /rike ! flanks ( ! ,himalayas1 & at once !y are *ill$1 & consequ5tly "p ) a l>ge am\nt ( ! vap\r :i* !y conta9$4 ,?is is be/ illu/rat$ by ! case ( ! s\?we/ monsoon w9d ( ! summ] season1 :i* sets 9 dur+ ! mon? ( ,april1 & cont9ues to bl[ /eadily t[>ds ! nor!a/ till ,octob]4 ,aft] leav+ ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 ?is w>m w9d1 lad5 ) vap\r1 meets ere long ) ! range kn[n z ! ,khasi ,hills1 & consequ5tly ?r[s d[n a l>ge "p ( its vap\r 9 ! =m ( ra94 ,! ra9fall "h 9 ! summ] season rea*es ! prodigi\s total ( five hundr$ in*es1 or ab\t tw5ty times z mu* z falls 9 ,london dur+ a :ole ye>4 ,aft] pass+ ov] ^! hills1 ! monsoon w9d pres5tly rea*es ! ,himalayas2 & ano!r d[np\r !n takes place1 until by ! "t x rea*es ! wide pla9s ( ,?ibet1 s mu* wat] has be5 giv5 up t x becomes a v dry w9d in/ead ( a moi/ "o4 ,x mu/ n be suppos$1 h[ev]1 t ! cond5sation effect$ by m\nta9s is entirely due to ?is coldness4 ,!y h ano!r simple & effective way ( compell+ ! w9ds to give up ra93 _! slop+ sides =ce ! w9ds :i* /rike !m to asc5d into high] regions1--w$g+ !m up z waves run up a slop+ /ony bank on ! sea%ore1--& :5 ! w9ds rea* high] regions ( ! atmosph]e !y mu/ 7z expla9$ above7 suff] loss ( heat1 or 9 o!r words1 h _! temp]ature l[]$4 ,!y also exp& consid]ably z !y rise into regions :]e ! atmosph]ic pressure is less2 & z e gas or vap\r loses heat 9 ! act ( expansion1 !y und]go a fur!r cool+ f ?is cause also4 ,we h n[ le>n$ t ! cool+ process is br\ght ab\t 9 ?ree diff]5t ways3 7#a7 ,by contact ) ! cold body ( ! m\nta9s2 7#b7 ,by giv+ out heat into space2 7#c7 ,by expansion ( ! air z x rea*es into ! high] regions ( ! atmosph]e4 ,! cl\d-caps on c]ta9 m\nta9s & promontories are to be expla9$ by all ^! causes comb9$4 ,! we/ coa/ ( ,great ,brita9 illu/rates ! same ?+ on a small] scale4 ,!re ! w>m wat]s ( ! ,gulf ,/ream1 travell+ 9 a nor!a/]ly direction /raight away f ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 /rike ! we/ coa/ ( ,irel&1 ,engl&1 & ,scotl&2 & z mo/ p are aw>e1 ! mild climate ( ,great ,brita9 is *iefly due to ?is fact4 ,if y contra/ = a mom5t ! ea/ & we/ coa/s ( ,brita91 y w see t ! latt] is mu* m rocky & m\nta9\s ?an ! ea/ coa/4 ,m\nta9s run d[n ne>ly all our we/]n coa/s4 ,n[1 x is ?is elevat$ & rocky side ( ,brita9 :i* cat*es mo/ ( ! ra94 ,v in/ructive x is to comp>e ! annual ra9fall 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,brita94 ,on ,d>tmoor ab\t #hf in*es ( ra9 fall e ye>1 :ile 9 ,london only ab\t #bd in*es fall annually2 b !n ,london has no range ( m\nta9s ne>1 & is f> away f ! we/ coa/4 ,aga91 :ile p 9 ,ambleside h to put up ) #gh in*es ( ra91 9 ,norfolk !y are cont5t ) ! mode/ all[ance ( #bd in*es or s4 ,at a place call$ ,quoi* on ! we/ coa/ ( ,scotl&1 ab\t #aag in*es fall e ye>4 ,^! diff]5ces are *iefly due to ! diff]5t cont\r ( ! l& d[n ! we/ side ( ,brita91 :i* is m\nta9\s1 :ile ! ea/ side is flat1 & also to ! fact t :ile ea/]ly w9ds1 :i* h come ov] ! cont95t1 are dry1 our prevail+ w9ds are f ! we/ & s\?we/1 & are consequ5tly heavily lad5 ) vap\r f ! ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,^! w9ds foll[ ! direction ( ! ,gulf ,/ream1 driv+ x along be=e !m2 & 9 s do+ !y take up l>ge quantities ( vap\r f its surface4 ,:5 ^! w>m w9ds t\* our we/]n coa/s1 !y receive a *ill1 & consequ5tly are no long] able to conta9 all ! vap\r :i* !y br+ ) !m1 & s d[n comes ! ra94 ,,ii4 ,m\nta9s are elevat$ res]voirs ( wat] 9 "o =m or ano!r1 & ?us n only fe$ ! /reams & riv]s1 b give !m =ce & direction z well4 ,x is v important t ! m\nta9s %\ld n all[ ! wat]s !y collect to run away too fa/4 ,try to ?9k = a mom5t :at w\ld happ5 if in/ead ( be+1 z x 71 lock$ up 9 ! =m ( sn[fields & glaci]s1 ! wat] 7 all 9 ! liquid =m4 ,x w\ld soon run away1 & = mon?s toge!r ! great riv]-valleys w\ld be dry & desolate4 ,:5 ! ra9 came1 !re w\ld be trem5d\s floods2 dire de/ruction w\ld be wr\ght 9 ! valleys2 & v soon ! great riv]s w\ld dw9dle d[n to no?+4 ,vegetation too w\ld suff] s]i\sly = want ( wat] dur+ ! summ] mon?s2 & ! valleys g5]ally w\ld cease to be ! f]tile s\rces ( life :i* !y are at pres5t4 ,! e>? w\ld become = ! mo/ "p l a /agnant m>%4 ,b 9 ! high] m\nta9 regions !re is a b5efic5t process go+ on :i* av]ts su* an evil4 ,! preci\s supplies ( wat] are /or$ up 9 ! solid =ms ( sn[ & ice4 ,n[1 we all "k t sn[ & ice take a long "t to melt2 & ?us ,nature regulates & l a prud5t h\sewife economises h] preci\s /ores4 ,! riv]s :i* %e fe$s cont9ually1 f sil5t sn[fields & glaci]s among h] m\nta9-peaks1 are ! v art]ies & ve9s ( ! e>?2 & z ! blood 9 our bodies is =c$ to circulate by pressure f ! he>t1 s ! riv]s are compell$ to fl[ by pressure f ! great he>t ( ! hills1--sl[1 /eady1 cont9u\s pressure1 n ! quick pulses :i* ! human he>t s5ds ?r\gh ! body4 ,& aga91 z ! blood1 aft] circulat+ ?r\gh ! body 9 an inf9ite numb] ( life-giv+ /reams1 returns to ! he>t once m on its j\rney1 s ! ?\s& /reams :i* w&] ov] ! pla9s f9d _! way back to ! he>t ( ! m\nta9s1 = ! wat] is br\ght !re 9 ! =m ( vap\r & cl\ds by ! w9ds4 ,:5 we build wat]-t[]s1 & make res]voirs on high gr\nd to give pressure to ! wat] 9 our pipes1 & make x circulate ev]y:]e1--ev5 to ! tops ( our h\ses1--we are only tak+ a h9t f ,nature4 ,! m\nta9s are h] wat]-t[]s1 & f ^! /rong res]voirs1 :i* nev] bur/1 %e comm&s h] /reams1 =c+ !m along _! c\rses 9 ord] t !y may f9d _! way to ! utmo/ b\nds ( cont95ts4 ,b !re is ano!r way 9 :i* m\nta9s regulate ! supply ( wat]1 & prev5t x f runn+ away too fa/1--"o n s effective z ! freez+ process1 b /ill v useful1 because x applies to ! l[] hills bel[ ! l9e ( p]petual sn[4 ,?is may be well illu/rat$ by ! /ate ( "s ( ! ,scot* hills 9 ! middle ( summ] or autumn1 :5 !re is little if any sn[ re/+ ^u !m4 ,any "o famili> ) ^! hills w h notic$ h[ full ( wat] _! sides are4 ,t9y ?reads ( /reams trickle sl[ly along ev]y:]e2 peat-b$s are saturat$ ) d>k-br[n wat]2 ev5 ! grass & soil are g5]ally m or less wet1 especially "u p9e =e/s4 ,"o c g5]ally get a cup ( wat] some:]e1 except aft] a long dry summ]1 :i* is exceptional4 ,!n !re is ! dew =m+ e night4 ,=e/s ) _! und]gr[? ( soil--moss & f]n--also help v consid]ably to *eck ! fl[ ( wat]4 ,we h (t5 ask$ ourselves :5 wat*+ "s swift-fl[+ riv]1 ,:]e does all ?is wat] come f8 ,:y does x n dry up 9 hot wea!r8 ,! answ] came fully aft] we _h climb$ sev]al m\nta9s1 & se5 ) our eyes ! peat-b$s among ! hills1 & he>d ! trickl+ ( ! t9y rivulets hurry+ along to fe$ "s neighb\r+ burn1 or p]haps to run into "s m\nta9 t>n or lo*1 & notic$ ! damp1 spongy /ate ( ! soil ev]y:]e1--n to m5tion ! little spr+s :i* "h & !re well up to ! surface1 & s contribute _! %>e4 ,! riv]s & /reams ( ,scotl& assume v>i\s t9ts ( amb] & d>k-br[n1 accord+ to ! am\nt ( ra9 :i* has rec5tly fall54 ,^! col\rs are due to organic matt] f ! peat4 ,comp>e ,scott's description ( ! ,greta3-- ,9 yell[ light h] curr5ts %one1 ,mat*+ 9 hue ! fav\rite gem ,( ,albion's m\nta9 diadem4 ,! wat]s ( "s ,scot* riv]s aft] heavy ra9 look z black z pit*4 ,nor mu/ we omit ! lakes :i* ab\nd 9 mo/ m\nta9 regions1 & s]ve z natural res]voirs = ! riv]s1 besides giv+ a wond]ful *>m to m\nta9 sc5]y4 ,! l>ge/ lakes 9 m\nta9\s regions are f\nd on ! c\rses ( ! riv]s2 & !re is good reason to believe t !y 7 =m$1 n by any process ( subsid5ce1 b by ! same op]ations t c>v$ out ! valleys4 ,9 _m cases !y are due to ! damm+ up ( a /ream4 ,b 9 "s c\ntries ! /reams dry up dur+ summ]1--9 ,pale/9e or ,s9ai1 :]e !re is b little soil on ! hills1 & consequ5tly h>dly any vegetation4 ,su* b>r5 hills _c hold ! cont9ual supplies :i* p\r g5tly =? f ! m\nta9s ( high] latitudes4 ,! ,alps fe$ f\r ( ! pr9cipal riv]s ( ,europe4 ,we _c d bett] ?an quote ,pr(essor ,bonney1 ^: writ+s on ! ,alps are famili> to all geologi/s4 ,9 8 ,alp9e ,regions ( ,switz]l& ! foll[+ passage occurs3-- ,?is mass ( m\nta9s1 ! great highl&s ( ,europe1 is !re=e ( ! utmo/ physical & geographical importance4 ,ris+ 9 places to a height ( m ?an fifte5 ?\s& feet above ! sea1 & cov]$ = an ext5t ( _m ?\s& squ>e miles ) p]petual sn[1 x is ! *ief fe$] ( f\r ( ! pr9cipal riv]s 9 ,europe1--! ,po1 ! ,rhone1 ! ,rh9e1 & ! ,danube4 ,b = ^? b>r5 fields ( ice1 high up among ! sil5t crags1 ! seem+ home ( w9t] & dea?1 ^! great art]ies ( life w\ld e summ] dw9dle d[n to paltry /reams1 feebly w&]+ ov] /one-/rewn b$s4 ,/&1 = example1 on "s m\nta9-spur1 & look d[n on ! ,lomb>dy pla91 all "o ri* c>pet ( :eat & maize1 ( rice & v9e2 ! life ( ^? myriad ?reads ( gre5 & gold is f$ f ^! icy peaks1 :i* /& out aga9/ ! nor!rn sky 9 su* /range & solemn contra/4 ,z x is ) ! ,po1 s x is ) ! ,rh9e & ! ,rhone1 bo? ( :i* issue f ! ,alps z broad1 swell+ /reams2 s1 too1 ) ! ,danube1 :i*1 al?\gh x does n rise 9 !m1 yet receives f ! ,inn & ! ,drave almo/ all ! dra9age ( ! ea/]n di/ricts4 ,a v little reflection w s]ve to conv9ce any "o h[ va/ly important & b5eficial is ! slope ( ! m\nta9s1 & h[ x gives =ce & direction to /reams & riv]s4 ,)\t ?is =ce1 due to univ]sal gravitation1 by :i* ! wat]s seek cont9ually l[] levels1 ! supplies 9 ! hills w\ld be useless4 ,m]e lakes on flat surfaces w\ld n answ] ! purpose2 & s ! s\rces ( wat] are elevat$ 9 ord] t x may p\r ov] ! _w bel[4 ,no writ] has giv5 su* fasc9at+ descriptions ( m\nta9s z ,mr4 ,rusk92 & no "o has m eloqu5tly describ$ ! functions !y p]=m4 ,9 ! f\r? volume ( 8 ,mod]n ,pa9t]s1 :i* e "o :o c>es = m\nta9s %\ld read1 we f9d ! foll[+ beautiful passage3-- ,e f\nta9 & riv]1 f ! in*-deep /reamlet t crosses ! village lane 9 trembl+ cle>ness1 to ! massy & sil5t m>* ( ! ev]la/+ multitude ( wat]s 9 ,amazon or ,ganges1 owe _! play & purity & p[] to ! orda9$ elevations ( ! e>?4 ,g5tle or /eep1 ext5d$ or abrupt1 "s det]m9$ slope ( ! e>?'s surface is ( c\rse necess>y be=e any wave c s mu* z ov]take "o s$ge 9 its pilgrimage2 & h[ seldom d we en\gh consid]1 z we walk beside ! m>g9s ( our pleasant brooks1 h[ beautiful & wond]ful is t ord9ance1 ( :i* e blade ( grass t waves 9 _! cle> wat]s is a p]petual sign1--t ! dew & ra9 fall5 on ! face ( ! e>? %all f9d no re/+-place2 %all f9d1 on ! contr>y1 fix$ *annels trac$ = !m f ! rav9es ( ! c5tral cre/s d[n :i* !y ro> 9 sudd5 ranks ( foam to ! d>k holl[s b5ea? ! banks ( l[l& pa/ure1 r\nd :i* !y mu/ circle sl[ly among ! /ems & b5ea? ! leaves ( ! lilies2 pa?s prep>$ = !m by :i*1 at "s appo9t$ rate ( j\rney1 !y mu/ ev]more desc5d1 sometimes sl[1 & sometimes swift1 b nev] paus+2 ! daily portion ( ! e>? !y h to glide ov] m>k$ = !m at ea* successive sunrise2 ! place :i* has kn[n !m kn[+ !m no m2 & ! gateways ( gu>d+ m\nta9s op5$ = !m 9 cleft & *asm1 none lett+ !m 9 _! pilgrimage1 & f af> (f ! great he>t ( ! sea call+ !m to itself3 ',deep calle? unto deep4' ,geologi/s1 h[ev]1 d n 9 ^! days tea* t ! pres5t pa?s ( riv]s 7 made = !m1 b r t ! riv]s h c>v$ out _! own valleys = !mselves4 ,! old tea*+ be=e ! days ( ,lyell & ,hutton1 ! f\nd]s ( mod]n geology1 0 t valleys 7 r5ts 9 ! rocks ( ! e>?'s cru/ =m$ by "s wond]ful convulsion ( ,nature1 :]eby !y 7 crack$1 torn asund]1 & upheav$4 ,b a c>eful /udy ( riv]s & _! valleys = _m ye>s has %[n t !re is no evid5ce ( su* sudd5 convulsions4 ,! _w is v old inde$1 & riv]s h be5 fl[+ mu* z we see !m = ages & ages4 ,a few ?\s& ye>s is to ! geologi/ b a %ort space ( "t2 & !re c be no d\bt t a /ream c 9 ! c\rse ( "t c>ve out = itself a valley4 ,! op]ations ( ,nature seem sl[ to u because our lives are s %ort1 & we c see s little *ange ev5 9 a g5]ation2 b ! effects ( ^! *anges m\nt up enorm\sly :5 cont9u$ ?r\gh a long space ( "t4 ,nature works sl[ly2 b !n %e has unlimit$ "t1 & nev] seems 9 a hurry4 ,x is l ! old /ory ( ! h>e & ! tortoise2 & ! riv]1 work+ on /eadily & quietly = hundr$s or ?\s&s ( ye>s1 accompli%es f> m 9 ! end ?an sudd5 floods or viol5t cata/rophes ( any sort4 ,,iii4 ,m\nta9s suff] !mselves to be sl[ly worn away 9 ord] t ! face ( ! e>? may be r5ew$2 9 o!r words1 !y die t we1 & all creat$ ?+s1 may live4 ,! read] w f9d a full acc\nt ( ! me?ods by :i* ^! results are accompli%$ 9 *apt]s v4 & vii41 & !re=e we mu/ n anticipate ?is "p ( ! subject4 ,let x suffice = ! pres5t to say t ?is de/ruction ( ! hills is br\ght ab\t by ! action ( heat & cold1 ( ra9 & fro/1 ( sn[ & ice1 & ! ?\s& /reams t fl[ d[n ! m\nta9-sides4 ,x is ) soils t we are *iefly conc]n$ at pres5t4 ,try to ?9k = a mom5t ( ! lit]ally vital consequ5ces :i* foll[ f ! pres5ce ( good ri* soils ov] diff]5t p>ts ( ! e>?1 & ask :e!r x w\ld be possible = civilis$ races ( m5 to fl\ri% & multiply z !y d if x 7 n = ! great f]tile valleys & pla9s ( ! _w4 ,m\nta9 races are nei!r ri* nor p[]ful4 ,man exi/s ma9ly by cultivation ( ! soil2 & among m\nta9s we only f9d "h & !re pat*es t are wor?y ( ! lab\r & exp5diture ( capital involv$ 9 cultivation4 ,b 9 ! great pla9s1 9 ! pr9cipal riv]-valleys ( ! _w1 & among ! less] hill-ranges x is diff]5t4 ,! l[l&s are ! f]tile regions4 ,all great & p[]ful nations ( ! _w are *ildr5 ( ! pla9s4 ,x 0 s 9 ! pa/2 x w be s 9 ! future1 unless m5 le>n to fe$ on some?+ else ?an corn1 milk1 & fle%1 :i* is n v likely4 ,! ,egyptians1 ! e>lie/ civilis$ race ( :i* we h satisfactory records1 dwelt 9 ! f]tile valley & delta ( ! ,nile4 ,!y cle>ly p]ceiv$ ! value ( ?is great riv] to !mselves1 & wor%ipp$ x accord+ly4 ,!y knew no?+ ( its s\rce 9 ! f>-away lakes ( ,c5tral ,africa2 b !y knew truly1 z ,h]odotus tells u1 t ,egypt 0 ! gift ( ! ,nile1 = ! alluvial soil ( its delta has be5 =m$ by ! ye>ly floods ( t great riv]1 z its wat]s1 lad5 ) a f9e ri* mud1 spread ov] its banks1 & = a "t fill$ ! valley ) "o %eet ( wat]4 ,! ,assyrians & ,babylonians _h _! home 9 ! valley ( ! ,euphrates & ,tigris4 ,! ,*9ese1 too1 h _! great riv]s4 ,russia is well wat]$ by p[]ful riv]s4 ,! mo/ popul\s p>ts ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ( ,am]ica are wat]$ by ! great ,mississippi1 & ! o!r riv]s :i* fl[ into x4 ,engl&1 ,g]many1 & ,france are furni%$ ) well-wat]$ pla9s4 ,soils are ! *ief =m ( national weal?4 ,m9]als1 su* z coal & iron1 are ( c\rse extremely valuable1 & help to make an indu/ri\s race ri*2 b ! l& is ! ma9 ?+1 aft] all1 & by l& we mean soil4 ,! two words are almo/ synonym\s4 ,b s9ce ! soil is =m$ *iefly ( dbris br\ght f ! m\nta9s1 x w\ld be m true to say t ^! are ! real s\rces ( weal?4 ,soils conta9 besides a l>ge am\nt ( valuable organic matt] 7t is1 decay$ matt] :i* has once _h animal or vegetable life7 diff]5t k9ds ( m9]als1 :i* are necess>y to ! support ( plant life3 pota%1 soda1 c>bonate ( lime1 silica1 magnesia1 iron1 phosphorus1 & manganese 9 _! v>i\s comp\nds are all pres5t 9 ! rocks ( :i* m\nta9s are compos$4 ,we mu/ aga9 fall back ^u ,mod]n ,pa9t]s = an effective description ( ! =m+ ( soil by de/ruction ( ! hills3-- ,! high] m\nta9s suff] _! summits to be brok5 into fragm5ts & to be ca/ d[n 9 %eets ( massy rock1 full1 z we %all pres5tly see1 ( e sub/ance necess>y = ! n\ri%m5t ( plants2 ^! fall5 fragm5ts are aga9 brok5 by fro/1 & gr\nd by torr5ts into v>i\s conditions ( s& & clay1--mat]ials :i* are di/ribut$ p]petually by ! /reams f>!r & f>!r f ! m\nta9's base4 ,e %[] t swells ! rivulets enables _! wat]s to c>ry c]ta9 portions ( e>? into new positions1 & exposes new banks ( gr\nd to be mov$ 9 _! turn4444 ,! process is cont9u$ m g5tly1 b n less effectively1 ov] all ! surface ( ! l[] undulat+ c\ntry2 & ea* filt]+ ?read ( summ] ra9 :i* trickles ?r\gh ! %ort turf ( ! upl&s is be>+ its own appo9t$ burd5 ( e>? d[n on "s new natural g>d5 9 ! d+les b5ea?4 ,x may be laid d[n z a simple economic tru?1 t no nation c be p[]ful1 ri*1 or prosp]\s1 unless x possess 9 ! fir/ place a good soil4 ,o!r conditions1 su* z l>ge navigable riv]s1 a good seabo>d = h>b\r+ %ips1 are also important2 b unless ! l& w yield pl5ty ( food1 ! population _c be v great1 = p mu/ be f$4 ,=eign supplies ( corn at a l[ price1 meat & provisions ( v>i\s k9ds1 supplem5t :at is gr[n 9 ,engl&2 b )\t a good soil we c\ld n h become a p[]ful nation4 ,a high /ate ( civilisation is 9 a l>ge measure to be trac$ to climate & soil4 ,! sequ5ce is some:at z foll[s3-- ,m\nta9s collect ra94 ,ra9 fills ! riv]s4 ,riv]s make ri* alluvial pla9s4 ,agriculture foll[s2 & food is produc$4 ,abundant food ma9ta9s a l>ge population4 ,! population works to supply its v>i\s wants2 su* z roads1 railways1 %ips1 h\ses1 ma*9]y1 etc4 ,!n foll[s ex*ange ) o!r c\ntries4 ,!y s5d u :at !y c be/ produce1 & we s5d !m :at we c be/ & mo/ easily produce1 & s bo? p>ties ga94 ,?us t[ns spr+ up4 ,education1 ref9em5t1 le>n+1 & ! high] arts foll[ f ! active life ( t[ns1 :]e m bra9-"w is requir$1 & ! /&>d ( life is high]4 ,& ?us we may1 9 imag9ation1 foll[ /ep by /ep ! v>i\s /ages by :i* ! highe/ phases ( civilisation are br\ght to pass1 beg9n+ at ! m\nta9s & end+ ) human be+s ( ! highe/ type1--! philosoph]1 arti/1 poet1 or /atesman1 n omitt+ ! g5tl] sex1 :o are (t5 said to rule ! _w4 ,! foll[+ l9es ( ,milton possess1 9 ! light ( ^! facts1 a deep] mean+ ?an ! poet probably int5d$ to convey3-- ,/raight m9e eye ha? caught new pleasures ,:il/ ! l&scape r\nd x measures3 ,russet lawns & fall[s grey1 ,:]e ! nibbl+ flocks d /ray2 ,m\nta9s on ^: b>r5 brea/ ,! lab\r+ cl\ds d (t5 re/2 ,mead[s trim ) daisies pi$1 ,%all[ brooks & riv]s wide2 ,fl[]s & battlem5ts x sees ,bosom$ high 9 tuft$ trees1-- ,:]e p]haps "s beauty lies1 ,! cynosure ( neighb\r+ eyes4 ,) a little re>rangem5t ( ! l9es1 ! sequ5ce we h indicat$ above w\ld be well illu/rat$4 ,! m\nta9s mu/ come fir/2 !n ! cl\ds1 ready to br+ =? _! ra92 !n ! brooks & riv]s1 !n russet lawns & fall[s grey1--) _! nibbl+ flocks4 ,!n come ! human elem5ts 9 ! sc5e1--! t[]s & battlem5ts1 conta9+ arm$ w>riors1 well f$1 no d\bt1 & ready to d _! ma/]'s bidd+2 la/ly1 ! lady :o adorns ! home ( h] "l1 &1 let u hope1 makes x wor? fight+ =4 ,= comm]cial purposes1 l>ge navigable riv]s are ( great use4 ,& 9 spite ( ! mod]n railway1 riv]s /ill ex]t an influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! r\tes foll[$ by trade4 ,london1 ,liv]pool1 ,glasg[1 & o!r busy c5tres ( life owe _! importance to ! riv]s :i* fl[ ?r\gh !m1 especially s9ce !y are tidal riv]s4 ,heavily lad5 b>ges may be se5 f ,london ,bridge go+ up & d[n ) ! tide e day4 ,s9ce ! direction z well z ! exi/5ce ( l>ge riv]s is regulat$ by m\nta9s1 x is cle> t m\nta9s h a v direct influ5ce on ! trade ( ! _w4 ,m\nta9s supply _m ( our wants4 ,besides wat] & soil1 h[ _m useful ?+s come f ! hills6 ,_! slopes1 wat]$ by ! cl\ds1 frequ5tly support an abundant gr[? ( p9e =e/2 & ?us we get wood = ! %ipwright & jo9]4 ,aga91 m\nta9s are compos$ ( h>d] rocks ?an we f9d 9 ! pla9s1 & t is "o reason :y !y /& out high above ! re/ ( ! _w4 ,_! sub/ance has be5 h>d5$ to )/& = a long] "t ! de/ruction to :i* all rocks are subject$4 ,!y h be5 greatly compress$ & g5]ally m or less h>d5$ by subt]ranean heat4 ,we bake clay & make x into h>d bricks2 s ,nature has bak$ & o!rwise h>d5$ ! once s(t /rata ( :i* m\nta9s are *iefly compos$1 conv]t+ !m into slates1 s*i/1 gneiss1 & o!r k9ds ( rock call$ metamorphic by geologi/s1 because !y h be5 alt]$ or metamorphos$ f _! orig9al condition 7see *apt] viii41 page #bgg74 ,aga91 granite1 basalt1 & o!r rocks kn[n z igne\s1 :i* once exi/$ 9 a molt5 condition1 h =c$ _! way up f subt]ranean regions into ! rocks =m+ m\nta9-*a9s2 & a good deal ( ! h>d5+ j allud$ to is due to ! pres5ce ( ^! fi]y intrud]s1 :i* h bak$ & h>d5$ ! rocks ar\nd !m to a consid]able ext5t1 alt]+ at ! same "t _! m9]al composition4 ,! same causes :i* l$ to ! injection ( granite1 basalt1 & o!r igne\s rocks 9 m\nta9-ranges br\ght o!r consequ5ces 9 _! tra94 ,:atev] ! causes1 !y 7 closely connect$ ) volcanic eruptions1 s t highly heat$ wat] & /eam f\nd _! way ?r\gh cracks & o!r fissures 9 ! rocks2 & 9 ! c\rse ( "t ! *emical actions ?us set up l$ to ! deposition ( valuable metallic ores )9 ^! fissures4 ,9 ?is way m9]al ve9s 7 =m$2 & volcanic action seems to be l>gely responsible = ! production ( m9]als4 ,?us we f9d ar\nd ,vesuvius1 & 9 fact 9 all volcanic regions1 l>ge & v>i$ supplies ( m9]als4 ,n[1 ! geologi/ discov]s t _m m\nta9-*a9s--su*1 = example1 z ! ,grampians1 ,alps1 & ,c>pa?ians--h 9 pa/ geological p]iods be5 ! seats ( volcanic action on a gr& scale2 & s we ne$ n be surpris$ to le>n t m\nta9\s c\ntries yield l>ge supplies ( valuable gems & metallic ores 7see *apt] viii41 page #bgg74 ,ev5 9 ! days ( ,solomon1 ! active & bus9ess-l ,pho5icians 7 c>ry+ on trade ) ,great ,brita92 & ! t9 came f ,cornwall4 ,besides t91 gold1 silv]1 lead1 copp]1 z9c1 & o!r metals come f our hills4 ,n[1 h[ev]1 we get our copp] mo/ly f ! ,&es1 & our gold f ,au/ralia or ,s\? ,africa1 because x c be got m *eaply f ^! c\ntries1 to :i* _m ( our ,corni% m9]s h emigrat$4 ,preci\s /ones also come *iefly f ! hills1 = ! same reason2 = !y 7 =m$ at ! same "t & by ! same causes4 ,cairngorms1 agates1 *alc$ony1 jasp]1 onyx1 topaz1 diamonds1 & _m o!r gems are sil5t b c]ta9 witnesses to ! action ( subt]ranean heat1 act+ long ago on ! rocks :i* we n[ see /&+ up high above ! g5]al surface ( ! gr\nd1 ?\gh once !y 7 buri$ deep d[n bel[ ! surface4 ,diamonds z well z gold are (t5 got f ! b$s ( /reams1 b ?is is easily acc\nt$ =2 ! /reams h wa%$ !m out & br\ght !m d[n f ! hills4 ,! foll[+ words f ! ,book ( ,job 7xxviii4 #e7 might well be appli$ to ! hills4 ,z = ! e>?1 out ( x come? bread3 ,& und]nea? x is turn$ up z x 7 by fire4 ,! /ones !re( are ! place ( sapphires1 ,& x ha? du/ ( gold4 ,we h ?us expla9$ ! ?ree pr9cipal s]vices r5d]$ by m\nta9s1 b "s o!rs rema9 to be m5tion$4 ,m\nta9s h an important influ5ce on climate4 ,! climate ( highl&s ev]y:]e has c]ta9 peculi>ities :i* di/+ui% x f t ( adjac5t l[l&s4 ,! air re/+ on m\nta9s is less d5se ?an t ( ! l[l&s1 & h5ce has few] molecules to ob/ruct ! ent]+ sunbeams by day1 or to /op ! outw>d radiation at night4 ,!re=e m\nta9 air mu/ be cool]2 & s we f9d t on m\nta9s ! mean1 or av]age1 annual temp]ature is l[]4 ,?is r>ity ( ! air causes ! gr\nd to become hott] by day & cold] by night ?an ! gr\nd ( ! pla9s2 & s ! extremes ( temp]ature are great]4 ,^! extremes are injuri\s to vegetation 9 ! high] regions1 & ! want ( moi/ure /ill m s4 ,b m\nta9-slopes up to a c]ta9 height usually h a moi/ climate2 t is1 !y h m cl\ds & ra9 ?an ! surr\nd+ l[l&s4 ,bel[ ! region ( sn[ !re is g5]ally a heavy gr[? ( =e/2 & =e/s 9 _! turn ex]cise an important influ5ce1 help+ to collect moi/ure1 & 9 v>i\s ways to prev5t extremes ei!r ( heat or cold4 ,! e>? is divid$ into ?ree well-m>k$ zones or belts ( climate3 7#a7 ,! torrid zone )9 ! tropics1 :]e ! sun is v]tical twice a ye>1 & days & nights are ne>ly equal2 7#b7 ,! temp]ate zones1 :]e ! sun's rays come m obliquely1 & s are less p[]ful1 & :]e ! l5g? ( day & night v>ies consid]ably2 & 7#c7 ,! frigid zones1 r\nd ea* ( ! poles1 regions ( int5se cold1 :]e = six mon?s ( ! ye> ! sun is nev] se54 ,n[1 ^! broad divisions1 s famili> to s*ool *ildr51 are consid]ably int]f]$ ) by ! height ( v>i\s di/ricts above ! sea-level1 or1 z geograph]s say1 by altitude4 ,high ranges ( m\nta9s br+ some:at arctic conditions ) !m1 ev5 9 l[ latitudes1 :]e "o w\ld expect great heat4 ,?us ! climate ( ! pla9s is v diff]5t f t ( _! neighb\r+ m\nta9-ranges1 al?\gh _! latitudes are practically ! same4 ,travell]s 9 ,switz]l& "k h[ hot x c be 9 ! ,rhone ,valley or 9 ! pla9 ( ,lomb>dy1 & h[ mu* cool] x is :5 y get up among ! glaci]s & ! sn[fields4 ,or to take an illu/ration f ,great ,brita93 a hot summ] w\ld be some:at try+ 9 ,ed9burgh1 ,glasg[1 or ev5 ,inv]ness1 because !y lie l[1 :ile among ! ,grampians1 on ,speyside1 or ,braem>1 x w\ld be v pleasant4 ,vegetation foll[s climate4 ,! sultry pla9s ( ! ,ganges %[ a luxuriant tropical vegetation1 :ile on ! middle slopes ( ! ,himalayas ! climate is temp]ate1 l t ( ,europe1 & consequ5tly ! vegetation resembles t ( a temp]ate region2 & ! highe/ p>ts ( ?is great range are l pol> latitudes 9 _! climate1 & p>tly also 9 _! vegetation4 ,! arctic "* ( ! climate ( high m\nta9 regions %[s itself 9 ! flora2 = on ! ,high ,alps & ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl& & ,norway1 we f9d no small numb] ( truly arctic plants ^: home is mu* f>!r nor?4 ,a v long "t ago1 :5 ! climate ( ! :ole ( ,nor!rn ,europe 0 extremely sev]e1 & :5 great glaci]s desc5d$ f ! m\nta9s into ! pla9s1 s t ! aspect ( ! c\ntry 0 some:at simil> to t ( ,gre5l& at ! pres5t day1 arctic plants & animals came d[n f _! nor!rn home1 & fl\ri%$ abundantly4 ,?is 0 dur+ ! ,great ,ice ,age1 :i* has left beh9d unmi/akable evid5ces :i* ! geologi/ c int]pret z if !y 7 writt5 records4 ,!n = "s reason ! climate became mild]1 ! glaci]s melt$ away1 9 ,great ,brita9 at lea/2 b ^! arctic plants 7 left beh9d1 & fl\ri%$ /ill on ! cool m\nta9s1 ?\gh !y di$ out on ! w>m pla9s 7see *ap4 iv41 pp4 #abc-abd74 ,illu/ration3 ,,sn[ ,,on ,,! ,,high ,,alps4 ,,f ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,mr4 ,,donk94 ,m\nta9s help to cause movem5t & *ange 9 ! atmosph]e4 ,let u see h[ ?is takes place4 ,m\nta9s expose on "o side _! masses ( rock to ! full heat ( ! sun4 ,rocks are capable ( becom+ highly heat$ "u a blaz+ sun3 we h kn[n /one walls1 ev5 9 ,engl&1 to be almo/ too hot to t\*2 & p]haps ! read] may h (t5 notic$ ! quiv]+ ( ! hot air z x rises f ! gr\nd on a summ] day1 especially ov] a road or any piece ( b>e rocky gr\nd4 ,?is quiv]+ tells u t ! air is highly heat$ by ! gr\nd b5ea?1 & is consequ5tly ris+4 ,y "k h[ ! pebbles look b5ea? a cle> runn+ /ream2 & ! ?+s :i* we see ?r\gh air 9 ?is /ate all seem to be simil>ly mov+ or quiv]+4 ,x is easy !n to imag9e h[ masses ( heat$ air w\ld rise up f ! side ( a m\nta9-range :i* faces ! sun1--t is1 ! s\!rn side1--:ile on ! o!r1 or nor!rn side !y ca/ a s(t %ad[ = leagues ov] ! pla9s at _! feet4 ,9 ?is way m\nta9s divide a di/rict into two diff]5t climates1 ) a light w>m air on _! s\!rn slopes1 & cold] air on ! nor!rn1 & ! ris+ ( ! w>m air w cause a c]ta9 am\nt ( circulation & movem5t4 ,h5ce m\nta9s help to make curr5ts 9 ! atmosph]e1 & ^! curr5ts produce important consequ5ces4 ,:5 m\nta9-ranges tr5d m or less directly across ! direction ( prevail+ w9ds1 !y always h a moi/ side & a dry "o4 ,9 ! torrid zone1 :]e ea/]ly w9ds prevail1 ! ea/]n slope is usually ! moi/ side2 b 9 high] latitudes1 z1 = example1 9 ,europe1 ! we/]n side ( m\nta9-ranges receives ! greate/ am\nt ( ra9fall1 because we/]ly w9ds prevail !re4 ,m\nta9s are b>ri]s divid+ n only "o nation f ano!r1 b sep>at+ also v>i\s tribes ( plants & animals4 ,x w be readily und]/ood t ) ! exception ( birds1 ^: p[]s ( flight r5d] !m indep5d5t ( physical b>ri]s1 mo/ animals f9d m\nta9s m impassable ?an m5 d4 ,we c make roads & railways1 b !y _c ?us aid _! p[]s ( locomotion2 h5ce m\nta9s put limits to _! migrations4 ,/ill1 climate & food supplies h a great] influ5ce 9 det]m9+ ! b\nd>ies ( zological prov9ces 7see *apt] iv474 ,m\nta9s are ! backbones ( cont95ts4 ,a glance at a map ( ! _w w %[ t !re is evid5tly a close connection betwe5 cont95ts & great m\nta9-*a9s4 ,?is connection %[s itself bo? 9 ! %apes & g5]al direction ( cont95ts4 ,?us1 ! long cont9u\s l9e ( m\nta9-*a9 :i* ext5ds f ! s\!rn spur ( ! ,&es to ! nor!rn end ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1--a di/ance ( ab\t n9e ?\s& miles1--corresponds ) ! g5]al tr5d ( ! ,nor? ,am]ican cont95t1 & =ms ! axis or backbone ( t va/ tract ( l&4 ,x seems z if ! sea on its we/]n side 7 kept at bay by ?is great rocky wall1 :ile on its ea/]n side ! riv]s h =m$ new l&4 ,a l9e ( m\nta9s is (t5 ! coa/ l9e1 = ! sea _c ov]come x unless subsid5ce takes place4 ,! backbone ( ,asia & ,europe runs ea/ & we/1 & ! cont95tal area ( ! ,old ,_w foll[s ! same g5]al direction4 ,^! are ! *ief uses ( m\nta9s1 & ! facts :i* we h br\ght =w>d w s]ve to %[ h[ indisp5sable !y are4 ,! foll[+ eloqu5t passage f ,mod]n ,pa9t]s may =m a fitt+ close to ! pres5t *apt]3-- ,& ?us ^? desolate & ?reat5+ ranges :i* 9 ne>ly all ages ( ! _w m5 h look$ ^u ) av]sion or ) horror1 & %runk back f z if !y 7 haunt$ by p]petual images ( dea?1 are 9 reality s\rces ( life & happ9ess1 f> full] & m b5efic5t ?an all ! bright fruitfulness ( ! pla94 ,! valleys only fe$2 ! m\nta9s fe$ & gu>d & /r5g!n u4 ,we take our ideas ( fe>fulness & sublimity alt]nately f ! m\nta9s & ! sea2 b we associate !m unju/ly4 ,! sea-wave1 ) all its b5efic5ce1 is yet dev\r+ & t]rible2 b ! sil5t wave ( ! blue m\nta9 is lift$ t[>ds heav5 9 a /illness ( p]petual m]cy2 & ! "o surge1 unfa?omable 9 its d>kness1 ! o!r un%ak5 9 its fai?fulness1 = ev] be> ! seal ( _! appo9t$ symbolism3-- ',?y righte\sness is l ! great m\nta9s1 ,?y judgem5ts are a great deep4' ,,*apt] ,,iii4 ,,sun%9e ,,& ,,/orm ,,on ,,! ,,m\nta9s4 ,i w\ld entreat y\r company ,to see ! wond]s ( ! _w4 ,two ,g5tlem5 ( ,v]ona4 ,! _s ( ! hills is action1 t ( ! l[l&s repose4#i ,! pla9s1 ) _! peaceful mead[s & me&]+ /reams1 might almo/ be said to be asleep2 b ! m\nta9s are wide awake4 ,!y are emphatically sc5es ( viol5t or rapid action4 ,! w9d bl[s m fi]cely among ! m\nta9-peaks ?an ov] ! pla9s bel[2 heat & cold are m extreme2 & e process ( *ange or decay seems quick5$4 #i ,rusk91 ,mod]n ,pa9t]s4 ,avalan*es1 falls ( rock1 e>?quakes1 /orms1 & floods exhibit ! m t]rible aspects ( ! hills4 ,yet !y h _! g5tl] moods3 witness ! brightness ( ! />ry sky ov]head1 & its int5se blue by day1 ! wond]ful sunrises & sunsets1 ! lovely effects ( light & %ade1 ( cl\d & mi/1 ! /illness & sil5ce ( ! et]nal sn[s 9 summ]1 & ! beauty ( ! ,alp9e fl[]4 ,let u see :at ^? :o "k m\nta9s be/ h to say ab\t ! wond]ful ?+s !y h se5 !re4 ,to beg9 ) sunset & sunrise4 ,pr(essor ,bonney rem>ks1-- ,n ! lea/ int]e/+ peculi>ity ( an ,alp9e sunset is ! frequ5cy ) :i* its mo/ beautiful effects are reveal$ q unexpect$ly4 ,(t5 at ! close ( a ra9y aft]noon1 ! cl\ds1 j be=e ! sun goes d[n1 break1 roll up1 sometimes disp]se z if by magic1 9 ! glory ( ^? crimson rays t come d>t+ ^u !m & pi]c+ e rift4 ,_m a "t h ,i wat*$ ! vap\rs ar\nd a m\nta9-peak curl+ lightly upw>ds1 & melt+ away into ! sky1 till at la/ ! uncl\d$ summit gl[$ ) flu%es ( orange & rose1 ere x grew pale & dead 9 its %r\d ( fre%-fall5 sn[4#aj #aj ,! ,alp9e ,regions ( ,switz]l&4 ,"h is a description by ,pr(essor ,tyndall ( a sunset witness$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ! ,weis%orn3-- ,z ! day approa*$ its end1 ! sc5e assum$ ! mo/ sublime aspect4 ,all ! l[] portions ( ! m\nta9s 7 deeply %ad$1 :ile ! l(tie/ peaks1 rang$ ^u a semicircle1 7 fully expos$ to ! s9k+ sun4 ,!y seem$ pyramids ( solid fire2 :ile "h & !re long /ret*es ( crimson light drawn ov] ! high] sn[fields l9k$ ! glorifi$ summits toge!r4 ,an int5sely illum9at$ g]anium fl[] seems to swim 9 its own col\r1 :i* app>5tly surr\nds ! petals l a lay]1 & defeats by its lu/re any attempt ( ! eye to seize ^u ! %>p outl9e ( ! leaves4 ,a simil> effect has be5 obs]v$ ^u ! m\nta9s2 ! glory did n seem to come f !m alone1 b seem$ also efflu5t f ! air ar\nd !m4 ,?is gave !m a c]ta9 buoyancy :i* sugge/$ entire deta*m5t f ! e>?4 ,!y swam 9 spl5d\r :i* intoxicat$ ! s\l2 & ,i w n n[ repeat 9 my mom5ts ( sob]ness ! extravagant analogies :i* ran ?r\gh my bra94 ,z ! ev5+ advanc$1 ! ea/]n heav5s l[ d[n assum$ a deep purple hue1 above :i*1 & bl5d$ ) x by inf9itesimal gradations1 0 a belt ( r$1 & ov] ?is aga9 zones ( orange & violet4 ,i walk$ r\nd ! corn] ( ! m\nta9 at sunset1 & f\nd ! we/]n sky gl[+ ) a m transp>5t crimson ?an t :i* ov]spread ! ea/4 ,! cr[n ( ! ,weis%orn 0 emb$d$ 9 ?is magnific5t light4 ,aft] sunset ! purple ( ! ea/ *ang$ to a deep neutral t9t2 & aga9/ ! fad$ r$ :i* spread above x1 ! sun-=sak5 m\nta9s laid _! cold & gho/ly heads4 ,! ruddy col\r vani%$ m & m2 ! />s /r5g!n$ 9 lu/re1 until f9ally ! moon & !y held undisput$ possession ( ! blue-grey sky4#aa #aa ,m\nta9e]+ 9 #ahfa 7,longman74 ,m>vell\s sunsets are to be witness$ f ! m\nta9s ( ! ,new ,_w4 ,! foll[+ is a %ort & graphic description ( sunset glories on ! ,si]ra ,nevada ,m\nta9s by ,mr4 ,cl>5ce ,k+1 ^: "n is well kn[n to geologi/s3-- ,:ile ,i look$1 ! sun desc5d$1 %ad[s climb$ ! ,si]ras1 ca/+ a gloom ov] foo?ill & p9e1 until at la/ only ! sn[ summits1 reflect+ ! ev5+ light1 gl[$ l r$ lamps along ! m\nta9-wall = hundr$s ( miles4 ,! re/ ( ! ,si]ra became invisible4 ,! sn[ burn$ = a mom5t 9 ! violet sky1 & at la/ w5t out4 ,^! m>vell\s effects appeal p[]fully to our s5se ( beauty & produce 9 mo/ m9ds feel+s ( int5se delight2 b !y also appeal to ! reason+ faculty 9 man1 & an intellig5t obs]v] naturally inquires1 ,:y are ^! ?+s s8 ,h[ are ^? glori\s col\rs ( crimson1 orange1 & yell[ produc$8 ,a full explanation _c be attempt$ "h2 b ?is mu* may p]haps be said )\t tir+ ! pati5ce ( ! read]4 ,:ite light1 su* z sunlight or ! light f an electric arc1 is compos$ ( all ! col\rs ( ! ra9b[1--violet1 indigo1 blue1 gre51 yell[1 orange1 & r$4 ,a ray ( sunlight on pass+ ?r\gh a prism is split up into all ^! col\rs 9 ! above ord]1 & we get !m arrang$ 9 a b& :i* is kn[n z ! spectrum4 ,?us x is prov$ t :ite light is made up ( all col\rs 7black is n a col\r1 b ! abs5ce ( col\r74 ,n[1 :5 ! sun is l[ d[n 9 ! sky1 z at sunset1 only "s ( ^! col\r-rays are able to pass ?r\gh ! atmosph]e & s to rea* our eyes1 :ile o!rs are /opp$ 9 pass+ ?r\gh v _m miles ( atmosph]e 7z !y mu/ obvi\sly d :5 ! sun is l[74 ,^? :i* are /opp$ are ! blue rays & o!rs alli$ to blue1 su* z purple & gre52 b ! r$ & yell[ rays are able to pass on till !y come to u4 ,h5ce r$1 yell[1 & orange are ! prevail+ sunset t9ts4 ,:at1 !n1 becomes ( ! miss+ blue rays8 ,!y are caught by ! myriads ( little float+ p>ticles 9 ! air1 & reflect$ away f u4 ,t is :y we d n see !m2 _! c\rse is turn$ back1 j z waves break+ aga9/ a /one sea-wall are turn$ back or reflect$4 ,a p]son situat$ beh9d su* a wall w n see ! waves :i* break aga9/ x2 b suppose a v big wave came3 x w\ld come "r ov]1 & !n we %\ld soon become aw>e ( its pres5ce4 ,s x is ) ! little waves ( light3 "s are /opp$ & turn$ back z !y break aga9/ ! myriads ( little du/ p>ticles & ! /ill m num]\s p>ticles ( mi/ always float+ 9 ! air2 :ile o!rs1 :i* are l>g]1 break ov] !m & travel on undi/urb$ until !y rea* our eyes4 ,n[1 ! l>g] waves ( light are ! r$ waves1 :ile ! small] ones are ! blue waves2 h5ce !re is no difficulty 9 und]/&+ :y ! r$ waves 7or vibrations7 are se5 at sunset & sunrise1 to ! exclusion ( ! blue waves4 ,b x mu/ be borne 9 m9d t light-waves are ( inf9itesimal smallness1 ?\s&s & ?\s&s ( !m go+ to make up an in*4 ,s\nd also travels 9 waves1 & ! ph5om5a ( s\nd s]ve to illu/rate ^? ( light2 b s\nd-waves are v mu* l>g]4 ,! reason :y ! sky ov]head appe>s blue is t we see ! blue rays reflect$ d[n to ! e>? f myriads ( t9y du/ & wat] p>ticles1 :ile ! r$ rays pass on ov] our heads1 :i* is j ! rev]se ( :at happ5s at sunset4 ,on ! s\!rn slopes ( ! ,alps ! blues ( ! sky are g5]ally v diff]5t f ^? on ! nor!rn side2 & ?is is probably due to ! great] quantity ( wat]-vap\r 9 ! air1 = ! moi/ w9ds come f ! s\?4 ,sunrises 9 ! ,alps are q z glori\s to behold z sunsets2 b comp>atively few p rise e>ly en\gh to see !m4 ,speak+ g5]ally1 x may be said t 9 ,alp9e sunrises ! prevail+ col\rs are orange & gold1 9 sunsets crimson or violet-p9k4 ,aft] a cool night ! atmosph]ic conditions w obvi\sly be diff]5t f ^? :i* exi/ aft] a w>m day1 & m wat]-vap\r w h be5 cond5s$ into mi/ or cl\d4 ,h5ce we %\ld expect a some:at diff]5t effect4 ,! sn[fields on high ranges ( m\nta9s are ( a dazzl+ :it5ess2 & _! bright gl>e is s great z to di/ress ! eyes ( ^? :o walk ov] !m )\t blue glasses1 & ev5 to cause inflammation4 ,at ^! heights ! travell] is n only expos$ to ! direct rays ( ! sun1 untemp]$ save = a ?9 veil ( r>efi$ air1 b also to an int5se gl>e produc$ by ! little sn[-cry/als :i* scatt] ar\nd ! beams ( light fall+ ^u !m4 ,sci5tific m51 :o h /udi$ ^! matt]s1 say t ! scor*+ ( ! sk9 & sun-burn+ exp]i5c$ by ,alp9e travell]s is n caus$1 z might be suppos$1 by ! heat ( ! sun1 b by ! rays ( light d>t+ & fla%+ on all sides f myriads ( t9y sn[-cry/als4 ,occasionally a s(t lamb5t gl[ has be5 obs]v$ on sn[fields at night4 ,?is is a v curi\s ph5om5on1 to :i* ! "n ( phosphoresc5ce has1 rightly or wrongly1 be5 giv54 ,a pale light may (t5 be se5 on ! sea dur+ a summ] night1 :5 ! wat] is di/urb$ 9 any way2 & if "o is r[+ 9 a boat1 ! o>s seem gl[+ ) a fa9t & beautiful light4 ,x is well kn[n t ?is is caus$ by myriads ( little light-produc+ animalcules 9 ! sea-wat]4 ,b we c h>dly suppose t ! gl[ above ref]r$ to is produc$ by a simil> cause4 ,"o obs]v] says ! gl[ is some?+ l t produc$ by ! flame ( naph?a2 & he goes on to say t at e /ep an illum9at$ circle or nimbus ab\t two in*es 9 bread? surr\nd$ our feet1 & we seem$ to be pl\gh+ our way ?r\gh fields ( light1 & rais+ clods ( x1 if ,i may be all[$ ! expression1 9 our progress4 ,ano!r obs]v]1 also an ,alp9e travell]1 says t at almo/ e foot/ep ! sn[y p>ticles1 :i* 8 companion 9 front lift$ ) 8 feet f ! fre%ly fall5 sn[1 fell 9 little lum9\s %[]s4 ,! exact cause :i* produces ?is /range effect at night has n be5 asc]ta9$4 ,!re is ano!r curi\s ph5om5on (t5 se5 j be=e sunset on a m\nta9 9 ,hung>y4 ,x is kn[n z ,! ,spectre ( ! ,brock54 ,! ,brock5 is ! highe/ summit ( ! ,h>tz ,m\nta9s4 ,z y /ep out ^u ! plateau ^u ! top ( ! hill1 y\r %ad[1 grim & gigantic1 is app>5tly flung "r out aga9/ ! ea/]n sky1 :]e x flits f place to place1 foll[+ y\r e movem5t4 ,! explanation is simply ?is3 to ! ea/ ( ! ,h>tz ,m\nta9s !re is always a v d5se & hazy atmosph]e1 s d5se t x pres5ts a surface capable ( receiv+ ! impression ( a %ad[1 & ( reta9+ x1 z a wall does4 ,! %ad[s are really close at h&1 n a long way (f1 z might at fir/ sight be suppos$4 ,if v f> away1 !y w\ld be too fa9t to be visible4 ,9 all m\nta9\s regions ! p]man5t habitations ( m5 cease at a limit f> bel[ ! mo/ elevat$ po9ts rea*$ by ! m\nta9-climb]4 ,/4 ,v]an & ,g>gl1 ! highe/ villages ( ,france & ,g]many1 are situat$ at ! respective heights ( #f1eia & #f1aig feet2 b ! ,hospice ( ,/4 ,b]n>d1 9 ,switz]l&1 built c5turies ago to %elt] travell]s :5 b5umb$ ) ! cold1 is mu* m elevat$1 its height be+ #h1aaj feet above sea-level4 ,! mo/ elevat$ clu/] ( h\ses 9 ! _w is ! conv5t ( ,hanle1 inhabit$ by tw5ty ,?ibetan prie/s2 its height is #ad1igf feet4 ,none ( ! villages ( ! ,&es1 except p]haps t ( ,santa ,anna1 9 ,bolivia1 h be5 built at s great a height4 ,travell]s :o v5ture to asc5d l(ty m\nta9s n only h to suff] all ! rig\rs ( cold & run ! risk ( be+ froz5 on _! r\te1 b !y may also exp]i5ce pa9ful s5sations ow+ to ! r>efaction ( ! air4 ,x w\ld naturally be suppos$ t at an elevation at :i* ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e is r$uc$ to "o half1 or ev5 to "o f\r? t ( ! pla9s bel[1 a c]ta9 uneas9ess %\ld be caus$ by ! *ange1 ! m s s9ce o!r conditions1 su* z w>m? & moi/ure1 are diff]5t4 ,undaunt$ climb]s1 l ,pr(essor ,tyndall1 :o h nev] felt ! effect ( ?is m\nta9-sickness 7mal de montagne71 d5y t ! s5sations proce$ f any?+ else ?an m]e fatigue4 ,9 ! ,himalayas1 ! travell] does n beg9 to suff] f ! attacks ( ?is ailm5t until he has rea*$ a height ( #af1ejj feet2 :ile on ! ,&es a l>ge numb] ( p]sons are affect$ by x at an altitude ( #aj1gjj feet4 ,9 ! ,s\? ,am]ican m\nta9s1 ! symptoms are mu* m s]i\s3 to ! fatigue1 head-a*e1 & want ( brea? are add$ gidd9ess1 sometimes fa9t+-fits1 & ble$+ f lips1 gums1 & eyelids4 ,! a]onaut1 h[ev]1 :o is sp>$ all ! fatigue ( climb+1 r>ely suff]s any inconv5i5ce except f cold1 at su* elevations4 ,b on ris+ to great] heights1 #cj1jjj or #dj1jjj feet1 ! malady %[s itself2 & if ! balloon cont9u$ to rise1 ! a]ial voyag] w\ld infallibly p]i%4 ,pr(essor ,bonney says3-- ,i h occasionally se5 p]sons s+ul>ly affect$ on high m\nta9s2 & z ! b>omet] /&s at ab\t sixte5 in*es on ,mont ,blanc1 & at ?irty at sea-level1 "o w\ld expect ?is great diff]5ce to be felt4 ,/ill1 ,i d n ?9k x easy to sep>ate ! inconv5i5ces due to atmosph]e f ^? caus$ by unwont$ fatigue1 & am incl9$ to attribute mo/ ( !m to ! latt]4 ,b ! fact t ! a]onaut suff]s seems conclusive4 ,! viol5t /orms :i* break ^u m\nta9 di/ricts (t5 cause floods ( consid]able magnitude1 su* z may be comp>$ ) ! memorable bur/+ ( ! ,holmfir? res]voir4 ,h>dly a ye> passes )\t consid]able damage be+ done3 bridges are swept away2 roads are buri$ "u torr5ts ( mud1 & fields ov]:elm$ ) dbris4 ,9 ,augu/ ( ! ye> #ahfj a sev]e /orm 0 witness$ by visitors /ay+ at ,z]matt4 ,x began ) a ?und]-/orm2 & ra9 fell = ab\t ?irty-six h\rs1 aft] :i*1 z may be suppos$1 ! torr5ts 7 swoll5 f> beyond _! usual size4 ,l[] d[n 9 ! valleys mu* h>m 0 done1 b !re "o bridge only 0 swept away4 ,x 01 h[ev]1 an awful sight to see ! ,visp ro>+ "u "o ( ! bridges t rema9$1 & to he> ! heavy ?uds ( ! b\ld]s t 7 be+ hurri$ on & da%$ aga9/ "o ano!r by ! torr5t4 ,9 ,septemb]1 #aeef1 ! t[n ( ,loc>no1 9 ! ,canton ,tic9o1 0 visit$ by a de/ructive /orm & flood4 ,! day began by sev]al %ocks ( e>?quake1 foll[$1 ab\t five o'clock1 by a t]rific gale f ! s\?4 ,"p ( ! old ca/le 0 bl[n d[n2 ! doors ( ,/4 ,victor's ,*ur* 7 bur/ op5 by a bla/ :ile ! prie/ 0 at ! alt>2 & ev]y?+ )9 0 ov]turn$4 ,at midday ! cl\ds 7 s ?ick t x 0 almo/ z d>k z night4 ,a viol5t ?und]-/orm & torr5ts ( ra9 foll[$1 la/+ f two to six o'clock 9 ! ev5+4 ,! rivulets all became torr5ts2 ! /ream fl[+ ?r\gh ! t[n 0 s *ok$ by uproot$ trees & rocks t its wat] flood$ ! /reets & almo/ buri$ !m "u mud & gravel4 ,su* a sight z ?is gives "o a p[]ful impression ( ! geological "w ( /reams :5 greatly swoll52 = all ?is dbris mu/ h be5 br\ght d[n f ! surr\nd+ m\nta9s4 ,_m lives 7 lo/ by ?is calamity1 & a great deal ( prop]ty 0 de/roy$4 ,late 9 ! ye>1 dur+ unsettl$ wea!r1 ! travell] (t5 enc\nt]s on ,alp9e passes a sudd5 /orm ( sn[1 accompani$ by viol5t gu/s ( w9d1 :i* fill ! air ) drift$ flakes2 s t becom+ bewild]$1 he loses 8 way1 & at la/ s9ks d[n b5umb$ ) cold & dies4 ,_m a frequ5t$ pass 9 ,switz]l& has be5 ! sc5e ( dea? f ?is cause4 ,exhau/$ ) fatigue1 & ov]come ) cold1 ! travell] s9ks d[n by ! wayside1 & ! guides1 aft] hav+ 9 va9 endeav\r$ to urge him on1 are compell$1 9 ord] to save _! own lives1 to leave him to 8 fate & press =w>d4 ,! "n ,t\rm5te is giv5 to ^! /orms4 ,on ! tops ( ! highe/ m\nta9s1 ev5 9 v f9e wea!r1 ! w9d (t5 bl[s ) great =ce2 & ! nor? w9d1 suppos$ to be ! m\nta9e]'s be/ fri5d1 is sometimes 8 enemy4 ,x n unfrequ5tly happ5s t a gale r5d]s ! passage ( "s expos$ slope or ridge too dang]\s1 or ! int5se cold produces fro/-bites1 s t an exp$ition has to be ab&on$ :5 success is )9 rea*1 :i* naturally is v annoy+4 ,pr(essor ,bonney1 speak+ ( su* a gale :i* he exp]i5c$ 9 #ahfd1 says1-- ,! cold 0 some?+ horrible2 ! w9d seem$ to bl[ n r\nd1 b ?r\gh me1 freez+ my v m>r[1 & mak+ my tee? *att] l ca/anets2 & if ,i /opp$ = a mom5t1 ,i %ook z if 9 an ague-fit4 ,x :isk$ up ! small spicul ( froz5 sn[1 & da%$ !m aga9/ my face ) su* viol5ce t x 0 h>dly possible to look to w9dw>d4 ,?9 %eets ( ice z l>ge z my h& 7 :irl$ along ! surface ( ! glaci] l pap]4444 ,:5 ^! gales are rag+1 ! drift$ sn[ is bl[n f> to leew>d ( ! peaks 9 long /ream]s l delicate cirrus-cl\ds2 & on su* occasions ! m\nta9 is said by ! guides fum] sa pipe 7to smoke 8 pipe74 ,?is ,mont ,blanc 0 do+ to "s purpose ! day t we 7 ^u him4 ,x is a curi\s fact t ^! gales are (t5 conf9$ to ! cre/s ( ! m\nta9s1 s t ! w9d may be rag+ among ! peaks :ile a few hundr$ feet l[] d[n !re is comp>ative calm4 ,! *ief ( ! prevail+ w9ds 9 ! ,alps is ! ,fhn4 ,?is is a hot bla/ f ! s\? :i* probably comes f ! ,african des]ts4 ,on its approa* ! air becomes close & /ifl+1 ! sky1 at fir/ ( unusual cle>ness1 gradually ?ick5s to a muddy & murky hue1 animals become re/less & disquiet$ by ! unnatural dryness ( ! hot bla/ :i* n[ comes sweep+ ov] ! hills4 ,9 "s villages1 x is said1 all ! fires are ext+ui%$ :5 ?is w9d beg9s to bl[1 = fe> le/ "s *ance sp>k %\ld fall on ! dry wood5 ro(s & set ! :ole place 9 a blaze4 ,/ill ! ,fhn is n altoge!r an ill w9d t bl[s nobody any good1 = "u its w>m t\* ! w9t] sn[s melt away ) m>vell\s rapidity4 ,9 ! valley ( ,gr9delwald x causes a sn[-b$ two feet ?ick to disappe> 9 ab\t a c\ple ( h\rs1 & produces 9 tw5ty-f\r h\rs a great] effect ?an ! sun does 9 fifte5 days4 ,!re is a ,swiss prov]b :i* r pr(anely says3 ,if ! ,fhn does n bl[1 ! gold5 sun & ! good ,god c d no?+ ) ! sn[4 ,9 summ]-"t1 h[ev]1 ! s\? w9d is nev] welcome1 = ! vap\r :i* x br+s f ! ,italian pla9s is cond5s$ by ! sn[s ( ! ,alps1 & /reams d[n 9 torr5ts ( ra94 ,a ?und]-/orm is always a gr& spectacle4 ,among m\nta9s su* /orms are m frequ5t ?an on ! pla9s1 & also1 z might be expect$1 f> m magnific5t1 especially at night4 ,fla%es1 or r %eets1 ( unutt]able brilliancy light up ! sky2 di/ant *a9s ( m\nta9s are reveal$ = a mom5t1 only to be in/antly eclips$ by ! pall ( night4 ,says ,pr(essor ,bonney1-- ,no words c adequately express ! awful gr&eur ( ^! tempe/s :5 !y bur/ among ! m\nta9s4 ,i h (t5 be5 out 9 !m1--9 fact1 f> m frequ5tly ?an 0 pleasant2 b p]haps ! gr&e/ ( all 0 "o t welcom$ me = ! fir/ "t to ,*am\ni4 ,z we ent]$ ! valley1 & caught sight ( ! :ite p9nacles ( ! glaci] des ,bossons1 a d>k cl\d came roll+ up rapidly f ! we/4 ,b5ea? x1 j :]e two tall peaks t[]$ up1 ! sky gl[$ l a %eet ( r$-hot copp]1 & a lurid mi/ spread ov] ! neighb\r+ hills1 wrapp+ !m1 z x seem$1 9 a robe ( flame4 ,onw>d roll$ ! cl\d2 ! lightn+ began to play2 d[n ! valley ru%$ a squall ( w9d1 driv+ ! du/ high 9 air be=e x1 & foll[$ by a torr5t ( ra94 ,fla% succe$$ fla% almo/ incessantly1--n[ d>t+ f cl\d to cl\d2 n[ divid+ itself into a numb] ( sep>ate /reaks ( fire1 & danc+ all ov] ! sky2 n[ /ream+ d[n ^u ! crags1 & at times ev5 leap+ up f "s l(ty peak into ! air4 ,! col\rs 7 (t5 mo/ beautiful1 & bright beyond description4 ,illu/ration3 ,a ,,/orm ,,on ,,! ,,lake ,,( ,,?un4 ,,aft] ,,turn]4 ,! m\nta9 travell]1 :5 caught 9 a ?und]-/orm1 und]goes a /range exp]i5ce1 n unatt5d$ ) dang]4 ,"o obs]v]#ab ?us describes 8 s5sations3-- #ab ,mr4 ,r4 ,s4 ,watson1 9 ,! ,alp9e ,j\rnal1 vol4 i41 p4 #adc4 ,a l\d peal ( ?und] 0 he>d2 & %ortly aft] ,i obs]v$ t a /range s++ s\nd1 l t ( a kettle1 0 issu+ f my alp5/ock4 ,we halt$1 & f9d+ t all ! axes & /ocks emitt$ ! same s\nd1 /uck !m into ! sn[4 ,! guide f ! hotel n[ pull$ (f 8 cap1 %\t+ t 8 head burn$2 & 8 hair 0 se5 to h a simil> appe>ance to t :i* x w\ld h pres5t$ _h he be5 on an insulat$ /ool "u a p[]ful electrical ma*9e4 ,we all ( u exp]i5c$ ! s5sation ( prick+ & burn+ 9 "s "p ( ! body1 m especially 9 ! head & face1 my hair also /&+ on end 9 an uncom=table b v amus+ mann]4 ,! sn[ gave out a hiss+ s\nd1 z ?\gh a heavy %[] ( hail 7 fall+2 ! veil on ! wide-awake ( "o ( ! p>ty /ood upright 9 ! air2 & on wav+ our h&s1 ! s++ s\nd issu$ l\dly f ! f+]s4 ,:5ev] a peal ( ?und] 0 he>d1 ! ph5om5on ceas$1 to be resum$ be=e its e*oes di$ away4 ,at ^! times we felt %ocks1 m or less viol5t1 9 ^? portions ( ! body :i* 7 mo/ affect$4 ,by "o ( ^! %ocks my "r arm 0 p>alys$ s completely t ,i c\ld nei!r use nor raise x = sev]al m9utes1 nor inde$ until x _h be5 sev]ely rubb$2 & ,i suff]$ mu* pa9 9 x at ! %\ld]-jo9t = "s h\rs4 ,! successive lay]s ( sn[ :i* fall on ! m\nta9s d n rema9 !re = ev]4 ,unless got rid ( 9 "s way _! ?ickness w\ld m\nt up to an enorm\s ext5t4 ,x is reckon$ t on ! ,alps ! av]age ye>ly fall ( sn[ is ?irty-?ree feet4 ,9 ! c\rse ( a c5tury1 !re=e1 ! height ( ^! m\nta9s w\ld be increas$ by #c1cjj feet1 :i* we "k is n ! case4 ,v>i\s causes prev5t its accumulat+1 among :i* we may m5tion ! p[]ful influ5ce ( ! sun's rays1 ! evaporation promot$ by ! atmosph]e1 ! ?aw+ influ5ce ( ra9 & mi/1 avalan*es1 & la/ly1 :i* is p]haps ! mo/ important1 ! fact t ! sn[ compos+ ! sn[fields1 z !y are call$1 ( ! high regions sl[ly creeps d[n t[>ds ! valleys1 :]e !y move along z glaci]s1 ! ends ( :i* are gradually melt$ away by ! w>m air surr\nd+ !m1 & ?us ! muddy glaci]-/reams are orig9at$4 ,few p]ils are m dread$ by ! inhabitant ( ! ,alps ?an ^? ( ! avalan*es4 ,! p>ticul> way 9 :i* ea* avalan*e desc5ds is v>i$ accord+ to ! %ape ( ! m\nta91 ! condition ( ! sn[1 & ! "t ( ! ye>4 ,h5ce !re are ?ree diff]5t k9ds ( avalan*e4 ,fir/1 !re is ! ice-avalan*e4 ,! small] glaci]s1 :i*1 9 ! ,alps1 cl+ to ! upp] slopes ( ! high] m\nta9s1 frequ5tly t]m9ate abruptly on ! edge ( "s precipice4 ,?us ! ice1 urg$ on by ! pressure ( ! masses above x1 moves =w>d until x plunges ov] & falls into ! abyss bel[4 ,l>ge portions break (f2 & ^!1 z !y b\nd d[n ! cliffs1 are da%$ into c\ntless pieces1 :i* leap f crag to crag high into ! air3 n[ ! fall+ mass1 l "s swoll5 torr5t1 da%es ) sull5 ro> ?r\gh a gully1 n[1 em]g+1 cra%es ov] a precipice1 or spreads itself out l a fan1 z x hisses d[n a sn[-slope4 ,^! avalan*es exp5d _! =ce 9 ! high] regions1 & are h>mless1 unless any "o happ5s to be cross+ _! track at ! "t2 b accid5ts f ?is s\rce c g5]ally be avoid$4 ,9 ! di/ance ! avalan*es look l wat]falls ( ! pure/ foam1 b :5 approa*$ are f\nd to be compos$ ( fragm5ts ( ice ( e size1 f "o1 two1 or m cubic y>ds d[n to t9y little balls4 ,9 spr+ & summ]1 :5 ! :ite lay]s1 s(t5$ by ! heat1 are fall+ away e h\r f ! l(ty summits ( ! ,alps1 ! p$e/rian1 tak+ up a position on "s adjac5t headl&1 may wat* ^! sudd5 cat>acts da%+ d[n into ! gorges f ! heights ( ! %9+ peaks4 ,ye> aft] ye> travell]s seat$ at _! ease on ! grassy banks ( ! ,w5g]n ,alp h wat*$ ) pleasure ! avalan*es roll+ to ! base ( ! silv]y pyramid ( ! ,jungfrau4 ,fir/1 ! mass ( ice is se5 to plunge =? l a cat>act1 & lose itself 9 ! l[] p>ts ( ! m\nta92 :irlw9ds ( p[d]$ sn[1 l cl\ds ( bright smoke1 rise f> & wide into ! air2 & !n1 :5 ! cl\d has pass$ away1 & ! region has aga9 assum$ its solemn calm1 ! ?und] ( ! avalan*e is sudd5ly he>d rev]b]at+ 9 deep e*oes 9 ! m\nta9 gorges1 z if x 7 ! voice ( ! m\nta9 itself4 ,! o!r two k9ds ( avalan*e are compos$ ( sn[4 ,! du/-avalan*e usually falls 9 w9t]-"t1 :5 ! m\nta9s are cov]$ deep ) fre%-fall5 sn[4 ,su* masses ( sn[1 n yet compact$ into ice1 re/ insecurely ^u ! icy slopes1 & hang 9 fe/oons & curta9s ov] ! peaks1 or lie on smoo? banks ( pa/ure1 until "s accid5t1 su* z a gu/ ( w9d1 breaks ! spell1 & ! :ole mass slides d[n into ! valley bel[4 ,^! avalan*es are accompani$ by fe>ful bla/s ( w9d :i* "w dire de/ruction4 ,almo/ ! :ole village ( ,leuk]bad 0 de/roy$ by "o ( ^! on ! #ad? ( ,janu>y1 #agai1 & fifty-five p]sons p]i%$4 ,9 #agdi1 m ?an "o hundr$ p]sons 7 kill$ 9 ! village ( ,ru>as 7,grisons71 :i* dur+ ! night 0 ov]:elm$ by an avalan*e4 ,s sil5tly 7 "s ( ! h\ses buri$ t ! inhabitants1 on wak+ 9 ! morn+1 c\ld n conceive :y ! day did n dawn4 ,x is said1 ?\gh x seems almo/ incr$ible1 t 9 ! "t ( ! ,suabian ,w>1 9 ! ye> #adih1 "o ( ^! avalan*es swept f\r hundr$ soldi]s ov] a cliff1 & !y all escap$ )\t s]i\s injury4 ,! army ( ,g5]al ,macdonald1 9 8 celebrat$ passage ( ! ,splg5 9 ,decemb]1 #ahjj1 suff]$ sev]ely f ^! du/-avalan*es4 ,a tr\pe ( horse 0 completely cut ?r\gh :ile on ! m>*2 & ?irty dragoons 7 precipitat$ into a gulf bel[ ! road1 :]e !y all p]i%$4 ,& aga91 "s days aft]w>ds1 9 desc5d+ a gorge1 ! columns 7 repeat$ly sev]$ by avalan*es2 & m ?an "o hundr$ soldi]s1 ) a numb] ( horses & mules1 7 lo/4 ,on "o ( ^! occasions ! drumm] ( a regim5t 0 c>ri$ away2 & x is said t !y he>d him beat+ 8 drum 9 ! gorge bel[1 9 ! hope t 8 comrades w\ld come to 8 rescue4 ,help1 h[ev]1 0 out ( ! "q4 ,! s\nds gradually became fa9t]1 & ! poor lad mu/ h p]i%$ 9 ! cold4 ,! gr\nd-avalan*es are diff]5t f ^? j describ$1 consi/+ ( d5se & almo/ solid masses ( sn[ :i* h la9 = a long "t expos$ to atmosph]ic influ5ces4 ,!y are mu* heavi] ?an ! du/-avalan*es1 & !re=e m de/ructive2 s t ! inhabitants take great pa9s to protect !mselves f ?is s\rce ( dang]4 ,?ickly plant$ trees are ! be/ protection aga9/ avalan*es ( e k9d4 ,sn[ :i* has fall5 9 a wood _c v well %ift its place2 & :5 masses ( sn[ desc5d f ! slopes above1 !y are unable to break ?r\gh s /rong a b>ri]4 ,small %rubs1 su* z rhodod5drons1 or ev5 hea?s & mead[-grass1 are (t5 suffici5t to prev5t ! slipp+ ( ! sn[2 & !re=e x is v imprud5t n to all[ !m to gr[ freely on m\nta9-slopes4 ,b x is /ill m dang]\s to cut d[n protect+ =e/s1 or ev5 to d s p>tly4 ,?is 0 illu/rat$ by ! case ( a m\nta9 9 ! ,pyr5ees1 9 ! l(ty valley ( ,ne/e2 aft] x _h be5 p>tially cle>$ ( trees1 a trem5d\s avalan*e fell d[n 9 #ahdf1 & 9 its fall swept away m ?an fifte5 ?\s& fir-trees4 ,! ,swiss records tell u :at a t]rible sc\rge ! avalan*e c be 9 villages :i* 9 summ]-"t appe> su* calm & happy sc5es ( pa/oral life4 ,m4 ,joanne1 9 ! introduction to 8 valuable ,it9raire de la ,suisse#ac gives a li/ ( twelve ( ! mo/ de/ructive avalan*es t h fall5 9 ,switz]l&4 ,9 old days !y seem to h be5 z great a s\rce ( dang] z 9 mod]n times4 ,?us we f9d t 9 ! ye> #aejj1 a c>avan ( six hundr$ p]sons 0 swept away 9 cross+ ! ,great ,/4 ,b]n>d2 ?ree hundr$ 7 buri$ "u an avalan*e :i* fell f ,monte ,cass$ra 7,tic9o74 ,ano!r "o 9 ! ye> #agbj1 at ,ob]ge/el51 9 ! ,rhone ,valley1 de/roy$ "o hundr$ & tw5ty cottages1 f\r hundr$ head ( cattle1 & eighty-eight p]sons4 ,! bodies 7 buri$ 9 a l>ge pit 9 ! village cemet]y1 on ! wall ( :i* 0 engrav$ ! foll[+ pa!tic inscription3 ,o ,god1 :at sorr[6--eighty-eight 9 a s+le grave6 7,gott1 wel*e ,trau]6--a*t und a*tzig 9 e9em ,grab67 #ac ,cons]vateur ,suisse1 xlvi4 p4 #dgh1 vol4 xii4 ,x is a curi\s fact t animals h a wond]ful p[] ( anticipat+ com+ cata/rophes4 ,:5 human be+s are unaw>e ( dang]1 !y are (t5 w>n$ by ! behavi\r ( animals4 ,c\ntry p sometimes say t !y c tell f ! birds :5 ! wea!r is ab\t to *ange2 & !re is little d\bt b t sea-gulls come inl& be=e r\gh1 /ormy wea!r4 ,b 9 ! case ( e>?quakes ! behavi\r ( birds1 bea/s1 & ev5 fi%es is v /rik+4 ,x is said t be=e an e>?quake rats1 mice1 moles1 liz>ds1 & s]p5ts frequ5tly come out ( _! holes1 & ha/5 hi!r & ?i!r z if smitt5 ) t]ror4 ,at ,naples1 x is said t ! ants quitt$ _! und]gr\nd passages "s h\rs be=e ! e>?quake ( ,july #bf1 #ahje2 t gras%opp]s cross$ ! t[n 9 ord] to rea* ! coa/2 & t ! fi% approa*$ ! %ore 9 %oals4 ,avalan*es1 x is well kn[n1 produce tremors simil> to ^? due to slight e>?quake %ocks2 & !re are _m /ories 9 ,switz]l& ( ! behavi\r ( animals j be=e ! cata/rophe takes place4 ,b]leps* relates t a pack-horse on ! ,scaletta ,pass1 :i* 0 always mo/ /eady1 became re/ive :5 an avalan*e 0 com+2 s t he 0 valuable to 8 own]s 9 bad wea!r4 ,"o day1 :5 ne> ! summit ( ! pass1 he sudd5ly /opp$4 ,!y fooli%ly took no notice ( 8 w>n+ ?is "t2 b he pres5tly d>t$ (f at full spe$4 ,9 a few seconds ! avalan*e came & buri$ ! :ole p>ty4 ,if ^! /ories c be reli$ ^u1 x w\ld seem t animals are ei!r m s5sitive to v slight tremors ( ! e>?1 or else t !y are m on ! look\t ?an human be+s4 ,p]haps ,nor? ,am]ican ,indians h le>n$ f animals 9 ?is respect1 = !y c tell ( a com+ enemy on ! m>* by putt+ _! e>s to ! gr\nd & li/5+4 ,b !re are worse dang]s 9 ! m\nta9s ?an falls ( sn[ & ice1 = sometimes masses ( rock come hurtl+ d[n1 or worse /ill1 ! :ole side ( a m\nta9 gives way & spreads ru9 f> & wide4 ,p]p5dicul> or ov]hang+ rocks1 :i* seem securely fa/5$1 sudd5ly become deta*$ & ru% headlong d[n ! m\nta9-side4 ,9 _! rapid fall1 !y raise a cl\d ( du/ l ! a%es vomit$ =? by a volcano2 a horrible d>kness is spread ov] a once pleasant valley2 & ! un=tunate inhabitants1 unable to see :at is tak+ place1 are only aw>e ( ! trembl+ ( ! gr\nd1 & ! cra%+ d9 ( ! rocks z !y /rike toge!r & %att] "o ano!r 9 pieces4 ,:5 ! cl\d ( du/ is cle>$ away1 no?+ b heaps ( /ones & rubbi% are to be se5 :]e pa/ures once grew1 or ! peasant pl\gh$ 8 acres 9 peace4 ,! /ream fl[+ d[n ! valley is ob/ruct$ 9 its c\rse1 & *ang$ into a muddy lake2 ! ramp>t ( rocks f :i* "s dbris /ill comes crumbl+ d[n has lo/ its old =m2 ! %>p5$ edges po9t out ! d5ud$ cliff f :i* a l>ge "p ( ! m\nta9 has brok5 away4 ,9 ! ,pyr5ees1 ,alps1 & o!r important ranges !re are b few valleys :]e "o _c see ! confus$ heaps ( fall5 rocks4 ,_m ( ^! cata/rophes1 kn[n z ! ,b]gfall1 h be5 record$2 & ! records tell ( ! fe>ful havoc & de/ruction to life & prop]ty due to ?is cause4 ,9 ,italy ! anci5t ,roman t[n ( ,velleja 0 buri$1 ab\t ! f\r? c5tury1 by ! d[nfall ( ! m\nta9 ( ,rov9azzo2 & ! l>ge quantity ( bones & co9s t h be5 f\nd proves t ! fall 0 s sudd5 t ! inhabitants _h no "t to escape4 ,taur5tum1 ano!r ,roman t[n1 situat$1 x is said1 on ! banks ( ,lake ,g5eva1 at ! base ( "o ( ! spurs ( ! ,d5t d',o*e1 0 completely cru%$ 9 ,a4 ,d4 #efc by a d[nfall ( rocks4 ,! slop+ heap ( dbris ?us =m$ may /ill be se5 advanc+ l a headl& into ! wat]s ( ! lake4 ,a t]rible flood-wave1 produc$ by ! deluge ( /ones1 rea*$ ! opposite %ores ( ! lake & swept away all ! inhabitants4 ,e t[n & village on ! banks1 f ,morges to ,vevay1 0 demoli%$1 & !y did n beg9 ! "w ( rebuild+ till ! foll[+ c5tury4 ,"s say1 h[ev]1 t ! disa/] 0 caus$ by a l&slip :i* fell f ! ,grammont or ,d]o*iaz across ! valley ( ! ,rhone1 j above ! spot :]e x fl[s into ! ,lake ( ,g5eva4 ,hundr$s ( su* falls h tak5 place )9 ! ,alps & neighb\r+ m\nta9s )9 hi/oric times4 ,two out ( ! five peaks ( ! ,diabl]ets fell d[n1 "o 9 #agad & ! o!r 9 #agdi1 cov]+ ! pa/ures ) a ?ick lay] ( /ones & e>? m ?an ?ree hundr$ feet ?ick1 & by ob/ruct+ ! c\rse ( ! /ream ( ,liz]ne1 =m$ ! ?ree lakes ( ,d]bor5ce4 ,9 l mann] ! ,b]n9a1 ! ,d5t du ,midi1 ! ,d5t de ,may51 & ! ,righi h ov]spread ) ru9 va/ tracts ( cultivat$ l&4 ,9 ,switz]l& ! mo/ not$ ,b]gfalls are ^? f ! ,diabl]ets & ! ,rossb]g4 ,! =m] m\nta9 is a long flatti% ridge ) sev]al small peaks1 ov]hang+ v /eep walls ( rock on ei!r side4 ,^! walls are compos$ ( alt]nat+ b$s ( lime/one & %ale4 ,h5ce x is easily p]ceiv$ t we h "h conditions fav\rable = l&slips1 because if any?+ weak5s "o ( ^! b$s ( %ale ! ov]ly+ mass might be incl9$ to break away4 ,! fall 9 ! ye> #agad1 already ref]r$ to1 0 a v de/ructive "o4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,matt]horn4 ,,f ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,mr4 ,,donk94 ,= two :ole days previ\sly l\d groan+ _h be5 he>d to issue f ! m\nta91 z ?\gh "s imprison$ _s 7 /ruggl+ to release himself1 l ,typhoeus f "u ,etna2 !n a va/ fragm5t ( ! upp] "p ( ! m\nta9 broke sudd5ly away & ?und]$ d[n ! precipices into ! valley b5ea?4 ,9 a few m9utes fifty-five *lets1 ) sixte5 m5 & _m head ( cattle1 7 buri$ = ev] "u ! ru9s4 ,"o rem>kable escape has inde$ be5 record$1 p]haps ! mo/ m>vell\s ev] kn[n4 ,a solit>y h]dsman f ! village ( ,av5t occupi$ "o ( ! *lets :i* 7 buri$ "u ! fall5 mass4 ,n a trace ( x rema9$2 8 fri5ds 9 ! valley bel[ return$ f _! unsuccessful se>*1 & m\rn$ him z dead4 ,he 01 h[ev]1 /ill among ! liv+2 a huge rock _h fall5 9 su* a mann] z to protect ! ro( ( 8 *let1 :i*1 z is (t5 ! case1 re/$ aga9/ a cliff4 ,above ?is1 /ones & e>? _h accumulat$1 & ! man 0 buri$ alive4 ,dea? w\ld soon h releas$ him f 8 imprisonm5t1 _h n a little rill ( wat] =c$ its way ?r\gh ! dbris & trickl$ into ! *let4 ,support$ by ?is & by 8 /ore ( *eese1 he liv$ ?ree mon?s1 lab\r+ all ! :ile incessantly to escape4 ,%ortly be=e ,*ri/mas he succe$$1 aft] almo/ incr$ible toil1 9 once m look+ on ! light ( day1 :i* 8 dazzl$ eyes1 s long accu/om$ to ! murky d>kness bel[1 = a :ile c\ld sc>cely support4 ,he ha/5$ d[n to 8 home 9 ,av5t1 & knock$ at 8 own door2 pale & hagg>d1 he sc>cely seem$ a be+ ( ?is _w4 ,8 relations w\ld n believe t "o s long lo/ c\ld yet be alive1 & ! door 0 %ut 9 8 face4 ,he turn$ to a fri5d's h\se2 no bett] welcome await$ him4 ,t]ror seiz$ ^u ! village2 ! prie/ 0 summon$ to exorcise ! suppos$ demon2 & x 0 n till he came t ! un=tunate man c\ld p]suade !m t he 0 no spectre1 b fle% & blood4#ad #ad ,bonney4 ,! valley is /ill a wild sc5e ( desolation1 ow+ to ! enorm\s masses ( /ones ( e %ape & size ) :i* its b$ is fill$4 ,9 ,septemb] ( ! ye> #ahjf1 ! second fall ( ! m\nta9 ,rossb]g took place1 aft] a wet summ]4 ,x is und]laid by b$s ( clay :i*1 :5 wat] p5etrates1 are apt to give way4 ,! "p :i* fell 0 ab\t ?ree miles long & #cej y>ds wide & #cc y>ds ?ick4 ,9 five m9utes "o ( ! mo/ f]tile valleys 9 ,switz]l& 0 *ang$ to a /ony des]t4 ,?ree :ole villages1 six *ur*es1 #abj h\ses1 #bjj /ables or *lets1 #bbe head ( cattle1 & mu* l& 7 buri$ "u ! ru9s ( ! ,rossb]g2 #dhd p]sons lo/ _! lives4 ,"s rem>kable escapes are record$4 ,9 ! ye> #afah ! d[nfall ( ,monte ,conto buri$ #b1djj inhabitants ( ! village ( ,pleurs1 ne> ,*iav5na4 ,excavation among ! ru9s 0 subsequ5tly attempt$1 b a few mangl$ corpses & a *ur*-bell 7 all t c\ld be rea*$4 ,geologically ^! ph5om5a1 appall+ z !y are f ! human po9t ( view1 possess a c]ta9 int]e/1 & _! effects des]ve to be /udi$4 ,!re is yet ano!r dang] to :i* dwell]s 9 m\nta9s are occasionally expos$2 namely1 ! e>?quake4 ,x seems to be an e/abli%$ fact t e>?quake %ocks are m frequ5t 9 m\nta9\s ?an 9 flat c\ntries4 ,! orig9 ( ^! dang]\s di/urbances ( ! e>?'s cru/ has n yet be5 fully expla9$4 ,!y are probably caus$ 9 v>i\s ways2 & x is v likely t ! upheaval ( m\nta9-*a9s is "o ( ! causes at "w4 ,e>?quakes h = _m ye>s be5 c>efully /udi$ by sci5tific m51 & "s valuable discov]ies h be5 made4 ,?us we f9d t !y are m frequ5t 9 w9t] ?an summ]1 & also happ5 m (t5 by night ?an by day4 ,day & night are l summ] & w9t] on a small scale1 & s we ne$ n be surpris$ at ?is discov]y4 ,"s h ma9ta9$ t !re is a connection betwe5 e>?quakes & ! position ( ! moon2 :ile o!rs consid] t ! /ate ( ! atmosph]e also ex]ts an influ5ce1 & t e>?quakes are connect$ ) ra9y seasons1 /orms1 etc4 ,e>?quakes are v (t5 due to volcanic eruptions1 b ?is is n always ! case 7see *apt] vi41 page #aii74 ,,*apt] ,,iv4 ,,m\nta9 ,,plants ,,& ,,animals4 ,! high hills are a refuge = ! wild goats1 & s are ! /ony rocks = ! conies4--,psalm civ4 #ah4 ,!re mu/ be few p :o h nei!r se5 nor he>d ( ! beauty & exquisite col\rs ( ,alp9e#ae fl[]s4 ,!y are fir/ se5 on ! fr+es ( ! /ately woods above ! cultivat$ l&2 !n 9 multitudes on ! slop+ pa/ures ) :i* _m m\nta9-*a9s are rob$1 bright5+ ! v]dure ) innum]able col\rs2 & high] up1 :]e nei!r grass nor loose h]bage c exi/1 among ! slopes ( %att]$ fragm5ts :i* roll d[n f ! m\nta9-tops1--nay1 ev5 amid/ ! glaci]s1--!y gladd5 ! eye ( ! travell] & seem to plead sweetly ) ! spirits ( de/ruction4 ,alp9e plants fr+e ! va/ hills ( sn[ & ice ( ! high hills1 & sometimes h sc>cely "t to fl[] & rip5 a few se$s be=e be+ aga9 cov]$ by _! sn[y b$4 ,:5 ! season is unfav\rable1 numb]s ( !m rema9 "u ! sn[ = m ?an a ye>2 & "h !y safely re/1 unh>m$ by ! alt]nations ( fro/ & bit+ w9ds1 ) moi/ & spr+like days4 ,!y possess ! great *>m ( endless v>iety ( =m & col\r1 & repres5t widely sep>at$ divisions ( ! vegetable k+dom2 b !y are all small & l[-gr[+ comp>$ to _! relatives gr[n 9 ! pla9s1 :]e ! soil is ri*] & ! climate mild]4 ,among !m are t9y or*ids q z int]e/+ 9 _! way z ^? f ! tropics2 liliputian trees1 & a tree-l moss 7,lycopodium d5droideum7 bran*+ into an erect little pyramid z if 9 imitation ( a m\nta9 p9e2 f]ns t peep cauti\sly f n>r[ rocky crevices z if cl++ to ! rock = %elt] f ! cold bla/s2 bulb\s plants1 f lilies to bluebells2 ev]gre5 %rubs1 p]fect 9 leaf & blossom & fruit1 yet s small t "o's hat w cov] !m2 exquisite creep+ plants spread+ freely along ! gr\nd1 & :5 !y creep ov] ! br[s ( rocks or /ones1 drap+ !m ) curta9s ( col\r z lovely z ^? we see 9 ! =e/s2 numb]less m9ute plants sc>cely l>g] ?an mosses1 mantl+ ! e>? ) fre% gre5 c>pets 9 ! mid/ ( w9t]2 succul5t plants 9 endless v>iety2 & la/ly ! f]ns1 mosses1 & li*5s :i* are su* an endless s\rce ( pleasure & delight to ! travell]4 ,9 %ort1 ,alp9e vegetation pres5ts u ) ne>ly e type ( plant life ( nor!rn & temp]ate climes1 *a/5$ 9 tone & dim9i%$ 9 size4 #ae ,! ^w ,alp9e is us$ 9 a g5]al s5se to d5ote ! vegetation t gr[s naturally on ! mo/ elevat$ regions ( ! e>?2 t is1 on all high m\nta9s1 :e!r !y rise up 9 hot tropical pla9s or 9 cool] nor!rn pa/ures4 ,x is n difficult to acc\nt = ! small size ( ^! plants2 = 9 ! fir/ place we _c expect a l>ge or luxuriant gr[? :]e ! air is cold1 ! soil scanty1 & ! light ( ! sun (t5 obscur$ by cl\ds1 & :]e ! *anges ( temp]ature are rapid1--:i* is v unfav\rable to mo/ plants4 ,aga91 9 ! close /ruggle = exi/5ce :i* takes place on ! pla9s & l[ tree-clad hills1 ! small] =ms ( plant life are (t5 ov]run by trees1 trail+ plants1 bu%es1 & vigor\s h]bs2 b :]e ^! _c f9d a home1 ow+ to ! sev]ity ( ! w9t] & o!r causes1 ! little ,alp9e plants1 cov]$ up by sn[ 9 ! w9t]1 c ?rive abundantly4 ,& la/ly1 l ! old] & conqu]$ races ( m5 :o h be5 driv5 to ! hills 7see *ap4 i41 p4 #bh7 & f9d %elt] !re1 s !re are bo? plants & animals liv+ 9 ! m\nta9s :i* man w n suff] to live 9 ! pla9 :]e he gr[s 8 crops1 pa/ures 8 cattle1 or builds 8 cities4 ,we w\ld also v5ture to sugge/ t possibly "s plants h be5 ou/$ f pla9s by new] & m aggressive types1 :i* came & took _! place4 ,if s1 vegetable life w\ld af=d an illu/ration ( a process :i* has s (t5 tak5 place 9 human hi/ory4 ,?is is only a speculation1 b /ill x might be wor? foll[+ up4 ,if ,alp9e plants1 or any consid]able numb] ( !m1 c\ld be %[n to belong to m anci5t types1 su* z fl\ri%$ 9 ! lat] geological p]iods1 t w\ld af=d "s evid5ce 9 fav\r ( ! idea4 ,:e!r ?is is s or n1 plant life on ! m\nta9s is almo/ entirely protect$ f ! de/roy+ h&s ( m5 ) _! pl\ghs & scy!s1 z well z f _m graz+ animals4 ,z ,mr4 ,rusk9 qua9tly says3 ,! fl[]s :i* on ! arable pla9 fell be=e ! pl\gh n[ f9d out = !mselves unapproa*able places1 :]e ye> by ye> !y ga!r into happi] fell[%ip & fe> no evil4 ,x is cle> t ! climate ( a m\nta9\s region det]m9es ! "* ( ! vegetation4 ,n[1 ! climate w be diff]5t 9 diff]5t p>ts ( a m\nta9-range1 & w dep5d ^u ! height above ! sea & o!r causes4#af ,"s writ]s ^u ?is subject h atta*$ too mu* importance to absolute height above ! sea1 z ?\gh ?is 7 ! only cause at "w4 ,x is a v important cause1 no d\bt1 b !re are o!rs :i* also h a great influ5ce1 su* z ! position ( ea* locality ) respect to ! great m\nta9 masses1 ! local conditions ( exposure to ! sun & protection f cold w9ds1 or ! rev]se4 ,h[ev]1 9 spite ( local irregul>ities !re are 9 ! ,alps c]ta9 broad zones or belts ( vegetation :i* may be briefly describ$ z foll[s3-- #af ,! foll[+ rem>ks are l>gely tak5 f ! ,introduction to ,ball's well-kn[n ,alp9e ,guide4 #a4 ,! ,olive region4--,?is region curi\sly illu/rates :at has j be5 said ab\t o!r causes besides height influ5c+ ! climate & vegetation4 ,= along ! s\!rn base ( ! ,alps1 ! l[] slopes & ! m\?s ( ! valleys h a decid$ly w>m] climate ?an ! pla9s ( ,pi$mont & ,lomb>dy4 ,?us1 :ile ! w9t] climate ( ,milan is cold] ?an t ( ,ed9burgh1 ! olive c rip5 its fruit along ! skirts ( ! m\nta9 region1 & p5etrates to a c]ta9 di/ance t[>ds ! int]ior ( ! *a9 along ! lakes & ! wid] valleys ( ! ,s\!rn ,alps4 ,ev5 up ! %ores ( ! ,lake ( ,g>da1 :]e ! ev]gre5 oak gr[s1 ! olive has become wild4 ,! mild] climate ( ! ,borromean ,isl&s1 & "s po9ts on ! %ores ( ! ,lago ,maggiore1 w p]mit _m plants ( ! w>m] temp]ate zone to gr[2 :ile at a di/ance ( a few miles1 & close to ! %ores ( ! same lake1 b 9 positions expos$ to ! cold w9ds f ! ,alps1 plants ( ! ,alp9e region gr[ freely1 & no delicate p]5nials c survive ! w9t]4 ,! olive has be5 kn[n to resi/ a temp]ature ( ab\t #af ,f4 7or #af bel[ ! freez+ po9t ( wat]71 b is g5]ally de/roy$ by a less degree ( cold4 ,x c only be successfully cultivat$ :]e ! w9t] fro/s are nei!r long nor sev]e1 :]e ! mean temp]ature ( w9t] does n fall bel[ #db ,f41 & a heat ( #ge ,f4 dur+ ! day is cont9u$ ?r\gh f\r or five mon?s ( ! summ] & autumn4 #b4 ,! ,v9e region4--,! v9e1 be+ m tol]ant ( cold ?an ! olive1 c gr[ at a high] level2 & s ! next zone ( vegetation 9 ! ,alps may be call$ ! ,v9e region4 ,b to give tol]able w9e x requires at ! season ( rip5+ ( ! grape almo/ z mu* w>m? z ! olive ne$s4 ,v9es c gr[ 9 ! deep] valleys ?r\gh\t a great "p ( ! ,alp9e *a91 & 9 fav\rable situations up to a consid]able height on _! nor!rn slopes4 ,on ! s\? side1 al?\gh ! limit ( p]petual sn[ is l[]1 ! v9e (t5 rea*es ne> to ! foot ( ! great] peaks4 ,b ! fitness ( a p>ticul> spot = ! production ( w9e dep5ds f> m on ! direction ( ! valley & ( ! prevail+ w9ds ?an on ! height4 ,& s x happ5s t 9 ! ,canton ,valais1 ! ,valley ( ! ,arc 9 ,savoy1 & "s o!rs on ! nor? side ( ! divid+ range1 tol]able w9e is made at a high] level ?an 9 ! valleys ( ,lomb>dy1 ^: direction all[s ! free passage ( ! ke5 nor!rn bla/s4 ,x is a curi\s fact t 9 ! ,alps ! v9e (t5 resi/s a w9t] temp]ature :i* w\ld kill x d[n to ! roots 9 ! l[ c\ntry2 & we mu/ expla9 x by ! protection ( ! deep w9t] sn[4 ,along ) ! v9e _m species ( wild plants1 especially annuals1 *>act]i/ic ( ! flora ( ! s\? ( ,europe1 %[ !mselves 9 ! valleys ( ! ,alps4 #c4 ,! ,m\nta9 region1 or region ( decidu\s trees4--,_m writ]s take ! gr[? ( corn z ! *>act]i/ic ( ! cold] temp]ate zone1 correspond+ to :at has be5 call$ ! m\nta9 region ( ! ,alps4 ,b s _m v>ieties1 all ) diff]5t requirem5ts1 are 9 cultivation1 t x is impossible to take ! gr[? ( c]eals 9 g5]al z m>k+ cle>ly any natural division ( ! surface4 ,a m natural limit is m>k$ by ! pres5ce ( decidu\s trees 7trees :i* %$ _! leaves74 ,al?\gh ! oak1 bee*1 & a% d n exactly rea* ! same height1 & are n (t5 se5 gr[+ side by side 9 ! ,alps1 yet _! upp] limit m>ks pretty accurately ! transition f a temp]ate to a cold] climate t is %[n by a g5]al *ange 9 ! wild1 h]bace\s vegetation4 ,! l[] limit ( ?is zone is too irregul> to be exactly def9$1 b its upp] b\nd>y is ab\t #d1jjj feet on ! cold nor? side ( ! ,alps1 & (t5 rises to #e1ejj feet on ! s\!rn slopes1 :i* ( c\rse get m sun%9e & w>m?4 ,! climate ( ?is region is fav\rable to ! gr[? ( su* trees z ! oak1 bee*1 & a%1 b x does n foll[ t we %\ld see !m !re 9 any great numb]s at ! pres5t "t2 = x is probable t at a v e>ly date !y 7 ext5sively de/roy$ = build+ purposes1 & to cle> space = mead[ & pa/ure l&1 s t ) ! exception ( ! bee* =e/s ( ! ,au/rian ,alps1 !re is sc>cely a consid]able wood ( decidu\s trees to be se5 any:]e 9 ! *a94 ,9 _m di/ricts :]e ! population is n too d5se1 ! p9e & ,scot* fir h tak5 ! place ( ! oak & bee*1 ma9ly because ! "y plants are n s eag]ly attack$ by goats1 ! great de/roy]s ( trees4 #d4 ,! region ( ,conif]\s trees4--,botanically ?is region is be/ di/+ui%$ by ! preval5ce ( conif]\s trees1 =m+ va/ =e/s1 :i* if n kept d[n by man 7& by goats7 w\ld cov] ! slopes ( ! ,alps4 ,! prevail+ species are ! common fir & ! silv] fir4 ,9 di/ricts :]e granite ab\nds1 ! l>* fl\ri%es & rea*es a great] size ?an any o!r tree4 ,less common are ! ,scot* fir & ! arolla1 or ,sib]ian fir4 ,9 ! ,ea/]n ,alps ! dw>f p9e becomes conspicu\s1 =m+ a di/9ct zone on ! high] m\nta9s above ! level ( o!r firs4 ,! p9e =e/s play a mo/ important "p 9 ! natural economy ( ! ,alps2 & _! pres]vation is a matt] ( v great importance to ! future inhabitants4 ,b 9 "s places !y h be5 consid]ably dim9i%$ by cutt+4 ,?is has especially happ5$ 9 ! neighb\rhood ( m9es2 & 9 consequ5ce ! p ( ! unfrequ5t$ communes h become s alive to ?is t "s jeal\sy is felt ( /rang]s w&]+ among ! m\nta9s1 le/ !y %\ld discov] metals & cause ! de/ruction ( ! woods4 ,_! fe>s are n unreasonable2 = ! =e/s1 besides ex]t+ a good deal ( influ5ce on ra9fall & climate1 =m natural def5ces aga9/ ! ru% ( ! spr+ avalan*es 7see *apt] iii41 page #ic74 ,x is record$ t aft] ! w> ( #agii1 9 :i* _m ( ^? ne> ! ,/4 ,go?>d ,pass 7 de/roy$1 ! neighb\r+ villages suff]$ t]ribly f ?is sc\rge4 ,h5ce ! laws d n all[ ( timb] be+ cut 9 c]ta9 =e/s call$ ,bannwalde2 & 9 mo/ places ! "r ( fell+ trees is /rictly regulat$1 & ! woods are "u ! inspection ( (ficials4 ,9 spots high up among ! m\nta9s1 to :i* access is difficult1 ! timb] is conv]t$ into *>coal1 :i* is !n br\ght d[n 9 sacks by horses & mules4 ,!re are two ways 9 :i* timb] is convey$ d[n f ! =e/3 ei!r x is cut up into logs "s five feet long1 & ?r[n into a neighb\r+ torr5t1 :i* br+s x d[n ov] cliff & gorge to ! valley bel[2 or else tr\gh-l slides are con/ruct$ along ! m\nta9-sides1 d[n :i* ! trunks !mselves are laun*$4 ,x is ?is region ( conif]\s trees :i* ma9ly det]m9es ! mann] ( life ( ! population ( ! ,alps4 ,9 ! mon? ( ,may ! horn$ cattle1 hav+ be5 f$ 9 h\ses dur+ ! w9t] 7z !y are 9 ! ,scot* ,highl&s1 :]e ! c[%$s are call$ byres71 are l$ up to ! l[] pa/ures4 ,! l[] *lets1 occupi$ 9 ,may & "p ( ,june1 g5]ally /& at ab\t ! upp] limit ( ! m\nta9 region4 ,t[>ds ! middle or end ( ,june ! cattle are mov$ up to ! *ief pa/ures1 t[>ds ! upp] "p ( ! region ( conif]\s trees1 :]e !y usually rema9 = ! next two or ?ree mon?s4 ,b !re are "s available pa/ures /ill high] up1 & hi!r "s ( ! cattle are s5t = a mon? or m4 #e4 ,! ,alp9e region4--,?is is ! zone ( vegetation ext5d+ f ! upp] limit ( trees to :]e p]man5t masses ( sn[ fir/ make _! appe>ance2 s t :]e ! trees cease1 ! peculi> ,alp9e plants beg92 b we /ill f9d %rubs1 su* z ! common rhodod5dron1 ,alp9e will[1 & ! common junip]1 :i* ext5d up to1 & ! latt] ev5 beyond1 ! level ( p]petual sn[4 ,! limits ( ?is int]e/+ & delightful botanical region may be fix$ betwe5 #f1jjj & #h1jjj feet above ! sea1 & at lea/ #a1jjj feet high] on ! s\? slopes ( ! ,alps1 :i* get m sun%9e4 ,x is us$ to "s ext5t = pa/ure2 & 9 ,pi$mont x is n uncommon to f9d *lets at ! height ( #h1ejj feet1 & vegetation (t5 ext5ds freely up to #i1ejj feet4 ,"h & !re1 at levels bel[ ?is zone1 _m ,alp9e species may be f\nd1 ei!r transport$ by accid5t f _! natural home1 or f9d+ a p]man5t refuge 9 "s cool spot %elt]$ f ! sun1 & moi/5$ by /reamlets desc5d+ f ! sn[ region4 ,b x is *iefly "h t ^? delightful fl[]s gr[ :i* make ! ,alps l a great fl[]-g>d51--great anemones1 :ite & sulphur-col\r$2 g5tians ( ! deepe/ blue1 l ! sky ov]head2 campanulas1 geums1 ,alp9e solanellas1 & =get-me-nots2 a/]s1 ox-ey$ daisies1 pale p9k primulas1 purple he>tsease1 edelweiss1 saxifrages1 yell[ poppies1 ,alp9e toad-flax1 monk%ood1 pot5tilla1 & o!rs too num]\s to m5tion4 ,says ,pr(essor ,bonney1-- ,:o _c recall _m a happy h\r sp5t 9 rambl+ f clu/] to clu/] on ! side ( "s great ,alp8--! sc5t ( sweet h]bage or ( sweet] daphne p]fum+ ! invigorat+ air1 ! melody ( ! cattle-bells borne up f "s f>-(f pa/ure1 :ile ! great blue vault ( heav5 above seems reflect$ 9 ! g5tian clu/]s at 8 feet4 ,! love ( fl[]s seems natural to almo/ e human be+1 h[ev] =lorn 8 life may h be51 h[ev] f> x may h miss$ its appo9t$ m>k4 ,x may well be s2 !y at lea/ are fre% & unta9t$ f _! ,mak]'s h&2 ! cry ( ',nature r$ 9 too? & claw' sc>ce breaks _! calm repose4 ,side by side !y fl\ri% )\t /rife2 none 'lette? or h9d]e? ano!r1' yet s t5d] & delicate1 doom$ to fade all too soon1 a t\* ( sadness is ev] pres5t to give a deep] pa?os to our love4 #f4 ,! ,glacial region4--,?is compreh5ds all t portion ( ! ,alps t rises above ! limit ( p]petual sn[4 ,b a ^w ( explanation is necess>y4 ,! highe/ p>ts ( ! ,alps are n cov]$ by "o cont9u\s %eet ( sn[2 o!rwise we %\ld nev] see any peaks or crags !re4 ,"s are too /eep = ! sn[ to re/ ^u !m1 & !re=e rema9 b>e at heights mu* great] ?an ! s-call$ limit ( p]petual sn[1 & t limit v>ies consid]ably4 ,/ill ?is t]m has a def9ite mean+ :5 rightly und]/ood4 ,leav+ out ( acc\nt masses ( sn[ t accumulate 9 holl[s %ad$ f ! sun1 ! sn[-l9e is fairly ev51 s t on view+ an ,alp9e range f a di/ance1 ! l>g] pat*es & fields ( sn[ on adjo9+ m\nta9s1 ) ! same aspect1 are se5 to ma9ta9 a pretty con/ant level4 ,illu/ration3 ,,on ,a ,,glaci]4 ,vegetation becomes sc>ce 9 ?is region1 n1 z commonly suppos$1 because ,alp9e plants d n "h f9d ! necess>y conditions = gr[?1 b simply = want ( soil4 ,! int5se heat ( ! direct rays ( ! sun 7see *apt] iii41 pages #gf-gg7 comp5sates = ! cold ( ! night2 & x is probable t ! great] all[ance ( light also /imulates vegetable life4 ,b all ! m level p>ts are cov]$ ) ice or sn[2 & ! high] we asc5d1 ! less ! surface rema9s b>e1 ) ! exception ( ! project+ rocks :i* usually und]go rapid de/ruction & break+ up f ! freez+ ( :atev] wat] f9ds its way into _! fissures4 ,nev]!less1 _m species ( fl[]+ plants h be5 f\nd ev5 at ! height ( elev5 ?\s& feet4 ,x is 9 ?is region t plants are f\nd ^: true home is 9 ! arctic regions 7see *apt] ii41 pages #fd-fe74 ,= ! sake ( ^? :o love f]ns1 lycopods1 & o!r cryptogamic or fl[]less plants1 a few words may be said "h4 ,( ! polypodies1 ! bee* f]n & oak f]n are g5]ally common1 s is ! lime/one polypody 9 places :]e lime/one occurs4 ,ano!r species 7,p4 alpe/re7 v l ! lady f]n gr[s pl5tifully 9 _m places4 ,! p>sley f]n1 famili> to ! botani/ 9 ,wales & o!r p>ts ( ,great ,brita91 is common1 especially on ! cry/all9e rocks1 & asc5ds to above sev5 ?\s& feet4 ,! holly f]n is p]haps ! mo/ *>act]i/ic "o ( ! high] ,alps4 ,x is abundant 9 almo/ e di/rict f ! ,viso to ! ,tyrol1 rang+ f ab\t five ?\s& feet to ne>ly eight ?\s& feet4 ,! f9e/ specim5s are to be f\nd 9 ! lime/one di/ricts4 ,ne/l+ d[n 9 little *annels worn out ( ! rock1 x %oots out great fronds1 (t5 m ?an eighte5 in*es long1 :i* are giants comp>$ to ! /unt$ specim5s se5 on rockwork 9 ,engli% g>d5s4 ,aspl5ium sept5trionale is v common 9 mo/ ( ! di/ricts :]e cry/all9e rocks ab\nd4 ,! h>t's tongue is h>dly to be call$ a m\nta9 f]n4 ,! common brake is conf9$ to ! l[] slopes4 ,ci/opt]is fragillis & ,c4 d5tata are common1 & ! m delicate ,c4 ,alp9a is n r>e4 ,! noble ,osmunda regalis keeps to ! w>m] valleys4 ,! moonwort ab\nds 9 ! upp] pa/ures4 ,! club-mosses 7,lycopodium71 :i* are f\nd 9 ,great ,brita91 are common 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! ,alps1 especially ! ,l4 selago1 :i* gr[s almo/ up to ! v]ge ( ! sn[s4 ,l[] d[n is ! delicate ,l4 velveticum1 :i* creeps among ! damp mosses "u ! %ade ( ! =e/4 ,_m ( ! small] species /a9 ) spots ( crimson1 orange1 & purple ! rocks among ! sn[fields & glaci]s1 & ga9 ! summits ( peaks m ?an eighte5 ?\s& feet above ! sea1 rea*+ ev5 to ! highe/ rocks 9 ! ,alp9e *a94 ,= ! sake ( read]s :o are n famili> ) t wond]ful book1 ,mod]n ,pa9t]s1 we w quote "s exquisite passages on li*5s & mosses1 full ( beautiful ?\ghts3-- ,we h f\nd beauty 9 ! tree yield+ fruit & 9 ! h]b yield+ se$4 ,h[ ( ! h]b yield+ no se$1--! fruitless1 fl[]less#ag li*5 ( ! rock8 #ag ,fl[]less 9 ! ord9>y1 n ! botanical s5se4 ,li*5s & mosses 7?\gh ^! la/ 9 _! luxuriance are deep & ri* z h]bage1 yet bo? = ! mo/ "p humble/ ( ! gre5 ?+s t live71--h[ ( ^!8 ,meek creatures6--! fir/ m]cy ( ! e>?1 veil+ ) tru/$ s(tness its d9tless rocks1 creatures full ( pity1 cov]+ ) /range & t5d] hon\r ! sc>r$ disgrace ( ru91 lay+ quiet f+] on ! trembl+ /ones to tea* !m re/4 ,no words t ,i "k ( w say :at ^! mosses are2 none are delicate en\gh1 none p]fect en\gh1 none ri* en\gh4 ,h[ is "o to tell ( ! r\nd$ bosses ( furr$ & beam+ gre52 ! />r$ divisions ( rubi$ bloom1 f9e-film$1 z if ! ,rock ,spirits c\ld sp9 porphyry z we d grass2 ! trac]ies ( intricate silv]1 & fr+es ( amb]1 lu/r\s1 arboresc5t1 burni%$ ?r\gh e fibre into fitful brightness & glossy trav]ses ( silk5 *ange1 yet all subdu$ & p5sive1 & fram$ = simple/1 sweete/ (fices ( grace8 ,!y w n be ga!r$1 l ! fl[]s1 = *aplet or love tok52 b ( ^! ! wild bird w make its ne/ & ! we>i$ *ild 8 pill[4 ,& z ! e>?'s fir/ m]cy1 s !y are its la/ gift to u4 ,:5 all o!r s]vice is va91 f plant & tree ! s(t mosses & grey li*5 take up _! wat* by ! head/one4 ,! woods1 ! blossoms1 ! gift-be>+ grasses1 h done _! p>ts = a "t1 b ^! d s]vice = ev]4 ,tree = ! build]'s y>d--fl[]s = ! bride's *amb]--corn = ! gran>y--moss = ! grave4 ,yet z 9 "o s5se ! humble/1 9 ano!r !y are ! mo/ hon\r$ ( ! e>?-*ildr52 unfad+ z motionless1 ! worm frets !m n & ! autumn wa/es n4 ,/rong 9 l[l9ess1 !y nei!r blan* 9 heat nor p9e 9 fro/4 ,to !m1 sl[-f+]$1 con/ant-he>t$1 is entru/$ ! weav+ ( ! d>k1 et]nal tape/ries ( ! hills2 to !m1 sl[-p5cill$1 iris-dy$1 ! t5d] fram+ ( _! endless imag]y4 ,%>+ ! /illness ( ! unimpassion$ rock1 !y %>e also its endurance2 & :ile ! w9ds ( dep>t+ spr+ scatt] ! :ite haw?orn blossom l drift$ sn[1 & summ] dims on ! p>*$ mead[ ! droop+ ( its c[slip1--gold f> above1 among ! m\nta9s1 ! silv] li*5-spots re/1 />-l1 on ! /one2 & ! ga!r+ orange-/a9 ^u ! edge ( yond] we/]n peak reflects ! sunsets ( a ?\s& ye>s4 ,alp9e & arctic plants are met ) 9 ,great ,brita91 b ,scotl& has a mu* m ext5sive arctic-,alp9e flora ?an ,engl&1 ,wales1 or ,irel&1 ! reason be+ ! great] altitude ( its m\nta9s4 ,! comb9$ flora ( ! ,unit$ ,k+dom conta9s only n9ety-"o species ( arctic-,alp9e plants1 & ( ^! eighty-eight--t is1 all b ?ree--are natives ( ,scotl&4 ,( ^! ?ree ! fir/ is a g5tian 7,g5tiana v]na71 :i* is to be f\nd on ! hills ( ,we/ ,york%ire1 ,durham1 ,we/morel&1 & o!r p>ts4 ,x comes f ! ,alps4 ,! second is ,lloydia s]ot9a1--a small bulb\s plant ) :ite fl[]s1 :i* is f\nd on ! hills ( ,c>n>von%ire1 9 ,wales4 ,! ?ird1 well kn[n 9 ,engli% g>d5s1 is ,london pride 7,saxifraga umbrosa71 :i* is only to be f\nd on ! s\?we/ ,iri% hills4 ,( ! n9ety-"o arctic-,alp9e species1 j ab\t half are also natives ( ,engl& & ,wales1 b only tw5ty-five belong to ,irel&4 ,if we exam9e ! li/s ( ! flora ( ,arctic ,europe we f9d t all ^!1 except ab\t six1 are f\nd 9 arctic regions2 & if we travel f>!r nor? till we come actually to pol> regions1 we f9d ne>ly fifty ( ^! species gr[+ !re ne> ! sea-level4 ,! ,grampian ,m\nta9s are ! *ief c5tre ( ! ,scotti% arctic-,alp9e flora4 ,! two pr9cipal localities = su* fl[]s 9 t range are ! ,breadalbane ,m\nta9s 9 ,p]?%ire1 & ! ,cnlo*an & ,clova ,m\nta9s ( ,=f>%ire4 ,!re are also a goodly numb] on ! m\nta9s ( ! ,braem> di/rict4 ,! hi/ory ( ! arctic-,alp9e flora ( ,europe is a v int]e/+ "o4 ,^! plants1 ^: true home is 9 ! arctic regions1 liv+ high up on ! m\nta9s ( ,europe1 give unmi/akable evid5ce ( a "t1 v f> back1 :5 ,nor!rn ,europe 0 ov]run by glaci]s & sn[fields s z to resemble 9 appe>ance & 9 climate ! ,gre5l& ( ! pres5t day4 ,?is p]iod is kn[n to geologi/s z ! ,great ,ice ,age4 ,! mora9es ( glaci]s1 ice-worn rock surfaces1 & o!r unmi/akable signs may be well se5 9 _m p>ts ( ,great ,brita94 ,h[ long ago ?is took place we _c say2 b judg+ f ! consid]able *anges 9 geography :i* h und\bt$ly tak5 place s9ce !n1 we mu/ conclude t _m ?\s&s ( ye>s1 p]haps two hundr$ ?\s&1 h int]v5$ betwe5 ?is p]iod & ! pres5t "t4 ,:5 arctic conditions prevail$ ov] ?is wide area1 ! plants & animals :i* n[ live 9 arctic latitudes fl\ri%$ 9 ,great ,brita92 b z ! climate gradually became m g5ial1 & ! sn[ & ice melt$1 ! plants & animals mo/ly retreat$ to _! nor!rn home4 ,a c]ta9 numb] d\btless became ext9ct2 b o!rs took to ! highe/ p>ts ( ! m\nta9s1 :]e sn[ & ice ab\nd2 & !re !y rema9 to ! pres5t day1 sep>at$ f _! fell[s1 b /ill enjoy+ ! k9d ( climate to :i* !y h always be5 accu/om$1 & te/ify+ to ! wond]ful *anges :i* h tak5 place s9ce ! mammo?1 ^: bones are f\nd emb$d$ 9 our riv]-gravels1 w&]$ ov] ! pla9s ( ,nor!rn ,europe4 ,animal ,life4 ,! rocky fa/nesses ( ! ,alps /ill af=d a home to "s ( ! l>g] wild animals :i* 9 o!r p>ts ( ,europe h gradually disappe>$ ) ! advance ( civilisation4 ,dur+ ! latt] "p ( ! ,/one ,age1 long be=e hi/ory 0 writt51 :5 m5 us$ axes1 hamm]s1 arr[-heads1 & o!r implem5ts ( /one1 in/ead ( bronze or iron1 ,switz]l& 0 inhabit$ by animals :i* are n to be se5 n[4 ,! gigantic urus 7,bos primig5ius71 :i* fl\ri%$ 9 ! =e/s ( ! int]ior dur+ ?is prehi/oric human p]iod1 & gave its "n to ! canton ( ,uri1 has become ext9ct4 ,! m>% hog 0 liv+ dur+ ! p]iod ( ! ,swiss lake-dwell]s4 ,^! p made _! h\ses on piles driv5 9 ne> ! %ore1 & 7 acqua9t$ ) ! use ( bronze1 & !re=e lat] ?an ! m5 ( ! ,/one ,age4 ,! rema9s ( ^! /range dwell+-places h be5 discov]$ 9 sev]al places1 z well z _m articles ( daily use4 ,! m>% hog has disappe>$2 & its place is tak5 by ! wild bo> & dome/ic hog1 :i* af=d sport & food to ! pres5t population4 ,b tak+ ,switz]l& z x n[ is1 we w say a few words ab\t ! m int]e/+ =ms ( animal life dwell+ 9 ! ,alps1 beg9n+ ) ^? :i* are highe/ 9 ! animal k+dom4 ,*ief among ^! is ! br[n be>1 /ill occasionally f\nd1 b x is exce$+ly r>e1 except 9 ! ,grisons & 9 ! di/ricts ( ! ,tyrol & ,italy bord]+ on ! canton1 :]e x /ill c>ries on its ravages4#ah ,"s also believe t x /ill l+]s 9 ! rocky fa/nesses ( ! ,jura ,m\nta9s1 to ! ea/ ( ! ,alps4 ,!re is prop]ly only "o species ( be> 9 ,switz]l&1 b ! hunt]s g5]ally speak ( ?ree1--! great black1 ! great grey1 & ! small br[n4 ,! second ( ^! is m]ely an accid5tal v>iety ( ! fir/2 b betwe5 ! grey & ! small br[n be>s !re is a good deal ( diff]5ce4 ,!y ass]t t ! black be> is n only consid]ably l>g] ?an ! br[n1 b is also diff]5t 9 its habits4 ,x is less f]oci\s & pref]s a vegetable diet1--fe$+ on h]bs1 corn1 & vegetables1 ) ! roots & bran*es ( trees4 ,x has a way ( plund]+ bee-hives & also ants' ne/s2 x delights 9 /rawb]ries & all k9ds ( fruit1 plund]+ ! or*>ds1 & ev5 mak+ raids on ! v9ey>ds1 b always retreat+ be=e dawn4 ,z a rule x does n attack human be+s4 ,! br[n be> is mu* m =midable1 pr[l+ by night ab\t ! %eepfolds1 & caus+ ! %eep by _! fright to fall d[n precipices4 ,goats1 :5 al>m$1 leap on ! ro(s ( ! *lets1 & bleat1 9 ord] to ar\se ! %eph]ds2 s t :5 ,bru9 re>s himself up aga9/ ! wall he (t5 meets 8 dea?4 ,!re are _m /ories on record ( fi]ce fights = life betwe5 man & be>4 ,! be> passes ! w9t] 9 a torpid /ate1 & eats little or no?+ !n4 #ah ,we are aga9 indebt$ to ,pr(essor ,bonney's ,alp9e ,regions ( ,switz]l& = ! in=mation "h giv54 ,! wolf1 ?\gh /ill l+]+ 9 sev]al lonely p>ts ( ! ,alps1 is rapidly becom+ r>e4 ,x is mo/ frequ5t 9 ! di/ricts ab\t ! ,engad9e & 9 ! ,jura ,m\nta9s4 ,only 9 w9t]-"t1 :5 h>d press$ by hung]1 does x approa* ! haunts ( man4 ,x takes almo/ any k9d ( prey x c get1--foxes1 h>es1 rats1 mice1 birds1 liz>ds1 frogs1 & toads4 ,%eep & goats are its fav\rite prey4 ,! wolf is an affectionate p>5t1 & takes 8 turn 9 look+ aft] ! nursl+s1 :i* is a necess>y precaution1 z 8 fri5ds & relations h a way ( eat+ up ! babies4 ,! fox is common 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,alps1 b n (t5 se5 by travell]s4 ,in/ead ( tak+ ! tr\ble to burr[1 he frequ5tly manages by v>i\s cunn+ devices to take possession ( a badg]'s hole4 ,z ,ts*udi qua9tly obs]ves1 ,he has f> too mu* imag9ation & poetic s5tim5t to l s monoton\s & labori\s an occupation z burr[+4 ,l ! wolf1 ! m\nta9 fox eats :atev] he c cat*1 ev5 beetles1 flies1 & bees4 ,^? 9 ! valleys live m luxuri\sly ?an _! relations on ! m\nta9s1--plund]+ bee-hives & robb+ or*>ds4 ,z x 0 9 ,juda 9 ! days ( ,solomon1 s x is n[ 9 ,switz]l& among ! v9ey>ds2 & a peasant might well say1 ,take u ! foxes1 ! little foxes t spoil ! v9ey>ds4 ,! lynx is only occasionally f\nd 9 ! ,alps1 :i* is =tunate = ! %eph]ds1 = !y c play t]rible havoc ) ! %eep4 ,wild-cats /ill l+] 9 ! mo/ unfrequ5t$ p>ts4 ,_! fur is valuable1 & ! fle% is sometimes eat54 ,! badg] is f> f common1 ?\gh r>ely se5 by day4 ,x is v cunn+ 9 avoid+ traps1 & s is g5]ally ei!r dug out ( its hole drawn by dogs1 or pull$ out by a pole ) nipp]s or a hook at ! end4 ,pass+ on to less f]oci\s bea/s1 we f9d ! ott] common along ! bord]s ( riv]s & lakes4 ,! polecat1 weasel1 & /oat are (t5 too abundant = keep]s ( p\ltry4 ,! squirrel is common en\gh 9 ! =e/s1 b v>ies greatly 9 col\r4 ,x is d\btful :e!r ! beav] /ill l+]s by "s lonely ,alp9e /ream4 ,x is la/ m5tion$ 9 a li/ ( ,swiss mammals1 publi%$ 9 #ahag1 z f\nd1 ?\gh r>ely1 9 "s lonely spots4 ,rabbits are common1 b h>es r sc>ce2 ( ^! !re are1 z 9 ,scotl&1 two v>ieties1--! br[n h>e1 :i* is seldom f\nd at heights great] ?an f\r ?\s& to five ?\s& feet1 & ! blue h>e1 :i* ranges up to n9e ?\s& feet4 ,! latt] *anges col\r3 its fur 9 summ] is ( a dull blui%-grey1 & 9 w9t] x becomes p]fectly :ite1 & s af=ds a /rik+ illu/ration ( protective mimicry1 = ) sn[ ly+ on ! gr\nd x w\ld be v h>d to see ! creature4 ,! m>mot is common 9 all ! high] ,alp9e regions4 ,^! int]e/+ little creatures are v wat*ful1 & easily sc5t dang]4 ,:5 an intrud] approa*es1 a s5t9el m>mot utt]s a long %rill :i/le1 :i* is (t5 repeat$ two or ?ree times1 & !n !y all make = _! burr[s2 b x is n easy to di/+ui% !m f ! grey rocks among :i* !y live4 ,! fur is a yell[i% or br[ni% grey1 ) black on ! head & face1 & a little :ite on ! muzzle2 ! tail is %ort & bu%y ) a tipp+ ( black4 ,!y h diff]5t qu>t]s = summ] & w9t]4 ,! summ] burr[s are 9 ! belt ( r\gh pa/ure betwe5 ! upp] limits ( trees & ! sn[s2 t[>ds ! end ( autumn !y come d[n to ! pa/ures :i* ! h]dsm5 h j ab&on$ & !re make _! w9t] burr[s1 :i* are mu* l>g] ?an ! summ] ones4 ,l rabbits1 !y frequ5tly make a bolt-hole1 by :i* !y may escape f an intrud]4 ,9 w9t] ! holes are plugg$ up1 & ! m>mots1 roll+ !mselves up 9 a ball1 g to sleep = six mon?s or m4 ,sometimes hunt]s dig !m out2 b s s\ndly d !y sleep t1 accord+ to ,de ,saussure1 !y may (t5 be tak5 out1 plac$ 9 ! game-bag1 & c>ri$ home )\t be+ ar\s$4 ,!y wake up ab\t ,april4 ,! *amois1 a v fav\rite subject ) ! wood-c>v]s1 is ! only memb] ( ! antelope family 9 ,we/]n ,europe2 x is f\nd 9 almo/ e "p ( ! ,alps1 b is n[ mu* r>] ?an x 0 =m]ly4 ,a full-gr[n *amois 9 good condition weighs ab\t sixty p\nds4 ,! hair is ?ick1 & *anges col\r ) ! season1 be+ a r$ yell[i%-br[n 9 summ] & almo/ black 9 w9t]4 ,! horns1 :i* curve backw>ds1 rise f ! head above & betwe5 ! eyes to a height :i* r>ely exce$s sev5 in*es4 ,:5 ! kid is ab\t ?ree mon?s old1 ! horns make _! appe>ance1 & at fir/ are n ne>ly z hook-%ap$ z !y aft]w>ds become4 ,:5 full-gr[n1 x /&s at ! %\ld] ab\t two feet f ! gr\nd4 ,! h9d-legs be+ long] ?an ! =e-legs1 its gait is awkw>d on level gr\nd1 b !y are admirably suit$ = m\nta9 climb+4 ,:5 at full spe$1 x c *eck itself almo/ in/antly1 & c spr+ ) wond]ful agility4 ,its ho(s are n well adapt$ = trav]s+ ! ice1 & !re=e x avoids glaci]s z f> z possible4 ,hav+ a great fe> ( conceal$ crevasses1 x is v %y ( v5tur+ on ! upp] "p ( a glaci]2 & ! tracks :i* x leaves 9 ^! places (t5 %[ by _! w9d+s & sudd5 turn+s t ! animal has ex]cis$ great caution4 ,& s travell]s (t5 use ?is z a useful clue to gett+ safely ov] a glaci]4 ,its agility is some?+ extraord9>y4 ,x c spr+ across *asms six or sev5 y>ds wide1 & ) a sudd5 b\nd leap up ! face ( a p]p5dicul> rock1 & m]ely t\*+ x ) its ho(s1 reb\nd aga9 9 an opposite direction to "s high] crag1 & ?us escape f a spot :]e1 )\t w+s1 egress seem$ impossible4 ,:5 rea*+ upw>ds on its h9d-legs1 ! =e-legs re/+ on "s high] spot1 x is able to /ret* to a consid]able di/ance1 & ) a quick spr+ br+ up its h9d-qu>t]s to a level ) ! re/ ( ! body1 & ) all f\r ho(s toge!r1 /& pois$ on a po9t ( rock n broad] ?an y\r h&4#ai ,! *amois fe$ on v>i\s m\nta9 h]bs1 & on ! buds & spr\ts ( ! rhodod5dron & lats*5 7a p9e74 ,at night !y c\* among ! brok5 rocks high ^u ! m\nta9s1 desc5d+ at daybreak to pa/ure1 & retreat+1 z ! heat increases1 t[>ds _! fa/nesses4 ,:5 w9t] comes1 !y are =c$ d[n to ! high] =e/s1 :]e !y pick up a scanty subsi/5ce f moss1 dead leaves1 & ! fibr\s li*5 :i* hangs 9 long yell[i%-grey tufts f ! fir-trees & be>s ! "n ( *amois-be>d4 ,:ile br[s+ on ?is1 !y sometimes get _! horns hook$ 9 a b\gh1 & s1 be+ unable to dis5tangle !mselves1 p]i% ) hung]4 ,! s5ses ( he>+1 smell1 & sight are exce$+ly acute2 s t ! hunt] mu/ ex]cise all 8 craft to approa* ! animals4 ,pages might be fill$ ) ! hair-bread? escapes & fe>ful accid5ts :i* h befall5 hunt]s2 & yet !y f9d ! pursuit s fasc9at+ t no?+ w induce !m to ab&on x4 ,a "y peasant told ! fam\s ,de ,saussure 7! pione] ( ,alp9e explor]s7 t ?\gh 8 fa!r & gr&fa!r be=e him _h met _! dea? :ile out on ! hunt1 n ev5 ! (f] ( a =tune w\ld tempt him to *ange 8 vocation4 ,! bag :i* he c>ri$ ) him he call$ 8 w9d+-%eet1 because he felt sure he w\ld nev] h any o!r4 ,two ye>s aft]w>ds he 0 f\nd dead at ! foot ( a precipice4 #ai ,bon> on ,*amois-hunt+ 9 ,bav>ia4 ,! b\quet91 or /e9bock1 once abundant ?r\gh\t ! great] "p ( ! ,alps1 is n[ conf9$ to c]ta9 p>ts :]e x is pres]v$ by ! ,k+ ( ,italy4 ,de ,saussure obs]ves t 9 8 "t !y _h ceas$ to be f\nd ne> ,*am\ni4 ,its :ole build is rem>kably /rong1 giv+ x q a diff]5t appe>ance f ! sl5d] & graceful *amois4 ,illu/ration3 ,,r$ ,,de]4 ,,aft] ,,ansdell4 ,! roe1 ! fall[ de]1 & ! r$ de] h1 x is said1 q disappe>$ f ! ,fr5* & ,swiss ,alps1 b all ( !m occur 9 ! ,bav>ian & ,au/rian highl&s4 ,!y frequ5t ! =e/s :i* clo! ! l[] slopes1 & d n (t5 w&] into ! m rocky di/ricts4 ,! wild bo> only n[ & !n appe>s across ! ,rh9e1 al?\gh x is common 9 ! ,subalp9e =e/s f>!r ea/2 b we c h>dly consid] x a true ,alp9e quadrup$4 ,pass+ on to ! birds :i* frequ5t ! ,alps1 we mu/ fir/ notice ! be>d$ vulture1 ! lmm]gei] ( ! ,g]mans1 :i* once 0 common1 b n[ only holds its own "h & !re 9 "s lonely m\nta9 fa/ness4 ,al?\gh pref]r+ liv+ prey to c>rion1 /ill 9 _m ways x is closely alli$ to ! true vulture4 ,! upp] "p ( ! body is a greyi%-br[n hue1 ! "u side :ite1 t+$ ) r$di% br[n4 ,! ne/1 built on a high l$ge ( rock1 consi/s ( /raw & f]n1 re/+ on /icks1 on :i* are plac$ bran*es l9$ ) moss & d[n4 ,x is a r>e ?+ = ! travell] to obta9 a view ( ?is mon>* ( ! ,alp9e birds4 ,l ! true vulture1 its dige/ive p[]s are m>vell\s4 ,accord+ to ,ts*udi 7,les ,alpes71 ! /oma* ( "o ( ^! birds 0 f\nd to conta9 five fragm5ts ( a c['s rib1 a mass ( matt$ wool & hair1 & ! leg ( a kid p]fect f ! knee d[nw>ds4 ,ano!r _h bolt$ a fox's rib fifte5 in*es long1 z well z ! bru%1 besides a numb] ( bones & o!r indige/ible p>ts ( small] animals1 :i* 7 sl[ly be+ eat5 away by ! ga/ric juice4 ,%eep1 goats1 full-gr[n *amois1 & small] quadrup$s are eag]ly dev\r$ by ?is voraci\s bird4 ,x is said to be bold en\gh to attack a man1 :5 x f9ds him asleep or climb+ 9 any dang]\s place4 ,ts*udi1 9 8 book on ! ,alps1 gives sev]al in/ances ( "y *ildr5 be+ c>ri$ (f4 ,"o ( ^! happ5$ 9 ! ,b]nese ,ob]l&1 z foll[s3 ,two peasants1 mak+ hay ^u ! pa/ures1 _h tak5 ) !m _! daught] ,anna1 a *ild ab\t ?ree ye>s old4 ,%e quickly fell asleep on ! turf ne> ! hay *let2 s ! fa!r put 8 broad-brimm$ hat ov] h] face1 & w5t to "w "s little way (f4 ,on 8 return ) a load ( hay ! *ild 0 gone2 & a brief se>* %[$ t %e 0 n[h]e ne>4 ,j at ?is "t a peasant walk+ along a r\gh pa? 9 ! gl5 0 />tl$ by ! cry ( a *ild1 & go+ t[>ds ! place :5ce x came1 saw a lmm]gei] rise f a neighb\r+ summit & hov] = "s "t ov] a precipice4 ,on climb+ ?i!r 9 all ha/e1 he f\nd ! *ild ly+ on ! v br9k4 ,%e 0 b little injur$2 "s scrat*es 7 f\nd on h] h&s & on ! left arm1 by :i* %e _h be5 seiz$2 & %e _h be5 c>ri$ m ?an ?ree qu>t]s ( a mile ?r\gh ! air4 ,%e liv$ to a good old age1 & 0 always call$ ! ,gei]-,anna1 or ,vulture's ,annie1 9 memory ( h] escape4 ,! p>ticul>s are inscrib$ 9 ! regi/]s ( ! p>i% ( ,habk]54 ,! gold5 eagle is n uncommon 9 mo/ p>ts ( ! ,alps1 al?\gh travell]s r>ely obta9 a ne> view4 ,x is said to be v fond ( h>es1 *as+ & captur+ !m v clev]ly4 ,z 9 ,great ,brita91 x is accus$ ( c>ry+ (f *ildr52 b ?is is at lea/ d\btful4 ,! kite1 buzz>d & falcon are occasionally se54 ,!re are at lea/ t5 species ( owls1 among :i* is ! magnific5t eagle-owl4 ,! rav5 is f\nd 9 ! loneli] gl5s1 & is (t5 tam$4 ,its ?iev+ prop5sities are v amus+4 ,alp9e birds ( prey correspond v closely ) ,briti%4 ,! jackdaw is also common4 ,x w\ld be impossible )9 our %ort limits to give a complete li/ ( ,swiss birds1 b we may m5tion among o!rs ! nutcrack]1 ! jay1 ! :ite-brea/$ swift1 ! :eate>1 ! common black r$/>t1 ! beautiful wall-creep]1 & ! sn[-f9*1 :i* m\nts to ! bord]s ( ! sn[4 ,( game-birds we may m5tion ! cap]cailze1 ! black gr\se1 & ! hazel gr\se1 all ( :i* are common 9 _m ( ! =e/s4 ,! pt>migan haunts ! /ony tracts on ! bord]s ( p]petual sn[4 ,9 w9t] x turns :ite1 & 9 summ] greyi%-br[n1 ?\gh a good deal ( :ite rema9s4 ,pheasants & p>tridges _c be said to be ,alp9e birds2 b ! ,greek p>tridge may be s consid]$4 ,numb]s ( ! m\nta9 /reams & t>ns conta9 excell5t tr\t1 & mo/ ( ! l>g] lakes are well /ock$ ) fi%4 ,"s ( ! tr\t ( ! ,swiss & ,italian lakes are ( great size4 ,! pike frequ5tly weigh twelve to fifte5 p\nds4 ,reptiles are n num]\s4 ,! common frog1 :i* is said to be f\nd z high z t5 ?\s& feet above ! sea1 sw>ms 9 "s p>ts ( ! ,rhone ,valley4 ,( true liz>ds1 five species h be5 recogniz$4 ,! bl9d-worm 7:i* is n a snake71 s common on _m ( our ,engli% hea?s1 is (t5 met )4 ,among ! true snakes we f9d ! ,engli% r+$ snake--q h>mless--& two add]s4 ,! common add] is f\nd at a height ( sev5 ?\s& feet above ! sea4 ,l[] =ms ( life n possess+ a backbone 7inv]tebrates7 ab\nd 9 ?is region2 b !y are f> too num]\s to be consid]$ "h4 ,butt]flies & mo?s are abundant2 & _m ( ^? :i* are r>e 9 ,engl& are common 9 ! ,alps1 s t ! entomologi/ f9ds a happy hunt+-gr\nd4 ,! beautiful swall[tail & ! h&some apollo1 copp]s1 pa9t$ ladies1 fritill>ies1 & _m o!r ,lepidopt]a ?rive 9 ^! regions1 & are less easily fright5$ ?an at home 9 ,engl&4 ,,"p ,,ii4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,7 ,,made4 ,"p ,,ii4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,7 ,,made4 ,,*apt] ,v4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,mat]ials ,,7 ,,br\ght ,,toge!r4 ,^! *anges 9 ! heav5s1 ?\gh sl[1 produce ,l *ange on sea & l&4 ,,milton ,probably e m\nta9 climb]1 re/+ = a brief space on a loose b\ld]1 or seek+ ! %ade ( "s ov]hang+ piece ( rock1 has (t5 ask$ himself1 ,h[ 7 all ^! rocks made8 ,! "q mu/ occur aga9 & aga9 to any intellig5t p]son on visit+ a m\nta9 = ! fir/ "t1 or ev5 on see+ a m\nta9-range 9 ! di/ance4 ,he may well ask 8 companions h[ ^! great ramp>ts ( ! e>? 7 built up4 ,b unless he possesses "s k ( ! sci5ce ( geology1 :i* tells ( ! manifold *anges :i* 9 =m] ages h tak5 place on ! e>?1 or unless1 9 ! abs5ce ( su* k1 he *ance to meet ) a geologi/1 8 "q probably rema9s unansw]$4 ,su* que/ions1 h[ev]1 c be v satisfactorily answ]$1--?anks to ! lab\rs ( zeal\s seek]s aft] tru?1 :o h giv5 ! be/ "p ( _! lives to /udy+ ! rocks :i* are f\nd ev]y:]e on ! surface ( ! e>?1 & ! *anges !y und]go4 ,geology is a truly ,engli% sci5ce2 & ,engli%m5 may well *]i% gratefully ! memories ( its pione]s1--,hutton1 ,playfair1 ,lyell1 & o!rs1 :o h made ! way s cle> = future explor]s4 ,! /ory ( ! hills z writt5 on _! own rocky tablets & on ! v b\ld]s ly+ loose on _! slop+ sides1 & int]pret$ by geologi/s1 is a long "o2 = x takes u f> back into ! dim ages ( ! pa/1 & l ! fa%ionable novel1 may be divid$ into ?ree p>ts1 or volumes4 ,to ^? :o foll[ ! /ony sci5ce x is q z fasc9at+ z a mod]n romance1 & a great deal m wond]ful1 ?us illu/rat+ ! =ce ( ! old say+1 ,tru? is /rang] ?an fiction4 ,! ?ree p>ts ( our /ory may be be/ express$ by ! ?ree foll[+ inquiries3 ,i4 ,h[ 7 ! mat]ials ( :i* m\nta9s are built up br\ght toge!r & made into h>d rock8 ,,ii4 ,h[ 7 !y rais$ up into ! elevat$ positions 9 :i* we n[ f9d !m8 ,,iii4 ,h[ 7 !y c>v$ out into all _! wond]ful & beautiful features ( crag & precipice1 peaks & passes8 ,a m\nta9 gr\p1 ) its c5tral peak or spire1 its long ridges1 /eep walls1 t[]s1 buttresses1 d>k holl[s1 & c>v$ p9nacles /&+ out aga9/ ! sky1 has well be5 comp>$ to a great & /ately build+ su* z a ca!dral or a temple4 ,m\nta9s are inde$ a great & noble ar*itecture1 giv+ fir/ %elt]1 com=t1 & re/1 b cov]$ also ) mighty sculpture & pa9t$ leg5d2 & to _m !y are ,nature's %r9es1 :]e m5 may (f] _! humble praises & pray]s to ! great ,ar*itect :o re>$ !m = ,8 *ildr54 ,we h introduc$ ?is illu/ration because x w help u 9 our inquiry4 ,suppose we 7 /&+ 9 front ( "s great ca!dral1 su* z ,milan1 ) all its m>ble p9nacles1 or ,notre ,dame1 ) its /ately t[]s1 or ! m9/]s ( ,york or ,durham 9 our own c\ntry1 & try+ to picture to ourselves h[ x 0 built4 ,no "o has liv$ long en\gh to wat* ! completion ( "o ( ^! great build+s2 b = all t1 we "k pretty well h[ x 0 made1 ev5 by wat*+ ! build]'s op]ations = a %ort "t1 or by foll[+1 z we (t5 may1 ! v>i\s /ages 9 ! con/ruction ( a small h\se4 ,s x is ) ,nature's "w4 ,we _c1 9 our little lives1 witness ! re>+ ( a great m\nta9-*a91 or ev5 ! c>v+ ( a s+le hill2 b we c obs]ve = ourselves ! sl[ & cont9u\s op]ations :i* 9 ! c\rse ( ?\s&s & ?\s&s ( ye>s produce su* /up5d\s results4 ,we may le>n h[ ! build+ op]ations are conduct$1 ?\gh ! f9al results w only be manife/$ 9 ! f>-di/ant future4 ,b to return to our ca!dral4 ,if we try to picture to ourselves ! long ye>s dur+ :i* x 0 cov]$ ) scaffold+ & surr\nd$ by a busy army ( work]s1 we %all soon p]ceive t ! op]ations may be broadly divid$ into ?ree heads4 ,fir/1 we mu/ inquire h[ ! sep>ate /ones ( :i* x is compos$ 7 br\ght toge!r into "o place1 & we %all at once picture to ourselves gr\ps ( m5 work+ 9 /one-qu>ries1--p]haps a long way (f1--busy ) _! cr[b>s & hamm]s1 break+ (f l>ge blocks ( /one1 & foll[+ ! natural divisions ( ! rock t _! r\gh lab\r may be less5$2 = all rocks w split m easily along c]ta9 l9es ?an along o!rs4 ,sometimes x is easi] to foll[ ! b$d+1 or natural lay]s 9 :i* ! rock 0 =m$2 at o!r times ! jo9ts1 or cracks subsequ5tly =m$ z ! rocky mat]ials h>d5$ & contract$ 9 bulk1 af=d easi] l9es = ! workm5 to foll[4 ,o!rs are busily engag$ 9 plac+ ! /ony blocks on trollies drawn by horses1 t !y may be borne along ! roads lead+ f ! qu>ry to ! site ( ! future ca!dral4 ,& s1 tak+ a bird's-eye view1 we seem to see horses & c>ts sl[ly mov+ on f _m a di/ant qu>ry1 b all conv]g+ l ! bran*es ( a riv] to "o ma9 *annel1 & f9ally deposit+ _! burd5s 9 ! /one-y>d :]e ! masons are at "w4 ,p]haps bricks are p>tly employ$1 9 :i* case we c easily picture to ourselves ! bricky>ds1 :]e "s are digg+ out ! s(t clay1 o!rs m\ld+ x into bricks ) wood5 m\lds1 :ile o!rs aga9 lay !m d[n 9 r[s on ! gr\nd to dry1 be=e !y are bak$ 9 ! ov5s4 ,& :5 ! bricks are ready = use1 ! same means ( transportation are employ$2 & c>t-loads ( !m are borne along ! c\ntry roads until !y s rea* _! de/9ation4 ,n[1 all ?is may be summ$ up 9 ! "o ^w transportation2 & we %all pres5tly inquire h[ ! rocky matt] ( :i* ! m\nta9s are built 0 transport$4 ,secondly4 ,we h to inquire h[ ! bricks & /ones 7 rais$ up4 ,! analogy is n q p]fect 9 ?is case2 = ! m\nta9s 7 rais$ up en bloc1 n bit by bit & /one by /one1 z 9 ! case ( ! ca!dral4 ,/ill !y h be5 rais$ someh[4 ,analogies are seldom complete 9 e detail2 b = all t1 our illu/ration s]ves well en\gh1 & w help u 9 foll[+ ! v>i\s processes ( m\nta9 build+4 ,9 ^! days1 ! rais+ ( ! /ones is mo/ly effect$ by /eam-p[] appli$ to big cranes & pulleys4 ,9 old days !y us$ cranes & pulleys1 b ! ropes 7 pull$ by h&-p[]4 ,9 ei!r case ! "w proce$s sl[ly2 & we c easily picture to ourselves ! daily rais+ ( ! /ones ( :i* ! ca!dral is compos$4 ,:at 7 ! =ces at "w :i* sl[ly rais$ ! m\nta9s8 ,?is "q we w endeav\r to answ] lat] on 7see next *apt]74 ,?is "w may be includ$ 9 ! "o ^w1 elevation4 ,& la/ly4 ,we mu/ inquire h[ ! c>v+ ( ! /ately build+ 0 effect$1 h[ its p9nacles receiv$ _! %ape1 & h[ all ^? lovely details receiv$ _! f9al =ms2 h[ ! intricate trac]ies ( its w9d[s 7 made1 & ! /atues c>v$ :i* adorn its solemn portals4 ,?is "q is easily answ]$1 = we are all m or less famili> ) :at goes on 9 a /one-mason's y>d4 ,"u ^? wood5 %$s we see a numb] ( skill$ lab\r]s at "w1 busy ) _! *isels & mallets1 cutt+ out1 accord+ to ! patt]ns made f ! ar*itect's detail$ draw+s1 ! portions ( trac]y = w9d[s1 or ! f9ials1 crockets1 & o!r features ( ! future build+4 ,9 ano!r "p ( ! y>d may be se5 ! /one-cutt]s1 work+ 9 pairs & sl[ly pull+ backw>ds & =w>ds ^? long saws :i*1 ) ! help ( wat] & s&1 9 "t cut ?r\gh ! bigge/ blocks4 ,all ?is "w !n may be summ$ up "u ! "o ^w1 ornam5tation1 = x includes ! cutt+ & c>v+ ( ! /one4 ,our ?ree l9es ( inquiry may n[ be summ$ up 9 ^! ?ree words1 :i* are easily rememb]$3-- ,transportation1 ,elevation1 ,ornam5tation4 ,tak+ ! fir/ ( ^! subjects = consid]ation 9 ! pres5t *apt]1 we h n[ to inquire into ! nature ( ! mat]ials ( :i* m\nta9s are compos$ & ! means by :i* !y h be5 br\ght toge!r & compact$ into h>d rock4 ,fir/1 ) reg>d to ! nature ( ! mat]ials :i* ,"m ,e>? uses to build h] rocky ramp>ts3 !y are ! same z ! ord9>y rocks ( :i* ! e>?'s cru/ is compos$2 & ! great] "p ( !m h be5 =m$ by ! action ( wat]4 ,^! are ! ord9>y /ratifi$ rocks1 :i* 9 "o =m or ano!r meet u almo/ ev]y:]e1 & may be said to be aque\s deposits1 or s$im5ts =m$ 9 seas & inl& lakes4 ,!y are always arrang$ 9 lay]s1 kn[n to geologi/s z /rata1 because !y h be5 g5tly laid d[n1 or /rewn 7,lat91 /ratum71 at ! bottom ( "s l>ge body ( wat]4 ,!re 7 pauses 9 ! deposition ( ! mat]ials1 dur+ :i* ea* lay] _h "t to h>d5 a little be=e ! next "o 0 =m$4 ,?is acc\nts = ! /ratification4 ,9 ?is way great deposits ( s&/one1 clay1 & lime/one1 ) _! num]\s v>ieties1 h be5 9 ! c\rse ( ages gradually pil$ up1 till !y h atta9$ to enorm\s ?ickness1 :i* at fir/ sight seem almo/ incr$ible2 b ! b$ ( ! seas 9 :i* !y =m$ 0 probably und]go+ a sl[ s9k+ process t kept pace ) ! gr[? ( ^! deposits1 o!rwise ! sea might h be5 m or less fill$ up4 ,& ^! processes are /ill go+ on4 ,9 fact1 x is entirely by wat*+ :at goes on n[ t geologi/s are able to expla9 :at took place a v long "t ago :5 !re 7 no human be+s on ! e>? to record ! ev5ts t took place4 ,& s we argue f ! pres5t to ! pa/1 f ! kn[n to ! unkn[n4 ,9 o!r words1 geology is bas$ ^u physical geography1 :i* tells u ( ! *anges n[ 9 progress on ! e>?4 ,?us1 s&/one1 z frequ5tly met ) 9 diff]5t p>ts ( ,great ,brita91 & l>gely us$ = build+ purposes1 su* z ! famili> old r$ s&/one#bj ( ,s\? ,wales1 ,h]e=d1 & ! nor? ( ,engl& & diff]5t p>ts ( ,scotl&1 0 once s(t s& 9 no way at all diff]5t f ! s& ( ! sea%ore at ! pres5t day1 or ( ! s&y b$ ( ! ,nor? ,sea4 ,9 process ( "t x became h>d5$1 & acquir$ its *>act]i/ic r$ col\r1 :i* is due to oxide ( iron4 ,9 "s places num]\s fossil fi%es h be5 discov]$ 9 ?is int]e/+ =mation1 s intimately associat$ ) ! "n ( ,hugh ,mill]1 :o fir/ ?or\ghly explor$ x2 ^! & o!r rema9s entomb$ !re9 tell u ( ! /range =ms ( life :i* fl\ri%$ on ! e>? dur+ t v old-fa%ion$ p]iod ( ! _w's hi/ory2 & by putt+ toge!r all k9ds ( evid5ces d]iv$ f ! rock itself1 geologi/s are able to =m a v good idea ( ! way 9 :i* ?is rock-deposit 0 accumulat$1 always1 h[ev]1 bas+ _! conclusions on a ?or\gh k ( :at goes on at ! pres5t day 9 seas1 riv]s1 & inl& lakes4 #bj ,! read] w f9d an acc\nt ( ! old r$ s&/one 9 ! writ]'s ,autobiography ( ! ,e>? 7,edw>d ,/an=d1 #ahij74 ,9 ! great s]ies ( /ratifi$ rocks =m+ :at is commonly call$ ! cru/ ( ! e>? 7an un=tunate t]m :i* has surviv$ f ! "t :5 ! int]ior ( ! e>? 0 g5]ally believ$ to be 9 a fi]y molt5 condition1 & cov]$ by a ?9 coat+ ( solid rock at ! surface71 !re are besides ! s&/ones1 ( :i* we h j spok51 great deposits ( d>k-col\r$ clays1 %ales1 & slates4 ,all ^! c be acc\nt$ = by ! geologi/4 ,!y are simply diff]5t /ates ( :at 0 once s(t mud4 ,! slates tell u t !y h be5 subject$ to v sev]e pressure1 :i* squeez$ _! p>ticles till !y 7 elongat$ & all arrang$ 9 "o direction1 & ?is is ! reason :y !y split up into ?9 %eets4 ,o!rs1 aga91 repres5t va/ deposits ( c>bonate ( lime1 ?\s&s ( feet ?ick & n[ occupy+ hundr$s ( squ>e miles ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,lime/one rocks are z abundant 9 our own c\ntry z ! s&/ones1 %ales1 or slates4 ,! *alk ( :i* ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns are compos$ is a famili> example4 ,x is se5 aga9 =m+ ,salisbury ,pla91 9 ,hamp%ire & ! ,isle ( ,wight1 & !n x may be trac$ runn+ up ! c\ntry 9 a long b& ?r\gh ! c\nties ( ,ox=d1 ,cambridge1 ,l9coln1 until x rea*es ! coa/ at ,flambor\gh ,head 9 ,york%ire4 ,!n we h ! ,ba? ,olites s mu* us$ 9 build+1 = !y =m an admirable free/one t c be easily c>v$ & cut 9 any direction 7h5ce ! t]m free/one72 & la/ly1 ! great m\nta9 lime/one s well develop$ 9 ,s\? ,wales1 ,york%ire1 & ! ,lake c\ntry4 ,all ^! 7 sl[ly built up at ! bottom ( ! seas :i* exi/$ 9 pa/ ages2 great b$s ( gravel =m$ at ! m\?s ( riv]s1 & long banks ( pebbles & r\nd$ /ones collect$ on ! %ore ( primeval seas1 & 7 gr\nd aga9/ ea* o!r z n[ by ! action ( ! waves1 until all _! corn]s 7 rubb$ (f4 ,pebble-b$s1 call$ by geologi/s conglom]ates1 are met ) among ! /ratifi$ rocks2 & _! /ory is easily read by /udy+ :at takes place at ! pres5t day on our sea%ores4 ,illu/ration3 ,,*alk ,,rocks1 ,,flambor\gh ,,head4 ,,f ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,g4 ,w4 ,,wilson4 ,n[1 ! s&/ones1 clays1 gravels1 & pebble-b$s all repres5t1 z w pres5tly be expla9$1 s mu* mat]ial worn away f ! surface ( ! l& & swept into ! ocean 7or 9 "s cases into inl& seas & lakes7 by /reams & riv]s1 :i* are ! great transport+ ag5ts ( ! _w4 ,h5ce su* deposits ( dbris1 suppli$ by ! con/ant we> & te> ( all rocks expos$ to ! atmosph]e1 are truly s$im5t>y & h a purely me*anical orig94 ,b x is n s ) ! lime/ones4 ,! latt] 7 nev] transport$1 b grew at ! bottom ( ! sea 9 v wond]ful ways4 ,!y h no?+ to d ) ! we> & te> ( ! l& to :i* ! o!rs owe _! exi/5ce1 b repres5t va/ quantities ( c>bonate ( lime extract$ f sea wat]4 ,sea wat] conta9s a c]ta9 am\nt ( ?is sub/ance 9 a dissolv$ /ate1 or 9 solution1 z a *emi/ w\ld say2 & ! way 9 :i* ?is is extract$ by ! ag5cy ( v>i\s creatures1 su* z coral polypes & little microscopic creatures t build _! %ells ( c>bonate ( lime1 ( great beauty1 =ms "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ subjects pres5t$ to ! /ud5t ( physical geography4 ,h5ce1 s9ce lime/one c only be acc\nt$ = by ! ag5cy ( liv+ organisms1#ba x is rightly t]m$ an organic deposit1 & ! o!rs are said to be me*anical deposits4 ,b bo? are call$ aque\s rocks1 because !y are =m$ "u wat]4 ,x is important to di/+ui% cle>ly betwe5 ^! two v diff]5t me?ods ( rock-=mation4 #ba ,! fl9ts usually f\nd 9 lime/one are also ( organic orig94 ,b al?\gh wat] plays su* a v important "p 9 ! mak+ ( ! common rocks ar\nd u1 yet !re are o!rs :i* h q a diff]5t orig91--rocks :i* h come up f bel[ ! surface ( ! e>? 9 a heat$ & molt5 condition1 su* z ! lavas t fl[ f volcanoes 9 active eruptions & ! %[]s ( a%es & f9e volcanic du/ :i* (t5 att5d su* eruptions 7see *ap4 viii41 pp4 #bga-bgb74 ,"s highly heat$ rocks1 ?\gh !y nev] rise to ! surface to =m lava-fl[s1 are =c$ up ) ov]:elm+ pressure f bel[1 & w$ge !mselves into ! s$im5t>y rocks t ov]lie !m1 ?us =m+ :at are kn[n z volcanic dykes1 & intrusive masses or %eets ( once molt5 rock4 ,9 ?is category we include su* rocks z basalt1 fel/one1 pit*/one1 & o!r rocks ( fi]y orig9 t h fl[$ f volcanoes z lava1 z well z ^? l granite1 :i* h cool$ & become solid bel[ ! surface1 & are ,plutonic1 or deep-seat$1 igne\s rocks4 ,granite may be expos$ to ! surface ( ! e>? :5 ! rocks :i* once ov]laid x h be5 worn away or d5ud$4 ,x is frequ5tly se5 9 ! c5tral regions ( m\nta9-*a9s1 :]e a va/ am\nt ( erosion has be5 effect$4 ,?us we see t heat has play$ its "p 9 ! mak+ ( rocks2 & = ?is reason su* rocks z we h j m5tion$ are call$ igne\s4 ,fire & wat] are !re=e v important geological ag5ts2 b we %\ld say heat r ?an fire1 because ! latt] ^w might convey a false impression4 ,no rocks c be burn$ except coal1 :i* may be consid]$ r z a m9]al deposit ?an z a rock4 ,"s rocks may be heat$1 & und]go _m & v>i\s *anges 9 _! m9]al composition2 b !y are n capable ( combu/ion4 ,s f>1 !n1 we h le>n$ t ! rocks expos$ to view on ! surface ( ! e>? may be divid$ into two classes2 t is1 aque\s & igne\s4 ,!re is yet a ?ird class1 :i*1 ?\gh ( aque\s orig91 has 9 c\rse ( "t suff]$ consid]able f ! int]nal heat ( ! e>? & ! enorm\s pressure due to ! weight ( ov]ly+ rocks4 ,su* rocks h be5 greatly *ang$ f _! orig9al condition1 bo? 9 appe>ance & 9 m9]al composition1 & are said to be metamorphic1 a ^w :i* implies *ange4 ,?us *alk1 or o!r lime/one rock1 has be5 metamorphos$ into m>ble2 %ales & slates into v>i\s k9ds ( s*i/s1#bb su* z mica-s*i/1 & ev5 into gneiss1 :i* closely resembles granite4 ,& x is q possible t ev5 granite may 9 "s cases be ! result ( ! melt+ & consolidation "u great pressure ( c]ta9 famili> /ratifi$ rocks4 ,x is q conceivable t slate might be conv]t$ into granite1 = _! *emical composition is simil>1 only ! m9]als ( :i* x is compos$ w\ld require to be re>rang$ & gr\p$ into new comp\nds4 ,?is w\ld seem q possible2 b at pres5t we h no direct pro( ( su* a *ange hav+ tak5 place4 ,ev5 igne\s rocks are f\nd 9 "s places to h suff]$ v consid]able *ange4 #bb ,s*i/s are s nam$ f _! prop]ty ( splitt+ into ?9 lay]s4 ,_! /ructure is cry/all9e2 & ! lay]s1 or folia1 consi/ usually ( two or m m9]als1 b sometimes ( only "o4 ,?us mica-s*i/ consi/s ( qu>tz & mica1 ea* arrang$ 9 _m folia1 b x splits along ! lay]s ( mica4 ,9 "s inl& seas1 l ! ,caspian ,sea1 deposits ( rock salt & gypsum may be =m$ by *emical precipitation1 ow+ to evaporation f ! surface4 ,! v>i\s k9ds ( rock kn[n to geologi/s may be conv5i5tly arrang$ z foll[s3 ,clay1 %ale1 slate1 etc4 ,i4 ,s$im5t>y4 ,s&/ones4 ,conglom]ates4 ,rocks ( ,lime/ones4 aque\s ,,ii4 ,organic4 ,fl9t4 orig94 ,coal4 ,,iii4 ,*emical4 ,rock salt4 ,gypsum1 etc4 ,i4 ,volcanic4 ,lavas4 ,rocks ( ,volcanic a%es1 etc4 igne\s orig94 ,,ii4 ,plutonic4 ,basalt4 ,granite4 ,metamorphic rocks ,m>bles4 ( aque\s & ,v>i\s k9ds ( s*i/s4 igne\s orig94 ,gneiss1 etc4 ,s f> we h only attempt$ to /ate v briefly ! diff]5t k9ds ( rocks1 & to po9t out t !y 7 =m$ 9 v>i\s ways4 ,we mu/ n[ consid] ! "q ( rock-mak+ m closely1 & see :at we c le>n ab\t ! wond]ful ways 9 :i* rocks are made2 & x may be in/ructive to glance at ! conflict+ op9ions on ?is subject :i* le>n$ m5 held n v long ago4 ,at ! end ( ! la/ c5tury a great controv]sy took place on ! "q ( ! orig9 ( rocks1 & ! le>n$ m5 ( ! day 7 divid$ into two p>ties4 ,"o ( ^! p>ties1 foll[+ ! tea*+ ( ,w]n]1 pr(essor ( m9+ at ,freyburg1 :o inspir$ great en?usiasm among 8 disciples1 decl>$ t all rocks 7 =m$ by ! ag5cy ( wat]4 ,?is 0 a v sweep+ & ( c\rse ra% conclusion4 ,b :5ev] !y exam9$ rocks1 !y f\nd s _m cle> evid5ces ( ! action ( wat] t a p[]ful impression ( ! importance ( ?is ag5cy 0 naturally made on _! m9ds4 ,!y f\nd rocks uni=mly arrang$ 9 great lay]s :i* ext5d$ = long di/ances1 & conta9+ ! rema9s ( animals :i* mu/ und\bt$ly h liv$ 9 ! seas or e/u>ies4 ,^! lay]s 7 fur!r divid$ into small] lay]s1 su* z cle>ly 7 =m$ by ! sl[ settl+ d[n ( s& & mud4 ,o!rs aga9 conta9$ gravels & r\nd$ pebbles1 te/ify+ 9 no unc]ta9 way to ! action ( wat]4 ,ev5 ! little gra9s ( s& are obvi\sly wat]-worn4 ,?is tea*+ 0 q s\nd s long z !y conf9$ _! att5tion to clays1 s&/ones1 & lime/ones2 b :5 !y came to basalt & granite1 a bl9d adh]5ce to ! views ( _! ma/] caus$ !m to %ut _! eyes to ! cle> evid5ces ( ! action ( heat1 pres5t$ by su* rocks4 ,! cry/all9e /ructure ( su* rocks2 _! irregul> arrangem5t1 (t5 s diff]5t f ! uni=m disposition ( ! /ratifi$ rocks 7al?\gh x mu/ be admitt$ t anci5t lava-fl[s (t5 lie v ev5ly betwe5 aque\s rocks71 & ! way 9 :i* !y bur/ ?r\gh ov]ly+ rocks1 ?us prov+ _! =m] molt5 condition2 ! signs ( alt]ation exhibit$ 9 ! aque\s rocks into :i* !y intrud$ !mselves 7*anges :i* are obvi\sly due to ! action ( heat71--^! & o!r evid5ces 7 entirely ov]look$1 & ,w]n] decl>$ t basalt _h be5 f\nd z a s$im5t "u wat]4 ,?is s*ool ( geologi/s1 believ+ s /rongly 9 ! all-p[]ful influ5ce ( ,fa!r ,neptune1 receiv$ ! n inappropriate title ( ,neptuni/s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! p>ty :o happ5$ to be 9 di/ricts :]e granite1 basalt1 & su* igne\s rocks ab\nd$ 7 equally impress$ ) ! importance ( ! p[]ful ag5cy ( heat4 ,to !m ne>ly e rock !y met ) seem$ to %[ "s signs ( its action4 ,& s9ce ,pluto 0 ! classical deity ( ! l[] regions1 & ! e>? %[s evid5ces 9 places ( great] heat bel[ ! surface1 ?is p>ty receiv$ ! title ( ,plutoni/s2 & s ! battle rag$ hotly = "s "t betwe5 ! ,neptuni/s1 ) _! claims = cold wat]1 & ! fi]y ,plutoni/s ( ! rival s*ool ( ,ed9burgh1 ) _! subt]ranean heat4 ,fire & wat] are nev] likely to agree2 & !y did n d s 9 ?is case4 ,b n[ t ! battle is ov]1 & bo? sides are f\nd to h be5 p>tly "r & p>tly wrong1--?\gh ! ,neptuni/s h ! advantage1--we c af=d to smile at ! fi]c5ess ( ! conte/1 & wond] h[ x 0 t ea* side ?\ght !y 7 s entirely 9 ! "r4 ,let u n[ consid] ! aque\s rocks1 & see if we c ga9 a cle> idea ( ! ways 9 :i* !y 7 =m$2 & fir/1 we w take ^? ( a purely s$im5t>y orig91--! s&/ones1 pebble-b$s1 gravels1 & clays4 ,^!1 z ! read] has already probably guess$1 h all be5 transport$ by means ( /reams & riv]s1 & settl$ d[n quietly 9 seas at ! m\?s ( riv]s or 9 inl& lakes4 ,!re is no trace ( ! action ( heat 9 ! =m+ ( ^! rocks1 ?\gh !y (t5 %[ signs ( hav+ suff]$ m or less *ange f contact ) highly heat$ igne\s rocks ( lat] date :i* =cibly intrud$ !mselves f bel[2 & if ! *ange ?us effect$ 7 consid]able1 we %\ld call ! rocks s alt]$ metamorphic4 ,b we are n[ deal+ ) _! orig9al /ate & h[ !y 7 made2 & ( t !re is no possible d\bt :atev]4 ,s = ! "t be+ we may call ourselves ,neptuni/s4 ,/reams & riv]s are ! great transport+ ag5ts :]eby ! nev]-fail+ supply ( dbris f ! wa/e ( ! l& is unceas+ly br\ght d[n f ! m\nta9s & hills1 ?r\gh ! broad valleys & along ! great pla9s1 until f9ally x is flung into ! sea4 ,! sea is ! work%op :]e all ! s$im5t>y rocks are sl[ly manufactur$ f ! raw mat]ial br\ght to x by ! riv]s4 ,b = ! pres5t we mu/ conf9e our att5tion to ! "q ( transport4 ,ref]r+ back to our illu/ration ( ! ca!dral1 we may say t /reams & riv]s play ! "p ( c>t & horses4 ,!y br+ ! mat]ials d[n f ! qu>ry to ! sc5e ( action1--! work%op :]e !y are want$4 ,! qu>ries1 9 ?is case1 may be said to be almo/ ev]y:]e4 ,= :]ev] rocks & soil are expos$ to ! action ( w9d & wea!r1 !re is c]ta9 to be m or less decay & crumbl+ away4 ,b x is among ! hills & 9 ! high] p>ts ( ! m\nta9s t ! =ces ( de/ruction are mo/ active4 ,h[ ?is is br\ght ab\t w be discuss$ 9 ! sev5? *apt]1 on ! c>v+ ( ! hills4 ,! frequ5t slopes cov]$ ) loose /ones are suffici5t evid5ce ( ! cont9ual de/ruction t takes place 9 ^! regions4 ,! transport+ p[]s ( riv]s are truly prodigi\s4 ,look+ at a /ream or riv] aft] heavy ra91 we see its wat]s heavily lad5 ) mud & s&2 b x is difficult to realise f a casual glance ! va/ am\nt ( mat]ial t is ?us br\ght d[n to l[] levels4 ,if we c\ld trace ! s$im5t to its s\rce1 we mu/ seek x among ! rocks ( m\nta9s f> away4 ,/ep by /ep we may trace x up along ! high] c\rses ( ! riv]1 !n along m\nta9 /reams ru%+ ov] _! rocky b$s1 tumbl+ 9 cascades ov] brok5 rocks1 or leap+ 9 wat]falls ov] high] projections ( rock1 until we come to ! deep furr[s on ! sides ( m\nta9s along :i* loose fragm5ts ( rock come tumbl+ d[n ) ! cascades ( wat] t run along ^! /eep *annels aft] heavy ra91 leav+ at ! base ( ! m\nta9 great fan-%ap$ heaps ( /ones4 ,(t bo? slope & hill are torn ,:]e w9try torr5ts d[n h borne1 ,& heap$ ^u ! cumb]$ l& ,its wreck ( gravel1 rocks1 & s&4 ,^! accumulations are gradually c>ri$ away by ! l>g] m\nta9 /reams1 :i* 9 hurry+ !m along cause a va/ am\nt ( we> & te>2 s t _! corn]s are worn (f1 & !y get fur!r & fur!r r$uc$ 9 size1 becom+ m]e r\nd pebbles l9+ ! b$ ( ! /ream1 & f9ally by ! "t !y rea* ! l>ge sl[-mov+ riv]s ( ! pla9s are ma9ly r$uc$ to t9y specks ( mud or gra9s ( s&4 ,s !n ! riv]s & /reams n only transport s$im5t1 b !y manufacture x z !y g along4 ,& ?us !y may be consid]$ z great gr9d+-mills1 :]e l>ge pieces ( /one g 9 at "o end1 & only f9e s& & mud come out at ! o!r4 ,! am\nt ( l& dbris ?us transport$ dep5ds p>tly on ! c>ry+ p[] ( riv]s1 :i* v>ies ) ! seasons & ! annual ra9fall2 p>tly on ! size ( ! area dra9$ by a riv]2 & aga91 p>tly on ! nature ( ! rocks ( :i* t area is compos$4 ,a /ream1 mov+ along at ! rate ( ab\t half a mile 7#hhj y>ds7 an h\r1 :i* is a sl[1 rate1 c c>ry along ord9>y s&y soil susp5d$ 9 a cl\d-l fa%ion 9 ! wat]2 :5 mov+ at ! rate ( two ?irds ( a mile 7ab\t #a1agc y>ds7 an h\r1 x c roll f9e gravel along its b$2 b :5 ! rate increases to a y>d 9 a second1 or a little m ?an two miles an h\r1 x c sweep along angul> /ones z l>ge z an egg4 ,b /reams (t5 fl[ mu* fa/] ?an ?is1 & s d riv]s :5 swoll5 by heavy ra94 ,a rapid torr5t (t5 fl[s at ! rate ( eighte5 or tw5ty miles an h\r1 & !n we may he> ! /ones rattl+ aga9/ ea* o!r z !y are irresi/ibly roll$ onw>d2 & dur+ v heavy floods1 huge masses ( rock z l>ge z a h\se h be5 kn[n to be mov$4 ,^! are ! two pr9cipal ways 9 :i* /reams & riv]s act z transport+ ag5ts3 !y c>ry ! f9] mat]ials 9 a susp5d$ /ate 7?\gh p>tly drift+ x along _! b$s72 & !y pu% ! co>s] mat]ials1 su* z gravel1 bodily along4 ,b !re is "o o!r way 9 :i* !y c>ry on ! important "w ( transportation1 :i*1 be+ unse51 might easily escape our notice4 ,e spr+ is busily employ$ 9 br++ up to ! surface m9]al sub/ances :i* ! wat] has dissolv$ out ( ! und]gr\nd rocks4 ,?is invisible mat]ial f9ds its way1 z ! spr+s d1 to ! riv]s1 & s f9ally is br\ght into t great res]voir1 ! sea4 ,ra9 & riv] wat] also dissolve a c]ta9 am\nt ( m9]al matt] f rocks ly+ on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,n[1 ! mat]ial :i* is mo/ easily dissolv$ is c>bonate ( lime4 ,h5ce if y take a small quantity ( spr+ or riv] wat] & boil x until ! :ole is evaporat$1 y w f9d t x leaves beh9d a c]ta9 am\nt ( deposit4 ,?is1 :5 analys$ by ! *emi/1 proves to be *iefly c>bonate ( lime2 b x also conta9s m9ute quantities ( o!r m9]als1 su* z common salt1 pota%1 soda1 oxide ( iron1 & silica1 or fl9t4 ,all ^! & o!r m9]als are f\nd to be pres5t 9 sea wat]4 ,! wat]s ( "s ( ! great riv]s ( ! _w h be5 c>efully exam9$ at diff]5t times1 9 ord] to =m "s idea ( ! am\nt ( solid matt] :i* !y conta91 bo? dissolv$ & susp5d$2 & ! results are extremely important & int]e/+1 = !y enable u to =m def9ite conclusions ) reg>d to _! capacity = transport4 ,?is subject has be5 inve/igat$ ) great skill by em95t m5 ( sci5ce4 ,! problem is a v complicat$ "o2 b x is easy to see t if we "k r\ghly ! numb] ( gallons ( wat] annually dis*>g$ into ! sea by a big riv]1 & ! av]age am\nt ( solid matt] conta9$ 9 su* a gallon ( wat]1 we h ! means ( calculat+1 by a simple process ( multiplication1 ! am\nt ( solid matt] annually br\ght d[n to ! sea by t riv]4 ,b we mu/ also add ! am\nt ( s&1 gravel1 & /ones pu%$ along its b$4 ,?is may be r\ghly e/imat$ & all[$ =4 ,^! are "s ( ! results3 ,! am\nt ( solid matt] dis*>g$ e ye> by t great riv]1 ! ,mississippi1 if pil$ up on a s+le squ>e mile ( ! b$ ( ! sea1--say1 9 ! ,gulf ( ,mexico1 :]e t riv] dis*>ges itself1--w\ld make a great squ>e-%ap$ pile #bfh feet high4 ,b ! ,gulf ,/ream1 sweep+ ?r\gh ?is gulf1 c>ries ! mat]ials = _m & _m a mile away2 s t 9 c\rse ( "t x gradually s9ks & spreads itself z a f9e film or lay] ov] "p ( ! great ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,! mud br\ght d[n by ! great riv] ,amazon spreads s f> into ! ,atlantic ,ocean z to discol\r ! wat] ev5 at a di/ance ( ?ree hundr$ miles4 ,! ,ganges & ! ,brahmapootra1 fl[+ into ! ,bay ( ,b5gal1 dis*>ge e ye> into t "p ( ! ,indian ,ocean #f1cfh1jjj1jjj cubic feet ( solid matt]4 ,?is mat]ial w\ld 9 "o ye> raise a space ( fifte5 squ>e miles "o foot 9 height4 ,! weight ( mud1 etc41 t ^! riv]s br+ d[n is sixty times t ( ! ,great ,pyramid ( ,egypt1 or ab\t six million tons4 ,or1 to put ! matt] 9 ano!r way1 if a fleet ( m ?an eighty ,indiam51 ea* ) a c>go ( f\rte5 hundr$ tons ( solid matt]1 sail$ d[n e h\r1 night & day1 = f\r mon?s1 & dis*>g$ _! burd5s into ! wat]s ( ! ,indian ,ocean1 !y w\ld only d :at ! mighty ,ganges does quietly & easily 9 ! f\r mon?s ( ! flood season4 ,x is probable t ev5 ! ,?ames1 a small riv] comp>$ to ^? j m5tion$1 manages to br+ d[n1 9 "o way or ano!r1 f\rte5 million cubic feet ( solid matt]4 ,^! few figures may suffice to give ! read] "s idea ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( rock-=m+ mat]ials br\ght d[n to ! seas at ! pres5t day4 ,( c\rse !y are spread out f> & wide by ! num]\s ocean curr5ts1 "s ( :i* fl[ = hundr$s ( miles2 & s ! b$ ( ! sea c only be v sl[ly rais$ by _! accumulation4 ,/ill ! geologi/ c all[ pl5ty ( "t1 = !re is no d\bt t ! _w is imm5sely old2 & if we all[ ?\s&s ( ye>s1 we may easily compreh5d t deposits ( v consid]able ?ickness may 9 ?is way accumulate on ! floors ( ! oceans4 ,also ! coa/s ( cont95ts & isl&s suff] cont9ual we> & te> at ! h&s ( sea waves2 & ?us ! supply ( s$im5t is increas$4 ,:5 ! geologi/ comes to /udy ! great rock-masses--hundr$s1 & ev5 ?\s&s1 ( feet 9 ?ickness--( :i* m\nta9-ranges are compos$1 he f9ds all ^? k9ds ( rock :i* we h j be5 consid]+1--s&/ones1 %ales 7or h>d5$ clays71 pebble-b$s1 & lime/ones1--& endeav\rs to picture to himself _! gradual gr[? 9 ! ways we h describ$4 ,9 s do+1 he is driv5 to ! conclusion t _m ?\s&s ( ye>s mu/ h be5 occupi$ 9 _! con/ruction4 ,we mu/ n[ say a few words ab\t ^? o!r aque\s rocks :i* h an organic orig91 ( :i* lime/one is ! *ief4 ,x is inde$ a />tl+ conclusion t deposits ( great ?ickness1 & rang+ = v _m miles ov] ! e>?'s surface1 h be5 sl[ly built up ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( m>9e animals extract+ c>bonate ( lime f ! sea4 ,yet su* is und\bt$ly ! case4 ,( ?is important process ( rock-build+ coral reefs are ! mo/ famili> example4 ,! great b>ri] reef along ! nor!a/ coa/ ( ,au/ralia is ab\t #a1bej miles long1 f t5 to n9ety miles 9 wid?1 & rises at its seaw>d edge f dep?s :i* 9 "s places c]ta9ly exce$ eighte5 hundr$ feet4 ,x may be lik5$ to a great subm>9e wall4 ,n[1 all ?is solid masonry is ! "w ( humble coral polypes 7n insects71 build+ up _! own int]nal framework or skeleton by extract+ c>bonate ( lime f sea wat]4 ,!n ! break]s da%+ aga9/ coral reefs produce1 by _! gr9d+ action1 a great deal ( f9e coral-s& & calc>e\s mud1 :i* cov]s ! surr\nd+ b$ ( ! sea = _m miles4 ,n[1 geologi/s f9d t "s lime/one =mations met ) 9 ! /ratifi$ rocks h c]ta9ly be5 =m$ 9 ?is way2 = example1 c]ta9 p>ts ( ! great m\nta9 lime/one4 ,?is is prov$ by ! fossil corals x conta9s1 & by trac+ ! old coral reefs2 b x is also l>gely =m$ by ! rema9s ( o!r graceful calc>e\s creatures kn[n z encr9ites1 or sea-lilies1 ) long bran*+ arms t wav$ 9 ! cle> wat]4 ,su* creatures /ill exi/ 9 "s deep] p>ts ( ! sea1 & look m l plants ?an animals4 ,9 =m] ages !y exi/$ 9 great abundance1 & s play$ an important "p z rock-=m]s1--= _! /ems1 bran*es1 & all are made ( little plates ( c>bonate ( lime1 beautifully fitt+ toge!r l ! sep>ate bones1 or v]tebr1 compos+ ! backbone ( a fi%2 & :5 ! creatures di$1 ^! little plates no long] held toge!r1 b 7 scatt]$ on ! floor ( ! sea-b$4 ,%ell-fi% ab\nd$ too1 & _! %elly rema9s accumulat$ into regul> %ell-b$s 9 "s places4 ,b at times mud & s& w\ld come & cov] ov] all ^! organic deposits4 ,b ( all rocks t h an organic orig91 *alk is ! mo/ int]e/+4 ,geologi/s 7 = a long "t puzzl$ to "k h[ ?is rock c\ld h be5 =m$2 b "s s\nd+s made 9 ! ,atlantic ,ocean previ\s to ! lay+ ( ! fir/ ,atlantic cable l$ to a v important discov]y1 :i* at once ?rew a flood ( light on ! "q4 ,samples ( ! mud ly+ on ! b$ ( ?is ocean at consid]able di/ances f ! ,european & ,am]ican coa/s1 & at dep?s v>y+ f "o ?\s& to ?ree ?\s& fa?oms1 7 br\ght up by s\nd+ app>atus4 ,little 0 x ?\ght t ! dull grey ooze cov]+ a l>ge "p ( ! ,atlantic b$ w\ld br+ a message f ! dep?s ( ! sea1 & furni% ! answ] to a great geological problem4 ,yet su* 0 ! case2 = "u ! microscope ?is mud 0 se5 to be *iefly compos$ ( v m9ute & v beautiful %ells1 n[ kn[n z =am9if]a1 & mu* priz$ by microscopi/s4 ,^! t9y %ells are f\nd at or ne> ! surface ( ! sea2 & aft] ! dea? ( ! creatures t inhabit !m 7:i* are only lumps ( protoplasm ) no organs ( any k9d71 ! %ells sl[ly s9k d[n to ! b$ ( ! ocean4 ,n[1 ^! creatures multiply at s inconceivable a rate t a cont9u\s %[] ( dead %ells seems to be tak+ place1 & ! result is ! sl[ accumulation ov] va/ areas ( ! ,atlantic & ,pacific oceans ( a great deposit ( calc>e\s ooze1 :i* if rais$ above ! sea-level w\ld h>d5 into a rock v simil> to *alk4 ,illu/ration3 ,,microphotographs ,,illu/rat+ ,,rock ,,=mation4 ,i4 ,=am9if]a4 ,,ii4 ,section ( ,granite4 ,,iii4 ,nummulitic ,lime/one4 ,b ?is process only takes place 9 ! deep] p>ts ( our seas1 f> remov$ f l&1 :]e ! supply ( l&-d]iv$ mat]ials fails1--= ev5 ! f9e/ mud suppli$ by riv]s probably all settles d[n be=e travell+ two or ?ree hundr$ miles f its native %ores4 ,?us we le>n t :5 "o ag5cy fails1 ,nature makes use ( ano!r to take up ! important "w ( rock-build+4 ,h[ ! o!r rocks :i* we m5tion$ 9 our li/ 7 =m$1--su* z granite1 basalt1 & ! metamorphic rocks1--we mu/ expla9 9 a future *apt] deal+ ) volcanoes & _! "w4 ,,*apt] ,,vi4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,7 ,,upheav$4 ,! notion t ! gr\nd is naturally /eadfa/ is an error1--an error :i* arises f ! incapacity ( our s5ses to appreciate any b ! mo/ palpable1 & at ! same "t mo/ exceptional1 ( its movem5ts4 ,! idea ( t]ra firma belongs ) ! anci5t belief t ! e>? 0 ! c5tre ( ! univ]se4 ,x is1 inde$1 by _! mobility t ! cont95ts survive ! increas+ assaults ( ! ocean waves1 & ! cont9u\s d[n-we>+ :i* ! riv]s & glaci]s br+ ab\t4--,,pr(essor ,,%al]4 ,we h f\nd out ! qu>ries :i* suppli$ ! rocky framework ( m\nta9s1 & h le>n$ h[ ! "w ( transport+ ^! va/ quantities ( /one 0 accompli%$ by ! ag5cy ( ev]-fl[+ glaci]s1 riv]s1 & /reams4 ,we mu/ n[ consid] ! second /age ( ! "w1 & inquire h[ ! m\nta9s 7 rais$ up4 ,ref]r+ back to our illu/ration ( ! ca!dral 7see pages #adc-adg71 x w be rememb]$ t ?is "w 0 includ$ "u ! head ( ,elevation4 ,b p]haps "s "o might ask3 ,h[ d y "k t ! m\nta9s h be5 elevat$ or upheav$8 ,is x n en\gh to suppose t !y owe _! height entirely to ! fact t !y are compos$ ( h>d] rock1 & s h be5 m successful 9 resi/+ ! univ]sal decay & de/ruction8 ,n[1 su* an objection conta9s a good deal ( tru?1 = m\nta9s are =m$ ( h>d rocks2 b at ! same "t we "k t ! ag5ts ( d5udation are m active among !m ?an on ! pla9s bel[1 s t1 9 ! high] m\nta9 regions at lea/1 ! "w ( demolition may actually proce$ fa/] ?an x does on l[ gr\nd4 ,m\nta9s are high] ?an ! re/ ( ! _w1 n m]ely because !y are built ( m la/+ mat]ial1 b also because !y h be5 uplift$ = ?\s&s ( feet above ! level ( ! sea2 & ! evid5ce ( _! upheaval is s pla9 z to be entirely beyond d\bt4 ,let u inquire into ! nature ( ?is evid5ce4 ,we h se5 t ! rocks ( :i* m\nta9s are compos$ 7 = ! mo/ "p =m$ at ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,:5 ! geologi/ f9ds1 z he frequ5tly does1 buri$ 9 m\nta9 rocks ! fossil rema9s ( creatures t mu/ h liv$ 9 ! sea 7& (t5 v simil> to ^? liv+ !re n[71 he is compell$ to ?9k ( ! gigantic upheavals t mu/ h tak5 place be=e ^? rema9s c\ld arrive at _! pres5t elevat$ position4 ,num]\s examples might be giv52 b we w only m5tion ?ree4 ,9 ! ,alps m>9e fossils h be5 detect$ at a height ( #aj1jjj feet above sea-level1 9 ! ,himalayas at a height ( #af1ejj feet1 & 9 ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s at a height ( #aa1jjj feet4 ,aga9 we mu/ take x = grant$ t all ! /ratifi$ or s$im5t>y rocks 7see pages #adh-adi7 ) "s trivial exceptions1 su* z b$s ( %+le & conglom]ates1 h be5 =m$ 9 horizontal lay]s4 ,?is is "o ( ! simple axioms ( geology to :i* e "o mu/ ass5t4 ,n[1 if we f9d 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! cont95ts1 & especially among ! m\nta9s1 su* /rata slop+ or dipp+ 9 v>i\s directions1 sometimes only slightly1 b sometimes v /eeply1--nay1 ev5 /&+ up on end1--! conclusion t !y h be5 upheav$ & pu%$ or squeez$ into ^! v>i\s positions by "s subsequ5t process is irresi/ible4 ,b ?is is n all2 = 9 e m\nta9 region we f9d t ! rocks h be5 crumpl$1 twi/$1 & fold$ 9 a mo/ m>vell\s mann]4 ,solid %eets ( lime/one may be se51 z x 71 to wri! f ! base to ! summit ( a m\nta92 yet !y pres5t ev]y:]e _! truncat$ ends to ! air1 & f _! incomplet5ess x is easy to see :at a va/ am\nt ( mat]ial has be5 worn away1 leav+1 z x 71 m]e fragm5ts beh9d4 ,! :ole geological aspect ( ! ,alps 7= example7 is sugge/ive ( int5se commotion2 & !y rema9 a m>vell\s monum5t ( /up5d\s e>?-?roes1 foll[$ by prolong$ & gigantic d5udation 7see diagrams1 *ap4 ix41 p4 #cjg74 ,!re are c]ta9 features f\nd 9 all m\nta9-*a9s :i* mu/ be c>efully borne 9 m9d1 especially :5 we are consid]+ ! explanations t h be5 sugge/$ ) reg>d to _! upheaval4 ,^! may be briefly /at$ z foll[s3-- #a4 ,m\nta9-*a9s t5d to run 9 /raight or g5tly curv+ l9es4 #b4 ,_! bread? is small comp>$ to _! l5g?1 & _! height small] /ill4 #c4 ,!y rise %>ply & are cle>ly m>k$ (f f ! c\ntry on ei!r side4 #d4 ,!y =m ! backbones ( cont95ts4 #e4 ,! rocks ( :i* !y are compos$ h be5 greatly di/urb$1 fold$1 & contort$4 #f4 ,!re is (t5 a b& ( cry/all9e rocks 7granite1 gneiss1 etc47 runn+ along ! c5tre ( a high range4 #g4 ,!y are connect$ ) l9es ( volcanoes4 #h4 ,!y are frequ5tly affect$ by e>?quakes4 ,hav+ arriv$ at ! conclusion t ! m\nta9s %[ evid5t signs ( upheaval1 let u proce$ to inquire :e!r any movem5ts1 ei!r upw>d or d[nw>d1 are tak+ place n[ on ! e>?1 or c be prov$ to h done s )9 comp>atively rec5t times4 ,on ?is "q !re is ample evid5ce at our disposal4 ,m ?an "o hundr$ & ?irty ye>s ago1 ,celsius1 ! ,sw$i% a/ronom]1 0 aw>e1 f ! unanim\s te/imony ( ! inhabitants ( ! sea-coa/s1 t ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia 0 con/antly dim9i%+ bo? 9 dep? & ext5t4 ,he resort$ to measurem5ts 9 ord] to prove 7z he ?\ght7 t ! wat]s ( ! ,baltic 7 *ang+ _! level4 ,?is 0 a mi/ak5 idea2 & we n[ und]/& t ! level ( ! sea does n *ange1 except "u ! influ5ce ( ! daily rise & fall ( ! tide1 :i* is easily all[$ =4 ,h[ev]1 t 0 ! idea !n2 & x surviv$ = "s "t4 ,b if ! sea-level 7 cont9ually s9k+1 ! wat]1 :i*1 ow+ to ! influ5ce ( gravitation1 mu/ always rema9 horizontal1 w\ld equally retreat all r\nd ! ,sc&9avian p59sula & on all our sea%ores4 ,b ?is is n ! case4 ,aga91 x w\ld be impossible on ?is !ory to expla9 ! curi\s fact t 9 "s p>ts ( ! _w ! sea is ga9+ on ! l&1 :ile 9 o!r places x is z surely retreat+2 = we _c believe t 9 "o "p ! sea-level is ris+1 :ile 9 ano!r 7n f> (f 9 "s cases7 x is s9k+4 ,no body ( wat] c\ld behave 9 ?is irregul> fa%ion2 & ! sea c\ld n possibly be ris+ & fall+ at ! same "t4 ,h5ce we may take x = grant$ t any *ange t we may notice 9 ! relative level ( l& & sea mu/ be due to upw>d or d[nw>d movem5ts 9 ! l&4 ,b to return to ,celsius4 ,old m5 po9t$ out to him v>i\s po9ts on ! coa/1 ov] :i* dur+ _! *ildhood ! sea 0 wont to fl[1 & besides1 %[$ him ! wat]-l9es :i* ! waves _h once trac$ out f>!r inl&4 ,& besides ?is1 ! names ( places :i* impli$ a position on ! %ore1 =m] h>b\rs or ports n[ ab&on$ & situat$ inl&1 ! rema9s ( boats f\nd f> f ! sea1 & la/ly1 ! writt5 records & popul> songs1 left no d\bt t ! sea _h retreat$2 & x seem$ bo? to !mselves & to ! a/ronom] t ! wat]s 7 s9k+4 ,9 ! ye> #agcj ,celsius1 aft] comp>+ all ! evid5ce he _h collect$1 ann\nc$ t ! ,baltic _h sunk ?ree feet1 f\r in*es1 e hundr$ ye>s4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ! foll[+ ye>1 9 company ) ,l9nu1 ! naturali/1 he made a m>k at ! base ( a rock 9 ! isl& ( ,le(fgrund1 n f> f ,jelfe1 & ?irte5 ye>s aft]w>ds 0 able to prove1 z he ?\ght1 t ! wat]s 7 /ill subsid+ at ! same rate1 or a little fa/]4 ,9 reality1 he _h prov$1 n t ! sea 0 s9k+1 b t ! l& 0 ris+4 ,simil> obs]vations %[ t ne>ly ! :ole ( ,sc&9avia is sl[ly ris+ out ( ! sea4 ,at ! nor!rn end ( ! ,gulf ( ,bo?nia ! l& is em]g+ at ! rate ( five feet1 ?ree in*es1 9 a c5tury2 b by ! side ( ! ,al& ,isles x only rises ?ree & "o qu>t] feet 9 ! same "t4 ,s\? ( ?is ar*ipelago x rises /ill m sl[ly2 & f>!r d[n1 ! l9e ( %ore does n alt] z comp>$ ) ! level ( ! sea4 ,b x is a curi\s fact t ! extreme s\!rn end ( ?is p59sula is subsid+1 z prov$ by ! =e/s t h be5 subm]g$4 ,sev]al /reets ( "s t[ns !re h already disappe>$1 & ! coa/ has lo/ on ! av]age a belt ( l& ?irty-two y>ds 9 bread?4 ,! upw>d movem5t ( ! ,sc&9avian p59sula mu/ h be5 go+ on = a long "t1 if we assume t x 0 always at ! same rate z at pres5t2 = we f9d b$s ( sea%ells ( liv+ species at heights ( six or sev5 hundr$ feet above ! level ( ! sea4 ,great dead bran*es ( a c]ta9 p9k coral1 f\nd 9 ! sea at a dep? ( ov] "o hundr$ & fifty to ?ree hundr$ fa?oms1 are n[ se5 9 wat] only t5 or fifte5 fa?oms deep4 ,x mu/ h be5 kill$ z x 0 br\ght up into ! upp] & w>m] lay]s ( wat]4 ,?is is /rik+ te/imony4 ,! p9e woods too1 :i* clo! ! hills1 are cont9ually be+ upheav$ t[>ds ! l[] limit ( sn[1 & are gradually )]+ away 9 ! cool] atmosph]e2 & wide belts ( =e/ are compos$ ( no?+ b dead trees1 al?\gh "s ( !m h /ood = c5turies4 ,geologi/s h prov$ t ! ,baltic ,sea =m]ly communicat$ by a wide *annel ) ! ,nor? ,sea1 ! deepe/ depressions ( :i* are n[ occupi$ by lakes 9 ! s\!rn "p ( ,sw$52 = consid]able heaps ( oy/]-%ells are n[ f\nd 9 sev]al places on ! heights comm&+ ^! great lakes4 ,!n we h 9 ,d5m>k ! celebrat$ kit*5-midd5s1 heaps ( rubbi% also l>gely compos$ ( oy/]-%ells :i* ! inhabitants1 9 ! ,/one ,age1 collect$ f ! bottoms ( ! neighb\r+ bays4 ,at ! pres5t day ! wat]s ( ! ,baltic1 into :i* riv]s br+ l>ge quantities ( fre% wat]1 d n conta9 en\gh salt = oy/]s to gr[ !re2 b ! oy/]-%ells prove t ! ,baltic ,sea & ^! inl& lakes 7 once z salt z ! ,nor? ,sea is n[4 ,?is c only be expla9$ by suppos+ t ! ,baltic 0 n s %ut 9 !n z x is 9 ^! days4 ,! b$ ( ! old wide *annel has ris51 & :at once 0 sea is n[ l&4 ,aga91 x is v probable t ! great lakes & innum]able %eets ( wat] :i* fill all ! granite bas9s ( ,f9l& h tak5 ! place ( an arm ( ! sea :i* once unit$ ! wat]s ( ! ,baltic to ^? ( ! great ,pol> ,ocean4 ,& s !re mu/ h be5 upheaval "h z well4 ,! old sea-bea*es1 n[ above ! level ( ! highe/ tides1 t are f\nd 9 _m p>ts ( ! ,sc&9avian1 ,scotti%1 & o!r coa/s1 furni% pla9 evid5ce ( upheaval4 ,at ! pres5t day1 betwe5 ! l9es ( high tide & l[ tide1 ! sea is con/antly engag$ 9 produc+ s& & %+le1 spread+ !m out ^u ! bea*1 m+l+ !m ) ! rema9s ( %ells & o!r m>9e animals1 & sometimes pil+ !m up1 sometimes sweep+ !m away4 ,9 ?is way a bea* (t5 resembles a t]race4 ,:5 ! l& is upheav$ rapidly en\gh to c>ry up ?is l9e ( bea*-deposits be=e !y are wa%$ away by ! waves1 !y =m a flat t]race1 or :at is kn[n z a rais$ bea*4 ,! old high-wat] m>k is !n inl&2 its sea-worn caves become 9 "t coat$ ) f]ns & mosses2 ! old bea* =ms an admirable plat=m on :i* mead[s1 fields1 villages1 & t[ns spr+ up2 & ! sea goes on =m+ a new bea* bel[ & beyond ! m>g9 ( ! old "o4 ,! ,scotti% coa/-l9e1 on bo? sides1 is fr+$ ) rais$ bea*es1 sometimes f\r or five occurr+ above ea* o!r1 at heights ( f tw5ty-five to sev5ty-five feet above ! pres5t high-wat] m>k4 ,ea* ( ^! l9es ( t]race m>ks a =m] l[] level at :i* ! l& /ood ) reg>d to ! sea2 & ! spaces betwe5 !m repres5t ! am\nt ( ea* successive rise ( ! l&4 ,ea* t]race 0 =m$ dur+ a pause1 or int]val1 9 ! upw>d movem5t1 dur+ :i* ! waves _h "t to make a t]race1 :]eas1 :ile ! l& kept on ris+1 !y _h no "t to d s4 ,?us we le>n t ! upheaval ( ! c\ntry 0 int]rupt$ by consid]able pauses4 ,sometimes old ports & h>b\rs furni% evid5ce ( upheaval4 ,?us1 ! =m] ,roman port ( ,alat]va 7,cramond7 9 ,scotl&1 ! quays ( :i* are /ill visible1 is n[ situat$ at "s di/ance f ! sea1 & ! gr\nd on :i* x /&s has ris5 at lea/ tw5ty-f\r feet4 ,9 o!r places ! scatt]$ dbris %[s t ! coa/ has ris5 tw5ty-six feet4 ,& by a rem>kable co9cid5ce1 ! anci5t wall ( ,anton9us1 :i* 9 ! "t ( ! ,romans /ret*$ f sea to sea1 & s]v$ z a b>ri] aga9/ ! ,picts1 comes to an end at a po9t tw5ty-six feet above ! level ( high tides4 ,9 ! e/u>y ( ! ,clyde !re are deposits ( mud1 conta9+ rude canoes & o!r relics ( human workman%ip1 sev]al feet above ! pres5t high-wat] m>k4 ,rais$ bea*es are f\nd on _m p>ts ( ! coa/ ( ,great ,brita94 ,excell5t examples occur on ! coa/s ( ,devon & ,cornwall4 ,on ! sides ( ! m\nta9\s fiords ( ,norway simil> t]races are f\nd up to m ?an six hundr$ feet above ! sea2 & z "s ( ^! rise to a great] height at a di/ance ( fifty miles inl&1 x seems t !re 0 a great] upw>d movem5t t[>ds ! int]ior ( ,norway ?an on ! coa/s4 ,!re is a celebrat$ rais$ bea* on ! side ( a m\nta9 9 ,nor? ,wales1 kn[n z ,moel ,tryfa51 :]e ! writ] ga!r$ a numb] ( m>9e %ells at a height ( #a1ceg feet4 ,b ,sc&9avia & ,great ,brita9 are n ! only p>ts ( ,europe :]e an upw>d movem5t has tak5 place1 = ! isl&s ( ,nova ,zembla & ,spitzb]g5 %[ evid5ce ( ! same k9d2 & ! coa/ ( ,sib]ia1 = six hundr$ miles to ! ea/ ( ! riv] ,l5a1 has also be5 uprais$4 ,on ! banks ( ! ,dw9a & ! ,vega1 #bej miles to ! s\? ( ! ,:ite ,sea1 ,mur*ison f\nd b$s ( s& & mud ) %ells simil> to ^? :i* inhabit ! neighb\r+ seas1 s well pres]v$ t !y _h n lo/ _! col\rs4 ,aga91 ! gr\nd ( ! ,sib]ian t\ndras is to a l>ge ext5t cov]$ ) a ?9 coat+ ( s& & f9e clay1 exactly simil> to t :i* is n[ deposit$ on ! %ores ( ! ,froz5 ,ocean4 ,9 ?is clay1 ! rema9s ( ! mammo?1 or woolly elephant1 n[ ext9ct1 are pres]v$ 9 great numb]s4 ,p>ts ( ,nor!rn ,gre5l& h also ris52 :ile at ! s\!rn end ( ?is froz5 l& a d[nw>d movem5t is /ill tak+ place4 ,! be/-kn[n example ( ^! sl[ movem5ts )9 hi/oric times is ! s-call$ ,temple ( ,s]apis 9 ! ,bay ( ,baie1 ne> ,naples4 ,! ru9s ( ?is build+1 :i* 0 probably a ,roman ba?1 consi/ ( a squ>e floor pav$ ) m>ble1 %[+ t x possess$ a magnific5t c5tral c\rt4 ,?is c\rt1 :5 p]fect1 0 cov]$ ) a ro( support$ by =ty-six f9e columns1 "s ( m>ble1 o!rs ( granite4 ,!re is /ill a hot spr+ beh9d1 f :i* wat] 0 conduct$ ?r\gh a m>ble *annel4 ,all ! columns b ?ree 7 ne>ly buri$ 9 ! soil :i* cov]$ ! :ole c\rt1 :5 ! ru9s 7 fir/ discov]$4 ,n[1 ea* ( ! ?ree m>ble columns t are /ill /&+ %[s cle> evid5ce ( hav+ be5 depress$ bel[ ! sea-level1 = !y all exhibit a circul> r[ ( little holes bor$ by a c]ta9 m>9e %ell-fi%1 kn[n z ,li?odomus dactylus1 at a height ( twelve feet f ! floor2 ea* r[ is ab\t eight feet broad4 ,! %ells may /ill be se5 inside ! little pe>-%ap$ holes :i* ! %ell-fi% bor$ = !mselves2 & ! same %ell-fi% /ill live 9 ! wat]s ( ! ,m$it]ranean & bore holes 9 ! lime/one rocks4 ,x is !re=e q cle> t ^! columns mu/ h be5 "u wat] to a dep? ( tw5ty feet or s1 & also t !y mu/ h rema9$ "u wat] = "s consid]able "t1 dur+ :i* ! %ell-fi% made ^! bor+s4 ,!n an upheaval took place :]eby ! :ole build+ 0 elevat$ to its pres5t level4 ,b und]nea? ! pres5t floor1 at a dep? ( five feet1 7 discov]$ ! rema9s ( an old] floor4 ,?is probably belong$ to an e>li] build+ :i* _h 9 l mann] be5 depress$ bel[ sea-level4 ,we ?us le>n t ! l& 9 ?is spot _h be5 s9k+ = a long "t1 & t at "s subsequ5t "t x rose4 ,! fall5 columns sugge/ ! idea t !y 7 ?r[n d[n by e>?quakes4 ,at ! pres5t "t ! l& "h is aga9 s9k+ at ! rate ( "o in* 9 ?ree or f\r ye>s4 ,b ! fir/ example ( upheaval )9 comp>atively rec5t times1 & "o :i* is in/ructive z ?r[+ "s light on ! subject ( ! pres5t *apt]1--namely1 ! upheaval ( m\nta9-*a9s1--is to be f\nd along ! we/]n m\nta9\s coa/ ( ,s\? ,am]ica4 ,"h we h ! magnific5t ranges ( ! ,&es runn+ along ! :ole l5g? ( ?is cont95t4 ,! illu/ri\s ,*>les ,d>w91 dur+ 8 fam\s trip 9 ! ,beagle1 discov]$ num]\s rais$ bea*es along ?is coa/1 & at once p]ceiv$ _! importance to ! geologi/4 ,! t]races are n q horizontal1 b rise t[>ds ! s\?4 ,on ! fronti] ( ,bolivia1 !y are se5 at heights ( f sixty-five to eighty feet above sea-level2 b ne>] ! high] mass ( ! ,*ilian ,&es !y are f\nd at "o ?\s& feet1 & ne> ,valp>aiso1 9 ,*ili1 at ?irte5 hundr$ feet above ! sea4 ,d>w9 also discov]$ t "s ( ! upheavals ?us indicat$ took place dur+ ! human p]iod2 = he f\nd 9 "o ( ! t]races opposite ,callao1 9 ,p]u1 at a height ( eighty feet1 %ells ) bones ( birds1 e>s ( :eat1 plait$ re$s1 & cotton ?read1 %[+ t m5 _h liv$ on ! t]race4 ,^! relics ( human indu/ry are exactly simil> to ^? t are f\nd 9 ! huacas1 or burial-places1 ( ! anci5t ,p]uvians4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! isl& ( ,san ,lor5zo1 & probably ! :ole ( ! coa/ 9 its neighb\rhood1 h ris5 eighty feet or m s9ce ! ,r$ ,man inhabit$ ! c\ntry4 ,callao probably =ms ! nor!rn limit ( ! long /rip ( coa/ t has be5 upheav$1 & ! isl& ( ,*iloe ! s\!rn limit2 b ev5 ?us ! region ( elevation has a l5g? f nor? to s\? ( ab\t #b1dhj miles4 ,we notic$ 9 ! case ( ,sc&9avia t ! upw>d movem5t is great] 9 ! int]ior ( ! m\nta9-range ?an at or ne> ! coa/2 & x is int]e/+ to f9d t ! same diff]5ce has be5 obs]v$ 9 ! case ( ! ,&es4 ,! upheav+ =ce1 :atev] its nature1 acts ) m en]gy "u ! ,*ilian ,&es ?an "u ! rocks ( ! adjac5t coa/4 ,9 ,new ,zeal& we h also evid5ces ( upheaval2 & if we trace out on ! map a long l9e f ! ,fri5dly ,isles & ,fiji1 ?r\gh ! ,ea/]n ,ar*ipelago1 & !n on ?r\gh ! ,philipp9e ,isl&s1 & f9ally to ,japan & ! ,kurile ,isl&s1 we %all f9d scatt]$ regions ( elevation all along ?is great l9e1 :i* is probably a m\nta9-*a91 p>tly subm]g$1 & along :i* num]\s active volcanoes are situat$4 ,putt+ toge!r all ! evid5ce t has be5 ga!r$ on ?is subject1 ( :i* only a v small "p is "h giv51 we are w>rant$ 9 conclud+ t tak+ ! _w g5]ally1 regions :]e active volcanoes exi/ are g5]ally regions :]e upheaval is tak+ place4 ,!re is also a v int]e/+ connection betwe5 m\nta9-*a9s & l9es ( volcanic action4 ,f ?is x seems to foll[1 if l9es ( volcanic action are also l9es ( upheaval1 t m\nta9-*a9s are und]go+ upheaval at ! pres5t "t4 ,?is is a conclusion 9 fav\r ( :i* a good deal may be said4 ,x is c]ta9ly true 9 ! cases ( ! ,sc&9avian range1 & also ( a v l>ge "p ( ! ,&es1 to :i* we h already ref]r$4 ,! ,highl&s ( ,scotl& & ,sc&9avia =m ! nor!rn end ( an old l9e ( volcanic action runn+ d[n ! ,atlantic ,ocean ?r\gh ! ,azores1 ,madeira1 ,cape ,v]de ,isl&s1 ,asc5sion1 ,/4 ,hel5a1 "r d[n to ,tri/an d',acunha4 ,9 _m o!r p>ts ( ! _w we h evid5ces f subm]g$ =e/s1 ! positions ( c]ta9 l&m>ks ) reg>d to ! sea1 & 9 "s cases subm]g$ t[ns1 t movem5ts ( a d[nw>d nature are tak+ place4 ,x is important to di/+ui% f ^! evid5ces ! *anges t take place :]e ! waves ( ! sea are rapidly wa%+ away ! coa/-l9e4 ,putt+ aside ^! cases1 h[ev]1 x has be5 cle>ly prov$ t 9 _m regions a sl[ s9k+ ( ! l& is go+ on4 ,! ea/]n side ( ,s\? ,am]ica has n be5 s ?or\ghly obs]v$ z its we/]n side2 b !re is /ill good reason to believe t a l>ge "p ( ?is coa/ is s9k+4 ,s x appe>s t a see-saw movem5t is affect+ ,s\? ,am]ica1 & t :ile "o side is go+ up1 ! o!r is go+ d[n2 & x is int]e/+ to obs]ve o!r examples ( ! same ?+1--su* z are af=d$ by ,gre5l& & ,norway4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,skaeggdal=s1 ,,norway4 ,,f ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,j4 ,,val5t9e4 ,aga91 :ile "p ( ,labrador is ris+1 p>ts ( ! ea/]n coa/ ( ,nor? ,am]ica1 z f> d[n z ,florida1 are sl[ly s9k+4 ,?us along ! ,new ,engl& coa/ betwe5 ,new ,york & ,ma9e1 & aga9 along ! ,gulf ( ,/4 ,lawr5ce1 we f9d num]\s subm]g$ =e/s ) quantities ( trees /&+ upright ) _! roots 9 old =e/-b$s1 b ) ! tops ( _! /umps "s feet bel[ ! level ( high tide4 ,9 ! case ( ,new ,j]sey ! subsid5ce is probably tak+ place at ! rate ( two feet 9 a hundr$ ye>s4 ,be=e pass+ on to consid] upw>d movem5ts ( a m rapid nature1 su* z are frequ5tly caus$ by e>?quakes1 we may pause = a few mom5ts to consid] c]ta9 v slight1 b nev]!less v int]e/+ little movem5ts1 su* z slight pulsations & tremors1 :i* h be5 obs]v$ to take place 9 ! e>?'s cru/ 7z x is call$71 & :i* ( late ye>s h be5 c>efully /udi$4 ,pr(essor ,milne1 a great au?ority on e>?quakes1 has notic$ slight sway+s ( ! e>?1 :i* ?\gh occupy+ a %ort "t--f a few seconds to a few h\rs--are /ill too sl[ to produce a %ock ( any k9d4 ,^! he calls e>? pulsations4 ,!y h be5 obs]v$ by means ( delicate _s-levels1 ! bubbles ( :i* move ) v slight *anges ( level at ei!r end ( ! in/rum5t4 ,at pres5t only a few exp]im5ts ( ?is k9d h be5 made2 b !y tell u t ! surface ( ! e>? 7:i* is app>5tly s firm & immovable7 is subject to slight b frequ5t oscillations4 ,"s ?9k t !y dep5d ^u *anges 9 ! weight ( ! atmosph]e4 ,if ?is is s1 ! balance betwe5 ! =ces at "w bel[ ! e>?'s surface & ^? t op]ate on its surface mu/ be v easily di/urb$4 ,/ill we _c see t ?is is a s]i\s objection2 on ! contr>y1 !re is mu* reason to ?9k t any slight extra weight on ! surface1 su* z might be caus$ by an increase ( ! pressure ( ! atmosph]e1 & /ill m by ! accumulation ( va/ s$im5t>y deposits on ! floor ( ! ocean1 may be q suffici5t to cause a movem5t to take place4 ,moreov]1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,d>w9 has %[n t ! e>?'s cru/ daily heaves up & d[n "u ! attraction ( ! moon 9 ! same k9d ( way t ! ocean does2 s t we mu/ give up all idea ( ! solid e>? be+ fix$ & immovable1 & mu/ look ^u x z a flexible body1 l a ball ( india-rubb] 7see *ap4 ix41 pp4 #cad-cae74 ,slight movem5ts ( r a diff]5t k9d h be5 notic$1 to :i* ! "n ( e>?-tremors has be5 giv54 ,^! are v slight j>r+s or quiv]+s ( ! e>?1 too slight to be obs]v$ by our unaid$ s5ses1 b r5d]$ visible by means ( v delicate p5dulums & o!r contrivances4 ,n[ :]ev] su* obs]vations h be5 made x has be5 discov]$ t ! e>? is con/antly quiv]+ z if x 7 a lump ( jelly4 ,9 ,italy1 :]e ?is subject has be5 v c>efully /udi$1 ! tremors t are cont9ually go+ on are f\nd to v>y consid]ably 9 /r5g?2 = in/ance1 :5 ! wea!r is v di/urb$ & unsettl$1 ! movem5ts ( ! p5dulum are (t5 mu* great]4 ,aga91 be=e an e>?quake ! in/rum5t %[s t ! tremors are m frequ5t & viol5t4 ,ano!r way ( obs]v+ ^! curi\s little movem5ts is by bury+ microphones 9 ! gr\nd4 ,! microphone is a little in/rum5t inv5t$ ( late ye>s :i* is capable ( enorm\sly magnify+ ! v slighte/ s\nds1 su* z our e>s w n detect4 ,by its means "o c he>1 z "s "o said1 ! tramp ( a fly's foot1 if he w be s oblig+ z to walk ov] x4 ,x has ?us be5 prov$ 9 ,italy t ! e>? s5ds =? a confus$ m$ley ( s\nds caus$ by little crack+s & snapp+s 9 ! rocks bel[ our feet4 ,9 ?is way x w be possible to pr$ict a s]i\s e>?quake1 because x w give w>n+ "s days be=e1 by ! increase ( ! little tremors & s\nds2 & x is to be hop$ t by ?is simple means human lives may be sav$4 ,n[1 ^! di/urbances are ( precisely ! same nature z e>?quakes1--9 fact1 we may call !m microscopic e>?quakes4 ,to ! geologi/ !y are ( great int]e/1 z !y seem to af=d "s little insight into ! difficult "q ( ! upheaval ( m\nta9s1 & to %[ u some?+ ( ! con/ant work+ ( ^? wond]ful =ces bel[ ! surface ( ! e>? by means ( :i* cont95ts are rais$ up out ( ! sea1 & m\nta9-*a9s are elevat$ ?\s&s ( feet4 ,x is probable t bo? are due to ! work+ ( ! same =ces1 & are accompli%$ by ! same ma*9]y4 ,we n[ pass on to consid] ^? m viol5t movem5ts ( ! solid l& kn[n z e>?quakes4 ,?is k9d ( di/urbance is su* z might be produc$ by a sudd5 %ock or bl[ giv5 bel[ ! gr\nd1 f :i* waves travel 9 all directions4 ,fir/ comes a rumbl+ noise l ! ro> ( di/ant artill]y2 !n come ! e>?quake waves "o aft] ano!r1 caus+ ! gr\nd to rise & fall z a %ip does on ! waves ( ! sea2 ! gr\nd is frequ5tly r5t asund]1 s t *asms are =m$1 into :i* 9 "s cases m5 & animals h be5 hurl$ alive4 ,9 ! case ( a v viol5t e>?quake ! waves travel long di/ances4 ,?us ! great e>?quake by :i* ,lisbon 0 de/roy$ 9 ! ye> #agee di/urb$ ! wat]s ( ,lo* ,lomond 9 ,scotl&4 ,9 ?is fe>ful cata/rophe sixty ?\s& human be+s p]i%$4 ,if ! di/urbance takes place ne> ! sea1 great sea waves are =m$1 :i* cause fe>ful de/ruction to life & prop]ty4 ,?is happ5$ 9 ! case ( ! ,lisbon e>?quake2 & 9 ! ye> #ahfh1 :5 ,ecuador & ,p]u 7 visit$ by a fe>ful e>?quake1 a great sea wave swept ov] ! port ( ,arica1 & 9 a few m9utes e vessel 9 ! h>b\r 0 ei!r driv5 a%ore or wreck$1 & a man-(-w> 0 swept inl& = a qu>t] ( a mile4 ,e>?quakes br+ ab\t _m *anges on ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,= example1 on m\nta9-slopes =e/s are %att]$1 & l>ge masses ( soil & dbris are %ak5 loose f ! rock on :i* !y re/$1 & hurl$ into ! valleys2 /reams are ?us *ok$ up1 & sometimes lakes =m$1 ei!r by ! damm+ up ( a riv] or by ! subsid5ce ( ! gr\nd4 ,x is frequ5tly f\nd aft] an e>?quake t ! level ( ! gr\nd has be5 p]man5tly alt]$2 & ?is effect ( e>?quakes is important 9 connection ) ! subject we are n[ consid]+1--namely1 h[ m\nta9s are upheav$4 ,sometimes1 x is true1 ! movem5t is a d[nw>d "o2 b m g5]ally x takes place 9 an upw>d direction4 ,z an example ( ?is1 we may m5tion ! ,*ilian e>?quake ( #ahce1 :i* 0 v viol5t1 & de/roy$ sev]al t[ns on t coa/1 f ,copiapo to ,*ile4 ,x 0 aft]w>ds f\nd t ! l& 9 ! ,bay ( ,conception _h be5 rais$ f\r or five feet4 ,at ! isl& ( ,santa ,m>ia1 to ! s\?we/ ( ?is bay1 ! l& 0 rais$ eight feet1 & 9 "o "p t5 feet2 = b$s ( dead mussels 7 se5 at t height above high wat]1 & a consid]able rocky flat t =m]ly 0 cov]$ by ! sea n[ became dry l&4 ,x 0 also prov$ by means ( s\nd+s t ! sea r\nd ! isl& 0 %all[] by ab\t n9e feet4 ,n[ ! "q arises1 ,h[ are e>?quakes caus$8 ,v>i\s sugge/ions h be5 made2 b x is pretty cle> t all e>?quakes are n produc$ 9 ! same way4 ,= in/ance1 volcanic eruptions are frequ5tly att5d$ by e>?quakes4 ,viol5t %ocks ( ?is nature g5]ally prec$e & accompany a great eruption1 z is frequ5tly ! case be=e an eruption ( ,m\nt ,vesuvius4 ,/eam plays a v important "p 9 all volcanic eruptions2 & ^! e>?quakes are probably caus$ by great quantities ( p5t-up /eam at a high pressure /ruggl+ to escape4 ,x is also possible t :5 molt5 rock is =cibly inject$ into ! crevices & jo9ts ( ov]ly+ rocks e>?quake %ocks may be produc$ by ! concussion4 ,! old ,roman poet & philosoph]1 ,lucretius1 endeav\r$ to solve ?is problem1 & conclud$ t ! %ak+s ( ! surface ( ! globe are occasion$ by ! fall+ 9 ( enorm\s cav]ns :i* "t has succe$$ 9 de/roy+4 ,b ?\gh ! explanation might possibly apply to a few cases ( small e>?quakes1 x is n a satisfactory "o1 = x is n at all likely t _m l>ge cavities exi/ bel[ ! e>?'s surface1 because ! great weight ( ! ov]ly+ rock w\ld inevitably cru% !m 94 ,we h already po9t$ out t e>?quakes frequ5tly happ5 9 m\nta9\s regions2 & ?is fact alone sugge/s t p]haps ! same causes :i* upheave m\nta9s may h some?+ to d ) e>?quakes4 ,b !re are o!r reasons = believ+ t ! same =ce :i* causes e>?quakes also upheaves m\nta9-*a9s4 ,! read] w rememb] ! case ( ! ,*ilian e>?quake t rais$ "p ( ! ,&es a few feet 9 height4 ,n[1 x is q cle> t ! rocks ( :i* m\nta9s are compos$ h suff]$ a great deal ( di/urbance4 ,we h only to look at ! crumbl$ & contort$ /rata to see t !y h be5 =c$ into all k9ds ( positions1 sometimes /&+ bolt upright 7see diagrams1 *ap4 ix41 p4 #cjg74 ,& z we _c believe1 = _m reasons1 t ^! movem5ts 7 ( a v sudd5 or viol5t k9d1 we mu/ consid] t !y took place sl[ly on ! :ole2 b besides be+ fold$ & twi/$1 ! rocks ( m\nta9s frequ5tly exhibit cle> signs ( hav+ be5 split & crack$4 ,! fractures are ( all sizes1 f an in* or m up to hundr$s or ev5 ?\s&s ( feet4 ,!y tell u pla9ly t ! rocks 7 once sl[ly b5t1 & t aft] a c]ta9 am\nt ( b5d+ _h tak5 place1 ! /ra9 put ^u !m became great] ?an !y c\ld be>1 & consequ5tly !y snapp$ & split along c]ta9 l9es4 ,?is is j :at might be expect$4 ,= in/ance1 ice on a pond w b5d a good deal1 b only up to a c]ta9 am\nt2 aft] t1 x cracks 9 long l9es ) a rem>kably %>p & smoo? fracture4 ,b suppose ! pressure came f bel[ in/ead ( f above1 z :5 a numb] ( p are skat+ on a pond4 ,%\ld we n see ! ice =c$ up 9 "s places1 s t "s %eets /ood up above ! o!rs aft] slid+ pa/ _! brok5 edges8 ,?is is j :at ! rocks 9 diff]5t places h frequ5tly done4 ,aft] a fracture has tak5 place ! rock on "o side has slid up ov] ! o!r1 & ! two surfaces made by ! fracture--l two long walls--are no long] se5 at ! same level4 ,"o has be5 pu%$ up1 :ile ! o!r has gone d[n 7see diagram ( ! ranges ( ! ,great ,bas91 *ap4 viii41 p4 #bgc74 ,n[1 x is almo/ impossible to conceive ( ^! trem5d\s fractures tak+ place 9 ! rocks bel[ our feet )\t caus+ sudd5 j>s or %ocks4 ,"h1 !n1 we seem to h a clue to ! problem4 ,ev5 if ! movem5ts took place only a few in*es or a few feet at a "t1 t does n spoil our !ory1 b r fav\rs x2 = 9 t case ! upheaval ( a m\nta9-*a9 w h tak5 a v long "t 7:i* is almo/ c]ta971 & may h be5 accompli%$ bit by bit4 ,hundr$s & ?\s&s ( e>?quake %ocks1 "s slight1 & o!rs sev]e1 may h att5d$ ! upheaval ( a m\nta9-range4 ,?is explanation is accept$ by _m au?orities4 ,x does n exactly imply t m\nta9s 7 upheav$ by e>?quakes2 b x means t ! same =ces t elevate cont95ts1 heav+ !m up out ( ! sea into ridges & v l[ ar*es1 h be5 at "w to crumple & fold _! rocks 9 "s places into /up5d\s folds1 su* z we n[ f9d =m "p ( ! g5]al /ructure ( m\nta9s2 & t 9 s do+ !y caus$ fe>ful /ra9s1 too great = ! rocks to be>1 s t !y split ov] & ov] aga91 & 9 s do+ produc$ j>s & %ocks t mu/ h be5 v simil> to1 if n id5tical )1 e>?quake %ocks z we "k !m at ! pres5t day4 ,su* an explanation is 9 /rik+ h>mony ) :at we h already le>n$ ab\t ! op]ations ( ,nature4 ,x 0 f ! long-cont9u$ op]ation ( ra9 & riv]s t ! mat]ials n[ =m+ m\nta9s 7 transport$ to ! seas 9 :i* !y 7 sl[ly =m$4 ,x 0 also by ! ord9>y op]ations ( fro/1 heat & cold1 sn[ & ice1 /reams1 ra91 & riv]s t ! m\nta9s receiv$ _! pres5t %apes 7see *apt]s v4 & vii474 ,& n[ we le>n t ! gigantic "w ( upheaval took place 9 a tol]ably quiet & uni=m mann]1--) p]haps only an occasional cata/rophe ( a m viol5t k9d1 b /ill accord+ to ! same law ( uni=mity :i* is ! v basis ( mod]n geology1 & by means ( :i* s mu* c be expla9$4 ,we c\ld give o!r pro(s ( ! gradual elevation ( m\nta9s if !y 7 want$4 ,b at lea/ en\gh has be5 said to give ! read] a glimpse into ! me?ods employ$ by geologi/s 9 endeav\r+ to expla9 h[ m\nta9s 7 upheav$2 & to %[ t x is only by a c>eful /udy ( all t is tak+ place n[ on ! e>? t we c ev] hope to solve ! difficult que/ions t pres5t !mselves to all :o /udy ^? /ony records on :i* ! e>? has writt5 = our enlight5m5t ! *apt]s ( h] anci5t hi/ory4 ,9 conclusion1 x may be ask$ :at is ! nature ( ! =ce t accompli%es all ?is titanic "w ( upheaval4 ,al?\gh ! "q has be5 mu* discuss$1 & "s v +5i\s sugge/ions br\ght =w>d1 we _c say t any ( !m are entirely satisfactory4 ,b we "k t ! e>? is a cool+ body :i* loses s mu* heat e ye>2 & x may be t ! %r9k+ t takes place z x cools1 by leav+ ! cru/ ( ! e>? 9 "s places unsupport$1 causes x to settle d[n1 to adapt itself to a small] surface bel[1 & 9 s do+ x w\ld inevitably ?r[ itself into a s]ies ( folds1 or wr9kles1 l ^? on ! sk9 ( a dri$ apple4 ,_m ?9k t m\nta9-ranges may be expla9$ 9 ?is way4 ,,*apt] ,,vii4 ,,h[ ,,! ,,m\nta9s ,,7 ,,c>v$ ,,out4 ,& surely ! m\nta9 fade? away1 ,& ! rock is remov$ out ( its place1 ,! wat]s we> away ! /ones3 ,! ov]fl[+s !re( wa% away ! du/ ( ! e>?4 ,job xiv4 #ah4 ,! mighty =tresses ( ! e>?1 :i* seem s imp]i%able1 s maje/ic 9 _! /r5g?1 & h f "t immemorial receiv$ _! title ( ! ev]la/+ hills1 are nev]!less und]go+ con/ant *ange & decay4 ,!y _c abide = ev]4 ,^? wa/e leagues ar\nd _! feet are load$ ) ! wrecks ( :at once belong$ to !m2 !y are witnesses to ! victory ( ! ho/ile =ces t are = ev] cont5d+ ) !m1 & pl$ges ( a f9al triumph4 ,to ^? :o w read _! /ory1 m\nta9s /& l old dismantl$ ca/les1 m]e wrecks ( ru9$ masonry1 t h ne>ly crumbl$ away1 tell+ u ( a "t :5 all _! sep>ate peaks & crags 7 "o solid mass1 p]haps an elevat$ smoo? plateau unt\*$ by ! rude h& ( "t4 ,let u n[ inquire h[ ! "w ( de/ruction is accompli%$4 ,ref]r+ back to our illu/ration ( ! ca!dral1 giv5 9 *ap4 v41 pp4 #adc-adg1 ! "q we h n[ to consid] is1 h[ ! m\nta9s 7 c>v$ out into all ^! wond]ful features ( crag & precipice1 peak & pass1 :i* are su* a s\rce ( delight to all :o c>e = sc5]y4 ,?is "w we includ$ 9 ! "o ^w ornam5tation4 ,:at1 !n1 are ! tools :i* ,nature uses 9 ?is "w ( c>v+ out ! hills8 ,:at are h] axes & hamm]s1 h] *isels & saws8 ,?is "q1 l _m o!rs1 mu/ be answ]$ by obs]v+ :at takes place at ! pres5t day4 ,x is sc>cely necess>y to say t m\nta9s & m\nta9-ranges are n simply ! result ( upheaval1 ?\gh !y h be5 upheav$4 ,if t 7 s1 !y w\ld probably appe> z long smoo?1 monoton\s ridges1 ) no sep>ate m\nta9 masses1 no peaks1 no gl5s or valleys2 9 "s cases !y might appe> z simply elevat$ & smoo? plateaux4 ,su* m\nta9s1 if we may s call !m1 w\ld be almo/ z un9t]e/+ z ! ro( ( a gabl$ h\se d[n :i* ! ra9 f9ds its way 9 "o smoo? cont9u\s %eet4 ,m\nta9s1 rea*+ z !y d into ! high] regions ( ! atmosph]e1 :]e ! w9ds bl[ m fi]cely ?an on ! pla9s bel[1 /orms rage m viol5tly1 & ! extremes ( heat & cold are m sev]e1--9 fact1 :]e e process ( *ange & decay seems quick5$1--suff] cont9ually at ! h&s ( ! elem5ts4 ,dea? mu/ be ^u ! hills1 & ! cruelty ( ! tempe/s smite !m1 & ! ?orn & ! bri> spr+ up ^u !m2 b !y s smite z to br+ _! rocks into ! faire/ =ms1 & s spr+ z to make ! v des]t blossom z ! rose4#bc #bc ,mod]n ,pa9t]s4 ,nature nev] leaves !m alone1 nev] gives !m a brief armi/ice 9 ! long w> t %e wages aga9/ !m4 ,%e is a rel5tless enemy1 ev] on ! move1 & ev] v>y+ h] me?ods ( attack4 ,n[ %e assails !m op5ly ) h] /orm-cl\ds1 & pelts !m furi\sly ) driv+ ra92 n[ we he> ! ?und] ( h] artill]y1 z %e pi]ces _! cre/s ) /range electric d>ts ( fire2 n[ %e secretly und]m9es _! sides ) h] hidd5 s\rces ( wat]1 till :ole villages are de/roy$ by "s fe>ful fall ( ov]hang+ rocks 7see *apt] iii41 pages #if-aja74 ,h] w9ds & g5tle breezes are = ev] at "w on _! surfaces1 caus+ !m to crumble into du/ mu* 9 ! same way z iron turns to ru/4 ,aga91 %e heats !m by day & !n *ills !m sudd5ly at night1 "u ! cold />ry sky1 s t !y crack "u ! /ra9 ( exp&+ & contract+4 ,n[ %e splits !m ) h] ice-w$ges2 n[ %e furr[s _! sides ) ! da%+ torr5ts & runn+ /reams2 & yet aga9 %e we>s !m g5tly d[n ) h] glaci]s1 & c>ries away _! dbris--! tok5 ( h] triumph--on ^? icy /reams1 z conqu]+ armies c>ry ! spoils 9 procession4 ,?is is1 briefly1 h] mode ( w>f>e2 ^! are "s ( h] tools1 w9d1 ra91 fro/1 sn[1 heat & cold1 /reams1 riv]s1 & glaci]s4 ,lightn+ does occasionally break (f portions ( a cliff or a m\nta9-peak2 b comp>$ to ! o!rs1 ?is ag5t is n v important4 ,let u fir/ inquire into ! effects produc$ by ! atmosph]e4 ,! air ar\nd u is compos$ ma9ly ( two well-kn[n gases2 namely1 oxyg5 & nitrog54 ,!re is also a small proportion 7ab\t "o 9 t5 ?\s&7 ( c>bonic acid gas2 a v>iable quantity ( wat]-vap\r1 & 9 ! neighb\rhood ( t[ns1 traces ( o!r noxi\s gases1 su* z sulphur\s acid & *lor9e4 ,n[1 ! nitrog5 plays a v unimportant "p1 z x m]ely s]ves to dilute ! p[]ful gas1 oxyg51 :i* has su* important life-su/a9+ prop]ties4 ,we live by brea?+ oxyg52 s d all animals2 & ! m pure air we c contrive to get into our lungs1 ! bett]4 ,b undilut$ oxyg5 w\ld be too /rong = u1 & s its /r5g? is dim9i%$ by be+ mix$ ) f\r p>ts ( nitrog52 t is to say1 ! air only conta9s ab\t "o fif? by volume1 or bulk1 ( oxyg5 & f\r fif?s ( nitrog54 ,n[1 oxyg51 be+ always ready to comb9e *emically ) "s o!r elem5t1 is a great ag5t ( *ange & decay4 ,x attacks all ! metals except gold & plat9um4 ,iron1 we all "k1 oxidises1 or ru/s1 only too quickly2 b copp]1 lead1 silv]1 & o!r metals are m or less attack$ by x4 ,s x is ) all ! rocks expos$ at or ne> ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,oxyg5 w1 if x c1 pick out some?+ to comb9e ) & s br+ ab\t *emical *anges :i* lead to decay4 ,b a mu* m p[]ful ag5t is ! c>bonic acid gas 9 ! atmosph]e2 al?\gh !re is s little ( x1 !re is en\gh to play a v important "p 9 caus+ rocks to crumble away1 & 9 "s cases to dissolve !m entirely4 ,! supply ( ?is gas is cont9ually be+ r5ew$1 = all liv+ animals brea! out c>bonic acid1 & plants give x out by night4 ,"u ! influ5ce ( sunlight plants give out oxyg51 s t gas is suppli$ to ! air by day4 ,bo? oxyg5 & c>bonic acid gas are dissolv$ by ra9 z x falls ?r\gh ! air2 & s we _c sep>ate ! effects ( ! dry air by itself f ^? ( ra9 & mi/1 :i* are m important ag5ts4 ,! action ( ra9 is p>tly me*anical1 p>tly *emical1 = x n only beats aga9/ !m1 b x dissolves out c]ta9 m9]al sub/ances t !y conta94 ,all rocks are mixtures ( two or m k9ds ( m9]als1 ! p>ticles ( ea* be+ (t5 invisible to ! nak$ eye4 ,?us granites are ess5tially mixtures ( felsp>1 qu>tz1 & mica2 ord9>y volcanic rocks 7trap-rocks7 ( felsp> & augite2 s&/ones consi/ ma9ly ( p>ticles ( silica2 lime/ones ( c>bonate ( lime2 %ales & slates ( silicate ( alum9a1 ! pr9cipal sub/ance 9 clay4 ,^! gra9s are usually jo9$ toge!r by a cem5t ( "s m9]al diff]+ m or less f ! o!r p>ticles4 ,lime is f\nd 9 _m ( ! rocks z ! cem5t t b9ds _! p>ticles toge!r2 :ile oxide ( iron & silica s]ve ?is purpose 9 _m o!r in/ances4 ,n[1 if ! lime or iron or silica is dissolv$ by wat]1 ! rock mu/ t5d to crumble away4 ,any old build+ %[s m or less manifold signs ( su* decay1 & ?is process is call$ wea!r+4 ,all ?is applies m]ely to ! surfaces ( rocks2 & if !re 7 no o!r =ces at "w1 _! rate ( decay w\ld be v sl[4 ,b !re are o!r =ces at "w4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 sudd5 *anges ( temp]ature h a de/ructive influ5ce4 ,if ! sun %9es brightly by day1 ! rocks--especially 9 high] m\nta9 regions--are consid]ably exp&$ by ! heat !y receive2 & if a hot day is foll[$ by a cle> sky at night1 ! free radiation ( heat into space 7see *ap4 ii41 p4 #ci7 causes !m to become v cold1 & 9 cool+ d[n !y contract4 ,9 ?is way an int]nal /ra9 is set up :i* is (t5 great] ?an !y c be>1 & s !y split & crack4 ,?us small pieces ( rock are deta*$ f a m\nta9-side4 ,an ,alp9e travell] told ! writ] t "o night :5 sleep+ on a m\nta9-side1 he he>d /ones rattl+ d[n at frequ5t int]vals4 ,liv+/one records 9 8 j\rnal t :5 9 ! des]t he frequ5tly he>d /ones splitt+ at night ) a report l t ( a pi/ol4 ,b sometimes ! expansion by day is suffici5t to cause fragm5ts ( rock to be brok5 (f4 ,fro/1 h[ev]1 is responsible = a va/ am\nt ( de/ruction among rocks4 ,:5 wat] freezes1 x exp&s ) trem5d\s =ce2 & ?is is ! reason :y wat]-pipes s frequ5tly bur/ dur+ a fro/1 ?\gh we don't f9d x out until ! ?aw comes1--foll[$ by long plumb]s' bills4 ,rocks1 be+ trav]s$ 9 sev]al directions by cracks1 all[ ! wat] to get into !m1 & ?is 9 freez+ acts l a v p[]ful w$ge2 & s ! rocks on ! high] p>ts ( ! m\nta9s are cont9ually be+ split up by ,nature's ice-w$ge4 ,! am\nt ( rock brok5 up 9 ?is way e ye> is enorm\s4 ,/one walls & build+s (t5 suff] greatly f ?is cause dur+ a long fro/1 especially if ! /one be ( a m ?an usually por\s k9d1 t c take up a good deal ( ra9 wat]4 ,:]e trees1 %rubs1 etc41 gr[ on rocks1 ! roots f9d _! way into its natural divisions1 wid5$ by ! action ( ra9 soak+ d[n into !m2 & z !y gr[1 !y sl[ly wid5 !m1 & 9 "t portions are actually deta*$ 9 ?is mann]4 ,moreov]1 ! roots & rootlets guide ! ra9 wat] d[n into ! cracks1 or jo9ts1 z !y are call$4 ,ev5 ! ivy t creeps ov] old ru9$ walls has a decid$ly de/ructive effect4 ,at ! base ( e /eep m\nta9 may be se5 heaps ( loose angul> /ones2 sometimes ^! are cov]$ ) soil1 & =m long slopes on :i* trees & %rubs gr[4 ,e "o ( ! num]\s little gullies t furr[ ! m\nta9-sides has at its l[] end a simil> little heap ( /ones4 ,sometimes a valley among ! m\nta9s seems half *ok$ ) rocky fragm5ts2 & if ^! 7 all remov$1 ! valley w\ld be deep] ?an x is4 ,9 "s hot c\ntries1 :]e ! /reams only fl[ 9 w9t]1 ?is is especially ! case2 = example1 e valley1 or wady1 9 ! region ( ,m\nt ,s9ai & ,m\nt ,horeb is m or less *ok$ up ) b\ld]s & /ones ( e size1 because ! /ones come d[n fa/] ?an !y c be c>ri$ away4 ,b ! ma9 "w ( c>v+ out ! hills & m\nta9s ( ! _w is done by /reams1 riv]s1 & glaci]s2 & s we n[ pass on to consid] h[ !y p]=m _! tasks4 ,wat] by itself1 ev5 :5 fl[+ fa/1 w\ld be p[]less to c>ve gorges & valleys 9 ! solid rock2 b ! /ones :i* torr5ts & /reams c>ry along give !m a m>vell\s gr9d+ p[]1 = ) su* mat]ial a /ream cont9ually we>s away its rocky b$4 ,moreov]1 ! /ones !mselves are all ! :ile be+ rubb$ d[n by ea* o!r1 until f9ally !y are gr\nd d[n to f9e s& & mud1 :i* help 9 ! "w ( erosion4 ,e m\nta9 /ream or torr5t runs 9 a rav9e or valley ( "s sort2 & any travell] :o w take ! tr\ble to wat* :at goes on !re may easily conv9ce himself t ! rav9e1 gorge1 or valley has be5 c>v$ out by ! /ream1 aid$ by ! atmosph]ic influ5ces to :i* we h already allud$4 ,b p]haps "s may be incl9$ to look ^u ! rav9e z a *asm produc$ by "s viol5t di/urbance f bel[1 :]eby ! rocks 7 r5t asund]1 & t ! /ream someh[ f\nd its way into ! r5t4 ,a little inquiry w dispel ?is idea4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 su* cata/rophes are q unkn[n at ! pres5t day2 & z we h m ?an once po9t$ out1 ! geologi/'s me?od is to apply a k ( processes n[ 9 op]ation to ! ph5om5a ( ! rocks1 9 ord] to read _! hi/ory4 ,secondly1 no conclusion c be accept$ :i* is n support$ /rongly by evid5ce4 ,if su* a r5d+ ( ! rocks _h tak5 place1 !re w\ld assur$ly be "s evid5ce ( ! fact4 ,we %\ld expect to f9d a great crack runn+ all along ! b$ ( ! /ream2 b ( ?is !re is no sign4 ,g d[n 9 any wea!r :5 ! /ream is l[1 & look at ! rocks ov] :i* x fl[s1 & y w se>* 9 va9 = su* evid5ce4 ,in/ead ( be+ brok51 ! rocks ext5d cont9ually across4 ,y w\ld also expect to f9d ! /rata dipp+1 or slop+ away f ! /ream on ea* side1 if !y _h be5 r5t by su* an upheaval2 b "h aga9 we are met by a total want ( evid5ce4 ,?irdly1 a crack might be expect$ to run along m or less ev5ly 9 "o direction4 ,b look at ! rav9e1 foll[ x up = "s miles1 & y w see t x w9ds along 9 a v devi\s c\rse1 n 9 a /raight l9e4 ,= ^! reasons1 !n1 we mu/ conclude t ! rav9e or valley has be5 c>v$ out by ! /ream2 b p]haps ! mo/ conv9c+ argum5ts are af=d$ by ! furr[s & m9iature rav9es s frequ5tly met ) on ! sides ( all m\nta9s2 & x is impossible to exam9e ^! )\t conclud+ t !y h 9 e case be5 cut out ( ! solid rock by ! little rapid torr5ts t run along !m aft] heavy ra94 ,if we are =tunate en\gh to see !m on a ?or\ghly ra9y day1 we may d]ive mu* in/ruction f wat*+ ! little torr5ts at "w z !y run d[n ! m\nta9-side1 "h & !re da%+ ov] ! rocks 9 little cascades1 & br++ d[n to ! base ( ! hill mu* ( ! dbris t =ms high] up4 ,9 ?is way ,nature gives u an object lesson1 & seems to say3 ,wat* me at "w "h1 & le>n f su* little op]ations h[ ,i "w on a l>g] scale1 & c>ve out my rav9es & big valleys4 ,only give me pl5ty ( "t1 & ,i c accompli% mu* great] feats ?an ?is4 ,! "q ( "t is no long] disput$2 & all geologi/s are will+ to grant almo/ unlimit$ "t1 at lea/ p]iods ( "t t seem to u unlimit$4 ,mo/ /reams h be5 fl[+ = ?\s&s ( ye>s2 & :5 once we grant t1 we f9d no difficulty 9 believ+ t all valleys are ! "w ( ra9 & riv]s4 ,surely no "o w\ld argue t ! furr[s on a m\nta9-side are all r5ts :i* h be5 wid5$ by ! action ( wat]2 = if !y 7 r5ts1 ea* mu/ h be5 caus$ by "s di/urbance ( ! rocks compos+ ! m\nta91 & we %\ld ( c\rse be able to see ! cracks = ourselves1 & to f9d t ! rocks _h 9 "s way be5 di/urb$ & r5t op54 ,ev5 ! ra9 :i* falls on ! road 9 a heavy %[] tea*es ! same simple b important lesson1 z x runs (f into ! gutt]s on ea* side2 & we may (t5 f9d ! road furr[$ by little m9iature riv]s1 t c>ve out = !mselves t9y valleys z !y run (f into ! gutt]1 br++ ) !m mu* dbris 9 ! =m ( mud & s&4 ,sometimes a /ream enc\nt]s 9 its c\rse a lay] ( rock t is h>d] ?an ! rock und]ly+ x4 ,9 ?is case ! s(t] rock is worn away fa/]1 & ! h>d lay] =ms a k9d ( ridge at a high] level2 ! result is a wat]fall4 ,wat]falls are frequ5tly f\nd 9 m\nta9 /reams4 ,9 ?is case1 x is easy to trace ! ridge ( h>d] rock runn+ unbrok5 across ! pa? ( ! /ream1 %[+ cle>ly t x has n be5 r5t 9 any way4 ,fir/ x %[$ m]ely z a k9d ( /ep1 b gradually ! =ce ( ! fall+ wat] told ) great] effect on ! s(t] rock bel[1 we>+ x away m rapidly ?an t above1 & s ! dep? ( ! wat]fall w5t on increas+ ye> by ye>2 & at ! same "t ! h>d lay] 0 sl[ly worn away until ! /ream saw$ its way ?r\gh4 ,"s riv] valleys are /eep & n>r[2 o!rs are broad1 ) g5tly slop+ sides4 ,a c>eful /udy ( ! diff]5t valleys 9 any l>ge c\ntry su* z ,great ,brita91 %[s t _! =ms v>y accord+ to ! nature ( ! rocks ?r\gh :i* riv]s fl[4 ,:]e h>d rocks ab\nd1 ! valleys are /eep & n>r[2 :]e s(t rocks occur1 ! valleys are broad & l[4 ,?is is only :at might be expect$1 = h>d rocks are n easily worn away2 a riv] mu/ cut its way ?r\gh !m1 leav+ cliffs on ei!r side t _c be wa/$ away by ra94 ,b 9 a di/rict :]e clay or s(t s&/one occurs1 ! ra91 z x f9ds its way to ! valley1 w wa% !m away & give a smoo? g5tle slope to ! sides ( ! valley4 ,x is v in/ructive to notice h[ ! sc5]y ( any di/rict dep5ds on ! nature ( its prevail+ rocks4 ,h>d rocks give bold sc5]y ) /eep hills & rocky defiles2 :ile s(t rocks make ! l&scape comp>atively flat & tame1 ?\gh (t5 v beautiful 9 its way1 especially :]e a ri* soil ab\nds1 s t we see pleasant woods1 ri* pa/ure-l&1 & heavy crops 9 ! fields4 ,comp>e1 = in/ance1 ! sc5]y ( ,k5t or ,surrey ) t ( ! ,lake ,di/rict or ! we/ ( ,york%ire4 ,! diff]5ce is due *iefly to ! fact t 9 ,k5t & ,surrey we h rocks t succumb m easily to ! action ( ra9 & riv]s1 & consequ5tly are worn away m rapidly ?an ! h>d] rocks 9 ! nor? c\ntry4 ,geologi/s h a ^w to express ! effects ( ?is we> & te>2 namely1 d5udation1 :i* means a /ripp+ (f1 or lay+ b>e4 ,9 ,k5t & ,surrey ! ag5ts ( d5udation 7ra9 & riv]s1 aid$ by ! effects ( ! air1 ( heat & cold1 & s on7 we> away ! :ole surface ( ! c\nty 9 a tol]ably ev5 & uni=m mann]1 because !re are no h>d rocks = !m to cont5d )4 ,9 ?is case ra9 wa%es away ! sides ( ! valleys fa/] ?an ! riv] c c>ve its b$1 consequ5tly ! valleys are %all[ comp>$ to _! wid?4 ,& s ! /reams h broad valleys1 :ile ! hills are smoo? & g5tly r\nd$4 ,*alk1 clay1 & s(t s&/one ab\nd !re4 ,! two latt] rocks are wa%$ away ) comp>ative ease1 & ! *alk is dissolv$2 :]eas 9 ! ,lake ,di/rict we h v mu* h>d] & old] rocks1 t require to be split up & brok5 by ! action ( fro/1 :ile e /ream c>ves out = itself a /eep valley1 & great masses ( h>d rock /& out z bold hills or m\nta9s1 t seem to defy all ! ag5ts ( d5udation4 ,"h ! opposite is ! case1 & ! valleys are deep5$ fa/] ?an !y are wid5$4 ,b = all t1 a va/ am\nt ( solid rock has be5 remov$ f ! surface !re1 ( :i* ! m\nta9s are1 z x 71 b fragm5ts t h escap$ ! g5]al de/ruction4 ,moreov]1 ! rocks 9 ?is region h be5 greatly di/urb$ & crumpl$ s9ce !y 7 fir/ =m$1 & !reby ?r[n into v>i\s %apes t give c]ta9 peculi> /ructures m or less capable ( resi/+ d5udation4 ,v effective illu/rations ( ! p[] ( ra9 by itself are af=d$ by ! e>? pill>s ( ! ,tyrol1 & caons ( ,colorado4 ,! mat]ial ( :i* !y consi/ is call$ conglom]ate1 because x is compos$ ( /ones & l>ge blocks ( rock ) /iff e>? or clay betwe54 ,all ! tall] ones h a big /one on ! top :i* protects ! s(t] mat]ial bel[ f be+ wa%$ away by heavy ra9s2 & x is easily p]ceiv$ t ea* pill> owes its exi/5ce to ! /one on ! top1 :i* prev5ts ! s(t mat]ials bel[ x f be+ wa%$ away4 ,:51 aft] a "t1 ! wea!r+ ( ! s(t /rata dim9i%es ! support ( ! capp+ b\ld]s1 ^! at la/ topple ov]1 & ! pill>1 ?us left unprotect$1 becomes an easy prey to ! ra91 & is rapidly wa%$ away4 ,"s ( ! pill>s are ov] a hundr$ feet 9 height4 ,b x is only 9 places :]e heavy ra9s fall t ^! int]e/+ monum5ts ( d5udation are to be se54 ,by way ( contra/ we may turn n[ to a di/rict 9 :i* v little ra9 falls1 b :]e ! /reams h a consid]able slope1 & s c we> away1 or erode1 _! valleys mu* fa/] ?an ra9 & fro/1 etc41 c br+ d[n ! rocks ( :i* ! sides are compos$4 ,! riv] ,colorado ( ! ,we/1 :i* runs f ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s to ! ,gulf ( ,cali=nia1 fl[s = ne>ly ?ree hundr$ miles at ! bottom ( a pr(\nd *asm1 or caon1 be+ hemm$ 9 by v]tical walls :i* 9 "s places are m ?an a mile 9 dep?4 ,! tribut>y /reams fl[+ into ! riv] run ?r\gh small] rav9es =m+ side caons2 & !re is no d\bt t ^! wond]ful *asms h be51 9 ! c\rse ( ages1 sl[ly c>v$ out by ! riv] ,colorado & its num]\s tribut>y /reams4 ,sometimes ! walls ( ! caon are n m ?an fifty y>ds ap>t1 & 9 height !y v>y f ?ree ?\s& to six ?\s& feet4 ,f> above ! level ( ! highe/ floods pat*es ( gravel are f\nd "h & !re on ! sides1 :i* mu/ h be5 left !re by ! riv] :5 x _h n cut its way s f> d[n4 ,^! caons af=d /rik+ te/imony to ! erosive p[] ( runn+ wat]1 ( :i* !y are ! mo/ wond]ful illu/ration 9 ! _w4 ,b wat]1 ev5 :5 9 ! =m ( ice1 has m or less p[] to we> away solid rock2 & ! glaci]s t we see 9 ,switz]l&1 ,norway1 & o!r c\ntries mu/ slightly deep5 ! rocky valleys d[n :i* !y fl[4 ,let u see h[ ?is c be accompli%$4 ,! sn[ t falls 9 ! ,high ,alps1 impell$ by ! weight ( fre% lay]s ( sn[ ov]ly+ x1 & by ! slope ( ! m\nta9-sides1 gradually creeps d[n into ! valleys4 ,ow+ to ! pressure ?us put ^u x1 & p>tly to ! melt+ p[] ( ! sun's rays1 x assumes ! =m ( ice2 & glaci]s are compos$ ( solid ice4 ,! d[nw>d motion is s sl[ t a glaci] appe>s q /ation>y2 & x is only by putt+ 9 /akes & wat*+ !m *ange _! positions t x c be %[n to be mov+4 ,9 all respects except spe$1 glaci]s fl[ l riv]s1 = ice is a visc\s body1 behav+ p>tly l a fluid & yet p>tly l a solid sub/ance2 b x w n endure a %>p b5d )\t snapp+4 ,h5ce1 a glaci] 9 trav]s+ a valley frequ5tly gets split4 ,! cracks ?us =m$ wid5 by degrees until !y exp& into *asms1 or crevasses4 ,l riv]s1 glaci]s transport a l>ge am\nt ( rocky matt] to l[] levels1 & at ! same "t we> away & deep5 _! rocky *annels4 ,let u see h[ !y d ?is tw(old "w ( transportation & erosion4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a l>ge am\nt ( dbris falls onto ! sides ( a glaci] f ! peaks1 precipices1 & m\nta9-side along :i* x fl[s4 ,"s /ones1 h[ev]1 fall d[n crevasses1 & s rea* ! bottom1 :]e !y become cem5t$ 9 ! ice4 ,9 ?is way !y are sl[ly c>ri$ d[n ov] ! rocky floor ( ! valley1 until at la/ !y rea* ! end ( ! glaci]1 :]e 9 ! w>m] air ! ice melts j z fa/ z x creeps d[n2 & !re !y w be left to =m a heap ( /ones1 s&1 & mud4 ,l>ge blocks ( /one1 q diff]5t f ! rocks on :i* !y lie1 are v num]\s1 & are call$ erratics1 s9ce !y are evid5tly w&]]s f a di/ance4 ,sometimes su* blocks c be prov$ to h be5 br\ght _m miles f _! home among ! high] peaks4 ,! long l9es ( /ones & mud se5 on ! sides ( a glaci] are call$ mora9es1 & at ! end ( e glaci] we f9d a big heap kn[n z a t]m9al mora9e4 ,b ! /ones ( :i* !y are compos$ are probably n to be entirely acc\nt$ = 9 ?is way4 ,c we n conceive t ! weight & pressure ( a desc5d+ glaci] may be suffici5t to break (f _m protrud+ portions ( ! rocky b$ ov] :i* x fl[s1 & !n to drag !m along ) x8 ,?is seems reasonable4 ,let u !re=e consid] ! mat]ials ( :i* mora9es are compos$ to be d]iv$ p>tly f ! rocks b5ea? & p>tly f ^? above ! glaci]4 ,b :atev] _! orig91 su* mat]ials mu/ inevitably f9d _! way to ! end ( ! glaci] & be add$ to ! big heap !re4 ,! "w ( transportation is !n tak5 up by ! /ream :i* always fl[s f ! end ( a glaci]4 ,su* /reams are 9 summ]-"t lad5 ) f9e s$im5t1 :i* gives !m a milky & turbid appe>ance4 ,?us a glaci] we>s away ! rocks ov] :i* x fl[s2 rock fragm5ts become emb$d$ 9 ! ice1 & ^! are ! tools ) :i* a glaci] does its "w4 ,x mu/ be grant$ t ! d[nw>d movem5t ( a great mass ( ice is irresi/ible1 & consequ5tly t z ! mov+ glaci] sl[ly creeps along1 x mu/ inevitably cause ! /ones :i* x ?us holds to gr9d ov] ! surface ( ! rock4 ,x is easy to imag9e ! effects ( ?is gr9d+ action4 ,if s&-pap]1 rubb$ = a m9ute or two ov] wood1 we>s d[n & smoo?s its surface1 :at mu/ be ! result ( all ^! /ones1 toge!r ) s& & mud1 gr9d+ ov] ! rocky b$8 ,! answ] to ?is "q is f\nd 9 exam9+ ! rocks ov] :i* glaci]s once fl[$4 ,n[1 ! ,swiss glaci]s once ext5d$ f> beyond _! pres5t limits2 & ! rocks 9 ! l[] p>ts ( _! pres5t valleys1 n[ free f ice1 %[ unmi/akable signs ( hav+ be5 consid]ably worn d[n4 ,! corn]s & angles ( project+ pieces ( rock h be5 worn away until ! once rugg$ outl9e has become wavy & r\nd1 s mu* s z to produce m or less resemblance to ! backs ( %eep ly+ d[n4 ,h5ce ! "n ro*es m\tonnes1 by :i* rocks ( ?is %ape are kn[n4 ,!y frequ5tly reta9 on _! surface peculi> m>k+s1 su* z long scrat*es & grooves :i* mu/ h be5 made z ! old glaci]1 ) its emb$d$ angul> fragm5ts ( rock1 sl[ly gr\nd ov] _! surfaces4 ,su* m>k+s are call$ /ri4 ,b besides ^! glacial records grav5 on ! rocks1 we h o!r evid5ce1 9 ! =m ( great mora9es 9 "s ( ! valleys ( ,switz]l&1 & especially at ^? places :]e side valleys op5 out into a ma9 valley4 ,any "o may le>n by a little obs]vation to recognise ^! peculi> heaps ( /ones1 mud1 & s&1 deposit$ long ago by ! old glaci]s ( ,switz]l&4 ,x w be p]ceiv$ t ! evid5ce = ! erosive p[] ( glaci]s is ( two k9ds1--fir/1 !re is ! te/imony ( ! smoo!d & /riat$ rocks1 :i* is v conv9c+2 secondly1 ! equally /rong pro(s f ! mora9es1 bo? great & small4 ,^! old rubbi% heaps give u a v fair idea ( ! am\nt ( we> & te> t goes on "u a glaci]1 = !re we see ! rock fragm5ts t tumbl$ d[n ! m\nta9-side onto ! surface ( ! glaci] 7toge!r ) ^? :i* ! glaci] tore (f its rocky b$71 all consid]ably smoo!d1 worn d[n1 & /riat$4 ,b a /ill bett] idea ( ! "w done is af=d$ by ! gravel1 mud1 & s& 9 :i* ^! /ones are emb$d$4 ,all ?is f9] mat]ial mu/ h be5 ! result ( we> & te>4 ,?is k9d ( action may well be comp>$ to :at takes place on a gr9d/one z "o %>p5s an axe on x4 ,! wat] p\r$ on ! /one soon becomes muddy1 ow+ to ! pres5ce ( c\ntless little gra9s ( s& worn (f ! gr9d/one4 ,b a good deal ( ! mud ?us =m$ is c>ri$ away by ! little /ream t runs out f ! end ( e glaci]2 s t !re is m =m$ ?an we see 9 ! mora9e4 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,m] ,,de ,,glace ,,& ,,mont ,,buet4 ,,f ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,mr4 ,,donk94 ,we h already allud$ 9 =m] *apt]s to ! ,ice ,age 9 ,brita91 :5 great glaci]s cov]$ all our high m\nta9s1 & desc5d$ f> & wide ov] ! pla9s4 ,n[1 ! evid5ce = ! =m] exi/5ce ( ^! glaci]s is ( ! same k9d z t :i* we h j describ$4 ,9 ,wales & ,scotl& we may soon le>n to recognise ! ro*es m\tonnes1 ! old mora9e heaps1 & ! erratic b\ld]s br\ght d[n by ^! old glaci]s4 ,besides ^! pro(s1 !re is also ! evid5ce ( ! arctic plants n[ fl\ri%+ 9 ! highl&s 7see *apt] iv41 pages #abc-abd74 ,!re c be no d\bt1 !n1 t glaci]s h an erosive action1 & !re=e mu/ be reg>d$ z ag5ts ( d5udation4 ,b x is important to be> 9 m9d t _! p[]s 9 ?is direction are limit$2 = x is manife/ t a m\nta9 /ream is a mu* m p[]ful ag5t1 & w deep5 its little valley mu* m rapidly1 ?an a cumbr\s1 sl[-mov+ glaci]1 advanc+ at ! rate ( a few in*es a day4 ,x has be5 f\nd by c>eful measurem5ts t ! ,m] de ,glace ( ,*am\ni moves dur+ summ] & autumn at ! av]age daily rate ( tw5ty to tw5ty-sev5 in*es 9 ! c5tre1 & ?irte5 to n9ete5 & "o half in*es ne> ! side1 :]e friction some:at imp$es its c\rse4 ,?is seems v sl[ comp>$ to ! rapid movem5t ( a m\nta9 /ream2 b !n1 a glaci] p>tly makes up = ?is by its great weight4 ,9 consid]+ a glaci] z an ag5t ( erosion1 we mu/ n =get t probably a good deal ( wat] circulates b5ea? glaci]s4 ,if ?is is s1 ! wat] mu/ h a consid]able %>e 9 produc+ ! effects to :i* we h already allud$4 ,x w\ld be extremely ra% to conclude1 z "s /ud5ts ( glaci]s h done1 t valleys c be c>v$ out entirely by glaci]s2 & we mu/ be cont5t ) believ+ t !y h be5 some:at deep5$ by ice-action1 & _! features m or less alt]$1 b no m4 ,! valleys ( ,switz]l&1 ( ,wales1 & ,scotl&1 7 probably all 9 exi/5ce be=e ! p]iod ( ! ,ice ,age1 hav+ be5 c>v$ out by /reams 9 ! usual way2 b ! glaci]s1 z x 71 put ! f9al t\*es & smoo!d _! surfaces4 ,hav+ le>n$ h[ ! ?ree ag5ts ( d5udation--namely1 ra91 riv]s1 & glaci]s--accompli% _! "w1 let u n[ take a wid] view ( ! subject & consid] ! results ( _! unit$ ef=ts bo? 9 ! pres5t & 9 ! pa/4 ,we h already allud$ to ! enorm\s am\nt ( solid matt] br\ght d[n to ! sea e ye> by riv]s 7see *ap4 v41 pp4 #aff-afh71 & we po9t$ out t all ?is repres5ts s mu* dbris swept (f ! l& ?r\gh :i* ! riv]s fl[2 also t x comes d[n 9 ?ree ways1 "o "p be+ susp5d$ 9 ! wat] z f9e mud1 ano!r "p be+ pu%$ along ! riv]-b$ z gravel1 etc41 :ile a ?ird "p is ! c>bonate ( lime & o!r m9]al matt] 9 a dissolv$ /ate1 & !re=e invisible4 ,n[1 x is q pla9 t ra9 & riv]s1 9 sweep+ away s mu* solid matt] f ! surface ( ! l&1 mu/ t5d 9 ! c\rse ( "t to l[] its g5]al level2 & x !re=e seems to foll[ t aft] ! lapse ( ages any giv5 cont95t or l>ge isl& might be entirely wa%$ away1 or 9 o!r words1 r$uc$ to ! level ( ! sea4 ,?is w\ld c]ta9ly happ5 7 x n t ! l&s ( ! _w seem to be sl[ly ris+1 s t ! d5udation go+ on at ! surface appe>s to be c\nt]balanc$ by cont9u$ upheaval4 ,b1 suppos+ no upheaval took place1 h[ long w\ld x take = ra9 & riv]s to we> away a :ole cont95t8 ,let u see if !re is any way ( answ]+ ?is difficult "q1 = if x c be ev5 p>tially solv$1 x w help u to realise ! enorm\s l5g? ( "t t mu/ h be5 requir$ to br+ ab\t ! results ( d5udation t we see all ar\nd u4 ,al?\gh ! calculations t h be5 made on ?is subject are v complicat$1 yet ! pr9ciple on :i* !y are bas$ is q simple4 ,= an answ] to our "q we mu/ g to ! riv]s aga91 & measure ! "w !y d 9 transport+ solid matt] d[n to ! sea4 ,let u take ! ,mississippi z a typical big riv]1 = x has be5 m c>efully /udi$ ?an any o!r1 & x dra9s a v ext5sive area1 embrac+ _m v>ieties ( climate1 rock1 & soil4 ,z ! result ( _m obs]vations c>ri$ on cont9u\sly at diff]5t p>ts ( ! riv] = mon?s toge!r1 ! eng9e]s :o conduct$ ! inve/igation f\nd t ! annual dis*>ge ( wat] by ?is riv] is ab\t n9ete5 ?\s& millions ( cubic feet1 & t on ! av]age ! am\nt ( s$im5t x conta9s is ab\t a #a_/aejj? "p by weight4 ,b besides ! matt] 9 susp5sion1 !y obs]v$ t a l>ge am\nt ( s&1 gravel1 & /ones is be+ con/antly pu%$ along ! bottom ( ! riv]4 ,?is !y e/imat$ at ov] sev5 hundr$ & fifty millions ( cubic feet4 ,!y also calculat$ t ! ,mississippi br+s d[n e ye> m ?an eight hundr$ ?\s& million p\nds ( mud4 ,putt+ ! two toge!r1 !y f\nd 7z be=e /at$7 t ! am\nt ( solid matt] ?us transport$ d[n to ! ,gulf ( ,mexico may be repres5t$ by a lay] #bfh feet high1 cov]+ a space ( "o squ>e mile2 t is1 )\t all[+ = :at is br\ght d[n dissolv$ 9 ! wat]1 :i* may be neglect$ 9 ord] to prev5t any exagg]ation4 ,n[1 x is q cle> t all ?is dbris mu/ h come f ! imm5se area t is dra9$ by ! ,mississippi4 ,x c\ld n h be5 suppli$ by any riv]s except ^? t are its tribut>ies4 ,& s if we c f9d out :at is ! ext5t ( ?is area1 x is n difficult to calculate h[ mu* its g5]al surface mu/ h be5 l[]$1 or 9 o!r words1 h[ mu* mu/ h be5 worn away f x 9 ord] to supply all ! mat]ial4 ,?is area is reckon$ at #a1adg1jjj squ>e miles2 & a v simple calculation tells u t ! g5]al surface w\ld ?us be l[]$ to ! ext5t ( #a_/fjjj? "p ( a foot4 ,t ( c\rse means t "o foot w\ld be worn away 9 six ?\s& ye>s4 ,on high gr\nd & among m\nta9s ! rate ( d5udation w\ld ( c\rse be mu* great]2 b we are n[ deal+ ) an av]age = ! :ole surface4 ,! next ?+ we require to f9i% ?is calculation is ! av]age or mean height ( ! ,am]ican cont95t4 ,?is 0 reckon$ by ! celebrat$ ,humboldt at #gdh feet4 ,n[ if we may assume t all ?is cont95t is be+ worn d[n at ! same rate ( "o foot 9 six ?\s& ye>s 7:i* is a reasonable assumption71 we f9d1 by a simple process ( multiplication1 t x w\ld require ab\t f\r & a half millions ( ye>s = ra9 & riv]s to wa% x all away until its surface 0 all at ! sea-level 7) p]haps a few little isl&s project+ "h & !re z relics ( its va/ d5udation74 ,?is is a v int]e/+ result2 & if ! above measurem5ts are reliable1 !y af=d u "s idea ( ! rate at :i* d5udation takes place at ! pres5t "t4 ,by a simil> process x has be5 calculat$ ! ,briti% ,isles might be levell$ 9 ab\t five & a half millions ( ye>s4 ,geologi/s d n pret5d to h solv$ ?is problem accurately2 t is impossible ) our pres5t k4 ,b ev5 z r\gh e/imates ^! results are v valuable1 especially :5 we come to /udy ! /ructure ( ! l& 9 diff]5t c\ntries1 & to f9d out !refrom1 by actual measurem5t1 h[ mu* solid rock has be5 remov$4 ,we w n[ give "s examples ( ?is2 b p]haps a simple illu/ration w make our mean+ cle>]4 ,suppose we pick$ up an old pair ( boots1 & f\nd ! soles worn away 9 ! c5tre4 ,x w\ld be easy to f9d out h[ mu* _h be5 worn away ov] ! holes by simply measur+ ! ?ickness ( lea!r at ! sides1 :]e we w suppose t !y 7 protect$ by /rong nails4 ,geologi/s apply a v simil> k9d ( me?od 9 ord] to f9d out h[ mu* rock has be5 remov$ f a c]ta9 region ( ! e>?4 ,"o ( ! simple/ cases ( ?is k9d is t ( ! area kn[n z ! ,weald ( ,k5t1 ,surrey1 & ,sussex 7see illu/ration1 ,fig4 #a74 ,a great deal ( d5udation has tak5 place "h1 because !re is ample evid5ce to prove t ! great =mation kn[n z ! ,*alk 7n[ se5 9 ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns7 once /ret*$ "r across2 & bel[ ?is came ! l[] gre5s& & ,weald clay4 ,!y spread ov] ?is area 9 a l[ ar* ( :i* we n[ only see ! ru9s4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,section ,,across ,,! ,,weald ,,( ,,k5t ,,& ,,surrey4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,! ,,highl&s ,,( ,,scotl& ,,on ,a ,,true ,,scale 7aft] ,,geikie74 ,! dott$ l9es 9 ! figure %[ u _! =m] ext5t2 b ! v]tical height is exagg]at$1 = o!rwise ! hills w\ld sc>cely be se54 ,^! l9es simply foll[ out ! curves tak5 by ! /rata at ea* end ( ! d5ud$ ar*1 & !re=e rightly indicate its =m] height4 ,by mak+ su* a draw+ on a true scale1 geologi/s c easily measure ! =m] height ( ! surface ( ?is old ar*1 or anticl9e1 ( *alk1 gre5s&1 & o!r /rata1 j z an ar*itect might re/ore ! outl9es ( an old trac]i$ w9d[ f a few portions left at ! sides4 ,?is v useful & in/ructive me?od is mu* employ$ 9 draw+ sections ?r\gh m\nta9-*a9s1 9 ord] to ga9 "s idea ( ! am\nt ( d5udation :i* !y h suff]$4 ,let u see h[ mu* has be5 remov$ f ! pres5t surface ( ! ,weald4 ,fir/ !re is ! *alk1 :i* we may put d[n at six hundr$ feet at lea/2 !n !re is ! l[] gre5s&1 say1 eight hundr$ feet2 & bel[ t1 & =m+ ! l[e/ gr\nd 9 ! ,weald1 is ! ,weald clay1 :i* is "o ?\s& feet ?ick1 & be+ s(t]1 0 m rapidly borne away4 ,along ! c5tre runs a ridge ( ,ha/+s s&1 =m+ high] gr\nd on acc\nt ( its great] h>dness1 b ?is =mation is n mu* d5ud$4 ,h[ev]1 add+ toge!r ! ?icknesses ( ! o!rs1 we arrive at ! conclusion t ab\t tw5ty-f\r hundr$ feet ( *alk & o!r /rata has be5 remov$ f ! pres5t surface ( ! ,weald4 ,& all ?is d5udation has probably be5 effect$ by ra9 & riv]s1 = x is v d\btful :e!r ! sea _h any %>e 9 ?is "w4 ,b 9 o!r p>ts ( our own c\ntry we f9d pro(s ( d5udation on a mu* gr&] scale ?an ?is2 = example1 9 ,nor? ,wales !re are rocks n[ ly+ expos$ at ! surface :i* are ( a v mu* great] antiquity ?an any t may be se5 9 ! ,weald5 area1 belong+ to ! v anci5t p]iods kn[n z ! ,cambrian & ,silurian4 ,^! h evid5tly be5 expos$ = a mu* long] "t to ! action ( d5ud+ =ces2 & ! ,wel% hills1 z we n[ see !m1 are b fragm5ts ( :at !y once 74 ,aft] c>efully mapp+ out ! rocks 9 ! neighb\rhood ( ,sn[don1 not+ _! ?ickness1 ! directions 9 :i* !y slope1 or dip1 s t ! /ructure ( ?is region might be asc]ta9$1 z 9 ! case ( ! ,weald1 x 0 f\nd1 on draw+ sections ( ! rocks !re1 & putt+ 9 dott$ l9es to cont9ue ! curves & slopes ( ! /rata z kn[n at or ne> ! surface1 t f fifte5 ?\s& to tw5ty ?\s& feet ( solid rock mu/ h be5 remov$ 7see diagrams1 *apt] ix41 p4 #cjg74 ,apply+ ! same me?od to ! ,lake ,di/rict1 x has be5 calculat$ t ! am\nt ( d5udation :i* t beautiful c\ntry has suff]$ may be repres5t$ by tw5ty-six ?\s& feet4 ,turn+ to ! o!r side ( ! ,atlantic1 we f9d ! ,am]ican geologi/s e/imate t a ?ickness ( five miles has be5 remov$ f a l>ge "p ( ! ,appala*ian *a9 ( m\nta9s 7ne> _! ea/ coa/71 & t at lea/ "o mile has be5 erod$ f ! entire region betwe5 ! ,rocky & ,wahsat* ,m\nta9s 7see *apt] ix474 ,9 conclusion1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d t m\nta9s1 9 spite ( ! enorm\s erosion !y h suff]$1 are m capable ( resi/+ ! ev] active ag5ts ( d5udation ?an ! s(t] rocks t =m ! pla9s & l[l&s1 & consequ5tly /& out 9 bold relief f o!r features ( ! e>?'s surface4 ,?is tru? has be5 beautifully express$ 9 ! foll[+ passage3-- 444 ,9 ord] to br+ ! _w into ! =m :i* x n[ be>s1 x 0 n m]e sculpture t 0 ne$$2 ! m\nta9s c\ld n /& = a day unless !y 7 =m$ ( mat]ials altoge!r diff]5t f ^? :i* con/itute ! l[] hills & ! surfaces ( ! valleys4 ,a h>d] sub/ance _h to be prep>$ = e m\nta9-*a91 yet n s h>d b t x might be capable ( crumbl+ d[n into e>?1 fit to n\ri% ! ,alp9e =e/ & ! ,alp9e fl[]s2 n s h>d b t 9 ! mid/ ( ! utmo/ maje/y ( its en?ron$ /r5g? !re %\ld be se5 on x ! seal ( dea?1 & ! writ+ ( ! same s5t5ce t _h gone =? aga9/ ! human frame1 ',du/ ?\ art & unto du/ ?\ %alt return4' ,& ) ?is p]i%able sub/ance ! mo/ maje/ic =ms 7 to be fram$ t 7 consi/5t ) ! safety ( man1 & ! peak 0 to be lift$ & ! cliff r5t z high & z /eeply z 0 possible1 9 ord] yet to p]mit ! %eph]d to fe$ 8 flocks ^u ! slope1 & ! cottage to ne/le b5ea? _! %ad[4#bd #bd ,mod]n ,pa9t]s4 ,,*apt] ,,viii4 ,,volcanic ,,m\nta9s4 ',tis said ,enceladus' huge frame1 ,he>t-/rick5 by ! av5g+ flame1 ,is prison$ "h1 & und]nea? ,gasps ?r\gh ea* v5t 8 sulphur\s brea?2 ,& /ill z 8 tir$ side %ifts r\nd1 ,tr9acia e*oes to ! s\nd ,?r\gh all its l5g?1 :ile cl\ds ( smoke ,! liv+ s\l ( e!r *oke4 ,,virgil3 neid iii4 ,9 "s p>ts ( ! _w we meet ) m\nta9s ( a v diff]5t k9d f any we h yet consid]$1--m\nta9s t are kn[n at times to s5d =? fi]y /reams ( gl[+ lava1 & to emit ) t]rific =ce great cl\ds ( /eam4 ,su* m\nta9s h long be5 kn[n1 9 popul> b unsci5tific language1 z burn+ m\nta9s1#be--;a t]m :i* is un=tunate1 because !y d n burn 9 ! prop] s5se ( ! ^w1 l c&les or gas-jets4 ,!y are bett] kn[n z volcanoes4 ,!re are ab\t ?ree hundr$ & fifty kn[n active volcanoes2 & if we include all m\nta9s t once 7 9 t /ate1 ! numb] is ab\t "o ?\s&4 #be ,see pap]s by ! writ] on ,volcanoes & ,volcanic ,action 9 ,k = ,may & ,june1 #ahia1 on :i* ?is *apt] is p>tly bas$4 ,su* m\nta9s are connect$ 9 a curi\s way ) ^? upheav$ ridges ( ! _w kn[n z m\nta9-*a9s 7see *ap4 vi41 p4 #aia74 ,& n only are _m m\nta9s m or less p5etrat$ & int]sect$ by rocks ( an igne\s orig9 7see *ap4 v41 p4 #aee71 b "s h be5 l>gely =m$ by ! action ( old volcanoes4 ,9 fact1 !re are hills 9 ,great ,brita9 & p>ts ( ,europe1 9 ,am]ica1 & o!r c\ntries1 t once 7 actual volcanoes 7see page #bgg74 ,we mu/ briefly consid] ^! /range m\nta9s s diff]5t f o!rs1 & see :at we c f9d out ab\t !m4 ,let u fir/ inquire h[ a volcano is made1 !n consid] :at a volcano does2 t is1 we mu/ view x z a geological ag5t t has a c]ta9 def9ite "p to play 9 ! economy ( ! _w4 ,& la/ly1 we may glance at "s ( ! old volcanoes1 & see :at !y 7 do+ 9 ^? long ages ( ! _w dur+ :i* ! great s]ies ( ! /ratifi$ rocks 7 =m$1--:i* rocks are1 z x 71 ! book 9 :i* ! e>? has writt5 h] autobiography4 ,9 old days volcanoes 7 reg>d$ ) sup]/iti\s awe2 & any inve/igation ( _! actions w\ld h be5 consid]$ ra% & impi\s 9 ! highe/ degree4 ,m\nt ,etna1 z ,virgil tells u1 0 suppos$ to m>k ! spot :]e ! angry gods _h buri$ ,enceladus1 "o ( ! rebelli\s giants4 ,volcano1 a c]ta9 burn+ m\nta9 9 ! ,lipa ,isl&s1 0 likewise call$ ! =ge1 or work%op1 ( ,vulcan 7or ,volcan71 ! god ( fire4 ,& s x comes ab\t t all burn+ m\nta9s take _! "n f ?is "o ,m$it]ranean isl&1 & at ! same "t tell u ( ! my?ological orig9 ( ! ^w4 ,x has be5 said t words are fossil ?\ghts2 & we h "h an old & v mu* fossilis$ ?\ght1--a k9d ( ?\ght long s9ce ext9ct among civilis$ peoples1 & "o :i* is nev] likely to come to life aga94 ,a volcanic m\nta9 consi/s ( alt]nat+ %eets ( lava & volcanic a%es1 mantl+ ov] ea* o!r 9 an irregul> way1 & all slop+ away f ! c5tre4 ,9 ! c5tre is a pit or *imney1 wid5+ out t[>ds ! top s z to resemble a funnel or cup2 h5ce ! "n crat]1 :i* means a cup4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ?is crat] a v small cone 7m9or cone7 is frequ5tly f\nd2 & x is int]e/+ to f9d t _m ( ! moon's volcanic crat]s possess ^! m9or cones4 ,a numb] ( cracks or fissures int]sect ! volcano4 ,^! frequ5tly spread out f ! c5tre ( ! m\nta9 9 all directions1 l ! spokes ( a :eel4 ,!y g5]ally get fill$ ) lava t wells up f bel[1 ?us =m+ dykes1 :i* may be reg>d$ z s _m %eets ( igne\s rock1 su* z basalt1 t h =c$ _! way :ile /ill liquid 9 among ! lay]s ( lava & a%es4 ,! ^w a% is us$ by geologi/s 9 a special s5se2 & volcanic a% is n1 z might be suppos$1 a deposit ( c9d]s1 b mo/ly ( du/ ( v>i\s degrees ( f95ess1 & sometimes x is v f9e inde$4 ,pieces ( pumice-/one may be emb$d$ 9 a lay] ( volcanic a%1 & sometimes great blocks ( /one t h be5 %ot out ( ! volcano z f a big gun1 b ^! only =m a small "p ( ! lay]4 ,dykes /r5g!n ! m\nta91 & t5d to hold x toge!r :5 viol5tly %ak5 dur+ an eruption4 ,! %ape & /eepness ( a volcano dep5d on ! nature ( ! mat]ials eject$4 ,! f9] ! volcanic a%1 ! /eep] & m conical is ! m\nta94 ,! build+ up ( a volcano may be fairly illu/rat$ by ! little cone ( s& =m$ 9 an h\rglass z ! s&-gra9s fall4 ,^! settle d[n at a c]ta9 slope1 or angle1 at :i* !y c rema91 in/ead ( fall+ d[n to ! bottom1 z !y d directly ?is slope is exce$$4 ,"s volcanoes are built up almo/ entirely ( volcanic a% & its emb$d$ blocks4 ,vesuvius1 ,t5]iffe1 ,jorullo1 9 ,mexico1 & ,cotopaxi1 9 ! ,&es1 are examples ( /eep volcanic cones built up 9 ?is way4 ,o!rs1 less /eep & m irregul> 9 %ape1 are *iefly =m$ ( successive lava-fl[s4 ,little m9or cones are frequ5tly =m$ on ! side ( a volcano2 & ^! dur+ an eruption give rise to small outbur/s ( _! own4 ,!y are easily acc\nt$ = by ! dykes :i* are m5tion$ j n[2 = :5 molt5 rock =ces its way ?r\gh fissures1 x sometimes f9ds an outlet at ! surface1 & be+ full ( /eam1 z soda-wat] is full ( gas1 x gives rise to an eruption4 ,! great op5+ 9 ! c5tre ( a volcano1 ) its molt5 lava1 is l a v big dyke t has rea*$ ! surface & s succe$$ 9 produc+ an eruption4 ,! op5+ ( a soda-wat] bottle n infrequ5tly illu/rates a volcanic eruption2 = :5 ! p5t-up c>bonic acid _c escape fa/ en\gh1 x =ces out "s ( ! wat]1 ev5 :5 ! bottle is held upright4 ,e volcano has be5 built up on a plat=m ( ord9>y /ratifi$ rocks2 & at "s p]iod aft] ^! _h be5 laid d[n 9 wat] & rais$ up into dry l&1 molt5 rock f\nd its way ?r\gh !m1 & s ! volcano 0 built up by successive eruptions dur+ _m ye>s4 ,x is probable t e>?quake %ocks1 prec$+ ! fir/ eruption1 crack$ up ^! /rata1 & s made a way = ! lava to come up4 ,! ma9 po9t we wi% to emphasize is t volcanoes are nev] =m$ by upheaval4 ,9 ?is way !y diff] f all o!r m\nta9s4 ,!y h n be5 made by ! heav+ up ( /rata1 b h be5 gradually pil$ up1 some?+ l rubbi% heaps t accumulate 9 ! ,?ames b>ges z ! du/m5 empty _! c>ts into !m1 only 9 ! case ( volcanoes ! rubbi% comes f bel[4 ,x is n necess>y to suppose t ! res]voir d[n bel[1 f :i* ! molt5 rock is suppli$1 exi/s at any v great dep? bel[ ! orig9al l& surface on :i* ! volcano gr[s up4 ,! old upheaval !ory ( volcanoes1 once advocat$ by c]ta9 au?orities1 in/ead ( be+ bas$ on actual evid5ce or on reason+ f facts1 0 a m]e guess4 ,moreov]1 if ! explanation we h giv5 %\ld n be suffici5tly conv9c+1 !re is good pro( furni%$ by ! case ( a small volcano ne> ,vesuvius1 ! build+ ( :i* 0 actually witness$4 ,x is call$ ,monte ,nuovo1 or ! ,new ,m\nta94 ,x is a little cone #dcj feet high1 on ! bank ( ,lake ,av]no1 ) a crat] m ?an a mile & a half wide at ! base4 ,x 0 almo/ entirely =m$ dur+ a s+le night 9 ! ye> #aech1 ,a4 ,d4 ,we h two acc\nts ( ! eruption to :i* x owes its exi/5ce2 & ea* writ] says di/9ctly t ! m\nta9 0 =m$ by ! fall+ ( /ones & a%es4 ,"o witness says1-- ,/ones & a%es 7 ?r[n up ) a noise l ! dis*>ge ( great artill]y1 9 quantities :i* seem$ z if !y w\ld cov] ! :ole e>?2 & 9 f\r days _! fall _h =m$ a m\nta9 9 ! valley betwe5 ,monte ,b>b>o & ,lake ,av]no1 ( n less ?an ?ree miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & almo/ z high z ,monte ,b>b>o itself1--a ?+ incr$ible to ^? :o h n se5 x1 t 9 s %ort a "t s consid]able a m\nta9 %\ld h be5 =m$4 ,ano!r says1-- ,"s ( ! /ones 7 l>g] ?an an ox4 ,! mud 7a%es mix$ ) wat]7 0 at fir/ v liquid1 !n less s1 & 9 su* quantities t ) ! help ( ! a=e-m5tion$ /ones a m\nta9 0 rais$ "o ?\s& paces 9 height4 7,! writ]'s a/oni%m5t l$ him greatly to exagg]ate ! height47 ,^! acc\nts are important z %[+ h[ 9 a mu* long] "t a big volcano may be built up4 ,f su* small op]ations we le>n h[ ,nature works on a l>ge scale4 ,! great volcano 9 ,mexico kn[n z ,jorullo 0 probably built up 9 a v simil> way4 ,!re is a tradition among ! natives t x 0 made 9 two or ?ree days2 b we c h>dly believe t4 ,volcanoes1 z !y get old]1 t5d to gr[ tall] & bigg]2 b e n[ & !n a l>ge portion may be bl[n away by "s great eruption1 & !y h1 z x 71 to beg9 aga94 ,illu/ration3 ,,! ,,eruption ,,( ,,vesuvius ,,9 #ahgb4 ,,f ,,an ,,in/antane\s ,,photograph4 ,let u n[ consid] volcanoes z geological ag5ts1 & see :at !y d4 ,a volcanic eruption may be describ$ 9 a g5]al way z foll[s3 ,its adv5t is h]ald$ by e>?quakes affect+ ! m\nta9 & ! :ole c\ntry r\nd2 l\d und]gr\nd explosions are he>d1 resembl+ ! fire ( di/ant artill]y4 ,! vibrations are *iefly transmitt$ ?r\gh ! gr\nd2 ! m\nta9 seems convuls$ by int]nal ?roes1 due1 no d\bt1 to ! ef=ts ( ! imprison$ /eam & liquid rock to f9d an op5+4 ,^! signs are accompani$ by ! dry+ up ( wells & disappe>ance ( spr+s1 s9ce ! wat] f9ds its way d[n new cracks 9 ! rocks1 caus$ by ! frequ5t %ocks & quiv]+s4 ,:5 at la/ an op5+ has be5 made1 ! eruption beg9s1--g5]ally ) "o trem5d\s bur/ t %akes ! :ole m\nta9 d[n to its f\ndations4 ,aft] ?is1 frequ5t explosions foll[ ) great rapidity & increas+ viol5ce1 g5]ally f ! crat]4 ,^! are indicat$ by ! globul> masses ( /eam :i* are to be se5 ris+ up 9 a tall column l t :i* issues f ! funnel ( a locomotive4 ,b sometimes ! :ole m\nta9 seems to be m or less engag$ 9 giv+ out /eam1 & ?us to be p>tly envelop$ 9 x4 ,?is is illu/rat$ by our engrav+ f an in/antane\s photograph ( ,vesuvius 9 eruption 9 ! ye> #ahgb4 ,! /eam & o!r gases1 9 _! viol5t asc5t1 hurl up into ! air a great deal ( solid rock f ! sides ( ! c5tral op5+1 aft] fir/ bl[+ out ! /ones :i* previ\sly /opp$ up ! orifice4 ,blocks ( /one fall+ d[n meet ) o!rs com+ up2 & s a trem5d\s p\nd+ action takes place1 ! result ( :i* is t great quantities ( volcanic du/ & a%es are produc$1 g5]ally ( extreme f95ess4 ,w9ds & ocean curr5ts transport ^! light mat]ials = long di/ances4 ,! obs]vations made dur+ ! fam\s & fruitful voyage ( ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,*all5g] %[$ t f9e volcanic du/ is c>ri$ by w9d & m>9e curr5ts to almo/ all p>ts ( ! oceans4 ,! d>kness s frequ5tly m5tion$ 9 acc\nts ( eruptions--sometimes at a v great di/ance f ! volcano--is entirely caus$ by cl\ds ( volcanic du/ hid+ ! light ( ! sun4 ,p]haps ! be/ example ( ?is is ! case ( ! eruption ( ,krakatoa 79 ! ,/rait ( ,sunda1 betwe5 ,sumatra & ,java7 9 #ahhc4 ,its explosions 7 he>d 9 all directions = two ?\s& miles1 & a p]ceptible lay] ( volcanic du/ fell at all places )9 "o ?\s& miles2 :ile ! f9e/ du/ & vap\r1 %ot up fifte5 or tw5ty miles high1 7 spread all ov] ! globe1 caus+1 :ile /ill susp5d$ 9 ! atmosph]e1 ! peculi> r$ sunsets notic$ 9 all p>ts ( ! _w = "s mon?s aft] ! eruption4 ,aga91 ^? v curi\s deposits ( r$ clay f\nd 9 ! v deepe/ p>ts ( ! ,pacific & ,atlantic oceans 7at dep?s ( ab\t f\r ?\s& fa?oms1 or tw5ty-f\r ?\s& feet7 h be5 %[n to be *iefly compos$ ( volcanic du/1 _! r$ col\r be+ due to oxidis$ iron4 ,b !re is ano!r way 9 :i* a good deal ( f9e volcanic du/ is made2 & x is ?is3 ! lava is s full ( /eam intimately mix$ up ) x t ! /eam1 9 its viol5t ef=t to escape1 (t5 bl[s ! lava into m]e du/4 ,ano!r int]e/+ ph5om5on may be ?us describ$3 ,portions ( liquid1 or half liquid1 lava are caught up by ! /eam & hurl$ into ! air4 ,^! assume a m or less r\nd =m1 & are kn[n z bombs4 ,at a di/ance !y give rise to ! appe>ance ( flames4 ,& "h we may rem>k t ! fl>+1 col\r$ pictures ( ,etna or ,vesuvius 9 eruption1 :i* frequ5tly may be se51 are by no means correct4 ,! huge flames %oot+ up into ! air are q imag9>y1 b are probably sugge/$ by ! gl>e & bright reflection f gl[+ molt5 lava d[n 9 ! crat]4 ,s great is ! =ce ( ! p5t-up /eam try+ to escape t x frequ5tly bl[s a l>ge "p ( ! volcano bodily away2 & 9 "s cases a :ole m\nta9 has be5 bl[n to pieces4 ,f9ally1 torr5ts ( ra9 foll[ & accompany an eruption1--a result :i* cle>ly foll[s f ! cond5sation ( l>ge volumes ( /eam exp&+ & ris+ up into ! high] & cool] lay]s ( ! atmosph]e4 ,va/ quantities ( volcanic a% are caught up by ! ra91 & 9 ?is way v l>ge quantities ( mud are wa%$ d[n ! sides ( ! m\nta94 ,sometimes ! mud-fl[s are on a l>ge scale1 & desc5d+ ) great =ce1 bury a :ole t[n4 ,x 0 mo/ly 9 ?is way t ! anci5t cities ( ,h]culaneum & ,pompeii 7 buri$ by ! great eruption ( ,vesuvius 9 ! ye> #gi ,a4 ,d41 9 :i* ! eld] ,pl9y lo/ 8 life4 ,! discov]ies made dur+ excavations at ,pompeii are ( v great int]e/ z illu/rat+ old ,roman life4 ,! ,italians give ! "n lava d'acqua1 or wat]-lava1 to fl[s ( ?is k9d1 & !y are greatly dread$ on acc\nt ( _! great rapidity4 ,an ord9>y lava-/ream creeps sl[ly along1 s t p h "t to get out ( ! way2 b 9 ! case ( mud-fl[s !re is (t5 no "t to escape4 ,no lava-/ream has ev] rea*$ ,pompeii s9ce x 0 fir/ built1 al?\gh ! f\ndations ( ! t[n /& ^u an old lava-flood4 ,h]culaneum is ne>] to ,vesuvius1 & has at times be5 visit$ by lava-/reams4 ,mud-lavas1 a%es1 & lava-/reams h accumulat$ ov] ?is city to a dep? ( ov] sev5ty feet4 ,lava-/reams v>y greatly 9 size2 9 "s cases ! lava1 escap+ f crat]s1 comes to re/ be=e rea*+ ! base ( ! slopes ( ! volcano2 9 o!r cases a lava-fl[ n only rea*es ! pla9s bel[1 b ext5ds = _m miles ov] ! surr\nd+ c\ntry4 ,h5ce lava-/reams are important geological ag5ts4 ,let u look at "s fam\s in/ances4 ,! mo/ /up5d\s fl[ on record 0 t :i* took place f ,skapt> ,jkull 9 ,icel&1 9 ! ye> #aghc4 ,9 ?is case a numb] ( /reams issu$ f ! volcano1 flood+ ! c\ntry f> & wide1 fill+ up riv] gorges :i* 7 9 "s cases six hundr$ feet deep & two hundr$ & fifty feet broad1 & advanc+ into ! alluvial pla9s 9 lakes ( molt5 rock twelve to fifte5 miles wide & "o hundr$ feet deep4 ,two curr5ts ( lava :i* fl[$ 9 ne>ly opposite directions spread out ) v>y+ ?ickness accord+ to ! nature ( ! gr\nd = =ty & fifty miles respectively4 ,_h ?is great eruption tak5 place 9 ! s\? ( ,engl&1 all ! c\ntry f ! neighb\rhood ( ,london to t ( ,gl\ce/] might h be5 cov]$ by a flood ( basalt ( consid]able ?ickness4 ,sometimes1 :5 ! lava c only escape at a po9t l[ d[n on ! m\nta91 a f\nta9 ( molt5 rock w sp\t high into ! air4 ,?is has happ5$ on ,vesuvius & ,etna4 ,b 9 an eruption ( ,mauna ,loa1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 an unbrok5 f\nta9 ( lava1 f two hundr$ to sev5 hundr$ feet high & "o ?\s& feet broad1 bur/ out at ! base ( ! m\nta92 & aga9 9 ,april1 #ahhh1 ! same ?+ happ5$ on a /ill gr&] scale4 ,9 ?is case f\r fi]y f\nta9s cont9u$ to play = sev]al weeks1 sometimes ?r[+ ! gl[+ lava to a height ( "o ?\s& feet 9 ! air4 ,surely !re c be no m wond]ful or awful sight ?an ?is 9 ! _w4 ,! volcanoes ( ,hawaii1 ! pr9cipal isl& 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s1 (t5 s5d =? lava-/reams cov]+ an area ( ov] "o hundr$ squ>e miles to a dep? ( "o hundr$ feet or m2 b !y are dis*>g$ q quietly1 l wat] well+ out ( a spr+4 ,repeat$ fl[s ( ?is k9d1 h[ev]1 h 9 ! c\rse ( ages built up a great flat cone six miles high f ! floor ( ! ocean1 to =m ?is l(ty isl&1 :i* is l>g] ?an ,surrey2 & x is calculat$ t ! great volcanic m\nta9 mu/ conta9 en\gh mat]ial to cov] ! :ole ( ! ,unit$ ,/ates ) a lay] ( rock fifty feet deep4 ,b x is n only on ! surface ( ! l& t volcanic eruptions take place2 = 9 "s cases ! outbreak ( a subm>9e eruption has be5 witness$1 & x is highly probable t 9 pa/ geological ages _m l>ge eruptions ( ?is nature h tak5 place4 ,9 ! ye> #aghc1 an eruption took place ab\t ?irty miles (f ! we/ coa/ ( ,icel&4 ,an isl& 0 built up f :i* gl[+ vap\r & smoke came =?2 b 9 a ye> or less ! waves _h wa%$ ev]y?+ away1 leav+ only a subm]g$ reef4 ,! isl& ( ,santor91 9 ! ,greek ,ar*ipelago1 is a p>tly subm]g$ volcano4 ,b 9 "s cases enorm\s outp\r+s ( lava h tak5 place1 n f volcanoes1 b f op5+s ( ! gr\nd "h & !re1 & m usually f long fissures or cracks 9 ! rocks ly+ at ! surface4 ,9 _m cases s mu* lava has quietly well$ out 9 ?is way t ! old features ( ! l&scape h be5 completely buri$ up1 & wide pla9s & plateaux =m$ ov] !m4 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie says1-- ,"s ( ! mo/ rem>kable examples ( ?is type ( volcanic /ructure occur 9 we/]n ,nor? ,am]ica4 ,among ^! t ( ! ,snake ,riv] pla9 9 ,idaho may be briefly describ$4 ,surr\nd$ on ! nor? & ea/ by l(ty m\nta9s1 x /ret*es we/w>d z an app>5tly b\ndless des]t ( s& & b>e %eets ( black basalt4 ,a few /reams desc5d+ into ! pla9 f ! hills are soon swall[$ up & lo/4 ,! ,snake ,riv]1 h[ev]1 fl[s across x1 & has cut out ( its lava b$ a s]ies ( picturesque gorges & rapids4 ,! ext5t ( c\ntry :i* has be5 flood$ ) basalt 9 ?is & adjo9+ regions ( ,oregon & ,wa%+ton has n yet be5 accurately survey$1 b has be5 e/imat$ to cov] a l>g] area ?an ,france & ,great ,brita9 comb9$4 ,look$ at f any po9t on its surface1 "o ( ^! lava pla9s appe>s z a va/ level surface1 l t ( a lake bottom4 ,?is uni=mity has be5 produc$ ei!r by ! lava roll+ ov] a pla9 or lake bottom1 or by ! complete effacem5t ( an orig9al1 undulat+ cont\r ( ! gr\nd "u hundr$s ( feet ( lava 9 successive %eets4 ,! lava1 roll+ up to ! base ( ! m\nta9s1 has foll[$ ! s9uosities ( _! m>g91 z ! wat]s ( a lake foll[ its promontories & bays4 ,a few fur!r examples ( mud-lavas may be m5tion$ "h4 ,cotopaxi1 a great volcano 9 ,ecuador1 ,s\? ,am]ica1 ) a height ( #ag1ijj feet1 rea*es s high into ! atmosph]e t ! high] p>ts are capp$ ) sn[4 ,9 ,june1 #ahgg1 a great eruption took place1 dur+ :i* ! melt+ ( sn[ & ice gave rise to torr5ts ( mud & wat]1 :i* ru%$ d[n ! /eep sides ( ! m\nta91 s t l>ge blocks ( ice 7 hurri$ along4 ,! villages ar\nd to a di/ance ( ab\t sev5ty miles 7 buri$ "u a deposit ( mud1 mix$ ) blocks ( lava1 a%es1 pieces ( wood1 etc4 ,sometimes a volcano dis*>ges l>ge quantities ( mud directly f ! crat]4 ,9 ?is case ! mud is n manufactur$ by ! volcano itself1 b f9ds its way ?r\gh fissures & cracks f ! b$ ( ! neighb\r+ sea or riv]s to ! crat]4 ,?us1 9 ! ye> #afia1 ,imbaburu1 "o ( ! ,&es ( ,quito1 s5t out floods ( mud conta9+ dead fi%1 ! decay ( :i* caus$ fev] 9 ! neighb\rhood4 ,9 ! same way ! volcanoes ( ,java h (t5 buri$ l>ge tracts ( f]tile c\ntry "u a cov]+ ( volcanic mud1 ?us caus+ great deva/ation4 ,va/ quantities ( du/ are produc$1 z already expla9$1 by ! p\nd+ action t takes place dur+ an eruption1 z portions ( rock 9 fall+ d[n meet o!rs t are be+ hurl$ into ! air4 ,/rik+ in/ances ( ?is h occurr$ n f> f ,great ,brita94 ,?us 9 ! ye> #aghc1 dur+ an eruption ( ,skapt> ,jkull1 s great 0 ! am\nt ( du/ ?us creat$ t ! atmosph]e 9 ,icel& 0 load$ ) x = sev]al mon?s4 ,c>ri$ by w9ds1 x ev5 rea*$ ! nor!rn p>ts ( ,scotl&1 & 9 ,cai?ness s mu* ( x fell t ! crops 7 de/roy$4 ,?is is rem>kable1 consid]+ t ! di/ance 0 six hundr$ miles4 ,ev5 9 ,holl& & ,norway !re are traces ( ?is great %[] ( du/ f ! ,icel&ic volcano4 ,dur+ ! fe>ful eruption ( ,tomboro1 a volcano 9 ! isl& ( ,sumbawa1 9 ! ,ea/]n ,ar*ipelago1 9 #ahae1 ! abundance ( a%es & du/ eject$ caus$ d>kness at midday at ,java1 ?ree hundr$ miles away1 & ev5 !re ! gr\nd 0 cov]$ to a dep? ( sev]al in*es4 ,9 ,sumbawa itself ! "p ( ! isl& jo9+ ! m\nta9 0 entirely desolat$1 & all ! h\ses de/roy$1 toge!r ) twelve ?\s& inhabitants4 ,trees & h]bage 7 ov]:elm$ ) pumice & volcanic du/4 ,! float+ pumice on ! sea ar\nd =m$ a lay] two feet1 six in*es ?ick1 ?r\gh :i* vessels =c$ _! way ) difficulty4 ,f su* facts z ^! x is cle> t if 9 pa/ ages volcanoes h be5 s p[]fully active z !y are n[1 we %\ld expect to f9d lava-fl[s1 dykes1 & great deposits ( volcanic a% deposit$ 9 wat] among ! /ratifi$ rocks2 & su* is ! case4 ,_m l>ge masses ( rock famili> to ! geologi/1 & (t5 =m+ p>ts ( exi/+ m\nta9s1 are to be acc\nt$ = ei!r z great lava-fl[s1 or dykes t h =c$ _! way 9 among ! /rata1 or z ext5sive deposits ( volcanic a%4 ,b p]haps ! read] w\ld l to "k :at ! inside ( a volcanic crat] is l dur+ an eruption4 ,let u1 !n1 take a peep into t fe>ful crat] ( ,kilauea1 9 ! ,s&wi* ,isl&s4 ,= ?is purpose we _c d bett] ?an foll[ ,miss ,bird's admirable description ( h] adv5tur\s exp$ition to ?is crat]3-- ,! abyss1 :i* really is at a height ( f\r ?\s& feet1 on ! flank ( ,mauna ,loa1 has ! appe>ance ( a pit on a roll+ pla94 ,b su* a pit6 ,x is q n9e miles 9 circumf]5ce1 & at its l[e/ area--:i* n long ago fell ab\t ?ree hundr$ feet1 j z ice on a pond falls :5 ! wat] bel[ is )drawn--cov]s six squ>e miles4 ,! dep? ( ! crat] v>ies f eight hundr$ to "o ?\s& feet1 accord+ z ! molt5 sea bel[ is at flood or ebb4 ,signs ( volcanic activity are pres5t m or less ?r\gh\t its :ole dep?1 & = "s di/ance r\nd its m>g91 9 ! =m ( /eam-cracks1 jets ( sulphur\s vap\r1 bl[+ cones1 accumulat+ deposits ( acicul> cry/als ( sulphur1 etc41 & ! pit itself is con/antly r5t & %ak5 by e>?quakes4 ,gr& eruptions occurr$ ) circum/ances ( indescribable t]ror & dignity2 b ,kilauea does n limit its activity to ^! outbur/s1 b has exhibit$ its m>vell\s ph5om5a ?r\gh all kn[n "t 9 a lake or lakes on ! s\!rn "p ( ! crat] ?ree miles f ?is side4 ,?is lake--! ,hale-mau-mau1 or ',h\se ( ,ev]la/+ ,fire1' ( ! ,hawaiian my?ology1 ! abode ( ! dread$ goddess ,pele--is approa*able ) safety1 except dur+ an eruption4 ,! spectacle1 h[ev]1 v>ies almo/ daily2 & at times ! level ( ! lava 9 ! pit )9 a pit is s l[1 & ! suffocat+ gases are evolv$ 9 su* enorm\s quantities1 t travell]s are unable to see any?+4 ,!re _h be5 no news f x = a week2 & z no?+ 0 to be se5 b a v fa9t blui% vap\r hang+ r\nd its m>g91 ! prospect 0 n enc\rag+4444 ,aft] m ?an an h\r ( v difficult climb+1 we rea*$ ! l[e/ level ( ! crat]1 pretty ne>ly a mile across1 pres5t+ f above ! appe>ance ( a sea at re/2 b on cross+ x1 we f\nd x to be an expanse ( waves & convolutions ( a%y-col\r$ lava1 ) huge cracks fill$ up ) black iridesc5t rolls ( lava only a few weeks old4 ,p>ts ( x are v r\gh & ridgy1 jamm$ toge!r l field-ice1 or compact$ by rolls ( lava1 :i* may h swell$ up f b5ea?2 b ! l>ge/ "p ( ! area pres5ts ! appe>ance ( huge coil$ haws]s1 ! ropy =mation ( ! lava r5d]+ ! illusion almo/ p]fect4 ,^! are riv5 by deep cracks1 :i* emit hot sulphur\s vap\rs4444 ,z we asc5d$1 ! fl[ became hott] "u our feet1 z well z m por\s & gli/5+4 ,x 0 s hot t a %[] ( ra9 hiss$ z x fell ^u x4 ,! cru/ became increas+ly insecure1 & necessitat$ our walk+ 9 s+le file ) ! guide 9 front1 to te/ ! security ( ! foot+4 ,i fell ?r\gh sev]al times1 & always into holes full ( sulphur\s /eam s malignantly acid t my /rong dogsk9 gloves 7 burn$ ?r\gh z ,i rais$ myself on my h&s4 ,we _h foll[$ ! lava-fl[ = ?irty miles up to ! crat]'s br9k1 & n[ we _h toil$ ov] rec5t lava = ?ree h\rs1 & by all calculation 7 close to ! pit2 yet !re 0 no smoke or sign ( fire1 & ,i felt sure t ! volcano _h di$ out = once = our special disappo9tm5t4444 ,sudd5ly1 j above1 & 9 front ( u1 gory drops 7 toss$ 9 ! air1 & spr++ =w>ds we /ood on ! br9k ( ,hale-mau-mau1 :i* 0 ab\t ?irty-five feet bel[ u4 ,i ?9k we all scream$4 ,i "k we all wept2 b we 7 spee*less1 = a new glory & t]ror _h be5 add$ to ! e>?4 ,x is ! mo/ unutt]able ( wond]ful ?+s4 ,! words ( common spee* are q useless4 ,x is unimag9able1 indescribable2 a sight to rememb] = ev]2 a sight :i* at once took possession ( e faculty ( s5se & s\l1 remov+ "o altoge!r out ( ! range ( ord9>y life4 ,"h 0 ! real 'bottomless pit1' '! fire :i* is n qu5*$1' '! place ( ,hell1' '! lake :i* burne? ) fire & brim/one1' '! ev]la/+ burn+s1' '! fi]y sea ^: waves are nev] we>y4'#bf ,!re 7 groan+s1 rumbl+s1 & detonations1 ru%+s1 hiss+s1 spla%+s1 & ! cra%+ s\nd ( break]s on ! coa/2 b x 0 ! surg+ ( fi]y waves ^u a fi]y %ore4 ,b :at c ,i write8 ,su* words z jets1 f\nta9s1 waves1 spray1 convey "s idea ( ord] & regul>ity1 b "h !re 0 none4 ,! inn] lake1 :ile we /ood !re1 =m$ a sort ( crat] )9 itself2 ! :ole lava sea rose ab\t ?ree feet2 a bl[+ cone ab\t eight feet high 0 =m$2 x 0 nev] ! same two m9utes toge!r4 ,& :at we saw _h no exi/5ce a mon? ago1 & probably w be *ang$ 9 e ess5tial feature a mon? h5ce4444 ,! prom95t object 0 fire 9 motion2 b ! surface ( ! d\ble lake 0 cont9ually skimm+ ov] = a second or two ) a cool$ cru/ ( a lu/r\s grey-:ite1 l fro/$ silv]1 brok5 by jagg$ cracks ( a bright rose-col\r4 ,! movem5t 0 ne>ly always f ! sides to ! c5tre2 b ! movem5t ( ! c5tre itself appe>$ indep5d5t1 & always took a s\!rly direction4 ,be=e ea* outbur/ ( agitation !re 0 mu* hiss+ & ?robb+1 int]nal ro>+1 z ( imprison$ gases4 ,n[ x seem$ furi\s1 demoniacal1 z if no p[] on e>? c\ld b9d x1 !n playful & sportive1 !n = a second languid1 b only because x 0 accumulat+ fre% =ce4444 ,sometimes ! :ole lake 444 took ! =m ( mighty waves1 & surg+ heavily aga9/ ! p>tial b>ri] ) a s\nd l ! ,pacific surf1 la%$1 tore1 cov]$ x1 & ?rew itself ov] x 9 clots ( liv+ fire4 ,x 0 all confusion1 commotion1 =ces1 t]ror1 glory1 maje/y1 my/]y1 & ev5 beauty4 ,& ! col\r1 'eye ha? n se5' x6 ,molt5 metal ha? n t crimson gleam1 nor blood t liv+ light4#bg #bf ,p]haps ^! ,scripture phrases 7 sugge/$ long be=e ! ,bible 0 writt51 by ! sight ( "s crat] 9 active eruption4 #bg ,! ,hawaiian ,ar*ipelago4 ,cont9u$ obs]vation ( volcanoes1 toge!r ) evid5ce d]iv$ f hi/ory1 tea*es t !re are diff]5t /ages ( volcanic action4 ,!re are ?ree pretty well-m>k$ phases4 ,fir/1 ! /ate ( p]man5t eruption2 ?is is n a dang]\s /ate1 because ! /eam keeps escap+ all ! "t3 ! safety-valve is at "w1 & all goes smoo?ly4 ,! second /ate is "o ( mod]ate activity1 ) m or less viol5t eruptions at brief int]vals2 ?is is r dang]\s1 because at times ! safety-valve does n "w4 ,& ?irdly1 we h p>oxysms ( int5se en]gy1 alt]nat+ ) long p]iods ( repose sometimes la/+ = c5turies4 ,^! eruptions are extremely viol5t1 & cause widespread de/ruction2 ! safety-valve has got jamm$1 & s ! boil] bur/s4 ,no volcano has be5 s c>efully wat*$ = a long "t z ,vesuvius4 ,its hi/ory illu/rates ! phases we h j m5tion$4 ,! fir/ record$ eruption is t ( ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 a v sev]e "o ( ! viol5t type1 by :i* ,h]culaneum1 ,pompeii1 & ,/abi 7 buri$4 ,we h an int]e/+ acc\nt by ! y\ng] ,pl9y4 ,be=e ?is great eruption took place1 ,vesuvius _h be5 9 a /ate ( repose = eight hundr$ ye>s1 & if we may judge f ! ,greek & ,roman writ+s1 0 n ev5 suspect$ ( be+ a volcano4 ,!n foll[$ an int]val ( re/ until ! reign ( ,sev]us1 ! second eruption tak+ place 9 ! ye> #bjc4 ,9 ! ye> #dgb1 says ,procopius1 all ,europe 0 cov]$ m or less ) volcanic a%es4 ,o!r eruptions foll[$ at int]vals1 b !re 0 complete repose = two c5turies2 t is1 until ! ye> #acjf4 ,9 #aejj x 0 aga9 active1 !n quiet aga9 = "o hundr$ & ?irty ye>s4 ,9 #afca !re took place ano!r t]rific outbur/4 ,aft] ?is _m eruptions foll[$1 & !y h be5 frequ5t ev] s9ce4 ,vesuvius is !re=e n[ 9 ! second /age ( mod]ate activity4 ,b geologi/s c take a wid] view ?an ?is4 ,!y c sum up ! hi/ory ( a volcanic region ( ! e>?2 & ! result is some:at z foll[s3 ,volcanoes1 l liv+ creatures1 g ?r\gh diff]5t p]iods or phases1 correspond+ r\ghly to y\?1 middle age1 old age1 & f9ally decay4 ,! invasion ( any p>ticul> area ( ! e>?'s surface by ! volcanic =ces is h]ald$ by und]gr\nd %ocks1 or e>?quakes4 ,a little lat] on cracks are =m$1 z indicat$ by ! rise ( sal9e & hot spr+s1 & ! issu+ ( c>bonic acid & o!r gases at ! surface ( ! e>?4 ,z ! und]gr\nd activity becomes great]1 ! temp]ature ( ! spr+s & emitt$ gases increases2 & at la/ a visible r5t is =m$1 expos+ highly heat$ & gl[+ rock bel[4 ,f ! fissure ?us =m$1 ! gas & vap\rs imprison$ 9 ! molt5 rocks escape ) su* viol5ce z to disp]se ! latt] 9 ! =m ( pumice & volcanic a%1 or to cause !m to p\r out z lava-/reams4 ,! action g5]ally becomes conf9$ to "o or m po9ts along ! l9e ( action 7:i* is a l9e ( fissures & cracks74 ,9 ?is way a *a9 ( volcanoes is =m$1 :i* may become ! seat ( volcanic action = a long "t4 ,:5 ! volcanic en]gies h become some:at exhau/$1 s t !y _c raise up ! lava & expel x f ! volcanic crat]1 nor r5d ! sides ( ! volcano & cause m9or cones to gr[ up on _! flanks1 small cones may be =m$ at a l[] level 9 ! pla9s ar\nd ! great c5tral *a94 ,^! likewise are f$ f fissures4 ,lat] on1 z ! heat$ rock bel[ cools d[n1 ! fissures are seal$ up by lava t has become solid2 & !n ! volcanoes fall1 z x 71 into ! s]e & yell[ leaf1 & rema9 9 a peaceful1 quiet /ate befitt+ _! old age4 ,aft] ?is !y beg9 to suff] f long exposure to ! atmosph]ic influ5ces ( decay1 & ra9 & riv]s wa% !m away m or less completely4 ,b /ill ! pres5ce ( heat$ rocky matt] at no great dep? bel[ is prov$ by ! outbur/s ( gases & vap\rs1 ! =m+ ( geys]s & ord9>y hot spr+s4 ,gradually1 h[ev]1 ev5 ^! signs ( heat bel[ disappe>2 & ! cycle ( volcanic phases is at an end4 ,su* a s]ies ( *anges may require millions ( ye>s2 b by ! /udy ( volcanoes 9 e /age ( _! gr[? & decl9e x is possible ?us to sket* out an outl9e ( _! hi/ory4 ,x mu/ be confess$ t 9 ! pres5t /ate ( sci5tific k no full & complete explanation ( volcanic action is possible4 ,geologi/s & o!rs are z yet b feel+ _! way cauti\sly t[>ds ! light :i*1 p]haps be=e long1 w illum9e ! d>k recesses ( ?is my/]i\s subject4 ,_m !ories & ideas h be5 put =w>d1 b 9 ! op9ion ( ! writ] ! mo/ promis+ explanation is "o t may be briefly express$ z foll[s3 ,!re are bel[ ! cru/ ( ! e>? l>ge masses ( highly heat$ rock t are kept solid by ! enorm\s pressure ( ! ov]ly+ rocks1 or o!rwise !y w\ld melt1--= x is a kn[n fact t pressure t5ds to prev5t ! melt+ ( a solid body4 ,b :5 e>?-movem5ts tak+ place )9 ! e>?'s cru/--su* z ! upheav+ ( m\nta9-*a9s--take (f "s ( ! weight1 ! balance betwe5 int]nal heat & ! pressure f above is no long] ma9ta9$2 & s ^! highly heat$ rocks run (f into ! liquid /ate1 & f9d+ _! way to ! surface ?r\gh ! fissures m5tion$ above1 give rise to volcanic action4 ,!re is mu* to be said 9 fav\r ( ?is view4 ,x rightly connects volcanic action ) movem5ts ( upheaval1 ) m\nta9-*a9s & l9es ( weakness 9 ! e>?'s cru/4 ,!re is v good reason to believe t ! e>? 0 once 9 a highly heat$ /ate1 & has be5 sl[ly cool+ d[n = ages4 ,! increase ( temp]ature obs]v$ 9 p5etrat+ m9es tells u t x /ill reta9s bel[ ! surface "s ( its old heat4 ,we ne$ n !re=e be surpris$ at ! exi/5ce ( heat$ masses ( rock d[n bel[1 or seek1 z "s h done1 an entirely diff]5t s\rce = ! orig9 ( volcanic heat ?an t :i* rema9s f ! e>?'s once molt5 condition4 ,x w\ld take too long to /ate ! reasons on :i* ?is idea ( ! =m] /ate ( our planet is bas$1 & moreov]1 x w\ld br+ u into ! region ( a/ronomy1 ) :i* we are n conc]n$ at pres5t4 ,9 v>i\s p>ts ( ,great ,brita9 & ,irel& we meet ) old volcanic rocks1--lavas1 intrusive dykes1 & %eets ( basalt1 etc41 toge!r ) va/ deposits ( volcanic a%1 :i*1 s9k+ into ! old neighb\r+ seas1 became /ratifi$1 or arrang$ 9 lay]s l ! ord9>y s$im5t>y rocks4 ,9 "s cases we see emb$d$ 9 ^! lay]s ! v bombs t 7 ?r[n out by ! old volcanoes 7see page #bec74 ,& besides ^! purely volcanic rocks1 we (t5 meet 9 ^! areas ) great bosses ( granite1 :i* mu/ h be5 9 "s way connect$ ) ! old volcanoes1 & probably 7 9 _m cases ! s\rce f :i* mu* ( ! volcanic rock 0 d]iv$4 ,b m ?an ?is1 9 a few in/ances we h ! site ( ! old volcano itself m>k$ out by a k9d ( pipe1 or neck1 n[ fill$ ) "s ( its volcanic dbris 9 ! %ape ( co>se1 r\nd$ fragm5ts 7see page #bgg74 ,dur+ a v anci5t p]iod1 kn[n to geologi/s z ! ,silurian ,p]iod1 great lava-fl[s took place f volcanoes situat$ :]e ,nor? & ,s\? ,wales & ! ,lake ,di/rict n[ are2 & by _! eruptions a va/ am\nt ( volcanic a% 0 made1 :i* fell into ! sea & sl[ly sank to ! bottom1 s t ! %ell-fi% liv+ !re 7 buri$ 9 ! /rata ?us =m$1 & may n[ be se5 9 a fossilis$ condition4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,! ,,ranges ,,( ,,! ,,great ,,bas91 ,,we/]n ,,/ates ,,( ,,nor? ,,am]ica1 ,,%[+ ,a ,,s]ies ,,( ,,great ,,fractures ,,& ,,tilt$ ,,masses ,,( ,,rock4 ,illu/ration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,section ,,?r\gh ,,sn[don4 ,?us ,sn[don1 ,cad] ,idris1 ! ,arans1 ,ar5ig ,m\nta91 & o!rs1 are v l>gely made up ( ^! anci5t volcanic mat]ials4 ,! writ] has pick$ up specim5s ( fossil %ell-fi% ne> ! summit ( ,sn[don f a b$ ( f9e volcanic a% t =ms ! summit4 ,fig4 #b repres5ts a section ?r\gh ,sn[don1 f :i* x w be se5 t we h fir/ a few s$im5t>y /rata1 ,s1 !n a great lava-fl[1 ,l2 & t volcanic a%es accumulat$ on ! top ( ?is1 ( :i* ,a ,a are pat*es /ill left4 ,b is an intrusive dyke ( a basaltic rock t =c$ its way ?r\gh aft]w>ds4 ,aga91 9 ! ,lake ,di/rict !re is a well-kn[n volcanic s]ies ( /ratifi$ rocks ( ! same age1 consi/+ mo/ly ( lavas & a%es1 ! total ?ickness ( :i* is ab\t twelve ?\s& feet 7kn[n z ! ,gre5 ,slates & ,porphyries71 s t a l>ge "p ( "s ( ! m\nta9s !re h also be5 built up by volcanic action2 b no traces ( ! old volcanoes rema94 ,go+ f>!r nor? we f9d abundant pro( t volcanic action on a prodigi\s scale took place 9 ,scotl& dur+ ! v anci5t p]iod ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one1 ) :i* ! "n ( ,hugh ,mill] w always be associat$4 ,9 ,c5tral ,scotl& we see lava-fl[s & /rata =m$ ( volcanic a%1 ) a ?ickness ( m ?an six ?\s& feet1 fragm5ts ( :i*1 hav+ escap$ ! de/ructive ag5ts ( d5udation1 n[ =m important *a9s ( hills1 su* z ! ,p5tl&1 ,o*il1 & ,sidlaw ranges4 ,nor 0 ! volcanic action conf9$ to ?is region4 ,9 ! di/rict ( ! ,*eviot ,hills simil> volcanic rocks are to be se54 ,b "h aga9 ! old volcanoes h long s9ce be5 swept away1 leav+ u only portions ( _! outp\r+s buri$ 9 ! hills4 ,!re c be no d\bt t ! pres5t area ( ! ,grampian ,hills 0 once ! site ( a consid]able numb] ( volcanoes1 only at a mu* high] level ?an _! pres5t surface1 elevat$ ?\gh t is to ! region ( ! cl\ds2 b 9 ?is case subsequ5t d5udation has be5 s enorm\s t ! old m\nta9 surface has be5 plan$ away until all we c n[ see is a s]ies ( sep>ate pat*es ( granite1 t 7 once 9 a fus$ & highly heat$ /ate f> bel[ ! surface1 & =m$ "p ( ! subt]ranean res]voirs f :i* ! volcanoes d]iv$ _! great supplies ( lava & /eam4 ,x is inde$ difficult to imag9e ! enorm\s am\nt ( d5udation :i* has tak5 place 9 ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 & to realise t ! magnific5t range ( ! ,cairngorms1 = in/ance1 has be5 = ages worn d[n until n[ !y are b a remnant ( :at !y once 74 ,9 ?is region we see ! once boil+ & see?+ masses ( rock :i* f$ ! old volcanoes1 n[ no long] end[$ ) life-l p[] by ! =ce ( /eam1 b ly+ 9 dea?like cold & /iffness1 ) _! beautiful cry/als ( mica & felsp> sp>kl+ 9 ! sun4 ,! volcanic fires h di$ out2 b ! traces ( _! "w are unmi/akable1 among :i* we mu/ n =get to reckon ! beautiful m9]als made by ! action ( heat$ wat] ^u ! surr\nd+ rocks4 ,! beautiful cairngorm /ones are /ill sometimes f\nd on ! m\nta9 f :i* !y take _! "n1 & 9 all volcanic regions m9]als are pl5tiful4 ,! well-kn[n hill call$ ,ar?ur's ,seat1 close to ,ed9burgh1 m>ks ! site ( an old volcano4 ,! neck1 or c5tral op5+1 may be se5 at ! top ( ! hill1 b *ok$ up ) volcanic rocks & dbris4 ,! crat] has long s9ce disappe>$1 b ,salisbury ,craigs & ,/4 ,leon>d's ,craigs are =m$ ( a great %eet ( basalt t intrud$ itself among ! /ratifi$ rocks t _h be5 =m$ !re1 & s belong really to a great intrusive dyke4 ,9 ! ,ca/le ,rock we see ! same basalt aga94 ,dur+ a mu* lat] age1 kn[n z ! ,mioc5e ,p]iod 7see *ap4 x41 p4 #cbd71 enorm\s outp\r+s ( lava took place 9 ,we/]n ,europe1 cov]+ hundr$s ( squ>e miles4 ,( ^! ! mo/ important is t :i* occupies a l>ge "p ( ! nor!a/ ( ,irel&1 & ext5ds 9 pat*es ?r\gh ! ,inn] ,hebrides & ! ,f>e ,isl&s into ,icel&4 ,^! eruptive rocks1 unlike ^? above ref]r$ to1 mu/ h p\r$ out at ! surface1 & h tak5 ! =m ( successive %eets1 su* z we n[ see 9 ! t]rac$ plateaux ( ,skye1 ,eigg1 ,canna1 ,muck1 ,mull1 & ,morv54 ,^!1 !n1 are pat*es ( :at once =m$ a great pla9 ( basalt4 ,dur+ lat] times ?is volcanic plat=m has be5 s greatly cut up by ! ag5ts ( d5udation t x has be5 r$uc$ to m]e scatt]$ fragm5ts2 ?\s&s ( feet ( basalt h be5 worn away f x2 deep & wide valleys h be5 c>v$ out ( x2 & 9 _m cases x has be5 almo/ entirely /ripp$ (f f ! wide areas x once cov]$4 ,:]e1 z 9 ! ,isle ( ,eigg1 ! lava has be5 pil$ up 9 successive %eets1 ) "s lay]s ( volcanic a% betwe51 ! latt] has be5 worn away r fa/] ?an ! h>d lay]s ( basalt1 & ea* lava-fl[ is cle>ly m>k$ by a t]race4 ,^! volcanic eruptions h ?us _h a great influ5ce 9 m\ld+ ! sc5]y ( ?is region4 ,9 ,irel& ! old basalts are well se5 at ! ,giant's ,causeway1 & on ! ,scotti% coa/ we see !m aga9 at ! well-kn[n ,f+al's cave at ,/affa4 ,?is isl&1 l ! o!rs1 is j a pat* ( ! old lava-/reams4 ,its curi\s six-sid$ columns illu/rate a fact ) reg>d to ! subsequ5t cool+ ( lava-fl[s4 ,"s int]nal =ces1 analog\s to t :i* regulates ! %apes ( cry/als1 h caus$ x to crack along ?ree sets ( l9es1 s plac$ ) reg>d to ea* o!r z to produce six-sid$ columns4 ,9 ,irel& ! basalts atta9 a ?ickness ( n9e hundr$ feet2 9 ,mull !y are ab\t ?ree ?\s& feet ?ick4 ,x has be5 cle>ly prov$ t ,mull is ! site ( "o ( ! old volcanoes ( ?is p]iod1 b v few o!rs h z yet be5 detect$4 ,p]haps ! eruptions took place ma9ly f l>ge fissures1 in/ead ( f volcanic cones1 = x is kn[n t ! gr\nd bel[ ! lava-%eets has be5 r5t by e>?quakes into innum]able fissures1 into :i* ! basalt 0 inject$ f bel[4 ,9 ?is way a va/ numb] ( dykes 7 =m$4 ,^! h be5 trac$ by hundr$s ea/w>ds f ?is region across ,scotl&1 & ev5 ! nor? ( ,engl&4 ,9 ?is case ! molt5 rock 0 /ruggl+ to get ?r\gh ! ov]ly+ rocks & escape at ! surface2 b app>5tly x did n succe$ 9 s do+1 = we d n f9d lava-fl[s to ! ea/ & s\?4 ,^! basalt dykes are f\nd z f> s\? z ,york%ire1 & c be trac$ ov] an area ( "o hundr$ ?\s& squ>e miles4 ,x is ?us evid5t t 9 ! ,mioc5e ,p]iod a great & ext5sive mass ( molt5 basalt 0 und]ly+ a l>ge "p ( ! ,briti% ,isles1 & probably ! weight ( ! ?ick rocks ov]ly+ x 0 suffici5t to prev5t its escape to ! surface4 ,if x _h succe$$ 9 s escap+ & ov]fl[+1 h[ diff]5t ! sc5]y ( mu* ( ,scotl& & ,nor!rn ,engl& might h be56 ,illu/ration3 ,,column> ,,basalt ,,at ,,clam%ell ,,cave1 ,,/affa4 ,,f ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,j4 ,,val5t9e4 ,,*apt] ,,ix4 ,,m\nta9 ,,ar*itecture4 ,! spl5d\r falls on ca/le walls ,& sn[y summits old 9 /ory2 ,! long light %akes across ! lakes1 ,& ! wild cat>act leaps 9 glory4 ,bl[1 bugle1 bl[1 set ! wild e*oes fly+2 ,bl[1 bugle2 answ]1 e*oes1 dy+1 dy+1 dy+4 ,,t5nyson4 ,! dy+ spl5d\rs ( ! sun sl[ly s9k+ & ent]+ ! gates ( ! ,we/ may well s]ve z a fitt+ emblem ( ! m\nta9s 9 _! beautiful old age1 await+ 9 sil5t & calm dignity ! "t :5 !y also mu/ be br\ght l[1 & s9k 9 ! wat]s ( ! ocean1 z ! sun appe>s daily to d4 ,yes1 !y too h _! day4 ,!y too _h _! ris+1 :5 mighty =ces br\ght !m up out ( _! wat]y b$4 ,_m ( !m h pass$ _! hey-day ( y\?1 & _! midday2 :ile o!rs1 f> advanc$ 9 old age1 are ne>+ ! end ( _! c\rse4 ,b z ! sun rises once m ov] ea/]n seas to beg9 ano!r day1 s w ! sub/ance ( ! m\nta9s be aga9 heav$ up aft] a long1 long re/ "u ! sea1 & "h & !re w rise up f ! pla9s to =m ! l(ty m\nta9-ranges ( a di/ant future4 ,ev]y:]e we read ! same /ory1 ! same circle ( *anges4 ,! ,alp9e peak t pr\dly re>s its head to ! cl\ds mu/ surely be br\ght l[1 & f9ally come back to ! same ocean f :i* ^? cl\ds arose4 ,x is 9 ?is way t ! balance betwe5 l& & wat] is pres]v$4 ,9 pass+ ?r\gh su* a great circle ( *anges1 ! m\nta9s assume v>i\s =ms & %apes :i* are det]m9$ by3-- #a4 ,_! diff]5t ages & /ates ( decay4 #b4 ,! diff]5t k9ds ( rocks ( :i* !y are compos$1 & especially by _! jo9ts1 or natural divisions4 #c4 ,! diff]5t positions into :i* ^! rocky lay]s h be5 squeez$1 pu%$1 & crumpl$ by ^? /up5d\s =ces ( upheaval ( :i* we spoke 9 *apt] vi4 ,let u !re=e glance at "s ( ^! ext]nal =ms1 & !n look at ! int]nal /ructure ( m\nta9s4 ,9 s do+ we %all f9d t we h yet a good deal m to le>n ab\t m\nta9s & h[ !y 7 made2 & also we %all !n be 9 a bett] position to realise n only h[ v mu* d5udation !y h suff]$1 b also h[ greatly !y h be5 di/urb$ s9ce _! rocks 7 fir/ made4 ,e "o :o kn[s m\nta9s mu/ h obs]v$ h[ "s are smoo? & r\nd$1 o!rs %>p & jagg$1 ) peaks & p9nacles /&+ out cle>ly aga9/ ! sky2 "s squ>e & massive1 ) /eep walls =m+ precipices2 o!rs aga9 spread out widely at _! base1 b ! slop+ sides end 9 a %>p po9t at ! top1 giv+ to ! m\nta9 ! appe>ance ( a cone4 ,_! div]sities ( %ape are s endless t we _c attempt to describe !m all4 ,fir/1 ) reg>d to ! g5]al features ( m\nta9s4 ,look$ at broadly1 a m\nta9-range is n a m]e l9e ( hills or m\nta9s ris+ /raight up f a pla9 on ea* side1 su* z s*ool-boys (t5 draw 9 _! maps2 v f> f x4 ,take ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s1 = in/ance4 ,x has be5 truly said ( ! ,rocky ,m\nta9s t ! ^w 'range' does n express x at all4 ,x is a :ole c\ntry popul\s ) m\nta9s4 ,x is z if an ocean ( molt5 granite _h be5 caught by in/ant petrifaction :5 its bill[s 7 roll+ heav5 high4#bh #bh ,! ,cre/ ( ! ,cont95t1 by ,erne/ ,+]soll1 ,*icago1 #ahhe4 ,x has (t5 be5 obs]v$ by m\nta9 climb]s t :5 !y get to ! top ( a high m\nta91 & take a bird's-eye view ( ! c\ntry1 all ! m\nta9-tops seem to rea* to ab\t ! same height1 s t a l9e jo9+ !m w\ld be almo/ level4 ,= ?is reason1 p]haps1 writ]s s (t5 comp>e !m to ! waves ( an ocean4 ,?is feature is v conspicu\s 9 ! case ( ! ,scot* ,highl&s4 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie has well describ$ :at he saw f ! top ( ,b5 ,nevis3-- ,mu* has be5 said & writt5 ab\t ! wild1 tumbl$ sea ( ! ,highl& ,hills4 ,b z he sits on 8 high p]*1 does x n /rike ! obs]v] t !re is aft] all a wond]ful ord]l9ess1 & ev5 monotony1 9 ! waves ( t wide sea8 ,& :5 he has foll[$ _! undulations f nor? to s\?1 all r\nd ! horizon1 does x n seem to him t ^! m\nta9-tops & ridges t5d someh[ to rise to a g5]al level2 t1 9 %ort1 !re is n only on ! great scale a m>k$ simil>ity ( cont\r ab\t !m1 b a /ill m def9ite uni=mity ( av]age height8 ,to _m :o h cont5t$ !mselves ) ! bottom ( ! gl51 & h look$ ) awe at ! array ( peaks & crags ov]head1 ?is /atem5t w d\btless appe> incr$ible4 ,b let any "o get fairly up to ! summits & look along !m1 & he w n fail to see t ! /atem5t is nev]!less true4 ,f ! top ( ,b5 ,nevis ?is feature is impressively se54 ,along ! sky-l9e1 ! wide sweep ( summits undulates up to a common level1 v>i$ "h by a cone & !re by ! l9e ( "s /ra? or gl51 b yet wond]fully p]si/5t r\nd ! :ole panorama4 ,if1 z sometimes happ5s 9 ^! airy regions1 a bank ( cl\d ) a level "u-surface %\ld desc5d ^u ! m\nta9s1 x w be se5 to t\* summit aft] summit1 ! long l9e ( ! cl\d def9+1 l a great p>allel rul]1 ! long level l9e ( ! ridges bel[4 ,i h se5 ?is feature br\ght out ) picturesque vividness ov] ! m\nta9s ( ,knoyd>t & ,gl5 ,g>ry4 ,wrea?s ( filmy mi/ _h be5 hov]+ 9 ! upp] air dur+ ! =5oon4 ,t[>ds ev5+1 "u ! influ5ce ( a cool breeze f ! nor?1 !y ga!r$ toge!r into "o long b& t /ret*$ = sev]al miles /raight z ! sky-l9e ( ! di/ant sea1 t\*+ m]ely ! high] summits & giv+ a horizon by :i* ! g5]al uni=mity ( level among ! hills c\ld be signally te/$4 ,once or twice 9 a season "o may be =tunate en\gh to get on ! m\nta9s above su* a /ratum ( mi/1 :i* !n seems to fill up ! irregul>ities ( ! g5]al plat=m ( hill-tops1 & to /ret* out z a :ite phantom sea1 f :i* ! highe/ em95ces rise up z little islets into ! cle> air ( ! morn+4444 ,/ill m /rik+ is ! example furni%$ by ! great c5tral mass ( ! ,grampians1 compris+ ! ,cairngorm ,m\nta9s & ! great corries & precipices r\nd ! head ( ! ,dee4 ,?is tract ( rugg$ gr\nd1 :5 look$ at f a di/ance1 is f\nd to pres5t ! "* ( a high1 undulat+ plateau4#bi #bi ,sc5]y ( ,scotl& page #acj1 new edition4 ,?is long level l9e ( ! ,highl& m\nta9-tops may be se5 v well f ! l[] c\ntry outside2 = example1 f ! isles ( ,skye & ,eigg1 :]e "o may see ! panorama betwe5 ! heights ( ,applecross & ! ,po9t ( ,ardnamur*an %[+ v cle>ly ! traces ( ! old table-l&4 ,h[ are we to expla9 ?is curi\s fact1 s oppos$ to our fir/ impressions ( a m\nta9 region8 ,x is q cle> t ! old plateau ?us m>k$ out _c be caus$ by ! arrangem5t or position ( ! rocks ( :i* ! ,highl&s are compos$4 ,if ^! rocks 7 f\nd to be ly+ pretty ev5ly 9 flat lay]s1 or /rata1 undi/urb$ by great e>?-movem5ts1 we c\ld readily und]/& t !y w\ld =m a plateau4 ,b ! rev]se is ! case3 ! rocks are ev]y:]e ?r[n into folds1 & frequ5tly greatly displac$ by faults2 yet ^! important geological features h little or no connection ) ! ext]nal aspect ( ! c\ntry4 ,x is !re=e useless to look to int]nal /ructure = an explanation4 ,we mu/ look outside1 & consid] :at has be5 = ages & ages tak+ place "h4 ,z already po9t$ out1 an enorm\s am\nt ( solid rock has be5 remov$ f ?is region--?\s&s & ?\s&s ( feet4 ,x 0 long ago plan$ d[n by ! action ( wat]1 s t a table-l& once exi/$ ( :i* ! tops ( ! pres5t m\nta9s are isolat$ fragm5ts4 ,no o!r conclusion is possible4 ,to ! geologi/ e hill & valley ?r\gh\t ! :ole l5g? & bread? ( ! ,highl&s be>s /rik+ te/imony to ?is enorm\s erosion4 ,! explanation we are seek+ may !re=e be summ$ up 9 "o ^w1 d5udation4 ,! valleys t n[ int]sect ! table-l& h be5 c>v$ out ( x4 ,if we c\ld 9 imag9ation put back aga9 onto ! pres5t surface :at has be5 remov$1 we %\ld h a m5tal picture ( ! ,highl&s z a wide1 undulat+ table-l&2 & ?is roll+ pla9 w\ld sugge/ ! bottom ( ! sea4 ,! long flat surfaces ( ! ,highl& ridges1 cut across ! edges ( incl9$ or ev5 upright /rata1 are ! fragm5ts ( a =m] base-l9e ( erosion2 t is1 !y repres5t ! g5]al subm>9e level to :i* ! ,highl&s 7 r$uc$ aft] exposure to ! action ( ra9 & riv]s1 & f9ally ( ! sea4 ,z ! sea gradually spread ov] x1 x plan$ d[n ev]y?+ t _h n be5 previ\sly worn away1 & s r$uc$ ! :ole surface to "o g5]al level l ! sea-b$ ( ! pres5t day4 ,b x is n necess>y to suppose t ! :ole region 0 "u wat] at ! same "t1 & x is probable t !re 7 sep>ate inl& seas or lakes4 ,9 ^! ! rocks ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one 7 =m$2 & !y 9 _! turn h suff]$ s mu* d5udation t only pat*es & long /rips ( !m are left on ! bord]s ( ! ,highl&s4 ,be=e we speak ( individual m\nta9s & _! %apes1 x is important to be> 9 m9d ano!r fact ab\t m\nta9-*a9s2 namely1 t !y are v l[ 9 proportion to _! bread? & l5g?4 ,! great heights rea*$ by "s m\nta9s produce su* a p[]ful impression on our s5ses t we h>dly realise h[ v insignificant !y really are4 ,x is only by draw+ !m on a true scale t we c realise ?is4 ,! surface ( ! e>? is s va/ t ev5 ! highe/ m\nta9s are 9 proportion b z ! little r\ghnesses on ! sk9 ( an orange4 ,fig4 #b 7see *ap1 vii41 p4 #bcf7 repres5ts a section ?r\gh ! ,highl&s1 drawn on ! same scale = height z = l5g?4 ,:at has be5 said ab\t ! ,highl& plateau applies equally well to _m o!r m\nta9-ranges4 ,mr4 ,rusk9 obs]v$ some?+ r simil> 9 ! ,alps4 ,he says1-- ,! long] ,i /ay$ 9 ! ,alps1 & ! m closely ,i exam9$ !m1 ! m ,i 0 /ruck by ! "o broad fact ( !re be+ a va/ ,alp9e plateau1 or mass ( elevat$ l&1 ^u :i* ne>ly all ! highe/ peaks /ood l *ildr5 set ^u a table1 remov$1 9 mo/ cases1 f> back f ! edge ( ! plateau1 z if = fe> ( _! fall+2 444 & = ! mo/ "p ! great peaks are n all[$ to come to ! edge ( x1 b rema9 l ! keeps ( ca/les1 )drawn1 surr\nd$ league beyond league by comp>atively level fields ( m\nta9s1 ov] :i* ! lapp+ %eets ( glaci]s wri! & fl[1 foam+ ab\t ! feet ( ! d>k c5tral cre/s l ! surf ( an enorm\s sea-break] hurl$ ov] a r\nd$ rock & isl&+ "s fragm5t ( x 9 ! mid/4 ,& ! result ( ?is arrangem5t is a k9d ( division ( ! :ole ( ,switz]l& into an upp] & a l[] m\nta9 _w1--! l[] _w consi/+ ( ri* valleys1 bord]$ by /eep b easily accessible1 wood$ banks ( m\nta91 m or less divid$ by rav9es1 ?r\gh :i* glimpses are caught ( ! high] ,alps2 ! upp] _w1 rea*$ aft] ! fir/ /eep banks ( ?ree ?\s& or f\r ?\s& feet 9 height h be5 surm\nt$1 consi/+ ( comp>atively level b mo/ desolate tracts ( moor & rock1 half cov]$ by glaci]1 & /ret*+ to ! feet ( ! true p9nacles ( ! *a94 ,he !n po9ts out ! wisdom ( ?is arrangem5t1 & %[s h[ x protects ! inhabitants f fall+ blocks & avalan*es2 & moreov]1 ! masses ( sn[1 if ca/ d[n at once into ! w>m] air1 w\ld melt too fa/ & cause furi\s inundations4 ,all ! v>i\s k9ds ( rocks are diff]5tly affect$ by ! atmosph]ic influ5ces ( decay1 & s pres5t diff]5t ext]nal appe>ances & %apes1 s t aft] a little exp]i5ce ! geologi/ c recognize ! pres5ce ( c]ta9 rocks by ! k9d ( sc5]y !y produce2 & ?is k is (t5 ( great use 9 help+ him to unravel ! geological /ructure ( a difficult region4 ,?us granite1 cry/all9e s*i/s1 slates1 s&/ones1 & lime/ones1 all wea!r 9 _! own ways1 & moreov] split up diff]5tly1 because _! jo9ts & o!r natural l9es ( division run 9 diff]5t ways4 ,?us granite is jo9t$ v regul>ly1 "s ( ! jo9ts runn+ /raight d[n & o!rs runn+ horizontally1 s t ! ra9 & atmosph]e seize on ^! l9es & wid5 !m v consid]ably2 & ?us ! granite is wea!r$ out ei!r 9 tall upright columns1 l ^? se5 at ,l&'s ,end1 or else into great squ>e-%ap$ blocks ) _! corn]s r\nd$ (f1 pres5t+ ! appe>ance ( a numb] ( knapsacks ly+ "o ov] ! o!r4 ,9 ?is way we c acc\nt = ! well-kn[n ,tors ( ,devon%ire1 & ! ,rock+ ,/ones4 ,granite wea!rs rapidly along its jo9ts1 & its surfaces crumble away m rapidly ?an might be expect$1 consid]+ h[ h>d a rock x is2 b ! felsp> :i* is its *ief m9]al con/itu5t is readily decompos$ by ra9 wat]1 :i* acts *emically ^u x4 ,! deposits ( ,*9a clay 9 ,devon%ire are ! result ( ! decomposition & wa%+ away ( ! granite ( ,d>tmoor4 ,granite m\nta9s are g5]ally r\nd$ & bossy1 break+ n[ & !n into cliffs1 ! faces ( :i* are riv5 by huge jo9ts1 & pres5t a v diff]5t appe>ance f ^? compos$ ( cry/all9e s*i/s ) _! %>p cre/s & peaks4 ,b5 ,nevis & ! ,cairngorms are p>tly compos$ ( granite4 ,gneiss is a rock compos$ ( ! same m9]als z granite2 namely1 mica1 qu>tz1 & felsp>4 ,& yet m\nta9s compos$ ( ?is rock h q a diff]5t aspect1 & sometimes1 z 9 ! ,alps1 produce v %>p & jagg$ p9nacles4 ,! reason ( ?is is t gneiss splits 9 a diff]5t way f granite1 because its m9]als are arrang$ 9 lay]s1 & s x is m l a cry/all9e s*i/4 ,mica-s*i/ is ano!r rock v abundant 9 m\nta9 regions4 ,?is rock is compos$ ( qu>tz & mica arrang$ 9 wavy lay]s4 ,! mica1 :i* is v conspicu\s1 lies 9 ?9 plates1 sometimes s dovetail$ into ea* o!r z to =m long cont9u\s lay]s sep>at+ x f ^? ( ! qu>tz2 & x readily splits along ! lay]s ( mica4 ,?is m9]al is easily recognis$ by its bright1 %9y surface4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 two v>ieties1--"o ( a light col\r & ! o!r black4 ,mica-s*i/ & gneiss are (t5 f\nd 9 ! same region1 & are ! mat]ials ( :i* mo/ ( ! highe/ peaks 9 ,europe are compos$4 ,we f9d !m ab\nd+ 9 ! di/rict ( ,mont ,blanc2 & all ! mon>*'s att5dant aiguilles1 ) ! spl9t]$ ridges enclos+ ! great sn[fields 9 ! he>t ( ! *a91 consi/ mo/ly ( ^! two rocks4 ,! ,matt]horn1 ,weis%orn1 ,monte ,viso1 ! ,gr& ,p>adis1 ! ,aiguille ,v]te & ,aiguille du ,dru are examples ( ! wond]ful =ms produc$ by ! break+ up & decay ( ^! two rocks4 ,! diff]5t v>ieties ( slate split 9 a v m>k$ way4 ,slates are (t5 associat$ ) ! s*i/s1 & ex]t _! influ5ce 9 modify+ ! sc5]y4 ,lime/one ranges1 ?\gh less /rik+ 9 ! outl9es ( _! cre/s ?an ^? compos$ ( slates & cry/all9e s*i/s1 & n rea*+ to su* heights1 are nev]!less n at all inf]ior 9 ! gr&eur ( _! cliffs1 :i* frequ5tly ext5d = miles along ! side ( a valley 9 va/ t]races1 ^: precipit\s walls are (t5 absolutely inaccessible4 ,! beauty ( lime/one m\nta9s is (t5 enhanc$ by ! ri* pa/ures & =e/s :i* clo! _! l[] slopes4 ,! dolomitic lime/one ( ! ,italian ,tyrol1 be+ ga%$ by enorm\s v]tical jo9ts & at ! same "t hav+ be5 =m$ 9 r ?9 lay]s :i* break up into small blocks1 produces "s v /rik+ sc5]y4 ,b wild z ^! m\nta9\s ridges may be1 _! =ms c nev] be conf\nd$ ) ^? ( ! cry/all9e s*i/s2 = h[ev] %>p _! p9nacles may appe> at fir/ sight1 c>eful exam9ation w always %[ t _! outl9e is t ( ru9$ masonry1 sugge/+ crumbl+ battlem5ts & tott]+ turrets1 & n ! curv+1 flame-l cre/s & spl9t]$ peaks ( ! cry/all9e s*i/s4#cj #cj ,bonney4 ,x has already be5 expla9$ t all s$im5t>y rocks h be5 =m$ "u wat] 9 lay]s or /rata1 & x mu/ be obvi\s t ! /ratification ( su* rocks has an important influ5ce on sc5]y2 & v mu* dep5ds on :e!r ! /rata h be5 left undi/urb$1 ) p]haps j a slight slope1 or :e!r !y h be5 fold$ & crumpl$2 = ! position ( ! /rata1 or b$d+1 z x is call$1--:e!r flat1 incl9$1 v]tical1 or contort$1--l>gely det]m9es ! nature ( ! surface4 ,und\bt$ly ! mo/ *>act]i/ic sc5]y =m$ by /ratifi$ rocks is to be se5 9 ^? places :]e ! b$d+ is horizontal1 or ne>ly s1 & ! /rata are massive4 ,a m\nta9 con/ruct$ ( su* mat]ials appe>s z a colossal pyramid1 ! level l9es ( /ratification look+ l great c\rses ( masonry4 ,! jo9ts t cut across ! /rata all[ x to be cleft into great blocks & deep *asms2 s t1 z 9 ! case ( ! dolomitic lime/one above m5tion$1 we f9d a resemblance to ru9$ build+s4 ,we _c f9d a bett] example ( ?is 9 our own c\ntry ?an ! m\nta9s ( s&/one & conglom]ate 7( ! ,cambrian age7 t "h & !re lie on ! great plat=m ( old gneiss 9 ! we/ ( ,su!rl& & ,ross4 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie says1-- ,! bleak1 b>e gneiss1 ) its monoton\s undulations1 t>ns1 & bogs1 is surm\nt$ by gr\ps ( cones1 :i* = individuality ( =m & indep5d5ce ( position bett] des]ve to be call$ m\nta9s ?an mo/ ( ! em95ces to :i* t "n is giv5 9 ,scotl&4 ,^! huge pyramids1 ris+ to heights ( betwe5 two ?\s& & f\r ?\s& feet1 consi/ ( d>k r$ /rata1 s little incl9$ t _! edges c be trac$ by ! eye 9 long1 level b>s on ! /eep] hillsides & precipices1 l l9es ( masonry4 ,"h & !re ! h& ( "t has r5t !m into deep rifts1 f :i* long 'screes' 7slopes ( loose /ones7 desc5d into ! pla9s bel[1 z /ones are deta*$ f ! %iv]$ walls ( an anci5t battlem5t4 ,d[n _! sides1 :i* h 9 places ! /eepness ( a ba/ion1 vegetation f9ds b scanty room along ! project+ l$ges ( ! s&/one b$s1 :]e ! hea? & grass & wildfl[]s clu/] ov] ! rock 9 /raggl+ l9es & tufts ( gre52 & yet1 ?\gh ne>ly z b>e z ! gneiss bel[ !m1 ^! l(ty m\nta9s are f> f pres5t+ ! same aspect ( b>r5ness4 ,! prevail+ col\r ( _! compon5t /rata gives !m a w>m r$ hue1 :i* ev5 at noon contra/s /rongly ) ! grey ( ! plat=m ( old] rock4444 ,^! huge isolat$ cones are among ! mo/ /rik+ memorials ( d5udation any:]e to be se5 9 ! ,briti% ,isles4 ,qu9ag1 ,canisp1 ,suilv51 ,c\lmore1 & ! hills ( ,coygo*1 ,dundonald1 ,lo* ,m>ee1 & ,torridon are m]ely deta*$ pat*es ( a =mation n less ?an sev5 ?\s& or eight ?\s& feet ?ick1 :i* once spread ov] ! nor?we/ ( ,scotl&4 ,! spaces betwe5 !m 7 once occupi$ by ! same dull r$ s&/one2 ! horizontal /ratification ( "o hill1 inde$1 is pla9ly cont9u\s ) t ( ! o!rs1 ?\gh deep & wide valleys1 or miles ( l[ moorl&1 may n[ lie betwe54 ,:ile ! valleys h be5 worn d[n ?r\gh ! s&/one1 ^! /range pyramidal m\nta9s t =m s s+ul> a feature 9 ! l&scapes ( ! nor?we/ highl&s h be5 left /&+1 l lonely sea-/acks1 z monum5ts ( long ages ( wa/e4#ca #ca ,sc5]y ( ,scotl&1 page #bja1 new edition4 ,aga91 ! va/ table-l&s ( ! ,colorado region illu/rate on a truly magnific5t scale1 to :i* !re is no p>allel 9 ! ,old ,_w1 ! effects ( atmosph]ic erosion on undi/urb$ & ne>ly level /rata4 ,"h we f9d valleys & riv] gorges deep] & long] ?an any o!rs 9 ! _w2 great w9d+ l9es ( esc>pm5t1 l ranges ( sea cliffs2 t]rac$ slopes ris+ at v>i\s levels2 huge buttresses & solit>y monum5ts1 /&+ l isl&s out ( ! pla9s2 & la/ly1 great m\nta9 masses c>v$ out into ! mo/ /rik+ & picturesque %apes1 yet ) _! l9es ( b$d+ cle>ly m>k$ out4 ,on ! o!r h&1 :]e1 z is almo/ always ! case 9 m\nta9-ranges1 ! /ratifi$ rocks h be5 fold$1 crumpl$1 twi/$1 & fractur$ by great faults1 we f9d a v diff]5t result4 ,9 ^! cases ! rocks h g5]ally be5 v mu* alt]$ by ! action ( heat4 ,= "h we f9d cry/all9e s*i/s1 gneiss1 granite1 & o!r rocks 9 ! =mation ( :i* heat has play$ an important "p2 & v (t5 ! igne\s rocks h =c$ _! way ?r\gh ^? ( s$im5t>y orig9 & alt]$ !m into :at are call$ metamorphic rocks 7see *apt] v41 page #aef74 ,?us !y h lo/ mu* ( _! orig9al "* & /ructure4 ,! repeat$ uplifts & subsid5ces ( ! e>?'s cru/1 by :i* ! cont95ts ( ! _w h be5 rais$ up out ( ! sea to =m dry l&1 h1 broadly speak+1 ?r[n ! rocky /rata into a s]ies ( wave-l undulations4 ,9 "s ext5sive regions ^! undulations are s broad & l[ t ! curvature is q imp]ceptible1 & ! /rata appe> to lie 9 horizontal lay]s1 or to slope v slightly 9 a c]ta9 direction4 ,?is is1 9 a g5]al way1 ! position ( ! /rata ( :i* pla9s & plateaux are compos$4 ,b 9 ! long] & comp>atively n>r[ m\nta9 regions t trav]se ea* ( ! great cont95ts1 =m+1 z x 71 backbones to !m1 ! undulations are v mu* m frequ5t1 n>r[]1 & high]4 ,sometimes ! rocks h be5 ?r[n into huge op5 waves1 or ! folds are closely cr[d$ toge!r1 s t ! /rata /& on _! ends1 or are ev5 completely ov]turn$1 & ?us _! prop] ord] ( succession is rev]s$1 & ! old] ones actually lie on ! top ( ! new] ones4 ,z we approa* a great m\nta9-*a9 we obs]ve _m m9or ridges & small] *a9s runn+ r\ghly p>allel ) x1 &1 z x 71 =e%ad[+ ! great folds met ) 9 ! c5tre ( ! *a9 & among its highe/ peaks4 ,^! small folds become %>p] & clos] ! ne>] we get to ! ma9 *a91 & evid5tly 7 =m$ by ! same movem5ts t uplift$ ! high] ranges beyond2 b ! =ce 0 n s great4 ,?us we f9d ! great ,alp9e *a9 flank$ to ! nor? by ! small] ranges ( ! ,jura ,m\nta9s2 & on ! s\?1 side ( ! ,himalayas we f9d simil> small] ranges ( hills4 ,rusk9 ?us describes 8 impression ( ! ,jura ranges1 :i* he v aptly comp>es ) a swell on ! sea f> away f a /orm1 ! /orm be+ repres5t$ by ! wild sea ( ,alp9e m\nta9s3-- ,among ! h\rs ( 8 life to :i* ! writ] looks back ) peculi> gratitude1 z hav+ be5 m>k$ ) m ?an ord9>y fulness ( joy or cle>ness ( tea*+1 is "o pass$1 n[ "s ye>s ago1 ne> "t ( sunset1 among ! masses ( p9e =e/ :i* skirt ! c\rse ( ! ,a91 above ! village ( ,*ampagnole1 9 ! ,jura4 ,x is a spot :i* has all ! solemnity1 ) none ( ! savag5ess1 ( ! ,alps2 :]e !re is a s5se ( a great p[] beg9n+ to be manife/$ 9 ! e>?1 & ( a deep & maje/ic concord 9 ! rise ( ! long l[ l9es ( p9y hills1--! fir/ utt]ance ( ^? mighty m\nta9 symphonies1 soon to be m l\dly lift$ & wildly brok5 along ! battlem5ts ( ! ,alps4 ,b _! /r5g? is z yet re/ra9$2 & ! f>-rea*+ ridges ( pa/oral m\nta9 succe$ ea* o!r1 l ! long & sigh+ swell :i* moves ov] quiet wat]s f "s f>-(f /ormy sea4 ,& !re is a deep t5d]ness p]vad+ t va/ monotony4 ,! de/ructive =ces & ! /]n expression ( ! c5tral ranges are alike )drawn4 ,no fro/-pl\gh$1 du/-encumb]$ pa?s ( anci5t glaci] fret ! s(t ,jura pa/ures2 no spl9t]$ heaps ( ru9 break ! fair ranks ( h] =e/s2 no pale1 defil$1 or furi\s riv]s r5d _! rude & *angeful ways among h] rocks4 ,pati5tly1 eddy by eddy1 ! cle> gre5 /reams w9d along _! well-kn[n b$s2 & "u ! d>k quietness ( ! undi/urb$ p9es !re spr+ up1 ye> by ye>1 su* company ( joyful fl[]s z ,i "k n ! l among all ! bless+s ( ! e>?4 ,long faults1 or fractures1 :]e ! /rata h be5 fir/ b5t & !n brok51 & aft]w>ds h be5 =c$ up or h slid d[n hundr$s or ev5 ?\s&s ( feet1 are v num]\s 9 m\nta9-ranges2 & by sudd5ly br++ q a diff]5t set ( rocks to ! surface1 ^! faults cause consid]able difficulty to ! geologi/1 z he goes ov] ! gr\nd & endeav\rs to trace ! positions ( ! diff]5t rocks4 ,9 ^! va/ folds x sometimes happ5s t portions ( old] 7& l[]7 /rata are caught up & s emb$d$ among ^? ( new] rocks4 ,x w !re=e be readily p]ceiv$ t to unravel ! geological /ructure ( a great m\nta9-*a9 is no easy task4 ,we ne$ n !n be surpris$ if 9 "s cases ! arrangem5t ( ! rocks ( m\nta9s is n ?or\ghly und]/ood4 ,! wond] is1 :5 we ?9k ( ! num]\s difficulties :i* ! geologi/ enc\nt]s1--! ardu\s asc5ts1 ! precipices1 glaci]s1 sn[fields obscur+ ! rocks f 8 view1 ! ov]ly+ soil ( ! l[] p>ts1 & ! /eep cre/s & dang]\s ridges t sep>ate ! sn[fields1--t s mu* has already be5 discov]$ 9 ?is difficult bran* ( geology4 ,h[ev]1 ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! rocks ( :i* _m m\nta9-*a9s are compos$ has be5 satisfactorily made out 9 n a few cases4 ,let u look into "s ( ^! & see :at has be5 discov]$4 ,y w rememb] ! /ructure ( ! ,weald1 describ$ 9 *ap4 vii41 pp4 #bce-bch1 & h[ we %[$ t a great l[ ar* ( *alk /rata has be5 entirely remov$ ov] t area1 s t at ! pres5t "t only its ends are se5 =m+ ! esc>pm5ts ( ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns4 ,?is area1 !n1 is n[ a great op5 valley1 or r a g5tly undulat+ pla9 enclos$ by l[ *alk hills4 ,n[1 an ar* ( ?is k9d is call$ an anticl9e1 & x might h be5 expect$ t x w\ld h rema9$ m or less unbrok5 to ! pres5t day4 ,:y1 !n1 has x suff]$ de/ruction8 ,9 ! fir/ place1 *alk is a s(t rock1 & "o t ra9 wat] c dissolve2 b m ?an t1 its ar*-l /ructure 0 aga9/ x1 & its *ance ( pres]vation 0 decid$ly small4 ,9 ar*itecture ! ar* is ! mo/ firm & /able /ructure t c be made2 b n s ) /rata1 & ?is is ! reason4 ,su* an ar* 0 n made ( sep>ate blocks1 closely fitt+ & firmly cem5t$ toge!r2 on ! contr>y1 ! ar* 0 /ret*$ & heav$ up f bel[4 ,x !re=e mu/ h be5 m or less crack$ up2 = rocks are apt to split :5 b5t1 al?\gh :5 deeply buri$ "u a great ?ickness ( ov]ly+ rocks1 !y w b5d v consid]ably )\t snapp+4 ,b ?is 0 n ! case "h4 ,& s ! =ces ( d5udation set to "w ^u an already some:at brok5 mass ( rock4 ,try to picture to y\rself ?is old l[ ar* ( *alk z x 0 :5 x fir/ appe>$ z dry l&4 ,probably "s ( x _h already be5 plan$ away by ! waves ( ! sea1 & :at 0 left 0 by no means well calculat$ to )/& ! action ( ! ag5ts ( d5udation4 ,if y look back to ! figure1 y w see ! dott$ l9es %[+ ! =m] outl9e ( ?is anticl9e1 or ar*1 & y p]ceive at once t ! /rata mu/ h be5 slop+ outw>ds away f ! middle4 ,n[1 ?is "o fact greatly influ5c$ its fate1 = an anticl9e _c be reg>d$ z a /rong or /able arrangem5t ( /rata4 ,x is easy to see :y2 suppose a little portion 7 cut away on "o side at its base by "s /ream4 ,x is cle> t a k9d ( ov]hang+ cliff w\ld be left1 & blocks ( *alk w\ld soon] or lat] come roll+ d[n into ! valley ( ! little /ream4 ,:5 ^! _h fall51 !y w\ld leave an incl9$ plane d[n :i* o!rs w\ld foll[2 & ?is w\ld cont9ue to take place until ! top ( ! ar* 0 rea*$4 ,! same reason+ applies to ! o!r side4 ,x is v seldom t ar*es1 or anticl9es1 c la/ = a long "t4 ,! outw>d slope ( ! /rata & _! brok5 condition are aga9/ !m4 ,b :5 ! rocks dip inw>ds1 to =m a k9d ( tr\gh or bas91 x is j ! opposite4 ,su* bas9s are kn[n z syncl9es2 & a /ructure ( ?is k9d c be %[n to be mu* m /able & p]man5t ?an an anticl9e4 ,! /rata1 in/ead ( be+ /ret*$ out & crack$ op51 h be5 squeez$ toge!r4 ,x is v important to be> ?is 9 m9d1 & to rememb] h[ diff]5tly anticl9es & syncl9es are affect$2 = ?is simple rule is illu/rat$ ov] & ov] aga9 9 m\nta9-ranges3-- ,anticl9es1 be+ un/able1 are worn away until !y become valleys4 ,syncl9es1 be+ /able1 are left & frequ5tly =m m\nta9s4 ,n[ look at ! section ?r\gh ! ,appala*ian *a9 7see ,fig4 #a71 & y w see t ea* hill is a syncl9e1 & ! valleys betwe5 !m are anticl9es4 ,?is happ5s s frequ5tly t almo/ e range ( m\nta9s furni%es examples2 b z e rule has its exceptions1 s ?is "o has1 & we may f9d an example 9 ! case ( ! ,jura ,m\nta9s outside ! ,alps4 ,x w be se5 f ! section t ! ridges are =m$ by anticl9es1 & ! valleys by syncl9es4 ,b on look+ a little m closely1 we see t ! tops ( ! =m] h suff]$ a consid]able am\nt ( erosion 7z indicat$ by ! dott$ l9es74 ,n[1 ! reason :y !y h n be5 completely worn d[n into valleys is t ^! rocks 7 once cov]$ by o!rs ov]ly+ !m1 s t ?is out] cov]+ ( rocks _h fir/ to be remov$ be=e !y c\ld be attack$ by ra9 & riv]s4 ,^! wave-l ridges ( ! ,jura are be+ sl[ly worn d[n2 & ! "t mu/ come :5 !y w be c>v$ out into valleys1 :ile ! syncl9es betwe5 !m w /& out z hills4 ,x is simply a "q ( "t4 ,b _m m\nta9-*a9s h a f> m complicat$ /ructure ?an t ( ! ,appala*ians1 & consi/ ( viol5tly crumpl$ & fold$ /rata 7see section ( ,mont ,blanc1 ,fig4 #c74 ,illu/ration3 ,,sections ,,( ,,m\nta9-,,ranges1 ,,%[+ ,,_! ,,/ructure ,,& ,,! ,,am\nt ,,( ,,rock ,,worn ,,away4 ,x might naturally be ask$ h[ su* sections are made1 consid]+ t we _c cut ?r\gh m\nta9s 9 ord] to f9d out _! /ructure2 b ,nature cuts !m up = u1 ga%+ _! sides ) rav9es & valleys c>v$ out by /reams & riv]s1 & 9 /eep cliffs & precipices we f9d great natural sections t s]ve our purpose almo/ equally well4 ,sometimes1 h[ev]1 we get consid]able help f qu>ries & railway-cutt+s4 ,take1 = example1 "o ( ! syncl9al folds 9 ! ,appala*ian *a94 ,its /ructure is asc]ta9$ some:at z foll[s4 ,suppose y began to asc5d ! hill1 arm$ ) a good map1 a pocket-compass1 a cl9omet]1--a little in/rum5t = measur+ ! angles at :i* /rata dip or slope1--& ) a bag on y\r back = specim5s ( rocks & fossils4 ,at ! base ( ! hill y might notice at />t+ a c]ta9 lay] ( rock--say a lime/one--expos$ by ! side ( ! /ream4 ,x w be s _m feet ?ick1 & w conta9 su*-&-su* fossils1 by means ( :i* y c id5tify x2 & x w dip into ! int]ior ( ! hill at a c]ta9 angle1 z measur$ by ! cl9omet]4 ,z y rise high]1 ?is rock may be succe$$ by s&/one ( a c]ta9 ?ickness1 & likewise dipp+ into ! hill2 & s ) ! o!r rocks t foll[1 until y rea* ! summit4 ,by ! "t y h rea*$ ! top ( ! hill1 y "k ! nature ( all ! rocks up t side1 & ! way !y dip2 & all y\r obs]vations are c>efully record$ 9 a notebook4 ,!n y beg9 to desc5d on ! o!r side1 & 9 s do+ y f9d ! same set ( rocks com+ out at ! surface all 9 ! same ord]2 only ?is ord] is n[ rev]s$1 because y are foll[+ !m d[nw>ds in/ead ( upw>ds4 ,( c\rse !y are hidd5 9 _m places by soil & loose /ones2 b t does n matt]1 because at o!r places !y are expos$ to view1 especially along rav9es1 c>v$ out ( ! m\nta9-side4 ,also rocks wea!r s diff]5tly t !y c (t5 be di/+ui%$ ev5 at a di/ance4 ,9 ?is k9d ( way y c f9d out ! /ructure ( a m\nta91 & draw a section ( x :5 y get home1 by foll[+ out & complet+ ! curves ( ! /rata z indicat$ at or ne> ! surface2 & y f9d !y fit 9 nicely toge!r4 ,fig4 #c 7see page #cjg7 repres5ts :at is believ$ to be ! g5]al arrangem5t ( ! rocks ( ,mont ,blanc4 ,! section is greatly simplifi$1 because _m m9or folds & all ! faults1 or dislocations1 are omitt$4 ,n[1 9 ?is case we h an example ( :at is kn[n z ! fan-/ructure4 ,x w be se5 at once t ! folds h be5 consid]ably squeez$ toge!r2 & ! big fold 9 ! c5tre indicat$ by dott$ l9es has be5 s mu* compress$ 9 ! l[] "p--t is1 9 :at is n[ ,mont ,blanc--t its sides 7 br\ght ne> to ea* o!r until !y actually slop$ inw>ds in/ead ( outw>ds4 ,y may easily imitate ?is /ructure by tak+ a %eet ( pap]1 lay+ x on ! table1 & !n1 putt+ "o h& on ea* side ( x1 cause x to rise up 9 a c5tral fold by press+ y\r h&s t[>ds ea* o!r4 ,notice c>efully :at happ5s4 ,fir/1 y get a l[ ar*1 or anticl9e1 l t ( ! ,weald4 ,!n z y press x m1 ! upw>d fold becomes %>p] & n>r[]2 !n cont9ue press+ x1 & y w f9d ! fold bulg+ out at ! top1 b n>r[+ 9 bel[ until y get ?is fan-/ructure4 ,?is is j :at has happ5$ 9 ! case ( ! ,alps4 ,a trem5d\s lat]al pressure appli$ to ! rocks heav$ !m up & d[n into great & small folds1 & 9 "s places1 z 9 ,mont ,blanc1 fan-/ructure 0 produc$4 ,imag9e ! top ( ! fan remov$1 & y get :at looks l a syncl9e1 b is really ! l[] "p ( a v mu* compress$ anticl9e4 ,n[1 x is believ$ t all m\nta9-ranges h be5 enorm\sly squeez$ by lat]al pressure2 & ! little exp]im5t ) ! %eet ( pap] furni%es a good illu/ration ( :at has happ5$4 ,a table-clo? ly+ on a smoo? table w s]ve equally well4 ,y c easily pu% x into a s]ies ( folds2 notice h[ !y come ne>] z y cont9ue pu%+4 ,y see also t 9 ?is way y get long n>r[ ridges ) valleys betwe54 ,^! repres5t ! orig9al anticl9es & syncl9es ( m\nta9-ranges1 :i* 9 c\rse ( "t are c>v$ out1 z expla9$ above1 until ! syncl9es become hills & ! anticl9es valleys4 ,e m\nta9-*a9 mu/ orig9ally h _h long ridges l ^!1 :i* 9 "s cases det]m9$ ! orig9al directions ( ! /reams & valleys2 & x is easy to see n[ :y m\nta9-*a9s are long & n>r[1 :y _! /rata h be5 s greatly fold$1 & :y we get 9 e m\nta9-*a9 long ranges ( hills r\ghly p>allel ) ea* o!r 7see *apt] vi41 pages #agg-agh74 ,! reason :y granite1 gneiss1 & cry/all9e s*i/s are frequ5tly f\nd 9 ! c5tral & highe/ peaks ( m\nta9-ranges is t we h ! olde/ & l[e/ rocks expos$ to ! surface1 on acc\nt ( ! enorm\s am\nt ( d5udation t has tak5 place4 ,!re may be great masses ( granite und]ly+ all m\nta9-*a9s2 b x is only expos$ to view :5 a v great deal ( ov]ly+ rock has be5 remov$4 ,x 0 ?\ght at "o "t t granite 0 ! olde/ ( all rocks1 & t m\nta9-*a9s _h be5 upheav$ by masses ( granite pu%+ !m up f bel[2 b we "k n[ t bo? ^! ideas are mi/ak54 ,"s granites are c]ta9ly old geologically1 b o!rs are ( lat] date2 & x is c]ta9 t granite 0 n ! upheav+ ag5t1 b m likely x foll[$ ! ov]ly+ rocks z !y 7 heav$ up by lat]al pressure1 because ! upw>d b5d+ ( ! rocks w\ld t5d to relieve ! enorm\s pressure d[n bel[1 & s ! granite w\ld rise up4 ,illu/ration3 ,,mont ,,blanc4 ,,sn[fields1 ,,glaci]s4 ,,& ,,/reams4 ,we n[ pass on to a v diff]5t example1 :]e m\nta9s are ! result ( huge fractures & displacem5ts2 namely1 ! num]\s & ne>ly p>allel ranges ( ! ,great ,bas91 ( ,we/]n ,arizona1 & ,nor!rn ,mexico4 ,! region betwe5 ! ,si]ra ,nevada & ! ,wahsat* ,m\nta9s1 ext5d+ f ,idaho to ,mexico1 is compos$ ( v g5tly fold$ rocks deeply buri$ 9 places by ext5sive outfl[s ( lava4 ,n[1 9 ?is case ! e>?-movem5ts caus$ great cracks1 or splits1 d\btless att5d$ by fe>ful e>?quakes4 ,we f9d "h a s]ies ( ne>ly p>allel fractures1 hundr$s ( miles long1 & fifte5 to ?irty miles ap>t4 ,^! trav]se ! entire region1 divid+ ! rocks into long n>r[ blocks4 ,!re is evid5ce to %[ t ! :ole region 0 once mu* m elevat$ ?an x is n[1 & has subsid$ ?\s&s ( feet4 ,dur+ ! subsid5ce along ^! l9es ( fracture1 or faults1 ! blocks 7 tilt$ sideways2 & ! uptilt$ blocks1 c>v$ by d5udation1 =m ! isolat$ ranges ( ?is v int]e/+ region 7see illu/ration1 *ap4 viii41 p4 #bgc1 ,fig4 #a74 ,! faults are indicat$ by arr[s po9t+ d[nw>ds2 & ! dott$ l9es indicate ! erosion ( ! uptilt$ blocks4 ,b ?is mu/ be reg>d$ z a v exceptional case1 = we d n "k ( any o!r m\nta9-range =m$ q 9 ! same way4 ,:y ! /rata1 al?\gh only slightly b5t1 %\ld h snapp$ s viol5tly 9 ?is case1 :ile 9 o!r m\nta9-ranges !y h suff]$ mu* m b5d+ )\t s mu* fracture & displacem5t1 we _c tell1 b c only sugge/ t possibly x 0 because !y 7 n buri$ up "u an enorm\s ?ickness ( ov]ly+ rocks1 :i* w\ld ex]t an enorm\s d[nw>d pressure1 & s t5d to prev5t fractur+4 ,!re are _m o!r deeply int]e/+ que/ions ) reg>d to ! upheaval ( m\nta9s :i* at pres5t _c be answ]$4 ,we h already le>n$ to alt] our preconceiv$ ideas ab\t ! /ability & immovable nature ( ! e>?'s cru/1 & h se5 t x is 9 reality mo/ un/able1 & is und]go+ cont9ual movem5ts1 bo? great & small4 ,b "h we h an equally />tl+ discov]y1 :i* q upsets all our =m] ideas ( ! h>d & unyield+ nature ( ! rocks compos+ ! e>?'s cru/2 = we f9d t n only c !y be b5t into innum]able folds & little puck]+s1 b t 9 "s cases !y h be5 drawn out & squeez$ z if !y 7 s mu* s(t putty4 ,! imag9ation almo/ fails to grasp su* facts z ^!4 ,( late ye>s geologi/s 9 ,switz]l& & 9 ,great ,brita9 h discov]$ t 9 "s p>ts ( m\nta9s rocks h be5 enorm\sly di/ort$ & cru%$1 s t !y h assum$ v diff]5t /ates f ^? 9 :i* !y 7 made1 & curi\s m9]al *anges h tak5 place "u ! influ5ce ( ?is cru%+4 ,9 ! v complicat$ region ( ! ,nor?we/ ,highl&s ( ,su!rl& & ,ross1 ! /ructure ( :i* has only lately be5 expla9$1 "s wond]ful discov]ies ( ?is nature h be5 made4 ,c]ta9 ( ! cry/all9e s*i/s f\nd !re h be5 =m$ by ! cru%+ d[n & re>rangem5t ( old] rocks t once pres5t$ a v diff]5t appe>ance4 ,9 ?is di/rict1 :]e ! rocks h be5 squeez$ by enorm\s lat]al pressure1 ! dislocations sometimes h assum$ ! =m ( incl9$ or undulat+ planes1 ! rocks above :i* h be5 actually pu%$ ov] ^? bel[1 & 9 "s cases ! horizontal displacem5t am\nts to _m miles4 ,n only h ! rocks be5 ruptur$1 & old]1 deep-seat$ masses be5 torn up & driv5 bodily ov] y\ng] /rata 7t once 7 above !m71 b !re has be5 at ! same "t su* an am\nt ( int]nal %e>+ z to cru% ! rocks into a f9ely divid$ mat]ial1 & to give rise to a /reaky arrangem5t ( ! brok5 p>ticles1 closely resembl+ ! fl[-/ructure ( a lava4 ,9 ! cru%$ mat]ial new m9]als h be5 sometimes s develop$ z to produce a true s*i/4#cb #cb ,geikie4 ,,*apt] ,x4 ,,! ,,ages ,,( ,,m\nta9s1 ,,& ,,o!r ,,que/ions4 ,o ,e>?1 :at *anges ha/ ?\ se56 ,,t5nyson4 ,x might naturally be ask$ at :at p]iod 9 ! _w's primeval or geological hi/ory "s p>ticul> m\nta9-range 0 upheav$2 :e!r x is y\ng] or old] ?an ano!r "o p]haps n v f> away2 & aga91 :e!r ! m\nta9-*a9s ( ! _w h be5 uplift$ all at once1 or :e!r ! process ( elevation 0 prolong$ & gradual8 ,que/ions su* z ^! are deeply int]e/+1 & pres5t to ! geologi/ "s ( ! mo/ fasc9at+ problems to be met ) 9 ! :ole range ( ?is sci5ce4 ,& ?\gh at fir/ sight !y might seem hopelessly beyond our rea*1 yet ev5 "h ! prospect is by no means unpromis+2 & x is q possible to %[ t !y c be answ]$ to "s ext5t4 ,"h we %all f9d our illu/ration ( ! ca!dral 7see *apt] v41 pages #adc-adg7 holds good once m4 ,x is p]haps h>dly necess>y to expla9 t by look+ at a ,go?ic ca!dral "o c say at :at p]iod or p]iods x 0 built4 ,p]haps x has a ,norman nave1 ) great pill>s & r\nd$ ar*es4 ,!n ! *ancel might be ,e>ly ,engli%1 ) po9t$ w9d[s & deep m\ld+s1 & o!r features t s]ve to m>k ! /yle ( ! build+1 & !re=e its date1--because diff]5t /yles prevail$ at diff]5t p]iods4 ,o!r p>ts might conta9 "w easily recognis$ z belong+ to ! ,p]p5dicul> p]iod4 ,n[1 z !re h be5 p]iods 9 ! hi/ory ( ar*itecture & art1 s !re h be5 p]iods 9 ! hi/ory ( our e>?4 ,:at ^! p]iods 71 & h[ we h le>n$ to recognise !m1 we mu/ fir/ v briefly describe4#cc #cc ,= a full] acc\nt see ! writ]'s ,autobiography ( ! ,e>?4 ,!re are two simple rules by :i* ! age ( an ord9>y s$im5t>y rock may be asc]ta9$4 ,?is is fix$ 7#a7 ,by its position ) reg>d to o!rs2 7#b7 ,by ! nature ( its emb$d$ animal or vegetable rema9s1 kn[n z fossils4 ,^! rules may easily be illu/rat$ by a ref]5ce to ! me?ods ( ! antiqu>y4 ,= in/ance1 suppose y 7 go+ to build a h\se1 & ! f\ndations _h j be5 dug out2 y might on exam9+ !m f9d sev]al old lay]s ( soil1 %[+ t ! site or neighb\rhood _h be5 =m]ly occupi$4 ,y might f9d 9 "o lay] /one implem5ts1 9 ano!r ,roman or e>ly ,briti% pott]y1 & yet aga9 portions ( brick or /onework1 toge!r ) tools or articles ( dome/ic use1 belong+1 say1 to ! "t ( ,que5 ,elizabe?4 ,n[1 :i* ( ^! lay]s w\ld be ! olde/8 ,x is q cle> t ! l[e/ lay]s mu/ h be5 !re ! longe/1 because ! o!rs accumulat$ on ! top ( !m4 ,! explorations made ( late ye>s "u ,j]usalem h l$ to ! int]e/+ discov]y t ! mod]n city is built up on ! rema9s ( ?irte5 =m] cities ( ,j]usalem1 all ( :i* h be5 de/roy$ 9 "o way or ano!r4 ,"h1 aga91 x is q cle> t ! olde/ lay] ( dbris mu/ be t :i* lies at ! bottom1 & ! newe/ w be ! "o on ! top4 ,aga91 y "k t ! ,/one ,age 9 ,brita9 came be=e ! ,roman occupation4 ,^? old /one implem5ts 7 made by a b>b>\s race1 :o knew v little ( agriculture or ! arts ( civilisation4 ,!n 9 succe$+ c5turies v>i\s arts 7 introduc$1 _m relics ( :i* are f\nd buri$ 9 ! soil2 & h5ce1 s9ce diff]5t /yles ( art & ar*itecture prevail$ at diff]5t p]iods1 ! works ( art or indu/ry emb$d$ 9 any old lay]s ( soil s]ve to fix ! date ( ^? lay]s4 ,^! lay]s ( soil & dbris correspond to ! lay]s or /rata ( ! s$im5t>y rocks1 9 :i* ! diff]5t *apt]s ( ! _w's hi/ory are record$4 ,geology is only ano!r k9d ( hi/ory2 & ! same pr9ciples :i* guide ! ar*ologi/ se>*+ buri$ cities also guide ! geologi/ 9 read+ ! /ony record4 ,z ! illu/ri\s ,hutton said1 ,! ru9s ( an old] _w are visible 9 ! pres5t /ate ( our planet4 ,! successive lay]s ( ru9 9 ?is case are to be se5 9 ! great s]ies ( ! /ratifi$ rocks2 & we may lay x d[n z an axiom t ! l[e/ /rata are ! olde/1 unless by "s subsequ5t di/urbance ! ord] %\ld h be5 rev]s$1 :i*1 =tunately1 is a r>e occurr5ce1 ?\gh examples are to be f\nd 9 "s m\nta9-*a9s ) viol5t fold+s4 ,b x (t5 happ5s t nei!r ! /rata :i* %\ld come above nor ^? t lie bel[ c be se54 ,!n our second rule comes 93 ,we c det]m9e ! age ( ! rock 9 "q by its fossils4 ,! reason ( ?is has p]haps already be5 guess$ by ! read]4 ,x is t z diff]5t k9ds ( plants & animals h prevail$ at diff]5t p]iods ( ! _w's hi/ory1 s !re h be5 /yles1 or fa%ions1 9 creation1 z well z 9 art4 ,at "o geological p]iod c]ta9 curi\s types ( fi%es fl\ri%$ :i* are n[ almo/ ext9ct1 only a few old-fa%ion$ survivals be+ f\nd 9 "o or two out-(-!-way places4 ,at ano!r p]iod c]ta9 types ( reptiles fl\ri%$ vigor\sly1 & 7 ! lead]s 9 _! day2 b !y h altoge!r vani%$ & become ext9ct4 ,s "o type aft] ano!r has appe>$ on ! sc5e1 play$ its humble "p 9 ! great drama ( life2 & !n--exit6 ano!r takes its place4 ,9 ! olde/ & l[e/ ( ! s]ies ( rocks we f9d no c]ta9 trace ( life at all4 ,9 ! next s]ies we f9d only l[ly creatures1 su* z %ell-fi%1 corals1 & crab-l animals t h no backbone4 ,9 a high] gr\p ( rocks fi%es appe> = ! fir/ "t4 ,lat] on1 we come across ! rema9s ( amphibi\s creatures = ! fir/ "t4 ,!n foll[s 7aft] a long unrecord$ int]val7 an era :5 reptiles & birds exi/$ 9 great numb]s4 ,aft] ano!r long int]val we come to /rata conta9+ _m & div]se rema9s ( mammals or quadrup$s4 ,s we h an ,age ( ,fi%es1 an ,age ( ,reptiles1 & an ,age ( ,mammals4 ,"s tribes ( ^! creatures di$ out1 b o!rs liv$ on to ! pres5t day4 ,?us we see t !re has be5 a cont9u\s progress 9 life z ! _w grew old]1 = high] types kept com+ 94 ,to ! geologi/ fossils are ( ! greate/ possible use1 s9ce !y help him to det]m9e ! age ( a p>ticul> set ( /rata1 = c]ta9 k9ds ( fossils belong to c]ta9 rocks1 & to !m only4 ,b ! classification ( ! /ratifi$ rocks has be5 c>ri$ f>!r ?an ?is4 ,practical geologi/s1 work+ 9 ! field1 use fossils z _! *ief guide 9 work+ out ! subdivisions ( a gr\p ( rocks1 = c]ta9 g5]a & species ( old plants & animals are f\nd to belong to c]ta9 small gr\ps ( /rata4 ,9 ?is way a def9ite ord] ( succession has be5 e/abli%$ once = all2 &1 except 9 ! case ( inv]t$ /rata already allud$ to1 ?is ord] is inv>iably f\nd to hold good4 ,?is great discov]y ( ! ord] ( succession ( ! ,briti% /ratifi$ rocks1 e/abli%$ by _! fossil cont5ts1 is due to ,william ,smi?1 ! fa!r ( ,engli% geology4 ,aft] explor+ ! :ole ( ,engl&1 he publi%$ 9 #ahae a geological map1 ! result ( 8 extraord9>y lab\rs4 ,be=e !n p _h no idea ( a def9ite & regul> succession ( rocks ext5d+ ov] ! c\ntry1 capable ( be+ recognis$ to "s ext5t by ! nature ( ! rocks !mselves1--:e!r s&/ones1 clays1 or lime/ones1 etc41 b *iefly by _! own fossils4 ,!y ?\ght ! diff]5t k9ds ( rocks 7 scatt]$ promiscu\sly up & d[n ! face ( ! c\ntry2 b n[ we "k t !y d n %[ !mselves 9 ?is haphaz>d way1 b h def9ite relations to ea* o!r1 l ! _m volumes ( "o l>ge book4 ,by comb9+ ! two pr9ciples ref]r$ to above1 geologi/s h arrang$ ! great s]ies ( ,briti% /ratifi$ rocks into c]ta9 gr\ps1 ea* indicat+ a long p]iod ( "t4 ,fir/1 !y are r\ghly divid$ into ?ree l>ge gr\ps1 m>k+ ! ?ree great eras into :i* geological "t is divid$4 ,secondly1 ^! eras are fur!r divid$ into c]ta9 p]iods4 ,^! p]iods are aga9 divid$ into epo*s1 indicat$ by local divisions ( _! rocks4 ,9 ?is way we h some?+ l a hi/orical table4 ,omitt+ ! small epo*s ( "t1 ?is table is z foll[s1 9 desc5d+ ord]3-- ,table ( ! ,briti% ,/ratifi$ ,rocks4 ,,era4 ,,p]iod4 ,,prevail+ ,,type4 ,rec5t4 ,ca9ozoic1 ,plei/oc5e1 or or ,t]ti>y4 ,quat]n>y4 ,mammals4 ,plioc5e4 ,mioc5e4 ,eoc5e4 ,cretace\s4 ,mesozoic1 ,neocomian4 or ,jurassic4 ,reptiles4 ,second>y4 ,triassic4 ,p]mian4 ,c>bonif]\s4 ,fi%es4 ,devonian1 & ,palozoic1 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one4 or ,silurian4 ,creatures )\t ,prim>y4 ,cambrian4 a backbone ,ar*an1#cd 7inv]tebrates74 or ,pre-,cambrian4 #cd ,! ,ar*an rocks are frequ5tly plac$ 9 a sep>ate gr\p bel[ ! ,palozoic4 ,! total ?ickness ( all ^! rocks has be5 e/imat$ at ab\t "o hundr$ ?\s& feet1 or n f> f tw5ty miles4 ,^! names h be5 giv5 p>tly f ! region 9 :i* ! rocks occur1 p>tly f ! nature ( ! rocks !mselves1 & p>tly = o!r reasons4 ,?us ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one is s call$1 because x g5]ally1 ?\gh n always1 appe>s z a d>k r$ s&/one4 ,b ! ,silurian rocks1 :i* we f9d 9 ,nor? ,wales1 receive _! "n f ! ,silures1 an anci5t ,wel% tribe2 ! ,cambrian rocks take !irs f ,cambria1 ! old "n = ,nor? ,wales4 ,! ,cretace\s rocks are p>tly compos$ ( *alk1 = :i* ! ,lat9 ^w is creta2 & s on4 ,! t]ms ,palozoic1 ,mesozoic1 & ,ca9ozoic mean anci5t life1 middle life1 & rec5t or new life1 ?us indicat+ t z "t w5t on ! v>i\s types ( life t fl\ri%$ on ! e>? became less old-fa%ion$1 & m l ^? prevail+ at ! pres5t "t4 ,^! us$ to be call$ ,prim>y1 ,second>y1 & ,t]ti>y2 b ! t]ms 7 un=tunate1 because ! prim>y rocks1 z !n kn[n1 7 n ! fir/1 or olde/4 ,we h !re=e includ$ ! ,ar*an rocks1 s9ce discov]$1 9 ?is prim>y gr\p4 ,only "o fossil has be5 f\nd 9 ^! rocks1 & t is a d\btful "o2 h5ce !y are sometimes call$ ,azoic1 t is1 )\t life4 ,! ,mesozoic rocks are1 z x 71 ! records ( ! middle ages 9 ! _w's hi/ory2 :ile ! ,palozoic take u back to a truly primeval "t4 ,we h n[ le>n$ h[ ! geological age ( any gr\p ( rocks may be det]m9$4 ,?us1 if a s]ies ( rocks ( unkn[n age c be %[n to re/ on und\bt$ly ,silurian rocks 9 "o place1 & 9 ano!r place to be ov]laid or cov]$ by und\bt$ly ,c>bonif]\s rocks1 !y w probably belong to ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one ,p]iod4 ,if aft]w>ds we f9d t !y conta9 "s ( ! well-kn[n fossils ( t p]iod1 ! "q ( _! age is settl$ at once4 ,b we want m evid5ce ?an ?is4 ,suppose1 n[1 we f9d some:]e on ! flanks ( a m\nta9-range a s]ies ( ,p]mian & ,triassic rocks1 re/+ almo/ horizontally on di/urb$ & fold$ ,c>bonif]\s /rata4 ,does n t at once prove t ! upheaval took place be=e ! ,p]mian ,p]iod8 ,cle>ly x does1 because ! ,p]mian rocks h evid5tly n be5 di/urb$ !reby4 ,s n[ we c fix ! date ( our range ( hills2 namely1 aft] ! ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod & be=e ! ,p]mian ,p]iod4 ,x is by su* reason+ t ! age ( our ,p5n9e range ( hills1 ext5d+ f ! nor? ( ,engl& into ,d]by%ire1 has be5 fix$2 = ! ,p]mian & ,triassic /rata lie undi/urb$ on ! upheav$ ar* ( ,c>bonif]\s rocks ( :i* ?is *a9 is compos$4 ,its /ructure is t ( a brok5 & mu* d5ud$ anticl9e1 :i* /&s up to =m a l9e ( hills only because ! ,c>bonif]\s lime/one is s mu* h>d] ?an ! coal measures1 or coal-be>+ rocks1 on ea* side ( x1 t x has n be5 worn away s fa/4 ,9 "t1 ?is great anticl9e w be entirely worn away l t ( ! ,weald4 ,x is call$ ! ,great ,m\nta9 ,lime/one1 because x s (t5 rises up to =m high gr\nd4 ,! ,m5dip ,hills 9 ,som]set%ire are ( ab\t ! same date1 & !y too are l>gely compos$ ( ?is great lime/one =mation4 ,( c\rse1 a c]ta9 am\nt ( up & d[n movem5t took place aft] ! hills 7 upheav$1 o!rwise ! ,p]mian & ,triassic rocks c\ld n h be5 deposit$ on _! sides2 b ^! movem5ts 7 slight & ( a m g5]al k9d ?an ^? by :i* /rata are ?r[n into folds4 ,! ma9 upheaval1 by :i* ! rocks n[ =m+ ! ,highl&s ( ,scotl& 7 lift$ up & contort$1 took place aft] ! ,l[] ,silurian ,p]iod1 & be=e t ( ! ,old ,r$ ,s&/one2 & !re is cle> evid5ce t ev5 be=e ! latt] p]iod !y _h n only be5 greatly alt]$1 or metamorphos$1 by subt]ranean heat1 b t !y _h suff]$ enorm\s d5udation4 ,& ! "w ( c>v+ out ^! m\nta9s has gone on ev] s9ce2 = ev5 9 ,old ,r$ ,s&/one times !y 7 probably n entirely cov]$ by wat]4 ,! ,highl& ,m\nta9s are !re=e old] ?an ! ,p5n9e range4 ,geologically ,scotl& belongs 9 great "p to ,sc&9avia2 & ! long l9e ( ,sc&9avian ,m\nta9s is a cont9uation ( ! ,highl&s1 & s is ( ! same age4 ,m\nta9-*a9s & hill-ranges h be5 upheav$ at v>i\s geological p]iods2 & "s are v old1 :ile o!rs are mu* y\ng]4 ,turn+ to ! s\!a/ ( ,engl&1 we f9d ! ranges ( *alk hills =m+ ! ,nor? & ,s\? ,d[ns 7see page #bcg74 ,z expla9$ previ\sly1 ^! owe _! exi/5ce to ! upheaval & subsequ5t d5udation ( ! l[ ar*1 or anticl9e1 ( ! ,weald4 ,!y are call$ esc>pm5ts1 because !y are l l9es ( cliffs t are be+ gradually cut back4 ,n[1 x is cle> t ^! hills are mu* new] ?an ei!r ( ^? we h j consid]$4 ,look at ! table on page #cbd1 & y w see t ! ,cretace\s rocks 7*alk1 etc47 belong to ! ,mesozoic era4 ,! *alk 0 ! la/ rock =m$ dur+ ! ,cretace\s ,p]iod4 ,s ! ,weald5 ar* mu/ h be5 heav$ up aft] ! *alk 0 =m$2 t is1 ages & ages lat] ?an ! date ( ! ,p5n9e range or ! ,scot* ,highl&s4 ,f o!r evid5ces x has be5 %[n t ?is anticl9e 0 heav$ up 9 ! e>ly "p ( ! ,ca9ozoic ,era1 p]haps dur+ ! ,mioc5e ,p]iod4 ,let u n[ take ! case ( ! ,alps4 ,& "h we h an in/ructive example ( a great m\nta9 sy/em =m$ by repeat$ movem5ts dur+ a long succession ( geological p]iods4 ,we _c say t !y 7 entirely rais$ up at any "o "t 9 ! _w's pa/ hi/ory4 ,9 ! c5tre ( ?is great range we f9d a s]ies ( igne\s & metamorphic rocks1 su* z granite1 gneiss1 & cry/all9e s*i/s4 ,"s ( ^! may belong to ! v olde/ p]iod1--namely1 ! ,ar*an2 o!rs are probably ,palozoic & ,ca9ozoic deposits greatly alt]$ by heat & pressure4 ,! gr\nd f ,savoy to ,au/ria began to be an area ( di/urbance & upheaval t[>ds ! close ( ! ,palozoic ,era1 if n be=e2 s t cry/all9e s*i/s & ,c>bonif]\s /rata 7 rais$ up to =m elevat$ l& ar\nd :i* ,p]mian conglom]ates & %+le-b$s 7 =m$1--z on ! sea%ore at ! pres5t day4 ,dur+ ! e>ly "p ( ! ,mesozoic ,era local fractures & c]ta9 up & d[n movem5ts occurr$4 ,aft] ?is !re 0 a long p]iod ( subsid5ce1 dur+ :i* a s]ies ( /rata kn[n z ,olites & ,cretace\s 7 deposit$ on ! floor ( an old sea4 ,t[>ds ! close ( ?is long era1 a fre% upheaval took place along ! pres5t l9e ( ! ,alps1--an upheaval t 0 prolong$ into ! ,eoc5e ,p]iod4 ,x 0 dur+ ?is latt] p]iod t a v ext5sive =mation kn[n z ! ,nummulitic lime/one 0 =m$ 9 a sea t cov]$ a l>ge "p ( ,europe & ,asia4 ,we h already ref]r$ 7see *ap4 v41 pp4 #afi-aga7 to ! way 9 :i* lime/ones h be5 =m$4 ,nummulites are little %ells t 7 =m$ by t9y %ell-fi%4 ,b aft] ?is1 ! greate/ upheaval & di/urbance took place1--an upheaval to :i* ! ,alps z we n[ see !m are *iefly due4 ,by ?is means ! old] ,ca9ozoic /rata1 once ly+ horizontally on ! floor ( ! sea1 7 rais$ up1 toge!r ) old] rocks1 to =m dry l&1 & n only rais$ up1 b crumpl$1 dislocat$1 & 9 "s cases turn$ upside d[n4 ,s int5se 0 ! compression to :i* ! ,eoc5e rocks 7 subject$ t !y 7 conv]t$ into a h>d & ev5 cry/all9e /ate4 ,x seems almo/ incr$ible t ^! highly alt]$ rocks :i* look s anci5t are ( ! same date z our ,london clay & ! s(t ,eoc5e deposits ( ! s\? ( ,engl&2 b 9 our c\ntry ! movem5t t rais$ up ^? /rata 0 ( ! mo/ feeble & g5tle k9d comp>$ to ! viol5t di/urbances t took place 9 ,switz]l&4 ,& "h we may po9t out t ! ,alps are only a portion ( a va/ *a9 ( m\nta9s /ret*+ "r across ,europe & ,asia 9 a g5]al ea/ & we/ direction1 beg9n+ ) ! ,pyr5ees & pass+ ?r\gh ! ,alps1 ! ,c>pa?ians1 ! ,caucasus1 & ! range ( ,elbruz to ! ,h9doo-,koo% & ! high plateau ( ,pamir1 call$ ! ro( ( ! _w1 :i* /&s l a huge =tress1 fifte5 ?\s& feet high4 ,!nce x passes to ! /ill high] tracts ( ,?ibet1 great pla9s exce$+ 9 height ! highe/ summits ( ! ,alps1 be+ enclos$ betwe5 ! l(ty ramp>ts ( ! ,himalayas on ! s\? & ! ,ku5-,lun ,m\nta9s on ! nor?2 & !nce ! m\nta9 wall is prolong$ 9 ! ,yu5-,l+1 ,9-,%an1 ,kh9-,gan1 & o!r ranges till x f9ally passes to ! ,pacific ,ocean at ,behr+'s ,/rait4 ,all ^! ranges are1 z x 71 ! backbone ( ! great cont95tal plateau ( ! ,old ,_w1 & d\btless are *iefly due to ^? e>?-movem5ts by means ( :i* ! ,alps 7 upheav$4 ,! la/ gr& movem5t1 :i* rais$ ! ,mont ,blanc range1 0 probably r lat]1 & seems to h tak5 place z late z ! ,plioc5e ,p]iod4 ,at ! pres5t day no great movem5ts are tak+ place 9 ! ,alps2 b n[ & !n e>?quakes visit ?is region1 & s]ve to rem9d u t ! process ( m\nta9-mak+ is /ill sl[ly go+ on4 ,probably !re h be5 times 9 ! hi/ory ( all ^! m\nta9-ranges :5 movem5ts took place ( a m viol5t & convulsive k9d ?an any?+ ) :i* we are famili> at ! pres5t day2 & ! age we live 9 may be "o ( comp>ative repose4 ,?is is ( c\rse some:at a matt] ( speculation2 & we only allude to x because !re has be5 a t5d5cy on ! "p ( "s to c>ry ! !ory ( uni=mity 9 all geological op]ations mu* f>!r ?an ,hutton or ,lyell ev] int5d$4 ,b at ! same "t !re is no ne$ to g back to ! old tea*+ ( sudd5 cata/rophes & viol5t revolutions4 ,we only wi% to avoid ei!r ( ^! two extremes & to take a safe middle c\rse4 ,h[ rapidly "s ( ^! great e>?-movem5ts took place x is impossible at pres5t to say2 b 9 sev]al cases x c be %[n t !y 7 q sl[1 z indicat$ by ! te/imony ( ! riv]s4 ,?us1 ! rise ( ! great ,u9tah ,m\nta9s ( ! ,we/]n ,/ates 0 s sl[ & gradual t ! ,gre5 ,riv]1 :i* fl[$ across ! site ( ! range1 s f> f be+ turn$ aside z !y rose up1 has actually be5 able to deep5 its caon z fa/ z ! m\nta9s 7 upheav$4 ,s t ! two processes1 z x 71 kept pace ) ea* o!r1 & ! riv] w5t on cutt+ out its gorges at ! same "t t ! gr\nd ov] :i* x fl[$ 0 g5tly upheav$2 & z ! l& rose ! riv] fl[$ fa/]1 & !re=e acquir$ m p[] to cut & deep5 its *annel4 ,?is is a valuable piece ( evid5ce2 b 9 ?is case we h only a few big broad folds1 in/ead ( ! viol5t fold+ se5 9 ! ,alps4 ,h[ev]1 c]ta9 ,plioc5e /rata ly+ on ! s\!rn flanks ( ! ,himalayas %[ t ! riv]s /ill run 9 ! same l9es z !y occupi$ be=e ! la/ great upheaval took place4 ,we h se5 h[ ! sub/ance ( ! m\nta9s 0 sl[ly manufactur$ by means ( su* quiet & g5tle op]ations z may be witness$ at ! pres5t day2 h[ ! riv]s ( old br\ght d[n _! burd5s z !y d n[1 & flung !m into ! sea2 h[ ! sea spread !m out v sl[ly & compact$ !m into level lay]s1 to =m1 9 process ( "t1 ! h>d rocky framework ( ! plateaux1 hills1 & m\nta9s ( ! _w2 h[ va/ m>9e accumulations 7 also sl[ly manufactur$ ?r\gh ! ag5cy ( c\ntless g5]ations ( humble organisms1 subtract+ c>bonate ( lime f sea wat] to =m ! lime/ones ( future ages2 h[ by sl[ e>?-movem5ts ^! m>9e deposits 7 re>$ up into dry l&2 h[ !y h frequ5tly be5 p5etrat$ by molt5 rocky matt] f bel[1 :i* occasionally =c$ its way up to ! surface & gave rise to v>i\s volcanic eruptions1 by means ( :i* ! s$im5t>y rocks 7 (t5 consid]ably bak$ & h>d5$1 & new fissures fill$ up ) valuable metallic ores & preci\s /ones2 h[ lava-fl[s & great deposits ( volcanic a% 7 m+l$ ) ^! s$im5t>y rocks4 ,!n we endeav\r$ to foll[ ! hi/ory ( ^! rocky lay]s aft] _! upheaval1 & le>n h[ !y are affect$ by ! ceaseless op]ations ( ra9 & riv]s & o!r ag5ts ( de/ruction1 s t f9ally ! upheav$ ridges ( ! l&s are c>v$ out into all ^? wond]ful features ( crag & p9nacle & precipice t give ! m\nta9s _! pres5t %apes & outl9es4 ,all ?is we 7 able to acc\nt =1 )\t ! aid ( any imag9>y or unnatural causes4 ,&1 la/ly1 we h se5 t ev5 :]e su* causes might seem at fir/ almo/ indisp5sable1--:5 m\nta9s tell u ( mighty int]nal =ces crumpl+1 fold+1 & fractur+ _! rocky framework1--yet ev5 !re we c acc\nt = :at we see )\t suppos+ !m to h be5 torn & toss$ ab\t by any v viol5t convulsions4 ,illu/ration3 ,,m\nta9 ,,9 ,,! ,,yosemite ,,valley4 ,al?\gh ! "q ( ! cause1 or causes1 ( e>?-movem5ts1 :]eby cont95ts are upheav$1 & ! contort+1 fold+1 & crumpl+ ( ! rocks ( m\nta9s produc$1 is n at pres5t ?or\ghly expla9$1 x may p]haps be wor? our :ile to consid] briefly "s ( ! views t h be5 put =w>d on ?is difficult subject4 ,! words upheaval & elevation1 9 ref]5ce to movem5ts ( ! e>?'s surface1 are some:at mislead+1 b are us$ = want ( bett] t]ms4 ,!y w\ld seem to imply t ! =ce :i* produc$ m\nta9s 0 a k9d ( upw>d pu%2 :]eas1 9 mo/ cases1 & p]haps 9 all1 ! =ce1 :atev] x 01 did n act 9 an upw>d direction4 ,s x %\ld be und]/ood t we employ ^! t]ms only to indicate t ! rocks h someh[ be5 c>ri$ up to a high] level1 & n z sugge/+ h[ ! =ce act$ by :i* !y 7 rais$4 ,x seems pretty cle> t 9 ! case ( m\nta9-*a9s1 at lea/1 ! =ce act$ 9 a horizontal direction1 z a k9d ( side-?ru/4 ,?is we endeav\r$ to illu/rate 9 *apt] ix4 by means ( a simple exp]im5t ) a %eet ( pap]2 & x 0 %[n h[ folds simil> to ^? ( :i* ,mont ,blanc is compos$ c\ld be imitat$ by simply press+ ! sides ( a %eet ( pap] inw>ds ) "o's two h&s z x lies on a table4 ,su* lat]al pressure1 x is ?\ght by _m1 mu/ be caus$ by ! %r9k+ ( ! l[] & hott] p>ts ( ! e>?'s cru/ z !y cool1 leav+ ! out] cru/ unsupport$1 s t x gradually settles d[n onto a small] surface bel[1 & 9 s do+ mu/ inevitably be wr9kl$ & ?r[ itself into a s]ies ( folds 7see *apt] vi41 page #bjd74 ,! int]ior ( ! e>? is hott] ?an ! outside2 & s9ce !re is good reason to ?9k t ! :ole e>? 0 once ^u a "t 9 a highly heat$ & p]haps half molt5 condition1 we are compell$ to believe t x always has be51 & /ill is1 a cool+ globe4 ,n[1 almo/ all kn[n sub/ances are f\nd to contract m or less on cool+2 & s if ! mat]ials ( :i* ! e>? is ma9ly compos$ are at all simil> 9 _! nature & prop]ties to ^? :i* we f9d on its surface1 x foll[s t ! e>? mu/ be contract+ at ! same "t t x is cool+1 j z a r$-hot pok] w contract on be+ tak5 out ( ! fire4 ,moreov]1 we f9d t hot bodies contract fa/] ?an ^? t are m]ely w>m1 s t a r$-hot pok] contracts m dur+ ! fir/ few m9utes aft] x is tak5 out ( ! fire ?an x does aft] x has pass$ ! r$-hot /age4 ,h5ce x is easy to see t ! int]ior portions ( ! e>?1 :i* are hott]1 mu/ be contract+ at a great] rate ?an its ext]nal p>ts1 = !y evid5tly h v little heat to lose4 ,?is may seem r puzzl+ to ! read] at fir/2 = x might be argu$ t ! heat f bel[ mu/ pass ?r\gh ! ext]nal lay]s1 or cru/1 z x is (t5 call$4 ,b x %\ld be rememb]$ t ?is is n ! only way 9 :i* ! e>? loses heat4 ,?9k ( ! va/ am\nt ( heat giv5 out f ! e>? e ye> by volcanic eruptions1 & y w see at once t mu* ( ! cool+ takes place 9 ?is way1 & n z a direct fl[ ( heat f ! int]ior1 z 9 ! case ( ! pok]4 ,a s+le big lava-/ream fl[+ out f a volcano1 & cool+ on ! surface ( ! e>?1 repres5ts s mu* heat lo/ =ev]2 & s d ! cl\ds ( /eam emitt$ dur+ e eruption2 s1 aga91 d ev5 ! hot spr+s t are cont9ually br++ up w>m wat]4 ,if1 !n1 ! l[] portions ( ! e>? are sl[ly contract+1 !y mu/ t5d to leave ! out] portions ( ! cru/ unsupport$1 s t !y w\ld be compell$ by _! own enorm\s weight to settle d[n4 ,n[1 we "k t some?+ l ?is happ5s 9 coal m9es2 & z long passages are holl[$ out bel[1 ! gr\nd beg9s to creep1 or sl[ly s9k4 ,?9k :at w\ld be ! effect ( a sl[ s9k+ ( any portion ( ! e>? d[n t[>ds ! c5tre2 x w\ld inevitably be curv$ up & d[n into num]\s folds1 z x endeav\r$ to get itself onto a small] space1 mu* 9 ! same way t a table-clo?1 :5 ?r[n onto a table 9 a k9d ( ar*1 settles d[n 9 a s]ies ( waves1 or folds4 ,& ?is1 x is ?\ght1 is ! way 9 :i* x happ5s t ! pressure comes1 z we said j n[1 sideways1 in/ead ( f bel[ upw>ds4 ,x is on ?is !ory t _m geologi/s acc\nt = ! enorm\s side-pressure to :i* rocks h 9 _m cases be5 subject$4 ,! evid5ces ( su* pressure are _m4 ,9 "s cases fossils h be5 !reby pull$ out ( %ape & appe> consid]ably di/ort$2 9 o!rs1 ev5 h>d qu>tz pebbles h be5 consid]ably elongat$ 7see *ap4 ix41 pp4 #cae-caf74 ,!n aga91 we h ! little crumpl+s ( all sizes s frequ5tly se5 9 mica-s*i/s4 ,& la/ly1 ! peculi> prop]ty t slates possess ( splitt+ up into ?9 %eets is f\nd to be due to ! same cause2 namely1 lat]al pressure4 ,slates 7 orig9ally =m$ ( s(t d>k mud1 & on be+ subsequ5tly squeez$1 by e>?-movem5ts1 h assum$ a /ructure kn[n z cleavage1 :]eby _! t9y mud-p>ticles 7 elongat$1 & all assum$ ! same direction1 ?us giv+ to ! rock ?is peculi> prop]ty ( splitt+4 ,x c be prov$ t ! pressure came 9 a direction opposite to t ( ! planes ( cleavage2 & x is f\nd t ! direction ( ! cleavage corresponds 9 a g5]al way ) ! direction1 or tr5d1 ( a m\nta9-*a9 :i* is compos$ p>tly ( slates1 z 9 ,nor? ,wales4 ,& ?is discov]y helps & h>monises ) :at we h already said ab\t ! cause ( ! folds 9 m\nta9-*a9s1 = ! same =ce1 act+ sideways1 produc$ ! cleavage & ! fold+1 etc4 ,x has be5 already /at$ t 9 a l>ge numb] ( cases a m\nta9-range has a c5tral axis1 or b&1 ( granite or o!r cry/all9e rock4 ,?is l$ "s p to suppose t ! granite _h be5 driv5 up f bel[1 & 9 s do+ _h ?ru/ up ! ov]ly+ rocks se5 on ei!r flank ( ! *a92 9 o!r words1 !y believ$ granite to h be5 ! upheav+ ag5t4 ,& ev5 n[ we (t5 f9d unsci5tific writ]s speak+ ( ! volcanic =ces ( upheaval4 ,hav+ v little idea ( ! true /ructure ( m\nta9s1 !y believ$ !m to consi/ ( a k9d ( core1 or axis1 ( ?is igne\s rock1 ) s$im5t>y rocks slop+ away f x on ea* side4 ,?is 0 a v simple !ory ( m\nta9-*a9s1 b un=tunately x w n be> exam9ation4 ,x takes no notice ( ! fold+ :i* is s *>act]i/ic ( m\nta9 /rata1 & is q out ( agreem5t ) ! facts ( ! case2 s x mu/ be buri$ among ! ar*ives ( ! pa/4 ,m\nta9-*a9s are n[ kn[n to h a mu* m complicat$ /ructure ?an ?is1--?anks to ! lab\rs ( _m subsequ5t obs]v]s4 ,t illu/ri\s a/ronom]1 ! late ,sir ,john ,h]s*el1 ?rew out a bold sugge/ion on ?is subject1 :i* 9 ! light ( rec5t discov]ies ) reg>d to ! delicate adju/m5t betwe5 ! int]nal & ext]nal =ces affect+ ! e>?'s surface1 is wor?y ( c>eful consid]ation4 ,8 idea 0 t ! m]e weight ( a ?ick mass ( s$im5t re/+ on any portion ( ! e>?'s cru/ might cause a c]ta9 am\nt ( s9k+2 & t ?is w\ld cause portions on ei!r side to swell up4 ,x is c]ta9 t z great deposits ( s$im5t>y mat]ials accumulate on ! floor ( an ocean1 t floor sl[ly s9ks1 o!rwise ! sea w\ld become *ok$ up1 & dry l& w\ld take its place4 ,n[1 x is f\nd t e great m\nta9-*a9 consi/s ( _m ?\s&s ( feet ( /rata ?us =m$2 & m ?an ?is3 x turns out t a great] ?ickness ( su* mat]ials has be5 =m$ 9 regions :]e we n[ see m\nta9-*a9s ?an 9 ^? cont95tal regions t lie f>!r away f !m4 ,?is is an important fact1 :i* 0 n kn[n 9 ,sir ,john ,h]s*el's "t4 ,"o /rik+ example may be m5tion$ "h4 ,9 ! complicat$ region ( ! ,appala*ian *a9 ! /rata are e/imat$ to h a total ?ickness ( eight miles2 :ile 9 ,indiana1 :]e ! same /rata are ne>ly horizontal1 !y are less ?an "o mile ?ick4 ,h5ce x is n impossible t 9 ! m]e accumulation1 ?r\gh long p]iods ( "t1 ( va/ masses ( /rata _m ?\s&s ( feet ?ick1 we may f9d a pot5t cause ( e>?-movem5ts4 ,! m>g9al regions ( oceans1 :]e mo/ deposition takes place1 seem to und]go sl[ subsid5ce1 :ile ! cont95ts seem 9 mo/ places to be z sl[ly ris+4 ,mod]n geologi/s are incl9$ to ?9k t z d5udation we>s d[n a cont95tal surface1 remov+ f x a great quantity ( solid rocky matt] 7see *ap4 v41 pp4 #afa-afc71 ! pressure bel[ is some:at less5$1 or 9 o!r words1 s mu* weight is tak5 (f2 b t1 on ! o!r h&1 z ?is extra am\nt ( mat]ial accumulates on ! b$ ( a neighb\r+ ocean ! pressure is increas$ by a correspond+ am\nt1 & s ! balance betwe5 int]nal & ext]nal =ces is upset1 & movem5ts consequ5tly take place4 ,we h already se5 t ! ext]nal p>ts ( ! e>? are mu* m subject to movem5ts ?an might h be5 expect$2 & = our "p1 we are will+ to believe t 9 ?is simple way upheav+ =ces might be call$ into play suffici5t to acc\nt = ev5 ! elevation ( m\nta9-*a9s4 ,= suppose a great mass ( /rata to cont9ue s9k+ z !y 7 =m$1 = long p]iods ( "t2 :at seems to foll[8 ,! d[nw>d movem5t w\ld g on until a "t w\ld come :5 ! /rata1 9 endeav\r+ to settle d[n at a l[] level1 w\ld 7z by ! contraction !ory above expla9$7 be =c$ to fold !mselves into ridges1 & 9 ?is way long /rips ( !m might ev5 be elevat$ into m\nta9-ranges4 ,ano!r +5i\s idea 0 sugge/$ by ! late ,mr4 ,scrope1 ^: "w on volcanoes is well kn[n4 ,8 idea 0 t :5 a l>ge am\nt ( s$im5t>y mat]ial has accumulat$ on any l>ge area ( ! b$ ( ! ocean1 x some:at *ecks ! fl[ ( heat f )91 & !re=e ! temp]ature ( ! rocks =m+ "p ( ! e>?'s cru/ bel[ w be increas$1 mu* 9 ! same mann] z a glove *ecks ! escape ( heat f ! h& & keeps x w>m4 ,! consequ5ce ( ?is w\ld be expansion2 & z su* expansion w\ld be *iefly 9 a horizontal direction1 ! area w\ld bulge upw>ds & cause elevation ( ! /rata re/+ on x4 ,b !re are sev]al difficulties :i* ?is !ory fails to expla94 ,& la/ly1 ,pr(essor ,le ,conte1 hold+ t ! contraction !ory is unsatisfactory1 acc\nts = e>?-movem5ts ( all k9ds by suppos+ t "s int]nal p>ts ( ! e>? cool & contract fa/] ?an o!rs4 ,^? p>ts t cool fa/e/1 accord+ to ?is !ory1 are ^? t und]lie ! oceanic bas9s or tr\ghs2 :ile ! cont95tal areas1 n cool+ s rapidly1 are left /&+ up 9 relief4 ,?is !ory1 :i* does n seem v satisfactory1 is bas$ ^u ! idea t "s p>ts ( ! e>?'s int]ior may be capable ( conduct+ heat fa/] ?an o!rs4 ,we "k t "s sub/ances1 l iron1 are good conductors ( heat1 :ile o!rs are bad conductors2 & x is !re=e conceivable t heat may be fl[+ fa/] along "s p>ts ( ! e>? ?an along o!rs2 & if s1 !re w\ld be diff]5ces 9 ! rate ( contraction4 ,!re are v>i\s !ories ) reg>d to ! nature ( ! e>?'s int]ior4 ,"o ( ^! already ref]r$ to1 b n[ antiquat$1 supposes our planet to consi/ ( a ?91 solid cru/ ly+ on a molt5 int]ior1 s t ! _w w\ld be some?+ l an egg ) its ?9 %ell & liquid1 or semi-liquid1 int]ior4 ,n[1 !re are grave reasons = refus+ to accept ?is idea4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 a c]ta9 sl[ movem5t ( ! e>? kn[n z precession1 because x causes ! precession ( ! equ9octial po9ts on ! e>?'s orbit1 c\ld n possibly take place z x does if ! e>?'s int]ior 7 9 ?is loose & molt5 condition4 ,t is a matt] decid$ by ma!matical calculation1 on :i* we w n dwell fur!r4 ,secondly1 we obta9 "s v valuable evid5ce on ?is ab/ruse subject f ! well-kn[n daily ph5om5on ( ! tides1 caus$1 z ! read] is probably aw>e1 by ! attractions ( ! sun & moon2 b mu* m by ! moon1 because %e is ne>]1 & s ex]ts a great] pull on ! ocean z ea* "p ( ! _w is br\ght directly "u h] by ! e>?'s daily rotation on its axis4 ,! wat]s ( our oceans rise up twice ea* day z !y get 9 a l9e ) ! moon1 & !n beg9 to fall aga94 ,?us we get t daily ebb & fl[ se5 on our %ores4 ,n[1 x has be5 cle>ly prov$ by ,sir ,william ,?omson1 & o!rs1 t if any consid]able portion ( ! int]ior ( ! e>? 7 9 a fluid condition1 x too w\ld rise & fall e day z ! ocean does4 ,s we %\ld 9 t case h a tide bel[ ! e>? z well z on its surface1 & ! "o w\ld t5d to neutralise ! o!r1 & ! ocean tide ought to appe> less ?an x actually is4 ,ev5 if ! e>?'s cru/ 7 made ( solid /eel1 & sev]al hundr$s ( miles ?ick1 x w\ld yield s mu* to ! enorm\s pulls ex]t$ by bo? ! sun & moon t x w\ld simply c>ry ! wat]s ( ! ocean up & d[n ) x1 & we %\ld !re=e see no appreciable rise & fall ( ! wat] relatively to ! l&4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 !re is a v slight tide 9 ! solid e>? bel[ our feet1 b s slight t x does n practically affect ! tide :i* we see e day 9 ! ocean4 ,b we wi% to %[ t 7 ! int]ior ( ! e>? 9 any?+ approa*+1 to a fluid or molt5 condition1 ! ph5om5a ( ! tides w\ld be v diff]5t f :at !y actually are4 ,all geologi/s are !re=e agre$ t we mu/ consid] our e>? z a m or less solid body1 & n z be+ some?+ l an india-rubb] ball fill$ ) wat]4 ,! only "q is :e!r x is entirely solid ?r\gh\t4 ,"s au?orities consid] ?is to be ! case4 ,b o!rs v5ture to ?9k t :ile ! great mass ( ! globe is solid1 !re may be a ?9 liquid lay] ly+ some:]e bel[ ! surface4 ,sir ,william ,?omson calculates t !re mu/ be a solid cru/ at lea/ two ?\s& or tw5ty-five hundr$ miles ?ick 7! diamet] ( ! e>? is ab\t eight ?\s& miles7 & t ! mass ( ! e>? is on ! :ole m rigid c]ta9ly ?an a cont9u\s solid globe ( glass ( ! same diamet]4 ,"o o!r "q ) reg>d to ! e>?'s int]ior may be m5tion$ 9 conclusion4 ,a/ronom]s h calculat$ ! weight ( our planet1 & ! result is curi\s2 = x turns out to be at lea/ twice z heavy z ! heavie/ rocks t are f\nd on or ne> ! surface4 ,x is ab\t five & a half times z heavy z a globe ( wat] ( ! same size w\ld be1 :]eas mo/ rocks ) :i* we are acqua9t$ are ab\t two & a half1 or at mo/ ?ree times heavi] ?an wat]4 ,?is fact seems to op5 out curi\s consequ5ces2 = in/ance1 x is q possible t metals 7:i* are ( c\rse mu* heavi] ?an wat]7 may exi/ 9 ! e>?'s int]ior 9 consid]able quantities4 ,! imag9ation at once conjures up va/ quantities ( gold & silv]4 ,:at is ! s\rce ( ! gold & silv]1 & o!r metals f\nd 9 m9]al ve9s8 ,?is "q _c z yet be fully answ]$4 ,v small quantities ( v>i\s metals h be5 detect$ 9 sea-wat]2 & s "s geologi/s look ^u ! sea z ! s\rce f :i* metals came4 ,b x is possible t !y 7 introduc$ f bel[1--p]haps by ! action ( /eam & highly heat$ wat] dur+ p]iods ( volcanic activity1--& t _! s\rce is f> d[n bel[ 9 ! dep?s ( ! e>?4 ,b p]haps we h already w&]$ too f> into ! regions ( speculation4 ,su* are "s ( ! int]e/+ problems sugge/$ by ! /udy ( m\nta9s1 & !y add no small *>m to ! sci5ce ( geology4 ,& z we leave ! m\nta9s beh9d u1 refre%$ by _! brac+ air1 & /r5g!n$ = ano!r season ( toil & lab\r by a brief soj\rn among _! peaks & passes1 we come away ) a r5ew$ s5se ( ! almo/ unlimit$ p[] ( ! unha/+ op]ations ( ,nature1 & ! wisdom & b5efic5ce ( ! ,great ,ar*itect ( ! ,univ]se1 :o made & plann$ ^? sn[capp$ temples z symbols ( ,8 /r5g?1 :o 0 work+ millions ( ye>s ago z ,he is work+ to-day1 & to :om a ?\s& ye>s are z "o day4 ,,index4 ,ag5ts ( transportation1 #afa4 ,ages ( /rata1 h[ det]m9$1 #cag-ccc4 ,air1 composition (1 #bji4 ,alp9e animals1 #abd4 plants1 #ajc1 #aad4 ,alps1 ! hi/ory (1 #ccj4 7,see also ,rusk947 ,anci5ts1 !1 _! dread ( ! m\nta9s1 #c4 ,&es1 !1 elevation (1 #ahi4 ,animals1 behavi\r (1 be=e an avalan*e or e>?quake1 #ie4 ,anticl9e1 #bcg1 #cjc1 #cbg4 ,appala*ian ,m\nta9s1 d5udation ( !1 #bci1 #cje-cji4 ,aque\s rocks1 #aed4 ,ar*an ,era1 #cbd4 ,arctic flora1 #aba4 ,ar?ur's ,seat1 #bgg4 ,a%es1 volcanic1 #bde1 #bea1 #bfj4 ,atlantic ooze1 #agb4 ,atmosph]e1 effects produc$ by !1 #bji4 r>efaction (1 #gi4 ,avalan*es1 #hi4 ,badg]1 !1 9 ,alps1 #abh4 ,baltic ,sea1 *anges 91 #ahb4 ,b>ri] reef1 ( ,au/ralia1 #agj4 ,basalt1 ( ,hebrides1 #bgh4 ( ,sn[don1 #bgb4 ,bas91 ! ,great1 ( ,unit$ ,/ates1 #cac4 ,be>1 br[n1 #abe4 black1 #abf4 ,beav]1 !1 9 ,alps1 #abh4 ,b]gfalls1 #ig4 ,b]n9a1 !1 fall ( rocks f1 #ih4 ,bird1 ,miss 7,mrs4 ,bi%op71 on eruption ( ,kilauea1 #bfb4 ,birds1 ( ,alps1 #acd4 ,blu5ess ( ! sky1 #ge4 ,bombs1 volcanic1 #bec4 ,bonney1 ,pr(41 on m\nta9 leg5ds1 #bc4 on effects ( ! ,alps 9 ,europe1 #dh4 on w9d on m\nta9-tops1 #hd4 on ,alp9e plants1 #aae4 on =ms ( m\nta9s1 #bid4 ,b\ld]s1 erratic1 #bbe4 ,b\quet91 !1 9 ,alps1 #acc4 ,brita91 ,great1 ra9fall (1 #db4 ,build+ up ( m\nta9s1 #agd4 ,butt]flies1 9 ,alps1 #ach4 ,buzz>d1 !1 9 ,alps1 #acf4 ,cad] ,idris1 volcano rocks (1 #bgb4 ,ca9ozoic ,era1 #cbd4 ,callao1 #ahi4 ,cambrian rocks1 #bif1 #cbd4 ,canisp ,m\nta91 #big4 ,caons ( ,colorado1 #bba4 ,c>bonic acid 9 atmosph]e1 #baj4 ,c>bonif]\s ,p]iod1 #cbd4 ,cata/rophes1 #bae4 ,caves1 human rema9s1 etc41 91 #ca4 ,celsius1 on elevation ( ,gulf ( ,bo?nia1 #agh4 ,*alk1 ,cretace\s rocks compos$ (1 #cbe4 orig9 (4 ,see ,lime/ones4 ,*all5g]1 ,h4 ,m4 ,s41 exp$ition (1 #bea4 ,*amois1 !1 9 ,alps1 #acj4 ,*>act]i/ics ( m\nta9 races1 #ad4 ,*9a clay1 #bib4 ,classification ( rocks1 #aeg4 ,cleavage ( slates1 #aea1 #cdj4 ,conif]\s trees1 region (1 #aaa4 ,contortions 9 /rata1 #bih1 #caa4 ,contraction & expansion ( rocks1 #bjh4 ,contraction !ory ( e>?-movem5ts1 #cch4 ,coral reefs1 #agj4 ,cotopaxi1 #bei4 ,cry/all9e s*i/s1 #cab4 ,d>w91 ,*>les1 on elevation ( ! ,&es1 #ahi4 ,decidu\s trees1 m\nta9 region (1 #aaj4 ,d5t de ,may51 #ii4 ,d5t du ,midi1 fall ( rock f1 #ih4 ,d5udation1 #bbj1 #bbi1 #bhh1 #cab4 ,devonian rocks1 #cbd4 ,diabl]ets1 fall ( rock f1 #ih4 ,dislocations ( m\nta9 rocks1 #cac1 #cae4 ,du/1 volcanic1 #bde1 #bfj4 ,dykes1 #bde4 ,eagle1 ! gold51 #acf4 ,e>?-pill>s 9 ,tyrol1 #bba4 ,e>?quakes1 #ie1 #ajb1 #aif4 effects (1 #aih1 #ccf4 causes (1 #aih1 #bjj4 ,lucretius on1 #aii4 ,e>?-tremors1 #aid4 ,elevation ( m\nta9s1 #adf1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bii1 #ccf4 cont95ts1 #bih-bii4 ,encr9ites1 #aga4 ,eoc5e ,p]iod1 #cbd4 ,equador & ,p]u1 e>?quake (1 #aig4 ,eras1 geological1 #cbd4 ,eruptions1 volcanic1 #bdg4 ,fairies1 #e4 ,falcon1 !1 9 ,alps1 #acf4 ,fan-/ructure1 #caj4 ,faults & fractures1 #bjj1 #cac4 ,features *>act]i/ic ( m\nta9s1 #agg4 ,f]ns1 #aah4 ,fi%es1 ,age (1 #cbb4 ,fissures1 #bfh4 ,fhn1 !1 #hd4 ,=am9if]a1 #agb4 ,fox1 !1 9 ,alps1 #abg4 ,frog1 !1 9 ,alps1 #acg4 ,fro/1 effects (1 on m\nta9 rocks1 #bab4 ,game-birds1 9 ,alps1 #acg4 ,ganges & ,brahmapootra1 #afg4 ,geikie1 ,sir ,a41 on influ5ce ( ,scotti% sc5]y1 #ba4 on ! ,highl& plateau1 #bhd4 on ! m\nta9s ( ,we/ ,su!rl&1 #bif4 ,giant's ,causeway1 basalt (1 #bgi4 ,glace1 ,m] de1 #bbi4 ,glacial drifts1 #bbg4 ,glacial region ( vegetation 9 ,alps1 #aaf4 ,glaci]s1 erosive p[] (1 #bbh4 ,gl>e f sn[ 9 ,alps1 #gf4 ,gneiss1 #aef1 #bib4 ,gold & silv] 9 m\nta9s1 #fa4 9 ! e>?1 #cej4 ,grampians1 #bgf4 ,granite1 #baj4 wea!r+ (1 #bia4 9 m\nta9-*a9s1 #cab4 ,gre5l&1 elevation (1 #ahf4 ,gre5 slates & porphyries1 #bge4 ,gulf ,/ream1 #db4 ,h>e1 !1 9 ,alps1 #abh4 ,hawaii1 #bef4 ,heat1 effects (1 on rocks1 #aed1 #aef1 #afj4 und]gr\nd1 ( ! e>?1 #cch1 #cde4 ,hebrides1 =m] volcanic action 91 #bgh4 ,height1 influ5ce (1 on vegetation1 #ajg4 ,h]culaneum1 #bed4 ,highe/ clu/] ( h\ses 9 ! _w1 #gi4 ,highl&s ( ,scotl&1 #bhd4 ,himalayas1 description (1 #f4 ,hutton1 #adb1 #cbj4 ,ib]ian1 or pre-,celtic race1 #cj4 ,ice ,age1 !1 #fe1 #abc4 ,ice1 z a geological ag5t1 #bbc4 ,igne\s rocks1 #aee4 ,imbaburu1 eruption ( mud f1 #bei4 ,implem5ts ( /one1 #ca4 ,jackdaw1 !1 9 ,alps1 #acf4 ,jura ,m\nta9s1 #cjj1 #cjf4 ,jurassic rocks1 #cbd4 ,kilauea1 eruption (4 7,see ,bird1 ,miss47 ,kite1 !1 9 ,alps1 #acf4 ,krakatoa1 #beb4 ,labrador1 elevation (1 #aib4 ,lake ,di/rict1 d5udation (1 #bbj4 volcanic rocks (1 #bge4 ,lakes1 orig9 (1 #dg4 ,lat]al pressure1 appli$ to m\nta9s1 #caj1 #cae1 #ccg4 ,li*5s & mosses4 7,see ,rusk947 ,lime/ones1 orig9 (1 #aea1 #aec1 #afi4 ,lisbon1 e>?quake at1 #aig4 ,liv+/one1 on splitt+ ( rocks1 #bab4 ,liz>d1 !1 9 ,alps1 #acg4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,*>les1 #ccc4 ,lynx1 !1 9 ,alps1 #abh4 ,mal de montagne1 #hj4 ,mammals1 age (1 #cbb4 ,m>mot1 !1 9 ,alps1 #abi4 ,mauna ,loa1 eruption (1 #bef4 ,m5dip ,hills1 #cbg4 ,m] de ,glace4 7,see ,glace47 ,metals1 preci\s1 #fj4 9 ! 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