,transcriber's note3 ,minor spelling inconsistencies1 mainly hyphenated words1 have been harmonized4 ,italic text has been marked with underscores4 ,obvious typos have been corrected4 ,please see the end of this book for further notes4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,hills4 ,illustration ,illustration3 ,,norham ,,castle4 ,,after ,,turner4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,hills4 ,a ,,book ,,about ,,mountains ,,for ,,general ,,readers4 ,,by ,,rev4 ,h4 ,n4 ,,hutchinson1 ,b4,a41 ,f4,g4,s4 ,,author ,,of ,,the ,,autobiography ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,with ,sixteen ,full-page ,illustrations4 ,they are as a great and noble architecture1 first giving shelter1 comfort1 and rest2 and covered also with mighty sculpture and painted legend4--,,ruskin4 ,new ,york3 ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4 ,,and ,,london4 #ahib4 ,copyright1 #ahia1 ,,by ,,macmillan ,,and ,,co4 ,university ,press3 ,,john ,,wilson ,,and ,,son1 ,,cambridge1 ,u4,s4,a4 ,,to ,,all ,,who ,,love ,,mountains ,,and ,,hills ,this little ,book is ,dedicated1 ,,in ,,the ,,hope ,,that ,,even ,a ,,slight ,,knowledge ,,of ,,their ,,place ,,in ,,nature1 ,,and ,,previous ,,history1 ,,may ,,add ,,to ,,the ,,wonder ,,and ,,delight ,,with ,,which ,,we ,,look ,,upon ,,these ,,noble ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,surface ,,of ,,the ,,earth4 ,,preface4 ,now that travelling is no longer a luxury for the rich1 and thousands of people go every summer to spend their holidays among the mountains of ,europe1 and ladies climb ,mont ,blanc or ramble among the ,carpathians1 there must be many who would like to know something of the secret of the hills1 their origin1 their architecture1 and the forces that made them what they are4 ,for such this book is chiefly written4 ,those will best understand it who take it with them on their travels1 and endeavour by its use to interpret what they see among the mountains2 and they will find that a little observation goes a long way to help them to read mountain history4 ,it is hoped1 however1 that all1 both young and old1 who take an intelligent interest in the world around1 though they may never have seen a mountain1 may find these pages worth reading4 ,if readers do not find here answers to all their questions1 they may be reminded that it is not possible within the present limits to give more than a brief sketch of the subject1 leaving the gaps to be filled in by a study of the larger and more important works on geology4 ,the author1 assuming that the reader knows nothing of this fascinating science1 has endeavoured to interpret into ordinary language the story of the hills as it is written in the rocks of which they are made4 ,it can scarcely be denied that a little knowledge of natural objects greatly adds to our appreciation of them1 besides affording a deep source of pleasure1 in revealing the harmony1 law1 and order by which all things in this wonderful world are governed4 ,mountains1 when once we begin to observe them1 seem to become more than ever our companions1--to take us into their counsels1 and to teach us many a lesson about the great part they play in the order of things4 ,and surely our admiration of their beauty is not lessened1 but rather increased1 when we learn how much we and all living things owe to the life-giving streams that flow continually from them4 ,the writer has1 somewhat reluctantly1 omitted certain parts of the subject which1 though very interesting to the geologist1 can hardly be made attractive to general readers4 ,thus1 the cause of earth movements1 by which mountains are pushed up far above the plains that lie at their feet1 is at present a matter of speculation2 and it is difficult to express in ordinary language the ideas that have been put forward on this subject4 ,again1 the curious internal changes1 which we find to have taken place in the rocks of which mountains are composed1 are very interesting to those who know something of the minerals of which rocks are made up1 and their chemical composition2 but it was found impossible to render these matters sufficiently simple4 ,so again with regard to the geological structure of mountain-chains4 ,this had to be very briefly treated1 in order to avoid introducing details which would be too complicated for a book of this kind4 ,the author desires to acknowledge his obligations to the writings of ,sir ,a4 ,geikie2 ,professor ,bonney1 ,professor ,green1 and ,professor ,shaler1 of ,harvard ,university2 the volumes of the ,alpine ,journal2 ,the ,earth1 by ,reclus2 the ,encyclopdia ,britannica4 ,canon ,isaac ,taylor's ,words and ,places1 have also been made use of2 and if in every case the reference is not given1 the writer hopes the omission will be pardoned4 ,a few passages from ,mr4 ,ruskin's ,modern ,painters have been quoted1 in the hope that others may be led to read that wonderful book1 and to learn more about mountains and clouds1 and many other things1 at the feet of one of the greatest teachers of the century4 ,some of our engravings are taken from the justly celebrated photographs of the ,high ,alps1#a by the late ,mr4 ,w4 ,donkin1 whose premature death among the ,caucasus ,mountains was deeply deplored by all4 ,those reproduced were kindly lent by his brother1 ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,donkin1 of ,rugby4 ,to ,messrs4 ,valentine ,son of ,dundee1 ,mr4 ,wilson of ,aberdeen1 and to ,messrs4 ,frith we are indebted for permission to reproduce some of their admirable photographs2 also to ,messrs4 ,james ,how ,sons of ,farringdon ,street1 for three excellent photographs of rock-sections taken with the microscope4 #a ,published by ,messrs4 ,spooner1 of the ,strand4 ,,contents4 ,part ,i4 ,,the ,,mountains ,,as ,,they ,,are4 ,,chapter ,,page ,i4 ,,mountains ,,and ,,men #c ,,ii4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,mountains #cc ,,iii4 ,,sunshine ,,and ,,storm ,,on ,,the ,,mountains #gj ,,iv4 ,,mountain ,,plants ,,and ,,animals #ajc ,part ,,ii4 ,,chapter ,,page ,,how ,,the ,,mountains ,,were ,,made4 ,v4 ,,how ,,the ,,materials ,,were ,,brought ,,together #aci ,,vi4 ,,how ,,the ,,mountains ,,were ,,upheaved #agd ,,vii4 ,,how ,,the ,,mountains ,,were ,,carved ,,out #bje ,,viii4 ,,volcanic ,,mountains #bdb ,,ix4 ,,mountain ,,architecture #bhb ,x4 ,,the ,,ages ,,of ,,mountains ,,and ,,other ,,questions #cah ,,illustrations4 ,,norham ,,castle4 ,after ,turner ,frontispiece ,,ben ,,lomond4 ,from a ,photograph by ,j4 ,valentine #af ,,clouds ,,on ,,ben ,,nevis #ch ,,snow ,,on ,,the ,,high ,,alps4 ,from a ,photograph by ,mr4 ,donkin #fd ,a ,,storm ,,on ,,the ,,lake ,,of ,,thun4 ,after ,turner #hf ,,the ,,matterhorn4 ,from a ,photograph by ,mr4 ,donkin #ih ,,on ,a ,,glacier4 #aaf ,,red ,,deer4 ,after ,ansdell #acc ,,chalk ,,rocks1 ,,flamborough ,,head4 ,from a ,photograph by ,g4 ,w4 ,wilson #aeb ,,microphotographs ,,illustrating ,,rock ,,formation #agb ,,the ,,skaeggedalsfors1 ,,norway4 ,from a ,photograph by ,j4 ,valentine #aib ,,the ,,mer ,,de ,,glace ,,and ,,mont ,,buet4 ,from a ,photograph by ,mr4 ,donkin #bbi ,,the ,,eruption ,,of ,,vesuvius ,,in #ahgb4 ,from an ,instantaneous ,photograph #bej ,,columnar ,,basalt ,,at ,,clamshell ,,cave1 ,,staffa4 ,from a ,photograph by ,j4 ,valentine #bhj ,,mont ,,blanc1 ,,snowfields1 ,,glaciers1 ,,and ,,streams4 #cab ,,mountain ,,in ,,the ,,yosemite ,,valley4 #ccf ,,illustrations ,,ii4 ,fig4 #a4 ,,section ,,across ,,the ,,weald ,,of ,,kent ,,and ,,surrey4 #bcg ,fig4 #b4 ,,the ,,highlands ,,of ,,scotland ,,on ,a ,,true ,,scale 7after ,geikie47 #bcg ,fig4 #a4 ,,the ,,ranges ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,basin1 ,,western ,,states ,,of ,,north ,,america1 ,,showing ,a ,,series ,,of ,,great ,,fractures ,,and ,,tilted ,,masses ,,of ,,rock4 #bgb ,fig4 #b4 ,,section ,,through ,,snowdon4 #bgb ,,sections ,,of ,,mountain-,,ranges1 ,,showing ,,their ,,structure ,,and ,,the ,,amount ,,of ,,rock ,,worn ,,away #cjf ,,part ,i4 ,,the ,,mountains ,,as ,,they ,,are4 ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,hills4 ,part ,i4 ,,the ,,mountains ,,as ,,they ,,are4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,mountains ,,and ,,men4 ,happy1 ,i said1 whose home is here2 ,fair fortunes to the ,mountaineer4 ,in old times people looked with awe upon the mountains1 and regarded them with feelings akin to horror or dread4 ,a very slight acquaintance with the classical writers of antiquity will suffice to convince any one that ,greeks and ,romans did so regard them4 ,they were not so familiar with mountains as we are2 for there were no roads through them1 as now through the ,alps1 or the ,highlands of ,scotland1--to say nothing of the all-pervading railway4 ,it would1 however1 be a great mistake to suppose that the ancients did not observe and enjoy the beauties of ,nature4 ,the fair and fertile plain1 the vine-clad slopes of the lower hill-ranges1 and the many-twinkling smile of ocean were seen and loved by all who had a mind to appreciate the beautiful4 ,the poems of ,homer and ,virgil would alone be sufficient to prove this4 ,but the higher ranges1 untrodden by the foot of man1 were gazed at1 not with admiration1 but with religious awe2 for men looked upon mountains as the abode of the gods4 ,they dwelt in the rich plain1 which they cultivated1 and beside the sweet waters of some river2 for food and drink are the first necessities of life4 ,but they left the high hills alone1 and in fancy peopled them with the ,immortals who ruled their destiny1--controlling also the winds and the lightning1 the rain and the clouds1 which seem to have their home among the mountains4 ,a childlike fear of the unknown1 coupled with religious awe1 made them avoid the lofty and barren hills1 from which little was to be got but wild honey and a scanty supply of game4 ,there were also dangers to be encountered from the fury of the storm and the avalanche2 but the safer ground of the plains below would reward their toil with an ample supply of corn and other necessaries of life4 ,in classical times1 and also in the ,middle ,ages1 the mountains1 as well as glens and rivers1 were supposed to be peopled with fairies1 nymphs1 elves1 and all sorts of strange beings2 and even now travellers among the mountains of ,switzerland1 ,norway1 ,wales1 or ,scotland find that it is not long since the simple folk of these regions believed in the existence of such beings1 and attributed to their agency many things which they could not otherwise explain4 ,of all the nations of antiquity the ,jews seem to have shown the greatest appreciation of mountain scenery2 and in no ancient writings do we find so many or so eloquent allusions to the hills as in the ,old ,testament4 ,but here again one cannot fail to trace the same feelings of religious awe4 ,the ,law was given to their forefathers in the desert amidst the thunders of ,sinai4 ,to them the earth was literally ,jehovah's footstool1 and the clouds were ,his tabernacle4 ,if ,he do but touch the hills1 they shall smoke4 ,but this awe was not unmixed with other and more comforting thoughts4 ,they felt that those cloud-capped towers were symbols of strength and the abode of ,him who would help them in their need4 ,for so we find the psalmists regarding them2 and with our very different conceptions of the earth's natural features1 we can but dimly perceive and realise the full force and meaning of the words1 ,i will lift up mine eyes unto the hills1 from whence cometh my help4 ,to take another example from antiquity1 we find that the ,himalayas and the source of the ,ganges have from very early times been considered as holy by the people of ,india4 ,thousands of pilgrims from all parts of that vast country still continue to seek salvation in the holy waters of the ,ganges1 and at its sacred sources in the snowy ,himalayas4 ,and to those who know ,india the wondrous snowclad peaks of the ,himalayas still seem to be surrounded with somewhat of the same halo of glory as of old4 ,mountains are intimately associated with the history of nations1 and have contributed much to the moulding of the human mind and the character of those who dwell among them2 they have alike inspired the mind of the artist1 the poet1 the reformer1 and the visionary seeking repose for his soul1 that1 dwelling far from the strife and turmoil of the world1 he may contemplate alone the glory of the ,eternal ,being4 ,they have been the refuge of the afflicted and the persecuted2 they have braced the minds and bodies of heroes who have dwelt for a time among them before descending once more to the plain that they might play some noble part in the progress of the world4 ,moses1 while leading the flock of his father-in-law to the back of the wilderness1 came to ,mount ,horeb and received the divine summons to return to ,egypt and lead ,israel out of bondage4 ,david1 with his six hundred followers1 fleeing from the face of ,saul1 found a refuge in the hill country2 and the life of peril and adventure which he led during these years of persecution was a part of his training for the great future task of ruling ,israel1 which he performed so well4 ,elijah summoned the false prophets of ,baal and ,asherah to ,mount ,carmel and slew them at the brook ,kishon2 and a little later we find him at ,mount ,horeb listening1 not to the wind or to the earthquake or to the fire1 but to the still small voice telling him to return and anoint ,jehu to be king4 ,or1 to take another example from a later age1 we find that ,mahomet's favourite resort was a cave at the foot of ,mount ,hira1 north of ,mecca2 here in dark and wild surroundings his mind was wrought up to rhapsodic enthusiasm4 ,and many1 like these leaders of men1 have received in mountain retreats a firmness and tenacity of purpose giving them the right to be leaders1 and the power to redress human wrongs2 or1 it may be1 a temper of mind and spirit enabling them to soar into regions of thought and contemplation untrodden by the careless and more luxurious multitudes who dwell on the plains below4 ,perhaps ,mr4 ,lewis ,morris was unconsciously offering his testimony to the influence of mountains when he wrote those words which he puts into the mouth of poor ,marsyas1-- ,more it is than ease1 ,palace and pomp1 honours and luxuries1 ,to have seen white presences upon the hills1 ,to have heard the voices of the eternal gods4#b #b ,epic of ,hades4 ,the thunder and lightning1 storm and cloud1 as well as the soft beauty of colour1 and the harmony of mountain outline1 have been a part1 and a very important part1 of their training4 ,the exhilarating air1 the struggle with the elements in their fierceness1 the rugged strength of granite1 seem to have possessed the very souls of such men1 and made them like the strong ones1--the immortal beings to whom in all previous ages the races of mankind have assigned their abode in the hills1 as the ,greek gods were supposed to dwell on ,mount ,olympus4 ,on these heights such men seem to have gained something of the strength of ,him who dwells in the heavens far above their highest peaks1--the strength of the hills1 which1 as the ,hebrew poet says1 is ,his also4 ,we have spoken of the attitude of the human mind towards mountains in the past2 let us now consider the light in which they are regarded at the present time by all thoughtful and cultivated people4 ,and it does not require a moment's consideration to perceive that a very great change has taken place4 ,instead of regarding them with horror or aversion1 we look upon them with wonder and delight2 we watch them hour by hour whenever for a brief season of holiday we take up our abode near or among them4 ,we come back to them year by year to breathe once more the pure air which so frequently restores the invalid to health and brings back the colour to faded cheeks4 ,we love to watch the ever-varying lights and shades upon them1 as the day goes by4 ,but it is towards evening that the most enchanting scenes are to be witnessed1 when the sinking sun sheds its golden rays upon their slopes1 or tinges their summits with floods of crimson light2 and then presently1 after the sun has gone down1 pale mists begin to rise1 and the hills seem more majestic than ever4 ,later on1 as the full moon appears from behind a bank of cloud1 those wonderful moonlight effects may be seen which must be familiar to all who know the mountains as they are in summer or autumn1--scenes such as the writer has frequently witnessed in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 but which only the poet can adequately describe4 ,there are few sights in ,nature which more powerfully impress the mind than a sunset among the mountains4 ,general ,sir ,richard ,strachey concludes his description of the ,himalayas with the following striking passage3 ,here may the eye1 as it sweeps along the horizon1 embrace a line of snowclad mountains such as exist in no other part of the world1 stretching over one third of the entire circle1 at a distance of forty or fifty miles1 their peaks towering over a sea of intervening ranges piled one behind another1 whose extent on either hand is lost in the remote distance1 and of which the nearest rises from a gulf far down beneath the spectator's feet1 where may be seen the silver line that marks a river's course1 or crimson fields of amaranth and the dwellings of man4 ,sole representative of animal life1 some great eagle floats high overhead in the pure dark-blue sky1 or1 unused to man1 fearlessly sweeps down within a few yards to gaze at the stranger who intrudes among these solitudes of ,nature4 ,as the sun sinks1 the cold grey shadow of the summit where we stand is thrown forward1 slowly stealing over the distant hills1 and veiling their glowing purples as it goes1 carries the night up to the feet of the great snowy peaks1 which still rise radiant in the rosy light above the now darkening world4 ,from east to west in succession the splendour fades away from one point after another1 and the vast shadow of the earth is rapidly drawn across the whole vault of heaven4 ,one more departing day is added to the countless series which has silently witnessed the deathlike change that passes over the eternal snows1 as they are left raising their cold pale fronts against the now leaden sky2 till slowly with the deepening night the world of mountains rises again1 as it were1 to a new life1 under the changed light of the thousand stars which stud the firmament and shine with a brilliancy unknown except in the clear rarefied air of these sublime heights4 ,year by year a larger number of busy workers from our great towns1 availing themselves of the increased facilities for travel1 come to the mountains to spend their summer holidays1--some to the ,swiss ,alps1 others to ,wales1 ,cumberland1 ,norway1 or the ,highlands of ,scotland4 ,there are few untrodden valleys in these regions1 few of the more important mountains which have not been climbed4 ,our knowledge of mountains1 thanks to the labours of a zealous army of workers1 is now considerable4 ,the professors of physical science have been busy making important observations on the condition of the atmosphere in the higher regions2 geographers have noted their heights and mapped their leading contours4 ,geologists have done a vast amount of work in ascertaining the composition and arrangement of the rocks of which mountain chains are composed1 in observing their peculiar structures1 in recording the changes which are continually effecting their waste and decay1 and thus interpreting the story of the hills as it is written in the very rocks of which they are built up4 ,naturalists have collected and noted the peculiar plants and animals which have their home among the hills1 and so the forms of life1 both animal and vegetable1 which inhabit the mountains of ,europe1 and some other countries1 are now fairly well known4 ,the historian1 the antiquary1 and the student of languages have made interesting discoveries with regard to the mountain races of mankind4 ,and only to mention this country1 such writers as ,scott1 ,wordsworth1 and ,ruskin have given us in verse and prose descriptions of mountain scenery which will take a permanent place in literature2 while ,turner1 our great landscape-painter1 has expressed the glories of mountain scenery in pictures which speak more eloquently than many words4 ,thus we see that whatever line of inquiry be chosen1 our subject is full of varied interest4 ,with regard to the characteristics of mountain races1 it is not easy to say to what extent people in different parts of the world who live among mountains share the same virtues or the same failings2 but the most obvious traits in the character of the mountaineer seem to be the result of his natural surroundings4 ,thus we find mountaineers generally endowed with hardihood1 strength1 and bravery4 ,to spend one's days on the hillsides for a large part of the year1 as shepherds and others do in ,scotland or ,wales1 and to walk some miles every day in pure bracing air1 must be healthy and tend to develop the muscles of the body2 and so we find the highlanders of all countries are usually muscular1 strong1 and capable of endurance4 ,and there can be little doubt that mountain races are kept up to a high standard of strength and endurance by a rigorous and constant weeding out of the weakly ones1 especially among children4 ,and if only the stronger live to grow up and become parents1 the chances are that their children will be strong too4 ,thus ,nature exercises a kind of selection2 and we have consequently the survival of the fittest4 ,this selection1 together with the healthy lives they lead1 is probably sufficient to account for their strength and hardiness4 ,as might be expected1 mountaineers are celebrated for their fighting qualities4 ,the fierce ,afghans who have often faced a ,british army1 and sometimes victoriously2 the brave ,swiss peasantry1 who have more than once fought nobly for freedom2 the ,highlanders1 who have contributed so largely to the success of ,british arms in nearly all parts of the world1 and whose forefathers defied even the all-conquering ,roman in their mountain strongholds1--these and many others all show the same valour and power of endurance4 ,etymologists1 whose learned researches into the meaning of words have thrown so much light on the ages before history was written1 tell us that the ,picts were so called from their fighting qualities1 and that the word ,pict is derived from the ,gaelic peicta1 a fighting man4 ,and ,julius ,csar says the chief god of the ,britons was the god of war4 ,in some countries--as1 for instance1 ,greece1 ,italy1 and ,spain--the mountains are infested with banditti and robbers1 who often become a terror to the neighbourhood4 ,in more peaceful and orderly countries1 however1 we find among mountaineers many noble qualities1--such as patience1 honesty1 simplicity of life1 thrift1 a dignified self-reliance1 together with true courtesy and hospitality4 ,this is high praise2 but who that knows mountain peasants would say it is undeserved8 ,how many a tired traveller among the hills of ,scotland or ,wales has had reason to be grateful for welcome1 food1 and rest in some little cottage in a far-away glen6 ,how many friendships have thus been formed6 ,how many a pleasant talk has beguiled the time during a storm or shower6 ,the old feuds are forgotten now that the ,saxon stranger and invader is at peace with the ,celtic people whom his forefathers drove into the hills4 ,the castles1 once centres of oppression or scenes of violence1 lie in peaceful and picturesque ruins1 and add not a little to the interest of one's travels in the ,north4 ,what true courtesy and consideration one meets with at the hands of these honest folk1 among whom the old kindly usages have not died out6 ,often too poor to be afflicted with the greed and thirst for wealth1 which frequently marks the man of the plain as compared with the man of the hills1--the ,lowlander as compared with the ,highlander1--they exhibit many of those simple virtues which one hardly expects to meet with among busy townspeople1 all bent on making money1 or as the phrase is1 getting on in life4 ,illustration3 ,,ben ,,lomond4 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,j4 ,,valentine4 ,the mountain cheer1 the frosty skies1 ,breed purer wits1 inventive eyes2 ,and then the moral of the place ,hints summits of heroic grace4 ,men in these crags a fastness find ,to fight corruption of the mind2 ,the insanity of towns to stem ,with simpleness for stratagem4 ,mr4 ,skene1 the ,scotch historian1 records a touching case of the devotion of ,highlanders to their chief4 ,he says1-- ,there is perhaps no instance in which the attachment of the clan to their chief was so strongly manifested as in the case of the ,macphersons of ,cluny after the disaster of 'the ,forty-five4' ,the chief having been deeply engaged in that insurrection1 his life became of course forfeited to the laws2 but neither the hope of reward nor the fear of danger could induce any one of his people to betray him4 ,for nine years he lived concealed in a cave a short distance from his own house2 it was situated in the front of a woody precipice of which the trees and shelving rocks concealed the entrance4 ,the cave had been dug by his own people1 who worked at night and conveyed the stones and rubbish into a neighbouring lake1 in order that no vestige of their labour might appear and lead to the discovery of the retreat4 ,in this asylum he continued to live secure1 receiving by night the occasional visits of his friends1 and sometimes by day1 when the soldiers had begun to slacken the vigour of their pursuit4 ,upwards of one thousand persons were privy to his concealment1 and a reward of #a1jjj was offered to any one who should give information against him4444 ,but although the soldiers were animated by the hope of reward1 and their officers by promise of promotion for the apprehension of this proscribed individual1 yet so true were his people1 so inflexibly strict in their promise of secrecy1 and so dextrous in conveying to him the necessaries he required in his long confinement1 not a trace of him could be discovered1 nor an individual base enough to give a hint to his detriment4 ,the mountaineer is a true gentleman4 ,however poor1 however ignorant or superstitious1 one perceives in him a refinement of manner which cannot fail to command admiration4 ,his readiness to share his best with the stranger and to render any service in his power are pleasing traits in his character4 ,but there is one sad feature about mountaineers of the present day which one frequently notices in districts where many tourists come1--especially ,english or ,american4 ,they are1 we regret to say1 losing their independence1 their simple1 old-fashioned ways1 and becoming servile and greedy1--at least in the towns and villages4 ,such changes seem1 alas6 inevitable when rich townspeople1 bent on pleasure or sport1 invade the recesses of the hills where poverty usually reigns4 ,on the one hand1 we have people1 often with long purses1 eager for enjoyment1 waiting to be fed1 housed1 or otherwise entertained2 on the other hand1 poor people1 anxious to make hay while the sun shines and to extract as much money as possible from the visitors1 who often allow themselves to be unmercifully fleeced4 ,then there are in the ,highlands the sportsmen1 who require a large following of gillies to attend them in their wanderings1 pay them highly for their services1 and dismiss them at the end of the season2 and so the men are in many cases left without employment all the winter and spring4 ,is it1 then1 surprising that they give way to a natural tendency to idleness1 and fall into other bad habits8 ,any visitor who spends a winter1 or part of one1 in the ,highlands will be better able to realise the extent of this evil1 which is by no means small2 and one cannot help regretting that the sportsmen's pleasure and the tourist's holiday should involve results of such grave consequence4 ,we are inclined to think that in these days sport is overdone1 and wish it could be followed without taking the hillman away from the work he would otherwise find1 and which would render him a more useful member of society4 ,with the agitation going on in some parts against deer-forests we do not feel much sympathy1 because they are based on the erroneous idea that crofters could make a living out of the land thus enclosed2 whereas those who know the land and its value for agricultural purposes tell us that with the exception of a few small patches here and there1 hardly worth mentioning1 it could not possibly be made to produce enough to maintain crofters and their families4 ,nevertheless1 another way of looking at the matter is this3 that the man who merely ministers to the pleasure of others richer than himself loses some of the self-respect and independence which he would acquire by working in his own way for a living4 ,the same changes for the worse are still more manifest in ,switzerland2 and even in some parts of ,norway the people are being similarly spoiled4 ,mr4 ,ruskin1 speaking of the former country1 says3 ,i believe that every franc now spent by travellers among the ,alps tends more or less to the undermining of whatever special greatness there is in the ,swiss character2 and the persons ,i met in ,switzerland whose position and modes of life render them best able to give me true information respecting the present state of their country1 among many causes of national deterioration1 spoke with chief fear of the influx of ,english wealth1 gradually connecting all industry with the wants of strangers1 and inviting all idleness to depend upon their casual help1 thus resolving the ancient consistency and pastoral simplicity of the mountain life into the two irregular trades of the innkeeper and mendicant4#c #c ,modern ,painters1 vol4 iv4 ,mountain people have still their superstitions2 since the introduction of railways many of the old legends and popular myths have died out1 but even what is left is interesting to the student of folk-lore1--indeed1 we might say1 to every one4 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie1 speaking of ,scotch mountain scenery says1-- ,to the influence of scenery of this kind on the mind of a people at once observant and imaginative1 such legends as that of the ,titans should in all likelihood be ascribed4 ,it would be interesting to trace back these legends to their cradle1 and to mark how much they owe to the character of the scenery amongst which they took their rise4 ,perhaps it would be found that the rugged outlines of the ,boeotian hills had no small share in the framing of ,hesiod's graphic story of that primeval warfare wherein the combatants fought with huge rocks1 which1 darkening the air as they flew1 at last buried the discomfited ,titans deep beneath the surface of the land4 ,nor would it be difficult to trace a close connection between the present scenery of our own country and some of the time-honoured traditionary stories of giants and hero kings1 warlocks and witches1 or between the doings of the ,scandinavian ,hrimthursar1 or ,frost ,giants1 and the more characteristic features of the landscapes and climate of the ,north4#d #d ,scenery of ,scotland4 ,the following passage from ,ruskin brings out more strongly the effects of mountains on men1--a subject to which he has given much attention3-- ,we shall find1 on the one hand1 the mountains of ,greece and ,italy1 forming all the loveliest dreams1 first of ,pagan1 then of ,christian mythology1 on the other1 those of ,scandinavia1 to be the first sources of whatever mental 7as well as military7 power was brought by the ,normans into ,southern ,europe4 ,normandy itself is1 to all intents and purposes1 a hill country4444 ,we have thus one branch of the ,northern religious imagination rising among the ,scandinavian fiords1 tempered in ,france by various encounters with elements of ,arabian1 ,italian1 ,provenal1 or other ,southern poetry1 and then reacting upon ,southern ,england2 while other forms of the same rude religious imagination1 resting like clouds upon the mountains of ,scotland and ,wales1 met and mingled with the ,norman ,christianity1 retaining even to the latest times some dark colour of superstition1 but giving all its poetical and military pathos to ,scottish poetry1 and a peculiar sternness and wildness of tone to the ,reformed faith1 in its manifestations among the ,scottish hills4#e #e ,modern ,painters1 vol4 iv4 ,the ,alps1 like most other mountainous countries1 have their fair share of legends1 some of which are very grotesque4 ,we have selected the following1 as related by ,professor ,bonney4#f ,the wild huntsman's yell is still heard in many places by the shuddering peasants as his phantom train sweeps by the chlet4 ,there is also the wild goat-herd1 a wicked lad1 who crucified an old he-goat and drove his flock to worship it2 lightning consumed him2 and now he wanders forever over the ,alps1 miserably wailing4 #f ,the ,alpine ,regions of ,switzerland 7,deighton1 ,bell1 ,co471 a most interesting book1 especially for travellers4 ,when the glacier of ,gtroz burst1 the ,archfiend himself was seen swimming down the ,rhone1 with a drawn sword in one hand and a golden ball in the other2 when opposite to ,martigny he halted1 and at his bidding the waters rose and swept away part of the town4 ,a vast multitude of imps was seen about the same time on a mountain in the ,val de ,bagnes by two mendicant friars from ,sion1 who1 hearing of this unlawful assembly1 had gone out as detectives to learn what mischief was hatching4 ,many places also have their spectral animals1 the ,valois1 according to ,tschudi1 being the headquarters of these legends4 ,there are also pygmies to be seen in the lonely mountains1 like the ,norwegian trolls1 and brownies who make or mar the house1 according as the goodwife is neat or a slattern4 ,many ,alpine stories have reference to the sudden destruction of pastures by the fall of rocks or ice4 ,here is one from the ,clariden ,alps3-- ,once upon a time these were fertile pastures1 on which dwelt a senn4 ,he grew rich1 so that none could match him in wealth2 but at the same time he grew proud and haughty1 and spurned both the laws of ,nature and the commandments of ,god4 ,he was so foolishly fond of his mistress that he paved the way from the chlet to the byre with cheeses1 lest she should soil her feet1 and cared so little for his mother that when she lay at his door fainting with hunger1 he offered her only milk to drink in which he had thrown the foulest refuse4 ,righteously indignant1 she turned away1 calling upon ,heaven to punish such an insult4 ,before she reached her home1 the rocks and ice had descended1 crushing beneath them her wicked son1 his mistress1 and possessions4 ,in the neighbourhood of ,monte ,rosa there is a tradition that a valley exists in the heart of that mountain the entrance to which has been sealed up by impassable glaciers1 though the floor of the cirque within is still a rich pasturage4 ,in a certain valley they point out a spring which bursts from the ground1 as the outlet of the torrent by which it is watered4 ,once1 said they1 a chasseur found the bed of this stream dry1 and creeping up its subterranean channel1 arrived on the floor of the valley4 ,it was a huntsman's paradise2 chamois were there in plenty1 bears also1 and even bouquetins1 wandering over the richest pastures4 ,he retraced his steps to announce the good news2 but when he returned again1 the waters had resumed their course1 and the place has ever since remained inaccessible4 ,mountains play a very important part in human history4 ,in the first place1 they are natural barriers separating the nations of the world from one another1 and tending to keep them confined within certain definite bounds2 we say1 tending to keep them thus confined1 because1 as every one knows1 these barriers have again and again been surmounted by conquering armies4 ,the rugged ,alps could not ward off ,hannibal1 who made his way through them to march upon the capital of the ,roman empire4 ,in like manner ,napoleon defied this great natural rampart1 made a road through it1 and came to ,italy4 ,no mountains would seem to be quite impassable2 but although liable in the course of ages to be occasionally overrun1 they afford good protection and produce a feeling of security4 ,the ,himalayas separate our great ,indian empire from that of ,china2 and we do not at present apprehend an invasion from that quarter4 ,the ,suliman ,mountains divide us from the ,afghans1 and the great ,russian and ,persian empires farther west4 ,still1 we know that in the eleventh century a great ,mahometan invasion of ,india took place2 our own armies have more than once penetrated to ,kabul4 ,perhaps the common garden wall separating adjacent suburban residences furnishes a suitable illustration of the great natural walls which divide1 not households or families1 but much larger families than these1--the nations of the world4 ,just as unruly boys sometimes climb over the neighbour's wall and play games in a garden which is not their own2 or as burglars may surmount these obstacles to their progress1 and finding a way into the house by a back door or kitchen window1 commence their ravages1--so a neighbouring 7but not neighbourly7 nation1 bent on conquest1 may invade some natural garden of the world1 such as ,india1 by forcing their way through physical barriers which for ordinary purposes serve to protect those within4 ,the ,thian ,shan ,mountains divide ,russia from ,china's sphere of influence4 ,the ,caucasus ,mountains separate ,russia from ,asia ,minor4 ,austro-,hungary is bounded by the ,carpathians1 ,spain by the ,pyrenees4 ,the ,alps of ,switzerland separate four nations not very friendly to each other2 and lastly1 in our own country the ,cheviot ,hills1 together with the ,tweed1 form the boundary between ,scotland and ,england4 ,where there are no mountains or hills1 rivers sometimes serve as boundaries1 but of course they do not answer the purpose so well4 ,sometimes a nation actually builds a wall for a boundary4 ,of this the great wall of ,china and the ,roman wall between the ,cheviots and the ,solway ,firth are familiar examples4 ,in the second place1 mountains have always been a refuge and shelter for conquered races2 and the primitive tribes who once lived in the plains have been forced by adverse circumstances to take to the hills4 ,this has taken place over and over again4 ,we know that the ,celtic people now living in ,brittany1 ,devonshire1 ,cornwall1 ,wales1 ,scotland1 and ,ireland1 though now considerably mixed1 are the descendants of the old ,celtic inhabitants of ,france and ,britain4 ,but there is a great deal of unwritten history for which we may look in vain to the ordinary sources of information1 such as books1 and which is only to be read in quite different records1--in antiquities buried up in peat-beds1 in bogs1 in ruins and ancient forts1 or camps2 and last but not least1 in the names of places1 rivers1 or mountains4 ,the hills1 the valleys1 the rivers1 are the only writing-tablets on which unlettered nations have been able to inscribe their annals4 ,for this kind of history we must go to the antiquary1 and1 above all1 to the philologist1 who tells us the meaning of the names of places1 and who the people were who gave the names that we see on our maps4 ,the great advances which have of late years been made in our knowledge of the primeval races of men1 or at least of nations but little known in the annals of history1 are largely due to the interpretation of the obscure records preserved in local names4 ,the ,celtic1 the ,iberian1 the ,teutonic1 the ,scandinavian1 and ,sclavonic races have thus for the most part made known to us their migrations1 conquests1 and defeats4 ,and so by studying the names of places1 rivers1 and hills1 as well as by careful collection of works of art1 implements1 coins1 such as may be seen in many a museum1 it has been possible to read a great deal of early history which would otherwise have been lost4 ,those who have studied these matters say they can trace wave after wave of population which has thus left its mark1--,gaelic1 ,cymric 7or ,welsh71 ,saxon1 ,anglian1 ,norwegian1 ,danish1 ,norman1 and ,flemish4 ,thus it can be proved from the names on the map that almost the whole of ,england was once ,celtic1 whereas now the ,celts are almost entirely confined to the hills4 ,the ,peak of ,derbyshire and the mountains of ,cumberland retain a greater number of ,celtic names than the districts surrounding them2 and the hills of ,devonshire long served as a barrier to protect the ,celts of ,cornwall from ,anglo-,saxon conquerors4 ,but even mountain races are often a good deal mixed1 and in the ,pyrenees we find the descendants of the ,iberians1 who1 a very long time ago1 were driven from the lowlands of ,france and ,spain4 ,these ,iberians are a very interesting race1 of short stature1 with long heads1 and dark hair and eyes4 ,this old type is to be met with in ,wales and the ,highlands even in the present day4 ,and so we learn--if these conclusions are sound--that even the ,celts in their early days were invaders1 and drove before them an older population4 ,this race1 it seems1 lived in ,europe a very long time ago1 before the discovery of metals1 when people made axes1 hammers1 and spear-heads out of flints or other stones2 and so they are said to belong to the ,stone ,age4 ,their remains are found in many of the caves which of late years have been explored4 ,possibly the ancient people of ,switzerland who lived in wooden houses1 erected on piles near the shores of lakes 7probably for safety71 were also of the same stock4 ,it is curious to find how people living in separate valleys among the mountains of ,switzerland have1 in the course of time1 become so much unlike their neighbours that they can hardly understand each other's speech1 so effectually have the mountains kept them apart4 ,in some districts almost every valley has its separate dialect4 ,switzerland is only twice the size of ,wales1 yet the local names are derived from half a dozen different languages1 three or four of which are still spoken by the people4 ,in the ,alps1 too1 the same mixture of ,celtic with an older ,iberian stock has been detected4 ,a curious reversal of the usual order of things is noticed by the late ,dean ,stanley in his ,sinai and ,palestine4 ,he points out that the ,jews took possession of many of the hills of ,palestine soon after the invasion under ,joshua1 but could not drive out the peoples of the plains1 because they were better armed1 and had chariots of iron in great number4 ,the conquerors in this case kept to the hills2 while the ,canaanites1 ,philistines1 and other inhabitants of the country retained for a long time their hold of the lower ground4 ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,the ,,uses ,,of ,,mountains4 ,the valleys only feed2 the mountains feed and guard and strengthen us4--,,ruskin4 ,it is not an exaggeration to say that there are no physical features of the surface of the earth which render such a variety of services as mountains4 ,the operations which they perform involve such far-reaching consequences that it is difficult to say where their effects cease4 ,indeed1 it might almost be maintained that they are the mainspring of the world1--as far as its surface is concerned1--for it would fare ill with mankind if they were removed or in some way destroyed4 ,things would then very soon come to a standstill4 ,the soil would become exhausted2 streams would cease to flow2 and the world would become a kind of stagnant pool4 ,the three main services of the hills are these3-- ,i4 ,mountains help to condense water-vapour from the atmosphere1 thus bringing back to the earth moisture which it loses continually by evaporation4 ,,ii4 ,mountains are elevated reservoirs of water in one form or another1 and thus not only feed the streams and rivers1 but give them force and direction as well4 ,,iii4 ,mountains suffer themselves to be slowly worn away in order that the face of the earth may be renewed2 in other words1 they die that we1 and all created things1 may live4 ,i4 ,mountains help to condense water-vapour from the atmosphere1 thus bringing back to the earth the moisture which it loses continually by evaporation4 ,every one knows that there is abundance of water-vapour in the atmosphere1 but the question arises1 ,how does it get there8 ,the answer to this lies in the simple fact that every surface of water exposed to the air undergoes loss by evaporation4 ,if you wish to satisfy yourself on this point1 place a saucer of water in your room1 and in a few days it will all be gone4 ,we hang clothes out to dry1 and so avail ourselves of this curious power that air has of taking up water in the form of vapour4 ,steam1 or water-vapour1 is really invisible1 though we frequently talk of seeing the steam issuing from a locomotive2 but what we really see is a cloud of condensed steam1 and such clouds1#g like those that we see floating in the air1 are really masses of little tiny particles of water which can reflect or throw back the light which falls upon them1 and thus they become visible4 ,again1 a kettle of water1 if left too long on the fire will entirely boil away4 ,it is all turned into steam1 and the steam is somehow hidden away in the air1 though a little of it will be condensed into slight clouds by the colder air outside the kettle4 #g ,it has lately been proved that clouds can only form in air which contains dust1 and that each little suspended particle of water contains a speck of dust or a tiny germ of some sort for its nucleus4 ,but how can water stow itself away in the air without being seen or felt8 ,an illustration may help to explain this4 ,suppose you scatter a spoonful of small shot over a carpet or a dark-coloured table-cloth2 you would probably not be able to see them at a little distance4 ,now1 gather them together in a heap1 and you see them at once4 ,the heap of shot in some ways resembles a drop of water1 for in a drop of water the tiny particles 7or molecules7 of which it is composed are close together2 but by heating water you cause them to fly asunder and scatter themselves in various directions4 ,they are lost to sight1 and moreover have no power of attracting each other or of acting in concert2 each one then takes its own course1 whereas in the drop of water they were in some wonderful way bound together by mutual attraction4 ,they dance in groups2 but the rude force of heat will scatter these little dancing groups1 and break them up into that state which we call a state of vapour4 ,the forces of heat and cohesion are directly at variance2 and it is just a question of degree whether the one or the other gets the mastery in this tug of war4 ,the more you heat the water1 the faster the little groups of molecules break up and disappear in the air4 ,they must in some way go moving between the particles of air1 and collisions keep taking place with inconceivable rapidity4 ,and now another question arises2 namely1 how much water-vapour can the air take8 ,that depends chiefly on its temperature4 ,air when heated will take up a great deal of steam2 and the more you heat air1 the more it can take up4 ,when air at a given temperature can take up no more1 it is said to be saturated for that temperature2 but if the temperature be raised1 it will immediately begin to take up more4 ,for each degree of temperature there is a certain amount of water-vapour which can be absorbed1 and no more4 ,but suppose we take some air which is already saturated and lower its temperature by giving it a sudden chill1 what will happen8 ,it will immediately give up part of its steam1 or water-vapour2 namely1 the exact amount which it is unable to contain at the lower temperature4#h #h ,pressure also has an important influence1 but was omitted above for the sake of simplicity4 ,there are various ways in which you can test this matter for yourself4 ,for instance1 take a hand-glass1 and breathe on it4 ,you know what will happen3 a film of moisture forms upon it2 and you know the reason why4 ,it is simply that the cold glass gives a chill to one's breath 7which being warm is highly charged with water-vapour from the lungs71 and so some of the vapour is at once condensed4 ,now1 this serves very well to explain how mountains catch water-vapour1 and condense it4 ,they are1 as it were1 a cold looking-glass2 and the hot breath of the plains1 as it strikes their sides1 receiving a sudden chill1 throws down part of the vapour it contains4 ,on the higher parts of mountain-ranges the cold is so great that the water assumes the form of snow4 ,mountains1 as every one knows1 are colder than the plains below4 ,no one cares to stay very long on a mountain-top1 for fear of catching cold4 ,it may be worth while to consider why they are cold4 ,perhaps you answer1 ,because they are so high4 ,that is true1 but not a complete answer to our question4 ,we must look at the matter a little more closely4 ,the earth is a warm body surrounded by space in which the cold is inconceivably intense2 but just as we protect our bodies against cold with garments1 so the earth is wrapped up in an atmosphere which serves more or less to keep in the heat4 ,all warm bodies give out heat as luminous bodies give out light2 but the rays of heat1 unlike those of light1 are quite invisible to our eyes1 so that we are unaware of them4 ,these dark heat-rays1 as they are called1 do not make any impression on the retina1 because our eyes are not capable of responding to them as they do to the ordinary rays of light4 ,but there is a delicate little instrument known as the thermopile1 which responds to1 and so detects these invisible rays2 and if our eyes were sensitive to such vibrations as these1 we should see heat-rays 7which like light and sound are due to vibrations7 streaming from every object1 just as light does from a candle-flame4 ,those parts of the earth which are least covered or protected by the atmosphere lose heat most rapidly1--in the same way that on a frosty day one's fingers become cold unless covered up4 ,now1 there is less air over mountains2 and in those higher regions above the peaks what air there is1 is more rarefied1 and therefore less capable of stopping the heat-rays coming from the earth4 ,professor ,tyndall has shown that water-vapour in the air has a great power of stopping dark heat-rays2 and the lower regions1 which contain more vapour1 stop or absorb a good deal of heat which would otherwise escape into space4 ,look at a map of any continent1 and you will see the rivers streaming away from the mountains4 ,all those vast quantities of water come from the atmosphere2 and mountains do a large share of the work of condensing it from the state of vapour to that of water4 ,take the map of ,india1 and look at the great range of the ,himalayas4 ,at their feet is the hot valley of the ,ganges1 which meets that of the ,brahmapootra ,river4 ,an immense amount of evaporation takes place from these mighty rivers1 so that the air above them becomes laden with water-vapour4 ,farther south is the tropical ,indian ,ocean1 from which the direct rays of the sun draw up still vaster quantities of water4 ,and so when south winds blow over ,india1 they are full of water-vapour2 and presently they strike the flanks of the ,himalayas1 and at once they are chilled1 and consequently part with a large amount of the vapour which they contained4 ,this is best illustrated by the case of the southwest monsoon wind of the summer season1 which sets in during the month of ,april1 and continues to blow steadily towards the northeast till ,october4 ,after leaving the ,bay of ,bengal1 this warm wind1 laden with vapour1 meets ere long with the range known as the ,khasi ,hills1 and consequently throws down a large part of its vapour in the form of rain4 ,the rainfall here in the summer season reaches the prodigious total of five hundred inches1 or about twenty times as much as falls in ,london during a whole year4 ,after passing over these hills1 the monsoon wind presently reaches the ,himalayas2 and another downpour then takes place1 until by the time it reaches the wide plains of ,thibet1 so much water has been given up that it becomes a very dry wind instead of a moist one4 ,it must not be supposed1 however1 that the condensation effected by mountains is entirely due to this coldness4 ,they have another simple and effective way of compelling the winds to give up rain3 their sloping sides force the winds which strike them to ascend into higher regions1--wedging them up as waves run up a sloping stony bank on the seashore1--and when the winds reach higher regions of the atmosphere they must 7as explained above7 suffer loss of heat1 or in other words1 have their temperature lowered4 ,they also expand considerably as they rise into regions where the atmospheric pressure is less2 and as every gas or vapour loses heat in the act of expansion1 they undergo a further cooling from this cause also4 ,we have now learned that the cooling process is brought about in three different ways3 7#a7 ,by contact with the cold body of the mountains2 7#b7 ,by giving out heat into space2 7#c7 ,by expansion of the air as it reaches into the higher regions of the atmosphere4 ,the cloud-caps on certain mountains and promontories are to be explained by all these causes combined4 ,the west coast of ,great ,britain illustrates the same thing on a smaller scale4 ,there the warm waters of the ,gulf ,stream1 travelling in a northeasterly direction straight away from the ,gulf of ,mexico1 strike the west coast of ,ireland1 ,england1 and ,scotland2 and as most people are aware1 the mild climate of ,great ,britain is chiefly due to this fact4 ,if you contrast for a moment the east and west coasts of ,britain1 you will see that the latter is much more rocky and mountainous than the east coast4 ,mountains run down nearly all our western coasts4 ,now1 it is this elevated and rocky side of ,britain which catches most of the rain4 ,very instructive it is to compare the annual rainfall in different parts of ,britain4 ,on ,dartmoor about #hf inches of rain fall every year1 while in ,london only about #bd inches fall annually2 but then ,london has no range of mountains near1 and is far away from the west coast4 ,again1 while people in ,ambleside have to put up with #gh inches of rain1 in ,norfolk they are content with the modest allowance of #bd inches or so4 ,at a place called ,quoich on the west coast of ,scotland1 about #aag inches fall every year4 ,these differences are chiefly due to the different contour of the land down the west side of ,britain1 which is mountainous1 while the east side is flat1 and also to the fact that while easterly winds1 which have come over the continent1 are dry1 our prevailing winds are from the west and southwest1 and are consequently heavily laden with vapour from the ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,these winds follow the direction of the ,gulf ,stream1 driving it along before them2 and in so doing they take up large quantities of vapour from its surface4 ,when these warm winds touch our western coasts1 they receive a chill1 and consequently are no longer able to contain all the vapour which they bring with them1 and so down comes the rain4 ,,ii4 ,mountains are elevated reservoirs of water in one form or another1 and thus not only feed the streams and rivers1 but give them force and direction as well4 ,it is very important that the mountains should not allow the waters they collect to run away too fast4 ,try to think for a moment what would happen if instead of being1 as it were1 locked up in the form of snowfields and glaciers1 the water were all in the liquid form4 ,it would soon run away1 and for months together the great river-valleys would be dry and desolate4 ,when the rain came1 there would be tremendous floods2 dire destruction would be wrought in the valleys2 and very soon the great rivers would dwindle down to nothing4 ,vegetation too would suffer seriously for want of water during the summer months2 and the valleys generally would cease to be the fertile sources of life which they are at present4 ,the earth would become for the most part like a stagnant marsh4 ,but in the higher mountain regions there is a beneficent process going on which averts such an evil4 ,the precious supplies of water are stored up in the solid forms of snow and ice4 ,now1 we all know that snow and ice take a long time to melt2 and thus ,nature regulates and like a prudent housewife economises her precious stores4 ,the rivers which she feeds continually1 from silent snowfields and glaciers among her mountain-peaks1 are the very arteries and veins of the earth2 and as the blood in our bodies is forced to circulate by pressure from the heart1 so the rivers are compelled to flow by pressure from the great heart of the hills1--slow1 steady1 continuous pressure1 not the quick pulses which the human heart sends through the body4 ,and again1 as the blood1 after circulating through the body in an infinite number of life-giving streams1 returns to the heart once more on its journey1 so the thousand streams which wander over the plains find their way back to the heart of the mountains1 for the water is brought there in the form of vapour and clouds by the winds4 ,when we build water-towers1 and make reservoirs on high ground to give pressure to the water in our pipes1 and make it circulate everywhere1--even to the tops of our houses1--we are only taking a hint from ,nature4 ,the mountains are her water-towers1 and from these strong reservoirs1 which never burst1 she commands her streams1 forcing them along their courses in order that they may find their way to the utmost bounds of continents4 ,but there is another way in which mountains regulate the supply of water1 and prevent it from running away too fast1--one not so effective as the freezing process1 but still very useful1 because it applies to the lower hills below the line of perpetual snow4 ,this may be well illustrated by the state of some of the ,scotch hills in the middle of summer or autumn1 when there is little if any snow resting upon them4 ,any one familiar with these hills will have noticed how full of water their sides are4 ,tiny threads of streams trickle slowly along everywhere2 peat-beds are saturated with dark-brown water2 even the grass and soil are generally more or less wet1 especially under pine forests4 ,one can generally get a cup of water somewhere1 except after a long dry summer1 which is exceptional4 ,then there is the dew forming every night4 ,forests with their undergrowth of soil--moss and fern--also help very considerably to check the flow of water4 ,we have often asked ourselves when watching some swift-flowing river1 ,where does all this water come from8 ,why does it not dry up in hot weather8 ,the answer came fully after we had climbed several mountains1 and seen with our eyes the peat-beds among the hills1 and heard the trickling of the tiny rivulets hurrying along to feed some neighbouring burn1 or perhaps to run into some mountain tarn or loch1 and noticed the damp1 spongy state of the soil everywhere1--not to mention the little springs which here and there well up to the surface1 and so contribute their share4 ,the rivers and streams of ,scotland assume various tints of amber and dark-brown1 according to the amount of rain which has recently fallen4 ,these colours are due to organic matter from the peat4 ,compare ,scott's description of the ,greta3-- ,in yellow light her currents shone1 ,matching in hue the favourite gem ,of ,albion's mountain diadem4 ,the waters of some ,scotch rivers after heavy rain look as black as pitch4 ,nor must we omit the lakes which abound in most mountain regions1 and serve as natural reservoirs for the rivers1 besides giving a wonderful charm to mountain scenery4 ,the largest lakes in mountainous regions are found on the courses of the rivers2 and there is good reason to believe that they were formed1 not by any process of subsidence1 but by the same operations that carved out the valleys4 ,in many cases they are due to the damming up of a stream4 ,but in some countries the streams dry up during summer1--in ,palestine or ,sinai1 where there is but little soil on the hills1 and consequently hardly any vegetation4 ,such barren hills cannot hold the continual supplies which pour gently forth from the mountains of higher latitudes4 ,the ,alps feed four of the principal rivers of ,europe4 ,we cannot do better than quote ,professor ,bonney1 whose writings on the ,alps are familiar to all geologists4 ,in his ,alpine ,regions of ,switzerland the following passage occurs3-- ,this mass of mountains1 the great highlands of ,europe1 is therefore of the utmost physical and geographical importance4 ,rising in places to a height of more than fifteen thousand feet above the sea1 and covered for an extent of many thousand square miles with perpetual snow1 it is the chief feeder of four of the principal rivers in ,europe1--the ,po1 the ,rhone1 the ,rhine1 and the ,danube4 ,but for those barren fields of ice1 high up among the silent crags1 the seeming home of winter and death1 these great arteries of life would every summer dwindle down to paltry streams1 feebly wandering over stone-strewn beds4 ,stand1 for example1 on some mountain-spur1 and look down on the ,lombardy plain1 all one rich carpet of wheat and maize1 of rice and vine2 the life of those myriad threads of green and gold is fed from these icy peaks1 which stand out against the northern sky in such strange and solemn contrast4 ,as it is with the ,po1 so it is with the ,rhine and the ,rhone1 both of which issue from the ,alps as broad1 swelling streams2 so1 too1 with the ,danube1 which1 although it does not rise in them1 yet receives from the ,inn and the ,drave almost all the drainage of the eastern districts4 ,a very little reflection will serve to convince any one how vastly important and beneficial is the slope of the mountains1 and how it gives force and direction to streams and rivers4 ,without this force1 due to universal gravitation1 by which the waters seek continually lower levels1 the supplies in the hills would be useless4 ,mere lakes on flat surfaces would not answer the purpose2 and so the sources of water are elevated in order that it may pour over the world below4 ,no writer has given such fascinating descriptions of mountains as ,mr4 ,ruskin2 and no one has more eloquently described the functions they perform4 ,in the fourth volume of his ,modern ,painters1 which every one who cares for mountains should read1 we find the following beautiful passage3-- ,every fountain and river1 from the inch-deep streamlet that crosses the village lane in trembling clearness1 to the massy and silent march of the everlasting multitude of waters in ,amazon or ,ganges1 owe their play and purity and power to the ordained elevations of the earth4 ,gentle or steep1 extended or abrupt1 some determined slope of the earth's surface is of course necessary before any wave can so much as overtake one sedge in its pilgrimage2 and how seldom do we enough consider1 as we walk beside the margins of our pleasant brooks1 how beautiful and wonderful is that ordinance1 of which every blade of grass that waves in their clear waters is a perpetual sign1--that the dew and rain fallen on the face of the earth shall find no resting-place2 shall find1 on the contrary1 fixed channels traced for them from the ravines of the central crests down which they roar in sudden ranks of foam to the dark hollows beneath the banks of lowland pasture1 round which they must circle slowly among the stems and beneath the leaves of the lilies2 paths prepared for them by which1 at some appointed rate of journey1 they must evermore descend1 sometimes slow1 and sometimes swift1 but never pausing2 the daily portion of the earth they have to glide over marked for them at each successive sunrise2 the place which has known them knowing them no more2 and the gateways of guarding mountains opened for them in cleft and chasm1 none letting them in their pilgrimage1 and from afar off the great heart of the sea calling them to itself3 ',deep calleth unto deep4' ,geologists1 however1 do not in these days teach that the present paths of rivers were made for them1 but rather that the rivers have carved out their own valleys for themselves4 ,the old teaching before the days of ,lyell and ,hutton1 the founders of modern geology1 was that valleys were rents in the rocks of the earth's crust formed by some wonderful convulsion of ,nature1 whereby they were cracked1 torn asunder1 and upheaved4 ,but a careful study of rivers and their valleys for many years has shown that there is no evidence of such sudden convulsions4 ,the world is very old indeed1 and rivers have been flowing much as we see them for ages and ages4 ,a few thousand years is to the geologist but a short space of time2 and there can be no doubt that a stream can in the course of time carve out for itself a valley4 ,the operations of ,nature seem slow to us because our lives are so short1 and we can see so little change even in a generation2 but the effects of these changes mount up enormously when continued through a long space of time4 ,nature works slowly2 but then she has unlimited time1 and never seems in a hurry4 ,it is like the old story of the hare and the tortoise2 and the river1 working on steadily and quietly for hundreds or thousands of years1 accomplishes far more in the end than sudden floods or violent catastrophes of any sort4 ,,iii4 ,mountains suffer themselves to be slowly worn away in order that the face of the earth may be renewed2 in other words1 they die that we1 and all created things1 may live4 ,the reader will find a full account of the methods by which these results are accomplished in chapters v4 and vii41 and therefore we must not anticipate this part of the subject4 ,let it suffice for the present to say that this destruction of the hills is brought about by the action of heat and cold1 of rain and frost1 of snow and ice1 and the thousand streams that flow down the mountain-sides4 ,it is with soils that we are chiefly concerned at present4 ,try to think for a moment of the literally vital consequences which follow from the presence of good rich soils over different parts of the earth1 and ask whether it would be possible for civilised races of men to flourish and multiply as they do if it were not for the great fertile valleys and plains of the world4 ,mountain races are neither rich nor powerful4 ,man exists mainly by cultivation of the soil2 and among mountains we only find here and there patches that are worthy of the labour and expenditure of capital involved in cultivation4 ,but in the great plains1 in the principal river-valleys of the world1 and among the lesser hill-ranges it is different4 ,the lowlands are the fertile regions4 ,all great and powerful nations of the world are children of the plains4 ,it was so in the past2 it will be so in the future1 unless men learn to feed on something else than corn1 milk1 and flesh1 which is not very likely4 ,the ,egyptians1 the earliest civilised race of which we have satisfactory records1 dwelt in the fertile valley and delta of the ,nile4 ,they clearly perceived the value of this great river to themselves1 and worshipped it accordingly4 ,they knew nothing of its source in the far-away lakes of ,central ,africa2 but they knew truly1 as ,herodotus tells us1 that ,egypt was the gift of the ,nile1 for the alluvial soil of its delta has been formed by the yearly floods of that great river1 as its waters1 laden with a fine rich mud1 spread over its banks1 and for a time filled the valley with one sheet of water4 ,the ,assyrians and ,babylonians had their home in the valley of the ,euphrates and ,tigris4 ,the ,chinese1 too1 have their great rivers4 ,russia is well watered by powerful rivers4 ,the most populous parts of the ,united ,states of ,america are watered by the great ,mississippi1 and the other rivers which flow into it4 ,england1 ,germany1 and ,france are furnished with well-watered plains4 ,soils are the chief form of national wealth4 ,minerals1 such as coal and iron1 are of course extremely valuable1 and help to make an industrious race rich2 but the land is the main thing1 after all1 and by land we mean soil4 ,the two words are almost synonymous4 ,but since the soil is formed chiefly of dbris brought from the mountains1 it would be more true to say that these are the real sources of wealth4 ,soils contain besides a large amount of valuable organic matter 7that is1 decayed matter which has once had animal or vegetable life7 different kinds of minerals1 which are necessary to the support of plant life3 potash1 soda1 carbonate of lime1 silica1 magnesia1 iron1 phosphorus1 and manganese in their various compounds are all present in the rocks of which mountains are composed4 ,we must again fall back upon ,modern ,painters for an effective description of the forming of soil by destruction of the hills3-- ,the higher mountains suffer their summits to be broken into fragments and to be cast down in sheets of massy rock1 full1 as we shall presently see1 of every substance necessary for the nourishment of plants2 these fallen fragments are again broken by frost1 and ground by torrents into various conditions of sand and clay1--materials which are distributed perpetually by the streams farther and farther from the mountain's base4 ,every shower that swells the rivulets enables their waters to carry certain portions of earth into new positions1 and exposes new banks of ground to be moved in their turn4444 ,the process is continued more gently1 but not less effectively1 over all the surface of the lower undulating country2 and each filtering thread of summer rain which trickles through the short turf of the uplands is bearing its own appointed burden of earth down on some new natural garden in the dingles beneath4 ,it may be laid down as a simple economic truth1 that no nation can be powerful1 rich1 or prosperous1 unless it possess in the first place a good soil4 ,other conditions1 such as large navigable rivers1 a good seaboard for harbouring ships1 are also important2 but unless the land will yield plenty of food1 the population cannot be very great1 for people must be fed4 ,foreign supplies of corn at a low price1 meat and provisions of various kinds1 supplement what is grown in ,england2 but without a good soil we could not have become a powerful nation4 ,a high state of civilisation is in a large measure to be traced to climate and soil4 ,the sequence is somewhat as follows3-- ,mountains collect rain4 ,rain fills the rivers4 ,rivers make rich alluvial plains4 ,agriculture follows2 and food is produced4 ,abundant food maintains a large population4 ,the population works to supply its various wants2 such as roads1 railways1 ships1 houses1 machinery1 etc4 ,then follows exchange with other countries4 ,they send us what they can best produce1 and we send them what we can best and most easily produce1 and so both parties gain4 ,thus towns spring up4 ,education1 refinement1 learning1 and the higher arts follow from the active life of towns1 where more brain-work is required1 and the standard of life is higher4 ,and thus we may1 in imagination1 follow step by step the various stages by which the highest phases of civilisation are brought to pass1 beginning at the mountains and ending with human beings of the highest type1--the philosopher1 artist1 poet1 or statesman1 not omitting the gentler sex1 who are often said to rule the world4 ,the following lines of ,milton possess1 in the light of these facts1 a deeper meaning than the poet probably intended to convey3-- ,straight mine eye hath caught new pleasures ,whilst the landscape round it measures3 ,russet lawns and fallows grey1 ,where the nibbling flocks do stray2 ,mountains on whose barren breast ,the labouring clouds do often rest2 ,meadows trim with daisies pied1 ,shallow brooks and rivers wide2 ,flowers and battlements it sees ,bosomed high in tufted trees1-- ,where perhaps some beauty lies1 ,the cynosure of neighbouring eyes4 ,with a little rearrangement of the lines1 the sequence we have indicated above would be well illustrated4 ,the mountains must come first2 then the clouds1 ready to bring forth their rain2 then the brooks and rivers1 then russet lawns and fallows grey1--with their nibbling flocks4 ,then come the human elements in the scene1--the towers and battlements1 containing armed warriors1 well fed1 no doubt1 and ready to do their master's bidding2 lastly1 the lady who adorns the home of her lord1 and1 let us hope1 makes it worth fighting for4 ,for commercial purposes1 large navigable rivers are of great use4 ,and in spite of the modern railway1 rivers still exert an influence in determining the routes followed by trade4 ,london1 ,liverpool1 ,glasgow1 and other busy centres of life owe their importance to the rivers which flow through them1 especially since they are tidal rivers4 ,heavily laden barges may be seen from ,london ,bridge going up and down with the tide every day4 ,since the direction as well as the existence of large rivers is regulated by mountains1 it is clear that mountains have a very direct influence on the trade of the world4 ,mountains supply many of our wants4 ,besides water and soil1 how many useful things come from the hills6 ,their slopes1 watered by the clouds1 frequently support an abundant growth of pine forest2 and thus we get wood for the shipwright and joiner4 ,again1 mountains are composed of harder rocks than we find in the plains1 and that is one reason why they stand out high above the rest of the world4 ,their substance has been hardened to withstand for a longer time the destruction to which all rocks are subjected4 ,they have been greatly compressed and generally more or less hardened by subterranean heat4 ,we bake clay and make it into hard bricks2 so ,nature has baked and otherwise hardened the once soft strata of which mountains are chiefly composed1 converting them into slates1 schist1 gneiss1 and other kinds of rock called metamorphic by geologists1 because they have been altered or metamorphosed from their original condition 7see chapter viii41 page #bgg74 ,again1 granite1 basalt1 and other rocks known as igneous1 which once existed in a molten condition1 have forced their way up from subterranean regions into the rocks forming mountain-chains2 and a good deal of the hardening just alluded to is due to the presence of these fiery intruders1 which have baked and hardened the rocks around them to a considerable extent1 altering at the same time their mineral composition4 ,the same causes which led to the injection of granite1 basalt1 and other igneous rocks in mountain-ranges brought other consequences in their train4 ,whatever the causes1 they were closely connected with volcanic eruptions1 so that highly heated water and steam found their way through cracks and other fissures in the rocks2 and in the course of time the chemical actions thus set up led to the deposition of valuable metallic ores within these fissures4 ,in this way mineral veins were formed2 and volcanic action seems to be largely responsible for the production of minerals4 ,thus we find around ,vesuvius1 and in fact in all volcanic regions1 large and varied supplies of minerals4 ,now1 the geologist discovers that many mountain-chains--such1 for example1 as the ,grampians1 ,alps1 and ,carpathians--have in past geological periods been the seats of volcanic action on a grand scale2 and so we need not be surprised to learn that mountainous countries yield large supplies of valuable gems and metallic ores 7see chapter viii41 page #bgg74 ,even in the days of ,solomon1 the active and business-like ,phoenicians were carrying on trade with ,great ,britain2 and the tin came from ,cornwall4 ,besides tin1 gold1 silver1 lead1 copper1 zinc1 and other metals come from our hills4 ,now1 however1 we get our copper mostly from the ,andes1 and our gold from ,australia or ,south ,africa1 because it can be got more cheaply from these countries1 to which many of our ,cornish miners have emigrated4 ,precious stones also come chiefly from the hills1 for the same reason2 for they were formed at the same time and by the same causes4 ,cairngorms1 agates1 chalcedony1 jasper1 onyx1 topaz1 diamonds1 and many other gems are silent but certain witnesses to the action of subterranean heat1 acting long ago on the rocks which we now see standing up high above the general surface of the ground1 though once they were buried deep down below the surface4 ,diamonds as well as gold are often got from the beds of streams1 but this is easily accounted for2 the streams have washed them out and brought them down from the hills4 ,the following words from the ,book of ,job 7xxviii4 #e7 might well be applied to the hills4 ,as for the earth1 out of it cometh bread3 ,and underneath it is turned up as it were by fire4 ,the stones thereof are the place of sapphires1 ,and it hath dust of gold4 ,we have thus explained the three principal services rendered by mountains1 but some others remain to be mentioned4 ,mountains have an important influence on climate4 ,the climate of highlands everywhere has certain peculiarities which distinguish it from that of adjacent lowlands4 ,the air resting on mountains is less dense than that of the lowlands1 and hence has fewer molecules to obstruct the entering sunbeams by day1 or to stop the outward radiation at night4 ,therefore mountain air must be cooler2 and so we find that on mountains the mean1 or average1 annual temperature is lower4 ,this rarity of the air causes the ground to become hotter by day and colder by night than the ground of the plains2 and so the extremes of temperature are greater4 ,these extremes are injurious to vegetation in the higher regions1 and the want of moisture still more so4 ,but mountain-slopes up to a certain height usually have a moist climate2 that is1 they have more clouds and rain than the surrounding lowlands4 ,below the region of snow there is generally a heavy growth of forest2 and forests in their turn exercise an important influence1 helping to collect moisture1 and in various ways to prevent extremes either of heat or cold4 ,the earth is divided into three well-marked zones or belts of climate3 7#a7 ,the torrid zone within the tropics1 where the sun is vertical twice a year1 and days and nights are nearly equal2 7#b7 ,the temperate zones1 where the sun's rays come more obliquely1 and so are less powerful1 and where the length of day and night varies considerably2 and 7#c7 ,the frigid zones1 round each of the poles1 regions of intense cold1 where for six months of the year the sun is never seen4 ,now1 these broad divisions1 so familiar to school children1 are considerably interfered with by the height of various districts above the sea-level1 or1 as geographers say1 by altitude4 ,high ranges of mountains bring somewhat arctic conditions with them1 even in low latitudes1 where one would expect great heat4 ,thus the climate of the plains is very different from that of their neighbouring mountain-ranges1 although their latitudes are practically the same4 ,travellers in ,switzerland know how hot it can be in the ,rhone ,valley or in the plain of ,lombardy1 and how much cooler it is when you get up among the glaciers and the snowfields4 ,or to take an illustration from ,great ,britain3 a hot summer would be somewhat trying in ,edinburgh1 ,glasgow1 or even ,inverness1 because they lie low1 while among the ,grampians1 on ,speyside1 or ,braemar1 it would be very pleasant4 ,vegetation follows climate4 ,the sultry plains of the ,ganges show a luxuriant tropical vegetation1 while on the middle slopes of the ,himalayas the climate is temperate1 like that of ,europe1 and consequently the vegetation resembles that of a temperate region2 and the highest parts of this great range are like polar latitudes in their climate1 and partly also in their vegetation4 ,the arctic character of the climate of high mountain regions shows itself in the flora2 for on the ,high ,alps and the ,highlands of ,scotland and ,norway1 we find no small number of truly arctic plants whose home is much farther north4 ,a very long time ago1 when the climate of the whole of ,northern ,europe was extremely severe1 and when great glaciers descended from the mountains into the plains1 so that the aspect of the country was somewhat similar to that of ,greenland at the present day1 arctic plants and animals came down from their northern home1 and flourished abundantly4 ,this was during the ,great ,ice ,age1 which has left behind unmistakable evidences which the geologist can interpret as if they were written records4 ,then for some reason the climate became milder1 the glaciers melted away1 in ,great ,britain at least2 but these arctic plants were left behind1 and flourished still on the cool mountains1 though they died out on the warm plains 7see chap4 iv41 pp4 #abc-abd74 ,illustration3 ,,snow ,,on ,,the ,,high ,,alps4 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,mr4 ,,donkin4 ,mountains help to cause movement and change in the atmosphere4 ,let us see how this takes place4 ,mountains expose on one side their masses of rock to the full heat of the sun4 ,rocks are capable of becoming highly heated under a blazing sun3 we have known stone walls1 even in ,england1 to be almost too hot to touch2 and perhaps the reader may have often noticed the quivering of the hot air as it rises from the ground on a summer day1 especially over a road or any piece of bare rocky ground4 ,this quivering tells us that the air is highly heated by the ground beneath1 and is consequently rising4 ,you know how the pebbles look beneath a clear running stream2 and the things which we see through air in this state all seem to be similarly moving or quivering4 ,it is easy then to imagine how masses of heated air would rise up from the side of a mountain-range which faces the sun1--that is1 the southern side1--while on the other1 or northern side they cast a soft shadow for leagues over the plains at their feet4 ,in this way mountains divide a district into two different climates1 with a light warm air on their southern slopes1 and colder air on the northern1 and the rising of the warm air will cause a certain amount of circulation and movement4 ,hence mountains help to make currents in the atmosphere1 and these currents produce important consequences4 ,when mountain-ranges trend more or less directly across the direction of prevailing winds1 they always have a moist side and a dry one4 ,in the torrid zone1 where easterly winds prevail1 the eastern slope is usually the moist side2 but in higher latitudes1 as1 for example1 in ,europe1 the western side of mountain-ranges receives the greatest amount of rainfall1 because westerly winds prevail there4 ,mountains are barriers dividing not only one nation from another1 but separating also various tribes of plants and animals4 ,it will be readily understood that with the exception of birds1 whose powers of flight render them independent of physical barriers1 most animals find mountains more impassable than men do4 ,we can make roads and railways1 but they cannot thus aid their powers of locomotion2 hence mountains put limits to their migrations4 ,still1 climate and food supplies have a greater influence in determining the boundaries of zological provinces 7see chapter iv474 ,mountains are the backbones of continents4 ,a glance at a map of the world will show that there is evidently a close connection between continents and great mountain-chains4 ,this connection shows itself both in the shapes and general direction of continents4 ,thus1 the long continuous line of mountain-chain which extends from the southern spur of the ,andes to the northern end of the ,rocky ,mountains1--a distance of about nine thousand miles1--corresponds with the general trend of the ,north ,american continent1 and forms the axis or backbone of that vast tract of land4 ,it seems as if the sea on its western side were kept at bay by this great rocky wall1 while on its eastern side the rivers have formed new land4 ,a line of mountains is often the coast line1 for the sea cannot overcome it unless subsidence takes place4 ,the backbone of ,asia and ,europe runs east and west1 and the continental area of the ,old ,world follows the same general direction4 ,these are the chief uses of mountains1 and the facts which we have brought forward will serve to show how indispensable they are4 ,the following eloquent passage from ,modern ,painters may form a fitting close to the present chapter3-- ,and thus those desolate and threatening ranges which in nearly all ages of the world men have looked upon with aversion or with horror1 and shrunk back from as if they were haunted by perpetual images of death1 are in reality sources of life and happiness1 far fuller and more beneficent than all the bright fruitfulness of the plain4 ,the valleys only feed2 the mountains feed and guard and strengthen us4 ,we take our ideas of fearfulness and sublimity alternately from the mountains and the sea2 but we associate them unjustly4 ,the sea-wave1 with all its beneficence1 is yet devouring and terrible2 but the silent wave of the blue mountain is lifted towards heaven in a stillness of perpetual mercy2 and the one surge1 unfathomable in its darkness1 the other unshaken in its faithfulness1 for ever bear the seal of their appointed symbolism3-- ',thy righteousness is like the great mountains1 ,thy judgements are a great deep4' ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,sunshine ,,and ,,storm ,,on ,,the ,,mountains4 ,i would entreat your company ,to see the wonders of the world4 ,two ,gentlemen of ,verona4 ,the spirit of the hills is action1 that of the lowlands repose4#i ,the plains1 with their peaceful meadows and meandering streams1 might almost be said to be asleep2 but the mountains are wide awake4 ,they are emphatically scenes of violent or rapid action4 ,the wind blows more fiercely among the mountain-peaks than over the plains below2 heat and cold are more extreme2 and every process of change or decay seems quickened4 #i ,ruskin1 ,modern ,painters4 ,avalanches1 falls of rock1 earthquakes1 storms1 and floods exhibit the more terrible aspects of the hills4 ,yet they have their gentler moods3 witness the brightness of the starry sky overhead1 and its intense blue by day1 the wonderful sunrises and sunsets1 the lovely effects of light and shade1 of cloud and mist1 the stillness and silence of the eternal snows in summer1 and the beauty of the ,alpine flower4 ,let us see what those who know mountains best have to say about the wonderful things they have seen there4 ,to begin with sunset and sunrise4 ,professor ,bonney remarks1-- ,not the least interesting peculiarity of an ,alpine sunset is the frequency with which its most beautiful effects are revealed quite unexpectedly4 ,often at the close of a rainy afternoon1 the clouds1 just before the sun goes down1 break1 roll up1 sometimes disperse as if by magic1 in the glory of those crimson rays that come darting upon them and piercing every rift4 ,many a time have ,i watched the vapours around a mountain-peak curling lightly upwards1 and melting away into the sky1 till at last the unclouded summit glowed with flushes of orange and rose1 ere it grew pale and dead in its shroud of fresh-fallen snow4#aj #aj ,the ,alpine ,regions of ,switzerland4 ,here is a description by ,professor ,tyndall of a sunset witnessed in the neighbourhood of the ,weisshorn3-- ,as the day approached its end1 the scene assumed the most sublime aspect4 ,all the lower portions of the mountains were deeply shaded1 while the loftiest peaks1 ranged upon a semicircle1 were fully exposed to the sinking sun4 ,they seemed pyramids of solid fire2 while here and there long stretches of crimson light drawn over the higher snowfields linked the glorified summits together4 ,an intensely illuminated geranium flower seems to swim in its own colour1 which apparently surrounds the petals like a layer1 and defeats by its lustre any attempt of the eye to seize upon the sharp outline of the leaves4 ,a similar effect has been observed upon the mountains2 the glory did not seem to come from them alone1 but seemed also effluent from the air around them4 ,this gave them a certain buoyancy which suggested entire detachment from the earth4 ,they swam in splendour which intoxicated the soul2 and ,i will not now repeat in my moments of soberness the extravagant analogies which ran through my brain4 ,as the evening advanced1 the eastern heavens low down assumed a deep purple hue1 above which1 and blended with it by infinitesimal gradations1 was a belt of red1 and over this again zones of orange and violet4 ,i walked round the corner of the mountain at sunset1 and found the western sky glowing with a more transparent crimson than that which overspread the east4 ,the crown of the ,weisshorn was embedded in this magnificent light4 ,after sunset the purple of the east changed to a deep neutral tint2 and against the faded red which spread above it1 the sun-forsaken mountains laid their cold and ghostly heads4 ,the ruddy colour vanished more and more2 the stars strengthened in lustre1 until finally the moon and they held undisputed possession of the blue-grey sky4#aa #aa ,mountaineering in #ahfa 7,longman74 ,marvellous sunsets are to be witnessed from the mountains of the ,new ,world4 ,the following is a short and graphic description of sunset glories on the ,sierra ,nevada ,mountains by ,mr4 ,clarence ,king1 whose name is well known to geologists3-- ,while ,i looked1 the sun descended1 shadows climbed the ,sierras1 casting a gloom over foothill and pine1 until at last only the snow summits1 reflecting the evening light1 glowed like red lamps along the mountain-wall for hundreds of miles4 ,the rest of the ,sierra became invisible4 ,the snow burned for a moment in the violet sky1 and at last went out4 ,these marvellous effects appeal powerfully to our sense of beauty and produce in most minds feelings of intense delight2 but they also appeal to the reasoning faculty in man1 and an intelligent observer naturally inquires1 ,why are these things so8 ,how are those glorious colours of crimson1 orange1 and yellow produced8 ,a full explanation cannot be attempted here2 but this much may perhaps be said without tiring the patience of the reader4 ,white light1 such as sunlight or the light from an electric arc1 is composed of all the colours of the rainbow1--violet1 indigo1 blue1 green1 yellow1 orange1 and red4 ,a ray of sunlight on passing through a prism is split up into all these colours in the above order1 and we get them arranged in a band which is known as the spectrum4 ,thus it is proved that white light is made up of all colours 7black is not a colour1 but the absence of colour74 ,now1 when the sun is low down in the sky1 as at sunset1 only some of these colour-rays are able to pass through the atmosphere and so to reach our eyes1 while others are stopped in passing through very many miles of atmosphere 7as they must obviously do when the sun is low74 ,those which are stopped are the blue rays and others allied to blue1 such as purple and green2 but the red and yellow rays are able to pass on till they come to us4 ,hence red1 yellow1 and orange are the prevailing sunset tints4 ,what1 then1 becomes of the missing blue rays8 ,they are caught by the myriads of little floating particles in the air1 and reflected away from us4 ,that is why we do not see them2 their course is turned back1 just as waves breaking against a stone sea-wall are turned back or reflected4 ,a person situated behind such a wall will not see the waves which break against it2 but suppose a very big wave came3 it would come right over1 and then we should soon become aware of its presence4 ,so it is with the little waves of light3 some are stopped and turned back as they break against the myriads of little dust particles and the still more numerous particles of mist always floating in the air2 while others1 which are larger1 break over them and travel on undisturbed until they reach our eyes4 ,now1 the larger waves of light are the red waves1 while the smaller ones are the blue waves2 hence there is no difficulty in understanding why the red waves 7or vibrations7 are seen at sunset and sunrise1 to the exclusion of the blue waves4 ,but it must be borne in mind that light-waves are of infinitesimal smallness1 thousands and thousands of them going to make up an inch4 ,sound also travels in waves1 and the phenomena of sound serve to illustrate those of light2 but sound-waves are very much larger4 ,the reason why the sky overhead appears blue is that we see the blue rays reflected down to the earth from myriads of tiny dust and water particles1 while the red rays pass on over our heads1 which is just the reverse of what happens at sunset4 ,on the southern slopes of the ,alps the blues of the sky are generally very different from those on the northern side2 and this is probably due to the greater quantity of water-vapour in the air1 for the moist winds come from the south4 ,sunrises in the ,alps are quite as glorious to behold as sunsets2 but comparatively few people rise early enough to see them4 ,speaking generally1 it may be said that in ,alpine sunrises the prevailing colours are orange and gold1 in sunsets crimson or violet-pink4 ,after a cool night the atmospheric conditions will obviously be different from those which exist after a warm day1 and more water-vapour will have been condensed into mist or cloud4 ,hence we should expect a somewhat different effect4 ,the snowfields on high ranges of mountains are of a dazzling whiteness2 and their bright glare is so great as to distress the eyes of those who walk over them without blue glasses1 and even to cause inflammation4 ,at these heights the traveller is not only exposed to the direct rays of the sun1 untempered save for a thin veil of rarefied air1 but also to an intense glare produced by the little snow-crystals which scatter around the beams of light falling upon them4 ,scientific men1 who have studied these matters1 say that the scorching of the skin and sun-burning experienced by ,alpine travellers is not caused1 as might be supposed1 by the heat of the sun1 but by the rays of light darting and flashing on all sides from myriads of tiny snow-crystals4 ,occasionally a soft lambent glow has been observed on snowfields at night4 ,this is a very curious phenomenon1 to which the name of phosphorescence has1 rightly or wrongly1 been given4 ,a pale light may often be seen on the sea during a summer night1 when the water is disturbed in any way2 and if one is rowing in a boat1 the oars seem glowing with a faint and beautiful light4 ,it is well known that this is caused by myriads of little light-producing animalcules in the sea-water4 ,but we can hardly suppose that the glow above referred to is produced by a similar cause4 ,one observer says the glow is something like that produced by the flame of naphtha2 and he goes on to say that at every step an illuminated circle or nimbus about two inches in breadth surrounded our feet1 and we seemed to be ploughing our way through fields of light1 and raising clods of it1 if ,i may be allowed the expression1 in our progress4 ,another observer1 also an ,alpine traveller1 says that at almost every footstep the snowy particles1 which his companion in front lifted with his feet from the freshly fallen snow1 fell in little luminous showers4 ,the exact cause which produces this strange effect at night has not been ascertained4 ,there is another curious phenomenon often seen just before sunset on a mountain in ,hungary4 ,it is known as ,the ,spectre of the ,brocken4 ,the ,brocken is the highest summit of the ,hartz ,mountains4 ,as you step out upon the plateau upon the top of the hill1 your shadow1 grim and gigantic1 is apparently flung right out against the eastern sky1 where it flits from place to place1 following your every movement4 ,the explanation is simply this3 to the east of the ,hartz ,mountains there is always a very dense and hazy atmosphere1 so dense that it presents a surface capable of receiving the impression of a shadow1 and of retaining it1 as a wall does4 ,the shadows are really close at hand1 not a long way off1 as might at first sight be supposed4 ,if very far away1 they would be too faint to be visible4 ,in all mountainous regions the permanent habitations of men cease at a limit far below the most elevated points reached by the mountain-climber4 ,st4 ,veran and ,gargl1 the highest villages of ,france and ,germany1 are situated at the respective heights of #f1eia and #f1aig feet2 but the ,hospice of ,st4 ,bernard1 in ,switzerland1 built centuries ago to shelter travellers when benumbed with the cold1 is much more elevated1 its height being #h1aaj feet above sea-level4 ,the most elevated cluster of houses in the world is the convent of ,hanle1 inhabited by twenty ,thibetan priests2 its height is #ad1igf feet4 ,none of the villages of the ,andes1 except perhaps that of ,santa ,anna1 in ,bolivia1 have been built at so great a height4 ,travellers who venture to ascend lofty mountains not only have to suffer all the rigours of cold and run the risk of being frozen on their route1 but they may also experience painful sensations owing to the rarefaction of the air4 ,it would naturally be supposed that at an elevation at which the pressure of the atmosphere is reduced to one half1 or even to one fourth that of the plains below1 a certain uneasiness should be caused by the change1 the more so since other conditions1 such as warmth and moisture1 are different4 ,undaunted climbers1 like ,professor ,tyndall1 who have never felt the effect of this mountain-sickness 7mal de montagne71 deny that the sensations proceed from anything else than mere fatigue4 ,in the ,himalayas1 the traveller does not begin to suffer from the attacks of this ailment until he has reached a height of #af1ejj feet2 while on the ,andes a large number of persons are affected by it at an altitude of #aj1gjj feet4 ,in the ,south ,american mountains1 the symptoms are much more serious3 to the fatigue1 head-ache1 and want of breath are added giddiness1 sometimes fainting-fits1 and bleeding from lips1 gums1 and eyelids4 ,the aeronaut1 however1 who is spared all the fatigue of climbing1 rarely suffers any inconvenience except from cold1 at such elevations4 ,but on rising to greater heights1 #cj1jjj or #dj1jjj feet1 the malady shows itself2 and if the balloon continued to rise1 the aerial voyager would infallibly perish4 ,professor ,bonney says3-- ,i have occasionally seen persons singularly affected on high mountains2 and as the barometer stands at about sixteen inches on ,mont ,blanc1 and at thirty at sea-level1 one would expect this great difference to be felt4 ,still1 ,i do not think it easy to separate the inconveniences due to atmosphere from those caused by unwonted fatigue1 and am inclined to attribute most of them to the latter4 ,but the fact that the aeronaut suffers seems conclusive4 ,the violent storms which break upon mountain districts often cause floods of considerable magnitude1 such as may be compared with the memorable bursting of the ,holmfirth reservoir4 ,hardly a year passes without considerable damage being done3 bridges are swept away2 roads are buried under torrents of mud1 and fields overwhelmed with dbris4 ,in ,august of the year #ahfj a severe storm was witnessed by visitors staying at ,zermatt4 ,it began with a thunder-storm2 and rain fell for about thirty-six hours1 after which1 as may be supposed1 the torrents were swollen far beyond their usual size4 ,lower down in the valleys much harm was done1 but there one bridge only was swept away4 ,it was1 however1 an awful sight to see the ,visp roaring under one of the bridges that remained1 and to hear the heavy thuds of the boulders that were being hurried on and dashed against one another by the torrent4 ,in ,september1 #aeef1 the town of ,locarno1 in the ,canton ,ticino1 was visited by a destructive storm and flood4 ,the day began by several shocks of earthquake1 followed1 about five o'clock1 by a terrific gale from the south4 ,part of the old castle was blown down2 the doors of ,st4 ,victor's ,church were burst open by a blast while the priest was at the altar2 and everything within was overturned4 ,at midday the clouds were so thick that it was almost as dark as night4 ,a violent thunder-storm and torrents of rain followed1 lasting from two to six o'clock in the evening4 ,the rivulets all became torrents2 the stream flowing through the town was so choked by uprooted trees and rocks that its water flooded the streets and almost buried them under mud and gravel4 ,such a sight as this gives one a powerful impression of the geological work of streams when greatly swollen2 for all this dbris must have been brought down from the surrounding mountains4 ,many lives were lost by this calamity1 and a great deal of property was destroyed4 ,late in the year1 during unsettled weather1 the traveller often encounters on ,alpine passes a sudden storm of snow1 accompanied by violent gusts of wind1 which fill the air with drifted flakes2 so that becoming bewildered1 he loses his way1 and at last sinks down benumbed with cold and dies4 ,many a frequented pass in ,switzerland has been the scene of death from this cause4 ,exhausted with fatigue1 and overcome with cold1 the traveller sinks down by the wayside1 and the guides1 after having in vain endeavoured to urge him on1 are compelled1 in order to save their own lives1 to leave him to his fate and press forward4 ,the name ,tourmente is given to these storms4 ,on the tops of the highest mountains1 even in very fine weather1 the wind often blows with great force2 and the north wind1 supposed to be the mountaineer's best friend1 is sometimes his enemy4 ,it not unfrequently happens that a gale renders the passage of some exposed slope or ridge too dangerous1 or the intense cold produces frost-bites1 so that an expedition has to be abandoned when success is within reach1 which naturally is very annoying4 ,professor ,bonney1 speaking of such a gale which he experienced in #ahfd1 says1-- ,the cold was something horrible2 the wind seemed to blow not round1 but through me1 freezing my very marrow1 and making my teeth chatter like castanets2 and if ,i stopped for a moment1 ,i shook as if in an ague-fit4 ,it whisked up the small spicul of frozen snow1 and dashed them against my face with such violence that it was hardly possible to look to windward4 ,thin sheets of ice as large as my hand were whirled along the surface of the glacier like paper4444 ,when these gales are raging1 the drifted snow is blown far to leeward of the peaks in long streamers like delicate cirrus-clouds2 and on such occasions the mountain is said by the guides fumer sa pipe 7to smoke his pipe74 ,this ,mont ,blanc was doing to some purpose the day that we were upon him4 ,it is a curious fact that these gales are often confined to the crests of the mountains1 so that the wind may be raging among the peaks while a few hundred feet lower down there is comparative calm4 ,the chief of the prevailing winds in the ,alps is the ,fhn4 ,this is a hot blast from the south which probably comes from the ,african deserts4 ,on its approach the air becomes close and stifling1 the sky1 at first of unusual clearness1 gradually thickens to a muddy and murky hue1 animals become restless and disquieted by the unnatural dryness of the hot blast which now comes sweeping over the hills4 ,in some villages1 it is said1 all the fires are extinguished when this wind begins to blow1 for fear lest some chance spark should fall on the dry wooden roofs and set the whole place in a blaze4 ,still the ,fhn is not altogether an ill wind that blows nobody any good1 for under its warm touch the winter snows melt away with marvellous rapidity4 ,in the valley of ,grindelwald it causes a snow-bed two feet thick to disappear in about a couple of hours1 and produces in twenty-four hours a greater effect than the sun does in fifteen days4 ,there is a ,swiss proverb which rather profanely says3 ,if the ,fhn does not blow1 the golden sun and the good ,god can do nothing with the snow4 ,in summer-time1 however1 the south wind is never welcome1 for the vapour which it brings from the ,italian plains is condensed by the snows of the ,alps1 and streams down in torrents of rain4 ,a thunder-storm is always a grand spectacle4 ,among mountains such storms are more frequent than on the plains1 and also1 as might be expected1 far more magnificent1 especially at night4 ,flashes1 or rather sheets1 of unutterable brilliancy light up the sky2 distant chains of mountains are revealed for a moment1 only to be instantly eclipsed by the pall of night4 ,says ,professor ,bonney1-- ,no words can adequately express the awful grandeur of these tempests when they burst among the mountains4 ,i have often been out in them1--in fact1 far more frequently than was pleasant2 but perhaps the grandest of all was one that welcomed me for the first time to ,chamouni4 ,as we entered the valley1 and caught sight of the white pinnacles of the glacier des ,bossons1 a dark cloud came rolling up rapidly from the west4 ,beneath it1 just where two tall peaks towered up1 the sky glowed like a sheet of red-hot copper1 and a lurid mist spread over the neighbouring hills1 wrapping them1 as it seemed1 in a robe of flame4 ,onward rolled the cloud2 the lightning began to play2 down the valley rushed a squall of wind1 driving the dust high in air before it1 and followed by a torrent of rain4 ,flash succeeded flash almost incessantly1--now darting from cloud to cloud2 now dividing itself into a number of separate streaks of fire1 and dancing all over the sky2 now streaming down upon the crags1 and at times even leaping up from some lofty peak into the air4 ,the colours were often most beautiful1 and bright beyond description4 ,illustration3 ,a ,,storm ,,on ,,the ,,lake ,,of ,,thun4 ,,after ,,turner4 ,the mountain traveller1 when caught in a thunder-storm1 undergoes a strange experience1 not unattended with danger4 ,one observer#ab thus describes his sensations3-- #ab ,mr4 ,r4 ,s4 ,watson1 in ,the ,alpine ,journal1 vol4 i41 p4 #adc4 ,a loud peal of thunder was heard2 and shortly after ,i observed that a strange singing sound1 like that of a kettle1 was issuing from my alpenstock4 ,we halted1 and finding that all the axes and stocks emitted the same sound1 stuck them into the snow4 ,the guide from the hotel now pulled off his cap1 shouting that his head burned2 and his hair was seen to have a similar appearance to that which it would have presented had he been on an insulated stool under a powerful electrical machine4 ,we all of us experienced the sensation of pricking and burning in some part of the body1 more especially in the head and face1 my hair also standing on end in an uncomfortable but very amusing manner4 ,the snow gave out a hissing sound1 as though a heavy shower of hail were falling2 the veil on the wide-awake of one of the party stood upright in the air2 and on waving our hands1 the singing sound issued loudly from the fingers4 ,whenever a peal of thunder was heard1 the phenomenon ceased1 to be resumed before its echoes died away4 ,at these times we felt shocks1 more or less violent1 in those portions of the body which were most affected4 ,by one of these shocks my right arm was paralysed so completely that ,i could neither use nor raise it for several minutes1 nor indeed until it had been severely rubbed2 and ,i suffered much pain in it at the shoulder-joint for some hours4 ,the successive layers of snow which fall on the mountains do not remain there for ever4 ,unless got rid of in some way their thickness would mount up to an enormous extent4 ,it is reckoned that on the ,alps the average yearly fall of snow is thirty-three feet4 ,in the course of a century1 therefore1 the height of these mountains would be increased by #c1cjj feet1 which we know is not the case4 ,various causes prevent its accumulating1 among which we may mention the powerful influence of the sun's rays1 the evaporation promoted by the atmosphere1 the thawing influence of rain and mist1 avalanches1 and lastly1 which is perhaps the most important1 the fact that the snow composing the snowfields1 as they are called1 of the high regions slowly creeps down towards the valleys1 where they move along as glaciers1 the ends of which are gradually melted away by the warm air surrounding them1 and thus the muddy glacier-streams are originated4 ,few perils are more dreaded by the inhabitant of the ,alps than those of the avalanches4 ,the particular way in which each avalanche descends is varied according to the shape of the mountain1 the condition of the snow1 and the time of the year4 ,hence there are three different kinds of avalanche4 ,first1 there is the ice-avalanche4 ,the smaller glaciers1 which1 in the ,alps1 cling to the upper slopes of the higher mountains1 frequently terminate abruptly on the edge of some precipice4 ,thus the ice1 urged on by the pressure of the masses above it1 moves forward until it plunges over and falls into the abyss below4 ,large portions break off2 and these1 as they bound down the cliffs1 are dashed into countless pieces1 which leap from crag to crag high into the air3 now the falling mass1 like some swollen torrent1 dashes with sullen roar through a gully1 now1 emerging1 crashes over a precipice1 or spreads itself out like a fan1 as it hisses down a snow-slope4 ,these avalanches expend their force in the higher regions1 and are harmless1 unless any one happens to be crossing their track at the time2 but accidents from this source can generally be avoided4 ,in the distance the avalanches look like waterfalls of the purest foam1 but when approached are found to be composed of fragments of ice of every size1 from one1 two1 or more cubic yards down to tiny little balls4 ,in spring and summer1 when the white layers1 softened by the heat1 are falling away every hour from the lofty summits of the ,alps1 the pedestrian1 taking up a position on some adjacent headland1 may watch these sudden cataracts dashing down into the gorges from the heights of the shining peaks4 ,year after year travellers seated at their ease on the grassy banks of the ,wengern ,alp have watched with pleasure the avalanches rolling to the base of the silvery pyramid of the ,jungfrau4 ,first1 the mass of ice is seen to plunge forth like a cataract1 and lose itself in the lower parts of the mountain2 whirlwinds of powdered snow1 like clouds of bright smoke1 rise far and wide into the air2 and then1 when the cloud has passed away1 and the region has again assumed its solemn calm1 the thunder of the avalanche is suddenly heard reverberating in deep echoes in the mountain gorges1 as if it were the voice of the mountain itself4 ,the other two kinds of avalanche are composed of snow4 ,the dust-avalanche usually falls in winter-time1 when the mountains are covered deep with fresh-fallen snow4 ,such masses of snow1 not yet compacted into ice1 rest insecurely upon the icy slopes1 and hang in festoons and curtains over the peaks1 or lie on smooth banks of pasture1 until some accident1 such as a gust of wind1 breaks the spell1 and the whole mass slides down into the valley below4 ,these avalanches are accompanied by fearful blasts of wind which work dire destruction4 ,almost the whole village of ,leukerbad was destroyed by one of these on the #adth of ,january1 #agai1 and fifty-five persons perished4 ,in #agdi1 more than one hundred persons were killed in the village of ,ruaras 7,grisons71 which during the night was overwhelmed by an avalanche4 ,so silently were some of the houses buried that the inhabitants1 on waking in the morning1 could not conceive why the day did not dawn4 ,it is said1 though it seems almost incredible1 that in the time of the ,suabian ,war1 in the year #adih1 one of these avalanches swept four hundred soldiers over a cliff1 and they all escaped without serious injury4 ,the army of ,general ,macdonald1 in his celebrated passage of the ,splgen in ,december1 #ahjj1 suffered severely from these dust-avalanches4 ,a troupe of horse was completely cut through while on the march2 and thirty dragoons were precipitated into a gulf below the road1 where they all perished4 ,and again1 some days afterwards1 in descending a gorge1 the columns were repeatedly severed by avalanches2 and more than one hundred soldiers1 with a number of horses and mules1 were lost4 ,on one of these occasions the drummer of a regiment was carried away2 and it is said that they heard him beating his drum in the gorge below1 in the hope that his comrades would come to his rescue4 ,help1 however1 was out of the question4 ,the sounds gradually became fainter1 and the poor lad must have perished in the cold4 ,the ground-avalanches are different from those just described1 consisting of dense and almost solid masses of snow which have lain for a long time exposed to atmospheric influences4 ,they are much heavier than the dust-avalanches1 and therefore more destructive2 so that the inhabitants take great pains to protect themselves from this source of danger4 ,thickly planted trees are the best protection against avalanches of every kind4 ,snow which has fallen in a wood cannot very well shift its place2 and when masses of snow descend from the slopes above1 they are unable to break through so strong a barrier4 ,small shrubs1 such as rhododendrons1 or even heaths and meadow-grass1 are often sufficient to prevent the slipping of the snow2 and therefore it is very imprudent not to allow them to grow freely on mountain-slopes4 ,but it is still more dangerous to cut down protecting forests1 or even to do so partly4 ,this was illustrated by the case of a mountain in the ,pyrenees1 in the lofty valley of ,neste2 after it had been partially cleared of trees1 a tremendous avalanche fell down in #ahdf1 and in its fall swept away more than fifteen thousand fir-trees4 ,the ,swiss records tell us what a terrible scourge the avalanche can be in villages which in summer-time appear such calm and happy scenes of pastoral life4 ,m4 ,joanne1 in the introduction to his valuable ,itinraire de la ,suisse#ac gives a list of twelve of the most destructive avalanches that have fallen in ,switzerland4 ,in old days they seem to have been as great a source of danger as in modern times4 ,thus we find that in the year #aejj1 a caravan of six hundred persons was swept away in crossing the ,great ,st4 ,bernard2 three hundred were buried under an avalanche which fell from ,monte ,cassedra 7,ticino74 ,another one in the year #agbj1 at ,obergestelen1 in the ,rhone ,valley1 destroyed one hundred and twenty cottages1 four hundred head of cattle1 and eighty-eight persons4 ,the bodies were buried in a large pit in the village cemetery1 on the wall of which was engraved the following pathetic inscription3 ,o ,god1 what sorrow6--eighty-eight in a single grave6 7,gott1 welche ,trauer6--acht und achtzig in einem ,grab67 #ac ,conservateur ,suisse1 xlvi4 p4 #dgh1 vol4 xii4 ,it is a curious fact that animals have a wonderful power of anticipating coming catastrophes4 ,when human beings are unaware of danger1 they are often warned by the behaviour of animals4 ,country people sometimes say that they can tell from the birds when the weather is about to change2 and there is little doubt but that sea-gulls come inland before rough1 stormy weather4 ,but in the case of earthquakes the behaviour of birds1 beasts1 and even fishes is very striking4 ,it is said that before an earthquake rats1 mice1 moles1 lizards1 and serpents frequently come out of their holes1 and hasten hither and thither as if smitten with terror4 ,at ,naples1 it is said that the ants quitted their underground passages some hours before the earthquake of ,july #bf1 #ahje2 that grasshoppers crossed the town in order to reach the coast2 and that the fish approached the shore in shoals4 ,avalanches1 it is well known1 produce tremors similar to those due to slight earthquake shocks2 and there are many stories in ,switzerland of the behaviour of animals just before the catastrophe takes place4 ,berlepsch relates that a pack-horse on the ,scaletta ,pass1 which was always most steady1 became restive when an avalanche was coming2 so that he was valuable to his owners in bad weather4 ,one day1 when near the summit of the pass1 he suddenly stopped4 ,they foolishly took no notice of his warning this time2 but he presently darted off at full speed4 ,in a few seconds the avalanche came and buried the whole party4 ,if these stories can be relied upon1 it would seem that animals are either more sensitive to very slight tremors of the earth1 or else that they are more on the lookout than human beings4 ,perhaps ,north ,american ,indians have learned from animals in this respect1 for they can tell of a coming enemy on the march by putting their ears to the ground and listening4 ,but there are worse dangers in the mountains than falls of snow and ice1 for sometimes masses of rock come hurtling down1 or worse still1 the whole side of a mountain gives way and spreads ruin far and wide4 ,perpendicular or overhanging rocks1 which seem securely fastened1 suddenly become detached and rush headlong down the mountain-side4 ,in their rapid fall1 they raise a cloud of dust like the ashes vomited forth by a volcano2 a horrible darkness is spread over a once pleasant valley2 and the unfortunate inhabitants1 unable to see what is taking place1 are only aware of the trembling of the ground1 and the crashing din of the rocks as they strike together and shatter one another in pieces4 ,when the cloud of dust is cleared away1 nothing but heaps of stones and rubbish are to be seen where pastures once grew1 or the peasant ploughed his acres in peace4 ,the stream flowing down the valley is obstructed in its course1 and changed into a muddy lake2 the rampart of rocks from which some dbris still comes crumbling down has lost its old form2 the sharpened edges point out the denuded cliff from which a large part of the mountain has broken away4 ,in the ,pyrenees1 ,alps1 and other important ranges there are but few valleys where one cannot see the confused heaps of fallen rocks4 ,many of these catastrophes1 known as the ,bergfall1 have been recorded2 and the records tell of the fearful havoc and destruction to life and property due to this cause4 ,in ,italy the ancient ,roman town of ,velleja was buried1 about the fourth century1 by the downfall of the mountain of ,rovinazzo2 and the large quantity of bones and coins that have been found proves that the fall was so sudden that the inhabitants had no time to escape4 ,taurentum1 another ,roman town1 situated1 it is said1 on the banks of ,lake ,geneva1 at the base of one of the spurs of the ,dent d',oche1 was completely crushed in ,a4 ,d4 #efc by a downfall of rocks4 ,the sloping heap of dbris thus formed may still be seen advancing like a headland into the waters of the lake4 ,a terrible flood-wave1 produced by the deluge of stones1 reached the opposite shores of the lake and swept away all the inhabitants4 ,every town and village on the banks1 from ,morges to ,vevay1 was demolished1 and they did not begin the work of rebuilding till the following century4 ,some say1 however1 that the disaster was caused by a landslip which fell from the ,grammont or ,derochiaz across the valley of the ,rhone1 just above the spot where it flows into the ,lake of ,geneva4 ,hundreds of such falls have taken place within the ,alps and neighbouring mountains within historic times4 ,two out of the five peaks of the ,diablerets fell down1 one in #agad and the other in #agdi1 covering the pastures with a thick layer of stones and earth more than three hundred feet thick1 and by obstructing the course of the stream of ,lizerne1 formed the three lakes of ,derborence4 ,in like manner the ,bernina1 the ,dent du ,midi1 the ,dent de ,mayen1 and the ,righi have overspread with ruin vast tracts of cultivated land4 ,in ,switzerland the most noted ,bergfalls are those from the ,diablerets and the ,rossberg4 ,the former mountain is a long flattish ridge with several small peaks1 overhanging very steep walls of rock on either side4 ,these walls are composed of alternating beds of limestone and shale4 ,hence it is easily perceived that we have here conditions favourable for landslips1 because if anything weakens one of these beds of shale the overlying mass might be inclined to break away4 ,the fall in the year #agad1 already referred to1 was a very destructive one4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,matterhorn4 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,mr4 ,,donkin4 ,for two whole days previously loud groaning had been heard to issue from the mountain1 as though some imprisoned spirit were struggling to release himself1 like ,typhoeus from under ,etna2 then a vast fragment of the upper part of the mountain broke suddenly away and thundered down the precipices into the valley beneath4 ,in a few minutes fifty-five chlets1 with sixteen men and many head of cattle1 were buried for ever under the ruins4 ,one remarkable escape has indeed been recorded1 perhaps the most marvellous ever known4 ,a solitary herdsman from the village of ,avent occupied one of the chlets which were buried under the fallen mass4 ,not a trace of it remained2 his friends in the valley below returned from their unsuccessful search1 and mourned him as dead4 ,he was1 however1 still among the living2 a huge rock had fallen in such a manner as to protect the roof of his chlet1 which1 as is often the case1 rested against a cliff4 ,above this1 stones and earth had accumulated1 and the man was buried alive4 ,death would soon have released him from his imprisonment1 had not a little rill of water forced its way through the dbris and trickled into the chlet4 ,supported by this and by his store of cheese1 he lived three months1 labouring all the while incessantly to escape4 ,shortly before ,christmas he succeeded1 after almost incredible toil1 in once more looking on the light of day1 which his dazzled eyes1 so long accustomed to the murky darkness below1 for a while could scarcely support4 ,he hastened down to his home in ,avent1 and knocked at his own door2 pale and haggard1 he scarcely seemed a being of this world4 ,his relations would not believe that one so long lost could yet be alive1 and the door was shut in his face4 ,he turned to a friend's house2 no better welcome awaited him4 ,terror seized upon the village2 the priest was summoned to exorcise the supposed demon2 and it was not till he came that the unfortunate man could persuade them that he was no spectre1 but flesh and blood4#ad #ad ,bonney4 ,the valley is still a wild scene of desolation1 owing to the enormous masses of stones of every shape and size with which its bed is filled4 ,in ,september of the year #ahjf1 the second fall of the mountain ,rossberg took place1 after a wet summer4 ,it is underlaid by beds of clay which1 when water penetrates1 are apt to give way4 ,the part which fell was about three miles long and #cej yards wide and #cc yards thick4 ,in five minutes one of the most fertile valleys in ,switzerland was changed to a stony desert4 ,three whole villages1 six churches1 #abj houses1 #bjj stables or chlets1 #bbe head of cattle1 and much land were buried under the ruins of the ,rossberg2 #dhd persons lost their lives4 ,some remarkable escapes are recorded4 ,in the year #afah the downfall of ,monte ,conto buried #b1djj inhabitants of the village of ,pleurs1 near ,chiavenna4 ,excavation among the ruins was subsequently attempted1 but a few mangled corpses and a church-bell were all that could be reached4 ,geologically these phenomena1 appalling as they are from the human point of view1 possess a certain interest1 and their effects deserve to be studied4 ,there is yet another danger to which dwellers in mountains are occasionally exposed2 namely1 the earthquake4 ,it seems to be an established fact that earthquake shocks are more frequent in mountainous than in flat countries4 ,the origin of these dangerous disturbances of the earth's crust has not yet been fully explained4 ,they are probably caused in various ways2 and it is very likely that the upheaval of mountain-chains is one of the causes at work4 ,earthquakes have for many years been carefully studied by scientific men1 and some valuable discoveries have been made4 ,thus we find that they are more frequent in winter than summer1 and also happen more often by night than by day4 ,day and night are like summer and winter on a small scale1 and so we need not be surprised at this discovery4 ,some have maintained that there is a connection between earthquakes and the position of the moon2 while others consider that the state of the atmosphere also exerts an influence1 and that earthquakes are connected with rainy seasons1 storms1 etc4 ,earthquakes are very often due to volcanic eruptions1 but this is not always the case 7see chapter vi41 page #aii74 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,mountain ,,plants ,,and ,,animals4 ,the high hills are a refuge for the wild goats1 and so are the stony rocks for the conies4--,psalm civ4 #ah4 ,there must be few people who have neither seen nor heard of the beauty and exquisite colours of ,alpine#ae flowers4 ,they are first seen on the fringes of the stately woods above the cultivated land2 then in multitudes on the sloping pastures with which many mountain-chains are robed1 brightening the verdure with innumerable colours2 and higher up1 where neither grass nor loose herbage can exist1 among the slopes of shattered fragments which roll down from the mountain-tops1--nay1 even amidst the glaciers1--they gladden the eye of the traveller and seem to plead sweetly with the spirits of destruction4 ,alpine plants fringe the vast hills of snow and ice of the high hills1 and sometimes have scarcely time to flower and ripen a few seeds before being again covered by their snowy bed4 ,when the season is unfavourable1 numbers of them remain under the snow for more than a year2 and here they safely rest1 unharmed by the alternations of frost and biting winds1 with moist and springlike days4 ,they possess the great charm of endless variety of form and colour1 and represent widely separated divisions of the vegetable kingdom2 but they are all small and low-growing compared to their relatives grown in the plains1 where the soil is richer and the climate milder4 ,among them are tiny orchids quite as interesting in their way as those from the tropics2 liliputian trees1 and a tree-like moss 7,lycopodium dendroideum7 branching into an erect little pyramid as if in imitation of a mountain pine2 ferns that peep cautiously from narrow rocky crevices as if clinging to the rock for shelter from the cold blasts2 bulbous plants1 from lilies to bluebells2 evergreen shrubs1 perfect in leaf and blossom and fruit1 yet so small that one's hat will cover them2 exquisite creeping plants spreading freely along the ground1 and when they creep over the brows of rocks or stones1 draping them with curtains of colour as lovely as those we see in the forests2 numberless minute plants scarcely larger than mosses1 mantling the earth with fresh green carpets in the midst of winter2 succulent plants in endless variety2 and lastly the ferns1 mosses1 and lichens which are such an endless source of pleasure and delight to the traveller4 ,in short1 ,alpine vegetation presents us with nearly every type of plant life of northern and temperate climes1 chastened in tone and diminished in size4 #ae ,the word ,alpine is used in a general sense to denote the vegetation that grows naturally on the most elevated regions of the earth2 that is1 on all high mountains1 whether they rise up in hot tropical plains or in cooler northern pastures4 ,it is not difficult to account for the small size of these plants2 for in the first place we cannot expect a large or luxuriant growth where the air is cold1 the soil scanty1 and the light of the sun often obscured by clouds1 and where the changes of temperature are rapid1--which is very unfavourable to most plants4 ,again1 in the close struggle for existence which takes place on the plains and low tree-clad hills1 the smaller forms of plant life are often overrun by trees1 trailing plants1 bushes1 and vigorous herbs2 but where these cannot find a home1 owing to the severity of the winter and other causes1 the little ,alpine plants1 covered up by snow in the winter1 can thrive abundantly4 ,and lastly1 like the older and conquered races of men who have been driven to the hills 7see chap4 i41 p4 #bh7 and find shelter there1 so there are both plants and animals living in the mountains which man will not suffer to live in the plain where he grows his crops1 pastures his cattle1 or builds his cities4 ,we would also venture to suggest that possibly some plants have been ousted from plains by newer and more aggressive types1 which came and took their place4 ,if so1 vegetable life would afford an illustration of a process which has so often taken place in human history4 ,this is only a speculation1 but still it might be worth following up4 ,if ,alpine plants1 or any considerable number of them1 could be shown to belong to more ancient types1 such as flourished in the later geological periods1 that would afford some evidence in favour of the idea4 ,whether this is so or not1 plant life on the mountains is almost entirely protected from the destroying hands of men with their ploughs and scythes1 as well as from many grazing animals4 ,as ,mr4 ,ruskin quaintly says3 ,the flowers which on the arable plain fell before the plough now find out for themselves unapproachable places1 where year by year they gather into happier fellowship and fear no evil4 ,it is clear that the climate of a mountainous region determines the character of the vegetation4 ,now1 the climate will be different in different parts of a mountain-range1 and will depend upon the height above the sea and other causes4#af ,some writers upon this subject have attached too much importance to absolute height above the sea1 as though this were the only cause at work4 ,it is a very important cause1 no doubt1 but there are others which also have a great influence1 such as the position of each locality with respect to the great mountain masses1 the local conditions of exposure to the sun and protection from cold winds1 or the reverse4 ,however1 in spite of local irregularities there are in the ,alps certain broad zones or belts of vegetation which may be briefly described as follows3-- #af ,the following remarks are largely taken from the ,introduction to ,ball's well-known ,alpine ,guide4 #a4 ,the ,olive region4--,this region curiously illustrates what has just been said about other causes besides height influencing the climate and vegetation4 ,for along the southern base of the ,alps1 the lower slopes and the mouths of the valleys have a decidedly warmer climate than the plains of ,piedmont and ,lombardy4 ,thus1 while the winter climate of ,milan is colder than that of ,edinburgh1 the olive can ripen its fruit along the skirts of the mountain region1 and penetrates to a certain distance towards the interior of the chain along the lakes and the wider valleys of the ,southern ,alps4 ,even up the shores of the ,lake of ,garda1 where the evergreen oak grows1 the olive has become wild4 ,the milder climate of the ,borromean ,islands1 and some points on the shores of the ,lago ,maggiore1 will permit many plants of the warmer temperate zone to grow2 while at a distance of a few miles1 and close to the shores of the same lake1 but in positions exposed to the cold winds from the ,alps1 plants of the ,alpine region grow freely1 and no delicate perennials can survive the winter4 ,the olive has been known to resist a temperature of about #af ,f4 7or #af below the freezing point of water71 but is generally destroyed by a less degree of cold4 ,it can only be successfully cultivated where the winter frosts are neither long nor severe1 where the mean temperature of winter does not fall below #db ,f41 and a heat of #ge ,f4 during the day is continued through four or five months of the summer and autumn4 #b4 ,the ,vine region4--,the vine1 being more tolerant of cold than the olive1 can grow at a higher level2 and so the next zone of vegetation in the ,alps may be called the ,vine region4 ,but to give tolerable wine it requires at the season of ripening of the grape almost as much warmth as the olive needs4 ,vines can grow in the deeper valleys throughout a great part of the ,alpine chain1 and in favourable situations up to a considerable height on their northern slopes4 ,on the south side1 although the limit of perpetual snow is lower1 the vine often reaches near to the foot of the greater peaks4 ,but the fitness of a particular spot for the production of wine depends far more on the direction of the valley and of the prevailing winds than on the height4 ,and so it happens that in the ,canton ,valais1 the ,valley of the ,arc in ,savoy1 and some others on the north side of the dividing range1 tolerable wine is made at a higher level than in the valleys of ,lombardy1 whose direction allows the free passage of the keen northern blasts4 ,it is a curious fact that in the ,alps the vine often resists a winter temperature which would kill it down to the roots in the low country2 and we must explain it by the protection of the deep winter snow4 ,along with the vine many species of wild plants1 especially annuals1 characteristic of the flora of the south of ,europe1 show themselves in the valleys of the ,alps4 #c4 ,the ,mountain region1 or region of deciduous trees4--,many writers take the growth of corn as the characteristic of the colder temperate zone1 corresponding to what has been called the mountain region of the ,alps4 ,but so many varieties1 all with different requirements1 are in cultivation1 that it is impossible to take the growth of cereals in general as marking clearly any natural division of the surface4 ,a more natural limit is marked by the presence of deciduous trees 7trees which shed their leaves74 ,although the oak1 beech1 and ash do not exactly reach the same height1 and are not often seen growing side by side in the ,alps1 yet their upper limit marks pretty accurately the transition from a temperate to a colder climate that is shown by a general change in the wild1 herbaceous vegetation4 ,the lower limit of this zone is too irregular to be exactly defined1 but its upper boundary is about #d1jjj feet on the cold north side of the ,alps1 and often rises to #e1ejj feet on the southern slopes1 which of course get more sunshine and warmth4 ,the climate of this region is favourable to the growth of such trees as the oak1 beech1 and ash1 but it does not follow that we should see them there in any great numbers at the present time2 for it is probable that at a very early date they were extensively destroyed for building purposes1 and to clear space for meadow and pasture land1 so that with the exception of the beech forests of the ,austrian ,alps1 there is scarcely a considerable wood of deciduous trees to be seen anywhere in the chain4 ,in many districts where the population is not too dense1 the pine and ,scotch fir have taken the place of the oak and beech1 mainly because the young plants are not so eagerly attacked by goats1 the great destroyers of trees4 #d4 ,the region of ,coniferous trees4--,botanically this region is best distinguished by the prevalence of coniferous trees1 forming vast forests1 which if not kept down by man 7and by goats7 would cover the slopes of the ,alps4 ,the prevailing species are the common fir and the silver fir4 ,in districts where granite abounds1 the larch flourishes and reaches a greater size than any other tree4 ,less common are the ,scotch fir and the arolla1 or ,siberian fir4 ,in the ,eastern ,alps the dwarf pine becomes conspicuous1 forming a distinct zone on the higher mountains above the level of other firs4 ,the pine forests play a most important part in the natural economy of the ,alps2 and their preservation is a matter of very great importance to the future inhabitants4 ,but in some places they have been considerably diminished by cutting4 ,this has especially happened in the neighbourhood of mines2 and in consequence the people of the unfrequented communes have become so alive to this that some jealousy is felt of strangers wandering among the mountains1 lest they should discover metals and cause the destruction of the woods4 ,their fears are not unreasonable2 for the forests1 besides exerting a good deal of influence on rainfall and climate1 form natural defences against the rush of the spring avalanches 7see chapter iii41 page #ic74 ,it is recorded that after the war of #agii1 in which many of those near the ,st4 ,gothard ,pass were destroyed1 the neighbouring villages suffered terribly from this scourge4 ,hence the laws do not allow of timber being cut in certain forests called ,bannwalde2 and in most places the right of felling trees is strictly regulated1 and the woods are under the inspection of officials4 ,in spots high up among the mountains1 to which access is difficult1 the timber is converted into charcoal1 which is then brought down in sacks by horses and mules4 ,there are two ways in which timber is conveyed down from the forest3 either it is cut up into logs some five feet long1 and thrown into a neighbouring torrent1 which brings it down over cliff and gorge to the valley below2 or else trough-like slides are constructed along the mountain-sides1 down which the trunks themselves are launched4 ,it is this region of coniferous trees which mainly determines the manner of life of the population of the ,alps4 ,in the month of ,may the horned cattle1 having been fed in houses during the winter 7as they are in the ,scotch ,highlands1 where the cowsheds are called byres71 are led up to the lower pastures4 ,the lower chlets1 occupied in ,may and part of ,june1 generally stand at about the upper limit of the mountain region4 ,towards the middle or end of ,june the cattle are moved up to the chief pastures1 towards the upper part of the region of coniferous trees1 where they usually remain for the next two or three months4 ,but there are some available pastures still higher up1 and hither some of the cattle are sent for a month or more4 #e4 ,the ,alpine region4--,this is the zone of vegetation extending from the upper limit of trees to where permanent masses of snow first make their appearance2 so that where the trees cease1 the peculiar ,alpine plants begin2 but we still find shrubs1 such as the common rhododendron1 ,alpine willow1 and the common juniper1 which extend up to1 and the latter even beyond1 the level of perpetual snow4 ,the limits of this interesting and delightful botanical region may be fixed between #f1jjj and #h1jjj feet above the sea1 and at least #a1jjj feet higher on the south slopes of the ,alps1 which get more sunshine4 ,it is used to some extent for pasture2 and in ,piedmont it is not uncommon to find chlets at the height of #h1ejj feet1 and vegetation often extends freely up to #i1ejj feet4 ,here and there1 at levels below this zone1 many ,alpine species may be found1 either transported by accident from their natural home1 or finding a permanent refuge in some cool spot sheltered from the sun1 and moistened by streamlets descending from the snow region4 ,but it is chiefly here that those delightful flowers grow which make the ,alps like a great flower-garden1--great anemones1 white and sulphur-coloured2 gentians of the deepest blue1 like the sky overhead2 campanulas1 geums1 ,alpine solanellas1 and forget-me-nots2 asters1 ox-eyed daisies1 pale pink primulas1 purple heartsease1 edelweiss1 saxifrages1 yellow poppies1 ,alpine toad-flax1 monkshood1 potentilla1 and others too numerous to mention4 ,says ,professor ,bonney1-- ,who cannot recall many a happy hour spent in rambling from cluster to cluster on the side of some great ,alp8--the scent of sweet herbage or of sweeter daphne perfuming the invigorating air1 the melody of the cattle-bells borne up from some far-off pasture1 while the great blue vault of heaven above seems reflected in the gentian clusters at his feet4 ,the love of flowers seems natural to almost every human being1 however forlorn his life may have been1 however far it may have missed its appointed mark4 ,it may well be so2 they at least are fresh and untainted from their ,maker's hand2 the cry of ',nature red in tooth and claw' scarce breaks their calm repose4 ,side by side they flourish without strife2 none 'letteth or hindereth another1' yet so tender and delicate1 doomed to fade all too soon1 a touch of sadness is ever present to give a deeper pathos to our love4 #f4 ,the ,glacial region4--,this comprehends all that portion of the ,alps that rises above the limit of perpetual snow4 ,but a word of explanation is necessary4 ,the highest parts of the ,alps are not covered by one continuous sheet of snow2 otherwise we should never see any peaks or crags there4 ,some are too steep for the snow to rest upon them1 and therefore remain bare at heights much greater than the so-called limit of perpetual snow1 and that limit varies considerably4 ,still this term has a definite meaning when rightly understood4 ,leaving out of account masses of snow that accumulate in hollows shaded from the sun1 the snow-line is fairly even1 so that on viewing an ,alpine range from a distance1 the larger patches and fields of snow on adjoining mountains1 with the same aspect1 are seen to maintain a pretty constant level4 ,illustration3 ,,on ,a ,,glacier4 ,vegetation becomes scarce in this region1 not1 as commonly supposed1 because ,alpine plants do not here find the necessary conditions for growth1 but simply for want of soil4 ,the intense heat of the direct rays of the sun 7see chapter iii41 pages #gf-gg7 compensates for the cold of the night2 and it is probable that the greater allowance of light also stimulates vegetable life4 ,but all the more level parts are covered with ice or snow2 and the higher we ascend1 the less the surface remains bare1 with the exception of the projecting rocks which usually undergo rapid destruction and breaking up from the freezing of whatever water finds its way into their fissures4 ,nevertheless1 many species of flowering plants have been found even at the height of eleven thousand feet4 ,it is in this region that plants are found whose true home is in the arctic regions 7see chapter ii41 pages #fd-fe74 ,for the sake of those who love ferns1 lycopods1 and other cryptogamic or flowerless plants1 a few words may be said here4 ,of the polypodies1 the beech fern and oak fern are generally common1 so is the limestone polypody in places where limestone occurs4 ,another species 7,p4 alpestre7 very like the lady fern grows plentifully in many places4 ,the parsley fern1 familiar to the botanist in ,wales and other parts of ,great ,britain1 is common1 especially on the crystalline rocks1 and ascends to above seven thousand feet4 ,the holly fern is perhaps the most characteristic one of the higher ,alps4 ,it is abundant in almost every district from the ,viso to the ,tyrol1 ranging from about five thousand feet to nearly eight thousand feet4 ,the finest specimens are to be found in the limestone districts4 ,nestling down in little channels worn out of the rock1 it shoots out great fronds1 often more than eighteen inches long1 which are giants compared to the stunted specimens seen on rockwork in ,english gardens4 ,asplenium septentrionale is very common in most of the districts where crystalline rocks abound4 ,the hart's tongue is hardly to be called a mountain fern4 ,the common brake is confined to the lower slopes4 ,cistopteris fragillis and ,c4 dentata are common1 and the more delicate ,c4 ,alpina is not rare4 ,the noble ,osmunda regalis keeps to the warmer valleys4 ,the moonwort abounds in the upper pastures4 ,the club-mosses 7,lycopodium71 which are found in ,great ,britain1 are common in most parts of the ,alps1 especially the ,l4 selago1 which grows almost up to the verge of the snows4 ,lower down is the delicate ,l4 velveticum1 which creeps among the damp mosses under the shade of the forest4 ,many of the smaller species stain with spots of crimson1 orange1 and purple the rocks among the snowfields and glaciers1 and gain the summits of peaks more than eighteen thousand feet above the sea1 reaching even to the highest rocks in the ,alpine chain4 ,for the sake of readers who are not familiar with that wonderful book1 ,modern ,painters1 we will quote some exquisite passages on lichens and mosses1 full of beautiful thoughts3-- ,we have found beauty in the tree yielding fruit and in the herb yielding seed4 ,how of the herb yielding no seed1--the fruitless1 flowerless#ag lichen of the rock8 #ag ,flowerless in the ordinary1 not the botanical sense4 ,lichens and mosses 7though these last in their luxuriance are deep and rich as herbage1 yet both for the most part humblest of the green things that live71--how of these8 ,meek creatures6--the first mercy of the earth1 veiling with trusted softness its dintless rocks1 creatures full of pity1 covering with strange and tender honour the scarred disgrace of ruin1 laying quiet finger on the trembling stones to teach them rest4 ,no words that ,i know of will say what these mosses are2 none are delicate enough1 none perfect enough1 none rich enough4 ,how is one to tell of the rounded bosses of furred and beaming green2 the starred divisions of rubied bloom1 fine-filmed1 as if the ,rock ,spirits could spin porphyry as we do grass2 the traceries of intricate silver1 and fringes of amber1 lustrous1 arborescent1 burnished through every fibre into fitful brightness and glossy traverses of silken change1 yet all subdued and pensive1 and framed for simplest1 sweetest offices of grace8 ,they will not be gathered1 like the flowers1 for chaplet or love token2 but of these the wild bird will make its nest and the wearied child his pillow4 ,and as the earth's first mercy1 so they are its last gift to us4 ,when all other service is vain1 from plant and tree the soft mosses and grey lichen take up their watch by the headstone4 ,the woods1 the blossoms1 the gift-bearing grasses1 have done their parts for a time1 but these do service for ever4 ,tree for the builder's yard--flowers for the bride's chamber--corn for the granary--moss for the grave4 ,yet as in one sense the humblest1 in another they are the most honoured of the earth-children2 unfading as motionless1 the worm frets them not and the autumn wastes not4 ,strong in lowliness1 they neither blanch in heat nor pine in frost4 ,to them1 slow-fingered1 constant-hearted1 is entrusted the weaving of the dark1 eternal tapestries of the hills2 to them1 slow-pencilled1 iris-dyed1 the tender framing of their endless imagery4 ,sharing the stillness of the unimpassioned rock1 they share also its endurance2 and while the winds of departing spring scatter the white hawthorn blossom like drifted snow1 and summer dims on the parched meadow the drooping of its cowslip1--gold far above1 among the mountains1 the silver lichen-spots rest1 star-like1 on the stone2 and the gathering orange-stain upon the edge of yonder western peak reflects the sunsets of a thousand years4 ,alpine and arctic plants are met with in ,great ,britain1 but ,scotland has a much more extensive arctic-,alpine flora than ,england1 ,wales1 or ,ireland1 the reason being the greater altitude of its mountains4 ,the combined flora of the ,united ,kingdom contains only ninety-one species of arctic-,alpine plants1 and of these eighty-eight--that is1 all but three--are natives of ,scotland4 ,of these three the first is a gentian 7,gentiana verna71 which is to be found on the hills of ,west ,yorkshire1 ,durham1 ,westmoreland1 and other parts4 ,it comes from the ,alps4 ,the second is ,lloydia serotina1--a small bulbous plant with white flowers1 which is found on the hills of ,carnarvonshire1 in ,wales4 ,the third1 well known in ,english gardens1 is ,london pride 7,saxifraga umbrosa71 which is only to be found on the southwest ,irish hills4 ,of the ninety-one arctic-,alpine species1 just about half are also natives of ,england and ,wales1 but only twenty-five belong to ,ireland4 ,if we examine the lists of the flora of ,arctic ,europe we find that all these1 except about six1 are found in arctic regions2 and if we travel farther north till we come actually to polar regions1 we find nearly fifty of these species growing there near the sea-level4 ,the ,grampian ,mountains are the chief centre of the ,scottish arctic-,alpine flora4 ,the two principal localities for such flowers in that range are the ,breadalbane ,mountains in ,perthshire1 and the ,cnlochan and ,clova ,mountains of ,forfarshire4 ,there are also a goodly number on the mountains of the ,braemar district4 ,the history of the arctic-,alpine flora of ,europe is a very interesting one4 ,these plants1 whose true home is in the arctic regions1 living high up on the mountains of ,europe1 give unmistakable evidence of a time1 very far back1 when ,northern ,europe was overrun by glaciers and snowfields so as to resemble in appearance and in climate the ,greenland of the present day4 ,this period is known to geologists as the ,great ,ice ,age4 ,the moraines of glaciers1 ice-worn rock surfaces1 and other unmistakable signs may be well seen in many parts of ,great ,britain4 ,how long ago this took place we cannot say2 but judging from the considerable changes in geography which have undoubtedly taken place since then1 we must conclude that many thousands of years1 perhaps two hundred thousand1 have intervened between this period and the present time4 ,when arctic conditions prevailed over this wide area1 the plants and animals which now live in arctic latitudes flourished in ,great ,britain2 but as the climate gradually became more genial1 and the snow and ice melted1 the plants and animals mostly retreated to their northern home4 ,a certain number doubtless became extinct2 but others took to the highest parts of the mountains1 where snow and ice abound2 and there they remain to the present day1 separated from their fellows1 but still enjoying the kind of climate to which they have always been accustomed1 and testifying to the wonderful changes which have taken place since the mammoth1 whose bones are found embedded in our river-gravels1 wandered over the plains of ,northern ,europe4 ,animal ,life4 ,the rocky fastnesses of the ,alps still afford a home to some of the larger wild animals which in other parts of ,europe have gradually disappeared with the advance of civilisation4 ,during the latter part of the ,stone ,age1 long before history was written1 when men used axes1 hammers1 arrow-heads1 and other implements of stone1 instead of bronze or iron1 ,switzerland was inhabited by animals which are not to be seen now4 ,the gigantic urus 7,bos primigenius71 which flourished in the forests of the interior during this prehistoric human period1 and gave its name to the canton of ,uri1 has become extinct4 ,the marsh hog was living during the period of the ,swiss lake-dwellers4 ,these people made their houses on piles driven in near the shore1 and were acquainted with the use of bronze1 and therefore later than the men of the ,stone ,age4 ,the remains of these strange dwelling-places have been discovered in several places1 as well as many articles of daily use4 ,the marsh hog has disappeared2 and its place is taken by the wild boar and domestic hog1 which afford sport and food to the present population4 ,but taking ,switzerland as it now is1 we will say a few words about the more interesting forms of animal life dwelling in the ,alps1 beginning with those which are highest in the animal kingdom4 ,chief among these is the brown bear1 still occasionally found1 but it is exceedingly rare1 except in the ,grisons and in the districts of the ,tyrol and ,italy bordering on the canton1 where it still carries on its ravages4#ah ,some also believe that it still lingers in the rocky fastnesses of the ,jura ,mountains1 to the east of the ,alps4 ,there is properly only one species of bear in ,switzerland1 but the hunters generally speak of three1--the great black1 the great grey1 and the small brown4 ,the second of these is merely an accidental variety of the first2 but between the grey and the small brown bears there is a good deal of difference4 ,they assert that the black bear is not only considerably larger than the brown1 but is also different in its habits4 ,it is less ferocious and prefers a vegetable diet1--feeding on herbs1 corn1 and vegetables1 with the roots and branches of trees4 ,it has a way of plundering bee-hives and also ants' nests2 it delights in strawberries and all kinds of fruit1 plundering the orchards1 and even making raids on the vineyards1 but always retreating before dawn4 ,as a rule it does not attack human beings4 ,the brown bear is much more formidable1 prowling by night about the sheepfolds1 and causing the sheep by their fright to fall down precipices4 ,goats1 when alarmed1 leap on the roofs of the chlets1 and bleat1 in order to arouse the shepherds2 so that when ,bruin rears himself up against the wall he often meets his death4 ,there are many stories on record of fierce fights for life between man and bear4 ,the bear passes the winter in a torpid state1 and eats little or nothing then4 #ah ,we are again indebted to ,professor ,bonney's ,alpine ,regions of ,switzerland for the information here given4 ,the wolf1 though still lingering in several lonely parts of the ,alps1 is rapidly becoming rare4 ,it is most frequent in the districts about the ,engadine and in the ,jura ,mountains4 ,only in winter-time1 when hard pressed by hunger1 does it approach the haunts of man4 ,it takes almost any kind of prey it can get1--foxes1 hares1 rats1 mice1 birds1 lizards1 frogs1 and toads4 ,sheep and goats are its favourite prey4 ,the wolf is an affectionate parent1 and takes his turn in looking after the nurslings1 which is a necessary precaution1 as his friends and relations have a way of eating up the babies4 ,the fox is common in many parts of the ,alps1 but not often seen by travellers4 ,instead of taking the trouble to burrow1 he frequently manages by various cunning devices to take possession of a badger's hole4 ,as ,tschudi quaintly observes1 ,he has far too much imagination and poetic sentiment to like so monotonous and laborious an occupation as burrowing4 ,like the wolf1 the mountain fox eats whatever he can catch1 even beetles1 flies1 and bees4 ,those in the valleys live more luxuriously than their relations on the mountains1--plundering bee-hives and robbing orchards4 ,as it was in ,juda in the days of ,solomon1 so it is now in ,switzerland among the vineyards2 and a peasant might well say1 ,take us the foxes1 the little foxes that spoil the vineyards4 ,the lynx is only occasionally found in the ,alps1 which is fortunate for the shepherds1 for they can play terrible havoc with the sheep4 ,wild-cats still linger in the most unfrequented parts4 ,their fur is valuable1 and the flesh is sometimes eaten4 ,the badger is far from common1 though rarely seen by day4 ,it is very cunning in avoiding traps1 and so is generally either dug out of its hole drawn by dogs1 or pulled out by a pole with nippers or a hook at the end4 ,passing on to less ferocious beasts1 we find the otter common along the borders of rivers and lakes4 ,the polecat1 weasel1 and stoat are often too abundant for keepers of poultry4 ,the squirrel is common enough in the forests1 but varies greatly in colour4 ,it is doubtful whether the beaver still lingers by some lonely ,alpine stream4 ,it is last mentioned in a list of ,swiss mammals1 published in #ahag1 as found1 though rarely1 in some lonely spots4 ,rabbits are common1 but hares rather scarce2 of these there are1 as in ,scotland1 two varieties1--the brown hare1 which is seldom found at heights greater than four thousand to five thousand feet1 and the blue hare1 which ranges up to nine thousand feet4 ,the latter changes colour3 its fur in summer is of a dull bluish-grey1 and in winter it becomes perfectly white1 and so affords a striking illustration of protective mimicry1 for with snow lying on the ground it would be very hard to see the creature4 ,the marmot is common in all the higher ,alpine regions4 ,these interesting little creatures are very watchful1 and easily scent danger4 ,when an intruder approaches1 a sentinel marmot utters a long shrill whistle1 which is often repeated two or three times1 and then they all make for their burrows2 but it is not easy to distinguish them from the grey rocks among which they live4 ,the fur is a yellowish or brownish grey1 with black on the head and face1 and a little white on the muzzle2 the tail is short and bushy with a tipping of black4 ,they have different quarters for summer and winter4 ,the summer burrows are in the belt of rough pasture between the upper limits of trees and the snows2 towards the end of autumn they come down to the pastures which the herdsmen have just abandoned and there make their winter burrows1 which are much larger than the summer ones4 ,like rabbits1 they frequently make a bolt-hole1 by which they may escape from an intruder4 ,in winter the holes are plugged up1 and the marmots1 rolling themselves up in a ball1 go to sleep for six months or more4 ,sometimes hunters dig them out2 but so soundly do they sleep that1 according to ,de ,saussure1 they may often be taken out1 placed in the game-bag1 and carried home without being aroused4 ,they wake up about ,april4 ,the chamois1 a very favourite subject with the wood-carvers1 is the only member of the antelope family in ,western ,europe2 it is found in almost every part of the ,alps1 but is now much rarer than it was formerly4 ,a full-grown chamois in good condition weighs about sixty pounds4 ,the hair is thick1 and changes colour with the season1 being a red yellowish-brown in summer and almost black in winter4 ,the horns1 which curve backwards1 rise from the head above and between the eyes to a height which rarely exceeds seven inches4 ,when the kid is about three months old1 the horns make their appearance1 and at first are not nearly as hook-shaped as they afterwards become4 ,when full-grown1 it stands at the shoulder about two feet from the ground4 ,the hind-legs being longer than the fore-legs1 its gait is awkward on level ground1 but they are admirably suited for mountain climbing4 ,when at full speed1 it can check itself almost instantly1 and can spring with wonderful agility4 ,its hoofs are not well adapted for traversing the ice1 and therefore it avoids glaciers as far as possible4 ,having a great fear of concealed crevasses1 it is very shy of venturing on the upper part of a glacier2 and the tracks which it leaves in these places often show by their windings and sudden turnings that the animal has exercised great caution4 ,and so travellers often use this as a useful clue to getting safely over a glacier4 ,its agility is something extraordinary4 ,it can spring across chasms six or seven yards wide1 and with a sudden bound leap up the face of a perpendicular rock1 and merely touching it with its hoofs1 rebound again in an opposite direction to some higher crag1 and thus escape from a spot where1 without wings1 egress seemed impossible4 ,when reaching upwards on its hind-legs1 the fore-legs resting on some higher spot1 it is able to stretch to a considerable distance1 and with a quick spring bring up its hind-quarters to a level with the rest of the body1 and with all four hoofs together1 stand poised on a point of rock not broader than your hand4#ai ,the chamois feed on various mountain herbs1 and on the buds and sprouts of the rhododendron and latschen 7a pine74 ,at night they couch among the broken rocks high upon the mountains1 descending at daybreak to pasture1 and retreating1 as the heat increases1 towards their fastnesses4 ,when winter comes1 they are forced down to the higher forests1 where they pick up a scanty subsistence from moss1 dead leaves1 and the fibrous lichen which hangs in long yellowish-grey tufts from the fir-trees and bears the name of chamois-beard4 ,while browsing on this1 they sometimes get their horns hooked in a bough1 and so1 being unable to disentangle themselves1 perish with hunger4 ,the senses of hearing1 smell1 and sight are exceedingly acute2 so that the hunter must exercise all his craft to approach the animals4 ,pages might be filled with the hair-breadth escapes and fearful accidents which have befallen hunters2 and yet they find the pursuit so fascinating that nothing will induce them to abandon it4 ,a young peasant told the famous ,de ,saussure 7the pioneer of ,alpine explorers7 that though his father and grandfather before him had met their death while out on the hunt1 not even the offer of a fortune would tempt him to change his vocation4 ,the bag which he carried with him he called his winding-sheet1 because he felt sure he would never have any other4 ,two years afterwards he was found dead at the foot of a precipice4 #ai ,bonar on ,chamois-hunting in ,bavaria4 ,the bouquetin1 or steinbock1 once abundant throughout the greater part of the ,alps1 is now confined to certain parts where it is preserved by the ,king of ,italy4 ,de ,saussure observes that in his time they had ceased to be found near ,chamouni4 ,its whole build is remarkably strong1 giving it quite a different appearance from the slender and graceful chamois4 ,illustration3 ,,red ,,deer4 ,,after ,,ansdell4 ,the roe1 the fallow deer1 and the red deer have1 it is said1 quite disappeared from the ,french and ,swiss ,alps1 but all of them occur in the ,bavarian and ,austrian highlands4 ,they frequent the forests which clothe the lower slopes1 and do not often wander into the more rocky districts4 ,the wild boar only now and then appears across the ,rhine1 although it is common in the ,subalpine forests farther east2 but we can hardly consider it a true ,alpine quadruped4 ,passing on to the birds which frequent the ,alps1 we must first notice the bearded vulture1 the lmmergeier of the ,germans1 which once was common1 but now only holds its own here and there in some lonely mountain fastness4 ,although preferring living prey to carrion1 still in many ways it is closely allied to the true vulture4 ,the upper part of the body is a greyish-brown hue1 the under side white1 tinged with reddish brown4 ,the nest1 built on a high ledge of rock1 consists of straw and fern1 resting on sticks1 on which are placed branches lined with moss and down4 ,it is a rare thing for the traveller to obtain a view of this monarch of the ,alpine birds4 ,like the true vulture1 its digestive powers are marvellous4 ,according to ,tschudi 7,les ,alpes71 the stomach of one of these birds was found to contain five fragments of a cow's rib1 a mass of matted wool and hair1 and the leg of a kid perfect from the knee downwards4 ,another had bolted a fox's rib fifteen inches long1 as well as the brush1 besides a number of bones and other indigestible parts of smaller animals1 which were slowly being eaten away by the gastric juice4 ,sheep1 goats1 full-grown chamois1 and smaller quadrupeds are eagerly devoured by this voracious bird4 ,it is said to be bold enough to attack a man1 when it finds him asleep or climbing in any dangerous place4 ,tschudi1 in his book on the ,alps1 gives several instances of young children being carried off4 ,one of these happened in the ,bernese ,oberland1 as follows3 ,two peasants1 making hay upon the pastures1 had taken with them their daughter ,anna1 a child about three years old4 ,she quickly fell asleep on the turf near the hay chlet2 so the father put his broad-brimmed hat over her face1 and went to work some little way off4 ,on his return with a load of hay the child was gone2 and a brief search showed that she was nowhere near4 ,just at this time a peasant walking along a rough path in the glen was startled by the cry of a child1 and going towards the place whence it came1 saw a lmmergeier rise from a neighbouring summit and hover for some time over a precipice4 ,on climbing thither in all haste1 he found the child lying on the very brink4 ,she was but little injured2 some scratches were found on her hands and on the left arm1 by which she had been seized2 and she had been carried more than three quarters of a mile through the air4 ,she lived to a good old age1 and was always called the ,geier-,anna1 or ,vulture's ,annie1 in memory of her escape4 ,the particulars are inscribed in the registers of the parish of ,habkeren4 ,the golden eagle is not uncommon in most parts of the ,alps1 although travellers rarely obtain a near view4 ,it is said to be very fond of hares1 chasing and capturing them very cleverly4 ,as in ,great ,britain1 it is accused of carrying off children2 but this is at least doubtful4 ,the kite1 buzzard and falcon are occasionally seen4 ,there are at least ten species of owls1 among which is the magnificent eagle-owl4 ,the raven is found in the lonelier glens1 and is often tamed4 ,its thieving propensities are very amusing4 ,alpine birds of prey correspond very closely with ,british4 ,the jackdaw is also common4 ,it would be impossible within our short limits to give a complete list of ,swiss birds1 but we may mention among others the nutcracker1 the jay1 the white-breasted swift1 the wheatear1 the common black redstart1 the beautiful wall-creeper1 and the snow-finch1 which mounts to the borders of the snow4 ,of game-birds we may mention the capercailze1 the black grouse1 and the hazel grouse1 all of which are common in many of the forests4 ,the ptarmigan haunts the stony tracts on the borders of perpetual snow4 ,in winter it turns white1 and in summer greyish-brown1 though a good deal of white remains4 ,pheasants and partridges cannot be said to be ,alpine birds2 but the ,greek partridge may be so considered4 ,numbers of the mountain streams and tarns contain excellent trout1 and most of the larger lakes are well stocked with fish4 ,some of the trout of the ,swiss and ,italian lakes are of great size4 ,the pike frequently weigh twelve to fifteen pounds4 ,reptiles are not numerous4 ,the common frog1 which is said to be found as high as ten thousand feet above the sea1 swarms in some parts of the ,rhone ,valley4 ,of true lizards1 five species have been recognized4 ,the blind-worm 7which is not a snake71 so common on many of our ,english heaths1 is often met with4 ,among the true snakes we find the ,english ringed snake--quite harmless--and two adders4 ,the common adder is found at a height of seven thousand feet above the sea4 ,lower forms of life not possessing a backbone 7invertebrates7 abound in this region2 but they are far too numerous to be considered here4 ,butterflies and moths are abundant2 and many of those which are rare in ,england are common in the ,alps1 so that the entomologist finds a happy hunting-ground4 ,the beautiful swallowtail and the handsome apollo1 coppers1 painted ladies1 fritillaries1 and many other ,lepidoptera thrive in these regions1 and are less easily frightened than at home in ,england4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,,how ,,the ,,mountains ,,were ,,made4 ,part ,,ii4 ,,how ,,the ,,mountains ,,were ,,made4 ,,chapter ,v4 ,,how ,,the ,,materials ,,were ,,brought ,,together4 ,these changes in the heavens1 though slow1 produce ,like change on sea and land4 ,,milton ,probably every mountain climber1 resting for a brief space on a loose boulder1 or seeking the shade of some overhanging piece of rock1 has often asked himself1 ,how were all these rocks made8 ,the question must occur again and again to any intelligent person on visiting a mountain for the first time1 or even on seeing a mountain-range in the distance4 ,he may well ask his companions how these great ramparts of the earth were built up4 ,but unless he possesses some knowledge of the science of geology1 which tells of the manifold changes which in former ages have taken place on the earth1 or unless1 in the absence of such knowledge1 he chance to meet with a geologist1 his question probably remains unanswered4 ,such questions1 however1 can be very satisfactorily answered1--thanks to the labours of zealous seekers after truth1 who have given the best part of their lives to studying the rocks which are found everywhere on the surface of the earth1 and the changes they undergo4 ,geology is a truly ,english science2 and ,englishmen may well cherish gratefully the memories of its pioneers1--,hutton1 ,playfair1 ,lyell1 and others1 who have made the way so clear for future explorers4 ,the story of the hills as written on their own rocky tablets and on the very boulders lying loose on their sloping sides1 and interpreted by geologists1 is a long one2 for it takes us far back into the dim ages of the past1 and like the fashionable novel1 may be divided into three parts1 or volumes4 ,to those who follow the stony science it is quite as fascinating as a modern romance1 and a great deal more wonderful1 thus illustrating the force of the old saying1 ,truth is stranger than fiction4 ,the three parts of our story may be best expressed by the three following inquiries3 ,i4 ,how were the materials of which mountains are built up brought together and made into hard rock8 ,,ii4 ,how were they raised up into the elevated positions in which we now find them8 ,,iii4 ,how were they carved out into all their wonderful and beautiful features of crag and precipice1 peaks and passes8 ,a mountain group1 with its central peak or spire1 its long ridges1 steep walls1 towers1 buttresses1 dark hollows1 and carved pinnacles standing out against the sky1 has well been compared to a great and stately building such as a cathedral or a temple4 ,mountains are indeed a great and noble architecture1 giving first shelter1 comfort1 and rest1 but covered also with mighty sculpture and painted legend2 and to many they are ,nature's shrines1 where men may offer their humble praises and prayers to the great ,architect who reared them for ,his children4 ,we have introduced this illustration because it will help us in our inquiry4 ,suppose we were standing in front of some great cathedral1 such as ,milan1 with all its marble pinnacles1 or ,notre ,dame1 with its stately towers1 or the minsters of ,york or ,durham in our own country1 and trying to picture to ourselves how it was built4 ,no one has lived long enough to watch the completion of one of these great buildings2 but for all that1 we know pretty well how it was made1 even by watching the builder's operations for a short time1 or by following1 as we often may1 the various stages in the construction of a small house4 ,so it is with ,nature's work4 ,we cannot1 in our little lives1 witness the rearing of a great mountain-chain1 or even the carving of a single hill2 but we can observe for ourselves the slow and continuous operations which in the course of thousands and thousands of years produce such stupendous results4 ,we may learn how the building operations are conducted1 though the final results will only be manifested in the far-distant future4 ,but to return to our cathedral4 ,if we try to picture to ourselves the long years during which it was covered with scaffolding and surrounded by a busy army of workers1 we shall soon perceive that the operations may be broadly divided into three heads4 ,first1 we must inquire how the separate stones of which it is composed were brought together into one place1 and we shall at once picture to ourselves groups of men working in stone-quarries1--perhaps a long way off1--busy with their crowbars and hammers1 breaking off large blocks of stone1 and following the natural divisions of the rock that their rough labour may be lessened2 for all rocks will split more easily along certain lines than along others4 ,sometimes it is easier to follow the bedding1 or natural layers in which the rock was formed2 at other times the joints1 or cracks subsequently formed as the rocky materials hardened and contracted in bulk1 afford easier lines for the workmen to follow4 ,others are busily engaged in placing the stony blocks on trollies drawn by horses1 that they may be borne along the roads leading from the quarry to the site of the future cathedral4 ,and so1 taking a bird's-eye view1 we seem to see horses and carts slowly moving on from many a distant quarry1 but all converging like the branches of a river to one main channel1 and finally depositing their burdens in the stone-yard where the masons are at work4 ,perhaps bricks are partly employed1 in which case we can easily picture to ourselves the brickyards1 where some are digging out the soft clay1 others moulding it into bricks with wooden moulds1 while others again lay them down in rows on the ground to dry1 before they are baked in the ovens4 ,and when the bricks are ready for use1 the same means of transportation are employed2 and cart-loads of them are borne along the country roads until they so reach their destination4 ,now1 all this may be summed up in the one word transportation2 and we shall presently inquire how the rocky matter of which the mountains are built was transported4 ,secondly4 ,we have to inquire how the bricks and stones were raised up4 ,the analogy is not quite perfect in this case2 for the mountains were raised up en bloc1 not bit by bit and stone by stone1 as in the case of the cathedral4 ,still they have been raised somehow4 ,analogies are seldom complete in every detail2 but for all that1 our illustration serves well enough1 and will help us in following the various processes of mountain building4 ,in these days1 the raising of the stones is mostly effected by steam-power applied to big cranes and pulleys4 ,in old days they used cranes and pulleys1 but the ropes were pulled by hand-power4 ,in either case the work proceeds slowly2 and we can easily picture to ourselves the daily raising of the stones of which the cathedral is composed4 ,what were the forces at work which slowly raised the mountains8 ,this question we will endeavour to answer later on 7see next chapter74 ,this work may be included in the one word1 elevation4 ,and lastly4 ,we must inquire how the carving of the stately building was effected1 how its pinnacles received their shape1 and how all those lovely details received their final forms2 how the intricate traceries of its windows were made1 and the statues carved which adorn its solemn portals4 ,this question is easily answered1 for we are all more or less familiar with what goes on in a stone-mason's yard4 ,under those wooden sheds we see a number of skilled labourers at work1 busy with their chisels and mallets1 cutting out1 according to the patterns made from the architect's detailed drawings1 the portions of tracery for windows1 or the finials1 crockets1 and other features of the future building4 ,in another part of the yard may be seen the stone-cutters1 working in pairs and slowly pulling backwards and forwards those long saws which1 with the help of water and sand1 in time cut through the biggest blocks4 ,all this work then may be summed up under the one word1 ornamentation1 for it includes the cutting and carving of the stone4 ,our three lines of inquiry may now be summed up in these three words1 which are easily remembered3-- ,transportation1 ,elevation1 ,ornamentation4 ,taking the first of these subjects for consideration in the present chapter1 we have now to inquire into the nature of the materials of which mountains are composed and the means by which they have been brought together and compacted into hard rock4 ,first1 with regard to the nature of the materials which ,mother ,earth uses to build her rocky ramparts3 they are the same as the ordinary rocks of which the earth's crust is composed2 and the greater part of them have been formed by the action of water4 ,these are the ordinary stratified rocks1 which in one form or another meet us almost everywhere1 and may be said to be aqueous deposits1 or sediments formed in seas and inland lakes4 ,they are always arranged in layers1 known to geologists as strata1 because they have been gently laid down1 or strewn 7,latin1 stratum71 at the bottom of some large body of water4 ,there were pauses in the deposition of the materials1 during which each layer had time to harden a little before the next one was formed4 ,this accounts for the stratification4 ,in this way great deposits of sandstone1 clay1 and limestone1 with their numerous varieties1 have been in the course of ages gradually piled up1 till they have attained to enormous thickness1 which at first sight seem almost incredible2 but the bed of the seas in which they formed was probably undergoing a slow sinking process that kept pace with the growth of these deposits1 otherwise the sea might have been more or less filled up4 ,and these processes are still going on4 ,in fact1 it is entirely by watching what goes on now that geologists are able to explain what took place a very long time ago when there were no human beings on the earth to record the events that took place4 ,and so we argue from the present to the past1 from the known to the unknown4 ,in other words1 geology is based upon physical geography1 which tells us of the changes now in progress on the earth4 ,thus1 sandstone1 as frequently met with in different parts of ,great ,britain1 and largely used for building purposes1 such as the familiar old red sandstone#bj of ,south ,wales1 ,hereford1 and the north of ,england and different parts of ,scotland1 was once soft sand in no way at all different from the sand of the seashore at the present day1 or of the sandy bed of the ,north ,sea4 ,in process of time it became hardened1 and acquired its characteristic red colour1 which is due to oxide of iron4 ,in some places numerous fossil fishes have been discovered in this interesting formation1 so intimately associated with the name of ,hugh ,miller1 who first thoroughly explored it2 these and other remains entombed therein tell us of the strange forms of life which flourished on the earth during that very old-fashioned period of the world's history2 and by putting together all kinds of evidences derived from the rock itself1 geologists are able to form a very good idea of the way in which this rock-deposit was accumulated1 always1 however1 basing their conclusions on a thorough knowledge of what goes on at the present day in seas1 rivers1 and inland lakes4 #bj ,the reader will find an account of the old red sandstone in the writer's ,autobiography of the ,earth 7,edward ,stanford1 #ahij74 ,in the great series of stratified rocks forming what is commonly called the crust of the earth 7an unfortunate term which has survived from the time when the interior of the earth was generally believed to be in a fiery molten condition1 and covered by a thin coating of solid rock at the surface71 there are besides the sandstones1 of which we have just spoken1 great deposits of dark-coloured clays1 shales1 and slates4 ,all these can be accounted for by the geologist4 ,they are simply different states of what was once soft mud4 ,the slates tell us that they have been subjected to very severe pressure1 which squeezed their particles till they were elongated and all arranged in one direction1 and this is the reason why they split up into thin sheets4 ,others1 again1 represent vast deposits of carbonate of lime1 thousands of feet thick and now occupying hundreds of square miles of the earth's surface4 ,limestone rocks are as abundant in our own country as the sandstones1 shales1 or slates4 ,the chalk of which the ,north and ,south ,downs are composed is a familiar example4 ,it is seen again forming ,salisbury ,plain1 in ,hampshire and the ,isle of ,wight1 and then it may be traced running up the country in a long band through the counties of ,oxford1 ,cambridge1 ,lincoln1 until it reaches the coast at ,flamborough ,head in ,yorkshire4 ,then we have the ,bath ,olites so much used in building1 for they form an admirable freestone that can be easily carved and cut in any direction 7hence the term freestone72 and lastly1 the great mountain limestone so well developed in ,south ,wales1 ,yorkshire1 and the ,lake country4 ,all these were slowly built up at the bottom of the seas which existed in past ages2 great beds of gravel formed at the mouths of rivers1 and long banks of pebbles and rounded stones collected on the shore of primeval seas1 and were ground against each other as now by the action of the waves1 until all their corners were rubbed off4 ,pebble-beds1 called by geologists conglomerates1 are met with among the stratified rocks2 and their story is easily read by studying what takes place at the present day on our seashores4 ,illustration3 ,,chalk ,,rocks1 ,,flamborough ,,head4 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,g4 ,w4 ,,wilson4 ,now1 the sandstones1 clays1 gravels1 and pebble-beds all represent1 as will presently be explained1 so much material worn away from the surface of the land and swept into the ocean 7or in some cases into inland seas and lakes7 by streams and rivers1 which are the great transporting agents of the world4 ,hence such deposits of dbris1 supplied by the constant wear and tear of all rocks exposed to the atmosphere1 are truly sedimentary and have a purely mechanical origin4 ,but it is not so with the limestones4 ,the latter were never transported1 but grew at the bottom of the sea in very wonderful ways4 ,they have nothing to do with the wear and tear of the land to which the others owe their existence1 but represent vast quantities of carbonate of lime extracted from sea water4 ,sea water contains a certain amount of this substance in a dissolved state1 or in solution1 as a chemist would say2 and the way in which this is extracted by the agency of various creatures1 such as coral polypes and little microscopic creatures that build their shells of carbonate of lime1 of great beauty1 forms one of the most interesting subjects presented to the student of physical geography4 ,hence1 since limestone can only be accounted for by the agency of living organisms1#ba it is rightly termed an organic deposit1 and the others are said to be mechanical deposits4 ,but both are called aqueous rocks1 because they are formed under water4 ,it is important to distinguish clearly between these two very different methods of rock-formation4 #ba ,the flints usually found in limestone are also of organic origin4 ,but although water plays such a very important part in the making of the common rocks around us1 yet there are others which have quite a different origin1--rocks which have come up from below the surface of the earth in a heated and molten condition1 such as the lavas that flow from volcanoes in active eruptions and the showers of ashes and fine volcanic dust which often attend such eruptions 7see chap4 viii41 pp4 #bga-bgb74 ,some highly heated rocks1 though they never rise to the surface to form lava-flows1 are forced up with overwhelming pressure from below1 and wedge themselves into the sedimentary rocks that overlie them1 thus forming what are known as volcanic dykes1 and intrusive masses or sheets of once molten rock4 ,in this category we include such rocks as basalt1 felstone1 pitchstone1 and other rocks of fiery origin that have flowed from volcanoes as lava1 as well as those like granite1 which have cooled and become solid below the surface1 and are ,plutonic1 or deep-seated1 igneous rocks4 ,granite may be exposed to the surface of the earth when the rocks which once overlaid it have been worn away or denuded4 ,it is frequently seen in the central regions of mountain-chains1 where a vast amount of erosion has been effected4 ,thus we see that heat has played its part in the making of rocks2 and for this reason such rocks as we have just mentioned are called igneous4 ,fire and water are therefore very important geological agents2 but we should say heat rather than fire1 because the latter word might convey a false impression4 ,no rocks can be burned except coal1 which may be considered rather as a mineral deposit than as a rock4 ,some rocks may be heated1 and undergo many and various changes in their mineral composition2 but they are not capable of combustion4 ,so far1 then1 we have learned that the rocks exposed to view on the surface of the earth may be divided into two classes2 that is1 aqueous and igneous4 ,there is yet a third class1 which1 though of aqueous origin1 has in course of time suffered considerable from the internal heat of the earth and the enormous pressure due to the weight of overlying rocks4 ,such rocks have been greatly changed from their original condition1 both in appearance and in mineral composition1 and are said to be metamorphic1 a word which implies change4 ,thus chalk1 or other limestone rock1 has been metamorphosed into marble2 shales and slates into various kinds of schists1#bb such as mica-schist1 and even into gneiss1 which closely resembles granite4 ,and it is quite possible that even granite may in some cases be the result of the melting and consolidation under great pressure of certain familiar stratified rocks4 ,it is quite conceivable that slate might be converted into granite1 for their chemical composition is similar1 only the minerals of which it is composed would require to be rearranged and grouped into new compounds4 ,this would seem quite possible2 but at present we have no direct proof of such a change having taken place4 ,even igneous rocks are found in some places to have suffered very considerable change4 #bb ,schists are so named from their property of splitting into thin layers4 ,their structure is crystalline2 and the layers1 or folia1 consist usually of two or more minerals1 but sometimes of only one4 ,thus mica-schist consists of quartz and mica1 each arranged in many folia1 but it splits along the layers of mica4 ,in some inland seas1 like the ,caspian ,sea1 deposits of rock salt and gypsum may be formed by chemical precipitation1 owing to evaporation from the surface4 ,the various kinds of rock known to geologists may be conveniently arranged as follows3 ,clay1 shale1 slate1 etc4 ,i4 ,sedimentary4 ,sandstones4 ,conglomerates4 ,rocks of ,limestones4 aqueous ,,ii4 ,organic4 ,flint4 origin4 ,coal4 ,,iii4 ,chemical4 ,rock salt4 ,gypsum1 etc4 ,i4 ,volcanic4 ,lavas4 ,rocks of ,volcanic ashes1 etc4 igneous origin4 ,,ii4 ,plutonic4 ,basalt4 ,granite4 ,metamorphic rocks ,marbles4 of aqueous and ,various kinds of schists4 igneous origin4 ,gneiss1 etc4 ,so far we have only attempted to state very briefly the different kinds of rocks1 and to point out that they were formed in various ways4 ,we must now consider the question of rock-making more closely1 and see what we can learn about the wonderful ways in which rocks are made2 and it may be instructive to glance at the conflicting opinions on this subject which learned men held not very long ago4 ,at the end of the last century a great controversy took place on the question of the origin of rocks1 and the learned men of the day were divided into two parties4 ,one of these parties1 following the teaching of ,werner1 professor of mining at ,freyburg1 who inspired great enthusiasm among his disciples1 declared that all rocks were formed by the agency of water4 ,this was a very sweeping and of course rash conclusion4 ,but whenever they examined rocks1 they found so many clear evidences of the action of water that a powerful impression of the importance of this agency was naturally made on their minds4 ,they found rocks uniformly arranged in great layers which extended for long distances1 and containing the remains of animals which must undoubtedly have lived in the seas or estuaries4 ,these layers were further divided into smaller layers1 such as clearly were formed by the slow settling down of sand and mud4 ,others again contained gravels and rounded pebbles1 testifying in no uncertain way to the action of water4 ,even the little grains of sand are obviously water-worn4 ,this teaching was quite sound so long as they confined their attention to clays1 sandstones1 and limestones2 but when they came to basalt and granite1 a blind adherence to the views of their master caused them to shut their eyes to the clear evidences of the action of heat1 presented by such rocks4 ,the crystalline structure of such rocks2 their irregular arrangement1 often so different from the uniform disposition of the stratified rocks 7although it must be admitted that ancient lava-flows often lie very evenly between aqueous rocks71 and the way in which they burst through overlying rocks1 thus proving their former molten condition2 the signs of alteration exhibited in the aqueous rocks into which they intruded themselves 7changes which are obviously due to the action of heat71--these and other evidences were entirely overlooked1 and ,werner declared that basalt had been found as a sediment under water4 ,this school of geologists1 believing so strongly in the all-powerful influence of ,father ,neptune1 received the not inappropriate title of ,neptunists4 ,on the other hand1 the party who happened to be in districts where granite1 basalt1 and such igneous rocks abounded were equally impressed with the importance of the powerful agency of heat4 ,to them nearly every rock they met with seemed to show some signs of its action4 ,and since ,pluto was the classical deity of the lower regions1 and the earth shows evidences in places of greater heat below the surface1 this party received the title of ,plutonists2 and so the battle raged hotly for some time between the ,neptunists1 with their claims for cold water1 and the fiery ,plutonists of the rival school of ,edinburgh1 with their subterranean heat4 ,fire and water are never likely to agree2 and they did not do so in this case4 ,but now that the battle is over1 and both sides are found to have been partly right and partly wrong1--though the ,neptunists have the advantage1--we can afford to smile at the fierceness of the contest1 and wonder how it was that each side thought they were so entirely in the right4 ,let us now consider the aqueous rocks1 and see if we can gain a clear idea of the ways in which they were formed2 and first1 we will take those of a purely sedimentary origin1--the sandstones1 pebble-beds1 gravels1 and clays4 ,these1 as the reader has already probably guessed1 have all been transported by means of streams and rivers1 and settled down quietly in seas at the mouths of rivers or in inland lakes4 ,there is no trace of the action of heat in the forming of these rocks1 though they often show signs of having suffered more or less change from contact with highly heated igneous rocks of later date which forcibly intruded themselves from below2 and if the change thus effected were considerable1 we should call the rocks so altered metamorphic4 ,but we are now dealing with their original state and how they were made2 and of that there is no possible doubt whatever4 ,so for the time being we may call ourselves ,neptunists4 ,streams and rivers are the great transporting agents whereby the never-failing supply of dbris from the waste of the land is unceasingly brought down from the mountains and hills1 through the broad valleys and along the great plains1 until finally it is flung into the sea4 ,the sea is the workshop where all the sedimentary rocks are slowly manufactured from the raw material brought to it by the rivers4 ,but for the present we must confine our attention to the question of transport4 ,referring back to our illustration of the cathedral1 we may say that streams and rivers play the part of cart and horses4 ,they bring the materials down from the quarry to the scene of action1--the workshop where they are wanted4 ,the quarries1 in this case1 may be said to be almost everywhere4 ,for wherever rocks and soil are exposed to the action of wind and weather1 there is certain to be more or less decay and crumbling away4 ,but it is among the hills and in the higher parts of the mountains that the forces of destruction are most active4 ,how this is brought about will be discussed in the seventh chapter1 on the carving of the hills4 ,the frequent slopes covered with loose stones are sufficient evidence of the continual destruction that takes place in these regions4 ,the transporting powers of rivers are truly prodigious4 ,looking at a stream or river after heavy rain1 we see its waters heavily laden with mud and sand2 but it is difficult to realise from a casual glance the vast amount of material that is thus brought down to lower levels4 ,if we could trace the sediment to its source1 we must seek it among the rocks of mountains far away4 ,step by step we may trace it up along the higher courses of the river1 then along mountain streams rushing over their rocky beds1 tumbling in cascades over broken rocks1 or leaping in waterfalls over higher projections of rock1 until we come to the deep furrows on the sides of mountains along which loose fragments of rock come tumbling down with the cascades of water that run along these steep channels after heavy rain1 leaving at the base of the mountain great fan-shaped heaps of stones4 ,oft both slope and hill are torn ,where wintry torrents down have borne1 ,and heaped upon the cumbered land ,its wreck of gravel1 rocks1 and sand4 ,these accumulations are gradually carried away by the larger mountain streams1 which in hurrying them along cause a vast amount of wear and tear2 so that their corners are worn off1 and they get further and further reduced in size1 becoming mere round pebbles lining the bed of the stream1 and finally by the time they reach the large slow-moving rivers of the plains are mainly reduced to tiny specks of mud or grains of sand4 ,so then the rivers and streams not only transport sediment1 but they manufacture it as they go along4 ,and thus they may be considered as great grinding-mills1 where large pieces of stone go in at one end1 and only fine sand and mud come out at the other4 ,the amount of land dbris thus transported depends partly on the carrying power of rivers1 which varies with the seasons and the annual rainfall2 partly on the size of the area drained by a river2 and again1 partly on the nature of the rocks of which that area is composed4 ,a stream1 moving along at the rate of about half a mile 7#hhj yards7 an hour1 which is a slow1 rate1 can carry along ordinary sandy soil suspended in a cloud-like fashion in the water2 when moving at the rate of two thirds of a mile 7about #a1agc yards7 an hour1 it can roll fine gravel along its bed2 but when the rate increases to a yard in a second1 or a little more than two miles an hour1 it can sweep along angular stones as large as an egg4 ,but streams often flow much faster than this1 and so do rivers when swollen by heavy rain4 ,a rapid torrent often flows at the rate of eighteen or twenty miles an hour1 and then we may hear the stones rattling against each other as they are irresistibly rolled onward2 and during very heavy floods1 huge masses of rock as large as a house have been known to be moved4 ,these are the two principal ways in which streams and rivers act as transporting agents3 they carry the finer materials in a suspended state 7though partly drifting it along their beds72 and they push the coarser materials1 such as gravel1 bodily along4 ,but there is one other way in which they carry on the important work of transportation1 which1 being unseen1 might easily escape our notice4 ,every spring is busily employed in bringing up to the surface mineral substances which the water has dissolved out of the underground rocks4 ,this invisible material finds its way1 as the springs do1 to the rivers1 and so finally is brought into that great reservoir1 the sea4 ,rain and river water also dissolve a certain amount of mineral matter from rocks lying on the surface of the earth4 ,now1 the material which is most easily dissolved is carbonate of lime4 ,hence if you take a small quantity of spring or river water and boil it until the whole is evaporated1 you will find that it leaves behind a certain amount of deposit4 ,this1 when analysed by the chemist1 proves to be chiefly carbonate of lime2 but it also contains minute quantities of other minerals1 such as common salt1 potash1 soda1 oxide of iron1 and silica1 or flint4 ,all these and other minerals are found to be present in sea water4 ,the waters of some of the great rivers of the world have been carefully examined at different times1 in order to form some idea of the amount of solid matter which they contain1 both dissolved and suspended2 and the results are extremely important and interesting1 for they enable us to form definite conclusions with regard to their capacity for transport4 ,this subject has been investigated with great skill by eminent men of science4 ,the problem is a very complicated one2 but it is easy to see that if we know roughly the number of gallons of water annually discharged into the sea by a big river1 and the average amount of solid matter contained in such a gallon of water1 we have the means of calculating1 by a simple process of multiplication1 the amount of solid matter annually brought down to the sea by that river4 ,but we must also add the amount of sand1 gravel1 and stones pushed along its bed4 ,this may be roughly estimated and allowed for4 ,these are some of the results3 ,the amount of solid matter discharged every year by that great river1 the ,mississippi1 if piled up on a single square mile of the bed of the sea1--say1 in the ,gulf of ,mexico1 where that river discharges itself1--would make a great square-shaped pile #bfh feet high4 ,but the ,gulf ,stream1 sweeping through this gulf1 carries the materials for many and many a mile away2 so that in course of time it gradually sinks and spreads itself as a fine film or layer over part of the great ,atlantic ,ocean4 ,the mud brought down by the great river ,amazon spreads so far into the ,atlantic ,ocean as to discolour the water even at a distance of three hundred miles4 ,the ,ganges and the ,brahmapootra1 flowing into the ,bay of ,bengal1 discharge every year into that part of the ,indian ,ocean #f1cfh1jjj1jjj cubic feet of solid matter4 ,this material would in one year raise a space of fifteen square miles one foot in height4 ,the weight of mud1 etc41 that these rivers bring down is sixty times that of the ,great ,pyramid of ,egypt1 or about six million tons4 ,or1 to put the matter in another way1 if a fleet of more than eighty ,indiamen1 each with a cargo of fourteen hundred tons of solid matter1 sailed down every hour1 night and day1 for four months1 and discharged their burdens into the waters of the ,indian ,ocean1 they would only do what the mighty ,ganges does quietly and easily in the four months of the flood season4 ,it is probable that even the ,thames1 a small river compared to those just mentioned1 manages to bring down1 in one way or another1 fourteen million cubic feet of solid matter4 ,these few figures may suffice to give the reader some idea of the enormous amount of rock-forming materials brought down to the seas at the present day4 ,of course they are spread out far and wide by the numerous ocean currents1 some of which flow for hundreds of miles2 and so the bed of the sea can only be very slowly raised by their accumulation4 ,still the geologist can allow plenty of time1 for there is no doubt that the world is immensely old2 and if we allow thousands of years1 we may easily comprehend that deposits of very considerable thickness may in this way accumulate on the floors of the oceans4 ,also the coasts of continents and islands suffer continual wear and tear at the hands of sea waves2 and thus the supply of sediment is increased4 ,when the geologist comes to study the great rock-masses--hundreds1 and even thousands1 of feet in thickness--of which mountain-ranges are composed1 he finds all those kinds of rock which we have just been considering1--sandstones1 shales 7or hardened clays71 pebble-beds1 and limestones1--and endeavours to picture to himself their gradual growth in the ways we have described4 ,in so doing1 he is driven to the conclusion that many thousands of years must have been occupied in their construction4 ,we must now say a few words about those other aqueous rocks which have an organic origin1 of which limestone is the chief4 ,it is indeed a startling conclusion that deposits of great thickness1 and ranging for very many miles over the earth's surface1 have been slowly built up through the agency of marine animals extracting carbonate of lime from the sea4 ,yet such is undoubtedly the case4 ,of this important process of rock-building coral reefs are the most familiar example4 ,the great barrier reef along the northeast coast of ,australia is about #a1bej miles long1 from ten to ninety miles in width1 and rises at its seaward edge from depths which in some places certainly exceed eighteen hundred feet4 ,it may be likened to a great submarine wall4 ,now1 all this solid masonry is the work of humble coral polypes 7not insects71 building up their own internal framework or skeleton by extracting carbonate of lime from sea water4 ,then the breakers dashing against coral reefs produce1 by their grinding action1 a great deal of fine coral-sand and calcareous mud1 which covers the surrounding bed of the sea for many miles4 ,now1 geologists find that some limestone formations met with in the stratified rocks have certainly been formed in this way2 for example1 certain parts of the great mountain limestone4 ,this is proved by the fossil corals it contains1 and by tracing the old coral reefs2 but it is also largely formed by the remains of other graceful calcareous creatures known as encrinites1 or sea-lilies1 with long branching arms that waved in the clear water4 ,such creatures still exist in some deeper parts of the sea1 and look more like plants than animals4 ,in former ages they existed in great abundance1 and so played an important part as rock-formers1--for their stems1 branches1 and all are made of little plates of carbonate of lime1 beautifully fitting together like the separate bones1 or vertebr1 composing the backbone of a fish2 and when the creatures died1 these little plates no longer held together1 but were scattered on the floor of the sea-bed4 ,shell-fish abounded too1 and their shelly remains accumulated into regular shell-beds in some places4 ,but at times mud and sand would come and cover over all these organic deposits4 ,but of all rocks that have an organic origin1 chalk is the most interesting4 ,geologists were for a long time puzzled to know how this rock could have been formed2 but some soundings made in the ,atlantic ,ocean previous to the laying of the first ,atlantic cable led to a very important discovery1 which at once threw a flood of light on the question4 ,samples of the mud lying on the bed of this ocean at considerable distances from the ,european and ,american coasts1 and at depths varying from one thousand to three thousand fathoms1 were brought up by sounding apparatus4 ,little was it thought that the dull grey ooze covering a large part of the ,atlantic bed would bring a message from the depths of the sea1 and furnish the answer to a great geological problem4 ,yet such was the case2 for under the microscope this mud was seen to be chiefly composed of very minute and very beautiful shells1 now known as foraminifera1 and much prized by microscopists4 ,these tiny shells are found at or near the surface of the sea2 and after the death of the creatures that inhabit them 7which are only lumps of protoplasm with no organs of any kind71 the shells slowly sink down to the bed of the ocean4 ,now1 these creatures multiply at so inconceivable a rate that a continuous shower of dead shells seems to be taking place1 and the result is the slow accumulation over vast areas of the ,atlantic and ,pacific oceans of a great deposit of calcareous ooze1 which if raised above the sea-level would harden into a rock very similar to chalk4 ,illustration3 ,,microphotographs ,,illustrating ,,rock ,,formation4 ,i4 ,foraminifera4 ,,ii4 ,section of ,granite4 ,,iii4 ,nummulitic ,limestone4 ,but this process only takes place in the deeper parts of our seas1 far removed from land1 where the supply of land-derived materials fails1--for even the finest mud supplied by rivers probably all settles down before travelling two or three hundred miles from its native shores4 ,thus we learn that when one agency fails1 ,nature makes use of another to take up the important work of rock-building4 ,how the other rocks which we mentioned in our list were formed1--such as granite1 basalt1 and the metamorphic rocks1--we must explain in a future chapter dealing with volcanoes and their work4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,how ,,the ,,mountains ,,were ,,upheaved4 ,the notion that the ground is naturally steadfast is an error1--an error which arises from the incapacity of our senses to appreciate any but the most palpable1 and at the same time most exceptional1 of its movements4 ,the idea of terra firma belongs with the ancient belief that the earth was the centre of the universe4 ,it is1 indeed1 by their mobility that the continents survive the increasing assaults of the ocean waves1 and the continuous down-wearing which the rivers and glaciers bring about4--,,professor ,,shaler4 ,we have found out the quarries which supplied the rocky framework of mountains1 and have learned how the work of transporting these vast quantities of stone was accomplished by the agency of ever-flowing glaciers1 rivers1 and streams4 ,we must now consider the second stage of the work1 and inquire how the mountains were raised up4 ,referring back to our illustration of the cathedral 7see pages #adc-adg71 it will be remembered that this work was included under the head of ,elevation4 ,but perhaps some one might ask3 ,how do you know that the mountains have been elevated or upheaved8 ,is it not enough to suppose that they owe their height entirely to the fact that they are composed of harder rock1 and so have been more successful in resisting the universal decay and destruction8 ,now1 such an objection contains a good deal of truth1 for mountains are formed of hard rocks2 but at the same time we know that the agents of denudation are more active among them than on the plains below1 so that1 in the higher mountain regions at least1 the work of demolition may actually proceed faster than it does on low ground4 ,mountains are higher than the rest of the world1 not merely because they are built of more lasting material1 but also because they have been uplifted for thousands of feet above the level of the sea2 and the evidence of their upheaval is so plain as to be entirely beyond doubt4 ,let us inquire into the nature of this evidence4 ,we have seen that the rocks of which mountains are composed were for the most part formed at the bottom of the sea4 ,when the geologist finds1 as he frequently does1 buried in mountain rocks the fossil remains of creatures that must have lived in the sea 7and often very similar to those living there now71 he is compelled to think of the gigantic upheavals that must have taken place before those remains could arrive at their present elevated position4 ,numerous examples might be given2 but we will only mention three4 ,in the ,alps marine fossils have been detected at a height of #aj1jjj feet above sea-level1 in the ,himalayas at a height of #af1ejj feet1 and in the ,rocky ,mountains at a height of #aa1jjj feet4 ,again we must take it for granted that all the stratified or sedimentary rocks 7see pages #adh-adi7 with some trivial exceptions1 such as beds of shingle and conglomerates1 have been formed in horizontal layers4 ,this is one of the simple axioms of geology to which every one must assent4 ,now1 if we find in various parts of the continents1 and especially among the mountains1 such strata sloping or dipping in various directions1 sometimes only slightly1 but sometimes very steeply1--nay1 even standing up on end1--the conclusion that they have been upheaved and pushed or squeezed into these various positions by some subsequent process is irresistible4 ,but this is not all2 for in every mountain region we find that the rocks have been crumpled1 twisted1 and folded in a most marvellous manner4 ,solid sheets of limestone may be seen1 as it were1 to writhe from the base to the summit of a mountain2 yet they present everywhere their truncated ends to the air1 and from their incompleteness it is easy to see what a vast amount of material has been worn away1 leaving1 as it were1 mere fragments behind4 ,the whole geological aspect of the ,alps 7for example7 is suggestive of intense commotion2 and they remain a marvellous monument of stupendous earth-throes1 followed by prolonged and gigantic denudation 7see diagrams1 chap4 ix41 p4 #cjg74 ,there are certain features found in all mountain-chains which must be carefully borne in mind1 especially when we are considering the explanations that have been suggested with regard to their upheaval4 ,these may be briefly stated as follows3-- #a4 ,mountain-chains tend to run in straight or gently curving lines4 #b4 ,their breadth is small compared to their length1 and their height smaller still4 #c4 ,they rise sharply and are clearly marked off from the country on either side4 #d4 ,they form the backbones of continents4 #e4 ,the rocks of which they are composed have been greatly disturbed1 folded1 and contorted4 #f4 ,there is often a band of crystalline rocks 7granite1 gneiss1 etc47 running along the centre of a high range4 #g4 ,they are connected with lines of volcanoes4 #h4 ,they are frequently affected by earthquakes4 ,having arrived at the conclusion that the mountains show evident signs of upheaval1 let us proceed to inquire whether any movements1 either upward or downward1 are taking place now on the earth1 or can be proved to have done so within comparatively recent times4 ,on this question there is ample evidence at our disposal4 ,more than one hundred and thirty years ago1 ,celsius1 the ,swedish astronomer1 was aware1 from the unanimous testimony of the inhabitants of the sea-coasts1 that the ,gulf of ,bothnia was constantly diminishing both in depth and extent4 ,he resorted to measurements in order to prove 7as he thought7 that the waters of the ,baltic were changing their level4 ,this was a mistaken idea2 and we now understand that the level of the sea does not change1 except under the influence of the daily rise and fall of the tide1 which is easily allowed for4 ,however1 that was the idea then2 and it survived for some time4 ,but if the sea-level were continually sinking1 the water1 which1 owing to the influence of gravitation1 must always remain horizontal1 would equally retreat all round the ,scandinavian peninsula and on all our seashores4 ,but this is not the case4 ,again1 it would be impossible on this theory to explain the curious fact that in some parts of the world the sea is gaining on the land1 while in other places it is as surely retreating2 for we cannot believe that in one part the sea-level is rising1 while in another 7not far off in some cases7 it is sinking4 ,no body of water could behave in this irregular fashion2 and the sea could not possibly be rising and falling at the same time4 ,hence we may take it for granted that any change that we may notice in the relative level of land and sea must be due to upward or downward movements in the land4 ,but to return to ,celsius4 ,old men pointed out to him various points on the coast1 over which during their childhood the sea was wont to flow1 and besides1 showed him the water-lines which the waves had once traced out farther inland4 ,and besides this1 the names of places which implied a position on the shore1 former harbours or ports now abandoned and situated inland1 the remains of boats found far from the sea1 and lastly1 the written records and popular songs1 left no doubt that the sea had retreated2 and it seemed both to themselves and to the astronomer that the waters were sinking4 ,in the year #agcj ,celsius1 after comparing all the evidence he had collected1 announced that the ,baltic had sunk three feet1 four inches1 every hundred years4 ,in the course of the following year1 in company with ,linnus1 the naturalist1 he made a mark at the base of a rock in the island of ,leoffgrund1 not far from ,jelfe1 and thirteen years afterwards was able to prove1 as he thought1 that the waters were still subsiding at the same rate1 or a little faster4 ,in reality1 he had proved1 not that the sea was sinking1 but that the land was rising4 ,similar observations show that nearly the whole of ,scandinavia is slowly rising out of the sea4 ,at the northern end of the ,gulf of ,bothnia the land is emerging at the rate of five feet1 three inches1 in a century2 but by the side of the ,aland ,isles it only rises three and one quarter feet in the same time4 ,south of this archipelago it rises still more slowly2 and farther down1 the line of shore does not alter as compared with the level of the sea4 ,but it is a curious fact that the extreme southern end of this peninsula is subsiding1 as proved by the forests that have been submerged4 ,several streets of some towns there have already disappeared1 and the coast has lost on the average a belt of land thirty-two yards in breadth4 ,the upward movement of the ,scandinavian peninsula must have been going on for a long time1 if we assume that it was always at the same rate as at present2 for we find beds of seashells of living species at heights of six or seven hundred feet above the level of the sea4 ,great dead branches of a certain pink coral1 found in the sea at a depth of over one hundred and fifty to three hundred fathoms1 are now seen in water only ten or fifteen fathoms deep4 ,it must have been killed as it was brought up into the upper and warmer layers of water4 ,this is striking testimony4 ,the pine woods too1 which clothe the hills1 are continually being upheaved towards the lower limit of snow1 and are gradually withering away in the cooler atmosphere2 and wide belts of forest are composed of nothing but dead trees1 although some of them have stood for centuries4 ,geologists have proved that the ,baltic ,sea formerly communicated by a wide channel with the ,north ,sea1 the deepest depressions of which are now occupied by lakes in the southern part of ,sweden2 for considerable heaps of oyster-shells are now found in several places on the heights commanding these great lakes4 ,then we have in ,denmark the celebrated kitchen-middens1 heaps of rubbish also largely composed of oyster-shells which the inhabitants1 in the ,stone ,age1 collected from the bottoms of the neighbouring bays4 ,at the present day the waters of the ,baltic1 into which rivers bring large quantities of fresh water1 do not contain enough salt for oysters to grow there2 but the oyster-shells prove that the ,baltic ,sea and these inland lakes were once as salt as the ,north ,sea is now4 ,this can only be explained by supposing that the ,baltic was not so shut in then as it is in these days4 ,the bed of the old wide channel has risen1 and what once was sea is now land4 ,again1 it is very probable that the great lakes and innumerable sheets of water which fill all the granite basins of ,finland have taken the place of an arm of the sea which once united the waters of the ,baltic to those of the great ,polar ,ocean4 ,and so there must have been upheaval here as well4 ,the old sea-beaches1 now above the level of the highest tides1 that are found in many parts of the ,scandinavian1 ,scottish1 and other coasts1 furnish plain evidence of upheaval4 ,at the present day1 between the lines of high tide and low tide1 the sea is constantly engaged in producing sand and shingle1 spreading them out upon the beach1 mingling them with the remains of shells and other marine animals1 and sometimes piling them up1 sometimes sweeping them away4 ,in this way a beach often resembles a terrace4 ,when the land is upheaved rapidly enough to carry up this line of beach-deposits before they are washed away by the waves1 they form a flat terrace1 or what is known as a raised beach4 ,the old high-water mark is then inland2 its sea-worn caves become in time coated with ferns and mosses2 the old beach forms an admirable platform on which meadows1 fields1 villages1 and towns spring up2 and the sea goes on forming a new beach below and beyond the margin of the old one4 ,the ,scottish coast-line1 on both sides1 is fringed with raised beaches1 sometimes four or five occurring above each other1 at heights of from twenty-five to seventy-five feet above the present high-water mark4 ,each of these lines of terrace marks a former lower level at which the land stood with regard to the sea2 and the spaces between them represent the amount of each successive rise of the land4 ,each terrace was formed during a pause1 or interval1 in the upward movement1 during which the waves had time to make a terrace1 whereas1 while the land kept on rising1 they had no time to do so4 ,thus we learn that the upheaval of the country was interrupted by considerable pauses4 ,sometimes old ports and harbours furnish evidence of upheaval4 ,thus1 the former ,roman port of ,alaterva 7,cramond7 in ,scotland1 the quays of which are still visible1 is now situated at some distance from the sea1 and the ground on which it stands has risen at least twenty-four feet4 ,in other places the scattered dbris shows that the coast has risen twenty-six feet4 ,and by a remarkable coincidence1 the ancient wall of ,antoninus1 which in the time of the ,romans stretched from sea to sea1 and served as a barrier against the ,picts1 comes to an end at a point twenty-six feet above the level of high tides4 ,in the estuary of the ,clyde there are deposits of mud1 containing rude canoes and other relics of human workmanship1 several feet above the present high-water mark4 ,raised beaches are found on many parts of the coast of ,great ,britain4 ,excellent examples occur on the coasts of ,devon and ,cornwall4 ,on the sides of the mountainous fiords of ,norway similar terraces are found up to more than six hundred feet above the sea2 and as some of these rise to a greater height at a distance of fifty miles inland1 it seems that there was a greater upward movement towards the interior of ,norway than on the coasts4 ,there is a celebrated raised beach on the side of a mountain in ,north ,wales1 known as ,moel ,tryfaen1 where the writer gathered a number of marine shells at a height of #a1ceg feet4 ,but ,scandinavia and ,great ,britain are not the only parts of ,europe where an upward movement has taken place1 for the islands of ,nova ,zembla and ,spitzbergen show evidence of the same kind2 and the coast of ,siberia1 for six hundred miles to the east of the river ,lena1 has also been upraised4 ,on the banks of the ,dwina and the ,vega1 #bej miles to the south of the ,white ,sea1 ,murchison found beds of sand and mud with shells similar to those which inhabit the neighbouring seas1 so well preserved that they had not lost their colours4 ,again1 the ground of the ,siberian toundras is to a large extent covered with a thin coating of sand and fine clay1 exactly similar to that which is now deposited on the shores of the ,frozen ,ocean4 ,in this clay1 the remains of the mammoth1 or woolly elephant1 now extinct1 are preserved in great numbers4 ,parts of ,northern ,greenland have also risen2 while at the southern end of this frozen land a downward movement is still taking place4 ,the best-known example of these slow movements within historic times is the so-called ,temple of ,serapis in the ,bay of ,baie1 near ,naples4 ,the ruins of this building1 which was probably a ,roman bath1 consist of a square floor paved with marble1 showing that it possessed a magnificent central court4 ,this court1 when perfect1 was covered with a roof supported by forty-six fine columns1 some of marble1 others of granite4 ,there is still a hot spring behind1 from which water was conducted through a marble channel4 ,all the columns but three were nearly buried in the soil which covered the whole court1 when the ruins were first discovered4 ,now1 each of the three marble columns that are still standing shows clear evidence of having been depressed below the sea-level1 for they all exhibit a circular row of little holes bored by a certain marine shell-fish1 known as ,lithodomus dactylus1 at a height of twelve feet from the floor2 each row is about eight feet broad4 ,the shells may still be seen inside the little pear-shaped holes which the shell-fish bored for themselves2 and the same shell-fish still live in the waters of the ,mediterranean and bore holes in the limestone rocks4 ,it is therefore quite clear that these columns must have been under water to a depth of twenty feet or so1 and also that they must have remained under water for some considerable time1 during which the shell-fish made these borings4 ,then an upheaval took place whereby the whole building was elevated to its present level4 ,but underneath the present floor1 at a depth of five feet1 were discovered the remains of an older floor4 ,this probably belonged to an earlier building which had in like manner been depressed below sea-level4 ,we thus learn that the land in this spot had been sinking for a long time1 and that at some subsequent time it rose4 ,the fallen columns suggest the idea that they were thrown down by earthquakes4 ,at the present time the land here is again sinking at the rate of one inch in three or four years4 ,but the first example of upheaval within comparatively recent times1 and one which is instructive as throwing some light on the subject of the present chapter1--namely1 the upheaval of mountain-chains1--is to be found along the western mountainous coast of ,south ,america4 ,here we have the magnificent ranges of the ,andes running along the whole length of this continent4 ,the illustrious ,charles ,darwin1 during his famous trip in the ,beagle1 discovered numerous raised beaches along this coast1 and at once perceived their importance to the geologist4 ,the terraces are not quite horizontal1 but rise towards the south4 ,on the frontier of ,bolivia1 they are seen at heights of from sixty-five to eighty feet above sea-level2 but nearer the higher mass of the ,chilian ,andes they are found at one thousand feet1 and near ,valparaiso1 in ,chili1 at thirteen hundred feet above the sea4 ,darwin also discovered that some of the upheavals thus indicated took place during the human period2 for he found in one of the terraces opposite ,callao1 in ,peru1 at a height of eighty feet1 shells with bones of birds1 ears of wheat1 plaited reeds1 and cotton thread1 showing that men had lived on the terrace4 ,these relics of human industry are exactly similar to those that are found in the huacas1 or burial-places1 of the ancient ,peruvians4 ,there can be no doubt that the island of ,san ,lorenzo1 and probably the whole of the coast in its neighbourhood1 have risen eighty feet or more since the ,red ,man inhabited the country4 ,callao probably forms the northern limit of the long strip of coast that has been upheaved1 and the island of ,chiloe the southern limit2 but even thus the region of elevation has a length from north to south of about #b1dhj miles4 ,we noticed in the case of ,scandinavia that the upward movement is greater in the interior of the mountain-range than at or near the coast2 and it is interesting to find that the same difference has been observed in the case of the ,andes4 ,the upheaving force1 whatever its nature1 acts with more energy under the ,chilian ,andes than under the rocks of the adjacent coast4 ,in ,new ,zealand we have also evidences of upheaval2 and if we trace out on the map a long line from the ,friendly ,isles and ,fiji1 through the ,eastern ,archipelago1 and then on through the ,philippine ,islands1 and finally to ,japan and the ,kurile ,islands1 we shall find scattered regions of elevation all along this great line1 which is probably a mountain-chain1 partly submerged1 and along which numerous active volcanoes are situated4 ,putting together all the evidence that has been gathered on this subject1 of which only a very small part is here given1 we are warranted in concluding that taking the world generally1 regions where active volcanoes exist are generally regions where upheaval is taking place4 ,there is also a very interesting connection between mountain-chains and lines of volcanic action4 ,from this it seems to follow1 if lines of volcanic action are also lines of upheaval1 that mountain-chains are undergoing upheaval at the present time4 ,this is a conclusion in favour of which a good deal may be said4 ,it is certainly true in the cases of the ,scandinavian range1 and also of a very large part of the ,andes1 to which we have already referred4 ,the ,highlands of ,scotland and ,scandinavia form the northern end of an old line of volcanic action running down the ,atlantic ,ocean through the ,azores1 ,madeira1 ,cape ,verde ,islands1 ,ascension1 ,st4 ,helena1 right down to ,tristan d',acunha4 ,in many other parts of the world we have evidences from submerged forests1 the positions of certain landmarks with regard to the sea1 and in some cases submerged towns1 that movements of a downward nature are taking place4 ,it is important to distinguish from these evidences the changes that take place where the waves of the sea are rapidly washing away the coast-line4 ,putting aside these cases1 however1 it has been clearly proved that in many regions a slow sinking of the land is going on4 ,the eastern side of ,south ,america has not been so thoroughly observed as its western side2 but there is still good reason to believe that a large part of this coast is sinking4 ,so it appears that a see-saw movement is affecting ,south ,america1 and that while one side is going up1 the other is going down2 and it is interesting to observe other examples of the same thing1--such as are afforded by ,greenland and ,norway4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,skaeggdalfors1 ,,norway4 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,j4 ,,valentine4 ,again1 while part of ,labrador is rising1 parts of the eastern coast of ,north ,america1 as far down as ,florida1 are slowly sinking4 ,thus along the ,new ,england coast between ,new ,york and ,maine1 and again along the ,gulf of ,st4 ,lawrence1 we find numerous submerged forests with quantities of trees standing upright with their roots in old forest-beds1 but with the tops of their stumps some feet below the level of high tide4 ,in the case of ,new ,jersey the subsidence is probably taking place at the rate of two feet in a hundred years4 ,before passing on to consider upward movements of a more rapid nature1 such as are frequently caused by earthquakes1 we may pause for a few moments to consider certain very slight1 but nevertheless very interesting little movements1 such as slight pulsations and tremors1 which have been observed to take place in the earth's crust 7as it is called71 and which of late years have been carefully studied4 ,professor ,milne1 a great authority on earthquakes1 has noticed slight swayings of the earth1 which though occupying a short time--from a few seconds to a few hours--are still too slow to produce a shock of any kind4 ,these he calls earth pulsations4 ,they have been observed by means of delicate spirit-levels1 the bubbles of which move with very slight changes of level at either end of the instrument4 ,at present only a few experiments of this kind have been made2 but they tell us that the surface of the earth 7which is apparently so firm and immovable7 is subject to slight but frequent oscillations4 ,some think that they depend upon changes in the weight of the atmosphere4 ,if this is so1 the balance between the forces at work below the earth's surface and those that operate on its surface must be very easily disturbed4 ,still we cannot see that this is a serious objection2 on the contrary1 there is much reason to think that any slight extra weight on the surface1 such as might be caused by an increase of the pressure of the atmosphere1 and still more by the accumulation of vast sedimentary deposits on the floor of the ocean1 may be quite sufficient to cause a movement to take place4 ,moreover1 ,mr4 ,g4 ,h4 ,darwin has shown that the earth's crust daily heaves up and down under the attraction of the moon in the same kind of way that the ocean does2 so that we must give up all idea of the solid earth being fixed and immovable1 and must look upon it as a flexible body1 like a ball of india-rubber 7see chap4 ix41 pp4 #cad-cae74 ,slight movements of rather a different kind have been noticed1 to which the name of earth-tremors has been given4 ,these are very slight jarrings or quiverings of the earth1 too slight to be observed by our unaided senses1 but rendered visible by means of very delicate pendulums and other contrivances4 ,now wherever such observations have been made it has been discovered that the earth is constantly quivering as if it were a lump of jelly4 ,in ,italy1 where this subject has been very carefully studied1 the tremors that are continually going on are found to vary considerably in strength2 for instance1 when the weather is very disturbed and unsettled1 the movements of the pendulum are often much greater4 ,again1 before an earthquake the instrument shows that the tremors are more frequent and violent4 ,another way of observing these curious little movements is by burying microphones in the ground4 ,the microphone is a little instrument invented of late years which is capable of enormously magnifying the very slightest sounds1 such as our ears will not detect4 ,by its means one can hear1 as some one said1 the tramp of a fly's foot1 if he will be so obliging as to walk over it4 ,it has thus been proved in ,italy that the earth sends forth a confused medley of sounds caused by little crackings and snappings in the rocks below our feet4 ,in this way it will be possible to predict a serious earthquake1 because it will give warning some days before1 by the increase of the little tremors and sounds2 and it is to be hoped that by this simple means human lives may be saved4 ,now1 these disturbances are of precisely the same nature as earthquakes1--in fact1 we may call them microscopic earthquakes4 ,to the geologist they are of great interest1 as they seem to afford some little insight into the difficult question of the upheaval of mountains1 and to show us something of the constant working of those wonderful forces below the surface of the earth by means of which continents are raised up out of the sea1 and mountain-chains are elevated thousands of feet4 ,it is probable that both are due to the working of the same forces1 and are accomplished by the same machinery4 ,we now pass on to consider those more violent movements of the solid land known as earthquakes4 ,this kind of disturbance is such as might be produced by a sudden shock or blow given below the ground1 from which waves travel in all directions4 ,first comes a rumbling noise like the roar of distant artillery2 then come the earthquake waves one after another1 causing the ground to rise and fall as a ship does on the waves of the sea2 the ground is frequently rent asunder1 so that chasms are formed1 into which in some cases men and animals have been hurled alive4 ,in the case of a very violent earthquake the waves travel long distances4 ,thus the great earthquake by which ,lisbon was destroyed in the year #agee disturbed the waters of ,loch ,lomond in ,scotland4 ,in this fearful catastrophe sixty thousand human beings perished4 ,if the disturbance takes place near the sea1 great sea waves are formed1 which cause fearful destruction to life and property4 ,this happened in the case of the ,lisbon earthquake2 and in the year #ahfh1 when ,ecuador and ,peru were visited by a fearful earthquake1 a great sea wave swept over the port of ,arica1 and in a few minutes every vessel in the harbour was either driven ashore or wrecked1 and a man-of-war was swept inland for a quarter of a mile4 ,earthquakes bring about many changes on the surface of the earth4 ,for example1 on mountain-slopes forests are shattered1 and large masses of soil and dbris are shaken loose from the rock on which they rested1 and hurled into the valleys2 streams are thus choked up1 and sometimes lakes formed1 either by the damming up of a river or by the subsidence of the ground4 ,it is frequently found after an earthquake that the level of the ground has been permanently altered2 and this effect of earthquakes is important in connection with the subject we are now considering1--namely1 how mountains are upheaved4 ,sometimes1 it is true1 the movement is a downward one2 but more generally it takes place in an upward direction4 ,as an example of this1 we may mention the ,chilian earthquake of #ahce1 which was very violent1 and destroyed several towns on that coast1 from ,copiapo to ,chile4 ,it was afterwards found that the land in the ,bay of ,conception had been raised four or five feet4 ,at the island of ,santa ,maria1 to the southwest of this bay1 the land was raised eight feet1 and in one part ten feet2 for beds of dead mussels were seen at that height above high water1 and a considerable rocky flat that formerly was covered by the sea now became dry land4 ,it was also proved by means of soundings that the sea round the island was shallower by about nine feet4 ,now the question arises1 ,how are earthquakes caused8 ,various suggestions have been made2 but it is pretty clear that all earthquakes are not produced in the same way4 ,for instance1 volcanic eruptions are frequently attended by earthquakes4 ,violent shocks of this nature generally precede and accompany a great eruption1 as is frequently the case before an eruption of ,mount ,vesuvius4 ,steam plays a very important part in all volcanic eruptions2 and these earthquakes are probably caused by great quantities of pent-up steam at a high pressure struggling to escape4 ,it is also possible that when molten rock is forcibly injected into the crevices and joints of overlying rocks earthquake shocks may be produced by the concussion4 ,the old ,roman poet and philosopher1 ,lucretius1 endeavoured to solve this problem1 and concluded that the shakings of the surface of the globe are occasioned by the falling in of enormous caverns which time has succeeded in destroying4 ,but though the explanation might possibly apply to a few cases of small earthquakes1 it is not a satisfactory one1 for it is not at all likely that many large cavities exist below the earth's surface1 because the great weight of the overlying rock would inevitably crush them in4 ,we have already pointed out that earthquakes frequently happen in mountainous regions2 and this fact alone suggests that perhaps the same causes which upheave mountains may have something to do with earthquakes4 ,but there are other reasons for believing that the same force which causes earthquakes also upheaves mountain-chains4 ,the reader will remember the case of the ,chilian earthquake that raised part of the ,andes a few feet in height4 ,now1 it is quite clear that the rocks of which mountains are composed have suffered a great deal of disturbance4 ,we have only to look at the crumbled and contorted strata to see that they have been forced into all kinds of positions1 sometimes standing bolt upright 7see diagrams1 chap4 ix41 p4 #cjg74 ,and as we cannot believe1 for many reasons1 that these movements were of a very sudden or violent kind1 we must consider that they took place slowly on the whole2 but besides being folded and twisted1 the rocks of mountains frequently exhibit clear signs of having been split and cracked4 ,the fractures are of all sizes1 from an inch or more up to hundreds or even thousands of feet4 ,they tell us plainly that the rocks were once slowly bent1 and that after a certain amount of bending had taken place1 the strain put upon them became greater than they could bear1 and consequently they snapped and split along certain lines4 ,this is just what might be expected4 ,for instance1 ice on a pond will bend a good deal1 but only up to a certain amount2 after that1 it cracks in long lines with a remarkably sharp and smooth fracture4 ,but suppose the pressure came from below instead of from above1 as when a number of people are skating on a pond4 ,should we not see the ice forced up in some places1 so that some sheets stood up above the others after sliding past their broken edges8 ,this is just what the rocks in different places have frequently done4 ,after a fracture has taken place the rock on one side has slid up over the other1 and the two surfaces made by the fracture--like two long walls--are no longer seen at the same level4 ,one has been pushed up1 while the other has gone down 7see diagram of the ranges of the ,great ,basin1 chap4 viii41 p4 #bgc74 ,now1 it is almost impossible to conceive of these tremendous fractures taking place in the rocks below our feet without causing sudden jars or shocks4 ,here1 then1 we seem to have a clue to the problem4 ,even if the movements took place only a few inches or a few feet at a time1 that does not spoil our theory1 but rather favours it2 for in that case the upheaval of a mountain-chain will have taken a very long time 7which is almost certain71 and may have been accomplished bit by bit4 ,hundreds and thousands of earthquake shocks1 some slight1 and others severe1 may have attended the upheaval of a mountain-range4 ,this explanation is accepted by many authorities4 ,it does not exactly imply that mountains were upheaved by earthquakes2 but it means that the same forces that elevate continents1 heaving them up out of the sea into ridges and very low arches1 have been at work to crumple and fold their rocks in some places into stupendous folds1 such as we now find form part of the general structure of mountains2 and that in so doing they caused fearful strains1 too great for the rocks to bear1 so that they split over and over again1 and in so doing produced jars and shocks that must have been very similar to1 if not identical with1 earthquake shocks as we know them at the present day4 ,such an explanation is in striking harmony with what we have already learned about the operations of ,nature4 ,it was from the long-continued operation of rain and rivers that the materials now forming mountains were transported to the seas in which they were slowly formed4 ,it was also by the ordinary operations of frost1 heat and cold1 snow and ice1 streams1 rain1 and rivers that the mountains received their present shapes 7see chapters v4 and vii474 ,and now we learn that the gigantic work of upheaval took place in a tolerably quiet and uniform manner1--with perhaps only an occasional catastrophe of a more violent kind1 but still according to the same law of uniformity which is the very basis of modern geology1 and by means of which so much can be explained4 ,we could give other proofs of the gradual elevation of mountains if they were wanted4 ,but at least enough has been said to give the reader a glimpse into the methods employed by geologists in endeavouring to explain how mountains were upheaved2 and to show that it is only by a careful study of all that is taking place now on the earth that we can ever hope to solve the difficult questions that present themselves to all who study those stony records on which the earth has written for our enlightenment the chapters of her ancient history4 ,in conclusion1 it may be asked what is the nature of the force that accomplishes all this titanic work of upheaval4 ,although the question has been much discussed1 and some very ingenious suggestions brought forward1 we cannot say that any of them are entirely satisfactory4 ,but we know that the earth is a cooling body which loses so much heat every year2 and it may be that the shrinking that takes place as it cools1 by leaving the crust of the earth in some places unsupported1 causes it to settle down1 to adapt itself to a smaller surface below1 and in so doing it would inevitably throw itself into a series of folds1 or wrinkles1 like those on the skin of a dried apple4 ,many think that mountain-ranges may be explained in this way4 ,,chapter ,,vii4 ,,how ,,the ,,mountains ,,were ,,carved ,,out4 ,and surely the mountain fadeth away1 ,and the rock is removed out of its place1 ,the waters wear away the stones3 ,the overflowings thereof wash away the dust of the earth4 ,job xiv4 #ah4 ,the mighty fortresses of the earth1 which seem so imperishable1 so majestic in their strength1 and have from time immemorial received their title of the everlasting hills1 are nevertheless undergoing constant change and decay4 ,they cannot abide for ever4 ,those waste leagues around their feet are loaded with the wrecks of what once belonged to them2 they are witnesses to the victory of the hostile forces that are for ever contending with them1 and pledges of a final triumph4 ,to those who will read their story1 mountains stand like old dismantled castles1 mere wrecks of ruined masonry1 that have nearly crumbled away1 telling us of a time when all their separate peaks and crags were one solid mass1 perhaps an elevated smooth plateau untouched by the rude hand of time4 ,let us now inquire how the work of destruction is accomplished4 ,referring back to our illustration of the cathedral1 given in chap4 v41 pp4 #adc-adg1 the question we have now to consider is1 how the mountains were carved out into all these wonderful features of crag and precipice1 peak and pass1 which are such a source of delight to all who care for scenery4 ,this work we included in the one word ornamentation4 ,what1 then1 are the tools which ,nature uses in this work of carving out the hills8 ,what are her axes and hammers1 her chisels and saws8 ,this question1 like many others1 must be answered by observing what takes place at the present day4 ,it is scarcely necessary to say that mountains and mountain-ranges are not simply the result of upheaval1 though they have been upheaved4 ,if that were so1 they would probably appear as long smooth1 monotonous ridges1 with no separate mountain masses1 no peaks1 no glens or valleys2 in some cases they might appear as simply elevated and smooth plateaux4 ,such mountains1 if we may so call them1 would be almost as uninteresting as the roof of a gabled house down which the rain finds its way in one smooth continuous sheet4 ,mountains1 reaching as they do into the higher regions of the atmosphere1 where the winds blow more fiercely than on the plains below1 storms rage more violently1 and the extremes of heat and cold are more severe1--in fact1 where every process of change and decay seems quickened1--suffer continually at the hands of the elements4 ,death must be upon the hills1 and the cruelty of the tempests smite them1 and the thorn and the briar spring up upon them2 but they so smite as to bring their rocks into the fairest forms1 and so spring as to make the very desert blossom as the rose4#bc #bc ,modern ,painters4 ,nature never leaves them alone1 never gives them a brief armistice in the long war that she wages against them4 ,she is a relentless enemy1 ever on the move1 and ever varying her methods of attack4 ,now she assails them openly with her storm-clouds1 and pelts them furiously with driving rain2 now we hear the thunder of her artillery1 as she pierces their crests with strange electric darts of fire2 now she secretly undermines their sides with her hidden sources of water1 till whole villages are destroyed by some fearful fall of overhanging rocks 7see chapter iii41 pages #if-aja74 ,her winds and gentle breezes are for ever at work on their surfaces1 causing them to crumble into dust much in the same way as iron turns to rust4 ,again1 she heats them by day and then chills them suddenly at night1 under the cold starry sky1 so that they crack under the strain of expanding and contracting4 ,now she splits them with her ice-wedges2 now she furrows their sides with the dashing torrents and running streams2 and yet again she wears them gently down with her glaciers1 and carries away their dbris--the token of her triumph--on those icy streams1 as conquering armies carry the spoils in procession4 ,this is1 briefly1 her mode of warfare2 these are some of her tools1 wind1 rain1 frost1 snow1 heat and cold1 streams1 rivers1 and glaciers4 ,lightning does occasionally break off portions of a cliff or a mountain-peak2 but compared to the others1 this agent is not very important4 ,let us first inquire into the effects produced by the atmosphere4 ,the air around us is composed mainly of two well-known gases2 namely1 oxygen and nitrogen4 ,there is also a small proportion 7about one in ten thousand7 of carbonic acid gas2 a variable quantity of water-vapour1 and in the neighbourhood of towns1 traces of other noxious gases1 such as sulphurous acid and chlorine4 ,now1 the nitrogen plays a very unimportant part1 as it merely serves to dilute the powerful gas1 oxygen1 which has such important life-sustaining properties4 ,we live by breathing oxygen2 so do all animals2 and the more pure air we can contrive to get into our lungs1 the better4 ,but undiluted oxygen would be too strong for us1 and so its strength is diminished by being mixed with four parts of nitrogen2 that is to say1 the air only contains about one fifth by volume1 or bulk1 of oxygen and four fifths of nitrogen4 ,now1 oxygen1 being always ready to combine chemically with some other element1 is a great agent of change and decay4 ,it attacks all the metals except gold and platinum4 ,iron1 we all know1 oxidises1 or rusts1 only too quickly2 but copper1 lead1 silver1 and other metals are more or less attacked by it4 ,so it is with all the rocks exposed at or near the surface of the earth4 ,oxygen will1 if it can1 pick out something to combine with and so bring about chemical changes which lead to decay4 ,but a much more powerful agent is the carbonic acid gas in the atmosphere2 although there is so little of it1 there is enough to play a very important part in causing rocks to crumble away1 and in some cases to dissolve them entirely4 ,the supply of this gas is continually being renewed1 for all living animals breathe out carbonic acid1 and plants give it out by night4 ,under the influence of sunlight plants give out oxygen1 so that gas is supplied to the air by day4 ,both oxygen and carbonic acid gas are dissolved by rain as it falls through the air2 and so we cannot separate the effects of the dry air by itself from those of rain and mist1 which are more important agents4 ,the action of rain is partly mechanical1 partly chemical1 for it not only beats against them1 but it dissolves out certain mineral substances that they contain4 ,all rocks are mixtures of two or more kinds of minerals1 the particles of each being often invisible to the naked eye4 ,thus granites are essentially mixtures of felspar1 quartz1 and mica2 ordinary volcanic rocks 7trap-rocks7 of felspar and augite2 sandstones consist mainly of particles of silica2 limestones of carbonate of lime2 shales and slates of silicate of alumina1 the principal substance in clay4 ,these grains are usually joined together by a cement of some mineral differing more or less from the other particles4 ,lime is found in many of the rocks as the cement that binds their particles together2 while oxide of iron and silica serve this purpose in many other instances4 ,now1 if the lime or iron or silica is dissolved by water1 the rock must tend to crumble away4 ,any old building shows more or less manifold signs of such decay1 and this process is called weathering4 ,all this applies merely to the surfaces of rocks2 and if there were no other forces at work1 their rate of decay would be very slow4 ,but there are other forces at work4 ,in the first place1 sudden changes of temperature have a destructive influence4 ,if the sun shines brightly by day1 the rocks--especially in higher mountain regions--are considerably expanded by the heat they receive2 and if a hot day is followed by a clear sky at night1 the free radiation of heat into space 7see chap4 ii41 p4 #ci7 causes them to become very cold1 and in cooling down they contract4 ,in this way an internal strain is set up which is often greater than they can bear1 and so they split and crack4 ,thus small pieces of rock are detached from a mountain-side4 ,an ,alpine traveller told the writer that one night when sleeping on a mountain-side1 he heard stones rattling down at frequent intervals4 ,livingstone records in his journal that when in the desert he frequently heard stones splitting at night with a report like that of a pistol4 ,but sometimes the expansion by day is sufficient to cause fragments of rock to be broken off4 ,frost1 however1 is responsible for a vast amount of destruction among rocks4 ,when water freezes1 it expands with tremendous force2 and this is the reason why water-pipes so frequently burst during a frost1 though we don't find it out until the thaw comes1--followed by long plumbers' bills4 ,rocks1 being traversed in several directions by cracks1 allow the water to get into them1 and this in freezing acts like a very powerful wedge2 and so the rocks on the higher parts of the mountains are continually being split up by ,nature's ice-wedge4 ,the amount of rock broken up in this way every year is enormous4 ,stone walls and buildings often suffer greatly from this cause during a long frost1 especially if the stone be of a more than usually porous kind1 that can take up a good deal of rain water4 ,where trees1 shrubs1 etc41 grow on rocks1 the roots find their way into its natural divisions1 widened by the action of rain soaking down into them2 and as they grow1 they slowly widen them1 and in time portions are actually detached in this manner4 ,moreover1 the roots and rootlets guide the rain water down into the cracks1 or joints1 as they are called4 ,even the ivy that creeps over old ruined walls has a decidedly destructive effect4 ,at the base of every steep mountain may be seen heaps of loose angular stones2 sometimes these are covered with soil1 and form long slopes on which trees and shrubs grow4 ,every one of the numerous little gullies that furrow the mountain-sides has at its lower end a similar little heap of stones4 ,sometimes a valley among the mountains seems half choked with rocky fragments2 and if these were all removed1 the valley would be deeper than it is4 ,in some hot countries1 where the streams only flow in winter1 this is especially the case2 for example1 every valley1 or wady1 in the region of ,mount ,sinai and ,mount ,horeb is more or less choked up with boulders and stones of every size1 because the stones come down faster than they can be carried away4 ,but the main work of carving out the hills and mountains of the world is done by streams1 rivers1 and glaciers2 and so we now pass on to consider how they perform their tasks4 ,water by itself1 even when flowing fast1 would be powerless to carve gorges and valleys in the solid rock2 but the stones which torrents and streams carry along give them a marvellous grinding power1 for with such material a stream continually wears away its rocky bed4 ,moreover1 the stones themselves are all the while being rubbed down by each other1 until finally they are ground down to fine sand and mud1 which help in the work of erosion4 ,every mountain stream or torrent runs in a ravine or valley of some sort2 and any traveller who will take the trouble to watch what goes on there may easily convince himself that the ravine1 gorge1 or valley has been carved out by the stream1 aided by the atmospheric influences to which we have already alluded4 ,but perhaps some may be inclined to look upon the ravine as a chasm produced by some violent disturbance from below1 whereby the rocks were rent asunder1 and that the stream somehow found its way into the rent4 ,a little inquiry will dispel this idea4 ,in the first place1 such catastrophes are quite unknown at the present day2 and as we have more than once pointed out1 the geologist's method is to apply a knowledge of processes now in operation to the phenomena of the rocks1 in order to read their history4 ,secondly1 no conclusion can be accepted which is not supported strongly by evidence4 ,if such a rending of the rocks had taken place1 there would assuredly be some evidence of the fact4 ,we should expect to find a great crack running all along the bed of the stream2 but of this there is no sign4 ,go down in any weather when the stream is low1 and look at the rocks over which it flows1 and you will search in vain for such evidence4 ,instead of being broken1 the rocks extend continually across4 ,you would also expect to find the strata dipping1 or sloping away from the stream on each side1 if they had been rent by such an upheaval2 but here again we are met by a total want of evidence4 ,thirdly1 a crack might be expected to run along more or less evenly in one direction4 ,but look at the ravine1 follow it up for some miles1 and you will see that it winds along in a very devious course1 not in a straight line4 ,for these reasons1 then1 we must conclude that the ravine or valley has been carved out by the stream2 but perhaps the most convincing arguments are afforded by the furrows and miniature ravines so frequently met with on the sides of all mountains2 and it is impossible to examine these without concluding that they have in every case been cut out of the solid rock by the little rapid torrents that run along them after heavy rain4 ,if we are fortunate enough to see them on a thoroughly rainy day1 we may derive much instruction from watching the little torrents at work as they run down the mountain-side1 here and there dashing over the rocks in little cascades1 and bringing down to the base of the hill much of the dbris that forms higher up4 ,in this way ,nature gives us an object lesson1 and seems to say3 ,watch me at work here1 and learn from such little operations how ,i work on a larger scale1 and carve out my ravines and big valleys4 ,only give me plenty of time1 and ,i can accomplish much greater feats than this4 ,the question of time is no longer disputed2 and all geologists are willing to grant almost unlimited time1 at least periods of time that seem to us unlimited4 ,most streams have been flowing for thousands of years2 and when once we grant that1 we find no difficulty in believing that all valleys are the work of rain and rivers4 ,surely no one would argue that the furrows on a mountain-side are all rents which have been widened by the action of water2 for if they were rents1 each must have been caused by some disturbance of the rocks composing the mountain1 and we should of course be able to see the cracks for ourselves1 and to find that the rocks had in some way been disturbed and rent open4 ,even the rain which falls on the road in a heavy shower teaches the same simple but important lesson1 as it runs off into the gutters on each side2 and we may often find the road furrowed by little miniature rivers1 that carve out for themselves tiny valleys as they run off into the gutter1 bringing with them much dbris in the form of mud and sand4 ,sometimes a stream encounters in its course a layer of rock that is harder than the rock underlying it4 ,in this case the softer rock is worn away faster1 and the hard layer forms a kind of ridge at a higher level2 the result is a waterfall4 ,waterfalls are frequently found in mountain streams4 ,in this case1 it is easy to trace the ridge of harder rock running unbroken across the path of the stream1 showing clearly that it has not been rent in any way4 ,first it showed merely as a kind of step1 but gradually the force of the falling water told with greater effect on the softer rock below1 wearing it away more rapidly than that above1 and so the depth of the waterfall went on increasing year by year2 and at the same time the hard layer was slowly worn away until the stream sawed its way through4 ,some river valleys are steep and narrow2 others are broad1 with gently sloping sides4 ,a careful study of the different valleys in any large country such as ,great ,britain1 shows that their forms vary according to the nature of the rocks through which rivers flow4 ,where hard rocks abound1 the valleys are steep and narrow2 where soft rocks occur1 the valleys are broad and low4 ,this is only what might be expected1 for hard rocks are not easily worn away2 a river must cut its way through them1 leaving cliffs on either side that cannot be wasted away by rain4 ,but in a district where clay or soft sandstone occurs1 the rain1 as it finds its way to the valley1 will wash them away and give a smooth gentle slope to the sides of the valley4 ,it is very instructive to notice how the scenery of any district depends on the nature of its prevailing rocks4 ,hard rocks give bold scenery with steep hills and rocky defiles2 while soft rocks make the landscape comparatively flat and tame1 though often very beautiful in its way1 especially where a rich soil abounds1 so that we see pleasant woods1 rich pasture-land1 and heavy crops in the fields4 ,compare1 for instance1 the scenery of ,kent or ,surrey with that of the ,lake ,district or the west of ,yorkshire4 ,the difference is due chiefly to the fact that in ,kent and ,surrey we have rocks that succumb more easily to the action of rain and rivers1 and consequently are worn away more rapidly than the harder rocks in the north country4 ,geologists have a word to express the effects of this wear and tear2 namely1 denudation1 which means a stripping off1 or laying bare4 ,in ,kent and ,surrey the agents of denudation 7rain and rivers1 aided by the effects of the air1 of heat and cold1 and so on7 wear away the whole surface of the county in a tolerably even and uniform manner1 because there are no hard rocks for them to contend with4 ,in this case rain washes away the sides of the valleys faster than the river can carve its bed1 consequently the valleys are shallow compared to their width4 ,and so the streams have broad valleys1 while the hills are smooth and gently rounded4 ,chalk1 clay1 and soft sandstone abound there4 ,the two latter rocks are washed away with comparative ease1 and the chalk is dissolved2 whereas in the ,lake ,district we have very much harder and older rocks1 that require to be split up and broken by the action of frost1 while every stream carves out for itself a steep valley1 and great masses of hard rock stand out as bold hills or mountains1 that seem to defy all the agents of denudation4 ,here the opposite is the case1 and the valleys are deepened faster than they are widened4 ,but for all that1 a vast amount of solid rock has been removed from the surface there1 of which the mountains are1 as it were1 but fragments that have escaped the general destruction4 ,moreover1 the rocks in this region have been greatly disturbed and crumpled since they were first formed1 and thereby thrown into various shapes that give certain peculiar structures more or less capable of resisting denudation4 ,very effective illustrations of the power of rain by itself are afforded by the earth pillars of the ,tyrol1 and caons of ,colorado4 ,the material of which they consist is called conglomerate1 because it is composed of stones and large blocks of rock with stiff earth or clay between4 ,all the taller ones have a big stone on the top which protects the softer material below from being washed away by heavy rains2 and it is easily perceived that each pillar owes its existence to the stone on the top1 which prevents the soft materials below it from being washed away4 ,when1 after a time1 the weathering of the soft strata diminishes the support of the capping boulders1 these at last topple over1 and the pillar1 thus left unprotected1 becomes an easy prey to the rain1 and is rapidly washed away4 ,some of the pillars are over a hundred feet in height4 ,but it is only in places where heavy rains fall that these interesting monuments of denudation are to be seen4 ,by way of contrast we may turn now to a district in which very little rain falls1 but where the streams have a considerable slope1 and so can wear away1 or erode1 their valleys much faster than rain and frost1 etc41 can bring down the rocks of which the sides are composed4 ,the river ,colorado of the ,west1 which runs from the ,rocky ,mountains to the ,gulf of ,california1 flows for nearly three hundred miles at the bottom of a profound chasm1 or caon1 being hemmed in by vertical walls which in some places are more than a mile in depth4 ,the tributary streams flowing into the river run through smaller ravines forming side caons2 and there is no doubt that these wonderful chasms have been1 in the course of ages1 slowly carved out by the river ,colorado and its numerous tributary streams4 ,sometimes the walls of the caon are not more than fifty yards apart1 and in height they vary from three thousand to six thousand feet4 ,far above the level of the highest floods patches of gravel are found here and there on the sides1 which must have been left there by the river when it had not cut its way so far down4 ,these caons afford striking testimony to the erosive power of running water1 of which they are the most wonderful illustration in the world4 ,but water1 even when in the form of ice1 has more or less power to wear away solid rock2 and the glaciers that we see in ,switzerland1 ,norway1 and other countries must slightly deepen the rocky valleys down which they flow4 ,let us see how this can be accomplished4 ,the snow that falls in the ,high ,alps1 impelled by the weight of fresh layers of snow overlying it1 and by the slope of the mountain-sides1 gradually creeps down into the valleys4 ,owing to the pressure thus put upon it1 and partly to the melting power of the sun's rays1 it assumes the form of ice2 and glaciers are composed of solid ice4 ,the downward motion is so slow that a glacier appears quite stationary2 and it is only by putting in stakes and watching them change their positions that it can be shown to be moving4 ,in all respects except speed1 glaciers flow like rivers1 for ice is a viscous body1 behaving partly like a fluid and yet partly like a solid substance2 but it will not endure a sharp bend without snapping4 ,hence1 a glacier in traversing a valley frequently gets split4 ,the cracks thus formed widen by degrees until they expand into chasms1 or crevasses4 ,like rivers1 glaciers transport a large amount of rocky matter to lower levels1 and at the same time wear away and deepen their rocky channels4 ,let us see how they do this twofold work of transportation and erosion4 ,in the first place1 a large amount of dbris falls onto the sides of a glacier from the peaks1 precipices1 and mountain-side along which it flows4 ,some stones1 however1 fall down crevasses1 and so reach the bottom1 where they become cemented in the ice4 ,in this way they are slowly carried down over the rocky floor of the valley1 until at last they reach the end of the glacier1 where in the warmer air the ice melts just as fast as it creeps down2 and there they will be left to form a heap of stones1 sand1 and mud4 ,large blocks of stone1 quite different from the rocks on which they lie1 are very numerous1 and are called erratics1 since they are evidently wanderers from a distance4 ,sometimes such blocks can be proved to have been brought many miles from their home among the higher peaks4 ,the long lines of stones and mud seen on the sides of a glacier are called moraines1 and at the end of every glacier we find a big heap known as a terminal moraine4 ,but the stones of which they are composed are probably not to be entirely accounted for in this way4 ,can we not conceive that the weight and pressure of a descending glacier may be sufficient to break off many protruding portions of the rocky bed over which it flows1 and then to drag them along with it8 ,this seems reasonable4 ,let us therefore consider the materials of which moraines are composed to be derived partly from the rocks beneath and partly from those above the glacier4 ,but whatever their origin1 such materials must inevitably find their way to the end of the glacier and be added to the big heap there4 ,the work of transportation is then taken up by the stream which always flows from the end of a glacier4 ,such streams are in summer-time laden with fine sediment1 which gives them a milky and turbid appearance4 ,thus a glacier wears away the rocks over which it flows2 rock fragments become embedded in the ice1 and these are the tools with which a glacier does its work4 ,it must be granted that the downward movement of a great mass of ice is irresistible1 and consequently that as the moving glacier slowly creeps along1 it must inevitably cause the stones which it thus holds to grind over the surface of the rock4 ,it is easy to imagine the effects of this grinding action4 ,if sand-paper1 rubbed for a minute or two over wood1 wears down and smooths its surface1 what must be the result of all these stones1 together with sand and mud1 grinding over the rocky bed8 ,the answer to this question is found in examining the rocks over which glaciers once flowed4 ,now1 the ,swiss glaciers once extended far beyond their present limits2 and the rocks in the lower parts of their present valleys1 now free from ice1 show unmistakable signs of having been considerably worn down4 ,the corners and angles of projecting pieces of rock have been worn away until the once rugged outline has become wavy and round1 so much so as to produce more or less resemblance to the backs of sheep lying down4 ,hence the name roches moutonnes1 by which rocks of this shape are known4 ,they frequently retain on their surface peculiar markings1 such as long scratches and grooves which must have been made as the old glacier1 with its embedded angular fragments of rock1 slowly ground over their surfaces4 ,such markings are called stri4 ,but besides these glacial records graven on the rocks1 we have other evidence1 in the form of great moraines in some of the valleys of ,switzerland1 and especially at those places where side valleys open out into a main valley4 ,any one may learn by a little observation to recognise these peculiar heaps of stones1 mud1 and sand1 deposited long ago by the old glaciers of ,switzerland4 ,it will be perceived that the evidence for the erosive power of glaciers is of two kinds1--first1 there is the testimony of the smoothed and striated rocks1 which is very convincing2 secondly1 the equally strong proofs from the moraines1 both great and small4 ,these old rubbish heaps give us a very fair idea of the amount of wear and tear that goes on under a glacier1 for there we see the rock fragments that tumbled down the mountain-side onto the surface of the glacier 7together with those which the glacier tore off its rocky bed71 all considerably smoothed1 worn down1 and striated4 ,but a still better idea of the work done is afforded by the gravel1 mud1 and sand in which these stones are embedded4 ,all this finer material must have been the result of wear and tear4 ,this kind of action may well be compared to what takes place on a grindstone as one sharpens an axe on it4 ,the water poured on the stone soon becomes muddy1 owing to the presence of countless little grains of sand worn off the grindstone4 ,but a good deal of the mud thus formed is carried away by the little stream that runs out from the end of every glacier2 so that there is more formed than we see in the moraine4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,mer ,,de ,,glace ,,and ,,mont ,,buet4 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,,mr4 ,,donkin4 ,we have already alluded in former chapters to the ,ice ,age in ,britain1 when great glaciers covered all our high mountains1 and descended far and wide over the plains4 ,now1 the evidence for the former existence of these glaciers is of the same kind as that which we have just described4 ,in ,wales and ,scotland we may soon learn to recognise the roches moutonnes1 the old moraine heaps1 and the erratic boulders brought down by these old glaciers4 ,besides these proofs1 there is also the evidence of the arctic plants now flourishing in the highlands 7see chapter iv41 pages #abc-abd74 ,there can be no doubt1 then1 that glaciers have an erosive action1 and therefore must be regarded as agents of denudation4 ,but it is important to bear in mind that their powers in this direction are limited2 for it is manifest that a mountain stream is a much more powerful agent1 and will deepen its little valley much more rapidly1 than a cumbrous1 slow-moving glacier1 advancing at the rate of a few inches a day4 ,it has been found by careful measurements that the ,mer de ,glace of ,chamouni moves during summer and autumn at the average daily rate of twenty to twenty-seven inches in the centre1 and thirteen to nineteen and one half inches near the side1 where friction somewhat impedes its course4 ,this seems very slow compared to the rapid movement of a mountain stream2 but then1 a glacier partly makes up for this by its great weight4 ,in considering a glacier as an agent of erosion1 we must not forget that probably a good deal of water circulates beneath glaciers4 ,if this is so1 the water must have a considerable share in producing the effects to which we have already alluded4 ,it would be extremely rash to conclude1 as some students of glaciers have done1 that valleys can be carved out entirely by glaciers2 and we must be content with believing that they have been somewhat deepened by ice-action1 and their features more or less altered1 but no more4 ,the valleys of ,switzerland1 of ,wales1 and ,scotland1 were probably all in existence before the period of the ,ice ,age1 having been carved out by streams in the usual way2 but the glaciers1 as it were1 put the final touches and smoothed their surfaces4 ,having learned how the three agents of denudation--namely1 rain1 rivers1 and glaciers--accomplish their work1 let us now take a wider view of the subject and consider the results of their united efforts both in the present and in the past4 ,we have already alluded to the enormous amount of solid matter brought down to the sea every year by rivers 7see chap4 v41 pp4 #aff-afh71 and we pointed out that all this represents so much dbris swept off the land through which the rivers flow2 also that it comes down in three ways1 one part being suspended in the water as fine mud1 another part being pushed along the river-bed as gravel1 etc41 while a third part is the carbonate of lime and other mineral matter in a dissolved state1 and therefore invisible4 ,now1 it is quite plain that rain and rivers1 in sweeping away so much solid matter from the surface of the land1 must tend in the course of time to lower its general level2 and it therefore seems to follow that after the lapse of ages any given continent or large island might be entirely washed away1 or in other words1 reduced to the level of the sea4 ,this would certainly happen were it not that the lands of the world seem to be slowly rising1 so that the denudation going on at the surface appears to be counterbalanced by continued upheaval4 ,but1 supposing no upheaval took place1 how long would it take for rain and rivers to wear away a whole continent8 ,let us see if there is any way of answering this difficult question1 for if it can be even partially solved1 it will help us to realise the enormous length of time that must have been required to bring about the results of denudation that we see all around us4 ,although the calculations that have been made on this subject are very complicated1 yet the principle on which they are based is quite simple4 ,for an answer to our question we must go to the rivers again1 and measure the work they do in transporting solid matter down to the sea4 ,let us take the ,mississippi as a typical big river1 for it has been more carefully studied than any other1 and it drains a very extensive area1 embracing many varieties of climate1 rock1 and soil4 ,as the result of many observations carried on continuously at different parts of the river for months together1 the engineers who conducted the investigation found that the annual discharge of water by this river is about nineteen thousand millions of cubic feet1 and that on the average the amount of sediment it contains is about a #a_/aejjth part by weight4 ,but besides the matter in suspension1 they observed that a large amount of sand1 gravel1 and stones is being constantly pushed along the bottom of the river4 ,this they estimated at over seven hundred and fifty millions of cubic feet4 ,they also calculated that the ,mississippi brings down every year more than eight hundred thousand million pounds of mud4 ,putting the two together1 they found 7as before stated7 that the amount of solid matter thus transported down to the ,gulf of ,mexico may be represented by a layer #bfh feet high1 covering a space of one square mile2 that is1 without allowing for what is brought down dissolved in the water1 which may be neglected in order to prevent any exaggeration4 ,now1 it is quite clear that all this dbris must have come from the immense area that is drained by the ,mississippi4 ,it could not have been supplied by any rivers except those that are its tributaries4 ,and so if we can find out what is the extent of this area1 it is not difficult to calculate how much its general surface must have been lowered1 or in other words1 how much must have been worn away from it in order to supply all the material4 ,this area is reckoned at #a1adg1jjj square miles2 and a very simple calculation tells us that the general surface would thus be lowered to the extent of #a_/fjjjth part of a foot4 ,that of course means that one foot would be worn away in six thousand years4 ,on high ground and among mountains the rate of denudation would of course be much greater2 but we are now dealing with an average for the whole surface4 ,the next thing we require to finish this calculation is the average or mean height of the ,american continent4 ,this was reckoned by the celebrated ,humboldt at #gdh feet4 ,now if we may assume that all this continent is being worn down at the same rate of one foot in six thousand years 7which is a reasonable assumption71 we find1 by a simple process of multiplication1 that it would require about four and a half millions of years for rain and rivers to wash it all away until its surface was all at the sea-level 7with perhaps a few little islands projecting here and there as relics of its vast denudation74 ,this is a very interesting result2 and if the above measurements are reliable1 they afford us some idea of the rate at which denudation takes place at the present time4 ,by a similar process it has been calculated the ,british ,isles might be levelled in about five and a half millions of years4 ,geologists do not pretend to have solved this problem accurately2 that is impossible with our present knowledge4 ,but even as rough estimates these results are very valuable1 especially when we come to study the structure of the land in different countries1 and to find out therefrom1 by actual measurement1 how much solid rock has been removed4 ,we will now give some examples of this2 but perhaps a simple illustration will make our meaning clearer4 ,suppose we picked up an old pair of boots1 and found the soles worn away in the centre4 ,it would be easy to find out how much had been worn away over the holes by simply measuring the thickness of leather at the sides1 where we will suppose that they were protected by strong nails4 ,geologists apply a very similar kind of method in order to find out how much rock has been removed from a certain region of the earth4 ,one of the simplest cases of this kind is that of the area known as the ,weald of ,kent1 ,surrey1 and ,sussex 7see illustration1 ,fig4 #a74 ,a great deal of denudation has taken place here1 because there is ample evidence to prove that the great formation known as the ,chalk 7now seen in the ,north and ,south ,downs7 once stretched right across2 and below this came the lower greensand and ,weald clay4 ,they spread over this area in a low arch of which we now only see the ruins4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,section ,,across ,,the ,,weald ,,of ,,kent ,,and ,,surrey4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,the ,,highlands ,,of ,,scotland ,,on ,a ,,true ,,scale 7after ,,geikie74 ,the dotted lines in the figure show us their former extent2 but the vertical height is exaggerated1 for otherwise the hills would scarcely be seen4 ,these lines simply follow out the curves taken by the strata at each end of the denuded arch1 and therefore rightly indicate its former height4 ,by making such a drawing on a true scale1 geologists can easily measure the former height of the surface of this old arch1 or anticline1 of chalk1 greensand1 and other strata1 just as an architect might restore the outlines of an old traceried window from a few portions left at the sides4 ,this very useful and instructive method is much employed in drawing sections through mountain-chains1 in order to gain some idea of the amount of denudation which they have suffered4 ,let us see how much has been removed from the present surface of the ,weald4 ,first there is the chalk1 which we may put down at six hundred feet at least2 then there is the lower greensand1 say1 eight hundred feet2 and below that1 and forming the lowest ground in the ,weald1 is the ,weald clay1 which is one thousand feet thick1 and being softer1 was more rapidly borne away4 ,along the centre runs a ridge of ,hastings sand1 forming higher ground on account of its greater hardness1 but this formation is not much denuded4 ,however1 adding together the thicknesses of the others1 we arrive at the conclusion that about twenty-four hundred feet of chalk and other strata has been removed from the present surface of the ,weald4 ,and all this denudation has probably been effected by rain and rivers1 for it is very doubtful whether the sea had any share in this work4 ,but in other parts of our own country we find proofs of denudation on a much grander scale than this2 for example1 in ,north ,wales there are rocks now lying exposed at the surface which are of a very much greater antiquity than any that may be seen in the ,wealden area1 belonging to the very ancient periods known as the ,cambrian and ,silurian4 ,these have evidently been exposed for a much longer time to the action of denuding forces2 and the ,welsh hills1 as we now see them1 are but fragments of what they once were4 ,after carefully mapping out the rocks in the neighbourhood of ,snowdon1 noting their thickness1 the directions in which they slope1 or dip1 so that the structure of this region might be ascertained1 as in the case of the ,weald1 it was found1 on drawing sections of the rocks there1 and putting in dotted lines to continue the curves and slopes of the strata as known at or near the surface1 that from fifteen thousand to twenty thousand feet of solid rock must have been removed 7see diagrams1 chapter ix41 p4 #cjg74 ,applying the same method to the ,lake ,district1 it has been calculated that the amount of denudation which that beautiful country has suffered may be represented by twenty-six thousand feet4 ,turning to the other side of the ,atlantic1 we find the ,american geologists estimate that a thickness of five miles has been removed from a large part of the ,appalachian chain of mountains 7near their east coast71 and that at least one mile has been eroded from the entire region between the ,rocky and ,wahsatch ,mountains 7see chapter ix474 ,in conclusion1 we must bear in mind that mountains1 in spite of the enormous erosion they have suffered1 are more capable of resisting the ever active agents of denudation than the softer rocks that form the plains and lowlands1 and consequently stand out in bold relief from other features of the earth's surface4 ,this truth has been beautifully expressed in the following passage3-- 444 ,in order to bring the world into the form which it now bears1 it was not mere sculpture that was needed2 the mountains could not stand for a day unless they were formed of materials altogether different from those which constitute the lower hills and the surfaces of the valleys4 ,a harder substance had to be prepared for every mountain-chain1 yet not so hard but that it might be capable of crumbling down into earth1 fit to nourish the ,alpine forest and the ,alpine flowers2 not so hard but that in the midst of the utmost majesty of its enthroned strength there should be seen on it the seal of death1 and the writing of the same sentence that had gone forth against the human frame1 ',dust thou art and unto dust thou shalt return4' ,and with this perishable substance the most majestic forms were to be framed that were consistent with the safety of man1 and the peak was to be lifted and the cliff rent as high and as steeply as was possible1 in order yet to permit the shepherd to feed his flocks upon the slope1 and the cottage to nestle beneath their shadow4#bd #bd ,modern ,painters4 ,,chapter ,,viii4 ,,volcanic ,,mountains4 ',tis said ,enceladus' huge frame1 ,heart-stricken by the avenging flame1 ,is prisoned here1 and underneath ,gasps through each vent his sulphurous breath2 ,and still as his tired side shifts round1 ,trinacia echoes to the sound ,through all its length1 while clouds of smoke ,the living soul of ether choke4 ,,virgil3 neid iii4 ,in some parts of the world we meet with mountains of a very different kind from any we have yet considered1--mountains that are known at times to send forth fiery streams of glowing lava1 and to emit with terrific force great clouds of steam4 ,such mountains have long been known1 in popular but unscientific language1 as burning mountains1#be--;a term which is unfortunate1 because they do not burn in the proper sense of the word1 like candles or gas-jets4 ,they are better known as volcanoes4 ,there are about three hundred and fifty known active volcanoes2 and if we include all mountains that once were in that state1 the number is about one thousand4 #be ,see papers by the writer on ,volcanoes and ,volcanic ,action in ,knowledge for ,may and ,june1 #ahia1 on which this chapter is partly based4 ,such mountains are connected in a curious way with those upheaved ridges of the world known as mountain-chains 7see chap4 vi41 p4 #aia74 ,and not only are many mountains more or less penetrated and intersected by rocks of an igneous origin 7see chap4 v41 p4 #aee71 but some have been largely formed by the action of old volcanoes4 ,in fact1 there are hills in ,great ,britain and parts of ,europe1 in ,america1 and other countries1 that once were actual volcanoes 7see page #bgg74 ,we must briefly consider these strange mountains so different from others1 and see what we can find out about them4 ,let us first inquire how a volcano is made1 then consider what a volcano does2 that is1 we must view it as a geological agent that has a certain definite part to play in the economy of the world4 ,and lastly1 we may glance at some of the old volcanoes1 and see what they were doing in those long ages of the world during which the great series of the stratified rocks were formed1--which rocks are1 as it were1 the book in which the earth has written her autobiography4 ,in old days volcanoes were regarded with superstitious awe2 and any investigation of their actions would have been considered rash and impious in the highest degree4 ,mount ,etna1 as ,virgil tells us1 was supposed to mark the spot where the angry gods had buried ,enceladus1 one of the rebellious giants4 ,volcano1 a certain burning mountain in the ,lipa ,islands1 was likewise called the forge1 or workshop1 of ,vulcan 7or ,volcan71 the god of fire4 ,and so it comes about that all burning mountains take their name from this one ,mediterranean island1 and at the same time tell us of the mythological origin of the word4 ,it has been said that words are fossil thoughts2 and we have here an old and very much fossilised thought1--a kind of thought long since extinct among civilised peoples1 and one which is never likely to come to life again4 ,a volcanic mountain consists of alternating sheets of lava and volcanic ashes1 mantling over each other in an irregular way1 and all sloping away from the centre4 ,in the centre is a pit or chimney1 widening out towards the top so as to resemble a funnel or cup2 hence the name crater1 which means a cup4 ,in the centre of this crater a very small cone 7minor cone7 is frequently found2 and it is interesting to find that many of the moon's volcanic craters possess these minor cones4 ,a number of cracks or fissures intersect the volcano4 ,these frequently spread out from the centre of the mountain in all directions1 like the spokes of a wheel4 ,they generally get filled with lava that wells up from below1 thus forming dykes1 which may be regarded as so many sheets of igneous rock1 such as basalt1 that have forced their way while still liquid in among the layers of lava and ashes4 ,the word ash is used by geologists in a special sense2 and volcanic ash is not1 as might be supposed1 a deposit of cinders1 but mostly of dust of various degrees of fineness1 and sometimes it is very fine indeed4 ,pieces of pumice-stone may be embedded in a layer of volcanic ash1 and sometimes great blocks of stone that have been shot out of the volcano as from a big gun1 but these only form a small part of the layer4 ,dykes strengthen the mountain1 and tend to hold it together when violently shaken during an eruption4 ,the shape and steepness of a volcano depend on the nature of the materials ejected4 ,the finer the volcanic ash1 the steeper and more conical is the mountain4 ,the building up of a volcano may be fairly illustrated by the little cone of sand formed in an hourglass as the sand-grains fall4 ,these settle down at a certain slope1 or angle1 at which they can remain1 instead of falling down to the bottom1 as they do directly this slope is exceeded4 ,some volcanoes are built up almost entirely of volcanic ash and its embedded blocks4 ,vesuvius1 ,teneriffe1 ,jorullo1 in ,mexico1 and ,cotopaxi1 in the ,andes1 are examples of steep volcanic cones built up in this way4 ,others1 less steep and more irregular in shape1 are chiefly formed of successive lava-flows4 ,little minor cones are frequently formed on the side of a volcano2 and these during an eruption give rise to small outbursts of their own4 ,they are easily accounted for by the dykes which are mentioned just now2 for when molten rock forces its way through fissures1 it sometimes finds an outlet at the surface1 and being full of steam1 as soda-water is full of gas1 it gives rise to an eruption4 ,the great opening in the centre of a volcano1 with its molten lava1 is like a very big dyke that has reached the surface and so succeeded in producing an eruption4 ,the opening of a soda-water bottle not infrequently illustrates a volcanic eruption2 for when the pent-up carbonic acid cannot escape fast enough1 it forces out some of the water1 even when the bottle is held upright4 ,every volcano has been built up on a platform of ordinary stratified rocks2 and at some period after these had been laid down in water and raised up into dry land1 molten rock found its way through them1 and so the volcano was built up by successive eruptions during many years4 ,it is probable that earthquake shocks1 preceding the first eruption1 cracked up these strata1 and so made a way for the lava to come up4 ,the main point we wish to emphasize is that volcanoes are never formed by upheaval4 ,in this way they differ from all other mountains4 ,they have not been made by the heaving up of strata1 but have been gradually piled up1 something like rubbish heaps that accumulate in the ,thames barges as the dustmen empty their carts into them1 only in the case of volcanoes the rubbish comes from below4 ,it is not necessary to suppose that the reservoir down below1 from which the molten rock is supplied1 exists at any very great depth below the original land surface on which the volcano grows up4 ,the old upheaval theory of volcanoes1 once advocated by certain authorities1 instead of being based on actual evidence or on reasoning from facts1 was a mere guess4 ,moreover1 if the explanation we have given should not be sufficiently convincing1 there is good proof furnished by the case of a small volcano near ,vesuvius1 the building of which was actually witnessed4 ,it is called ,monte ,nuovo1 or the ,new ,mountain4 ,it is a little cone #dcj feet high1 on the bank of ,lake ,averno1 with a crater more than a mile and a half wide at the base4 ,it was almost entirely formed during a single night in the year #aech1 ,a4 ,d4 ,we have two accounts of the eruption to which it owes its existence2 and each writer says distinctly that the mountain was formed by the falling of stones and ashes4 ,one witness says1-- ,stones and ashes were thrown up with a noise like the discharge of great artillery1 in quantities which seemed as if they would cover the whole earth2 and in four days their fall had formed a mountain in the valley between ,monte ,barbaro and ,lake ,averno1 of not less than three miles in circumference1 and almost as high as ,monte ,barbaro itself1--a thing incredible to those who have not seen it1 that in so short a time so considerable a mountain should have been formed4 ,another says1-- ,some of the stones were larger than an ox4 ,the mud 7ashes mixed with water7 was at first very liquid1 then less so1 and in such quantities that with the help of the afore-mentioned stones a mountain was raised one thousand paces in height4 7,the writer's astonishment led him greatly to exaggerate the height47 ,these accounts are important as showing how in a much longer time a big volcano may be built up4 ,from such small operations we learn how ,nature works on a large scale4 ,the great volcano in ,mexico known as ,jorullo was probably built up in a very similar way4 ,there is a tradition among the natives that it was made in two or three days2 but we can hardly believe that4 ,volcanoes1 as they get older1 tend to grow taller and bigger2 but every now and then a large portion may be blown away by some great eruption1 and they have1 as it were1 to begin again4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,eruption ,,of ,,vesuvius ,,in #ahgb4 ,,from ,,an ,,instantaneous ,,photograph4 ,let us now consider volcanoes as geological agents1 and see what they do4 ,a volcanic eruption may be described in a general way as follows3 ,its advent is heralded by earthquakes affecting the mountain and the whole country round2 loud underground explosions are heard1 resembling the fire of distant artillery4 ,the vibrations are chiefly transmitted through the ground2 the mountain seems convulsed by internal throes1 due1 no doubt1 to the efforts of the imprisoned steam and liquid rock to find an opening4 ,these signs are accompanied by the drying up of wells and disappearance of springs1 since the water finds its way down new cracks in the rocks1 caused by the frequent shocks and quiverings4 ,when at last an opening has been made1 the eruption begins1--generally with one tremendous burst that shakes the whole mountain down to its foundations4 ,after this1 frequent explosions follow with great rapidity and increasing violence1 generally from the crater4 ,these are indicated by the globular masses of steam which are to be seen rising up in a tall column like that which issues from the funnel of a locomotive4 ,but sometimes the whole mountain seems to be more or less engaged in giving out steam1 and thus to be partly enveloped in it4 ,this is illustrated by our engraving from an instantaneous photograph of ,vesuvius in eruption in the year #ahgb4 ,the steam and other gases1 in their violent ascent1 hurl up into the air a great deal of solid rock from the sides of the central opening1 after first blowing out the stones which previously stopped up the orifice4 ,blocks of stone falling down meet with others coming up2 and so a tremendous pounding action takes place1 the result of which is that great quantities of volcanic dust and ashes are produced1 generally of extreme fineness4 ,winds and ocean currents transport these light materials for long distances4 ,the observations made during the famous and fruitful voyage of ,h4 ,m4 ,s4 ,challenger showed that fine volcanic dust is carried by wind and marine currents to almost all parts of the oceans4 ,the darkness so frequently mentioned in accounts of eruptions--sometimes at a very great distance from the volcano--is entirely caused by clouds of volcanic dust hiding the light of the sun4 ,perhaps the best example of this is the case of the eruption of ,krakatoa 7in the ,strait of ,sunda1 between ,sumatra and ,java7 in #ahhc4 ,its explosions were heard in all directions for two thousand miles1 and a perceptible layer of volcanic dust fell at all places within one thousand miles2 while the finest dust and vapour1 shot up fifteen or twenty miles high1 were spread all over the globe1 causing1 while still suspended in the atmosphere1 the peculiar red sunsets noticed in all parts of the world for some months after the eruption4 ,again1 those very curious deposits of red clay found in the very deepest parts of the ,pacific and ,atlantic oceans 7at depths of about four thousand fathoms1 or twenty-four thousand feet7 have been shown to be chiefly composed of volcanic dust1 their red colour being due to oxidised iron4 ,but there is another way in which a good deal of fine volcanic dust is made2 and it is this3 the lava is so full of steam intimately mixed up with it that the steam1 in its violent effort to escape1 often blows the lava into mere dust4 ,another interesting phenomenon may be thus described3 ,portions of liquid1 or half liquid1 lava are caught up by the steam and hurled into the air4 ,these assume a more or less round form1 and are known as bombs4 ,at a distance they give rise to the appearance of flames4 ,and here we may remark that the flaring1 coloured pictures of ,etna or ,vesuvius in eruption1 which frequently may be seen1 are by no means correct4 ,the huge flames shooting up into the air are quite imaginary1 but are probably suggested by the glare and bright reflection from glowing molten lava down in the crater4 ,so great is the force of the pent-up steam trying to escape that it frequently blows a large part of the volcano bodily away2 and in some cases a whole mountain has been blown to pieces4 ,finally1 torrents of rain follow and accompany an eruption1--a result which clearly follows from the condensation of large volumes of steam expanding and rising up into the higher and cooler layers of the atmosphere4 ,vast quantities of volcanic ash are caught up by the rain1 and in this way very large quantities of mud are washed down the sides of the mountain4 ,sometimes the mud-flows are on a large scale1 and descending with great force1 bury a whole town4 ,it was mostly in this way that the ancient cities of ,herculaneum and ,pompeii were buried by the great eruption of ,vesuvius in the year #gi ,a4 ,d41 in which the elder ,pliny lost his life4 ,the discoveries made during excavations at ,pompeii are of very great interest as illustrating old ,roman life4 ,the ,italians give the name lava d'acqua1 or water-lava1 to flows of this kind1 and they are greatly dreaded on account of their great rapidity4 ,an ordinary lava-stream creeps slowly along1 so that people have time to get out of the way2 but in the case of mud-flows there is often no time to escape4 ,no lava-stream has ever reached ,pompeii since it was first built1 although the foundations of the town stand upon an old lava-flood4 ,herculaneum is nearer to ,vesuvius1 and has at times been visited by lava-streams4 ,mud-lavas1 ashes1 and lava-streams have accumulated over this city to a depth of over seventy feet4 ,lava-streams vary greatly in size2 in some cases the lava1 escaping from craters1 comes to rest before reaching the base of the slopes of the volcano2 in other cases a lava-flow not only reaches the plains below1 but extends for many miles over the surrounding country4 ,hence lava-streams are important geological agents4 ,let us look at some famous instances4 ,the most stupendous flow on record was that which took place from ,skaptar ,jkull in ,iceland1 in the year #aghc4 ,in this case a number of streams issued from the volcano1 flooding the country far and wide1 filling up river gorges which were in some cases six hundred feet deep and two hundred and fifty feet broad1 and advancing into the alluvial plains in lakes of molten rock twelve to fifteen miles wide and one hundred feet deep4 ,two currents of lava which flowed in nearly opposite directions spread out with varying thickness according to the nature of the ground for forty and fifty miles respectively4 ,had this great eruption taken place in the south of ,england1 all the country from the neighbourhood of ,london to that of ,gloucester might have been covered by a flood of basalt of considerable thickness4 ,sometimes1 when the lava can only escape at a point low down on the mountain1 a fountain of molten rock will spout high into the air4 ,this has happened on ,vesuvius and ,etna4 ,but in an eruption of ,mauna ,loa1 in the ,sandwich ,islands1 an unbroken fountain of lava1 from two hundred to seven hundred feet high and one thousand feet broad1 burst out at the base of the mountain2 and again in ,april1 #ahhh1 the same thing happened on a still grander scale4 ,in this case four fiery fountains continued to play for several weeks1 sometimes throwing the glowing lava to a height of one thousand feet in the air4 ,surely there can be no more wonderful or awful sight than this in the world4 ,the volcanoes of ,hawaii1 the principal island in the ,sandwich ,islands1 often send forth lava-streams covering an area of over one hundred square miles to a depth of one hundred feet or more2 but they are discharged quite quietly1 like water welling out of a spring4 ,repeated flows of this kind1 however1 have in the course of ages built up a great flat cone six miles high from the floor of the ocean1 to form this lofty island1 which is larger than ,surrey2 and it is calculated that the great volcanic mountain must contain enough material to cover the whole of the ,united ,states with a layer of rock fifty feet deep4 ,but it is not only on the surface of the land that volcanic eruptions take place2 for in some cases the outbreak of a submarine eruption has been witnessed1 and it is highly probable that in past geological ages many large eruptions of this nature have taken place4 ,in the year #aghc1 an eruption took place about thirty miles off the west coast of ,iceland4 ,an island was built up from which glowing vapour and smoke came forth2 but in a year or less the waves had washed everything away1 leaving only a submerged reef4 ,the island of ,santorin1 in the ,greek ,archipelago1 is a partly submerged volcano4 ,but in some cases enormous outpourings of lava have taken place1 not from volcanoes1 but from openings of the ground here and there1 and more usually from long fissures or cracks in the rocks lying at the surface4 ,in many cases so much lava has quietly welled out in this way that the old features of the landscape have been completely buried up1 and wide plains and plateaux formed over them4 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie says1-- ,some of the most remarkable examples of this type of volcanic structure occur in western ,north ,america4 ,among these that of the ,snake ,river plain in ,idaho may be briefly described4 ,surrounded on the north and east by lofty mountains1 it stretches westward as an apparently boundless desert of sand and bare sheets of black basalt4 ,a few streams descending into the plain from the hills are soon swallowed up and lost4 ,the ,snake ,river1 however1 flows across it1 and has cut out of its lava bed a series of picturesque gorges and rapids4 ,the extent of country which has been flooded with basalt in this and adjoining regions of ,oregon and ,washington has not yet been accurately surveyed1 but has been estimated to cover a larger area than ,france and ,great ,britain combined4 ,looked at from any point on its surface1 one of these lava plains appears as a vast level surface1 like that of a lake bottom4 ,this uniformity has been produced either by the lava rolling over a plain or lake bottom1 or by the complete effacement of an original1 undulating contour of the ground under hundreds of feet of lava in successive sheets4 ,the lava1 rolling up to the base of the mountains1 has followed the sinuosities of their margin1 as the waters of a lake follow its promontories and bays4 ,a few further examples of mud-lavas may be mentioned here4 ,cotopaxi1 a great volcano in ,ecuador1 ,south ,america1 with a height of #ag1ijj feet1 reaches so high into the atmosphere that the higher parts are capped with snow4 ,in ,june1 #ahgg1 a great eruption took place1 during which the melting of snow and ice gave rise to torrents of mud and water1 which rushed down the steep sides of the mountain1 so that large blocks of ice were hurried along4 ,the villages around to a distance of about seventy miles were buried under a deposit of mud1 mixed with blocks of lava1 ashes1 pieces of wood1 etc4 ,sometimes a volcano discharges large quantities of mud directly from the crater4 ,in this case the mud is not manufactured by the volcano itself1 but finds its way through fissures and cracks from the bed of the neighbouring sea or rivers to the crater4 ,thus1 in the year #afia1 ,imbaburu1 one of the ,andes of ,quito1 sent out floods of mud containing dead fish1 the decay of which caused fever in the neighbourhood4 ,in the same way the volcanoes of ,java have often buried large tracts of fertile country under a covering of volcanic mud1 thus causing great devastation4 ,vast quantities of dust are produced1 as already explained1 by the pounding action that takes place during an eruption1 as portions of rock in falling down meet others that are being hurled into the air4 ,striking instances of this have occurred not far from ,great ,britain4 ,thus in the year #aghc1 during an eruption of ,skaptar ,jkull1 so great was the amount of dust thus created that the atmosphere in ,iceland was loaded with it for several months4 ,carried by winds1 it even reached the northern parts of ,scotland1 and in ,caithness so much of it fell that the crops were destroyed4 ,this is remarkable1 considering that the distance was six hundred miles4 ,even in ,holland and ,norway there are traces of this great shower of dust from the ,icelandic volcano4 ,during the fearful eruption of ,tomboro1 a volcano in the island of ,sumbawa1 in the ,eastern ,archipelago1 in #ahae1 the abundance of ashes and dust ejected caused darkness at midday at ,java1 three hundred miles away1 and even there the ground was covered to a depth of several inches4 ,in ,sumbawa itself the part of the island joining the mountain was entirely desolated1 and all the houses destroyed1 together with twelve thousand inhabitants4 ,trees and herbage were overwhelmed with pumice and volcanic dust4 ,the floating pumice on the sea around formed a layer two feet1 six inches thick1 through which vessels forced their way with difficulty4 ,from such facts as these it is clear that if in past ages volcanoes have been so powerfully active as they are now1 we should expect to find lava-flows1 dykes1 and great deposits of volcanic ash deposited in water among the stratified rocks2 and such is the case4 ,many large masses of rock familiar to the geologist1 and often forming parts of existing mountains1 are to be accounted for either as great lava-flows1 or dykes that have forced their way in among the strata1 or as extensive deposits of volcanic ash4 ,but perhaps the reader would like to know what the inside of a volcanic crater is like during an eruption4 ,let us1 then1 take a peep into that fearful crater of ,kilauea1 in the ,sandwich ,islands4 ,for this purpose we cannot do better than follow ,miss ,bird's admirable description of her adventurous expedition to this crater3-- ,the abyss1 which really is at a height of four thousand feet1 on the flank of ,mauna ,loa1 has the appearance of a pit on a rolling plain4 ,but such a pit6 ,it is quite nine miles in circumference1 and at its lowest area--which not long ago fell about three hundred feet1 just as ice on a pond falls when the water below is withdrawn--covers six square miles4 ,the depth of the crater varies from eight hundred to one thousand feet1 according as the molten sea below is at flood or ebb4 ,signs of volcanic activity are present more or less throughout its whole depth1 and for some distance round its margin1 in the form of steam-cracks1 jets of sulphurous vapour1 blowing cones1 accumulating deposits of acicular crystals of sulphur1 etc41 and the pit itself is constantly rent and shaken by earthquakes4 ,grand eruptions occurred with circumstances of indescribable terror and dignity2 but ,kilauea does not limit its activity to these outbursts1 but has exhibited its marvellous phenomena through all known time in a lake or lakes on the southern part of the crater three miles from this side4 ,this lake--the ,hale-mau-mau1 or ',house of ,everlasting ,fire1' of the ,hawaiian mythology1 the abode of the dreaded goddess ,pele--is approachable with safety1 except during an eruption4 ,the spectacle1 however1 varies almost daily2 and at times the level of the lava in the pit within a pit is so low1 and the suffocating gases are evolved in such enormous quantities1 that travellers are unable to see anything4 ,there had been no news from it for a week2 and as nothing was to be seen but a very faint bluish vapour hanging round its margin1 the prospect was not encouraging4444 ,after more than an hour of very difficult climbing1 we reached the lowest level of the crater1 pretty nearly a mile across1 presenting from above the appearance of a sea at rest2 but on crossing it1 we found it to be an expanse of waves and convolutions of ashy-coloured lava1 with huge cracks filled up with black iridescent rolls of lava only a few weeks old4 ,parts of it are very rough and ridgy1 jammed together like field-ice1 or compacted by rolls of lava1 which may have swelled up from beneath2 but the largest part of the area presents the appearance of huge coiled hawsers1 the ropy formation of the lava rendering the illusion almost perfect4 ,these are riven by deep cracks1 which emit hot sulphurous vapours4444 ,as we ascended1 the flow became hotter under our feet1 as well as more porous and glistening4 ,it was so hot that a shower of rain hissed as it fell upon it4 ,the crust became increasingly insecure1 and necessitated our walking in single file with the guide in front1 to test the security of the footing4 ,i fell through several times1 and always into holes full of sulphurous steam so malignantly acid that my strong dogskin gloves were burned through as ,i raised myself on my hands4 ,we had followed the lava-flow for thirty miles up to the crater's brink1 and now we had toiled over recent lava for three hours1 and by all calculation were close to the pit2 yet there was no smoke or sign of fire1 and ,i felt sure that the volcano had died out for once for our special disappointment4444 ,suddenly1 just above1 and in front of us1 gory drops were tossed in the air1 and springing forwards we stood on the brink of ,hale-mau-mau1 which was about thirty-five feet below us4 ,i think we all screamed4 ,i know we all wept2 but we were speechless1 for a new glory and terror had been added to the earth4 ,it is the most unutterable of wonderful things4 ,the words of common speech are quite useless4 ,it is unimaginable1 indescribable2 a sight to remember for ever2 a sight which at once took possession of every faculty of sense and soul1 removing one altogether out of the range of ordinary life4 ,here was the real 'bottomless pit1' 'the fire which is not quenched1' 'the place of ,hell1' 'the lake which burneth with fire and brimstone1' 'the everlasting burnings1' 'the fiery sea whose waves are never weary4'#bf ,there were groanings1 rumblings1 and detonations1 rushings1 hissings1 splashings1 and the crashing sound of breakers on the coast2 but it was the surging of fiery waves upon a fiery shore4 ,but what can ,i write8 ,such words as jets1 fountains1 waves1 spray1 convey some idea of order and regularity1 but here there was none4 ,the inner lake1 while we stood there1 formed a sort of crater within itself2 the whole lava sea rose about three feet2 a blowing cone about eight feet high was formed2 it was never the same two minutes together4 ,and what we saw had no existence a month ago1 and probably will be changed in every essential feature a month hence4444 ,the prominent object was fire in motion2 but the surface of the double lake was continually skimming over for a second or two with a cooled crust of a lustrous grey-white1 like frosted silver1 broken by jagged cracks of a bright rose-colour4 ,the movement was nearly always from the sides to the centre2 but the movement of the centre itself appeared independent1 and always took a southerly direction4 ,before each outburst of agitation there was much hissing and throbbing1 internal roaring1 as of imprisoned gases4 ,now it seemed furious1 demoniacal1 as if no power on earth could bind it1 then playful and sportive1 then for a second languid1 but only because it was accumulating fresh force4444 ,sometimes the whole lake 444 took the form of mighty waves1 and surging heavily against the partial barrier with a sound like the ,pacific surf1 lashed1 tore1 covered it1 and threw itself over it in clots of living fire4 ,it was all confusion1 commotion1 forces1 terror1 glory1 majesty1 mystery1 and even beauty4 ,and the colour1 'eye hath not seen' it6 ,molten metal hath not that crimson gleam1 nor blood that living light4#bg #bf ,perhaps these ,scripture phrases were suggested long before the ,bible was written1 by the sight of some crater in active eruption4 #bg ,the ,hawaiian ,archipelago4 ,continued observation of volcanoes1 together with evidence derived from history1 teaches that there are different stages of volcanic action4 ,there are three pretty well-marked phases4 ,first1 the state of permanent eruption2 this is not a dangerous state1 because the steam keeps escaping all the time3 the safety-valve is at work1 and all goes smoothly4 ,the second state is one of moderate activity1 with more or less violent eruptions at brief intervals2 this is rather dangerous1 because at times the safety-valve does not work4 ,and thirdly1 we have paroxysms of intense energy1 alternating with long periods of repose sometimes lasting for centuries4 ,these eruptions are extremely violent1 and cause widespread destruction2 the safety-valve has got jammed1 and so the boiler bursts4 ,no volcano has been so carefully watched for a long time as ,vesuvius4 ,its history illustrates the phases we have just mentioned4 ,the first recorded eruption is that of ,a4 ,d4 #gi1 a very severe one of the violent type1 by which ,herculaneum1 ,pompeii1 and ,stabi were buried4 ,we have an interesting account by the younger ,pliny4 ,before this great eruption took place1 ,vesuvius had been in a state of repose for eight hundred years1 and if we may judge from the ,greek and ,roman writings1 was not even suspected of being a volcano4 ,then followed an interval of rest until the reign of ,severus1 the second eruption taking place in the year #bjc4 ,in the year #dgb1 says ,procopius1 all ,europe was covered more or less with volcanic ashes4 ,other eruptions followed at intervals1 but there was complete repose for two centuries2 that is1 until the year #acjf4 ,in #aejj it was again active1 then quiet again for one hundred and thirty years4 ,in #afca there took place another terrific outburst4 ,after this many eruptions followed1 and they have been frequent ever since4 ,vesuvius is therefore now in the second stage of moderate activity4 ,but geologists can take a wider view than this4 ,they can sum up the history of a volcanic region of the earth2 and the result is somewhat as follows3 ,volcanoes1 like living creatures1 go through different periods or phases1 corresponding roughly to youth1 middle age1 old age1 and finally decay4 ,the invasion of any particular area of the earth's surface by the volcanic forces is heralded by underground shocks1 or earthquakes4 ,a little later on cracks are formed1 as indicated by the rise of saline and hot springs1 and the issuing of carbonic acid and other gases at the surface of the earth4 ,as the underground activity becomes greater1 the temperature of the springs and emitted gases increases2 and at last a visible rent is formed1 exposing highly heated and glowing rock below4 ,from the fissure thus formed1 the gas and vapours imprisoned in the molten rocks escape with such violence as to disperse the latter in the form of pumice and volcanic ash1 or to cause them to pour out as lava-streams4 ,the action generally becomes confined to one or more points along the line of action 7which is a line of fissures and cracks74 ,in this way a chain of volcanoes is formed1 which may become the seat of volcanic action for a long time4 ,when the volcanic energies have become somewhat exhausted1 so that they cannot raise up the lava and expel it from the volcanic crater1 nor rend the sides of the volcano and cause minor cones to grow up on their flanks1 small cones may be formed at a lower level in the plains around the great central chain4 ,these likewise are fed from fissures4 ,later on1 as the heated rock below cools down1 the fissures are sealed up by lava that has become solid2 and then the volcanoes fall1 as it were1 into the sere and yellow leaf1 and remain in a peaceful1 quiet state befitting their old age4 ,after this they begin to suffer from long exposure to the atmospheric influences of decay1 and rain and rivers wash them away more or less completely4 ,but still the presence of heated rocky matter at no great depth below is proved by the outbursts of gases and vapours1 the forming of geysers and ordinary hot springs4 ,gradually1 however1 even these signs of heat below disappear2 and the cycle of volcanic phases is at an end4 ,such a series of changes may require millions of years2 but by the study of volcanoes in every stage of their growth and decline it is possible thus to sketch out an outline of their history4 ,it must be confessed that in the present state of scientific knowledge no full and complete explanation of volcanic action is possible4 ,geologists and others are as yet but feeling their way cautiously towards the light which1 perhaps before long1 will illumine the dark recesses of this mysterious subject4 ,many theories and ideas have been put forward1 but in the opinion of the writer the most promising explanation is one that may be briefly expressed as follows3 ,there are below the crust of the earth large masses of highly heated rock that are kept solid by the enormous pressure of the overlying rocks1 or otherwise they would melt1--for it is a known fact that pressure tends to prevent the melting of a solid body4 ,but when earth-movements taking place within the earth's crust--such as the upheaving of mountain-chains--take off some of the weight1 the balance between internal heat and the pressure from above is no longer maintained2 and so these highly heated rocks run off into the liquid state1 and finding their way to the surface through the fissures mentioned above1 give rise to volcanic action4 ,there is much to be said in favour of this view4 ,it rightly connects volcanic action with movements of upheaval1 with mountain-chains and lines of weakness in the earth's crust4 ,there is very good reason to believe that the earth was once in a highly heated state1 and has been slowly cooling down for ages4 ,the increase of temperature observed in penetrating mines tells us that it still retains below the surface some of its old heat4 ,we need not therefore be surprised at the existence of heated masses of rock down below1 or seek1 as some have done1 an entirely different source for the origin of volcanic heat than that which remains from the earth's once molten condition4 ,it would take too long to state the reasons on which this idea of the former state of our planet is based1 and moreover1 it would bring us into the region of astronomy1 with which we are not concerned at present4 ,in various parts of ,great ,britain and ,ireland we meet with old volcanic rocks1--lavas1 intrusive dykes1 and sheets of basalt1 etc41 together with vast deposits of volcanic ash1 which1 sinking into the old neighbouring seas1 became stratified1 or arranged in layers like the ordinary sedimentary rocks4 ,in some cases we see embedded in these layers the very bombs that were thrown out by the old volcanoes 7see page #bec74 ,and besides these purely volcanic rocks1 we often meet in these areas with great bosses of granite1 which must have been in some way connected with the old volcanoes1 and probably were in many cases the source from which much of the volcanic rock was derived4 ,but more than this1 in a few instances we have the site of the old volcano itself marked out by a kind of pipe1 or neck1 now filled with some of its volcanic dbris in the shape of coarse1 rounded fragments 7see page #bgg74 ,during a very ancient period1 known to geologists as the ,silurian ,period1 great lava-flows took place from volcanoes situated where ,north and ,south ,wales and the ,lake ,district now are2 and by their eruptions a vast amount of volcanic ash was made1 which fell into the sea and slowly sank to the bottom1 so that the shell-fish living there were buried in the strata thus formed1 and may now be seen in a fossilised condition4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #a4 ,,the ,,ranges ,,of ,,the ,,great ,,basin1 ,,western ,,states ,,of ,,north ,,america1 ,,showing ,a ,,series ,,of ,,great ,,fractures ,,and ,,tilted ,,masses ,,of ,,rock4 ,illustration3 ,fig4 #b4 ,,section ,,through ,,snowdon4 ,thus ,snowdon1 ,cader ,idris1 the ,arans1 ,arenig ,mountain1 and others1 are very largely made up of these ancient volcanic materials4 ,the writer has picked up specimens of fossil shell-fish near the summit of ,snowdon from a bed of fine volcanic ash that forms the summit4 ,fig4 #b represents a section through ,snowdon1 from which it will be seen that we have first a few sedimentary strata1 ,s1 then a great lava-flow1 ,l2 and that volcanic ashes accumulated on the top of this1 of which ,a ,a are patches still left4 ,b is an intrusive dyke of a basaltic rock that forced its way through afterwards4 ,again1 in the ,lake ,district there is a well-known volcanic series of stratified rocks of the same age1 consisting mostly of lavas and ashes1 the total thickness of which is about twelve thousand feet 7known as the ,green ,slates and ,porphyries71 so that a large part of some of the mountains there have also been built up by volcanic action2 but no traces of the old volcanoes remain4 ,going farther north we find abundant proof that volcanic action on a prodigious scale took place in ,scotland during the very ancient period of the ,old ,red ,sandstone1 with which the name of ,hugh ,miller will always be associated4 ,in ,central ,scotland we see lava-flows and strata formed of volcanic ash1 with a thickness of more than six thousand feet1 fragments of which1 having escaped the destructive agents of denudation1 now form important chains of hills1 such as the ,pentland1 ,ochil1 and ,sidlaw ranges4 ,nor was the volcanic action confined to this region4 ,in the district of the ,cheviot ,hills similar volcanic rocks are to be seen4 ,but here again the old volcanoes have long since been swept away1 leaving us only portions of their outpourings buried in the hills4 ,there can be no doubt that the present area of the ,grampian ,hills was once the site of a considerable number of volcanoes1 only at a much higher level than their present surface1 elevated though that is to the region of the clouds2 but in this case subsequent denudation has been so enormous that the old mountain surface has been planed away until all we can now see is a series of separate patches of granite1 that were once in a fused and highly heated state far below the surface1 and formed part of the subterranean reservoirs from which the volcanoes derived their great supplies of lava and steam4 ,it is indeed difficult to imagine the enormous amount of denudation which has taken place in the ,highlands of ,scotland1 and to realise that the magnificent range of the ,cairngorms1 for instance1 has been for ages worn down until now they are but a remnant of what they once were4 ,in this region we see the once boiling and seething masses of rock which fed the old volcanoes1 now no longer endowed with life-like power by the force of steam1 but lying in deathlike cold and stiffness1 with their beautiful crystals of mica and felspar sparkling in the sun4 ,the volcanic fires have died out2 but the traces of their work are unmistakable1 among which we must not forget to reckon the beautiful minerals made by the action of heated water upon the surrounding rocks4 ,the beautiful cairngorm stones are still sometimes found on the mountain from which they take their name1 and in all volcanic regions minerals are plentiful4 ,the well-known hill called ,arthur's ,seat1 close to ,edinburgh1 marks the site of an old volcano4 ,the neck1 or central opening1 may be seen at the top of the hill1 but choked up with volcanic rocks and dbris4 ,the crater has long since disappeared1 but ,salisbury ,craigs and ,st4 ,leonard's ,craigs are formed of a great sheet of basalt that intruded itself among the stratified rocks that had been formed there1 and so belong really to a great intrusive dyke4 ,in the ,castle ,rock we see the same basalt again4 ,during a much later age1 known as the ,miocene ,period 7see chap4 x41 p4 #cbd71 enormous outpourings of lava took place in ,western ,europe1 covering hundreds of square miles4 ,of these the most important is that which occupies a large part of the northeast of ,ireland1 and extends in patches through the ,inner ,hebrides and the ,fare ,islands into ,iceland4 ,these eruptive rocks1 unlike those above referred to1 must have poured out at the surface1 and have taken the form of successive sheets1 such as we now see in the terraced plateaux of ,skye1 ,eigg1 ,canna1 ,muck1 ,mull1 and ,morven4 ,these1 then1 are patches of what once formed a great plain of basalt4 ,during later times this volcanic platform has been so greatly cut up by the agents of denudation that it has been reduced to mere scattered fragments2 thousands of feet of basalt have been worn away from it2 deep and wide valleys have been carved out of it2 and in many cases it has been almost entirely stripped off from the wide areas it once covered4 ,where1 as in the ,isle of ,eigg1 the lava has been piled up in successive sheets1 with some layers of volcanic ash between1 the latter has been worn away rather faster than the hard layers of basalt1 and each lava-flow is clearly marked by a terrace4 ,these volcanic eruptions have thus had a great influence in moulding the scenery of this region4 ,in ,ireland the old basalts are well seen at the ,giant's ,causeway1 and on the ,scottish coast we see them again at the well-known ,fingal's cave at ,staffa4 ,this island1 like the others1 is just a patch of the old lava-streams4 ,its curious six-sided columns illustrate a fact with regard to the subsequent cooling of lava-flows4 ,some internal forces1 analogous to that which regulates the shapes of crystals1 have caused it to crack along three sets of lines1 so placed with regard to each other as to produce six-sided columns4 ,in ,ireland the basalts attain a thickness of nine hundred feet2 in ,mull they are about three thousand feet thick4 ,it has been clearly proved that ,mull is the site of one of the old volcanoes of this period1 but very few others have as yet been detected4 ,perhaps the eruptions took place mainly from large fissures1 instead of from volcanic cones1 for it is known that the ground below the lava-sheets has been rent by earthquakes into innumerable fissures1 into which the basalt was injected from below4 ,in this way a vast number of dykes were formed4 ,these have been traced by hundreds eastwards from this region across ,scotland1 and even the north of ,england4 ,in this case the molten rock was struggling to get through the overlying rocks and escape at the surface2 but apparently it did not succeed in so doing1 for we do not find lava-flows to the east and south4 ,these basalt dykes are found as far south as ,yorkshire1 and can be traced over an area of one hundred thousand square miles4 ,it is thus evident that in the ,miocene ,period a great and extensive mass of molten basalt was underlying a large part of the ,british ,isles1 and probably the weight of the thick rocks overlying it was sufficient to prevent its escape to the surface4 ,if it had succeeded in so escaping and overflowing1 how different the scenery of much of ,scotland and ,northern ,england might have been6 ,illustration3 ,,columnar ,,basalt ,,at ,,clamshell ,,cave1 ,,staffa4 ,,from ,a ,,photograph ,,by ,j4 ,,valentine4 ,,chapter ,,ix4 ,,mountain ,,architecture4 ,the splendour falls on castle walls ,and snowy summits old in story2 ,the long light shakes across the lakes1 ,and the wild cataract leaps in glory4 ,blow1 bugle1 blow1 set the wild echoes flying2 ,blow1 bugle2 answer1 echoes1 dying1 dying1 dying4 ,,tennyson4 ,the dying splendours of the sun slowly sinking and entering the gates of the ,west may well serve as a fitting emblem of the mountains in their beautiful old age1 awaiting in silent and calm dignity the time when they also must be brought low1 and sink in the waters of the ocean1 as the sun appears daily to do4 ,yes1 they too have their day4 ,they too had their rising1 when mighty forces brought them up out of their watery bed4 ,many of them have passed their hey-day of youth1 and their midday2 while others1 far advanced in old age1 are nearing the end of their course4 ,but as the sun rises once more over eastern seas to begin another day1 so will the substance of the mountains be again heaved up after a long1 long rest under the sea1 and here and there will rise up from the plains to form the lofty mountain-ranges of a distant future4 ,everywhere we read the same story1 the same circle of changes4 ,the ,alpine peak that proudly rears its head to the clouds must surely be brought low1 and finally come back to the same ocean from which those clouds arose4 ,it is in this way that the balance between land and water is preserved4 ,in passing through such a great circle of changes1 the mountains assume various forms and shapes which are determined by3-- #a4 ,their different ages and states of decay4 #b4 ,the different kinds of rocks of which they are composed1 and especially by their joints1 or natural divisions4 #c4 ,the different positions into which these rocky layers have been squeezed1 pushed1 and crumpled by those stupendous forces of upheaval of which we spoke in chapter vi4 ,let us therefore glance at some of these external forms1 and then look at the internal structure of mountains4 ,in so doing we shall find that we have yet a good deal more to learn about mountains and how they were made2 and also we shall then be in a better position to realise not only how very much denudation they have suffered1 but also how greatly they have been disturbed since their rocks were first made4 ,every one who knows mountains must have observed how some are smooth and rounded1 others sharp and jagged1 with peaks and pinnacles standing out clearly against the sky2 some square and massive1 with steep walls forming precipices2 others again spread out widely at their base1 but the sloping sides end in a sharp point at the top1 giving to the mountain the appearance of a cone4 ,their diversities of shape are so endless that we cannot attempt to describe them all4 ,first1 with regard to the general features of mountains4 ,looked at broadly1 a mountain-range is not a mere line of hills or mountains rising straight up from a plain on each side1 such as school-boys often draw in their maps2 very far from it4 ,take the ,rocky ,mountains1 for instance4 ,it has been truly said of the ,rocky ,mountains that the word 'range' does not express it at all4 ,it is a whole country populous with mountains4 ,it is as if an ocean of molten granite had been caught by instant petrifaction when its billows were rolling heaven high4#bh #bh ,the ,crest of the ,continent1 by ,ernest ,ingersoll1 ,chicago1 #ahhe4 ,it has often been observed by mountain climbers that when they get to the top of a high mountain1 and take a bird's-eye view of the country1 all the mountain-tops seem to reach to about the same height1 so that a line joining them would be almost level4 ,for this reason1 perhaps1 writers so often compare them to the waves of an ocean4 ,this feature is very conspicuous in the case of the ,scotch ,highlands4 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie has well described what he saw from the top of ,ben ,nevis3-- ,much has been said and written about the wild1 tumbled sea of the ,highland ,hills4 ,but as he sits on his high perch1 does it not strike the observer that there is after all a wonderful orderliness1 and even monotony1 in the waves of that wide sea8 ,and when he has followed their undulations from north to south1 all round the horizon1 does it not seem to him that these mountain-tops and ridges tend somehow to rise to a general level2 that1 in short1 there is not only on the great scale a marked similarity of contour about them1 but a still more definite uniformity of average height8 ,to many who have contented themselves with the bottom of the glen1 and have looked with awe at the array of peaks and crags overhead1 this statement will doubtless appear incredible4 ,but let any one get fairly up to the summits and look along them1 and he will not fail to see that the statement is nevertheless true4 ,from the top of ,ben ,nevis this feature is impressively seen4 ,along the sky-line1 the wide sweep of summits undulates up to a common level1 varied here by a cone and there by the line of some strath or glen1 but yet wonderfully persistent round the whole panorama4 ,if1 as sometimes happens in these airy regions1 a bank of cloud with a level under-surface should descend upon the mountains1 it will be seen to touch summit after summit1 the long line of the cloud defining1 like a great parallel ruler1 the long level line of the ridges below4 ,i have seen this feature brought out with picturesque vividness over the mountains of ,knoydart and ,glen ,garry4 ,wreaths of filmy mist had been hovering in the upper air during the forenoon4 ,towards evening1 under the influence of a cool breeze from the north1 they gathered together into one long band that stretched for several miles straight as the sky-line of the distant sea1 touching merely the higher summits and giving a horizon by which the general uniformity of level among the hills could be signally tested4 ,once or twice in a season one may be fortunate enough to get on the mountains above such a stratum of mist1 which then seems to fill up the irregularities of the general platform of hill-tops1 and to stretch out as a white phantom sea1 from which the highest eminences rise up as little islets into the clear air of the morning4444 ,still more striking is the example furnished by the great central mass of the ,grampians1 comprising the ,cairngorm ,mountains and the great corries and precipices round the head of the ,dee4 ,this tract of rugged ground1 when looked at from a distance1 is found to present the character of a high1 undulating plateau4#bi #bi ,scenery of ,scotland page #acj1 new edition4 ,this long level line of the ,highland mountain-tops may be seen very well from the lower country outside2 for example1 from the isles of ,skye and ,eigg1 where one may see the panorama between the heights of ,applecross and the ,point of ,ardnamurchan showing very clearly the traces of the old table-land4 ,how are we to explain this curious fact1 so opposed to our first impressions of a mountain region8 ,it is quite clear that the old plateau thus marked out cannot be caused by the arrangement or position of the rocks of which the ,highlands are composed4 ,if these rocks were found to be lying pretty evenly in flat layers1 or strata1 undisturbed by great earth-movements1 we could readily understand that they would form a plateau4 ,but the reverse is the case3 the rocks are everywhere thrown into folds1 and frequently greatly displaced by faults2 yet these important geological features have little or no connection with the external aspect of the country4 ,it is therefore useless to look to internal structure for an explanation4 ,we must look outside1 and consider what has been for ages and ages taking place here4 ,as already pointed out1 an enormous amount of solid rock has been removed from this region--thousands and thousands of feet4 ,it was long ago planed down by the action of water1 so that a table-land once existed of which the tops of the present mountains are isolated fragments4 ,no other conclusion is possible4 ,to the geologist every hill and valley throughout the whole length and breadth of the ,highlands bears striking testimony to this enormous erosion4 ,the explanation we are seeking may therefore be summed up in one word1 denudation4 ,the valleys that now intersect the table-land have been carved out of it4 ,if we could in imagination put back again onto the present surface what has been removed1 we should have a mental picture of the ,highlands as a wide1 undulating table-land2 and this rolling plain would suggest the bottom of the sea4 ,the long flat surfaces of the ,highland ridges1 cut across the edges of inclined or even upright strata1 are the fragments of a former base-line of erosion2 that is1 they represent the general submarine level to which the ,highlands were reduced after exposure to the action of rain and rivers1 and finally of the sea4 ,as the sea gradually spread over it1 it planed down everything that had not been previously worn away1 and so reduced the whole surface to one general level like the sea-bed of the present day4 ,but it is not necessary to suppose that the whole region was under water at the same time1 and it is probable that there were separate inland seas or lakes4 ,in these the rocks of the ,old ,red ,sandstone were formed2 and they in their turn have suffered so much denudation that only patches and long strips of them are left on the borders of the ,highlands4 ,before we speak of individual mountains and their shapes1 it is important to bear in mind another fact about mountain-chains2 namely1 that they are very low in proportion to their breadth and length4 ,the great heights reached by some mountains produce such a powerful impression on our senses that we hardly realise how very insignificant they really are4 ,it is only by drawing them on a true scale that we can realise this4 ,the surface of the earth is so vast that even the highest mountains are in proportion but as the little roughnesses on the skin of an orange4 ,fig4 #b 7see chap1 vii41 p4 #bcf7 represents a section through the ,highlands1 drawn on the same scale for height as for length4 ,what has been said about the ,highland plateau applies equally well to many other mountain-ranges4 ,mr4 ,ruskin observed something rather similar in the ,alps4 ,he says1-- ,the longer ,i stayed in the ,alps1 and the more closely ,i examined them1 the more ,i was struck by the one broad fact of there being a vast ,alpine plateau1 or mass of elevated land1 upon which nearly all the highest peaks stood like children set upon a table1 removed1 in most cases1 far back from the edge of the plateau1 as if for fear of their falling2 444 and for the most part the great peaks are not allowed to come to the edge of it1 but remain like the keeps of castles1 withdrawn1 surrounded league beyond league by comparatively level fields of mountains1 over which the lapping sheets of glaciers writhe and flow1 foaming about the feet of the dark central crests like the surf of an enormous sea-breaker hurled over a rounded rock and islanding some fragment of it in the midst4 ,and the result of this arrangement is a kind of division of the whole of ,switzerland into an upper and a lower mountain world1--the lower world consisting of rich valleys1 bordered by steep but easily accessible1 wooded banks of mountain1 more or less divided by ravines1 through which glimpses are caught of the higher ,alps2 the upper world1 reached after the first steep banks of three thousand or four thousand feet in height have been surmounted1 consisting of comparatively level but most desolate tracts of moor and rock1 half covered by glacier1 and stretching to the feet of the true pinnacles of the chain4 ,he then points out the wisdom of this arrangement1 and shows how it protects the inhabitants from falling blocks and avalanches2 and moreover1 the masses of snow1 if cast down at once into the warmer air1 would melt too fast and cause furious inundations4 ,all the various kinds of rocks are differently affected by the atmospheric influences of decay1 and so present different external appearances and shapes1 so that after a little experience the geologist can recognize the presence of certain rocks by the kind of scenery they produce2 and this knowledge is often of great use in helping him to unravel the geological structure of a difficult region4 ,thus granite1 crystalline schists1 slates1 sandstones1 and limestones1 all weather in their own ways1 and moreover split up differently1 because their joints and other natural lines of division run in different ways4 ,thus granite is jointed very regularly1 some of the joints running straight down and others running horizontally1 so that the rain and atmosphere seize on these lines and widen them very considerably2 and thus the granite is weathered out either in tall upright columns1 like those seen at ,land's ,end1 or else into great square-shaped blocks with their corners rounded off1 presenting the appearance of a number of knapsacks lying one over the other4 ,in this way we can account for the well-known ,tors of ,devonshire1 and the ,rocking ,stones4 ,granite weathers rapidly along its joints1 and its surfaces crumble away more rapidly than might be expected1 considering how hard a rock it is2 but the felspar which is its chief mineral constituent is readily decomposed by rain water1 which acts chemically upon it4 ,the deposits of ,china clay in ,devonshire are the result of the decomposition and washing away of the granite of ,dartmoor4 ,granite mountains are generally rounded and bossy1 breaking now and then into cliffs1 the faces of which are riven by huge joints1 and present a very different appearance from those composed of crystalline schists with their sharp crests and peaks4 ,ben ,nevis and the ,cairngorms are partly composed of granite4 ,gneiss is a rock composed of the same minerals as granite2 namely1 mica1 quartz1 and felspar4 ,and yet mountains composed of this rock have quite a different aspect1 and sometimes1 as in the ,alps1 produce very sharp and jagged pinnacles4 ,the reason of this is that gneiss splits in a different way from granite1 because its minerals are arranged in layers1 and so it is more like a crystalline schist4 ,mica-schist is another rock very abundant in mountain regions4 ,this rock is composed of quartz and mica arranged in wavy layers4 ,the mica1 which is very conspicuous1 lies in thin plates1 sometimes so dovetailed into each other as to form long continuous layers separating it from those of the quartz2 and it readily splits along the layers of mica4 ,this mineral is easily recognised by its bright1 shiny surface4 ,there are1 however1 two varieties1--one of a light colour and the other black4 ,mica-schist and gneiss are often found in the same region1 and are the materials of which most of the highest peaks in ,europe are composed4 ,we find them abounding in the district of ,mont ,blanc2 and all the monarch's attendant aiguilles1 with the splintered ridges enclosing the great snowfields in the heart of the chain1 consist mostly of these two rocks4 ,the ,matterhorn1 ,weisshorn1 ,monte ,viso1 the ,grand ,paradis1 the ,aiguille ,verte and ,aiguille du ,dru are examples of the wonderful forms produced by the breaking up and decay of these two rocks4 ,the different varieties of slate split in a very marked way4 ,slates are often associated with the schists1 and exert their influence in modifying the scenery4 ,limestone ranges1 though less striking in the outlines of their crests than those composed of slates and crystalline schists1 and not reaching to such heights1 are nevertheless not at all inferior in the grandeur of their cliffs1 which frequently extend for miles along the side of a valley in vast terraces1 whose precipitous walls are often absolutely inaccessible4 ,the beauty of limestone mountains is often enhanced by the rich pastures and forests which clothe their lower slopes4 ,the dolomitic limestone of the ,italian ,tyrol1 being gashed by enormous vertical joints and at the same time having been formed in rather thin layers which break up into small blocks1 produces some very striking scenery4 ,but wild as these mountainous ridges may be1 their forms can never be confounded with those of the crystalline schists2 for however sharp their pinnacles may appear at first sight1 careful examination will always show that their outline is that of ruined masonry1 suggesting crumbling battlements and tottering turrets1 and not the curving1 flame-like crests and splintered peaks of the crystalline schists4#cj #cj ,bonney4 ,it has already been explained that all sedimentary rocks have been formed under water in layers or strata1 and it must be obvious that the stratification of such rocks has an important influence on scenery2 and very much depends on whether the strata have been left undisturbed1 with perhaps just a slight slope1 or whether they have been folded and crumpled2 for the position of the strata1 or bedding1 as it is called1--whether flat1 inclined1 vertical1 or contorted1--largely determines the nature of the surface4 ,undoubtedly the most characteristic scenery formed by stratified rocks is to be seen in those places where the bedding is horizontal1 or nearly so1 and the strata are massive4 ,a mountain constructed of such materials appears as a colossal pyramid1 the level lines of stratification looking like great courses of masonry4 ,the joints that cut across the strata allow it to be cleft into great blocks and deep chasms2 so that1 as in the case of the dolomitic limestone above mentioned1 we find a resemblance to ruined buildings4 ,we cannot find a better example of this in our own country than the mountains of sandstone and conglomerate 7of the ,cambrian age7 that here and there lie on the great platform of old gneiss in the west of ,sutherland and ,ross4 ,sir ,a4 ,geikie says1-- ,the bleak1 bare gneiss1 with its monotonous undulations1 tarns1 and bogs1 is surmounted by groups of cones1 which for individuality of form and independence of position better deserve to be called mountains than most of the eminences to which that name is given in ,scotland4 ,these huge pyramids1 rising to heights of between two thousand and four thousand feet1 consist of dark red strata1 so little inclined that their edges can be traced by the eye in long1 level bars on the steeper hillsides and precipices1 like lines of masonry4 ,here and there the hand of time has rent them into deep rifts1 from which long 'screes' 7slopes of loose stones7 descend into the plains below1 as stones are detached from the shivered walls of an ancient battlement4 ,down their sides1 which have in places the steepness of a bastion1 vegetation finds but scanty room along the projecting ledges of the sandstone beds1 where the heath and grass and wildflowers cluster over the rock in straggling lines and tufts of green2 and yet1 though nearly as bare as the gneiss below them1 these lofty mountains are far from presenting the same aspect of barrenness4 ,the prevailing colour of their component strata gives them a warm red hue1 which even at noon contrasts strongly with the grey of the platform of older rock4444 ,these huge isolated cones are among the most striking memorials of denudation anywhere to be seen in the ,british ,isles4 ,quinag1 ,canisp1 ,suilven1 ,coulmore1 and the hills of ,coygoch1 ,dundonald1 ,loch ,maree1 and ,torridon are merely detached patches of a formation not less than seven thousand or eight thousand feet thick1 which once spread over the northwest of ,scotland4 ,the spaces between them were once occupied by the same dull red sandstone2 the horizontal stratification of one hill1 indeed1 is plainly continuous with that of the others1 though deep and wide valleys1 or miles of low moorland1 may now lie between4 ,while the valleys have been worn down through the sandstone1 these strange pyramidal mountains that form so singular a feature in the landscapes of the northwest highlands have been left standing1 like lonely sea-stacks1 as monuments of long ages of waste4#ca #ca ,scenery of ,scotland1 page #bja1 new edition4 ,again1 the vast table-lands of the ,colorado region illustrate on a truly magnificent scale1 to which there is no parallel in the ,old ,world1 the effects of atmospheric erosion on undisturbed and nearly level strata4 ,here we find valleys and river gorges deeper and longer than any others in the world2 great winding lines of escarpment1 like ranges of sea cliffs2 terraced slopes rising at various levels2 huge buttresses and solitary monuments1 standing like islands out of the plains2 and lastly1 great mountain masses carved out into the most striking and picturesque shapes1 yet with their lines of bedding clearly marked out4 ,on the other hand1 where1 as is almost always the case in mountain-ranges1 the stratified rocks have been folded1 crumpled1 twisted1 and fractured by great faults1 we find a very different result4 ,in these cases the rocks have generally been very much altered by the action of heat4 ,for here we find crystalline schists1 gneiss1 granite1 and other rocks in the formation of which heat has played an important part2 and very often the igneous rocks have forced their way through those of sedimentary origin and altered them into what are called metamorphic rocks 7see chapter v41 page #aef74 ,thus they have lost much of their original character and structure4 ,the repeated uplifts and subsidences of the earth's crust1 by which the continents of the world have been raised up out of the sea to form dry land1 have1 broadly speaking1 thrown the rocky strata into a series of wave-like undulations4 ,in some extensive regions these undulations are so broad and low that the curvature is quite imperceptible1 and the strata appear to lie in horizontal layers1 or to slope very slightly in a certain direction4 ,this is1 in a general way1 the position of the strata of which plains and plateaux are composed4 ,but in the longer and comparatively narrow mountain regions that traverse each of the great continents1 forming1 as it were1 backbones to them1 the undulations are very much more frequent1 narrower1 and higher4 ,sometimes the rocks have been thrown into huge open waves1 or the folds are closely crowded together1 so that the strata stand on their ends1 or are even completely overturned1 and thus their proper order of succession is reversed1 and the older ones actually lie on the top of the newer ones4 ,as we approach a great mountain-chain we observe many minor ridges and smaller chains running roughly parallel with it1 and1 as it were1 foreshadowing the great folds met with in the centre of the chain and among its highest peaks4 ,these small folds become sharper and closer the nearer we get to the main chain1 and evidently were formed by the same movements that uplifted the higher ranges beyond2 but the force was not so great4 ,thus we find the great ,alpine chain flanked to the north by the smaller ranges of the ,jura ,mountains2 and on the south1 side of the ,himalayas we find similar smaller ranges of hills4 ,ruskin thus describes his impression of the ,jura ranges1 which he very aptly compares with a swell on the sea far away from a storm1 the storm being represented by the wild sea of ,alpine mountains3-- ,among the hours of his life to which the writer looks back with peculiar gratitude1 as having been marked with more than ordinary fulness of joy or clearness of teaching1 is one passed1 now some years ago1 near time of sunset1 among the masses of pine forest which skirt the course of the ,ain1 above the village of ,champagnole1 in the ,jura4 ,it is a spot which has all the solemnity1 with none of the savageness1 of the ,alps2 where there is a sense of a great power beginning to be manifested in the earth1 and of a deep and majestic concord in the rise of the long low lines of piny hills1--the first utterance of those mighty mountain symphonies1 soon to be more loudly lifted and wildly broken along the battlements of the ,alps4 ,but their strength is as yet restrained2 and the far-reaching ridges of pastoral mountain succeed each other1 like the long and sighing swell which moves over quiet waters from some far-off stormy sea4 ,and there is a deep tenderness pervading that vast monotony4 ,the destructive forces and the stern expression of the central ranges are alike withdrawn4 ,no frost-ploughed1 dust-encumbered paths of ancient glacier fret the soft ,jura pastures2 no splintered heaps of ruin break the fair ranks of her forests2 no pale1 defiled1 or furious rivers rend their rude and changeful ways among her rocks4 ,patiently1 eddy by eddy1 the clear green streams wind along their well-known beds2 and under the dark quietness of the undisturbed pines there spring up1 year by year1 such company of joyful flowers as ,i know not the like among all the blessings of the earth4 ,long faults1 or fractures1 where the strata have been first bent and then broken1 and afterwards have been forced up or have slid down hundreds or even thousands of feet1 are very numerous in mountain-ranges2 and by suddenly bringing quite a different set of rocks to the surface1 these faults cause considerable difficulty to the geologist1 as he goes over the ground and endeavours to trace the positions of the different rocks4 ,in these vast folds it sometimes happens that portions of older 7and lower7 strata are caught up and so embedded among those of newer rocks4 ,it will therefore be readily perceived that to unravel the geological structure of a great mountain-chain is no easy task4 ,we need not then be surprised if in some cases the arrangement of the rocks of mountains is not thoroughly understood4 ,the wonder is1 when we think of the numerous difficulties which the geologist encounters1--the arduous ascents1 the precipices1 glaciers1 snowfields obscuring the rocks from his view1 the overlying soil of the lower parts1 and the steep crests and dangerous ridges that separate the snowfields1--that so much has already been discovered in this difficult branch of geology4 ,however1 the general arrangement of the rocks of which many mountain-chains are composed has been satisfactorily made out in not a few cases4 ,let us look into some of these and see what has been discovered4 ,you will remember the structure of the ,weald1 described in chap4 vii41 pp4 #bce-bch1 and how we showed that a great low arch of chalk strata has been entirely removed over that area1 so that at the present time only its ends are seen forming the escarpments of the ,north and ,south ,downs4 ,this area1 then1 is now a great open valley1 or rather a gently undulating plain enclosed by low chalk hills4 ,now1 an arch of this kind is called an anticline1 and it might have been expected that it would have remained more or less unbroken to the present day4 ,why1 then1 has it suffered destruction8 ,in the first place1 chalk is a soft rock1 and one that rain water can dissolve2 but more than that1 its arch-like structure was against it1 and its chance of preservation was decidedly small4 ,in architecture the arch is the most firm and stable structure that can be made2 but not so with strata1 and this is the reason4 ,such an arch was not made of separate blocks1 closely fitting and firmly cemented together2 on the contrary1 the arch was stretched and heaved up from below4 ,it therefore must have been more or less cracked up2 for rocks are apt to split when bent1 although when deeply buried under a great thickness of overlying rocks1 they will bend very considerably without snapping4 ,but this was not the case here4 ,and so the forces of denudation set to work upon an already somewhat broken mass of rock4 ,try to picture to yourself this old low arch of chalk as it was when it first appeared as dry land4 ,probably some of it had already been planed away by the waves of the sea1 and what was left was by no means well calculated to withstand the action of the agents of denudation4 ,if you look back to the figure1 you will see the dotted lines showing the former outline of this anticline1 or arch1 and you perceive at once that the strata must have been sloping outwards away from the middle4 ,now1 this one fact greatly influenced its fate1 for an anticline cannot be regarded as a strong or stable arrangement of strata4 ,it is easy to see why2 suppose a little portion were cut away on one side at its base by some stream4 ,it is clear that a kind of overhanging cliff would be left1 and blocks of chalk would sooner or later come rolling down into the valley of the little stream4 ,when these had fallen1 they would leave an inclined plane down which others would follow2 and this would continue to take place until the top of the arch was reached4 ,the same reasoning applies to the other side4 ,it is very seldom that arches1 or anticlines1 can last for a long time4 ,the outward slope of the strata and their broken condition are against them4 ,but when the rocks dip inwards1 to form a kind of trough or basin1 it is just the opposite4 ,such basins are known as synclines2 and a structure of this kind can be shown to be much more stable and permanent than an anticline4 ,the strata1 instead of being stretched out and cracked open1 have been squeezed together4 ,it is very important to bear this in mind1 and to remember how differently anticlines and synclines are affected2 for this simple rule is illustrated over and over again in mountain-ranges3-- ,anticlines1 being unstable1 are worn away until they become valleys4 ,synclines1 being stable1 are left and frequently form mountains4 ,now look at the section through the ,appalachian chain 7see ,fig4 #a71 and you will see that each hill is a syncline1 and the valleys between them are anticlines4 ,this happens so frequently that almost every range of mountains furnishes examples2 but as every rule has its exceptions1 so this one has1 and we may find an example in the case of the ,jura ,mountains outside the ,alps4 ,it will be seen from the section that the ridges are formed by anticlines1 and the valleys by synclines4 ,but on looking a little more closely1 we see that the tops of the former have suffered a considerable amount of erosion 7as indicated by the dotted lines74 ,now1 the reason why they have not been completely worn down into valleys is that these rocks were once covered by others overlying them1 so that this outer covering of rocks had first to be removed before they could be attacked by rain and rivers4 ,these wave-like ridges of the ,jura are being slowly worn down2 and the time must come when they will be carved out into valleys1 while the synclines between them will stand out as hills4 ,it is simply a question of time4 ,but many mountain-chains have a far more complicated structure than that of the ,appalachians1 and consist of violently crumpled and folded strata 7see section of ,mont ,blanc1 ,fig4 #c74 ,illustration3 ,,sections ,,of ,,mountain-,,ranges1 ,,showing ,,their ,,structure ,,and ,,the ,,amount ,,of ,,rock ,,worn ,,away4 ,it might naturally be asked how such sections are made1 considering that we cannot cut through mountains in order to find out their structure2 but ,nature cuts them up for us1 gashing their sides with ravines and valleys carved out by streams and rivers1 and in steep cliffs and precipices we find great natural sections that serve our purpose almost equally well4 ,sometimes1 however1 we get considerable help from quarries and railway-cuttings4 ,take1 for example1 one of the synclinal folds in the ,appalachian chain4 ,its structure is ascertained somewhat as follows4 ,suppose you began to ascend the hill1 armed with a good map1 a pocket-compass1 a clinometer1--a little instrument for measuring the angles at which strata dip or slope1--and with a bag on your back for specimens of rocks and fossils4 ,at the base of the hill you might notice at starting a certain layer of rock--say a limestone--exposed by the side of the stream4 ,it will be so many feet thick1 and will contain such-and-such fossils1 by means of which you can identify it2 and it will dip into the interior of the hill at a certain angle1 as measured by the clinometer4 ,as you rise higher1 this rock may be succeeded by sandstone of a certain thickness1 and likewise dipping into the hill2 and so with the other rocks that follow1 until you reach the summit4 ,by the time you have reached the top of the hill1 you know the nature of all the rocks up that side1 and the way they dip2 and all your observations are carefully recorded in a notebook4 ,then you begin to descend on the other side1 and in so doing you find the same set of rocks coming out at the surface all in the same order2 only this order is now reversed1 because you are following them downwards instead of upwards4 ,of course they are hidden in many places by soil and loose stones2 but that does not matter1 because at other places they are exposed to view1 especially along ravines1 carved out of the mountain-side4 ,also rocks weather so differently that they can often be distinguished even at a distance4 ,in this kind of way you can find out the structure of a mountain1 and draw a section of it when you get home1 by following out and completing the curves of the strata as indicated at or near the surface2 and you find they fit in nicely together4 ,fig4 #c 7see page #cjg7 represents what is believed to be the general arrangement of the rocks of ,mont ,blanc4 ,the section is greatly simplified1 because many minor folds and all the faults1 or dislocations1 are omitted4 ,now1 in this case we have an example of what is known as the fan-structure4 ,it will be seen at once that the folds have been considerably squeezed together2 and the big fold in the centre indicated by dotted lines has been so much compressed in the lower part--that is1 in what is now ,mont ,blanc--that its sides were brought near to each other until they actually sloped inwards instead of outwards4 ,you may easily imitate this structure by taking a sheet of paper1 laying it on the table1 and then1 putting one hand on each side of it1 cause it to rise up in a central fold by pressing your hands towards each other4 ,notice carefully what happens4 ,first1 you get a low arch1 or anticline1 like that of the ,weald4 ,then as you press it more1 the upward fold becomes sharper and narrower2 then continue pressing it1 and you will find the fold bulging out at the top1 but narrowing in below until you get this fan-structure4 ,this is just what has happened in the case of the ,alps4 ,a tremendous lateral pressure applied to the rocks heaved them up and down into great and small folds1 and in some places1 as in ,mont ,blanc1 fan-structure was produced4 ,imagine the top of the fan removed1 and you get what looks like a syncline1 but is really the lower part of a very much compressed anticline4 ,now1 it is believed that all mountain-ranges have been enormously squeezed by lateral pressure2 and the little experiment with the sheet of paper furnishes a good illustration of what has happened4 ,a table-cloth lying on a smooth table will serve equally well4 ,you can easily push it into a series of folds2 notice how they come nearer as you continue pushing4 ,you see also that in this way you get long narrow ridges with valleys between4 ,these represent the original anticlines and synclines of mountain-ranges1 which in course of time are carved out1 as explained above1 until the synclines become hills and the anticlines valleys4 ,every mountain-chain must originally have had long ridges like these1 which in some cases determined the original directions of the streams and valleys2 and it is easy to see now why mountain-chains are long and narrow1 why their strata have been so greatly folded1 and why we get in every mountain-chain long ranges of hills roughly parallel with each other 7see chapter vi41 pages #agg-agh74 ,the reason why granite1 gneiss1 and crystalline schists are frequently found in the central and highest peaks of mountain-ranges is that we have the oldest and lowest rocks exposed to the surface1 on account of the enormous amount of denudation that has taken place4 ,there may be great masses of granite underlying all mountain-chains2 but it is only exposed to view when a very great deal of overlying rock has been removed4 ,it was thought at one time that granite was the oldest of all rocks1 and that mountain-chains had been upheaved by masses of granite pushing them up from below2 but we know now that both these ideas are mistaken4 ,some granites are certainly old geologically1 but others are of later date2 and it is certain that granite was not the upheaving agent1 but more likely it followed the overlying rocks as they were heaved up by lateral pressure1 because the upward bending of the rocks would tend to relieve the enormous pressure down below1 and so the granite would rise up4 ,illustration3 ,,mont ,,blanc4 ,,snowfields1 ,,glaciers4 ,,and ,,streams4 ,we now pass on to a very different example1 where mountains are the result of huge fractures and displacements2 namely1 the numerous and nearly parallel ranges of the ,great ,basin1 of ,western ,arizona1 and ,northern ,mexico4 ,the region between the ,sierra ,nevada and the ,wahsatch ,mountains1 extending from ,idaho to ,mexico1 is composed of very gently folded rocks deeply buried in places by extensive outflows of lava4 ,now1 in this case the earth-movements caused great cracks1 or splits1 doubtless attended by fearful earthquakes4 ,we find here a series of nearly parallel fractures1 hundreds of miles long1 and fifteen to thirty miles apart4 ,these traverse the entire region1 dividing the rocks into long narrow blocks4 ,there is evidence to show that the whole region was once much more elevated than it is now1 and has subsided thousands of feet4 ,during the subsidence along these lines of fracture1 or faults1 the blocks were tilted sideways2 and the uptilted blocks1 carved by denudation1 form the isolated ranges of this very interesting region 7see illustration1 chap4 viii41 p4 #bgc1 ,fig4 #a74 ,the faults are indicated by arrows pointing downwards2 and the dotted lines indicate the erosion of the uptilted blocks4 ,but this must be regarded as a very exceptional case1 for we do not know of any other mountain-range formed quite in the same way4 ,why the strata1 although only slightly bent1 should have snapped so violently in this case1 while in other mountain-ranges they have suffered much more bending without so much fracture and displacement1 we cannot tell1 but can only suggest that possibly it was because they were not buried up under an enormous thickness of overlying rocks1 which would exert an enormous downward pressure1 and so tend to prevent fracturing4 ,there are many other deeply interesting questions with regard to the upheaval of mountains which at present cannot be answered4 ,we have already learned to alter our preconceived ideas about the stability and immovable nature of the earth's crust1 and have seen that it is in reality most unstable1 and is undergoing continual movements1 both great and small4 ,but here we have an equally startling discovery1 which quite upsets all our former ideas of the hard and unyielding nature of the rocks composing the earth's crust2 for we find that not only can they be bent into innumerable folds and little puckerings1 but that in some cases they have been drawn out and squeezed as if they were so much soft putty4 ,the imagination almost fails to grasp such facts as these4 ,of late years geologists in ,switzerland and in ,great ,britain have discovered that in some parts of mountains rocks have been enormously distorted and crushed1 so that they have assumed very different states from those in which they were made1 and curious mineral changes have taken place under the influence of this crushing4 ,in the very complicated region of the ,northwest ,highlands of ,sutherland and ,ross1 the structure of which has only lately been explained1 some wonderful discoveries of this nature have been made4 ,certain of the crystalline schists found there have been formed by the crushing down and rearrangement of older rocks that once presented a very different appearance4 ,in this district1 where the rocks have been squeezed by enormous lateral pressure1 the dislocations sometimes have assumed the form of inclined or undulating planes1 the rocks above which have been actually pushed over those below1 and in some cases the horizontal displacement amounts to many miles4 ,not only have the rocks been ruptured1 and older1 deep-seated masses been torn up and driven bodily over younger strata 7that once were above them71 but there has been at the same time such an amount of internal shearing as to crush the rocks into a finely divided material1 and to give rise to a streaky arrangement of the broken particles1 closely resembling the flow-structure of a lava4 ,in the crushed material new minerals have been sometimes so developed as to produce a true schist4#cb #cb ,geikie4 ,,chapter ,x4 ,,the ,,ages ,,of ,,mountains1 ,,and ,,other ,,questions4 ,o ,earth1 what changes hast thou seen6 ,,tennyson4 ,it might naturally be asked at what period in the world's primeval or geological history some particular mountain-range was upheaved2 whether it is younger or older than another one perhaps not very far away2 and again1 whether the mountain-chains of the world have been uplifted all at once1 or whether the process of elevation was prolonged and gradual8 ,questions such as these are deeply interesting1 and present to the geologist some of the most fascinating problems to be met with in the whole range of this science4 ,and though at first sight they might seem hopelessly beyond our reach1 yet even here the prospect is by no means unpromising2 and it is quite possible to show that they can be answered to some extent4 ,here we shall find our illustration of the cathedral 7see chapter v41 pages #adc-adg7 holds good once more4 ,it is perhaps hardly necessary to explain that by looking at a ,gothic cathedral one can say at what period or periods it was built4 ,perhaps it has a ,norman nave1 with great pillars and rounded arches4 ,then the chancel might be ,early ,english1 with pointed windows and deep mouldings1 and other features that serve to mark the style of the building1 and therefore its date1--because different styles prevailed at different periods4 ,other parts might contain work easily recognised as belonging to the ,perpendicular period4 ,now1 as there have been periods in the history of architecture and art1 so there have been periods in the history of our earth4 ,what these periods were1 and how we have learned to recognise them1 we must first very briefly describe4#cc #cc ,for a fuller account see the writer's ,autobiography of the ,earth4 ,there are two simple rules by which the age of an ordinary sedimentary rock may be ascertained4 ,this is fixed 7#a7 ,by its position with regard to others2 7#b7 ,by the nature of its embedded animal or vegetable remains1 known as fossils4 ,these rules may easily be illustrated by a reference to the methods of the antiquary4 ,for instance1 suppose you were going to build a house1 and the foundations had just been dug out2 you might on examining them find several old layers of soil1 showing that the site or neighbourhood had been formerly occupied4 ,you might find in one layer stone implements1 in another ,roman or early ,british pottery1 and yet again portions of brick or stonework1 together with tools or articles of domestic use1 belonging1 say1 to the time of ,queen ,elizabeth4 ,now1 which of these layers would be the oldest8 ,it is quite clear that the lowest layers must have been there the longest1 because the others accumulated on the top of them4 ,the explorations made of late years under ,jerusalem have led to the interesting discovery that the modern city is built up on the remains of thirteen former cities of ,jerusalem1 all of which have been destroyed in one way or another4 ,here1 again1 it is quite clear that the oldest layer of dbris must be that which lies at the bottom1 and the newest will be the one on the top4 ,again1 you know that the ,stone ,age in ,britain came before the ,roman occupation4 ,those old stone implements were made by a barbarous race1 who knew very little of agriculture or the arts of civilisation4 ,then in succeeding centuries various arts were introduced1 many relics of which are found buried in the soil2 and hence1 since different styles of art and architecture prevailed at different periods1 the works of art or industry embedded in any old layers of soil serve to fix the date of those layers4 ,these layers of soil and dbris correspond to the layers or strata of the sedimentary rocks1 in which the different chapters of the world's history are recorded4 ,geology is only another kind of history2 and the same principles which guide the archologist searching buried cities also guide the geologist in reading the stony record4 ,as the illustrious ,hutton said1 ,the ruins of an older world are visible in the present state of our planet4 ,the successive layers of ruin in this case are to be seen in the great series of the stratified rocks2 and we may lay it down as an axiom that the lowest strata are the oldest1 unless by some subsequent disturbance the order should have been reversed1 which1 fortunately1 is a rare occurrence1 though examples are to be found in some mountain-chains with violent foldings4 ,but it often happens that neither the strata which should come above nor those that lie below can be seen4 ,then our second rule comes in3 ,we can determine the age of the rock in question by its fossils4 ,the reason of this has perhaps already been guessed by the reader4 ,it is that as different kinds of plants and animals have prevailed at different periods of the world's history1 so there have been styles1 or fashions1 in creation1 as well as in art4 ,at one geological period certain curious types of fishes flourished which are now almost extinct1 only a few old-fashioned survivals being found in one or two out-of-the-way places4 ,at another period certain types of reptiles flourished vigorously1 and were the leaders in their day2 but they have altogether vanished and become extinct4 ,so one type after another has appeared on the scene1 played its humble part in the great drama of life2 and then--exit6 another takes its place4 ,in the oldest and lowest of the series of rocks we find no certain trace of life at all4 ,in the next series we find only lowly creatures1 such as shell-fish1 corals1 and crab-like animals that have no backbone4 ,in a higher group of rocks fishes appear for the first time4 ,later on1 we come across the remains of amphibious creatures for the first time4 ,then follows 7after a long unrecorded interval7 an era when reptiles and birds existed in great numbers4 ,after another long interval we come to strata containing many and diverse remains of mammals or quadrupeds4 ,so we have an ,age of ,fishes1 an ,age of ,reptiles1 and an ,age of ,mammals4 ,some tribes of these creatures died out1 but others lived on to the present day4 ,thus we see that there has been a continuous progress in life as the world grew older1 for higher types kept coming in4 ,to the geologist fossils are of the greatest possible use1 since they help him to determine the age of a particular set of strata1 for certain kinds of fossils belong to certain rocks1 and to them only4 ,but the classification of the stratified rocks has been carried farther than this4 ,practical geologists1 working in the field1 use fossils as their chief guide in working out the subdivisions of a group of rocks1 for certain genera and species of old plants and animals are found to belong to certain small groups of strata4 ,in this way a definite order of succession has been established once for all2 and1 except in the case of inverted strata already alluded to1 this order is invariably found to hold good4 ,this great discovery of the order of succession of the ,british stratified rocks1 established by their fossil contents1 is due to ,william ,smith1 the father of ,english geology4 ,after exploring the whole of ,england1 he published in #ahae a geological map1 the result of his extraordinary labours4 ,before then people had no idea of a definite and regular succession of rocks extending over the country1 capable of being recognised to some extent by the nature of the rocks themselves1--whether sandstones1 clays1 or limestones1 etc41 but chiefly by their own fossils4 ,they thought the different kinds of rocks were scattered promiscuously up and down the face of the country2 but now we know that they do not show themselves in this haphazard way1 but have definite relations to each other1 like the many volumes of one large book4 ,by combining the two principles referred to above1 geologists have arranged the great series of ,british stratified rocks into certain groups1 each indicating a long period of time4 ,first1 they are roughly divided into three large groups1 marking the three great eras into which geological time is divided4 ,secondly1 these eras are further divided into certain periods4 ,these periods are again divided into epochs1 indicated by local divisions of their rocks4 ,in this way we have something like a historical table4 ,omitting the small epochs of time1 this table is as follows1 in descending order3-- ,table of the ,british ,stratified ,rocks4 ,,era4 ,,period4 ,,prevailing ,,type4 ,recent4 ,cainozoic1 ,pleistocene1 or or ,tertiary4 ,quaternary4 ,mammals4 ,pliocene4 ,miocene4 ,eocene4 ,cretaceous4 ,mesozoic1 ,neocomian4 or ,jurassic4 ,reptiles4 ,secondary4 ,triassic4 ,permian4 ,carboniferous4 ,fishes4 ,devonian1 and ,palozoic1 ,old ,red ,sandstone4 or ,silurian4 ,creatures without ,primary4 ,cambrian4 a backbone ,archan1#cd 7invertebrates74 or ,pre-,cambrian4 #cd ,the ,archan rocks are frequently placed in a separate group below the ,palozoic4 ,the total thickness of all these rocks has been estimated at about one hundred thousand feet1 or not far from twenty miles4 ,these names have been given partly from the region in which the rocks occur1 partly from the nature of the rocks themselves1 and partly for other reasons4 ,thus the ,old ,red ,sandstone is so called1 because it generally1 though not always1 appears as a dark red sandstone4 ,but the ,silurian rocks1 which we find in ,north ,wales1 receive their name from the ,silures1 an ancient ,welsh tribe2 the ,cambrian rocks take theirs from ,cambria1 the old name for ,north ,wales4 ,the ,cretaceous rocks are partly composed of chalk1 for which the ,latin word is creta2 and so on4 ,the terms ,palozoic1 ,mesozoic1 and ,cainozoic mean ancient life1 middle life1 and recent or new life1 thus indicating that as time went on the various types of life that flourished on the earth became less old-fashioned1 and more like those prevailing at the present time4 ,these used to be called ,primary1 ,secondary1 and ,tertiary2 but the terms were unfortunate1 because the primary rocks1 as then known1 were not the first1 or oldest4 ,we have therefore included the ,archan rocks1 since discovered1 in this primary group4 ,only one fossil has been found in these rocks1 and that is a doubtful one2 hence they are sometimes called ,azoic1 that is1 without life4 ,the ,mesozoic rocks are1 as it were1 the records of the middle ages in the world's history2 while the ,palozoic take us back to a truly primeval time4 ,we have now learned how the geological age of any group of rocks may be determined4 ,thus1 if a series of rocks of unknown age can be shown to rest on undoubtedly ,silurian rocks in one place1 and in another place to be overlaid or covered by undoubtedly ,carboniferous rocks1 they will probably belong to the ,old ,red ,sandstone ,period4 ,if afterwards we find that they contain some of the well-known fossils of that period1 the question of their age is settled at once4 ,but we want more evidence than this4 ,suppose1 now1 we find somewhere on the flanks of a mountain-range a series of ,permian and ,triassic rocks1 resting almost horizontally on disturbed and folded ,carboniferous strata4 ,does not that at once prove that the upheaval took place before the ,permian ,period8 ,clearly it does1 because the ,permian rocks have evidently not been disturbed thereby4 ,so now we can fix the date of our range of hills2 namely1 after the ,carboniferous ,period and before the ,permian ,period4 ,it is by such reasoning that the age of our ,pennine range of hills1 extending from the north of ,england into ,derbyshire1 has been fixed2 for the ,permian and ,triassic strata lie undisturbed on the upheaved arch of ,carboniferous rocks of which this chain is composed4 ,its structure is that of a broken and much denuded anticline1 which stands up to form a line of hills only because the ,carboniferous limestone is so much harder than the coal measures1 or coal-bearing rocks1 on each side of it1 that it has not been worn away so fast4 ,in time1 this great anticline will be entirely worn away like that of the ,weald4 ,it is called the ,great ,mountain ,limestone1 because it so often rises up to form high ground4 ,the ,mendip ,hills in ,somersetshire are of about the same date1 and they too are largely composed of this great limestone formation4 ,of course1 a certain amount of up and down movement took place after the hills were upheaved1 otherwise the ,permian and ,triassic rocks could not have been deposited on their sides2 but these movements were slight and of a more general kind than those by which strata are thrown into folds4 ,the main upheaval1 by which the rocks now forming the ,highlands of ,scotland were lifted up and contorted1 took place after the ,lower ,silurian ,period1 and before that of the ,old ,red ,sandstone2 and there is clear evidence that even before the latter period they had not only been greatly altered1 or metamorphosed1 by subterranean heat1 but that they had suffered enormous denudation4 ,and the work of carving out these mountains has gone on ever since2 for even in ,old ,red ,sandstone times they were probably not entirely covered by water4 ,the ,highland ,mountains are therefore older than the ,pennine range4 ,geologically ,scotland belongs in great part to ,scandinavia2 and the long line of ,scandinavian ,mountains is a continuation of the ,highlands1 and so is of the same age4 ,mountain-chains and hill-ranges have been upheaved at various geological periods2 and some are very old1 while others are much younger4 ,turning to the southeast of ,england1 we find the ranges of chalk hills forming the ,north and ,south ,downs 7see page #bcg74 ,as explained previously1 these owe their existence to the upheaval and subsequent denudation of the low arch1 or anticline1 of the ,weald4 ,they are called escarpments1 because they are like lines of cliffs that are being gradually cut back4 ,now1 it is clear that these hills are much newer than either of those we have just considered4 ,look at the table on page #cbd1 and you will see that the ,cretaceous rocks 7chalk1 etc47 belong to the ,mesozoic era4 ,the chalk was the last rock formed during the ,cretaceous ,period4 ,so the ,wealden arch must have been heaved up after the chalk was formed2 that is1 ages and ages later than the date of the ,pennine range or the ,scotch ,highlands4 ,from other evidences it has been shown that this anticline was heaved up in the early part of the ,cainozoic ,era1 perhaps during the ,miocene ,period4 ,let us now take the case of the ,alps4 ,and here we have an instructive example of a great mountain system formed by repeated movements during a long succession of geological periods4 ,we cannot say that they were entirely raised up at any one time in the world's past history4 ,in the centre of this great range we find a series of igneous and metamorphic rocks1 such as granite1 gneiss1 and crystalline schists4 ,some of these may belong to the very oldest period1--namely1 the ,archan2 others are probably ,palozoic and ,cainozoic deposits greatly altered by heat and pressure4 ,the ground from ,savoy to ,austria began to be an area of disturbance and upheaval towards the close of the ,palozoic ,era1 if not before2 so that crystalline schists and ,carboniferous strata were raised up to form elevated land around which ,permian conglomerates and shingle-beds were formed1--as on the seashore at the present day4 ,during the early part of the ,mesozoic ,era local fractures and certain up and down movements occurred4 ,after this there was a long period of subsidence1 during which a series of strata known as ,olites and ,cretaceous were deposited on the floor of an old sea4 ,towards the close of this long era1 a fresh upheaval took place along the present line of the ,alps1--an upheaval that was prolonged into the ,eocene ,period4 ,it was during this latter period that a very extensive formation known as the ,nummulitic limestone was formed in a sea that covered a large part of ,europe and ,asia4 ,we have already referred 7see chap4 v41 pp4 #afi-aga7 to the way in which limestones have been formed4 ,nummulites are little shells that were formed by tiny shell-fish4 ,but after this1 the greatest upheaval and disturbance took place1--an upheaval to which the ,alps as we now see them are chiefly due4 ,by this means the older ,cainozoic strata1 once lying horizontally on the floor of the sea1 were raised up1 together with older rocks1 to form dry land1 and not only raised up1 but crumpled1 dislocated1 and in some cases turned upside down4 ,so intense was the compression to which the ,eocene rocks were subjected that they were converted into a hard and even crystalline state4 ,it seems almost incredible that these highly altered rocks which look so ancient are of the same date as our ,london clay and the soft ,eocene deposits of the south of ,england2 but in our country the movement that raised up those strata was of the most feeble and gentle kind compared to the violent disturbances that took place in ,switzerland4 ,and here we may point out that the ,alps are only a portion of a vast chain of mountains stretching right across ,europe and ,asia in a general east and west direction1 beginning with the ,pyrenees and passing through the ,alps1 the ,carpathians1 the ,caucasus1 and the range of ,elbruz to the ,hindoo-,koosh and the high plateau of ,pamir1 called the roof of the world1 which stands like a huge fortress1 fifteen thousand feet high4 ,thence it passes to the still higher tracts of ,thibet1 great plains exceeding in height the highest summits of the ,alps1 being enclosed between the lofty ramparts of the ,himalayas on the south and the ,kuen-,lun ,mountains on the north2 and thence the mountain wall is prolonged in the ,yuen-,ling1 ,in-,shan1 ,khin-,gan1 and other ranges till it finally passes to the ,pacific ,ocean at ,behring's ,strait4 ,all these ranges are1 as it were1 the backbone of the great continental plateau of the ,old ,world1 and doubtless are chiefly due to those earth-movements by means of which the ,alps were upheaved4 ,the last grand movement1 which raised the ,mont ,blanc range1 was probably rather later1 and seems to have taken place as late as the ,pliocene ,period4 ,at the present day no great movements are taking place in the ,alps2 but now and then earthquakes visit this region1 and serve to remind us that the process of mountain-making is still slowly going on4 ,probably there have been times in the history of all these mountain-ranges when movements took place of a more violent and convulsive kind than anything with which we are familiar at the present day2 and the age we live in may be one of comparative repose4 ,this is of course somewhat a matter of speculation2 and we only allude to it because there has been a tendency on the part of some to carry the theory of uniformity in all geological operations much farther than ,hutton or ,lyell ever intended4 ,but at the same time there is no need to go back to the old teaching of sudden catastrophes and violent revolutions4 ,we only wish to avoid either of these two extremes and to take a safe middle course4 ,how rapidly some of these great earth-movements took place it is impossible at present to say2 but in several cases it can be shown that they were quite slow1 as indicated by the testimony of the rivers4 ,thus1 the rise of the great ,uintah ,mountains of the ,western ,states was so slow and gradual that the ,green ,river1 which flowed across the site of the range1 so far from being turned aside as they rose up1 has actually been able to deepen its caon as fast as the mountains were upheaved4 ,so that the two processes1 as it were1 kept pace with each other1 and the river went on cutting out its gorges at the same time that the ground over which it flowed was gently upheaved2 and as the land rose the river flowed faster1 and therefore acquired more power to cut and deepen its channel4 ,this is a valuable piece of evidence2 but in this case we have only a few big broad folds1 instead of the violent folding seen in the ,alps4 ,however1 certain ,pliocene strata lying on the southern flanks of the ,himalayas show that the rivers still run in the same lines as they occupied before the last great upheaval took place4 ,we have seen how the substance of the mountains was slowly manufactured by means of such quiet and gentle operations as may be witnessed at the present day2 how the rivers of old brought down their burdens as they do now1 and flung them into the sea2 how the sea spread them out very slowly and compacted them into level layers1 to form1 in process of time1 the hard rocky framework of the plateaux1 hills1 and mountains of the world2 how vast marine accumulations were also slowly manufactured through the agency of countless generations of humble organisms1 subtracting carbonate of lime from sea water to form the limestones of future ages2 how by slow earth-movements these marine deposits were reared up into dry land2 how they have frequently been penetrated by molten rocky matter from below1 which occasionally forced its way up to the surface and gave rise to various volcanic eruptions1 by means of which the sedimentary rocks were often considerably baked and hardened1 and new fissures filled up with valuable metallic ores and precious stones2 how lava-flows and great deposits of volcanic ash were mingled with these sedimentary rocks4 ,then we endeavoured to follow the history of these rocky layers after their upheaval1 and learn how they are affected by the ceaseless operations of rain and rivers and other agents of destruction1 so that finally the upheaved ridges of the lands are carved out into all those wonderful features of crag and pinnacle and precipice that give the mountains their present shapes and outlines4 ,all this we were able to account for1 without the aid of any imaginary or unnatural causes4 ,and1 lastly1 we have seen that even where such causes might seem at first almost indispensable1--when mountains tell us of mighty internal forces crumpling1 folding1 and fracturing their rocky framework1--yet even there we can account for what we see without supposing them to have been torn and tossed about by any very violent convulsions4 ,illustration3 ,,mountain ,,in ,,the ,,yosemite ,,valley4 ,although the question of the cause1 or causes1 of earth-movements1 whereby continents are upheaved1 and the contorting1 folding1 and crumpling of the rocks of mountains produced1 is not at present thoroughly explained1 it may perhaps be worth our while to consider briefly some of the views that have been put forward on this difficult subject4 ,the words upheaval and elevation1 in reference to movements of the earth's surface1 are somewhat misleading1 but are used for want of better terms4 ,they would seem to imply that the force which produced mountains was a kind of upward push2 whereas1 in most cases1 and perhaps in all1 the force1 whatever it was1 did not act in an upward direction4 ,so it should be understood that we employ these terms only to indicate that the rocks have somehow been carried up to a higher level1 and not as suggesting how the force acted by which they were raised4 ,it seems pretty clear that in the case of mountain-chains1 at least1 the force acted in a horizontal direction1 as a kind of side-thrust4 ,this we endeavoured to illustrate in chapter ix4 by means of a simple experiment with a sheet of paper2 and it was shown how folds similar to those of which ,mont ,blanc is composed could be imitated by simply pressing the sides of a sheet of paper inwards with one's two hands as it lies on a table4 ,such lateral pressure1 it is thought by many1 must be caused by the shrinking of the lower and hotter parts of the earth's crust as they cool1 leaving the outer crust unsupported1 so that it gradually settles down onto a smaller surface below1 and in so doing must inevitably be wrinkled and throw itself into a series of folds 7see chapter vi41 page #bjd74 ,the interior of the earth is hotter than the outside2 and since there is good reason to think that the whole earth was once upon a time in a highly heated and perhaps half molten condition1 we are compelled to believe that it always has been1 and still is1 a cooling globe4 ,now1 almost all known substances are found to contract more or less on cooling2 and so if the materials of which the earth is mainly composed are at all similar in their nature and properties to those which we find on its surface1 it follows that the earth must be contracting at the same time that it is cooling1 just as a red-hot poker will contract on being taken out of the fire4 ,moreover1 we find that hot bodies contract faster than those that are merely warm1 so that a red-hot poker contracts more during the first few minutes after it is taken out of the fire than it does after it has passed the red-hot stage4 ,hence it is easy to see that the interior portions of the earth1 which are hotter1 must be contracting at a greater rate than its external parts1 for they evidently have very little heat to lose4 ,this may seem rather puzzling to the reader at first2 for it might be argued that the heat from below must pass through the external layers1 or crust1 as it is often called4 ,but it should be remembered that this is not the only way in which the earth loses heat4 ,think of the vast amount of heat given out from the earth every year by volcanic eruptions1 and you will see at once that much of the cooling takes place in this way1 and not as a direct flow of heat from the interior1 as in the case of the poker4 ,a single big lava-stream flowing out from a volcano1 and cooling on the surface of the earth1 represents so much heat lost forever2 and so do the clouds of steam emitted during every eruption2 so1 again1 do even the hot springs that are continually bringing up warm water4 ,if1 then1 the lower portions of the earth are slowly contracting1 they must tend to leave the outer portions of the crust unsupported1 so that they would be compelled by their own enormous weight to settle down4 ,now1 we know that something like this happens in coal mines2 and as long passages are hollowed out below1 the ground begins to creep1 or slowly sink4 ,think what would be the effect of a slow sinking of any portion of the earth down towards the centre2 it would inevitably be curved up and down into numerous folds1 as it endeavoured to get itself onto a smaller space1 much in the same way that a table-cloth1 when thrown onto a table in a kind of arch1 settles down in a series of waves1 or folds4 ,and this1 it is thought1 is the way in which it happens that the pressure comes1 as we said just now1 sideways1 instead of from below upwards4 ,it is on this theory that many geologists account for the enormous side-pressure to which rocks have in many cases been subjected4 ,the evidences of such pressure are many4 ,in some cases fossils have been thereby pulled out of shape and appear considerably distorted2 in others1 even hard quartz pebbles have been considerably elongated 7see chap4 ix41 pp4 #cae-caf74 ,then again1 we have the little crumplings of all sizes so frequently seen in mica-schists4 ,and lastly1 the peculiar property that slates possess of splitting up into thin sheets is found to be due to the same cause2 namely1 lateral pressure4 ,slates were originally formed of soft dark mud1 and on being subsequently squeezed1 by earth-movements1 have assumed a structure known as cleavage1 whereby their tiny mud-particles were elongated1 and all assumed the same direction1 thus giving to the rock this peculiar property of splitting4 ,it can be proved that the pressure came in a direction opposite to that of the planes of cleavage2 and it is found that the direction of the cleavage corresponds in a general way with the direction1 or trend1 of a mountain-chain which is composed partly of slates1 as in ,north ,wales4 ,and this discovery helps and harmonises with what we have already said about the cause of the folds in mountain-chains1 for the same force1 acting sideways1 produced the cleavage and the folding1 etc4 ,it has been already stated that in a large number of cases a mountain-range has a central axis1 or band1 of granite or other crystalline rock4 ,this led some people to suppose that the granite had been driven up from below1 and in so doing had thrust up the overlying rocks seen on either flank of the chain2 in other words1 they believed granite to have been the upheaving agent4 ,and even now we often find unscientific writers speaking of the volcanic forces of upheaval4 ,having very little idea of the true structure of mountains1 they believed them to consist of a kind of core1 or axis1 of this igneous rock1 with sedimentary rocks sloping away from it on each side4 ,this was a very simple theory of mountain-chains1 but unfortunately it will not bear examination4 ,it takes no notice of the folding which is so characteristic of mountain strata1 and is quite out of agreement with the facts of the case2 so it must be buried among the archives of the past4 ,mountain-chains are now known to have a much more complicated structure than this1--thanks to the labours of many subsequent observers4 ,that illustrious astronomer1 the late ,sir ,john ,herschel1 threw out a bold suggestion on this subject1 which in the light of recent discoveries with regard to the delicate adjustment between the internal and external forces affecting the earth's surface1 is worthy of careful consideration4 ,his idea was that the mere weight of a thick mass of sediment resting on any portion of the earth's crust might cause a certain amount of sinking2 and that this would cause portions on either side to swell up4 ,it is certain that as great deposits of sedimentary materials accumulate on the floor of an ocean1 that floor slowly sinks1 otherwise the sea would become choked up1 and dry land would take its place4 ,now1 it is found that every great mountain-chain consists of many thousands of feet of strata thus formed2 and more than this3 it turns out that a greater thickness of such materials has been formed in regions where we now see mountain-chains than in those continental regions that lie farther away from them4 ,this is an important fact1 which was not known in ,sir ,john ,herschel's time4 ,one striking example may be mentioned here4 ,in the complicated region of the ,appalachian chain the strata are estimated to have a total thickness of eight miles2 while in ,indiana1 where the same strata are nearly horizontal1 they are less than one mile thick4 ,hence it is not impossible that in the mere accumulation1 through long periods of time1 of vast masses of strata many thousands of feet thick1 we may find a potent cause of earth-movements4 ,the marginal regions of oceans1 where most deposition takes place1 seem to undergo slow subsidence1 while the continents seem in most places to be as slowly rising4 ,modern geologists are inclined to think that as denudation wears down a continental surface1 removing from it a great quantity of solid rocky matter 7see chap4 v41 pp4 #afa-afc71 the pressure below is somewhat lessened1 or in other words1 so much weight is taken off2 but that1 on the other hand1 as this extra amount of material accumulates on the bed of a neighbouring ocean the pressure is increased by a corresponding amount1 and so the balance between internal and external forces is upset1 and movements consequently take place4 ,we have already seen that the external parts of the earth are much more subject to movements than might have been expected2 and for our part1 we are willing to believe that in this simple way upheaving forces might be called into play sufficient to account for even the elevation of mountain-chains4 ,for suppose a great mass of strata to continue sinking as they were formed1 for long periods of time2 what seems to follow8 ,the downward movement would go on until a time would come when the strata1 in endeavouring to settle down at a lower level1 would 7as by the contraction theory above explained7 be forced to fold themselves into ridges1 and in this way long strips of them might even be elevated into mountain-ranges4 ,another ingenious idea was suggested by the late ,mr4 ,scrope1 whose work on volcanoes is well known4 ,his idea was that when a large amount of sedimentary material has accumulated on any large area of the bed of the ocean1 it somewhat checks the flow of heat from within1 and therefore the temperature of the rocks forming part of the earth's crust below will be increased1 much in the same manner as a glove checks the escape of heat from the hand and keeps it warm4 ,the consequence of this would be expansion2 and as such expansion would be chiefly in a horizontal direction1 the area would bulge upwards and cause elevation of the strata resting on it4 ,but there are several difficulties which this theory fails to explain4 ,and lastly1 ,professor ,le ,conte1 holding that the contraction theory is unsatisfactory1 accounts for earth-movements of all kinds by supposing that some internal parts of the earth cool and contract faster than others4 ,those parts that cool fastest1 according to this theory1 are those that underlie the oceanic basins or troughs2 while the continental areas1 not cooling so rapidly1 are left standing up in relief4 ,this theory1 which does not seem very satisfactory1 is based upon the idea that some parts of the earth's interior may be capable of conducting heat faster than others4 ,we know that some substances1 like iron1 are good conductors of heat1 while others are bad conductors2 and it is therefore conceivable that heat may be flowing faster along some parts of the earth than along others2 and if so1 there would be differences in the rate of contraction4 ,there are various theories with regard to the nature of the earth's interior4 ,one of these already referred to1 but now antiquated1 supposes our planet to consist of a thin1 solid crust lying on a molten interior1 so that the world would be something like an egg with its thin shell and liquid1 or semi-liquid1 interior4 ,now1 there are grave reasons for refusing to accept this idea4 ,in the first place1 a certain slow movement of the earth known as precession1 because it causes the precession of the equinoctial points on the earth's orbit1 could not possibly take place as it does if the earth's interior were in this loose and molten condition4 ,that is a matter decided by mathematical calculation1 on which we will not dwell further4 ,secondly1 we obtain some very valuable evidence on this abstruse subject from the well-known daily phenomenon of the tides1 caused1 as the reader is probably aware1 by the attractions of the sun and moon2 but much more by the moon1 because she is nearer1 and so exerts a greater pull on the ocean as each part of the world is brought directly under her by the earth's daily rotation on its axis4 ,the waters of our oceans rise up twice each day as they get in a line with the moon1 and then begin to fall again4 ,thus we get that daily ebb and flow seen on our shores4 ,now1 it has been clearly proved by ,sir ,william ,thomson1 and others1 that if any considerable portion of the interior of the earth were in a fluid condition1 it too would rise and fall every day as the ocean does4 ,so we should in that case have a tide below the earth as well as on its surface1 and the one would tend to neutralise the other1 and the ocean tide ought to appear less than it actually is4 ,even if the earth's crust were made of solid steel1 and several hundreds of miles thick1 it would yield so much to the enormous pulls exerted by both the sun and moon that it would simply carry the waters of the ocean up and down with it1 and we should therefore see no appreciable rise and fall of the water relatively to the land4 ,as a matter of fact1 there is a very slight tide in the solid earth below our feet1 but so slight that it does not practically affect the tide which we see every day in the ocean4 ,but we wish to show that were the interior of the earth in anything approaching1 to a fluid or molten condition1 the phenomena of the tides would be very different from what they actually are4 ,all geologists are therefore agreed that we must consider our earth as a more or less solid body1 and not as being something like an india-rubber ball filled with water4 ,the only question is whether it is entirely solid throughout4 ,some authorities consider this to be the case4 ,but others venture to think that while the great mass of the globe is solid1 there may be a thin liquid layer lying somewhere below the surface4 ,sir ,william ,thomson calculates that there must be a solid crust at least two thousand or twenty-five hundred miles thick 7the diameter of the earth is about eight thousand miles7 and that the mass of the earth is on the whole more rigid certainly than a continuous solid globe of glass of the same diameter4 ,one other question with regard to the earth's interior may be mentioned in conclusion4 ,astronomers have calculated the weight of our planet1 and the result is curious2 for it turns out to be at least twice as heavy as the heaviest rocks that are found on or near the surface4 ,it is about five and a half times as heavy as a globe of water of the same size would be1 whereas most rocks with which we are acquainted are about two and a half1 or at most three times heavier than water4 ,this fact seems to open out curious consequences2 for instance1 it is quite possible that metals 7which are of course much heavier than water7 may exist in the earth's interior in considerable quantities4 ,the imagination at once conjures up vast quantities of gold and silver4 ,what is the source of the gold and silver1 and other metals found in mineral veins8 ,this question cannot as yet be fully answered4 ,very small quantities of various metals have been detected in sea-water2 and so some geologists look upon the sea as the source from which metals came4 ,but it is possible that they were introduced from below1--perhaps by the action of steam and highly heated water during periods of volcanic activity1--and that their source is far down below in the depths of the earth4 ,but perhaps we have already wandered too far into the regions of speculation4 ,such are some of the interesting problems suggested by the study of mountains1 and they add no small charm to the science of geology4 ,and as we leave the mountains behind us1 refreshed by their bracing air1 and strengthened for another season of toil and labour by a brief sojourn among their peaks and passes1 we come away with a renewed sense of the almost unlimited power of the unhasting operations of ,nature1 and the wisdom and beneficence of the ,great ,architect of the ,universe1 who made and planned those snowcapped temples as symbols of ,his strength1 who was working millions of years ago as ,he is working to-day1 and to whom a thousand years are as one day4 ,,index4 ,agents of transportation1 #afa4 ,ages of strata1 how determined1 #cag-ccc4 ,air1 composition of1 #bji4 ,alpine animals1 #abd4 plants1 #ajc1 #aad4 ,alps1 the history of1 #ccj4 7,see also ,ruskin47 ,ancients1 the1 their dread of the mountains1 #c4 ,andes1 the1 elevation of1 #ahi4 ,animals1 behaviour of1 before an avalanche or earthquake1 #ie4 ,anticline1 #bcg1 #cjc1 #cbg4 ,appalachian ,mountains1 denudation of the1 #bci1 #cje-cji4 ,aqueous rocks1 #aed4 ,archan ,era1 #cbd4 ,arctic flora1 #aba4 ,arthur's ,seat1 #bgg4 ,ashes1 volcanic1 #bde1 #bea1 #bfj4 ,atlantic ooze1 #agb4 ,atmosphere1 effects produced by the1 #bji4 rarefaction of1 #gi4 ,avalanches1 #hi4 ,badger1 the1 in ,alps1 #abh4 ,baltic ,sea1 changes in1 #ahb4 ,barrier reef1 of ,australia1 #agj4 ,basalt1 of ,hebrides1 #bgh4 of ,snowdon1 #bgb4 ,basin1 the ,great1 of ,united ,states1 #cac4 ,bear1 brown1 #abe4 black1 #abf4 ,beaver1 the1 in ,alps1 #abh4 ,bergfalls1 #ig4 ,bernina1 the1 fall of rocks from1 #ih4 ,bird1 ,miss 7,mrs4 ,bishop71 on eruption of ,kilauea1 #bfb4 ,birds1 of ,alps1 #acd4 ,blueness of the sky1 #ge4 ,bombs1 volcanic1 #bec4 ,bonney1 ,prof41 on mountain legends1 #bc4 on effects of the ,alps in ,europe1 #dh4 on wind on mountain-tops1 #hd4 on ,alpine plants1 #aae4 on forms of mountains1 #bid4 ,boulders1 erratic1 #bbe4 ,bouquetin1 the1 in ,alps1 #acc4 ,britain1 ,great1 rainfall of1 #db4 ,building up of mountains1 #agd4 ,butterflies1 in ,alps1 #ach4 ,buzzard1 the1 in ,alps1 #acf4 ,cader ,idris1 volcano rocks of1 #bgb4 ,cainozoic ,era1 #cbd4 ,callao1 #ahi4 ,cambrian rocks1 #bif1 #cbd4 ,canisp ,mountain1 #big4 ,caons of ,colorado1 #bba4 ,carbonic acid in atmosphere1 #baj4 ,carboniferous ,period1 #cbd4 ,catastrophes1 #bae4 ,caves1 human remains1 etc41 in1 #ca4 ,celsius1 on elevation of ,gulf of ,bothnia1 #agh4 ,chalk1 ,cretaceous rocks composed of1 #cbe4 origin of4 ,see ,limestones4 ,challenger1 ,h4 ,m4 ,s41 expedition of1 #bea4 ,chamois1 the1 in ,alps1 #acj4 ,characteristics of mountain races1 #ad4 ,china clay1 #bib4 ,classification of rocks1 #aeg4 ,cleavage of slates1 #aea1 #cdj4 ,coniferous trees1 region of1 #aaa4 ,contortions in strata1 #bih1 #caa4 ,contraction and expansion of rocks1 #bjh4 ,contraction theory of earth-movements1 #cch4 ,coral reefs1 #agj4 ,cotopaxi1 #bei4 ,crystalline schists1 #cab4 ,darwin1 ,charles1 on elevation of the ,andes1 #ahi4 ,deciduous trees1 mountain region of1 #aaj4 ,dent de ,mayen1 #ii4 ,dent du ,midi1 fall of rock from1 #ih4 ,denudation1 #bbj1 #bbi1 #bhh1 #cab4 ,devonian rocks1 #cbd4 ,diablerets1 fall of rock from1 #ih4 ,dislocations of mountain rocks1 #cac1 #cae4 ,dust1 volcanic1 #bde1 #bfj4 ,dykes1 #bde4 ,eagle1 the golden1 #acf4 ,earth-pillars in ,tyrol1 #bba4 ,earthquakes1 #ie1 #ajb1 #aif4 effects of1 #aih1 #ccf4 causes of1 #aih1 #bjj4 ,lucretius on1 #aii4 ,earth-tremors1 #aid4 ,elevation of mountains1 #adf1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bii1 #ccf4 continents1 #bih-bii4 ,encrinites1 #aga4 ,eocene ,period1 #cbd4 ,equador and ,peru1 earthquake of1 #aig4 ,eras1 geological1 #cbd4 ,eruptions1 volcanic1 #bdg4 ,fairies1 #e4 ,falcon1 the1 in ,alps1 #acf4 ,fan-structure1 #caj4 ,faults and fractures1 #bjj1 #cac4 ,features characteristic of mountains1 #agg4 ,ferns1 #aah4 ,fishes1 ,age of1 #cbb4 ,fissures1 #bfh4 ,fhn1 the1 #hd4 ,foraminifera1 #agb4 ,fox1 the1 in ,alps1 #abg4 ,frog1 the1 in ,alps1 #acg4 ,frost1 effects of1 on mountain rocks1 #bab4 ,game-birds1 in ,alps1 #acg4 ,ganges and ,brahmapootra1 #afg4 ,geikie1 ,sir ,a41 on influence of ,scottish scenery1 #ba4 on the ,highland plateau1 #bhd4 on the mountains of ,west ,sutherland1 #bif4 ,giant's ,causeway1 basalt of1 #bgi4 ,glace1 ,mer de1 #bbi4 ,glacial drifts1 #bbg4 ,glacial region of vegetation in ,alps1 #aaf4 ,glaciers1 erosive power of1 #bbh4 ,glare from snow in ,alps1 #gf4 ,gneiss1 #aef1 #bib4 ,gold and silver in mountains1 #fa4 in the earth1 #cej4 ,grampians1 #bgf4 ,granite1 #baj4 weathering of1 #bia4 in mountain-chains1 #cab4 ,greenland1 elevation of1 #ahf4 ,green slates and porphyries1 #bge4 ,gulf ,stream1 #db4 ,hare1 the1 in ,alps1 #abh4 ,hawaii1 #bef4 ,heat1 effects of1 on rocks1 #aed1 #aef1 #afj4 underground1 of the earth1 #cch1 #cde4 ,hebrides1 former volcanic action in1 #bgh4 ,height1 influence of1 on vegetation1 #ajg4 ,herculaneum1 #bed4 ,highest cluster of houses in the world1 #gi4 ,highlands of ,scotland1 #bhd4 ,himalayas1 description of1 #f4 ,hutton1 #adb1 #cbj4 ,iberian1 or pre-,celtic race1 #cj4 ,ice ,age1 the1 #fe1 #abc4 ,ice1 as a geological agent1 #bbc4 ,igneous rocks1 #aee4 ,imbaburu1 eruption of mud from1 #bei4 ,implements of stone1 #ca4 ,jackdaw1 the1 in ,alps1 #acf4 ,jura ,mountains1 #cjj1 #cjf4 ,jurassic rocks1 #cbd4 ,kilauea1 eruption of4 7,see ,bird1 ,miss47 ,kite1 the1 in ,alps1 #acf4 ,krakatoa1 #beb4 ,labrador1 elevation of1 #aib4 ,lake ,district1 denudation of1 #bbj4 volcanic rocks of1 #bge4 ,lakes1 origin of1 #dg4 ,lateral pressure1 applied to mountains1 #caj1 #cae1 #ccg4 ,lichens and mosses4 7,see ,ruskin47 ,limestones1 origin of1 #aea1 #aec1 #afi4 ,lisbon1 earthquake at1 #aig4 ,livingstone1 on splitting of rocks1 #bab4 ,lizard1 the1 in ,alps1 #acg4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,charles1 #ccc4 ,lynx1 the1 in ,alps1 #abh4 ,mal de montagne1 #hj4 ,mammals1 age of1 #cbb4 ,marmot1 the1 in ,alps1 #abi4 ,mauna ,loa1 eruption of1 #bef4 ,mendip ,hills1 #cbg4 ,mer de ,glace4 7,see ,glace47 ,metals1 precious1 #fj4 in the earth1 #cdi4 ,metamorphic rocks1 #aef1 #aeg1 #bih1 #ccj4 ,mica-schist1 #aef1 #bic4 ,miller1 ,hugh1 #aej4 ,milne1 ,prof41 on earth-pulsations1 #aic4 ,minor cones of volcanoes1 #bdf4 ,miocene ,period1 #bgh1 #cbd4 ,mississippi1 denudation by the1 #bcb4 ,moel ,tryfaen1 raised beach in1 #ahf4 ,mont ,blanc1 #caj4 ,monte ,conto1 downfall of1 in #afah1 #aja4 ,monte ,nuovo1 #bdh4 ,moraines1 #bbe4 ,mountain limestone1 #aeb4 ,mountains1 as barriers between nations1 #bf4 as reservoirs of water1 #dc4 human wants supplied by1 #eh4 influence of1 on climate1 #fb4 causing movements in the atmosphere1 #fe4 as backbones of continents1 #fg4 floras of1 #ajc-abd4 forms of1 how determined1 #bhb4 general features of1 #agg1 #bhc4 structure of1 how determined1 #cjh4 elevation of1 #agd1 #cac4 formed by huge dislocations1 #cac4 ,ruskin on uses of1 #fh4 on a scene on the ,jura1 #cjj4 on flowers of1 #ajg4 ,mud-flows from volcanoes1 #bei4 ,needles1 the1 of ,colorado1 #bba4 ,neptunists and ,plutonists1 #afj4 ,new ,england1 elevation of1 #aib4 ,new ,zealand1 elevation of1 #aij4 ,nummulites1 #cca4 ,old ,red ,sandstone1 #aej1 #cbd4 ,olive region1 the1 #ajg4 ,organically formed rocks1 #aeg4 ,ornamentation of mountains1 #adg4 ,oxygen1 in air1 #bji4 ,palozoic ,era1 #cbd4 ,permian rocks1 #cbd4 ,pleistocene rocks1 #cbd4 ,pliocene1 #cbd4 ,plutonists1 #afj4 ,pompeii1 buried up1 #bed4 ,precious stones in mountains1 #bgg4 ,primary ,era1 #cbd4 ,pulsations of the earth4 7,see ,milne47 ,quinag1 #big4 ,rabbit1 the1 in ,alps1 #abh4 ,raised beaches1 #ahe4 ,raven1 the1 in ,alps1 #acf4 ,red clay1 of ,atlantic ,ocean1 #beb4 ,reptiles1 ,age of1 #cbc4 ,righi ,mountain1 fall of rock from1 #ii4 ,rivers1 transporting power of1 #afa-afh4 ,roches ,moutonnes1 #bbg4 ,rocking ,stones1 #bib4 ,ross and ,sutherland1 mountains of1 #cae4 ,rossberg1 the1 fall of rock from1 #ii-aja4 ,ruskin1 on effect of tourists in ,switzerland1 #ba4 on effects of scenery on mythology1 #bb4 on uses of mountains1 #ej4 on formation of soil1 #ee4 on lichens and mosses1 #aai4 on the ,alps1 #bhi4 on a scene in the ,jura ,mountains1 #cjj4 ,santorin1 island of1 #beg4 ,scandinavia1 elevation of1 #ahj4 ,scenery1 influence of rocks on1 #bai4 ,schists4 7,see ,mica-schist47 ,scotland1 former volcanic action in1 #bge4 ,sea-beaches1 #ahc4 ,sea-level1 constancy of1 #agi4 ,secondary ,era1 #cbd4 ,serapis1 ,temple of1 #ahg4 ,silurian ,period1 #cbd4 volcanic rocks of1 #bgb4 ,shearing of rocks in mountains1 #caf4 ,skaptar ,jkull1 lava-flow from1 #bee1 #bfj4 ,smith1 ,william1 #cbc4 ,snake ,river ,plain1 #beh4 ,snow1 lambent glow of1 #gg4 ,snowdon1 volcanic rocks of1 #bgb4 denudation of1 #bci4 ,spectre of the ,brocken1 the1 #gh4 ,stability of the earth1 #agd1 #cad4 ,stanley1 ,dean1 on capture of ,canaan1 #cb4 ,stone ,age1 #ca4 ,storms on mountains1 #ha4 ,stratified rocks1 table of1 #cbd4 how formed1 #adh1 #agf4 ,stri1 glacial1 #bbg4 ,submerged forests1 #aib4 ,suilven ,mountain1 #big4 ,sunsets1 #ga4 ,sutherland1 ,west1 mountains of1 #bif4 ,taurentum1 destroyed by downfall of rocks1 #ig4 ,thames1 solid matter transported by1 #afh4 ,thunder-storms1 in ,alps1 #hf4 ,tomboro1 eruption at1 #bfj4 ,tors1 #bib4 ,tourmente1 the1 #hc4 ,transportation by rivers1 #afa1 #aff-afi4 by glaciers1 #bbd4 ,triassic ,period1 #cbd4 ,types of plants and animals at different periods1 #ajf4 ,upheaval theory of mountains1 #bdg4 ,uses of mountains1 #cc4 ,valleys1 how carved out1 #bad-bcj4 ,vesuvius1 history of1 #bej4 ,vines1 the region of1 in ,alps1 #aji4 ,volcanoes1 number of active1 #bdb4 old ideas about1 #bdd4 structure of1 described1 #bdd4 volcanic rocks of ,great ,britain1 #bga4 ,vulture1 the bearded1 #acd4 ,wall of ,antoninus1 #ahe4 ,waterfalls1 origin of1 #bah4 ,water-vapour1 in air1 #cd4 condensation of1 by mountains1 #cd4 ,waves of population1 #cj4 ,weald1 the denudation of1 #bce-bci4 structure of1 #cjc4 ,werner1 #aeh4 ,wild-cat1 in ,alps1 #abh4 ,wolf1 the1 in ,alps1 #abf4 ,zones of climate on the earth1 #fc4 ,transcriber's note3 ,a ,list of ,illustrations ,,ii has been added to the text1 for the convenience of the reader1 to display ,illustrations that were not included in the original ,illustrations section4 ,the original spelling of words1 especially for place names1 has been retained4