,,men ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,stone ,,age ,,their ,,environment1 ,,life ,,and ,,art ,,hitchcock ,,lectures ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,california1 #aiad ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,i4 ,neanderthal man at the station of ,le ,moustier1 overlooking the valley of the ,vzre1 ,dordogne4 ,drawing by ,charles ,r4 ,knight1 under the direction of the author4 ,,men ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,stone ,,age ,,their ,,environment1 ,,life ,,and ,,art ,,by ,,henry ,,fairfield ,,osborn ,,sc4,d4 ,,princeton1 ,,hon4 ,,ll4,d4 ,,trinity1 ,,princeton1 ,,columbia1 ,,hon4 ,d4,,sc4 ,,cambridge ,,hon4 ,,ph4,d4 ,,christiania ,,research ,,professor ,,of ,,zoology1 ,,columbia ,,university ,,vertebrate ,,pal,,ontologist ,u4 ,s4 ,,geological ,,survey1 ,,curator ,,emeritus ,,of ,,vertebrate ,,pal,,ontology ,,in ,,the ,,american ,,museum ,,of ,,natural ,,history ,,illustrations ,,by ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,artists ,,and ,,charles ,r4 ,,knight1 ,,erwin ,s4 ,,christman ,,and ,,others ,,new ,,york ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons #aiae ,,copyright1 #aiae1 ,,by ,,charles ,,scribner',s ,,sons ,published ,november1 #aiae ,,dedicated ,,to ,,my ,,distinguished ,,guides ,,through ,,the ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,caverns ,,of ,,the ,,pyrenees1 ,,dordogne1 ,,and ,,the ,,cantabrian ,,mountains ,,of ,,spain ,,mile ,,cartailhac ,,henri ,,breuil ,,hugo ,,obermaier ,,preface ,this volume is the outcome of an ever-memorable tour through the country of the men of the ,old ,stone ,age1 guided by three of the distinguished archologists of ,france1 to whom the work is gratefully dedicated4 ,this ,palolithic tour,a of three weeks1 accompanied as it was by a constant flow of conversation and discussion1 made a very profound impression1 namely1 of the very early evolution of the spirit of man1 of the close relation between early human environment and industry and the development of mind1 of the remote antiquity of the human powers of observation1 of discovery1 and of invention4 ,it appears that men with faculties and powers like our own1 but in the infancy of education and tradition1 were living in this region of ,europe at least #be1jjj years ago4 ,back of these intelligent races were others1 also of eastern origin but in earlier stages of mental development1 all pointing to the very remote ancestry of man from earlier mental and physical stages4 ,another great impression from this region is that it is the oldest centre of human habitation of which we have a complete1 unbroken record of continuous residence from a period as remote as #ajj1jjj years corresponding with the dawn of human culture1 to the hamlets of the modern peasant of ,france of ,a4 ,d4 #aiae4 ,in contrast1 ,egyptian1 gean1 and ,mesopotamian civilizations appear as of yesterday4 ,the history of this region and its people has been developed chiefly through the genius of ,french archologists1 beginning with ,boucher de ,perthes4 ,the more recent discoveries1 which have come in rapid and almost bewildering succession since the foundation of the ,institut de ,palontologie humaine1 have been treated in a number of works recently published by some of the experienced archologists of ,england1 ,france1 and ,germany4 ,i refer especially to the ,prehistoric ,times of ,lord ,avebury1 to the ,ancient ,hunters of ,professor ,sollas1 to ,der ,mensch der ,vorzeit of ,professor ,obermaier1 and to ,die diluviale ,vorzeit ,deutschlands of ,doctor ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 ,thus1 on receiving the invitation from ,president ,wheeler to lecture upon this subject before the ,university of ,california1 ,i hesitated from the feeling that it would be difficult to say anything which had not been already as well or better said4 ,on further reflection1 however1 ,i accepted the invitation with the purpose of attempting to give this great subject a more strictly historical or chronological treatment than it had previously received within the limits of a popular work in our own language1 also to connect the environment1 the animal and human life1 and the art4 ,this element of the time in which the various events occurred can only be drawn from a great variety of sources1 from the simultaneous consideration of the geography1 climate1 plants and animals1 the mental and bodily development of the various races1 and the industries and arts which reflect the relations between the mind and the environment4 ,in more technical terms1 ,i have undertaken in these lectures to make a synthesis of the results of geology1 palontology1 anthropology1 and archology1 a correlation of environmental and of human events in the ,european ,ice ,age4 ,such a synthesis was begun many years ago in the preparation of my ,age of ,mammals1 but could not be completed until ,i had gone over the territory myself4 ,the attempt to place this long chapter of prehistory on a historical basis has many dangers1 of which ,i am fully aware4 ,after weighing the evidence presented by the eminent authorities in these various branches of science1 ,i have presented my conclusions in very definite and positive form rather than in vague or general terms1 believing that a positive statement has at least the merit of being positively supported or rebutted by fresh evidence4 ,for example1 ,i have placed the famous ,piltdown man1 ,eoanthropus1 in a comparatively recent stage of geologic time1 an entirely opposite conclusion to that reached by ,doctor ,a4 ,smith ,woodward1 who has taken a leading part in the discovery of this famous race and has concurred with other ,british geologists in placing it in early ,pleistocene times4 ,the difference between early and late ,pleistocene times is not a matter of thousands but of hundreds of thousands of years2 if so advanced a stage as the ,piltdown man should definitely occur in the early ,pleistocene1 we may well expect to discover man in the ,pliocene2 on the contrary1 in my opinion even in late ,pliocene times man had only reached a stage similar to the ,pithecanthropus1 or prehuman ,trinil race of ,java2 in other words1 according to my view1 man as such chiefly evolved during the half million years of the ,pleistocene ,epoch and not during the ,pliocene4 ,this question is closely related to that of the antiquity of the oldest implements shaped by the human hand4 ,here again ,i have adopted an opinion opposed by some of the highest authorities1 but supported by others1 namely1 that the earliest of these undoubted handiworks occur relatively late in the ,pleistocene1 namely1 about #abe1jjj years ago4 ,since the ,piltdown man was found in association with such implements1 it is at once seen that the two questions hang together4 ,this work represents the co-operation of many specialists on a single1 very complex problem4 ,i am not in any sense an archologist1 and in this important and highly technical field ,i have relied chiefly upon the work of ,hugo ,obermaier and of ,dchelette in the ,lower ,palolithic1 and of ,henri ,breuil in the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,through the courtesy of ,doctor ,obermaier ,i had the privilege of watching the exploration of the wonderful grotto of ,castillo1 in northern ,spain1 which affords a unique and almost complete sequence of the industries of the entire ,old ,stone ,age4 ,this visit and that to the cavern of ,altamira1 with its wonderful frescoed ceiling1 were in themselves a liberal education in the prehistory of man4 ,with the ,abb ,breuil ,i visited all the old camping stations of ,upper ,palolithic times in ,dordogne and noted with wonder and admiration his detection of all the fine gradations of invention which separate the flint-makers of that period4 ,with ,professor ,cartailhac ,i enjoyed a broad survey of the ,lower and ,upper ,palolithic stations and caverns of the ,pyrenees region and took note of his learned and spirited comments4 ,here also we had the privilege of being with the party who entered for the first time the cavern of ,tuc d',audoubert1 with the ,comte de ,bgouen and his sons4 ,in the ,american ,museum ,i have been greatly aided by ,mr4 ,nels ,c4 ,nelson1 who has reviewed all the archological notes and greatly assisted me in the classification of the flint and bone implements which is adopted in this volume4 ,in the study of the divisions1 duration1 and fluctuations of climate during the ,old ,stone ,age ,i have been assisted chiefly by ,doctor ,chester ,a4 ,reeds1 a geologist of the ,american ,museum1 who devoted two months to bringing together in a comprehensive and intelligible form the results of the great researches of ,albrecht ,penck and ,eduard ,brckner embraced in the three-volume work1 ,die ,alpen im ,eiszeitalter4 ,the temperatures and snow-levels of the ,glacial ,epoch1 which is contemporaneous with the ,old ,stone ,age1 together with the successive phases of mammalian life which they conditioned1 afford the firm basis of our chronology2 that is1 we must reckon the grand divisions of past time in terms of ,glacial and ,interglacial ,stages2 the subdivisions are recorded in terms of the human invention and progress of the flint industry4 ,i have also had frequent recourse to ,the ,great ,ice ,age and the more recent ,antiquity of ,man in ,europe of ,james ,geikie1 the founder of the modern theory of the multiple ,ice ,age in ,europe4 ,it is a unique pleasure to express my indebtedness to the ,upper ,palolithic artists of the now extinct ,cr-,magnon race1 from whose work ,i have sought to portray so far as possible the mammalian and human life of the ,old ,stone ,age4 ,while we owe the discovery and early interpretation of this art to a generation of archologists1 it has remained for the ,abb ,breuil not only to reproduce the art with remarkable fidelity but to firmly establish a chronology of the stages of art development4 ,these results are brilliantly set forth in a superb series of volumes published by the ,institut de ,palontologie humaine on the foundation of the ,prince of ,monaco2 in fact1 the memoirs on the art and industry of ,grimaldi1 ,font-de-,gaume1 ,altamira1 ,la ,pasiega1 and the ,cantabrian caves of ,spain 7,les ,cavernes de la ,rgion ,cantabrique71 representing the combined labors of ,capitan1 ,cartailhac1 ,verneau1 ,boule1 ,obermaier1 and ,breuil1 mark a new epoch in the prehistory of man in ,europe4 ,there never has been a more fortunate union of genius1 opportunity1 and princely support4 ,in the collection of materials and illustrations from the vast number of original papers and memoirs consulted in the preparation of this volume1 as well as in the verification of the text and proofs1 ,i have been constantly aided by one of my research assistants1 ,miss ,christina ,d4 ,matthew1 who has greatly facilitated the work4 ,i am indebted also to ,miss ,mabel ,r4 ,percy for the preparation and final revision of the manuscript4 ,from the bibliography prepared by ,miss ,jannette ,m4 ,lucas1 the reader may find the original authority for every statement which does not rest on my own observation or reflection4 ,interest in human evolution centres chiefly in the skull and in the brain4 ,the slope of the forehead and the other angles1 which are so important in forming an estimate of the brain capacity1 may be directly compared throughout this volume1 because the profile or side view of every skull figured is placed in exactly the same relative position1 namely1 on the lines established by the anatomists of the ,frankfort ,convention to conform to the natural pose of the head on the living body4 ,in anatomy ,i have especially profited by the co-operation of my former student and present university colleague ,professor ,j4 ,howard ,mc,gregor1 of ,columbia1 who has shown great anatomical as well as artistic skill in the restoration of the heads of the four races of ,trinil1 ,piltdown1 ,neanderthal1 and ,cr-,magnon4 ,the new reconstruction of the ,piltdown head is with the aid of casts sent to me by my friend ,doctor ,a4 ,smith ,woodward1 of the ,british ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,the problem of reconstruction of the ,piltdown skull has1 through the differences of interpretation by ,smith ,woodward1 ,elliot ,smith1 and ,arthur ,keith1 become one of the causes clbres of anthropology4 ,on the placing of the fragments of the skull and jaws1 which have few points of contact1 depends the all-important question of the size of the brain and the character of the profile of the face and jaws4 ,in ,professor ,mc,gregor's reconstruction different methods have been used from those employed by the ,british anatomists1 and advantage has been taken of an observation of ,mr4 ,a4 ,e4 ,anderson that the single canine tooth belongs in the upper and not in the lower jaw4 ,in these models1 and in all the restorations of men by ,charles ,r4 ,knight under my direction1 the controlling principle has been to make the restoration as human as the anatomical evidence will admit4 ,this principle is based upon the theory for which ,i believe very strong grounds may be adduced1 that all these races represent stages of advancing and progressive development2 it has seemed to me1 therefore1 that in our restorations we should indicate as much alertness1 intelligence1 and upward tendency as possible4 ,such progressive expression may1 in fact1 be observed in the faces of the higher anthropoid apes1 such as the chimpanzees and orangs1 when in process of education4 ,no doubt1 our ancestors of the early ,stone ,age were brutal in many respects1 but the representations which have been made chiefly by ,french and ,german artists of men with strong gorilla or chimpanzee characteristics are1 ,i believe1 unwarranted by the anatomical remains and are contrary to the conception which we must form of beings in the scale of rapidly ascending intelligence4 ,,henry ,,fairfield ,,osborn4 ,,american ,,museum ,,of ,,natural ,,history ,june #ba1 #aiae4 ,,contents ,,introduction ,,page ,,greek ,,conceptions ,,of ,,man',s ,,origin #a ,,rise ,,of ,,anthropology #c ,,rise ,,of ,,arch,,olgy #aj ,,geoligic ,,history ,,of ,,man #ah ,,geographic ,,changes #cd ,,climatic ,,changes #cg ,,migrations ,,of ,,mammals #db ,,chapter ,i ,,ancestry ,,of ,,the ,,anthropoid ,,apes #di ,,pliocene ,,climate1 ,,forests1 ,,and ,,life #fj ,,transition ,,to ,,the ,,pleistocene #fb ,,the ,,first ,,glaciation #fd ,,the ,,first ,,interglacial ,,stage #ff ,,early ,,pleistocene ,,fauna #fi ,,the ,,trinil ,,race #gc ,,eoliths1 ,,or ,,primitive ,,flints #hd ,,the ,,second ,,glaciation #hf ,,the ,,second ,,interglacial ,,stage #ij ,,the ,,heidelberg ,,race #ie ,,migrations ,,of ,,the ,,reindeer #ajb ,,the ,,third ,,glaciation #ajd ,,chapter ,,ii ,,date ,,of ,,the ,,pre-,,chellean ,,industry #ajg ,,geography ,,and ,,climate #aaf ,,the ,,river-,,drift ,,stations #aai ,,pre-,,chellean ,,industry #abf ,,the ,,piltdown ,,race #acj ,,mammalian ,,life #add ,,chellean ,,industry #adh ,,chellean ,,geography #aed ,,pal,,olithic ,,stations ,,of ,,germany #aei ,,acheulean ,,industry #afa ,,the ,,use ,,of ,,fire #afe ,,acheulean ,,industry #aff ,,the ,,second ,,period ,,of ,,arid ,,climate #agc ,,late ,,acheulean ,,implements #agg ,,the ,,neanderthal ,,race ,,of ,,krapina #aha ,,chapter ,,iii ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,interglacial #ahf ,,the ,,fourth ,,glacial ,,stage #ahh ,,arctic ,,tundra ,,life #aij ,,environment ,,of ,,the ,,neanderthal ,,race #aif ,,mammals ,,hunted ,,by ,,the ,,neanderthals #bjb ,,cave ,,life #baa ,,the ,,neanderthal ,,race #bad ,,mousterian ,,industry #bdd ,,disappearance ,,of ,,the ,,neanderthals #bef ,,chapter ,,iv ,,opening ,,of ,,the ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic #bfj ,,the ,,grimaldi ,,race #bfd ,,arrival ,,of ,,the ,,cr-,,magnons #bfi ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,cultures #bge ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,races #bgh ,,geography ,,and ,,climate #bgi ,,mammalian ,,life #bhd ,,the ,,cr-,,magnon ,,race #bhi ,,burial ,,customs #cjc ,,aurignacian ,,industry #cje ,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,art #cae ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,solutrean ,,culture #ccj ,,human ,,fossils #ccc ,,the ,,br,,nn ,,race #ccd ,,solutrean ,,industry #cch ,,solutrean ,,art #cdg ,,chapter ,v ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,magdalenian ,,culture #cea ,,magdalenian ,,culture #ced ,,magdalenian ,,climate #cfj ,,mammalian ,,life #cfd ,,human ,,fossils #cgf ,,magdalenian ,,industry #chb ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,art #cib ,,magdalenian ,,engravings #cif ,,magdalenian ,,painting #djh ,,art ,,in ,,the ,,caverns #dji ,,polychrome ,,painting #dad ,,magdalenian ,,sculpture #dbg ,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,magdalenian ,,culture #dcd ,,decline ,,of ,,the ,,magdalenian ,,culture #ddi ,,cr-,,magnon ,,descendants #dea ,,chapter ,,vi ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,stone ,,age #def ,,invasion ,,of ,,new ,,races #deg ,,mas ,d',,azil #dei ,f,,re-,,en-,,tardenois #dfe ,,azilian-,,tardenoisian ,,culture #dff ,,mammalian ,,life #dfh ,,azilian-,,tardenoisian ,,industry #dgj ,,the ,,burials ,,at ,,ofnet #dge ,,the ,,new ,,races #dgi ,,ancestry ,,of ,,european ,,races #dhi ,,transition ,,to ,,the ,,neolithic #dic ,,neolithic ,,culture #dif ,,neolithic ,,fauna #dih ,,prehistoric ,,and ,,historic ,,races ,,of ,,europe #dii ,,conclusions #eja ,,appendix ,,note ,i4 ,,lucretius ,,and ,,bossuet ,,on ,,the ,,early ,,evolution ,,of ,,man #ejc ,,ii4 ,,horace ,,on ,,the ,,early ,,evolution ,,of ,,man #ejd ,,iii4 ,,schylus ,,on ,,the ,,early ,,evolution ,,of ,,man #eje ,,iv4 ',,urochs' ,,or ',,auerochs' ,,and ',,wisent' #eje ,v4 ,,the ,,cr-,,magnons ,,of ,,the ,,canary ,,islands #ejf ,,vi4 ,,the ,,length ,,of ,,postglacial ,,time ,,and ,,the ,,antiquity ,,of ,,the ,,aurignacian ,,culture #eaj ,,vii4 ,,the ,,most ,,recent ,,discoveries ,,of ,,anthropoid ,,apes ,,and ,,supposed ,,ancestors ,,of ,,man ,,in ,,india #eaa ,,viii4 ,,anthropoid ,,apes ,,discovered ,,by ,,carthaginian ,,navigators #eaa ,,bibliography #eac ,,index #ecc ,,illustrations ,plate ,i4 ,neanderthal man at the grotto of ,le ,moustier 7in tint7 ,frontispiece ,,page ,plate ,,ii4 ,discovery sites of the type specimens of human and prehuman races 7in color7 facing #ai ,plate ,,iii ,pithecanthropus1 the ape-man of ,java #hg ,plate ,,iv4 ,the ,piltdown man #ade ,plate ,v4 ,the ,neanderthal man of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints #bjc ,plate ,,vi4 ,the ',old ,man of ,cr-,magnon' #bgc ,plate ,,vii4 ,cr-,magnon artists in the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume 7in tint7 #ceh ,plate ,,viii4 ,bison painted by ,palolithic artists in the cavern of ,altamira 7in color7 #dad ,,fig4 #a4 ,modern1 ,palolithic1 and chimpanzee skulls compared #h #b4 ,skull and brain of ,pithecanthropus1 the ape-man of ,java #i #c4 ,three great types of flint implements #aa #d4 ,evolution of the lance-point #ae #e4 ,map--,type stations of ,palolithic cultures #af #f4 ,section--,terraces of the ,river ,inn near ,scharding #be #g4 ,section--,terraces of the ,river ,rhine above ,basle #bf #h4 ,section--,terraces of the ,river ,thames near ,london #bh #i4 ,magdalenian loess station of ,aggsbach in ,lower ,austria #bi #aj4 ,section of the site of the ,neanderthal cave #ca #aa4 ,sections showing the formation of the typical limestone cavern #cb #ab4 ,map--,europe in the period of maximum continental elevation #ce #ac4 ,section showing snow-lines and sea-levels of the ,glacial ,epoch #cg #ad4 ,chronological chart--,great events of the ,glacial ,epoch #da #ae4 ,zoogeographic map #de #af4 ,the gibbon #ej #ag4 ,the orang #ea #ah4 ,the chimpanzee1 walking #eb #ai4 ,the chimpanzee1 sitting #ec #bj4 ,the gorilla #ee #ba4 ,median sections of the heads of a young gorilla and of a man #ef #bb4 ,side view of a human brain of high type #eg #bc4 ,outlines of typical human and prehuman brains 7side view7 #eh #bd4 ,outlines of typical human and prehuman brains 7top view7 #ei #be4 ,map--,europe during the ,second ,glacial ,stage #fe #bf4 ,the musk-ox #ff #bg4 ,the giant deer 7,megaceros7 #fh #bh4 ,the sabre-tooth tiger 7,machrodus7 #gj #bi4 ,restoration of ,pithecanthropus1 the ,java ape-man #gc #cj4 ,discovery site of ,pithecanthropus #gd #ca4 ,section of the volcano of ,lawoe and the valley of the ,solo ,river #ge #cb4 ,map--,solo ,river and discovery site of ,pithecanthropus #ge #cc4 ,section of the ,pithecanthropus discovery site #gf #cd4 ,skull-top of ,pithecanthropus1 top and side views #gg #ce4 ,head of chimpanzee1 front and side views #gh #cf4 ,restoration of ,pithecanthropus skull1 side view #gi #cg4 ,restoration of ,pithecanthropus skull1 three views #hj #ch4 ,pithecanthropus1 the ,java ape-man1 side view #ha #ci4 ,pithecanthropus1 the ,java ape-man1 front view #hb #dj4 ,side view of a human brain of high type #hc #da4 ,outlines of human and prehuman brains1 side and top views #hd #db4 ,the hippopotamus and the southern mammoth #ib #dc4 ,merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant #ic #dd4 ,map--,geographic distribution of ,merck's rhinoceros1 the hippopotamus1 and the straight-tusked elephant #id #de4 ,section of the ,heidelberg discovery site #if #df4 ,the sand-pit at ,mauer1 discovery site of the ,heidelberg man #ig #dg4 ,the ,heidelberg jaw #ih #dh4 ,jaws of an ,eskimo1 of an orang1 and of ,heidelberg 7side view7 #ii #di4 ,jaws of an ,eskimo1 of an orang1 and of ,heidelberg 7top view7 #ajj #ej4 ,restoration of ,heidelberg man #aja #ea4 ,map--,europe during the ,third ,glacial ,stage #aje #eb4 ,chronological chart of the last third of the ,glacial ,epoch #ajh #ec4 ,map--,pre-,chellean and ,chellean stations #aji #ed4 ,map--,europe during the ,third ,glacial ,stage #aaj #ee4 ,excavation at ,chelles-sur-,marne #aaa #ef4 ,map--,western ,europe during the ,third ,interglacial ,stage #aaf #eg4 ,three terraces on the ,connecticut ,river #abj #eh4 ,four forms of the ,chellean coup de poing #aba #ei4 ,section--,terraces on the ,somme at ,st4 ,acheul #abb #fj4 ,very primitive paloliths from ,piltdown #abg #fa4 ,pre-,chellean coups de poing from ,st4 ,acheul #abh #fb4 ,pre-,chellean grattoir or planing tool from ,st4 ,acheul #abi #fc4 ,discovery site of the ,piltdown skull #aca #fd4 ,section of the ,piltdown discovery site #acc #fe4 ,primitive worked flint found near the ,piltdown skull #acd #ff4 ,eoliths found in or near the ,piltdown site #ace #fg4 ,piltdown skull and skull of ,south ,african ,bushman #acf #fh4 ,restoration of the ,piltdown skull1 three views #acg #fi4 ,section of the ,piltdown skull1 showing the brain #adj #gj4 ,brain outlines of the ,piltdown man1 of a chimpanzee1 and of modern man1 compared #adj #ga4 ,the ,piltdown man1 side view #adb #gb4 ,the ,piltdown man1 front view #adc #gc4 ,map--,pre-,chellean and ,chellean stations #adi #gd4 ,section--,middle and high terraces on the ,somme at ,st4 ,acheul #aej #ge4 ,excavation on the high terrace at ,st4 ,acheul #aea #gf4 ,small ,chellean implements #aec #gg4 ,map--,palolithic stations of ,germany #afj #gh4 ,entrance to the grotto of ,castillo #afc #gi4 ,section--archologic layers of the grotto of ,castillo #afd #hj4 ,map--,acheulean stations #afg #ha4 ,late ,acheulean station of ,la ,micoque in ,dordogne #afh #hb4 ,method of 'flaking' flint #afi #hc4 ,method of 'chipping' flint #agj #hd4 ,the fracture of flint #aga #he4 ,large ,acheulean implements #agc #hf4 ,map--,valleys of the ,dordogne and the ,garonne #age #hg4 ,the valley of the ,vzre #agf #hh4 ,acheulean implements1 large and small #agh #hi4 ,a ,levallois flake #agi #ij4 ,the grotto of ,krapina #aha #ia4 ,section ,valley of the ,krapinica ,river and grotto of ,krapina #ahb #ib4 ,section--,the grotto of ,krapina #ahc #ic4 ,skull from ,krapina1 side view #ahd #id4 ,map--,europe during the ,fourth ,glacial ,stage #ahi #ie4 ,the woolly rhinoceros and the woolly mammoth #aij #if4 ,typical tundra fauna #aic #ig4 ,map--,palolithic stations of ,germany #aie #ih4 ,the type station of ,le ,moustier #aig #ii4 ,excavations at ,le ,moustier #aih #ajj4 ,the ,mousterian cavern of ,wildkirchli #bjj #aja4 ,entrance to the grotto of ,sirgenstein #bja #ajb4 ,the woolly mammoth and his hunters #bjh #ajc4 ,the woolly rhinoceros #baj #ajd4 ,map--,distribution of ,pre-,neanderthaloids and ,neanderthaloids #bad #aje4 ,the ,gibraltar skull1 front view #bae #ajf4 ,section of the ,neanderthal discovery site #baf #ajg4 ,the ,neanderthal skull1 side view #bag #ajh4 ,the skull known as ,spy ,i1 side view #bbj #aji4 ,discovery site of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints #bbb #aaj4 ,entrance to the grotto of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints #bbc #aaa4 ,the skull from ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 three views #bbd #aab4 ,human teeth of ,neanderthaloid type from ,la ,cotte de ,st4 ,brelade #bbe #aac4 ,skulls of a chimpanzee1 of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 and of a modern ,frenchman1 side view #bbg #aad4 ,outlines of the ,gibraltar skull and of a modern ,australian skull #bbh #aae4 ,skull of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints compared with one of high modern type1 side view #bcj #aaf4 ,skulls of a chimpanzee1 of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 and of a modern ,frenchman1 top view #bca #aag4 ,diagram comparing eleven races of fossil and living men #bcc #aah4 ,section of the skull of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 showing the brain #bce #aai4 ,brain outlines of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 of a chimpanzee1 and of modern man1 compared #bce #abj4 ,brains of ,lower and ,upper ,palolithic races1 top and side views #bcf #aba4 ,skeleton of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints #bch #abb4 ,thigh-bones of the ,trinil1 ,neanderthal1 ,cr-,magnon1 and modern races #bdj #abc4 ,the ,neanderthal man of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 side view #bdb #abd4 ,the ,neanderthal man of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 front view #bdc #abe4 ,map--,mousterian stations #bde #abf4 ,the ,mousterian cave of ,hornos de la ,pea #bdf #abg4 ,outlook from the cave of ,hornos de la ,pea #bdg #abh4 ,typical ,mousterian 'points' from ,le ,moustier #bej #abi4 ,mousterian 'points' and scrapers #bea #acj4 ,late ,mousterian implements #bee #aca4 ,entrance to the ,grotte du ,prince near ,mentone #bfb #acb4 ,section of the ,grotte des ,enfants #bfe #acc4 ,the ,grimaldi skeletons #bfg #acd4 ,skull of the ,grimaldi youth1 front and side views #bfh #ace4 ,map--,distribution of ,upper ,palolithic human fossils #bgi #acf4 ,chronological chart of the last third of the ,glacial ,epoch #bhj #acg4 ',tectiforms' from ,font-de-,gaume #bhc #ach4 ,map--,distribution of the reindeer1 mammoth1 and woolly rhinoceros #bhe #aci4 ,section of the grotto of ,aurignac #bij #adj4 ,section of the grotto of ,cr-,magnon #bia #ada4 ,skull of ,cr-,magnon type from the ,grotte des ,enfants #bib #adb4 ,head showing the method of restoration used by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor #bic #adc4 ,the rock shelter of ,laugerie ,haute1 ,dordogne #bif #add4 ,skeleton of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints and skeleton of ,cr-,magnon type from the ,grotte des ,enfants1 compared #big #ade4 ,sections of normal and platycnmic tibias #bih #adf4 ,the ',old ,man of ,cr-,magnon1' side view #cjj #adg4 ,the ',old ,man of ,cr-,magnon1' front view #cja #adh4 ,brain outlines of ,combe-,capelle1 of a chimpanzee1 and of modern man1 compared #cjc #adi4 ,evolution of the burin1 early ,aurignacian to late ,solutrean #cjg #aej4 ,typical ,aurignacian grattoirs1 or scrapers #cji #aea4 ,evolution of the ,aurignacian 'point' #caa #aeb4 ,prototypes of the ,solutrean 'laurel-leaf point' #cab #aec4 ,map--,aurignacian stations #cad #aed4 ,outlook from the cavern of ,pindal #cae #aee4 ,mammoth painted in the cavern of ,pindal #caf #aef4 ,primitive paintings of animals from ,font-de-,gaume #cah #aeg4 ,woolly rhinoceros painted in the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume #cai #aeh4 ,carved female figurine from the ,grottes de ,grimaldi #cba #aei4 ,female figurine in limestone from ,willendorf #cbb #afj4 ,female figurine in soapstone from the ,grottes de ,grimaldi #cbc #afa4 ,superposed engravings of rhinoceros and mammoth from ,le ,trilobite #cbd #afb4 ,silhouettes of hands from ,gargas #cbe #afc4 ,the rock shelter of ,laussel on the ,beune #cbf #afd4 ,section of the industrial layers at ,laussel #cbg #afe4 ,bas-relief of a woman from ,laussel #cbh #aff4 ,bas-relief of a man from ,laussel #cbi #afg4 ,map--,solutrean stations #cca #afh4 ,the skull known as ,brnn ,i1 discovered at ,brnn1 ,moravia #cce #afi4 ,solutrean 'laurel-leaf points' #cci #agj4 ,the type station of ,solutr #cdb #aga4 ,excavations at ,solutr #cdc #agb4 ,typical ,solutrean implements #cdf #agc4 ,mammoth sculptured on ivory1 from ,pedmost1 ,moravia #cdi #agd4 ,engraved and painted bison from ,niaux #cec #age4 ,decorated sagaies or javelin points of bone #ced #agf4 ,horse's head engraved on a fragment of bone1 from ,brassempouy #cee #agg4 ,painting of a wolf1 from ,font-de-,gaume #cef #agh4 ,crude sculpture of the ibex1 from ,mas d',azil #ceg #agi4 ,decorated btons de commandement #cei #ahj4 ,chronological chart of the last third of the ,glacial epoch #cfb #aha4 ,engraved and painted reindeer from ,font-de-,gaume #cfe #ahb4 ,four types of horse frequent in ,upper ,palolithic times #cfg #ahc4 ,horse of ,celtic type1 painted on the ceiling of ,altamira #cfh #ahd4 ,four chamois heads engraved on reindeer horn1 from ,gourdan #cfi #ahe4 ,typical alpine fauna #cga #ahf4 ,typical steppe fauna #cgd #ahg4 ,ptarmigan or grouse carved in bone1 from ,mas d',azil #cge #ahh4 ,the rock shelter of ,laugerie ,basse1 ,dordogne #cgg #ahi4 ,human skull-tops cut into bowls1 from ,placard #cgi #aij4 ,male and female skulls of ,cr-,magnon type1 from ,obercassel #cha #aia4 ,the type station of ,la ,madeleine #chc #aib4 ,magdalenian flint implements #chf #aic4 ,magdalenian bone harpoons #chg #aid4 ,magdalenian flint blades with denticulated edge #cij #aie4 ,bone needles from ,lacave #cia #aif4 ,map--,palolithic art stations of ,dordogne1 the ,pyrenees1 and the ,cantabrian ,mountains #cid #aig4 ,primitive engravings of the mammoth from ,combarelles #cig #aih4 ,preliminary engraving of painted mammoth from ,font-de-,gaume #cig #aii4 ,charging mammoth engraved on ivory1 from ,la ,madeleine #cih #bjj4 ,human grotesques from ,marsoulas1 ,altamira1 and ,combarelles #cii #bja4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,combarelles1 ,dordogne #djj #bjb4 ,engraved cave-bear1 from ,combarelles #dja #bjc4 ,magdalenian stone lamp1 from ,la ,mouthe #dja #bjd4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,la ,pasiega #djb #bje4 ,engraved bison from ,marsoulas #djc #bjf4 ,herd of horses engraved on a slab of stone1 from ,chaffaud #djd #bjg4 ,herd of reindeer engraved on an eagle radius1 from ,la ,mairie #dje #bjh4 ,reindeer and salmon engraved on an antler1 from ,lorthet #djf #bji4 ,engraved lioness and horses1 from ,font-de-,gaume #djg #baj4 ,painted horse of ,celtic type1 from ,castillo #djh #baa4 ,galloping horse of steppe type1 from ,font-de-,gaume #djh #bab4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,niaux #dji #bac4 ,engraved horse with heavy winter coat1 from ,niaux #daj #bad4 ,professor ,emile ,cartailhac at the entrance of ,le ,portel #daa #bae4 ,engraved horse and reindeer1 from ,la ,mairie #dab #baf4 ,engraved reindeer1 cave-bear1 and two horses1 from ,la ,mairie #dac #bag4 ,engraved wild cattle1 from ,la ,mairie #dac #bah4 ,preliminary etched outline of bison from ,font-de-,gaume #dad #bai4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume #dae #bbj4 ,map of the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume #daf #bba4 ,narrow passage known as the ',rubicon1' ,font-de-,gaume #dag #bbb4 ,plan showing reindeer and procession of bison1 ,font-de-,gaume #dai #bbc4 ,plan showing preliminary engraving and painting of the procession of mammoths1 superposed on drawings of bison1 reindeer1 and horses #dbj #bbd4 ,example of superposition of paintings1 from ,font-de-,gaume #dba #bbe4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,altamira #dbb #bbf4 ,plan of paintings on the ceiling of ,altamira #dbc #bbg4 ,the ceiling of ,altamira #dbd #bbh4 ,painting of female bison lying down1 from ,altamira #dbe #bbi4 ,royal stag engraved on the ceiling of ,altamira #dbf #bcj4 ,statuette of a mammoth carved in reindeer horn1 from ,bruniquel #dbg #bca4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,tuc d',audoubert #dbh #bcb4 ,engraved head of a reindeer from ,tuc d',audoubert #dbi #bcc4 ,two bison1 male and female1 modelled in clay1 from ,tuc d',audoubert #dcj #bcd4 ,horse carved in high relief1 from ,cap ,blanc #dca #bce4 ,horse head carved on a reindeer antler1 from ,mas d',azil #dcb #bcf4 ,statuette of horse carved in ivory1 from ,les ,espelugues #dcb #bcg4 ,woman's head carved in ivory1 from ,brassempouy #dcc #bch4 ,map--,magdalenian stations #dce #bci4 ,necklace of marine shells1 from ,cr-,magnon #dcg #bdj4 ,map--,palolithic stations of ,germany #dci #bda4 ,reindeer engraved around a piece of reindeer antler1 from ,kesslerloch #dda #bdb4 ,entrance to the grotto of ,kesslerloch #ddd #bdc4 ,the rock shelter of ,schweizersbild #dde #bdd4 ,the open loess station of ,aggsbach #ddh #bde4 ,saiga antelope carved on a bone dart-thrower1 from ,mas d',azil #ddi #bdf4 ,western entrance to the cavern of ,mas d',azil #dfj #bdg4 ,azilian harpoons of stag horn #dfb #bdh4 ,azilian galets coloris1 or painted pebbles #dfd #bdi4 ,tardenoisian flints #dfg #bej4 ,map--,azilian-,tardenoisian stations #dga #bea4 ,azilian stone implements #dgc #beb4 ,double-rowed ,azilian harpoons of stag horn1 from ,oban #dgd #bec4 ,section--,archologic layers in the grotto of ,ofnet #dgf #bed4 ,burial nest of six skulls1 from the grotto of ,ofnet #dgg #bee4 ,brachycephalic and dolichocephalic skulls from ,ofnet #dgh #bef4 ,broad-headed skull of ,grenelle #dhb #beg4 ,entrance to the grotto of ,furfooz on the ,lesse #dhb #beh4 ,section of the grotto of ,furfooz #dhc #bei4 ,one of the type skulls of the ,furfooz race #dhc #bfj4 ,restoration of the man of ,grenelle #dhd #bfa4 ,implements and decorations from ,maglemose #dhg #bfb4 ,ancestry of the ,pre-,neolithic races #dia #bfc4 ,stages in the manufacture of the ,neolithic stone ax #dic #bfd4 ,stone hatchet from ,campigny #did #bfe4 ,stone pick from ,campigny #did #bff4 ,restoration of the ,neolithic man of ,spiennes #die #bfg4 ,stag hunt1 painting from the rock shelter of ,alpera #dig #bfh4 ,map--,distribution of the types of recent man in western ,europe #dii ,map of ,palolithic ,tour folded at the end of the volume ,,men ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,stone ,,age ,,introduction ,,greek ,,conceptions ,,of ,,man',s ,,origin--,,rise ,,of ,,anthropology1 ,,of ,,arch,,ology1 ,,of ,,the ,,geologic ,,history ,,of ,,man--,,time ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,glacial ,,epoch--,,geographic1 ,,climatic1 ,,and ,,life ,,periods ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,stone ,,age ,the anticipation of nature by ,lucretius,b in his philosophical poem1 ,de ,rerum ,natura1 accords in a broad and remarkable way with our present knowledge of the prehistory of man3 ,things throughout proceed ,in firm1 undevious order1 and maintain1 ,to nature true1 their fixt generic stamp4 ,yet man's first sons1 as o'er the fields they trod1 ,reared from the hardy earth1 were hardier far2 ,strong built with ampler bones1 with muscles nerved ,broad and substantial2 to the power of heat1 ,of cold1 of varying viands1 and disease1 ,each hour superior2 the wild lives of beasts ,leading1 while many a lustre o'er them rolled4 ,nor crooked plough-share knew they1 nor to drive1 ,deep through the soil1 the rich-returning spade2 ,nor how the tender seedling to re-plant1 ,nor from the fruit-tree prune the withered branch4 99 99 99 99 99 ,nor knew they yet the crackling blaze t'excite1 ,or clothe their limbs with furs1 or savage hides4 ,but groves concealed them1 woods1 and hollow hills2 ,and1 when rude rains1 or bitter blasts o'erpowered1 ,low bushy shrubs their squalid members wrapped4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and in their keen rapidity of hand ,and foot confiding1 oft the savage train ,with missile stones they hunted1 or the force ,of clubs enormous2 many a tribe they felled1 ,yet some in caves shunned1 cautious2 where1 at night1 ,thronged they1 like bristly swine2 their naked limbs ,with herbs and leaves entwining4 ,nought of fear ,urged them to quit the darkness1 and recall1 ,with clamorous cries1 the sunshine and the day3 ,but sound they sunk in deep1 oblivious sleep1 ,till o'er the mountains blushed the roseate dawn4 99 99 99 99 99 ,this ne'er distressed them1 but the fear alone ,some ruthless monster might their dreams molest1 ,the foamy boar1 or lion1 from their caves ,drive them aghast beneath the midnight shade1 ,and seize their leaf-wrought couches for themselves4 99 99 99 99 99 ,yet then scarce more of mortal race than now ,left the sweet lustre of the liquid day4 ,some doubtless1 oft the prowling monsters gaunt ,grasped in their jaws1 abrupt2 whence1 through the groves1 ,the woods1 the mountains1 they vociferous groaned1 ,destined thus living to a living tomb4 99 99 99 99 99 ,yet when1 at length1 rude huts they first devised1 ,and fires1 and garments2 and1 in union sweet1 ,man wedded woman1 the pure joys indulged ,of chaste connubial love1 and children rose1 ,the rough barbarians softened4 ,the warm hearth ,their frames so melted they no more could bear1 ,as erst1 th' uncovered skies2 the nuptial bed ,broke their wild vigor1 and the fond caress ,of prattling children from the bosom chased ,their stern ferocious manners4,c ,this is a picture of many phases in the life of primitive man3 his powerful frame1 his ignorance of agriculture1 his dependence on the fruits and animal products of the earth1 his discovery of fire and of clothing1 his chase of wild beasts with clubs and missile stones1 his repair to caverns1 his contests with the lion and the boar1 his invention of rude huts and dwellings1 the softening of his nature through the sweet influence of family life and of children1 all these are veritable stages in our prehistoric development4 ,the influence of ,greek thought is also reflected in the ,satires of ,horace1,d and the ,greek conception of the natural history of man1 voiced by schylus,e as early as the fifth century ,b4 ,c41 prevailed widely before the ,christian era1 when it gradually gave way to the ,mosaic conception of special creation1 which spread all over western ,europe4 ,,rise ,,of ,,modern ,,anthropology ,as the idea of the natural history of man again arose1 during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 it came not so much from previous sources as from the dawning science of comparative anatomy4 ,from the year #aeig1 when a ,portuguese sailor's account of an animal resembling the chimpanzee was embodied in ,filippo ,pigafetta's ,description of the ,kingdom of the ,congo1 the many points of likeness between the anthropoid apes and man were treated both in satire and caricature and in serious anatomical comparison as evidence of kinship4 ,the first ,french evolutionist1 ,buffon1,f observed in #agdi3 ,the first truth that makes itself apparent on serious study of nature is one that man may perhaps find humiliating2 it is this--that he1 too1 must take his place in the ranks of animals1 being1 as he is1 an animal in every material point4 ,buffon's convictions were held in check by clerical and official influences1 yet from his study of the orang in #agff we can entertain no doubt of his belief that men and apes are descended from common ancestors4 ,the second ,french evolutionist1 ,lamarck1,g in #ahji boldly proclaimed the descent of man from the anthropoid apes1 pointing out their close anatomical resemblances combined with inferiority both in bodily and mental capacity4 ,in the evolution of man ,lamarck perceived the great importance of the erect position1 which is only occasionally assumed by the apes2 also that children pass gradually from the quadrumanous to the upright position1 and thus repeat the history of their ancestors4 ,man's origin is traced as follows3 ,a race of quadrumanous apes gradually acquires the upright position in walking1 with a corresponding modification of the limbs1 and of the relation of the head and face to the back-bone4 ,such a race1 having mastered all the other animals1 spreads out over the world4 ,it checks the increase of the races nearest itself and1 spreading in all directions1 begins to lead a social life1 develops the power of speech and the communication of ideas4 ,it develops also new requirements1 one after another1 which lead to industrial pursuits and to the gradual perfection of its powers4 ,eventually this pre-eminent race1 having acquired absolute supremacy1 comes to be widely different from even the most perfect of the lower animals4 ,the period following the latest publication of ,lamarck's7#a7;,h remarkable speculations in the year #ahbb1 was distinguished by the earliest discoveries of the industry of the caveman in southern ,france in #ahbh1 and in ,belgium1 near ,lige1 in #ahcc2 discoveries which afforded the first scientific proof of the geologic antiquity of man and laid the foundations of the science of archology4 ,the earliest recognition of an entirely extinct race of men was that which was called the ',neanderthal1' found1 in #ahef1 near ,dsseldorf1 and immediately recognized by ,schaaffhausen7#b7 as a primitive race of low cerebral development and of uncommon bodily strength4 ,darwin in the ,origin of ,species17#c7 which appeared in #aheh1 did not discuss the question of human descent1 but indicated the belief that light would be thrown by his theory on the origin of man and his history4 ,it appears that ,lamarck's doctrine in the ,philosophie ,zoologique 7#ahji77d7 made a profound impression on the mind of ,lyell1 who was the first to treat the descent of man in a broad way from the standpoint of comparative anatomy and of geologic age4 ,in his great work of #ahfc1 ,the ,geological ,evidences of the ,antiquity of ,man1 ,lyell cited ,huxley's estimate of the ,neanderthal skull as more primitive than that of the ,australian but of surprisingly large cranial capacity4 ,he concludes with the notable statement3 ,the direct bearing of the ape-like character of the ,neanderthal skull on ,lamarck's doctrine of progressive development and transmutation 444 consists in this1 that the newly observed deviation from a normal standard of human structure is not in a casual or random direction1 but just what might have been anticipated if the laws of variation were such as the transmutationists require4 ,for if we conceive the cranium to be very ancient1 it exemplifies a less advanced stage of progressive development and improvement47#e7 ,lyell followed this by an exhaustive review of all the then existing evidence in favor of the great geological age of man1 considering the 'river-drift1' the 'loess1' and the loam deposits1 and the relations of man to the divisions of the ,glacial ,epoch4 ,referring to what is now known as the ,lower ,palolithic of ,st4 ,acheul and the ,upper ,palolithic of ,aurignac1 he says that they were doubtless separated by a vast interval of time1 when we consider that the flint implements of ,st4 ,acheul belong either to the ,post-,pliocene or early ,pleistocene time1 or the 'older drift4' ,it is singular that in the ,descent of ,man1 published in #ahga17f7 eight years after the appearance of ,lyell's great work1 ,charles ,darwin made only passing mention of the ,neanderthal race1 as follows3 ,nevertheless1 it must be admitted that some skulls of very high antiquity1 such as the famous one at ,neanderthal1 are well-developed and capacious4 ,it was the relatively large brain capacity which turned ,darwin's attention away from a type which has furnished most powerful support to his theory of human descent4 ,in the two hundred pages which ,darwin devotes to the descent of man1 he treats especially the evidences presented in comparative anatomy and comparative psychology1 as well as the evidence afforded by the comparison of the lower and higher races of man4 ,as regards the birthplace and antiquity of man17#g7 he observes3 444 ,in each great region of the world the living mammals are closely related to the extinct species of the same region4 ,it is therefore probable that ,africa was formerly inhabited by extinct apes closely allied to the gorilla and chimpanzee2 and as these two species are now man's nearest allies1 it is somewhat more probable that our early progenitors lived on the ,african continent than elsewhere4 ,but it is useless to speculate on this subject2 for two or three anthropomorphous apes1 one the ,dryopithecus of ,lartet1 nearly as large as a man1 and closely allied to ,hylobates1 existed in ,europe during the ,miocene ,age2 and since so remote a period the earth has certainly undergone many great revolutions1 and there has been ample time for migration on the largest scale4 ,at the period and place1 whenever and wherever it was1 when man first lost his hairy covering1 he probably inhabited a hot country2 a circumstance favorable for the frugivorous diet on which1 judging from analogy1 he subsisted4 ,we are far from knowing how long ago it was when man first diverged from the catarrhine stock2 but it may have occurred at an epoch as remote as the ,eocene ,period2 for that the higher apes had diverged from the lower apes as early as the ,upper ,miocene ,period is shown by the existence of the ,dryopithecus4 ,with this speculation of ,darwin the reader should compare the state of our knowledge to-day regarding the descent of man1 as presented in the first and last chapters of this volume4 ,the most telling argument against the ,lamarck-,lyell-,darwin theory was the absence of those missing links which1 theoretically1 should be found connecting ,man with the anthropoid apes1 for at that time the ,neanderthal race was not recognized as such4 ,between #ahdh and #aiad successive discoveries have been made of a series of human fossils belonging to intermediate races3 some of these are now recognized as missing links between the existing human species1 ,homo sapiens1 and the anthropoid apes2 and others as the earliest known forms of ,homo sapiens3 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,year ,locality ,character of ,remains ,race ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- #ahdh;,gibraltar4 ,well-preserved skull4 ,neanderthal4 #ahef,neanderthal1 near ,skullcap1 etc4 ,type of ,neanderthal ,dsseldorf4 race4 #ahff,la ,naulette1 ,belgium4,fragment of lower jaw4,neanderthal race #ahfg;,furfooz1 ,belgium4 ,two skulls4 ,type of ,furfooz race4 #ahfh;,cr-,magnon1 ,dordogne4,three skeletons and ,type of ,cr-,magnon fragments of two race4 others4 #ahhg,spy1 ,belgium4 ,two crania and ,spy type of skeletons4 ,neanderthal race4 #ahia,trinil ,river1 ,java4 ,skullcap and femur4 ,type of ,pithecanthropus race4 #ahii,krapina1 ,fragments of at least ,krapina type of ,austria-,hungary4 ten individuals4 ,neanderthal race4 #aija;,grimaldi grotto1 ,two skeletons4 ,type of ,grimaldi ,mentone4 race4 #aijg;,heidelberg4 ,lower jaw with teeth4 ,type of ,homo heidelbergensis4 #aijh,la ,chapelle1 ,corrze4,skeleton4 ,mousterian type of ,neanderthal race4 #aijh,le ,moustier1 ,almost complete ,neanderthal4 ,dordogne4 skeleton1 greater part of which was in bad state of preservation4 #aiji,la ,ferrassie ,i1 ,fragments of skeleton4,neanderthal4 ,dordogne4 #aiaj,la ,ferrassie ,,ii1 ,fragments of skeleton1,neanderthal4 ,dordogne4 female4 #aiaa,la ,quina ,,ii1 ,fragments of skeleton1,neanderthal4 ,charente4 supposed female4 #aiaa,piltdown1 ,sussex4 ,portions of skull and ,type of jaw4 ,eoanthropus1 the 'dawn man4' #aiad,obercassel1 near ,two skeletons1 male ,cr-,magnon4 ,bonn1 ,germany4 and female4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,in his classic lecture of #ahdd1 ,on the ,form of the ,head in ,different ,peoples1 ,anders ,retzius laid the foundation of the modern study of the skull47#h7 ,referring to his original publication1 he says3 ,in the system of classification which ,i devised1 ,i have distinguished just two forms1 namely1 the short 7round or four-cornered7 which ,i named brachycephalic1 and the long1 oval1 or dolichocephalic4 ,in the former there is little or no difference between the length and breadth of the skull2 in the latter there is a notable difference4 ,the expression of this primary distinction between races is called the cephalic index1 and it is determined as follows3 ,breadth of skull #ajj length of skull4 ,in this sense the primitive men of the ,old ,stone ,age were mostly 'dolichocephalic1' that is1 the breadth of the skull was in general less than #ge per cent of the length1 as in the existing ,australians1 ,kaffirs1 ,zulus1 ,eskimos1 and ,fijians4 ,but some of the ,palolithic races were 'mesaticephalic'2 that is1 the breadth was between #ge per cent and #hj per cent of the length1 as in the existing ,chinese and ,polynesians4 ,the third or 'brachycephalic' type is the exception among ,palolithic skulls1 in which the breadth is over #hj per cent of the length1 as in the ,malays1 ,burmese1 ,american ,indians1 and ,andamanese4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4 ,outline of a modern brachycephalic skull 7fine dots71 superposed upon a dolichocephalic skull 7dashes71 superposed upon a chimpanzee skull 7line74 g4 glabella or median prominence between the eyebrows4 i4 inion--external occipital protuberance4 g-i4 glabella-inion line4 ,vertical line from g-i to top of skull indicates the height of the brain-case4 ,modified after ,schwalbe4 ,the cephalic index1 however1 tells us little of the position of the skull as a brain-case in the ascending or descending scale1 and following the elaborate systems of skull measurements which were built up by ,retzius7#i7 and ,broca17#aj7 and based chiefly on the outside characters of the skull1 came the modern system of ,schwalbe1 which has been devised especially to measure the skull with reference to the all-important criterion of the size of the different portions of the brain1 and of approximately estimating the cubic capacity of the brain from the more or less complete measurements of the skull4 ,among these measurements are the slope of the forehead1 the height of the median portion of the skullcap1 and the ratio between the upper portion of the cranial chamber and the lower portion4 ,in brief1 the seven principal measures which ,schwalbe now employs are chiefly expressions of diameters which correspond with the number of cubic centimetres occupied by the brain as a whole4 ,in this manner ,schwalbe7#aa7 confirms ,boule's estimates of the variations in the cubic capacity of the brain in different members of the ,neanderthal race as follows3 ,neanderthal race--,la ,chapelle #afbj c4cm4 --,neanderthal #adjh --,la ,quina #acfg --,gibraltar #abif ,thus the variations between the largest known brain in one member of the ,neanderthal race1 the male skull of ,la ,chapelle1 and the smallest brain of the same race1 the supposed female skull of ,gibraltar1 is #cbd c4cm41 a range similar to that which we find in the existing species of man 7,homo sapiens74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4 ,the skull and brain-case1 showing the low1 retreating forehead1 prominent supraorbital ridges1 and small brain capacity1 of ,pithecanthropus1 the java ape-man1 as restored by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,as another test for the classification of primitive skulls1 we may select the well-known frontal angle of ,broca1 as modified by ,schwalbe1 for measuring the retreating forehead4 ,the angle is measured by drawing a line along the forehead upward from the bony ridge between the eyebrows1 with a horizontal line carried from the glabella to the inion at the back of the skull4 ,the various primitive races are arranged as follows3 ,,per ,,cent ,homo sapiens1 with an average forehead frontal angle #ij ,homo sapiens1 with extreme retreating forehead #gb4c ,homo neanderthalensis1 with the least retreating forehead #gj ,homo neanderthalensis1 with the most retreating forehead #eg4e ,pithecanthropus erectus 7,trinil race7 #eb4e ,highest anthropoid apes #ef ,for instance1 this illustrates the fact that in the ,trinil race the forehead is actually lower than in some of the highest anthropoid apes2 that in the ,neanderthal race the forehead is more retreating than in any of the existing human races of ,homo sapiens4 ,,arch,,ology ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,stone ,,age,i ,the proofs of the prehistory of man arose afresh1 and from an entirely new source1 in the beginning of the eighteenth century through discoveries in ,germany1 by which the ,greek anticipations of a stone age were verified4 ,for a century and a half the great animal life of the diluvial world had aroused the wonder and speculation of the early naturalists4 ,in #agej ,eccardus7#ag7 of ,braunschweig advanced the first steps toward prehistoric chronology1 in expressing the opinion that the human race first lived in a period in which stone served as the only weapon and tool1 and that this was followed by a bronze and then by an iron period of human culture4 ,as early as #agjj a human skull was discovered at ,cannstatt and was believed to be of a period as ancient as the mammoth and the cave-bear4,j ,france1 favored beyond all other countries by the men of the ,old ,stone ,age1 was destined to become the classic centre of prehistoric archology4 ,as early as #agdj ,mahudel7#ah7 published a treatise upon stone implements and laid the foundations both of ,neolithic and ,palolithic research4 ,by the beginning of the nineteenth century the problem of fossil man had awakened wide-spread interest and research4 ,in ,buckland's7#ai7 ,reliqui diluvian1 published in #ahbd1 the great mammals of the ,old ,stone ,age are treated as relics of the flood4 ,in #ahbe ,mac,enery explored the cavern of ,kent's ,hole1 near ,torquay1 finding human bones and flint flakes associated with the remains of the cave-bear and cave-hyna1 but the notes of this discovery were not published until #ahdj1 when ,godwin-,austen7#bj7 gave the first description of ,kent's ,hole4 ,in #ahbh ,tournal and ,christol7#ba7 announced the first discoveries in ,france 7,languedoc7 of the association of human bones with the remains of extinct animals4 ,in #ahcc-d ,schmerling7#bb7 described his explorations in the caverns near ,lige1 in ,belgium1 in which he found human bones and rude flint implements intermingled with the remains of the mammoth1 the woolly rhinoceros1 the cave-hyna1 and the cave-bear4 ,this is the first published evidence of the life of the ,cave ,period of ,europe1 and was soon followed by the recognition of similar cavern deposits along the south coast of ,great ,britain1 in ,france1 ,belgium and ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4 ,three great types of flint implements4 ,a4 ,an eolith of accidental shape4 ,b4 ,a palolith of ,chellean type1 partly fashioned4 ,c4 ,a ,neolithic axe head1 partly polished4 ,after ,mac,curdy4 ,the work of the caveman1 gradually revealed between #ahbh and #ahdj1 is now known to belong to the closing period of the ,old ,stone ,age1 and it is very remarkable that the next discovery related to the very dawn of the ,old ,stone ,age1 namely1 to the life of the 'river-drift' man of the ,lower ,palolithic4 ,this discovery of what is now known as ,chellean and ,acheulean industry came through the explorations of ,boucher de ,perthes1 between #ahci and #ahdf1 in the valley of the ,river ,somme1 which flows through ,amiens and ,abbeville and empties into the ,english ,channel half-way between ,dieppe and ,boulogne4 ,in #ahda this founder of modern archology unearthed near ,abbeville a single flint1 rudely fashioned into a cutting instrument1 buried in river sand and associated with mammalian remains4 ,this was followed by the collection of many other ancient weapons and implements1 and in the year #ahdf ,boucher de ,perthes published his first work1 entitled ,de l',industrie primitive1 ou des ,arts leur ,origine17#bc7 in which he announced that he had found human implements in beds unmistakably belonging to the age of the 'river-drift4' ,this work and the succeeding 7#aheg71 ,antiquits celtiques et antdiluviennes17#bd7 were received with great scepticism until confirmed in #ahec by ,rigollot's7#be7 discovery of the now famous 'river-drift' beds of ,st4 ,acheul1 near ,amiens4 ,in the succeeding years the epoch-making work of ,boucher de ,perthes was welcomed and confirmed by leading ,british geologists and archologists1 ,falconer1 ,prestwich1 ,evans1 and others who visited the ,somme4 ,lubbock's7#bf7 article of #ahfb1 on the ,evidence of the ,antiquity of ,man ,afforded by the ,physical ,structure of the ,somme ,valley1 pointing out the great geologic age of the river sands and gravels and of the mammals which they contained1 was followed by the discovery of similar flints in the 'river-drifts' of ,suffolk and ,kent1 ,england1 in the valley of the ,thames near ,dartford4 ,thus came the first positive proofs that certain types of stone implements were wide-spread geographically1 and thus was afforded the means of comparing the age of one deposit with another4 ,this led ,sir ,john ,lubbock7#bg7 to divide the prehistoric period into four great epochs1 in descending order as follows3 ,the ,iron ,age1 in which iron had superseded bronze for arms1 axes1 knives1 etc41 while bronze remained in common use for ornaments4 ,the ,bronze ,age1 in which bronze was used for arms and cutting instruments of all kinds4 ,the later or polished ,stone ,age1 termed by ,lubbock the ,neolithic ,period1 characterized by weapons and instruments made of flint and other kinds of stone1 with no knowledge of any metal excepting gold4 ,age of the ,drift1 termed by ,lubbock the ,palolithic ,period1 characterized by chipped or flaked implements of flint and other kinds of stone1 and by the presence of the mammoth1 the cave-bear1 the woolly rhinoceros1 and other extinct animals4 ,edouard ,lartet1 in #ahfj1 began exploring the caverns of the ,pyrenees and of ,prigord1 first examining the remarkable cavern of ,aurignac with its burial vault1 its hearths1 its reindeer and mammoth fauna1 its spear points of bone and engravings on bone mingled with a new and distinctive flint culture4 ,this discovery1 published in #ahfa17bh7 led to the full revelation of the hitherto unknown ,reindeer and ,art ,period of the ,old ,stone ,age1 now known as the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,as a palontologist1 it was natural for ,lartet to propose a fourfold classification of the ',reindeer ,period1' based upon the supposed succession of the dominant forms of mammalian life1 namely3 7d7 ,age of the ,aurochs or ,bison4 7c7 ,age of the ,woolly ,mammoth and ,rhinoceros4 7b7 ,age of the ,reindeer4 7a7 ,age of the ,cave-,bear4 ,lartet1 in association with the ,british archologist1 ,christy1 explored the now famous rock shelters and caverns of ,dordogne--,laugerie1 ,la ,madeleine1 ,les ,eyzies1 and ,le ,moustier--which one by one yielded a variety of flint and bone implements1 engravings and sculpture on bone and ivory1 and a rich extinct fauna1 in which the reindeer and mammoth predominated4 ,the results of this decade of exploration are recorded in their classic work1 ,reliqui ,aquitanic47#bi7 ,lartet1 observes ,breuil17#cj7 clearly perceived the level of ,aurignac1 where the fauna of the great cave-bear and of the mammoth appears to yield to that of the reindeer4 ,above he perceived the stone culture of the ,solutrean type in ,laugerie ,haute1 and of the ,magdalenian type in ,laugerie ,basse4 ,lartet also distinguished between the archological period of ,st4 ,acheul 7 ,lower ,palolithic7 and that of ,aurignac 7 ,upper ,palolithic74 ,it remained1 however1 for ,gabriel de ,mortillet1 the first ,french archologist to survey and systematize the development of the flint industry throughout the entire ,palolithic ,period1 to recognize that the ,magdalenian followed the ,solutrean1 and that during the latter stage industry in stone reached its height1 while during the ,magdalenian the industry in bone and in wood developed in a marvelous manner4 ,mortillet failed to recognize the position of the ,aurignacian and omitted it from his archological chronology1 which was first published in #ahfi1 ,essai de classification des cavernes et des stations sous abri1 fonde sur les produits de l'industrie humaine37#ca7 7#e7 ,magdalnien1,k characterized by a number and variety of bone implements2 7#d7 ,solutren1 leaf-like lance-heads beautifully worked2 7#c7 ,moustrien1 flints worked mostly on one side only2 7#b7 ,acheulen1 the 'langues de chat' hand-axes of ,st4 ,acheul2 7#a7 ,chellen1 bold1 primitive1 partly worked hand-axes4 ,shortly after the ,franco-,prussian ,war1 ,edouard ,piette 7b4 #ahbg1 d4 #aijf71 who had held the office of magistrate in various towns in the departments of ,ardennes and ,aisne1 ,france1 and who was already distinguished for his general scientific attainments1 began to devote himself especially to the evolution of art in ,upper ,palolithic times1 and assembled the great collections which are described and illustrated in his classic work1 ,l',art pendant l',age du ,renne 7#aijg747cb7 ,he first established several phases of artistic evolution in the ,magdalenian stage1 and only recognized in his later years the station of ,brassempouy1 not comprehending that the ,aurignacian art which he found there underlay the ,solutrean culture and was separated by a long interval of time from the most ancient ,magdalenian4 ,his distinct contribution to ,palolithic history is his discovery of the tage azilien overlying the ,magdalenian in the cavern of ,mas d',azil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4 ,evolution of the lance-point1 spear1 or dart head4 ,note the increasing symmetry and skill in the flaking and retouch as the types pass in ascending order through the ,chellean1 ,acheulean1 ,mousterian1 and ,aurignacian1 into the perfected1 symmetrical1 double-pointed 'laurel-leaf' of the ,solutrean2 and into the subsequent decline in the flint industry of the ,magdalenian and ,azilian stages4 ,after de ,mortillet1 ,obermaier1 and ,hoernes4 ,henri ,breuil1 a pupil of ,piette and of ,cartailhac1 exploring during the decade1 #aijb-ab1 chiefly under the influence of ,cartailhac1 formed a clear conception of the whole ,upper ,palolithic and its subdivisions1 and placed the ,aurignacian definitely at the base of the series4 ,thus step by step the culture stages of archological evolution have been established and may be summarized with the type stations as follows3 ,,tage ,,station ,tardenoisien1 ,fre-en-,tardenois1 ,aisne4 ,azilien1 ,mas d',azil1 ,arige4 ,magdalenien1 ,la ,madeleine1 prs ,tursac1 ,dordogne4 ,solutren1 ,solutr prs ,mcon1 ,sane-et-,loire4 ,aurignacien1 ,aurignac1 ,haute-,garonne4 ,moustrien1 ,le ,moustier1 commune de ,peyzac1 ,dordogne4 ,acheulen1 ,st4 ,acheul1 prs ,amiens1 ,somme4 ,chellen1 ,chelles-sur-,marne1 ,seine-et-,marne4 ,pre-,chellen 7 ,mesvinien1 ,rutot71 ,mesvin1 ,mons1 ,belgique4 ,these stages1 at first regarded as single1 have each been subdivided into three or more substages1 as a result of the more refined appreciation of the subtle advances in ,palolithic invention and technique4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4 ,the type stations of the successive stages of ,palolithic culture from the ,chellean to the ,azilian-,tardenoisian4 ,a new impulse to the study of ,palolithic culture was given in #ahie1 when ,e4 ,rivire discovered examples of ,palolithic mural art in the cavern of ,la ,mouthe17#cc7 thus confirming the original discovery1 in #ahhj1 by ,marcelino de ,sautuola of the wonderful ceiling frescoes of the cave of ,altamira1 northern ,spain47#cd7 ,this created the opportunity for the establishment by the ,prince of ,monaco of the ,institut de ,palontologie humaine in #aiaj1 supporting the combined researches of the ,upper ,palolithic culture and art of ,france and ,spain1 by ,cartailhac1 ,capitan1 ,rivire1 ,boule1 ,breuil1 and ,obermaier1 and marking a new epoch in the brilliant history of the archology of ,france4 ,it remained for the prehistory of the borders of the ,danube1 ,rhine1 and ,neckar to be brought into harmony with that of ,france1 and this has been accomplished with extraordinary precision and fulness through the labors of ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt1 begun in #aijf1 and brought together in his invaluable work1 ,die diluviale ,vorzeit ,deutschlands47#ce7 ,to an earlier and longer epoch belongs the ,prepalolithic or ,eolithic stage4 ,beginning in #ahfg with the supposed discovery by l',abb ,bourgeois7#cf7 of a primordial or ,prepalolithic stone culture1 much observation and speculation has been devoted to the ,eolithic7#cg7 era and the ,eolithic industry1 culminating in the complete chronological system of ,rutot1 as follows3 ,,lower ,,quaternary1 ,,or ,,pleistocene ,strpyian 7 ,pre-,chellean1 in part74 ,mesvinian1 culture of ,mesvin1 near ,mons1 ,belgium 7 ,pre-,chellean74 ,mafflean1 culture of ,maffle1 near ,ath1 ,hennegau4 ,reutelian1 culture of ,reutel1 ,ypres1 ,west ,flanders4 ,,tertiary ,prestian1 culture of ,st4 ,prest1 ,eure-et-,loire1 ,upper ,pliocene4 ,kentian1 culture of the plateau of ,kent1 ,middle ,pliocene4 ,cantalian1 culture of ,aurillac1 ,cantal1 ,upper ,miocene or ,lower ,pliocene4 ,fagnian1 culture of ,boncelles1 ,ardennes1 ,middle ,oligocene4 ,only the ,mesvinian stage is generally accepted by archologists1 and this embraces the prototypes of the ,lower ,palolithic culture1 which among most ,french authors are termed ,pre-,chellean or ,proto-,chellean4 ,the ,eolithic problem has aroused the most animated controversy1 in which opinion is divided4 ,a critical consideration of this era1 however1 falls without the province of the present work4 ,,succession ,,of ,,human ,,industries ,,and ,,cultures,l ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,v4 ,,later ,,iron ,,age ,,europe #ejj ,b4 ,c4 to 7,,la ,t,,ne ,,culture7 ,,roman ,,times4 ,,iv4 ,,earlier ,,iron ,,age ,,europe #ajjj-ejj ,b4 ,c4 7,,hallstatt ,,culture7 ,,orient #ahjj-ajjj ,,iii4 ,,bronze ,,age ,,europe about #bjjj-ajjj ,,orient #djjj-ahjj ,,ii4 ,,new ,,stone ,,age1 ,,neolithic #c4 ,,late ,,neolithic and ,,copper ,,age 7,,transition ,,period7 ,,europe #cjjj-bjjj4 #b4 ,,typical ,,neolithic ,,age 7,,robenhausian1 ,,swiss ,,lake-,,dwellers7 ,,europe #gjjj4 #a4 ,,early ,,neolithic ,,stages 7,,campignian ,,culture7 ,,europe ,i4 ,,old ,,stone ,,age1 ,,pal,,olithic ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,europe #h4 ,,azilian-,,tardenoisian4 #ab1jjj4 #g4 ,,magdalenian4 7,close of #af1jjj4 ,postglacial time47 #f4 ,,solutrean4 ,,reindeer1 ,,shelter1 #e4 ,,aurignacian4 7,beginning ,,and ,,cave of ,post-,glacial ,time47 ,,period4 ,,lower ,,pal,,olithic #d4 ,,mousterian4 7,fourth #dj1jjj4 ,glacial time47 #c4 ,,acheulean4 7,transition to shelters47 ,,river- ,,drift #b4 ,,chellean4 ,,and #ajj1jjj4 ,,terrace #a4 ,,pre-,,chellean 7,,mesvinian47 ,,period4 ,,eolithic4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,geologic ,,history ,,of ,,man ,man emerges from the vast geologic history of the earth in the period known as the ,pleistocene1 or ,glacial1 and ,postglacial1 the ',diluvium' of the older geologists4 ,the men of the ,old ,stone ,age in western ,europe are now known through the latter half of ,glacial times to the very end of ,postglacial times1 when the ,old ,stone ,age1 with its wonderful environment of mammalian and human life1 comes to a gradual close1 and the ,new ,stone ,age begins with the climate and natural beauties of the forests1 meadows1 and ,alps of ,europe as they were before the destroying hand of economic civilization fell upon them4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,ii4 ,throughout this long epoch western ,europe is to be viewed as a peninsula1 surrounded on all sides by the sea and stretching westward from the great land mass of eastern ,europe and of ,asia1 which was the chief theatre of evolution both of animal and human life4 #a-h4 ,discovery sites of the type specimens of human and prehuman races4 ,it is our difficult but fascinating task to project in our imagination the extraordinary series of prehistoric natural events which were witnessed by the successive races of ,palolithic men in ,europe2 such a combination and sequence never occurred before in the world's history and will never occur again4 ,they centred around three distinct and yet closely related groups of causes4 ,first1 the formation of the two great ice-fields centring over the ,scandinavian peninsula and over the ,alps2 second1 the arrival or assemblage in western ,europe of mammals from five entirely different life-zones or natural habitats2 third1 the arrival in ,europe of seven or eight successive races of men by migration1 chiefly from the great ,eurasiatic continent of the ,east4 ,throughout this long epoch western ,europe is to be viewed as a peninsula1 surrounded on all sides by the sea and stretching westward from the great land mass of eastern ,europe and of ,asia1 which was the chief theatre of evolution both of animal and human life4 ,it was the 'far west' of all migrations of animals and men4 ,nor may we disregard the vast ,african land mass1 the northern coasts of which afforded a great southern migration route from ,asia1 and may have supplied ,europe with certain of its human races such as the ',grimaldi4' ,these three principal phenomena of the ice-fields1 the mammals1 and the human life and industry1 together establish the chronology of the ,age of ,man4 ,in other words1 there are four ways of keeping prehistoric time3 that of geology1 that of palontology1 that of anatomy1 and that of human industry4 ,geologic events mark the grander divisions of time2 palontologic and anatomic events mark the lesser divisions2 while the successive phases of human industry mark the least divisions4 ,the geologic chronology deals with such immense periods of time that its ratio to the animal and to the human chronology is like that of years to hours and to minutes of our own solar time4 ,the ,glacial ,epoch when first revealed by ,charpentier7#ci7 and ,agassiz17#dj7 between #ahcg and #ahdj1 was supposed to correspond to a single great advance and retreat of the ice-fields from various centres4 ,the vague problem of the antiquity of ,pliocene man and ,diluvial man soon merged into the far more definite chronology of glacial and interglacial man4 ,as early as #ahed1 ,morlot discovered near ,drnten1 on the borders of the lake of ,zrich1 a bed of fossil plants indicating a period of south temperate climate intervening between two great deposits of glacial origin4 ,this led to the new conception of cold glacial stages and warm interglacial stages1 and ,morlot7#da7 himself advanced the theory that there had been three glacial stages separated by two interglacial stages4 ,other discoveries followed both of fossil plants and mammals adapted to warmer periods intervening between the colder periods4 ,moreover1 successive glacial moraines and 'drifts1' and successive river 'terraces' were found to confirm the theory of multiple glacial stages4 ,the ,british geologist1 ,james ,geikie 7#ahga-id7 marshalled all the evidence for the extreme hypothesis of a succession of six glacial and five interglacial stages1 each with its corresponding cold and warm climates4 ,strong confirmation of a theory of four great glaciations came through the ,american geologists1 ,chamberlin17#db7 ,salisbury17#dc7 and others1 in the discovery of evidence of four chief glacial and three interglacial stages in northern portions of our own continent4 ,finally1 a firm foundation of the quadruple glacial theory in ,europe was laid by the classic researches of ,penck and ,brckner7#dd7 in the ,alps1 which were published in #aiji4 ,thus the exhaustive research of ,geikie1 of ,chamberlin and ,salisbury1 of ,penck and ,brckner1 and finally of ,leverett7#de7 has firmly established eight subdivisions or stages of ,pleistocene time1 namely1 four glacial1 three interglacial1 and one postglacial4 ,these not only mark the great eras of ,european time but also make possible the synchrony of ,america with ,europe4 ,,place ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,stone ,,age ,,in ,,the ,,earth',s ,,history 7,indicated in heavy-face letter47 ,compare ,schuchert's ,table1 #aiad4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,major ,periods and ,epochs ,advances in ,life ,dominant ,life ,divisions ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,holocene4 ,recent ,rise of world ,age of ,man4 alluvial4 civilization4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4,industry in iron1 ,iron1 ,bronze1 copper1 and and ,new ,,quaternary4 polished stone4 ,stone ,ages4 ,,pleistocene1,postglacial,extinction of stage4 great mammals4 ,men or of the ,,ice ,,age4 ,glacial ,dawn of mind1 ,old ,stone stages4 art1 and ,age4 industry4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,pliocene4 ,transformation of man-ape into man4 -------------,late ------------------ ,,miocene4 ,tertiary4 ,culmination of mammals ,,age ,,of ---------------------------------------- --- ,,oligocene4 ,beginnings of ,,mammals anthropoid ape ,,tertiary4 ------------- life4 ,,and ,appearance of ,,eocene4 ,early higher types of ,,modern ,tertiary4 mammals1 and vanishing of ,,plant ,,life4 archaic forms4 ------------- ------------------ ,,pal,,ocene4 ,rise of archaic mammals4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,extinction of great reptiles4 ,cretaceous4 ------------------------------ ,,late ,extreme ,,mesozoic4 specialization ,,age of reptiles4 ---------------------------------------- --- ,rise of flowering ,,of ,comanchian4 plants4 ---------------------------------------- -------------- ,,reptiles4 ,rise of birds and ,jurassic4 flying reptiles4 ,,early ---------------------------------------- --- ,,mesozoic4 ,triassic4 ,rise of dinosaurs4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,since most of the skeletal and cultural remains of man can now be definitely attributed to certain glacial1 interglacial1 or postglacial stages1 vast interest attaches to the very difficult problem of the duration of the whole ,ice ,age and the relative duration of its various glacial and interglacial stages4 ,the following figures set forth the wide variations in opinion on this subject and the two opposite tendencies of speculation which lead to greatly expanded or greatly abbreviated estimates of ,pleistocene time3 ,,duration ,,of ,,the ,,ice ,,age ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ahfc4 ,charles ,lyell17#df7 ,principles of ,geology #hjj1jjj years4 #ahgd4 ,james ,d4 ,dana17#dg7 ,manual of ,geology #gbj1jjj #ahic4 ,charles ,d4 ,walcott17#dh7 ,geologic ,time as ,indicated by the ,sedimentary ,rocks of ,north ,america #djj1jjj #ahic4 ,w4 ,upham17#di7 ,estimates of ,geologic ,times1 ,amer4 ,jour4 ,sci41 vol4 ,,xlv #ajj1jjj #ahid4 ,a4 ,heim17#ej7 ,ueber das absolute ,alter der ,eiszeit #ajj1jjj #aijj4 ,w4 ,j4 ,sollas17#ea7 ,evolutional ,geology #djj1jjj #aiji4 ,albrecht ,penck17#eb7 ,die ,alpen im ,eiszeitalter #ebj1jjj-hdj1jjj #aiad4 ,james ,geikie17#ec7 ,the ,antiquity of ,man in ,europe #fbj1jjj 7min47 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,we may adopt for the present work the more conservative estimate of ,penck1 that since the first great ice-fields developed in ,scandinavia1 in the ,alps1 and in ,north ,america west of ,hudson ,bay a period of time of not less than #ebj1jjj years has elapsed4 ,the relative duration of the subdivisions of the ,glacial ,epoch is also studied by ,penck in his ,chronologie des ,eiszeitalters in den ,alpen47#eb7 ,these stages are not in any degree rhythmic1 or of equal length either in western ,europe or in ,north ,america4 ,the unit of glacial measurement chosen by ,penck is the time which has elapsed since the close of the fourth and last great glaciation2 this is known as the ,wrm in the ,alpine region and as the ,wisconsin in ,america4 ,while more limited than the ice-caps of the second glaciation1 those of the fourth glaciation were still of vast extent in ,europe and in this country1 so that an estimate of #bj1jjj to #cd1jjj years for the unit of the entire ,postglacial stage is not extreme4 ,estimating this unit at #be1jjj years and accepting ,reeds's7#ed7 estimate of the relative length of time occupied by each of the preceding glacial and interglacial stages1 we reach the following results 7compare ,fig4 #ad1 p1 #da73 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,relative ,grand ,descent ,duration ,totalsof ,alpine ,snow-,line ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,,postglacial ,,time4 ,units ,years ,years ,meters 7,period of ,upper ,palolithic culture1 ,cr-,magnon and ,brnn races7 #a #be1jjj #be1jjj ,,iv4 ,,glacial ,,stage 7 ,wrm1 ,wisconsin7 7,close of ,lower ,palolithic culture1 ,neanderthal race7 #a #be1jjj #ej1jjj #a1bjj #c;d4 ,interglacial ,stage4 7,opening period of ,lower ,palolithic culture1 ,piltdown and pre-,neanderthaloid races7 #d #ajj1jjjaej1jjj ,,iii4 ,,glacial ,,stage 7 ,riss1 ,illinoian74 #a #be1jjjage1jjj #a1bej #b;d4 ,interglacial ,stage 7 ,mindel-,riss1 ,yarmouth7 #h #bjj1jjjcge1jjj 7,period of ,heidelberg race47 ,,ii4 ,,glacial ,,stage 7 ,mindel1 ,kansan7 #a #be1jjjdjj1jjj #a1cjj #ast4 ,interglacial ,stage 7 ,gnz-,mindel1 ,aftonian7 #c #ge1jjjdge1jjj 7,period of ,pithecanthropus or ,trinil race47 ,i4 ,,glacial ,,stage 7 ,gnz1 ,nebraskan7 #a #be1jjjejj1jjj #a1bjj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,the ,postglacial time divisions are dated by three successive advances of the ice-caps1 which broadly correspond with ,geikie's fifth and sixth glaciations2 they are known in the ,alpine region as the ,bhl1 ,gschnitz1 and ,daun4 ,these three waves of cold and humid climate1 each accompanied by glacial advances1 finally terminated with the retreat of the snow and ice in the ,alpine region1 the same conditions prevailing as with the present climate4 ,the minimum time estimates of these ,postglacial stages and the corresponding periods of human culture1 as calculated by ,heim17#ej7 ,nesch17#ee7 ,penck17#eb7 and many others1 are summarized in the ,upper ,palolithic 7p4 #bha74 ,,geologic ,,and ,,human ,,chronology ,there are four ways in which the lesser divisions and sequence of human chronology may be dated through geologic or earth-forming events4 ,first1 through the age of the culture stations or human remains1 as indicated by the 'river-drifts' and 'river terraces' in or upon which they occur2 second1 through the age of the open 'loess' stations which are found both on the 'older terraces' and on the plateaus between the river valleys2 third1 through the age of the shelters and caverns in which skeletal and cultural remains occur2 fourth1 through the age of the 'loam' deposits1 which have drifted down on the 'terraces' from the surrounding meadows and hills4 ,the men of the ,old ,stone ,age were attracted to these natural camps and dwelling-places both by the abundance of the raw flint materials from which the paloliths were fashioned and by the presence of game4 ,in more than ninety years of exploration only three skeletal relics of man have been found in the ancient 'river-drifts'2 these are the ',trinil1' the ',heidelberg1' and the ',piltdown'2 in each instance the human remains were buried accidentally with those of extinct animals1 after drifting for some distance in the river or stream beds4 ,it is only in late ,acheulean times that human burial rites or interments begin and that skeletal remains are found4 ,owing to the less perishable nature of flint1 relics of the quarries and stations are infinitely more common2 they are found both in the river sands and gravels1 in the 'river terraces1' and in the 'loess' stations of the plateaus and uplands4 ,thus prehistoric chronology is based on observations of the geologist1 who in turn is greatly aided by the archologist1 because the evolution stages of each type of implement are practically the same all over western ,europe1 with the exception of unimportant local inventions and variations4 ,in brief1 the large divisions of time are determined by the amount of work done by geologic agencies2 the comparative age of the various camp sites is determined by their geologic succession1 by the mammals and plants which occur in them1 and finally by the cultural type of any industrial remains that may be found4 ,,times ,,of ,,the ',,high' ,,and ',,low' ,,river ',,terraces' ,the so-called 'terrace' chronology is to be used by the prehistorian with caution1 for it is obvious that the 'terraces' in the different river-valleys of western ,europe were not all formed at the same time2 thus the testimony of the 'terraces' is always to be checked off by other evidence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4 ,terraces on either side of the valley of the ,river ,inn1 ,scharding1 ,austria1 formed by sand and gravel deposits partly covered with loess4 ,after ,brckner4 ,ib4 ,very broad river deposits of ,first ,glaciation1 on the first erosion level1 covered with the ',upper ,loess' of the ,second ,interglacial ,stage4 ,i,ib4 ,somewhat narrower river deposits of ,second ,glaciation on the second erosion level4 ,i,i,ib4 ,still narrower river terraces of the ,third ,glaciation on the third erosion level1 covered with the ',lower ,loess' of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,i,vb4 ,fourth or lowest terrace of the ,fourth ,glaciation on the fourth erosion level4 ,va4 ,erosion terraces1 ,achen4 ,v,ia4 ,post-,bhl erosion4 ,loess1 ',upper ,loess' of ,second ,interglacial4 ,loess1 ',lower ,loess' of ,third ,interglacial4 ,as to the origin of the sands and gravels which compose the 'terraces' we know that the glacial stages were periods of the wearing away of vast materials from the summits and sides of the mountains1 which were transported by the rivers to the valleys and plains4 ,these vast deposits of glacial times spread out over the very broad surfaces of the pristine river-bottoms1 which in many valleys it is important to note were from #ajj to #aej feet above the present levels4 ,the diminished and contracted streams of interglacial times cut into these ancient river beds1 forming narrower channels into which they transported their own materials4 ,thus1 as the successive 'river terraces' were formed1 a descending series of steps was created along the sides of the valleys4 ,in many valleys there are four of these 'terraces1' which may correspond with several glacial stages2 in other valleys there are only three2 in others1 again1 like the valley of the ,river ,inn which flows past ,innsbruck in the ,tyrol 7,fig4 #f71 there are five 'terraces1' while in the valley of the ,rhine above ,basle there are six1 corresponding1 it is believed1 with the materials brought down by the four great glaciations and with the river levels of ,postglacial times4 ,in general1 therefore1 the 'high terraces' are the oldest ones1 that is1 they are composed of materials brought down during the pluvial periods of the ,first1 ,second1 and ,third ,glacial ,stages1 while the 'lower terraces' and the 'lowest terraces' in the alpine regions are composed of materials borne by the great rivers of the ,fourth ,glacial and ,postglacial ,stages4 ,in the region around the ,alps the 'higher terraces' are products chiefly of the third glaciation2 in the valley of the ,rhine they are visible near ,basle4 ,on the upper ,rhine the 'low terraces' are products of the fourth glaciation2 they cover vast surfaces and contain remains of the woolly mammoth 7,e4 primigenius71 an animal distinctive of ,fourth ,glacial and ,postglacial times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4 ,cross-section through the terraced ,pleistocene formations of the ,rhine valley above ,basle1 ,switzerland4 ,after ,penck4 ,ib4 ,outwash of the ,first ,glaciation--,gnz--,deposits on the first erosion level4 ,i,ib4 ,outwash of the ,second ,glaciation--,mindel--,deposits on the second erosion level4 ,i,i,ib4 ,outwash of the ,third ,glaciation--,riss--,deposits on the third erosion level4 ,i,vb4 ,outwash of the ,fourth ,glaciation--,wrm--,deposits on the fourth erosion level4 ,va4 ,erosion terrace1 ,achen oscillation--fifth erosion level4 ,v,ia4 ,post-,bhl erosion--sixth and seventh erosion levels4 ,v,i,ia4 ,i,i,ic4 ,moraine of the ,third ,glaciation--,riss4 ,the section of the ,rheinfelder ,hill lies #c km4 west from the ,mliner ,field4 ,more remote from the glacial regions1 but equally subject to the inundations of glacial times are the 'high terraces' along the ,river ,seine1 which are ninety feet above the present level of the river and contain the remains of mammals characteristic of the ,first ,interglacial ,stage1 such as the southern elephant 7,e4 meridionalis71 while the 'low terraces' along the ,seine are only fifteen feet above the present level of the river and contain mammals belonging to the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,similarly1 the 'high terraces' of the ,river ,eure contain mammals of ,first ,interglacial times1 such as the southern elephant 7,e4 meridionalis7 and ,steno's horse 7,e4 stenonis72 these fossils occur in coarse river sands and gravels which were deposited by a broad stream that flowed at least ninety feet above the present waters of the ,eure4 ,the human interest which attaches to these dry facts of geology appears especially in the valleys of the ,somme and the ,marne in northern ,france2 here again we find 'high terraces1' 'middle terraces1' and 'low terraces'2 the latter are still subject to flooding4 ,in the deep gravels upon each of these terraces we find the first proofs of human residence1 for here occur the earliest ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean implements associated with the remains of the hippopotamus1 of ,merck's rhinoceros1 and of the straight-tusked elephant 7,e4 antiquus71 together with mammals which are characteristic both of ,second and ,third ,interglacial times4 ,this raises a very important distinction1 which is often misunderstood2 namely1 between the materials composing the original terraces and those subsequently deposited upon the terraces4 ,it appears to be in the latter that human artifacts are chiefly1 if not exclusively1 found4 ,,times ,,of ,,the ,,loam ,,stations ,the 'loam' which washes down over the original sand and gravel 'terraces' from the surrounding hills and meadows is of much later date than the 'terraces' themselves1 and the archologist in the valley of the ,somme as well as in that of the ,thames may well be deceived unless he clearly distinguishes between the newer deposits of gravels and of loams and the far older gravels and river sands which compose the original 'terraces4' ,this is well illustrated by the observations of ,commont on the section of ,st4 ,acheul47#ef7 ,the loams and brick-earth are of much more recent age than the original gravels and sands of the 'terraces' which they overlap and conceal2 the lowest and oldest 'loam' 7limon fendill7 contains ,acheulean flints1 while the overlying 'loam' contains ,mousterian flints4 ,although occurring on the 'higher terraces1' these flints are of somewhat later date than the primitive ,chellean flints which occur in the coarse gravels and sands that have collected upon the very lowest levels 7,fig4 #ei74 ,a similar prehistoric inversion doubtless occurs in the 'terraces' of the ,thames1 for materials on the 'highest terrace' 7,fig4 #h7 contain ,acheulean flints1 while materials on the 'lowest terrace' belong to a much more recent age4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4 ,section--,four terraces indicated in the valley of the ,thames at ,galley ,hill1 near ,london4 ,site of the discovery of the ',galley ,hill ,man' in deposits overlying one of the high terraces4 ,site also of ,gray's ,thurrock1 a deposit of ,third ,interglacial times containing mammals and flints of ,chellean age4 ,a typical camping station of 'river-drift man4' ,drawn by ,dr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds4 ,we have no record of a single ,palolithic station found in the true original sands and gravels of the 'higher terraces' in any part of ,europe2 only eoliths are found on the 'high terrace' levels1 as at ,st4 ,prest4 ,the earliest paloliths occur in the gravels on both the 'middle' and 'upper terraces' of the ,somme and the ,marne1 proving that the gravels were deposited long subsequent to the cutting of the original terraces4 ,geikie17#eg7 moreover1 is of the opinion that the valley of the ,somme has remained as it is since early ,pleistocene times1 and that even the 'lowest terrace' here was completed at that period2 this is contrary to the view of ,commont1 who considers that this 'lowest terrace' belongs to ,third ,interglacial times2 a restudy of the stations along the ,thames may throw light upon this very important difference of opinion4 ,,times ,,of ,,the ',,loess' ,,stations ,the glacial stages were generally times of relatively great humidity1 of heavy rain and snow fall1 of full rivers charged with gravels and sands1 and with loam the finest product of the erosive action of ice upon the rocks4 ,this loam on the barren wastes left bare by the glaciers or on the river borders and overflow basins was retransported by the winds and laid down afresh in layers of varying thickness known as 'loess4' ,there was no 'loess' formation either in ,europe or ,america during the humid climate of ,first ,interglacial times1 but during the latter part of the ,second ,interglacial ,stage1 again toward the close of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage1 and finally during ,postglacial times there were periods of arid climate when the 'loess' was lifted and transported by the prevailing winds over the 'terraces' and plateaus and even to great heights among the mountain valleys4 ,as observed by ,huntington7#eh7 in his interesting book ,the ,pulse of ,asia1 even at the present time there are districts where we find 'loess' dust filling the entire atmosphere either during the heated months of summer or during the cold months of winter4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4 ,magdalenian loess station of ,aggsbach1 in ,lower ,austria4 ,a quarry camping station of the open-plains type4 ,this typical ,postglacial loess deposit contains flints of early ,magdalenian age4 ,after ,obermaier4 ,in ,pleistocene ,europe there were at least three warm or cold arid periods1 accompanied in some phases by prevailing westerly winds17#ei7 in which 'loess' was widely distributed over northern ,germany1 covering the 'river terraces1' plateaus1 and uplands bordering the ,rhine and the ,neckar4 ,these 'loess' periods can be dated by the fossil remains of mammals which they contain1 also by the stations of the flint quarries in different culture stages4 ,thus we find late ,acheulean implements in drifts of 'loess' at ,villejuif1 south of ,paris4 ,among the most famous stations of late ,acheulean times is that of ,achenheim1 west of ,strasburg1 and not far distant is the 'loess' station of ,mommenheim1 of ,mousterian times2 both belong to the period of the fourth glaciation4 ,an ,aurignacian 'loess' station is that of ,willendorf1 ,austria4 ,,times ,,of ,,the ,,limestone ,,shelters ,,and ,,caverns ,beginning in the late or cold ,acheulean period1 the ,palolithic hunters commenced to seek the warm or sheltered side of deepened river-valleys1 also the shelter afforded by overhanging cliffs and the entrances of caverns4 ,it is quite probable that during the warm season of the year they still repaired to their open flint quarries along the rivers and on the uplands2 in fact1 the river ,somme was a favorite resort through ,acheulean into ,mousterian times4 ,in general1 however1 the open rivers and plateaus were abandoned1 and all the regions of limestone rock favorable to the formation of shelter cliffs1 grottos1 and caverns were sought out by the early ,palolithic men from ,mousterian times on2 and thus from the beginning of the ,mousterian to the close of the ,upper ,palolithic their lines of migration and of residence followed the exposures of the limestones which had been laid down by the sea in bygone geologic ages from ,carboniferous to ,cretaceous times4 ,the upper valleys of the ,rhine and ,danube traversed the white ,jurassic limestones which are again exposed in a broad band along the foot-hills of the ,pyrenees1 extending far west to the ,cantabrian ,alps of modern ,spain4 ,in ,dordogne the great horizontal plateau of ,cretaceous limestone had been dissected by branching rivers1 such as the ,vzre1 to a depth of two hundred feet4 ,under overhanging cliffs long rock shelters were formed1 such as that of the ,magdalenian station at ,la ,madeleine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aj4 ,ideal section of the bluff overlying the ,dssel ,river1 near ,dsseldorf1 showing the mode of formation of the famous ,neanderthal ,cave1 where the original type of the ,neanderthal race was discovered in #ahef4 ,a typical resort of the 'cave man4' ,after ,lyell4 c4 ,entrance of percolating waters from above4 f4 ,exit from the grotto4 a-b4 ,interior of the cavern4 ,many caverns were formed1 some of them in early ,pleistocene times1 by water percolating from above and 7,fig4 #aa7 resulting in subterranean streams which issued at the entrance2 this formed the expanded grotto1 sometimes a chamber of vast dimensions1 such as the ,grotte de ,gargas4 ,outside of this1 again1 may be an abri or shelter of overhanging rock4 ,in other cases the rock shelter is found quite independent of any cave4 ,where the glaciers or ice-caps passed over the summits of the hills the subglacial streams penetrated the limestone of the mountain and formed vast caverns1 such as that of ,niaux1 near the river ,arige4 ,here a nearly horizontal cavern was formed1 extending half a mile into the heart of the mountain4 ,the material with which the floors of the caverns are covered is either a fine cave loam or the insoluble remainder of the limestone forming a brown or gray clayey substance4 ,the ,magdalenian artists produced drawings on these soft clays and1 in rare instances1 used them for modelling purposes1 as in the ,tuc d',audoubert4 ,the sands and gravels were also swept in from the streams above and carried by strong currents along the wall surfaces1 smoothing and polishing the limestone in preparation for the higher forms of ,upper ,palolithic draughtsmanship and painting4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aa4 ,formation of the typical limestone cavern4 ,after ,gaudry4 ,v4 ,vertical section of limestone cliff showing 7,s7 waters percolating from above2 7,a-,o7 interior of the cavern2 and 7,g7 grotto entrance1 original exit of the cavern waters4 ,h4 ,horizontal section of the same cavern showing the 7,g7 grotto entrance and 7,a1 ,g1 ,o1 ,b7 the ramifications of the cavern4 ,it would appear that the majority of the caverns were formed in pluvial periods of early glacial times2 the formation had been completed1 the subterranean streams had ceased to flow1 and the interiors were relatively dry and free from moisture in ,fourth ,glacial and ,postglacial times1 when man first entered them4 ,there is no evidence1 however1 that the cavern depths were generally inhabited1 for the obvious reason that there was no exit for the smoke2 the old hearths are invariably found close to or outside of the entrance1 the only exception being in the entrance to the great cavern of ,gargas1 where there is a natural chimney for the exit of smoke4 ,there was no cave life1 strictly speaking--it was grotto life2 the deep caves and caverns were probably penetrated only by artists and possibly also by magicians or priests4 ,it is in the abris or shelters in front of the grottos and in the floors of the caverns that remarkable prehistoric records are found from late ,acheulean times to the very close of the ,palolithic1 as in the wonderful grotto in front of the cave at ,castillo1 near ,santander4 ,thus1 as ,obermaier7#fj7 observes3 ,in ,chellean times primitive man was a care-free hunter wandering as he chose in the mild and pleasant weather1 and even the colder climate of the arid 'loess' period of the late ,acheulean was not sufficient to overcome his love of the open2 he still made his camp on the plains at the edge of the forest1 or in the shelter of some overhanging cliff4 ,only in rare instances1 as at ,castillo1 were the ,acheulean hearths brought within the entrance line of the grotto4 ,,differences ,,of ,,opinion ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,geologic ,,age ,,of ,,the ,,pal,,olithic ,,culture ,,stages ,the right-hand column represents the theory adopted in this volume4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,penck1 #aiaj ,boule1 ,breuil1 ,geologic ,time ,geikie1 #aiad ,wiegers1 #aiac ,obermaier1 #aiab ,schmidt1 #aiab ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,bronze4 ,magdalenian4 ,postglacial4 ,magdalenian4,neolithic4 ,solutrean4 ,azilian4 ,aurignacian4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,magdalenian4 ,solutrean4 ,mousterian4 ,,iv4 ,,glacial4 ,solutrean4 ,aurignacian4 ,mousterian4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,early ,mousterian4 ,cold ,acheulean4 ,third ,interglacial4 ,mousterian4 ,mousterian4 ,warm ,chellean4 ,pre-,chellean4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,iii4 ,,glacial4 ,mousterian4 ,cold ,acheulean4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,second ,interglacial4,acheulean4 ,warm ,acheulean4 ,chellean4 ,chellean4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,,ii4 ,,glacial4 ----------------------------------,pre-, chellean ----------------- ,first ,interglacial4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------------- ,interpretation of these four kinds of evidence as to the antiquity of human culture in western ,europe still leads to widely diverse opinions4 ,on the one hand1 we have the high authority of ,penck7#fa7 and ,geikie7#fb7 that the ,chellean and ,acheulean cultures are as ancient as the second long warm interglacial period4 ,an extreme exponent of the same theory is ,wiegers17#fc7 who would carry the ,pre-,chellean back even into ,first ,interglacial times4 ,on the other side1 ,boule17#fd7 ,schuchardt17#fe7 ,obermaier17#ff7 ,schmidt17#fg7 and the majority of the ,french archologists place the beginning of the ,pre-,chellean culture in ,third ,interglacial times4 ,in favor of the latter theory is the strikingly close succession of the ,lower ,palolithic cultures in the valley of the ,somme1 followed by an equally close succession from ,acheulean to ,magdalenian times1 as1 for example1 in the station of ,castillo4 ,it does not appear possible that a vast interval of time1 such as that of the third glaciation1 separated the ,chellean from the ,mousterian culture4 ,on the other hand1 in favor of the greater antiquity of the ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean cultures may be urged their alleged association in several localities with very primitive mammals of early ,pleistocene type1 namely1 the ,etruscan rhinoceros1 ,steno's horse1 and the saber-tooth tiger1 as witnessed in ,spain and in the deposits of the ,champs de ,mars1 at ,abbeville4 ,it is true1 moreover1 that at points distant from the great ice-fields1 like the valley of the ,somme and that of the ,marne1 we have no other means of separating glacial from interglacial times than that afforded by the deposition and erosion of the 'terraces'2 in fact1 the interpretation of the age of the cultures may be similar to that applied to the age of the mammalian fauna4 ,there are no proofs of periods of severe cold in western ,europe in any country remote from the glaciers until the very cold steppe-tundra climate immediately preceding the fourth glaciation swept the entire land and drove out the last of the ,african-,asiatic mammals4 ,,geographic ,,changes ,the migrations of mammals and of races of men into western ,europe from the ,eurasiatic continent on the east and from ,africa on the south were favored or interrupted by the periods of elevation or of subsidence of the coastal borders of the gean1 ,mediterranean1 and ,north ,seas1 and also of the ,iberian and ,british coast-lines4 ,the maximum period of elevation of the coastal borders1 as represented in the accompanying map 7,fig4 #ab71 never occurred in all portions of the continent of ,europe at the same time1 because there were oscillations both on the northern and southern coasts of ,europe and ,africa4 ,the early ,pleistocene1 especially the period of the ,first ,interglacial ,stage1 was one of elevation remarkable for the broad land bridges which brought the animal life of ,europe1 ,africa1 and ,asia together4 ,the ,mediterranean coast rose #cjj feet4 ,land bridges from ,africa were formed at ,gibraltar and over to the island of ,sicily1 so that for the time there was a free migration of mammalian life north and south4 ,it is to this that western ,europe owes the majestic mammals of ,asiatic and ,african life which dominated the native fauna4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ab4 ,europe in the period of maximum continental elevation1 in which the coast-lines are widely extended1 connecting ,africa and ,europe--including ,great ,britain and ,ireland--in a single vast peninsula1 and affording free migration routes for animal and human races north and south1 as well as east and west4 ,the ocean boundaries are more remote and the interior seas are greatly reduced in area4 ,after ,obermaier4 ,in general1 the elevation of the continent took place during interglacial1 the subsidence during glacial times1 but ,great ,britain appears to have been almost continuously elevated and a part of the continent1 and was certainly so during the ,third ,interglacial1 ,fourth ,glacial1 and ,postglacial ,stages1 because there was a free migration of animal life and of human culture4 ,the ,lower ,palolithic peoples of ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean times wandered at will from the valley of the ,somme to the not far distant valley of the ,thames1 interchanging their weapons and inventions4 ,the close proximity of these stations is well illustrated in the admirable map 7,fig4 #ef7 prepared under the direction of ,lord ,avebury 7,sir ,john ,lubbock74 ,the relation which elevation and subsidence respectively bear to the glacial and interglacial stages is believed to be as follows3 ,,elevation1 emergence of the coast-lines from the sea1 broad land connections facilitating migration1 retreat of the glaciers1 deepening of the river-valleys1 and cutting of terraces4 ,arid continental climate and deposition of 'loess4' ,,subsidence1 submergence of the coast-lines and advance of the sea1 interruption of land connections and of migration routes1 advance of the glaciers1 filling of the river-valleys with the products of glacial erosion1 the sand and gravel materials of which the 'terraces' are composed1 and subglacial erosion of the loam1 from which in arid periods the 'loess' is derived4 ,subsidence was the great feature of closing glacial times both in ,europe and ,america4 ,during the ,fourth ,glacial and ,postglacial ,stages the ,black and ,caspian ,seas and the eastern portion of the ,mediterranean were deeply depressed1 while the ,british ,isles were still connected with ,france1 but by a narrower isthmus than that of early interglacial times4 ,the scattered stations of ,upper ,palolithic culture found in the ,british ,isles include one ,aurignacian1 one ,solutrean1 two ,magdalenian1 and two ,azilian2 this shows that travel communication with the continent continued throughout that period1 in all probability by means of a land connection4 ,in late ,neolithic times the ,english ,channel was formed1 ,great ,britain became isolated from ,europe1 and ,ireland lost its land connection first with ,wales and then with ,scotland4 ,,changes ,,of ,,climate ,penck7#fh7 estimates the intensity of the cold and of the humidity which prevailed during the glacial stages by the descent of the snow-line in the ,alps1 which in the two periods of greatest glaciation reached from #a1bjj m4 7#c1icg ft47 to #a1ejj m4 7#d1iba ft47 below the present snow-level1 with the consequent formation of vast ice-caps hung with glaciers which flowed great distances down the valleys of the ,rhne and of the ,rhine and left their moraines at very distant points4 ,the moraines and drifts of the lesser glaciations1 such as the first and fourth1 stand considerably within the boundaries of these outer moraines and drift fields4 ,on the contrary1 the warmer climates of interglacial times are indicated by the sun-loving plants found at ,htting1 along the valley of the ,inn1 in the ,tyrol1 which are proofs of a temperature higher than the present and of the ascent of the snow-line #cjj m4 7#ihd ft47 above the existing snow-level of the ,alps4 ,illustration3 ,,snow ,,lines ,,of ,,the ,,four ,,principal ,,glacial ,,epochs ,,of ,,the ,,pleistocene ,,period ,a-,b ,profile across ,europe along the line ,a-,b of map #e ,present snow line #d ,snow line of the ,fourth 7,wrm7 ,glacial ,epoch #c ,third 7,riss7 #b ,second 7,mindel7 #a ,first 7,gnz7 ,,fig4 #ac4 ,an ideal earth section from the ,north ,cape across the ,scandinavian plateau1 through the ,north ,sea1 ,swiss ,alps1 ,pyrenees1 and ,straits of ,gibraltar1 to the ,atlas ,mountains in northern ,africa1 along the line indicated on the map 7,fig4 #be1 p4 #fe71 illustrating the sea-level at the time of the greatest elevation of the continent during the ,second ,glacial ,stage1 as compared with the present sea-level2 also the successive lines of descent of the region of perpetual snow during the four great glacial advances1 as compared with the present snow-line4 ,from studies by ,dr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds4 ,the alternation of the cold climates of the glacial stages with the warm temperate climates of the interglacial stages formed great oscillations of temperature 7,figs4 #ac1 #ad74 ,the fossil plant life indicates that during the periods of the ,first1 ,second1 and ,third ,interglacial ,stages the climate of western ,europe was cooler than it had been during the preceding ,pliocene ,epoch and somewhat warmer than it is at the present time in the same localities4 ,during the ,first1 ,second1 and ,third ,glacial ,stages there was certainly a marked lowering of temperature in the regions bordering the great glacial fields4 ,this is indicated by the arrival in the northern glacial border regions of animals and plants adapted to arctic and subarctic climates4 ,it has been generally believed that the whole of western ,europe was extremely cold during these glacial stages1 and that the heat-loving animals1 the southern elephants1 rhinoceroses1 and hippopotami1 were driven to the south1 to return only with the renewed warmth of the next interglacial stage4 ,there is1 however1 no proof of the departure of these supposedly less hardy mammals nor of the spread over ,europe of the more hardy arctic and steppe types until the advent of the ,fourth ,glacial ,stage4 ,then1 for the first time1 all western ,europe north of the ,pyrenees experienced a general fall of temperature1 and conditions of climate prevailed such as are now found in the arctic tundra regions of the north and in the high steppes of central ,asia1 which are swept by dry and cold winter winds4 ,fluctuations of temperature1 of moisture1 and of aridity in ,pleistocene time1 are evidenced not only by the rise and fall of the snow-line and the advance and retreat of the ice-caps but also by the appearance of plant and animal life in the periods of the 'loess' deposition1 indicating the following cycles of climatic change as witnessed from beginning to end of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage3 ,,iv4 ,glacial maximum1 cold and moist climate1 arctic and cold steppe fauna and flora4 ,cool and dry steppe climate1 wide-spread deposition of 'loess4' ,interglacial maximum1 a long period of warm temperate forest and meadow conditions4 ,glacial retreat1 cool and moist climate bordering the glacial regions4 ,,iii4 ,glacial maximum1 cold and humid climate bordering the glaciers1 favorable to arctic and subarctic plant and animal life4 ,that great fields of ice and advancing glaciers alone do not constitute proof of very low temperatures is shown at the present time in southeastern ,alaska1 where very heavy snowfall or precipitation causes the accumulation of vast glaciers1 although the mean annual temperature is only #aj ,fahr4 7#e4ef ,c47 lower than that of southern ,germany4 ,neumayr7#fi7 estimated that during the ,ice ,age there was a general lowering of temperature in ,europe of not more than #f ,c4 7#aj4h ,fahr471 and held that even during the glacial advances a comparatively mild climate prevailed in ,great ,britain4 ,martins7#gj7 estimated that a lowering of the temperature to the extent of #d ,c4 7#g4b ,fahr47 would bring the glaciers of ,chamonix down to the level of the plain of ,geneva4 ,penck estimates that1 all the atmospheric conditions remaining the same as at present1 a fall of temperature to the extent of #d to #e ,c4 would be sufficient to bring back the ,glacial ,epoch in ,europe4 ,these moderate estimates entirely agree with our theory that animals of ,african and ,asiatic habit flourished in western ,europe to the very close of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage1 and that then for the first time the warm fauna1 or faune chaude1 gradually disappeared4 ,similarly the hypothesis of extremely warm or subtropical conditions prevailing in interglacial times as far north as ,britain1 which originated with the discovery of the northerly distribution of the hippopotami and rhinoceroses1 animals which we now associate with the torrid climate of ,africa1 is not supported by the study either of the plant life of interglacial stages or by the history of the animals themselves4 ,it is quite probable that both the hippopotami and the rhinoceroses of the 'warm fauna' were protected by hairy covering1 although not by the thick undercoating of wool which protected the woolly rhinoceros and woolly mammoth1 animals favoring the borders of glaciers and flourishing during the last very cold glacial and ,postglacial periods4 ,the combined evidence from all these great events in western ,europe leads us to conclusions somewhat different from those reached by ,penck as to the chronology of human culture4 ,in the chart 7,fig4 #ad7 on the opposite page1 prepared by ,dr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds in collaboration with the author1 a new correlation of geologic1 climatic1 human1 industrial1 and faunal events is presented4 ,the great waves of glacial advance and retreat 7oblique shading7 are based upon ,penck's estimates of the rise and fall of the snow-line 7vertical dotted lines7 in the ,swiss ,alps4 7,compare ,fig4 #ac47 ,the length of these waves corresponds with the relative duration of the glacial and interglacial stages as estimated by the varying amounts of erosion and deposition of materials4 ,the entire ,palolithic or ,old ,stone ,age is thus seen to occupy not more than #abe1jjj years1 or only the last quarter of the ,glacial ,epoch1 which is estimated as extending over a period of #ebe1jjj years4 ,the present opinion of the leading archologists of ,france and ,germany1 which is shared by the author1 is that the ,pre-,chellean industry is not older than the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,as the ,piltdown man was found in deposits containing ,pre-,chellean implements1 he probably lived in the last quarter of the ,glacial ,epoch1 and not in early ,pleistocene times as estimated by some ,british geologists4 ,this causes us to regard the ,piltdown remains as more recent than the jaw of ,heidelberg1 which all authorities agree is probably of ,second ,interglacial ,age4 ,according to our estimates the ,heidelberg man is nearly twice as ancient as the ,piltdown man1 while ,pithecanthropus 7,trinil ,race7 is four times as ancient4 ,yet the ,piltdown man must still be regarded as of very great antiquity1 for he is four times as ancient as the final type of ,neanderthal man belonging to the ,mousterian industrial stage4 ,the various archologic and palontologic evidences for this general correlation theory of the ,glacial ,epoch are fully discussed in the succeeding chapters of this volume4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ad4 ,great events of the ,glacial ,epoch4 ,to the left the relation of glacial and interglacial stages in ,europe and ,north ,america1 with the author's theory regarding the divisions of time1 the beginning of the ,old ,stone ,age1 and the successive appearance in ,europe of different branches of the human race4 ,to the right the prolonged warm temperate period in ,europe in the non-glaciated regions1 followed by the relatively brief cold period during the past #gj1jjj years4 ,prepared by ,dr4 ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds1 in co-operation with the author4 ,,mammals ,,of ,,five ,,distinct ,,geographic ,,regions 7,compare ,color ,map1 ,pl4 ,,ii1 and ,fig4 #ae7 ,as we have already observed1 during the whole history of mammalian life in various parts of the world never did there prevail conditions so unusual and so complex as those which surrounded the men of the ,old ,stone ,age in ,europe4 ,the successive races of ,palolithic men in ,europe were all flesh eaters1 depending upon the chase4 ,the mammals1 first pursued only for food1 utensils1 and clothing1 finally became subjects of artistic appreciation and endeavor which resulted in a remarkable sthetic development4 ,from the beginning to the end of ,palolithic times the various races of man witnessed the assemblage in ,europe of animals indigenous to every continent on the globe except ,south ,america and ,australia and adapted to every climatic life-zone1 from the warm and dry plains of southern ,asia and northern ,africa to the temperate forests and meadows of ,eurasia2 from the heights of the ,alps1 ,himalayas1 ,pyrenees1 and ,altai ,mountains to the high1 arid1 dry steppes of central ,asia with their alternating heat of summer and cold of winter2 from the tundras or barren grounds of ,scandinavia1 northern ,europe1 and ,siberia to the mild forests and plains of southern ,europe47#ga7 ,members of all these highly varied groups of animals had been evolving in various parts of the northern hemisphere from the ,eocene ,epoch onward4 ,in ,pliocene times they had become thoroughly adapted to their various habitats4 ,throughout early ,pleistocene times1 with the increasing cold extending southward from the arctic circle1 such mammals as the elephant1 rhinoceros1 musk-ox1 and reindeer had become thoroughly adapted to the climate of the extreme north4 ,there is every reason to believe that when these tundra quadrupeds first arrived in ,europe1 during early mid-glacial stages1 they had already acquired the heavy coat of hair and undercoating of wool1 such as now characterizes the musk-ox1 one of the living representatives of this northern fauna4 ,,migrations ,,and ,,extinctions ,,of ,,mammalian ,,life ,,during ,,the ,,four ,,glacial1 ,,three ,,interglacial1 ,,and ,,postglacial ,,stages ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,,recent ,return of the ,alpine ,mammals to the ,,period ,,of ,,prehistoric4 ,mountains4 ,,recent ,wide dispersal of ,forest and ,meadow ,,animals4 ,mammals over the ,northern ,hemisphere4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------- ,retreat of the ,tundra and ,steppe ,mammals to the ,north and ,east4 ,,postglacial4 ,mingling in the lowlands of ,france ,,reindeer ,severe and ,germany of the ,reindeer-,mammoth ,,period climate4 fauna1 the ,alpine fauna1 the ,steppe ,,in ,mammals1 and the hardy ,eurasiatic ,,western ,forest and ,meadow ,mammals4 ,,europe4 ,,iv4 ,,glacial4 ,arrival of the ,tundra ,mammals from ,cold ,steppe the ,north4 climate4 ,arrival of the ,steppe ,mammals from ,western ,asia4 ,southward migration and extinction of all the ,african-,asiatic ,mammals except the lions and hynas4 #c;d ,,interglacial4,mingled ,african-,asiatic and ,eurasiatic ,warm climate4 ,mammals in different parts of the non-glaciated regions1 the ,,period hippopotamus1 southern mammoth1 ,,of ,,the straight-tusked elephant1 ,merck's ,,hippopotamus1 broad-nosed rhinoceros1 lion1 hyna1 ,,rhinoceros1 jackal1 sabre-tooth tiger4 ,,and --------------------------- ,,elephant4 ,reindeer and ,,also ,woolly ,mammoth ,,of ,,the ,,iii4 ,,glacial4 in ,north ,,stag ,germany and ,,and the ,alps4 ,,bison ---------------------------- ,,in #b;d ,,interglacial4 ,also the stag1 giant deer1 ,,western ---------------------------- bison1 wild cattle1 ,,europe4 ,reindeer and forest horse1 boar1 ,,ii4 ,,glacial4 ,woolly ,mammoth wolf1 fox1 lynx1 in ,northern wildcat1 several species ,germany4 of bear4 ---------------------------- #ast ,,interglacial4 ,survival of many ,pliocene ---------------------------- ,african-,asiatic ,mammals1 ,musk-ox in mingled with ,pliocene ,i4 ,,glacial4 ,sussex1 and recent ,eurasiatic ,england4 ,forest and ,meadow ,mammals4 ,early ',warm' ,more hardy ,,geologic ,migrations of ,african-,asiatic ,eurasiatic ,,and ,scandinavian ,mammals4 ,mammals4 ,,climatic and ,north ,,stages4 ,siberian ,temperate and ,cool ,mammals near sheltered parts temperate ,,three the parts of of ,western forests and ,,chief ,ice-fields4 ,europe4 meadows4 ,,life ,,periods4 _/ _/ ,,regions ,,near ,,more ,,sheltered ,,the ,,ice-,,fields ,,non-,,glaciated ,,regions ,,and ,,glacial ,,remote ,,from ,,the ,,glacial ,,borders4 ,,borders ,,and ,,ice-,,fields4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------ ,the five great sources of mammalian migration into western ,europe in ,pleistocene times were accordingly as follows3 #a4 ,,warm ,,plains of northern ,africa and of southern ,asia4 ,african-,asiatic fauna--hippopotamus1 rhinoceros1 elephant4 #b4 ,,temperate ,,meadows ,,and ,,forests of ,europe and ,asia4 ,eurasiatic fauna--deer1 bison1 horse4 #c4 ,,high1 ,,cool ,,mountain ,,ranges--,alps1 ,pyrenees1 ,caucasus1 ,urals4 ,fauna--chamois1 ibex1 ptarmigan4 7,see ,fig4 #ahe47 #d4 ,,steppes ,,and ,,deserts4 ,dry1 elevated plateaus and steppes of eastern ,europe and central ,asia4 ,fauna--desert ass and horse1 saiga antelope1 jerboa4 7,see ,fig4 #ahf47 #e4 ,,tundras ,,and ,,barren ,,grounds within or near the arctic circle4 ,fauna--reindeer1 musk-ox1 arctic fox4 7,see ,figs4 #ie and #if47 7,compare ,figs4 #ad and #ae47 ,in the warm plains1 forests1 and rivers of southern ,asia and northern ,africa there developed the elephants1 rhinoceroses1 hippopotami1 lions1 hynas1 and jackals1 which1 taken together1 may be known as the ,african-,asiatic fauna4 ,it contains altogether fourteen species of mammals4 ,the great geographic area from the far east to the far west over which ranged similar or identical species of these pachyderms and carnivores is indicated by the oblique lines in the geographic chart 7,fig4 #ae74 ,the north temperate belt of ,asia and ,europe1 with its hardy forests and genial meadows1 was the home of the even more highly varied ,eurasiatic ,forest and ,meadow fauna4 ,this includes twenty-six or more species4 ,of these the red deer1 or stag1 was most characteristic of the forests and the bison and wild cattle,m of the meadows4 ,even at the very beginning of ,pleistocene times there appear the stag1 the wild boar1 and the roe-deer with their natural pursuers1 the wolf and the brown bear4 ,from the northern woods came the moose and the wolverene4 ,most of these mammals were so similar to existing forms that the older naturalists placed them in existing species1 but the tendency now is to separate them or place them in distinct subspecies4 ,mingled with these forest and meadow mammals were a few others which have since become extinct1 such as the giant deer 7,megaceros71 the giant beaver 7,trogontherium71 and the primitive forest and meadow horses4 ,from this region also there developed the cave-bear 7,ursus spelus74 ,certainly it is astonishing to find the remains of these mammals mingled with those from southern ,asia and ,africa1 as is frequently the case4 ,in early glacial times the bison and wild cattle mingled freely with the hippopotami and rhinoceroses1 but in late glacial and ,postglacial times they occurred as companions of the mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros4 ,in prehistoric times they survived with the mammals brought from the ,orient by the ,neolithic agriculturists4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ae4 ,zoogeographic map4 ,range of the large mammals of ,africa and southern ,asia in ,pliocene and ,pleistocene times until nearly the close of the ,lower ,palolithic 7oblique lines74 ,range of the forest and meadow fauna of ,europe and ,asia from early ,pleistocene to prehistoric times2 stag and bison fauna 7horizontal lines74 ,present range of the tundra or barren-ground mammals 7dots7 which wandered south during the fourth glaciation1 expelling the large ,asiatic mammals4 ,present range of mammals of the deserts and steppes of eastern ,europe and southern ,asia1 which also invaded western ,europe during the glacial and ,postglacial stages 7vertical lines74 ,the alpine mammals dwelt in the high mountain regions and invaded the plains and lowlands during ,fourth ,glacial and ,postglacial times4 ,during a great glaciation1 but especially during the severe climate of late ,pleistocene times1 the ,alpine mammals were driven down from the heights into the plains and among the lower mountains and foot-hills4 ,thus the ibex1 chamois1 and argali sheep from the ,altai ,mountains are represented both in drawing and in sculpture by the men of the ,reindeer ,period4 ,still more remarkable is the arrival in ,europe of the ,steppe ,fauna of ,russia and of western ,siberia1 mammals which now survive in the vast ,kirghiz steppes1 east of the ,caspian ,sea and the ,ural ,mountains1 where the climate is one of hot1 dry summers and prolonged cold winters1 with sweeping dust and snow storms4 ,these animals are very hardy1 alert1 and swift of foot1 such as the jerboa1 the saiga antelope1 the wild asses1 and the wild horses1 including the ,przewalski type1 which still survives in the desert of ,gobi4 ,from this region also came the ,elasmothere 7,e4 sibiricum71 with its single giant horn above the eyes4 ,very distinctive of the fauna frequenting the caverns are the small rodents1 including the dwarf pikas1 the steppe hamsters1 and the lemmings4 ,these animals were attracted into ,europe during the 'steppe' and 'loess' periods of cold1 dry climate4 ,the advance of the great ,scandinavian glaciers from the north crowded to the south the ,tundra or ,barren ,ground fauna of the arctic circle4 ,the herald of this fauna during the ,first ,glacial ,stage was the musk-ox1 which appears in ,sussex1 and then came the reindeer of the existing ,scandinavian type4 ,these animals are followed by the woolly mammoth 7,e4 primigenius7 and the woolly rhinoceros 7,d4 antiquitatis7 with their panoply of hair and wool which had long been developing in the north4 ,finally in the ,fourth ,glacial ,stage arrived the lemming of the river ,obi1 also the more northern banded lemming1 the arctic fox1 the wolverene1 and the ermine1 as well as the arctic hare4 ,these tundra mammals for a short period mingled in places with survivors of the ,african-,asiatic fauna1 such as ,merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant 7,e4 antiquus74 ,in general1 they swept southward as far as the ,pyrenees over country which had long been enjoyed by the ,african-,asiatic mammals1 while the hippopotami and the southern elephants retreated still farther south and became extinct4 ,the only survivors of the great ,african-,asiatic fauna in ,fourth ,glacial and ,postglacial times were the hynas 7,h4 crocuta spela7 and the lions 7,felis leo spela74 ,the lion frequently appears in the drawings of the cavemen4 ,the various species belonging to these five great faun apparently succeed each other1 and wherever their remains are mingled with the paloliths1 as along the rivers ,somme1 ,marne1 and ,thames1 or in the hearths of the shelters and caverns1 they become of extreme interest both in their bearing on the chronology of man and on the development of human culture1 art1 and industry4 ,they also tell the story of the sequence of climatic conditions both in the regions bordering the glaciers and in the more temperate regions remote from the ice-caps4 ,thus they guide the anthropologist over the difficult gaps where the geologic record is limited or undecipherable4 ,the general succession of these great faun is illustrated in ,fig4 #ad and also in the above table4 7#a7 ,lamarck1 #ahae4a4 7#b7 ,schaaffhausen1 #aheh4a4 7#c7 ,darwin1 ,c41 #aiji4b4 7#d7 ,lamarck1 #ahji4a4 7#e7 ,lyell1 #ahfc4a1 pp4 #hd-hi4 7#f7 ,darwin1 ,c41 #ahga4a1 p4 #adf4 7#g7 ,darwin1 ,c41 #aiji4a1 p4 #aeh4 7#h7 ,retzius1 ,a41 #ahfd4a1 p4 #bg4 7#i7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #aff4 7#aj7 ,broca1 #ahge4a4 7#aa7 ,schwalbe1 ,g41 #aiad4a1 p4 #eib4 7#ab7 ,cartailhac1 #aijc4a4 7#ac7 ,dchelette1 #aijh4a1 vol4 ,i4 7#ad7 ,reinach1 ,s41 #ahhi4a4 7#ae7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a4 7#af7 ,avebury1 #aiac4a4 7#ag7 ,eccardus1 #agej4a4 7#ah7 ,mahudel1 #agdj4a4 7#ai7 ,buckland1 #ahbd4a4 7#bj7 ,godwin-,austen1 #ahdj4a4 7#ba7 ,christol1 #ahbj4a4 7#bb7 ,schmerling1 #ahcc4a4 7#bc7 ,boucher de ,perthes1 #ahdf4a4 7#bd7 ,op4 cit4 7#be7 ,rigollot1 #ahed4a4 7#bf7 ,lubbock1 #ahfb4a4 7#bg7 ,avebury1 #aiac4a1 pp4 #b1 #c4 7#bh7 ,lartet1 #ahfa4a4 7#bi7 ,lartet1 #ahge4a4 7#cj7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 p4 #afe4 7#ca7 de ,mortillet1 #ahfi4a4 7#cb7 ,piette1 ,e41 #aijg4a4 7#cc7 ,rivire #ahig4a4 7#cd7 de ,sautuola1 #ahhj4a4 7#ce7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a4 7#cf7 ,bourgeois1 #ahfg4a4 7#cg7 ,schmidt1 op4 cit41 p4 #e4 7#ch7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #agj-agd2 #caf-cbj2 #ccb1 #ede4 7#ci7 ,charpentier1 #ahda4a4 7#dj7 ,agassiz1 #ahcg4a2 #ahdj4a2 #ahdj4b4 7#da7 ,morlot1 #ahed4a4 7#db7 ,chamberlin1 #ahie4a2 #aije4a1 vol4 ,,iii1 chap4 ,,xix1 pp4 #cbg-eaf4 7#dc7 ,salisbury1 #aije4a4 7#dd7 ,penck1 #aiji4a4 7#de7 ,leverett1 #aiaj4a4 7#df7 ,lyell1 #ahfg4a1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #bic-cja2 #ahgg4a1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bhg4 7#dg7 ,dana1 #ahge4a1 p4 #eia4 7#dh7 ,walcott1 #ahic4a4 7#di7 ,upham1 #ahic4a1 p4 #bag4 7#ej7 ,heim1 #ahid4a4 7#ea7 ,sollas1 #aijj4a4 7#eb7 ,penck1 #aiji4a1 vol4 ,,iii1 pp4 #aaec-aagf4 7#ec7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 p4 #cjb4 7#ed7 ,reeds1 #aiae4a4 7#ee7 ,nesch1 #aijb4a4 7#ef7 ,geikie1 op4 cit41 pp4 #aaa-aad4 7#eg7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #ajh4 7#eh7 ,huntington1 #aijg4a4 7#ei7 ,leverett1 #aiaj4a4 7#fj7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #acb4 7#fa7 ,penck1 #aijh4a2 #aiji4a4 7#fb7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 p4 #cab4 7#fc7 ,wiegers1 #aiac4a4 7#fd7 ,boule1 #ahhh4a4 7#fe7 ,schuchardt1 #aiac4a1 p4 #add4 7#ff7 ,obermaier1 #aiji4b2 #aiab4a4 7#fg7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #bff4 7#fh7 ,penck1 #aiji4a1 vol4 ,,iii1 p4 #aafh1 ,fig4 #acf4 7#fi7 ,neumayr1 #ahij4a1 vol4 ,,ii1 p4 #fba4 7#gj7 ,martins1 #ahdg4a1 pp4 #ida1 #idb4 7#ga7 ,osborn1 #aiaj4a1 pp4 #chf-dbg4 ,,chapter ,i ,,ancestry ,,of ,,the ,,anthropoid ,,apes--,,pliocene ,,climate1 ,,forests1 ,,and ,,life ,,of ,,western ,,europe--,,transition ,,to ,,the ,,pleistocene1 ,,or ,,age ,,of ,,man--,,the ,,first ,,glaciation1 ,,its ,,effects ,,on ,,climate1 ,,forests1 ,,and ,,animal ,,life--,,the ,,prehuman ,,trinil ,,race ,,of ,,java--,,the ,,eoliths ,,or ,,primitive ,,flints--,,the ,,second ,,glaciation--,,the ,,heidelberg1 ,,earliest ,,known ,,human ,,race--,,the ,,third ,,glaciation ,the partly known ancestors of the anthropoid apes and the unknown ancestors of man probably originated among the forests and flood-plains of southern ,asia and early began to migrate westward into northern ,africa and western ,europe4 ,as early as ,oligocene times a forerunner of the great apes 7,propliopithecus71 most nearly resembling the gibbons1 appears in the desert bordering the ,fayum in northern ,egypt4 ,early in ,miocene times true tree-living gibbons found their way into ,europe and continued throughout the ,pliocene in the forms known as ,pliopithecus and ,pliohylobates1 the latter being a true gibbon in its proportions2 it ranged northward into the present region of ,germany4 ,another ape which early reached ,europe is the ,dryopithecus2 it is found in ,miocene times in southern ,france2 the grinding-teeth suggest those of the orang1 the jaw is deep and in some ways resembles that of the ,piltdown man4 ,a third ape 7,neopithecus7 occurs in the ,lower ,pliocene near ,eppelsheim1 in ,germany1 and is known only from a single lower molar tooth1 which recalls the dentition of ,dryopithecus and more remotely that of ,homo4 ,in the ,pliocene of the ,siwalik hills of ,asia is found ,palopithecus1 a generalized form which is believed to be related to the chimpanzee1 the gorilla1 and the gibbon2 the upper premolars resemble those of man4 ,none of these fossil anthropoids either of ,europe or of ,asia can be regarded as ancestral to man1 although both ,neopithecus and ,dryopithecus have been placed in or near the line of human ancestry by such high authorities as ,branco and ,gaudry4 ,when ,dryopithecus was first discovered by ,lartet1 ,gaudry7#a7 considered it to be by far the most manlike of all the apes1 even attributing to it sufficient intelligence for the working of flints1 but fuller knowledge of this animal has shown that some of the living anthropoids are more manlike than ,dryopithecus4 ,this animal is closely related to the ancestral stock of the chimpanzee1 gorilla1 and orang4 ,the jaw1 it is true1 resembles that of the ,piltdown man 7,eoanthropus71 but the grinding-teeth are much more primitive and there is little reason to think that it is ancestral to any human type4,n ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #af4 ,the gibbon is primitive in its skull and dentition1 but extremely specialized in the adaptation of its limbs to arboreal life4 ,photograph from the ,new ,york ,zoological ,park4 ,among these fossil anthropoids1 as well as among the four living forms1 we discover no evidence of direct relationship to man but very strong evidence of descent from the same ancestral stock4 ,these proofs of common ancestry1 which have already been observed in the existing races of man1 become far more conspicuous in the ancient ,palolithic races2 in fact1 we cannot interpret the anatomy of the men of the ,old ,stone ,age without a survey of the principal characters of the existing anthropoid apes1 the gibbon1 the orang1 the chimpanzee1 and the gorilla4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ag4 ,the orang has a high rounded skull and long face4 ,photograph from the ,new ,york ,zoological ,park4 ,the gibbon is the most primitive of living apes in its skull and dentition1 but the most specialized in the length of its arms and its other extreme adaptations to arboreal life4 ,as in the other anthropoids1 the face is abbreviated1 the narial region is narrow1 i4 e41 catarrhine1 and the brain-case is widened1 but the top of the skull is smooth1 and the forehead lacks the prominent ridges above the orbits2 thus the profile of the skull of the gibbon 7,fig4 #af7 is more human than that of the other anthropoid apes4 ,when on the ground the gibbon walks erect and is thus afforded the free use of its arms and independent movements of its fingers4 ,in the brain there is a striking development of the centres of sight1 touch1 and hearing4 ,it is these characteristics of the modern gibbon which preserve with relatively slight changes the type of the original ancestor of man1 as noted by ,elliot ,smith47#b7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ah4 ,the chimpanzee4 ,this figure illustrates the walking powers of the chimpanzee1 the great length of the arms1 and the abbreviation of the legs4 ,photograph from the ,new ,york ,zoological ,park4 ,the limbs of the orang are less elongated and less extremely specialized for arboreal life than those of the gibbon but more so than those of the chimpanzee and the gorilla4 ,the skull is rounded and of great vertical height1 with broad1 bony ridges above the orbits and a great median crest on top of the skull in old males4 ,the lower jaw of the orang is stout and deep1 and1 although used as a fighting weapon1 the canine tusks are much less prominent than in either the gibbon1 chimpanzee1 or gorilla4 ,of all anthropoids this jaw most nearly resembles that of the ,piltdown man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ai4 ,the ,chimpanzee4 ,this figure shows certain facial characteristics which are preserved in the ,neanderthal race of men4 ,note also the shortening of the thumb and the enlargement of the big toe4 ,photograph from the ,new ,york ,zoological ,park4 ,in the chimpanzee we observe the very prominent bony ridges above the eyes1 like those in the ,trinil and ,neanderthal races of men4 ,the prognathous or protruding tooth rows and receding chin suggest those in the ,heidelberg1 ,piltdown1 and ,neanderthal races4 ,when the chimpanzee is walking 7,fig4 #ah7 the arms reach down below the level of the knees1 whereas in the higher races of man they reach only half-way down the thighs4 ,thus1 the fore limb1 although much shorter than that of the gibbon1 is relatively longer than that of any human race1 recent or ancient4 ,we observe also in the walking chimpanzee 7,fig4 #ah7 that the upper part of the leg1 the thigh-bone1 or femur1 is relatively long1 while the lower part1 the shin-bone1 or tibia1 is relatively short4 ,indeed1 both in the arm and in the leg the upper bones are relatively long and the lower bones are relatively short4 ,these proportions1 which are inheritances of arboreal life1 are in very marked contrast to those observed in the arms and legs of the ,neanderthal race of men1 in which the limbs are of the terrestrial or walking type4 ,illustration3 ,,ancestral ,,tree ,,of ,,the ,,anthropoid ,,apes ,,and ,,of ,,man ,,existing ,,gibbon4 ,,man ,,chimpanzee4 ,,gorilla4 ,,orang4 ,,apes ,,and ,asia4 7,homo sapiens74 ,africa4 ,africa4 ,asia4 ,,man4 ,asia1 ,europe4 ,cr-,magnon and _/ _/ other races _/ _/ _/ _/ ,more primitive _/ _/ species1 human _/ _/ and prehuman4 _/ _/ ,,glacial ,,or _/ ,macaque ,,pleistocene of ,,age4 ,neanderthal race4 ,europe4 ,piltdown race4 ,heidelberg race4 ,,pliocene ,,age4 ,trinil race 7,pithecanthropus74 ,primitive ,ancestral anthro- ,macaques ,gibbon of poids of ,asia4 of ,asia ,europe _/ and 7,pliohylobates74 _/ _/ ,europe4 _/ _/ ,unknown ,pliocene _/ _/ ancestors of man4 _/ _/ _/ _/ ,,miocene ,primitive anthropoids _/ ,,age4 ,earliest ,gibbons of ,asia and ,europe4 _/ of ,europe4 _/ _/ 7,pliopithecus74 _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ _/ ------------------------------------ _/ _/ ,,oligocene4 ,ancestral anthropoids ,small monkeys of ,egypt of ,egypt4 7,propliopithecus74 _/ _/ --------------------------- ,unknown ancestral stock of the ,old ,world primates1 including man4 ,from the unknown and ancestral stock of the anthropoid apes and man the ,,gibbon was the first to branch off in ,oligocene times2 the ,,orang then branched off in a widely different direction4 ,the stem of the ,,chimpanzee and of the ,,gorilla branched off at a more recent date and is more nearly allied to that of man4 ,five early human races have been found in ,europe in ,glacial or ,pleistocene times1 but no traces of other primates except the macaques1 which are related to the lower division of the baboons1 have been found in ,europe in ,pleistocene times4 ,modified after ,gregory4 7,for latest discovery see ,appendix1 ,note ,,vii47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bj4 ,the ,gorilla4 ,an immature female1 about three years of age1 showing none of the adult male characteristics4 ,photograph from the ,new ,york ,zoological ,park4 ,we observe also in the chimpanzee a contrast between the grasping power of the big toe1 which is a kind of thumb1 and the lack of that power in the hand1 in which the thumb is nearly useless2 in all apes this function is characteristic of the foot1 in man of the hand alone4 ,the opposable thumb1 with its power of bringing the thumb against each of the fingers1 is the one character which is lacking in every one of the anthropoid apes and which was early developed among the ancestors of man4 ,the skull of the chimpanzee is longer than that of the orang1 the most prominent feature in the top view being the extreme protuberance of the orbits1 which are surrounded by a supraorbital and circumorbital bony ridge1 which is also strongly developed in the ,neanderthal skull as well as in the ,pithecanthropus or ,trinil skull but1 so far as we know1 is entirely lacking in that of ,piltdown4 ,as in the orang and the gorilla1 a crest develops along the middle of the top of the skull for the insertion of the powerful muscles of the jaws1 a crest which is wholly wanting in the gibbon and probably wanting in all the true ancestors of man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ba4 ,contrast of the projecting face 7prognathism71 retreating forehead1 and small brain-case of a young gorilla1 as compared with the vertical face1 prominent nose1 high forehead1 and large brain-case of a high race of man4 ,after ,klaatsch4 ,the gorilla illustrates in the extreme the specializations which are begun in the chimpanzee1 and which are attributable to a life partly arboreal1 partly terrestrial1 with the skull and jaws used as powerful fighting organs4 ,the head is lengthened by the forward growth of the muzzle into an extreme prognathism4 ,the limbs and body of the gorilla show a departure from the primitive1 slender-limbed1 arboreal type of apes and are partly adapted to a bipedal1 ground-dwelling habit4 ,as regards psychic evolution17#c7 ,elliot ,smith observes that the arboreal mode of life of the early ancestors of man developed quick1 alert1 and agile movements which stimulated the progressive development of the posterior and lateral portions of the brain4 ,the sense of smell had been well developed in a previous terrestrial life1 but once these creatures left the earth and took to the trees1 guidance by the olfactory sense was less essential1 for life amidst the branches of the trees is most favorable to the high development of the senses of vision1 touch1 and hearing4 ,moreover1 it demands an agility and quickness of movement that necessitate efficient motor centres in the brain to co-ordinate and control such actions as tree life calls for4 ,the specialization of sight awakens curiosity to examine objects with greater minuteness and guides the hands to more precise and skilled movements4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bb4 ,side view of a human brain of high type1 showing the chief areas of muscular control and of the sensory impressions of sight and hearing1 also the prefrontal area in which the higher mental faculties are centred4 ,modified after ,m4 ,allen ,starr4 ,the anatomy of man is full of remote reminders of this original arboreal existence1 which also explains the very large and early development of the posterior portions of the brain1 in which the various senses of sight1 touch1 and hearing are located4 ,the first advance from arboreal to terrestrial life is marked by the power of walking more or less erect on the hind limbs and thus releasing the arms2 this power is developed to a greater or less degree in all the anthropoid apes2 with practice they become expert walkers4 ,the additional freedom which the erect attitude gives to the arms and to the movements of the hands and the separate movements of the fingers is especially noticeable in the gibbon4 ,the cultivation of the powers of the hand reacts upon the further growth and specialization of the brain2 thus the brain and the erect attitude react upon each other4 ,in the gibbon there is a marked increase in the size of those portions of the brain which supply the centres of touch1 vision1 and hearing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bc4 ,the evolution of the brain4 ,outlines 7side view7 of typical human and prehuman brains1 showing the early development of the posterior portions of the brain and the relatively late development of the anterior portions1 the seat of the higher mental faculties4 ,discussion as to how the ancestors of man were fashioned has chiefly dealt with the rival claims of four lines of structural evolution3 first1 the assumption of the erect attitude2 second1 the development of the opposable thumb2 third1 the growth of the brain2 and fourth1 the acquisition of the power of speech4 ,the argument for the erect attitude suggested by ,lamarck1 and ably put by ,munro7#d7 in #ahic1 indicates that the cultivation of skill with the hands and fingers lies at the root of man's mental supremacy4 ,elliot ,smith's argument that the steady growth and specialization of the brain itself has been the chief factor in leading the ancestors of man step by step upward indicates that such an advance as the erect attitude was brought about because the brain had made possible the skilled movements of the hands4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bd4 ,the evolution of the brain4 ,outlines 7top view7 of typical human and prehuman brains1 showing the narrow forebrain of the primitive type and the successive expansion of the seat of the higher mental faculties in the successive races4 ,the true conception of prehuman evolution1 which occurred during ,miocene and ,pliocene times1 is rather that of the coincident development of these four distinctively human powers4 ,it appears from the limb proportions in the ,neanderthal race that the partly erect attitude and walking gait were assumed much earlier in geologic time than we formerly imagined4 ,the intimate relation between the use of the opposable thumb and the development of the higher mental faculties of man is sustained to-day by the discovery that one of the best methods of developing the mind of the child is to insist upon the constant use of the hands1 for the action and reaction between hand and brain is found to develop the mind4 ,a similar action and reaction between foot and brain developed the erect gait which released the hand from its locomotive and limb-grasping function1 and by the resultant perfecting of the motion of thumbs and fingers turned the hand into an organ ready for the increasing specialization demanded by the manufacture of flint implements4 ,this is the stage reached1 we believe1 in late ,pliocene times in which the human ancestor emerges from the age of mammals and enters the age of man1 the period when the prehistory of man properly begins4 ,the attitude is erect1 the hand has a well-developed opposable thumb1 the centres of the brain relating to the higher senses and to the control of all the motions of the limbs1 hands1 and fingers are well developed4 ,the power of speech may still be rudimentary4 ,the anterior centres of the brain for the storing of experience and the development of ideas are certainly very rudimentary4 ,,change ,,of ,,environment ,,in ,,europe ,considering that the origin and development of any creature are best furthered by a struggle for existence sufficiently severe to demand the full and frequent exercise of its powers of mind and body1 it is interesting to trace the sequence of natural events which prepared western ,europe for the entrance of the earliest branches of the human race4 ,the forests and plants portray even more vividly than the animals the changing conditions of the environment and temperature which marked the approach and various vicissitudes of the great ,ice ,age4 ,the forests of central ,france in ,pliocene times1 as well as those of the valley of the ,arno in northern ,italy1 were very similar to the forests of the middle ,united ,states at the present time1 comprising such trees as the sassafras1 the locust1 the honey-locust1 the sumach1 the bald cypress1 and the tulip4 ,thus the regions which harbored the rich forest and meadow fauna of northern ,italy in ,upper ,pliocene times abounded in trees familiar to-day in ,north and ,south ,carolina1 including even such distinctively ,american forms as the sweet gum 7,liquidambar styraciflua71 the sour gum 7,nyssa sylvatica71 and the bay1 beside those above mentioned4 ,to the south1 along the ,mediterranean1 there also flourished trees incident to a more tropical climate1 the bamboo1 the sabal palm1 and the dwarf fan-palm2 most interesting is the presence of the sabal1 which now flourishes in the subtropical rain forests of central ,florida4 ,the sequoia also was abundant4 ,toward the close of the ,pliocene the first indications of the coming ,glacial ,epoch were a lowering of the temperature1 and1 in the higher mountainous areas perhaps1 a beginning of the glacial stages4 ,the ancestors of the modern forests of ,europe predominated in central ,france3 the oak1 the beech1 the poplar1 the willow1 and the larch4 ,it is these forests1 which survived the vicissitudes of glacial times1 that gave descent to the forests of ,postglacial ,europe1 while all the purely ,american types disappeared from ,europe and are now found only in the temperate regions of the ,united ,states47#e7 ,we have seen that anthropoid apes have not been discovered either in the ,middle or ,upper ,pliocene of ,europe2 the gibbon-ape line disappears with the ,pliohylobates of the ,upper ,pliocene4 ,these animals are1 however1 rarely found in fossil form1 owing to their retreat to the trees in times of flood and danger1 so that we need not necessarily assume that the anthropoids had actually become extinct in ,france4 ,the primates which are found in the ,upper ,pliocene belong to the lower types of the ,old ,world monkeys1 related to the living langur of ,india and to the macaque and baboon4 ,the evidence1 as far as it goes1 indicates that the ancestors of man were at this time evolving in ,asia and not in ,europe4 ,this evidence1 nevertheless1 would be completely offset if it could be proven that the eoliths1 or primitive flints1 found in various parts of ,europe from ,oligocene to ,pleistocene times are really artifacts of human or prehuman origin4 ,the mammals of ,europe in ,pliocene times were derived by very remote migrations from ,north ,america and1 more directly1 from southern ,asia4 ,the ,oriental element is very strong1 including types of rhinoceroses now peculiar to ,sumatra and southern ,asia1 numerous mastodons very similar to the south ,asiatic types of the times1 gazelles and antelopes1 including types related to the existing elands1 and primitive types of horses and of tapirs4 ,among the carnivores in ,europe similar to south ,asiatic species were the hynas1 the dog bears 7,hynarctos71 the civets1 and the pandas 7,ailurus72 there were also the sabre-tooth tigers and numerous other felines4 ,in the trees were found the south ,asiatic and north ,african monkeys2 and in the forests the axis deer1 now restricted to ,asia4 ,but the most distinctive ,african-,asiatic animal of this period was found in the rivers2 namely1 the hippopotamus1 which arrived in ,italy in the early ,pliocene and ranged south by way of the ,sicilian land bridge into northern ,africa and east along the southern shores of the ,black ,sea to the ,siwalik hills of ,india4 ,thus1 many of the ancestors of what we have termed the ,african-,asiatic mammal group of ,pleistocene times had already found their way into ,europe early in ,pliocene times4 ,in middle and late ,pliocene times there arrived three very important types of mammals which played a great rle in the early ,pleistocene4 ,these are3 ,the true horses 7,equus stenonis7 of remote ,north ,american origin4 ,the first true cattle 7,leptobos elatus71 originating in southern ,asia4 ,the true elephants1 first ,elephas planifrons and later ,e4 meridionalis1 better known as the southern mammoth1 both originating in ,asia4 ,the forests and river borders of the valley of the ,arno1 near ,florence1 contained all these ,african-,asiatic animals in ,upper ,pliocene times4 ,here they received their names which remind us of this region of ,italy as it is to-day1 such as the ,etruscan rhinoceros 7,dicerorhinus etruscus71 the ,florentine macaque 7,macacus florentinus71 ,steno's horse 7,equus stenonis71 the ,etruscan cattle 7,leptobos etruscus71 which was the earliest ox to reach ,europe4 ,in ,italy and ,france these ,african-,asiatic mammals were mingled with ancestors of the more hardy ,eurasiatic forest and meadow group4 ,of these the most graceful were a variety of deer with very elaborate or many-branched antlers1 hence known as the 'polycladine' deer4 ,in the forests roamed the wild boars of ,auvergne 7,sus arvernensis71 also the bears of ,auvergne 7,ursus arvernensis71 lynxes1 foxes1 and wildcats4 ,in the rivers swam the otter and the beaver1 closely allied to existing forms4 ,among the rocks of the high hills were the pikas or tailless hares 7,lagomys71 also hamsters1 moles1 and shrews4 ,many of the most characteristic animals of the dry modern plateaus of ,africa had disappeared from ,europe before the close of ,pliocene times1 namely1 species of gazelles1 antelopes1 and the hipparion horses1 all of which were adapted to the dry uplands or deserts of ,africa4 ,in the remaining faune ,pliocne rcente of ,french authors we find evidence that the ,pliocene in all of western ,europe closed with a moist1 warm1 temperate climate1 with wide-spread forests and rivers interspersed with meadows favorable to the life of a great variety of browsing deer as well as of grazing elephants1 horses and cattle4 ,the flora of the ,middle ,pliocene as found at ,meximieux indicates a mean annual temperature of #fb to #fc ,fahr4 ,one of the proofs of the gradual lowering of temperature toward the close of ,pliocene times in ,europe is the southward retreat and disappearance of the apes and monkeys2 the ,upper ,miocene gibbon is found as far north as ,eppelsheim1 near ,worms1 ,germany2 in ,lower ,pliocene times the monkeys and apes are found only in the forests of the south of ,france2 in ,upper ,pliocene times they are recorded only in the forests of northern ,italy2 the evidence1 so far as it goes1 indicates a gradual retreat toward the south4 ,finally1 at the end of the ,pliocene there existed very close geographic relations eastward with the mammalian life of ,india by way of what was then the isthmus of the ,dardanelles and southward with the mammalian life of ,africa by way of the ,sicilian land bridge4 ,this would indicate that the long lines of eastward and westward migration were open and favorable to the arrival in western ,europe of new migrants from the far east1 including perhaps the most primitive races of man4 ,there is not the least evidence that ,pliocene man or ancestors of man existed in ,europe1 excepting such as may be afforded by the problematic eoliths1 or most primitive flints4 ,,the ,,first ,,glaciation ,in ,upper ,pliocene times cold marine currents7#f7 from the north began to flow along the southeastern coast of ,england1 with indications of a gradually lowering temperature culminating at a time when the sea abounded in the arctic mollusks1 which have been preserved in the ',weybourn ,crags1' a geologic formation along the coast of ,norfolk4 ,this arctic current was the herald of the ,first ,glacial ,stage4 ,it does not appear that a glacial cap of any considerable extent was formed in ,great ,britain at this stage1 but about this time the first great ice-cap was formed in ,british ,north ,america west of ,hudson ,bay1 which sent its ice-sheets as far south as ,iowa and ,nebraska4 ,in the latter ,state forests of spruce and other coniferous species indicate the appearance of a cool temperate flora in advance of the glaciation4 ,in the ,swiss ,alps the snow descended #a1bjj meters below the present snow-line1 and in ,scandinavia and northern ,germany the first great ice-sheets were formed from which flowed the glaciers and rivers conveying the ',old ,diluvium1' or the 'oldest drift4' ,accompanying the cold wave along the eastern coast of ,england we note1 in the famous fossil deposits known as the ',forest ,bed of ,cromer1' which overlie the ,weybourn ,crags1 the arrival from the north of the fir-tree 7,abies74 ,this is most significant1 because it had hitherto been known only in the arctic region of ,grinnell ,land1 and this was its first appearance in central ,europe4 ,another herald of northern conditions was the first occurrence of the musk-ox in ,england1 which is attributed7#g7 to the ',forest ,bed' deposits4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #be4 ,the ,first 7,gnz7 ,glacial ,stage was far less extensive than that in the above map1 which shows ,europe in the ,second ,glacial ,stage1 during the greatest extension of the ice-fields and glaciers 7dots71 a period of continental depression in which the ,mediterranean1 ,black1 and ,caspian ,seas were connected4 ,the line from ,scandinavia to the ,atlas ,mountains corresponds with the section shown in ,fig4 #ac1 p4 #cg4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds1 after ,james ,geikie and ,penck4 ,while ,great ,britain was less affected at this time than other regions1 there is no doubt as to the vast extent of the ,first ,glacial ,stage in ,british ,america1 in ,scandinavia1 and in the ,alps2 in the latter region it has been termed 'the ,gnz stage' by ,penck and ,brckner4 ,the 'drift' deposits have a general thickness of #ih-a_/b feet 7#cj m471 but they are largely covered and buried by those of the far more extensive ,second ,glacial ,stage4 ,the ,scandinavian ice-sheet7#h7 not only occupied the basin of the ,baltic but overflowed ,scania--the southern part of ,sweden--and extended as far south as ,hamburg and ,berlin4 ,in the ,alps the glaciers passed down all the great mountain valleys to the low grounds of the foreland1 implying a depression of the snow-line to #d1jjj feet below its present level4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bf4 ,the musk-ox1 belonging to the tundra region of the arctic circle1 which is reported to have migrated as far south as the southern coast of ,england during the ,first 7,gnz7 ,glacial ,stage4 ,,the ,,first ,,interglacial ,,stage4 ,,eoliths ,proofs that a prolonged cool wave passed over ,britain during the first glaciation are seen in its after effects1 namely1 in the modernization of the forests and in the disappearance both in ,britain and ,france of a very considerable number of animals which were abundant in ,upper ,pliocene times4 ,yet by far the greater part of the ,pliocene mammal life survived1 a fact which tends to show that1 while very cold conditions of climate and great precipitation of moisture may have characterized the regions immediately surrounding the ice-fields1 the remainder of western ,europe at most passed through a prolonged cool period during the climax of the ,first ,glacial ,stage4 ,this was followed during the ,first ,interglacial by the return of a period somewhat warmer than the present4 ,this ,first ,interglacial ,stage is known as the ,norfolkian1 from the fact that it was first recognized in ,europe in the deposits known as the ',forest ,bed of ,cromer1' ,norfolk1 which contain rich records not only of the forests of the period1 but of the noble forms of mammals which roamed over ,great ,britain and ,france in ,norfolkian times4 ,the forests of ,norfolk1 in latitude #eb #dj' ,n4 mainly abounded in trees still indigenous to this region1 such as the maple1 elm1 birch1 willow1 alder1 oak1 beech1 pine1 and spruce1 a forest flora closely corresponding to that of the ,norfolk and ,suffolk coasts of ,england at the present time1 although we find in this fossil flora several exotic species which give it a slightly different character47#i7 ,from this tree flora ,reid concludes that the climate of southeastern ,england was nearly the same as at present but slightly warmer4 ,we note especially that a very great change had taken place in the entire disappearance in these forests of the trees which in ,pliocene times were common to ,europe and ,america1 as described above2 in other words1 the flora of ,europe was greatly impoverished during the first cold wave4 ,in southern ,france1 as at the present time1 the interglacial climatic conditions were milder1 for we find numerous species of plants1 which are now represented in the ,caucasus1 ,persia1 southern ,italy1 ,portugal1 and ,japan4 ,thus the ,first ,interglacial ,stage1 which was a relatively short one1 enjoyed a temperature now belonging about #d of latitude farther south4 ,this ,first ,interglacial ,stage is also known as the ,st4-,prestien1 because among the many localities in ,france and ,italy which preserve the plant and mammal life of the times that of ,st4 ,prest1 in the ,paris basin1 is the most famous4 ,here in #ahfc ,desnoyers7#aj7 first reported the discovery of a number of mammal bones with incision lines upon them1 which he considered to be the work of man4 ,these deposits were regarded at the time as of ,pliocene age1 and this gave rise immediately to a wide-spread theory of the appearance of man as early as the ,pliocene4 ,the human origin of the incisions discovered by ,desnoyers has long been a matter of dispute and is now regarded as very improbable4 ,similar lines may be of animal origin1 namely1 marks left by claws or teeth1 or due to accidental pressure of sharp cutting surfaces4 ,however1 we do not pretend to express an opinion of any value as to the cause of these incisions4 ,supposed confirmation of the evidence of ,desnoyers of the existence of ,pliocene man was the alleged finding by ,abbott of several worked flints1 two in situ1 in the ',forest ,bed of ,cromer1' ,norfolk4 ,many years later in similar deposits at ,st4 ,prest were discovered the supposed 'eoliths' which have been referred to the tage ,prestien by ,rutot4 ,the age of the ,st4 ,prest deposits is1 therefore1 a matter of the very highest interest and importance4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bg4 ,the giant deer 7,megaceros71 which first appears in western ,europe during the ,first ,interglacial ,stage1 probably as a migrant from the forested regions of ,eurasia4 ,after a painting by ,charles ,r4 ,knight1 in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,st4 ,prest is not ,pliocene2 it is rather the most ancient ,pleistocene deposit in the basin of ,paris17#aa7 and these incised mammal bones probably date from the ,first ,interglacial ,stage4 ,the bed which has yielded the incised bones and the rich series of fossils consists of coarse river sands and gravels1 forming part of a 'high terrace1' #ih-a_/b feet 7#cj m47 above the present level of the river ,eure4 ,this1 like other 'high terraces1' contains a characteristic ,first ,interglacial fauna1 including the southern mammoth 7,e4 meridionalis71 and ,steno's horse 7,e4 stenonis74 ,we also find here other very characteristic early ,pleistocene mammals1 such as the ,etruscan rhinoceros 7,d4 etruscus71 the giant hippopotamus of early ,pleistocene times 7,h4 major71 the giant beaver of the early ,pleistocene 7,trogontherium71 three forms of the common beaver 7,castor71 and one of the bison 7,bison antiquus74 ,this mammalian life of ,st4 ,prest is very similar to that of ,norfolk1 ,england2 to that of ,malbattu in central ,france1 ,puy-de-,dme2 of ,peyrolles1 near the mouth of the ,rhne1 in southern ,france2 of ,solilhac near ,puy2 of ,durfort1 ,gard2 of ,cajarc1 ,lot-et-,garonne2 and finally to that of the valley of the ,arno1 in northern ,italy4 ,one reason why certain authors1 such as ,boule and ,depret1 have placed this stage in the ,upper ,pliocene is that the mammals include so many surviving ,pliocene forms1 such as the sabre-tooth tigers 7,machrodus71 the 'polycladine' deer with the elaborate antlers 7,c4 sedgwicki71 the ,etruscan rhinoceros1 and the primitive ,steno's horse4 ,but we have recently discovered that1 with the exception of the 'polycladine' deer1 these mammals certainly survived in ,europe as late as the ,second ,interglacial ,stage1 and there is said to be evidence that some even persisted into the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,it is1 therefore1 the extinction or disappearance from ,europe of many of the animals very abundant even in late ,pliocene times which marks this fauna as early ,pleistocene4 ,anthropoid apes are no longer found2 indeed1 there is no evidence of the survival of any of the primates1 except macaques1 which survive in the ,pyrenees to late ,pleistocene times2 the tapir has entirely disappeared from the forests of ,europe2 but the most significant departure is that of the mastodon1 which is believed to have lingered in north ,africa and which certainly survived in ,america into very late ,pleistocene times4 ,the animal life of western ,europe1 like the plant life1 has lost one part of its ,pliocene aspect while retaining another part1 both in its mammalian fauna and in its forest flora4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bh4 ,the sabre-tooth tiger 7,machrodus71 which survives from the ,upper ,pliocene and is widely distributed over western ,europe until the ,middle ,pleistocene4 ,after a painting by ,charles ,r4 ,knight1 in the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,the living environment as a whole1 moreover1 takes on a novel aspect through the arrival1 chiefly from the north1 of the more hardy animals and plants which had been evolving for a very long period of time in the temperate forests and meadows of ,eurasia to the northeast and northwest4 ,from this ,eurasiatic region came the stag1 or red deer 7,cervus elaphus71 also the giant deer 7,megaceros71 and from the northerly swamps the broad-headed moose 7,alces latifrons74 ,the presence of members of the deer family 7,cervid7 in great numbers and representing many different lines of descent is one of the most distinctive features of ,first ,interglacial times4 ,beside the new northerly forms mentioned above1 there was the roe-deer 7,capreolus71 which still survives in ,europe1 but there is no longer any record of the beautiful axis deer 7,axis71 which has now retreated to southern ,asia4 ,the 'polycladine' deer1 first observed in the valley of the ,arno1 is represented in ,first ,interglacial times by ,sedgwick's deer 7,c4 sedgwicki71 in ,norfolk1 and by the species ,c4 dicranius of northern ,italy1 where there also occurs the 'deer of the ,carnutes' 7,c4 carnutorum74 ,we observe that browsing1 forest-living1 and river-living types predominate4 ,among the forest-frequenting carnivores were the wolverene1 the otter1 two kinds of bear1 the wolf1 the fox1 and the marten2 another forest dweller was a wild boar1 related to the existing ,sus scrofa of ,europe4 ,thus in the very beginning of ,pleistocene times the forests of ,europe were full of a wild life very similar to that of prehistoric times1 mingled with which was the ,oriental element1 the great elephants1 rhinoceroses1 and hippopotami connecting ,europe with the far east4 ,among these eastern migrants in the early ,pleistocene were two new arrivals1 the primitive wild cattle 7,bos primigenius71 and the first of the bison 7,bison priscus74 ,the theoretical map of western ,europe during ,first ,interglacial times 7,fig4 #ab1 also ,fig4 #ef7 enables us to understand these migrations from the northeast and from the ,orient4 ,as indicated by the sunken river channels discovered on the old continental shelf1 the coast-line extended far to the west to the borders of the continental plateau which is now sunk deep beneath the ocean2 the ,british ,isles were separated from ,france not by the sea but by a broad valley1 while the ,rhine1 with the ,thames as a western tributary flowed northward over an extensive flood-plain1 which is the present floor of the ,north ,sea basin47#ab7 ,it is not improbable that the rich mammalian life deposits in the ',forest ,bed of ,cromer1' ,norfolk1 were washed down by tributaries of this ancient ,rhine ,river4 ,in all the great rivers of this enlarged western ,europe occurred the hippopotami1 and along the river borders and in the forests browsed the ,etruscan rhinoceros4 ,among the grazing and meadow-living forms of the ,norfolk country of ,britain were species of wild cattle 7,bos1 ,leptobos71 together with two species of horses1 including a lighter form resembling ,steno's horse 7,e4 stenonis cocchi7 of the ,val d',arno and a heavier type probably belonging to the forests4 ,the giant elephant of this period is the southern mammoth 7,e4 meridionalis trogontherii71 a somewhat specialized descendant of the ,pliocene southern mammoth of the valley of the ,arno2 this animal is best known from a superb specimen discovered at ,durfort 7,fig4 #db7 and preserved in the ,paris ,museum4 ,it is said to have attained a height of over #ab feet as compared with #aa feet #c inches1 the height of the largest existing ,african elephants4 ,it is probable that all these south ,asiatic migrants into ,europe were partially or wholly covered with hair1 in adaptation to the warm1 temperate climate of the summers and the cool winters4 ,to the south1 in the still milder climate of ,italy1 the arrival of another great species1 known as the 'ancient' or 'straight-tusked elephant' 7,e4 antiquus71 is recorded4 ,this animal had not yet reached ,france or ,britain4 ,preying upon the defenseless members of this heterogeneous fauna were the great machrodonts1 or sabre-tooth tigers1 which ranged over ,europe and northern ,africa and into ,asia4 ,it does not appear that the true lions 7,felis leo7 had as yet entered ,europe4 ,an intercommunication of life over a vast area extending #f1jjj miles from the ,thames valley on the west to ,india on the southeast is indicated by the presence of six or more similar or related species of elephants and rhinoceroses4 ,twenty-five hundred miles southeast of the foot-hills of the ,himalayas similar herds of mammals1 but in an earlier stage of evolution1 roamed over the island of ,java1 which was then a part of the ,asiatic mainland4 ,,the ,,trinil ,,race ,,of ,,java ,the human interest in this great life throng lies in the fact that the migration routes opened by these great races of animals may also have afforded a pathway for the earliest races of men4 ,thus the discovery of the ,trinil race in central ,java1 amidst a fauna closely related to that of the foot-hills of the ,himalayas and more remotely related to that of southern ,europe1 has a more direct bearing upon our subject than would at first appear4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bi4 ,restoration of ,pithecanthropus1 the ,java ape-man1 modelled by the ,belgian artist ,mascr1 under the direction of ,professor ,a4 ,rutot1 of ,brussels1 ,belgium4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cj4 ,the ,solo or ,bengawan ,river in central ,java4 ,scene of the discovery of the type specimen of ,pithecanthropus erectus in #ahid4 ,after ,selenka and ,blanckenhorn4 ,compare map 7,fig4 #cb1 p4 #ge74 ,on the ,bengawan ,river in central ,java1 a ,dutch army surgeon1 ,eugen ,dubois1 had been excavating for fossils in the hope of finding prehuman remains4 ,in the year #ahia he found near ,trinil a deposit of numerous mammal bones1 including a single upper molar tooth which he regarded as that of a new species of ape4 ,on carefully clearing away the rock the top of a skull appeared at about a meter's distance from the tooth4 ,further excavation at the close of the rainy season brought to light a second molar tooth and a left thigh-bone about #ae meters from the spot where the skull was found1 imbedded and fossilized in the same manner4 ,these scattered parts were described by ,dubois7#ac7 in #ahid as the type of ,pithecanthropus erectus1,o a term signifying the upright-standing ape-man4 ,the specific term erectus refers to the thigh-bone1 of which the author observes3 ,we must therefore conclude that the femur of ,pithecanthropus was designed for the same mechanical functions as that of man4 ,the two articulations and the mechanical axis correspond so exactly to the same parts in man that the law of perfect harmony between the form and function of a bone will necessitate the conclusion that this fossil creature had the same upright posture as man and likewise walked on two legs4444 ,from this it necessarily follows that the creature had the free use of the upper extremities--now superfluous for walking--and that these last were no doubt already far advanced in that line of differentiation which developed them in mankind into tools and organs of touch4444 ,from a study of the femur and skull it follows with certainty that this fossil cannot be classified as simian4444 ,and1 as with the skull1 so also with the femur1 the differences that separate ,pithecanthropus from man are less than those distinguishing it from the highest anthropoid4444 ,although far advanced in the course of differentiation1 this ,pleistocene form had not yet attained to the human type4 ,pithecanthropus erectus is the transition form between man and the anthropoids which the laws of evolution teach us must have existed4 ,he is the ancestor of man4 ,thus the author placed ,pithecanthropus in a new family1 of the order ,primates1 which he named the ,pithecanthropid4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ca4 ,geological section of the volcano of ,lawoe in the ,solo ,river basin4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cb4 ,map of the ,solo ,river1 showing the ,pithecanthropus discovery site1 also two excavations 7,pit ,no4 #a1 ,pit ,no4 #b7 in the ancient gravel of the river-bottom1 made by the ,selenka-,blanckenhorn expedition of #aijg4 ,after ,selenka and ,blanckenhorn4 ,the geologic age of the bones referred to is a matter of first importance4 ,the remains of ,pithecanthropus lay in a deposit about one meter in thickness1 consisting of loose1 coarse1 tufaceous sandstones1 below this a stratum of hard1 blue-gray clay1 and under that marine breccia4 ,above the ,pithecanthropus layer were the ',kendeng' strata1 a many-layered tufaceous sandstone1 about #ae meters in thickness4 ,this geologic series was considered by ,dubois and others to be of late ,tertiary or ,pliocene age2 ,pithecanthropus accordingly became known as the long-awaited ',pliocene ape-man4' ,subsequent researches by expert geologists have tended to refer the age to the early ,pleistocene47#ag7 ,according to ,elbert7#ah7 the ,kendeng strata overlying the ,pithecanthropus layer correspond to an early pluvial period of low temperature and1 in point of time1 to the ,ice ,age of ,europe4 ,for even in ,java one can distinguish three divisions of the ,pleistocene period1 including the first period of low temperature to which the ,pithecanthropus layer is referred4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cc4 ,section corresponding to line ,a-,b in ,fig4 #cb1 showing the river-drift gravels and sands at the point where the skull-top of ,pithecanthropus was found4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds4 ,recent #g ,river wash1 blue-black clay4 #f ,light-colored sandstone1 like tuff4 #e ,gray tuff with balls of clay1 fresh-water shells4 #d ,white streaked sandstone resembling tufa4 ,pleistocene #c ,blue-black clay with plant remains4 #b ,bone-bearing stratum4 ,pithecanthropus4 #a ,lahar conglomerate4 ,the fossil mammals contained in the ,pithecanthropus layer have also been thoroughly studied17#ai7 and they tend to confirm the original reference to the uppermost ,pliocene4 ,they yield a very rich fauna similar to that of the ,siwalik hills of ,india1 including the porcupine1 pangolin1 several felines1 the hyna1 and the otter4 ,among the primates beside ,pithecanthropus there is a macaque4 ,among the larger ungulates are two species of rhinoceros related to existing ,indian forms1 the tapir1 the boar1 the hippopotamus1 the axis and rusa deer1 the ,indian buffalo1 and wild cattle4 ,it is noteworthy that three species of late ,pliocene elephants1 all known as ,stegodon1 and especially the species ,stegodon ganeza1 occur1 as well as ,elephas hysudricus1 a species related to ,e4 antiquus1 or the straight-tusked elephant1 which entered ,europe in early ,pleistocene times4 ,fossils of the same animals are found in the foot-hills of the ,himalayas of ,india1 about #b1ejj miles distant to the northwest4 ,the ,india deposits are considered of uppermost ,pliocene age17#bj7 for this is the closing life period of the upper ,siwaliks of ,india4 ,certainly ,java was then a part of the ,asiatic continent1 and similar herds of great mammals roamed freely over the plains from the foot-hills of the ,himalaya ,mountains to the borders of the ancient ,trinil ,river1 while similar apes inhabited the forests4 ,at this time the orang may have entered the forests of ,borneo1 which are at present its home2 it is the only ape thus far found in the uppermost ,pliocene of ,india4 ,we may1 therefore1 anticipate the discovery1 at any time1 in ,india of a race similar to ,pithecanthropus4 ,the geologic age of the ,trinil race is1 therefore1 to be considered as late ,pliocene or early ,pleistocene4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cd4 ,the top 7#a7 and side 7#a;a7 views of the skull-top of ,pithecanthropus erectus4 ,after ,dubois4 ,one-third life size4 ,this great discovery of ,dubois aroused wide-spread and heated discussion1 in which the foremost anatomists and palontologists of the world took part4 ,some regarded the skull as that of a giant gibbon1 others as prehuman1 and still others as a transition form4 ,we may form our own opinion1 however1 from a fuller understanding of the specimens themselves1 always keeping in mind that it is a question whether the femur and the skull belong to the same individual or even to the same race4 ,first1 we are struck by the marked resemblance which the top of the skull bears1 both on viewing it from the side and from above1 to that of the ,neanderthal race4 ,this fully justifies the opinion of the anatomist ,schwalbe7#ba7 that the skull of ,pithecanthropus is nearer to that of ,neanderthal man than to that of even the highest of the anthropoid apes4 ,as measured by ,schwalbe1 the index of the height of the cranium 7,kalottenhheindex7 may be compared with others as follows3 ,lowest human race #eb per cent4 ,neanderthal man #dj4d per cent4 ,pithecanthropus1 or ,trinil race #cd4b per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ce4 ,head of chimpanzee--front and side views--exhibiting a head of somewhat similar shape to that of ,pithecanthropus1 with prominent eyebrow ridges1 but much smaller brain capacity4 ,photograph from the ,new ,york ,zoological ,park4 ,this accords with the estimate of the brain capacity,p of #hee c4cm4 7,dubois7 as compared with #a1bcj c4cm41 the smallest brain capacity found in a member of the ,neanderthal race4 ,second1 as seen from above1 we are struck with the great length of the calvarium as compared with its breadth1 the cephalic index or ratio of breadth to length being #gc4d per cent 7,schwalbe7 as compared with #gc4i per cent in the ,neanderthal type skull2 this dolichocephaly accords with the fact that all of the earliest human races thus far found are long-headed1 although according to ,schwalbe7#bb7 all anthropoids are broad-headed4 ,this is a very important distinction4 ,the third feature is the prominence and width of the bony eyebrow ridges above the orbits1 which are almost as great as in the chimpanzee and greatly exceed those of the ,neanderthal race and of the modern ,australian4 ,the profile of the ,trinil head restored by ,mc,gregor 7,fig4 #ch7 exhibits this prominent bony ridge and the low1 retreating forehead4 ,in the latest opinion of ,schwalbe7#bc7 ,pithecanthropus may be regarded as one of the direct ancestors of ,neanderthal man and even of the highest human species1 ,homo sapiens4 ,he also considers that when the lower jaw of the ,trinil race becomes known1 it will be found to be very similar to that of the ,heidelberg man1 the final conclusion being that ,pithecanthropus and the nearly allied ,heidelberg man may be regarded as the common ancestors of the ,neanderthal race1 on the one hand1 and of the higher races on the other4 ,there are1 however1 reasons for excluding ,pithecanthropus from the direct ancestral line of the higher races of man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cf4 ,profile of the skull of ,pithecanthropus1 as restored by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 #aiad4 ,one-third life size4 ,this prehuman stage has1 none the less1 a very great significance in the developmental history of man4 ,in our opinion it is the very stage which1 theoretically1 we should anticipate finding in the dawn of the ,pleistocene4 ,a similar view is taken by ,bchner17#bd7 who presents in an admirable diagram 7,fig4 #aag7 the result of his comparison of twelve different characters in the skulls of ,pithecanthropus1 the ,neanderthals1 the ,australians1 and the ,tasmanians4 ,one of the main objects of ,bchner's research was a very detailed comparison of the ,trinil skull with that of the lowly and now extinct ,tasmanian race1 which1 we observe in the diagram1 occupies a position only a little higher than that of the ,spy-,neanderthal race4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #cg4 ,three views of the skull of ,pithecanthropus1 as restored by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor1 showing the original 7shaded7 and restored 7black lines7 portions4 ,about one-quarter life size4 ,if the femur belongs with the skull1 the ,trinils were a tall race1 reaching a height of #e feet #g inches as compared with #e feet #c inches in the ,neanderthals4 ,the thigh-bone 7,fig4 #abb7 has a very slight curvature as compared with that of any of the apes or lemurs1 and in this respect is more human2 it is remarkably elongate 7#dee mm471 surpassing that of the ,neanderthals2 the shin-bone 7tibia7 was probably correspondingly short4 ,the two upper grinding-teeth preserved are much more human than those of the gibbon1 but they do not resemble those of man closely enough to positively confirm the prehuman theory4 ,dubois observes37#be7 ,that the tooth belongs to some hominid form needs no further demonstration4 ,aside from its size and the greater roughness of the grinding surface1 it differs from the human grinder in that the less developed cusp of ,pithecanthropus is the posterior cusp next the cheek1 while in man it is generally the posterior cusp next the tongue4 ,the simplification of the crown and the root of the ,trinil grinder is quite as extensive as it usually is in man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ch4 ,profile view of the head of ,pithecanthropus1 the ,java ape-man1 after a model by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,various efforts have been made to supplement the scattered and scanty materials collected by ,dubois4 ,the ,selenka expedition of #aijg-h brought back a human left lower molar as the only result of an express search for more ,pithecanthropus remains4 ,dubois is also said to possess the fragment of a primitive-looking lower jaw from the range known as the ,kendeng ,hills1 at the southern base of which lies the village of ,trinil4 ,it remains for us to consider the stage of psychic evolution attained by the ,trinil race1 and this naturally turns upon the erect attitude and what little is known of the size and proportions of the brain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ci4 ,front view of the head of ,pithecanthropus1 the ,java ape-man1 after a model by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,the assumption of the erect attitude is not merely a question of learning to balance the body on the hinder extremities47#bf7 ,it involves changes in the interior of the body1 the loss of the tail1 the freeing of the arms1 and the establishment of the diaphragm as the chief muscle of respiration4 ,the thigh-bone of ,pithecanthropus is so much like that of man as to support the theory that the erect position may have been assumed by the ancestors of man as early as ,oligocene times4 ,it would appear that ,pithecanthropus had free use of the arms and it is possible that the control of the thumb and fingers had been cultivated1 perhaps in the fashioning of primitive implements of wood and stone4 ,the discovery of the use of wood as an implement and weapon probably preceded that of the use of stone4 ,elliot ,smith describes this stage of development as follows37#bg7 444 ,the emancipation of the hands from progression threw the whole responsibility upon the legs1 which became more efficient for their purpose as supports once they lost their prehensile powers and became elongated and specialized for rapid progression4 ,thus the erect attitude became stereotyped and fixed and the limbs specialized1 and these upright simians emerged from their ancestral forests in societies1 armed with sticks and stones and with the rudiments of all the powers that eventually enabled them to conquer the world4 ,the greater exposure to danger which these more adventurous spirits encountered once they emerged in the open1 and the constant struggles these first semihuman creatures must have had in encounters with definite enemies1 no less than with the forces of ,nature1 provided the factors which rapidly weeded out those unfitted for the new conditions and by natural selection made real men of the survivors4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dj4 ,side view of brain of high type1 illustrating the contrast between the motor1 sensory1 and ideational centres in a high type of modern brain2 and ,elliot ,smith's characterization of the probable centres in the ,pithecanthropus type of brain4 ,modified after ,m4 ,allen ,starr4 ,the undeveloped forehead of ,pithecanthropus and the diminutive frontal area of the brain indicate that the ,trinil race had a limited faculty of profiting by experience and accumulated tradition1 for in this prefrontal area of the brain are located the powers of attention and of control of the activities of all other parts of the brain4 ,in the brain of the ape the sensory areas of touch1 taste1 and vision predominate1 and these are well developed in ,pithecanthropus4 ,the central area of the brain1 which is the storehouse of the memories of actions and of the feelings associated with them1 is also well developed1 but the prefrontal area1 which is the seat of the faculty of profiting by experience or of recalling the consequences of previous responses to experience1 is developed to a very limited degree47#bh7 ,thus1 while the brain of ,pithecanthropus is estimated at #hee-ijj c4cm41 as compared with #fjj c4cm4 of the largest simian brain1 and #icj c4cm4 of the smallest brain recorded in the lower members of the human race1 it indicates a very low stage of intelligence4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #da4 ,diagram showing the side 7lower figure7 and top 7upper figure7 views of the outline of the ,pithecanthropus brain as compared with that of the chimpanzee and the higher human types of the ,piltdown1 ,neanderthal1 and modern races4 ,,absence ,,of ,,pal,,oliths ,,and ,,presence ,,of ,,eoliths ,,in ,,western ,,europe ,returning to ,first ,interglacial conditions in ,europe1 we observe that the river courses flowed through the same valleys as at present but that in early glacial times the channels were far broader and were elevated from #ajj to #aej feet above the present relatively narrow river levels4 ,the vast floods of the succeeding glaciation filled these valleys1 but some of the 'high terraces' were already formed4 ,it is extremely important to note that ,pre-,chellean flints or true paloliths have never been found in the sands or gravels of these 'high terraces4' ,eoliths found on this 'high-terrace' level at ,st4 ,prest belong to the ,prestien culture of ,rutot17#bi7 who regards this station as of ,upper ,pliocene age4 ,these1 like other supposed ,eolithic flints1 are very rough1 but1 rude as they are1 they generally exhibit one part shaped as if to be grasped by the hand1 while the other part is edged or pointed as for cutting4 ,it is generally admitted that these flints are mostly of accidental shapes1 and there has been little or no proof of their being fashioned by human hands4 ,on this point ,boule7#cj7 observes3 ,as to the eoliths1 ,i have combated the theory not only because it seems to me improbable but because a long geological experience has shown me that it is often impossible to distinguish stones split1 cut1 or retouched by purely physical agents from certain products of rudimentary workmanship4 ,on the other side1 it is interesting at this point to quote the words of ,mac,curdy37#ca7 ,my opinion1 based on personal experience1 444 is that the existence of a primitive industry1 antedating what is commonly accepted as ,palolithic1 has been established4 ,this industry occurs as far back as the ,upper ,miocene and continues on through the ,upper ,tertiary into and including the ,lower ,quaternary4 ,the distinguishing characters of the industry remain but little changed throughout the entire period1 the subdivision of the period into epochs being based on stratigraphy geologic stages and not on industrial characters4 ,the requirements in the way of tools being very simple and the supply of material in the way of natural flakes and fragments of flint being very plentiful1 the inventive powers of the population remained dormant for ages4 ,hammer and knife were the original tools4 ,both were picked up ready-made4 ,a sharp-edged1 natural flake served for one1 and a nodule or fragment served for the other4 ,when the edge of the flake became dulled by use1 the piece was either thrown away or the edge was retouched for further use4 ,if hammer or flake did not admit of being held comfortably in the hand1 the troublesome points or edges were removed or reduced by chipping4 ,the stock of tools increased slowly with the slowly growing needs4 ,as these multiplied and the natural supply of raw material diminished1 the latter was supplemented by the manufacture of artificial flakes4 ,when the lesson of associating definite forms of implements with definite uses was learned1 special types arose1 notably the amygdaloid implement and the poniard4 ,then came the transition from the ,eolithic to the ,palolithic1 a stage that has been so thoroughly investigated by ,rutot4 ,it is not improbable that the ,trinil race was in a stage of ,eolithic culture2 it is highly probable that the prehuman races of this very remote geologic age used more than one weapon of wood and stone4 ,,the ,,great ,,second ,,glaciation 7,fig4 #be1 p4 #fe7 ,in early ,pleistocene times a general elevation of southern ,europe united the islands of the ,mediterranean with ,europe on the north and with ,africa on the south1 forming broad land connections between the two continents which afforded both northward and southward migration routes4 ,at this time certain characteristically ,african mammals1 such as the straight-tusked elephant and the lion1 were probably finding their way north2 ,sicily at this time gained its large fauna of elephants and hippopotami1 and the island of ,malta was connected with the mainland1 as well as the easterly islands of ,cyprus and ,crete4 ,it appears probable that the connection between the ,italian mainland and ,malta was renewed more than once4 ,the approach of the second glaciation is indicated along the southeast coast of ,great ,britain by the subsidence of the land and the rise of the sea1 accompanied by a fresh arctic current1 bringing with it an invasion of arctic mollusks which were deposited in a layer of marine beds directly over those which contain the rich warm fauna and flora of the ',forest ,bed of ,cromer1' ,norfolk47#cb7 ,it also appears probable that a cold northern current swept along the western coasts of ,europe1 and ,geikie estimates that a lowering of temperature occurred of not less than #bj ,fahr41 a change as great as is now experienced in passing from the south of ,england to the ,north ,cape4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,iii4 ,pithecanthropus erectus1 the ape-man of ,java4 ,antiquity estimated at #ejj1jjj years4 ,after the restoration modelled by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,it is not improbable that the prehuman races of this remote geologic age used more than one natural weapon of wood or stone1 the latter of the accidental ',eolithic' type4 ,the second glaciation was by far the greatest both in ,europe and ,america4 ,in the region of the ,pyrenees1 which at the very much later period of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage became a favorite country with ,palolithic man1 there were glaciers of vast extent4 ,this is realized by comparison with present conditions4 ,the largest of the present glaciers of the ,pyrenees is only #b miles in length and terminates at a height of #g1bjj feet above the sea4 ,during the greatest glaciation the snow appears to have descended #d1bfe feet below its present level4 ,from the ,pyrenees through the ,gallego valley into ,spain there flowed a glacier #ch miles in length1 while to the north the glacier in the valley of the ,garonne flowed for a distance of #de miles to a point near ,montrjeau4 ,even in its lower reaches this glacier was over half a mile in thickness4 ,to the east was a glacier #ch miles in length1 filling the valley of the ,arige and covering the sites of such great ,palolithic caverns as that of ,niaux2 it is probable that at this time the formation of this cavern began4 ,that these glaciers were all prior to the period of the ,lower ,palolithic ,acheulean culture is proven by the fact that ,acheulean implements are frequently met with lying on the surface of the moraines laid down by these ancient ice-floes47#cc7 ,to the north was the vast ,scandinavian ice-field1 which swept over ,great ,britain and beyond the valleys of the ,rhine1 ,elbe1 and ,vistula1 reaching nearly to the ,carpathians4 ,even the lesser mountain chains were capped with glaciers1 including the ,atlas ,mountains in northern ,africa4 ,in ,north ,america from the great centre west of ,hudson ,bay the ice-cap extended its drift southward into ,missouri1 ,iowa1 ,kansas1 and ,nebraska1 beyond the limits of earlier and subsequent glaciations4 ,the materials of the chief 'high terraces' of the great river-valleys of western ,europe were deposited at this time4 ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,warm ,,second ,,interglacial ,,stage ,the long warm period which followed the great glaciation is remarkable in presenting the first proofs of the presence of man in western ,europe4 ,it is the period of the ,heidelberg race of man 7,homo heidelbergensis71 known only from a single jaw discovered by ,schoetensack in the ,mauer sands near ,heidelberg1 in #aijg4 ,no other proofs of the existence of man have been found in any of the deposits which took place during this vast interval of geologic time1 unless we accept the theory of ,penck and of ,geikie that the ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean quarries of the ,river ,somme belong in the ,second ,interglacial ,stage4 ,the vast duration of this interglacial time is evidenced both in ,europe and ,america by the deep cutting and wearing away of the 'drifts' brought down by the second glaciation4 ,penck believes that this 'long warm stage' represents a greater period of time than the entire interval between the third glaciation and the present time4 ,the climate immediately following the retreat of the glaciers was cool and moist in the glaciated regions1 but this was followed by such a prolonged period of heat and dryness that the glaciers on the ,alps withdrew to a point far above their present limits4 ,in one of the old 'high terraces' of the ,river ,inn1 in the north ,tyrol1 is a deposit containing the prevailing forest flora of the period1 from which ,penck concludes that the climate of ,innsbruck was #b ,c4 higher than it is at the present time4 ,corresponding with this the snow-line stood #a1jjj feet above its present level1 and the ,alps1 save for the higher peaks1 were almost completely denuded of ice and snow4 ,a characteristic plant is the ,pontic alpine rose 7,rhododendron ponticum71 which flourishes now in an annual temperature of #eg-fe ,fahr417#cd7 indicating that the climate of ,innsbruck was as genial as that of the ,italian slopes of the ,alps to-day4 ,this rhododendron is now found in the ,caucasus4 ,other southern species of the time were a buckthorn1 related to a species now living in the ,canary ,islands1 and the box4 ,there were also more hardy plants1 including the fir 7,pinus sylvestris71 spruce1 maple1 willow1 yew1 elm1 beech1 and mountain-ash4 ,the forests of the same period in ,provence were1 for the most part1 similar to those now found in that region2 out of thirty-seven species twenty-nine still occur in this part of southern ,france4 ,on the whole1 the aspect of southern ,france at this time was surprisingly modern4 ,the forests included oaks1 elms1 poplars1 willows1 lindens1 maples1 sumachs1 dogwood1 and hawthorn4 ,among the climbing plants were the vine and the clematis4 ,here also were some forms which have since retreated to the south1 such as species of the sweet bay and laurel which are now confined to the ,canary ,islands4 ,the great humidity of the time is indicated by the presence of certain species of conifers which require considerable moisture4 ,as in ,first ,interglacial times1 the presence of the fig indicates mild winters4 ,it is difficult to imagine forests of this modern character1 which farther northward included a number of still more temperate and hardy species1 as the setting of the great ,african and ,asiatic life that roamed all over western ,europe at this time4 ,it was the presence of hippopotami1 elephants1 and rhinoceroses which gave to ,lyell1 ,evans1 and other early observers the impression that a tropical temperature and vegetation were characteristic of this long life period4 ,these animals were formerly regarded as proofs of an almost tropical climate1 but the more trustworthy evidence of the forests1 strengthened by that of the presence of very numerous hardy types of forest and meadow animals1 has set aside all the early theories as to extremely warm temperatures during ,second ,interglacial times4 ,the remains of what is still conveniently known as the 'faune chaude1' or warm fauna1 are chiefly found in the sands and gravels of the ancient beds of the ,neckar1 ,garonne1 and ,thames1 and other rivers of the north and south1 also in ,essex1 ,england4 ,the most surprising fact is that the mammal life of western ,europe remained entirely unchanged by the vast second glaciation just described2 the few extinctions which occurred as well as a number of new arrivals may be attributed to new geographical connections with ,africa on the south and to the steady progress of migration from the far east4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #db4 ,the hippopotamus 7,h4 major7 and the southern mammoth 7,e4 meridionalis trogontherii71 a pair of mammals which enjoyed a similar range over western ,europe from the close of the ,pliocene until the middle of ,third ,interglacial times1 when their remains are found associated with flints of ,pre-,chellean1 ,chellean1 and early ,acheulean age4 ,one-sixtieth life size4 ,drawn by ,erwin ,s4 ,christman4 ,there were four very important and distinctive new arrivals from the ,african-,asiatic world1 namely1 the straight-tusked or ancient elephant 7,e4 antiquus71 the broad-nosed rhinoceros 7,d4 merckii71 the ,african lion 7,felis leo71 and the ,african hyna 7,h4 striata71 which bespeak close geographical connections with northern ,africa4 ,of these the ancient elephant and the broad-nosed rhinoceros were close companions2 they enjoyed the same regions and the same temperatures1 their remains are very frequently found together1 and they survived to the very end of the great life stage of western ,europe1 which closed with the advent of the fourth glaciation4 ,they are in contrast to the other pair of great mammals which was already present in ,europe in ,pliocene and ,first ,interglacial times1 namely1 the southern mammoth1 at this stage known as ,elephas trogontherii1 which had a preference for the companionship of the hippopotamus 7,h4 major72 it would seem that these animals were less hardy because both disappeared from ,europe a little earlier than the ancient elephant and ,merck's rhinoceros4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dc4 ,the other and hardier pair of large ,african-,asiatic mammals1 namely1 the broad-nosed or ,merck's rhinoceros 7,r4 merckii7 and the straight-tusked or ancient elephant 7,e4 antiquus71 which entered western ,europe in ,second ,interglacial times and survived until ,third ,interglacial times1 when their remains are found intermingled with flints of the ,acheulean and early ,mousterian cultures4 ,these mammals were doubtless hunted by men of the early ,neanderthal races4 ,one-sixtieth life size4 ,drawn by ,erwin ,s4 ,christman4 ,the ,african lion would appear to have been a competitor of the sabre-tooth tiger1 for the latter animal now becomes less abundant1 although there is reason to believe that it survived until the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,with the ancient ,pliocene type of the sabre-tooth were also found the ,etruscan rhinoceros1 the primitive bear of ,auvergne 7,ursus arvernensis71 and the giant beaver 7,trogontherium cuvieri74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dd4 ,map showing the wide geographic distribution 7horizontal lines7 of ,merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant1 which first entered western ,europe during the ,first ,interglacial ,stage and survived until nearly the close of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,the hippopotamus1 which entered ,europe in ,pliocene times1 survived until after the middle of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage and had a more limited distribution4 ,after ,boule4 ,the northern forests of the time were frequented by the broad-faced moose1 the giant deer1 and the roe-deer1 as well as by noble specimens of the stag 7,cervus elaphus74 ,in the open forests and meadows the wild cattle 7,bos primigenius7 began to be more numerous and the bison 7,bison priscus7 also occurred4 ,among the meadow or forest frequenting forms were horses of larger size1 such as the horses of ,mosbach and of ,sssenborn4 ,in this assemblage of northern and southern types it is noteworthy that the ,eurasiatic forest and meadow types of mammals greatly predominate in numbers and in variety over the ,african-,asiatic types2 this1 together with the flora1 is an indication that the climate was of a temperate character2 it is probable1 therefore1 that all the mammals were well protected with a hairy covering and adapted to a temperate climate4 ,the fact that the fauna as a whole remained practically unchanged throughout the second glaciation is a proof not that it migrated to the south and then returned but that the non-glaciated regions of western ,europe were temperate rather than cold4 ,,the ,,heidelberg ,,race ,heidelberg man4 ,ancient elephant4 ,etruscan rhinoceros4 ,mosbach horse4 ,wild boar4 ,broad-faced moose4 ,red deer1 or stag4 ,roe-deer4 ,primitive bison 7wisent74 ,primitive ox 7,aurochs1 urus74 ,auvergne bear4 ,deninger's bear4 ,lion4 ,wildcat4 ,wolf4 ,beaver4 ,to us by far the most interesting mammalian life is that found south of the mouth of the ,neckar along the ancient stream ,elsenz1 where were deposited the lower 'sands of ,mauer1' containing the lower jaw of the ,heidelberg man and the remains of many animals of the period4 ,the enumeration of this entire fauna is very important1 as indicating the temperate climatic conditions which surrounded the first true species of man which has thus far been discovered in ,europe4 ,the discoverer1 ,schoetensack17#ce7 referred these mammals and the ,heidelberg man to the ,first ,interglacial ,stage1 and a similar opinion has recently been expressed by ,geikie4 ,the presence of the ,etruscan rhinoceros would appear to point to such great antiquity1 but the evidence afforded by this primitive animal is overborne by that of three mammals which are highly characteristic of ,second ,interglacial times2 these are the straight-tusked or ancient elephant 7,e4 antiquus71 the lion1 and the ,mosbach horse4 ,excepting only the ,etruscan rhinoceros1 all these species frequenting the ancient stream ,elsenz and deposited with the 'sands of ,mauer' occurred also in the forests and meadows of the region now known as ,baden1 where the fossil mammal deposits of ,mosbach near the ,neckar are found4 ,a similar mammalian life of a somewhat more recent time occurs in the river gravels of ,sssenborn1 near ,weimar4 ,the horses of ,mauer1 of ,mosbach1 and of ,sssenborn,q were of much larger size and of more specialized character than ,steno's horse of ,first ,interglacial times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #de4 ,section of the valley of the stream ,elsenz1 near ,heidelberg1 showing the location of the ,mauer sand-pit in which the ,heidelberg jaw was discovered4 ,an ancient layer of river-drift4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds4 ,thus the ,heidelbergs1 the first human race recorded in western ,europe1 appear in northern ,germany early in ,second ,interglacial times1 in the midst of a most imposing mammalian fauna of northern aspect and containing many forest-living species1 such as bear1 deer1 and moose2 in the meadows and forests browsed the giant1 straight-tusked elephant 7,e4 antiquus71 which from the simple structure of its grinding-teeth is regarded as similar in habit to the ,african elephant now inhabiting the forests of central ,africa2 the presence of this animal indicates a relatively moist climate and well-forested country4 ,the ,etruscan rhinoceros differed from the larger ,merck's form in the possession of relatively short-crowned grinding-teeth1 adapted to browsing habits and a forested country2 on the head were borne two horns2 it was a long-limbed1 rapidly moving type2 the herds of bison and of wild cattle 7urus7 which roamed over the plains were now subject to the attack of the lion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #df4 ,sand-pit at ,mauer1 near ,heidelberg1 discovery site of the jaw of ,heidelberg man4 ,after ,schoetensack4 a-b4 ',newer loess1' either of ,third ,interglacial or of ,postglacial times4 b-c4 ',older loess' 7sandy loess7 of the close of ,second ,interglacial times4 c-f4 ,the 'sands of ,mauer4' d-e4 ,an intermediate layer of clay4 ,the white cross 7,x7 indicates the spot at the base of the 'sands of ,mauer' at which the jaw of ,heidelberg was discovered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dg4 ,the ,heidelberg jaw1 type of ,homo heidelbergensis4 ,about two-thirds life size4 ,after ,schoetensack4 ,the discovery in #aijg of a human lower jaw in the base of the ',mauer sands' is one of the most important in the whole history of anthropology4 ,the find was made at a depth of #gi feet 7#bd4aj m47 from the upper surface of a high bluff 7,fig4 #df71 in ancient river sands which had long been known to yield the very old mammalian fauna described above4 ,for years the workmen had been instructed to keep a sharp lookout for human remains4 ,the jaw had evidently drifted down with the river sands and had become separated from the skull1 but it remained in perfect preservation4 ,the author's description may first be quoted47#cf7 ,the mandible shows a combination of features never before found in any fossil or recent man4 ,the protrusion of the lower jaw just below the front teeth which gives shape to the human chin is entirely lacking4 ,had the teeth been absent it would have been impossible to diagnose it as human4 ,from a fragment of the symphysis of the jaw it might well have been classed as some gorilla-like anthropoid1 while the ascending ramus resembles that of some large variety of gibbon4 ,the absolute certainty that these remains are human is based on the form of the teeth--molars1 premolars1 canines1 and incisors are all essentially human and1 although somewhat primitive in form1 show no trace of being intermediate between man and the anthropoid apes but rather of being derived from some older common ancestor4 ,the teeth1 however1 are somewhat small for the jaw2 the size of the border would allow for the development of much larger teeth2 we can only conclude that no great strain was put on the teeth1 and therefore the powerful development of the bones of the jaw was not designed for their benefit4 ,the conclusion is that the jaw1 regarded as unquestionably human from the nature of the teeth1 ranks not far from the point of separation between man and the anthropoid apes4 ,in comparison with the jaws of ,neanderthal races1 as found at ,spy1 in ,belgium1 and at ,krapina1 in ,croatia1 we may consider the ,heidelberg jaw as pre-,neanderthaloid2 it is1 in fact1 a generalized type4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #dh4 ,side view of ,heidelberg jaw 7centre7 compared with that of an orang 7right7 and of an ,eskimo 7left72 the latter an individual of exceptionally large proportions4 ,in a conservative spirit1 ,schoetensack named the type represented by this jaw ,homo heidelbergensis4 ,other authors have regarded it as of distinct generic rank2 thus it has been termed ,paloanthropus heidelbergensis by ,bonarelli47#cg7 ,the jaw itself is extremely massive2 the canine teeth1 unlike those of the anthropoid apes and of the ,piltdown race1 do not project beyond the line of the other teeth and were therefore not used as weapons of offense and defense as in the anthropoids1 in which these teeth are prominently developed as tusks4 ,as noted by ,schoetensack1 the teeth are not very massive in proportion to the jaw itself1 which is the most powerful human jaw known1 even exceeding the largest ,eskimo jaw and indicating a skull of very massive and primitive character4 ,it resembles that of the ape in the recession of the chin1 hence it has been termed amentalis4 ,there is a large development of the coronoid process of the mandible for the attachment of the temporal muscle4 ,this jaw may well have been used as a tool in the last stages of the preparation of hides1 as is the practice of the ,eskimo races4 ,we observe that the powerful bony branches of the jaw1 when regarded from above1 close in upon the space left for the tongue2 in fact1 the bone closes in to such an extent as to interfere seriously with the free use of the tongue in articulate speech4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #di4 ,the jaws shown in ,fig4 #dh seen from above4 ,a massive ,eskimo jaw 7above71 the ,heidelberg jaw 7centre71 the jaw of an orang 7below74 ,it would seem that in the jaw1 and probably in all other characters of the skull1 as they become known1 the ,heidelberg race will be found to be a ,neanderthal in the making1 that is1 a primitive1 more powerful1 and more ape-like ancestral form4 ,in the matter of the retreating chin1 the true ,neanderthals of ,spy1 ,malarnaud1 ,krapina1 and ,la ,chapelle rank exactly half-way between the most inferior races of recent man and the anthropoid apes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ej4 ,restoration of the ,man of ,heidelberg by the ,belgian artist ,mascr1 under the direction of ,professor ,a4 ,rutot1 of ,brussels4 ,this restoration presents an advance upon the ,pithecanthropus type4 ,in our opinion the ,heidelberg man was more human and less ape-like in appearance4 ,not only among the ,eskimos1 but generally throughout the savage races of ,australia and of other countries1 the jaws are used as tools2 among the ,australians the teeth are very much worn down but are in admirable preservation4 ,when seen from above1 we observe that the ',heidelberg' grinding-teeth form a perfect arch1 or horseshoe-shaped arrangement1 whereas in all the apes the two lines of grinding-teeth are almost parallel with each other4 ,thus1 while there may be wide differences of opinion as regards the relationships of the ,heidelberg man1 all agree that ,schoetensack's discovery affords us one of the great missing links or types in the chain of human development4 ,the typical mammalian life of ,second ,interglacial times as found at ,mosbach and ,sssenborn belongs perhaps to a somewhat more recent stage of ,second ,interglacial times than that of the ',mauer sands1' for in these localities the ,etruscan rhinoceros is wanting and the more specialized broad-nosed rhinoceros is abundant2 this animal differs from the ,etruscan form in the possession of relatively long-crowned grinding-teeth1 which were better adapted to grazing habits4 ,on the head were borne two horns4 ,a variety of the southern mammoth 7,e4 trogontherii7 is so highly characteristic of ,second ,interglacial times that ,pohlig refers to this life period as the ,e4 trogontherii stage4 ,from the structure of its grinding-teeth it is regarded as similar in habit to the ,asiatic elephant1 which now inhabits the forests of ,india1 but it has the peculiar concave forehead distinctive of the mammoth and quite unlike the convex forehead of the ,indian elephant4 ,the bears of this period belong to the primitive species ,u4 deningeri and ,u4 arvernensis1 for so far there is no certain record of the presence of the true brown bear of ,europe 7,u4 arctos74 ,the sabre-tooth tiger of this time is preserved in the caverns of the ,pyrenees near ,montmaurin1 associated with the remains of the striped hyna 7,h4 striata71 a species which was widely distributed over western ,europe in early ,pleistocene times4 ,this species was contemporary with1 and later replaced by1 the spotted hyna 7,h4 crocuta71 from which the very hardy cave-hyna 7,h4 crocuta spela7 of the ',reindeer ,period1' descended4 ,we observe that the 'polycladine' deer of ,upper ,pliocene and ,first ,glacial times has disappeared from western ,europe2 nor are there any traces of the axis deer4 ,the hippopotamus is still represented by the giant species1 ,h4 major4 ,,early ,,northern ,,migrations ,,of ,,the ,,reindeer ,the animals that we have described belong in the warmer and more temperate regions of ,europe4 ,in the regions near the glaciers the reindeer was already to be found2 in fact1 this characteristically northern animal is recorded in the gravels of ,sssenborn1 near ,weimar4 ,there is evidence of a succession of climatic changes in the region of ,heidelberg4 ,the ,heidelberg jaw with its temperate mammalian fauna occurred at the very base of the ,mauer bluff1 but higher up the bluff 7,fig4 #df7 on a corresponding level are found the remains of mammals which indicate a marked lowering of temperature and which are referred by some authorities to the period of chilling climate that characterized northern ,europe toward the close of ,second ,interglacial times4 ,the reindeer also occurs in the 'high terrace' gravels of the ,river ,murr1 near ,steinheim2 thus1 at ,mauer1 at ,sssenborn1 and at ,steinheim1 we find proof that the reindeer had begun to spread over the colder regions of ,europe1 and there is some ground for belief that it found its way even as far south as the ,pyrenees4 ,the evidence of the first cold1 arid period which for the time greatly affected the climate of western ,europe is also found in the layer of so-called 'ancient loess' which lies in the bluff above the 'sands of ,mauer4' ,this loess covers the warm mammalian deposits of the 'sands of ,mosbach' as well as the 'high terraces' of many of the ancient river-valleys4 ,both in ,europe and ,america the climatic sequence of the ,second ,interglacial ,stage from moist to dry appears to have been the same4 ,thus1 after the recession of the ice-fields of the second glaciation1 the climate was at first cold and moist2 then followed a long warm stage1 favorable to the spread of forests2 this was finally succeeded by a period of aridity in which the most ancient 'loess' deposits occurred4 ,in ,russia1 also1 the third glaciation was preceded by an arid and steppe-like climate with high winds favorable to the transportation of 'loess4' ,no paloliths or other proofs of human occupation have been found in this cold1 dry period1 for there is no evidence in any part of ,europe of camping stations in this 'ancient loess' such as we find in the 'loess' which was deposited during the similar arid period toward the close of ,third ,interglacial and again during ,postglacial times4 ,nor have we any record of the mammalian life in this 'ancient loess' of ,europe4 ,,the ,,third ,,glaciation,r ,this arid period in northern ,europe and in ,north ,america was followed by the moist1 cool climate of the third glaciation4 ,it is estimated by ,penck that the advance of these new ice-fields began #abj1jjj years ago and that the period of advance and retreat of the glaciers was not less than #bj1jjj years4 ,in the ,alps the snow-line descended #a1bej metres below the present level2 consequently this glaciation was more severe than the first but somewhat less severe than the second4 ,in northern ,europe the ,scandinavian ice-field did not cover so wide an area as during the second glaciation1 although ,britain and ,scandinavia were again deeply buried by ice2 the glacial cap and glaciers flowed in a westerly and southwesterly direction across ,denmark and the southern portion of the basin of the ,baltic into ,holland and northern ,germany4 ,in the ,alps the third glaciation sent vast ice-floes along the valley of the ,rhine1 into eastern ,france1 and into the valley of the ,po1 where this glaciation was even more extensive than the second4 ,but the greatest glacier of this time was that of the ,isar1 a southern tributary of the ,danube1 which rises in the ,bavarian ,alps47#ch7 ,during the ,third ,glacial ,stage certain of the 'middle terraces' along the ,rhine and other rivers flowing from the ,alps were formed4 ,in ,britain17#ci7 whereas during the second glaciation the ice-fields extended as far south as the ,thames1 during the third glaciation they did not extend beyond the midlands2 yet an arctic climate prevailed over southern ,england1 with tundra conditions and temperature1 as indicated by the plant deposits at ,hoxne7#dj7 in ,suffolk4 ,even before the third glaciation began in ,europe a great ice-cap had formed over ,labrador1 on the eastern coast of ,north ,america1 and the ice-sheets flowing to the south and southwest extended as far as ,illinois1 depositing the great ,illinoian 'drifts4' ,illustration3 ,,europe ,,during ,,the ,,third ,,glacial ,,epoch4 7,,riss7 7,,after ,,james ,,geikie7 ,a-,b ,line of ,profile ,,fig4 #ea4 ,the ice-fields and glaciers of the ,third ,glacial ,stage are seen to be much less extensive than those of the ,second ,glacial ,stage1 shown in ,fig4 #be1 p4 #fe4 ,the continental depression and invasion of the sea is also believed to have been less extensive4 ,at this stage there are broad areas free from ice between the ,scandinavian1 the ,alpine1 and the ,pyrenean ice-caps4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds1 after ,james ,geikie4 7,compare ,fig4 #ac47 ,along the borders of these great ice-fields in both countries a cold and moist climate prevailed1 for a prime condition of glaciation is the heavy precipitation of snow4 ,in northern ,europe1 between the great ,alpine and ,scandinavian ice-fields of the third glaciation a cold climate undoubtedly prevailed2 in the region of the ,neckar ,river1 near ,cannstatt1 is found a deposit known as 'mammoth loam1' which ,koken believed to be contemporaneous with the period of the third glaciation1 although the evidence is certainly not convincing47#da7 ,here are found fossil remains of the ,scandinavian reindeer1 also of two very important new arrivals in ,europe from the tundra regions of the far northeast1 animals which had wandered along the southern borders of the ,scandinavian ice-sheet from the tundras of northern ,russia and ,siberia4 ,this is the first appearance in western ,europe of the woolly mammoth 7,e4 primigenius7 and the woolly rhinoceros 7,d4 antiquitatis74 ,in this 'mammoth loam' there also occur two species of horse1 the giant deer 7,megaceros71 the stag1 the wisent1 and the ,aurochs4 ,if the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros actually entered eastern ,germany at this time1 they certainly retreated to the north with the approach of the warm temperate climate of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage1 because no trace of these animals has been found again in ,europe until the advent of the fourth glaciation4 7#a7 ,gaudry1 #ahij4a4 7#b7 ,smith1 ,g4 ,e41 #aiab4a1 p4 #ehb4 7#c7 ,op4 cit4 7#d7 ,munro1 #ahic4a4 7#e7 ,osborn1 #aiaj4a1 pp4 #cjf1 #cjg4 7#f7 ,geikie1 ,j41 #ahid4a1 pp4 #cbi-ccf2 #aiad4a1 p4 #bbg4 7#g7 ,dawkins1 #ahhc4a1 pp4 #egf-egi4 7#h7 ,geikie1 ,j41 #aiad4a1 p4 #bdh4 7#i7 ,reid1 ,c41 #aijh4a4 7#aj7 ,desnoyers1 #ahfc4a4 7#aa7 ,haug1 #aiaa4a1 p4 #ahjg4 7#ab7 ,geikie1 ,j41 #ahid4a1 p4 #fhb2 #aiad4a1 p4 #bej4 7#ac7 ,dubois1 #ahid4a4 7#ad7 ,fischer1 #aiac4a4 7#ae7 ,schwalbe1 #ahii4a2 #aiad4a4 7#af7 ,bchner1 #aiad4a4 7#ag7 ,volz1 #aijg4a4 7#ah7 ,elbert1 #aijh4a4 7#ai7 ,selenka1 #aiaa4a4 7#bj7 ,pilgrim1 #aiac4a4 7#ba7 ,schwalbe1 #ahii4a1 pp4 #bbg1 #bbh4 7#bb7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bbc4 7#bc7 ,schwalbe1 #aiad4a1 pp4 #fja-fjf4 7#bd7 ,bchner1 #aiad4a1 p4 #abi4 7#be7 ,dubois1 #ahid4a1 p4 #ad4 7#bf7 ,keith1 #aiab4a4 7#bg7 ,smith1 ,g4 ,e41 #aiab4a1 p4 #eie4 7#bh7 ,op4 cit4 7#bi7 ,rutot1 #aijg4a4 7#cj7 ,boule1 #aiac4a1 pp4 #bff1 #bfg4 7#ca7 ,mac,curdy1 #aije4a1 pp4 #dfh1 #dfi4 7#cb7 ,geikie1 ,j41 #aiad4a1 p4 #bea4 7#cc7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bee4 7#cd7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bch4 7#ce7 ,schoetensack1 #aijh4a4 7#cf7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #be-dc4 7#cg7 ,bonarelli1 #aiji4a4 7#ch7 ,penck1 #aiji4a4 7#ci7 ,geikie1 ,j41 #aiad4a1 p4 #beh4 7#dj7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #beg-bfb4 7#da7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #aha4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,arrival ,,of ,,the ,,pre-,,chellean ,,flint ,,workers ,,during ,,the ,,third ,,interglacial--,,geography1 ,,climate1 ,,and ,,the ,,river ,,drifts--,,pre-,,chellean ,,flint ,,industry--,,the ,,piltdown ,,race--,,mammalian ,,life--,,chellean ,,and ,,acheulean ,,industries--,,the ,,use ,,of ,,fire--,,the ,,second ,,period ,,of ,,arid ,,climate--,,the ,,neanderthal ,,race ,,of ,,krapina1 ,,croatia ,the geologic epoch of the arrival of the ,pre-,chellean flint workers in western ,europe is by far the most important and interesting one before the prehistorian4 ,upon it depends the question of the duration of the ,old ,stone ,age1 the date of appearance of the ,piltdown and of the ,neanderthal races1 and the whole sequence of climatic and geographic changes surrounding the early history of man4 ,after weighing all the evidence very carefully1 the balance of opinion seems to sustain the view that this epoch should be placed after the close of the third glaciation and before the advent of the fourth1 that is1 during the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,penck estimated that the third warm interglacial stage,s opened about #ajj1jjj years ago and lasted between #ej1jjj and #fj1jjj years4 ,according to the theory that we have adopted in this work1 the ,third ,interglacial and ,fourth ,glacial embraced the entire period of ,lower ,palolithic time1 a period of from #gj1jjj to #ajj1jjj years1 much longer than that of ,upper ,palolithic time1 which is estimated at #af1jjj to #be1jjj years4 ,,geologic ,,antiquity ,,of ,,the ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,stone ,,age ,attention should first be called to the fact that1 preceding the epoch we have now entered1 the glacial and interglacial forces operating over the great peninsula of western ,europe had left their impress chiefly on the glaciated areas and only to a minor degree on the free1 non-glaciated areas4 ,until toward the close of ,third ,interglacial times no traces of northern much less of arctic forests and animals are discovered anywhere1 except along the borders of the ice-fields4 ,it would appear as if the animal and plant life of ,europe were1 in the main1 but slightly affected by the first three glaciations4 ,we cannot entertain for a moment the belief that in glacial times all the warm flora and fauna migrated southward and then returned1 because there is not a shred of evidence for this theory4 ,it is far more in accord with the known facts to believe that all the southern and eastern forms of life had become very hardy1 for we know how readily animals now living in the warm earth belts are acclimatized to northern conditions4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eb4 ,human types and culture stages of the last third of the ,glacial ,epoch4 ,theoretic estimates of the geologic and time divisions and introduction of human races during the ,third ,interglacial1 ,fourth ,glacial1 and ,postglacial ,stages 7see ,fig4 #ad1 p4 #da74 ,prepared by the author with the aid of ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we depend solely on the testimony of the life conditions1 we might conclude that the ,pre-,chellean flint workers reached western ,europe either in ,second ,interglacial times1 or during the third glaciation1 or again during ,third ,interglacial times4 ,let us consider this evidence of the fossil mammals more closely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ec4 ,distribution of the principal ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean industrial stations in western ,europe4 ,in favor of the theory that the ,pre-,chellean culture is as ancient as ,second ,interglacial times1 we should consider the fact that in several localities paloliths of ,pre-,chellean if not of ,chellean type have been recorded in association with the remains of a number of the more primitive mammals which we have described above as characteristic of ,second ,interglacial times4 ,for example1 at ,torralba1 ,province of ,soria1 ,spain1 there has been discovered7#a7 an old typical ,chellean camp site1 containing abundant remains of the broad-nosed rhinoceros and of the southern mammoth1 mingled with the remains of other mammals of very ancient type1 identified as the ,etruscan rhinoceros and as ,steno's horse4 ,again1 along the ,river ,somme1 near ,abbeville1 in the gisement du ,champ de ,mars17#b7 it is said that ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean implements have been found in association with the ,etruscan rhinoceros1 ,steno's horse1 and very numerous specimens of the sabre-tooth tiger and of the striped hyna4 ,moreover1 in ,piltdown1 ,sussex1 ,pre-,chellean flints and the ,piltdown skull are said to have occurred in a layer containing a rhinoceros which may be identified with the ,etruscan4 ,if these very ancient species of animals are rightly recognized and determined1 and if they are truly found as reported in close association in the same layers with ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean flints1 the evidence may be considered as quite strong that the beginning of ,chellean culture dates from ,second ,interglacial times2 unless1 indeed1 it should prove that these primitive species of mammals survived into ,third ,interglacial times in certain favored districts4 ,we should also consider the possibility that these more ancient animals1 the sabre-tooth tiger1 ,steno's horse1 the ,etruscan rhinoceros1 and the giant beaver1 did not really belong in the same layer with these old paloliths but were accidentally washed into this layer from other more ancient deposits4 ,as a rule1 it is the most recent animals which establish a prehistoric date1 because we know that a palolith cannot be older than the most recent mammal with which it occurs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ed4 ,western ,europe during the extension of the ice-fields and glaciers 7dots7 of the ,third ,glacial ,stage--a period of continental depression believed to have been less extensive than that of the ,second ,glacial ,stage 7see ,fig4 #be1 p4 #fe74 ,the line from ,scandinavia to northern ,africa corresponds to the section shown in ,fig4 #ac1 p4 #cg4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds1 after ,geikie and ,penck4 7,compare ,fig4 #ac47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ee4 ,excavation at ,chelles-sur-,marne1 the ,palolithic station where ,chellean flint implements were first discovered4 ,we observe the very close1 regular1 and unbroken succession of the geological layers containing the ,chellean1 ,acheulean1 and ,mousterian flints4 ,the record of the three early glaciations is not fully written in the animal and plant life1 but it appears to be found in the river channels4 ,both in ,england and ,france these channels attest flooded conditions during the earlier glaciations1 in which large quantities of gravels and sands were transported1 and it is of these materials that the 'high terraces' were built up4 ,it is chiefly the geologic evidence which establishes the ,pre-,chellean date4 ,geologic and climatic lines of evidence in ,france indicate that the ,pre-,chellean culture is first witnessed during the beginning of ,third ,interglacial times4 ,this is the opinion of ,boule1 ,haug1 ,obermaier1 ,breuil1 ,schmidt1 and many other geologists and archologists4 ,that the first ,palolithic flint workers found their way into western ,europe during the early part of ,third ,interglacial times is consistent with our observations on the sequence of climate1 on the formation of the 'low river terraces1' where paloliths of the earliest type occur1 as well as with the general succession of mammalian life throughout the climatic changes of this interglacial period4 ,it would appear1 in explanation of the facts cited above regarding the fossil mammals1 that when the ,pre-,chellean flint workers established their camps along the valley of the ,river ,somme in northern ,france a very genial climate prevailed in this region1 favorable even1 as we shall see1 to the survival of some of the ,pliocene types of mammals1 such as the sabre-tooth tiger and the ,etruscan rhinoceros4 ,during the early part of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage the climate1 so far as we can judge by the unchanged aspect of the animal life1 remained of the same warm temperate character4 ,two only of the surviving ,pliocene forms1 namely1 the sabre-tooth tigers and the ,etruscan rhinoceroses1 became rare or extinct4 ,from evidence afforded in ,kent's ,hole1 ,devonshire1 ,dawkins is led to believe that the sabre-tooth tiger survived in ,britain until ,postglacial times4 ,all the rest of the animal world1 both the ,african-,asiatic and the ,eurasiatic mammals1 continued to flourish throughout western ,europe4 ,not until the latter part of ,acheulean times do we discover proofs of a decided change of climate2 in the approach of arid conditions similar to those of the steppes of western ,asia there was a renewal of the great dust-storms and depositions of 'loess1' such as had previously occurred toward the close of ,second ,interglacial times2 this was followed by the still colder climate of the fourth glaciation1 which corresponds with the closing period of ,lower ,palolithic culture4 ,the evolution of the ,pre-,chellean into the ,chellean and finally into the ,lower ,acheulean paloliths certainly occupied a very long period of time if we assign it merely the #ej1jjj or #fj1jjj years allotted to the ,third ,interglacial2 but even this allotment seems far too long when we observe the relatively limited depth of the river deposits in which these flint cultures succeed each other4 ,for we cannot fail to be impressed by the regular and very close and unbroken succession of the geologic layers containing the ,chellean and ,acheulean artifacts4 7,see ,fig4 #ee47 ,none the less it follows that a long lapse of time must be allowed for each culture period1 and for the advance in technique47#c7 ,it is this wide distribution that has enabled the de ,mortillets 7father and son71 ,capitan1 ,rivire1 ,reboux1 ,daleau1 ,peyrony1 ,obermaier1 ,commont1 ,schmidt1 and others to establish in various parts of ,europe the main stages of the industrial evolution of the ,old ,stone ,age1 or ,lower ,palolithic4 ,,subdivisions ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,pal,,olithic ,,cultures7#d7,t ,,mousterian4 ,late industry of the ,neanderthal races4 ,extensive use of the 'flake4' ,late ,mousterian4 ,la ,quina scrapers1 small 'coups de poing1' and bone anvils1 closing with the ,abri ,audit culture4 ,middle ,mousterian4 ,culmination of the ,mousterian 'point' finely flaked and chipped on one side1 the best examples approaching the ,solutrean perfection of technique4 ,early ,mousterian4 ,heart-shaped 'coups de poing' and ,mousterian flake 'points' and flake scrapers4 ,,acheulean4 ,early industry of the ,neanderthal races4 ,extensive use of the nodular core4 ,late ,acheulean4 ,miniature 'lance points' of ,la ,micoque type1 triangular 'coups de poing1' and flint flakes of ,levallois type4 ,middle ,acheulean4 ,pointed oval 'coups de poing1' much lighter than the ,chellean types1 and small implements similar to the ,chellean but much improved in workmanship4 ,early ,acheulean4 ,broad oval 'coups de poing' much more symmetrical than the ,chellean but still rather heavy4 ,small types4 ,,chellean4 ,late ,chellean4 ,long pointed 'coups de poing1' in most cases flaked on both sides1 with little of the crust of the nodule adhering and the edges still unsymmetrical4 ,first appearance of the oval 'coups de poing4' ,early ,chellean4 ,first appearance of 'coups de poing' of almond shape4 ,small implements1 including scrapers1 planes1 and borers4 ,all implements unsymmetrical and with uneven edges4 ,,pre-,,chellean4 ,probable industry of the ,piltdown and of the 7,pre-,neanderthaloid7 ,heidelberg races4 ,use of chance and accidental forms4 ,forms partly accidental2 retouch limited to the few strokes necessary to give a point or edge to the tool1 or to allow a firm grasp 7protective retouch74 ,prototypes of 'coup de poing' formed of flint nodules with crust only partially removed4 ,if we suppose that the ,pre-,chellean flint workers arrived in ,europe not earlier than ,third ,interglacial times1 we can explain all the gradations in the evolution of their implements in connection with the changes of climate and of animal life which the geologic and fossil deposits reveal1 especially in the valleys of the ,somme and of the ,thames4 ,if1 on the other hand1 the ,pre-,chellean is dated in ,second ,interglacial times1,u it carries this culture back another hundred thousand years and involves our prehistory in great difficulties4 ,first1 there is no proof whatever that the ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean flint workers lived during the period of the formation of the 'high river terraces' of the third glaciation1 for no ,palolithic flints have ever been found buried in the sands or gravels of the 'high terraces4' ,the occurrence of archaic flints on the 'high terraces' of the ,somme and of the ,seine is in superficial gravel beds which were deposited long after these 'terraces' had been cut by river action2 this is best seen in the ,somme1 where archaic flints occur alike in the gravels deposited upon the 'low1' 'middle1' and 'high terraces4' ,second1 there is no proof that the ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean flint workers passed through the cold climatic period of the third glaciation2 nowhere in ,europe have any records been found of their camps or stations in association with the cold fauna or flora of ,third ,glacial times4 ,third1 the geographical evidence is equally at variance with the theory that the ,pre-,chellean flint workers entered ,europe during the ,second ,interglacial ,stage1 for we know positively that in many of the great river-valleys of ,europe1 especially those surrounding the ,alps1 the rivers were at much higher levels than at present and that they were transporting the materials out of which the 'high terraces' were being formed or cutting these 'terraces' down by erosion4 ,in other words1 the geography of ,europe in ,first and ,second ,interglacial times was very different from what it is at present2 most of the river-valleys were broader and less deep2 some of them had been eroded to a point below their present levels and had begun to silt up in alluvial deposits4 ,in ,third ,interglacial times the river geography of ,europe was substantially as it is to-day1 although the coast-lines were still very different4 ,when ,pre-,chellean man appeared1 we shall see that the river-valleys of the ,somme and ,marne1 in northern ,france1 as well as of the ,thames1 in southeastern ,england1 were closely similar to what they are at present in respect to their water-levels2 in other words1 the inland geography of ,europe in the north in ,chellean times and in central and southern ,france in the immediately succeeding ,acheulean times was very much like it is at present4 ,the superficial characters of the valleys were different2 the streams in ,chellean times flowed through gravels and sands1 partaking of a glacial aspect2 one or more of the 'river terraces' composed of sands and gravels were still sharply defined1 for the soft covering of 'loam' and alluvial soil from the surrounding uplands and hills had not yet washed down to soften the outlines of the 'terraces4' ,neither were the 'terraces' covered with the newer deposits of 'loess4' ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ef4 ,restoration of the geography of western ,europe during the ,third ,interglacial ,stage1 showing the ancient land areas 7dots7 and the ancient river channels now submerged by the sea4 ,modified after ,avebury's ,prehistoric ,times by permission of ,henry ,holt ,co4 ,the six white crosses 7,x7 indicate the location of the principal ,pre-,chellean stations of ,piltdown on the ,ouse1 and ,gray's ,thurrock on the ,thames1 in ,england2 of ,abbeville1 on the north bank1 and ,st4 ,acheul1 on the south bank of the ,somme1 and ,chelles on the ,marne1 in ,france2 and of ,helin in ,belgium4 ,it will be observed that the ,english stations are separated from the others only by the ancient broad valley corresponding with the present ,english ,channel4 ,,secular ,,changes ,,of ,,climate ,,in ,,lower ,,pal,,olithic ,,times ,we find evidences of four climatic and life phases during the long period of ,lower ,palolithic evolution1 as follows3 #d4 ,cold ,moist ,climate4--,advent of the fourth glaciation4 ,arrival of the 'full ,mousterian' culture and of the ,neanderthal race in ,belgium and ,france4 ,repair of men to the warmer shelters1 grottos1 and entrances to the caverns4 ,final disappearance of the hardy ,merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant4 ,arrival of the tundra fauna1 the reindeer1 the woolly mammoth1 and the woolly rhinoceros4 ,refrigeration of western ,europe as far south as northern ,spain and ,italy4 ,wide distribution of cold alpine1 tundra1 and steppe mammals all over ,germany and ,france1 and into northern ,spain4 ,cold tundra flora in the ,thames valley1 and at ,hoxne1 in ,suffolk4 ,migration of the tundra mammals1 the reindeer1 mammoth1 and rhinoceros all over southern ,britain1 ,belgium1 ,france1 ,germany1 and ,austria4 #c4 ,arid ,climate in ,western ,europe4--,period of the close of the ,acheulean culture2 some of the flint workers seeking the shelter of cliffs and approaching the entrances to the grottos during the cold season of the year4 ,a dry steppe climate1 prevailing westerly winds1 and deposits of 'loess' all over northern ,france and ,germany4 ,appearance of the first ,neanderthaloid men in ,krapina1 ,croatia4 ,cool forest flora in the region of ,la ,celle-sous-,moret near ,paris1 followed by depositions of 'loess' and increasingly cool and arid climate4 ,early ,mousterian industry4 ,disappearance first of the more sensitive pair of ,asiatic mammals1 the hippopotamus and the southern mammoth 7,e4 trogontherii72 persistence of the more hardy1 straight-tusked elephant 7,e4 antiquus7 and the broad-nosed rhinoceros 7,d4 merckii74 #b4 ,continued ,warm ,temperate ,period4--,time of the ,chellean culture found at ,chelles1 ,st4 ,acheul1 ,gray's ,thurrock1 ,ilford1 ,essex1 and southward in ,torralba1 ,spain4 ,abundance of hippopotami1 rhinoceroses1 southern mammoths1 and straight-tusked elephants in northern ,germany at ,taubach1 ,weimar1 ,ehringsdorf1 and ,achenheim4 ,rare appearance of sabre-tooth tigers4 ,temperate forest and alpine flora of ,drnten and ,utznach1 ,switzerland4 ,early ,acheulean culture widely distributed over all of western ,europe4 #a4 ,early ,warm ,temperate ,period4--,the warm climate of the ,pre-,chellean culture period1 as seen in the valleys of the ,somme1 of the ,thames1 and of the ,seine near ,paris1 favorable to the southern mammoth and the hippopotamus4 ,apparent survival of the sabre-tooth tiger and the ,etruscan rhinoceros in favored regions4 ,a warm temperate forest flora in ,la ,cellesous-,moret near ,paris and in ,lorraine4 ,arrival of the ,pre-,chellean flint workers and of the ,piltdown race in southern ,england4 ,it is believed that the climate of ,third ,interglacial times when it reached its maximum warmth was again somewhat milder than the present climate in the same region4 ,in the ,alps the glaciers and the snow-line retreated once more to their present levels4 ,the period opened with humid continental conditions4 ,the areas left bare by the ice were gradually reforested4 ,a picture of the climate in this warm period is presented in the region near ,paris in the so-called tuf de ,la ,celle-sous-,moret 7,seine-et-,marne74 ,this tufa1 which is a hot-springs deposit1 overlies river-gravels of ,pleistocene age47#g7 ,the lower levels of the tufa contain the sycamore-maple 7,acer pseudoplatanus71 willows1 and the ,austrian pine1 indicating a temperate climate4 ,higher up in the same deposits we find evidences of increasingly mild temperatures in the presence of the box 7,buxus7 and not infrequently of the fig-tree2 the ,canary laurel 7,laurus nobilis7 is somewhat rarer and both it and the fig indicate that the winters were mild1 because these plants have the peculiarity of flowering during the winter season2 we infer1 therefore1 that the climate was somewhat milder and more damp than it is in the same region at the present time4 ,the mollusks also indicate greater equability of climate4 ,these deposits are believed to correspond with the period of ,chellean and early ,acheulean industry4 ,the plants in the highest levels of the same tufa1 however1 indicate the advent of a colder climate and also connect this with the ,acheulean culture stage through the presence of ,acheulean flints4 ,the deposit of tufa is covered by a sheet of 'loess' corresponding with the return of an arid period in late ,acheulean times1 in the very heart of northern ,france4 ,thus we have a record in the region near the present city of ,paris of three climatic phases1 which are also more or less completely indicated in deposits to the north along the ,river ,somme and in the valley of the ancient ,thames4 ,in western ,france we again interpret the fossil flora of ,lorraine as belonging to the cooler closing period of ,third ,interglacial times and to the advent of the fourth glaciation1 for here the most northern varieties of the larch 7,larix7 and of the mountain-pine 7,pinus lambertiana7 predominate4 ,the clearest view of the contemporary alpine forests is found near ,zrich in the lignitic deposits of ,drnten and of ,utznach1 which are so characteristic of the temperate period of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage that ,geikie has proposed to call this stage the ,drntenian47#h7 ,it was1 we recall1 at ,drnten that ,morlot7#i7 found the first proofs of a warm or temperate interglacial flora1 between the deposits of a retreating glacier and those of an advancing glacier2 for ,drnten is well within the region which was covered by the vast ice-fields both of the third and fourth glaciations4 ,the forests which flourished there in ,third ,interglacial times were similar to those now found in the same region1 consisting of the spruce1 fir1 mountain-pine1 larch1 beech1 yew1 and sycamore1 with undergrowth of hazel4 ,with this hardy flora are associated the remains of the straight-tusked elephant1 of ,merck's rhinoceros1 of wild cattle1 and of the stag2 another evidence for our opinion that all these ,asiatic mammals had become habituated to the cool temperate climate of the north4 ,,life ,,on ,,the ,,river ,,somme ,,from ,,pre-,,chellean ,,to ,,neolithic ,,times ,the borders of the ,river ,somme at ,st4 ,acheul give us a vista of the whole story of the succession of geologic events2 the great changes of climate1 the procession of animal life1 the sequence of human races and cultures4 ,here ,commont7#aj7 has found the key to the history of this entire country and enabled us to parallel events here with those occurring far away in ,taubach1 on the borders of the ,thuringian forest1 and at ,krems in ,lower ,austria1 as studied by ,obermaier4 ,this is because the 'older' and 'newer' loess periods1 the succession of climates and of mammals1 and the development of human cultures were all not local but continental events4 ,the purely local events are found in the kinds of gravels and soils which washed down over the terraces4 ,it is very important first to clearly picture in our minds and understand the geography of the ,somme at the time of the arrival of the ,pre-,chellean flint workers4 ,it appears certain that all three of the old river terraces composed of limestone had been cut long before and that the river had already reached the bottom level of the underlying chalk rock47#aa7 ,the higher terrace1 then as now1 was #ajj feet above the ,somme1 the middle terrace about #gj feet1 and the lowest terrace extended from a height of about #dj feet down underneath the present river level 7see ,fig4 #ei74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eg4 ,three ancient river terraces 7,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii71 on the west bank of the ,connecticut ,river in ,vermont1 believed to be of ,postglacial age4 ,the terraces are respectively #adj1 #fj1 and #bj feet above the river1 and thus show a profile similar to that of the terraces on the ,somme in ,pre-,chellean times previous to the accumulation of the deposits bearing ,palolithic flints4 ,photograph by ,h4 ,h4 ,h4 ,langill4 ,since the most primitive ,pre-,chellean flints occur in the coarse gravels which lie on the floors of these terraces immediately above the chalk1 they prove that the entire excavation of the valley had been completed when the ,pre-,chellean workers arrived there4 ,commont believes that this was the actual topography of the valley during the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,the occurrence of ,chellean flints in the white sands overlying the coarse gravels of the middle and upper terraces does not indicate that the flint workers were encamped here while these terraces were being cut out by the ,river ,somme but rather that they sought these convenient bluffs for their quarries during the time that these sands and gravels were washing down from the sides of the valleys and from the plateaus above4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #eh4 ,four typical forms of the ,chellean coup de poing1 or 'hand-stone1' from the ancient quarries of ,st4 ,acheul4 ,about one-half actual size4 a4 ,disc-shaped--upper left4 b4 ,oval--upper right4 c4 ,poniard-shaped--lower left4 d4 ,almond-shaped--lower right4 ,in the collection of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ei4 ,section of the ancient river terraces on the south bank of the ,river ,somme at ,st4 ,acheul-,amiens1 showing stations on the low1 middle1 and high terraces where flints were worked from the very beginning to the very end of the ,old ,stone ,age4 ,after ,commont1 #aijh1 #aiji--modified and redrawn4 ,the section shown runs northwest and southeast1 in a gentle slope nearly #a-a_/b miles in length1 from the summit1 #gj meters 7about #bcj feet7 above sea-level1 down to the river #dg4c meters 7#aee feet7 below4 ,since ,rigollot's excavations in #ahea sixteen flint-working stations have been discovered here1 chiefly through building operations1 most of them being on the middle and high terraces4 ,this gives some idea of the vast extent of these ancient encampments1 which cover the entire period of the ,old ,stone ,age--perhaps #abe1jjj years4 ,,prehistory ,,of ,,st4 ,,acheul ,,neolithic4 ,campignian1 recent earth and loam4 ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic4 ,solutrean4 ,upper ,aurignacian1 loam4 ,middle ,aurignacian1 'newer loess' and gravel4 ,,lower ,,pal,,olithic4 ,late ,mousterian1 gravel and 'newer loess4' ,early ,mousterian1 base of 'newer loess' 7l'ergeron74 ,middle ,acheulean1 'older loess' and drift4 ,early ,acheulean1 gravels below 'older loess' 7,e4 antiquus74 ,late ,chellean1 fluviatile sands and mollusk fauna4 ,early ,chellean1 first coups de poing2 old 'white sands' 7,e4 antiquus74 ,pre-,chellean1 prototypes of coup de poing2 old 'lower gravels' 7,e4 antiquus74 ,the history of the climatic changes in the ancient valley of the ,somme is most clearly written in these successive deposits1 #ae feet in thickness1 above the 'lower gravels' at ,st4 ,acheul4 ,along with the ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean flints in the 'old gravels' and 'white sands' we find records of the moist warm temperate climate which then prevailed in northern ,france and which undoubtedly was most favorable to the hippopotami1 rhinoceroses1 and elephants of those times4 ,the river mollusks found with the late ,chellean flints are another indication of the temperate forest climate which continued through early ,acheulean times4 ,in the middle ,acheulean are found the earliest deposits of 'older loess' which indicate a climate still temperate but arid1 belonging to the middle of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,in ,mousterian times we find heavy deposits of gravels corresponding to the moist cold climate of the ,fourth ,glacial ,stage1 followed in middle ,aurignacian times by fresh layers of 'newer loess1' indicating the return of a dry climate4 ,finally1 the layers of loam which were washed down over the sides of the valley1 and in which the remains of ,solutrean and ,aurignacian camps are found1 indicate the renewal of moist and probably forested conditions4 ,thus1 two dry loess periods are indicated in this valley1 the first or 'older loess' belonging to ,third ,interglacial times1 and the second or 'newer loess' to ,postglacial times2 and we clearly perceive that in the culture layers here there is no evidence whatever of more than one glacial stage preceded by a dry climatic period and deposits of loess4 ,if the ,pre-,chellean flint workers had arrived in this river-valley as early as ,second ,interglacial times1 we should find proofs of three periods of arid climate and loess deposition and of two glaciations4 ,beginning with middle ,acheulean times the flints are found in deposits of gravels1 loams1 brick-earths1 and 'older loess1' which all belong to a succeeding geologic stage and are of more recent date than the lower gravels and sands on the terraces which they overlap and conceal4 ,deposits of this kind have also been drifted down from the highest levels toward the bottom of the valley1 and ,commont distinguishes three different depositions or layers of 'loess loam1' the lowest or oldest of which contain ,acheulean flints1 while the middle loams contain ,mousterian implements4 ,even toward the close of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage there were periods of warmth1 perhaps during the height of the hot summer season1 when animals of the warm fauna migrated from the south4 ,thus ,commont has recently discovered in the valley of the ,somme a station of ,mousterian flint workers1 whose industry is associated with remains of the three animals typical of the warmer climatic phase2 namely1 the straight-tusked elephant1 the broad-nosed rhinoceros1 and the hippopotamus4 ,he has reaffirmed his belief that the greater part of this chapter of human prehistory1 both as to the surface topography of the ,somme valley and the evolution of the flint cultures from ,pre-,chellean to ,mousterian times1 occurred during the ,third ,interglacial ,stage4 ,,the ,,early ,,warm ,,temperate ,,period ,,of ,,the ,,pre-,,chellean ,,culture,v ,we have observed that from ,torralba in the ,province of ,soria1 ,spain1 to ,abbeville1 near the mouth of the ,somme1 in the north of ,france1 three types of animals which entered ,europe as early as ,upper ,pliocene times1 namely1 the ,etruscan rhinoceros1 the horse of ,steno1 and the sabre-tooth tiger1 are said to occur in connection with early ,chellean artifacts4 ,the two former species may possibly be confused with early forms of ,merck's rhinoceros and the true forest horses of ,europe1 but there can be no question as to the identification of the sabre-tooth tiger1 numbers of which were found by ,m4 d',ault du ,mesnil1 at ,abbeville1 on the ,somme1 with early ,chellean flints4 ,,pre-,,chellean ,,fauna ,southern mammoth4 ,etruscan rhinoceros4 ,hippopotamus4 ,primitive horse 7,equus stenonis78 ,sabre-tooth tiger4 ,broad-nosed rhinoceros4 ,straight-tusked elephant4 ,giant beaver 7,trogontherium cuvieri74 ,short-faced hyna4 ,typical ,eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna1 including deer1 bison1 and wild cattle4 ,the mammalian life of the ,somme at this time1 as found in the gisement du ,champ de ,mars near ,abbeville1 is very rich4 ,among the larger forms there is certainly the great southern mammoth 7,e4 meridionalis trogontherii71 and possibly also the straight-tusked elephant 7,e4 antiquus74 ,there are unquestionably two species of rhinoceros1 the smaller of which is recognized by ,boule as the ,etruscan1 and the larger as ,merck's rhinoceros4 ,steno's horse is said to occur here1 and there are abundant remains of the great hippopotamus 7,h4 major72 the sabre-tooth tigers were very numerous as attested by the discovery of the lower jaws of thirty or more individuals4 ,the short-faced hyna 7,h4 brevirostris7 is also found1 and there are several species of deer and wild cattle4 ,this remarkably rich collection of mammals is associated with flints of primitive ,chellean or1 possibly1 of ,pre-,chellean type47#ab7 ,in ,torralba1 ,spain1 the same very ancient animals occur1 and it appears possible that this was the prevailing mammalian life of ,pre-,chellean times4 ,we may conclude1 therefore1 that there is considerable evidence1 although not as yet quite convincing1 that the early ,chellean flint workers arrived in western ,europe before the disappearance of the ,etruscan rhinoceros and the sabre-tooth tiger4 ,,the ,,pre-,,chellean ,,stations 7,see ,figs4 #ec and #ef47 ,the dawn of the ,palolithic ,age is indicated in various river-drift stations by the appearance of crude flint weapons as well as tools or implements1 in addition to the supposed tools of ,eolithic times4 ,there is an unmistakable effort to fashion the flint into a definite shape to serve a definite purpose3 there can no longer be any question of human handiwork4 ,thus there gradually arise various types of flints1 each of which undergoes its own evolution into a more perfect form4 ,naturally1 the workers at some stations were more adept and inventive than at others4 ,nevertheless1 the primitive stages of invention and of technique were carried from station to station2 and thus for the first time we are enabled to establish the archological age of various stations in western ,europe4 ,only a few stations have been discovered where the ,palolithic men were first fashioning their flints into prototypes of the ,chellean and ,acheulean forms4 ,with relation to the theory that these primitive flint workers may have entered ,europe by way of the northern coast of ,africa1 we observe that these stations are confined to ,spain1 southern and northern ,france1 ,belgium1 and ,great ,britain4 ,neither ,pre-,chellean nor ,chellean stations of unquestioned authenticity have been found in ,germany or central ,europe1 and1 so far as present evidence goes1 it would appear that the ,pre-,chellean culture did not enter ,europe directly from the east1 or even along the northern coast of the ,mediterranean1 but rather along the northern coast of ,africa1,w where ,chellean culture is recorded in association with mammalian remains belonging to the middle ,pleistocene ,epoch4 ,the southernmost stations of ,chellean culture at present known in ,europe are those of ,torralba and ,san ,isidro1 in central ,spain4 ,in the ,department of the ,gironde is the ,chellean station of ,marignac1 and it is not unlikely that other stations will be discovered in the same region1 because the ,palolithic races strongly favored the valleys of the ,dordogne and ,garonne1 but thus far this is the only station known in southern ,france which represents this period of the dawn of human culture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fj4 ,very primitive paloliths from ,piltdown1 ,sussex1 consisting chiefly of tools and points of triangular and oval form1 fashioned out of flint nodules split in two and flaked on one side only1 with very coarse marginal retouch4 ,after ,dawson4 ,nos4 #a and #b are nearly one-half actual size2 ,no4 #c nearly one-quarter actual size4 ,the chief ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean stations were clustered along the valleys of the ,somme and ,seine4 ,of those rare sites presenting a typical ,pre-,chellean culture1 we may note the neighboring stations of ,st4 ,acheul and ,montires1 both in the suburbs of ,amiens on the ,somme1 and the station of ,helin1 near ,spiennes1 in ,belgium1 explored by ,rutot4 ,a very primitive and possibly ,pre-,chellean culture was found on the site of the ,champ de ,mars1 at ,abbeville4 ,this culture also extended westward across the broad plain which is now the ,strait of ,dover to the valley of the ,thames1 on whose northern bank is the important station of ,gray's ,thurrock1 while farther to the south is the recently discovered site of ,piltdown1 in the valley of the ,ouse1 ,sussex4 ,the flint tools 7,fig4 #fj7 found in the layer immediately overlying the ,piltdown skull are excessively primitive and indicate that the ,piltdown flint workers had not attained the stage of craftsmanship described by ,commont as ',pre-,chellean' at ,st4 ,acheul4 ,among the flints1 observes ,dawson1 we found several undoubted flint implements besides numerous 'eoliths4' ,the workmanship of the former is similar to that of the ,chellean or ,pre-,chellean stage2 but in the majority of the ,piltdown specimens the work appears chiefly on one face of the implements4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fa4 ,primitive coups de poing or 'hand-stones' of ,pre-,chellean type1 found in the lower gravels of the middle and high terraces at ,st4 ,acheul4 ,after ,commont4 ,one-quarter actual size4 ,in the ,helin quarry near ,spiennes7#ac7 occur rude prototypes of the ,palolithic coup de poing associated with numerous flakes which do not greatly differ from those in the lowest river-gravels of ,st4 ,acheul2 there is a close correspondence in the workmanship of the two sites1 so that we may regard the ,mesvinian of ,rutot,x as a culture stage equivalent to the ,pre-,chellean4 ,the river-gravels and sands of ,helin which contain the implements also resemble those of ,st4 ,acheul in their order of stratification4 ,of special interest is the fact that a primitive flint from this ,helin quarry1 known as the 'borer1' is strikingly similar to the ',eolithic' borer found in the same layer with the ,piltdown skull in ,sussex4 ,by such indications as this1 when strengthened by further evidence of the same kind1 we may be able eventually to establish the date both of this ,pre-,chellean or ,mesvinian culture and of the ,piltdown race4 ,in considering the ,pre-,chellean implements found at ,st4 ,acheul in #aijf1 we note7#ad7 that at this dawning stage of human invention the flint workers were not deliberately designing the form of their implements but were dealing rather with the chance shapes of shattered blocks of flint1 seeking with a few well-directed blows to produce a sharp point or a good cutting edge4 ,this was the beginning of the art of 'retouch1' which was done by means of light blows with a second stone instead of the hammer-stone with which the rough flakes were first knocked off4 ,the retouch served a double purpose3 ,its first and most important object was further to sharpen the point or edge of the tool4 ,this was done by chipping off small flakes from the upper side1 so as to give the flint a saw-like edge4 ,its second object was to protect the hand of the user by blunting any sharp edges or points which might prevent a firm grip of the implement4 ,often the smooth1 rounded end of the flint nodule1 with crust intact1 is carefully preserved for this purpose 7,fig4 #fa74 ,it is this grasping of the primitive tool by the hand to which the terms 'coup de poing1' ',faustkeil1' and 'hand-axe' refer4 ',hand-stone' is1 perhaps1 the most fitting designation in our language1 but it appears best to retain the original ,french designation1 coup de poing4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fb4 ,primitive grattoir1 or planing tool 7side and edge views71 of ,pre-,chellean type1 found in the lowest gravels of the terraces at ,st4 ,acheul4 ,after ,commont4 ,one-quarter actual size4 ,as the shape of the flint is purely due to chance1 these ,pre-,chellean implements are interpreted by archologists chiefly according to the manner of retouch they have received4 ,already they are adapted to quite a variety of purposes1 both as weapons of the chase and for trimming and shaping wooden implements and dressing hides4 ,thus ,obermaier observes that the concave1 serrated edges characteristic of some of these implements may well have been used for scraping the bark from branches and smoothing them down into poles2 that the rough coups de poing would be well adapted to dividing flesh and dressing hides2 that the sharp-pointed fragments could be used as borers1 and others that are clumsier and heavier as planes 7see ,fig4 #fb74 ,the inventory of these ancestral ,pre-,chellean forms of implements1 used in industrial and domestic life1 in the chase1 and in war1 is as follows3 ,grattoir1 planing tool4 ,racloir1 scraper4 ,peroir1 drill1 borer4 ,couteau1 knife4 ,percuteur1 hammer-stone4 ,pierre de jet8 throwing stone8 ,prototypes of coup de poing1 hand-stone4 ,it includes five1 possibly six1 chief types4 ,the true coup de poing1 a combination tool of ,chellean times1 is not yet developed in the ,pre-,chellean1 and the other implements1 although similar in form1 are more primitive4 ,they are all in an experimental stage of development4 ,indications that this primitive industry spread over southeastern ,england as well1 and that a succession of ,pre-,chellean into ,chellean culture may be demonstrated1 occur in connection with the recent discovery of the very ancient ,piltdown race4 ,,the ,,piltdown ,,race7#ae7 ,the 'dawn man' is the most ancient human type in which the form of the head and size of the brain are known4 ,its anatomy1 as well as its geologic antiquity1 is therefore of profound interest and worthy of very full consideration4 ,we may first review the authors' narrative of this remarkable discovery and the history of opinion concerning it4 ,piltdown1 ,sussex1 lies between two branches of the ,ouse1 about #ce miles south and slightly to the east of ,gray's ,thurrock1 the ,chellean station of the ,thames4 ,to the east is the plateau of ,kent1 in which many flints of ,eolithic type have been found4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fc4 ,discovery site of the famous ,piltdown skull near ,piltdown1 ,sussex4 ,after ,dawson4 ,a shallow pit of dark-brown gravel1 at the bottom of which were found the fragments of the skull and a single primitive implement of worked flint 7see ,fig4 #fe74 ,the gravel layer in which the ,piltdown skull occurred is situated on a well-defined plateau of large area and lies about #hj feet above the level of the main stream of the ,ouse4 ,remnants of the flint-bearing gravels and drifts occur upon the plateau and the slopes down which they trail toward the river and streams4 ,this region was undoubtedly favorable to the flint workers of ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean times4 ,kennard7#af7 believes that the gravels are of the same age as those of the 'high terrace' of the lower valley of the ,thames2 the height above the stream level is practically the same1 namely1 about #hj feet4 ,another geologist1 ,clement ,reid17#ag7 holds that the plateau1 composed of ,wealden chalk1 through which flowed the stream bearing the ,piltdown gravels1 belongs to a period later than that of the maximum depression of ,great ,britain2 that the deposits are of ,pre-,glacial or early ,pleistocene age2 that they belong to the epoch after the cold period of the first glaciation had passed but occur at the very base of the succession of implement-bearing deposits in the southeast of ,england4 ,on the other hand1 ,dawson17#ah7 the discoverer of the ,piltdown skull1 in his first description states3 ,from these facts it appears probable that the skull and mandible cannot safely be described as being of earlier date than the first half of the ,pleistocene ,epoch4 ,the individual probably lived during the warm cycle in that age4 ,the section of the gravel bed 7,fig4 #fd7 indicates that the remains of the ,piltdown man were washed down with other fossils by a shallow stream charged with dark-brown gravel and unworked flints2 some of these fossils were of ,pliocene times from strata of the upper parts of the stream4 ,in this channel were found the remains of a number of animals of the same age as the ,piltdown man1 a few flints resembling eoliths1 and one very primitive worked flint of ,pre-,chellean type1 which may also have been washed down from deposits of earlier age4 ,these precious geologic and archologic records furnish the only means we have of determining the age of ,eoanthropus1 the 'dawn man1' one of the most important and significant discoveries in the whole history of anthropology4 ,we are indebted to the geologist ,charles ,dawson and the palontologist ,arthur ,smith ,woodward for preserving these ancient records and describing them with great fulness and accuracy as follows 7pp4 #acb to #aci73 ,several years ago ,dawson discovered a small portion of an unusually thick human parietal bone1 taken from a gravel bed which was being dug for road-making purposes on a farm close to ,piltdown ,common4 ,in the autumn of #aiaa he picked up among the rain-washed spoil-heaps of the same gravel-pit another and larger piece of bone belonging to the forehead region of the same skull and including a portion of the ridge extending over the left eyebrow4 ,immediately impressed with the importance of this discovery1 ,dawson enlisted the co-operation of ,smith ,woodward1 and a systematic search was made in these spoil-heaps and gravels1 beginning in the spring of #aiab2 all the material was looked over and carefully sifted4 ,it appears that the whole or greater part of the human skull had been scattered by the workmen1 who had thrown away the pieces unnoticed4 ,thorough search in the bottom of the gravel bed itself revealed the right half of a jaw1 which was found in a depression of undisturbed1 finely stratified gravel1 so far as could be judged on the spot identical with that from which the first portions of the cranium were exhumed4 ,a yard from the jaw an important piece of the occipital bone of the skull was found4 ,search was renewed in #aiac by ,father ,p4 ,teilhard1 of ,chardin1 a ,french anthropologist1 who fortunately recovered a single canine tooth1 and later a pair of nasal bones were found1 all of which fragments are of very great significance in the restoration of the skull4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fd4 ,geologic section of the ,piltdown gravel bed1 showing in restored outlines at the bottom of layer #c the position in which the fragments of the skull and jaw were found4 ,after ,dawson4 #a4 ,surface soil1 with flints4 ,thickness #a foot4 #b4 ,pale-yellow sandy loam with gravel and flints4 ,one ,palolithic worked flint was found in the middle of this bed4 ,thickness #b feet1 #f inches4 #c4 ,dark-brown gravel1 with flints1 ,pliocene rolled fossils and ,eoanthropus skull1 beaver tooth1 'eoliths' and one worked flint4 ,thickness #ah inches4 #d4 ,pale-yellow clay and sand4 ,thickness #h inches4 #e4 ,undisturbed strata of ,wealden age4 ,the jaw appears to have been broken at the symphysis1 and somewhat abraded1 perhaps after being caught in the gravel before it was completely covered with sand4 ,the fragments of the cranium show little or no signs of stream rolling or other abrasion save an incision caused by the workman's pick4 ,analysis of the bones showed that the skull was in a condition of fossilization1 no gelatine or organic matter remained1 and mingled with a large proportion of the phosphates1 originally present1 was a considerable proportion of iron4,y ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fe4 ,the single worked flint of very primitive type found in the same layer 7#c7 with the fragments of the ,piltdown skull4 ,after ,dawson4 ,one-half actual size4 ,the dark gravel bed 7,fig4 #fd1 layer #c71 #ah inches in thickness1 at the bottom of which the skull and jaw were found1 contained a number of fossils which manifestly were not of the same age as the skull but were certainly from ,pliocene deposits up-stream2 these included the water-vole and remains of the mastodon1 the southern mammoth1 the hippopotamus1 and a fragment of the grinding-tooth of a primitive elephant1 resembling ,stegodon4 ,in the spoil-heaps1 from which it is believed the skull of the ,piltdown man was taken1 were found an upper tooth of a rhinoceros1 either of the ,etruscan or of ,merck's type2 the tooth of a beaver and of a hippopotamus1 and the leg-bone of a deer1 which may have been cut or incised by man4 ,much more distinctive was a single flint 7,fig4 #fe71 worked only on one side1 of the very primitive or ,pre-,chellean type4 ,implements of this stage1 as the author observes1 are difficult to classify with certainty1 owing to the rudeness of their workmanship2 they resemble certain rude implements occasionally found on the surface of the chalk downs near ,piltdown4 ,the majority of the flints found in the gravel were worked only on one face2 their form is thick1 and the flaking is broad and sparing2 the original surface of the flint is left in a smooth1 natural condition at the point grasped by the hand2 the whole implement thus has a very rude and massive form4 ,these flints appear to be of even more primitive form than those at ,st4 ,acheul described as ,pre-,chellean by ,commont4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ff4 ,eoliths found in or near the ,piltdown gravel-pit4 ,after ,dawson4 ,one-half actual size4 a4 ,borer 7above74 b4 ,curved scraper 7below74 ,the eoliths found in the gravel-pit and in the adjacent fields are of the 'borer' and 'hollow-scraper' forms2 also1 some are of the 'crescent-shaped-scraper' type1 mostly rolled and water-worn1 as if transported from a distance4 ,this is a stream or river bed1 not a ,palolithic quarry4 ,there can be little doubt1 however1 that the ,piltdown man belonged to a period when the flint industry was in a very primitive stage1 antecedent to the true ,chellean4 ,it has subsequently been observed that the gravel strata7#c7 containing the ,piltdown man were deeper than the higher stratum containing flints nearer the ,chellean type4 ,the discovery of this skull aroused as great or greater interest even than that attending the discovery of the two other 'river-drift' races1 the ,trinil and the ,heidelberg4 ,in this discussion the most distinguished anatomists of ,great ,britain1 ,arthur ,smith ,woodward1 ,elliot ,smith1 and ,arthur ,keith1 took part1 and finally the original pieces were re-examined by three anatomists of this country4,z ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fg4 ,skull of ,south ,african ,bushman 7upper7 exhibiting the contrast in the structure of the jaw and forehead4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,original restoration of the ,piltdown skull 7lower7 made by ,smith ,woodward in #aiac4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,it is important to present in full the original opinions of ,smith ,woodward1 who devoted most careful study to the first reconstruction of the skull 7,fig4 #fg71 a model which was subsequently modified by the actual discovery of one of the canine teeth4 ,in his original description it is observed that the pieces of the skull preserved are noteworthy for the great thickness of the bone1 it being #aa to #ab mm4 as compared with #e to #f mm41 the average thickness in the modern ,european skull1 or #f to #h mm41 the thickness in the skull of the ,neanderthal races and in that of the modern ,australian2 the cephalic index is estimated at #gh or #gi1 that is1 the skull is believed to have been proportionately low and wide1 almost brachycephalic2 there was apparently no prominent or thickened ridge above the orbits1 a feature which immediately distinguishes this skull from that of the ,neanderthal races2 the several bones of the brain-case are typically human and not in the least like those of the anthropoid apes2 the brain capacity was originally estimated at #ajgj c4cm41 not equalling that of some of the lowest brain types in the existing ,australian races and decidedly below that of the ,neanderthal man of ,spy and ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints2 the nasal bones are typically human but relatively small and broad1 so that the nose was flattened1 resembling that in some of the existing ,malay and ,african races4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fh4 ,three views of the ,piltdown skull as reconstructed by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor1 #aiae4 ,this restoration includes the nasal bones and canine tooth1 which were not known at the time of ,smith ,woodward's reconstruction of #aiac4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,the jaw presents profoundly different characters2 the whole of the bone preserved closely resembles that of a young chimpanzee2 thus the slope of the bony chin as restored is between that of an adult ape and that of the ,heidelberg man1 with an extremely receding chin2 the ascending portion of the jaw for the attachment of the temporal muscles is broad and thickened anteriorly4 ,associated with the jaw were two elongated molar teeth1 worn down by use to such an extent that the individual could not have been less than thirty years of age and was probably older4 ,these teeth are relatively longer and narrower than those in the modern human jaw4 ,the canine tooth1 identified by ,smith ,woodward as belonging in the lower jaw1 strengthened by the evidence afforded by the jaw itself1 proves that the face was elongate or prognathous and that the canine teeth were very prominent like those of the anthropoid apes2 it affords definite proof that the front teeth of the ,piltdown man resembled those of the ape4 ,the author's conclusion is that while the skull is essentially human1 it approaches the lower races of man in certain characters of the brain1 in the attachment of the muscles of the neck1 in the large extent of the temporal muscles attached to the jaw1 and in the probably large size of the face4 ,the mandible1 on the other hand1 appears precisely like that of the ape1 with nothing human except the molar teeth1 and even these approach the dentition of the apes in their elongate shape and well-developed fifth or posterior intermediate cusp4 ,this type of man1 distinguished by the smooth forehead and supraorbital borders and ape-like jaw1 represents a new genus called ,eoanthropus1 or 'dawn man1' while the species has been named dawsoni in honor of the discoverer1 ,charles ,dawson4 ,this very ancient type of man is defined by the ape-like chin and junction of the two halves of the jaw1 by a series of parallel grinding-teeth1 with narrow lower molar teeth1 which do not diminish in size backward1 and by the steep forehead and slight development of the brow ridges4 ,the jaw manifestly differs from that of the ,heidelberg man in its comparative slenderness and relative deepening toward the symphysis4 ,the discussion of this very important paper by ,smith ,woodward and ,dawson centred about two points4 ,first1 whether the ape-like jaw really belonged with the human skull rather than with that of some anthropoid ape which happened to be drifted down in the same stratum2 and second1 whether the extremely low original estimate of the brain capacity of #ajgj c4cm41 was not due to incorrect adjustment or reconstruction of the separate pieces of the skull4 ,keith17#ai7 the leader in the criticism of ,woodward's reconstruction1 maintained that when the two sides of the skull were properly restored and made approximately symmetrical1 the brain capacity would be found to equal #aejj c4cm42 the brain cast of the skull even as originally reconstructed was found to be close to #abjj c4cm4 ,this author agreed that skull1 jaw1 and canine tooth belonged to ,eoanthropus but that they could not well belong to the same individual4 ,in defense of ,woodward's reconstruction came the powerful support of ,elliot ,smith47#bj7 ,he maintained that the evidence afforded by the re-examination of the bones corroborated in the main ,smith ,woodward's identification of the median plane of the skull2 further1 that the original reconstruction of the prognathous face was confirmed by the discovery of the canine tooth1 also that there remained no doubt that the association of the skull1 the jaw1 and the canine tooth was a correct one4 ,the back portion of the skull is decidedly asymmetrical1 a condition found both in the lower and higher races of man4 ,a slight rearrangement and widening of the bones along the median upper line of the skull raise the estimate of the brain capacity to #aajj c4cm4 as the probable maximum4 ,elliot ,smith continued that he considered the brain to be of a more primitive kind than any human brain that he had ever seen1 yet that it could be called human and that it already showed a considerable development of those parts which in modern man we associate with the power of speech2 thus1 there was no doubt of the unique importance of this skull as representing an entirely new type of man in the making4 ,as regards the form of the lower jaw1 it was observed that in the dawn of human existence teeth suitable for weapons of offense and defense were retained long after the brain had attained its human status4 ,thus the ape-like form of the chin does not signify inability to speak1 for speech must have come when the jaws were still ape-like in character1 and the bony changes that produced the recession of the tooth line and the form of the chin were mainly due to sexual selection1 to the reduction in the size of the grinding-teeth1 and1 in a minor degree1 to the growth and specialization of the muscles of the jaw and tongue employed in speech4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #fi4 ,the ,piltdown skull with the right half removed to display the extreme thickness of the bones and the shape of the brain4 ,as restored by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gj4 ,outline of the left side of the ,piltdown brain1 compared with similar brain outlines of a chimpanzee and of a high type of modern man4 ,one-half life size4 ,at first sight the brain-case resembles that of the ,neanderthal skull found at ,gibraltar1 which is supposed to be that of a woman2 it is relatively long1 narrow1 and especially flat1 but it is smaller and presents more primitive features than those of any known human brain4 ,taking all these features into consideration1 we must regard this as being the most primitive and most ape-like human brain so far recorded2 one such as might reasonably be associated with a jaw which presented such distinctive ape characters4 ,the brain1 however1 is far more human than the jaw1 from which we may infer that the evolution of the brain preceded that of the mandible1 as well as the development of beauty of the face and the human development of the bodily characters in general4 ,the latest opinion of ,smith ,woodward,,aa is that the brain1 while the most primitive which has been discovered1 had a bulk of nearly #acjj c4cm41 equalling that of the smaller human brains of to-day and surpassing that of the ,australians1 which rarely exceeds #abej c4cm4 ,the original views of ,smith ,woodward and of ,elliot ,smith regarding the relation of the ,piltdown race to the ,heidelberg and ,neanderthal races are also of very great interest and may be cited4 ,first1 the fact that the ,piltdown and ,heidelberg races are almost of the same geologic age proves that at the end of the ,pliocene ,epoch the representatives of man in western ,europe had already branched into widely divergent groups3 the one 7,heidelberg-,neanderthal7 characterized by a very low projecting forehead1 with a subhuman head of ,neanderthaloid contour2 the other with a flattened forehead and with an ape-like jaw of the ,piltdown contour4 ,we should not forget that in the ,piltdown skull the absence of prominent ridges above the eyes may possibly be due in some degree to the fact that the type skull may belong to a female1 as suggested by certain characters of the jaw2 but among all existing apes the skull in early life has the rounded shape of the ,piltdown skull1 with a high forehead and scarcely any brow ridges4 ,it seems reasonable1 therefore1 to interpret the ,piltdown skull as exhibiting a closer resemblance to the skulls of our human ancestors in mid-,tertiary times than any fossil skull hitherto found4 ,if this view be accepted1 we may suppose that the ,piltdown type became gradually modified into the ,neanderthal type by a series of changes similar to those passed through by the early apes as they evolved into typical modern apes1 with their low brows and prominent ridges above the eyes4 ,this would tend to support the theory that the ,neanderthal men were degenerate offshoots of the ,tertiary race1 of which the ,piltdown skull provides the first discovered evidence--a race with a simple1 flattened forehead and developed eye ridges4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ga4 ,restoration of the head of ,piltdown man1 in profile1 based upon the reconstruction shown in ,fig4 #fh1 p4 #acg4 ,after model by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,elliot ,smith concluded that members of the ,piltdown race might well have been the direct ancestors of the existing species of man 7,homo sapiens71 thus affording a direct link with undiscovered ,tertiary apes2 whereas1 the more recent fossil men of the ,neanderthal type1 with prominent brow ridges resembling those of the existing apes1 may have belonged to a degenerate race which later became extinct4 ,according to this view1 ,eoanthropus represents a persistent and very slightly modified descendant of the type of ,tertiary man which was the common ancestor of a branch giving rise to ,homo sapiens1 on the one hand1 and of another branch giving rise to ,homo neanderthalensis1 on the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gb4 ,restoration of the head of ,piltdown man1 full front1 after model by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 7,compare ,figs4 #fh and #ga47 ,another theory as to the relationships of ,eoanthropus is that of ,marcelin ,boule17#ba7 who is inclined to regard the jaws of the ,piltdown and ,heidelberg races as of similar geologic age1 but of dissimilar racial type4 ,he continues3 ,if the skull and jaw of ,piltdown belong to the same individual1 and if the mandibles of the ,heidelberg and ,piltdown men are of the same type1 this discovery is most valuable in establishing the cranial structure of the ,heidelberg race4 ,but it appears rather that we have here two types of man which lived in ,chellean times1 both distinguished by very low cranial characters4 ,of these the ,piltdown race seems to us the probable ancestor in the direct line of the recent species of man1 ,homo sapiens2 while the ,heidelberg race may be considered1 until we have further knowledge1 as a possible precursor of ,homo neanderthalensis4 ,the latest opinion of the ,german anatomist ,schwalbe7#bb7 is that the proper restoration of the region of the chin in the ,piltdown man might make it possible to refer this jaw to ,homo sapiens1 but this would merely prove that ,homo sapiens already existed in early ,pleistocene times4 ,the skull of the ,piltdown man1 continues ,schwalbe1 corresponds with that of a well-developed1 good-sized skull of ,homo sapiens2 the only unusual feature is the remarkable thickness of the bone4,,ab ,finally1 our own opinion is that the ,piltdown race was not related at all either to the ,heidelbergs or to the ,neanderthals1 nor was it directly ancestral to any of the other races of the ,old ,stone ,age1 or to any of the existing species of man4 ,as shown in the human family tree in ,chapter ,,vi1 the ,piltdown race represents a side branch of the human family which has left no descendants at all4 ,,mammalian ,,life ,,of ,,chellean ,,and ,,acheulean ,,times7#bc7 ,the mammalian life which we find with the more advanced implements of ,chellean times apparently does not include the old ,pliocene mammals1 such as the ,etruscan rhinoceros and the sabre-tooth tiger4 ,with this exception it is so similar to that of ,second ,interglacial times that it may serve to prove again that the third glaciation was a local episode and not a wide-spread climatic influence4 ,this life is everywhere the same1 from the valley of the ,thames1 as witnessed in the low river-gravels of ,gray's ,thurrock and ,ilford1 to the region of the present ,thuringian forests near ,weimar1 where it is found in the deposits of ,taubach1 ,ehringsdorf1 and ,achenheim1 in which the mammals belong to the more recent date of early ,acheulean culture4 ,the life of this great region during ,chellean and early ,acheulean times was a mingling of the characteristic forest and meadow fauna of western ,europe with the descendants of the ,african-,asiatic invaders of late ,pliocene and early ,pleistocene times4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,iv4 ,the ,piltdown man of ,sussex1 ,england4 ,antiquity variously estimated at #ajj1jjj to #cjj1jjj years4 ,the ape-like structure of the jaw does not prevent the expression of a considerable degree of intelligence in the face4 ,after the restoration modelled by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,southern mammoth4 ,hippopotamus4 ,straight-tusked elephant4 ,broad-nosed rhinoceros4 ,spotted hyna4 ,lion4 ,bison and wild ox4 ,red deer4 ,roe-deer4 ,giant deer4 ,brown bear4 ,wolf4 ,badger4 ,marten4 ,otter4 ,beaver4 ,hamster4 ,water-vole4 ,the forests were full of the red deer 7,cervus elaphus71 of the roe-deer 7,c4 capreolus71 and of the giant deer 7,megaceros71 also of a primitive species of wild boar 7,sus scrofa ferus7 and of wild horses probably representing more than one variety4 ,the brown bear 7,ursus arctos7 of ,europe is now for the first time identified2 there was also a primitive species of wolf 7,canis suessi74 ,the small carnivora of the forests and of the streams are all considered as closely related to existing species1 namely1 the badger 7,meles taxus71 the marten 7,mustela martes71 the otter 7,lutra vulgaris71 and the water-vole 7,arvicola amphibius74 ,the prehistoric beaver of ,europe 7,castor fiber7 now replaces the giant beaver 7,trogontherium7 of ,second ,interglacial times4 ,among the large carnivora1 the lion 7,felis leo antiqua7 and the spotted hyna 7,h4 crocuta7 have replaced the sabre-tooth tiger and the striped hyna of early ,pleistocene times4 ,four great ,asiatic mammals1 including two species of elephants1 one species of rhinoceros1 and the hippopotamus1 roamed through the forests and meadows of this warm temperate region4 ,the horse of this period is considered7#bd7 to belong to the ,forest or ,nordic type1 from which our modern draught-horses have descended4 ,the lions and hynas which abounded in ,chellean and early ,acheulean times are in part ancestors of the cave types which appear in the succeeding ,reindeer or ,cavern ,period4 ,in general1 this mammalian life of ,chellean and early ,acheulean times in ,europe frequented the river shores and the neighboring forests and meadows favored by a warm temperate climate with mild winters1 such as is indicated by the presence of the fig-tree and of the ,canary laurel in the region of north central ,france near ,paris4 ,undoubtedly the ,chellean and ,acheulean hunters had begun the chase both of the bison1 or wisent 7,b4 priscus71 and of the wild cattle1 or aurochs4,,ac ,this warm temperate mammalian life spread very widely over northern ,europe1 as shown especially in the distribution 7,fig4 #dd7 of the hippopotamus1 the straight-tusked elephant1 and ,merck's rhinoceros4 ,the latter pair were constant companions and are seen to have a closely similar and somewhat more northerly range than the hippopotamus1 which is rather the climatic companion of the southern mammoth and ranges farther south4 ,these animals in the gravel and sand layers along the river slopes and 'terraces' mingled their remains with the artifacts of the flint workers4 ,for example1 in the gravel 'terraces' of the ,somme we find the bones of the straight-tusked elephant and ,merck's rhinoceros in the same sand layers with the ,chellean flints4 ,thus the men of ,chellean times may well have pursued this giant elephant 7,e4 antiquus7 and rhinoceros 7,d4 merckii7 as their tribal successors in the same valley hunted the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,chellean ,,implements ,all over the world may be found traces of a ,stone ,age1 ancient or modern1 primitive implements of stone and flint analogous to those of the true ,chellean period of western ,europe but not really identical when very closely compared4 ,these represent the early attempts of the human hand1 directed by the primitive mind1 to fashion hard materials into forms adapted to the purposes of war1 the chase1 and domestic life4 ,the result is a series of parallels in form which come under the evolution principle of convergence4 ,thus1 in all the continents except ,australia--in ,europe1 in ,asia1 and even in ,north and ,south ,america--primitive races have passed through an industrial stage similar to the typical ,chellean of western ,europe4 ,this we should rather attribute to a similarity in human invention and in human needs than to the theory that the ,chellean industry originated at some particular centre and travelled in a slowly enlarging wave over the entire world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gc4 ,distribution of the principal ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean industrial stations in western ,europe4 ,in western ,europe the ,chellean culture certainly had a development all its own1 adapted to a race of bold hunters who lived in the open and whose entire industry developed around the products of the chase4 ,for them flint and quartzite took the place of bronze1 iron1 or steel4 ,this culture marked a distinct and probably a very long epoch of time in which inventions and multiplications of form were gradually spread from tribe to tribe1 exactly as modern inventions1 usually originating at a single point and often in the mind of one ingenious individual1 gradually spread over the world4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gd4 ,section of the middle and high terraces at ,st4 ,acheul1 from southwest to northeast4 ,after ,commont1 #aijh1 #aiji1 modified and redrawn4 ,the ,pre-,chellean workers first established themselves here at the time when the ,somme was visited by the straight-tusked elephant and other primitive mammals of the warm ,african-,asiatic fauna4 7,compare ,fig4 #ei1 p4 #abb47 ,the clearest examples of the evolution of the seven or eight implements of the ,chellean culture from the five or six rudimentary types of the ,pre-,chellean have been found at ,st4 ,acheul by ,commont4 ,the abundance and variety of flint at this great station on the ,somme made it a centre of industry from the dawn of the ,old ,stone ,age to its very close4 ,it was probably a region favorable to all kinds of large and small game4 ,the researches of ,commont show that with the exception of ,castillo in northern ,spain no other station in all ,europe was so continuously occupied4 ,from ,pre-,chellean to ,neolithic times the men of every culture stage except the ,magdalenian and ,azilian-,tardenoisian found their way here1 and thus the site of ,st4 ,acheul presents an epitome of the entire prehistoric industry4 ,even during the colder periods of climate this region continued to be visited--possibly during the warm weather of the summer seasons4 ,at ,montires1 along the ,somme1 we find deposits of ,mousterian culture which is generally characteristic of the cold climatic period but is here associated with a temperate fauna1 including the hippopotamus1 ,merck's rhinoceros1 and the straight-tusked elephant4 ,great geographic and climatic changes took place in the valley of the ,somme during this long period of human evolution4 ,the ,pre-,chellean workers first established their industry on the middle and high 'terraces' at the time when the ,somme was visited by the straight-tusked elephant and other much more primitive mammals of the warm ,asiatic fauna4 ,the early ,acheulean camps on the same terraces were pitched in the gravels below layers of 'loess' which betoken an entire climatic change4 ,the fourth glaciation passed by1 and the ,upper ,palolithic flint workers again returned and left the dbris of their industry in the layers of loam which swept down the slopes of the valley from the surrounding hills4 ,this succession will be studied more in detail in connection with the industry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ge4 ,excavation on the 'high terrace' at ,st4 ,acheul1 known as the ancienne carrire ,dupont and more recently as the carrire ,bultel1 showing eight geologic layers from the ,upper ,palolithic deposits of brick-earth at the top7#i7 down to the sub-,chellean yellow gravels7#b7 overlying the chalk terrace at the bottom4 ,as contrasted with the four or more ,pre-,chellean stations already known1 namely1 ,st4 ,acheul1 ,montires1 ,helin1 ,gray's ,thurrock1 and possibly ,abbeville and ,piltdown1 there are at least sixteen stations in western ,europe which are characteristically ,chellean4 ,in addition to the sites named above1 all of which show deposits of typical ,chellean implements above the ,pre-,chellean1 we may note the important ,chellean stations of ,san ,isidro and ,torralba in central ,spain2 ,tilloux and ,marignac in southwestern ,france2 ,crteil1 ,colombes1 ,bois ,colombes1 and ,billancourt on the ,seine1 in the immediate vicinity of ,paris2 ,cergy on the ,oise2 the type station of ,chelles on the ,marne2 ,abbeville on the northern bank of the ,somme2 and the famous station of ,kent's ,hole1 ,devon1 on the southwestern coast of ,england4 ,thus far no typical ,chellean station has been discovered in ,portugal1 ,italy1 ,germany1 or ,austria1 nor1 indeed1 in any part of central ,europe4 ,this leaves the original habitat of the tribes that brought the ,chellean culture to western ,europe still a mystery2 but1 as already observed1 the location of the stations favors the theory of a migration through northern ,africa rather than through eastern ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gf4 ,principal forms of small1 late ,chellean scraping1 planing1 and boring tools of flint1 after ,commont and ,obermaier4 ,one-half actual size4 #a4 ,combination tool--small flake with a sharp point 7a71 cutting edge 7b71 and curved-in scraper 7c74 #b4 ,cutting tool with protective retouch for the index finger on the upper edge 7a71 and a sharp cutting edge 7b74 #c4 ,primitive knife4 #d4 ',point4' #e4 ,combination tool--small flake with scraper edge 7b71 and two curved-in scraper edges 7a and a#a74 #f4 ,borer4 #g4 ,pointed scraper4 #h4 ,knife with coarse boring point at one end4 #i4 ,thick scraper or planing tool4 #aj4 ,curved scraper4 ,compared with the ,pre-,chellean flint workers the ,chellean artisans advanced both by the improvement of the older types of implements and by the invention of new ones47#be7 ,as observed by ,obermaier1 the flint worker is still dependent on the chance shape of the shattered fragments of flint which he has not yet learned to shape symmetrically4 ,in the experimental search after the most useful form of flint which could be grasped by the hand1 the very characteristic ,chellean coup de poing was evolved out of its ,pre-,chellean prototype4 ,this implement was made of an elongate nodule1 either of quartzite or1 preferably1 of flint1 and flaked by the hammer on both sides to a more or less almond shape2 as a rule1 the point and its adjacent edges are sharpened2 the other end being rounded and blunted4 ,like most1 if not all1 of the ,chellean implements1 it was designed to be grasped by the bare hand and not furnished with a wooden haft or handle4 ,it is not impossible that some of the pointed forms may have been wedged into a wooden handle1 but there is no proof of it4 ,in size the coup de poing varies from #d to #h inches in length1 and examples have been found as large as #i-a_/b inches4 ,that it served a variety of purposes is indicated by the existence of four well-defined1 different forms3 first1 a primitive1 almond-shaped form2 second1 an ovaloid form2 third1 a disk form2 and fourth1 a pointed form resembling a lance-head4 ,de ,mortillet7#bf7 speaks of it as the only tool of the ,chellean tribes1 but in its various forms it served all the purposes of axe1 saw1 chisel1 and awl1 and was in truth a combination tool4 ,capitan7#bg7 also holds that the coup de poing is not a single tool but is designed to meet many various needs4 ,the primitive almond and ovaloid forms were designed for use along the edges1 either for heavy hacking or for sawing2 the disk forms may have been used as axes or as sling-stones2 the more rounded forms would serve as knives and scrapers2 while the pointed1 lance-shaped forms might be used as daggers1 both in war and in the chase4 ,the ,chellean flint workers also developed especially a number of small1 pointed forms from the accidentally shaped fragments of flint1 showing both short and long points carefully flaked and chipped4 ,thus1 out of the small types of the ,pre-,chellean there evolved a great variety of tools adapted to domestic purposes1 to war1 and to the chase4 ,,chellean ,,geography ,,in ,,england ,,and ,,france ,the type station of the ,chellean culture is somewhat east of the present town of ,chelles4 ,here in ,chellean times the broad floods of the ancient ,river ,marne were transporting great quantities of sand and dbris1 products of the early pluvial periods of ,third ,interglacial times2 and here1 on the right bank1 embedded in sands and gravels #bd feet thick1 are found the typical ,chellean implements mingled with remains of the hippopotamus1 straight-tusked elephant1 ,merck's rhinoceros1 giant beaver1 hyna1 and many members of the ,asiatic forest and meadow fauna4 ,the flint-working stations at ,st4 ,acheul were on bluffs from #dj to #hj feet above the present level of the ,somme4 ,the ,chellean and the following ,acheulean industry was carried on here on a very extensive scale4 ,in one year ,rigollot collected as many as #hjj coups de poing from the ancient quarries2 near by are other quarries equally rich in material1 and we may imagine that the products of the flint industry in this favorable locality were carried far and wide into other parts of the country4 ,in the vicinity of ,paris1 and again at ,arcy1 in the valley of the ,bivre1 the workers of ,chellean1 ,acheulean1 and ,mousterian flints sought in succession the old river-gravels belonging to the lower levels2 these 'low terraces' are only #ae feet above the present height of the river and are still occasionally flooded by the high waters of the ,seine1 indicating that the ,seine borders have not altered their levels4 ,the animal life here was identical with that of the ,somme and of the ,thames and included the hippopotamus1 ,merck's rhinoceros1 and the straight-tusked elephant4 ,thus it would appear that1 in regard to the river courses and the hills through which they flowed1 the topography and landscape of northern ,france and of southern ,britain were everywhere the same as at the present time4 ,the forests which clothed the hills were not greatly different from the present1 except for the presence of a few trees of a warmer clime1 nor was there anything strange or unfamiliar in the majority of the animals that roamed through forest and meadow4 ,the three chief archaic elements consisted in the presence of two very ancient races of men and their rude stage of culture1 in the great forms of ,asiatic and ,african life which mingled with the more familiar native types1 and in the broad1 continuous land surfaces which swept off unbroken to the west and southwest4 ,for in those days ,europe1 though even then little more than a great peninsula1 extended far beyond its present limits4 ,england and ,ireland were still part of the mainland1 and great rivers flowed through the broad valleys that are now the ,irish ,sea1 the ,north ,sea1 and the ,english ,channel--rivers that counted the ,seine1 the ,thames1 the ,garonne1 and even the ,rhine1 as mere tributaries4 ,the ,strait of ,gibraltar was then the ,isthmus of ,gibraltar--a narrow land bridge connecting ,europe with ,africa4 ,the ,mediterranean was then an inland lake1 or rather two inland lakes1 for ,italy and ,sicily stretched out in a broad1 irregular mass to join the northern coast of ,africa1 while ,corsica and ,sardinia formed a long peninsula extending from the ,italian mainland and almost1 if not quite1 reaching to the ,african coast4 ,,the ,,thames ,,valley ,,in ,,chellean ,,times ,the interpretation of the features of stratification in the valley of the ,somme is especially interesting because it gives us a key to the understanding of a similar sequence of prehistoric events in the valley of the ,thames4 ,the station of ,gray's ,thurrock in this valley is barely #abj miles distant from the ,chellean station of ,abbeville1 in the valley of the ,somme1 and it is apparent that the old flint workers were freely passing across the broad intervening country and interchanging their ideas and inventions4 ,thus it happened that ,chellean implements identical with1 or closely related to1 the types of the ,somme valley were being fashioned all over southern ,britain from the ,thames to the ,ouse4 ,the ancient ,river ,thames 7,lyell17#bh7 ,geikie7#bi77 was then flowing over a bed of boulder-clays which had been deposited during the preceding glaciations4 ,its broad1 swift stream was bringing down great deposits of ochreous gravels and of sands interstratified with loams and clays4 ,it is these old true river-gravels which display their greatest thickness on the lowest levels of the ,thames and which are largely made up of well-bedded and distinctly water-worn materials4 ,on these low levels the flint workers sought their materials1 and here they left behind them the archaic ,chellean implements which are now found embedded in these older river-gravels1 just as they occur in the gravels washed down over the three terraces of the ,somme and the ,marne4 ,in the ,thames this old gravel wash seems to have been down-stream1 whereas on the middle and upper terraces of the ,somme the gravel wash came directly down the sides of the valley1 except1 perhaps1 in very high floods4 ,these deep beds of gravel1 sand1 and loam lie for the most part above the present overflow plain of the ,thames1 although in some places they descend below it2 which proves that the main landscape of the ,thames also1 except for the changes of the flora and of animal life1 was the same in ,pre-,chellean and ,chellean times as it is at present4 ,thus the ,somme1 the ,thames1 and the ,seine had all worn their channels to the present or even to lower levels when the ,pre-,chellean hunters appeared4 ,since ,chellean times all three rivers have silted up their channels4 ,the changes along the ,thames which have since occurred are in the superficial layers brought down from the sides of the valley which have softened the contours of the old terraces and have also entombed the later phases of the valley's prehistory4 ,sections on the south bank at ,ilford1 ,kent1 and on the north bank at ,gray's ,thurrock1 ,essex1 confirm this view4 ,at the latter station1 in low-lying strata of brick-earth1 loam1 and gravel1 such as would be formed by the silting up of the bottom of an old river channel1 are found the remains of the straight-tusked elephant1 broad-nosed rhinoceros1 and hippopotamus4 ,all the discoveries of recent years lead to the conclusion that the old fluviatile gravels which contain these ancient mammals and flints are restricted to the lower levels of the ,thames valley1 while the high level gravels and loams are of later date4 ,old ,chellean flints also occur occasionally on the higher levels1 but here it would seem that they have been washed down from the old land surfaces above1 because they are found mingled with flints of the late ,acheulean and early ,mousterian industry4 ,,england ,,in ,,early ,,pal,,olithic ,,times ,it is on the higher levels of the ,thames1 as of the ,somme1 and in the superficial deposits covering the sides of the valley that we read the story of the subsequent ,palolithic cultures and of an early warm temperate climate being followed by a cold climate with frozen subsoil belonging to the fourth glaciation and the contemporary ,mousterian flint industry4 ,the ,palolithic history of the ,thames7#cj7 has not yet been fully interpreted1 but it would appear that the relics of the old stations of ,kent and ,norfolk will yield all the forms of ,chellean and ,acheulean implements1 and probably also those of the ,mousterian which have been discovered in the valley of the ,somme1 thus proving that the ,lower ,palolithic races of this region pursued the same culture development as the neighboring tribes of ,france and ,belgium1 as well as those of ,spain1 up to the close of middle ,acheulean times4 ,a similar sequence of events appears to be indicated at ,hoxne1 ,suffolk1 where archaic paloliths were discovered as far back as #agig4 ,this discovery was neglected for upward of sixty years1 until in #ahei these flints were re-examined by ,prestwich and ,evans after their visit to the stations of the ,somme 7,geikie17#ca7 ,avebury7#cb774 ,this site was in the hollow of a surface of boulder-clay1 overlain by the deposit of a fresh-water stream2 in the bed of its narrow channel1 besides flint implements of early ,acheulean type1 abundant plant remains were found which give us an interesting vision of the flora of the time4 ,these plants are decidedly characteristic of a temperate climate1 including such trees as the oak1 yew1 and fir1 and mostly of species which are still found in the forests of the same region4 ,this life gave place1 as indicated in plant deposits of a higher level1 to an arctic flora1 probably corresponding with the tundra climate of ,mousterian times1 the period of the fourth glaciation4 ,above these are found again layers of plants and of mollusks which point to the return of a temperate climate4 ,,spread ,,of ,,the ,,acheulean ,,industry ,it is noteworthy that not a single 'river-drift1' ,pre-,chellean or ,chellean1 station has been found in ,germany or ,switzerland1 or1 in fact1 in all central ,europe in the region lying between the ,alpine and ,scandinavian glaciers4 ,either this region was unfavorable to human habitation or the remains of the stations have been buried or washed away4 ,it is significant that the earliest proof of human migration into this region1 whether from the east or from the west we do not certainly know1 is coincident with the dry climate of ,acheulean times4 ,the 'loess' conditions of climate seem to be coincident with the earliest ,acheulean stations in ,germany1 such as ,sablon4 ',loess' deposition is by no means a proof of a cold climate but rather of an arid one1 especially in regions where areas of finely eroded soil were liable to be raised by the wind2 such areas were found over the whole recently glaciated country north of the ,alps and south of the ,scandinavian peninsula4 ,the ,palolithic discovery sites of ,germany are principally grouped in three regions7#cc7 as follows3 ,to the south1 along the headwaters of the ,rhine and the ,danube1 among the limestones of ,swabia and the ,jura were formed the caverns sought by early ,mousterian man4 ,to the west of these were many older stations in the 'loess' deposits of the upper ,rhine1 between the mountain ridges of the ,vosges and the ,black ,forest1 and still nearer the sources of the ,rhine1 extending over the border into ,switzerland1 are a number of famous cave sites in the valleys cut by the ,rhine and its tributaries through the white ,jurassic limestone4 ,to the west is the group of the middle ,rhine and of ,westphalia1 which includes the open ,acheulean camps in the 'loess' deposits above the river and a number of cavern stations4 ,to the north is the scattered group of stations1 both of ,acheulean and ,mousterian times1 of north ,germany4 ,here the sites are few and far between4 ,the open-country camps were established chiefly in the valley of the ,ilm and near the caves of the ,harz ,mountains1 in the neighborhood of ,gera4 ,no discoveries of certain date or unquestioned authenticity are reported from eastern ,germany4 ,along the upper ,rhine the flint workers of ,acheulean times established their ancient camps mostly in the open on the broad sheets of the 'lower loess1' which1 constantly drifted by the wind1 covered and preserved the stations4 ,these stations are widely scattered1 but they were frequented from earliest ,acheulean times1 and the region was revisited to the very close of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gg4 ,flint working stations of the ,men of the ,old ,stone ,age along the waters of the ,ilm1 the ,rhine1 and the ,danube1 from ,acheulean to ,azilian times4 ,after ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt1 modified and redrawn4 ,these ,palolithic sites of ,germany lie between the terminal moraines of the successive glacial advances of the ,second1 ,third1 and ,fourth 7,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv7 ,glacial ,stages1 extending from the borders of the ,scandinavian ice-fields on the north to those of the ,alpine ice-fields on the south4 ,the dotted surface represents the area covered by the drift of the ,fourth ,glacial ,stage4 ,early in ,acheulean times the important 'loess' station of ,achenheim was established4 ,this is a most famous locality and is of especial importance because it is the only station in ,germany which was continuously frequented from late ,acheulean times throughout the ,lower ,palolithic and into the beginning of the ,upper ,palolithic2 here the 'older loess' of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage yields a typical ,acheulean industry4 ,thus far the region of the middle ,rhine and of ,westphalia has not shown any evidence of ,acheulean culture4 ,the north ,german stations1 however1 were entered in ,acheulean times1 and the principal open stations of this region lie along the valley of the ,ilm4 ,here1 at ,taubach1 ,ehringsdorf1 and ,weimar1 we find implements of typical ,acheulean form belonging to the early warm temperate ,acheulean period4 ,the stations of the ,ilm valley southwest of ,leipsic are also of great importance because of the rich record which they contain of the warm temperate animal life of early ,acheulean times2 the flint culture is typically ,acheulean1 and the climatic conditions are read both in the travertines and in the subsequent deposits of the 'lower loess1' which belong to the cold dry period of late ,acheulean times4 ,here lingered the straight-tusked elephant and ,merck's rhinoceros1 contemporary with the workers of the ,acheulean flints4 ,it will be observed that in ,germany the early ,acheulean was a warm period which in certain regions was also arid and subject to great dust-storms4 ,at this time the camps were for the most part in the open country4 ,in the late period1 also arid and subject to high winds but with a cooler climate1 the flint workers continued to frequent the open ,acheulean stations in the 'loess4' ,if there were shelter and cavern stations in this region1 they have not as yet been discovered4 ,this would appear to indicate that the climate had not yet become severe4 ,similar testimony is found in the great scarcity of cavern and shelter stations in ,acheulean times in every part of western ,europe2 yet occasionally the tribes repaired to the vicinity of sheltering cliffs1 as along the ,vzre4 ,in some scattered localities they sought the caverns1 as at ,krapina1 in ,croatia1 at ,spy1 on the ,meuse in ,belgium1 and at ,castillo1 in northern ,spain4 ,these rare exceptions to the open camps would tend to prove that the caverns were sought rather for protection from enemies and as rain shelters than as retreats from a bitter-cold climate4 ,in the valley of the ,beune1 a small tributary of the ,vzre1 in ,dordogne1 we find a true ,acheulean station quite close to the river shore4 ,this proves that in ,acheulean times this valley was already deepened to the same degree as it is to-day4 ,in the valley of the ,somme the ,acheulean culture stretches from the 'highest terrace' down below the present level of the river1 which has made for itself a new high channel4 ,the fact that two ,acheulean stations are found on the upper ,garonne1 high above the present water-level1 is of little significance1 as at that time the water-level was also high4 ,in general the ,acheulean flint workers preferred the open stations throughout all ,acheulean times1 and their camps are found on the open plateaus between the rivers or on the various 'terrace' levels1 as on the higher1 middle1 and lower 'terraces' of the ,somme at ,st4 ,acheul1 or again close along the borders of the rivers and streams1 as in the ,dordogne region4 ,even during the early ,acheulean stage a dry climate had begun to prevail in certain parts of ,germany4 ,near ,metz is the 'older loess' station of ,sablon1 which was occupied in early ,acheulean times1 indicating a warm period of arid climate favorable to the transportation of the wind-blown 'loess'2 doubtless1 this fine dust at times filled the entire atmosphere and obscured the sun1 as is the case to-day on the high steppes and deserts of eastern ,asia4 ,an exception to the open-country life preferred by the ,acheulean flint workers is found in the great grotto,,ad of ,castillo1 near ,puente ,viesgo1 in the ,province of ,santander1 northern ,spain4 ,the deposits which filled this grotto to a thickness of #de feet from the floor to the roof were explored by ,obermaier1 who found them divided into thirteen layers1 covering eleven periods of industry and presenting the most wonderful epitome of the prehistory of western ,europe from ,acheulean times to the ,age of ,bronze1 in ,spain 7,fig4 #gi74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gh4 ,entrance 7white cross7 to the great grotto of ,castillo in northern ,spain4 ,this grotto was frequented by the ,men of the ,old ,stone ,age from ,acheulean to ,azilian times1 an archologic sequence surpassed only by that of the open camps along the terraces of the ,somme4 ,photograph from ,obermaier4 ,as early as #aijh1 ,breuil7#cd7 discovered in the interior of the cave back of the grotto some quartzites worked into ,acheulean types1 proving that the cavern was entered in ,acheulean times4 ,obermaier17#ce7 in the course of three years' work1 has found that the floor of the grotto was possibly used as a flint-making station in ,acheulean and1 possibly1 in ,chellean times4 ,the culture section which he has revealed here under the direction of the ,institut de ,palontologie humaine can be compared only with that which ,commont has found on the 'terraces' of the ,somme at ,st4 ,acheul4 ,the difference is that in the shelter of the ,castillo grotto the climate is recorded only through the changing forms of animal life which are mingled around the fire-hearths and with the flints in the ascending levels4 7#ac7 ,eneolithic ,age4 ,small1 triangular dagger in copper4 7#ab7 ,azilian4 ,flint industry--,age of the ,stag4 7#aa7 ,upper ,magdalenian4 ,artistic engravings on stag-horn4 7#aj7 ,lower ,magdalenian4 ,flints and fine engravings on bone4 ,reindeer bton4 7#i7 ,archaic ,solutrean4 ,feuilles de laurier1 retouched on one side only4 7#h1 #g1 #f7 ,upper ,aurignacian in three layers4 ,remains of the reindeer and burins4 7#e7 ,lower ,aurignacian4 ,implements of stone and bone4 ,remains of an infant4 7#d7 ,upper ,mousterian4 ,rich in small implements and large tools of quartzite4 ,merck's rhinoceros very abundant4 7#c7 ,typical ,mousterian flints and quartzites4 ,merck's rhinoceros4 7#b7 ,early ,mousterian industry4 ,bones of cave-bear and ,merck's rhinoceros4 7#a7 ,acheulean flints4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #gi4 ,stratigraphic section showing the archologic layers of the great grotto of ,castillo4 ,after ,obermaier4 ,the entrance to this grotto is on the side of a high hill overlooking the valley and might easily have been barricaded against attack4 ,in early ,acheulean times1 when the flint workers were on the very floor of the grotto1 the lower entrance of the cavern was still open1 leading far into the heart of the mountain4 ,the successive accumulations of dbris1 cave loam1 fire-stones1 bones1 and innumerable flints1 together with great blocks falling over the entrance of the cavern1 reached a height of #de feet1 so that during the ,upper ,palolithic only the upper entrance to the cavern was used by the artists of ,magdalenian times4 ,the subsequent ,azilian and ,eneolithic cultures were crowded under the very roof of the grotto at the sides4 ,this station1 repaired to and then abandoned by tribe after tribe over a period estimated at present as not less than #ej1jjj years1 is a monumental volume of prehistory1 read and interpreted by the archologist almost as clearly as if the whole record were in writing4 ,the first positive evidences of the use of fire are the layers of charred wood and bones frequently found in the industrial deposits of early ,acheulean times4 ,,geographic ,,and ,,climatic ,,changes ,during the early period of development of the ,acheulean industry1 the geography1 the climate1 and the plant and animal life continued to present exactly the same aspect as during ,chellean times4 ,the mammals which we find in ,thuringia in the lower travertines of the valley of the ,ilm1 at ,taubach1 near ,weimar1 and at ,ehringsdorf1 mingled with flints of early ,acheulean industry1 are of the same species as those found in the valley of the ,somme mingled with the implements of the ,chellean industry4 ,the southern mammoth occurs at ,taubach1 and we find the straight-tusked elephant 7,e4 antiquus71 ,merck's rhinoceros1 the hippopotamus1 the lion1 and the hyna representing the ancient ,african-,asiatic migrants1 while the north ,european and ,asiatic life is represented by the giant deer1 roe-deer1 wild goat1 brown bear1 wolf1 badger1 marten1 otter1 beaver1 meadow hamster1 and shrew4 ,grazing in the meadows were the aurochs1 or wild ox1 and the wisent1 or bison4 ,there was one variety of horse1 probably of the forest type4 ,thus1 the fauna as a whole contains six ,asiatic types1 or eight if we include the bison and wild cattle4 ,of the forest life there are nine species1 including the wild boar 7,sus scrofa ferus7 not mentioned above4 ,the layers of travertine are indicative of very important geographical changes which were occurring in central and southern ,europe in the middle period of ,third ,interglacial times4 ,the travertines of the ,ilm and of other parts of central ,germany were due to wide-spread volcanic disturbances and eruptions1 accompanied by the deposition of travertines1 gypsums1 and tufas4 ,to this volcanic disturbance in central ,france is attributed the deposition of the tuf de ,la ,celle-sous-,moret1 near ,paris1 which records the warm temperate climate of early ,acheulean times1 as well as the somewhat cooler succeeding climate of late ,acheulean times4 ,this uplift in the centre of ,germany and ,france apparently left the region between ,france and ,great ,britain undisturbed1 because there is evidence of continued free migration of the tribes and of the ,acheulean cultures2 but there appears to have been a wide-spread subsidence of the coasts of southern ,europe by which the islands of the ,mediterranean became isolated from the mainland1 and the migrating routes between ,europe and ,africa across the central ,mediterranean region were cut off4 ,thus1 ,italy1 ,sicily1 and ,sardinia were separated from the mainland after having received a large contingent of mammalian life from the continents both to the north and to the south4 ,while descendants of the ,african and ,asiatic mammals1 as well as of the northerly ,european forest and meadow types1 survive on these islands1 there is1 thus far1 no indication that they were invaded by hunters carrying the implements of the ,acheulean culture1 although these ,acheulean flint workers ranged over all parts of the ,italian peninsula 7,fig4 #hj71 as indicated by the discovery of nine stations4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,acheulean ,,stations ,the ,acheulean stations are widely distributed along the ,seine1 ,marne1 and ,somme in northern ,france1 where flint is abundant and well adapted for fine workmanship4 ,in central and southern ,france1 where large flints are scarce1 the ,acheulean tribes were forced to use quartz1 which fashions into clumsier forms4 ,in the north the ,acheulean workers continued on the old ,chellean sites at ,chelles1 ,st4 ,acheul1 ,abbeville1 and ,helin4 ,in late ,acheulean times were established the new stations of ,wolvercote on the ,thames1 near ,oxford1 and of ,levallois on the ,seine1 near ,paris1 both famous for their ',levallois' flint knives or blades4 ,near ,levallois is the late ,acheulean station of ,villejuif1 south of ,paris1 where the flints are buried in drifts of loess4 ,in ,normandy are the important stations of ,frileuse1 ,blville1 and ,la ,mare-aux-,clercs1 which give the whole ,acheulean development1 both early and late4 ,on a small tributary valley of the ,vzre1 in ,dordogne1 in late ,acheulean times there was established the station of ,la ,micoque1 which gives its name to a number of miniature flints of distinctive form which were first found there and are known as the 'type of ,la ,micoque4' ,other stations1 such as ,combe-,capelle1 also show examples of this 'miniature' ,acheulean workmanship4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hj4 ,distribution of the principal ,acheulean industrial stations in western ,europe4 ,altogether1 over thirty ,acheulean stations have been found in ,france1 two--,castillo and ,san ,isidro--in northern and central ,spain1 the single station of ,furninha in ,portugal1 over eight in ,germany1 three in ,austria1 and three in ,russian ,poland4 ,especially remarkable is the wide distribution of this culture all over ,italy1 where explorations by no means exhaustive have resulted in the discovery of at least nine or ten very prolific stations extending from ,goccianello in the north to ,capri in the south1 but not into ,sicily as far as is at present known4 ,thus all of western ,europe1 excepting the area covered by the ,scandinavian ice-fields on the north and by the ,alpine ice-fields on the south1 was penetrated by the workers of ,acheulean flints1 probably members1 for the most part1 of the ,neanderthal race4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ha4 ,late ,acheulean station of ,la ,micoque1 in ,dordogne1 where miniature flints of distinctive late ,acheulean form are found4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,the general uniformity of ,acheulean workmanship in all parts of western ,europe is an indication that these ,neanderthaloid tribes were more or less migratory and that the inventions of new and useful implements1 such as the lance-pointed coup de poing of ,la ,micoque and the flint-flakes of ,levallois1 which probably originated at an especial centre1 or perhaps even in the inventive mind of a single workman1 became widely distributed and highly distinctive of certain periods4 ,the development of the implements in different regions is so uniform as to prove that the evolution of the early ,palolithic cultures extended all over western ,europe and that the various types or stages were essentially contemporary4 ,,forms ,,of ,,acheulean ,,implements ,there is a close sequence between the coup de poing of the ,chellean workers and its development into the finer and more symmetrical forms of the ,acheulean4 ,the latter1 according to ,obermaier17#cf7 is distinguished by the flaking of the entire surface1 by the far more skilful fashioning1 and by the really symmetrical almond form which is attained by retouching both the surface and the edges4 ,this more refined retouch becomes the means of producing symmetrical instruments1 with straight1 convex1 or concave cutting edges1 as well as finer and lighter tools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hb4 ,illustrating the method of 'flaking' flint implements by direct or indirect blow with a hammer-stone4 ,the early ,acheulean industry belonged to a warm temperate climatic period and directly succeeds the ,chellean1 as shown in a most perfect manner in the quarries of the type station of ,st4 ,acheul on the ,somme4 ,in these earlier strata the prevailing forms of coup de poing are the 'pointed oval' and the 'lance-pointed1' the latter showing very simple chipping1 a broad point1 and a thick base4 ,the oval coups de poing are smaller than the ,chellean tools of the same kind1 carefully fashioned on all sides and round the base1 and very symmetrical2 there are four distinct varieties of these3 the almond type1 oval almond-shaped1 elongate oval1 and subtriangular--the latter evolving into the finely modelled type of late ,acheulean times4 ,it may have been from these oval types that the disc form was finally evolved4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hc4 ,illustrating the method of 'chipping' flint implements by pressure with a bone or wooden implement1 to produce the finer retouch of the surfaces and edges4 ,there is wide difference of opinion regarding the use of these thin ovaloid1 triangular1 and disc forms4 ,obermaier considers that they may have been clamped in wood1 or furnished with a shaft1 thus forming a spear head4 ,another suggestion is that they were used with a leather guard to protect the hand2 and there is no doubt that in either case they would have served as effective weapons in chase or war4 ,another view is that of ,commont17#cg7 who believes that not a single implement down to the very end of ,acheulean times can be regarded as a weapon of war2 this author maintains that many of these implements1 including those dressed on both edges1 were still in various ways grasped by the hand1 although they do not present the firm1 blunted grip of the ancient coups de poing4 ,we also note the development of a type of coup de poing1 with cutting blade fashioned straight across the end3 this primitive chisel or adze-shaped tool may have been used as a chopper1 or as an axe1 in fashioning wooden tools4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hd4 ,method of producing the long flake and the central core of flint by sharp blows at the indicated point of percussion4 ,after ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 ,in this case a series of flakes have been cut off the entire periphery of the core4 ,the primitive use of the flake begins in the ,pre-,chellean4 ,in the lance-pointed coup de poing of narrow1 elongate shape1 the flaking is very simple and the edges are continued into the short base1 generally very thick1 and often showing part of the original crust of the flint nodule1 which is well adapted for the grip of the hand4 ,this implement1 which serves the original idea of the coup de poing1 develops into the round-pointed and lance-pointed forms4 ,there is no question that1 whether in industrial use1 in war1 or in the chase1 these implements were held only by the hand4 ,,industrial4 ,coup de poing4 ,ovaloid4 ,double-edged4 ,subtriangular4 ,straight cutting blade across the end4 ,disc-shaped4 ,triangular--very thin and flat4 ,hachette1 chopper4 ,grattoir1 planing tool4 ,racloir1 scraper4 ,peroir1 drill1 borer4 ,couteau1 knife4 ',pointe' 7,levallois blade74 ',pointe1' point--oval and chisel-shaped4 ,,war ,,and ,,chase4 ,coup de poing4 ,of pointed and lance-pointed types4 ,pierre de jet1 throwing stone4 ,couteau1 knife4 ',pointe1' dart and spear heads4 ,the small implements of the early ,acheulean included a great variety of designs developing out of the far more primitive tools of ,chellean and ,pre-,chellean times1 namely1 the planing tool1 the scraper1 the borer1 and the knife4 ,each of these types develops its own variety1 often fashioned with great care1 primitive blades1 straight-edged cutting tools1 with the back rounded or blunted for the grip of the fingers1 scrapers with straight or curved edges1 and peroirs or borers4 ,the scraping and planing tools1 doubtless used for the dressing of hides1 are now more carefully fashioned4 ,we also observe the racloir and the scraper finished to a point which is the precursor of the graving tool of the ,upper ,palolithic47#ch7 ,characteristic of this stage is the systematic use of large 'flakes' or outlying pieces of flint struck off from the core1 which were used as scrapers or planes1 or developed into small 'haches1' or coups de poing4 ,the core or centre of the flint nodule still constitutes the material out of which the large typical implements are fashioned2 but the flake begins to lend itself to a great variety of forms1 as witnessed in the evolution of the ,levallois knives of the ,upper ,acheulean and the highly varied flake implements of the ,mousterian and ,aurignacian industries4 ,the 'pointe1' or point1 is a special implement chipped out of a short1 sharply convex flake1 taking the form of a blunt dart or spear head1 pointed at one end and oval or flat at the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #he4 ,large1 typical ,acheulean implements1 chiefly described as coups de poing1 after de ,mortillet4 ,one-quarter actual size4 ,one of these 7#da7 shows at one end a part of the crust of the flint nodule left intact to afford a smooth1 firm grip to the hand4 ,another 7#dc7 shows a part of the crust remaining along the left side1 for the same purpose4 ,two of the coups de poing 7#dg and #dh7 show1 the one a double-curved1 the other a straight1 lateral edge4 ,another coup de poing 7#di71 from a submarine deposit near the shore at ,havre1 is partly covered by acorn shells4 ,,late ,,acheulean ,,climate ,the ,acheulean industry continued over a very long period1 and by the time the late ,acheulean culture stage had been reached a decided change of climate ensued in western ,europe4 ,along the borders of the ,danube and of the ,rhine1 in the valley of the ,somme1 and even in central and southern ,france there are indications of a cool dry continental climate1 similar to that which is now found on the southern steppes of ,russia1 in the ,ural ,mountains1 and in the vicinity of the ,caspian ,sea4 ,indications of this climate have been mentioned above1 as seen in the plant life in the tuf de ,la ,celle-sous-,moret1 near ,paris1 where there are evidences that trees of a cool temperate climate took the place of the warm temperate forests of early ,acheulean times4 ,that the climate should be considered as cool and arid rather than comparable with the bitter-cold climate of the 'upper loess' period1 when a true steppe fauna entered ,europe for the first time1 is further indicated by the fact that late ,acheulean implements are more frequently found in the centre and north of ,france than in the south4 ,to the far north1 before the close of ,acheulean times1 the ,scandinavian ice-fields had again begun to advance southward2 the region bordering the glaciers was cold and moist and favored the migration from the tundra regions of the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros to the locality still frequented by the ,acheulean flint workers1 for it is said7#ci7 that ,acheulean flints are occasionally associated even with the remains of these tundra mammals4 ,at the very same time the ,acheulean flint workers along the ,somme may have enjoyed a more genial climate4 ,it is only through this interpretation of the various climatic and life zones in western ,europe that we can explain the survival on the ,river ,somme1 or return to this river from the south1 of a warm temperate fauna1 hippopotami1 rhinoceroses1 and elephants1 in the ,mousterian period1 which is even subsequent to the close of ,acheulean times4 ,the valleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern ,france1 the ,dordogne draining the central plateau1 and the ,garonne draining the eastern ,pyrenees1 were now sought by the ,acheulean flint workers4 ,the valley of the ,vzre1 a northern tributary of the ,dordogne1 cuts through a broad plateau of limestone in which the streams have hollowed out deep beds with vertical sides4 ,here the landscape of late ,acheulean times bore the same general aspect as at present47#dj7 ,evidences of a change of climate are observed even in the sheltered valleys where the flint workers were seeking the warmer and sunnier river-slopes4 ,the river channels were the same as they are to-day1 and the quarries of the early ,acheulean flint workers are found quite close to the streams2 but as the period progressed they moved up nearer to the cliffs and shelters4 ,here1 too1 there is evidence that a dry continental climate prevailed4 ,on the upper levels of the old plateaus of ,dordogne we still find the ,quercus ilex occurring quite frequently1 a tree which belongs to relatively dry regions and which in southern ,russia is reckoned with the flora of the steppes4 ,yet the greater aridity toward the close of the ,acheulean stage was probably not such as to prevent the growth of forests along the borders of the streams4 ,thus1 in the mammalian life of the period there was1 perhaps1 a division between the more hardy forms which frequented the dry plateaus above and the forest-loving and less hardy forms which frequented the river-valleys4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hf4 ,valleys of the two great river-systems of southwestern ,france1 the ,dordogne draining the central plateau and the ,garonne draining the eastern ,pyrenees4 ,after ,harl4 ,the most convincing proof of an arid climate in the north of ,france with prevailing high westerly winds is found in the layers of 'loess' which occur on the 'terraces' of the ,somme1 the ,seine1 the ,rhine1 and the ,danube4 ,these 'lower loess' layers of ,third ,interglacial times frequently contain implements of the late ,acheulean industry4 ,thus1 at ,villejuif1 south of ,paris1 late ,acheulean implements are found embedded in drifts of 'loess4' ,in the valley of the ,somme1 flints of the middle ,acheulean stage are also found in the loess ancien and 'river-drift4' ,in the tuf de ,la ,celle-sous-,moret the layer of 'loess' immediately overlies the tufa layer containing late ,acheulean implements and proofs of a cooler climate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hg4 ,the valley of the ,vzre1 a northern tributary of the ,dordogne1 cuts through a broad plateau of limestone in which the streams have hollowed out deep beds with vertical sides1 favorable to the formation of caverns1 grottos1 and shelters4 ,here the landscape of late ,acheulean times bore the same general aspect as at present4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,among the most famous of the 'loess' stations of late ,acheulean times is that of ,achenheim on the upper ,rhine1 west of ,strasburg4 ,here the 'older loess' contains a typical ,acheulean culture4 ,with this prolonged epoch of cooler temperature the hippopotamus and the southern mammoth retreated to the warmer portions of southern ,europe1 and their remains are no longer found associated with the late ,acheulean flints4 ,the more hardy straight-tusked elephant and ,merck's rhinoceros still continued in the north1 apparently well adapted to sustain a very considerable fall in temperature4 ,,forms ,,of ,,late ,,acheulean ,,implements ,the coups de poing of the late ,acheulean exhibit a great advance upon the ,chellean1 being fashioned into dagger or lance forms1 with all the edges carefully chipped4 ,the ovaloid implements of late ,acheulean times are often worked into fine and sharp blades1 which may have been used like butcher-knives for dismembering the carcasses of game and for cutting up the pelts1 while the fine almond and disc shapes may have been used as scrapers to cut off the tissues of the inner surfaces of the hides1 which were finally dressed by the grattoir1 or flint planing tool4 ,in brief1 the coup de poing reaches its acme of development in late ,acheulean times1 both in the fineness of flaking and retouching and in its symmetry of form4 ,the use of large flakes of flint and the retouching both of the borders and of the extremities of these flakes shows a constantly improving technique4 ,it is in the thin1 flat1 triangular blades and in the lance-pointed forms that the coup de poing reaches its culmination2 but we still observe the development of the oval or almond-shaped forms and of the flattened discs4 ,the implements of this time reach their greatest perfection in the north of ,france1 where flint is so abundant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hh4 ,varied shapes of the ,acheulean flints described as coups de poing1 including some 'miniature' forms1 after de ,mortillet4 ,the oval1 the pointed1 the almond1 the triangular1 the disc-shaped4 ,the late ,acheulean is distinguished by an advance in all the finer and smaller implements1 tools1 and weapons2 yet the finest work of ,acheulean times appears thick and clumsy when contrasted with the best ,solutrean work of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,one-quarter actual size4 ,the late ,acheulean is further distinguished by an advance in all the finer and smaller implements and tools4 ,the knives are now very fine and perfect1 although they retain the broad1 thick form of the original flint fragment and seldom attain the symmetrical shape which characterizes the blades of the ,upper ,palolithic47#da7 ,the 'points' are also of finer technique1 with their edges converging from a broad base to a well-formed point4 ,it is generally assumed that these were held in the bare hand1 but it is quite as probable that they were attached to wooden shafts and used as dart or spear heads4 ,by far the most numerous as well as the most varied of the smaller tools were the racloirs1 or scrapers1 which were developed1 doubtless1 by the increasing use of skins for clothing as a protection against the somewhat more rigorous climate of late ,acheulean times4 ,probably the women of the tribe were employed in dressing hides by means of these scrapers1 which were either flat and broad with crescent-shaped edges1 flat and narrow1 or double-edged with rounded ends4 ,the development of other fine tools--borers1 small discs1 triangular and ovaloid shapes1 miniature coups de poing1 and many varied forms besides--is best witnessed in the station of ,la ,micoque1 close to the junction of the ,vzre with the ,dordogne4 ,these miniature implements may well have been used in the final dressing of skins for clothing1 in the chase of smaller kinds of game1 or at feasts for splitting marrow-bones4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #hi4 ,the chef-d'uvre of the ,acheulean industry is the ,levallois flake1 which may have evolved from the large flakes of ,chellean times4 ,after ,worthington ,smith4 ,no bone implements whatever have been found even with these late ,acheulean flints1 but it is important to observe that the majority of these stations are open and exposed to the weather and that bone implements would not be preserved here as they would in the sheltered grottos and caverns to which the flint workers repaired in the ,mousterian and succeeding times4 ,as regards the finish of these flint implements1 it is important to note that it is fine only by comparison with the crude work of the early ,acheulean or the still coarser types of ,chellean times and that the very finest work of ,acheulean times appears thick and clumsy when contrasted with the finer work of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,the chef-d'uvre of the late ,acheulean industry is the ,levallois flake1 first found at ,levallois-,perret1 near ,paris1 which de ,mortillet believed to be fashioned out of a divided coup de poing with a flat under-side1 but which may have been evolved from the very large primitive flakes of ,pre-,chellean date4 ,these flakes date back earlier than the ,chellean coup de poing but continued in use after its invention and may have been greatly perfected into the ,levallois type4 ,this type of 'couteau' is a large1 wide1 thin flake of fairly symmetrical shape1 with a flat back formed by the original smooth surface of the flake4 ,these implements are pointed1 oval1 or sharply rectangular in form and present the most characteristic tool of the closing stage of the ,acheulean industry4 ,it is most interesting at this point to observe the two modes of evolution which seem to pervade all nature3 first1 the gradual perfection and modification in size and proportion of a certain older form2 second1 the sudden change or mutation into a new form1 which in turn enters the stage of gradual improvement4 ,the late ,acheulean is seen to present the climax of a gradual and unbroken development from the early ,chellean industries and ideas2 and to our mind this is strongly suggestive of a corresponding evolution of manual skill and mental development in the workmen themselves1 who may have been partly of ,pre-,neanderthaloid race4 ,the next industrial stage1 namely1 the ,mousterian1 which certainly presents the closing workmanship of the ,neanderthal race1 shows a marked retrogression of technique in contrast to the steady progression which we have observed up to this time4 ,we have1 in fact1 witnessed a number of successive stages of progression1 which are to be followed in the ,mousterian by a stage of retrogression4 ,such a retrogression in industrial development may for certain known or unknown reasons occur in the same race4 ,it is a noteworthy parallel that in the ,upper ,palolithic1 where the ,solutrean culture represents the climax and perfection of flint working1 the succeeding ,magdalenian shows marked retrogression in the technique of flint retouch4 ,,the ,,krapina ,,neanderthaloids ,in northern ,croatia1 near the small town of ,krapina1 in the valley of the ,krapinica ,river1 is the now famous cavern of ,krapina1 where in #ahii was made the fourth discovery of the remains of men of the ,neanderthaloid race in western ,europe1 twelve years after the discovery of the men of ,spy1 in ,belgium1 and forty-three years after the discovery of the man of ,neanderthal4 ,even now opinion is divided as to the age of the human remains found in this cavern4 ,the discoverer1 ,professor ,gorjanovi-,kramberger of ,agram considered that the stone implements and chips were of ,mousterian age1 and ,breuil still refers them to the early1 or so-called warm1 ,mousterian period2 this opinion is shared by ,dchelette4 ,schmidt1 however1 regards ,krapina as a true ,acheulean station1 lacking in some of the typical implements1 and of the same age as the 'loess' station of ,ehringsdorf4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ij4 ,the grotto of ,krapina1 overlooking the valley of the ,krapinica ,river1 near ,krapina1 ,croatia1 in ,austria-,hungary4 ,after ,kraemer4 ,the mammals found in the cavern certainly belong to the very late ,acheulean period and include ,merck's rhinoceros1 the cave-bear1 the urus1 a species of horse1 the giant deer 7,megaceros71 the beaver1 and the marmot 7,arctomys marmotta74 ,the cavern was originally washed out by the river1 but now it is #hb feet above the present water-level4 ,when found it was completely filled with sand and gravel deposits1 weathered fragments from the roof and walls1 and loose stones and boulders47#db7 ,enclosed in this mass1 in separate strata which are perfectly distinguishable1 there lay1 variously distributed through the different layers1 thousands of animal bones1 mingled with hundreds of human bones1 and hundreds of stone implements and chips4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ia4 ,cross-section of the valley traversed by the ,krapinica ,river showing the location of the grotto known as the ,krapina recess on the bank to the left4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds4 ,during the years #ahii-aije ,gorjanovi-,kramberger made a thorough exploration of the contents of this cavern1 and published a complete account of his researches in #aijf47dc7 ,there were about three hundred pieces of human bones1 among them many small fragments1 also many sizable pieces of skull and several entire limb bones perfectly preserved4 ,the bones are of a strongly characterized type1 and the lower jaws1 face bones1 bones of the thigh and arm1 the teeth1 and the bones of many children establish the ,krapina race as belonging unquestionably in the same group with that of ,neanderthal and of ,spy4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ib4 ,detail showing the interior contents of the ,krapina grotto before its excavation in the years #ahii to #aije4 ,after ,gorjanovi-,kramberger4 ,the skull of the ,krapina man 7,fig4 #ic7 is somewhat broader or more brachycephalic than that of any other members of the ,neanderthal race4 ,in general1 the race is somewhat dwarfed1 of broader head form and with less prominent supraorbital processes4 ,the species is unquestionably ,homo neanderthalensis1 of which the ,krapina men constitute a local race4 ,schwalbe and ,boule observe that the greater breadth of the ,krapina skull is partly due to the manner in which the bones have been put together17#dd7 and they do not consider that the ,krapina man represents a different subrace 7,homo neanderthalensis krapinensis7 as held by the discoverer4 ,the cephalic index of one ,krapina skull is recorded as #hc4g per cent 787 as compared with #gc4i per cent1 the cephalic index of the true ,h4 neanderthalensis1 a difference which1 as above noted1 may be partly due to the restoration4 ,the bones are in such a fragmentary condition that it is impossible to form a proper estimate of the brain capacity in either the males or females of this race2 nor is it possible to estimate the stature4 ,the space between the eyes is the same as in the ,neanderthal race2 the angle of the retreat of the forehead 7#eb7 is nearly the same as in the ,gibraltar female ,neanderthal skull 7#ej71 this high forehead being due to the lesser development of the supraorbital ridges4 ,that the brain was of a low1 flat-headed ,neanderthal type is shown by the close similarity of the index of the height of skull 7#db4b7 to that of one of the men of ,spy 7#dd4c71 as compared with the lowest index among the existing races of men 7#dh4i72 yet the ,krapina man presents a considerable advance over ,pithecanthropus1 in which the index of the height of skull is only #cd4b4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ic4 ,profile view1 right side1 of one of the skulls from ,krapina4 ,this skull is much broader than that of the typical ,neanderthaloid4 ,after ,gorjanovi-,kramberger4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,the jaw is more slender than that of the ,heidelberg man but is still thick and massive2 the chin is receding1 a characteristic of all the ,neanderthal races4 ,the broken condition of all the human bones in this cavern1 and the abundant indications of fire1 have led to the charge that the ,neanderthals of ,krapina were cannibals1 and that these mingled remains are the bones of animals and men collected here during cannibalistic feasts4 ,against this supposition ,breuil observes that none of the human bones are split lengthwise1 as is the usual practice when extracting the marrow1 but they are broken crosswise4 ,this is the only evidence of such practice that has been found during all ,palolithic times1 and we should hesitate to accept it unless corroborated by other localities4 ,the various layers indicate that the cavern was successively occupied by man2 in or near the hearths are found stone implements1 broken and incinerated bones1 and pieces of charcoal1 which may indicate that this grotto was visited only at intervals1 perhaps during the colder seasons of the year4 7#a7 ,harl1 #aiaj4a4 7#b7 d',ault du ,mesnil1 #ahif4a1 pp4 #bhd-bif4 7#c7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #adf4 7#d7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #aah-abf4 7#e7 ,boule1 #ahhh4a4 7#f7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #cbg-cbi4 7#g7 ,haug1 #aijg4a1 vol4 ,,ii1 pp4 #cbg-cbi4 7#h7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 p4 #bfb4 7#i7 ,morlot1 #ahed4a4 7#aj7 ,commont1 #aijf4a4 7#aa7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 pp4 #ajg-aaa4 7#ab7 d',ault du ,mesnil1 op4 cit4 7#ac7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #abd1 #abe4 7#ad7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #aah4 7#ae7 ,dawson1 #aiac4a2 #aiac4b2 #aiac4c4 7#af7 ,kennard1 #aiac4a4 7#ag7 ,reid1 #aiac4a4 7#ah7 ,dawson1 #aiac4a1 p4 #abc2 #aiad4a1 pp4 #hb-hf4 7#ai7 ,keith1 ,a41 #aiac4a2 #aiac4b2 #aiac4c4 7#bj7 ,smith1 ,g4 ,e41 #aiac4a2 #aiac4b2 #aiac4c2 #aiac4d4 7#ba7 ,boule1 #aiac4a1 pp4 #bde1 #bdf4 7#bb7 ,schwalbe1 #aiad4a1 p4 #fjc4 7#bc7 ,osborn1 #aiaj4a1 pp4 #djd-dji4 7#bd7 ,ewart1 #aijd4a2 #aijg4a2 #aiji4a4 7#be7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #abj4 7#bf7 de ,mortillet1 #ahfi4a4 7#bg7 ,obermaier1 op4 cit41 p4 #aaf4 7#bh7 ,lyell1 #ahfc4a1 p4 #afd4 7#bi7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 pp4 #aai1 #bfc1 #bfd4 7#cj7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #abe1 #abf4 7#ca7 ,geikie1 op4 cit41 p4 #bbh4 7#cb7 ,avebury1 #aiac4a1 p4 #cdb1 ,fig4 #bcf4 7#cc7 ,schmidt1 op4 cit41 pp4 #ag-aje4 7#cd7 ,breuil1 #aiab4e1 p4 #ad4 7#ce7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #afd4 7#cf7 ,obermaier1 op4 cit41 pp4 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #acj4 7#cg7 ,commont1 #aijh4a4 7#ch7 ,dchelette1 #aijh4a1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #hj-ij4 7#ci7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 p4 #bee4 7#dj7 ,hilzheimer1 #aiac4a1 p4 #ade4 7#da7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #abg4 7#db7 ,fischer1 #aiac4a4 7#dc7 ,gorjanovi-,kramberger1 #aija4a2 #aijc4a2 #aijf4a4 7#dd7 ,schwalbe1 #aiad4a1 p4 #eig4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,interglacial1 ,,temperate1 ,,and ,,arid ,,climate1 ,,acheulean ,,industry--,,advent ,,of ,,the ,,fourth ,,glaciation1 ,,profound ,,changes ,,in ,,animal ,,and ,,plant ,,life--,,the ,,arctic ,,tundra ,,period ,,of ,,mammalian ,,and ,,plant ,,life--,,characters ,,of ,,the ,,neanderthal ,,race1 ,,of ,,their ,,mousterian ,,flint ,,industry--,,supposed ,,causes ,,of ,,extinction ,,or ,,dispersal ,we now reach a prolonged and important stage in the prehistory of ,europe1 namely1 the period of the fourth glaciation1 of the final development of the ,neanderthal race of man1 of the ,mousterian industry1 of the beginnings of cave life1 of the chase of the reindeer1 and its use for food and clothing4 ,in all ,europe the ,acheulean industry appears to have come to a close during a period of arid climate1 warm in some parts of western ,europe and cool or even cold in others4 ,the seasonal variations may well have been extreme1 as on the steppes of southern ,russia1 where exceedingly hot summers may be followed by intensely cold winters1 with high winds and snow-storms destructive of life4 ,it is this seasonal alternation1 as well as the recurrence1 either seasonal or secular1 of milder climate1 which explains the survival or return of the ,asiatic fauna even after the close of the ,acheulean industry and when the ,mousterian industry was well advanced4 ,from deposits found at ,grimaldi1 in the ,grotte des ,enfants and in the ,grotte du ,prince1 it has long been said that men of early ,mousterian times lived contemporary with the hippopotamus1 the straight-tusked elephant1 and ,merck's rhinoceros in the genial climate of the ,mediterranean ,riviera4 ,more recently the same animals have been found as far north as the ,somme valley in the 'river-drifts' of ,montires-les-,amiens47#a7 ,here1 again1 we find remains of the hippopotamus1 the straight-tusked elephant1 and its companion1 ,merck's rhinoceros1 in ,mousterian deposits1 a surprising discovery1 because it had always been supposed that a cold climatic period had set in all over western ,europe even before the close of the ,acheulean culture4 ,but there is also evidence of a temperate climate still prevailing in the ,thames valley in the period of the ,mousterian 'floors4'7#b7 ,again1 along the ,vzre valley1 ,dordogne1 we find that at the station of ,la ,micoque1 where the industry marks the transition between late ,acheulean and early ,mousterian times1 ,merck's rhinoceros is found in the lowest layers associated with remains of the moose 7,alces74 ,there is evidence that ,merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant lingered in western ,europe during the whole period of the early development of the ,mousterian industry4 ,as observed above1 these animals were hardier than the southern mammoth1 which was the first of the ,asiatic mammals to disappear1 soon to be followed by its companion1 the hippopotamus4 ,even after the advent of the closely associated tundra pair1 the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros1 ,merck's rhinoceros persists1 as1 for example1 in the deposits of ,rixdorf1 near ,berlin1 where this ancient type occurs in the same deposits with the woolly mammoth1 the woolly rhinoceros1 the reindeer1 and the musk-ox1 as well as with the forest forms1 the moose1 stag1 wolf1 and forest horse4 ,the extreme northern latitude of this deposit explains the absence of the straight-tusked elephant1 which may at the time have been living farther to the south4 ,the same mingling of south and north ,asiatic mammals is found at ,steinheim1 in the valley of the ,murr1 some degrees to the west and south of ,rixdorf1 not far from ,gttingen1 where we find ,merck's rhinoceros7#c7 and the straight-tusked elephant in association with the woolly mammoth1 the woolly rhinoceros1 the giant deer1 and the reindeer4 ,thus the ,neanderthal races were entering the ,mousterian stage of culture during the close of the ,third ,interglacial ,stage and during the early period of the advance of the ice-fields from the great centres in ,scandinavia and the ,alps4 ,as these ice-fields slowly approached each other from the north and from the south a very great period of time must have elapsed during which all the south ,asiatic mammals abandoned western ,europe or became extinct1 with the exception of the lions and hynas1 which became well fitted to the very severe climate that prevailed over ,europe during the fourth glaciation1 and even during the long ,postglacial ,stage which ensued4 ,the large carnivora readily become thoroughly adapted to cold climates1 as they subsist on animal life wherever it may be found2 tigers of the same stock as those of ,india have been found as far north as the river ,lena1 in latitude #eb #be'1 where the climate is colder than that of ,petrograd or of ,stockholm1 while the lion throve in the cold atmosphere of the upper ,atlas range4 ,thus the cave-lion 7,felis leo spela7 and the cave-hyna 7,h4 crocuta spela7 doubtless evolved an undercoating of fur as well as an overcoating of long hair1 like the tundra mammals4 ,in size the lion of this period in ,france often equalled and sometimes surpassed its existing relatives1 the ,african and west ,asiatic lion2 it frequently figures in the art of the ,upper ,palolithic artists and survived in western ,europe to the very close of ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,,the ,,fourth ,,glaciation ,penck7#d7 has estimated that the first maximum of the fourth glaciation in the ,alps was reached #dj1jjj years ago1 and that after the recession period the second maximum ended not less than #bj1jjj years ago4 ,this would extend the ,mousterian industry over a very long period of time1 for there can be no doubt that the ,mousterian culture was practically contemporaneous with the fourth glaciation1 even if a briefer period of time should be allotted to this great natural event4 ,the fourth glaciation1 like the first1 is believed to have been contemporaneous in ,europe and ,north ,america17#e7 a fact which is of especial importance to ,american anthropologists in connection with the question of the date of arrival of primitive man in ,america4 ,in both countries the glaciation reached an early maximum1 which was followed by a period of recession of the ice-fields1 a time during which a somewhat more temperate climate prevailed1 but this in turn gave way to a second advance of as great severity as the first4,,ae ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #id4 ,europe during the extension of the ice-fields and glaciers of the ,fourth ,glacial ,stage4 ,this is also supposed to have been a period of land depression and of extension of the inland seas of southern ,europe4 ,britain was probably connected with ,france4 ,the ice-covered areas in western ,europe and ,britain were far more limited than during the ,third ,glacial ,stage1 yet the climate appears to have been more severe than at any previous period4 ,for the snow-level compare ,fig4 #ac4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds after ,geikie and ,de ,geer4 ,in the north1 ,scandinavia and ,finland were again enshrouded in ice1 and a great mer de glace occupied the basin of the ,baltic ,sea1 sending its terminal moraines into ,denmark and ,schleswig-,holstein and over the northern provinces of ,germany1 but this great ice-field did not again become confluent with that of ,great ,britain47#g7 ,at the commencement of the fourth glaciation large glaciers descended over the ,scottish mountain valleys and filled many of them even to the sea2 the coast subsided at least #acj feet in this region4 ,in southern ,britain along the valley of the ,thames there spread an arctic flora1 with the polar willow 7,salix polaris7 and the dwarf birch 7,betula glandulosa72 an arctic plant bed has also been discovered in the valley of the ,lea4 ,thus the tundra climate extended from the ,scottish lowlands to the south of ,england1 the land being bleak and almost treeless47#h7 ,this1 we believe1 was also the period of the arctic flora at ,hoxne1 ,suffolk1 and of the arctic plant bed in the valley of the ,thames4 ,at this time the valley was frequented by the reindeer1 the woolly rhinoceros1 and the mammoth1 whose remains are entombed in the low-level alluvia swept down from the sides of the valley1 so that the remains of this arctic fauna may in places actually overlie those of the more deeply buried and far more ancient warm ,asiatic fauna of ,chellean times4 ,like the ,somme1 the ,thames7#i7 was then from #aj to #be feet below its present level1 the bottom having since silted up with alluvial soil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ie4 ,the two large tundra mammals1 the woolly rhinoceros 7upper71 drawn from the work of ,upper ,palolithic artists and from the specimen discovered at ,starunia1 in ,galicia1 ,austria2 and the woolly mammoth 7lower74 ,these hardy animals gradually replaced the ,african-,asiatic pair1 ,merck's rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant4 ,drawn by ,erwin ,s4 ,christman4 ,one-sixtieth life size4 ,this was the period of the deposition of the 'upper drift' over the north ,german lowlands1 the ,alps1 and northern ,england1 also of the early and late ,wisconsin1 or 'upper drift1' which spreads very widely over the ,eastern ,states1 from ,wisconsin southward and eastward to the latitude of ,new ,york4 ,the gravels and sands of some of the 'lowest terraces' were also deposited4 ,,mammalian ,,life ,,of ,,mousterian ,,times ,the three successive phases of climate and environment surrounding the ,neanderthal men during the period of the development of the ,mousterian industry1 were in descending order as follows3 #c4 ,extreme ,cold ,climate of the ,last ,great ,glacial ,advance4 ,period of the late ,mousterian industry of ,la ,quina4 ,spread of all the arctic and tundra mammals over western ,europe1 including the musk-ox2 migrations of the obi and banded lemming of the extreme north4 ,life and industry of the ,neanderthal races1 chiefly in the shelters1 grottos1 and entrances to the caverns4 #b4 ,cold ,moist ,climate4 ,period of the middle or 'full ,mousterian' industry of the ,neanderthal races4 ,appearance of the tundra life1 including well-protected mammals and birds from the arctic region1 also descent of the ,alpine types to the foot-hills and river borders4 ,first forerunners of the steppe life2 the full ,eurasiatic forest and field life widely spread over ,europe4 ,life and industry chiefly in the shelters1 grottos1 and entrances to the caverns4 ,reindeer very abundant4 #a4 ,warm or ,cool ,arid ,climate4 ,transition from the ,acheulean to the early ,mousterian culture1 as observed in the stations of ,la ,micoque and of ,combe-,capelle4 ,the so-called 'warm ,mousterian' fauna1 including the surviving hippopotamus1 ,merck's rhinoceros1 and the straight-tusked elephant in northern and southern ,france2 herds of bison1 cattle1 and wild horses in southwestern ,france4 ,tribal life1 with the industry partly in open stations1 partly under sheltering cliffs4 ,this is the beginning of the ',reindeer ,period1' for this migrant from ,scandinavia1 with its companions of the northeastern tundras1 the woolly mammoth and the rhinoceros1 wandered slowly southward before the advancing ,scandinavian ice-fields1 which were greatly augmented by the increasingly cold and moist climate4 ,thus these animals are found in the north with flints of the ,mousterian culture before they appear in the more genial region of ,dordogne4 ,in the somewhat older ,acheulean-,mousterian station of ,la ,micoque1 along the ,vzre1 the fire-hearths contain almost exclusively the remains of horses and relatively few remains of bison and wild cattle1 but no reindeer4 ,a fireplace near the station of ,combe-,capelle yields numerous remains of the bison1 only a few of the horse1 and the first of the reindeer4 ,before the appearance of the reindeer in the valley of the ,vzre we may picture the meadow-lands as covered with bison and wild horses1 the latter of the type which is now characteristic of the high plateaus of central ,asia1 while the bison of the period appears to be more similar to the ,american buffalo than to the surviving ,european form4 ,gradually the tundra animals spread toward the south with the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western ,europe4 ,the whole aspect of the country slowly changed with the approach of the reindeer1 and the northern flora of the spruce1 the fir1 and the arctic willow clad the more sheltered river-valleys and hillsides1 while the plateaus and fields were partly or wholly deforested4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #if4 ,typical tundra fauna4 ,gradually the tundra animals pressed toward the south with the cold climate which for the first time swept all over western ,europe4 ,the wolverene1 ,gulo luscus borealis2 the barren-ground reindeer1 ,rangifer tarandus 7drawn from the living type72 the arctic fox1 ,canis lagopus2 the musk-ox1 ,ovibos moschatus2 and the banded lemming1 ,myodes torquatus4 ,one-twenty-fifth life size4 ,the lemming 7,a7 is also shown one-seventh life size4 ,drawn by ,erwin ,s4 ,christman4 ,thus the country became adapted chiefly to the tundra types of mammals2 and in the middle ,mousterian strata these herds1 newly migrated from the far north and from the northeastern steppes bordering the ,obi ,river1 largely outnumber the steppe forms1 which are limited to two or three species4 ,of these the principal types are the steppe horse1 related to the ,przewalski horse now living in the desert of ,gobi1 the steppe suslik 7,spermophilus rufescens71 and the steppe grouse1 or moor-hen4 ,the more characteristic forms of steppe life1 such as the saiga antelope1 the jerboa1 and the kiang1 were all later arrivals and did not appear until after the close of the ,mousterian industry and the disappearance of the ,neanderthal race4 ,this was due to the fact that the climate surrounding the ,neanderthal race in ,mousterian times was cold and moist1 with heavy rainfalls in summer and snow-storms in winter1 a climate thoroughly suited to the arctic tundra mammals with their heavy covering of hair acting as a rain shed and the undercoating of wool protecting them in the most severe weather4 ,the mammal life during the fourth glaciation1 as it spread into the middle ,rhine and ,westphalian region1 is fully recorded in the 'loess' deposits of ,achenheim and in the famous grotto of ,sirgenstein1 on the upper ,danube1 lying northwest of ,munich1 where1 together with traces of the most primitive ,mousterian industry1 are found remains of the mammoth1 the bison1 the reindeer1 a species of wild horse1 and the cave-bear4 ,following these mammals there is a record in the same deposit of the arrival of the ,obi lemming1 from northern ,russia4 ,the fact that only seven ,mousterian stations are known in all ,germany1 or eight if we include the site of the ,neanderthal burial1 may be accounted for by the relatively close proximity of the great ,scandinavian glacier on the north1 which was only #cej miles distant from the great ,alpine glacier on the south4 ,to the east were the plains of ,bohemia and the vast lowland region stretching northeastward to the tundras and eastward to the steppes1 through which came the great migrations of tundra and steppe life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ig4 ,the seven ,mousterian stations of ,germany lay between the ,scandinavian glacier 7,,iv7 on the north and the ,alpine glacier 7,,iv7 on the south 7dotted areas74 ,they include the grottos of ,sirgenstein1 ,irpfelhhle1 and ,ruberhhle1 along the valley of the ,danube2 ,kartstein and ,buchenloch1 near the middle ,rhine1 and ,baumannshhle1 south of ,hanover2 also the open loess station of ,mommenheim4 ,the ,mousterian grotto of ,wildkirchli1 in ,switzerland1 lay within the limits of the ,alpine ice-fields2 and the burial at ,neanderthal1 near ,dsseldorf1 was probably of ,mousterian age4 ,after ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt1 modified and redrawn4 ,,geographic ,,and ,,climatic ,,environment ,,of ,,the ,,neanderthal ,,race ,let us first glance at ,dordogne4 ,among the stations of the early ,mousterian industry we have seen that the ,neanderthals in the valley of the ,vzre1 at ,la ,micoque1 were in the midst of a fauna chiefly composed of the bison and of the wild horse1 the remains found in the hearths being almost exclusively of the latter animal4,,af ,in the primitive ,mousterian station of ,combe-,capelle near by the fire-hearths yield remains of the bison but only a few of the horse4 ,among the earliest caves inhabited by man7#aj7 was that of ,le ,moustier1 situated on the right bank of the ,vzre1 and about #ij feet above it4 ,this shelter and cave were examined as early as #ahfj-c by ,lartet7#aa7 and ,christy and subsequently by de ,vibraye17#ab7 ,massnat17#ac7 and others4 ,besides the deposits in the floor of the grotto there1 a deep ,mousterian culture layer has been found under the cliff in front1 and this has been selected for our representation of the life of the men of ,mousterian times1 and of the flora of the ,vzre in this early period 7see frontispiece74 ,peyrony observes that1 here as elsewhere1 the older and lower industrial camps were farther away from the shelters2 indeed1 in this very region there are evidences that the ,chellean and ,acheulean flint workers occasionally visited the plateaus above2 but as time passed and the weather became more severe the ,neanderthals began to work nearer to the overhanging cliffs and finally directly beneath them4 ,at this classic station of ,le ,moustier1 one of the most complete skeletons of ,neanderthal man was unearthed by ,hauser1 in #aijh4 ,there was a continuous residence here in middle and upper ,mousterian times1 extending into the lower ,aurignacian of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,the contemporary fauna in these deposits included the mammoth1 the reindeer1 the giant deer 7,megaceros71 the horse1 the bison1 the woolly rhinoceros1 and the cave-bear4 ,during the habitation of this typical station by man the climate was very cold and damp4 ,in this region is found the complete record of the course of ,mousterian evolution1 both in the implements and in the advent of new forms of life2 the number of reindeer gradually increases in the ascending layers with the development of the ,mousterian industry4 ,there is a constant gradation from the ,acheulean into the ,mousterian industrial types2 according to ,cartailhac1 this industry is all the work of the same people1 with no sharp lines of division4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ih4 ,the type station of ,le ,moustier1 on the right bank of the ,vzre1 ,dordogne4 ,the culture layer is on the middle terrace1 overlooking the hamlet of ,le ,moustier4 7,compare frontispiece1 ,pl4 ,i47 ,photograph by ,belvs4 ,thus at ,combe-,capelle1 where the dbut of the true ,mousterian culture took place1 we find a number of large coups de poing1 pointing back to the early ,acheulean implements4 ,the gradations which are exhibited here in these successive layers are quite in contrast to the advance of the industry at the close of ,mousterian times in the very same locality1 where there is an abrupt cultural transition toward the ,aurignacian4 ,southern ,britain tells of a similar sequence1 which we may interpret as follows4 ,belonging either to the temperate climate of early ,mousterian times1 or to the period of the recession of the fourth glaciation1 known in the ,alps as the ,laufenschwankung1 are the ,mousterian stations along the ,lea and near the mouth of the ,thames at ,crayford 7,worthington ,smith17#ad7 ,geikie7#ae774 ,these ,palolithic 'floors' of ,mousterian times are buried beneath #d to #e feet of sand and loam and rest upon the surface of older river-gravels4 ,among the later river deposits several old land surfaces have been discovered2 they consist of a few inches of angular gravel1 crowded in places with unabraded implements and flakes which obviously occur just where they were left by ,palolithic workmen4 ,at one point there is evidence that the flint maker squatted over his work1 with his knees slightly apart1 for the chips are thrown to the right and left in small piles4 ,here and there1 mixed with these ,mousterian implements1 are more archaic forms which may have been drifted down from the older land surfaces above4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ii4 ,excavations of the ,mousterian culture layer under the cliff of ,le ,moustier4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,one such floor has been traced by ,worthington ,smith7#af7 through ,middlesex and on both sides of the ,thames4 ,plant remains occur plentifully on this old land surface1 including impressions of portions of leaves1 stems of grass1 rushes1 and sedges4 ,the birch1 alder1 pine1 yew1 elm1 and hazel have been recognized4 ,the common male fern is of frequent occurrence1 while the royal fern 7,osmunda regalis7 is found in profusion4 ,upon the whole1 this assemblage of plants indicates a temperate climate4 ,the flints described and figured by ,worthington ,smith are either of the late ,acheulean ',levallois flake' type or else of early ,mousterian age4 ,this writer7#ag7 notes the great number of instruments known as trimmed flakes1 which are found on the ,palolithic 'floor'2 these are flakes of large size1 trimmed to an implement-like form on one side1 while the other side is left perfectly plain2 the examples are remarkably constant to one form4 ,the type of implement here described resembles the flakes of ,levallois or ,combe-,capelle1 or even the typical 'point' from ,le ,moustier4 ,such flakes1 shaped into the ,mousterian forms of racloir1 or scraper1 are very common in the gravels of the ,lea and of the ,thames4 ,while the remains of the woolly mammoth are found here1 there are also indications of the presence of a well-marked temperate flora4 ,these high-level 'river-drifts' along the ,thames7#ah7 were certainly deposited when the climatic conditions were temperate1 but they are succeeded by deposits indicating a renewed cold period1 which may represent the cold 'full ,mousterian' times of the ,lower ,palolithic habitation of the ,thames4 ,here we find the remarkable sheets of contorted 'drift' attributable to the movements of the frozen soil and subsoil when exposed to the heat of the summer sun4 ,at the same time there may have been deposited along the ,thames the alluvial loams and gravels1 occasionally containing stones and rocks1 which were brought down by ice-rafts2 these low-level gravels are not to be confused with the underlying 'old river-gravels' which contain the warm temperate hippopotamus fauna1 for they were accumulated under very cold conditions2 they yield remains of the woolly rhinoceros and of the mammoth4 ,thus1 on the high levels of the ,thames as well as on the low levels we find evidences of the human culture and of the extinct fauna of the period of the fourth great glaciation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajj4 ,mousterian cavern of ,wildkirchli4 ,after ,bchler4 ,entrances indicated at #a1 #b1 and #c1 in the side of the limestone cliff4 ,here1 at a height of #d1ejj feet above sea-level1 ,bchler discovered proofs of occupation by ,mousterian man in the very heart of the ,alpine ice-fields of the ,fourth ,glacial ,stage4 ,the upper waters of the ,rhine and ,danube were also frequented by late ,acheulean and early ,mousterian flint workers4 ,at a point far distant from southern ,england there is the cavern of ,wildkirchli on the ,santis ,mountains1 near ,appenzell1 in ,switzerland2 in ,mousterian times this was in the very heart of the north ,alpine ice-field4 ,the animal life here may indicate that this cavern was open during the period of recession between the two great advances of the fourth glaciation4 ,here1 at a height of #d1ejj feet1 ,bchler7#ai7 between #aijc-f1 discovered proofs of occupation by ,neanderthal man during ,mousterian times2 the flints are not well formed2 the presence of crude bone implements may point to late ,mousterian times2 but the flints are considered by ,bchler to be of the same stage as those of ,le ,moustier4 ,it is asserted that when the ,neanderthals followed the chase here the climate was more genial1 because the animals found include the stag1 ,alpine wolf 7,cyon alpinus fossilis71 cave-bear1 cave-lion1 cave-leopard 7,felis pardus spela71 badger1 marten1 and otter1 together with the typical ,alpine forms1 the ibex1 chamois1 and marmot4 ,but this fauna alone can hardly be taken as proof of a temperate climate1 for at this ,alpine height we should not expect to discover the tundra life of the period2 in fact1 it is entirely absent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aja4 ,entrance to the grotto of ,sirgenstein4 ,after ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 ,of all the stations along the ,danube by far the most important is that of ,sirgenstein 444 which was first occupied by the ,neanderthals in early ,mousterian times and continued to be visited by the ,lower and ,upper ,palolithic men until the very close of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,of all the stations along the ,danube1 by far the most important is that of ,sirgenstein1 lying between the modern cities of ,nuremberg and ,augsburg1 which was first occupied by the ,neanderthals in early ,mousterian times and continued to be visited by the ,lower and ,upper ,palolithic men until the very close of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,the continuous section of animal life and of human culture which this remarkable cavern yields afforded ,schmidt17#bj7 who began his researches here in the spring of #aijf1 a key to the prehistory of all the eighteen caverns in the region of the upper ,danube and upper ,rhine4 ,in ,sirgenstein the primitive ,mousterian culture of the early ,neanderthals was found1 together with remains of the mammoth1 bison1 reindeer1 a species of wild horse1 and the cave-bear2 this ,mousterian industry closed with a record of the arrival in this region of the ,obi lemming from northern ,russia4 ,later on the ,cr-,magnon race of ,aurignacian times left on the floor of the cavern remains of their flint industry and of their feasts1 including the bones of the woolly rhinoceros1 mammoth1 stag1 and reindeer4 ,during ,upper ,palolithic ,solutrean times the cavern was not occupied2 but early in ,magdalenian times it was again inhabited by man1 and coincident with his return is the arrival of a great migration of the banded lemming 7,myodes torquatus7 from the arctic tundras of the north4 ,finally1 toward the end of the ,upper ,palolithic1 in late ,magdalenian times1 another climatic transition is indicated by the appearance of the pika1 or tailless hare 7,lagomys pusillus74 ,during the ,bronze ,age this favorite grotto was again entered1 and it was also inhabited during a portion of the ,iron ,age4 ,the dbris of these various cultures1 hearths1 and deposits of cave loam reach a total thickness of #h-a_/b feet and mark ,sirgenstein as first in rank among the ,palolithic stations of ,germany4 ,,types ,,and ,,migrations ,,of ,,the ,,mammals ,,hunted ,,by ,,the ,,neanderthals ,this is the life of the period of the fourth glaciation1 when a very cold and moist climate prevailed all over western ,europe as far south as northern ,spain and northern ,italy4 ,while the glacial fields were not so extensive as during the third or the second glaciation1 the climate was very severe1 as indicated by the southward migration not only of the arctic flora but of the mammals and birds of the tundra region bordering the southern shores of the ,arctic ,ocean4 ,two or three forms from the cold steppes of northern ,russia also found their way into western ,europe1 but this was distinctly not a steppe period because of the prevailing moisture of the climate2 in place of the westerly winds and great dust clouds of closing ,acheulean times1 cold mists and clouds heavy with moisture swept over the country1 which during the winters was at times buried in snow1 and subject to rapid changes of temperature4 ,these climatic,,ag conditions appear to be demonstrated by the predominance of the arctic tundra life1 mammals which were adapted only to severe weather and attracted by the northern flora4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,v4 ,the ,neanderthal man of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 inhabiting the ,dordogne region of central ,france in ,mousterian times4 ,antiquity estimated as between #dj1jjj and #be1jjj years4 ,after the restoration modelled by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,for the bodily proportions of this hunting race compare the frontispiece1 ,pl4 ,i4 ,the summers were undoubtedly warm like the present ,arctic summers1 but very much longer in these southerly latitudes4 ,it is not improbable that there were seasonal migrations1 northward and southward1 of the mammoths1 rhinoceroses1 and reindeer1 and also that the northern flint quarries along the ,somme and the ,marne may have been visited chiefly during the warm summer season4 ,the ,asiatic mammals had entirely disappeared from the regions of ,france and ,germany during the first maximum of the fourth glaciation1 but there are some who maintain that during the amelioration of climate that followed1 an interval in the ,alpine region termed the ,laufenschwankung by ,penck1 the straight-tusked elephant and ,merck's rhinoceros again migrated into northern ,france4 ,it is true that occasionally we find the bones of these animals in close association with those of the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros4 ,it is possible to explain such intermingling either as having occurred during the advance of the fourth glaciation1 or as due to the northward and southward migration of the respective herds of mammals in the summer and winter seasons4 ,as the period of the fourth glaciation continued it is certain that these ,asiatic mammals entirely disappeared4 ,at the same time the ,neanderthals had passed through the first stage of development of the ,mousterian industry and had reached what is known as the 'full' or 'high' ,mousterian1 which1 with few exceptions1 was carried on under the shelter of the overhanging cliffs or within the grottos4 ,the mammalian life of these 'full' ,mousterian times1 as found along the headwaters of the ,danube1 the ,rhine1 and the branches of the ,dordogne and ,vzre1 is divided among the various faunal groups as follows3 ,,life ,,of ,,middle ,,mousterian ,,times ,,tundra ,,life4 ,woolly mammoth4 ,woolly rhinoceros4 ,scandinavian reindeer4 ,arctic fox4 ,arctic hare4 ,banded lemming4 ,arctic ptarmigan4 ,,alpine ,,life4 ,alpine marmot4 ,ibex4 ,alpine ptarmigan4 ,,steppe ,,life4 ,steppe horse4 ,steppe suslik4 ,moor-hen4 ,,asiatic ,,life4 ,cave-lion4 ,cave-hyna4 ,cave-leopard4 ,,forest ,,life4 ,stag1 lynx1 wolf1 fox1 water-vole1 brown bear1 giant deer4 ,cave-bear4 ,,meadow ,,life4 ,bison4 ,wild cattle4 ,it would appear that the reindeer1 the woolly mammoth1 and the woolly rhinoceros were already widely distributed over western ,europe1 accompanied by the arctic fox 7,canis lagopus71 the arctic hare 7,lepus variabilis71 and the banded lemming 7,myodes torquatus74 ,there is no proof that the musk-ox had at this time reached its extreme southerly distribution1 and it would appear that the arrival of the second type of northern lemming from the region of the river ,obi 7,myodes obensis7 did not occur until the close of ,mousterian times17#ba7 because the great migration of these animals is recorded by their abundant remains in the so-called 'lower rodent layer' of all the stations along the ,rhine and ,danube1 such as ,sirgenstein1 ,wildscheuer1 and ,ofnet1 after the final stage of ,mousterian industry4 ,in fact1 this remarkable little rodent appears to mark the second maximum or close of the fourth glaciation by its migration all over western ,europe1 and wherever its remains are found in the grotto deposits they furnish one of the most important and positive of prehistoric dates1 namely1 that of the 'lower rodent layer4' ,the lemmings surpass all other mammals in the great distances covered by their migrations1 and it would appear that this northern species swept all over western ,europe at the same time1 leaving its remains not only in the caverns along the ,danube but in those of ,belgium and of ,thiede1 near ,braunschweig4 ,the latter station1 ,thiede1 was not far from the southern border of the ,scandinavian glacier2 it was subjected to a very severe arctic climate1 as the only associates of the ,obi lemming were the banded lemming1 the arctic fox1 the arctic hare1 the reindeer1 the mammoth1 and the musk-ox4 ,,life ,,of ,,late ,,mousterian ,,times ,second ,maximum of ,fourth ,glaciation ,tundra1 ,steppe1 ,alpine1 ,asiatic and ,meadow life1 as above4 ,obi lemming4 ,musk-ox4 ,ermine4 ,arctic ptarmigan4 ,eversmann's weasel 7,steppe weasel74 ,the woolly mammoth now reaches the height of its evolution and specialization2 as preserved in the frozen tundras of northern ,siberia1 and as represented in very numerous drawings and engravings by the ,upper ,palolithic artists1 it is the most completely known of all fossil mammalia47#bb7 ,its proportions1 as shown in the accompanying figure1 which represents the information gathered from all sources1 are entirely different from those of either the ,indian or ,african elephant4 ,the head is very high and surmounted by a great mass of hair and wool2 behind this a sharp depression separates the back of the head from the great hump on the back2 the hinder portion of the back falls away very rapidly and the tail is short2 the overcoat of long hair nearly reaches the ground1 and beneath this is a warm undercoating of wool4 ,it is not improbable that the humps on the head and the back were fat reservoirs4 ,the color of the hair was a yellowish brown1 varying from light brown to pure brown2 woolly hair1 from an inch to an inch and a half in length1 covered the whole body interspersed with the shorter hairs was a large number of longer and thicker hairs1 which formed mane-like patches on the cheeks1 chin1 shoulders1 flanks1 and abdomen4 ,a broad fringe of this long hair extended along the sides of the body1 as depicted in the work of the ,upper ,palolithic artists in the ,combarelles ,cave4 ,especially interesting to us is the food found in the stomach and mouth of the frozen ,siberian mammoths1 which consists chiefly of a meadow flora such as flourishes during the summer in northern ,siberia at the present day1 including grasses and sedges1 wild thyme1 beans of the wild oxytropis1 also the arctic variety of the upright crowfoot 7,ranunculus acer74 ,this was the summer food4 ,the winter food undoubtedly included the leaves and stems of the willow1 the juniper1 and other winter plants4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajb4 ,the woolly mammoth 7,elephas primigenius7 and the contemporary ,neanderthal hunters 7,homo neanderthalensis71 after the drawings of ,upper ,palolithic artists and the frozen mammoths found in northern ,siberia4 ,by ,charles ,r4 ,knight1 #aiae4 ,the woolly rhinoceros was the invariable companion of the mammoth1 even as ,merck's rhinoceros always associated itself with the straight-tusked elephant4 ,this remarkable animal is related to the northern ,african group of white rhinoceroses1 from which it branched off at a very remote period4 ,the profile of its very long1 narrow head1 of its enormous anterior and lesser posterior horn1 and its humped back resembles that of the existing ,african form1 but its protection against the arctic climate gave it a wholly different outward appearance2 the hair of the face1 of a golden-brown color1 with an undercovering of wool1 is preserved in the ,museum of ,petrograd4 ,through a discovery at ,starunia1 in eastern ,galicia1 in #aiaa1 this animal is now completely known to us1 except the tail2 its remains were found here at a depth of #cj feet1 and included the head1 left fore leg1 and the skin of the left side of the body4 ,the ,starunia specimen has a broad1 truncated upper lip adapted to grazing habits1 small oblique eyes1 long1 narrow1 and pointed ears1 a long anterior horn with oval base1 and a shorter posterior horn1 a short neck1 on the back of which is a small1 fleshy hump1 quite independent of the skeleton2 the legs are comparatively short4 ,it differs from the living ,african form in the somewhat narrower muzzle1 in its small1 pointed ears1 and in the presence of a thick coating of hair4 ,like the white rhinoceros1 the woolly form was a plains dweller1 living on grass and small herbs47#bc7 ,this rhinoceros kept more closely to the borders of the great ice-sheets than did the mammoth1 arresting its migration in ,germany and ,france2 that is1 it did not migrate so far to the south as the mammoth1 which wandered down into ,italy as far as ,rome4 ,the reindeer was the herald or forerunner of all the arctic tundra fauna2 it reached the valley of the ,vzre at the beginning of the period of the true ,mousterian culture and already had penetrated much farther south during the ,third ,glacial ,stage1 probably migrating along the borders of the ice-fields2 in fact1 it is found in northern ,europe even during the second glaciation4 ,it is the true ,scandinavian or barren-ground species1 which is now typified by two forms of the ,old ,world reindeer 7,r4 tarandus1 ,r4 spitzbergensis71 and by the existing ,american barren-ground forms4 ,the antlers are round1 slender1 and long in proportion to the relatively small size of the animal2 the brow tines are palmated4 ,there is little proof that the ,neanderthals made much use of the bones of the reindeer1 but there is every reason to suppose that they used the pelts1 for the preparation of which the ,mousterian scrapers and planers were especially well fitted4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajc4 ,the woolly rhinoceros 7,rhinoceros antiquitatis71 after the drawings of ,palolithic artists and the specimen from ,starunia preserved in the museum of ,lemberg1 ,galicia4 ,by ,charles ,r4 ,knight1 #aiae4 ,in the ,iberian peninsula the tundra fauna did not penetrate as far south as ,portugal1 although the ,norwegian lemming 7,myodes lemmus7 reached the vicinity of ,lisbon4 ,the woolly mammoth1 accompanied by the woolly rhinoceros1 has been discovered in two localities on the extreme northern coast of ,spain1 in the province of ,santander1 bordering the ,bay of ,biscay4 ,the reindeer 7,rangifer tarandus7 is found in the cavern of ,seria1 south of the ,pyrenees2 as early as ,acheulean times it reached the region of ,altamira1 near ,santander4 ,thus ,harl7#bd7 concludes it is certain that the tundra fauna spread from ,france westward into ,catalonia1 along the northern coast of ,spain1 flanking the ,pyrenees4 ,it is generally believed that the cave-bear 7,ursus spelus7 occupied many of the caverns before their possession by man1 and developed certain peculiarities of structure in these haunts4 ,thus the phalanges bearing the claws are feebly developed1 indicating that the claws had partly lost their prehensile function2 the anterior grinding-teeth are very much reduced1 and the cusps of the posterior grinders are blunted in a way which is indicative of an omnivorous diet2 yet the front paws were of tremendous size1 the body was thick-set and of heavier proportions than that of the larger recent bears 7,ursus arctos7 of ,europe4 ,hence1 it would appear that the ,neanderthals drove out from the caves a type of bear less formidable than the existing species but nevertheless a serious opponent to men armed with the small weapons of the ,mousterian period4 ,,customs ,,of ,,the ,,chase ,,and ,,of ,,cave ,,life ,we have only indirect means of knowing the courage and activity of the ,neanderthals in the chase1 through the bones of animals hunted for food which are found intermingled with the flints around their ancient hearths4 ,these include in the early ,mousterian hearths1 as we have seen1 bones of the bison1 the wild cattle1 and the horse1 which are followed at ,combe-,capelle by the first appearance of the bones of the reindeer4 ,the bones of the bison and of the wild horse are both utilized in the bone anvils of the closing ,mousterian culture at ,la ,quina4 ,what we believe to be the period of the great mammalian life of the region of the upper ,danube is found in the ,mousterian levels of the grotto of ,sirgenstein1 from which it would appear that the ,neanderthals hunted the mammoth1 the rhinoceros1 the wild horse1 bison1 and cattle1 and the giant deer as well as the reindeer4 ,we should keep in mind1 however1 that when these caves were for a time deserted1 the beasts of prey returned1 and so it often happens that the succeeding layers afford proofs of alternate occupation by man and by beasts of prey of sufficient size to bring in the larger kinds of game1 while owls may be responsible for the deposits of the lemming1 as in the 'lower rodent layer4' ,obermaier7#be7 has given careful study to the vicissitudes of cave life in ,mousterian times4 ,long before these caves were inhabited by man1 they served as lairs or refuges for the cave-bear and cave-hyna1 as well as for many birds of prey4 ,for example1 the cave of ,echenoz-la-,moline1 on the upper waters of the ,sane1 contained the remains of over eight hundred skeletons of the cave-bear1 and no doubt it cost the ,neanderthals many a hard-fought battle before the beasts were driven out and man possessed himself of the grotto4 ,fire may have been the means employed4 ,it has been questioned whether the caves were not unhealthy dwelling-places1 but it must be remembered that1 except in certain caverns which had natural openings through the roof for the exit of smoke1 there was no true cave life1 but rather a grotto life1 which centred around the entrance of the cave4 ,the smallest cave1 this author observes1 was considerably larger and better ventilated than the small1 smoky cabins of some of the ,european peasants1 or the snow huts of the ,eskimo4 ,the most serious obstacle was the prevailing dampness1 which varied periodically in the caverns1 so that dry seasons were succeeded by abundant moisture seeping through the limestone roof and down the side walls4 ,at such times the caverns were probably uninhabitable1 and in the bones of both men and beasts many instances have been observed of diseased swellings and of inflammation of the vertebr1 such as are caused by extreme dampness4 ,the compensating advantages were the shelter offered from the rain and cold1 a constant temperature at moderate distances from the entrance1 and also the fact that the caves were very easily defensible1 because the entrance was generally small and the approach often steep and difficult2 a high stone wall across the opening would have made the defense still easier1 and a flaming firebrand would have prevented the approach of bears and other beasts of prey4 ,on account of this shelter from the weather and wild beasts the grottos and the larger openings of the caverns were certainly crowded with the ,mousterian flint workers during the inclement seasons of the year4 ,yet the greater part of the life of the ,neanderthals was undoubtedly passed in the open and in the chase4 ,throughout ,mousterian times the commonest game consisted of the wild horse1 wild ox1 and reindeer4 ,both flesh and pelts were utilized1 and the marrow was sought by splitting all the larger bones4 ,thus1 frequently we find in the hearths the remains of the mammoth1 the woolly rhinoceros1 the giant deer1 the cave-bear1 and the brown bear4 ,from these beasts of prey the ,neanderthal hunters obtained pelts and perhaps also fat for torches used to light the caverns2 there is no proof of the invention of the lamp at this period4 ,the work of the women undoubtedly consisted of preparing the meals and making the pelts into covers and clothing4 ,whenever possible this would be done in the daylight outside of the grottos1 but in chilly1 rainy weather1 or the bitter cold of winter1 the whole tribe would seek refuge in the grotto1 gathering around the fire-hearths fed with wood2 odd corners would serve as storehouses for fuel or dried meat1 preserved against the days when extreme cold and blinding snow forbade the hunters to venture forth4 ,it appears that the game was dismembered where it fell and the best parts removed4 ,the skull was split open for the brain2 the long bones were preserved for the marrow2 thus the bones of the flank and shoulder of game occur frequently in cave deposits1 while the ribs and vertebr are rare4 ,the pitfall may have been part of the hunting craft known to the ,neanderthals4 ,the chase was pursued with spears or darts fitted with flint points1 also by means of 'throwing stones1' which are found in great numbers in the upper ,mousterian levels of ,la ,quina1 in the ,wolf ,cave of ,yonne1 ,les ,cotts1 and various places in ,spain4 ,if one imagines1 as is quite possible1 that the throwing stone was placed in a leather sling or in the cleft end of a stick1 or fastened to a long leather thong1 one can readily see it would prove a very effective weapon4 ,the methods of chase by the ,neanderthals are1 nevertheless1 somewhat of a mystery4 ,there was a very decided disparity between the size and effectiveness of their weapons and the strength and resistance of the animals which they pursued4 ,none of the very heavy implements of ,acheulean times was preserved2 the dart and spear heads are not greatly improved1 certainly they could not penetrate the thick hides of the larger arctic tundra mammals1 heavily protected with hair and wool2 the chase even of the horses1 wild cattle1 and reindeer was apparently without the aid of the bow and arrow and prior to the invention of the barbed arrow or lance head4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajd4 ,geographic distribution of ,pre-,neanderthaloids and ,neanderthaloids in western ,europe1 showing the localities where the remains of ,pre-,neanderthaloid races 7,heidelberg and ,piltdown7 and of true ,neanderthaloids have thus far been discovered4 7,compare table1 p4 #bai47 ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,neanderthaloid ,,races ,the open-air or nomadic life of all the tribes of western ,europe from ,pre-,chellean nearly to the close of ,acheulean times was very unfavorable to the preservation of human remains4 ,it is possible that the bodies of the dead and of the aged were thrown out to the hynas which surrounded the stations1 as among some of the tribes of ,africa to-day1 but it is equally possible that they were interred in some manner4 ,skeletons buried near the surface in the river sands or gravels of the 'terraces' would not have been preserved4 ,we have seen that the preservation of the ,heidelberg and ,piltdown remains was entirely due to chance1 the bones having been washed down and mingled with those of the animals2 nor has any evidence been found in the grotto of ,krapina of ceremonial burial or of respect for the dead1 but on the contrary there is some evidence of cannibalistic customs4 ,even before the close of early ,mousterian times all this was changed4 ,perhaps the closer association enforced by the more rigorous climate indirectly produced greater respect for the dead and led to the custom of burial or the orderly laying out of the remains of the dead in the floors of the partly protected grottos and caverns1 to which custom we owe our present knowledge of the structure of ,neanderthal man in ,mousterian times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aje4 ,front view of the ,neanderthaloid skull found at ,gibraltar in #ahdh--the earliest discovery of a member of this race1 now regarded as the skull of a woman4 ,photograph by ,a4 ,hrdlika from the original specimen4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,the first discovery of a ,neanderthaloid was made in #ahdh1 eight years before the type of the ,neanderthal race came to light4 ,this was the ,gibraltar skull7#bf7 found by ,lieutenant ,flint1 near ,forbes ,quarry1 on the north face of the ,rock of ,gibraltar4 ,it consists of a well-preserved skull1 with the parietal bones only missing and the face and base of the cranium remarkably complete4 ,in #ahfh it was presented by ,busk to the ,museum of the ,royal ,college of ,surgeons1 in ,london1 where it lies to-day4 ,the exact site of the discovery can no longer be positively identified2 it was probably found in a still existing cave1 and although its archologic age cannot be determined1 yet as its anatomical features are those of the ,neanderthal race1 and as all the remains of this race which can be dated with certainty are of ,mousterian age1 it probably belongs to the ,mousterian period4 ,of recent years its great importance in the history of man has been revealed in the studies of ,sollas1 ,keith1 and ,schwalbe4 ,thus it has come to be ranked among the ,neanderthaloids and is considered of a particularly primitive form1 because of the extremely small size of the brain4 ,this feature and the slight development of the supraorbital ridges1 so characteristic of the ,neanderthaloids1 are explained by the theory that the skull belonged to a female4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajf4 ,section of that part of the valley of the ,dssel known as the ,neanderthal1 showing the location of the limestone grotto where the ,neanderthal skeleton was discovered4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds4 ,sera7#bg7 considers the ,gibraltar skull to be the most ape-like of all human fossils and thinks it should not be classed with the ,neanderthaloids at all1 but should be regarded as ,pre-,neanderthaloid2 this view is shared by ,keith4 ,boule1 however1 believes that this skull is of the same geologic age as that of ,spy1 ,la ,chapelle1 ,la ,ferrassie1 and ,la ,quina2 everything leads us to believe17#bh7 he remarks1 that the skull of ,gibraltar is a female skull of ,neanderthal type4 ,he elsewhere refers to the skulls of ,gibraltar1 of ,la ,quina1 and of ,la ,ferrassie ,,ii as probably those of female ,neanderthals4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajg4 ,the original type skull of ,neanderthal 7left side7 discovered in #ahef4 ,after ,schwalbe4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,the type skull of this great extinct race of men is that of ,neanderthal--certainly the most famous and the most disputed of all anthropologic remains--appreciated by ,lyell and ,huxley1 but passed over by ,darwin1 and finally established by ,schwalbe as the most important missing link between the existing species of man 7,homo sapiens7 and the anthropoid apes4 ,in #ahef7bi7 some workmen were engaged in clearing a small loam-covered cave about six feet in height1 the so-called ,feldhofner ,grotto1 in the cretaceous limestone of the valley known as the ,neanderthal1 on the small stream ,dssel flowing between ,elberfeld and ,dsseldorf4 ,they discovered some human bones1 probably a complete skeleton representing an interment1 which1 unfortunately1 were allowed to be scattered and crushed4 ,doctor ,fuhlrott rescued the parts that remained1 including the now famous skullcap1 both thigh-bones1 the right upper-arm bone1 portions of the lower arm1 bones of both sides1 the right collar-bone1 and fragments of the pelvis1 shoulder-blade1 and ribs4 ,all the bones were perfectly preserved and are now to be found in the provincial museum of ,bonn4 ,the discovery made a great sensation1 but at first the age of these fossils remained doubtful2 some #aej paces from the grotto1 in a similar small cave were found bones of the cave-bear and rhinoceros4 ,in #aheh ,schaaffhausen's memoir7#cj7 appeared1 in which he gave the first detailed description of these remains as belonging to a primitive original race differing in every point from recent man1 and he never wavered from this standpoint4 ,in #ahfc7ca7 ,busk1 ,huxley1 and ,lyell also placed this skeleton in its true intermediate position between man and the anthropoid apes4 ,the determined opinion of ,virchow that this was not a normal type of man exerted so great an influence that not until the classic work of ,schwalbe17#cb7 between #ahii and #aija1 did this skeleton assume its commanding importance for all time1 and even this was subsequent to the discovery of two other ,neanderthaloid races4 ,at first1 quite erroneously1 this was associated with the so-called race of ,cannstatt1 but long before ,schwalbe's work it was recognized by ,king17#cc7 in #ahfd1 as a distinct species of man 7,homo neanderthalensis7 'the man of the ,neander valley4' ,not long after the discovery of the ,neanderthaloids of ,spy1 in ,belgium1 ,cope17#cd7 in #ahic1 proposed the same specific name of ,homo neanderthalensis4 ,in #ahig ,wilser7#ce7 suggested the name of ,homo primigenius1 which has been widely adopted in ,germany1 while among ,french authors the same species of man is sometimes known to-day as ,homo mousteriensis4 ,this variety of names serves at least to record the unanimous opinion that this mid-,pleistocene man belongs to a distinct species4 ,since the race was very widely distributed1 we may speak of these people as the ',neanderthals1' while races resembling the ,neanderthal species may be characterized as ',neanderthaloid4' ,the complete series of discoveries of members of this race is now very large indeed4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,remains ,,of ,,the ,,neanderthals 7,compare ,fig4 #ajd7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- #a4 ,,of ,,unknown ,,lower ,,pal,,olithic ,,times #ahdh4 ,gibraltar4 ,forbes ,quarry4 ,fragmentary skull4 #ahef4 ,neanderthal4 ,dsseldorf1 ,germany4 ,skullcap and skeletal fragments4 #ahei4 ,arcy-sur-,cure4 ,yonne1 ,france4 #a lower jaw4 #ahff4 ,la ,naulette4 ,belgium4 #a lower jaw4 #ahhh4 ,malarnaud4 ,arige1 ,france4 #a lower jaw4 8 ,gourdan4 ,hautes-,pyrnes4 #a lower jaw4 #aijf4 ,ochos4 ,moravia4 #a lower jaw4 #b4 ,,with ,,late ,,mousterian ,,industry #ahhg4 ,spy ,i1 ,,ii4 ,near ,dinant1 ,belgium4 ,two skulls and skeletons4 #aijg4 ,petit-,puymoyen4 ,charente1 ,france4 ,fragments of upper and lower jaws4 #aiji4 ,pech de l',az4 ,dordogne1 ,france4 ,skull of a child4 #aiaj4 ,la ,ferrassie ,,ii4 ,dordogne1 ,france4 #a skeleton 7female74 #aiaa4 ,la ,cotte de ,st4 ,isle of ,jersey4 #ac human teeth4 ,brelade4 #aiaa4 ,la ,quina ,,ii4 ,charente1 ,france4 ,skull and fragments of skeleton4 #c4 ,,with ,,middle ,,mousterian ,,industry #ahhb4 ipka4 ,moravia4 ,jaw of a child4 #aijh4 ,la ,chapelle- ,corrze1 ,france4 ,almost complete skull aux-,saints4 and skeleton4 #aiji4 ,la ,ferrassie ,i4 ,dordogne1 ,france4 ,portions of one skeleton4 #aiaj4 ,la ,quina ,i4 ,charente1 ,france4 ,foot bones4 #d4 ,,with ,,early ,,mousterian ,,industry #aijh4 ,le ,moustier4 ,vzre ,valley1 ,skeleton of a youth4 ,dordogne1 ,france4 #aiad4 ,ehringsdorf47#cg7 ,near ,weimar4 ,lower jaw4 #e4 ,,with ,,mousterian ,,or ,,acheulean ,,industry #ahii4 ,krapina4 ,croatia1 ,portions of many ,austria-,hungary4 skeletons of adults and of children4 #ahib4 ,taubach4 ,near ,weimar4 #a milk tooth4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,in the year #ahhg the ,belgian geologists ,fraipont and ,lohest7#cf7 discovered in a grotto near ,spy1 not far from ,dinant on the ,meuse1 the remains of two individuals which are now distinguished as ,spy ,i and ,spy ,,ii4 ,in the same stratum with the skeletons1 beneath a layer of tufaceous limestone1 flint implements of ,mousterian age were embedded1 together with remains of the woolly mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 cave-bear1 and cave-hyna4 ,this discovery is one of the most important in the history of anthropology1 because it definitely dated the ,spy men as belonging to the period of ,mousterian industry1 and also because the authors immediately recognized these men as belonging to the race of ,neanderthal and of ,cannstatt1 which at the time were supposed to be the same4 ,here for the first time the proportions of the cranium and the brain1 the very primitive features of the lower jaw and of the teeth1 the low stature1 and several ape-like characters of the limb bones became known2 here were observed the prominent supraorbital ridges of the ,neanderthal type1 the receding forehead1 the cranial profile inferior to that of the lowest existing ,australian races1 the narrow1 dolichocephalic skull4 ,the limbs were found to have retained the anthropoid disproportion between the thigh-bone and the shin-bone1 and the important discovery was made that this short1 massively built1 heavy-browed1 dull-visaged ,neanderthal man was unable to stand absolutely erect1 the structure of the knee-joint being such that the knees were constantly slightly bent4 ,in other words1 the ,spy man had not yet fully acquired the erect position of the lower limbs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ajh4 ,skull known as ,spy ,i1 discovered in #ahhg1 in front of the grotto of ,spy1 near ,namur1 ,belgium4 ,after ,kraemer4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,this discovery may be said to have established the ,neanderthals in all their characters as a very distinct low race1 but twenty-two years elapsed before this was further confirmed by the finding of another and still earlier type of ,neanderthaloid at ,krapina1 in northern ,croatia1 ,austria-,hungary1 as described at the close of ,chapter ,,ii 7p4 #aha above72 a type which with its local variations was soon determined as unquestionably belonging in the same group with the man of ,neanderthal and the men of ,spy4 ,many years before1 namely1 in #ahff1 the ,belgian anthropologist ,dupont7#ch7 had discovered the remains of another member of this race in a grotto on the bank of the ,river ,lesse1 near ,la ,naulette1 not far from ,furfooz1 in northern ,belgium4 ,this is now known as the ,la ,naulette jaw and is found to be of ,neanderthal type4 ,it was associated with bones of the woolly mammoth1 the rhinoceros1 the reindeer1 and a few fragments of other human bones4 ,again1 in #ahhb1 ,maska7#ci7 found in a cave near ipka1 in ,moravia1 south of ,sternberg1 and six miles east of ,neutitschein1 fragments of a child's lower jaw1 extraordinarily strong1 thick1 and large1 and showing the incoming of the permanent teeth4 ,from this very same region is the jaw of ,ochos1 ,moravia1 found by ,rzehak7#dj7 about #aijf4 ,only the alveolar part of the jaw was found1 but it served to demonstrate the very wide geographical distribution of the ,neanderthal race4 ,at this time the ,dordogne region1 long known to be an intensive centre of ,mousterian industry1 from the time of ,lartet's discovery of ,le ,moustier1 in #ahfc1 had not yielded a single skeleton1 or any anatomical evidence of the type of man which in ,mousterian times inhabited it4 ,but beginning in the spring of #aijh there came in succession a whole series of such discoveries1 mostly of ceremonial burials1 at ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 at the type station of ,le ,moustier itself1 at ,la ,ferrassie1 another station on the lower ,vzre1 and at ,la ,quina4 ,in ,october1 #aiaj1 was discovered the skull known as ,la ,ferrassie ,,ii1 of late ,mousterian age2 it is probably that of a female1 and the remains were arranged in what was presumably a special form of ceremonial burial1 because the bones1 instead of being laid out straight in a certain direction1 were in a crouching or flexed position4 ,the ,le ,moustier skeleton was found by ,hauser in the lower grotto of ,le ,moustier1 in the ,vzre valley1 in the spring of #aijh1 and carefully removed with the aid of ,professor ,klaatsch47#da7 ,it belonged to a youth some sixteen years of age4 ,the most interesting feature of the discovery was the manner in which the skeleton was laid out47#db7 ,the head rested on a number of flint fragments carefully piled together--a sort of stone pillow2 the dead lay in a sleeping posture1 with the head resting on the right forearm4 ,an exceptionally fine coup de poing was close by the hand1 and numerous charred and split bones of wild cattle 7,bos primigenius7 were placed around1 indicative of a food offering4 ,the flints were believed to belong to the ,acheulean stage1 which underlies the layer of true ,mousterian industry1 long known in this locality2 but by ,french archologists and by ,schmidt these implements are regarded as of the earliest ,mousterian age1 in which it is well known that the ,acheulean coup de poing still persisted4 ,unfortunately1 the skeleton was not very well preserved and1 while ,klaatsch was entirely justified in classifying it with the ,neanderthaloids1 it should be regarded not as a distinct species 7,homo mousteriensis hauseri7 but rather as a member of the true ,neanderthal race 7,homo neanderthalensis74 ,it also proves to be a rather stocky individual1 robust and of low stature3 the arms and legs are relatively short1 especially the forearm and the shin-bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aji4 ,grotto of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 ,corrze1 a few miles to the eastward of ,le ,moustier4 ,after ,boule4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaj4 ,entrance to the grotto of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 where the finest of all the ,neanderthaloid fossils was discovered in #aijh4 ,after ,boule4 ,at the same time that the skeleton of ,le ,moustier was being disinterred1 the ,abbs ,a4 and ,j4 ,bouyssonie1 and ,l4 ,bardon7#dc7 were exploring the ,mousterian culture of the grotto near ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 a few miles to the eastward of ,le ,moustier1 and came upon a skeleton which has proved to be by far the finest of all the ,neanderthaloid fossils1 including a remarkably well-preserved skull1 almost the entire back-bone1 twenty ribs1 bones of the arm and of the greater part of the leg1 and a number of the bones of the hands and feet4 ,this was also a ceremonial burial of an individual between fifty and fifty-five years of age1 most carefully laid out in an east-and-west direction in a small1 natural depression4 ,with it were found typical ,mousterian flints1 also a number of shells and remains chiefly of the woolly rhinoceros1 the horse1 the reindeer1 and the bison4 ,the finding of a mature skull with the bones of the face in position1 and in a relatively perfect state of preservation without distortion of the entire cranium1 afforded for the first time the opportunity of finally determining not only all the skeletal characters and proportions of ,neanderthal man but also the actual size and proportions of the brain4 ,this superb specimen was sent to the ,paris ,museum1 and ,boule's preliminary descriptions7#dd7 and finally his almost faultless monograph7#de7 aroused world-wide interest in the ,neanderthal race4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaa4 ,the ,neanderthaloid skull from ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints--side1 front and top views4 ,after ,boule4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,a year later a third ,neanderthal skeleton was discovered in the cave of ,la ,ferrassie not far from ,le ,bugue1 ,dordogne1 by ,peyrony4 ,the bones were badly shattered1 and the proofs of ceremonial burial were not perfectly clear1 but at a glance the skeleton was clearly recognized from the characters of the skull1 and particularly from those of the forehead1 as belonging to the ,neanderthal race4 ,in the succeeding year1 #aiaj1 in the cavern of ,la ,quina1 ,department of ,charente1 to the north of the ,vzre region7#df7 were found the foot bones of a man precisely resembling the ,la ,chapelle type1 and again in #aiaa several parts of the skeleton of another entirely typical member of the ,neanderthal race were discovered in the earliest ,mousterian strata4 ,the skull bones were somewhat separated at the sutures4 ,this was certainly not a case of ceremonial burial4 ,like the ,gibraltar skull1 this is supposed to be that of a female4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aab4 ,human teeth of ,neanderthaloid type1 discovered in a cave on the ,isle of ,jersey4 ,after ,marett and ,hrdlika4 ,of especial geographic interest is the discovery by ,nicolle and ,sinel7#dg7 of thirteen human teeth in a ,mousterian cavern on ,st4 ,brelade's ,bay1 on the ,island of ,jersey17#dh7 which furnishes proof of the extension of the ,neanderthal race to the ,channel ,islands1 when these were1 in all probability1 still a part of the mainland4 ,the teeth were associated with bones of the woolly rhinoceros1 of the reindeer1 and of two varieties of the horse1 as well as with evidences of ,mousterian hearths and flint implements4 ,the distinctive features of the ,neanderthal grinding-teeth are the stout size1 deep implantation1 and expanded form of the roots1 which1 with the heavy jaw1 point to the toughness of the food and to the muscular strength exerted in mastication4 ,the roots1 instead of tapering to a point below1 as in modern man1 form a broad1 stout column1 supporting the crown1 adapted to a sweeping motion of the jaw4 ,this special feature alone would exclude the ,neanderthals from the ancestry of the higher races4 ,thus1 through a long series of discoveries1 beginning in #ahdh and rapidly multiplying during the last few years1 we have found the materials for a complete knowledge of the skeletal structure of the men1 women1 and children of the ,neanderthal race2 we know the relative brain development as well as the stature of the sexes2 we have determined that this race1 and this only1 extended over all western ,europe during late ,acheulean and the entire period of ,mousterian times1 and we have also learned that it was a race imbued with reverence for the dead and therefore probably animated by the belief in some form of future existence4 ,,characters ,,of ,,the ,,neanderthal ,,race ,the skulls and skeletons7#di7 of ,neanderthal1 ,spy1 ,krapina1 ,le ,moustier1 ,la ,chapelle1 ,la ,ferrassie1 and ,gibraltar have so many distinctive features in common that it is beyond question that they must be classed in a closely related group4 ,the distinctive features of this group are3 ,first1 features found also in the different existing races of man1 but never in the anthropoid apes1 and therefore human2 second1 features1 all of which have never been found combined in any race of recent man1 the group1 therefore1 represents a distinct species of man2 third1 features outside of the limits of variation in the recent races of man1 and intermediate between them and the variation limits of the anthropoid apes4 ,before looking at ,neanderthal man as a whole1 we may turn our attention especially to a number of these peculiar features of the race4 ,all the earliest observers were impressed by the heavy1 overhanging brows and retreating forehead4 ,in recent man there is often a decided prominence above the eyes1 from the glabella or median point above the nose outward toward each side1 but generally the outer third of the margin of these prominences turns upward beneath the outer line of the eyebrows4 ,in the ,neanderthals1 on the contrary1 these prominences beneath the eyebrows surround the whole upper edge of the eye socket1 extending outward around the external borders of the forehead1 so that they may be called 'tori supraorbitales'2 the extent of this prominent ridge above and to the sides forms a veritable roof over the eye sockets1 which appear like two deep1 lateral caverns4 ,such lateral prominences do occur1 though rarely1 in recent man2 they are observed1 for example1 in certain ,australians4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aac4 ,skulls of a chimpanzee 7left71 of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints 7centre71 and of a modern ,frenchman 7right71 showing the gradual disappearance of the eyebrow ridges and projecting face4 ,after ,boule4 ,the front view of the ,neanderthal face1 as seen in the female ,gibraltar skull1 in which these eyebrow ridges are by no means so prominent as in the male skulls1 is no less remarkable for the great height of the face as compared with the flatness of the forehead4 ,placing the skull side by side with that of the ,australian17#ej7 we observe at once the enormous difference in the proportions of the face and the cranium in these two types1 although the ,australian represents one of the lowest existing races of ,homo sapiens2 we observe in the ,gibraltar skull the very wide space between the eyes and the very large size of the narial opening1 which indicate a broad1 flattened nose2 there is a correspondingly long space between the bottom of the narial opening and the line for the insertion of the incisor teeth1 indicating a very long upper lip4 ,the jaw is less powerful than that of the ,heidelberg man4 ,the ,heidelberg jaw we have seen to be distinguished by its general strength and clumsiness and its lack of chin1 or rather a chin without the slightest indication of a prominence2 on the inside of this very thick1 rounded chin plate1 the characteristic chin spine 7spina mentalis7 is lacking2 instead1 a double groove is present as the point of attachment for the muscles which connect the chin and tongue with the hyoid bone2 the ascending process for the attachment of the muscles of the jaw is seen to be unusually broad1 #fj mm41 in contrast to about #cg mm4 in the recent jaw2 finally1 the condyle for attachment with the skull is particularly large47#ea7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aad4 ,face view of the ,gibraltar skull 7left7 and of a modern ,australian skull 7right71 displaying the high1 large visage of the former1 which suggests that of the anthropoid apes4 ,after ,schwalbe4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,the comparative horizontal lines are across the 7a7 nasion1 or root of the nose1 the 7b7 lower edges of the orbits1 and the 7c7 lower edge of the nasal aperture4 ,like the ,heidelberg jaw1 that of the ,neanderthals is distinguished by great thickness and massiveness4 ,in general the contours are similar2 in a few instances the chin process is suggested by a slight prominence1 but in general the chin is strongly receding1 and it agrees with that of ,heidelberg in lacking the spina mentalis4 ,in other characteristics there are decided differences in the ,heidelberg and ,neanderthal jaws4 ,the form of the latter is now known from the specimens of ,krapina1 of ,spy1 of ,la ,naulette1 of ,ochos1 and of ipka1 and from the perfect examples of ,le ,moustier and ,la ,chapelle4 ,the ipka specimen proves that even in a child ten years of age the jaw was remarkable for thickness and strength4 ,boule7#eb7 entirely agrees with ,gorjanovi-,kramberger7#ec7 that the chin in the ,neanderthal jaw was only in process of formation1 and throughout life attained no more than an infantile form1 that the ,neanderthals may be ranked1 however1 as ,homines mentales1 whereas the ,heidelbergs1 in which the chin is entirely lacking1 may be regarded as ,homines amentales4 ,the proportions of the teeth in the ,neanderthals are equally distinctive1 especially in the size of the true grinders and cutting teeth4 ,as in the ,heidelberg jaw1 they form a closely set row1 from which the canine does not project as in the ,piltdown dentition2 in fact1 the contour of the jaw and the proportions of the teeth are distinctly human when compared with the orang-like jaw of the ,piltdown man4 ,the grinding surface of the teeth has many layers of enamel1 and the cusps are well developed4 ,unlike those of recent man1 the incisors display folds of enamel on the inner or lingual surfaces1 a condition rarely observed in the modern cutting teeth4 ,in the teeth of the ,heidelberg jaw1 the pulp cavities are exceptionally large1 whereas in the teeth of the ,krapina race there is the unique feature that the molars have no normal roots1 the roots having been more or less absorbed1 a very rare occurrence in recent man4 ,the dentition of ,la ,chapelle is also distinctly human1 but extraordinarily massive1 corresponding with the general massiveness of the skull and masticating apparatus2 in detail it is not that of civilized races1 but an exaggerated form of the type called macrodont47#ed7 ,the elongation of the crown is also similar to what is termed hypsodont4 ,the grinding-teeth do not all show this massive size and columnar form1 for about fifty per cent of the ,krapina teeth have distinct roots and are more like normal modern grinders4 ,in the ,neanderthaloids of ,spy the teeth are small and the roots are of moderate size47#ee7 ,this study of the forehead and of the eyebrow ridges1 of the great depth of the face1 and of the peculiarly high1 square form of the eye sockets prepares us for a profile view of the skull of ,la ,chapelle in contrast with that of the most highly developed and intellectual ,european type1 namely1 the profile of the distinguished ,american palontologist1 the late ,professor ,edward ,d4 ,cope1 who bequeathed his skull and skeleton for purposes of scientific study and comparison4 ,in ,la ,chapelle we at once notice the platycephaly1 or flattening of the skullcap1 the retreating forehead1 the great prominence of the eyebrow ridges resembling that of the anthropoid apes1 the lengthening of the face as compared with the flattening of the cranium1 the great prominence or prognathism of the face as a whole1 and the special prominence of the rows of cutting teeth as compared with the vertical or indrawn line1 and the recession of the tooth row in the ,cope profile4 ,this comparison also brings out the striking contrast between the high chin prominence of ,homo sapiens and the deeply receding chin of the ,neanderthals4 ,the contrast is hardly less remarkable in the superior view of the skull in which the ,neanderthal type is seen to be extremely dolichocephalic1 the back of the skull being relatively broad and the front narrowing in the region of the forebrain until it suddenly expands in the prominent supraorbital processes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aae4 ,skull of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints 7outline7 in comparison with that of a high modern type 7shaded72 illustrating the projecting eyebrows and prognathous1 ape-like face of the ,neanderthaloids4 ,after ,boule4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,as shown in the diagram on page #h1 ,fig4 #a1 the greatest length of the ,neanderthal skull is found on the horizontal line directly through the brain chamber1 known as the glabella-inion line1 a line drawn from a prominence between the eyebrow ridges to a point at the back of the skull known as the external occipital protuberance1 or inion4 ,this is also the longest line in the skulls of ,spy and of ,la ,chapelle1 as well as of the anthropoid apes17#ef7 but in the north ,australian skull1 ,fig4 #a1 owing to the greater expansion of the upper part of the brain1 the greatest length of the skull is at a point considerably above the glabella-inion line4 ,the median section of the skull of the chimpanzee1 of the ,neanderthal1 and of the north ,australian displays in a very striking manner the generalization made by ,schwalbe1 in #aija1 that the ,neanderthal skull is truly an intermediate or half-way form between that of the anthropoid apes and that of ,homo sapiens4 ,we observe in this illuminating section the growth of the dome of the skull1 that is1 the great brain-bearing cavity above the glabella-inion line g-i1 by noting the contrast in the length of the vertical line of the cranial height1 as compared with the space below the glabella-inion line indicated by the letters4 ,this very important vertical line terminates below at the opening1 where the spinal cord enters the base of the brain 7see ,fig4 #a74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aaf4 ,top view of three skulls--of a chimpanzee 7left71 of the man of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints 7centre71 and of a modern ,frenchman 7right7--showing the retreat of the projecting face and prominent eyebrow ridges4 ,after ,boule4 ,in many characteristics the ,neanderthal skull is shown to be nearer to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of ,homo sapiens4 ,this conclusion arrived at by ,schwalbe1 in #aija17eg7 has been more than confirmed by ,boule's masterly study7#eh7 of the very complete skull of ,la ,chapelle4 ,after his detailed review1 he concludes3 ,as to the unity of the ,neanderthal head form1 these features are not peculiar to the skull of ,la ,chapelle2 in every case they are also found in the skulls of ,neanderthal1 ,gibraltar1 ,spy1 ,krapina1 ,la ,ferrassie1 which witness to the homogeneity of that human fossil type called ,neanderthal4 ,these features show a structural affinity between the fossil men of the ,mousterian period and the anthropoid apes4 ,it must be noted that many of these features may be found also in recent human skulls of the inferior races1 but that they are very rare1 very scattered1 very isolated1 and occur only as aberrations4 ,it is the accumulation of all these features in every skull of a whole series which constitutes an assemblage entirely new and of great importance4 ,in the skull1 as in other parts of the anatomy of the ,neanderthals1 we should not expect to find every character intermediate between the anthropoids and recent man4 ,the long ,neanderthal face is somewhat similar to that of the ,eskimo and is in contrast with the very short face of the existing ,australians and ,tasmanians4 ,the depression at the root of the nose1 just below the glabella1 is very marked in all ,neanderthals2 there is less of the nose bridge than in any recent races1 except those of the male ,australians1 yet the nose is not flattened but somewhat arched or aquiline4 ,this feature is not characteristic of all the anthropoid apes1 and in this respect the ,neanderthals1 ,australians1 and ,tasmanians are more different from the anthropoid apes than are some of the white races2 thus the ,neanderthal nose1 far from resembling that of the anthropoids1 differs from it more than does that of some recent human types47#ei7 ,many anatomists1 following ,huxley1 have described the ,australian and ,tasmanian skulls as more or less ,neanderthaloid1 and some authors have gone so far as to regard these races as surviving ,neanderthals4 ,it is true that some of the skulls in these existing races are extraordinarily platycephalic and show a retreating forehead1 that others show supraorbital ridges almost as prominent as in the ,neanderthals1 that sometimes the prominence of the occipital inion is very marked1 that certain jaws show a very retreating chin4 ,thus one or another of these ,neanderthal features has been observed in these lower existing races1 but all of these characteristics have never been combined in one race as constant features1 and invariably associated1 as in all the skulls of the ,neanderthals known to us4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aag4 ,scale of ascent indicated in the skull form of eleven races of fossil and living men1 based on the result of twelve different characters of comparison4 ,at the bottom stands the anthropoid ape1 and above this ,pithecanthropus1 the ape-man of ,java4 ,a wide range is observed between the ,neanderthaloid skulls of ,gibraltar and of ,spy-,neanderthal4 ,not far above these in the scale of ascent stand the modern ,australians and the recently extinct ,tasmanians4 ,above these low races are found the fossil ,upper ,palolithic races of ,galley ,hill1 ,brx1 ,brnn1 and ,pedmost4 ,at the top stand the modern ,european races1 beside which the ,upper ,palolithic ,cr-,magnon race takes a high rank4 ,after ,bchner4 ,in brief1 the ,australian type of head has nothing in common with that of the ,neanderthals except in a small number of characteristics in the region of the forehead and of the nose4 ,the distinguishing traits of the ,neanderthal head and face are platycephaly1 a retreating forehead1 flattening of the occiput or lower portion of the skull1 prominence of the supraorbital ridges1 chin retreating or lacking1 projection of the entire face owing to the peculiar form of the upper jaw1 and the relatively small size of the frontal lobes of the brain4 ,in fact1 concludes ,boule3 ,all these modern so-called ',neanderthaloids' are nothing but varieties of individuals of ,homo sapiens1 remarkable for the accidental exaggeration of certain anatomical traits which are normally developed in all specimens of ,homo neanderthalensis4 ,the simplest explanation of these accidents in most cases is atavism or reversion4 ,we cannot assert that there has never been an infusion of ,neanderthaloid blood in the groups belonging to species ,homo sapiens1 but what seems to be quite certain is that any such infusion can have been only accidental1 for there is no recent type which can be considered even as a modified direct descendant of the ,neanderthals4 ,this opinion is confirmed by the latest and most exhaustive researches of ,berry and ,robertson17#fj7 who conclude that neither ,australians nor ,tasmanians have any direct relationship with ,homo neanderthalensis2 the superficial points of cranial resemblance are explicable solely on the grounds of the remoteness of the ancestry4 ,the ,australians and ,tasmanians are descendants not of the ,neanderthal stock but of a late ,pliocene or early ,pleistocene stock1 which1 following ,sergi1 may be called ,homo sapiens tasmanianus1 of which the ,tasmanian aboriginal1 now extinct1 was the almost unchanged offspring4 ,in respect to 'low' characters1 as shown in the diagram1 ,fig4 #aag1 the ,spy-,neanderthal skulls stand quite close to the ,tasmanians and ,australians1 and the ,gibraltar skull stands midway between this type and ,pithecanthropus with respect to twelve different characters of comparison4 ,it is interesting to note,,ah that the ,tasmanians were found in a stage of flint industry very similar to that practised by the ,neanderthals in ,mousterian times2 their flints were made from artificially produced flakes1 including a few examples7#fa7 that exhibited a neatness of edge trimming and resultant regularity of outline1 whereas the greater part were characterized by an unskilful trimming and irregular outline2 the low status of the ,tasmanian implements can most correctly be described by the word ,pre-,aurignacian1 that is1 of ,mousterian or of an earlier stage1 but not by any means ',eolithic4' ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aah4 ,the ,neanderthaloid skull of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 with the right half removed to show the shape of the brain1 as restored by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aai4 ,outline of the left side of the ,neanderthaloid brain of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 compared with similar brain outlines of a chimpanzee and of a high type of modern man4 ,one-third life size4 ,the brain of ,neanderthal man was known to be of large size even when estimated from the original skullcap of the ,neanderthal type4 ,darwin was compelled to admit that the famous skull of ,neanderthal was well developed and capacious1 and ,broca offered an ingenious explanation of the otherwise inexplicable fact that the mean capacity of the skull of the ancient cave-dweller is greater than that of many modern ,frenchmen1 namely1 that the average capacity of the skull in civilized nations must be lowered by the preservation of a considerable number of individuals1 weak in mind and body1 who would have been promptly eliminated in the savage state1 whereas among savages the average includes only the more capable individuals who have been able to survive under extremely hard conditions of life4 ,the skulls of ,la ,chapelle and of ,spy afforded an opportunity of determining this very interesting problem1 and the results entirely confirm the earlier estimates of ,schaaffhausen and of ,broca as to the great cubic capacity of the ,neanderthal brain4 ,the estimates in descending order are as follows3 ,skull of ,spy ,,ii 7,fraipont7 8 #agbc c4cm4 ,la ,chapelle 7,boule1 ,verneau1 and ,rivet7 #afbf ,spy ,i 7,fraipont7 8 #aefb ,neanderthal #adjh ,la ,quina1 female 7,boule approximation7 #acfg ,gibraltar1 female 7,boule estimate7 #abif ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abj4 ,brains of ,lower and ,upper ,palolithic races compared 7top and left side views74 ,piltdown 7left71 as restored by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor2 ,neanderthal 7centre7 brain1 cast from the type skull2 ,combe-,capelle 7right7 from the base of the ,upper ,palolithic1 after ,klaatsch4 ,the ,combe-,capelle brain1 though unnaturally compressed1 shows a relatively broad frontal area4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,the size of the brain in the existing races of ,homo sapiens varies from #iej c4cm4 to #bjbj c4cm47#fc7 ,thus in respect to the volume of cerebral matter the brain of the ,neanderthal man is surely human1 but in form the brain lacks the proportions characteristic of the superior organization of the brain in recent man4 ,in another important respect it is human3 in the larger size of the left hemisphere1 indicating the development of the use of the right hand4 ,in its general form the brain is more like that of the anthropoid apes in the relatively smaller size of the frontal portion1 in the simplicity and length of the convolutions1 and in the position and direction of the great fissures at the side known as the 'fissures of ,sylvius' and of ',rolando4' ,as studied by ,boule and ,anthony7#fd7 there are many primitive characteristics in the brain of the ,neanderthals4 ,the front of the forebrain1 the so-called prefrontal area1 which is the seat of the higher faculties1 is not fully developed but has a protuberance as in the brain of the anthropoids4 ,the left frontal lobe in particular1 which is associated with the power of speech1 is not much developed in the lower part1 so that a limited development of the faculty of speech is inferred4 ,the lateral fissure of ,sylvius is relatively wide and open1 and this and other features suggest the brain of the anthropoid4 ,the brain of the skull of ,la ,quina1 which is believed to be that of a female1 also shows many primitive features47#fe7 ,the absolute cubic capacity of the brain is less significant of intelligence than the relative development of those portions of the brain which are concerned in the higher processes of the mind4 ,the stature of the various examples of the ,neanderthal race is estimated somewhat differently by ,boule and by ,manouvrier1 and also varies with the sex3 ,neanderthal 7,boule7 #a4ee m4 #e ft4 #a in4 7,manouvrier7 #a4fcb m4 #e ft4 #d-a_/e in4 ,la ,chapelle 7,boule7 #a4eg m4 #e ft4 #a-d_/e in4 7,manouvrier7 #a4faa m4 #e ft4 #c-b_/e in4 ,spy 7,manouvrier7 #a4fcc m4 #e ft4 #d-c_/aj in4 ,la ,ferrassie ,i 7,manouvrier7 #a4feg m4 #e ft4 #e-a_/e in4 ,average of ,neanderthals supposed male #a4fcc m4 #e ft4 #d-c_/aj in4 ,la ,ferrassie ,,ii 7female7 #a4dhb m4 #d ft4 #aj-c_/aj in4 ,the ,neanderthal head is very large in proportion to the short1 thick-set body1 which we observe rarely exceeds #e feet #e inches in height in the male1 and #d feet #aj inches in the female4 ,the proportions of the body and limbs of the ,neanderthals throw a surprising light on their ancestral history as well as upon their defects as a race dependent upon the chase4 ,in proportion to the length of the thigh1 the lower leg is much shorter than in any existing human race4 ,the tibia or shin-bone is only #gf4f per cent of the length of the femur or thigh-bone1 whereas in the existing races with the shortest shin-bone1 such as the ,eskimos and the majority of the yellow races1 it is never less than #hj per cent of the length of the thigh-bone4 ,in this respect the ,neanderthal man is not like the anthropoid apes but has a relatively shorter shin-bone1 because the gorillas have an index of #hj4f per cent1 the chimpanzees of #hb per cent1 the orangs and gibbons of above #hc per cent2 thus all the anthropoid apes and the lower races of man have a relatively longer leg from the knee down than has the ,neanderthal race4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aba4 ,skeleton of the ,neanderthaloid man of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints4 ,about one-seventeenth life size4 ,after ,boule4 ,the shortness of the shin-bone as compared with the length of the thigh-bone is proof that the ,neanderthals were very clumsy and slow of foot1 because this proportion is characteristic of all slow-moving animals1 whereas a long shin-bone and a short thigh-bone indicate that a race is naturally fleet of foot4 ,similarly the ,neanderthal man has a very short forearm1 only #gc4h per cent of the upper arm2 it approaches the proportions seen in the ,eskimos1 ,lapps1 and ,bushmen47#ff7 ,here1 again1 the ,neanderthal man differs from the anthropoid apes1 among which the shortest forearm is that of the gorilla1 having a ratio of #hj per cent4 ,there are other features which would tend to show that the ancestors of the ,neanderthaloids had been ground dwellers rather than tree dwellers back into a very remote period of geologic time2 the arms are much shorter than the legs1 whereas in tree dwellers they are much longer4 ,thus1 we have observed in the anthropoid apes that the arm is very long in proportion to the leg2 in the chimpanzee1 which has relatively the shortest arms among the anthropoid apes1 the index is #ajd per cent1 that is1 the arms are slightly longer than the legs4 ,on the contrary1 in the ,neanderthals the arm length is only #fh per cent of the leg length2 thus it is very far removed from the anthropoid-ape type and comes nearest to the ,australian and ,african negro types4 ,thus1 to sum up the bodily proportions of the ,neanderthals3 ,arm short in proportion to leg1 average index #fh per cent4 ,forearm short in proportion to upper arm1 average index #gc4h per cent4 ,shin-bone short in proportion to thigh-bone1 average index #gf4f per cent4 ,stature extremely short in proportion to size of head4 ,the structure of the shoulder and of the chest is full of interest4 ,all the ribs are remarkably robust and of large volume1 and1 whereas in existing races they exhibit a flattened section1 in the ,neanderthals the section is distinctly triangular in form4 ,this implies a very muscular and robust torso in correlation with the gigantic head and stout limbs4 ,the collar-bones are correspondingly long1 presenting a ratio to the humerus exceeding #ed per cent1 which is much higher than that among the average existing races2 this indicates a very broad shoulder4 ,the shoulder-blade is also very different in type from that of the higher races of men1 and even from that of the higher ,primates2 it is extremely short and broad4 ,while1 as noted above1 the arm of the ,neanderthals is relatively short and thus non-anthropoid1 it presents a mingling of human and ape characters4 ,the upper arm1 or humerus1 is truly of the human type1 the torsion angle upon its axis being #adh1 whereas in the anthropoid apes the angle of torsion never passes #ada4 ,among the bones of the lower arm the most significant is the radius1 with which the turning movement of the hand is correlated2 the structure of the head of the radius has more resemblance to that of the anthropoid apes than to that of existing species of man4 ,the structure of the other bone of the forearm1 the ulna1 is also very primitive1 exhibiting certain monkey characteristics4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abb4 ,thigh-bones1 or femora1 of the ,trinil1 ,neanderthal1 and ,cr-,magnon races1 compared with one of modern type4 ,the ,neanderthal femur seems to be short and stout1 whereas that attributed to ,pithecanthropus is relatively long1 slender1 and straight4 ,of the femora illustrated the ,neanderthal and ,trinil are those of the type specimens1 the ,cr-,magnon is from the skeletal fragments of ,la ,madeleine4 ,after ,dubois1 ,boule1 ,lartet1 and ,christy4 ,one-eighth life size4 ,the structure of the hand is a matter of the highest interest in connection with the implement-making powers of the ,neanderthals4 ,the hand is remarkably large and robust1 comparable in size with that of men of very large stature in existing races4 ,with respect to the opposition power of the thumb against the fingers by means of the opponens muscle1 a distinctively human characteristic1 the stage of ,neanderthal development is decidedly lower than that of existing races1 because the joint of the metacarpal bone which supports the thumb is of a peculiar form1 convex1 and presenting a veritable convex condyle1 whereas in the existing human races the articular surface of the upper part of the thumb joint is saddle-shaped1 that is1 concave from within backward1 and convex from without inward4 ,thus the highly perfected motions of the thumb in ,homo sapiens were not attained in ,homo neanderthalensis4 ,two phalanges which are preserved in the ,chapelle-aux-,saints skeleton show that the fingers were relatively short and robust4 ,in the structure of the hip-girdle our fossil man is altogether human2 nevertheless1 some of its characters are very primitive and distinctive4 ,similarly1 the thigh-bone shows several primitive characters which are only rarely seen in existing races1 such as the third trochanter and the strong1 general forward curvature4 ,the structure of the knee-joint in relation to the shin-bone is very peculiar1 because it shows that the shin was always retroverted or bent backward4 ,two other features of the shin-bone are its extreme abbreviation as compared with the femur1 and the absence of flattening1 or platycnemism4 ,where the shin-bone joins the ankle-bone 7astragalus7 are shown two facets1 such as are preserved only in those races of existing men which have retained the habit of squatting or the folded position of the limbs2 these facets are not found in races which have the habit of sitting4 ,they indicate that the resting position of the ,neanderthals while engaged in industrial work was squatting1 as shown in our restoration of one of the ,neanderthals at ,le ,moustier4 ,associated with these powerful and peculiarly shaped limbs is the particularly short and thick-set vertebral column1 each bone of which is remarkable for its abbreviation4 ,the neck especially is entirely different in construction from that of existing races of men4 ,it would appear that the concave curvature of the back in the ,neanderthals was carried directly upward and continued into the concave curvature of the neck1 as among the anthropoid apes1 and especially in the chimpanzee4 ,the vertebr of the neck1 especially the fifth1 sixth1 and seventh1 and the first dorsal1 resemble those of the chimpanzee far more closely than those of the modern ,european2 the spinous processes are directed backward instead of downward4 ,this caused the habitual stooping of ,neanderthal man at the neck and shoulders and prevented him from ever holding his head entirely erect4 ,whereas in the back-bone of existing races the erect position is maintained by four graceful curvatures1 two toward the front1 and two toward the back1 in the ,neanderthals1 as in the newly-born members of the higher races1 we observe only three curvatures1 two concave toward the front1 namely1 the back and neck curvature1 just described1 and a sacral or pelvic curvature2 there is also a convex lumbar curvature in the lower part of the ,neanderthal back-bone1 which1 however1 is less pronounced than in existing species of man4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abc4 ,restoration of the head of the ,neanderthal man of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 in profile1 after model by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,summing up the characters of the back-bone in the ,neanderthals1 certain of them are very primitive1 such as the structure of the vertebr of the neck and the robust development of the spinous processes1 the absence of marked curvature in the lower part of the back-bone and the very gentle curvature of the bones of the sacrum4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abd4 ,restoration of the head of the ,neanderthal man of ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 in front view1 after model by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,the total aspect of ,neanderthal man may be characterized in the following manner37#fg7 ,an enormous head placed upon a short and thick trunk1 with limbs very short and thick-set1 and very robust2 the shoulders broad and stooping1 with the head and neck habitually bent forward into the same curvature as the back2 the arms relatively short as compared with the legs2 the lower leg1 as compared with the upper leg1 shorter than in any of the existing races of men2 the knee habitually bent forward without the power of straightening the joint or of standing fully erect2 the hands extremely large and without the delicate play between the thumb and fingers characteristic of modern races2 the resort to a squatting position while occupied in flint-making and other industries4 ,thus the ordinary attitudes characteristic of ,homo neanderthalensis would be quite different from our own and most ungainly4 ,the heavy head1 the enormous development of the face1 and the backward position of the foramen magnum1 through which the spinal cord connects with the brain1 would tend to throw the upper part of the body forward1 and this tendency1 with the lesser curvature of the neck1 the heavy shoulders1 and the flattened form of the head1 would give this portion of the body a more or less anthropoid aspect4 ,,geographic ,,distribution ,,of ,,mousterian ,,stations ,the ,neanderthal race of ,mousterian times established stations all over western ,europe1 of which upward of fifty have already been discovered1 as compared with the fifty-seven or more ,acheulean stations known4 ,at some points the old open camps of the ,acheulean flint workers were still visited1 as along the ,thames1 the ,somme1 and the ,marne4 ,thus ,abbeville1 ,st4 ,acheul1 ,montires1 and ,chelles1 in northern ,france1 show a succession of ,mousterian industry following the ,acheulean1 the ,chellean1 and1 at ,st4 ,acheul1 even the ,pre-,chellean4 ,these may well have been summer stations1 visited at favorable seasons of the year because of their abundant supply of flint4 ,about #abe miles to the east of ,st4 ,acheul1 in ,belgium1 on a small tributary of the ,meuse1 is the grotto of ,spy1 which1 together with ,mousterian implements1 has yielded two human fossil skeletons of the ,neanderthal race4 ,in southern ,devonshire is the famous cavern of ,kent's ,hole1 near ,torquay1 discovered as long ago as #ahbe by ,mac,enery and described in #ahdj by ,godwin-,austen47#fh7 ,it is interesting to note that teeth of the sabre-tooth tiger 7,machrodus latidens7 have been found in this cavern1 leading ,boyd ,dawkins to believe that this animal survived to late geologic times3 it will be recalled as a contemporary of the early ,chellean flint workers at ,abbeville4 ,the animal life of ,kent's ,hole1 as originally described by ,godwin-,austen1 included remains of elephant1 rhinoceros1 ox1 deer1 horse1 bear1 hyna1 and a feline animal of large size--fauna now known to belong to the period of the fourth glaciation4,,ai ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abe4 ,geographic distribution of the principal ,mousterian industrial stations in western ,europe1 attributed to the ,neanderthal race4 ,to the south are three stations1 one of which1 ,la ,cotte de ,st4 ,brelade1 on the present isle of ,jersey1 then part of the mainland1 has yielded ,mousterian flakes and thirteen human teeth of ,neanderthal type4 ,still farther to the south1 in the ,dordogne region1 is found the type station described on a previous page1 of ,le ,moustier1 the centre of a group of eight sites crowded along the north and south shores of the ,vzre1 which have become famous for the knowledge they yield of the successive stages in the development of the ,mousterian implements1 beginning with the primitive culture station of ,la ,micoque1 and including ,la ,ferrassie1 ,le ,moustier1 ,la ,rochette1 ,pataud1 ,la ,mouthe1 ,laussel1 and finally the ,abri ,audit1 which marks the closing stage in the development of the ,mousterian industry and1 in the opinion of many archologists1 its transition to the ,aurignacian4 ,at several of these places important discoveries have been made1 both of human fossils and of noteworthy transitions in the progress of invention4 ,circling round this ,vzre group are the stations of ,petit-,puymoyen1 ,la ,quina1 where implements of the closing stage of ,mousterian industry have been found as well as a human fossil of the ,neanderthal type1 and ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 which has yielded the only complete skeleton of a ,neanderthal man so far discovered4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abf4 ,the ,mousterian cave of ,hornos de la ,pea1 in the ,cantabrian ,mountains of northern ,spain4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,in ,spain is the station of ,san ,isidro1 near the headwaters of the ,tagus1 and the beautifully situated grottos of ,castillo and ,hornos de la ,pea1 on the northern slopes of the ,cantabrian ,mountains4 ,as contrasted with the very numerous ,acheulean sites of ,italy1 it is surprising to note that only two ,mousterian grottos have thus far been discovered in this region3 the ,grotte delle ,fate in the mountains of ,liguria1 and the very important group of caves on the ,riviera1 near ,mentone1 known as the ,grottes de ,grimaldi1 close to the seashore and at the very point where the ,italian ,alps abut upon the sea4 ,crossing to the north1 we note the superb ,swiss grotto of ,wildkirchli1 on the headwaters of the ,rhine1 #e1jjj feet above sea-level4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abg4 ,outlook from the cave of ,hornos de la ,pea4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,in all ,germany there are only about seven stations of unquestioned ,mousterian age4 ,of these six are grottos1 and the seventh1 ,mommenheim1 is a fluvial redeposit of loess along a small stream1 where only one implement has been found47#fi7 ,it is interesting to observe that in ,germany these ,mousterian sites occupy the great wedge of territory between the ,scandinavian ice-fields on the north1 and the ,alpine on the south1 and that ,wildkirchli was actually within the area of glaciation2 while the caves of ,ruberhhle and ipka were not far from the glaciers which clothed the ,carpathian ,mountains1 and ,baumannshhle was not so very remote from the great ,scandinavian ice-field4 ,in the region of the headwaters of the ,rhine and ,danube the industry of the ,neanderthal race has thus far been traced only at the stations of ,irpfelhhle1 ,ruberhhle1 and ,sirgenstein4 ,the latter cavern is of especial importance because it comprises the entire ,palolithic history of this region1 presenting a series of successive culture layers from ,mousterian times up to the arrival of the ,neolithic race4 ,further to the east are the ,gudenushhle1 near ,krems1 in ,lower ,austria1 and ,ochos and ipka1 in ,moravia1 while over the ,russian border are ,wierschovie and ,miskolcz4 ,well to the northwest of ,wildkirchli are the stations of ,mommenheim and ,kartstein1 and to the north that of ,baumannshhle4 ,,workmanship ,,of ,,the ,,neanderthals ,the dense communal life of ,mousterian times may have favored a social evolution1 the development of the imagination and of tribal lore1 and the beginnings of the religious belief and ceremonial of which apparent indications are found to be wide-spread among the entirely different races of ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,the life is not1 however1 marked by industrial progress or invention4 ,the successive stages of the ,mousterian industry have not as yet been so clearly defined as those of the ,acheulean 7,schmidt7#gj774 ,in the open ,mousterian stations and caverns of ,belgium and ,england ,schmidt has observed the stages of early1 middle1 and late ,mousterian4 ,breuil and ,obermaier consider ,la ,micoque as belonging to the close of the ,acheulean but as marking the transition into the ,mousterian4 ,breuil considers the industry of the ,combe-,capelle station as representing the oldest true ,mousterian culture4 ,the researches which have been carried thus far would appear to justify the following subdivisions of the ,mousterian culture in southwestern ,france3 #f4 ,abri ,audit culture1 marking the transition from late ,mousterian to early ,aurignacian industry4 #e4 ,late true ,mousterian industry4 ,la ,quina type of implements with scrapers and bone anvils4 #d4 ,middle ,mousterian industry1 with a predominance of handsome1 large ,mousterian points carefully 'retouched' on the edge and sometimes on one side1 a 'retouch' at times approaching the superior ,solutrean technique4 #c4 ,primitive early ,mousterian industry1 with a limited inventory of implements4 #b4 ,combe-,capelle stage1 with heart-shaped coups de poing and typical ,mousterian 'points4' 7,arrival of reindeer47 #a4 ,la ,micoque culture1 transitional from ,acheulean to ,mousterian times4 7,no reindeer47 ,the flint industry1 although very different in its outward appearance1 is recognizable as a direct evolution from the ,acheulean1 with the suppression or decline of certain implements and the improvements of others4 ,it is the product of the same kind of mind at work with the same materials1 but under different climatic conditions and with new demands1 especially for clothing as protection against the severe weather4 ,we also cannot avoid the feeling that the abandonment of the free1 open life of ,chellean and early ,acheulean times and the crowding of the ,neanderthal tribesmen beneath the shelters and in the grottos had a dwarfing effect both upon the physique and upon the industry itself4 ,the ,mousterian implements1 as compared with the ,acheulean1 impress one as the work of a less muscular and vigorous race4 ,in addition to the many fine transitions that one observes7#ga7 between the ,acheulean and ,mousterian industries at ,st4 ,acheul1 strong evidence is also furnished in favor of a close connection between these cultures by the discoveries at ,laussel1 on the ,vzre1 near ,les ,eyzies4 ,there1 broad and deep before this shelter of ,laussel1 lies the ,mousterian layer1 and directly beneath it is a true ,acheulean layer close to the waters of the valley of the ,beune4 ,this proves that in ,acheulean times this valley was deepened to the same degree as to-day1 and a close union of the ,acheulean to the ,mousterian is here again evident4 ,in the valley of the ,somme near ,st4 ,acheul ,commont has also observed proofs of a similar close connection between these cultures4 ,with such records in northern and southern ,france1 the ,neanderthal race1 which is known toward the end of ,acheulean times and especially covers the entire period of ,mousterian time1 comes much nearer to us4 ,if we assign the ,mousterian industry to the last glacial period1 we give it a duration of some #cj1jjj years1 and this is about the reckoning which thoughtful anatomists have already assigned for the ,neanderthal man4 ,,special ,,mousterian ,,implements ,two instruments are especially typical of the ,mousterian industry from beginning to end2 these are the 'pointe' and the 'racloir4' ,the former1 pointed and spear-shaped1 is from #a to #d inches in length2 the latter is a broad scraper1 from #a to #b inches in width2 and both have the distinctive peculiarity of being composed of a large flake of flint struck off from a larger bulb or nodule and of being retouched only on one side1 leaving on the opposite side the smooth conchoidal surface of the flake47#gb7 ,this point and scraper are highly characteristic not only of the early stages but of the ,mousterian industry throughout its entire course1 including even the late ,la ,quina types1 and their manner of making is obviously a modified usage of the late ,acheulean discovery of the flakes of ,levallois4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abh4 ,typical ,mousterian 'points' from the type station of ,le ,moustier1 made of a large flake of flint struck off from the nodule and retouched on only one side1 leaving on the opposite side a smooth1 conchoidal surface4 ,after ,dchelette1 by permission of ,m4 ,a4 ,picard1 ,librairie ,alphonse ,picard et ,fils4 ,a matter of the greatest interest in the industrial development of western ,europe at this time is the fact that this discovery of the utilization of the flake1 whether in the 'lames de ,levallois' or in the ,mousterian point and scraper1 led to the decline of the coup de poing4 ,the retouched flakes of various shapes were easier to make and to repair and served equally well the purposes of skinning and dismembering game which had been previously served by the ancient coup de poing47#gc7 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #abi4 ,mousterian 'points' and scrapers from various parts of ,europe1 as interpreted by de ,mortillet4 ,in some cases both sides of the implement are shown2 all are one-quarter actual size except #aja1 which is one-half actual size4 #ajj--;,de ,mortillet's theory of the manner of using the ,mousterian 'point1' which was held in the hand and not shafted4 #aja--,mousterian point from ,suffolk1 ,england4 #ajb--,mousterian point from ,umbria1 ,italy4 #ajc1 #ajd--;,a single flake point from the ,crimea1 in southern ,russia4 #aje1 #ajf--;,a long1 narrow ,mousterian point from ,oise1 ,france4 #ajg--;,a curved-in scraper1 or grattoir1 from ,dordogne1 ,france2 perhaps an implement for dressing a wooden spear or lance4 #ajh--;,bone splinter1 broken for the marrow1 but not shaped4 ,in consequence1 the coup de poing1 fashioned from the core of the nodule1 begins to play a very secondary rle and occurs but rarely in the ,mousterian levels4 ,even at ,st4 ,acheul1 the very centre of its former reign1 we begin to find decadent forms and poor workmanship1 which make it difficult to recognize that these are the successors of the finely retouched ,acheulean coups de poing4 ,while the coups de poing at the type station of ,le ,moustier continue to retain the old ,acheulean patterns--the oval1 the heart-shaped1 the sharp-pointed--they are all of smaller size and rather coarsely retouched4 ,thus1 after thousands of years of development and employment1 the coup de poing falls into a period of degeneration and of final disuse4 ,the history of this4 implement1 which we have traced from its ,pre-,chellean prototypes1 presents a most interesting analogy with the course of evolution observed in so many animal and plant forms4 ,it passes through many stages of improvement and reaches a climax of perfection and adaptation2 it then comes into competition with another form evolving on a fundamentally different and superior plan and disappears in the struggle for existence through the greater usefulness of the replacing type4 ,,successive ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,mousterian ,,industry ,the succession of industrial stages is best shown along the ,vzre4 ,the oldest ,mousterian industry is that of ,combe-,capelle with its heart-shaped1 roughly fashioned coups de poing1 entirely lacking1 however1 any evidence of a surface prepared for the grasp of the hand4 ,in the valley of the ,somme ,commont7#gd7 has observed the three following stages in the advance of the ,mousterian industry3 #c4 ,a late ,mousterian culture which lies on the upper layers near the top of the same gravel deposit and which shows entirely new technical elements4 ,the old coup-de-poing culture is no longer valued1 and all the implements found here are of flakes worked only on one side and with an extraordinarily fine retouch4 #b4 ,a middle ,mousterian horizon which lies in the lower layers of a gravel deposit1 belonging to the 'newer loess1' and which contains only one small coup de poing4 #a4 ,an early ,mousterian1 with quite numerous lance-shaped coups de poing1 lies at the base of the 'newer loess1' showing that the coup-de-poing tradition still lingers and the coup-de-poing type is still preserved4 ,with these are associated the new types of implements and especially the 'hand-points1' which are so typical of the ,mousterian industry4 ,the more recent levels 7#b1 #c7 contain longer flakes1 which already exhibit a tendency toward the blades1 or 'lames1' of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,in the shelters and caverns of ,dordogne the same industrial sequence may be observed1 although the chronological succession of the strata is not always clearly defined4 ,at the grotto of ,combe-,capelle the heart-shaped coups de poing retain most strongly the old traditions1 but even here these are outnumbered by the well-fashioned ,mousterian 'points1' chipped only on one side4 ,the further development of the ,mousterian industry may be observed in the type station of ,le ,moustier1 where the lower levels show a primitive ,mousterian consisting mostly of very fine1 irregularly fashioned flakes1 made into small scrapers1 triangular points1 borers1 and disks4 ,the overlying layer includes very carefully worked ,mousterian points which are frequently retouched on one side over the entire surface2 here the ,mousterian technique reaches its highest development1 so that ,schmidt designates it as 'high ,mousterian4'7#ge7 ,above this layer1 again1 is a level of typical late ,mousterian forms1 quite unlike the small primitive flakes of the lower level and resembling the characteristic forms of ,la ,quina1 the dominant type being the finely shaped ,la ,quina racloir4 ,the few diminutive coups de poing which occur in this level at ,le ,moustier furnish the only distinction between the industry here and that of ,la ,quina1 where no coups de poing are found4 ,at ,le ,moustier also occur the typical bone anvils which were first recognized at ,la ,quina4 ,the ,mousterian industry of the ,neanderthals was thus devoted mainly to the development of the smaller forms of implements1 for the most part retouched on one side only1 and with a constant improvement of technique4 ,yet the chief types of ,mousterian implements remain the same as in ,acheulean times1 as shown in the accompanying table4 ,the implement known as the pointe1 or the 'hand-point1' is a principal and very characteristic ,mousterian form further perfected from its ,acheulean stage4 ,it is spear-headed in shape and chipped on one side only1 and continues into late ,mousterian times1 being still found in the ,mousterian levels of ,spy1 in ,belgium4 ,the pointe double1 a double-pointed1 spear-shaped form1 at times almost attains the elongate shape of the ,solutrean pointe de laurier1 though never its slenderness1 symmetry1 and perfection of technique4 ,,industrial4 ,coup de poing 7decadent71 hand-stone4 ovoid4 heart-shaped4 sharp-pointed4 ,hachette1 chopper4 ,grattoir1 planing tool4 ,peroir1 drill1 borer4 ,couteau1 knife4 ,racloir1 scraper4 knife-edged4 curved-out edge4 saw-edged4 double-edged4 beak-shaped4 many-edged4 ,pointe1 'hand-point4' ,percuteur8 hammer-stone8 ,,war ,,and ,,chase4 ,pointe1 'hand-point4' ,pointe double1 spear head8 ,coup de poing1 hand-stone4 ,pierre de jet1 throwing stone4 ,couteau1 knife4 ,there are five or six well-defined varieties of the racloir1 or scraper1 carefully fashioned out of flakes4 ,the principal form is crescentic in shape1 with outward-curved edge4 ,other forms are saw-like with straight edges or knife-edged4 ,another form with very neatly and symmetrically incurved borders has its edges sharply retouched1 as if for the smoothing down of bone or wooden shafts4 ,the borer is also fashioned of an elongate flake and sometimes finished with a very fine point at one of its extremities4 ,it is noteworthy that the grattoir1 or planing tool1 so well developed in the ,upper ,palolithic industries1 appears only sporadically in ,mousterian times4 ,for example1 at ,la ,quina1 in the closing stages of the ,mousterian industry1 out of #bbj implements collected at hazard1 there were #aff scrapers of six different forms1 #de 'hand-points' of five different forms1 and #e double points1 as compared with #e grattoirs1 or planing tools4 ,there are very few knife-shaped forms4 ,it would appear that the racloir and the peroir were the principal implements employed in the preparation of skins for clothing4 ,in early ,mousterian times the coup de poing may still have been used by the ,neanderthals in the chase1 and the fine1 spear-headed 'point' and the rarer 'double point' may have been developed in response to the needs of hunters1 who now ventured the chase of the bison1 the urus1 the wild horse1 and the reindeer4 ,the most striking features of all the implements which may have been used in the chase are3 first1 the absence of any definite proof of their attachment to a shaft or handle2 and second1 the absence of any barbed or headed type of point4 ,the use of the barb1 as we shall see1 appears to be a relatively recent discovery of the later cultures of ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acj4 ,late ,mousterian implements1 after de ,mortillet1 one-quarter actual size4 #aji1 #aaj--,point1 finely retouched at one end1 from ,seine-et-,marne1 ,france4 ,the reverse shows a retouch on the flaked surface which suggests the double-face ,solutrean retouch4 #aaa1 #aab--;,a very large racloir1 or scraper1 from ,la ,quina1 ,charente1 ,france2 part of the bulb of percussion has been chipped off4 #aac--;,double-ended point from ,le ,moustier1 retouched on both surfaces4 #aad1 #aae--;,combination point and scraper from ,le ,moustier1 ,dordogne1 ,france4 #aaf--;,double scraper1 or racloir1 with grattoir1 or planing end4 ,the transition from the ,mousterian to the ,aurignacian appears in the ,abri ,audit1 which also lies in the valley of the ,vzre4 ,here we still find irregularly fashioned coups de poing1 decadent followers of the heart-shaped types of the earliest ,mousterian industry2 this is nearly the last phase in the decline of the old coup-de-poing manufacture4 ,while the lance-shaped coup de poing of the late ,acheulean never appears in any true ,mousterian industry1 the shorter1 more heart-shaped type of ,combe-,capelle traverses the entire ,mousterian and1 after further stages of degeneration1 passes into the ,abri ,audit culture and even lingers into the early ,aurignacian4 ,at this latter station the typical ,mousterian 'points' are almost wanting4 ,the ,mousterian1 observes ,schmidt17#ge7 which preserves the traditions of the ,lower ,palolithic coup-de-poing culture1 is one of the most interesting phases in the development of ,palolithic industry1 in that its successive stages exhibit the very last phases of the great coup-de-poing industry1 of which only the almond and oval scraper types appear1 and that very rarely1 in the early ,aurignacian4 ,on the other hand1 in the late ,mousterian we observe a trend toward the blade 7lame7 industry of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,careful study and observation of the subdivisions of ,mousterian culture have thus far been limited to central and southern ,france1 and they have not yet been traced in ,spain2 but in the grottos of ,belgium and ,england the early1 middle1 and late ,mousterian types are known to exist4 ,bone anvils1 fashioned out of the hard surfaces of the foreleg and foot bones of the bison and horse1 were discovered at ,la ,quina in #aijf4 ,they show a flattened surface with cross incisions too regular to be accidental and too far from the articulation to be the result of an inexpert attempt to sever the joint47#gf7 ,this was not the only use of bone in ,mousterian times1 however1 for primitive pointed implements of bone are occasionally found in ,dordogne1 mingled with ,mousterian flints4 ,a variety of rudely fashioned bone implements also occurs at ,wildkirchli1 in ,switzerland4 ,,disappearance ,,of ,,the ,,neanderthal ,,race ,we have seen that the ,neanderthals dwelt in ,europe for a very long time1 many thousands of years1 during which they doubtless underwent considerable evolution from lower to higher types1 and into varieties1 under the modifying influences of climate1 food1 and racial habits4 ,consequently the known remains of ,neanderthals exhibit a decided variation in head form1 as well as in dentition3 some are more primitive and ape-like2 others1 such as ,spy ,,ii1 are more like the modern races4 ,the ,krapina variety is more broad-headed than the typical ,neanderthal variety4 ,the ,gibraltar variety is in many respects of low type4 ,the individual known as ,spy ,,ii is of higher type than the other ,neanderthals4 ,the variations in stature so far as known are slight4 ,for these and other reasons ,hrdlika17#gg7 who has recently made a broad comparative study of the chief ,neanderthal remains of ,europe1 is of the opinion that the ,neanderthals partly evolved into the lower races of ,homo sapiens2 being not only in some measure ancestral to such very primitive forms as the ,brnn or ,pedmost race of ,upper ,palolithic times1 but even contributing to the higher race of the ,cr-,magnons4 ,he also holds that traces of ,neanderthal blood and physiognomy are not lacking even among modern ,europeans4 ,a contrary view is set forth in the present volume2 namely1 that the ,neanderthals represent a side branch of the human race which became wholly extinct in western ,europe4 ,this view the author shares with ,boule and with ,schwalbe4 ,certainly the evidence afforded by the known ,upper ,palolithic burial sites does not support the theory that the ,neanderthals persisted4 ,it is possible1 however1 that the ,upper ,palolithic skeletons discovered at ,pedmost1 and now awaiting description by ,maka1 may modify this conclusion and demonstrate ,hrdlika's theory that the ,neanderthals survived and left descendants or men of mixed ,neanderthal and ,homo sapiens race along the valley of the ,danube4 ,whatever may have been their fate in other regions1 certainly the most sudden racial change which we know of in the whole prehistory of western ,europe is the disappearance of the ,neanderthal race at the close of the ,mousterian culture stage1 which was the latest industrial period of ,lower ,palolithic times1 and their replacement by the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,from geologic evidence the date of this replacement is believed to have been between #bj1jjj and #be1jjj years before our era4 ,so far as we know at present1 the ,neanderthals were entirely eliminated2 no trace of the survival of the pure ,neanderthal type has been found in any of the ,upper ,palolithic burial sites2 nor have the alleged instances of the survival of the ,neanderthal strain or of people bearing the ,neanderthal cranial characters been substantiated4 ,we incline to agree with ,boule and ,schwalbe that the supposed cases among modern races of the transmission of ,neanderthal characters are simply low or reversional types1 which1 upon close analysis1 are never found to present the highly distinctive and peculiar combination of ,neanderthal characteristics4 ,there is some reason to believe that the ,neanderthals were degenerating physically and industrially during the very severe conditions of life of the fourth glaciation1 but the consequent inferiority and diminution in numbers would not account for their total extinction1 and we are inclined to attribute this to the entrance into the whole ,neanderthal country of western ,europe toward the close of ,lower ,palolithic times of a new and highly superior race4 ,archologists find traces of a new culture and industry in certain ,mousterian stations preceding the disappearance of the typical ,mousterian industry4 ,such a mingling is found in the valley of the ,somme in northern ,france4 ,from this scanty evidence we may infer that the new race competed for a time with the ,neanderthals before they dispossessed them of their principal stations and drove them out of the country or killed them in battle4 ,the ,neanderthals1 no doubt1 fought with wooden weapons and with the stone-headed dart and spear1 but there is no evidence that they possessed the bow and arrow4 ,there is1 on the contrary1 some possibility that the newly arriving ,cr-,magnon race may have been familiar with the bow and arrow1 for a barbed arrow or spear head appears in drawings of a later stage of ,cr-,magnon history1 the so-called ,magdalenian4 ,it is thus possible1 though very far from being demonstrated1 that when the ,cr-,magnons entered western ,europe1 at the dawn of the ,upper ,palolithic1 they were armed with weapons which1 with their superior intelligence and physique1 would have given them a very great advantage in contests with the ,neanderthals4 7#a7 ,commont1 #aiab4a1 p4 #bid4 7#b7 ,smith1 ,w41 #ahid4a1 chap4 ,,xv4 7#c7 ,dietrich1 #aiaj4a1 pp4 #cbi1 #ccj4 7#d7 ,penck1 #aiji4a4 7#e7 ,leverett1 #aiaj4a1 pp4 #cjf-cad4 7#f7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a4 7#g7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bgb4 7#h7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #bfe-bff4 7#i7 ,keith1 #aiaa4a1 p4 #bc1 ,fig4 #e4 7#aj7 ,munro1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #df1 #dg4 7#aa7 ,lartet1 #ahfa4a2 #ahge4a4 7#ab7 ,de ,vibraye1 #ahfd4a4 7#ac7 ,massnat1 #ahfh4a4 7#ad7 ,smith1 ,w41 #ahid4a1 chap4 ,,xiv4 7#ae7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 p4 #aai4 7#af7 ,smith1 ,w41 op4 cit41 pp4 #aif1 #aig4 7#ag7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bbd4 7#ah7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 p4 #aah4 7#ai7 ,bchler1 #aiab4a4 7#bj7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #ah-cb1 #afe-aga4 7#ba7 ,op4 cit41 ,table opposite p4 #bgj4 7#bb7 ,osborn1 #aiaj4a1 pp4 #dai1 #dbj4 7#bc7 ,niezabitowski1 #aiaa4a4 7#bd7 ,harl1 #aijh4a1 p4 #cjb4 7#be7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #ace4 7#bf7 ,keith1 #aiaa4b4 7#bg7 ,boule1 #aiac4a1 pp4 #bbj1 #bba4 7#bh7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #fd4 7#bi7 ,fischer1 #aiac4a1 pp4 #ccf1 #ccg4 7#cj7 ,schaaffhausen1 #ahge4a2 #aheh4a4 7#ca7 ,lyell1 #ahfc4a1 pp4 #hj-ib4 7#cb7 ,schwalbe1 #ahig4a2 #aija4a2 #aija4b2 #aijd4a4 7#cc7 ,king1 #ahfd4a4 7#cd7 ,cope1 #ahic4a4 7#ce7 ,wilser1 #ahih4a4 7#cf7 ,fraipont1 #ahhg4a4 7#cg7 ,schwalbe1 #aiad4b4 7#ch7 ,dupont1 #ahff4a4 7#ci7 ,maka1 #ahhf4a4 7#dj7 ,rzehak1 #aijf4a4 7#da7 ,fischer1 #aiac4a4 7#db7 ,klaatsch1 #aiji4a4 7#dc7 ,bouyssonie1 #aiji4a4 7#dd7 ,boule1 #aijh4a2 #aijh4b2 #aiji4a2 #aiaa4a2 #aiab4a4 7#de7 ,boule1 #aiac4a4 7#df7 ,martin1 ,h41 #aiaa4a4 7#dg7 ,nicolle1 #aiaj4a4 7#dh7 ,keith1 #aiaa4a4 7#di7 ,fischer1 #aiac4a1 p4 #ceb4 7#ej7 ,schwalbe1 #aiad4a1 p4 #edd1 ,figs4 #d and #e4 7#ea7 ,fischer1 op4 cit4 7#eb7 ,boule1 #aiac4a1 p4 #he4 7#ec7 ,gorjanovi-,kramberger1 #aiji4a4 7#ed7 ,boule1 #aiac4a1 p4 #ajd4 7#ee7 ,tomes1 #aiad4a1 pp4 #ehh-eih4 7#ef7 ,schwalbe1 #aija4b2 #aiad4a1 pp4 #ecd1 #ece4 7#eg7 ,schwalbe1 #aija4a4 7#eh7 ,boule1 #aiac4a4 7#ei7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #ff1 #fg1 #gb1 #ge4 7#fj7 ,berry1 #aiad4a4 7#fa7 ,johnson1 #aiac4a4 7#fb7 ,quatrefages1 #ahhd4a1 p4 #cid4 7#fc7 ,martin1 ,r41 #aiad4a1 p4 #fde4 7#fd7 ,boule1 #aiaj4a2 #aiaa4a4 7#fe7 ,anthony1 #aiab4a4 7#ff7 ,boule1 #aiac4a1 p4 #aai4 7#fg7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #abj4 7#fh7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 p4 #acj2 ,godwin-,austen1 #ahdj4a4 7#fi7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #bc1 #cb1 #ff1 #ge1 #gf1 #aja1 #afi4 7#gj7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #abh4 7#ga7 ,schuchhardt1 #aiac4a1 p4 #add4 7#gb7 ,dchelette1 #aijh4a1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ih-aja4 7#gc7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #acj4 7#gd7 ,commont1 #aiji4a4 7#ge7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #abf-abh4 7#gf7 ,dchelette1 #aijh4a1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #ajd1 #aje4 7#gg7 ,hrdlika1 #aiad4a4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,opening ,,of ,,the ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic--,,the ,,grimaldi ,,race--,,arrival ,,of ,,the ,,cr-,,magnon ,,race ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,aurignacian ,,industry--,,geographic ,,and ,,climatic ,,conditions--,,mammalian ,,life--,,characteristics ,,and ,,habits ,,of ,,the ,,cr-,,magnons--,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,aurignacian ,,industry--,,the ,,birth ,,of ,,art--,,origin ,,and ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,solutrean ,,industry--,,br,,nn ,,race--,,solutrean ,,industry ,,and ,,art4 ,in the whole racial history of western ,europe there has never occurred so profound a change as that involving the disappearance of the ,neanderthal race and the appearance of the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,it was the replacement of a race lower than any existing human type by one which ranks high among the existing types in capacity and intelligence4 ,the ,cr-,magnons belonged to ,homo sapiens1 the same species of man as ourselves1 and appear to have been the chief race of the ,upper ,palolithic ,period up to the very close of ,magdalenian times1 after which they apparently underwent a decline4 ,although there were one or more other races which influenced the industrial development of western ,europe1 the ,cr-,magnons were certainly dominant1 as shown both by the abundance of their skeletal remains and by the wide distribution of their industry and art2 the ,upper ,palolithic may almost be said to be the period of the ,cr-,magnons as the ,lower ,palolithic is that of the ,neanderthals and the ,pre-,neanderthals4 ,their arrival toward the end of ,mousterian times effected a social and industrial change and a race replacement of so profound a nature that it would certainly be legitimate to separate the ,upper ,palolithic from the ,lower by a break equal to that which separates the former from the ,neolithic47#a7 ,the arrival of the ,cr-,magnons and the introduction of the ,aurignacian industry are the first events of the prehistory of ,europe to which we can assign a date with any degree of confidence2 they correspond geologically with the close of the fourth glaciation and the beginning of ,postglacial time1 the duration of which has been estimated by geologists from evidence of many different kinds1 but which brings us1 nevertheless1 to substantially similar conclusions4 ,it seems that #be1jjj years is a conservative estimate for the duration of the ,postglacial ,period2 this is supported by the independent observations of ,lyell1 ,taylor1 ,penck and ,brckner1 and ,coleman2 it is within the estimates made by ,chamberlin and ,salisbury1 ,fairchild1 ,sardeson1 and ,spencer2 it is somewhat larger than the estimates of ,gilbert and ,upham4,,aj ,thus1 with considerable confidence we may record man of the modern type of ,homo sapiens as entering western ,europe between #be1jjj and #cj1jjj years ago4 ,the ,lower ,palolithic industrial cycle1 comprising the ,chellean1 ,acheulean1 and ,mousterian1 seems to have been similar in evolution both around the ,mediterranean coasts and in the northern portions of ,europe4 ,from the fact that the ,cr-,magnons arrived with the ,aurignacian industry it would appear that they came through ,phnicia and along the southern coasts of the ,mediterranean1 through ,tunis1 into ,spain2 also perhaps along the northern coasts of the ,mediterranean through ,italy4 ,their evolution had probably taken place somewhere on the continent of ,asia1 for their physical structure is entirely of ,asiatic type1 and not in the least of ,african or ,ethiopian type2 that is1 they exhibit no negroid characters whatever4 ,the reason that ,breuil considers that the ,aurignacian did not come in through central or eastern ,europe is that there are no early ,aurignacian stations in either region1 whereas the ,aurignacian is abundantly developed along the ,mediterranean coasts1 both of ,europe and ,africa4 ,the passage of the ,cr-,magnons along these coasts was1 therefore1 like the subsequent wave of the true ,mediterranean race1 dark-haired1 long-headed1 narrow-faced people1 which followed this coast in early ,neolithic times1 or1 again1 like the wave of the ,arabian or ,moslem advance1 which pressed forward along the northern coast of ,africa and into southwestern ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aca4 ,entrance to the great ,grotte du ,prince at the base of the limestone promontory known as the ,baouss ,rouss1 with a view of ,mentone in the distance4 ,after ,davanne4 ,some support of this theory of migration along the north coast of ,africa is given by the presence of the skeletons of two members of an entirely distinct race1 which are commonly known as the 'negroids of ,grimaldi' because of their discovery in the ,grottes de ,grimaldi near ,mentone1 and because they alone among all the ,upper ,palolithic races thus far discovered in ,europe display a number of resemblances to the ,african negroid race4 ,anatomically they are related neither to the ,neanderthals nor to the ,cr-,magnons4 ,their archologic age appears to be early ,aurignacian because they are found immediately above the layer which marks the close of ,mousterian time and the last climate favorable to the warm fauna of mammals4 ,this sunny coast where modern ,france joins ,italy has supplied some of the most valuable records of the racial and industrial transition from the ,lower to the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,of the nine ,grottes de ,grimaldi three at least show evidences of occupation in closing ,mousterian times1 probably by men of the ,neanderthal race1 although no skeletal remains of ,neanderthals have been found here4 ,four of the grottos1 namely1 the ,grotte des ,enfants1 the ,grotte de ,cavillon1 the ,barma ,grande1 and the ,baousso da ,torre1 have yielded altogether the skeletal remains of sixteen individuals1 all associated with implements of ,aurignacian culture and evidently representing a number of ceremonial burials4 ,fourteen of these skeletons are attributed by ,verneau to the ,cr-,magnon race2 the other two are the 'negroids of ,grimaldi' above referred to4 ,this is1 therefore1 a prehistoric record of the greatest significance1 which we shall now examine more in detail4 ,,racial ,,succession ,,along ,,the ,,ancient ,,riviera ,where the southern spurs of the ,alps descend into the ,mediterranean and separate ,france from ,italy we find a limestone promontory1 known as the ,baouss ,rouss1 projecting in a long cliff1 beneath which the rocky shore descends abruptly into the sea4 ,opening toward the south1 and at intervals along the base of this cliff are the nine ,grottes de ,grimaldi4 ,doubtless the ,neanderthals migrated along these shores at a time when the hippopotamus1 the straight-tusked elephant 7,e4 antiquus71 and ,merck's rhinoceros 7,r4 merckii7 still abounded as the last representatives of the great ,african-,asiatic fauna4 ,these hunters of ,mousterian times entered the sea-swept floor of the great ,grotte du ,prince,,ak 7,fig4 #aca71 with a ceiling height at that time perhaps of over #hj feet1 carrying in their game to the fire-hearths1 and leaving ,mousterian implements in the accumulating deposits4 ,in the succeeding layers of this grotto the changing forms of animal life demonstrate the effect of the fourth glaciation and the cooling of the climate toward the close of ,mousterian times4 ,the smaller ,grotte des ,enfants 7,fig4 #acb71 which lies to the west of the ,prince's ,grotto1 was apparently occupied at a somewhat more recent period1 because the lowest fire-hearths contain1 together with the ,mousterian implements1 remains of ,merck's rhinoceros only--apparently the last survivor here1 as well as in other parts of western ,europe1 of the warm ,african-,asiatic fauna4 ,the hippopotamus and the straight-tusked elephant had either become extinct or had been driven farther south by the time the hunters first occupied this grotto4 ,in the overlying layers of this and several other grottos the fire-hearths contain remains of a rich forest fauna which includes the wild boar1 stag1 roe-deer1 wild horse1 wolf1 and bear4 ,the first signs of increasing cold in the mountains to the north is the appearance of remains of the chamois and ibex driven from the ,alpine heights4 ,then in still higher layers appears the reindeer1 harbinger of the tundra climate4 ,,the ,,grimaldi ,,race ,verneau is inclined to regard the ,grimaldi as a very ancient race1 antedating the ,cr-,magnon47#b7 ,he believes that they belong to a new ethnic type which played an important rle in ,europe and enjoyed a wide geographic distribution4 ,there does not1 however1 seem to be much support for this opinion1 because1 unlike some other races1 no traces of the ,grimaldis have been found elsewhere1 and it would appear more probable that they were1 as their skeletal characters indicate1 true negroids which perhaps found their way from ,africa but never became established as a race in western ,europe4 ,the type consists of two skeletons found in the ,grotte des ,enfants by ,verneau in #aijf4 ,one skeleton is that of a middle-aged woman2 the other is that of a youth of sixteen or seventeen4 ,both are referred to the existing species of man1 ,homo sapiens4 ,the layer which contained them is on a level two feet lower than any which contained ,cr-,magnons1 and immediately above the culture layer of ,mousterian times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acb4 ,section of the ,grotte des ,enfants1 after ,tschirret4 ,in deposits which accumulated to a thickness of over #cj feet this grotto contains in its ascending strata a complete epitome of the vicissitudes of climate1 together with four burials of members of the ,cr-,magnon ,race1 and1 near the base1 the burial of the two ,grimaldi skeletons4 ,the layers in descending order are as follows3 ,a4 ,burial of two infant skeletons4 ,remains of forest and alpine 7,ibex7 mammals4 ,b4 ,burial of the skeleton of a ,cr-,magnon woman4 ,remains of forest and alpine mammals4 ,c4 ,fire-hearths containing forest mammals--the wild boar1 also the reindeer4 ,d4 ,fire-hearths with flints of ,aurignacian type4 ,remains of forest fauna--the marten4 ,e4 ,layer containing a cairn or artificial pile of stone4 ,remains of ibex1 horse1 wolf1 cave-lion1 and fox4 ,intermediate layer4 ,remains of the wild ass1 perhaps of the steppe type1 and of the reindeer2 also of the ibex1 the wild horse1 and forest fauna--the wild boar4 ,f4 ,large fragments fallen from the cave roof4 ,no evidence of habitation4 ,g4 ,fire-hearths4 ,remains of the moose1 roe-deer1 fallow deer1 stag1 wild cattle1 ibex1 fox1 leopard1 and rabbit4 ,h4 ,burial of a very tall skeleton of the ,,cr-,,magnon ,,race 7see ,fig4 #add1 p4 #big74 ,fire-hearths containing remains of the forest fauna1 also the alpine chamois and marmot1 the cave-hyna1 and the leopard4 ,i4 ,burial of two skeletons of the ,,grimaldi ,,race 7see ,fig4 #acc1 p4 #bfg74 ,flints of ,aurignacian type and remains of a forest fauna which includes the deer1 also of the wild horse1 the alpine ibex1 and the hyna4 ,k4 ,traces of charcoal and disturbed fire-hearths4 ,k-,l4 ,remains of ,merck's rhinoceros and of the hyna4 ,alpine 7,ibex7 and temperate forest fauna4 ,l4 ,traces of fire-hearths with ,mousterian implements1 chiefly of quartzite1 probably left by members of the ,,neanderthal ,,race on the ancient floor of the grotto1 following the recession of the sea4 ,evidence of previous occupation by hynas4 ,the ,grimaldi characters present a wide contrast to those of the ,cr-,magnon4 ,the two known skeletons1 of a woman and a youth1 are of inferior stature1 not exceeding #e feet #c inches3 ,grimaldi female estimated at #a4eg m4 #e ft4 #b in4 youth #a4ee m4 #e ft4 #a in4 ,these measurements1 however1 are only slightly inferior to those of the ,cr-,magnon woman and youth1 which rise to #e feet #e inches4 ,there are many negroid characters in the skull1 in the structure of the hip-girdle1 and in the proportions of the limbs2 there are also some characters in common with the anthropoid apes1 namely1 the long forearm1 the curved thigh-bone1 and the marked prognathism1 or projection of the tooth row2 the face is low and broad1 and extremely prognathous2 the nose is platyrhine1 or broad and flat2 the jaw is heavy1 with large teeth and without the chin prominence2 the head form1 like that of the ,cr-,magnons1 is dolichocephalic and somewhat disharmonic2 that is1 while the head is long1 the face is short and relatively broad4 ,yet the cranial capacity is relatively high1 being estimated at #a1ehj c4cm4 ,unlike the ,cr-,magnons1 the ,grimaldis have a relatively long forearm and a negroid type of pelvis4 ,the proportions of the leg are1 however1 somewhat similar to those of the leg of the ,cr-,magnon1 the thigh-bone being short and the shin-bone long1 the index being #hc4h per cent4 ,in addition to the long forearm1 which approaches in form that of the living anthropoid apes1 there is a curved femur1 distinctly of anthropoid-ape character4 ,in its body and tooth characters1 observes ,verneau17#c7 this negroid race in many respects shows a greater resemblance to the anthropoid apes than does the ,neanderthal race4 ,he continues3 ,the fact remains that at a very remote period of the ,pleistocene there existed in ,europe1 beside the ,neanderthal race1 a type of man that in many of his cephalic characters1 in the structure of his pelvis1 and in his limb proportions showed striking analogies to the negro of to-day4 ,in their remarkable proportions they exaggerate some of the peculiarities of the recent negroes2 the teeth resemble those of the ,australian types4 ,there is evidence of the establishment and spread of the ,grimaldi race throughout western ,europe1 namely1 in cases of partial reversion to this type among the skeletal remains of the ,neolithic ,age1 the ,bronze ,age1 and the early ,iron ,age in ,brittany1 ,switzerland1 and northern ,italy4 ,extreme prognathism is the characteristic that most frequently appears1 and in some instances there is the broad nose1 with the same osteological peculiarities that mark the ,grimaldi type4 ,in every instance these individuals show dolichocephaly1 nearly always combined with a short1 broad face4 ,until the discovery of the ,grimaldi type we were at a loss to explain the existence of these individuals among a population from which they differed so radically4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acc4 ,the ,grimaldi skeletons found in the lower ,aurignacian layer of the ,grotte des ,enfants--the youth to the right and the woman to the left4 ,after ,verneau4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acd4 ,skull of the ,grimaldi youth in front and in profile4 ,after ,verneau1 one-quarter life size4 ,against this opinion of ,verneau we should weigh the entire absence of any trace of this ,grimaldi race in any part of western ,europe among all the burials and other human remains of ,upper ,palolithic age known at the present time4 ,setting aside any such records which are of doubtful authenticity or difficult to diagnose on account of their fragmentary nature1 there remains a number of human fossils representing at least ninety individuals discovered at over fifteen widely distributed localities4 ,none of these shows any features of the ,grimaldi race4 ,in describing the ,grimaldi skeletons1 ,keith7#d7 agrees that they are of a mixed or negroid type2 the shallow1 projecting incisor part of the upper jaw and the characters of the chin are features of recent negroid races2 so are the wide opening of the nose1 the prominent cheek-bones1 the flat and short face4 ,yet the bridge of the nose is not flat as in negroes1 but rather prominent as in ,europeans1 and the capacity of the skull in the woman 7#a1cge c4cm47 is ample4 ,in the boy the teeth are large and of the negro type2 he bears a striking resemblance to the woman1 and his cranial capacity 7#a1ehj c4cm47 indicates a distinctly modern brain2 the prominences of the forehead do not meet across the median line as in certain negroids and in the ,neanderthals4 ,keith concludes that the ,grimaldi people represent an intermediate type in the evolution of the typical white and black races4 ,,main ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,entire ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,history ,having now considered the opening of the ,upper ,palolithic1 also the single appearance of the ,grimaldi race of which no further trace is known1 it is desirable to briefly review the entire ,upper ,palolithic history before we attempt to follow in detail its successive phases beginning with the appearance of the ,aurignacian industry4 ,there is evidence of various kinds that the ,cr-,magnons arrived in western ,europe1 bringing in their ,aurignacian industry1 while the ,neanderthals were still in possession of the country and practising their ,mousterian industry4 ,thus in the valley of the ,somme1 ,commont believes he has recognized a level of flints1 exhibiting the primitive ,aurignacian 'retouch' of ,dordogne1 but occurring beneath a late ,mousterian level4 ,additional evidence of a contact between the industries of these two races is found at the stations of ,la ,ferrassie1 of ,les ,bouffia1 and especially of the ,abri ,audit1 where there is a distinct transition period1 in which the characteristic types of the late ,mousterian are found intermixed with a number of flints suggesting the early ,aurignacian27#e7 here it would appear that the development of the ,aurignacian is partly a local evolution1 and not an invasion of wholly new types of implements4 ,breuil7#f7 suggests that these mixed layers may perhaps be explained by the supposition that we have here degenerate or modified ,mousterian tools1 more or less influenced by contact with the ,aurignacian industry of the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,,the ,,stone ,,implements ,,characteristic ,,of ,,lower ,,and ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,times ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,lower ,,pal,,olithic ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ------------------------------- ,,pre-,,chellean ,,chellean ,,acheulean ,,the ,,typical ,,stone ,,implements ,,mousterian ,,aurignacian ,,solutrean ,,magdalenian ,,azilian ,,tarde- ,,noisian ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,a4--,,war ,,and ,,chase 99#a4 ,,microlithique8 ,,arrow ,,point8 ,,etc4444444444444 #b4 ,,pointe ,,point 4444 44 #c4 ,,pointe ,,soie ,,lance ,,or ,,knife 44444444 4444 #d4 ,,pointe ,,cran ,,lance-,,head 44444444 84444 #e4 ,,pointe ,,de ,,laurier 44444444 8 84444 99#f4 ,,coup ,,de ,,poing ,,hand-,,axe1 ,,poniard1 ,,etc4 44 4444444444 #g4 ,,pierre ,,de ,,jet ,,throwing ,,stone 8 8 8 8 4444 99#h4 ,,couteau ,,knife ,b4--,,industrial ,,and ,,domestic #i4 ,,lampe ,,lamp 444444444444 4444 #aj4 ,,lissoir ,,polisher 4444444444 4444 #aa4 ,,mortier ,,mortar 444444444444 4444 #ab4 ,,hachette 7,,tranchette7 ,,chopper 44 8 4444444444 99#ac4 ,,coup ,,de ,,poing ,,hand-,,axe1 ,,etc4 44 4444444444 #ad4 ,,grattoir ,,planing ,,tool #ae4 ,,racloir ,,scraper 44 #af4 ,,per,,oir ,,drill1 ,,borer 44 99#ag4 ,,couteau ,,knife #ah4 ,,enclume ,,anvil ,,stone 44444444 8 4444 #ai4 ,,percuteur ,,hammer-,,stone 8 8 ,c4--,,art1 ,,sculpture1 ,,engraving 99#bj4 ,,microlithique ,,drill1 ,,graver1 ,,and ,,etcher 44444444 #ba4 ,,ciseau ,,chisel 44444444 4444 #bb4 ,,gravette ,,etching ,,tool 44444444 44 #bc4 ,,burin ,,graver 44444444 844 7,,also ,,mortar1 ,,hammer-,,stone1 ,,and ,,polisher7 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- 99 twice mentioned 7in different classifications74 or denotes an unusual or culminating development4 ,again1 the burial customs of the ,neanderthals were in many respects followed by the ,cr-,magnons2 they chose1 in fact1 the same kind of burial sites1 namely1 at the entrances of grottos or in proximity to the shelters4 ,some degree of ceremony must have marked these burials1 for with the remains were interred implements of industry and warfare together with offerings of food4 ,the ,neanderthal burials were with the body fully extended2 the two burials of the ,grimaldi race were with the limbs in a flexed position and tightly bound to the body1 probably with skin garments or thongs4 ,the ,cr-,magnon burials are either with the body extended1 as in the ,grottes de ,grimaldi1 or with the limbs flexed1 as in the ,aurignacian burial of ,laugerie ,haute4 ,,the ,,bone ,,implements ,,appearing ,,at ,,the ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,lower ,,pal,,olithic ,,and ,,highly ,,characteristic ,,of ,,the ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,,lower ,,pal,,olithic ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ------------------------------- ,,pre-,,chellean ,,chellean ,,acheulean ,,the ,,typical ,,bone ,,implements ,,mousterian ,,aurignacian ,,solutrean ,,magdalenian ,,azilian ,,tarde- ,,noisian ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,a4--,,war1 ,,chase1 ,,fishing 99#a4 ,,lames ,,blades 44444444 8 4444 #b4 ,,poignard ,,dagger 4444444444 4444 #c4 ,,hame,,on8 ,,fish-,,hook8 44444444 8 8 84444 #d4 ,,propulseur ,,spear ,,thrower 444444444444 4444 #e4 ,,harpon ,,harpoon 4444444444 44 #f4 ,,pointe ,,de ,,sagaie ,,javelin ,,point 44444444 4444 #g4 ,,pointe ,,de ,,lance ,,spear ,,point 44444444 44 ,b4--,,industrial ,,and ,,domestic #h4 ,,spatule ,,spatula 4444444444 4444 #i4 ,,navette ,,shuttle 444444444444 4444 #aj4 ,,epingle ,,pin 444444444444 4444 #aa4 ,,aiguille ,,needle 44444444 4444 99#ab4 ,,lames ,,blades 44444444 444444 #ac4 ,,compresseur ,,anvil 444444 4444444444 #ad4 ,,lissoir ,,smoother 44444444 44 #ae4 ,,coin ,,wedge 44444444 44 4444 #af4 ,,ciseau ,,chisel 44444444 44 44 #ag4 ,,poin,,on ,,awl 444444 44 ,c4--,,ceremonial1 ,,social #ah4 ,b,,ton ,,de ,,commandement ,,ceremonial ,,staff44444444 4444 #ai4 ,,baguette ,,wand 444444444444 4444 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- 99 twice mentioned 7in different classifications74 or denotes an unusual or culminating development4 ,whether the ,neanderthals were exterminated entirely or whether they were driven out of the country is not known2 the encounter was certainly between a very superior people1 both physically and mentally1 who possibly had the use of the bow and arrow1 and a very inferior and somewhat degenerate people that had been already reduced physically and perhaps numerically by the severe climatic conditions of the fourth glaciation4 ,the ,neanderthals were dispossessed of all their dwelling-places and industrial stations by this new and vigorous race1 for at no less than eighteen points the ,aurignacian immediately succeeds upon the ,mousterian industry and in a few instances ,cr-,magnon burials occur very near the ,neanderthal burial sites4 ,in the racial replacements of savage as well as of historic peoples the men are often killed and the women spared and taken into families of the warriors1 but no evidence has thus far been found that even the ,neanderthal women were spared or allowed to remain in the country1 because in none of the burials of ,aurignacian times is there any evidence of the crossing or admixture of the ,cr-,magnons and the ,neanderthals4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,vi4 ,the head of the ,cr-,magnon type of ,homo sapiens1 a race inhabiting southwestern ,europe from ,aurignacian to ,magdalenian times4 ,antiquity in western ,europe estimated as at least #be1jjj years4 ,after the restoration modelled by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,for the bodily proportions of this finely developed race compare ,pl4 ,,vii4 ,the chief source of the change which swept over western ,europe lay in the brain power of the ,cr-,magnons1 as seen not only in the large size of the brain as a whole but principally in the almost modern forehead and forebrain4 ,it was a race which had evolved in ,asia and which was in no way connected by any ancestral links with the ,neanderthals2 a race with a brain capable of ideas1 of reasoning1 of imagination1 and more highly endowed with artistic sense and ability than any uncivilized race which has ever been discovered4 ,no trace of artistic instinct whatever has been found among the ,neanderthals2 we have seen developing among them only a sense of symmetry and proportion in the fashioning of their implements4 ,after prolonged study of the works of the ,cr-,magnons one cannot avoid the conclusions that their capacity was nearly if not quite as high as our own2 that they were capable of advanced education2 that they had a strongly developed sthetic as well as a religious sense2 that their society was quite highly differentiated along the lines of talent for work of different kinds4 ,one derives this impression especially from the conditions surrounding the development of their art1 which are still mysterious and an interpretation of which we shall attempt to give in the following chapter4 ,,cultural1 ,,racial1 ,,and ,,climatic ,,divisions ,the ,upper ,palolithic covers the greater part of the ',reindeer ,epoch' as it was conceived by ,lartet and ,christy1 who began their systematic study and exploration of the caves of ,dordogne in #ahfc4 ,they were soon joined by ,massnat and the ,marquis de ,vibraye1 while ,dupont took up the work in ,belgium and ,piette made the artistic development1 especially in the ,pyrenees1 his chosen field4 ,lartet was the first to perceive that the culture of the grotto of ,aurignac was quite distinct from that of the ,lower ,palolithic in northern ,france2 he also recognized in the shelter of ,laugerie ,haute1 in ,dordogne1 that there was still another culture1 which is now known as the ,solutrean2 also that in the shelter of ,laugerie ,basse1 in ,dordogne1 there was yet another industry1 that which we now know as ,magdalenian4 ,m4 de ,mortillet was the first to recognize the superiority of the ,solutrean industry in stone1 which in this period reached its height1 and its succession by the ,magdalenian period1 in which the industry in bone and horn reached a climax2 but he failed to recognize the very important preceding position of the ,aurignacian1 and it was not until #aijf that the clear presentation by ,breuil of the entire distinctness of the ,aurignacian industry led to the adoption by the ,archological ,congress at ,geneva of three cultural divisions of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,in the meantime ,piette had discovered that in the ,mas d',azil there was a distinct cultural phase1 the ,azilian1 following the ,magdalenian1 and thus a fourfold division of the ,upper ,palolithic 7,breuil17#g7 ,obermaier7#h77 was established1 as follows3 ,,azilian4--,industry of the surviving ,cr-,magnon and other resident races1 and of newly arrived brachycephalic and dolichocephalic races in western ,europe2 decadent forms of flint and bone workmanship2 entire absence of art4 ,daun stage of ,postglacial retreat2 ,europe with a milder climate and forest and meadow fauna like that of early historic times4 ,,magdalenian4--,closing stage of the industry and art of the ,cr-,magnon race2 bone implements highly developed2 marked decline in the flint industry4 ,close of ,postglacial ,period2 climate alternately cold and moist 7corresponding with the ,bhl and ,gschnitz ,postglacial advances of the ice in the ,alpine region71 or cold and arid2 ,europe covered with the tundra and steppe fauna2 life chiefly in the shelters and grottos4 ,,solutrean4--,culminating stage of flint industry2 apparent invasion in eastern ,europe of the ,brnn 7,brx1 ,pedmost1 and 8 ,galley ,hill7 race4 ,the highly developed flint industry of the ,solutrean types2 art development of the ,cr-,magnon race partly suspended4 ,dry1 cold climate2 life largely in the open4 ,,aurignacian4--,appearance of the ,cr-,magnon race in southwestern ,europe1 succeeding the ,mousterian industry2 art of engraving and drawing and sculpture of human and animal forms developing4 ,animal life the same as during the fourth glaciation2 climate cold and increasingly dry2 life chiefly in the grottos and shelters4 ,the successive phases of development of ,upper ,palolithic industry and art have been traced with extraordinary precision in ,dordogne1 in the ,pyrenees1 in northern ,spain1 and along the ,danube and upper ,rhine by a host of able workers--,cartailhac1 ,capitan1 ,peyrony1 ,bouyssonnie1 ,lalanne1 and others4 ,breuil has made himself master especially of the ,aurignacian and has succeeded ,piette as the great historian of ,upper ,palolithic art4 ,obermaier's chief service has been the comparison of the ,upper ,palolithic of the ,danubian region with that of the ,dordogne and northern ,spain both in regard to the geologic age and the archologic and racial succession4 ,the labors of ,schmidt along the upper ,rhine and ,danube have not only brought this region into definite prehistoric relation with the ,dordogne and the ,pyrenees but have given us by far the clearest evidence of the relation between the human and the industrial development and the succession of climatic phases in northern ,europe4 ,finally1 the explorations of ,commont along the ,river ,somme have proved that this region1 too1 was frequented throughout all ,upper ,palolithic times1 during which it exhibits an industrial development hardly less important than that of the ,lower ,palolithic4 ,there are two very distinct lines of thought among these archologists3 the first is shown in the tendency to regard the industries as mainly autochthonous1 or as following local lines of development2 the exponents of this theory dwell most strongly on the transitions between the ,mousterian1 the ,aurignacian1 and the ,solutrean industries4 ,for example1 the chief object of ,schuchhardt's tour7#i7 through the ,palolithic stations of ,dordogne was to observe the transitions from one period to another and the evidence afforded of successive changes of climate4 ,this writer is impressed with the transitions2 he notes that the typical curved knives of the ,abri ,audit furnish a transition from the ,mousterian scrapers to the ,aurignacian 'points' of ,la ,gravette and ,la ,font ,robert2 that the ,solutrean takes up all the fine threads of the ,aurignacian culture and spins them further into ,magdalenian times4 ,thus we get an ,aurignacian-,solutrean-,magdalenian industrial cycle which is comparable to the ,chellean-,acheulean-,mousterian cycle4 ,breuil1 on the other hand1 from the archologist's standpoint--because he is not especially interested in the matter of racial development--is a strong exponent of the idea of successive invasions of cultures1 either from the south or ,mediterranean region or from the central region of ,europe1 which he calls the ',atlantic'2 and he distinguishes sharply between these two great areas of ,upper ,palolithic evolution1 namely1 the southern and the central ,european1 pointing out that it was only after the establishment of more genial climatic conditions1 like those of modern times1 that there was an added element of northern or ,baltic invasion4 ,certainly the archologic testimony strongly supports this culture-invasion hypothesis and it appears to be strengthened in a measure by the study of the human types1 although this study has not progressed beyond the stage of hypothesis4 ,when the ,upper ,palolithic races have been studied with as close attention as those of the ,lower ,palolithic we may be able to establish positively the relation between these human types and the advance of certain cultures and industries4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,human ,,fossils ,our present view1 as drawn from a consideration of the facts before us1 is that western ,europe in ,upper ,palolithic times was entered by four or five distinct races1 all belonging to ,homo sapiens1 only three of which became established3 #e4 ,the ,furfooz 7,ofnet1 and 8 ,grenelle7 race1 extremely broad-headed1 entering central ,europe possibly from central ,asia1 bringing an ,azilian culture1 without art or developed flint industry4 7,alpine type47 #d4 ,a dolichocephalic race with a narrow face1 associated with the ,furfooz race1 either connected with the ,brnn and ,brx1 or an advance wave of one of the dolichocephalic ,neolithic races4 7,mediterranean type47 #c4 ,the ,brnn 7,brx1 ,pedmost1 and 8 ,galley ,hill7 race1 long-headed1 with a narrow1 short face1 probably entering central ,europe directly from ,asia through ,hungary and along the ,danube2 bringing a perfected ,solutrean culture2 inferior in brain development to the ,cr-,magnons1 in industrial contact with them but not displacing them4 #b4 ,the ,cr-,magnon race1 long-headed with a very broad face1 entering ,europe in closing ,mousterian or early ,aurignacian times1 probably from the south along the ,mediterranean coast1 and bringing in an ,aurignacian flint industry and art spirit characteristic especially of ,aurignacian and ,magdalenian times2 greatly reduced in number in closing ,magdalenian times1 but leaving descendants in various colonies in western ,europe4 #a4 ,the ,grimaldi race1 in the transition between the ,mousterian and the ,aurignacian2 negroid or ,african in character2 apparently never established as a race of any influence in western ,europe4 ,the presence of these five races1 and perhaps of a sixth if the ',aurignacian man' of ,klaatsch proves to be distinct from the ,cr-,magnon1 is firmly established by anatomy4 ,it is most important constantly to keep before our minds certain great principles of racial evolution3 7#a7 that the development of a racial type1 whether long-headed or broad-headed1 narrow-faced or broad-faced1 of tall or of short stature1 must necessarily be very slow2 7#b7 that this development of the races which invaded western ,europe took place for the most part to the eastward in the vast continent of ,asia and eastern ,europe2 7#c7 that1 once established through a long process of isolation and separate evolution1 these racial types are extremely stable and persistent2 their head form1 their bodily characters1 and especially their psychic characters and tendencies are not readily modified or altered2 nor are they in any marked degree blended by crossing4 ,crosses do not produce merely blends2 they chiefly produce a mosaic of distinct characters derived from one race or the other4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ace4 ,geographic distribution of ,upper ,palolithic human fossils in western ,europe4 ,we must therefore imagine western ,europe in ,upper ,palolithic times again as a terminal region2 a great peninsula toward which the human migrants from the east and from the south came to mingle and superpose their cultures4 ,these races took the great migration routes which had been followed by other waves of animal life before them2 they were pressed upon from behind by the increasing populations of the east2 they were attracted to western ,europe as a fresh and wonderful game country1 where food in the forests1 in the meadows1 and in the streams abounded in unparalleled profusion4 ,the ,cr-,magnons especially were a nomadic hunting people1 perfectly fitted by their physical structure for the chase and developing an extraordinary appreciation of the beauty and majesty of the varied forms of animal life which existed in no other part of the world at the time4 ,between the retreating ,alpine and ,scandinavian glaciers ,europe was freely open toward the eastern plains of the ,danube1 extending to central and southern ,asia2 on the north1 however1 along the ,baltic1 the climate was still too inclement for a wave of human migration1 and there is no trace of man along these northern shores until the close of the ,upper ,palolithic1 nor of any residence of man in the ,scandinavian peninsula until the great wave of ,neolithic migration established itself in that region4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acf4 ,epitome of human history in western ,europe during the ,third ,interglacial1 ,fourth ,glacial1 and ,postglacial ,stages2 showing also the three ,postglacial advances and retreats which succeeded the close of the ,fourth ,glacial ,stage in the ,alpine region1 theoretically corresponding with the climatic vicissitudes of ,postglacial time4 ,from the data of ,penck and ,schmidt4 ,drawn by ,c4 ,a4 ,reeds4 7,compare ,fig4 #ad47 ,the climatic and cultural relations of ,upper ,palolithic times may be correlated,,al in descending order as follows3 #f4 ,the ,daun or final ,postglacial advance of the glaciers of the ,alps1 estimated at #g1jjj ,b4 ,c4 ,europe with its modern or prehistoric forest fauna1 the lion lingering in the ,pyrenees1 the moose in ,spain4 ,,azilian-,,tardenoisian1 closing stage of the ,upper ,palolithic culture2 western ,europe peopled by the broad-headed race of ,furfooz and ,ofnet1 also by a narrow-headed race4 ,baltic ,migration1 ,,maglemose culture4 #e4 ,the ,gschnitz stage in the ,alps or second ,postglacial advance4 ,climate still cold and moist but gradually moderating4 ,decline of the ,magdalenian4 ,period of the retreat of the tundra and steppe animals2 mammoth1 reindeer1 and arctic rodents becoming more rare2 ,eurasiatic forest mammals becoming more abundant4 ,close of steppe period4 ,cr-,magnon race still dominant in western ,europe in the ,,late ,,magdalenian stage of culture4 #d4 ,interval between the ,bhl and ,gschnitz ,postglacial advances in the ,alps4 ,a renewed steppe and 'loess' period4 ,climate cold and dry4 ,mammoth and woolly rhinoceros1 reindeer1 full tundra and steppe fauna very abundant4 ,cr-,magnon race in the stage of ,,middle ,,magdalenian culture4 #c4 ,the ,bhl stage of ,postglacial advance in the ,alps2 renewal of severe conditions of cold moist climate1 and spread all over western ,europe of the arctic banded and ,obi lemmings of the ,upper ,rodent ,layer4 ,bhl moraines in ,lake ,lucerne estimated as having been deposited between #af1jjj and #bd1jjj years ,b4 ,c4 ,cr-,magnon race dominant in the ,,early ,,magdalenian stage of culture4 #b4 ,period of the first ,postglacial interval or ,achen retreat of the glaciers in the ,alpine region4 ,a dry cold climate4 ,cr-,magnon and ,brnn races in the stage of ,,solutrean culture4 #a4 ,close of fourth glaciation1 between #bd1jjj and #dj1jjj years ,b4 ,c4 ,cold and moist but increasingly dry climate succeeding the fourth glaciation and deposition of ,lower ,rodent ,layer1 or first invasion of the arctic tundra rodents4 ,cr-,magnon and possibly ,aurignacian race in the stage of ,,aurignacian culture4 ,,beginning ,,of ,,the ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,the ,,aurignacian ,,industry ,we now glance at western ,europe as it was between #be1jjj and #cj1jjj years ago1 at the opening of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,during ,aurignacian times ,france was still broadly connected with ,great ,britain47#aa7 ,the ,british ,islands were not only united with each other but with the continent1 while the elevation of the ,scandinavian peninsula converted the ,baltic ,sea into a great fresh-water lake1 the old shores of which are readily traced4 ,geikie also maintains that the rise of land in ,scotland after the fourth glaciation was accompanied by an amelioration of climate and the advent of more genial conditions2 a strong forest growth covered the lowlands1 hence this is termed the ,lower ,forestian stage of the physiographic history of northern ,britain2 it corresponds to the temporary period of the retreat of the glaciers in the ,alpine region1 which ,penck has named the ,achenschwnkung4 ,the latter author is not inclined to connect any marked rise of temperature in the ,alpine region with this interval of time2 to our knowledge no fossil plant beds have been preserved which would give us such indications1 and the animal life1 as we shall see1 certainly affords only a very slight indication of a rise in temperature in the retreat of certain of the snow-loving tundra and northern steppe lemmings to the north2 the greater number of tundra forms remained4 ,the continental elevation of the northern coast-line of ,europe would explain the advent of a dry continental climate and the renewal of high prevailing winds1 at least during the warmer and drier summer seasons1 for it is certain that atmospheric conditions such as produced the great dust-storms and deposition of 'loess' after the second and third glaciations prevailed again in western ,europe after the fourth glaciation4 ,this gave rise to deposits of what is known among geologists as the 'newer loess1' and we find these sheets of 'newer loess' spreading immediately above the ,mousterian culture at a number of different points in western ,europe4 ,when the ,cr-,magnon race entered this part of ,europe the climate was becoming more dry and stimulating2 the summers were warm or temperate1 the winters very severe4 ,great ice-caps still spread over the ,scandinavian peninsula and also over the ,alps1 but the borders of the ice-fields no longer reached the plains2 in a sense1 the ,glacial ,epoch had not yet closed1 for during the whole period of ,postglacial time the glaciers of the ,alps1 beginning in early ,magdalenian times1 developed three renewed advances1 each somewhat less vigorous than the preceding one1 with intervening stages of a drier climate4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #acg4 ',tectiforms'--schematic drawings in lines and dots believed to represent huts and larger shelters built of logs and covered with hides4 ,from the walls of the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume1 ,dordogne4 ,after ,breuil4 ,the greater number of the ,aurignacian stations1 like those of ,mousterian times1 were under the shelters or within the entrances of the grottos and caverns2 all the stations in southwestern ,france are of this character4 ,there was1 however1 a great open camp at ,solutr1 which was a most famous hunting station for the wild horse in ,aurignacian times4 ,in northern ,france there are several open stations1 such as those of ,montires and ,st4 ,acheul1 along the ,river ,somme1 and to the east1 along the middle ,rhine1 there are several open 'loess' stations1 such as those of ,achenheim1 ,vlklinshofen1 ,rhens1 and ,metternich4 ,it may very well be that these open stations were visited only during the mild summer season4 ,the continued choice of sites which naturally afforded the greatest protection from the weather1 in ,france1 ,britain1 ,belgium1 and all along the ,danube1 as well as in the genial region of the ,riviera1 is a sure indication of a prevailing severe climate4 ,it is hardly possible1 however1 that the closed or protected stations were the only residences of these people2 they merely indicate the points where the flint industry was continuously carried on and also the vast foyers and gathering places2 but there is little doubt from the evidence afforded by the signs on the walls of the caverns1 known as 'tectiforms1' that huts and large shelters built of logs and covered with hides were grouped around most of these stations and scattered through the country at points favorable for hunting and fishing4 ,these would be the only dwelling-places possible in such vast open camps1 for example1 as ,solutr4 ,,climate ,,and ,,life ,,of ,,aurignacian ,,times #c4 ,first ,postglacial ,retreat1 ,achenschwnkung in the ,alpine region4 ,period of ,solutrean industry4 ,a cold dry climate1 with dust-storms and wide-spread deposition of 'loess' in western ,europe4 ,flint workers seeking many open stations4 ,horses and wild asses numerous on the prairies2 reindeer and wild cattle very abundant4 #b4 ,recession of the ,ice-,fields of the ,fourth ,glaciation4 ,period of ,aurignacian industry4 ,climate cold and increasingly dry2 renewal of the dust-storms and deposits of the 'newer loess4' ,flint industry in the caverns1 grottos1 shelters1 and a few open stations4 ,opening of the ,upper ,palolithic period4 ,arrival of the ,cr-,magnon race4 #a4 ,final ,stage of ,fourth ,glaciation4 ,close of the ,lower ,palolithic ,mousterian culture4 ,gradual extinction of the ,neanderthal race4 ,the arrival of the ,cr-,magnon race and the beginning of the ,aurignacian industry took place during the period of retreat of the ice-fields of the fourth glaciation4 ,as we pass from the levels of the early ,aurignacian industry into those of the middle and upper ,aurignacian1 we find that the mammal life of ,mousterian times continued in its prime all over western ,europe1 with the addition1 one by one1 of some new forms from the tundras1 such as the musk-ox1 and the successive arrival from the mountains and steppes of western ,asia of such characteristic forms as the argali sheep and the wild ass1 or kiang4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ach4 ,geographic distribution 7horizontal lines7 of the reindeer1 mammoth1 and woolly rhinoceros1 the three chief mammals of the tundra fauna1 with reference to the retiring ice-fields 7dots7 of the ,fourth ,glacial ,stage4 ,after ,boule and ,geikie4 7,compare ,figs4 #ie and #if47 ,the extremely cold and moist climate of the fourth glaciation had passed1 and a somewhat drier but still extremely cold climatic condition prevailed throughout western ,europe4 ,during the early ,aurignacian the two northern types of lemming1 the banded lemming 7,myodes torquatus7 and the ,obi lemming 7,myodes obensis71 were still found along the upper ,danube1 as in the grottos of ,sirgenstein1 ,ofnet1 and ,bockstein4 ,from middle ,aurignacian on through ,solutrean times these denizens of the extreme north disappear from this region of ,europe4 ,further evidence of a dry1 cold climate is found in the recurrence of dust-storms and in the great deposits of 'newer loess' beginning in certain parts of ,europe at the very close of the ,mousterian industry and extending through both middle and late ,aurignacian and ,solutrean times in all the region of the upper ,rhine1 along both shores of the ,danube1 and westward in the valley of the ,somme1 in northern ,france4 ,this period is therefore believed to correspond with the ,achen retreat of the great glaciers still covering the ,alpine region4 ,another striking proof of the amelioration of climate is the return of the flint workers to many of the open stations1 old and new1 in various parts of western ,europe1 the climate being more endurable because less humid4 ,in ,mousterian times the open stations were very rare and were perhaps visited during the summer season only2 in ,aurignacian times they were more abundant1 there being twelve open stations out of a total of about sixty stations thus far discovered2 in ,aurignacian and ,solutrean times the type station of ,solutr was much frequented1 and many other open camps are found in various parts of western ,europe4 ,this is still the ,reindeer ,period2 in fact1 it is the typical ',reindeer ,epoch' of ,lartet1 and the predominant forms of life are the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros2 but for a time the reindeer seems to have been less abundant1 and ,aurignacian times are marked apparently by a very greatly increased number of horses4 ,the animal life throughout retains its northern or arctic character2 the tundra species predominate1 the hardy forms of the forests and meadows of ,eurasia are next in number1 and then are found a few of the steppe forms1 with here and there forms characteristic of the ,alps4 ,the entire fauna of the ,aurignacian may be summed up as follows3 ,the wild ass1 or kiang1 of the ,asiatic deserts appears in late ,aurignacian times in the region of the upper ,rhine and upper ,danube1 as seen in the deposits of ,wildscheuer1 ,thaingen1 ,kesslerloch1 and ,schweizersbild1 and also there probably arrived in ,europe at this time the ,elasmothere 7,e4 sibericum71 a gigantic rhinoceros1 distinguished from all others that we have been considering by the entire absence of the anterior horn and by the possession of an enormous single horn situated on the forehead above the eyes1 also by the elaborate foldings of the dental enamel1 to which the name ',elasmothere' refers2 its teeth were especially adapted to a grassy diet2 it apparently wandered into ,europe from the arid grassy plains of central and western ,asia1 and its appearance is connected with the extensive deforestation accompanying the tundra and steppe periods of mammalian life4 ,,tundra ,,life4 ,reindeer1 woolly mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 musk-ox 7rare71 arctic fox1 arctic hare1 arctic wolverene1 arctic ptarmigan4 ,banded and ,obi lemmings in lower ,aurignacian only4 ,,alpine ,,life4 ,argali sheep1 ibex1 alpine ptarmigan4 ,,steppe ,,life4 ,steppe horse1 kiang1 central ,asiatic ass4 ,,forest ,,life4 ,red deer1 roe-deer1 giant deer1 brown bear1 cave-bear1 wildcat1 wolf1 fox1 otter1 lynx1 weasel4 ,,meadow ,,life4 ,bison1 wild cattle4 ,,asiatic ,,life4 ,cave-hyna1 cave-lion1 8 cave-leopard4 ,these periodic arrivals from central ,asia suggest the existence of migration routes which may also have been followed by tribes of ,palolithic hunters4 ,there is no evidence at this time of the presence of the more characteristic animals of the steppes1 such as the saiga antelope1 the jerboa1 and the steppe hamster1 which enter ,europe during the later period of ,magdalenian culture4 ,as an indication1 perhaps1 of the dryness of the climate we observe that the moose 7,alces7 is no longer recorded1 although it reappears in western ,europe in later ,magdalenian times4 ,the giant deer 7,megaceros7 appears in southern ,germany with the early ,aurignacian culture1 but this would seem to be the time of its extinction1 because it does not occur in association with any of the later industries4 ,for a time the bison in ,dordogne1 in southern ,germany1 and in ,austria appears to be far more abundant than the wild cattle2 the latter animals are not recorded either by ,schmidt or ,dchelette in association with the ,aurignacian culture1 but they reappear in the moister period of ,magdalenian times4 ,the remains of similar late ,pleistocene mammals lie scattered over a large area in ,britain1 and we must conclude from their presence1 observes ,dawkins17#ab7 that ,britain was still broadly connected with the mainland of ,europe4 ,this is proved by the occurrence of the mammoth fauna in various places now covered by the sea1 as in ,holyhead ,harbor1 off the coasts of ,devonshire and of ,sussex1 and in the ,north ,sea4 ,on the ,dogger ,bank the accumulation of bones1 teeth1 and antlers is so great that the fishermen of ,yarmouth have collected in their nets and dredges more than three hundred specimens4 ,they belong to the bear1 wolf1 cave-hyna1 giant deer1 ,irish elk1 reindeer1 stag1 bison1 urus1 horse1 woolly rhinoceros1 mammoth1 and beaver1 and are to be viewed as the remains of animals deposited by river currents1 as in the case of similar accumulations on land4 ,had they been deposited by the sea they would have been sifted by the action of the waves1 the smaller being heaped together in one place and the larger in another4 ,the carcasses had evidently been collected in the eddies of a river that helped to form the ,dogger ,bank1 which now rises to within eight fathoms of the sea-level4 ,one of the animals of the ,aurignacian period which is best known is the 'horse of ,solutr4' ,around the great ,aurignacian camp at ,solutr there accumulated the remains of a vast number of horses1 which are estimated at not less than #ajj1jjj2 the bones are distributed in a wide circle around the ancient camp1 consisting of broken or entire skeletons compacted into a veritable magma1 with which occur also remains of the reindeer1 the urus1 and the mammoth interbedded with all the types of ,aurignacian implements4 ,the majority of these horses belong to the stout-headed1 short-limbed forest or northern type1 measuring #ed inches 7#ac4b hands7 at the withers1 and about the size of the existing pony47#ac7 ,the joints and hoofs were especially large1 and the long teeth and powerful jaws were adapted to feeding on coarse grasses2 the greater part of the remains are those of horses from five to seven years of age4 ,there is no evidence that the men of ,aurignacian times either bred or reared these animals2 they pursued them only for food4 ,the discovery that the horse might be used as an animal of transport appears to have been made in the far ,east1 and not in western ,europe4 ,the animal and plant life of the ,aurignacian station near ,krems1 on the ,danube1 above ,vienna17#ad7 includes a strong element of the tundra forms--the arctic fox1 wolverene1 mammoth1 rhinoceros1 musk-ox1 reindeer1 hare1 and ptarmigan4 ,the steppe fauna1 on the other hand1 is rare1 including only the suslik1 but not the saiga antelope or any of the other characteristic steppe types4 ,the principal objects of the chase were not only the mammoth1 which was extraordinarily abundant1 but also the reindeer and wild horses2 the ibex is rare4 ,obermaier observes that the chart of the geographic distribution of the ,aurignacian shows this culture to belong essentially to the provinces surrounding the entire ,mediterranean1 from ,syria 7the grottos of ,lebanon7 through north ,africa 7,algiers7 to ,spain4 ,it also has a strong development throughout ,france1 entering middle and southern ,germany and passing along the ,danube to ,austria1 ,poland1 and southern ,russia 7,mezine7 north of ,kiev4 ,there is no doubt that the mammoth hunters of ,krems belonged in this wide-spread distribution2 the shells used for ornaments1 which unmistakably recall those of the ,riviera1 are only in part local from the neighborhood of ,vienna2 the larger part is from the ,mediterranean4 ,we may imagine that these shells passed through several hands among this race of nomadic hunters1 and this is not surprising in view of the girdle which the ,aurignacian stretched around the entire ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,cr-,,magnon ,,race ,the earliest discovery of a member of this race was that by ,buckland1 in the cave of ,paviland1 which opens on the face of a steep limestone cliff1 about a mile east of ,rhossilly1 on the coast of ,gower1 ,wales47#ae7 ,as described by ,sollas1 a painted skeleton1 long known as the ',red ,lady1' was found in the kitchen midden which forms the floor of this cave2 recent investigation has proved that this skeleton belongs to a man of the ,cr-,magnon race2 the associated implements are of ,aurignacian type4 ,paviland cave is thus the first ,aurignacian station discovered in ,britain and marks the most westerly outpost of the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aci4 ,section of the sepulchral grotto of ,aurignac1 the type station of ,aurignacian culture1 as restored by ,lartet from the description of the original condition of the grotto as it was in #aheb4 ,after ,lyell4 ,in #aheb the sepulchral grotto of ,aurignac1 on the nearest spur of the ,pyrenees1 in ,haute-,garonne1 was accidentally discovered by a laborer4 ,it was almost filled with bones1 among which were two entire skulls and many fragments1 numbering altogether no less than seventeen skeletons of both sexes and of all ages4 ,the mayor of ,aurignac ordered all the bones to be taken out and re-interred in the parish cemetery4 ,thus1 in #ahfj1 when ,lartet visited this grotto and determined it as the type station of a distinct industry1 all the human remains had been lost beyond recovery1 and with them all possibility of learning to what race1 culture1 and geologic age they belonged4 ,on a sloping terrace in front of the grotto was the hearth containing one hundred flint implements1 mingled with the remains of a typical reindeer fauna4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adj4 ,section of the ,grotto of ,cr-,magnon1 in which the fossilized skeleton of the ',old ,man of ,cr-,magnon1' type of the ,cr-,magnon race1 was discovered in #ahfh1 together with the remains of four other individuals4 ,after ,louis ,lartet4 ,scale #a-abe4 ,in #ahfh ,lartet explored a grotto in the little hamlet of ,cr-,magnon1 near ,les ,eyzies1 on the ,vzre1 where he found five skeletons1 which have become the type of the great ,cr-,magnon race of ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,the grotto was accidentally discovered by workmen building a road in the ,vzre valley4 ,here ,lartet found the skeleton of an old man1 now known as the 'old man of ,cr-,magnon'2 then that of a woman1 whose forehead bore the mark of a wound from some heavy blow2 close to her lay the fragments of a child's skeleton and near by those of two young men4 ,flint implements and perforated shells were found with these skeletons4 ,in ,may1 #ahfh1 the material was first described by ,broca17#af7 his excellent account being later reprinted and amplified in the ,reliqui ,aquitanic of ,lartet and ,christy47#ag7 ,broca referred to these skeletons as incontestable proofs of the contemporaneous existence of man and the mammoth4 ,the associated mammalian life was that of the reindeer and the industry is now known to be of the ,aurignacian stage4 ,in his classic original description of this type ,broca remarks upon the high stature1 the face very broad in relation to its height1 with very long and very narrow orbits2 the large and markedly dolichocephalic skull1 with an unusually large brain capacity1 noting that the brain capacity of the ,cr-,magnon woman surpasses that of the average male of to-day2 the forehead correspondingly broad1 vertical1 convex on the median line2 the bones of the limbs robust1 and the shin-bones flattened transversely2 altogether a very high racial type of skeleton belonging to the species ,homo sapiens4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ada4 ,head of the very tall skeleton of ,cr-,magnon type discovered in the ,grotte des ,enfants4 ,after ,verneau4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adb4 ,head of the ',old ,man of ,cr-,magnon1' rejuvenated by the restoration of the teeth1 showing the method of restoration of the features adopted in all the models by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,the diameter of the head across the cheek-bones is seen to be greater than that across the cranium4 7,compare ,figs4 #adf and #adg1 also ,pl4 ,,vi47 ,verneau17#ah7 in his description of the ,cr-,magnon type1 emphasizes the disharmonic form of the head1 for the dolichocephalic form of the skull is combined with a face very broad for its height1 and this1 in fact1 is the unique and most distinctive feature of the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,the cheek-bones are both broad and high4 ,it is curious that in this face1 so broad across the cheek-bones and cheek arches1 the space between the eyes is small1 the nose is narrow and aquiline1 and the upper jaw is noticeably narrow2 it is no less remarkable that this upper jaw projects forward1 while the upper part of the face is almost vertical1 as in the highest types of ,homo sapiens4 ,the eye sockets1 which are remarkably broad1 are rather shallow1 and their angles are but slightly rounded off1 so that the form suggests a very long rectangle2 the mandible is thick and strong1 and the chin massive1 triangular1 and very prominent2 the marks of muscular attachment denote great muscular development around the thick1 strong jaws1 in which the parts for the attachment of the vertical muscles are unusually large4 ,i would add1 says ,verneau1 to these essential characteristics the surprising capacity of the cranium1 which ,broca estimated as at least #a1eij c4cm4 ,the majority of these features are found in almost all of the skulls of the ,cr-,magnon race in the ,grottes de ,grimaldi4 ,the top view of the skull is unusual on account of the extreme prominence of the eminences of the parietals1 which give the skull a pentagonal effect when seen from above4 ,the eyebrow ridges show decided prominences above the orbits but disappear completely in the median line and at the sides and thus differ totally from those in the ,neanderthal head4 ,,discoveries ,,chiefly ,,of ,,the ,,cr-,,magnon ,,and ,,grimaldi ,,races,,am ,,referred ,,to ,,aurignacian ,,times ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,date of ,locality ,number of ,culture ,stage ,discovery ,individuals ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,cr-,,magnon ,,and 787 ,,aurignacian ,,race ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #ahbc4 ,paviland cave1 western ,one skeleton4 ,aurignacian4 ,wales4 ,burial4 #aheb4 ,aurignac1 ,haute-,garonne1 ,seventeen 8 skeletons4 ,pyrenees1 ,france4 ,burial4 #ahfh4 ,cr-,magnon1 ,dordogne1 ,three incomplete ,france4 skeletons and fragments of two others4 8 ,burial4 #ahgb- ,grottes de ,grimaldi1 ,burial4 #ahhd4 ,baouss-,rouss1 ,italy4 #a4 ,grotte des ,enfants ,four skeletons4 7,grotte de ,grimaldi74 #b4 ,grotte de ,cavillon4 ,one #c4 ,barma ,grande4 ,six #d4 ,baousso da ,torre4 ,three #aiji4 ,combe-,capelle1 ,dordogne4 ,type of ,homo aurignacensis1 ,klaatsch4 ,burial4 #aiji4 ,laugerie ,haute1 ,dordogne4 ,one skeleton4 8 ,burial4 ,solutr4 ,fragments4 8 ,camargo 7,santander71 ,spain4,fragment of skull4 ,willendorf1 ,austria4 ,fragments4 ,late ,aurignacian4 ,cave of ,antelias 7,syria74 ,scattered bones4 ,aurignacian4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,grimaldi ,,race ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- #aijf4 ,grottes de ,grimaldi1 ,baouss-,rouss1 ,italy4 #a4 ,grotte des ,enfants ,two skeletons4 ,aurignacian or 7,grotte de ,grimaldi74 ,late ,mousterian4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,of the numerous skeletons found in the ,grottes de ,grimaldi1 or ,baouss-,rouss1 near ,mentone1 the one first discovered is most widely known as the 'man of ,mentone1' which was found in the ,grotte de ,cavillon1 in #ahgb1 by ,rivire2 hence this is sometimes spoken of as the ,mentone race2 but1 as ,verneau shows1 while the measurements of the skulls of ,baouss-,rouss show some variety1 they do not exceed what might be expected in individual variation1 and we conclude that all the men of tall stature found in the ,grottes de ,grimaldi belong to the ,cr-,magnon race1 which is not to be confused with the very distinct dwarf ,grimaldi race discovered in the ,grottes de ,grimaldi by ,verneau1 in #aijf1 in a lower level than any of the skeletons of the ,cr-,magnon type4 ,in ,aurignacian times1 lofty stature seems to have been a general characteristic of this race1 but there appears to have been a gradual decrease in height1 so that in later industrial times the race in general is somewhat smaller in stature4 ,the heights are as follows3 ,cr-,magnon type of ,dordogne #a4hj m4 #e ft4 #aj-c_/d in4 woman slightly inferior in size4 ,baouss-,rouss1 ,grottes de ,grimaldi4 ,adult males of ,cavillon #a4gi m4 #e ft4 #aj-a_/b in4 ,barma ,grande ,,ii #a4hb m4 #e ft4 #aa-a_/b in4 ,baousso da ,torre ,,ii #a4he m4 #f ft4 #c_/d in4 ,barma ,grande ,i #a4ic m4 #f ft4 #d in4 ,grotte des ,enfants #a4id m4 #f ft4 #d-a_/b in4 ,average #a4hg m4 #f ft4 #a-a_/b in4 ,woman of ,barma ,grande estimated at #a4fe m4 #e ft4 #e in4 ,youth of #ae years1 ,barma ,grande1 estimated at #a4fe m4 #e ft4 #e in4 ,the woman had not reached complete development4 ,as there is a variation of #f inches in the height of the various male skeletons1 it is evident that we cannot reach a trustworthy conclusion from a single subject2 but there would seem to be quite a disparity in height between the sexes4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adc4 ,the abri or shelter of ,laugerie ,haute1 ,dordogne1 ,france1 where the ,aurignacian burial of a skeleton referred to the ,cr-,magnon race1 was discovered in #aiji4 ,photograph by ,belvs4 ,the very large skeleton from the ,grotte des ,enfants1 measuring #f feet #d-a_/b inches1 was found associated with the remains of the reindeer1 #ae feet below the surface1 from which it would appear probable that the skeleton antedates the ,aurignacian skeleton of ,laugerie ,haute1 and even of ,cr-,magnon4 ,thus the so-called man of ,mentone may be an ancestor of the race which was found in ,cr-,magnon and other regions of ,dordogne4 ,it is these men of great height1 found in ,barma ,grande and the ,grotte des ,enfants1 which ,verneau selects for his description of the primitive members of the ,cr-,magnon race1 which at this time lived along the ,riviera and in the valley of the ,vzre and later spread over a vast area in western ,europe4 ,it is probable that in the genial climate of the ,riviera these men obtained their finest development2 the country was admirably protected from the cold winds of the north1 refuges were abundant1 and game by no means scarce1 to judge from the quantity of animal bones found in the caves4 ,under such conditions of life the race enjoyed a fine physical development and dispersed widely4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #add4 ,comparative view of the ,neanderthal skeleton 7left7 from ,la ,chapelle-aux ,saints1 and of the skeleton of a very tall member of the ,cr-,magnon race 7right7 discovered in the ,grotte des ,enfants4 ,after ,boule and ,verneau4 ,both figures are approximately one-seventeenth life size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ade4 ,sections of the tibia or shin-bone1 7#a7 the normal triangular type2 and 7#b7 the extremely platycnmic flattened type characteristic of the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,after ,broca4 ,with an average height of #f feet #a-a_/b inches1 these cave-dwellers may be said to demonstrate one of the most striking traits of the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,in the proportions of the limbs and in the great size of the upper part of the chest these men are removed from the modern ,european type and approach some of the ,african negroid types1 although there is not the least resemblance to the negro type in the skull or in the dentition4 ,in contrast with the ,neanderthals are three characters of the limbs3 the leg was very long in comparison with the arm2 they show a remarkable lengthening of the forearm in proportion to the upper arm and a still more remarkable lengthening of the lower leg or shin-bone in proportion to the thigh-bone2 the tibia has an index of #ha-hf per cent as compared with the femur1 which is relatively greater than that of the average modern ,european1 with a tibiofemoral index of #gi4g per cent4 ,this long shin-bone indicates that these men were swift of foot1 quite in keeping with their undoubted nomadic habits and wide distribution4 ,the flatness of the tibia1 which is strongly marked in #fb per cent of the skeletons1 may well be due to the habit of squatting while engaged in fashioning flints and in other industrial occupations4 ,the leg1 long in comparison with the arm1 and the thigh-bone1 strongly developed1 are both characters of a hunting race4 ,the foot has a very protruding heel1 but the sole and the toes are of moderate length4 ,the hip-girdle is of a type which has nothing negroid about it1 but is as fine as that of the most civilized whites2 it is marked by its strength1 the augmentation of all the vertical and transverse diameters1 and the reduction of the anteroposterior diameters4 ,the shoulders are exceptionally broad4 ,the fact that the arms are relatively short as compared with the legs is also a high racial character4 ,the upper arm is very robust1 and in some cases the left arm is more largely developed1 in others the right4 ,in all the skulls from these grottos near ,mentone1 the face shows the essential features of the ,cr-,magnon race1 its breadth being due to the development of the cheek-bones and the zygomatic arches1 for the upper jaws are narrow1 and the nose is thin or leptorhine4 ,at the root the nose shows a marked depression1 but it rises immediately to a considerable prominence2 it thus undoubtedly had an aquiline profile4 ,the orbits always present the form of a long rectangle1 so characteristic of the race along the ,vzre4 ,all these characters leave no doubt of the racial affinity of the skeletons from the ,grottes de ,grimaldi with the original ,cr-,magnon type4 ,it must be concluded1 therefore1 that certain peculiar features noted in the type of the 'old man of ,cr-,magnon' are purely individual1 and that we are not justified in assuming the admixture of a foreign element to account for the weakness of some characteristics which we notice in the majority of the ,cr-,magnon subjects from the caves of ,grimaldi4 ,the highly evolved characters of the skeleton in this race are in keeping with the extraordinarily great cranial capacity4 ,broca estimated the 'old man of ,cr-,magnon' as having a cranial capacity of #a1eij c4cm41 and in the female the brain is estimated at #aeej c4cm4 ,verneau estimates the five large male skulls of ,cr-,magnon type at ,grimaldi as having an average capacity of #a1hjj c4cm41 the lowest being #a1gae c4cm41 and the highest #a1hhj c4cm4 ,this race1 observes ,keith17#ba7 was one of the finest the world has ever seen4 ,the wide1 short face1 the extremely prominent cheek-bones1 the spread of the palate and a tendency of the upper cutting teeth and incisors to project forward1 and the narrow1 pointed chin recall a facial type which is best seen to-day in tribes living in ,asia to the north and to the south of the ,himalayas4 ,as regards their stature the ,cr-,magnon race recalls the ,sikhs living to the south of the ,himalayas4 ,in the disharmonic proportions of the face1 that is1 the combination of broad cheek-bones and narrow skull1 they resemble the ,eskimo4 ,the sum of the ,cr-,magnon characters is certainly ,asiatic rather than ,african1 whereas in the ,grimaldis the sum of the characters is decidedly negroid or ,african4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adf4 ,restoration of the head of the ',old ,man of ,cr-,magnon1' in profile1 modelled after the type skull of ,cr-,magnon1 ,dordogne1 with the teeth restored and the head given a younger appearance4 ,after the model by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,we shall trace this great race through the ,solutrean and ,magdalenian stages of the ,upper ,palolithic and consider its disappearance and possible distribution at the close of ,magdalenian times4 ,it will then be interesting to consider the evidence of the survival of the descendants of this race in various parts of western ,europe and possibly among the primitive inhabitants of the ,canary ,islands1 known as the ,guanches4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adg4 ,restoration of the head of the ',old ,man of ,cr-,magnon1' front view4 ,after the model by ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,,evidence ,,of ,,other ,,races ,it is a mooted question whether the ,cr-,magnons were the only people inhabiting ,europe in early ,aurignacian time or whether there were also two other races1 the ,grimaldi and the ,aurignacian4 ,as we have seen in the preceding pages1 there is no evidence that the negroid ,grimaldi race ever became established in ,europe2 the idea of the presence of a negroid race has taken the fancy of archologists like ,breuil and ,rutot1 when seeking an ,african1 ,egyptian1 or ,bushman analogy in certain phases of early ,aurignacian art2 but it rests merely on the slender evidence afforded by the isolated skeletons of a woman and of a boy4 ,the case of the ,aurignacian race is different2 this is held by competent anatomists 7,klaatsch17#bb7 ,keith7#bc77 to be distinct from the ,cr-,magnon race and to bear some resemblance to the ,brnn 7,brx1 ,pedmost1 8 ,galley ,hill7 race which1 we know1 became established in central ,europe certainly as early as ,solutrean times1 if not before4 ,the so-called ,aurignacian race 7,homo sapiens aurignacensis71 described as a subspecies of existing man1 is based upon a type found in the shelter of ,combe-,capelle near ,montferrand1 ,prigord1 in the summer of #aiji by ,o4 ,hauser47#bd7 ,it is commonly known as the ',combe-,capelle' man from the scene of its discovery1 or as the ,aurignacian man 7,homo aurignacensis72 if a subspecies1 it certainly belongs to ,homo sapiens4 ,the adult male skeleton was discovered lying undisturbed in the lowest stratum of an ,aurignacian industry and was carefully disinterred by ,klaatsch and ,hauser4 ,it was apparently a case of ceremonial burial2 a great number of unusually fine flints of early ,aurignacian type was found with it1 also a necklace of perforated shells 7,littorina1 ,nassa72 the limbs were bent47#be7 ,water saturated with lime had dripped upon the burial-place1 resulting in the remarkable preservation of the skeleton4 ,this skeleton is compared by ,klaatsch with that of ,brnn1 ,moravia1 and of ,galley ,hill1 near ,london1 from which he concludes that it represents a distinct type1 the ,aurignacian race2 the stature is #e feet #c inches1 as compared with #f feet #a-a_/b1 inches1 the average in the five ,cr-,magnon males of ,grimaldi2 the brain case is well arched and falls within the variation limits of ,homo sapiens4 ,the skull is very long and narrow1 the cephalic index being #fe4g per cent2 in some points it shows a striking similarity to that of ,brnn1 in others it varies from it in the direction of the recent ,european form2 the face is not narrow nor is it prognathous2 the lower jaw is small with a well-developed chin4 ,klaatsch finds many characteristics resembling those of the ,cr-,magnon race1 including the ,chancelade type which is a late ,cr-,magnon4 ,he suggests that the ,cr-,magnon type may be considered a further development of the ,aurignacian4 ,it seems probable that the ,aurignacian man is a member of the true ,cr-,magnon race and that additional evidence is required to establish it as distinct4 ,schliz7#bf7 considers that this skull is an intermediate form between that of the ,cr-,magnon and the ,brnn race1 an indication that these two races were undergoing a parallel development4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adh4 ,brain outline of the man of the so-called ,aurignacian race discovered at ,combe-,capelle in #aiji 7after ,klaatsch71 as compared with the brain outlines of a chimpanzee and of ,homo sapiens4 ,,burial ,,customs ,similar customs of burial prevailed widely in ,aurignacian times1 as we have observed from the use of color in the ,paviland interment of western ,wales and in the ,brnn interment of ,moravia4 ,this is a feature seldom found in the ,neanderthal burials1 although the latter are accompanied by signs of great reverence and by an abundance of ornaments and finely finished flints4 ,up to the present time the races of the ,upper ,palolithic have been studied with far less anatomical precision than those of the ,lower1 and the attribution of many of the burials to the ,cr-,magnon race awaits verification4 ,we have little record of the ,paviland burial except that the skeleton was that of a man of the ,cr-,magnon race and colored red4 ,of the burial of ,aurignac we have no record other than that seventeen skeletons were placed close together2 it would appear that this compound burial may have been the sequel of a battle or1 less probably1 that of an epidemic4 ,the type skeletons of the ,cr-,magnon race were simply lying on the surface of a deep shelter2 thus there has always been some doubt as to their exact archological age2 a large number of perforated shells was found among the bones1 as well as pendants of ivory4 ,the most remarkable ,cr-,magnon burials of undoubted ,aurignacian age are those of the ,grottes de ,grimaldi2 the infant skeletons found here are neither colored nor decorated1 but occurred with a vast number of small perforated shells 7,nassa71 evidently forming a sort of burial mantle4 ,similarly1 the female skeleton was enveloped in a bed of shells not perforated2 the legs were extended1 while the arms were stretched beside the body2 there were a few pierced shells and a few bits of silex4 ,one of the large male skeletons of the same grotto had the lower limbs extended1 the upper limbs folded1 and was decorated with a gorget and crown of perforated shells2 the head rested on a block of red stone4 ,in the 'man of ,mentone1' found in #ahgb1 the body rested on its left side1 the limbs were slightly flexed1 and the forearm was folded2 heavy stones protected the body from disturbance2 the head was decorated with a circle of perforated shells colored in red1 and implements of various types were carefully placed on the forehead and chest4 ,similarly in the burial of ,barma ,grande three skeletons were found placed side by side in a layer of red earth containing a large quantity of peroxide of iron2 two of the skeletons rested on the left side1 the limbs extended or slightly flexed2 the forehead and chest and one of the limbs were encircled with shells4 ,in the burial of the so-called ,aurignac man of ,combe-,capelle1 described above1 the limbs were outstretched and the body was decorated with a necklace of perforated shells and surrounded with a great number of fine ,aurignacian flints4 ,it appears that in all the numerous burials of these grottos of ,aurignacian age and industry of the ,cr-,magnon race we have the burial standards which prevailed in western ,europe at this time4 ,we must infer that the conception of survival after death was among the primitive beliefs1 attested by the placing with the dead of ornaments and of weapons and in many instances of objects of food4 ,it is interesting to note that the grottos and shelters were so frequently sought as places of burial1 also that the flexed limbs or extended position of the body prevailed throughout western ,europe into ,neolithic times1 as well as the use of color through the ,solutrean into ,magdalenian times4 ,it is probable from their love of color in parietal decorations1 and from the appearance of coloring matter in so many of the burials1 that decoration of the living body with color was widely practised1 and that color was freshly applied1 either as pigment or in the form of powder1 to the bodies of the dead in order to prepare them for a renewal of life4 ,,aurignacian ,,flint ,,and ,,bone ,,industry ,as pointed out in the introduction of this chapter1 the geographical distribution of the early ,aurignacian industry is especially interesting in its bearing upon the routes by which the ,cr-,magnon race entered ,europe4 ,we can hardly contemplate an origin directly from the east1 says ,breuil17#bg7 because these earlier phases of the ,aurignacian industry have not as yet been met with in central or eastern ,europe4 ,a southerly origin seems more probable1 because the ,aurignacian colonies appear to surround the entire periphery of the ,mediterranean1 being found in northern ,africa1 ,sicily1 and the ,italian and ,iberian peninsulas1 from which they extended over the larger part of southern ,france4 ,in ,tunis we find a very primitive ,aurignacian like that of the ,abri ,audit of ,dordogne1 with implements undoubtedly similar to those of ,chatelperron1 in ,france4 ,even far to the east1 in the cave of ,antelias1 in ,syria1 as well as in certain stations of ,phnicia17#bh7 culture deposits are found which are characteristically ,aurignacian4 ,again1 in southern ,italy implements of typical ,aurignacian form1 tending toward the superior stage1 are found in the grotto of ,romanelli1 ,otranto4 ,on the other hand1 in favor of the theory of local or autochthonous evolution of this culture is the direct succession described below of ,aurignacian prototypes and early ,aurignacian implements above the older ,mousterian layers in the various stations of ,dordogne4 ,in fact1 the relation of the ,aurignacian industry to the preceding ,mousterian is one of the most important in the history of ,palolithic archology1 because of the change of race which occurred at this time4 ,how far is it derivative and autochthonous1 how far is it new and influenced by invasion and the handicraft of a new and superior race8 ,art4 ,microlithique1 microlith4 ,burin1 graver 7first appearance74 ,industrial4 ,coup de poing1 hand-stone 7rare and degenerate74 ,pointe1 point4 ,,an,chatelperron 7curved74 double-pointed4 ,racloir1 scraper4 convex4 concave4 straight4 double-edged4 triple-edged4 ,grattoir1 planing tool4 ,peroir1 drill1 borer4 ,couteau1 knife1 blade4 ,enclume1 anvil stone4 ,percuteur1 hammer-stone4 ,war and ,chase4 ,pointe1 point4 ,pierre de jet1 throwing stone4 ,couteau1 knife1 blade4 ,pointe de lance1 bone lance-heads4 ,first1 as for transition from the older culture1 it is important to note throughout that the ',aurignacian retouch' is identical with the ,mousterian2 this retouch is on one side of the flake only and gives it a short1 abrupt1 and blunt edge4 ,as we shall see1 it is essentially different from that discovered by the ,solutrean flint workers and employed in ,solutrean times1 a superior technique which produced a sharp1 thin edge1 many of the implements being dressed on both sides4 ,on the other hand1 ,breuil concludes that the early ,aurignacian industry can only in part be derived from the late ,mousterian and that it is partly due to the invasion of a race which ranks much higher in the scale of intelligence than the ,neanderthal4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #adi4 ,implements designed for engraving and sculpture4 ,evolution of the angulate graving-tool or burin1 from the early ,aurignacian of ,chatelperron 7left71 to the late ,solutrean of ,placard 7right74 ,after ,breuil4 ,about one-third actual size4 ,these small implements1 chiefly made from elongated flakes and distinguished by a sharp angulate edge at one end suitable for graving on bone or stone1 are especially characteristic of the ,aurignacian stage of culture1 in which they first appear4 #a1 #b4 ,chatelperron points4 #f4 ,prototype of the ,magdalenian 'parrot-beak4' ,some of these burins1 such as #g1 are made into grattoirs or planing tools at the other end4 ,the pure early ,aurignacian industry is seen in the regions of ,dordogne and the ,pyrenees in the layers of ,chatelperron1 ,germolles1 ,roche au ,loup1 ,haurets1 and ,gargas4 ,the cave of ,gudenushhle1 near ,krems1 in ,lower ,austria1 exhibits a very primitive phase of the early ,aurignacian4 ,here numerous small flints were found1 resembling those found at ,brive by the ,abbs ,bardon and ,bouyssonie2 similar microliths are also found at ,pair-non-,pair1 ,gironde1 at various stations in ,dordogne1 and at the ,grottes de ,grimaldi1 on the ,riviera1 in layers of corresponding age4 ,the chief invention of this stage is the ',chatelperron point' 7,fig4 #adi71 a direct development from the curved point of the ,abri ,audit 7,fig4 #aea7 and a dominant type of the early ,aurignacian culture4 ,small almond-shaped 'coups de poing' are still met with at ,chatelperron and a few other localities1 but ,breuil suggests that these may not be real examples of ,aurignacian industry but implements carried off from older stations4 ,the use of elongated flakes is another feature of this early industry1 but the retouch of the edges cannot compare with the fine 'grooved retouch' of the middle ,aurignacian2 as yet the flakes are thick and large4 ,many of the scrapers are 'keeled' 7grattoirs carns74 ,an entirely new implement appears in addition to the triangular and elongate flakes of flint shaped into points and scrapers of forms2 this is the primitive graving-tool1 or burin1 which at first is quite rare1 but which we know was designed by the ,cr-,magnon artists for their early engravings on stone 7,fig4 #adi74 ,art ,implements4 ,microlithique1 microlith4 ,,ao,burin1 graver4 ,ciseau1 chisel4 ,,ao,gravette1 etching tool 7first appearance74 ,new ,industrial ,implements4 ,pointe1 point 7leaf-shaped74 ,,ao,grattoir carn1 keeled scraper4 ,peroir1 drill1 borer4 ,,aocurved 7first appearance74 ,couteau1 knife1 blade4 ,,aocurved-in edges4 ,poinon1 awl 7bone74 ,new ,implements of ,war and ,chase4 ,pointe cran1 shouldered point 7stone74 ,pointe de sagaie1 javelin point 7bone74 ,a fourth highly distinctive feature of the early ,aurignacian is the use of a variety of implements of bone and horn consisting chiefly of javelin points and drills and of coarse1 spatula-like tools4 ,in the middle ,aurignacian the flake industry reaches its perfection of form and technique2 the edges of the flakes are shaped all around with the 'grooved retouch' resulting in symmetrical forms such as the oval1 double-ended 'points1' the leaf-shaped 'points1' and the double scrapers2 this1 in fact1 is the culmination of the ',aurignacian retouch1' which afterward begins to decline4 ,the retouch of the long flakes is fine and parallel1 but as yet the flakes themselves are generally thick and heavy1 so that their ends are1 perforce1 much broader than those of the ,solutrean and ,magdalenian fashion4 ,one of the most distinctive forms of this middle ,aurignacian industry is the 'keeled scraper' 7grattoir carn7 with an abruptly grooved retouch 7,fig4 #aej74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aej4 ,implements suitable for the dressing of hides and for sculpture4 ,the keeled scraper or planing tool--grattoir carn--characteristic of the ,aurignacian culture4 ,after ,breuil4 ,about two-fifth actual size4 #a1 #b1 #c4 ,short and broad types appearing in the middle ,aurignacian4 #d1 #e4 ,more elongated types of the advanced middle ,aurignacian from ,cr-,magnon1 ,dordogne4 #f4 ,elongated type 7pic7 of the close of the middle ,aurignacian4 #g1 #h4 ,small grattoirs with handles1 suitable for sculpture4 ,still more significant in connection with the rapid artistic development of these people is the remarkable increase in the number and variety of graving-tools1 including numerous curved gravers4 ,almost all the chief types of gravers 7burins7 have now been invented1 and tools of bone have become extremely numerous and varied4 ,to engraving and linear design have been added the art of sculpture and the primitive use of color 7,breuil17#bi7 ,schmidt7#cj774 ,in the ,dordogne region this evolution of the middle ,aurignacian is exemplified at ,le ,ruth1 ,le ,roc de ,combe-,capelle1 and the principal layers of the ,abri ,audit as well as at the shelter of ,laussel4 ,it is well developed also at ,le ,trilobite1 on the headwaters of the ,seine4 ,in the late ,aurignacian 7,breuil17#ca7 ,obermaier7#cb77 there is a notable departure from the ,mousterian fashion of chipping the flakes2 even the distinctive blunt ',aurignacian retouch' is somewhat weakened2 but at the same time the work on the elongated flakes becomes more facile and skilful4 ,for delicate1 artistic work there appear extremely small implements or 'microliths' of various shapes4 ,art4 ,microlithique1 microlith4 ,burin1 graver4 ,ciseau1 chisel 7of stone and bone74 ,gravette1 etching tool4 ,pic1 pick 7triangular or quadrangular1 for sculpture74 ,ceremonial4 ,bton de commandement1 ceremonial staff 7first appearance74 ,new ,industrial ,implements4 ,grattoir1 planing tool ,,aplong but not thick4 ,aiguille1 needle 7bone1 first appearance74 ,new ,implements of ,war and ,chase4 ,lance and spear head types1 of stone3 7a7 ,pointe cran1 shouldered point4 7b7 ,pointe soie1 tongued point 7,font ,robert type74 7c7 ,pointe de laurier7871 laurel-leaf point7874 ,couteau1 knife1 blade 7bone1 first appearance74 ,the early and middle ,aurignacian 'point' and the 'grattoir1' sharpened all around1 as well as the incurved flake become less frequent4 ,the grattoirs1 or planing tools1 are somewhat higher and narrower than those of the early ,aurignacian but not very different in form2 two forms of grattoir are recognized1 one long and not very thick1 the other high and keel-shaped 7grattoir carn74 ,among the peroirs a curved form is very characteristic1 and we also note a variety of small knives1 or couteaux4 ,the inventive genius of this people is displayed in the rapidly increasing variety of flint implements designed for fishing or for the chase4 ,toward the end of the ,upper ,aurignacian there appears the shouldered spear head 7pointe cran71 and also a lance form of which the most perfect types have been found at ,willendorf1 in ,austria1 and at ,grimaldi1 on the ,riviera4 ,more or less sporadically there appear specimens of the tongued spear heads 7pointes soie71 such as are found at ,spy1 ,font ,robert1 and ,laussel4 ,this type of flint is constantly found associated with rudely formed prototypes of the ,solutrean laurel-leaf point4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aea4 ,implements of industrial use1 of the chase1 and of fishing2 also suitable for fine engraving and etching on stone or bone4 ,evolution of the ,aurignacian pointe with abrupt retouch along one edge1 from the base to the summit of the ,aurignacian4 ,after ,breuil4 ,about one-third actual size4 #a-d4 ,primitive curved points from the ,abri ,audit1 ,dordogne4 #e4 ,more evolved curved point from ,gargas4 #f1 #g4 ,points from ,chatelperron1 at the base of the middle ,aurignacian4 #aa-bh4 ,microlithic points from ,la ,gravette and ,font ,robert4 ,the form of #bh suggests that of the pointe cran or 'shouldered point' characteristic of the late ,solutrean4 ,decorative art has now become a passion1 and graving-tools of great variety of shape1 curved1 straight1 convex1 or concave1 diversified both in size and in style of technique1 are very numerous4 ,we may imagine that the long periods of cold and inclement weather were employed in these occupations4 ,the use of the reindeer horn is developing1 and the decoration of the bone with very fine lines drawn by the microlithic tools is at times very remarkable4 ,here appear the earliest examples of the so-called bton de commandement1 which is supposed to have served as a ceremonial staff or wand2 it is made of the reindeer antler with a great hole bored at the point where the brow tine unites with the main beam2 some of these btons are ornamented with rude engravings1 but not as yet with sculpture4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeb4 ,prototypes of the ,solutrean laurel-leaf point1 probably an implement of war or the chase4 ,after ,breuil4 ,large symmetrical flakes chipped over the entire surface4 #a1 #b4 ,late ,aurignacian types from ,font ,robert4 #c1 #d1 #e4 ,points from the ,proto-,solutrean layer of the ,grotte du ,trilobite4 ,strong and very sharp graving-tools were also needed for the sculpture out of ivory and soapstone of such human figures and figurines as the statuettes found in the ,grottes de ,grimaldi and at ,willendorf and still more powerful tools for such work as the large stone bas-reliefs of ,laussel4 ,at this time the ,cr-,magnons were also fashioning stronger tools for the engraving of animals in stone1 for shallow forms of bas-relief on the walls of the caves1 and for other animal outlines4 ,the most evolved animal figures of this period arouse the thought of ,magdalenian art in its beginnings4 ,as this industrial evolution widens it is apparent that we witness not the local evolution of a single people but rather the influence and collaboration of numerous colonies reacting more or less one upon the other and spreading their inventions and discoveries4 ,these people were essentially nomadic and no doubt carried the latest types of implements from point to point or bartered them in trade4 ,thus there is not only a definite succession in such places as ,dordogne1 but in more remote regions the form of the implements may take on some important differences47#cc7 ,there are also other localities where the industry seems for a while to be suspended2 thus in the ,cantabrian ,mountains of ,spain we find only the early and the late ,aurignacian4 ,stations similar in culture to those of ,dordogne extend northward into ,germany and ,belgium and eastward into ,austria and ,poland4 ,thus the characteristic flint spear heads1 known as the pointe soie and pointe cran extend from ,laussel along the ,vzre to ,willendorf1 in ,austria2 and the female figures of ,baouss-,rouss 7,grimaldi7 and of ,willendorf represent the same stage of evolution as the large stone bas-relief of ,laussel4 ,again1 we observe some relations between the ,aurignacian cultures of ,austria and of the ,italian peninsula1 such as the pointe cran1 derived from the gravette and found both in various stations of northern ,italy and at ,willendorf4 ,in western ,russia the ,aurignacian station of ,mezine1 ,chernigov1 shows clearly the types of the superior ,aurignacian in the graving of bone and ivory1 in the small btons recalling those of ,spy1 in ,belgium1 and of ,brassempouy1 in southwestern ,france1 in the large bone piercers perforated at the head1 suggesting the primitive needles from the shelter of ,blanchard1 and in the degenerate statuettes resembling the type of ,brassempouy4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,aurignacian ,,industry ,when the general geographic distribution of the ,aurignacian 7,fig4 #aec7 is compared with that of the ,mousterian 7,fig4 #abe7 it is surprising to find how many of the stations are identical2 it would appear as if the ,cr-,magnons had driven the ,neanderthals from their principal stations over all of western ,europe for the pursuit of their own industries and of the chase4 ,we have already spoken of the invasion of the ,mousterian stations along the ,riviera1 in the ,pyrenees1 in the ,cantabrian ,alps1 and along the ,dordogne and the ,somme2 this occupation also extends along the ,meuse1 the ,rhine1 and the ,danube2 but1 whereas there are only six stations in all ,germany of unquestioned ,mousterian age1 there are more than double that number in ,aurignacian times4 ,the ,cr-,magnons entered the grottos of ,sirgenstein and ,ruberhhle1 near the headwaters of the ,danube2 northwest of ,sirgenstein they established the open 'loess' station of ,achenheim1 west of ,strasburg2 in the lower layers of the 'newer loess' was also the station of ,vlklinshofen1 south of ,achenheim2 along the middle ,rhine were the 'loess' stations of ,rhens and ,metternich1 and to the far north1 close to the borders of the ,scandinavian glacier1 was the somewhat doubtful ,aurignacian station of ,thiede4 ,the ,cr-,magnon men entered the ,sirgenstein grotto and scattered the implements of their culture above the 'lower rodent layer1' composed of the ,obi lemming1 and also left remains of the woolly rhinoceros1 the woolly mammoth1 the stag1 and the reindeer on the floor of the cavern4 ,the ,upper ,aurignacian also extends down the ,danube as far as ,willendorf1 and possibly to ,brnn1 ,moravia1 which last1 however1 may be of ,solutrean age4 ,altogether between seventeen and twenty ,aurignacian stations have been discovered in the region north of the ,danube and along the ,rhine4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aec4 ,geographic distribution of the principal ,aurignacian industrial stations in western ,europe4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aed4 ,outlook over the ,bay of ,biscay from the entrance of the cavern of ,pindal1 in the province of ,asturias1 northern ,spain4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,,aurignacian ,,art,,aq ,the strongest proof of the unity of heredity as displayed in the dominant ,cr-,magnon race in ,europe from early ,aurignacian until the close of ,magdalenian times is the unity of their art impulse4 ,this indicates a unity of mind and of spirit4 ,it is something which could not pass to them from another race1 like an industrial invention1 but was inborn and creative4 ,these people were the ,palolithic ,greeks2 artistic observation and representation and a true sense of proportion and of beauty were instinct with them from the beginning4 ,their stone and bone industry may show vicissitudes and the influence of invasion and of trade and the bringing in of new inventions1 but their art shows a continuous evolution and development from first to last1 animated by a single motive1 namely1 the appreciation of the beauty of form and the realistic representation of it4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aee4 ,outline of a mammoth painted in red ochre in the cavern of ,pindal1 and attributed by ,breuil to the ,aurignacian4 ,only two limbs are represented4 ,after ,breuil4 ,this art1 as first discovered by ,lartet and further made known through the brilliant studies of ,piette and ,breuil1 is industrial 7l'art mobilier71 consisting of the decoration of small personal belongings1 ornaments1 and implements of stone1 bone1 and ivory4 ,according to the later researches of ,sautuola1 ,rivire1 ,cartailhac1 ,capitan1 and ,breuil it is also mural or parietal 7l'art parital71 consisting of drawings1 engravings1 paintings1 and bas-reliefs on the walls of caverns and grottos4 ,it remained for ,breuil especially to demonstrate that the mobile and the parietal art are identical1 the work of the same artistic race1 developing along closely similar lines1 step by step4 ,thus the art becomes a new means not only of interpreting the psychology of the race but of establishing the prehistoric chronology4 ,,dating ,,of ,,the ,,art ,one of the first questions which rises in our mind is this--how is this art dated2 how can these steps be positively determined8 ,the age of these engraved or painted designs on the walls of the caverns is determined in a number of ways described by ,breuil47#cf7 ,the simplest method is where the wall designs of one period are covered by the archological layers of succeeding periods4 ,this has been observed in four cases1 as at ,pair-non-,pair1 ,gironde1 where primitive engravings of horses1 caprids1 and bovids are buried under flints characteristic of the late ,aurignacian mingled with bones of the mammoth1 rhinoceros1 lion1 hyna1 bison1 and reindeer4 ,again1 the deeply engraved bison on the wall of the grotto of ,la ,grze1 ,dordogne1 is found beneath a talus of ,solutrean flints associated with remains of the bison1 reindeer1 and rhinoceros4 ,in the ,grotte de la ,mairie1 ,dordogne1 are found several finely engraved middle ,magdalenian figures of animals buried beneath late ,magdalenian implements associated with the reindeer fauna4 ,very important1 indeed1 is the age of the sculpture and bas-reliefs found in ,laussel4 ,the human sculptures are determined to be of late ,aurignacian age1 because they are buried in an early ,solutrean talus4 ,the splendid wall sculptures of the series of horses in the ,cap-,blanc shelter1 near the ,laussel shelter1 are shown to be of middle ,magdalenian age1 because of the upper ,magdalenian strata which covered and partly concealed them4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aef4 ,primitive painted outlines of animals from the cavern walls of ,font-de-,gaume1 ,dordogne1 attributed by ,breuil to the early ,aurignacian4 ,the outlines represent the horse1 ibex1 cave-bear1 wild cattle1 and reindeer4 ,after ,breuil4 ,in other instances we can date a drawing in a cavern by the period at which the opening was closed2 for example1 the cave of ,la ,mouthe1 ,dordogne1 was closed in by a ,magdalenian layer of flints which touched the roof and firmly sealed up the entrance until recent times4 ,again1 at ,gargas1 ,hautes-,pyrnes1 we know that the last occupation by the ,cr-,magnons was near the end of ,aurignacian times1 as indicated by a hearth filled with late ,aurignacian flints and with the remains of the bear1 hyna1 horse1 and reindeer2 the opening of the grotto was buried beneath these foyers1 which obstructed the entrance until the cave was rediscovered at a comparatively recent date4 ,also at ,marsoulas1 ,haute-,garonne1 there are two hearths1 one late ,aurignacian1 the other late ,magdalenian2 the grotto was then closed until recent times4 ,the grotto of ,niaux1 on the ,arige1 which contains fine examples of drawings of middle ,magdalenian times at a distance of #a1hjj feet from the entrance1 was protected for a long period by a lake #f feet deep and several hundred feet long4 ,at ,altamira1 near ,santander1 the superb frescoed ceiling was buried1 long before ,neolithic times1 by the closing up of the entrance1 which was rediscovered only about thirty years ago4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeg4 ,the woolly rhinoceros1 painted in red ochre with shading and partial representation of the hair1 in the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume1 ,dordogne4 ,attributed by ,breuil to the late ,aurignacian4 ,possibly ,magdalenian4 ,after ,breuil4 ,a third method of dating the art is still more significant2 it is through a similarity in the engravings on bone1 found in the old hearths associated with flints1 to the mural decorations which are found upon the walls4 ,thus1 at ,altamira1 engravings on bone associated with ,solutrean and ,magdalenian flints enabled ,alcalde del ,rio and ,breuil to date the engravings on the limestone walls4 ,hence1 in grottos which have never been closed up and which have been frequented at different times from the ,palolithic to the present epoch one observes that the mural designs in the caverns are invariably accompanied by ,upper ,palolithic implements with a similar style of decoration2 and this is the case at ,font-de-,gaume1 ,combarelles1 ,portel1 ,mas d',azil1 ,castillo1 ,pasiega1 and ,hornos de la ,pea4 ,the bone engravings of the female red deer found at ,altamira are identical in their artistic period with those found on the walls of the same grotto4 ,the excavations at ,castillo1 where numerous shoulder-blades of the deer were found engraved in the same style as those of ,altamira1 prove that all these engravings and drawings are to be referred to ancient ,magdalenian rather than to upper ,solutrean times4 ,the engravings upon the walls in the grotto of ,hornos de la ,pea1 of ,aurignacian times1 are dated through the discovery at the base of the layer of ,aurignacian flints of an engraved equine figure similar to the engravings at ,altamira4 ,a fourth method applies to those not infrequent cases when two or three designs are superposed one upon the other1 from which it necessarily follows that the underlying designs must antedate those above4 ,through the application of these four methods ,breuil has succeeded in dating all the steps in the advance of art from ,aurignacian into ,magdalenian times4 ,,engraving1 ,,painting1 ,,and ,,sculpture ,in the archaic drawings of the caverns of ,pair-non-,pair1 ,la ,grze1 and ,la ,mouthe most of the animal figures are somewhat heavily and deeply engraved2 the proportions are not true2 the head is usually too small1 with a large1 short body which is often lightly modelled1 resting on thin extremities4 ,quadrupeds are frequently represented with but two legs1 as in the case of the mammoth4 ,that the powers of observation were only gradually trained is shown by the fact that details which in later drawings are well observed are here overlooked2 the profile drawings of animals1 with one fore leg and one hind leg represented1 are quite like those of children4 ,progress toward a true representation of animal form in drawing begins very early2 even in middle ,aurignacian times primitive drawing and engraving commences to replace sculpture4 ,both the flint 'burins' and the engravings on the walls of the grottos show that the beginnings of drawing may be traced back to early ,aurignacian times4 ,while the ,palolithic artists early in the ,aurignacian had obtained a certain facility in plastic work1 their drawings1 which are solely contours--somewhat imperfect and deeply engraved lines--show a gradual development4 ,the degree of skill attained in late ,aurignacian times we know from the engraving of a horse on a stone fragment from ,gargas1 and from a sketch of the hinder quarter of a horse found in the cave of ,hornos de la ,pea1 which is engraved on the frontal bone of one of the wild horses2 the latter is strikingly similar to one of the engravings found at the entrance to the same grotto4 ,the engravings on a slab of slate of the heads of two woolly rhinoceroses7#cg7 7,fig4 #afa7 probably belong to the late ,aurignacian4 ,similar attempts are found in the ,abri ,lacoste4 ,ornamentation develops in the middle ,aurignacian1 but retains a simple geometric character4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aeh4 ,female figurine carved in crystalline talc1 discovered at the ,grottes de ,grimaldi1 near ,mentone4 ,this figurine1 possibly modelled after one of the ,grimaldi negroids1 represents the enceinte condition common to many of these figures4 ,it is peculiar in showing that abnormal development behind the hips known as steatopygy4 ,after ,reinach4 ,the parietal art on the walls of the caverns1 mostly deep engravings1 consists of stiff profiles in single lines and in red or black coloring4 ,the animals represented are the ibex1 the horse1 the bison1 and rarely the mammoth4 ,the caves where these are found are ,pair-non-,pair1 ,la ,grze1 ,la ,mouthe1 ,bernifal1 ,font-de-,gaume1 ,altamira1 and ,marsoulas4 ,crucibles for grinding the color are found in the grotto of ,marsoulas1 the color being made by grinding up the red and yellow oxides of iron4 ,the development of art during the whole ,aurignacian is continuous and is undoubtedly the work of one race2 ,breuil considers it the work certainly either of the tall ,cr-,magnons or of the small ,grimaldis2 there is1 however1 no evidence of the survival of the ,grimaldi race1 and we may safely attribute this entire art development to the ,cr-,magnons4 ,the creative spirit manifested itself along many different lines4 ,in the fashioning of bone in early ,aurignacian times there begins a new industry capable of great possibilities2 out of combinations of lines there develop geometric figures2 in animal figures there is an attempt at simple symmetric relations1 but a full1 free composition is not attained4 ,with further experience in working with bone and ivory1 we find in the middle ,aurignacian the first plastic representations of the human figure in the round4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aei4 ,statuette in limestone from the grotto of ,willendorf1 ,lower ,austria1 attributed to the late ,aurignacian4 ,this female figurine1 possibly an idol and generally known as the ',venus of ,willendorf1' is about four and one-half inches in height4 ,after ,szombathi4 ,the ,cr-,magnon artist undertook this plastic work1 choosing chiefly for his subject the female figure4 ,these small plastic models were probably designed as idols2 the figures are often misshapen2 in the face the eyes frequently are not indicated at all2 in some cases the ear is indicated2 they recall the style of the modern cubists4 ,more care is given to the sculpture of the form of the body than of the face4 ,the ivory statue known as the ,venus of ,brassempouy lies at the base of the middle ,aurignacian2 of the same epoch are the female statuettes of ,sireuil1 and the torso from ,pair-non-,pair1 whereas the soapstone figurine of ,mentone and the ivory statuettes of ,trou ,magrite1 ,belgium1 belong to the late ,aurignacian4 ,the spread of these idols1 which are altogether characteristic of the earlier period of the ,upper ,palolithic1 is traced eastward to ,willendorf1 ,austria1 and to ,brnn1 ,moravia4 ,breuil's great contention is a certain similarity to north ,african art1 which would seem to agree with his theory that the ,cr-,magnon people followed the southern shores of the ,mediterranean1 bringing with them the ,aurignacian industry and the glyptic art of the female statuettes similar to those of baked clay which are found along the valley of the ,nile4 ,these figurines have in common the great development of all the parts connected with maternity1 and in some cases a coiffure or head-dress very much like that found in the most primitive ,egyptian work4 ,the extreme corpulence of all the figurines has been compared with the 'steatopygy1' or development of what are politely known as the 'posterior curves1' of the female in many ,african races4 ,but only one of these ,aurignacian figurines is truly 'steatopygous'2 the others are simply corpulent1 a condition due to eating large quantities of fat and marrow1 and probably to a very sedentary life4 ,it is noteworthy that none of the male figures in drawing and sculpture is corpulent4 ,while the art of the statuettes appears to come to a close in late ,aurignacian times1 it may extend into the ,solutrean at ,brnn1 ,moravia1 and at ,trou ,magrite1 ,belgium4 ,with due regard for analogies1 it would rather appear probable that this archaic sculpture was autochthonous4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afj4 ,female figurine in soapstone1 discovered at the ,grottes de ,grimaldi1 near ,mentone1 and attributed to the late ,aurignacian4 ,after ,obermaier4 ,this seems to be a prototype of modern cubist art4 ,the art of engraving and drawing was almost certainly autochthonous1 because we trace it from its most rudimentary beginnings4 ,this northern art developed from the beginning of ,upper ,palolithic times over the whole of southwestern ,france and in the northwest of ,spain1 being contemporaneous with the descent of the alpine fauna from the ,pyrenees and the ,alps and the presence all over western ,europe of the tundra fauna4 ,it was1 by preference1 an animal art1 begun by the ,aurignacians but largely suspended in ,solutrean times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afa4 ,superposed engravings of various mammals on a slab of slate found in the ,grotte du ,trilobite1 ,yonne1 ,france4 ,in detail are seen the profiles of two woolly rhinoceroses superposed on the rump of a mammoth with tail upturned4 ,after ,breuil4 ,painting7#ch7 also had its birth in the ,aurignacian1 in the simple contours of the hand pressed against a wall surface or outlined with color1 accompanied by primitive attempts at linear drawing in color and painted groupings2 for example1 the crude outlines of the bison in the grotto of ,castillo are of ,aurignacian age1 also the black linear designs of the deer and of the ibex in the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume1 ,dordogne1 the striking red linear design of the mammoth in the grotto of ,pindal1 in northern ,spain1 representing the animal as with two limbs1 and the red outlines of wild cattle in ,castillo4 ,breuil also attributes to ,aurignacian times the spirited figure of the woolly rhinoceros in red ochre in the cave of ,font-de-,gaume1 as well as the outline of the stag in red color4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afb4 ,silhouettes of complete and of partly mutilated hands from the walls of the grotto of ,gargas in the ,pyrenees4 ,after ,breuil4 ,we are impressed throughout with three qualities in this ,aurignacian design3 first1 the very close observation of the animal form2 second1 the attempt at realistic effect produced with very few lines2 third1 the element of motion or movement in these animals4 ,for example1 the two heads of the woolly rhinoceros in the slab engravings of the ,trilobite grotto 7,fig4 #afa7 are remarkably correct in proportion2 there is an attempt with fine lines to indicate the wool hanging along the lower surface of the head2 behind these two figures is the rump of an elephant with the tail upturned1 an adaptation of the artist to the form of the slate fragment2 the outlines of the feet both of the rhinoceros and the mammoth are remarkably accurate representations of these pachyderms4 ,in the more advanced development of draftsmanship in late ,aurignacian times the engravings of these animals not merely approach the truth1 but characteristic features are strikingly represented2 and with a few sure lines the proportions of the body as a whole are better preserved1 while the complicated curves of the hoofs and of the head show very close observation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afc4 ,the long1 overhanging cliff of ,laussel on the ,beune is a typical rock shelter1 first sought in ,acheulean times1 and also visited during the ,mousterian1 ,aurignacian1 and ,solutrean stages4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afd4 ,section of the rock shelter of ,laussel1 showing the superposed industrial layers from ,acheulean to ,solutrean times4 ,after ,lalanne4 ,in the grotto of ,la ,grze overhanging the ,beune1 a small tributary of the ,vzre1 was found an archaic ,aurignacian outline of the bison deeply incised on the limestone walls4 ,the grotto of ,gargas1,,ar ,hautes-,pyrnes17#ci7 is one of the most famous stations2 it was entered in closing ,mousterian times and was occupied at intervals during the ,aurignacian stage4 ,beneath the ,mousterian layer is a deep deposit of entire skeletons of the cave-bear without any traces of human industry4 ,these layers lie beyond the grotto in the vast foyer which opens above into a great chimney1 so that this is one of the true cavern habitations4 ,the drawings along the walls of the cave include a large number of figures in a very unequal style1 which belong chiefly to middle and upper ,aurignacian times4 ,among these are two figures of birds1 several mammals1 a few primitive drawings of wild cattle1 the bison1 the ibex1 and numerous representations of the horse4 ,a long serpentine band of color meanders among some of these drawings4 ,most interesting are the silhouettes of the hand in black and red produced by pressing the hand against the limestone wall and covering the surrounding surface with color4 ,it would appear that the fingers were mutilated or cut off at the middle joint1 because one1 two1 three1 and four of the fingers are wanting1 but the thumb is never mutilated4 ,this mutilation of the hand may be compared with similar practices prevailing among some ,australian tribes4 ,in the cavern of ,marsoulas1 on the headwaters of the ,garonne1 the conditions are altogether different2 the parietal art here represents two cultural stages1 the late ,aurignacian and the late ,magdalenian4 ,there is a small entrance grotto with two hearths1 corresponding to these two industries4 ,the entrance to the cave is well up on the side of the hill1 and the drawings which belong with the upper ,aurignacian culture are somewhat damaged4 ,again1 we find designs extending along the wall below the drawings4 ,there are numerous outlines of the bison in black1 the entire side of the body being covered with splashes of red4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afe4 ,bas-relief of a woman with a drinking horn1 sculptured on the face of a boulder within the shelter of ,laussel1 and attributed to the late ,aurignacian4 ,after ,lalanne4 ,about one-eighth actual size4 ,the great abri of ,laussel1 on the ,beune1 was first visited by the ,neanderthals1 for there are two ,mousterian layers and above them two ,aurignacian layers1 the lower belonging to the middle ,aurignacian industry and the upper to the closing ,aurignacian period4 ,this long1 overhanging cliff of ,laussel is a typical shelter1 first sought in ,acheulean times1 revisited in ,mousterian times1 then again in middle or late ,aurignacian1 in ,solutrean1 and finally in ,magdalenian times4 ,as these successive layers rise they approach the shelter of the cliff1 so that the ,magdalenian flint workers were directly beneath the overhanging rock shelter1 which opened outward toward the sun4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aff4 ,bas-relief of a spear thrower or hunter1 sculptured on the face of a boulder within the shelter of ,laussel4 ,after ,lalanne4 ,about one-sixth actual size4 ,in the upper ,aurignacian layer ,lalanne discovered two bas-reliefs representing the figures of a man and of a woman4 ,the bas-relief of the woman represents a nude figure holding the horn of a bison in the right hand2 this is cut from a block of limestone with a relief of about two centimetres1 and it measures forty-six centimetres in height2 with the exception of the head1 the entire body is polished1 and at certain points there remain traces of red coloring4 ,a little farther on the artist had modelled the figure of a man in three-quarter view in the attitude of casting a spear or of an archer drawing the bow2 the top of the head and the extremities of the limbs have been broken away2 the figure measures forty centimetres in height4 ,these bas-reliefs of ,laussel are regarded as sincere representations1 for the artist has presented as accurately as possible the contemporary human figure2 both the man and the woman are represented in motion4 ,on the technique employed in this primordial sculpture1 ,doctor ,lalanne observes that we find at ,laussel a series of tools perfectly adapted to attain this result1 many of which would have been inexplicable unless found to occur in connection with the sculpture itself4 ,it is curious to note how many analogies there are between the flint utensils of the primitive sculptor and those of the sculptors of our own day4 ,first1 we find tools designed to remove the rock1 there are points1 pickaxes1 chopping tools for shaping the rock1 saws1 and coarse stone planers2 all of these are perfectly adapted to the hand1 from which we may conclude that our artist was right-handed4 ,there is a great number of graving-tools1 or burins1 all forms being represented--plain1 double1 fine1 coarse1 and combinations of the burin and grattoir4 ,some of the burins show the sharp-angled point centred at the extremity of a blade2 these are the ordinary types2 but in many the blade ends with a terminal retouch1 which may be transverse1 oblique1 concave1 or convex with the point to one side4 ,the grattoirs1 or planers1 are equally numerous1 with examples of all the known forms4 ,many of these are formed at the end of a blade2 a few are circular1 and others are at the opposite end of a pointed blade2 the latter are particularly fine and are retouched around the entire edge4 ,but the artist did not merely carve his subjects2 he also coated them with a paint made of ochre and manganese2 he crushed his coloring matter on a palette of schist1 and we have found one of these unbroken and still bearing the red and ochre colors4 ,this palette is #aj-a_/b inches long and #f inches wide2 it is oblong in form4 ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,solutrean ,,industry ,the period of the ,solutrean industry is one of the most difficult to interpret in the whole prehistory of western ,europe4 ,the remains of this industry in several localities lie directly between those of the ,aurignacian and the ,magdalenian2 in others1 as at ,solutr1 they directly follow the ,aurignacian4 ,there is no doubt that this represents a very long and a very important epoch in ,upper ,palolithic development4 ,from the cultural standpoint it represents a climax in the flint industry1 but a period of suspension or of arrested development in art4 ,a glance at the maps of the ,mousterian 7,fig4 #abe71 the ,aurignacian 7,fig4 #aec71 and the ,solutrean 7,fig4 #afg7 culture stations shows that the geographic distribution of the ,solutrean is entirely unique2 whereas the ,aurignacian culture may be said to girdle the ,mediterranean1 both on its southern and northern coasts1 the ,solutrean culture is absent in this entire region4 ,the interpretation of this strange phenomenon offered by ,breuil1 that the ,solutrean culture entered ,europe directly from the east and not from the south1 may be connected with the theory that toward the end of ,aurignacian times a new race from the central east was working westward through ,hungary and along the ,danube--a race of inferior mental type1 but extremely expert in fashioning the flint spears and lances with what is known as the ,solutrean 'retouch4' ,this may be the race of ,brnn1 ,brx1 and ,pedmost1 the remains of which are found in two localities associated with these highly perfected flint spear heads4 ,either by the invasion of this race or1 more probably1 by the invasion of the highly perfected spear-head industry itself1 the type station of ,solutr1 on the ,sane1 was established and the region of ,dordogne reached1 where this industry progressed at twelve different stations4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afg4 ,geographic distribution of the principal ,solutrean industrial stations in western ,europe4 ,there is no doubt whatever that the new and entirely distinct ,brnn race penetrated the ,danubian region at this time1 but there is no evidence from skeletal remains that it reached ,france4 ,it is quite possible that some of the flint workers adept in the ,solutrean 'retouch' migrated into the far western stations of ,dordogne1 bringing with them their beautiful technique1 but without leaving traces of their skeletal remains through ceremonial burial4 ,this unsettled problem affords one of the many reasons why the anatomy of all the ,upper ,palolithic men of western ,europe should be most carefully studied and compared4 ,another mystery of ,solutrean times is the arrest of the artistic impulse which had animated the ,cr-,magnons throughout the entire ,aurignacian4 ,evidences of artistic work in ,solutrean times are very rare1 and some drawings which have been attributed to the ,solutrean1 as at ,altamira1 have now been referred to the ,magdalenian4 ,is it possible that the ,cr-,magnon race for a time suspended its artistic endeavor only to renew it under the different conditions of environment of ,magdalenian times8 ,unfortunately1 the ,solutrean burials afford very little evidence on this point4 ,one interpretation which may be offered is that the ,solutrean was evidently a period of open-air life1 and that the new implements of the chase of ,solutrean type absorbed the industrial energies of these people1 for the weapons were fashioned in enormous numbers4 ,consistent with this theory of climatic influence is the fact that the return of the severe climate of ,magdalenian times1 which crowded the men again into the shelters and grottos1 was accompanied by a renewal of the artistic development continuing from the point where it had been interrupted in closing ,aurignacian times4 ,that ,aurignacian and ,magdalenian art is the work of one race there can be no question whatever2 that this race was the ,cr-,magnon is now absolutely demonstrated4 ,the climate of ,solutrean times is generally believed to have been cold and dry4 ,in the region of ,dordogne throughout this period the reindeer was still far more numerous than any other animal2 so we may safely conclude that this was the principal object of the chase and of food2 in fact1 it would appear that the reindeer were resident forms in the valley of the ,vzre1 hunted and consumed throughout the year47#dj7 ,here we also occasionally find the northern steppe or ,obi lemming1 an animal which at the same time extends along the borders of the ,volga ,river toward southern ,russia4 ,it would appear that in ,solutrean times in southwestern ,france there prevailed a dry1 cold continental subarctic climate like that of the ,caspian1 ,volga1 and ,ural steppes of the present day4 ,with the mammoth and the reindeer occur a great variety of northern ,european forest forms--the true fox1 the hare1 the stag1 the brown bear1 the wolf1 the bison1 and the urus4 ,most interesting is the identification of the jackal belonging to the ancient species ,c4 neschersensis4 ,in the type industrial locality of ,solutr the reindeer is very abundant in the fire-hearths associated with the lower ,solutrean industry1 but less abundant in the upper levels2 an antelope1 perhaps the saiga antelope1 is said to be found among the crude engravings on bone4 ,,solutrean ,,races ,there were certainly two distinct races of men in ,europe during ,solutrean times1 to the east the race of ,brnn and to the west the race of ,cr-,magnon4 ,remains attributed to the ,cr-,magnons have been found in the ,departments of ,charente1 ,gironde1 ,lot1 ,haute-,garonne1 ,tarn1 and ,dordogne4 ,but most of these remains are very fragmentary and cannot readily be determined racially4 ,the fragments of ten skulls and a few other bones found in the ,grotte du ,placard1 ,charente1 are attributed to late ,solutrean and to early ,magdalenian times and constitute one of the most exceptional discoveries which have thus far been made in ,france2 the interments probably date from the early ,magdalenian 7p4 #chj71 but are probably of a race surviving from the ,solutrean4 ,the section of the cave deposit is from #bc to #bf feet in thickness and is highly instructive2 it shows eight cultural layers1 separated by layers of dbris and succeeding each other in the following order3 #h4 ,neolithic layer4 #g-d4 ,magdalenian layers2 in the lowest layer is the ceremonial burial of four skulls4 #c4 ,solutrean layer with shouldered points 7pointes cran7 and a few laurel-leaf points 7pointes de laurier74 #b4 ,solutrean layer with laurel-leaf points but no shouldered points2 knives1 grattoirs1 scrapers1 borers1 in great numbers1 together with javelin points and awls in bone and ornamented with notches1 and fragments of red chalk and black lead found embedded with the ,solutrean points4 #a4 ,mousterian layer4 ,,race ,,of ,,br,,nn1 ,,br,x1 ,p,,edmost1 ,,and 787 ,,galley ,,hill ,in #ahga a skullcap1 now in the ,royal ,museum of ,vienna1 was discovered in the course of coal mining at ,brx1 ,bohemia4 ,in #ahia7da7 a skeleton1 apparently of the same race1 was discovered at ,brnn1 ,moravia1 deeply embedded in loess along with bones of the woolly mammoth and other great ,pleistocene mammals4 ,in #ahib it was described by ,makowsky17#db7 who a few years before had excavated from the loess sand in the neighborhood of ,brnn the fragmentary skull now known as ,brnn ,,ii4 ,both these skulls are of a somewhat low racial type1 and for a long time they were regarded as transition forms between the ,neanderthals and ,homo sapiens1 but in #aijf ,schwalbe7#dc7 showed the affinity between the skulls of ,brx and ,brnn and at the same time their entire distinctness from the ,neanderthal skull and their approach to lower forms of ,homo sapiens4 ,the chief distinction of these skulls is their extreme elongation or dolichocephaly1 the ratio of width to length being #fi per cent in the ,brx skull1 and #fh4b per cent in the ,brnn skull4 ,the latter ranks lower in racial type than the ,australian negroids4 ,the chief distinction from the ,neanderthal skull is in the index of the height of skull 7#ea4bb per cent7 and in the absence of the prominent ridges extending across the eyebrow region above the nose2,,as the forehead1 in brief1 is more modern1 the frontal angle being #gd4g-ge per cent4 ,the brain capacity in this race is estimated1 according to ,makowsky17#dd7 at #a1cej c4cm4 ,both the ,brx and ,brnn skulls are harmonic2 they do not present the very broad1 high cheek-bones characteristic of the ,cr-,magnon race1 the face being of a narrow1 modern type1 but not very long4 ,there is evidence that the neck and shoulders were powerful and muscular2 the prominence of the chin is pronounced2 the dentition is macrodont1 that is1 the last lower molar is of exceptionally large size2 there was no prognathism or protrusion of the jaws4 ,the second ,brnn skull 7,brnn ,,ii7 may represent a female type of the ,brnn race1 the cephalic index being estimated at #gb per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afh4 ,the type skull known as ,brnn ,i--supposed male--discovered at ,brnn1 ,moravia1 in #ahia4 ,it was found deeply imbedded in loess along with bones of the woolly mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 giant deer1 reindeer1 and other ,pleistocene mammals1 and is believed to be of ,solutrean age4 ,after ,makowsky4 ,one-third life size4 ,,discoveries ,,chiefly ,,of ,,the ,,cr-,,magnon ,,and ,,br,,nn ,,races,,at ,,referred ,,to ,,solutrean ,,times ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,date of ,locality ,number of ,culture ,stage ,discovery ,individuals ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,cr-,,magnon ,,race 787 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,grotte du ,placard1 ,fragments of ten ,late ,solutrean ,charente1 ,france4 skulls and a few and early other bones4 ,magdalenian4 ,pair-non-,pair1 ,skull fragments4 ,solutrean4 ,gironde1 ,france4 ,lacave1 ,lot1 ,france4 ,montconfort1 ,haute-,garonne1 ,france4 ,roset1 ,late ,solutrean4 ,tarn1 ,france4 ,badegoule1 ,bones4 ,solutrean4 ,dordogne1 ,france4 ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- ,,br,,nn-,,br,x-,p,,edmost ,,race ---------------------------------------- ----------------------- #ahhj4 ,pedmost1 ,portions of twenty ,solutrean4 ,moravia1 ,austria4 skeletons4 #ahia4 ,brnn1 ,male skeleton ,moravia1 ,austria4 7,brnn ,i74 787 ,female skeleton 7,brnn ,,ii74 ,ballahhle1 ,skeleton of infant4787 ,miskolcz1 ,hungary4 787 ,galley ,hill4 ,one skeleton4 ,unknown4 ---------------------------------------- -------------------------- ,there is a possibility7#dg7 that the ,brnn race was ancestral to several later dolichocephalic groups which are found in the region of the ,danube and of middle and southern ,germany4 ,schliz characterizes the ,brnn skull as distinguished by the retreating forehead1 by massive eminences above the orbits separated by a cleft in the median line1 by broad1 low orbits1 and prominent chin4 ,these characters are met with again in one of the dolichocephalic skulls found in the interment at ,ofnet1 at the very close of ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,it would thus appear that the ,brnn race is distinct from the ,cr-,magnon race1 that it represents a long-headed type which became established along the ,danube as early as ,solutrean times1 and that it may possibly be connected with the introduction of some of the peculiar features of the ,solutrean culture4 ,one of the skeletons of ,brnn1 found at a depth of #ab feet below the surface of the 'loess1' was lavishly adorned with tooth-shells1 perforated stone discs1 and bone ornaments made from the ribs of the rhinoceros or mammoth and from the teeth of the mammoth2 associated with these was an ivory idol1 apparently of a male figure1 of which only the head1 the torso1 and the left arm remain4 ,the skeleton and many of the objects found with the sepulture were partly tinted in red4 ,an ivory figurine belongs to the ,eburnen stage of ,piette and appears to indicate that the burial was of ,aurignacian rather than of ,solutrean age4 ,the ,pedmost 'mammoth hunters' also probably belonged to this race4 ,they are represented by the remains of six individuals excavated since #ahhj at ,pedmost1 ,moravia1 by ,wankel1 ,krz1 and ,maska4 ,the bones were found in a very much shattered condition4 ,maska has since discovered a collective burial of fourteen human skeletons1 with remains of six others2 the bodies were covered with stones1 but no flints or objects of art were buried with them4 ,the dimensions of the limbs indicate a race of large stature4 ,the skeletons were deeply buried in 'loess1' and above and below the rich archological layer were abundant dbris of the mammoth1 representing between eight and nine hundred specimens4 ,along with the numerous flints1 including laurel-leaf spear heads of middle ,solutrean type1 were found other objects and even primitive works of art in bone and ivory4 ,there is no question that the human remains belong to the middle ,solutrean stage47#dh7 ,with this race is also associated by many authors 7,schwalbe1 ,schliz1 ,klaatsch1 ,keith7 the ,galley ,hill skull1 which was found in #ahhh1 buried at a depth of #h feet in the 'high terrace' gravels #ij feet above the ,thames47#di7 ,sollas thinks it highly probable that the remains were in a natural position and of the same age as the high-level gravels and the ,palolithic flints and remains of extinct animals which they contained1 but ,evans and ,dawkins regard the ,galley ,hill man as belonging to a long-headed ,neolithic race interred in a ,palolithic stratum4 ,the gravels of the 'high terrace' in which the ,galley ,hill skull was buried are by no means of the geologic antiquity of #bjj1jjj years assigned to them by ,keith27#ej7 they are probably of ,fourth ,glacial or of ,postglacial age1 and lie within the estimates of ,postglacial time1 namely1 from #bj1jjj to #dj1jjj years4 ,the antiquity of the ,galley ,hill cranial type has been maintained with ability by ,keith4 ,the skull is extremely long or hyperdolichocephalic1 the cephalic index being estimated by ,keith at #fi per cent27#ea7 the brain capacity is estimated at between #a1cej c4cm4 and #a1djj c4cm42 the cheek-bones are not preserved1 so that no judgment can be formed as to this most distinctive character of the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,with this ,galley ,hill race ,keith also compares the ,combe-,capelle1 or ,aurignacian man of ,klaatsch17#eb7 although he mistakenly considers the ,combe-,capelle man of much less geologic antiquity4 ,he continues3 ,thus1 while the writer is inclined to agree in provisionally assigning the ,combe-,capelle man to the ,galley ,hill race1 he believes that further discoveries will show that the ,combe-,capelle man belongs to a branch marked with certain negroid features4 ,,solutrean ,,flint ,,industry ,the ',solutrean retouch' marks one of the most notable advances in the technique of flint working2 it is altogether distinct from the ',aurignacian retouch1' which is an heritage from the ,mousterian47#ec7 ,the flint is chipped off by pressure in fine1 thin flakes from the entire surface of the implement1 to which in its perfected form the craftsman can give a thin1 sharp edge and perfect symmetry4 ,this is a great advance on the abrupt ,aurignacian retouch1 in which the flint is chipped back at a rather blunt angle to make a sharp edge4 ,according to de ,mortillet1 the ,solutrean method of pressure made possible the execution of much more delicate work4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #afi4 ,typical ,solutrean implements of war and chase4 ,after de ,mortillet4 ,pointes en feuille de laurier1 or laurel-leaf points1 artistically retouched on both surfaces1 at both ends1 and on both borders2 regarded by de ,mortillet rather as blades of poniards than as javelin heads4 #abj4 ,lozenge-shaped form from the type station of ,solutr1 ,sane-et-,loire4 #aba4 ,elongate form found at ,solutr4 #abb4 ,the largest pointe discovered at ,solutr4 #abc4 ,one of the smallest points found at ,solutr4 #abd4 ,solutrean point from ,laugerie ,haute1 ,dordogne4 #abg4 ,point from ,gargas1 ,vaucluse4 #abh4 ,point of exceptionally fine workmanship4 #acj4 ,one of eleven very large ,solutrean laurel-leaf points found in a cache at ,volgu2 probably a votive offering1 as the flints are too slender to be of any use and one at least shows traces of coloring4 ,all the flints are shown one-quarter actual size1 except #abi1 which is one-half actual size4 ,the question at once arises1 did this industrial advance take place in ,france or was it an invention brought from the east8 ,on this point ,breuil observes7#ed7 that in the highest ,aurignacian levels in ,belgium1 in ,dordogne1 and at ,solutr the ,solutrean technique becomes faintly apparent either in the 'stem' points 7pointes soie7 of ,font ,robert1 ,la ,ferrassie1 and ,spy or in the double-edged points tending toward the laurel-leaf type of the ,solutrean1 but that all the other implements remain purely ,aurignacian4 ,,relations ,,and ,,subdivisions ,,of ,,solutrean ,,culture ,lower 7,early7 ,magdalenian4 ,prototypes of bone harpoons4 ,beginnings of animal sculpture4 ,absence of any trace of the laurel-leaf spear heads of ,solutrean times4 ,upper 7,late7 ,solutrean4 ,typical shouldered points 7pointes cran7--elongate flakes worked on one or both sides and notched4 ,small laurel-leaf spear heads4 ,bone javelin points1 awls1 and needles1 very finely worked4 ,placard4 ,lacave4 ,middle 7,high7 ,solutrean4 ,large 'laurel-leaf' spear heads worked on both sides4 ,climax of ,solutrean flint industry4 ,placard4 ,lower 7,proto-7 ,solutrean4 ,primitive 'laurel-leaf' and 'willow-leaf' spear heads1 most of them worked on only one side4 ,grotte du ,trilobite4 ,transition from ,aurignacian4 ,pedunculate spear heads 7pointes soie7 of primitive ,font ,robert type4 ,climax of human sculpture4 ,as to the chief source of ,solutrean influence1 the same author remarks that1 since this culture is entirely wanting in central and southern ,spain1 in ,italy1 in ,sicily1 in ,algeria1 and in ,phnicia1 we should certainly not look to the ,mediterranean for its origin but rather to eastern ,europe2 for in the grottos of ,hungary we find a great development of the true ,solutrean1 while so far the ,aurignacian has not been found here1 although we do find traces of the earlier transitional stages below the levels of the true laurel-leaf points4 ,we must admit1 therefore1 that in all probability the ,solutrean culture reached ,europe from the east and that its source is as mysterious as that of the ,aurignacian1 which1 as we have seen1 was of southern and probably of ,mediterranean origin4 ,it is not impossible that the evolution of the laurel-leaf point took place in ,hungary1 for it was certainly not evolved in central or western ,europe4 ,at ,pedmost1 in ,moravia1 we observe an advanced ,aurignacian industry which had adopted a ,solutrean fashion in its spear heads4 ,here the laurel-leaf implements are few1 while the implements of bone are abundant2 but in the ,solutrean stations of ,hungary there are no bone implements4 ,as the ,solutrean technique comes to perfection the laurel-leaf spear head1 so characteristic of the full ,solutrean industry1 is created and is met with in ,poland1 in ,hungary1 in ,bavaria1 and then in ,france1 where the industry extends southward to the west and east of the central plateau4 ,in ,france it appears quite suddenly in the ,grotte du ,trilobite 7,yonne71 and also in ,dordogne and ,ardche1 where the ,proto-,solutrean types show marked impoverishment1 both in the variety and in the execution of most of the flint implements1 the only exception being the flattened spear heads1 pointes face plane1 which show a regular ,solutrean retouch1 beautiful but monotonous4 ,laurel-leaf points discovered at ,crouzade1 ,gourdan1 and ,montfort denote the presence of the true ,solutrean culture1 but this culture does not approach the stations in the neighborhood of ,brassempouy4 ,toward the north the grotto of ,spy1 in ,belgium1 affords examples of ,proto-,solutrean types1 which have also been traced in several ,british caverns1 but it is not certain that true ,solutrean implements are found in ,britain4 ,in ,picard a ,proto-,solutrean layer has been found1 but no laurel-leaf points4 ,in the type station of ,solutr in southeastern ,france ,breuil discovered two ,solutrean layers1 quite different from each other3 one rich in bone implements and graving-tools1 with small flint laurel leaves retouched on only one face2 the other poor in bone implements but with large laurel-leaf spear heads4 ,the ,solutrean culture never penetrated to the south of the great barrier of the ,pyrenees1 but1 passing through the ,vzre valley1 in ,dordogne1 it spread along the western coast to the northern slopes of the ,cantabrian ,mountains into the province of ,santander1 ,spain4 ,here the laurel-leaf points of the middle ,solutrean are found at ,castillo1 while the shouldered points1 pointes cran1 typical of the later ,solutrean1 are found at ,altamira1 together with bone implements4 ,none the less1 it should be noticed that in the southwest of ,europe the earlier phases of the ,solutrean are characterized by a decrease in the use of bone1 which1 however1 increases again in the upper levels4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agj4 ,the type station of ,solutrean culture1 near the present village of ,solutr1 in south central ,france1 sheltered on the north by a steep rocky ridge and with a fine sunny exposure toward the south4 ,the type station of the ,solutrean culture is the great open-air camp of ,solutr1 near the ,sane1 sheltered on the north by a steep ridge and with a fine1 sunny exposure toward the south4 ,the traces of this great camp1 which is the largest thus far discovered in western ,europe1 cover an area #cjj feet square and are situated within a short distance of a good spring of water4 ,as explored1 in #ahff1 by ,arcelin17#ee7 ,ferry1 and ,ducrost1 this station had already been occupied in ,aurignacian times2 and two sections1 taken at two different points1 showed the deposits of the old camp to be from #bb to #bf feet in thickness1 representing superposed ,aurignacian and ,solutrean fire-hearths with thick layers of intermediate dbris4 ,in the ,aurignacian level is found the vast accumulation of the bones of horses already described4 ,in the middle ,solutrean levels great fireplaces are found with flint utensils and the remains of abundant feasts among the charred dbris4 ,the fauna includes the wolf1 the fox1 the hyna1 both the cave and the brown bear1 the badger1 the rabbit1 the stag1 wild cattle1 and two characteristic northern forms--the woolly mammoth and the reindeer2 the remains of the last are the most abundant in the ancient hearths4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aga4 ,centre of the great open camp of ,solutr1 covering an area #cjj feet square1 with the village of ,solutr in the distance4 ,first occupied in ,aurignacian times1 and a favorite and densely inhabited camp throughout the ,aurignacian and ,solutrean stages4 ,in ,aurignacian times the remains of thousands of horses were accumulated around this station4 ,in all the ,solutrean stations1 beside the bone implements17#ef7 we find two distinct classes of flints4 ,the first belongs to the entire ',reindeer ,epoch' and consists of single and double scrapers1 drills1 burins1 retouched flakes1 and plain ones of small dimensions4 ,the second is composed of the 'leaf' types1 which are solely characteristic of the ,solutrean and which degenerate and entirely disappear at its close2 these latter are the arrow and lance head forms1 many of which are fashioned with a rare degree of perfection and exhibit the beautiful broad ,solutrean retouch across the entire surface of both sides of the flake1 together with perfect symmetry1 both lateral and bilateral2 they are commonly known as the willow-leaf 7narrow7 and the laurel-leaf 7broad7 forms4 ,the explorers of the type station of ,solutr have discovered five principal shapes1 as follows3 7#a7 irregular lozenge2 7#b7 oval1 pointed at both ends2 7#c7 oval1 pointed at one end2 7#d7 regular lozenge2 7#e7 arrow-head form with peduncle1 doubtless for attachment to a shaft4 ,the perfected ,solutrean laurel-leaf spear heads do not reappear in any other ,upper ,palolithic period1 but their resemblance to ,neolithic flints is very marked4 ,the 'willow-leaf' spear heads 7pointes de saule71 chipped on only one side1 characteristic of the early ,solutrean1 may possibly be contemporary with the closing ,aurignacian culture of ,font ,robert4 ,at ,solutr layers have also been discovered rich in bone implements and in graving-tools1 as well as small 'laurel-leaf' points worked on only one face4 ,as regards the general tendencies of the early ,solutrean culture in ,dordogne1 at the ,grotte du ,trilobite 7,yonne71 and in ,ardche1 there is a marked decline in the work in bone and in the variety and workmanship of all the implements1 excepting only that of the primitive flattened spear heads1 made of flakes1 retouched in ,solutrean fashion1 but on one side only4 ,typical deposits of early ,solutrean culture are found at ,trou ,magrite1 in ,belgium1 at ,font ,robert1 ,corrze1 and in the third level of the ,grotte du ,trilobite1 ,yonne2 in the second level we find flints with the nascent ,solutrean retouch4 ,the distinctive implement of the 'high' or middle ,solutrean is the large 'laurel-leaf' point1 flaked and chipped on both sides and attaining a marvellous perfection in technique and symmetry4 ,the finest examples of these spear heads are the famous pointes de laurier1 fourteen in number1 discovered at ,volgu1 ,sane-et-,loire1 in #ahgc3 they were found together in a sort of cache and1 it would seem probable1 were intended as a votive offering1 for one at least was colored red1 and all were too fragile and delicate to be of any use in the chase4 ,they are of unusual size1 the smallest measuring #i inches1 and the largest over #ac-a_/b4 ,in workmanship they are equalled only by the marvellous ,neolithic specimens of ,egypt and ,scandinavia4 ,at ,solutr and other stations implements of bone are also found1 although by no means of such frequent occurrence as in the later divisions of the ,solutrean4 ,while the most easterly ,solutrean stations of ,hungary exhibit no bone implements1 these are abundant at ,pedmost1 in ,moravia1 where the culture altogether is of an advanced ,aurignacian type1 with the ,solutrean retouch used in the shaping of its flint spear heads4 ,the bone industry includes a number of awls and smoothers1 as well as numerous 'btons de commandement4' ,on this level at ,pedmost a few works of art are found consisting of the representations of four animals sculptured on nodules of limestone1 the subjects apparently being reindeer1 and also of one single engraving on bone4 ,the chief invention of the late ,solutrean is the 'shouldered point' 7pointe cran71 a single notched and very slender dart4 ,these notches are the first indication of the value of the barb in holding a weapon in the flesh4 ,here also is a stem for the attachment of the shaft of the dart4 ,in earlier stages of the ,solutrean one finds flints where the unsymmetrical base of the 'point' shows a small obtuse tongue or stem4 ,the elongate peduncle at the base of such spear heads 7pointes soie7 is developed into the pointe cran1 or shouldered point1 made of long1 fine flakes1 with a short retouch on one or both sides1 and found in the late ,solutrean at the grotto of ,lacave1 at ,placard1 and at many of the stations in ,dordogne4 ,no example of the pointe cran has ever been found at the type station of ,solutr1 but it is of frequent occurrence at the stations between the ,loire and the ,cantabrian ,pyrenees1 being found at ,altamira1 at ,laugerie ,haute1 at ,monthaud 7,indre71 in ,chalosse and ,charente1 while the great cave of ,placard has yielded no less than #e1jjj specimens1 whole and broken4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agb4 ,typical ,solutrean implements of the chase1 of fishing1 and of industry4 ,after de ,mortillet4 #aca1 #acb4 ,a laurel-leaf point retouched on both sides4 #acc-ach4 ,various forms of the pointe cran1 or 'shouldered point1' a type distinctive of the late ,solutrean4 ,it has an elongated peduncle or stem at one side adapted for the attachment of a wooden shaft1 and was probably an implement of the chase1 being suitable for fishing or for hunting small game4 ,the examples figured show a great variety of finish and retouch4 #acg is from ,placard and #ach from the ,grottes de ,grimaldi4 #aci4 ,poinon1 or awl1 beautifully shaped4 #adj4 ,peroir1 drill or borer4 #ada4 ,flake retouched on one border1 recalling the style of the ,aurignacian points4 #adb1 #adc4 ,finely retouched points1 suitable for engraving or etching4 ,all the flints are shown one-half actual size4 ,at ,monthaud there are also found bone implements including a number of poinons 7awls7 and a series of sagaies 7javelin points74 ,solutrean sagaies1 however1 are very rare and very primitive as compared with the ,magdalenian4 ,the successive phases of ,solutrean industry are all shown in southern ,france4 ,as to its stratigraphic relations1 the type station of ,solutr exhibits lower and middle ,solutrean above ,aurignacian hearths and deposits2 that of ,placard1 ,charente1 shows the middle and upper ,solutrean overlaid by a ,magdalenian layer4 ,in the ,grotte du ,trilobite the ,solutrean layer lies between one of ,aurignacian and one of primitive ,magdalenian2 it is here that we find the clearest transition from the ,aurignacian culture in the appearance of prototypes of the laurel and willow-leaf points1 made of flakes1 retouched on only one side4 ,at ,brassempouy the ,solutrean lies immediately beneath a ,magdalenian layer1 with engraved bones and ,magdalenian flints4 ,needles1 which are particularly abundant in the ,magdalenian epoch1 are also found in a number of the ,solutrean stations4 ,in the grotto of ,lacave1 ,lot1 in an upper ,solutrean layer1 ,vir has found beautiful bone needles1 pierced at one end and of fine workmanship1 and engraved utensils of reindeer horn2 here also was found the head of an antelope engraved on a fragment of reindeer horn4 ,the local fauna of this period included the horse1 the ibex1 and the reindeer4 ,,solutrean ,,engraving ,,and ,,animal ,,sculpture ,the artistic work of ,solutrean times is not so rich as that of the ,aurignacian4 ,this1 as we have suggested1 may be partly attributable to the less wide-spread distribution of the ,solutrean culture1 as well as to the great importance which was attached to the careful fashioning of the stone weapons4 ,none the less we can trace indications of the development of both phases of art1 the linear and the plastic1 and especially the beginnings of animal sculpture4 ,from the full1 round sculpture of ,aurignacian times there follows in ,solutrean times a development of carving in bone of the ,rundstabfiguren 7bton1 or ceremonial staff71 and of high relief4 ,the lion7#eg7 and the head of a horse at ,isturitz1 in the ,pyrenees1 which ,breuil attributes to a late ,solutrean period1 are typical examples of this work4 ,relatively rare are the parietal and mobile engravings as well as the schematic representations1 such as are found at ,placard and ,champs ,blancs4 ,according to ,alcalde del ,rio1 there are found at ,altamira1 in northern ,spain1 very simple1 finely engraved figures of the doe on the bone of the shoulder-blade2 the head and neck are covered with lines1 and both the eye and the nostril as well as the form of the ear are very characteristic of the animal4 ,breuil1 however1 considers these as belonging rather to earlier ,magdalenian times4 ,decorative art certainly makes some advances over the ,aurignacian work1 because the arrangement of the geometric figures is quite clear1 and the execution shows marked progress in the technique of engraving4 ,at ,pedmost1 near the site of the human burial described above1 there has been discovered a statuette of the mammoth sculptured in the round1 in ivory1 which proves that animal sculpture was well advanced in ,solutrean times4 ,the statuette was found six to nine feet beneath the surface of the 'loess1' in an undoubted ,solutrean layer4 ,the accompanying fauna is of a truly arctic character3 the mammoth being extraordinarily abundant2 the tundra forms including the mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 musk-ox1 reindeer1 arctic fox1 arctic hare1 glutton1 and banded lemming2 the ,asiatic forms including the lion and leopard2 the forest and meadow fauna embracing the wolf1 fox1 beaver1 brown bear1 bison1 and wild cattle1 moose1 and horse1 also the ibex4 ,among the remnants of #cj1jjj flints there are a dozen points 7feuilles de laurier7 and other pieces with the ,solutrean 'retouch4' ,the industry in ivory1 bone1 and reindeer horn is also varied1 including numerous poniards1 polishers1 piercers1 dart-throwers1 and btons de commandement4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agc4 ,mammoth sculptured on a fragment of ivory tusk from the ,solutrean station of ,pedmost1 ,moravia4 ,after ,maka4 ,this figure is covered with fine lines representing the long1 hairy coating1 and measures about four and one-half inches4 ,this ivory sculpture of the mammoth indicates very accurately the characteristic contours of the top of the head1 and of the back2 the striations on the side represent the falling masses of hair4 ,other sculptured figures representing the mammoth are believed to be of ,magdalenian age1 the best known being the figures found in the grottos of ,bruniquel and ,laugerie ,basse1 a fragment from ,raymonden1 ,dordogne1 and a bas-relief in the grotto of ,figuier1 ,gard4 ,all these sculptures of the mammoth have in common the indication of a very small ear--similar to that in the ,pedmost model--feet shaped like inverted mushrooms1 bordered with short1 coarse hairs1 the tail terminating in a long tuft of hairs4 ,if the figure of ,pedmost is of ,solutrean age1 it is by far the earliest of all the sculptured or engraved animal representations in the mobile art1 and is also the most complete of the animal figurines of this group4 ,it is certainly of more recent date than the engraved designs of ,aurignacian age in the grottos of ,gargas and of ,chabot or than the red or black tracings of the mammoth1 also of ,aurignacian age1 at ,castillo1 ,pindal1 and ,font-de-,gaume4 ,it is probable that the mammoth figures of ,combarelles are of later date than the ,pedmost sculpture and belong to the beginning of ,magdalenian times1 while those at ,font-de-,gaume belong to the end of ,magdalenian times and are the most recent of all the parietal designs4 ,despite the differences in age and technique1 all the designs of the mammoth are undoubtedly the work of artists of a single race2 they agree in faithfully portraying the external form of this great proboscidian which wandered over the steppes and prairies of western ,europe from the beginning of the fourth glaciation until near the close of ,postglacial times4 7#a7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g4 7#b7 ,verneau1 #aijf4a1 pp4 #bjb-bjg4 7#c7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bjd4 7#d7 ,keith1 #aiaa4a1 p4 #fj4 7#e7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #agh4 7#f7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 p4 #agd4 7#g7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #afe-afh4 7#h7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #agg1 #agh4 7#i7 ,wiegers1 #aiac4a4 7#aj7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #bff4 7#aa7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 p4 #bgh4 7#ab7 ,dawkins1 #ahhj4a1 pp4 #adh1 #adi4 7#ac7 ,ewart1 #aijd4a4 7#ad7 ,obermaier1 #aiji4b1 p4 #ade4 7#ae7 ,sollas1 #aiac4a1 p4 #cbe4 7#af7 ,broca1 #ahfh4a4 7#ag7 ,lartet1 #ahge4a4 7#ah7 ,verneau1 #ahhf4a2 #aijf4a1 pp4 #fh1 #fi4 7#ai7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4b4 7#bj7 ,martin1 ,r41 #aiad4a1 pp4 #ae1 #af4 7#ba7 ,keith1 #aiaa4a1 p4 #ga4 7#bb7 ,klaatsch1 #aiji4a4 7#bc7 ,keith1 op4 cit41 p4 #ef4 7#bd7 ,hauser1 #aiji4a4 7#be7 ,fischer1 #aiac4a4 7#bf7 ,schliz1 #aiab4a1 p4 #eed4 7#bg7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 p4 #age4 7#bh7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #ahc4 7#bi7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #agg-ahj4 7#cj7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #bff4 7#ca7 ,breuil1 op4 cit41 p4 #agh4 7#cb7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #aha4 7#cc7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 p4 #afi4 7#cd7 ,breuil1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #aid-bjj4 7#ce7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a4 7#cf7 ,breuil1 op4 cit4 7#cg7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #adb4 7#ch7 ,breuil1 #aiab4a1 p4 #bjb4 7#ci7 ,breuil1 #aiab4f4 7#dj7 ,hilzheimer1 #aiac4a1 p4 #aea4 7#da7 ,fischer1 #aiac4a4 7#db7 ,makowsky1 #aijb4a4 7#dc7 ,schwalbe1 #aijf4a4 7#dd7 ,makowsky1 op4 cit4 7#de7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #cdb-cee4 7#df7 ,martin1 ,r41 #aiad4a1 pp4 #ae1 #af4 7#dg7 ,schliz1 #aiab4a4 7#dh7 ,dchelette1 #aijh4a1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #bh4 7#di7 ,keane1 #aija4a1 p4 #adg4 7#ej7 ,keith1 #aiaa4a1 p4 #cj4 7#ea7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #bh-de4 7#eb7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #ea-ef4 7#ec7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 p4 #ic4 7#ed7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 p4 #ahh4 7#ee7 ,arcelin1 #ahfi4a4 7#ef7 ,dchelette1 #aijh4a1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #acg-ada4 7#eg7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #add1 ,tafel ,b4 ,,chapter ,v ,,magdalenian ,,times--,,climate ,,and ,,mammalian ,,life ,,of ,,europe--,,customs ,,and ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,cr-,,magnons2 ,,their ,,industry ,,in ,,flint ,,and ,,bone2 ,,their ,,distribution--,,development ,,of ,,their ,,art1 ,,engraving1 ,,painting1 ,,sculpture--,,art ,,in ,,the ,,caverns--,,climax ,,of ,,the ,,magdalenian ,,art ,,and ,,industry ,,of ,,the ,,cr-,,magnons--,,apparent ,,decline ,,of ,,the ,,race4 ,the art and industrial epoch of ,magdalenian times is by far the best known and most fascinating of the ,old ,stone ,age4 ,this period forms the culmination of ,palolithic civilization2 it marks the highest development of the ,cr-,magnon race preceding their sudden decline and disappearance as the dominant type of western ,europe4 ,the men of this time are commonly known as the ,magdalenians1 taking their name from the type station of ,la ,madeleine1 as the ,greeks in their highest stage took their name from ,athens and were known as the ,athenians4 ,we would assign the minimum prehistoric date of #af1jjj ,b4 ,c4 for the beginning of the ,magdalenian culture1 and since we have assigned to the beginning of the ,aurignacian culture the date of #be1jjj ,b4 ,c41 we should allow #i1jjj years for the development of the ,aurignacian and ,solutrean industries in western ,europe4 ,,introduction4 ,,industrial ,,and ,,artistic ,,development ,well as this culture is known1 its origin is obscured by the fact that it shows little or no connection with the preceding ,solutrean industry1 which1 as we have noted 7p4 #cca71 seems like a technical invasion in the history of western ,europe and not an inherent part of the main line of cultural development4 ,thus ,breuil7#a7 observes that it appears as if the fundamental elements of the superior ,aurignacian culture had contributed by some unknown route to constitute the kernel of the ,magdalenian civilization while the ,solutrean episode was going on elsewhere4 ,again1 early ,magdalenian art bears striking resemblances to the superior ,aurignacian art of the ,pyrenees1 especially the parietal art1 as shown by comparing the ,aurignacian engravings of ,gargas with the early ,magdalenian of ,combarelles4 ,moreover1 the same author observes that1 if there is one certain prehistoric fact1 it is that the first ,magdalenian culture was not evolved from the ,solutrean--that these ,magdalenians were newcomers in western ,france1 as unskilful in the art of shaping and retouching flints as their predecessors were skilled4 ,ancient ,magdalenian hearths are found in many localities close to the levels of the upper ,solutrean industries with their shouldered spear points 7pointes cran7 and highly perfected flint work4 ,yet the ,magdalenians show a radical departure from the ,solutrean type of flint working2 both in ,dordogne 7,laugerie ,haute and ,laussel7 and in ,charente 7,placard7 the splinters of flint are massive1 heavy1 badly selected1 often of poor quality1 and poorly retouched1 sometimes almost in an ,eolithic manner2 at the same time1 the chance flints1 that is1 the piercers and graving-tools made from splinters of any accidental shape1 are abundant4 ,to these people flint implements appear to be altogether of secondary importance2 although the flints are very numerous1 they are not finished with any of the perfection of the ,solutrean technique2 the laurel-leaf spear head and shouldered dart head have disappeared entirely1 but a great variety of smaller graving and chasing forms are employed for fashioning the implements of bone and horn4 ,what a contrast to the beautiful flints so finely retouched and of such carefully selected materials1 found in the very same stations in middle and upper ,solutrean layers6 ,thus ,breuil1 always predisposed to believe in an invasion of culture rather than in an autochthonous development1 favors the theory of eastern origin for the ,magdalenian industry1 because this is not wanting either in ,austria or in ,poland2 two sites of ancient ,magdalenian industry have been found by ,obermaier in the 'loess' stations of ,austria1 while in ,russian ,poland the grotto of ,maszycka1 near ,ojcow1 exhibits workings in bone resembling those found at the grotto of ,placard1 ,charente1 in the layers directly succeeding the base of the ,magdalenian4 ,the fact that near the ,ural ,mountains there has also been found a peculiar ,magdalenian culture1 the origin of which is not western1 inclines us to believe that the ,magdalenian culture extended from the east toward the west1 and then1 later1 toward the ,baltic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agd4 ,one of the large bison drawings in the cavern of ,niaux1 on the ,arige1 showing the supposed spear or arrow heads with shafts on its side4 ,the artist's technique consists of an outline incised with flint followed by a painted outline in black manganese giving high relief4 ,after ,cartailhac and ,breuil4 ,greatly reduced4 ,this theory of the eastern origin of the ,magdalenian industry has1 however1 to face1 first1 the very strong counter-evidence of the close affinity between ,aurignacian and ,magdalenian art1 which ,breuil himself has done the most to demonstrate2 second1 the physical1 mental1 and especially the artistic unity of the ,cr-,magnon race in ,aurignacian and ,magdalenian times4 ,the recent discovery of two ,cr-,magnon skeletons together with two carved bone implements of ,magdalenian type1 at ,obercassel1 on the ,rhine1 links the art with this race and with no other1 because1 as we remarked above1 an artistic instinct and ability cannot be passed from one race to another like the technique of a handicraft4 ,breuil7#b7 himself has positively stated that the whole ,upper ,palolithic art development of ,europe was the work of one race3 if so1 this race can be no other than the ,cr-,magnon4 ,we must1 therefore1 revert to the explanation offered in a preceding chapter1 that the ,solutrean technique was an intrusion or an invasion either brought in by another race or acquired from the craftsmen of some easterly race1 perhaps that of ,brnn1 ,brx1 and ,pedmost4 ,why the art of fashioning these perfect ,solutrean spear1 dart1 and arrow heads was lost is very difficult to explain1 because they appear to be the most effective implements of war and of the chase which were ever developed by ,palolithic workmen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #age4 ,decorated sagaies1 or javelin points1 of bone2 pointed at one end and bevelled at the other for the attachment of a shaft4 ,after ,breuil4 ,it is possible1 although not probable1 that the bow was introduced at this time and that a less perfect flint point1 fastened to a shaft like an arrow-head and projected with great velocity and accuracy1 proved to be far more effective than the spear4 ,the bison in the cavern of ,niaux show several barbed points adhering to the sides1 and the symbol of the flche appears on the sides of many of the bison1 cattle1 and other animals of the chase in ,magdalenian drawings4 ,from these drawings and symbols it would appear that barbed weapons of some kind were used in the chase1 but no barbed flints occur at any time in the ,palolithic1 nor has any trace been found of bone barbed arrow-heads or any direct evidence of the existence of the bow4 ,in compensation for the decline of flint is the rapid development of bone implements1 the most distinctive feature of ,magdalenian industry4 ,in the late ,solutrean we have noted the occasional appearance of the bone javelin points 7sagaies7 with their decorative motifs2 these become much more frequent in ,magdalenian times4 ,they occur in the most ancient ,magdalenian levels of the grotto of ,placard1 ,charente1 which are prior even to the appearance of prototypes of the harpoon1 the evolution of which clearly marks off the early1 middle1 and late divisions of ,magdalenian times4 ,these primitive javelins1 decorated in a characteristic fashion1 are found in ,poland1 at the grotto of ,kesslerloch and other places in ,switzerland1 at many stations in ,dordogne and the region of the ,pyrenees in southern ,france1 and in the ,cantabrian ,mountains of northern ,spain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agf4 ,head of the forest or of the steppe horse engraved on a fragment of bone1 from the ,grotte du ,pape1 ,brassempouy4 ,after ,piette4 ,it is only above the levels where early types of these javelin points occur that the rudimentary harpoons of the typical early ,magdalenian are found4 ,the discovery of the bone harpoon as a means of catching fish marks an important addition to the food supply1 which was apparently followed by a decline in the chase4 ,later1 to the javelin1 lance1 and harpoon is added the dart-thrower 7propulseur71 which gradually spreads all over western ,europe1 where also the evolution of these bone implements and of the decoration with which they are richly adorned enables the trained archologist to establish corresponding subdivisions of ,magdalenian time4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agg4 ,polychrome wall-painting of a wolf from the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume4 ,after ,breuil4 ,from the uniform character of ,palolithic art in its highest forms of engraving1 painting1 and animal sculpture we may infer the probable unity of the ,cr-,magnon race1 especially throughout western ,europe4 ,during ,magdalenian times various branches of art reached their highest point and were the culmination of a movement begun in the early ,aurignacian4 ,the artist1 whose life brought him into close touch with nature and who evidently followed the movements both of the individual animals and of the herds for hours at a time1 has rendered his observations in the most realistic manner4 ,among the animals represented are the bison1 mammoth1 wild horse1 reindeer1 wild cattle1 deer1 and rhinoceros2 less frequent are representations of the ibex1 wolf1 and wild boar1 and there are comparatively few representations of fishes or of any form of plant life2 the nobler beasts of prey1 such as the lion and the bear1 are often represented1 but there are no figures of the skulking hyna1 which at that time was a rare if not almost extinct animal4 ,while many figures are of real artistic worth and reach a high level1 others are more or less crude attempts2 the composition of figures or of groups of animals is rarely undertaken4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agh4 ,crude sculpture of the ibex1 from the ,magdalenian deposit at ,mas d',azil on the right bank of the ,arize4 ,after ,piette4 ,a little less than actual size4 ,the artistic sense of these people is also manifest in the decoration of their household utensils and weapons of the chase4 ,here the smaller animals of the chase1 the saiga1 the ibex1 and the chamois1 are executed with a sure hand4 ,sculpture of animal forms in the large1 which begins in ,solutrean times1 is continued and reaches its highest point in the early ,magdalenian4 ,at this period the use of sculpture as a means of decoration arises and extends into the middle and late ,magdalenian4 ,these latter divisions are also distinguished by the reappearance of human figurines1 nude1 like the ,aurignacian1 and occasionally somewhat more slender4 ,thus it would appear that the artistic spirit1 more or less dormant in ,solutrean times1 was revived4 ,in the variety of industries we find evidences of a race endowed with closely observant and creative minds1 in which the two chief motives of life seem to have been the chase and the pursuit of art4 ,the ,magdalenian flints are fashioned in a somewhat different manner from the ,solutrean3 long1 slender flakes or 'blades' with little or no retouch are frequent1 and in other implements the work is apparently carried only to a point where the flint will serve its purpose4 ,no attempt is made to attain perfect symmetry4 ,thus the old technical impulse of the flint industry seems to be far less than that among the makers of the ,solutrean flints1 while a new technical impulse manifests itself in several branches of art3 arms and utensils are carved in ivory1 reindeer horn and bone1 and sculpture and engraving on bone and ivory are greatly developed4 ,we find that these people are beginning to utilize the walls of dark1 mysterious caverns for their drawings and paintings1 which show deep appreciation for the perfection of the animal form1 depicted by them in most lifelike attitudes4 ,we may infer that there was a tribal organization1 and it has been suggested that certain unexplained implements of reindeer horn1 often beautifully carved and known as 'btons de commandement1' were insignia of authority borne by the chieftains4 ,there can be little doubt that such diversities of temperament1 of talent1 and of predisposition as obtain to-day also prevailed then1 and that they tended to differentiate society into chieftains1 priests1 and medicine-men1 hunters of large game and fishermen1 fashioners of flints and dressers of hides1 makers of clothing and footwear1 makers of ornaments1 engravers1 sculptors in wood1 bone1 ivory1 and stone1 and artists with color and brush4 ,in their artistic work1 at least1 these people were animated with a compelling sense of truth1 and we cannot deny them a strong appreciation of beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,vii4 ,cr-,magnon man in the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume1 ,dordogne1 restored in the act of drawing the outlines of one of the bisons on the wall of the ,galerie des ,fresques4 ,drawn under the direction of the author by ,charles ,r4 ,knight4 ,it is probable that a sense of wonder in the face of the powers of nature was connected with the development of a religious sentiment4 ,how far their artistic work in the caverns was an expression of such sentiment and how far it was the outcome of a purely artistic impulse are matters for very careful study4 ,undoubtedly the inquisitive sense which led them into the deep and dangerous recesses of the caverns was accompanied by an increased sense of awe and possibly by a sentiment which we may regard as more or less religious4 ,we may dwell for a moment on this very interesting problem of the origin of religion during the ,old ,stone ,age1 so that the reader may judge for himself in connection with the ensuing accounts of ,magdalenian art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #agi4 ,decorated btons de commandement carved from reindeer horn with a large perforation opposite the brow tine4 ,after ,lartet and ,christy4 ,the religious phenomenon1 observes ,james17#c7 has shown itself to consist everywhere1 and in all its stages1 in the consciousness which individuals have of an intercourse between themselves and higher powers with which they feel themselves to be related4 ,this intercourse is realized at the time as being both active and mutual4444 ,the gods believed in--whether by crude savages or by men disciplined intellectually--agree with each other in recognizing personal calls4444 ,to coerce the spiritual powers1 or to square them and get them on our side1 was1 during enormous tracts of time1 the one great object in our dealings with the natural world4 ,the study of this race1 in our opinion1 would suggest a still earlier phase in the development of religious thought than that considered by ,james1 namely1 a phase in which the wonders of nature in their various manifestations begin to arouse in the primitive mind a desire for an explanation of these phenomena1 and in which it is attempted to seek such cause in some vague supernatural power underlying these otherwise unaccountable occurrences1 a cause to which the primitive human spirit commences to make its appeal4 ,according to certain anthropologists1,,au this wonder-working force may either be personal1 like the gods of ,homer1 or impersonal1 like the ,mana of the ,melanesian1 or the ,manitou of the ,north ,american ,indian4 ,it may impress an individual when he is in a proper frame of mind1 and through magic or propitiation may be brought into relation with his individual ends4 ,magic and religion jointly belong to the supernatural as opposed to the every-day world of the savage4 ,we have already seen evidence from the burials that these people apparently believed in the preparation of the bodies of the dead for a future existence4 ,how far these beliefs and the votive sense of propitiation for protection and success in the chase are indicated by the art of the caverns is to be judged in connection with their entire life and productive effort1 with their burials associated with offerings of implements and articles of food1 and with their art4 ,,the ,,three ,,climatic ,,cycles ,,of ,,magdalenian ,,times ,the culture of the ,cr-,magnons was doubtless influenced by the changing climatic conditions of ,magdalenian times1 which were quite varied1 so that we may trace three parallel lines of development3 that of environment1 as indicated by the climate and the forms of animal life1 that of industry1 and that of art4 ,the entire climatic1 life1 and industrial cycle of which the ,magdalenian marks the conclusion has been presented in ,chapter ,,iv 7p4 #bha74 ,after a very long period of cold and somewhat arid climate following the fourth glaciation1 it would appear that western ,europe in early ,magdalenian times again experienced a stage of increasing cold and moisture accompanied by the renewed advance of the glaciers in the ,alpine region1 in ,scandinavia1 and in ,great ,britain4 ,this is known as the ,bhl stage in the ,alps1 in which the snow-line descended #b1gjj feet below its present level and the great glaciers thrust down along the southerly borders of ,lake ,lucerne a series of new moraines distinctly overlying those of the fourth glaciation4 ,another indication of the lowered temperature and increased moisture in the same geographic region is found in the return of the arctic lemmings from the northern tundras2 these migrants have left their remains in several of the large grottos north of the ,alps1 especially in ,schweizersbild and ,kesslerloch1 composing what is known as the ,upper ,rodent ,layer1 with which are associated the implements and art objects of the early ,magdalenian culture stage4 ,we have adopted the minimum estimate of #be1jjj years since the fourth glaciation1 but ,heim7#d7 has estimated that the much more recent prehistoric event of the advance of this minor ,bhl glaciation began at least #bd1jjj years ago1 that it extended over a very long period of time1 and that the ,bhl moraines in ,lake ,lucerne are at least #af1jjj years of age4 ,the three climatic changes of ,magdalenian times are therefore as follows3 ,first1 the ,bhl ,postglacial ,stage in the ,alps1 which corresponds with what ,geikie has named the ,fifth ,glacial ,epoch1 or ,lower ,turbarian1 in ,scotland2 for he believes that a relapse to cold conditions in northern ,britain was accompanied by a partial subsidence of the coast lands1 that snow-fields again appeared1 that considerable glaciers descended the mountain valleys1 and even reached the sea4 ,at this time the arctic alpine flora of ,scotland also descended to within #aej feet of the sea-level4 ,the result of this renewed or fifth glaciation in western ,europe was the advent of the great wave of tundra life and the descent to the plains of all the forms of ,alpine life4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahj4 ,correlation of the ,postglacial climatic changes with the four stages of ,upper ,palolithic culture3 the ,aurignacian coincident with the final retreat of the fourth glaciation2 the ,solutrean coincident with the interval preceding the ,bhl advance2 the ,magdalenian coincident with the ,bhl and ,gschnitz ,postglacial advances2 and the ,azilian coincident with the ,daun or third ,postglacial advance4 7,compare ,fig4 #ad47 ,second1 it would appear that in middle ,magdalenian times1 after the ,bhl advance1 there occurred a temporary retreat of the ice-fields1 and that during this period the full tide of life from the steppes of western ,asia and eastern ,europe for the first time spread over western ,europe1 including especially such animals as the jerboa and the saiga antelope1 the dwarf pika and steppe hamster4 ,correlation is very hazardous1 but this ice retreat may correspond with the ,upper ,forestian1 or ,fifth ,interglacial ,stage in ,scotland1 described by ,geikie1 the stage which he mentions as marked by the elevation of the ,scottish coast with the retreat of the sea beyond the present coast-lines2 geographic changes which were accompanied by the disappearance of perennial snow and ice1 and the return of more genial conditions4 ,the tundra fauna still prevailed2 such a typical arctic animal as the musk-ox wandered as far south as ,dordogne and the ,pyrenees1 and became one of the objects of the chase4 ,during what is known as the middle or 'full ,magdalenian' the tundra1 steppe1 alpine1 forest1 and meadow faun spread over the plains and valleys throughout western ,europe4 ,third1 the second ,postglacial advance1 known as the ,gschnitz stage in the ,alpine region1 appears to have been contemporaneous with the closing period of ,magdalenian culture4 ,this was the last great effort of the ice-fields to conquer western ,europe1 and in the ,alpine region the snow-line descended #a1hjj feet below the present levels2 it marked the closing stage of the long cold climatic period that had favored the presence of the reindeer1 the woolly mammoth1 and the woolly rhinoceros in western ,europe1 as well as the close of the ',reindeer ,epoch' of ,lartet4 ,again1 in the north of ,britain ,geikie observes an ,upper ,turbarian or ,sixth ,glacial ,epoch1 accompanied by a partial subsidence of the ,scottish coast1 and the return of a cold and wet climate2 there is evidence of the existence of snow glaciers upon the high mountains only4 ,the ,gschnitz stage marks the end of glacial conditions in ,europe1 the retreat of the tundra and steppe faun1 and the predominance of the forest and meadow environment and life4 ,in the ,alps there was1 however1 still a final effort of the glaciers1 known as the ,daun stage1 which1 it is believed1 broadly corresponds with the period of the ,azilian-,tardenoisian industry1 and a climatic condition in ,europe favorable to the spread of the ,eurasiatic forest and meadow life4 ,the key to this great prehistoric chronology is found in palontology4 ,the arctic tundra rodents especially are the most invaluable timekeepers2 according to ,schmidt7#e7 there is no doubt whatever that the ,upper ,rodent ,layer1 composed of the animals of the second invasion from the arctic tundras1 corresponds1 on the one hand1 with the beginning of the ,magdalenian industry and1 on the other1 with the renewed glacial advance in the ,alpine region1 known as the ,bhl stage1 and probably also with that in the north4 ,the ,upper ,rodent ,layer of ,magdalenian times is found in the remarkably complete succession of deposits at the stations of ,schweizersbild and ,kesslerloch1 which are more recent in time than the 'low terraces' bordering the neighboring ,river ,rhine4 ,the fossil animals prove that after the extreme cold of early ,magdalenian times the tundra fauna gradually gave way to a wide-spread steppe fauna4 ,along the ,rhine and the ,danube the banded lemmings become less frequent2 the jerboas1 hamsters1 and susliks of the steppes become more abundant4 ,exactly similar changes are observed in ,dordogne4 ,in ,longueroche1 on the ,vzre1 there occur for the first time in western ,europe great numbers of rabbits 7,lepus cuniculus72 numerous hares 7,lepus timidus7 are also observed at the type station of ,la ,madeleine1 especially in the uppermost and lowermost culture layers4 ,these small rabbits probably came from the ,mediterranean region and denote a slight elevation of temperature4 ,but it is only in the very highest ,magdalenian layers that the animal life of western ,europe begins to approach that of recent times1 namely1 that of the prehistoric forest and meadow faun4 ,,mammalian ,,life ,,of ,,magdalenian ,,times ,thus it is very important to keep in mind that during ,magdalenian times there were both cold and moist periods favorable to tundra life and cold and arid periods favorable to steppe life4 ,in the latter were deposited the sheets of 'upper loess4' ,the mammalian life of ,magdalenian times is of interest not only in connection with the climate and environment of the ,cr-,magnon race1 but with the development of their industry and especially of their art4 ,it is noteworthy that the imposing forms of animal life1 the mammoth among the tundra fauna and the bison among the meadow fauna1 made a very strong impression and were the favorite subjects of the draftsmen and colorists2 but the eye was also susceptible to the beauty of the reindeer1 the stag1 and the horse and to the grace of the chamois4 ,the artists and sculptors have preserved the external appearance of more than thirty forms of this wonderful mammalian assemblage1 which accord exactly with the fossil records preserved in the fire-hearths of the grottos and shelters1 and with the deposits assembled by beasts and birds of prey in the uninhabited caverns4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aha4 ,reindeer with outlines first engraved and then retraced with heavy lines of black manganese finely finished with a wash of gray tone1 from the ,galerie des ,fresques at ,font-de-,gaume4 ,after ,breuil4 ,no artists have ever had before them at the same time and in the same country such a wonderful panorama of animal life as that observed by the ,cr-,magnons4 ,their representations in drawing1 engraving1 painting1 and sculpture afford us a view of a great part of the life of the period1 including its contingent of forms from the tundras1 steppes1 ,alpine summits1 and ,eurasiatic forests and meadows1 and the one surviving member of the ,asiatic fauna1 the lion4 ,the paintings and drawings of ,dordogne chiefly represent the mammoth1 reindeer1 rhinoceros1 bison1 horses1 wild cattle1 red deer1 ibex1 lion1 and bear4 ,the caverns of the ,pyrenees of southern ,france present chiefly bison1 horses1 deer1 wild cattle1 ibex1 and chamois2 the reindeer and mammoth are relatively rare1 and in some cases entirely wanting in the parietal art2 this is singular because in the ,pyrenees the reindeer constituted the principal food of the authors of the drawings and frescos4 ,in the caves of the ,cantabrian ,mountains representations of the reindeer are entirely absent1 while the doe and stag of the red deer are frequently pictured2 there are only a few representations of the mammoth and one of the cave-bear4 ,in the drawings of eastern ,spain deer and wild cattle are abundantly represented1 and there is undoubtedly a representation of the moose at ,alpera4 ,favorite ,art ,subjects ,,tundra ,,life4 ,mammoth4 ,woolly rhinoceros4 ,reindeer4 ,musk-ox4 ,,steppe ,,life4 ,steppe horse4 ,saiga antelope4 ,wild ass1 kiang4 ,,asiatic ,,life4 ,lion4 ,desert horse4 ,,alpine ,,life4 ,ibex4 ,chamois4 ,,meadow ,,life4 ,bison4 ,wild cattle4 ,,forest ,,life4 ,red deer1 stag4 ,forest horse4 ,cave-bear4 ,wolf4 ,fox4 ,wild boar4 ,moose4 ,fallow deer4 ,,sea ,,life4 ,seal4 ,,reptiles1 ,,birds1 ,,fishes4 7,rarely depicted47 ,as regards the sources of this great fauna1 we have observed that in late ,aurignacian and ,solutrean times1 at ,pedmost1 ,moravia1 and elsewhere1 the steppe fauna was not richly represented in western ,europe1 for it included only the steppe horse and the wild ,asiatic ass or kiang2 that the contemporary tundra fauna lacked two of the smaller but most characteristic forms1 the banded and the ,obi lemmings1 although all of the large tundra forms were still wide-spread and freely intermingled with the forest and meadow life2 and that preying upon these herbivorous mammals were the surviving ,asiatic lions and hynas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahb4 ,modern descendants of the four principal types of the horse family which roamed over western ,europe in ,upper ,palolithic times3 7,a7 the plateau1 desert1 or ,celtic horse1 7,b7 the steppe or ,przewalski horse1 7,c7 the forest or ,nordic horse1 and 7,d7 the kiang or wild ass of the ,asiatic steppes4 ,the successive faunal phases of ,magdalenian times1 beginning with the early cold and moist or tundra period1 have been determined with wonderful precision by ,schmidt from the animal remains found associated with the lower1 middle1 and upper ,magdalenian cultures in the grotto and cavern deposits of northern ,switzerland1 of the upper ,rhine1 and of the upper ,danube4 ,this region was lacking in some of the characteristic animals seen in ,dordogne1 yet these invaluable records show that throughout the entire period of ,magdalenian times1 probably extending over some thousands of years1 the forests1 meadows1 and river borders of western ,europe maintained the entire existing1 or rather prehistoric1 forest and meadow faun4 ,the royal stag1 or red deer 7,cervus elaphus71 was no longer accompanied by the giant deer 7,megaceros71 which apparently left this region of ,europe in ,aurignacian times1 but the maral or ,persian deer 7,cervus maral7 occasionally appears2 both the stag and the roe-deer 7,capreolus7 were especially abundant in southwestern ,europe and the ,cantabrian ,mountains of northern ,spain1 where the stag became the favorite subject of the ,magdalenian artists at the same time that the reindeer was the favorite subject in the region of ,dordogne4 ,in the forests were also the brown bear1 the lynx1 the badger1 the marten1 and in the streams the beaver2 tree squirrels 7,sciurus vulgaris7 appear for the first time2 and in ,dordogne rabbits and hares become numerous4 ,among birds we observe the grouse and the raven4 ,the wild boar 7,sus scrofa ferus7 was occasionally found in the region of the ,danube and the ,rhine1 but abounded in southwestern ,europe and the ,pyrenees4 ,the two dominant forms of meadow life surviving from the earliest ,pleistocene times1 and widely distributed throughout the ,magdalenian are the bison 7,b4 priscus7 and the wild cattle 7,bos primigenius72 of these animals the bison appears to have been the more hardy1 and seeking a more northerly range1 while the urus was extremely abundant in southwestern ,france and the ,pyrenees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahc4 ,the desert or ,celtic horse1 with delicate head1 long1 slender limbs1 and short back1 from a painting on the ceiling of ,altamira1 in northern ,spain4 ,the horse is painted in red ochre with black manganese outlines4 ,the eye1 ear1 mouth1 nostrils1 and chin are carefully engraved4 ,after ,breuil4 ,in connection with art1 the majestic form of the bison seemed to strike the fancy of the artist more than the less-imposing outlines of the wild cattle2 there are perhaps fifty drawings of the bison to one of the ,bos4 ,among the forest and meadow life1 not recognized in the fossil remains1 but clearly distinguished in the work of the artists1 are two types of horses1 the forest or ,nordic horse1 related to the northern or draught horse1 and the diminutive plateau or desert horse 7,e4 caballus celticus7 related to the ,arab4 ,with the forest life should also be numbered the cave bear 7,ursus spelus7 of southwestern ,europe and the moose 7,alces71 indicated by the artists of ,aurignacian times as present in the ,cantabrian ,pyrenees4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahd4 ,heads of four chamois engraved on a fragment of reindeer horn1 from the grotto of ,gourdan1 ,haute-,garonne4 ,after ,piette4 ,it is the above entire ,eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which survived all the climatic vicissitudes of ,pleistocene time1 and which alone remained in western ,europe to the very close of the ,upper ,palolithic culture1 and into the period of the arrival of the ,neolithic race4 ,the descent of the ,european and ,asiatic alpine types of mammals to the lower hills and valleys is one of the most striking episodes of ,magdalenian times4 ,the argali sheep 7,ovis argaloides7 of western ,asia had already appeared in the upper ,danubian region during the ,aurignacian2 it is replaced in ,magdalenian times by the ibex 7,ibex priscus71 and by the chamois1 which descended along the northern slopes of the ,alps and of the ,pyrenees1 and became numbered among the most highly favored subjects of the ,magdalenian artists1 especially in the mobile art of ivory and bone1 and in the decoration of their spear throwers and btons de commandement4 ,from the mountains also come the pikas or tailless hares 7,lagomys pusillus71 the alpine marmot 7,arctomys marmotta71 the alpine vole 7,arvicola nivalis71 and the alpine ptarmigan 7,lagopus alpinus74 ,,the ,,tundra ,,climate ,,of ,,early ,,magdalenian ,,times ,in the first cold moist period the full wave of arctic tundra life appeared in the whole region between the ,alpine and ,scandinavian glaciers during the renewed descent of the ice-fields2 this was the tundra stage of early ,magdalenian times1 accompanying the ,bhl advance4 ,at the stations of ,thaingen1 ,schweizersbild1 ,kastlhng1 and ,niedernau1 appears the musk-ox1 together with the woolly mammoth1 the woolly rhinoceros1 and the reindeer4 ,the discovery of the grotto of ,kastlhng1 a reindeer hunting station in the ,altmhltale of ,bavaria7#f7 fills out what has long been a gap in the geographic distribution of the early ,magdalenian4 ,the principal objects of the chase here were the reindeer1 the wild horse1 the arctic hare1 and the ptarmigan2 the royal stag is very rare1 and the bison is wanting entirely2 a strong arctic character is given to the fauna by the presence of the banded lemming1 the arctic wolverene1 and the arctic fox4 ,from this region the musk-ox migrated far to the southwest1 reaching the northern slopes of the ,pyrenees4 ,at the same time the arctic grouse1 the whistling swan1 and other northern birds entered the region of the ,rhine and the ,danube4 ,but the surest indicators of a cold tundra climate prevailing during the period of the ,bhl advance are the banded lemming 7,myodes torquatus7 and the ,obi lemming 7,myodes obensis71 which are found in the same deposits with the arctic hare1 the reindeer1 and the woolly mammoth mixed with the implements of the early ,magdalenian industry at the stations of ,sirgenstein1 ,wildscheuer1 and ,ofnet along the upper and middle ,danube4 ,there also appear the ermine and the arctic wolverene2 in fact1 almost all the characteristic forms of tundra life except the polar bear1 which only enters the northern tundras in the summer season4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahe4 ,characteristic forms of alpine life1 which descended from the mountains or migrated from the highlands of western ,asia in ,aurignacian and ,magdalenian times3 the ibex1 the chamois1 the alpine ptarmigan1 the argali sheep1 and the 7,a7 alpine vole1 all shown one-twenty-fifth life size2 and the 7,a7 alpine vole also one-fifth life size4 ,the regions of the northern ,alps bordering the great glaciers of the ,bhl and ,gschnitz advances1 were barren stretches of rock1 and the valleys and plateaus now free from ice became tundras1 where the swamps alternated with patches of polar willows and stunted fir-trees1 while other areas were covered with low1 scrubby birches1 or reindeer moss and lichens4 ,the return of these hard conditions of life undoubtedly exerted a great influence both upon the physical and mental development of the ,cr-,magnon race2 it was at the very period when the life conditions in western ,europe were most severe that the artistic development of these people began to revive4 ,forced to return to the shelters and grottos1 which certainly were less frequented in ,solutrean times1 there was time for the development of the imagination and for its expression both in the mobile and parietal arts4 ,there was a less vigorous development of the flint industry1 and apparently a degeneration in physique and stature4 ,in ,germany and northern ,switzerland1 on the headwaters of the ,rhine and the ,danube1 the entrance and departure of the northern waves of life are recorded1 especially in the grottos of ,sirgenstein1 ,schussenquelle1 ,andernach1 ,schmiechenfels1 and ,propstfels4 ,it would appear that the woolly mammoth and the woolly rhinoceros were not hunted in this region1 for their remains are not preserved in any of the grottos or stations mingled with the middle or late ,magdalenian cultures4 ,on the other hand1 we find the steppe horse1 the kiang1 the stag1 and the reindeer very abundant indeed4 ,the bison is absent1 and wild cattle are very rare2 so that this region is not typical of the mammalian life of ,magdalenian times as found in ,dordogne and in the ,pyrenees4 ,the migration of the woolly mammoth and woolly rhinoceros along the ,pyrenees and westward into the ,cantabrian ,mountains1 and the crossing of the ,pyrenees by the reindeer1 have already been described4 ,in the mural frescos of ,font-de-,gaume1 ,dordogne1 it is noteworthy that the very latest engravings are those of the mammoth superposed on the fine polychromes which belong to the period of middle ,magdalenian art4 ,,the ,,dry ,,steppe ,,climate ,,of ,,middle ,,magdalenian ,,times ,the cold1 dry period1 when the full tide of steppe life reached western ,europe1 is of somewhat uncertain date2 it probably began during the stage of the middle ,magdalenian industry and continued into the late or high ,magdalenian4 ,there was certainly an environment attractive to these peculiar and very highly specialized mammals1 which at the present time are neutral in color1 swift of foot1 inured to existence on very sparse vegetation1 and adapted to extremes of heat and cold4 ,among the smaller steppe forms were the suslik or pouched marmot of the steppes 7,spermophilus rufescens7 and the steppe hamster 7,cricetus phus71 also the ,siberian vole 7,arvicola gregalis72 still more characteristic was the great jerboa 7,alactaga jaculus71 with long1 springy hind legs1 and the saiga antelope 7,antilope saiga74 ,with these mammals appeared the steppe grouse 7,perdix cinerea71 which is found along the ,danube in late ,magdalenian strata2 another bird characteristic of the northern steppes and tundras is the 'woodcock owl' 7,brachyotus palustris74 ,accompanying these mammals was undoubtedly the steppe horse 7,equus przewalski71 now restricted to the desert of ,gobi2 it is said to occur in the grottos of northern ,switzerland4 ,it would appear that the saiga antelope may have reached eastern ,europe in late ,solutrean times1 for its outline is said to be found in an engraving at ,solutr4 ,widely spread over ,europe was the giant ,elasmothere2 it would seem very unlikely that this animal was present in ,magdalenian times1 for it certainly would have attracted the attention of the artists4 ,neither have we any positive artistic records of the wild ass1 or kiang1 although certain of the drawings in the grottos of ,niaux and ,marsoulas1 of the middle ,magdalenian1 also of ,albarracin1 in ,spain1 may be interpreted as representing this animal4 ,thus the ,asiatic steppe and desert fauna1 which in the region of the upper ,rhine and ,danube was restricted to two species of mammals in ,aurignacian and ,solutrean times1 rises to nine or ten species in middle ,magdalenian times1 so that for the first time during the entire ',reindeer ,epoch' the steppe and tundra faun are equally balanced4 ,there are also six or seven species of birds from the moors and uplands of central ,asia4 ,the bird life depicted in middle ,magdalenian art includes the ptarmigan or grouse1 the wild swan1 geese1 and ducks4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahf4 ,steppe mammals from the steppes and deserts of ,asia1 which invaded western ,europe in ,upper ,palolithic times2 the first arrivals appearing during the cold1 dry period of late ,acheulean times1 becoming more numerous in the dry period of ,aurignacian and ,solutrean times1 and completely represented in ,magdalenian times4 ,the saiga antelope1 the 7,a7 steppe hamster1 the 7,b7 great jerboa1 and the kiang1 or ,asiatic wild ass1 are all shown one-twenty-fifth life size4 ,the 7,a7 steppe hamster is also shown one-fifth life size and the 7,b7 great jerboa one-twelfth life size4 ,drawn by ,erwin ,s4 ,christman4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahg4 ,ptarmigan1 or grouse1 carved in reindeer horn1 from ,mas d',azil4 ,after ,piette4 ,the restored portions 7head and feet7 are indicated by dotted lines4 ,the present flora of the subarctic steppes in southeastern ,russia and southwestern ,siberia includes forests of pine1 larch1 birch1 oak1 alder1 and willow1 extending along the banks of the rivers and streams and interspersed with broad1 low1 grassy plains4 ,there are many gradations between the low and high steppes27#g7 the climate in summer is relatively warm1 the temperature rising to #gj1 while the average temperature in mid-winter hardly exceeds #cj2 in general there is a strong contrast between the summer and winter seasons1 the steppe lands in summer are practically rainless1 so that the sand and dust rise with every wind4 ,thus1 both in summer and winter sand and dust storms play an important rle4 ,the great snow-storms of the subarctic steppes are as destructive as those of the more northerly tundras and often result in great loss of life4 ,numerous discoveries tend to prove that similar conditions prevailed in western ,europe during ,magdalenian times4 ,thus at ,chteauneuf-sur-,charente1 a mingled tundra and steppe fauna is found containing the bones of many young animals which must have perished during a blizzard4 ,it will be recalled that in this region is the station of ,le ,placard of late ,solutrean and ,magdalenian age4 ,near ,wrzburg1 ,bavaria1 there is a fauna buried in the 'loess' containing twenty species of mammals of the tundras and steppes1 together with the bison and the urus47#h7 ,perhaps the strongest proof of the extension of cold1 dry steppe conditions of climate is the migration of the saiga antelope 7,saiga tartarica7 into the ,dordogne region1 where it is represented both in carvings and engravings1 and into other parts of southwestern ,france1 where its fossil remains have been found in thirteen localities in association with a cold steppe fauna4 ,in the same region have been found the remains of the musk-ox 7,ovibos71 one of the most distinctive members of the arctic fauna4 ,,human ,,races ,,of ,,magdalenian ,,times ,it appears that the ,cr-,magnon race continued to prevail1 yet anthropologists have long been divided in opinion as to the racial affinity of the men found in the ,magdalenian industrial stage4 ,the most famous burials are those of ,laugerie ,basse and ,chancelade in ,dordogne1 each consisting of skeletons of inferior stature1 not improbably belonging to women4 ,they certainly represent a race somewhat different from the typical ,cr-,magnons of ,aurignacian times1 as found at ,cr-,magnon and in ,grimaldi4 ,the archologist de ,mortillet referred both these skeletons to a new race1 the race de ,laugerie4 ,schliz1 who has most recently reviewed this subject1 has1 however1 rightly treated all these people as ,cr-,magnons of a modified type4 ,the ,magdalenian skeleton of ,laugerie ,basse1 found by ,massnat in #ahgb1 was resting on the back1 with the limbs flexed1 and with it was a necklace of pierced shells from the ,mediterranean3 the body apparently had been covered with a layer of ,magdalenian implements4 ,according to the length of the femur1 the individual was #a4fe m41 or #e feet #a inch in height2 the bones were strong and compact2 the skull was well arched1 with a straight forehead and a cephalic index of #gc4b per cent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahh4 ,the abri of ,laugerie ,basse1 ,dordogne1 a famous ,magdalenian station and burial site of the skeleton of ,laugerie ,basse4 ,this ancient rock shelter1 like that of ,cr-,magnon and many others1 shows at the present day a cluster of peasants' dwellings around its base4 ,photograph by ,belvs4 ,the so-called ,chancelade skeleton was found in the shelter of ,raymonden in #ahhh1 at a depth of #e feet1 and was also in a folded position1 resting directly on the rock and covered with several layers of artifacts of the later ,magdalenian culture2 the limbs were so tightly flexed as to prove that they had been enveloped in bandages4 ,this skeleton shows a well-arched skull1 a high1 wide forehead1 and a dolichocephalic head form1 but the limbs are comparatively small1 the height not exceeding #a4ej m41 or about #d feet #g inches2 the upper arm and thigh are short1 compact1 and clumsy1 and the femur is crooked with comparatively thick ends2 this skeleton is generally classed with the ,cr-,magnon race1 but ,klaatsch considers that it may belong to a distinct type4 ,we cannot disregard1 says ,breuil17#i7 the anatomical characters attributed by ,testut to the man of ,chancelade and its resemblances to the actual ,eskimo type2 this indication is in favor of a new element1 arriving perhaps from ,asiatic ,siberia1 but acquiring in western ,europe the artistic culture realized and conserved in certain districts by the ,aurignacian tribes and their derivatives4 ,all of the ,aurignacian1 ,solutrean1 and ,magdalenian races1 however1 recall very forcibly the race of ,cr-,magnon1 which tends to prove that these transformations in culture were not made without a notable element of human continuity4 ,,discoveries ,,of ,,magdalenian ,,age ,,chiefly ,,attributed ,,to ,,the ,,cr-,,magnon ,,race,,av ,date of ,discovery ,locality ,nature of ,remains ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ahfc4 ,bruniquel 7,tarn-et-,garonne1 ,skeletal fragments4 ,france74 ,burial4 #ahfd4 ,la ,madeleine 7,dordogne1 ,france74 ,skeletal fragments4 #ahfi4 ,laugerie ,basse ,i 7,dordogne1 ,skeletal fragments4 ,france74 #ahga4 ,gourdan 7,haute-,garonne1 ,france74 ,skeletal fragments4 #ahgb4 ,laugerie ,basse ,,ii 7,dordogne1 #a skeleton4 ,burial4 ,france74 #ahgb-ahgc4,sorde 7,duruthy7 7,landes1 ,france74#a skeleton4 ,burial4 #ahgd4 ,freudenthal 7near ,schaffhausen1 ,fragments of skulls ,switzerland74 and of pelvis4 #ahgd4 ,kesslerloch 7near ,thaingen1 ,switzerland74 ,collar-bone4 #ahhc4 ,le ,placard 7,charente1 ,france74 #h skulls1 chiefly fragmentary4 #ahhh4 ,chancelade 7,raymonden7 7,dordogne1#a skeleton1 almost ,france74 complete4 ,burial4 #ahid4 ,les ,hteaux 7,ain1 ,france74 #a skeleton1 almost complete4 ,burial4 #aiad4 ,obercassel 7near ,bonn1 ,germany74 #b skeletons1 male and female1 almost complete4 ,burial4 ,early ,magdalenian4 ,les ,eyzies 7,dordogne1 ,france74 ,skeletal fragments4 ,la ,mouthe 7,dordogne1 ,france74 #a tooth1 #a vertebra4 ,limeuil 7,dordogne1 ,france74 ,skull fragments4 ,grotte des ,hommes 7,yonne1 #c skulls and other ,france74 skeletal fragments4 ,brassempouy 7,landes1 ,france74 #b teeth4 ,grotte des ,fes 7,gironde1 ,fragments of upper ,france74 and lower jaw4 ,lussac 7,vienne1 ,france74 ,fragment of lower jaw4 ,mas d',azil 7,arige1 ,france74 #a skull top4 ,early ,magdalenian4 ,lourdes 7,hautes-,pyrnes1 ,skull fragments4 ,france74 ,castillo 7,santander1 ,spain74 ,skull fragment4 ,early ,magdalenian4 ,gudenushhle 7,austria74 #a infant's tooth4 ,andernach 7north of ,koblenz1 #b child's incisors and ,germany74 #g rib fragments4 ,another ,magdalenian burial is that at ,sorde1 ,landes1 in the grotto of ,duruthy2 this skeleton was discovered in #ahgb1 buried at a depth of #g feet1 the body being ornamented with a necklace and a girdle of the teeth of the lion and of the bear1 pierced and engraved4 ,seven skulls found in #ahhc in the grotto of ,placard1 ,charente1 also belong to the ,magdalenian4 ,the skeleton discovered in #ahid in the grotto of ,les ,hteaux1 ,ain1 was buried at a depth of #f feet beneath ,magdalenian implements2 the body1 resting on the back1 was covered with red ochre2 the thigh-bones were inverted1 indicating that the limbs had been dismembered before burial--a custom observed among certain savages4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #ahi4 ,human skull-tops cut into ceremonial or drinking bowls1 from the ,magdalenian layer of ,placard1 ,charente4 ,after ,breuil and ,obermaier4 ,these are the best preserved ,magdalenian remains which have been discovered in ,france up to the present time4 ,the matter of chief significance is the survival of modes of burial characteristic of the ,cr-,magnons in ,aurignacian times1 with the use of color and of ornaments and with the body in some instances folded and bandaged4 ,in the great grotto of ,placard1 near ,rochebertier1 ,charente1 a new feature in the mode of interment has been discovered--the separation of the head from the body4,,aw ,the previous ceremonial burials1 which began certainly among the ,neanderthals in ,mousterian times1 always show the custom of burying the entire body2 in the ,upper ,palolithic there commences the new custom of imbedding the body in ochre or red coloring matter1 and this obtains from the ,aurignacian burials of ,grimaldi to the ,azilian burial of ,mas d',azil4 ,the flexing of the limbs is probably also an ,upper ,palolithic custom4 ,it would appear as if the new ceremonial of ,placard had been introduced in the earliest ,magdalenian times1 for in the lowest ,magdalenian layers four skulls were found closely crowded together1 with the top of the cranium turned downward2 of other portions of the skeleton only a humerus and a femur were found4 ,in an upper layer of the same industrial stage a woman's skull and jaw were found1 surrounded by snail shells1 many of them perforated4 ,still more singular is the occurrence in ,magdalenian strata of this grotto of two separate skull-tops1 fashioned by some sharp flint implement into bowls 7,fig4 #ahi74 ,again1 at ,arcy-sur-,cure three skulls have been discovered placed closely together1 and with them a flint knife in a layer superposed upon an ,aurignacian industry4 ,the ,placard type of burial of the head only is shown again in the ,azilian stage at ,ofnet1 ,bavaria4 ,the uncertainty regarding the racial affinity of the men of ,magdalenian culture has now been entirely removed by the discovery1 in ,february1 #aiad1 of two skeletons at ,obercassel1 near ,bonn1 the first instance of complete human skeletons of ,quaternary age being found in ,germany47#ab7 ,as reported by ,verworn17#ac7 the skeletons lay little more than a yard apart2 they were covered by great slabs of basalt1 and lay in a deposit of loam deeply tinged with red4 ,this red coloring matter1 which extended completely over the skeletons and surrounding stones1 indicates that it was a ceremonial burial similar to that practised by the ,aurignacian ,cr-,magnons4 ,along with the skeletons were found bones of animals and several specimens of finely carved bone1 but no flint implements of any kind4 ,the bone implements include a finely polished 'lissoir' of beautiful workmanship1 placed beneath the head of one of the skeletons2 the handle is carved into a small head of some animal resembling a marten2 the sides show the notched decoration so typical of the ,french ,magdalenian4 ,the second specimen of carved bone is one of the small1 flat1 narrow horse-heads1 engraved on both sides1 such as are found at ,laugerie ,basse and in the ,pyrenees4 ,one of the skeletons is of a woman about twenty years of age1 and1 as is usual in young female skeletons1 it exhibits the racial characters in a much less marked degree than the male skeleton1 which belongs to a man of between forty and fifty years2 the cephalic index is #gj per cent2 the supraorbital ridges are well developed1 and the orbits are distinctly rectangular2 the limb bones indicate a body about #aee cm41 or #e feet #a inch1 in height4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aij4 ,the skulls of two skeletons of the ,cr-,magnon race1 one male 7right7 the other female 7left71 recently discovered at ,obercassel near ,bonn1 associated with ,magdalenian implements4 ,after ,bonnet4 ,in contrast to this more refined skull1 the extremely broad and low face of the man is entirely disproportionate to the moderately broad forehead and well rounded skullcap2 the breadth of the face is #aec mm4 and exceeds the greatest width of the skull1 which is only #add mm4 ,this is a markedly disharmonic type1 the width of the face being due not only to the broad upper jaw but to the exceptional size and breadth of the cheek-bones4 ,the skull is decidedly dolichocephalic1 the cephalic index being #gd per cent2 the brain capacity is about #a1ejj c4cm42 the orbits are rectangular1 and above them extends an unbroken supraorbital ridge1 with a slight median frontal eminence2 the nasal opening is relatively small2 the lower jaw has a strongly marked chin2 the crowns of the teeth have been worn down until the enamel has almost disappeared4 ,while the muscular attachments indicate great bodily strength1 the height does not exceed #e feet #c inches4 ,as pronounced ,cr-,magnon features1 both of the ,obercassel skulls show an unusually wide face2 in both the profiles are straight and the root of the nose depressed1 the nose is narrow1 and the orbits are rectangular4 ,but1 observes ,bonnet1 the greatest width of these skulls is not found across the parietals1 as in the typical ,cr-,magnons1 but just above the ear region1 a much lower position2 in this respect the ,obercassel skulls resemble the skull of the ,chancelade skeleton4 ,this very important discovery of two undoubted descendants of the ,cr-,magnon race associated with bone implements of lower ,magdalenian workmanship appears to prove conclusively that the ,cr-,magnons were the art-loving race4 ,the ,obercassel skeletons confirm the evidence afforded by the burials in ,france that these people were of low stature2 perhaps because of the severe climatic conditions of ,magdalenian times they had lost the splendid physical proportions of the ,cr-,magnons living along the ,riviera in ,aurignacian times4 ,the skull also1 while retaining all the pronounced ,cr-,magnon characters1 had undergone a modification in the point of greatest width4 ,in the reduction of the stature of the woman to #e feet #a inch and of the man to #e feet #c inches1 and in the reduction of the brain capacity to #a1ejj c4cm41 we may be witnessing the result of exposure to very severe climatic conditions in a race which retained its fine physical and mental characteristics only under the more genial climatic conditions of the south4 ,,the ,,four ,,industrial ,,phases ,,of ,,magdalenian ,,culture ,the industrial development belongs throughout to central and western ,europe rather than to the ,mediterranean4 ,it is remarkable that it does not extend along the ,african coast1 or even into ,italy or southern ,spain4 ,it has been found to present four great steps or phases as follows3 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aia4 ,the great abri1 or rock shelter1 of ,la ,madeleine1 type station of the ,magdalenian industry4 ,ruins of the abbey beyond4 ,photograph by ,belvs4 ,the earliest types7#ad7 of the incipient ,magdalenian culture1 or ,,proto-,,magdalenian1 are nowhere better represented than under the great shelter of ,placard1 in ,charente1 where the deep successive deposits compel a realization of the long period of time required for the evolution of the ,magdalenian with its wonderful artistic culmination4 ,even prior to any discovery of the harpoon or of any example of the art of engraving comparable to the classic series of higher levels we find three levels of incipient ,magdalenian industry at ,placard4 ,similar local horizons1 recognizable from the type of their javelin points 7sagaies7 and from their decorative motifs1 are also found at ,kesslerloch1 ,switzerland1 and as far east as ,poland4 ,from ,dordogne they extend into the ,pyrenees and into the ,cantabrian ,mountains of northern ,spain1 but not farther south4 ,there is thus a very primitive ,magdalenian industry wide-spread over central and western ,europe1 either autochthonous or influenced from the east1 but certainly not from the ,mediterranean4 ,it is only above these primitive horizons that layers are discovered with the rudimentary harpoons1 and then with the perfected harpoons with single and double rows of barbs4 ,it would appear as if the basins drained by the ,dordogne and the ,garonne were at once the most densely populated and also the centres from which industry1 culture1 and art spread to the east and to the west4 ,in the heart of the ,dordogne region is the great rock shelter of ,la ,madeleine1 the type station of ,magdalenian culture1 and around it are no less than fifteen stations4 ,this station1 in which the lowest industrial layer 7niveau infrieur7 is subsequent to the ,proto-,magdalenian phase and belongs to the early ,magdalenian1 was extensively excavated by ,lartet and ,christy7#ae7 during the decade following its discovery1 in #ahfe1 and more recently by ,peyrony and others4 ,the industrial deposit is situated at the base of an overhanging limestone escarpment on the right bank of the ,vzre ,river2 it extends for a distance of #ej feet with an average thickness of #i feet1 the lowest or early ,magdalenian levels reaching down below the present level of the ,vzre4 ,it is a significant fact that the river floods which from time to time occur here also occasionally drove out the flint workers in ,magdalenian times4 ,it indicates an unchanged topography and similar conditions of rainfall4 ,we must picture this cliff fringed with a northern flora1 these river banks as the haunt of bison and reindeer1 and the site of a long1 narrow camp of skin-covered shelters4 ,among the numerous specimens of typical ,magdalenian industry and art which have been found here may be mentioned a geode of quartzite1 apparently used to contain water1 and stone crucibles1 usually of rounded form1 adapted to the grinding up of mineral colors for tattooing or artistic purposes2 one of these crucibles1 showing traces of color1 still remains4 ,the finest among the art objects is the spirited engraving1 on a section of ivory tusk1 of the woolly mammoth charging2 this is one of the most realistic pieces of ,palolithic engraving which has ever been found2 there are indications that the artist used this relatively small piece of ivory for the representation of three mammoths2 but in the reproduction 7,fig4 #aii7 all the lines are eliminated except those belonging to the single charging mammoth2 we observe especially the elevation of the head and the tail1 also the remarkably lifelike action of the limbs and body4 ,very numerous industrial levels are discovered in eight or ten overlying hearths1 which are1 however1 divided into three main levels1 as follows3 ,niveau suprieur 7late ,magdalenian culture74 ,harpoons with a double row of barbs4 ,indications that the climate was colder and drier1 resembling that of the steppes4 ,bison1 horses1 and reindeer abundant4 ,niveau moyen 7middle ,magdalenian culture74 ,harpoons with barbs on one side only2 also btons de commandement4 ,indications that the climate was more moist1 with frequent inundations from the river4 ,bison1 reindeer1 and horses less abundant4 ,niveau infrieur 7early ,magdalenian culture74 ,harpoons with a single row of barbs4 ,indications of animal sculpture4 ,remains of bison and of reindeer1 but those of horses especially numerous4 ,in the ,,early ,,magdalenian we note the invention of the harpoon2 its first crude form is that of a short1 straight point of bone1 deeply grooved on one face1 the ridges and notches along one edge being the only indications of what later develop into the recurved barbed points of the typical harpoon4 ,as noted above1 this invention was destined to exert a very strong influence on the habits of these people4 ,large fish undoubtedly were very abundant in all the rivers at that time1 and this new means of obtaining an abundant food supply probably diverted the ,cr-,magnons in part from the more ardent and dangerous pursuit of the larger kinds of game4 ,the discovery soon spread1 and among a number of localities where prototypes of the harpoon are found may be mentioned ,placard1 in ,charente2 ,laugerie ,basse1 in ,dordogne2 ,mas d',azil1 on the ,arize2 and ,altamira1 in northern ,spain4 ,in the early ,magdalenian also a great variety of flint drills or borers are developed in connection with the fashioning of bone1 including the 'parrot-beak' type1 or recurved flint4 ,the microlithic flints1 exclusively designed for fine and delicate artistic work1 are more abundant than in any previous stage1 and were used to shape and finish the bone implements which chiefly distinguish the ,magdalenian culture4 ,other implements which enable us to recognize the early ,magdalenian culture layers are javelin points of bone or reindeer-horn with oblique bases1 small staves of reindeer-horn or ivory1 oval plates of bone frequently decorated with engraved designs1 and slender1 finely finished needles4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aib4 ,industrial and art implements of ,magdalenian times1 chiefly elongate flakes retouched at one or at both ends for various uses4 ,after de ,mortillet4 #afj4 ,long1 narrow flint blade from the type station of ,la ,madeleine4 #afa4 ,a similar implement from the grotto of ,mursens1 ,lot4 #afb4 ,a 'knife' flake from ,laugerie ,basse1 ,dordogne4 #afc4 ,a flint blade1 very characteristic of the period1 from ,la ,madeleine4 #afd4 ,a minute flake with cutting border and short1 curved point4 #afe4 ,an elongate flake shaped into a grattoir1 or planing tool1 at one end1 from ,la ,madeleine4 #aff4 ,an elongate1 pointed graving-tool1 retouched at the end and at one side4 #afg4 ,a pointed tool of chalcedony4 #afh4 ,a minute pointed flake4 #afi4 ,a 'parrot-beak' graving-tool of flint4 #agj4 ,a straight flint graver1 from ,les ,eyzies1 ,dordogne4 #aga4 ,a similar graver1 from ,laugerie ,basse4 #agb4 ,a similar graver1 from ,la ,madeleine4 #agc4 ,flint graver with base retouched1 from the ,gorge d',enfer4 #agd4 ,a double-ended implement1 burin and grattoir1 from ,laugerie ,basse4 #age4 ,flint burin1 or graver1 approaching the 'parrot-beak' type of #afi1 from ,les ,eyzies4 #agf4 ,double burin1 or graver1 of flint1 from the ,grotte du ,chaffaud1 ,vienne4 ,all figures are one-third actual size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aic4 ,typical forms of ,magdalenian bone harpoons4 ,after ,breuil4 7,a7 #a to #i1 single-rowed harpoons1 characteristic of the early and middle ,magdalenian2 #a1 #d1 #h1 from ,bruniquel2 #b1 #e1 from ,laugerie ,basse2 #f1 from ,mas d',azil2 #g1 from ,la ,mairie2 #c and #i1 from ,valle and ,castillo4 ,about one-quarter actual size4 7,b7 #aj to #ae1 double-rowed harpoons1 characteristic of the late ,magdalenian2 #aj1 #ab1 from ,bruniquel2 #aa1 from ,massat2 #ac1 from ,mouthier2 #ad1 from ,la ,madeleine2 #ae1 from ,kesslerloch1 ,switzerland4 ,about one-third actual size4 ,the ,,middle ,,magdalenian implements were more widely distributed than the early types1 the most characteristic weapon being the harpoon with a well-defined single row of barbs 7,breuil17#af7 ,schmidt7#ag774 ,according to ,breuil1 this single-rowed harpoon is rare in the lower layers but abundant in the upper layers of middle ,magdalenian times2 with it occur examples of the single-rowed harpoon with swallow-tail base4 ,other implements of this stage are the bone javelin points with cleft base1 small bone staves richly decorated1 also numerous needles1 finer and more slender than those of the early ,magdalenian4 ,it is very interesting to note that there are no distinctive inventions in the flint industry1 which shows no important advances1 although microlithic flints are still more abundant than before4 ,for industrial purposes scrapers continue to be very abundant1 as well as borers for the perforation of bone implements4 ,the middle ,magdalenian industry is best represented in the deposits of central and southern ,france1 at ,raymonden1 ,bruniquel1 ,laugerie ,basse1 ,gourdan1 ,mas d',azil1 and ,teyjat4 ,the chief weapon of ,,late ,,magdalenian times is the harpoon with the double row of barbs1 which is found at all the principal discovery sites extending from stations in southwestern and southern ,france far to the east4 ,besides the double-rowed harpoon1 the cylindrical chisel of reindeer-horn frequently occurs1 often pointed at the end and with a small curve at the side2 this1 like other bone implements1 was richly decorated with engraving4 ,this late ,magdalenian level is distinguished everywhere by the rich decoration of all the bone implements and weapons1 as well as of the 'btons de commandement4' ,the quantity of bone needles1 more numerous in this stage than ever before1 attests the greater refinement of finish in the preparation of clothing4 ,this was the culminating point both in ,magdalenian industry and art1 and probably also in the morale and modes of living4 ,characteristic types of this late ,magdalenian culture are found at ,la ,madeleine1 ,les ,eyzies1 and ,teyjat1 and extend into the northern ,pyrenees1 at ,lourdes1 ,gourdan1 and ,mas d',azil4 ,their easterly geographical distribution will be described on a later page4 ,the microlithic flints now reach their culminating point2 to the small bladed flakes with blunted backs are added little feather-shaped flint blades1 and still others with oblique ends1 which begin to suggest the geometric forms of the succeeding ,tardenoisian industry4 ,among the flint borers we notice a prevalent type with a stout central point1 also the so-called 'parrot-beak' borer2 for the preparation of skins1 scrapers are made1 as before1 of thin flakes1 slightly retouched at both ends to give a rounded or rectangular form4 ,following the late or high ,magdalenian stage is a period of decline in industry4 ,in southern ,france7#ah7 both flint and bone implements show unmistakable indications of the approach either of the succeeding ,tardenoisian or ,azilian stage4 ,in the ,pyrenees both the flints and the great polishers of deer-horn begin to resemble those which occur in the post-,magdalenian levels4 ,this industrial stage corresponds broadly with the period of decline in art1 and with the change both in the industrial habits and in the artistic spirit of the ,cr-,magnons4 ,the divisions of the ,magdalenian are1 therefore1 as follows3 #e4 ,decline of the ,magdalenian art and industry4 #d4 ,late ,magdalenian typified at ,la ,madeleine1 ,dordogne4 #c4 ,middle ,magdalenian typified at ,la ,madeleine1 ,dordogne4 #b4 ,early ,magdalenian typified at ,la ,madeleine1 ,dordogne4 #a4 ,proto-,magdalenian typified at ,placard1 ,charente4 ,,flint ,,and ,,bone ,,industry ,through the four successive stages of development which we have already traced 7p4 #chb7 there are perceived certain general tendencies and characteristics which clearly separate the ,magdalenian from the preceding ,solutrean culture4 ,compared with ,solutrean times1 when the art of flint working reached its high-water mark1 the ,magdalenian paloliths show a marked degeneracy in technique1 having neither the symmetry of form nor the finely chipped surfaces which distinguish the ,solutrean types2 indeed1 they do not even equal the grooved marginal retouch of the best ,aurignacian work4 ,the ,magdalenian retouch shows no influence of the ,solutrean2 it is even more blunt and marginal than the late ,aurignacian4 ,in compensation for this decadence in the art of retouch1 the ,cr-,magnons now show extraordinary skill in producing long1 narrow1 thin flakes of flint1 struck off the nucleus with a single blow2 these 'blades1' which are very numerous1 are often not retouched at all2 occasionally a few hasty touches are used to attain a rounded or oblique end2 in other cases a very limited marginal chipping along the sides or the development of an elongated pedicle 7soie7 produces very effective implements for graving and sculptural work4 ,for the art of engraving perfect burins1 burin-grattoirs1 and burins doubles were rapidly made from these thin flakes2 also burins with oblique terminal edge and with the 'parrot-beak' end4 ,for industrial purposes some of the flints were denticulated around the border1 doubtless for the preparation of fibres and of thin strips of leather for the attachment of clothing to the body and for binding of the flint and bone lance-heads to wooden shafts4 ,extremely fine peroirs have been found adapted to perforating the bone needles2 the grattoir1 single or double1 was also fashioned out of these flakes1 and the nucleus of the flint was used as a hammer4 ,hammers of simple rounded stones are also found4 ,but the notable feature of ,magdalenian industry is the extensive and unprecedented use of bone1 horn1 and ivory4 ,from the antlers of the reindeer are early developed the sagaies or javelin points of varying size1 usually ornamented along the sides and with several forms of attachment to the wooden shaft1 either forked1 bevelled1 or rounded4 ,the ornamentation consists of engraved elongate lines or beaded lines1 and of deep grooves perhaps intended for the insertion of poisonous fluids or the outlet of blood4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aid4 ,types of the flint blade with denticulated edge1 a characteristic industrial tool of ,magdalenian times1 from ,bruniquel1 ,les ,eyzies1 and ,laugerie ,basse4 ,after ,dchelette1 by permission of ,m4 ,a4 ,picard1 ,librairie ,alphonse ,picard et ,fils4 ,of all the ,magdalenian weapons the most characteristic is the harpoon1 the chief fishing implement1 which now appears for the first time marked by the invention of the barb or point retroverted in such a manner as to hold its place in the flesh4 ,the barb does not suddenly appear like an inventive mutation1 but it very slowly evolves as its usefulness is demonstrated in practice4 ,the shaft is very rarely perforated at the base for the attachment of a line2 it is cylindrical in form1 adapted to the capture of the large fish of the streams4 ,that a barbed weapon was also used in the chase seems to be indicated by drawings in the grotto of ,niaux and lines engraved on the teeth of the bear1 but these drawings indicate the form of an arrow rather than of a harpoon4 ,the length varies from two to fifteen inches4 ,the harpoons may have been projected by means of the so-called propulseurs or dart-throwers1 which resemble implements so employed by the ,eskimo and ,australians of to-day4 ,these dart-throwers are often beautifully carved1 as in the case of one found at ,mas d',azil1 ornamented with a fine relief of the ibex4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aie4 ,bone needles from the grotto of ,lacave1 ,lot4 ,after ,vir4 ,then there were btons de commandement1 carved with scenes of the chase and with spirited heads of the horse and other animals1 which quite probably were insignia of office4 ,reinach has suggested that btons were trophies of the chase1 and according to ,schoetensack they may have been used as ornaments to fasten the clothing4 ,the discovery of mural painting and engraving suggests the possibility that these btons were believed to have some magical influence1 and were connected with mysterious rites in the caverns1 for a great variety of such ceremonial staffs is found among primitive peoples4 ,geographically1 the btons spread from the ,pyrenees into ,belgium and eastward into ,moravia and ,russia4 ,slender bone needles brought to a fine point on stone polishers indicate great care in the preparation of clothing4 ,associated with the borers are many other bone implements3 awls1 hammers1 chisels1 stilettos1 pins with and without a head1 spatulas1 and polishers2 the latter may have been employed in the preparation of leather4 ,the borers1 pins1 and polishers appear from the very beginning of the period of sculpture4 ,the name of poniard 7poignard7 is given to long points of reindeer-horn2 one of these was found at ,laugerie ,basse4 ,,history ,,of ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,art ,following the pioneer studies of ,lartet1 the history of the art of the ,reindeer ,period1 as manifested in bone1 ivory1 and the engraved and sculptured horns of the deer1 occupied the last thirty-five years of the life of ,edouard ,piette17#ai7 a magistrate of ,craonne who pursued this delightful subject as an avocation4 ,he was a pioneer in the interpretation of l'art mobilier1 the mobile art4 ,it must be remembered that in ,piette's time the fourfold divisions of ,upper ,palolithic culture so familiar to us were only partly perceived2 his studies1 in fact1 related chiefly to the mobile art of ,magdalenian times1 and he undertook to follow its modifications in every successive grotto1 beginning with his brochure ,la ,grotte de ,gourdan1 in #ahgc1 in which he first announced the idea which underlay all his later conclusions1 that sculpture preceded line engraving and etching4 ,he divided the art into a series of phases2 that of the red deer 7,cervus elaphus7 he termed ,elaphienne1 that of the reindeer ,tarandienne1 that of the horse ,hippiquienne1 and that of the wild cattle ,bovidienne4 ,in concluding this early work of #ahgc1 he remarked3 ,to write the history of ,magdalenian art is to give the history of primitive art itself4 ,he observed that in sculpturing the horn of the reindeer the artist was obliged to work in the hard exterior bone and to avoid the spongy interior2 this defect in material suggested the invention of the bas-relief4 ,the statuette he regarded as the assemblage of two bas-reliefs1 one on either side of the bone4 ,thus he described the ivory head of the woman of ,brassempouy1 the only human face of ,upper ,palolithic times which is even fairly well represented2 also the two imperfect feminine torsos in ivory4 ,in #ahig1 at the age of seventy1 ,piette undertook his last excavations1 and the sum of his labors is preserved for us in the magnificent volume entitled l',art pendant l'ge du ,renne1 published in #aijg4 ,the pupil and biographer of ,piette1 l',abb ,henri ,breuil1 observes that his scheme of art evolution is exact along its main lines47#bj7 ,it is true that human sculpture appears for the first time in the lower ,aurignacian1 that it survives the ,solutrean1 and even extends into middle ,magdalenian times1 but this enormous period cannot be placed in one archological division as ,piette supposed2 in truth1 he did not suspect the prolonged gestation of ,quaternary art1 but contracted into one small division the documents of numerous phases4 ,at the same time1 ,piette was right in attributing the flower of the art of engraving accompanied by contours of animal forms in relief to the second and third levels of the ,magdalenian industry1 but he had no idea that this development had been preceded by a long period in which engraving had been practised in a timid and more or less sporadic manner as a parietal art on the walls of the caverns as well as on bone and stone4 ,it is also true that a considerable facility in sculpture preceded the art of engraving1 but it was arrested in its progress while engraving slowly developed2 in the early choice of subjects the sculptors of middle and late ,aurignacian times showed a preference for the human form1 while later1 in ,solutrean and early ,magdalenian times1 they inclined principally toward animal figures1 so that sculpture was not suddenly eclipsed4 ,the first engravings made with fine points of flint on stone are hardly less ancient than the first sculptures1 and modestly co-exist beside them up to the moment where engraving1 greatly multiplied1 largely supplants sculpture4 ,finally1 observes ,breuil1 it is one of the glories of ,edouard ,piette to have understood that the painted pebbles of ,mas d',azil represented the last prolongation of the dying ,quaternary art4 ,it is fortunate that the mantle of ,piette fell upon a man of the artistic genius and appreciation of ,breuil1 to whom chiefly we owe our clear understanding of the chronological development of ,upper ,palolithic art4 ,in the accompanying table 7p4 #cie7 are assembled the results of the observations of ,piette1 ,sautuola1 ,rivire1 ,cartailhac1 ,capitan1 ,breuil1 and many others1 largely in the order of sequence determined through the labors of ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aif4 ,geographic distribution of the more important ,palolithic art stations of ,dordogne1 the ,pyrenees1 and the ,cantabrian ,mountains4 ,after ,breuil and ,obermaier4 ,we are far from #ahhj1 observes ,cartailhac17#ba7 when the discovery by ,sautuola of the paintings on the roof of the cavern of ,altamira was met with such scepticism and indifference4 ,knowing the artistic instincts of the ,upper ,palolithic people from their engraving and carving in bone and ivory1 we should have been prepared for the discovery of a parietal art4 ,the publication of the engravings in the grotto of ,la ,mouthe by ,rivire7#bb7 in ,april1 #ahie1 was the first warning of our oversight1 and immediately ,edouard ,piette recalled ,altamira to the memory of the workers on prehistoric art4 ,the discovery of ,sautuola ceased to be isolated4 ,led by the engravings found in ,la ,mouthe1 ,daleau discovered the engravings in the grotto of ,pair-non-,pair1 ,gironde4 ,in #aijb there was the double discovery of the engravings in the grotto of ,combarelles1 and of the paintings in the grotto of ,font-de-,gaume1 communicated by ,capitan and ,breuil4 ,discoveries at ,marsoulas1 ,mas d',azil1 ,la ,grze1 ,bernifal1 and ,teyjat soon followed4,,ax ,,stages ,,in ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,art ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,sculpture ,incised ,figures ,painted ,figures ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,azilian4 ,,vi4 ,no animal ,,vi4 ,conventional drawings4 ,azilian decoration4 ,flat pebbles 7galets7 colored in red and black4 ,mas d',azil1 ,marsoulas1 ,pindal4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,late ,v4 ,entirely ,v4 ,no animal art4 ,,magdalenian4 wanting4 ,various schematic and conventional figures and signs 7bands1 branches1 lines1 punctuated surfaces suggesting the ,azilian galets74 ,,middle ,slender human ,,iv4 ,graffites ,,iv4 ,polychrome ,,magdalenian4figurines in ivoryfeebly traced2 animal figures with and bone4 fine lines the contour in ,animal forms in indicating hair black and interior reindeer and stag predominate in modelling obtained horn on implementsthe drawings1 as through a mingling of the chase and at ,font-de-,gaume of yellow1 red and ceremonial and ,marsoulas4 black color4 insignia4 ,perfected animal ,constant outlines and association of details4 raclage and of ,fine animal incisions with outlines1 ,grotte painting4 ,mains de la ,mairie1 stylises4 ,great1 ,marsoulas4 brilliant ,perfected polychrome frescoes engraving on boneof ,marsoulas1 and ivory4 ,font-de-,gaume1 ,altamira4 ,animal outlines in black1 ,niaux4 ,,early ,animal sculpture4 ,,iii4 ,deeply ,,iii4 ,figures of a ,,magdalenian4,bisons of ,tuc incised lines flat tint and d',audoubert2 high followed by light,chinese shading reliefs of horses1graffite contour without modelling1 ,cap-,blanc4 lines4 ,incised also dotted animal outlines and figures as at hair1 e4 g4 ,font-de-,gaume1 mammoths of ,marsoulas1 ,combarelles4 ,altamira1 ,pasiega4 ,striated drawings1 ,castillo1 ,altamira1 ,pasiega4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,soultrean4 ,bone sculpture in ,engravings4 high relief2 ,isturitz1 ,pyrenees4 ,animal sculpture in the round1 ,pedmost4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,,late ,heavy human ,,ii4 ,animal and ,,ii4 ,filling in ,,aurignacian4statuettes 7idols7human figures1 atlines at first of ,mentone1 first very deeplyfeeble1 then more ,brassempouy1 incised1 then and more strong1 ,willendorf1 ,brnn4less so2 four finally associated ,human bas-reliefs limbs generally with contour of ,laussel4 ,heavy figured4 ,designs modelling which human figurines ofvigorous1 ultimately covers ,sireuil1 somewhat awkward1the entire ,pair-non-,pair4 as at ,la ,mouthe1 silhouette4 ,incised then more lines associated characteristic1 with painting as at as at ,combarelles1 ,combarelles4 ,font-de-,gaume1 ,la ,mouthe1 ,marsoulas1 ,altamira4 ,,early ,animals in low ,i4 ,figures ,i4 ,linear tracings ,,aurignacian4relief4 deeply incised1 in monochrome1 heavy1 in single black or red absolute profile2lines1 indicating stiff in form as only a silhouette4 at ,pair-non-,pair1,two limbs out of ,la ,grze1 ,la four are ordinarily ,mouthe1 ,gargas1 figured4 ,the most ,bernifal1 ,hornos ancient paintings de la ,pea1 of ,castillo1 ,marsoulas1 ,altamira1 ,pindal1 ,altamira4 ,font-de-,gaume1 ,archaic animal ,marsoulas1 ,la outlines of ,mouthe1 ,castillo4 ,combarelles1 ,bernifal4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------------- ,statuary and ,mobile and ,parietal and bas-relief4 parietal art in mobile art in line4 color4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------------- ,in #aijh ,dchelette listed eight caverns in ,dordogne1 six in the ,pyrenees1 and seven along the ,cantabrian ,pyrenees of northern ,spain1 but there are now upward of thirty caverns in which traces of parietal art have been found1 and doubtless the number will be greatly enlarged by future exploration1 because the entrances of many of the grottos have been closed1 and the remote recesses in which drawings are placed1 as in the recent discovery of ,tuc d',audoubert1 are very difficult to explore4 ,the chief divisions of ,upper ,palolithic art are as follows3 #a4 ,drawing1 engraving1 and etching with fine flint points on surfaces of stone1 bone1 ivory1 and the limestone walls of the caverns4 #b4 ,sculpture in low or high relief1 chiefly in stone1 bone1 and clay4 #c4 ,sculpture in the round in stone1 ivory1 reindeer and stag horn4 #d4 ,painting in line1 in monochrome tone1 and in polychromes of three or four colors1 usually accompanied or preceded by line engraving1 with flint points or low contour reliefs4 #e4 ,conventional ornaments drawn from the repetition of animal or plant forms or the repetition of geometric lines4 ,,drawings ,,and ,,engravings ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,magdalenian ,we have already traced the art of engraving1 as it first appears in late ,aurignacian times1 into the ,solutrean2 in the latter it is but feebly represented4 ,its further development in early ,magdalenian times is found in the engravings made with more delicate or more sharply pointed flint implements1 capable of drawing an excessively fine line2 these were doubtless the early ,magdalenian microliths4 ,the animal outlines1 with an indication of hair1 are frequently sketched with such exceedingly fine lines as to resemble etchings2 the figures are often of very small dimensions and marked by much closer attention to details1 such as the eyes1 the ears1 the hair both of the head and the mane1 and the hoofs2 the proportions are also much more exact1 so that these engravings become very realistic4 ,breuil ascribes to the early ,magdalenian the engraved mammoth tracings of ,combarelles4 ,engravings of this period are also found in the grottos of ,altamira in ,spain1 and of ,font-de-,gaume in ,dordogne1 and to this stage belongs the group of does at ,altamira1 distinguished by the peculiar lines of the hair covering the face4 ,the subjects chosen are chiefly the red deer1 reindeer1 mammoth1 horse1 chamois1 and bison4 ,the striated drawings of ,castillo and ,altamira1 which partly represent hair and are partly indications of shading1 belong to this period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aig4 ,primitive outline engravings of woolly mammoths of ,aurignacian or early ,magdalenian times1 from the walls of the cavern of ,combarelles4 ,after ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aih4 ,engraved outlines and hair underlying the painting of one of the mammoths1 from the wall of the ,galerie des ,fresques1 ,font-de-,gaume4 ,after ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #aii4 ,charging mammoth engraved on a piece of ivory tusk1 from the station of ,la ,madeleine4 ,after ,e4 ,lartet4 ,for the sake of showing this figure clearly1 other outlines in this drawing1 which were probably designed to indicate a herd of charging mammoths1 are omitted or represented by dotted lines4 ,this classic engraving1 described on pages #chd and #che1 is one of the most lifelike ,palolithic representations known of an animal in action4 ,the engravings in the grotto of ,la ,mouthe were discovered by ,rivire1 in #ahie1 and were the means of directing attention afresh to the long-forgotten parietal art found in ,altamira by ,sautuola in #ahhj4 ,the drawings at ,la ,mouthe begin about #bgj feet from the entrance and may be traced for a distance of #ajj feet1 scattered in various groups2 they manifestly belong to a very primitive stage1 probably early ,magdalenian1 the point of chief interest being that1 while the greater part of the engravings are in simple incised lines1 here and there the contour is enforced by a line of red or black paint2 this is the beginning of a method pursued throughout the ,magdalenian parietal art1 in which the artist carefully sketches his contours with sharp-pointed flints before he applies any color4 ,this treatment1 at first limited to the simple outlines1 led to tracing in many of the details with engraved lines1 the eyes1 the ears1 the hair2 thus ,breuil has shown that in its final development a carefully worked-out engraving underlies the painting4 ,in the ,la ,mouthe drawings the proportions are very bad2 they represent the reindeer1 bison1 mammoth1 horse1 ibex1 and urus2 spots of red are sometimes splashed on the sides of the animals2 here and there is a bit of superior work1 such as the reindeer in motion4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjj4 ,engraved outlines believed to represent human grotesques or masked figures found on the cavern walls of ,marsoulas1 ,altamira1 and ,combarelles4 ,after ,obermaier4 ,the cavern of ,combarelles1 discovered in #aija1 in ,dordogne1 near ,les ,eyzies1 contains by far the most remarkable record of early ,magdalenian art2 there are upward of four hundred drawings and engravings representing almost every animal of early ,magdalenian times1 among them the horse1 rhinoceros1 mammoth1 reindeer1 bison1 stag1 ibex1 lion1 and wolf2 there are also between five and six representations of the men of the time1 both masked and unmasked2 the style is more recent than that of the oldest drawings in ,font-de-,gaume1 but much more ancient than the period of polychrome art4,,ay ,the gallery is #gbj feet long1 and barely #f feet broad2 the drawings begin about #cej feet from the entrance1 and are scattered at irregular intervals to the very end4 ,in general the art is very fine and evidently largely the work of one artist2 representations of the woolly rhinoceros and of the mammoth are very true to life2 there is a pair of splendid lions1 male and female2 the drawings of the horse are abundant1 and side by side we have a representation of several types of horses1 the pure forest type with the arched forehead1 the small1 fine-headed ,celtic type1 and a larger type reminding us of the kiang1 or wild ass4 ,here the greater part of the work is engraving1 as contrasted with the painted outlines in the cavern of ,niaux and with the etched outlines of the ,grotte de la ,mairie4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bja4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,combarelles near ,les ,eyzies1 ,dordogne1 where upward of four hundred wall engravings have been discovered4 ,photograph by ,belvs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjb4 ,cave-bear engraved in outline1 from the cavern of ,combarelles4 ,after ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjc4 ,stone lamp of ,magdalenian age discovered in the grotto of ,la ,mouthe by ,e4 ,rivire4 ,it is cut in sandstone and ornamented on the lower surface with the head and horns of the ibex4 ,such lamps were doubtless used by the artists to light the deep recesses of the caverns4 ,after ,rivire1 redrawn by ,erwin ,s4 ,christman4 ,one-third actual size4 7,compare ,pl4 ,,vii47 ,even a large cavern like ,combarelles offers comparatively few surfaces favorable to these engraved lines2 but1 small or large1 such surfaces were eagerly sought1 sometimes near the floor1 sometimes on the walls1 and again on the ceilings2 even with the brilliant light of an acetylene lamp it is now difficult to discover all these outlines1 some of which are drawn in the most unlooked-for places4 ,if the extremely fine incisions1 such as those representing the hair of the mammoth1 are so difficult to detect with a powerful illuminant1 one may imagine the task of the ,cr-,magnon artists with their small stone lamps and wick fed by the melting grease4 ,one such lamp has been found in the grotto of ,la ,mouthe1 about #ej feet from the entrance2 the workman's pick broke it into four pieces1 only three of which were recovered4 ,the shallow bowl contained some carbonized matter1 an analysis of which led ,berthelot1 the chemist1 to conclude that an animal fat was used for lighting purposes4 ,like most other implements1 this lamp is decorated--in this instance by an engraving of the head and horns of the ibex4 ,three of these lamps have been found in ,charente and ,lot1 and it is noteworthy that lamps similar to those of the ,magdalenian period are used in ,dordogne at the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjd4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,la ,pasiega1 not far from ,castillo4 ,the seated figure with the staff is ,m4 l',abb ,henri ,breuil1 the present leader in the study of ,upper ,palolithic art4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,in the great cavern of ,castillo1,,az at ,puente-,viesgo1 discovered in #aijc by ,alcalde del ,rio1 which is entered by the majestic grotto already described on p4 #afb1 the animal drawings are mostly of an archaic character1 belonging to the very beginnings of early ,aurignacian parietal art4 ,the most abundant subjects are horses and deer1 which entirely replace the reindeer drawings so abundant in central ,france1 outlines of the stag and of the doe being very numerous2 on the other hand1 the bison and the ox are rarely drawn4 ,belonging to the category of most primitive painting are the simple outlines in black of a horse and of a mammoth1 the two limbs of one side being represented as inverted triangles1 terminating in a sharp point1 like the drawings of children4 ,of more recent style are the rather crude polychrome bisons1 numerous hands outlined in red1 and a vast number of tectiform signs and symbols which represent inferior work of the middle ,magdalenian period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bje4 ,carefully engraved half-figure of a bison1 from the cavern of ,marsoulas2 an example of the engraver's work preceding the application of color4 ,after ,breuil4 ,one-eighth actual size4 ,on the other side of the same mountain is the grotto of ,pasiega1 discovered in #aiab by ,doctor ,hugo ,obermaier4 ,this small grotto1 about #ejj feet above the river1 receives its name as a retreat of the shepherds4 ,in the floor is a very narrow opening through which one rapidly descends by means of a tube of limestone barely large enough to admit the passage of the body4 ,the interior is very labyrinthine4 ,after passing through the ,galerie des ,animaux and the ,galerie des ,inscriptions1 one reaches1 after a most difficult dtour1 the terminal chamber1 which ,obermaier has called the ,salle du ,trne1 the throne-room2 here there is a natural seat of limestone1 with supports at the sides for the arms1 and one can still see the discoloration of the rock by the soiled hands of the magicians or of the artists4 ,in this salle there are a few drawings and engravings on the walls1 and a few pieces of flint have been discovered4 ,in no other cavern1 perhaps1 is there a greater sense of mystery as to the influence1 whether religious1 magical1 or artistic1 which impelled men to seek out and enter these dangerous passages1 the slippery rocks illumined at best by a very imperfect light1 leading to the deep and dangerous recesses below1 where a misstep would be fatal4 ,the impulse1 whatever it may have been1 was doubtless very strong1 and in this1 as in other caverns1 almost every surface favorably prepared by the processes of nature has received a drawing4 ,no industrial flints have been found at the entrance to this cavern1 but some have been traced into the interior4 ,the art is considered partly of late ,aurignacian1 perhaps of ,solutrean1 and certainly in part of early ,magdalenian times2 in general it is much more recent than that of ,castillo4 ,it consists both of engravings and painted outlines1 with proportions usually excellent and sometimes admirable4 ,the paintings of deer are in yellow ochre1 of the chamois in red4 ,there are altogether #bbf paintings and #cf engravings1 in which are represented #ej roe-deer1 #ea horses1 #dg tectiforms1 #af ,bos1 #ae bison1 #ab stags1 #i ibexes1 #a chamois1 and #af other forms1 distributed in all parts of the cave4 ,the outlines are in solid red color or in stripes of red or black1 or there is a series of spots2 the subjects are chiefly the stag1 the doe1 the wild cattle 7which are rather common71 the bison 7which are less common71 the ibex1 and the chamois4 ,among the numerous representations of the horse there are two small engravings of a type with erect mane1 both the feet and the hair being indicated with great care1 the limbs well designed and of excellent proportions1 clearly in early ,magdalenian style4 ,of the utmost interest is the discovery here of two horses drawn with rounded forehead and drooping mane1 the only instance in which the drooping mane of the modern type of horse 7,equus caballus7 has been observed in the cavern drawings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjf4 ,herd of horses engraved on a small slab of stone1 found in the grotto of ,chaffaud1 ,vienne1 ,france4 ,after ,cartailhac4 ,this impressionistic grouping and perspective is very exceptional in ,palolithic design4 ,about nine-tenths actual size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjg4 ,impressionistic design of a herd of reindeer engraved on the radius of an eagle nearly eight inches in length1 found in the upper ,magdalenian layers of the ,grotte de la ,mairie4 ,after ,capitan and ,breuil4 ,in the advanced development of middle or high ,magdalenian art1 parietal engraving with finely pointed flint implements presents a nearer approach to the truth both of proportion and of detail than do the earlier stages4 ,in this stage the engravings seem to consist chiefly of independent animal figures and to furnish a prelude to the application of color4 ,a simple but striking example of approaching perfection of technique is seen in the bison 7,fig4 #bje7 engraved in the cavern of ,marsoulas1 where the profile is outlined and great shaggy masses of hair beneath the neck are admirably indicated4 ,in these drawings the complicated details of the feet1 with their characteristic tufts of hair1 and of the head show far more careful observation4 ,in the great series of bison at ,font-de-,gaume the entire animal is sketched in with these finely engraved lines1 as brought out through the wonderfully close observation and studies of ,breuil4 ,this is quite similar to the practice of the modern artist who sketches his figure in crayon or charcoal before applying the color4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bjh4 ,reindeer and salmon engraved on an antler1 from ,lorthet1 ,hautes-,pyrnes4 ,after ,piette4 ,this design is believed to represent a herd of reindeer crossing a stream1 one of the very rare ,palolithic attempts at composition4 ,there are two quite different styles in this engraving1 one seen in the deep incised lines of the reindeer head in the cavern of ,tuc d',audoubert 7,fig4 #bcb71 a complete design in itself1 another seen in the deep incisions in the limestone outlining the horses and the bison as observed in the cavern of ,niaux 7,fig4 #agd74 ,here the engraved line is followed by the application of a black painted line1 the effect being to bring out the body in the surrounding rock so as to give the silhouette a high relief4 ,in the drawings in the large on these curved wall surfaces1 only part of which could be seen by the eye at one time1 the difficulties of maintaining the proportions were extreme1 and one is ever impressed by the boldness and confidence with which the long sweeping strokes of the flint were made1 for one rarely if ever sees any evidences of corrected outline4 ,only a lifelong observer of the fine points which distinguish the different prehistoric breeds of the horse could appreciate the extraordinary skill with which the spirited1 aristocratic lines of the ,celtic are executed1 on the one hand1 and1 on the other1 the plebeian and heavy outlines of the steppe horse4 ,in the best examples of ,magdalenian engraving1 both parietal and on bone or ivory1 one can almost immediately detect the specific type of horse which the artist had before him or in mind1 also the season of the year1 as indicated by the representation of a summer or winter coat of hair4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bji4 ,outlines of a lioness and a small group of horses of the ,celtic or ,arab type1 a delicate wall engraving in the ,diverticule final of the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume4 ,after ,breuil4 ,the realism of most of the parietal art passes into the impressionism of the excessively fine engravings on bone or reindeer horn1 executed with a few strokes1 of a herd of horses or of reindeer 7,fig4 #bjg71 or where a herd of deer is seen 7,fig4 #bjh7 crossing a stream full of fishes1 as in the well-known engravings on reindeer horn found in the grotto of ,lorthet1 in the ,pyrenees4 ,this is one of the very rare instances in ,palolithic art1 either engraving or painting1 which shows a sense of composition or the treatment of a subject or incident involving more than one figure4 ,others are the herd of passing reindeer found engraved on a bit of schist in the grotto of ,laugerie ,basse1 the lion facing a group of horses engraved on a stalagmite at ,font-de-,gaume1 and the procession of mammoths engraved upon a procession of bison in the same cavern4 ,,beginnings ,,of ,,painting ,the beginnings of painting in ,aurignacian times1 consisting of simple contours and crude outlines in red or black1 with little or no attempt at shading1 pass in early ,magdalenian time7#bd7 into a long phase of monochromes1 either in black or red1 in which the technique pursues a number of variations1 from simple linear treatment1 continuous or dotted1 to half tints or full tints1 gradually encroaching on the sides of the body from the linear contour4 ,of this order are the figures in flat tints and shading1 resembling those of the ,chinese1 without modelling2 also the figures entirely covered with dots1 such as are seen at ,marsoulas1 ,font-de-,gaume1 and ,altamira4 ,the tints1 as in the drawing of the galloping steppe horse1 pass inward from the black outline to enhance the effect of roundness or relief4 ,in the splendid series of paintings in the cavern of ,niaux there is little more than the black outline of the body1 but the covering of the sides with lines1 indicating the hair1 lends itself to the rounded presentation of form4 ,a somewhat similar effect is sought in the lines of the woolly rhinoceros painted in red in the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume1 which ,breuil attributes to the ,aurignacian stage1 but which also suggests the early ,magdalenian4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baj4 ,early painting4 ,a small horse of the ,celtic or ,arab type1 with painted outline and body colored in black1 from a wall of the cavern of ,castillo1 ,spain4 ,after ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baa4 ,early painting4 ,galloping horse of the ,celtic or of the steppe type painted in black and white1 from a wall of the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume4 ,after ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bab4 ,opening 7cross7 of the cavern of ,niaux1 in the ,pyrenees1 near ,tarascon4 ,,drawings ,,in ,,various ,,caverns ,,of ,,the ,,early ,,and ,,middle ,,magdalenian ,the grandest cavern thus far discovered in ,france is that of ,niaux 7#aijf71 which from a small opening on the side of a limestone mountain and #cjj feet above the ,river ,vic de ,sos extends almost horizontally #d1bjj feet into the heart of the mountain47#be7 ,not far from ,tarascon on the ,arige it lay near one of the most accessible routes between ,france and ,spain4 ,passing through the long gallery beyond the borders of the subterranean lake which bars the entrance1 at a distance of half a mile we reach a great chamber where the overhanging walls of limestone have been finely polished by the sands and gravels transported by the subglacial streams2 on these broad1 slightly concave panels of a very light ochre color are drawings of a large number of bison and of horses1 as fresh and brilliant as if they were the work of yesterday2 the outlines drawn with black oxide of manganese and grease on the smooth stone resemble coarse lithography4 ,the animals are drawn in splendid1 bold contours1 with no cross-hatching1 but with solid masses of bright color here and there2 the bison1 as the most admired animal of the chase1 is drawn majestically with a superb crest1 the muzzle most perfectly outlined1 the horns indicated by single lines only1 the eyes with the defiant expression highly distinctive of the animal when wounded or enraged4 ,here for the first time are revealed the early ,magdalenian methods of hunting the bison1 for upon their flanks are clearly traced one or more arrow or spear heads with the shafts still attached2 the most positive proof of the use of the arrow is the apparent termination of the wooden shaft in the feathers which are rudely represented in three of the drawings4 ,there are also many silhouettes of horses which strongly resemble the pure ,asiatic steppe type now living in the desert of ,gobi1 the ,przewalski horse1 with erect mane and with no drooping forelock2 in contrast to the bison1 the eyes are rather dull and stupid in expression4 ,there are also drawings of other types of horses1 a very fine ibex1 a chamois1 a few outlines of wild cattle1 and a very fine one of the royal stag2 we find no reindeer or mammoth represented4 ,in some of the narrower passages the rock has been beautifully sculptured by water1 and the artists have been quick to take advantage of any natural lines to add a bit of color here or there and thus bring out the outline of a bison4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bac4 ,engraved and painted horse1 apparently of the ,celtic type and with heavy winter coat1 from the cavern of ,niaux4 ,there is a mark behind the right shoulder which has been interpreted as the sign of an arrow or spear head4 ,after ,cartailhac and ,breuil4 7,compare ,fig4 #agd47 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bad4 ,professor ,emile ,cartailhac at the entrance of the cavern of ,le ,portel1 ,arige4 ,photograph by ,h4 ,f4 ,osborn4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bae4 ,finely engraved outlines of the ,celtic horse and of the reindeer1 in the ,grotte de la ,mairie1 near ,teyjat1 ,dordogne4 ,after ,capitan and ,breuil4 ,presenting the widest possible contrast to ,niaux is the cavern of ,le ,portel1 west of ,tarascon1 with its contracted entrance and a very rapidly descending passage hardly broad enough to admit the body4 ,this narrow and tortuous cave terminates in an extremely small passage1 so narrow as barely to admit the athletic and determined artist explorer1 the ,abb ,breuil4 ,here1 as in ,font-de-,gaume and other caverns1 is one of the greatest mysteries of the cave art1 namely1 that these terminal and dangerous diverticules finals were wrought with some of the most careful and artistic designs4 ,le ,portel1 like ,niaux1 reveals a single style1 but one altogether different4 ,very numerous bison are drawn in outline both in red and black2 the sides of the body are often dotted with red or hatched in close parallel lines4 ,on a long horizontal panel are seen many bison in red1 and one observes here a finely drawn pair of bison feet in the best ,magdalenian style4 ,the horse as represented here is of a quite different type with thin upper tail and a tail-tuft resembling that of the wild ass1 so that one is almost tempted to believe that the kiang is intended1 but the ears are too short2 it has a high rump and a high1 splendidly arched neck1 like that of the stallion1 and the eye is better drawn2 the body is covered with long vertical or oblique lines which might be mistaken for stripes1 but this hatching is a matter of technique only4 ,again1 the mane is erect1 and there is no forelock2 in fact1 none of these ,magdalenian artists has represented the horse with the forelock1 indicating that this character of the modern horse was unknown in western ,europe and probably came in during ,neolithic times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #baf4 ,reindeer1 cave-bear1 and two horses of the large-headed forest type with arched forehead1 engraved on a panel about twenty inches in length in the ,grotte de la ,mairie4 ,after ,capitan and ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bag4 ,wild cattle1 bull and cow 7,bos primigenius71 engraved in the ,grotte de la ,mairie1 each figure being about twenty inches in length4 ,after ,capitan and ,breuil4 ,of an entirely different type are the beautifully engraved miniature figures of animals discovered in #aijc in the ,grotte de la ,mairie47#bf7 ,the outlines1 from #ah to #bj inches in length1 are sharply engraved on the limestone stalagmites2 they are all in the middle ,magdalenian style and include the stag1 reindeer1 bison1 cave-bear1 lion1 wild cattle1 and two very distinct types of horses3 one of these types is large-headed with an arched forehead2 this is probably the forest type and perhaps represents the horse most abundant at the ,solutr encampment 7see p4 #bhh72 the other horse is small-headed1 with a perfectly flat1 straight forehead1 corresponding with the ,arab or ,celtic pony type4 ,,drawings ,,and ,,paintings ,,of ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,middle ,,magdalenian ,the fourth and final developmental phase of painting flowers out toward the end of middle ,magdalenian times in the grand period of polychromes4 ,these are first etched with underlying lines engraved with flint1 the surface of the limestone having been previously prepared by the thinning or scraping of the borders 7raclage7 to heighten the relief of the drawing2 then a very strong contour is laid down in black1 and this may be followed by a further contour line in red 7the use of black and red is very ancient72 an ochreous brown color is mixed in1 conforming well with what we know to be the tints of the hairy portions of the bison4 ,thus gradually a complete polychrome fresco art develops4 ,the final stage of this art follows1 in which the filling out of various tones of color requires the use of black1 brown1 red1 and yellowish shades4 ,the underlying or preliminary engraving now begins to recede1 being retained only for the tracing in of the final details of the hair1 the eyes1 the horns1 and the hoofs4 ,the early stages of this art are seen in the cavern of ,marsoulas1 and its height is reached in the mural frescos of ,font-de-,gaume and in the ceiling of ,altamira1 the latter still in a perfect and brilliant state of preservation4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bah4 ,outline of one of the bison in the ,galerie des ,fresques at ,font-de-,gaume1 showing the preliminary etching or engraving preparatory to the polychrome fresco painting4 ,after ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,pl4 ,,viii4 ,one of the bisons on the ceiling of ,altamira1 representing the final stage of polychrome art in which four shades of color are used4 ,after ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bai4 ,entrance on the right to the grotto leading to the great cavern of ,font-de-,gaume on the ,beune4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,to prepare the colors1 ochre and oxide of manganese were ground down to a fine powder in stone mortars2 raw pigment was carried in ornamented cases made from the lower-limb bones of the reindeer1 and such tubes still containing the ochre have been found in the ,magdalenian hearths2 the mingling of the finely ground powder with the animal oils or fats that were used was probably done on the flat side of the shoulder-blade of the reindeer or on some other palette4 ,the pigment was quite permanent1 and in the darkness of the ,altamira grotto it has been so perfectly preserved that the colors are still as brilliant as if they had been applied yesterday4 ,the art of the grotto of ,marsoulas1 in the ,pyrenees1 is both of an earlier and of a later period2 the engraved lines1 as of the head and front of a bison1 are beautifully done in advanced ,magdalenian style1 deep incisions representing the larger outlines and finer incisions representing the hair2 here the outlines are also traced in color1 and there are several masks or grotesques of the human face2 these last are treated with a total disregard of the truth which characterizes the animal work4 ,among the few bison represented here1 some are covered with dots or splashes of color1 others show the painted outline which begins to extend over the surface with gradations of tint1 anticipating the color effects attained in the finished paintings of ,altamira and of ,font-de-,gaume4 ,all the details of the early technique are found here3 the artist outlines the form with an engraved line2 he traces in black color the contours of the head and of the body2 he begins to apply masses of red over the figure4 ,this beginning of polychrome art at ,marsoulas is a step toward coloring the entire surface with red ochre and black1 as in the finished paintings of a later period4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbj4 ,map of the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume1 showing the ',rubicon1' the ,grande ,galerie des ,fresques1 in which the chief polychrome paintings are found1 and the ,diverticule final4 ,after ,capitan4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bba4 ,narrow passage in the cavern of ,font-de-,gaume1 known as the ',rubicon4' ,on the left wall at this point are two painted bison1 and on both walls are marks left by the claws of the cave-bear4 ,after ,lassalle4 ,the grand cavern of ,font-de-,gaume17#bg7 on the ,beune1 not far from ,les ,eyzies1 contains the most complete record of ,upper ,palolithic art1 especially from the close of ,aurignacian to the close of ,magdalenian times4 ,there are crude ,aurignacian drawings1 simple outlines painted in black1 outlines supplemented by the indication of hair 7examples of the early stages in the development of polychrome work as well as of the very highest stages71 compositions like the lion and the group of horses1 and the murals in the ,galerie des ,fresques1 which show a general composition in the processions of animals1 as well as some special compositions such as the reindeer and bison facing each other4 ,the life depicted is largely that of the tundras1 mammoths1 rhinoceroses1 and reindeer1 but it also includes the steppe or ,celtic type of horse1 represented galloping 7,fig4 #baa71 and a small group of horses of the ,arab or ,celtic type4 ,of the meadow fauna the bison is generally represented in preference to the wild ox or urus4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbb4 ,plan of a portion of the left wall decoration in the ,galerie des ,fresques at ,font-de-,gaume1 showing reindeer and the procession of bison4 ,after ,breuil4 ,throughout the cavern the favorable surfaces of the walls are crowded with engravings1 and in the ,galerie des ,fresques1 beyond the narrow passage known as the ',rubicon' 7,fig4 #bba71 we see altogether the finest examples of ,upper ,palolithic art4 ,on each side of this gallery is a peculiarly advantageous mural surface1 broad1 relatively smooth1 and gently concave 7,pl4 ,,vii71 probably the best which any cavern afforded1 and here we observe great processions of mammals superposed upon each other1 like the records of a palimpsest1 as if such a surface was so rare that it was visited again and again4 ,the most imposing series is that of the bison1 done in the finest polychrome style1 mostly headed in one direction4 ,the reindeer form another series and in some instances face each other1 although mainly arranged in a long procession facing to the left4 ,this superposition of drawing upon drawing ends with the latest superposition in finely incised lines of a great procession of mammoths upon that of the polychrome bisons4 ,it is somewhat difficult to reconcile a religious or votive interpretation with the multiplication of these drawings upon each other4 ,moreover1 it appears to be inconsistent with the reverent spirit which pervades the work in this and in all other caverns1 for what impresses one most is the absence of trivial work or meaningless drawings4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbc4 ,another portion of the left wall decoration of the ,galerie des ,fresques1 showing the preliminary engraving 7above71 and the painting 7below7 of the great procession of mammoths1 superposed upon drawings of the bison1 reindeer1 and horse4 ,this section is about fourteen feet in length4 ,after ,breuil4 ,it seems as if at every stage in their artistic development these people were intensely serious about their work1 each drawing being executed with the utmost possible care1 according to the degree of artistic development and appreciation4 ,in the great gallery of frescos we find not less than eighty figures1 in some cases partly covered by a fine sheen of stalagmitic limestone2 these include #di bison1 #d reindeer1 #d horses1 and #ae mammoths4 ,the bison polychromes have suffered somewhat in color and are far less brilliant than those at ,altamira4 ,in the polychromes the color is applied either in long lines of red or black surrounding the contours of the animal or in flat tints placed side by side1 or again the two colors are mingled and give intermediate tints with striking effect4 ,on one of the finest of these bison is the underlying drawing of a reindeer1 a wild boar1 and the superposition of an excellent engraving of a mammoth1 which is represented on an altogether different scale1 so that it falls well within the body lines of the bison 7,fig4 #bbd74 ,in each of these mammoths the grotesque but truthful contour is preserved in the drapery of hair which almost completely envelops the limbs2 the emphasizing of the sudden depression of the dorsal line behind the head is everywhere the same and undoubtedly conforms very closely to nature4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbd4 ,detail of the engraving of the central group of figures on the left wall decoration of the ,galerie des ,fresques 7see ,fig4 #bbc71 showing the etching of a mammoth superposed upon that of a bison1 superposed in turn upon those of a reindeer and of a wild boar4 ,these figures are on different scales1 and in the present faded condition of the frescoes are difficult to detect4 ,after ,breuil4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbe4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,altamira1 showing the proximity of the roof of the cavern to the present surface of the earth4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,after passing the ,galerie des ,fresques we penetrate to the final recess called the ,diverticule final1 through excessively narrow tubular openings barely admitting the body1 and we are again overcome with the mystery as to what impulse carried this art into the dark1 deep portions of the caverns4 ,if it were due to a feeling partly religious which1 regarded the caverns with special awe1 why do we find equally skilful and conscientious work on all the mobile utensils of daily life and of the chase1 apart from the caverns8 ,the superposition of one drawing upon another1 which is especially characteristic of this cavern1 does not seem to strengthen the religious interpretation4 ,it would appear that the love of art for art's sake1 akin in a very rudimentary form to that which inspired the early ,greeks1 together with the fine spaces which these caverns alone afforded for larger representations1 may be an alternative explanation4 ,there is no evidence that numbers of people entered these caverns4 ,if this had been the case there would be many more examples of inartistic work upon the walls4 ,it is possible that the ,cr-,magnon artists constituted a recognized class especially gifted by nature1 quite distinct from the magician class or the artisan class4 ,the dark recesses of the caverns opening back of the grottos may have been held in awe as mysterious abodes4 ,in line with this theory is the suggestion that the artists may have been invited into the caverns by the priests or medicine-men to decorate the walls with all the animals of the chase4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbf4 ,plan showing the grouping of bison1 horses1 red deer1 and wild boar1 in the polychrome paintings on the ceiling of ,altamira4 ,after ,breuil4 ,the polychromes of the ceiling of ,altamira in northern ,spain1 which rank in the crude art of ,palolithic times much as the ceiling of the ,sistine ,chapel does in modern art1 are somewhat more conventional in technique than those of ,font-de-,gaume1 but they are manifestly the work of the same school1 and prove that the technique of art spread like that of engraving1 of sculpture1 and of the preparation of flint and bone implements all over southwestern ,europe4 ,one could not have more striking proof of the unity of race1 of a community of life1 and of an interchange of ideas among these nomadic people than the close resemblance which is observed in the art of ,altamira1 ,spain1 and that of ,font-de-,gaume1 #bij miles distant1 in ,dordogne4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbg4 ,the ceiling of ,altamira1 showing the round projecting bosses of limestone on which the recumbent figures of the bison are painted4 ,after ,lassalle4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbh4 ,female bison lying down with the limbs drawn beneath the body1 so that only the horns and tail project beyond the convex surface of the limestone boss on the ceiling of ,altamira4 ,after ,breuil4 ,very picturesque is the account of the discovery of this wonderful ceiling1 made not by the ,spanish archologist ,sautuola himself1 but by his little daughter1 who1 while he was searching for flints on the floor of the cavern1 was the first to perceive the paintings on the ceiling and to insist upon his raising his lamp aloft4 ,this was in #ahgi1 long before the discovery of parietal art in ,france4 ,the ceiling is broad and low1 within easy reach of the hand1 and the oval bosses of limestone 7,fig4 #bbg71 from #d to #e feet in length and from #c to #d in width1 led to the development here of one of the most striking characteristics of all ,palolithic art1 namely1 the artist's adaptation of the subject to his medium and to the character of the surface upon which he was working4 ,it seems to show a high order of creative genius that each of these projecting bosses was chosen for the representation of a bison lying down1 with the limbs drawn up in different positions beneath the body 7,fig4 #bbh7 and very carefully designed1 and with the tail or the horns alone projecting beyond the convex surface to the surrounding plane surface4 ,this is the only instance known where the bison are represented as lying down1 in most lifelike attitudes1 showing the soles of the hoof1 observed with the greatest care and represented by a few strong and significant lines4 ,thus while the ,altamira coloring inclines to conventionality1 the pose of these animals indicates the greatest freedom of style and mastery of perspective anywhere observed4 ,in this wonderful group there is also a bison bellowing1 with his back arched and his limbs drawn under him as if to expel the air4 ,one striking feature in all these paintings is the vivid representation of the eye1 which in every case is given a fierce and defiant character1 so distinctive of the bison bull when enraged4 ,we also observe a wild boar in a running attitude and several spirited representations of the horse and of the female deer4 ,the cavern of ,altamira1 besides this chef-d'uvre1 contains work of a very advanced character1 as indicated in the imposing engraving of the royal stag 7,fig4 #bbi71 which is altogether the finest representation of this animal which has thus far been discovered in any cavern4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bbi4 ,the royal stag 7,cervus elaphus7 engraved on the ceiling of the cavern of ,altamira4 ,about twenty-six inches in length4 ,after ,breuil4 ,one-eighth actual size4 ,altamira1 like ,font-de-,gaume1 presents many phases of the development of art in ,magdalenian times4 ,there is a ,solutrean layer in the foyer of this great cavern1 but ,breuil is not inclined to attribute any of the art to this period4 ,the first entrance of ,altamira by the ,cr-,magnon artists is dated by the discovery of engravings on bone of the female red deer1 which are identical with those on the walls and which belong to very ancient ,magdalenian times1 the period at which the caverns of ,castillo and ,la ,pasiega were also entered47#bh7 ,,sculpture ,animal sculpture in the round1 which is indicated by the few statuettes found with the burial at ,brnn1 ,moravia1 and by the ivory mammoth statuette found at ,pedmost1 continued into early ,magdalenian times and certainly constitutes one of the most distinctive features of the art of that period1 because in the later ,magdalenian it took a different trend in the direction of decorative sculpture4 ,only two fine examples of early ,magdalenian animal sculpture have been found1 but these are of such a remarkable character as to indicate that modelling in the round was widely pursued at this time4 ,these are the bisons discovered in #aiab in the cavern of ,tuc d',audoubert near ,montesquieu1 in the ,pyrenees1 and the fine bas-reliefs of horses at the shelter of ,cap-,blanc1 on the ,beune1 in ,dordogne4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcj4 ,statuette of a mammoth in reindeer horn from the ,abri de ,plantade at ,bruniquel4 ,after ,piette4 ,a statuette presenting the general form of the mammoth with some fantastic features4 ,it formed part of a pendant of which the shank1 terminating with a perforation1 has been broken4 ,the tusks were laid against this shank and strengthened it4 ,the incisions bordered by notches suggest the nostrils of some imaginary monster4 ,the trunk seems to grow out of the neck1 not the head4 ,the tail having been broken off in ,palolithic times1 the owner made a hole in the back and inserted one there4 ,the material was too thin to admit of representing the proper thickness of the animal4 ,it was made to be viewed from the side4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bca4 ,entrance to the cavern of ,tuc d',audoubert1 near ,montesquieu-,avants in the ,pyrenees4 ,this is one of the rare instances in which the stream that formed the cavern is still flowing from the entrance4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcb4 ,head of a reindeer deeply incised or engraved in the limestone wall of the cavern of ,tuc d',audoubert4 ,after ,bgouen4 ,in company with ,professor ,cartailhac the writer had the good fortune to enter the cavern of ,tuc d',audoubert a few days after its discovery by the ,comte de ,bgouen and his sons2 it is still in the making1 for out from the entrance flows a stream of water large enough to float a small boat1 by which the first of a series of superbly crystallized galleries is reached4 ,after passing through a labyrinth of passageways and chambers a favorable surface was found where the ,bgouen party showed us a whole wall covered with low-engraving reliefs1 very simply done1 fine in execution1 with sure and firm outlines of the bison1 the favorite subject as in all other caverns2 horses fairly well executed and of the same steppe type as those in the near-by cavern of ,niaux2 one superbly engraved contour of the reindeer1 with its long1 curved horns2 the head of a stag with its horns still in the velvet2 and a mammoth4 ,all this work is engraved2 there are no drawn outlines1 but here and there are splashes of red and black color4 ,shortly afterward a great discovery was made in this cavern2 it is described as follows by the ,comte de ,bgouen3,,ba ,to-day ,i am happy to give you excellent news from the cavern ,tuc d',audoubert4 ,as you were the first to visit this cavern1 you will also be the first to learn that in an upper gallery1 very difficult of access1 at the summit of a very narrow ascending passage1 and after having been obliged to break a number of stalactites which completely closed the entrance1 my son and myself have found two superb statuettes in clay1 about #fj cm4 in length1 absolutely unbroken1 and representing bison4 ,cartailhac and ,breuil1 who have come to see them1 were filled with enthusiasm4 ,the ground of these chambers was covered with imprints of the claws of the bear1 skeletons of which were buried here and there4 ,the ,magdalenians have passed through this ossuary and have drawn out all the canine teeth to make ornaments of them4 ,their steps left their fine impressions on the humid and soft clay1 and we still see the outlines of several bare human feet4 ,they had also lost several flakes of flint and the tooth of an ox pierced at the neck2 we have collected them1 and it seems as if they had only dropped yesterday2 the ,magdalenians also left an incomplete model of a bison and some lumps of kneaded clay which still carry the impression of their fingers4 ,we produce the proof that in this period all branches of art were cultivated4 ,this model of the male and female bison in clay has been described by ,cartailhac as of perfect workmanship and of ideal art4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcc4 ,two bison1 male and female1 modelled in clay1 discovered in the cavern of ,tuc d',audoubert4 ,the length of each of these models is about two feet4 ,after ,bgouen4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcd4 ,one of a series of horses of the high-bred ,celtic type1 sculptured in high relief on the wall of the cliff shelter known as ,cap-,blanc4 ,the actual length of each of these sculptures is about seven feet4 ,after ,lalanne and ,breuil4 ,the procession of six horses cut in limestone under the sheltering cliff of ,cap-,blanc is by far the most imposing work of ,magdalenian art that has been discovered4 ,the sculptures are in high relief and of large size and are in excellent proportion2 they appear to represent the high-bred type of desert or ,celtic horse1 related to the ,arabian1 so far as we can judge from the long1 straight face1 the slender nose1 the small nostrils1 and the massive angle of the lower jaw2 the ears are rather long and pointed1 and the tail is represented as thin and without hair2 they were found partly buried by layers containing implements of middle ,magdalenian industry1 and they are therefore assigned to an early ,magdalenian date in which animal sculpture in the round reached its climax4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bce4 ,head of a horse sculptured on a reindeer antler1 from the ,magdalenian layer of ,mas d',azil on the right bank of the ,arize4 ,after ,piette4 ,actual size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcf4 ,statuette carved on a fragment of mammoth tusk1 representing a horse of ,celtic type with mane erect1 from the grotto of ,les ,espelugues1 ,lourdes4 ,after ,piette4 ,about one and one-third actual size4 ,from the early to the middle ,magdalenian period animal sculpture in bone1 horn1 and ivory was followed as decorative art in a bold and highly naturalistic manner4 ,adaptation of the animal figure to the surface and to the material employed is nowhere shown in a more remarkable way than in the btons1 the dart-throwers1 and the poniards4 ,of all the work of the ,upper ,palolithic1 these decorative heads and bodies are1 perhaps1 the most highly artistic creations in the modern sense4 ,the famous horse found in the late ,magdalenian levels of ,mas d',azil 7,fig4 #bce7 and the small horses from the grotto of ,espelugues1 of the middle ,magdalenian1 are full of movement and life and show such certainty and breadth of treatment that they must be regarded as the masterpieces of ,upper ,palolithic glyptic art4 ,the ibex carved on the dart-thrower from the grotto of ,mas d',azil 7,fig4 #agh7 indicates observation and a striking power of expression2 while all the details are noted1 the treatment is very broad4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bcg4 ,head of a woman with head-dress sculptured in ivory1 from the ,magdalenian levels of ,brassempouy4 ,after ,piette4 ,one and one-fifth actual size4 ,the continuation of animal sculpture in the round is seen in the well-known horse statuette from the grotto of ,lourdes2 the partly decorative striping is a step in the direction of conventional treatment4 ,the sculptured reindeer discovered by ,bgouen in the grotto of ,enlne is treated in a somewhat similar style4 ,small human figurines again appear in the form of statuettes in bone or ivory1 representing the renaissance of the spirit of human sculpture4 ,some of this work is apparently in search of beauty and with altogether different motives from the repellent feminine statuettes of middle and late ,aurignacian times1 for the subjects are slender and the limbs are modelled with relative skill4 ,as in the earlier works1 there is a partial failure to portray the features1 which is in striking contrast to the lifelike treatment of animal heads4 ,very few examples of this work have been found1 and most of them have been broken4 ,to this period belong the ,venus statuette of ,laugerie ,basse and the head of a girl carved in ivory found at ,brassempouy 7,fig4 #bcg7 with the features fairly suggested and an elaborate head-dress4 ,,geographic ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,magdalenian ,,culture ,in ,magdalenian times the ,cr-,magnon race undoubtedly reached its highest development and its widest geographic distribution1 but it would be a mistake to infer that the boundaries of the ,magdalenian culture also mark the extreme migration points of this nomadic people1 because the industries and inventions may well have spread far beyond the areas actually inhabited by the race itself4 ,absence of ,magdalenian influence around the northerly coasts of the ,mediterranean is certainly one of the most surprising facts4 ,breuil has suggested that ,italy remained in an ,aurignacian stage of development throughout ,magdalenian times and indicates that there is much evidence that ,magdalenian culture never penetrated into this peninsula1 for in ,italy the ,aurignacian industrial stage is succeeded by traces of the ,azilian4 ,this geographic gap1 however1 may be filled at any time by a fresh discovery4 ,in ,spain1 also1 the ,magdalenian culture is known only in the ,cantabrian ,mountains1 but never farther south1 one of the earliest sites found in this region being the grotto of ,pea la ,miel1 visited by ,lartet in #ahfe1 and one of the most famous the cavern of ,altamira1 discovered by ,sautuola in #ahge2 to the northeast is the station of ,banyolas4 ,so far the eastern provinces of ,spain have not yielded any implements of engraved or sculptured bone4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bch4 ,geographic distribution of the principal ,magdalenian industrial stations in western ,europe4 ,in contrast to this failure to reach southward1 the ,magdalenian culture is widely extended through ,france1 ,belgium1 ,england1 ,germany1 ,switzerland1 ,austria1 and as far east as ,russia4 ,it would appear either that the men of ,magdalenian times wandered far and wide or that there was an extensive system of barter1 because the discovery of shells brought for personal adornment from the ,mediterranean seashores to various ,magdalenian sites in ,france and in central ,europe seems to indicate a wide-spread intercourse among these nomadic hunters and a system of trade reaching from the coasts of the ,mediterranean and the ,atlantic to the valley of the ,neckar in ,germany and along the ,danube in ,lower ,austria4 ,another proof of this intercourse is the wide distribution not only of similar forms of implements but of very similar decorations2 as an instance1 ,breuil notes the likeness of schematic engravings on reindeer horn in the two primitive ,magdalenian layers of ,placard1 ,charente1 to those found in the ,polish cavern of ,maszycka1 near ,ojcow1 and to others in the corresponding layers of ,castillo1 near ,santander1 of ,solutr on the ,sane1 and of various sites in ,dordogne4 ,a very distinctive geometric decoration on bone is that of broken zigzag lines with little intercalated transverse lines1 which we notice at ,altamira1 in northern ,spain1 and which also occurs here and there in ,dordogne and in ,charente and extends to the grottos of d',arlay in the ,jura4 ,another style of ornament1 with deep pectinate and punctuate lines1 found in the very ancient ,magdalenian of ,placard1 also occurs in the most ancient layers of ,kesslerloch1 ,switzerland4 ,spiral ornaments like those on the bone weapons of ,dordogne1 of ,arudy1 and of ,lourdes are found at ,hornos de la ,pea1 in the ,cantabrian ,mountains4 ,the spread of analogous decoration is still more striking when we find it occurring in the details of sculpture or in a certain type of dart-thrower 7propulseur71 which extended from the ,pyrenees eastward to the ,lake of ,constance4 ,inventions like that of the harpoon and fashions like those of the decorative motifs were carried from point to point4 ,this influence does not lead to identity4 ,some of the phases of art and of decoration are confined to certain localities2 for example1 the engravings of deer on the bone shoulder-blades in the caverns near ,santander1 ,spain1 are not duplicated in ,france2 also there are numerous local styles witnessed in the forms and decorations of the javelin1 the lance1 and the harpoon2 these variations1 however1 do not conceal the element of community of culture and of similar fluctuations of industry and art between widely distant stations4 ,many ,magdalenian stations were crowded around the sheltered cliffs of ,dordogne 7,fig4 #bch74 ,besides these1 we observe the ,magdalenian sites of ,champs1 ,ressaulier1 and the grotto of ,combo-,negro in ,corrze2 south of ,dordogne and ,corrze are other stations along the ,garonne and the ,adour4 ,some of the finest examples of ,magdalenian art have come from ,bruniquel1 on the ,aveyron1 near the boundary between ,tarn-et-,garonne and ,tarn1 where no less than four important sites have been excavated4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bci4 ,necklace of marine shells1 from the cave of ,cr-,magnon1 mostly periwinkles1 some related to species now living in the ,north ,sea1 ,purpura1 ,turitella1 and ,fusus4 ,after ,e4 ,lartet4 ,the ,cr-,magnon grotto dwellers used shells belonging to existing species1 while in the deposits at ,la ,madeleine and ,laugerie ,basse fossil shells are found4 ,the use of seashore shells as ornaments in various parts of the interior of ,europe indicates that they were brought long distances in trade4 ,the remains of such ornaments were found with the skeleton of ,aurignacian age from ,paviland1 ,wales4 ,necklaces were also made of small plates of ivory and the perforated teeth of the cave-bear4 ,one-third actual size4 ,the culture map of ,france in ,magdalenian times is covered from north to south with these ancient camp sites1 either clustered along the river borders1 where erosion has created shelters1 or in the great outcrops of limestone along the northern slopes of the ,pyrenees1 where the exposure of the limestone has led to the formation of grottos and caverns1 or on the plateaus where game abounded or flint could be found for the rapidly declining flint industry4 ,near the ,gulf of ,lyons are the stations of ,bise1 ,tournal1 ,narbonne1 and ,crouzade2 extending westward toward the headwaters of the ,arige are ,la ,vache1 ,massat1 and the great tunnel station of ,mas d',azil1 formed by the ,river ,arize2 here the ,magdalenian levels discovered by ,piette have yielded some of the most notable ,magdalenian works of art1 including animal statuettes1 bas-reliefs1 and engravings with incised contours4 ,farther west1 on the headwaters of the ,garonne1 is ,gourdan1 where ,piette began his remarkable excavations in #ahga and discovered two of the ancient ,magdalenian phases of sculpture2 then comes the more westerly group of ,aurensan1 ,lorthet1 and ,lourdes1 the latter a grotto which has yielded one of the finest examples of the horse sculptured in ivory1 and which has since become famous as the site of a miracle and of modern pilgrimage4 ,between the ,garonne and the ,bay of ,biscay lie the stations of ,duruthy and the ,grotte du ,pape of ,brassempouy1 the latter occupied in ,magdalenian times1 but best known as a centre of late ,aurignacian sculpture of statuettes4 ,to the northeast1 in the very heart of the mountainous region of ,auvergne1 is the station of ,neschers1 where a flow of lava from ,mount ,tartaret descended over the slopes of ,mont-,dor and covered a ,mousterian industrial deposit with its mammoth fauna and then1 after a lapse of time1 became the site of a ,magdalenian industrial camp1 so that ,boule has been able to determine the geologic age of the most recent volcanic eruptions in ,france1 those of the ,monts d',auvergne1 as having occurred between the periods of ,mousterian and ,magdalenian industry4 ,in view of the frequent occurrence of ,aurignacian and ,solutrean camps as well as of ,neolithic stations in southeastern ,france1 we are surprised at the extreme rarity there of ,magdalenian flint implements4 ,however1 ,capitan has recognized a ,magdalenian station at ,solutr1 near the headwaters of the ,sane1 and not far from this site is the station of ,goulaine1 which has yielded an enormous flint scraper or anvil1 the largest ,upper ,palolithic implement ever found2 it is carefully chipped around the entire curved edge and weighs over #d-a_/d pounds4 ,to the north of the ,dordogne is the celebrated grotto of ,placard1 in ,charente1 where the dawn of the ,magdalenian industry has been discovered1 and again directly north of this is the grotto of ,chaffaud1 at ,savign1 where the first engraved bone of the ',reindeer ,age' was discovered in #ahcd2 not far from this is the shelter of ,garenne1 near ,st4 ,marcel 7,indre71 which has afforded a fine figure of a galloping reindeer4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdj4 ,geographic distribution of the ,magdalenian and other ,palolithic stations on the upper waters of the ,rhine and of the ,danube4 ,the chief ,magdalenian stations are3 ,andernach1 ,bockstein1 ,buchenloch1 ,gansersfelsen1 ,hhlefels bei ,htten1 ,hhlefels bei ,schelklingen1 ,hohlestein1 ,kartstein1 ,kastlhnghhle1 ,kesslerloch1 ,martinshhle1 ,munzingen1 ,niedernau1 ,oberlarg1 ,ofnet1 ,propstfels1 ,schmiechenfels1 ,schussenquelle1 ,schweizersbild1 ,sirgenstein1 ,strassberg1 ,wildhaus1 ,wildscheuer1 and ,winterlingen4 ,after ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt1 modified and redrawn4 ,these geographic and artistic records are of intense interest as carrying the ,prigord or ,dordogne culture northward4 ,somewhat to the east1 on the headwaters of the ,cure1 a tributary of the ,yonne1 there is an important group including over sixty open shelters formed in the ,jurassic limestone1 in which characteristic ,magdalenian bone implements have been found4 ,of these the most famous are the ,grotte des ,fes1 and the ,grotte du ,trilobite1 both of which were first entered by the ,neanderthals in ,mousterian times and were again sought by the ,cr-,magnons in ,magdalenian times4 ,passing still farther north1 the ,cr-,magnons visited the borders of the ,somme and sought the historic flint station of ,st4 ,acheul1 which had been frequented by races of men for thousands of years previous1 back to ,pre-,chellean times4 ,to the northeast are the stations of ,belgium1 chiefly made known through the labors of ,dupont1 distributed along the valleys of the ,lesse and of the ,meuse and yielding characteristic ,magdalenian flints as well as a number of engravings on bone4 ,we may be sure that this region was under ,cr-,magnon rule and that their control extended over into ,britain1 where1 it will be recalled1 a ,cr-,magnon skeleton was found at ,paviland1 in western ,wales4 ,here1 again1 in ,magdalenian times the ,cr-,magnon race was probably wide-spread over southern ,britain4 ,at ,bacon's ,hole1 near ,swansea1 ,wales1 there is a wall decoration consisting of ten red bands1 which1 according to ,breuil and ,sollas1 may possibly be of ,palolithic age4 ,more definite is the ,magdalenian industry observed at the ,cresswell ,crags1 in ,derbyshire2 while near ,torquay1 ,devonshire1 is the famous station of ,kent's ,hole1 discovered in #ahbd1 in which a bone needle has been found and several harpoons with double rows of barbs belonging to the late ,magdalenian industry4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bda4 ,reindeer engraved around a piece of reindeer antler1 from ,kesslerloch1 ,switzerland4 ,this is a unique instance of the portrayal of landscape in ,palolithic art4 ,after ,heim4 ,slightly more than three-quarters actual size4 ,in ,germany1 whereas only three ,solutrean stations have been discovered17#bi7 there are no less than fourteen ,magdalenian stations to attest the wide spread of that culture4 ,thus the favorite grotto of ,sirgenstein1 near the centre of the ,magdalenian stations on the upper waters of the ,danube1 although abandoned in ,solutrean times1 was again entered by man during the early ,magdalenian culture stage4 ,coincident with the return of man to this great grotto was the arrival of the banded lemming 7,myodes torquatus71 the herald of the cold tundra wave of life in the far north4 ,at the very same time man with the banded lemming arrived at ,schweizersbild1 near the ,lake of ,constance2 at a slightly earlier period1 with the dawn of ,magdalenian culture1 man entered the sister station of ,kesslerloch4 ,it certainly appears that a cold moist climate accompanying the ,bhl advance influenced all the ,cr-,magnon peoples of this region just north of the ,alpine glaciers and compelled them to seek the grottos and shelters4 ,there are1 however1 some open stations in this general region1 for example1 at ,schussenried1 ,wrttemberg2 the ,magdalenian culture layer is not found in a grotto1 but lies under a deposit of peat mingled with the remains of the reindeer1 horse1 brown bear1 and wolf4 ,again1 among the best-known sites along the middle ,rhine is the open-air station of ,andernach4 ,demonstrating the eastward distribution of the art of engraving on ivory and bone is the presence in ,andernach and in the grotto of ,wildscheuer1 near ,steeten1 on the ,lahn1 of engravings of this character4 ,thus far these are the only ,german stations in which such engravings have been found4 ,of especial interest also is the open ,magdalenian 'loess' station of ,munzingen1 on the upper ,rhine1 because it proves that the highest layers of the 'upper loess1' corresponding with the dry or steppe period of climate1 were contemporaneous with the advanced or late ,magdalenian industry1 also because this final 'upper loess' stage about corresponds with the period when the last of the arctic tundra mammals began to abandon central ,europe4 ,it was at this critical geologic time that the late ,magdalenian culture began to draw to a close4 ,kesslerloch1 ,switzerland1 has yielded a considerable number of engravings on bone1 including one of the finest examples of a browsing reindeer 7,fig4 #bda71 and ,schweizersbild also has yielded a considerable number of rather crude engravings4 ,frequented in ,magdalenian times was that part of the ,swabian ,jura lying between the headwaters of the ,neckar and of the ,danube2 along the course of the ,danube1 from ,propstfels1 near ,beuron1 in the southwest1 to ,ofnet1 in the northeast1 extend the other stations of ,hhlefels bei ,htten1 ,schmiechenfels1 and ,bocksteinhhle4 ,west of the ,danube the industry was carried into the present region of ,bavaria1 as indicated by the recent discovery of ,kastlhng47#cj7 ,here1 beginning with the early ,magdalenian 7,gourdanien infrieur of the ,french school7 and extending to the middle or high ,magdalenian 7,gourdanien suprieur71 we find a complete series of ,magdalenian stations2 the middle ,magdalenian layer is of exactly the same type as that found in the ,abri ,mge of ,dordogne and in the lower levels of the ,grotte de la ,mairie2 the same culture stage is again observed in southern ,germany in the stations of ,schussenquelle and of ,hhlefels1 and it extends eastward into ,austria in the station of ,gudenushhle as well as into several ,moravian stations1 for example1 that of ,kostelk4 ,these facts are of extraordinary interest1 for they show that the civilization1 such as it was1 of the ,upper ,palolithic was very widely extended4 ,this marks an important social characteristic1 namely1 the readiness and willingness to take advantage of every step in human progress1 wherever it may have originated4 ,at this point1 therefore1 it is interesting to compare the ,magdalenian industry of ,germany with that of ,france47#ca7 ,germany shows the same technical and stylistic tendencies and the same evolutionary direction as ,france4 ,the mammalian life was1 of course1 the same in both countries1 for in each region the giant types of mammals still survived1 and the banded lemming of the arctic appears in the sheltered valleys of the ,dordogne as well as in ,belgium and in ,germany4 ,the vicissitudes of climate were undoubtedly the same2 we observe the alternation of cold moist climate in the early ,magdalenian along the upper ,danube as well as in the early ,magdalenian of the type station of ,la ,madeleine1 ,dordogne4 ,again1 we observe the transition into the dry cold climate in the steppe character of the fauna both along the upper ,rhine1 at ,munzingen1 and also beneath the shelter station of ,la ,madeleine1 as recorded by ,peyrony4 ,more vital still for this community of industrial culture was the community of race1 for at ,obercassel we find the same ,cr-,magnon type as that discovered beneath the sheltering cliffs of ,dordogne4 ,it appears probable that the inventions of the central region of ,dordogne travelled eastward when we note the fact that none of the prototypes of early forms of the harpoon which were common in southern ,france occur in any of the stations of central ,europe1 but the single-rowed harpoon is characteristic of the middle ,magdalenian all over ,germany4 ,other primitive ,magdalenian bone implements1 such as the bone spear point with the cleft base1 the btons1 and the needles1 are also of rare occurrence in the ,german stations4 ,in late ,magdalenian times1 however1 a complete community of culture is established1 for the industry of both countries in flint and bone appears to be very similar3 flint microliths appear in increasing number and variety2 beside the small flint flakes with blunted backs1 numerous feather-shaped flakes of ,pre-,tardenoisian type are found1 as well as the types of graving flints4 ,some specialties of ,french ,magdalenian culture did not find their way into ,germany2 for example1 the graver of the 'parrot-beak' type has been found in ,france but has not been traced far eastward4 ,in both countries1 however1 are found upper ,magdalenian chisels of reindeer horn and perfected bone needles1 btons1 and harpoons with double rows of barbs4 ,on the other hand1 works of art and decorative designs in horn and bone are almost entirely wanting in ,german localities1 with the exception of the stations of ,andernach and ,wildscheuer previously mentioned4 ,in late ,magdalenian times1 both in ,germany and ,france1 we find the ,eurasiatic forest fauna becoming more abundant4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdb4 ,entrance to the grotto of ,kesslerloch1 near ,lake ,constance4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdc4 ,the famous shelter station of ,schweizersbild1 under a protecting cliff of limestone1 near ,lake ,constance1 ,switzerland4 ,on the right stands ,dr4 ,jakob ,nesch1 who has devoted three years to the excavation and study of this site4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,the two famous ,swiss stations of ,kesslerloch and ,schweizersbild1 near ,lake ,constance1 appear throughout ,magdalenian times to have been in very close touch with the cultural advances of ,dordogne4 ,kesslerloch7#cb7 has yielded #ab1jjj flints of small dimensions1 resembling in their succession those of the type station of ,la ,madeleine2 also needles1 single and double harpoons1 dart-throwers1 btons1 as well as the fine engravings mentioned above2 bone sculpture is represented here in the unique head of a musk-ox 7,ovibos moschatus71 in carvings of the reindeer and of other animals on the batons and weapons of the chase4 ,kesslerloch lies on the edge of a moderately wide valley1 traversed by a brook2 in this sheltered1 well-watered1 hilly region1 the trees flourished and harbored the forest animals1 while the glaciers1 retreating and leaving damp and stony areas1 were closely followed by the tundra fauna2 the woolly rhinoceros and mammoth persisted here longer than in other parts of ,europe2 the horse of ,kesslerloch is said to show resemblances to the ,przewalski horse of the desert of ,gobi1 in central ,asia1 and is consequently referred to the steppe type4 ,the development of the flints takes place step by step with that of the sister cavern of ,schweizersbild1 and in early ,magdalenian times these flints are found associated with the arrival of the great migration of the arctic tundra rodents1 the banded lemmings 7,myodes torquatus74 ,a hearth with ashes and coals and many charred bones of old and young mammals1 including the woolly rhinoceros1 has been found here2 the animal life altogether includes twenty-five species of mammals1 among them the woolly mammoth1 woolly rhinoceros1 reindeer1 and lion4 ,less than four miles distant from ,kesslerloch1 in a small valley about two miles north of ,schaffhausen1 is the other famous ,swiss station of ,schweizersbild4 ,the ,cr-,magnons were attracted to this spot by the protecting cliff of isolated limestone rock rising sheer from the meadow-land1 at the base of which is a shelter facing southwest1 with an entrance of about #cj feet in height1 commanding a wide view of the distant valley4 ,in the accumulations at the base of this shelter we find a complete prehistory of the human1 industrial1 faunal1 and climatic changes of this region of ,switzerland from early ,magdalenian into ,neolithic times4 ,it was not until the true early ,magdalenian1 after both the ,aurignacian and ,solutrean stages had closed1 that man first found his way here during the ,bhl advance1 the period of the deposition of the ,upper ,rodent ,layer with its cold arctic and steppe fauna27#cc7 but from this time the grotto was occupied at intervals until full ,neolithic times4 ,the beginning of these industrial deposits is estimated by ,nesch as having occurred between #bd1jjj and #bi1jjj years ago1 but we have adopted a somewhat lower and more conservative estimate4 ,in descending order the various layers of this shelter1 as studied by ,nesch1 are as follows3 ,,section ,,of ,,the ,,schweizersbild ,,deposits ,neolithic #f4 ,layer of humous earth1 between #ae and #ai inches in thickness1 containing ,neolithic implements4 #e4 ,gray culture layer1 about #ae inches in thickness1 including many fire-hearths1 ornaments of shell1 polished ,neolithic flints1 and unglazed pottery4 ,the true forest fauna includes the brown bear1 badger1 marten1 wolf1 fox1 beaver1 hare1 squirrel1 short-horned wild ox 7,bos taurus brachyceros71 and reindeer1 also the domesticated goat and sheep4 ,upper ,palolithic #d4 ,thin layer of forest-living rodents1 principally squirrels4 ,split bones and worked flints2 no carvings in bone or horn2 industry of late ,magdalenian or close of ,magdalenian ,upper ,palolithic age2 evidences that climate was changing1 steppe conditions passing away1 and forests becoming more dominant2 only a few steppe species2 the forest species include the reindeer1 hare1 pika1 squirrel1 ermine1 and marten4 #c4 ,yellow culture layer1 steppe period1 rich in fire-hearths and yielding #ad1jjj flints of middle 8 and late ,magdalenian age2 engravings on reindeer antlers1 ornaments of shells and teeth4 ,mixed fauna with steppe and forest types predominant2 of the few tundra forms1 reindeer very abundant and also arctic fox1 but banded lemming and other tundra types entirely lacking2 steppe and desert fauna includes the kiang1 ,persian maral deer1 ,pallas's cat 7,felis manul71 steppe horse1 and steppe suslik2 of alpine type1 the ibex2 numerous forest species1 pine marten1 beaver1 squirrel1 red deer1 roe-deer1 and wild boar4 #b4 ,arctic tundra rodent layer1 #bj inches in thickness2 period of the ,bhl ,postglacial advance2 the banded lemming 7,myodes torquatus7 most abundant1 mingled with early ,magdalenian flint and bone implements2 one fire-hearth2 abundant tundra fauna1 including all tundra types except the ,obi lemming1 and the musk-ox 7,ovibos moschatus7 which is found in ,kesslerloch2 indications of a very cold1 moist climate2 the banded lemming1 arctic fox1 arctic hare1 reindeer1 wolverene1 ermine1 also such forest forms as the wolf1 fox1 bear1 weasel1 and a number of northern birds4 #a4 ,gravel bed and old river deposit1 recognized by ,boule as belonging to the moraines of the fourth glaciation4 ,this wonderful deposit of human artifacts and animal remains gives us a complete registration of the changes of climate in this region accompanying the changes of culture and the development of the ,magdalenian race4 ,turning our survey to the course of the ,danube1 we note that several ,magdalenian stations extend into the provinces of ,lower ,austria1 chief among them being both the open 'loess' station of ,aggsbach1 and that of ,gobelsburg2 there is also the ,hundssteig near ,krems1 better known as the station of ,krems1 and the cavern known as the ,gudenushhle2 in the latter station the characteristic btons1 javelins1 and bone needles have been found4,,bb ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdd4 ,the open loess station of ,aggsbach1 on the ,danube1 near ,krems4 ,after ,obermaier4 ,the cavern district of ,moravia attracted a relatively large population1 and among the numerous stations are the grottos of ,krz1 itn1 ,kostelk1 ,byciskala1 ,schoschuwka1 ,balcarovaskala1 ,klna1 and ,lautsch4 ,near the ,russian border bone implements like those of ,gudenushhle on the ,danube have been found at the station of ,klna1 and the industrial stratification of ipka is very clear4 ,not far from ,cracow1 across the ,russian border1 the caverns in the region of ,ojcow were entered by men carrying the ,magdalenian culture4 ,another site in ,russia is the grotto of ,maszycka1 and characteristic ,magdalenian harpoons1 needles1 and btons de commandement with other implements have also been found to the eastward1 in the neighborhood of ,kiev1 in the ,ukraine4 ,,decline ,,of ,,the ,,magdalenian ,,culture ,the highest point touched by the ,cr-,magnon race in the middle or high ,magdalenian appears to correspond broadly with the cold arid period of climate in the interval between the ,bhl and ,gschnitz advances in the ,alpine region1 during which the steppe mammals spread widely over southwestern ,europe4 ,the saiga antelope1 for example1 a highly characteristic steppe type1 is represented in one of the most skilful bone carvings found in the late ,magdalenian layers of ,mas d',azil2 also the steppe type of horse is frequently represented in the most advanced engravings of late ,magdalenian times4 ,how far this cold1 relatively dry climate influenced the artistic and creative energy of the ,cr-,magnons is largely a matter of conjecture4 ,the entirely independent records of ,la ,madeleine1 of ,schweizersbild1 and of ,kesslerloch concur in associating the highest stage of ,magdalenian history of art with the predominance of the steppe fauna and evidences of a cold dry climate4 ,that the mammoth still abounded is seen in the mammoth engravings which are superposed on those of the bison in ,font-de-,gaume4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bde4 ,front and side views of a saiga antelope carved upon a bone dart-thrower from the ,magdalenian deposits of ,mas d',azil4 ,after ,piette4 ,the succeeding life period is that of the retreat of the tundra and steppe mammals and of the increasing rarity of the reindeer and of the mammoth in southwestern ,europe2 it corresponds broadly with the returning cold and moist climate of the second ,postglacial advance known in the ,alps as the ,gschnitz stage4 ,with the spread of the forests and the retreat to the north of the reindeer1 the principal source both of the supply of food and clothing and of all the bone implements of industry and of the chase1 a new set of life conditions may have gradually become established4 ,if it is true1 as most students of geographical conditions and of the climate maintain1 that ,europe at the same time became more densely forested1 the chase may have become more difficult1 and the ,cr-,magnons may have begun to depend more and more upon the life of the streams and the art of fishing4 ,it is generally agreed that the harpoons were chiefly used for fishing and that many of the microlithic flints1 which now begin to appear more abundantly1 may have been attached to a shaft for the same purpose4 ,we know that similar microliths were used as arrow points in predynastic ,egypt4 ,breuil7#ce7 observes very significant industrial changes in closing ,magdalenian times3 first1 the beginning of small geometric forms of flints suggesting the ,tardenoisian types2 second1 the occasional use of stag horn in place of reindeer horn2 third1 a modification in the form of bone implements toward the patterns of ,azilian times2 fourth1 the rapid decline--one may almost say sudden disappearance--of the artistic spirit4 ,schematic and conventional designs begin to take the place of the free realistic art of the middle ,magdalenian4 ,thus the decline of the ,cr-,magnons as a powerful race may have been due partly to environmental causes and the abandonment of their vigorous nomadic mode of life1 or it may be that they had reached the end of a long cycle of psychic development1 which we have traced from the beginning of ,aurignacian times4 ,we know as a parallel that in the history of many civilized races a period of great artistic and industrial development may be followed by a period of stagnation and decline without any apparent environmental causes4 ,,cr-,,magnon ,,descendants ,,in ,,modern ,,europe ,we might attribute this great change1 which affected all of western ,europe1 to the extinction of the ,cr-,magnon race were it not for the existing evidence that the race survived throughout the ,azilian-,tardenoisian or close of the ,upper ,palolithic4 ,on the close of the ,palolithic the race broke up throughout western ,europe into many colonies1 which can perhaps be traced into ,neolithic and even into recent times4 ,the anatomical evidence for this survival theory chiefly consists of the highly characteristic form of the head4 ,in ,europe a very broad face and a long1 narrow cranium is such an infrequent combination that anthropologists maintain that it affords a means of identifying the descendants of the prehistoric ,cr-,magnon race wherever they persist to-day4 ,since ,dordogne was the geographic centre of the race in ,upper ,palolithic times1 is it merely a coincidence that ,dordogne is still the centre of a similar type8 ,ripley7#cf7 has given us a valuable rsum of our present knowledge of this subject4 ,the most significant trait of the long-headed people of ,dordogne is that in many cases the face is almost as broad as in the normal ,alpine round-headed type2 in other words1 it is strongly disharmonic2 in profile the back part of the head rises and in front view the head is narrowed at the top2 the skull is very low-vaulted2 the brow ridges are prominent2 the nose is well formed2 the cheek-bones are prominent1 and the powerful cheek muscles give a peculiarly rugged cast to the countenance4 ,the appearance1 however1 is not repellent1 but more often open and kindly4 ,the men are of medium height1 but very susceptible to environment as regards stature2 they are tall in fertile places1 and stunted in less prosperous districts4 ,they are not degenerate at all1 but keen and alert of mind4 ,the present people of ,dordogne agree with but one other type of men known to anthropologists1 namely1 the ancient ,cr-,magnon race4 ,the geographical evidence that here in ,dordogne we have to do with the survivors of the real ,cr-,magnon race seems to be sustained by a comparison of the characteristics of the prehistoric skulls found at ,cr-,magnon1 ,laugerie ,basse1 and elsewhere in ,dordogne1 with the heads of the types of to-day4 ,the cranial indices of the prehistoric skulls1 varying from #gj per cent to #gc per cent1 correspond with indices of the living head of #gb per cent to #ge per cent4 ,none of the people of ,dordogne are quite so long-headed as this1 the average index of the living head in an extreme district being #gf per cent2 but within the whole population there are much lower indices4 ,the probability of direct descent becomes stronger when we consider the disharmonic low-skulled shape of the ,cr-,magnon head and the remarkable elongation of the skull at the back4 ,in the prehistoric ,cr-,magnons the brows were strongly developed1 the eye orbits low1 the chin prominent4 ,the facial type has been characterized by de ,quatrefages7#cg7 as follows3 ,the eye depressed beneath the orbital vault2 the nose straight rather than arched2 the lips somewhat thick1 the jaw and the cheek-bones strongly developed1 the complexion very brown1 the hair very dark and growing low on the forehead--a whole which1 without being attractive1 was in no way repulsive4 ,in southern ,france we observe a continuity not only of the head form but of the prevalence of black hair and eyes4 ,why should this ,cr-,magnon type have survived at this point and have disappeared elsewhere8 ,in order to consider the particular cause of this persistence of a ,palolithic race1 we must1 with ,ripley1 broaden our horizon1 and consider the whole southwest from the ,mediterranean to ,brittany as a unit4 ,the survival is partly attributed to favorable geographical environment and partly to geological and racial barriers4 ,on the north the intrusion of the ,teutonic race was shut off and competition was narrowed down to the ,cr-,magnon and ,alpine types4 ,if the people of ,dordogne are veritable survivors of the ,cr-,magnons of the ,upper ,palolithic1 they certainly represent the oldest living race in western ,europe1 and is it not extremely significant that the most primitive language in ,europe1 that of the ,basques of the northern ,pyrenees1 is spoken near by1 only #bjj miles to the southwest8 ,is there possibly a connection between the original language of the ,cr-,magnons1 a race which once crowded the region of the ,cantabrian ,mountains and the ,pyrenees1 and the existing agglutinative language of the ,basques1 which is totally different from all the ,european tongues8 ,this hypothesis1 suggested by ,ripley17#ch7 is very well worth considering1 for it is not inconceivable that the ancestors of the ,basques conquered the ,cr-,magnons and subsequently acquired their language4 ,the prehistoric ,cr-,magnon men would seem1 therefore1 to have remained in or near their early settlements through all the changes of time and the vicissitudes of history4 ,it is1 perhaps1 observes ,ripley1 the most striking instance known of a persistency of population unchanged through thousands of years4 ,the geographic extension of this race was once very much wider than it is to-day4 ,the classical skull of ,engis1 ,belgium1 belongs to this type4 ,it has been traced from ,alsace in the east to the ,atlantic in the west4 ,ranke asserts that it is to be found to-day in the hills of ,thuringia1 and that it was a prevalent type there in the past4 ,verneau considers that it was the type prevailing among the extinct ,guanches of the ,canary ,islands4 ,collignon7#ci7 has identified it in northern ,africa1 and regards the ,cr-,magnons as a subvariety of the ,mediterranean race1 an opinion consistent at least with the archological evidence that this race came into ,europe with the ,aurignacian culture1 which was circum-,mediterranean in distribution4 ,traces of ,cr-,magnon head formation are found among the living ,berbers4 ,at present1 however1 this race is believed to survive only in a few isolated localities1 namely1 in ,dordogne1 at a small spot in ,landes1 near the ,garonne in southern ,france1 and at ,lannion in ,brittany1 where nearly one-third of the population is of the ,cr-,magnon type4 ,it is said to survive on the island of ,olron off the west coast of ,france1 and there is evidence of similar descent to be found among the people of the islands of northern ,holland4 ,the people of ,trysil1 on the ,scandinavian peninsula1 are characterized as having disharmonic features1 possibly representing an outcrop of the ,cr-,magnon type4 ,our interest in the fate of the ,cr-,magnons is so great that the ,guanche theory may also be considered2 it is known to be favored by many anthropologists3 von ,behr1 von ,luschan1 ,mehlis1 and especially by ,verneau4 ,the ,guanches were a race of people who formerly spread all over the ,canary ,islands and who preserved their primitive characteristics even after their conquest by ,spain in the fifteenth century4 ,the differences from the supposed modern ,cr-,magnon type may be mentioned first4 ,the skin of the ,guanches is described by the poet ,viana as light-colored1 and ,verneau considers that the hair was blond or light chestnut and the eyes blue2 the coloring1 however1 is somewhat conjectural4 ,the features of resemblance to the ancient ,cr-,magnons are numerous4 ,the minimum stature of the men was #e feet #g inches1 and the maximum #f feet #g inches2 in one locality the average male stature was over #f feet4 ,the women were comparatively small4 ,the most striking characters of the head were the fine forehead1 the extremely long skull1 and the pentagonal form of the cranium1 when seen from above1 caused by the prominence of the parietals--a ,cr-,magnon characteristic4 ,among the insignia of the chiefs was the arm-bone of an ancestor2 the skull also was carefully preserved4 ,the offensive weapons in warfare consisted of three stones1 a club1 and several knives of obsidian2 the defensive weapon was a simple lance4 ,the ,guanches used wooden swords with great skill4 ,the habitation of all the people was in large1 well-sheltered caverns1 which honeycombed the sides of the mountains2 all the walls of these caverns were decorated2 the ceilings were covered with a uniform coat of red ochre1 while the walls were decorated with various geometric designs in red1 black1 gray1 and white4 ,hollowed-out stones served as lamps4 ,we may conclude with ,verneau that there is evidence1 although not of a very convincing kind1 that the ,guanches were related to the ,cr-,magnons47#dj7 ,his observations on these supposed ,cr-,magnons of the ,canary ,islands are cited in the ,appendix1 ,note ,v4 ,we regret that ,verneau in his memoir7#da7 does not present his more recent views in regard to the prehistoric distribution of this great race4 7#a7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 p4 #bjc4 7#b7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bje4 7#c7 ,james1 #aijb4a4 7#d7 ,heim1 #ahid4a1 p4 #ahd4 7#e7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #bfb4 7#f7 ,fraunholz1 #aiaa4a4 7#g7 ,geikie1 #aiad4a1 pp4 #be1 #bf4 7#h7 ,boule1 #ahii4a4 7#i7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 pp4 #bjc-bje4 7#aj7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #cda1 #cdb4 7#aa7 ,martin1 ,r41 #aiad4a1 pp4 #ae1 #af4 7#ab7 ,verworn1 #aiad4a4 7#ac7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #fdf4 7#ad7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 p4 #bja4 7#ae7 ,lartet1 #ahge4a4 7#af7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 p4 #bac4 7#ag7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #acf4 7#ah7 ,breuil1 op4 cit41 pp4 #baf1 #bag4 7#ai7 ,breuil1 #aiji4c4 7#bj7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #daj4 7#ba7 ,cartailhac1 #aijf4a1 pp4 #bbg1 #bbh4 7#bb7 ,rivire1 #ahig4a2 #ahig4b4 7#bc7 ,reinach1 #aiac4a4 7#bd7 ,breuil1 #aiab4a1 p4 #bjb4 7#be7 ,cartailhac1 #aijh4a4 7#bf7 ,capitan1 #aijh4a1 pp4 #eja-ead4 7#bg7 ,ibid41 #aiaj4a1 pp4 #ei-acb4 7#bh7 ,breuil1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #aif1 #aig4 7#bi7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #aaf4 7#cj7 ,fraunholz1 #aiaa4a4 7#ca7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #aed4 7#cb7 ,dchelette1 #aijh4a1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #aia-aid4 7#cc7 ,nehring1 #ahhj4a2 #ahif4a4 7#cd7 ,bayer1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #ac-ba4 7#ce7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 pp4 #bab1 #baf4 7#cf7 ,ripley1 #ahii4a1 pp4 #ci1 #afe1 #agc1 #agd-agi1 #baa1 #djf4 7#cg7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #agf4 7#ch7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #aha4 7#ci7 ,collignon1 #ahij4a4 7#dj7 ,verneau1 #ahia4a4 7#da7 ,ibid41 #aijf4a4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,close ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,stone ,,age--,,invasion ,,of ,,new ,,races--,,history ,,of ,,the ,,mas ,d',,azil1 ,,of ,f,,re-,,en-,,tardenois--,,forest ,,environment ,,and ,,life--,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,azilian-,,tardenoisian ,,culture--,,characters ,,and ,,customs ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,races--,,transition ,,to ,,the ,,neolithic ,,and ,,relations ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,and ,,new ,,races--,,apparent ,,chief ,,lines ,,of ,,human ,,descent ,,and ,,of ,,human ,,migration ,,into ,,western ,,europe4 ,we have now reached the very close of the ,old ,stone ,age1 a period which is believed to extend between #aj1jjj and #g1jjj years before the present era4 ,the entrance to the final cultures of the ,upper ,palolithic1 known as the ,azilian-,tardenoisian1 marks a transition even more abrupt than that witnessed in any preceding stage4 ,it is not a development2 it is a revolution4 ,the artistic spirit entirely disappears2 there is no trace of animal engraving or sculpture2 painting is found only on flattened pebbles or in schematic or geometric designs on wall surfaces4 ,of bone implements only harpoons and polishers remain1 and even these are of inferior workmanship and without any trace of art4 ,the flint industry continues the degeneration begun in the ,magdalenian and exhibits a new life and impulse only in the fashioning of the extremely small or microlithic tools and weapons known as ',tardenoisian4' ,both bone and flint weapons of the chase disappear1 yet the stag is hunted and its horns are used in the manufacture of harpoons4 ,this is the ',age of the ,stag1' the final stage of the ',cave ,period' in western ,europe1 and is subsequent to the ',age of the ,reindeer' in the south4 ,it would appear as if the very same regions formerly occupied by the great hunting ,cr-,magnon race from ,aurignacian to ,magdalenian times were now inhabited by a race or races largely employed in fishing4 ,the country is thickly forested4 ,the climate is still cold and extremely moist1 and human life everywhere is in the grottos or entrances to the caverns4 ,,invasion ,,of ,,four ,,new ,,races ,,in ,,closing ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,times ,how far this revolution is due to the decline of the ,cr-,magnon race and how far to the invasion of one or more new races is very difficult to determine in the absence of the anatomical evidence derived from skeletal remains4 ,two new races had certainly found their way along the ,danube as shown in the burials of ,ofnet1 in eastern ,bavaria2 one is extremely broad-headed and perhaps of central ,asiatic origin1 while the other is extremely long-headed and perhaps of southerly or ,mediterranean origin4 ,it is possible that these two races correspond respectively with the easterly and southerly industrial influences which are observed in the ,azilian-,tardenoisian stage4 ,the former is the first brachycephalic race to enter western ,europe1 for it will be recalled that all the previous races1 the ,cr-,magnons1 the ,brnns1 and the ,neanderthals1 are dolichocephalic4 ,the long-headed race found at ,ofnet is very clearly distinguished from the disharmonic long-headed ,cr-,magnon race by the narrowness of the face2 in other words1 it is an harmonic type of head and face1 which may have been ,mediterranean in origin1 like the so-called ',mediterranean race' of ,sergi4 ,this fresh invasion of western ,europe by two races arriving by one or more of the great migration routes from the vast ,eurasiatic mainland to the east1 races with a relatively high brain development1 is certainly one of the most surprising features of the close of the ,palolithic ,period1 for we have long been accustomed to think that these fresh easterly and southerly invasions began only in ,neolithic times4 ,as the ,upper ,palolithic draws to an end1 there is1 according to ,breuil1 still another industrial influence making itself felt3 it comes from the northeast along the shores of the ,baltic4 ,putting together all the fragmentary evidence which we possess1 we may regard western ,europe at the close of the ,old ,stone ,age as peopled by four and possibly by five distinct races1 as follows3 #e4 ,arriving late in ,palolithic times1 a race along the shores of the ,baltic1 known only by its ,maglemose industry2 possibly a ,teutonic race4 #d4 ,a south ,mediterranean race1 known only by its ,tardenoisian industry1 migrating along the northern shores of ,africa and spreading over ,spain2 with a conventional and schematic art2 probably an advance wave of the true ',mediterranean' race of ,sergi2 possibly identical with race #c below4 7,the same as ,race #d1 p4 #bgh47 #c4 ,a long-headed race found at ,ofnet1 in eastern ,bavaria2 possibly a branch of the true ',mediterranean' race #d above1 but not related to the ,brnn4 7,possibly the same as ,race #d47 #b4 ,the newly arriving ,furfooz-,grenelle race1 broad-headed2 known along the ,danube at ,ofnet1 in eastern ,bavaria1 and northward in ,belgium2 possibly a branch of the ',alpine' race4 7,the same as ,race #e1 p4 #bgh47 #a4 ,the surviving ,cr-,magnons1 in a stage of industrial decline1 pursuing the ,azilian industry1 probably inhabiting ,france and northern ,spain4 ,the broad-headed ,ofnet race mentioned above is apparently the same as the ,furfooz-,grenelle race1 and may also correspond with the existing ,alpine-,celtic race of western ,europe4 ,the long-headed race of ,ofnet may correspond with the existing ',mediterranean' race of ,sergi4 ,the presence of the ,cr-,magnon race in western ,europe during ,azilian-,tardenoisian times is not sustained1 so far as we know1 by any anatomical evidence1 but is suggested by the mode of burial of two skeletons found by ,piette in the ,azilian deposits of the station of ,mas d',azil4 ,this burial1 like that of ,ofnet1 is typical of ,upper ,palolithic and not of ,neolithic times4 ,these skeletons lay in the ',azilian' layer 7,,vi7 described below4 ,as the smaller bones were missing1 ,piette concluded that the remains had been for some time exposed to the weather before burial1 and that the larger bones had been scraped and cleaned with flint knives1 and then colored red with oxide of iron before interment4 ,according to other authorities1 the traces of scraping and cleaning are doubtful2 there can be no question1 however1 that the separation of the bones of the skeleton and the use of coloring matter constitute strong evidence that this ,azilian burial was the work of members of the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,in addition to what we have said as to the survival of the ,cr-,magnon race in the preceding chapter1 the opinion of ,cartailhac7#a7 may be cited3 ,the race of ,cr-,magnon is well determined4 ,there is no doubt about their high stature1 and ,topinard is not the only one who believes that they were blonds4 ,we have traced them through the ',reindeer ,period' into the ,neolithic ,epoch1 where they were widely distributed and positively related either to the ancient or actual populations of modern ,france1 being especially characteristic of our region ,france and of the western ,mediterranean4 ,while the race of ,cr-,magnon predominated in the south and in the west1 that of ,furfooz predominated in the northeast of ,france and in ,belgium4 ,these brachycephals were probably brown-haired or of dark coloring4 ,but before observing further the characters of these four or five races1 let us examine their industries4 ,,discovery ,,of ,,the ,,azilian ,,type ,,station ,as remarked above1 it is believed that these industries prevailed between #g1jjj and #aj1jjj years before our era1 that is1 between the close of ,magdalenian times and the beginning of the ,neolithic or ,new ,stone ,age4 ,this transition period corresponds with the interval in which the ,azilian-,tardenoisian culture swept all over western ,europe and completely replaced the ,magdalenian4 ,from ,castillo in the ,cantabrian ,mountains of northern ,spain to ,ofnet on the upper ,danube there is a complete replacement by this new culture4 ,the ,magdalenian culture does not linger anywhere2 it is totally eliminated2 the suddenness of the change both in the animal life and in the industry is nowhere more clearly indicated than at the type station of ,mas d',azil in southern ,france1 which may now be described4 ,in #ahhg ,edouard ,piette commenced his exploration of the deposits in the great cavern of ,mas d',azil4 ,this station takes its name from the little hamlet of ,mas d',azil in the foot-hills of the ,pyrenees about forty miles southwest from ,toulouse4 ,here the ,river ,arize winds for a quarter of a mile through a lofty natural tunnel traversed by the highway from ,st4 ,girons to ,carcassonne4 ,a rich layer of ,magdalenian deposits first attracted ,piette's attention1 and he found here some of the finest examples of late ,magdalenian art1 but above these deposits he discovered a hitherto unrecognized industrial stage1 to which he gave the name ,azilian4 ,the ,azilian layers yielded over one thousand specimens of flattened and double-barbed harpoons made of the horns of the stag1 thus widely differing from the late ,magdalenian harpoons which are rounded and made of the horns of the reindeer4 ,the entire succession of deposits1 as explored by ,piette1 is an epitome of the prehistory of ,europe from early ,magdalenian times to the ,age of ,bronze1 and should be compared with the successive deposits of ,castillo 7p4 #afd71 ,sirgenstein 7p4 #bjb71 ,ofnet 7p4 #dgf71 and ,schweizersbild 7p4 #ddg74 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdf4 ,western entrance to the great station of ,mas d',azil4 ,here the ,river ,arize winds for a quarter of a mile through a lofty natural tunnel traversed by the highway from ,st4 ,girons to ,carcassonne4 ,photograph by ,n4 ,c4 ,nelson4 ,the ,mas d',azil section is as follows3 ,,prehistoric ,,and ,,neolithic ,,ix4 ,iron implements1 pottery of the ,gauls4 ,at the top ,gallo-,roman remains1 glass and glazed pottery4 ,,viii4 ,middle ,neolithic and ,age of ,bronze2 layer of pottery1 polished stone implements1 traces of copper and of bronze4 ,,vii4 ,dawn of the ,neolithic4 ,fauna includes the horse1 urus1 stag1 and wild boar4 ,chipped and polished flints1 awls and polishers in bone2 harpoons rare4 ,beginnings of pottery4 ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,vi4 ,,azilian1 red archological layer1 masses of peroxide of iron4 ,extremely moist climate4 ,broad flat harpoons of stag horn perforated at the base1 numerous flattened and painted pebbles 7galets71 flints of degenerate ,magdalenian form1 especially small rounded planers and knife flakes1 awls and polishers in bone4 ,no trace of reindeer in the fire-hearths2 stag abundant1 also roe-deer and brown bear2 wild boar1 wild cattle1 beaver1 a variety of birds4 ,no trace of polished stone implements4 ,interred in this layer1 beneath the deposits of streaked cinders and quite undisturbed1 two human skeletons were found1 which ,piette believed had been macerated with flints and then colored red with peroxide of iron4 ,v4 ,sterile finely stratified loam layer1 a flood deposit of the ,river ,arize4 ,,iv4 ,,late ,,magdalenian culture layer2 twelve double-rowed harpoons made of reindeer horn1 a few fashioned from stag horn2 numerous engravings and sculptures in bone4 ,remains of the reindeer rare in the hearths2 those of the royal stag 7,cervus elaphus7 abundant4 ,,iii4 ,a sterile flood deposit of the ,river ,arize4 ,,ii4 ,,middle ,,and ,,early ,,magdalenian culture layers1 with barbed harpoons of reindeer horn2 flint implements of early ,magdalenian type1 bone needles4 ,bones of the reindeer abundant4 ,i4 ,gravel deposits4 ,interspersed fire-hearths4 ,the total thickness of these culture deposits is #h4jc m41 or #bf feet #d inches4 ,the ,,azilian type layer 7,,vi7 containing flat harpoons of stag horn and painted pebbles1 intercalated between the deposits of the ,reindeer ,age and the ,neolithic layers1 is1 on account of its stratigraphic position1 the most interesting and instructive of all the sites representing this phase of transition2 and ,piette was fully justified in giving to the corresponding culture period the name of ,azilian47#b7 ,the transformation of art and industry1 indicated in the ,azilian culture layer1 is as decided as that in the animal life4 ,we observe in this layer no trace of the animal engravings or sculptures which occur so abundantly in the late ,magdalenian layer below2 the use of pigments is confined to the paintings of schematic or geometric figures on the flattened pebbles4 ,there is no suggestion of art in any of the bone implements1 and the harpoons of stag horn are rudely fashioned2 this type of harpoon appears to be the chief survivor of the rich variety of implements noted in the ,magdalenian layer below4 ,the stag horn harpoon1 moreover1 is fashioned with far less skill than the beautiful ,magdalenian harpoons2 like them it has two rows of barbs1 but they are not cut with the same delicacy and exactness4 ,as to the form of the new model1 it is explained by the nature of the new material2 the interior of the stag horn being composed of a spongy tissue1 could not be utilized as could the harder and more compact interior of the reindeer horn2 the craftsman1 therefore1 was obliged to fashion his harpoon out of the exterior of one side of the stag horn1 and in consequence to make it flat4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdg4 ,typical ,azilian harpoons of stag horn4 ,after de ,mortillet4 #bhg4 ,a single-rowed harpoon from ,mas d',azil4 #bhh4 ,harpoon with perforated base from the shelter of ,la ,tourasse1 ,haute-,garonne4 #bhi4 ,double-rowed harpoon from the same shelter4 #bij4 ,a similar harpoon with the barbs alternate instead of opposite1 from ,mas d',azil4 #bia4 ,harpoon with triangular base and round perforation from the ,grotte de la ,vache1 near ,tarascon4 ,all one-third actual size1 except #bia1 which is four-ninths actual size4 ,there are no bone needles1 no javelins or sagaies2 nor are there any of the beautifully carved weapons of bone4 ,there is also a reduction in the uses to which the split bones are put1 such as the large lissoirs or polishers4 ,the bone implements appear to be derived from an impoverished late ,aurignacian stage2 the same is true of the flint implements1 for we observe a return of the keeled scraper 7grattoir carn74 ,there is also a return of certain types of graving tools and of the knife-like form of the flake2 even some of the small geometric types of flints resemble those of the ,aurignacian levels4 ,the many shells of the moisture-loving snail ,helix nemoralis1 found in the fire-hearths of ,mas d',azil are proofs of the humidity of the climate1 a fact confirmed by the contemporary flood deposits of the ,arize4 ,the frequent and heavy rains drove the last few representatives of the steppe fauna away to the north4 ,these climatic conditions favored the formation of peat-bogs1 so frequent to-day in the north of ,france1 and also the growth of vast forests1 inhabited by the stag1 which extended over the whole country4 ,the pebbles of ,mas d',azil are painted on one side with peroxide of iron1 a deposit of which is found in the neighborhood of the cave4 ,the color1 mixed in shells of ,pecten1 or in hollowed pebbles or on flat stones1 was applied either with the finger or with a brush4 ,the many enigmatic designs consist chiefly of parallel bands1 rows of discs or points1 bands with scalloped edges1 cruciform designs1 ladder-like patterns 7scalariform7 such as are found in the ',azilian' engravings and paintings of the caverns1 and undulating lines4 ,these graphic combinations resemble certain syllabic and alphabetic characters of the gean1 ,cypriote1 ,phnician1 and ,greco-,latin inscriptions4 ,however curious these resemblances may be1 they are not sufficient to warrant any theory connecting the signs on the painted pebbles of the ,azilians with the alphabetic characters of the oldest known systems of writing47#c7 ,piette attempted to explain some of the exceedingly crude designs on these pebbles as a system of notation1 others as pictographs and religious symbols1 and some few as genuine alphabetical signs1 and suggested that the cavern of ,mas d',azil was an ,upper ,palolithic school where reading1 reckoning1 writing1 and the symbols of the sun were learned and taught4 ,the very wide distribution of these symbolic pebbles and the painting of similar designs on the walls of the caverns certainly prove that they had some religious or economic significance1 which may be revealed by subsequent research4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdh4 ,azilian galets coloris1 flat1 painted pebbles1 from the type station of ,mas d',azil4 ,after ,piette4 ,,the ,,tardenoisian ,,type ,,station ,turning from the region of the ,pyrenees in ,azilian times1 we observe the region lying between the ,seine and the ,meuse in northern ,france as the scene of a contemporary industry4 ,at the station of ,fre-en-,tardenois1 in the ,department of the ,aisne1 is found an especially large number of the pygmy flints27#d7 these present various geometric forms1 including the primitive triangular1 as well as the rhomboidal1 trapezoidal1 and semicircular2 together1 they were designated by de ,mortillet as ,tardenoisian flints1 and in #ahif1 in monographing this microlithic flint industry1 he traced them throughout ,france1 ,belgium1 ,england1 ,portugal1 ,spain1 ,italy1 ,germany1 and ,russia1 also along the southern ,mediterranean through ,algiers1 ,tunis1 ,egypt1 and eastward into ,syria and even ,india4 ,these geometric flints were at first attributed to a primitive invasion which was supposed to have occurred at the beginning of ,neolithic times2 thus the ,tardenoisian industry was considered as contemporaneous with that of the ,campignian1 which is early ,neolithic4 ,it was further observed that the topographical location of the stations closely followed the borders of ocean inlets1 or of river courses1 and when the food materials found in the hearths were compared1 it appeared that these flints were used principally by fishermen or tribes subsisting upon fish4 ,from an examination of the flints1 it would appear that a very large number of them were adapted for insertion in small harpoons1 or that those of grooved form might even have been used as fish-hooks4 ,thus the picture was drawn of a population of fishermen4 ,the ,tardenoisian1 therefore1 was for a long time regarded as contemporaneous with the early ,neolithic rather than with the close of ,palolithic times1 but as exploration proceeded it was found that neither the remains of domestic animals nor any traces of pottery occur in any of these ,tardenoisian deposits1 which consequently have nothing in common with the true ,neolithic culture4 ,the problem was finally solved in #aiji1 when the grotto of ,valle near ,gibaja1 ,santander1 in northern ,spain1 was discovered by ,breuil and ,obermaier47#e7 ,here was a classic ,azilian deposit containing all the well-known ,azilian types of bone implements1 such as fine harpoons1 carvings in deer horn1 bone javelins1 polishers of deer bone1 flint flakes resembling those of the late ,magdalenian1 also microlithic flints of typical geometric ,tardenoisian form4 ,this discovery established the fact that the lower levels of the ,tardenoisian industry were not really to be distinguished from the ,azilian1 for here beneath layers with painted pebbles and harpoons of ,azilian style were harpoons with single and double rows of barbs of ,magdalenian pattern1 but cut in stag horn instead of reindeer horn4 ,the mammalian life in this true ,azilian-,tardenoisian layer includes the chamois1 roe-deer1 wild boar1 and urus1 or wild cattle4 ,in a layer just below1 which represents the close of the ,magdalenian industrial period1 there are found1 although rarely1 remains of the reindeer1 an animal hitherto unknown in this part of ,spain1 also the wild boar1 the bison1 the ibex1 and the lynx4 ,after this discovery it could no longer be questioned that the ,azilian and ,tardenoisian were contemporary4 ,as to the relation of these two industries1 ,breuil remarks7#f7 that the prolongation of the ,tardenoisian types of flints is observed in ,italy and in ,belgium1 but neither the term ',tardenoisian' nor the term ',azilian' is sufficiently comprehensive to embrace the totality of these little industries1 which will finally be distinguished clearly from each other4 ,of the two the ,azilian represents the prolongation of an ancient period of industry1 the progress of which was apparently from south to north1 as we can trace the distribution of the characteristic flat harpoons of deer horn from the ,cantabrian ,mountains and the ,pyrenees1 through southern and central ,france1 to ,belgium1 ,england1 and the western coast of ,scotland4 ,the later industrial phase1 the ,tardenoisian1 with its geometric trapeziform flints1 originally appears along the southern ,mediterranean in ,tunis and to the eastward in the ,crimea1 while in ,france it represents a final phase of the ,palolithic1 closely approaching the period of the earliest ,neolithic or pre-,campignian hearths common along the ,danube and observed in the vicinity of ,lige4 ,thus the most comprehensive term by which to designate the ensemble of these implements1 in ,europe at least1 would be ,azilian-,tardenoisian4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bdi4 ,small geometric flints characteristic of the ,tardenoisian industry4 ,after de ,mortillet4 #bie to #cjc1 #cba1 #cbb1 #cbf4 ,from various sites in northern ,france4 #caa4 ,uchaux1 ,vaucluse1 ,france4 #cje1 #cae1 #cbj4 ,valley of the ,meuse1 ,belgium4 #cab1 #cac4 ,cabeo da ,arruda1 ,portugal4 #cjd1 #cad4 ,italy4 #cag1 #cah1 #cbi4 ,tunis4 #cbe4 ,egypt4 #cjf1 #caj1 #cbd1 #cbh4 ,kizil-,koba1 ,crimea4 #cjg to #cji1 #caf1 #cai1 #cbc1 #cbg4 ,india4 ,all one-half actual size4 ,,environment ,,and ,,mammalian ,,life ,it appears that the chief geographic change during this period was a subsidence of the northern coasts of ,europe and an advance of the sea causing the circulation of warm oceanic currents and a more humid climate favorable to reforestation4 ,to the north1 in ,belgium1 the tundra fauna lingered during the extension of the early ,tardenoisian industry1 for here we still find remains of the reindeer1 the arctic fox1 and the arctic hare mingled in the fire-hearths with flints of ,tardenoisian type4 ,this1 observes ,obermaier1 constitutes proof that the ,tardenoisian1 with the ,azilian1 must be placed at the very close of ,postglacial time and with the final stage of ,upper ,palolithic industry4 ,to the south1 in the region of ,dordogne and the ,pyrenees1 the tundra fauna had entirely disappeared1 as well as that of the steppes and of the alpine heights2 the prevailing animal in the forests is the royal stag1 adapted to forests of temperate type and associated with the ,eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which now dominated western ,europe4 ,the only survivor of the great ,african-,asiatic fauna is the lion1 which appears in the late ,palolithic stations in the region of the ,pyrenees2 the arctic wolverene also gives the fauna a ,postglacial aspect1 for1 like the lion1 it is never found in central or western ,europe after the close of ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,other enemies of the herbivorous fauna were the wolf and the brown bear4 ,besides the red deer1 or stag1 the forests at this time were filled with roe-deer4 ,to the south in the ,pyrenees the moose still survived1 and to the north there were still found herds of reindeer which survived in central ,europe as late as the twelfth century4 ,wild boars were numerous1 and in the streams were found the beaver and the otter4 ,in the forest borders and in the meadows hares and rabbits were abundant4 ,through the forests and meadows of southern ,france and along the borders of the ,danube ranged the wild cattle 7,bos primigenius74 ,it would appear from our limited knowledge of the life of ,azilian-,tardenoisian times that bison were found chiefly in the northern parts of ,europe4 ,there is little direct evidence in regard to the wild horse1 the remains of which do not occur in the hearths of ,azilian times4 ,our knowledge of the life of the ,spanish peninsula at a period closely succeeding this is indirectly derived from the animal frescos in certain caverns of northern ,spain1 which were formerly attributed to the ,upper ,palolithic but are now referred rather to the early ,neolithic4 ,here are found representations of the ibex1 the stag1 the fallow deer1 the wild cattle1 and also of the wild horses4 ,this would indicate that wild horses were still roaming all over western ,europe at the close of ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,the presence of the moose in late ,palolithic times at ,alpera1 on the high plateaus of ,spain1 has been determined2 this animal has also been found in the ,pyrenees during the ,azilian stage47#g7 ,the great contrast between the mammalian life of ,magdalenian and that of ,azilian-,tardenoisian times is witnessed in the stations along the upper ,danube1 as described by ,koken47#h7 ,in ,hhlefels1 ,schmiechenfels1 and ,propstfels1 associated with implements of the late ,magdalenian industry1 are found ten types of animals belonging to the forests and four characteristic of the forests and meadows1 or fourteen species altogether4 ,with these are mingled two alpine forms1 the ibex and the alpine shrew2 also two types of mammals belonging to the steppes1 and no less than six mammals and birds from the tundras1 namely1 the reindeer1 the arctic fox1 the ermine1 the arctic hare1 the banded lemming1 and the arctic ptarmigan4 ,in wide contrast to this assemblage of late ,magdalenian life on the upper ,danube1 there appear in ,azilian times along the shores of the middle ,danube in the stations of ,ofnet and of ,istein the following characteristic forest forms3 ,sus scrofa ferus 7wild boar71 ,cervus elaphus 7stag71 ,capreolus capreolus 7roe-deer71 ,bos 787 primigenius 7urus71 ,lepus 7rabbit or hare71 ,ursus arctos 7brown bear71 ,felis leo 7lion71 ,gulo luscus 7common wolverene71 ,lynchus lynx 7lynx71 ,vulpes 7fox71 ,mustela martes 7marten71 ,castor fiber 7,european beaver71 ,mus 7field-mouse71 ,turdus 7thrush74 ,it thus appears that the alpine1 the steppe1 and the tundra faun had entirely disappeared from this region4 ,,origin ,,and ,,distribution ,,of ,,the ,,azilian-,,tardenoisian ,,industry ,this industry represents the last stage of the ,old ,stone ,age4 ,the decline in the art of fashioning flints1 begun in ,magdalenian times1 appears to continue in the ,azilian-,tardenoisian4 ,as to the tiny symmetrical flints which are characteristic of this period1 among the microliths of almost all the late ,magdalenian stations pre-,tardenoisian forms are found which may be regarded as prototypes of the geometric ,tardenoisian flints27#i7 this represents a new fashion established in flint-making under influences coming from the south4 ,there was also a natural or local ,azilian evolution from the ,magdalenian types and technique4 ,in general the flint implements which had so long prevailed in western ,europe become smaller in diameter and more carelessly retouched1 showing marked deterioration even from the late ,magdalenian stages4 ,for the preparation of hides and the fashioning of bone we discover unsymmetrical planing tools 7grattoirs71 also small1 well-formed oval scrapers 7racloirs71 and microlithic scrapers4 ,borers 7peroirs7 with oblique ends and gravers 7burins7 made of small flakes are the types of implements which most frequently occur1 but the great variety of borers1 so characteristic of the ,aurignacian and the ,magdalenian industries1 had entirely disappeared in ,azilian times4 ,the marks of industrial degeneration are also conspicuous in the bone implements1 which show a very great deterioration in number and quality as compared with the ,magdalenian1 and which are principally confined to three types--the harpoons1 the awls 7poinons71 and the smoothers 7lissoirs71 together with very small bone borers 7peroirs74 ,the distinctive feature of the ,azilian bone industry is the flat harpoon of stag horn2 it is known that the use of stags' antlers for fashioning harpoons began in the late ,magdalenian1 when most of them were still being fashioned from reindeer horn4 ,these flat ,azilian harpoons succeed the type of the double-rowed1 cylindrical harpoons of the late ,magdalenian1 and are found mainly where the rivers1 lakes1 or pools offered favorable conditions for fishing4 ,thus the ,azilian bone-harpoon industry1 like the ,tardenoisian microlithic flint industry1 was largely pursued by fisherfolk4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bej4 ,geographic distribution of the principal ,azilian and ,tardenoisian industrial stations in western ,europe1 also ,campigny and ,robenhausen4 ,we may imagine that the gradual disappearance of the reindeer1 an animal much more easily pursued and killed than the stag1 was one of the causes of the substitution of the various arts of fishing for those of hunting4 ,it is to the excessively small or microlithic flints that the name ,tardenoisian especially applies1 and it is the vast multiplication of these microliths and their wide distribution over the whole area of the ,mediterranean and of western ,europe which constitutes the most distinctive feature of this industrial stage47#aj7 ,the triangular flint 7,fig4 #bdi7 is certainly the most ancient ,tardenoisian type4 ,it occurs in the ,azilian stations of the ,cantabrian ,mountains and of the ,pyrenees1 accompanied by the painted pebbles and with other flints of ,azilian type1 but without the graving-tools2 to the east it is found in the stations of ,savoy2 and along the ,danube it occurs at ,ofnet1 associated with remains of the lion and the moose1 also with ornamental necklaces composed of the perforated teeth of the deer1 identical with those found in the type station of ,mas d',azil in the ,pyrenees4 ,to the north this typical early ,azilian culture extends to ,istein1 in ,baden1 where it includes the microlithic flint flakes1 the gravers1 and the little round scrapers associated here also with the stag and the prehistoric forest and meadow fauna of western ,europe4 ,exactly the same stage of industrial development occurs in the grotto of ,hhlefels1 near ,nuremberg1 and in the shelter station of ,sous ,sac1 ,ain4 ,we invariably find proofs of the variety of these pygmy flints as well as of their continuity from one station to another4 ,all these facts compel us to assign a very long period of time to the spread of these industrial types4 ,the question which arises as to the sources of this special ,tardenoisian industry again finds archologists divided4 ,schmidt inclines to the autochthonous theory and regards the microlithic flint industry as an outgrowth of tendencies already well developed in the ,magdalenian4 ,breuil1 on the other hand17#aa7 dwells strongly on the evidence for circum-,mediterranean sources4 ,in putting the questions1 ,who were the ,azilians8 ,whence did they come8 ,what were their ancestors8 he is disposed to give the answer already quoted1 that1 whichever industry is examined1 we are always obliged to look toward the south1 toward some point along the ,mediterranean1 for the origin of these microlithic flints4 ,in ,italy1 which he believes to have remained in an ,aurignacian industrial stage throughout all the long period of ,magdalenian time1 he finds at ,mentone a layer overlying the ,aurignacian and containing small flints recalling the geometric forms of the ,azilian1 as well as a multitude of the small round scrapers 7racloirs7 characteristic of ,azilian times4 ,the upper layers at ,mentone on the ,riviera are paralleled by those observed near ,otranto1 in ,sicily4 ,it is certain1 he continues1 that all around the ,mediterranean there was a number of distinct centres where microlithic implements of geometric form appeared1 and where the accompanying industries1 in different stages of development1 were related to an ,upper ,palolithic culture consisting of a continuous ,aurignacian type4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bea4 ,azilian stone implements of types surviving from the ,magdalenian and earlier ,palolithic times4 ,after ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 #a4 ,finely flaked point from the large cave of ,ofnet4 #b1 #c4 ,small ,azilian grattoirs1 or planing tools1 from ,istein1 on the upper ,danube4 #d4 ,slender blade from ,kleinkems4 #e4 ,borer from ,wste ,scheuer4 #f4 ,polyhedral borer from ,wste ,scheuer4 #g4 ,incurved scraper from ,istein4 #h1 #i1 #aj4 ,gravers or borers from ,istein4 #aa4 ,double graver or borer with points at the right and left of the upper end4 #a to #d1 actual size2 #e to #aa1 one-half actual size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beb4 ,azilian double-rowed harpoons of stag horn1 from ,oban1 on the west coast of ,scotland4 ,after ,boule4 ,the labors of de ,morgan1 ,capitan1 and others have thrown great light on the ,palolithic of ,tunis1 where a flint culture was developed only slightly different from that of the ,azilian of ,valle1 ,santander1 of the ,mas d',azil1 ,arige1 and of ,bobache1 ,drme4 ,a resemblance is also found in ,portugal2 and southern ,spain1 despite its poverty of typical implements1 shows a similar evolution4 ,near ,salamanca1 northwest of ,madrid1 ,spain1 the grottos contain schematic figures and colored pebbles resembling the ,azilian4 ,in ,portugal the hearths of ,mugem and ,cabeo da ,arruda are distinguished by their triangular microliths and are undoubtedly ,pre-,neolithic1 because there is neither pottery nor any trace of domesticated animals1 excepting1 possibly1 the dog4 ,to the north of ,europe the discoveries in ,belgium have especial importance1 for typical ,azilian implements1 including small round scrapers1 lateral gravers1 elongated triangular microliths1 and knife flakes are found associated with the remains of the reindeer in the grotto of ,remouchamp and at ,zonhoven4 ,it appears in ,belgium1 as in ,italy1 that the use of the ,tardenoisian microlithic flint types is prolonged into a later time than that of the typical ,azilian flint implements--the scrapers1 gravers1 borers1 and knife flakes--which1 as we have seen1 appear at the end of the true ,magdalenian4 ,on the other side of the ,english ,channel we again find these flints always unmingled with pottery and usually distributed along the sea or river shores4 ,the best-known stations are those of ,hastings1 directly across the ,channel opposite ,boulogne1 and of ,seven ,oaks1 near ,london2 in ,settle1 ,yorkshire1 is the ,victoria ,cave station4 ,to the north1 in ,scotland1 four ,azilian stations have been discovered around ,oban1 on the western coast near the head of the ,firth of ,lorne1 while ,azilian harpoons have also been found on the ,isle of ,oronsay1 at its entrance4 ,thus the spread of the very small ,tardenoisian flint implements in the final stages of the ,palolithic precedes the southern advent of the ,neolithic4 ,in ,germany only six ,azilian-,tardenoisian stations have thus far been discovered3 two to the east of ,dsseldorf1 one in the neighborhood of ,weimar1 two on the headwaters of the ,rhine1 near ,basle1 and1 by far the most important1 the large and small grottos of ,ofnet1 on a small tributary of the ,danube northwest of ,munich4 ,this last is exceptionally important because it is the only station where skeletons have been found buried with ,azilian-,tardenoisian flints1 thereby enabling us positively to determine the contemporary human races4 ,,burials ,,in ,,azilian-,,tardenoisian ,,times ,the strange interment which gives ,ofnet its distinction belongs to the period of ,azilian-,tardenoisian industry47#ab7 ,this conclusion is not weakened by the absence of ,azilian harpoons or painted pebbles1 because at this time the cave of ,ofnet served its frequenters only as a place of burial2 there are no hearths or flint workshops to indicate continued residence1 as during earlier ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,this great ceremonial burial seems to afford the only positive evidence to be found in all western ,europe of the kind of people who were pursuing the ,azilian industry4 ,the larger ,ofnet grotto opens toward the southwest and has a length of #ci feet and a width of #cf feet4 ,it was first entered in early ,aurignacian times and shows successive layers of ,aurignacian1 early ,solutrean1 and late ,magdalenian cultures1 above which lies a thick deposit of the ,azilian-,tardenoisian1 in which is found the most remarkable interment of all ,palolithic times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bec4 ,section across the entrance of the great grotto of ,ofnet near the ,danube1 occupied at various times from the beginning of the ,upper ,palolithic to the close of the ,bronze ,age4 ,after ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 ,,ix4 ,deposits of the ,middle ,ages and of the ,la ,tne and ,hallstatt cultures4 ,,viii4 ,deposits of the ,upper ,neolithic4 ,,vii4 ,azilian layer containing the great burial of #cc skulls4 ,,vi4 ,late ,magdalenian layer containing the banded lemmings of the tundras4 ,v4 ,late ,solutrean layer with typical laurel-leaf spear points4 ,,iv41 ,,iii4 ,deposits of late and early ,aurignacian age1 ,,iii4 containing arctic rodents4 ,,ii4 ,dolomite sand with a few teeth of the mammoth and bones of the woolly rhinoceros marked by the teeth of hynas4 ,this is a ceremonial burial of thirty-three skulls of people belonging to two distinct races3 respectively1 brachycephalic and dolichocephalic1 and certainly not related in any way to the ,cr-,magnon race4 ,in one group twenty-seven skulls were found embedded in ochre and arranged in a sort of nest1 with the faces all looking westward4 ,as the skulls in the centre were more closely pressed together and crushed than those on the outside1 it seems probable that these skulls were added one by one from time to time1 those on the outside being the most recent additions4 ,about a yard distant a similar nest was found1 containing six more skulls embedded and arranged in exactly the same manner4 ,the interment probably took place shortly after death and certainly before the separate bones had been disintegrated by decomposition1 for not only the lower jaw but a number of the neck vertebra were found with each skull4 ,the heads had been severed from the necks by a sharp flint1 the marks of which are plainly visible on some of the vertebr4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bed4 ,burial nest of six skulls1 all facing westward1 from the large grotto of ,ofnet4 ,after ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 ,it is noteworthy that most of these skulls are those of women and young children1 there being only four adult male skulls4 ,on this account some advance the theory of cannibalism2 others that1 being taken captive by a tribe of enemies1 these unfortunate people were offered in sacrifice1 in which case decapitation was the means of death4 ,but1 then1 how explain the abundant ornaments of stag teeth and snail shells 7,helix nemoralis7 with which the skulls of the women and little children were decorated1 and the treasured implements of flint with which all save one of the men and a few of the women and children were provided8 ,there are precedents for all these singular features of the ,ofnet interment in other ,upper ,palolithic burials1 namely1 the embedding in ochre1 the offerings of ornaments of teeth and of shells1 the separate interment of the skull--all these were customs more or less characteristic of the ,upper ,palolithic1 but never observed in ,neolithic times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bee4 ,skulls of the two races of ,ofnet4 ,three views of a broad-headed or brachycephalic skull 7above7 from the great burial at ,ofnet4 ,three views of a narrow-headed or dolichocephalic skull 7below7 from the same grotto4 ,after ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,it will be recalled that the custom of burying the entire body1 as well as that of embedding the body in ochre1 is first observed among the late ,neanderthals and obtained throughout the entire ,upper ,palolithic from the ,aurignacian burials of ,grimaldi to the ,azilian1 of ,mas d',azil4 ,no other case1 however1 is known of the westward turning of the face3 in most of the ,upper ,palolithic burials the face of the departed looks toward the opening of the grotto2 but1 although the grotto of ,ofnet opens toward the southwest1 the skulls1 without exception1 were facing exactly to the west and looking toward the wall rather than toward the entrance of the cavern4 ,,the ,,new ,,broad-,,headed ,,and ,,narrow-,,headed ,,races ,,of ,,ofnet ,the burials at ,ofnet are the first observed in western ,europe which present a mingling of races4 ,this in itself is a fact of great interest2 it is a prelude to what characterizes all the populations of western ,europe at the present time1 namely1 the presence of races widely separated in origin and in anatomical structure1 but closely united by similar customs1 industries1 and beliefs4 ,a second fact of even greater importance is the proof of the arrival in western ,europe toward the close of ,palolithic times of two entirely new human stocks2 one broad-headed1 resembling the modern ,alpine or ,celtic type2 the other narrow-headed1 resembling the modern ',mediterranean' type of ,sergi4 ,beside these pure types there are several blended forms which are intermediate or mesaticephalic4 ,of the eight brachycephalic heads1 six are those of children2 the two adult brachycephalic crania belong to young women and are1 therefore1 not quite so characteristic as male skulls would be1 for in general racial type is more strongly marked in men than in women2 the remaining skulls are either of a blended form or purely dolichocephalic4 ,the relationship of the broad-headed race to other prehistoric and existing broad-headed races of western ,europe is also a matter of very great interest4 ,the ,ofnet brachycephals are regarded by ,schliz7#ac7 as closely similar to the type skull of the so-called ,grenelle race1 which1 in turn1 is closely similar to the ,furfooz type4 ,thus the cephalic index of one 7,fig4 #bee7 of these broad1 flattened skulls of ,ofnet is #hc4cc per cent2 the face is relatively narrow1 the zygomatic index being low--#gf4cd per cent2 the brain capacity of the female skulls does not exceed #a1cbj c4cm4 ,the skull is further described as small1 smooth1 and delicately modelled1 with a correspondingly feeble dentition1 the teeth being small2 the processes of muscular attachment are slightly developed1 all of which characters indicate that the skull belonged to a woman about twenty-five years of age4 ,the forehead is low1 broad1 and prominent4 ,it is altogether typically parallel to the 'skull of ,grenelle1' as well as to the female 'skull of ,auvernier' described by ,kollmann4 ,the peculiarity of this broad-headed race1 like that of ,grenelle and of ,furfooz1 is that1 while the forehead is of only moderate breadth1 the posterior part of the skull is extremely broad4 ,the broad-headed people of ,ofnet are thus definitely considered by ,schliz7#ad7 as members of the ,furfooz-,grenelle race4 ,the narrow-headed race of the ,ofnet burials is distinct in every respect and presents resemblances to the branch of the ',mediterranean' race found in the foreground of the ,alpine regions to-day1 in which the head is of a pear-shaped type4 ,the best preserved of these dolichocephalic skulls 7,fig4 #bee7 presents an index of #gj4ej per cent1 with a brain capacity in the male of #a1ejj c4cm41 while the smallest brain capacity is that found in one of the female skulls with #a1ajj c4cm4 ,among the five adult purely dolichocephalic skulls the face is not in the least of the broad or disharmonic ,cr-,magnon type1 but is in proportion with the cranium1 and is thus truly harmonic4 ,the resemblance of this narrow-headed ,ofnet skull to that of the ,brnn race1 which we have described as occurring in ,moravia in ,solutrean times1 is only partial1 and ,schliz concludes that among the narrow-headed people of ,ofnet we have a form of dolichocephaly which is not identical with any of the known early dolichocephalic forms of western ,europe1 but which pursues an independent line of development similar to the narrow-headed races in the borders of the ,alpine region of the present day4 ,thus this head type1 of a uniform elliptic contour1 seems to have become a stable racial element of the ,alpine population1 since we meet it again in later prehistoric times in the region of the southern and western foreground of the ,alps4 ,among the children's skulls1 two are of the narrow-headed1 pear-shaped type similar to the ,alpine dolichocephals of to-day1 that is1 with a narrow forehead and very broad posterior portions of the skull4 ,,central ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,broad-,,headed 7,,alpine87 ,,races ,the affinity of the broad-headed ,azilian-,tardenoisian tribes of the ,danube to those found in the ,upper ,palolithic of northwestern ,europe seems to be clearly established4 ,the latter are sometimes known as the ,grenelle race and sometimes as the ,furfooz race4 ,boule7#ae7 observes in regard to the skeletal remains of ,grenelle which were found in the alluvium near ,paris1 in #ahgj1 that it is quite impossible now1 forty years after their discovery1 to demonstrate their geologic antiquity4 ,this is not the case with the ,furfooz broad-heads1 the age of which we regard as well established1 but since the head type appears to be the same in both cases1 we may speak of this race as the ,furfooz-,grenelle4 ,in a cave near ,furfooz1 in the valley of the ,lesse1 ,belgium1 sixteen skeletons were discovered by ,dupont in #ahfg4 ,with the bones were found implements of reindeer horn and remains of the late ,pleistocene fauna of northern ,europe47#af7 ,the reindeer and the tundra fauna of ,belgium were contemporaneous with the early ,tardenoisian culture and with the stag and forest fauna of southern ,france1 so that the skeletons of ,furfooz may safely be referred to ,azilian-,tardenoisian times4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bef4 ,broad-headed skull of uncertain archologic age1 either ,palolithic or ,neolithic1 discovered at ,grenelle1 near ,paris1 in #ahgj4 ,after de ,quatrefages and ,hamy4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beg4 ,opening of the grotto of ,furfooz on the ,lesse1 a tributary of the ,meuse1 near ,namur1 ,belgium1 where the skeletal remains of #af individuals and the type skulls of the broad-headed ,furfooz race were discovered in #ahfg4 ,after ,dupont4 ,only two of the ,furfooz skulls were preserved in good shape2 they are of brachycephalic or sub-brachycephalic form1 and1 following the suggestion of de ,quatrefages and ,hamy1 these skulls have been spoken of as belonging to the 'brachycephalic ,furfooz race4' ,the men of this race may certainly be regarded as belonging to ,upper ,palolithic times1 whereas the brachycephalic race found at ,grenelle1 near ,paris1 is probably ,neolithic4 ,this by no means prevents the ,furfooz and the ,grenelle types belonging to the same general brachycephalic race2 it is altogether probable that they do1 and that with them may be included the ,ofnet broad-heads4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #beh4 ,section of the grotto of ,furfooz1 showing the burial of #af skeletons of the ,furfooz race and the entrance of the grotto blocked by a mass of stone4 ,after ,dupont4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bei4 ,one of the type skulls of the broad-headed ,furfooz race1 from the burial grotto of ,furfooz1 ,belgium4 ,after de ,quatrefages and ,hamy4 ,one-quarter life size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfj4 ,restoration of the broad-headed man of ,grenelle1 modelled by ,mascr1 under the direction of ,a4 ,rutot4 ,this type of head is similar to that of ,ofnet4 ,there are several opinions regarding the geographic centres from which these broad-heads entered ,europe2 it is generally believed that they came from the high plateaus of central ,asia4 ,by ,giuffrida-,ruggeri the ,furfooz race is identified with the existing broad-headed ,alpine race 7,homo sapiens alpinus71 and is mistakenly adduced as proof that the ,alpine race originated in ,europe and is not in any way related to the ,mongolian races of central ,asia4 ,a more conservative view7#ag7 is that the recent ,european broad-headed types commonly included under the ,alpine race cannot yet be traced back to the ,furfooz-,grenelle ancestors1 because their connection is too problematical4 ,schliz1 on the other hand1 considers that the ,furfooz-,grenelle race survived in northwestern ,europe and corresponds with that which became the builders of the megalithic dolmens of ,neolithic times1 the latter being but slightly modified descendants of the original ,furfooz race2 he believes1 moreover1 that these broad-headed peoples first occupied central ,europe and then extended to western ,europe1 where they correspond to the ,alpine race1 at least in part2 that they also migrated to the north and were the basis of the broad-headed races now found in ,holland and ,denmark4 ,,southern ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,narrow-,,headed 7,,mediterranean87 ,,races ,while it seems probable that the broad-heads represent a central migration from ,eurasia1 evidence of an industrial and cultural character indicates that the narrow-heads came from the south2 this is seen both in the south ,mediterranean origin of the ,tardenoisian flint industry and in the new schematic influences on the decadent art of ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,it seems1 observes ,breuil1 as if the schematic influences in art during ,upper ,palolithic times always extend from the south toward the north2 they predominate entirely in the painted rocks of ,andalusia1 in the ,pyrenees1 and in ,dordogne4 ,in the grotto of ,marsoulas1 ,haute-,garonne1 the ,azilian motifs are clearly superposed upon the ,magdalenian polychromes4 ,this purely schematic phase1 which abruptly follows the figure art of middle ,magdalenian times1 first made itself felt in the late ,magdalenian4 ,there was a sudden loss of realism which does not indicate affiliation but rather the infiltration of strange elements from the south2 the precursors of the destructive invasion of the ,azilian-,tardenoisian tribes who were driven from their ,mediterranean homes by the westward advance of the conquering ,neolithic races4 ,we imagine7#ah7 that in southern ,spain there dwelt in ,upper ,palolithic times a population differing from the ,magdalenians of ,france and of the ,cantabrian ,mountains in their lower artistic tastes4 ,it would therefore appear that the schematic art had its home toward the south of the peninsula of ,spain about the time of the invasion of the ,azilian culture in ,france4 ,,northern ,,origin ,,of ,,the ,,baltic 7,,teutonic87 ,,races ,for the first time the retreat of the ,scandinavian ice-fields and the less severe climate permitted a northern migration route along the shores of the ,baltic4 ,this is the first known migration of any tribes along this route1 which throughout all glacial times had been blocked by the vicinity of the ,scandinavian and ,baltic ice-fields1 but which was now opened by the approach of the more genial climate which succeeded the long ,postglacial ,stage4 ,whether this ,baltic invasion was the advance wave of a northern long-headed ,teutonic race is wholly a matter of conjecture4 ,other peoples1 observes ,breuil17#ai7 known at present only from their industries1 were advancing toward the close of the ,upper ,palolithic along the northern and southern shores of the ,baltic and persisted for an appreciable time before the arrival of the tribes introducing the early ,neolithic ,campignian culture which accumulated in the kitchen-middens along the same shores4 ,like the southern races of ,azilian-,tardenoisian times1 these northerly tribes were truly ,pre-,neolithic1 ignorant both of agriculture and of pottery2 they brought with them no domesticated animals excepting the dog1 which is known at ,mugem1 at ,tourasse1 and at ,oban1 in northwestern ,scotland4 ,in the use of bone harpoons of elegant form and in the taste displayed in fine decorations engraved upon bone1 these tribes suggest the culture of the ,magdalenians1 but a close examination shows that it could not have been derived from the ,magdalenian type4 ,the community of style with the painted and engraved figures found in western ,siberia and in the central ,ural region and north of the ,altai ,mountains denotes rather an ,asiatic and ,siberian origin4 ,the decorative designs of these ,baltic peoples were very different from those of the ,cr-,magnons in ,magdalenian times1 and are not schematic2 the conception of the animal figures1 although naturalistic1 is as crude as that of the early ,aurignacian figures1 and is far inferior to that of the ,magdalenian stage4 ,it is probable1 continues ,breuil1 that in these northerly regions the closing cultures of the ,upper ,palolithic developed along more or less parallel lines with those observed in the south in giving rise to ethnographic elements which travelled along the littoral regions of the northern seas4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfa4 ,implements and decorations showing the conventional and crude animal designs of the art of the ,baltic1 from ,maglemose1 ,denmark4 ,after ,reinecke and ,obermaier4 ,the implements include bone harpoons1 fish-hooks1 horn chisels1 awls1 spear points1 and smoothers4 ,about one-fifth actual size4 ,this race and culture is described by ,obermaier7#bj7 as follows3 ,when primitive man took possession of ,denmark the sea-coast was so remote that he could also reach southern ,scandinavia4 ,the station of ,maglemose in the ',great ,moor1' discovered and described by ,f4 ,l4 ,sarauw1 of ,copenhagen1 in #aijj1 is near the harbor of ,mullerup on the western coast of ,zealand and not far from the shore of an ancient freshwater lake formation4 ,these people were lake-dwellers1 living perhaps on rafts but not on dwellings supported by piles4 ,from these rafts it is supposed the implements dropped into the lake4 ,the #hha flint implements found here include scrapers1 borers1 cleavers1 and knives1 as well as microlithic flints4 ,they show no trace of the ,neolithic art of polishing1 merely suggesting certain chipped styles observed in the 'kjddenmddings4' 7,see ,figs4 #bfc1 #bfd1 and #bfe47 ,the influence of the ,palolithic is much stronger1 especially in the case of the microlithic ,tardenoisian types4 ,in the industrial culture of ,maglemose1 however1 far more important than stone are implements of horn and bone4 ,these the ,maglemose folk obtained from the wild ox1 moose1 stag1 and roe-deer1 fashioning them into tools of various types1 some of which are shown in ,fig4 #bfa4 ,many of these tools are ornamented with conventional designs or very crude animal outlines on one or both surfaces4 ,the forests of this time consisted of the characteristic northern flora including numerous evergreens1 the birch1 aspen1 hazel1 and elm1 but without any trace of the oak4 ,there is absolutely no trace of pottery in the ,maglemose deposits4 ,of great interest is the fact that skeletal remains of the domestic dog are found here4 ,the ,maglemose culture of the ,baltic region is regarded as contemporary with the ,azilian and ,tardenoisian in the south4 ,it contains types1 not of flint but of bone1 which are prophetic of the ,neolithic4 ,traces of this culture have been found throughout northern ,germany1 in ,denmark1 and in southern ,sweden1 as well as to the east and in the ,baltic provinces4 ,although no human remains have as yet been discovered1 it is highly probable that these people belonged to the northern ,teutonic races4 ,,conclusion ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,relationships ,,of ,,the ,,pal,,olithic ,,races ,thus in southern1 central1 and northern ,europe the close of ,upper ,palolithic times is marked by the invasion of new ,eurasiatic races1 all in a ,pre-,neolithic stage of industry and art4 ,it is not improbable that these races were advance waves from the same geographic regions as the ,neolithic tribes which followed them4 ,from the earliest ,palolithic to ,neolithic times it does not appear that western ,europe was ever a centre of human evolution in the sense that it gave rise to a single new species of man4 ,the main racial evolution and the earlier and later branches of the human family were established in the east and successively found their way westward2 nor is there at present any ground for believing that any very prolonged evolution or transformation of human types occurred in western ,europe4 ,we should regard as wholly unproved the notion that either of these ,palolithic races of western ,europe gave rise to others which succeeded them in geologic time2 the only sequence of this sort to which some degree of probability may be attached is that the ,heidelberg race was ancestral to the ,neanderthal race4 ,in most instances1 such races as the ,piltdown1 the ,cr-,magnon1 the ,brnn1 the ,furfooz-,grenelle1 and the ,mediterranean arrived fully formed1 with all their mental and physical attributes and tendencies very distinctly developed4 ,there is some evidence1 but not of a very conclusive kind1 that the modification of certain of these races in western ,europe was partly in the nature of a decline2 this was apparently the case both with the ,neanderthals and with the ,cr-,magnons4 ,we may therefore imagine that the family tree or lines of descent of the races of the ,old ,stone ,age consisted of a number of entirely separate branches1 which had been completely formed in the great ,eurasiatic continent1 a land mass infinitely larger and more capable of producing a variety of races than the diminutive peninsular area of western ,europe4 ,a review of these races in descending order1 in respect to stature1 the cephalic index1 and brain capacity1 is presented in the following table3 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ,frontal ,height,cephalic ,brain ,height ,angle of ,index ,capacity ,skull ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,,recent4 c4cm4 ft4 in4 7,h4 sapiens74 ,european 7average74 #ij #ei 444 #adjj-aejj #e #g ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic4 ,ofnet ,race 7brachycephalic7 444 444 #hf4ba #adjj 444 ,ofnet ,race 7dolichocephalic7 444 444 #gj4ej #aejj 444 ,cr-,magnon ,race 7old man of ,cr-,magnon type7 444 444 #gc4gf #aeij #f ,grimaldi 8#fc- #agge-ahhje #aj-a_/b- 7,cr-,magnons7 444 444 8#gf4bg 444 #f #d-a_/b ,chancelade 444 444 #gb4jb #agjj #d #aa ,aurignac 444 444 #fe4g 444 #e #c ,grimaldi ,race4 ,grimaldi type 7negroid7 444 444 #fi4bg #aehj #e #a ,brnn ,race4 ,brnn ,i #ge #ea4bb #fe4g or #acej 444 #fh4b ,,lower ,,pal,,olithic4 ,neanderthal ,race 7,h4 ,neanderthalensis74 ,la ,chapelle #fe #dj4e #ge #afbf #e #c ,spy ,,ii #fg #dd4c #ge4g 8 #agbc #e #c ,spy ,i #eg4e #dj4i #gj 8 #aefb #e #d ,la ,ferrassie ,i 444 444 444 444 #e #e ,la ,ferrassie ,,ii 444 444 444 444 #d #aj-a_/b ,la ,quina 444 444 444 #acfg 444 7approx47 ,krapina ,d #ff #db4b 8#hc4g 444 444 ,neanderthal #fb #dj4d #gc4i #adjh #e #d ,gibraltar #ff or #dj #gg4i #abej or 444 #gc-gd #abif ,pre-,neanderthaloids ,piltdown ,race4 ,piltdown 444 444 8#gh or 8 #acjj 444 8#gi 8 #aejj ,trinil ,race 7,pithecanthropus7 #eb4e #cd4b #gc4d or #hej-ajjj #e #g #gj #ijj ,,anthropoid ,,apes4 ,apes 7maximum7 #ef #cg4g 444 #fjj 444 ---------------------------------------- --------------------------- ------------ ,comparative ,length of ,arm and ,leg ----------- #fi4gc 444 444 444 #ff4je-fi 444 444 #fc4ab 444 444 444 444 8 #fh #fh 444 444 444 444 444 444 #ajd 7chimpanzee minimum47 ------------ ,the chief authorities for these measurements are ,schwalbe1 ,dubois1 ,keith1 ,smith1 ,woodward1 ,boule1 ,sollas1 ,sera1 ,klaatsch1 ,fraipont1 ,makowsky1 ,verneau1 ,testut1 and ,broca4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfb4 ,tree showing the main theoretic lines of descent of the chief ,pre-,neolithic races discovered in western ,europe4 7,the ,grimaldi race is omitted on account of its aberrant character4 ,the northern ,teutonic long-heads are also omitted47 ,the ,trinil1 ,heidelberg1 and ,neanderthal races are represented as offshoots of one great branch4 ,the ,piltdown race is represented as an independent branch of quite unknown relations to the other races4 ,it is probable that the five or six branches of ,homo sapiens discovered in the ,upper ,palolithic separated from each other in ,lower ,palolithic times in ,asia4 ,of these the ,brnn race is by far the most primitive4 ,the migration routes of invasion of the successive ,lower ,palolithic races--the ,piltdown1 the ,heidelberg1 and the ,neanderthal--are entirely unknown2 we can only infer from the wide distribution of the ,chellean and ,acheulean cultures to the south1 along the northern ,african coast1 as well as to the east1 that these races may have had a southerly or circum-,mediterranean origin4 ,this does not mean that either of these ,lower ,palolithic races were of negroid or ,ethiopian affinity1 because the ,neanderthals show absolutely no negroid characters4 ,in fact1 throughout all ,palolithic time the solitary instance of the two ,grimaldi skeletons furnishes the sole anatomical evidence we possess of the entrance of a negroid people into ,europe1 which contrasts widely with the overwhelming evidence of the dominance in western ,europe first of the non-negroid ,neanderthals1 and then of the ,cr-,magnons who probably belonged to the ,caucasian stock4 ,the evidence as to the sources and migrations of the ,upper ,palolithic races is also indirect4 ,the theory of the ,cr-,magnons entering ,europe by the southerly or ,mediterranean route we have seen to rest upon purely cultural or industrial grounds1 namely1 the spread of the ,aurignacian industry around the ,mediterranean shores4 ,on the other hand1 the succeeding culture1 the ,solutrean1 and the succeeding race to enter ,europe1 the ,brnn1 both appear to be of central or of direct easterly origin4 ,it is only toward the close of the ,upper ,palolithic that another southerly or ,mediterranean invasion occurs1 bringing in the microlithic ,tardenoisian culture1 which1 although anatomical evidence is wanting1 would appear to be an advance wave of the great invasion of the true ',mediterranean' race4 ,during the ,upper ,palolithic ,epoch another invasion apparently occurs from the east along the central migration route1 namely1 that of the broad-headed ,furfooz-,grenelle races4 ,thus in surveying the whole period of the ,old ,stone ,age we find that there is some evidence for the theory of an alternation of southerly1 of easterly1 and finally of northeasterly invasions of races bringing in new industries and ideas4 ,,transition ,,to ,,the ,,neolithic4 ,,the ,,campignian4 ,,the ,,robenhausian ,apart from the special and somewhat debated question of the place of the ,campignian culture in the prehistory of ,europe we may close our survey of the ,upper ,palolithic by pointing out some of its contrasts with the ,neolithic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfc4 ,stages in the manufacture of the ,neolithic stone ax1 or hache4 ,after de ,mortillet4 #ecd4 ,hache of flint1 roughly flaked into shape1 from ,olendon1 ,calvados4 #ece4 ,hache of flint from ,oise1 ready for polishing4 ,it has been finely chipped to a shape of perfect symmetry1 with especial care to smooth out and reduce the large facets made by the preliminary flaking4 #ecf4 ,hache of flint after the first polishing1 from ,abbeville1 on the ,somme4 ,the cutting edge has been completely polished1 but along the sides the facets made by flaking are plainly visible4 #ecg4 ,hache of flint completely polished1 from ,le ,vesinet1 ,seine-et-,oise4 ,in this last stage one scarcely notices the faint traces of facets which show that this hache has passed through all the preceding stages4 ,two-ninths actual size4 ,the arrival of the ,neolithic cultures and industries in western ,europe marks one of the most profound changes in all prehistory and introduces us to a new period which must be treated in an entirely different historic spirit4 ,this new era began between #g1jjj to #aj1jjj years ago1 or with the close of the ,daun stage1 the last geologic feature of ,postglacial times4 ,there are two theories regarding the close of ,upper ,palolithic and the beginning of ,neolithic times4 ,the older theory1 which still has some adherents1 is that the ,upper ,palolithic races and industries suddenly gave way before the arrival of new and superior races bringing in the ,neolithic culture4 ,the newer theory is that there are evidences of gradual transfusions from the ,upper ,palolithic into the ,neolithic cultures and that these are found in some of the oldest ,neolithic sites4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfd4 ,stone hatchet1 or tranchet1 from the type station of ,campigny1 after ,salmon1 d',ault du ,mesnil1 and ,capitan4 ,one-half actual size4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfe4 ,stone pick1 or pic1 from the type station of ,campigny1 after ,salmon1 d',ault du ,mesnil1 and ,capitan4 ,about one-half actual size4 ,in #ahih there appeared an article7#ba7 by ,philippe ,salmon1 d',ault du ,mesnil1 and ,capitan1 entitled1 ,le ,campignien1 defending the theory of an early and transitional ,neolithic stage1 the ,campignian47#bb7 ,the type station of this early culture was pointed out by ,salmon in #ahhf2 it lies a little more than a mile northwest of the village of ,blangy1 on the ,river ,bresle1 on a site well placed for natural defense4 ,the remains of the hut-dwellings of this camp and of various industrial objects appear to indicate that this station belongs to the earliest phase of the ,neolithic ,period4 ,these ,campignians owe little to the culture or industry of the races which previously occupied this region of western ,europe2 they are entire strangers1 purely ,neolithic in type4 ,while this is the age of polished1 as distinguished from chipped1 stone1 the axe 7hache7 of polished stone is still very rare in the ,campignian4 ,there prevail flaked flint types common to all the previous stages of the ,stone ,age1 such as the knives 7couteaux71 planers 7grattoirs71 and spear or dart heads 7pointes de sagaie71 but we notice the appearance of two entirely new flint implements3 first1 the triangular knife or stone hatchet 7tranchet71 of the type 7,fig4 #bfd7 common in the ,danish kitchen-middens2 this knife has a broad1 sharp cutting edge flaked on one side2 second 7,fig4 #bfe71 there is a sort of elongated axe or pick 7pic7 with chipped sides and an end more or less conical in shape47#bc7 ,these people also made use of large flakes of flint4 ,if we regard the ,campignian as a prolonged industrial stage in northern ,europe1 it certainly precedes the appearance of abundant axe heads of polished flint4 ,in ,france it seems to appear occasionally as a local phase of the ,neolithic4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bff4 ,restoration of the ,neolithic man of ,spiennes1 ,belgium1 modelled by ,mascr under the direction of ,a4 ,rutot4 ,the prevailing opinion at present is that the ,campignian distinctly precedes the typical ,neolithic of the ,swiss lake-dwellings1 a stage known as the ,robenhausian4 ,thus the ,neolithic culture becomes fully established in the period of the ,swiss ,lake ,dwellings1 remains of which are found at ,moosseedorf1 ,wauwyl1 ,concise on ,lake ,neufchtel1 and ,robenhausen on ,lake ,pfaeffikon4 ,the latter is the ,robenhausian type station4 ,,distinctive ,,features ,,of ,,the ,,neolithic ,,epoch ,the first of these is the presence of implements of polished stone which find their way gradually into western ,europe4 ,the neoliths at first are greatly outnumbered by chipped and flaked implements1 and some of the latter show a survival of the familiar types of the ,old ,stone ,age1 while others belong to entirely distinct types which had an independent development in the far ,east4 ,the chief economic change is seen in the rudimentary knowledge of agriculture and in the use of a variety of plants and seeds1 accompanied by the gradual appearance of implements for the preparation of the soil and for harvesting the crops4 ,this new source of food supply leads to the establishment of permanent stations and camps and more or less to the abandonment of nomadic modes of life4 ,near the ancient camp sites and villages1 therefore1 are found implements for the preparation of skins and hides1 because the chase was still maintained for purposes of clothing as well as for food4 ,still more distinctive of the ,neolithic is the introduction of pottery1 which is at first used in the preparation of food4 ,in the hearths or kitchen-middens and in the refuse heaps of the camps we no longer find evidence of the splitting of the jaws of mammals and of the long and short bones of the limbs1 or even of the larger foot bones1 in search of marrow1 which is such a universal feature of the ,upper ,palolithic deposits4 ,the artistic impulse of the north is very crude and naturalistic4 ,in the ,spanish peninsula1 accompanying and following the schematic period described in the early part of this chapter1 there was a long stage of development in which men were painting on rocks1 mostly in the form of silhouettes1 naturalistic figures of animals and of people47#bd7 ,the presence of the moose in these drawings concurs with that of the two bison represented in the cavern of ,cogul and would tend to indicate that these paintings belong to ,upper ,palolithic times1 although it is now considered that they are of early ,neolithic age4 ,the character of these animal designs is totally different from that of the ,magdalenian period in the north and is analogous rather to that of the ,bushmen of ,south ,africa4 ,the authors of these frescos represent not only the ibex1 stag1 and wild cattle but also the horse1 moose1 fallow deer1 wolf1 and occasionally the birds4 ,there are many features in this art which show its absolute independence of origin from that of the ,magdalenian of the north1 among them the frequent presence of composition and the almost invariable presence of human figures4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfg4 ,fresco from the rock shelter of ,alpera1 ,albacete1 ,spain1 painted in dark red and representing a stag hunt1 the hunters being armed with bows and arrows4 ,attributed to the southern races arriving in ,neolithic times4 ,after ,breuil and ,obermaier4 ,the frescos in the ,spanish caverns of ,alpera and of ,cogul recall those of southern ,france but are almost always grouped in series of the chase1 of encampment1 and perhaps of war4 ,this frequency of human figures1 the representations of the bow and arrow1 and the presence of a small animal which may be recognized as the domesticated dog are indications of an entirely distinct race coming from the south and bringing in a new spirit in art which has no relation whatever to that of the ,magdalenian4 ,,neolithic ,,mammalian ,,life ,even in the oldest ,neolithic deposits no trace of the horse as an object of food appears4 ,the domestication of this animal was introduced from the east1 and thus it ceased to be an object of the chase4 ,the newly arriving tribes were undoubtedly attracted by the abundance of horses1 both of the forest and ,celtic types1 which had survived from ,upper ,palolithic times4 ,a very distinctive feature of the modern horses1 however1 should be mentioned1 that is1 the presence of a forelock covering the face1 no trace of which is indicated in any of the ,upper ,palolithic carvings or engravings4 ,the wild animal life of western ,europe at this time is a direct survival of the great ,eurasiatic forest and meadow fauna which we have traced from the earliest ,palolithic times4 ,it includes the bison1 the long-horned urus1 the stag1 the roe-deer1 the moose1 the wild boar1 the forest horse1 the ,celtic horse1 the beaver1 the hare1 and the squirrel4 ,the fallow deer 7,cervus dama7 also appears more abundantly4 ,among the carnivora are the brown bear1 the badger1 the marten1 the otter1 the wolf1 the fox1 the wildcat1 and the wolverene4 ,the lion has disappeared entirely from western ,europe4 ,the reindeer survives only in the north4 ,as observed above1 two of these wild animals were early chosen by the invaders for domestication1 namely1 the plateau or ,celtic horse and the forest horse4 ,the former type is found in the ,neolithic deposits of ,essex1 ,england4 ,the wild urus 7,bos primigenius7 was hunted but was not domesticated4 ,two new varieties of domestic cattle appear1 neither of which has been previously observed in western ,europe4 ,the first of these is the ',celtic shorthorn' 7,bos longifrons71 the probable ancestor of the small breeds of ,british short-horned and hornless cattle4 ,the second is the 'longhorn' 7,bos taurus71 which shows some points of resemblance to the 'urus' 7,bos primigenius7 but is not directly related to it4 ,direct wild ancestors of this latter animal are said to occur in the ,pleistocene of ,italy4 ,a new type of pig also appears1 the so-called turf pig 7,sus scrofa palustris74 ,the ,neolithic invaders1 or men of the ,new ,stone ,age1 thus brought with them1 or domesticated from among the animals which they found in the forests of western ,europe1 a great variety of the same types of animals as those domesticated to-day1 namely1 cattle1 sheep1 goats1 pigs1 horses1 and dogs4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #bfh4 ,map showing the geographic distribution of the three principal cranial types of man inhabiting western ,europe at the present time4 ,prepared after ,ripley's maps in his ,races of ,europe4 ,also the restricted area neighboring the ,vzre valley1 where the supposed descendants of the disharmonic type of the ,cr-,magnons are still to be found4 ,other small ,cr-,magnon colonies are not represented4 ,the heavy-faced lines show those districts where the race indicated is most numerous and found in the greatest perfection of type4 ,,the ,,prehistoric ,,and ,,historic ,,races ,,of ,,europe ,before the close of ,neolithic times all the direct ancestors of the modern races of ,europe had not only established themselves1 but had begun to separate into those larger and smaller colonies which now mark out the great anthropological divisions of western ,europe4 ,it is therefore interesting to glance at the cranial distinctions of the men who successively entered western ,europe in ,upper ,palolithic and ,neolithic times4 ,the upper part of the table corresponds with that of ,ripley47#be7 ,,modern1 ,,neolithic1 ,,and ,,upper ,,pal,,olithic ,,european ,,races ,,of ,,the ,,existing ,,species ,,of ,,man 7,,homo ,,sapiens7 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ,type ,head ,face ,hair ,eyes ,stature ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,vi4,,teutonic ,long1 ,high1 ,very ,blue4 ,tall4 78 ,baltic74 narrow4narrow4light4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,v4,,mediterranean,long1 ,high1 ,dark ,dark4 ,medium1 78 ,ofnet74 narrow4narrow4brown or slender4 black4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,iv4,,alpine1 ,round4 ,broad4 ,light ,hazel- ,medium1 ,,celtic chestnut4gray4 stocky4 78 ,ofnet74 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,iii4,,furfooz- ,broad4 ,medium4 ,,grenelle 8 8 8 78 ,ofnet7 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,,ii4,,br,,nn- ,long4 ,low1 ,p,,edmost medium4 8 8 8 7,moravia74 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,i4,,cr-,,magnon4 ,long4 ,low and 8 8 ,tall to broad4 medium4 ---------------------------------------- ---------------------- ------------------- ,cephalic ,nose ,index ,average per cent ----------------- ,narrow1 #ge aquiline4 ----------------- ,rather broad4 #ge ----------------- ,variable2 #hg rather broad2 heavy ----------------- 8 #gi-he ----------------- #fh4b or 8 #fe4g ----------------- ,narrow1 8 #fc- aquiline4 8 #gf4bg ------------------- ,it would appear that five out of these six great racial types had entered ,europe before the close of ,upper ,palolithic times1 namely1 ,i to ,v in the above table4 ,how about the sixth type2 the narrow-headed1 light-haired people of the north1 the modern ,teutonic type8 ,this question cannot be answered at present4 ,we have1 however1 high authority for the invasion of a new northern race1 which may have been of the ,teutonic type1 as occurring before the close of ,palolithic times4 ,these were the people described above1 migrating along the shores of the ,baltic with a new northern ,maglemose culture and crude naturalistic art4 ,,conclusions ,,as ,,to ,,the ,,old ,,stone ,,age ,the above outline of the beginnings of the ,neolithic ,age shows that the ,palolithic represents a complete cycle of human development2 we have traced its rise1 its perfection1 its decline4 ,during this dawning period of the long prehistory of ,europe the dominant features are the very great antiquity of the spirit of man and the fundamental similarity between the great steps of prehistory and of history4 ,the rise of the spirit of man through the ,old ,stone ,age cannot be traced continuously in a single race because the races were changing2 as at the present time1 one race replaced another1 or two races dwelt side by side4 ,the sudden appearance in ,europe at least #be1jjj years ago of a human race with a high order of brain power and ability was not a leap forward but the effect of a long process of evolution elsewhere4 ,when the prehistoric archology of eastern ,europe and of ,asia has been investigated we may obtain some light on this antecedent development4 ,during this age the rudiments of all the modern economic powers of man were developed3 the guidance of the hand by the mind1 manifested in his creative industry2 his inventive faculty2 the currency or spread of his inventions2 the adaptation of means to ends in utensils1 in weapons1 and in clothing4 ,the same is true of the sthetic powers1 of close observation1 of the sense of form1 of proportion1 of symmetry1 the appreciation of beauty of animal form and the beauty of line1 color1 and form in modelling and sculpture4 ,finally1 the schematic representation and notation of ideas so far as we can perceive was alphabetic rather than pictographic4 ,of the musical sense we have at present no evidence4 ,the religious sense1 the appreciation of some power or powers behind the great phenomena of nature1 is evidenced in the reverence for the dead1 in burials apparently related to notions of a future existence of the dead1 and especially in the mysteries of the art of the caverns4 ,all these steps indicate the possession of certain generic faculties of mind similar to our own4 ,that this mind of the ,upper ,palolithic races was of a kind capable of a high degree of education we entertain no doubt whatever because of the very advanced order of brain which is developed in the higher members of these ancient races2 in fact1 it may be fairly assumed from experiences in the education of existing races of much lower brain capacity1 such as the ,eskimo or ,fuegian4 ,the emergence of such a mind from the mode of life of the ,old ,stone ,age is one of the greatest mysteries of psychology and of history4 ,the rise and fall of cultures and of industries1 which is at this very day the outstanding feature of the history of western ,europe1 was fully typified in the very ancient contests with stone weapons which were waged along the borders of the ,somme1 the ,marne1 the ,seine1 and the ,danube4 ,no doubt1 each invasion1 each conquest1 each substitution of an industry or a culture had within it the impelling contest of the spirit and will of man1 the intelligence directing various industrial and warlike implements1 the superiority either of force or of mind4 7#a7 ,cartailhac1 #aijc4a1 pp4 #ccj1 #cca4 7#b7 ,dchelette1 #aijh4a1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cad-cbj4 7#c7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #cbj4 7#d7 ,op4 cit41 pp4 #eje-eaj4 7#e7 ,breuil1 #aiab4f1 pp4 #b-f4 7#f7 ,ibid41 #aiab4g1 pp4 #bcb1 #bcc4 7#g7 ,ibid41 #aiab4f1 p4 #bj4 7#h7 ,koken1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #agb1 #agc1 #agf-agh1 #ahj1 #aha1 #bja4 7#i7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #dj4 7#aj7 ,breuil1 #aiab4g1 p4 #bbe4 7#aa7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #bcc4 7#ab7 ,schmidt1 #aiab4a1 p4 #da4 7#ac7 ,schliz1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #bdb-bdd4 7#ad7 ,op4 cit41 p4 #beb4 7#ae7 ,boule1 #aiac4a1 p4 #baj4 7#af7 ,dupont1 #ahga4a4 7#ag7 ,fischer1 #aiac4a1 p4 #cef4 7#ah7 ,breuil1 #aiab4e4 7#ai7 ,ibid41 #aiab4g1 pp4 #bce1 #bcf4 7#bj7 ,obermaier1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #dfg-dfi4 7#ba7 ,salmon1 #ahih4a4 7#bb7 ,munro1 #aiab4a1 pp4 #bge-bgg4 7#bc7 ,dchelette1 #aijh4a1 vol4 ,i1 p4 #cbf4 7#bd7 ,breuil1 #aiab4e1 p4 #efj4 7#be7 ,ripley1 #ahii4a1 p4 #aba4 ,,appendix ,,note ,i ,,lucretius ,,and ,,bossuet ,,on ,,the ,,early ,,evolution ,,of ,,man ,lucretius's conception,,bc of the gradual development of human culture undoubtedly came from ,greek sources beginning with ,empedocles4 ,his indebtedness is beautifully expressed in the opening lines of ,book ,,iii of his ,de ,rerum ,natura3 ,o ,glory of the ,greeks6 who first didst chase ,the mind's dread darkness with celestial day1 ,the worth illustrating of human life-- ,thee1 glad1 ,i follow--with firm foot resolved ,to tread the path imprinted by thy steps2 ,not urged by competition1 but1 alone1 ,studious thy toils to copy2 for1 in powers1 ,how can the swallow with the swan contend8 ,or the young kid1 all tremulous of limb1 ,strive with the strength1 the fleetness of the horse2 ,thou1 sire of science6 with paternal truths ,thy sons enrichest3 from thy peerless page1 ,illustrious chief6 as from the flowery field ,th' industrious bee culls honey1 we alike ,cull many a golden precept--golden each-- ,and each most worthy everlasting life4 ,for as the doctrines of thy godlike mind ,prove into birth how nature first uprose1 ,all terrors vanish2 the blue walls of heaven ,fly instant--and the boundless void throughout ,teems with created things4 ,the same conception,,bd of the early periods in the development of humanity is found in the ,histoire universelle of ,bossuet1 in a curious passage undoubtedly suggested by ,lucretius3 ,tout commence3 it n'y a point d'histoire ancienne o il ne paraisse1 non seulement dans ces premiers temps1 mais encore longtemps aprs1 des vestiges manifestes de la nouveaut du monde4 ,on voit les lois s'tablir1 les murs se polir1 et les empires se former3 le genre humain sort peu peu de l'ignorance2 l'exprience l'instruit1 et les arts sont invents ou perfectionns4 ,a mesure que les hommes se multiplient1 la terre se peuple de proche en proche3 on passe les montagnes et les prcipices2 on traverse les fleuves et enfin les mers1 et on tablit de nouvelles habitations4 ,la terre1 qui n'tait au commencement qu'une fort immense1 prend une autre forme2 les bois abattus font place aux champs1 aux pturages1 aux hameaux1 aux bourgades1 et enfin aux villes4 ,on s'instruit prendre certains animaux1 apprivoiser les autres1 et les accoutumer au service4 ,on eut d'abord combattre les btes farouches3 les premiers hros se signalrent dans ces guerres2 elles firent inventer les armes1 que les hommes tournrent aprs contre leurs semblables4 ,nemrod1 le premier guerrier et le premier conqurant1 est appel dans l'criture un fort chasseur4 ,avec les animaux1 l'homme sut encore adoucir les fruits et les plantes2 il plia jusqu'aux mtaux son usage1 et peu peu il y fit servir toute la nature4 ,,note ,,ii ,,horace ,,on ,,the ,,early ,,evolution ,,of ,,man ,horace,,be also adopted the ,greek conception of the natural evolution of human culture3 ,your men of words1 who rate all crimes alike1 ,collapse and founder1 when on fact they strike3 ,sense1 custom1 all1 cry out against the thing1 ,and high expedience1 right's perennial spring4 ,when men first crept from out earth's womb1 like worms1 ,dumb speechless creatures1 with scarce human forms1 ,with nails or doubled fists they used to fight ,for acorns or for sleeping-holes at night2 ,clubs followed next2 at last to arms they came1 ,which growing practice taught them how to frame1 ,till words and names were found1 wherewith to mould ,the sounds they uttered1 and their thoughts unfold2 ,thenceforth they left off fighting1 and began ,to build them cities1 guarding man from man1 ,and set up laws as barriers against strife ,that threatened person1 property1 or wife4 ',twas fear of wrong gave birth to right1 you'll find1 ,if you but search the records of mankind4 ,nature knows good and evil1 joy and grief1 ,but just and unjust are beyond her brief3 ,nor can philosophy1 though finely spun1 ,by stress of logic prove the two things one1 ,to strip your neighbor's garden of a flower ,and rob a shrine at midnight's solemn hour4 ,,note ,,iii ,,schylus ,,on ,,the ,,early ,,evolution ,,of ,,man schylus1 in ,prometheus ,bound1,,bf presents one of the earliest known as well as one of the noblest conceptions of the natural development of the human faculties3 ,and let me tell you--not as taunting men1 ,but teaching you the intention of my gifts1 ,how1 first beholding1 they beheld in vain1 ,and hearing1 heard not1 but1 like shapes in dreams1 ,mixed all things wildly down the tedious time1 ,nor knew to build a house against the sun ,with wicketed sides1 nor any woodwork knew1 ,but lived1 like silly ants1 beneath the ground ,in hollow caves unsunned4 ,there came to them ,no steadfast sign of winter1 nor of spring ,flower-perfumed1 nor of summer full of fruit1 ,but blindly and lawlessly they did all things1 ,until ,i taught them how the stars do rise ,and set in mystery1 and devised for them ,number1 the inducer of philosophies1 ,the synthesis of ,letters1 and1 beside1 ,the artificer of all things1 ,memory ,that sweet ,muse-mother4 ,,note ,,iv ',,urochs1' ,,or ',,auerochs1' ,,and ',,wisent' ,kobelt,,bg discusses the habits of the wild cattle and of the bison as follows3 ,one is inclined to consider the ancient wild cattle of ,europe1 the ,urochs1 or ,auerochs1 as the inhabitants of boggy forests4 ,the ,auerochs survived to the seventeenth century in the forests of ,poland and then became extinct4 ,it is described as of a black color with a light stripe along the back4 ,the bison1 or ,wisent1 is generally regarded as the inhabitant of the open steppe1 or at least of dryer1 opener woods2 it differs so little from the ,american bison that both can be considered only as races of one species1 the ,bison priscus of ,pleistocene times1 which spread over the temperate zone of both hemispheres4 ,the ,american bison has always avoided the woods and roamed the prairies in countless herds4 ,but all reliable historic records describe the ,wisent as a forest animal1 and its few remaining survivors are entirely limited to the forests4 ,apparently it was never so widely and generally distributed as the ,auerochs and reached western ,europe later1 for it is not found in the north1 and never in conjunction with the mammoth and rhinoceros4 ,remains of the bison have also been found in ,asia ,minor4 ,in ,lithuania the bison lives together in herds1 resenting the approach of all strangers4 ,in the ,caucasus it lives wild in certain high valleys and here it is a true mountain animal1 its favorite haunts being the forests of beech1 hornbeam1 and evergreens from #d1jjj to #h1jjj feet above sea-level4 ,only in winter does it descend to lower levels4 ,it is uncertain whether the ,wisent does not also occur in ,siberia4 ,kohn and ,andree assert positively that it is found in large numbers in the wooded mountains of ,sajan1 in ,siberia 7#ahie74 ,according to ,kobelt1 much confusion in the nomenclature of these animals has resulted from the fact that1 after the extinction of the ',urochs1' or ',auerochs1' in the seventeenth century1 the term ',auerochs' was frequently used by writers as synonymous with ',wisent1' or bison1 an entirely different animal4 ,,note ,v ,,the ,,cr-,,magnons ,,of ,,the ,,canary ,,islands,,bh ,in the museums of the ,grand ,canary1 ,teneriffe1 and ,palma a considerable number of prehistoric vessels are preserved4 ,anthropologists are agreed that the natives of the archipelago at the time of its conquest1 in the fifteenth century1 were a composite people made up of at least three stocks3 a ,cr-,magnon type1 a ,hamitic or ,berber type1 and a brachycephalic type4 ,these natives were in a ,neolithic stage of civilization4 ,their arms were slings1 clubs1 and spears4 ,most of the people went naked1 except for a girdle round the loins1 and there was no intercommunication between the islands4 ,their stone implements were of obsidian or of basalt4 ,only four polished axes are known from the ,grand ,canary and one from ,gomera4 ,the axes are of chloromelanite1 and of a type contemporary with megalithic structures in ,france4 ,the first colonists probably brought the knowledge of making pottery with them1 but each island developed an individuality of its own4 ,even the painted ware of the ,grand ,canary appears to be of local origin and not due to external influence4 ,although undoubted ,lybian inscriptions in the ,grand ,canary and lava querns of ,iron ,age type prove that the archipelago was visited before its conquest by the ,spaniards without affecting the general civilization of its inhabitants4 ,,guanche ,,characteristics ,,resembling ,,cr-,,magnon,,bi ,the following excerpts are quoted from the account given by the distinguished anthropologist1 ,dr4 ,ren ,verneau1 of his observations during a five years' residence in the ,canary ,islands4 ,page #bb4 ,without doubt the race that has played the most important rle in the ,canaries is the ,guanche4 ,they were settled in all the islands1 and in ,teneriffe they preserved their distinctive characteristics and customs until the conquest by ,spain in the fifteenth century4 ,the ,guanches1 who at that time were described as giants1 were of great stature4 ,the minimum measure of the men was #a4gj m4 7#e ft4 #g in474 ,i myself met a number of men in the various islands who measured over #a4hj m4 7#e ft4 #aa in474 ,some attained a height of #b m4 7#f ft4 #f-a_/b in474 ,at ,fortaventure the average height of the men was #a4hd m4 7#f ft4 #c_/aj in471 perhaps the greatest known in any people4 ,it is a curious fact that the women who gave birth to such men were comparatively small--,i observed a difference of about #bj cm4 7#h in47 in the heights of the two sexes4 ,their skin was light colored--if we may believe the poet ,viana--and sometimes even absolutely white4 ,dacil1 the daughter of the last ,guanche chief of ,teneriffe1 the valiant ,bencomo1 who struggled so heroically for the independence of his country1 had a very white complexion and her face was quite freckled4 ,the hair of the true ,guanche should be blond or light chestnut1 and the eyes blue4 ,the most striking characteristic of the ,guanche race was the shape of the head and the features of the face4 ,the long skull gave shape to a beautiful forehead1 well developed in every way4 ,behind1 above the occipital1 one notices a large plane contrasting strongly with the marked prominence of the occipital itself4 ,in addition1 the parietal eminences1 placed very high and very distinct from each other1 combined to give the head a pentagonal form4 ,page #bi4 ,the ,guanche chiefs were much respected4 ,at ,teneriffe the coronation of the chief took place in an enclosure surrounded with stones 7the ,togaror71 in the presence of nobles and people4 ,one of his nearest kinsmen brought him the insignia of power4 ,according to ,viera y ,clavijo1 this was the humerus of one of his ancestors1 carefully preserved in a case of leather2 according to ,viana1 it was the skull of one of his predecessors4 ,the chief 7,menceg7 placed the relic on his head1 pronouncing the sacramental formula3 ',i swear upon the bone of him who has borne this royal crown1 that ,i will imitate his acts and work for the happiness of my subjects4' ,each noble1 in turn1 then received the bone from the hands of the chief1 placed it upon his shoulder and swore fidelity to his sovereign4444 ,these chiefs led a very simple life3 their food was like that of the people1 their apparel but little more elaborate1 and their dwellings--like those of their subjects--consisted of caves1 only theirs were a little larger than those of the common people4 ,they did not disdain to inspect their flocks or their harvests in person1 and were1 indeed1 no richer than the average mortal4 ,page #ca4 ,above all1 the ancient ,canarians sought to develop strength and agility in their children4 ,from an early age the boys devoted themselves to games of skill in order to fit them to become redoubtable warriors4 ,the men delighted in all bodily exercises and1 above all1 in wrestling4 ,at ,gran ,canaria 7,grande ,canarie7 they often held veritable tourneys1 which were attended by an immense number of people4 ,these could not take place without the consent of the nobles and of the high priest4 ,permission obtained1 the combatants presented themselves at the place of meeting4 ,this was a circular or rectangular enclosure1 surrounded by a very low wall1 allowing free view of the details of the combat4 ,each warrior took his place upon a stone of about #dj cm4 diameter 7#ae-a_/b in474 ,his offensive weapons consisted of three stones1 a club1 and several knives of obsidian3 his defensive weapon was a simple lance4 ,the skill of defense consisted in evading the stones by movements of the body1 or parrying the blows with the lance1 without moving from the stone on which stand had been taken4 ,these combats often resulted fatally for one of the combatants4 ,page #cd4 ,the ,guanche understood the use of the sword1 and although it was of wood 7pine71 it could cut1 they say1 as if it were of steel4 ,to parry blows1 they used a lance1 as mentioned above1 but they also had shields made of a round of the dragon-tree 7,dracna draco74 ,the ,guanches were essentially shepherds4 ,while their flocks pastured they played the flute1 singing songs of love or of the prowess of their ancestors4 ,those songs which have come down to us show them to have been by no means devoid of poetic inspiration4 ,when the care of their stock permitted1 they employed their leisure in fishing4 ,for this they employed various means--sometimes nets1 sometimes fish-hooks1 sometimes a simple stick4 ,page #dg4 ,the ,guanches were above all troglodytes--that is to say1 they lived in caves4 ,there is no lack of large1 well-sheltered caves in the ,canary ,islands4 ,the slopes of the mountains and the walls of their ravines are honeycombed with them4 ,the islanders may have their choice4 ,the caves are almost never further excavated4 ,they are used just as they are4 ,here is a description of one of these caves1 the ,grotto of ,goldar3 ,the interior is almost square--#e m4 7#af ft4 #d in47 along the left side1 #e4ej m4 7#ah ft47 along the right4 ,the width at the back is #d4hj m4 7#ae ft4 #f in474 ,a second cave1 much smaller1 opens from the right wall4 ,all these walls are decorated with paintings4 ,the ceiling is covered with a uniform coat of red ochre1 while the walls are decorated with various geometric designs in red1 black1 gray1 or white4 ,high up runs a sort of cornice painted red1 and on this background1 in white1 are groups of two concentric circles1 whose centre is also indicated by a white spot4 ,on the rear wall the cornice is interrupted by triangles and stripes of red4 ,page #fa4 ,the ,guanches never polished their stone weapons4 ,page #afh4 ,inhabited caves are very numerous at ,fortaventure4 ,the population in certain parts--,mascona1 for example--must be quite numerous to judge by the number of these caves4 ,at a little distance1 in the place known as ,hoya de ,corralejo1 one may still see the ,togaror1 or tribal meeting place4 ,it is an almost circular enclosure about #dj m4 7#aca ft4 #b in47 in diameter1 surrounded by a low wall of stones4 ,six huts1 from #b4ej to #d m4 7#h ft4 #b-a_/b in4--#ac ft4 #a-a_/b in47 in diameter1 designed no doubt for the sacred animals1 stood near the ,togaror4 ,page #bde4 ,a great number of ,canarians still live in caves4 ,near ,caldera de ,bandama 7,gran ,canaria7 there is a whole village of cave dwellers4 ,page #bfd4 ,at ,teneriffe ,dr4 ,verneau received hospitality in a cabin worthy of the ,palolithic ,age4 ,i had no need to make any great effort to imagine myself with a descendant of those brave shepherds of earlier times4 ,my host was an example of the type--even though the costume was lacking--and his dwelling completed the illusion4 ,the walls1 which gave free access to the wind1 supported a roof composed of unstripped tree trunks covered with branches4 ,stones piled on top prevented the wind from tearing it off4 ,hung up on poles to dry were goatskins1 destined to serve as sacks for the gofio 7a kind of millet71 bottles for water1 and shoes for the family4 ,a reed partition shut off a small corner where the children lay stretched out pell mell on skins of animals4 ,for furniture1 a chest1 a hollowed-out stone which served as a lamp1 shells which served the same purpose1 a water jar1 three stones forming a hearth in one corner1 and that was all4 7,and this host was the most important personage in the place47 ,page #bhi4 ,another time1 also at ,teneriffe1 ,dr4 ,verneau had a similar experience4 ,an old shepherd invited me to his house and offered me some milk4 ,what was my surprise on seeing the furnishing of his hut6 ,in one corner was a bed of fern1 near by a ,guanche mill and a large jar1 in all points similar to those used by the ancient islanders4 ,a reed flute1 a wooden bowl and a goatskin sack full of gofio completed the appointments of his home4 ,i could scarcely believe my eyes on examining the jar and the mill4 ,seeing my astonishment1 the old man explained that he had found them in a cave where 'the ,guanches' lived1 and that he had used them for many years4 ,i could not persuade him to part with these curiosities4 ,to my offers of money he answered that he needed none for the short time he had still to live4 ,,note ,,vi ,,the ,,length ,,of ,,postglacial ,,time ,,and ,,the ,,antiquity ,,of ,,the ,,aurignacian ,,culture ,the most recent discussion on the length of ,postglacial time was that held at the ,twelfth ,international ,congress of ,geology1 in ,ottawa1 in #aiac 7,congrs ,gologique ,international1 ,compte-rendu de la ,,xii ,session1 ,canada1 #aiac1 pp4 #dbf-ecg74 ,the notes abstracted by ,dr4 ,chester ,a4 ,reeds from the various papers are as follows3 ,american estimates of ,postglacial time have been made chiefly from the recession of waterfalls since the final retreat of the great ice-fields in ,north ,america4 ,the retreat of the ,falls of ,st4 ,anthony1 ,minnesota1 has been estimated by ,winchell at #h1jjj years and by ,sardeson at #cj1jjj years4 ,the retreat of the ,falls of ,niagara has been estimated as requiring from #g1jjj to #dj1jjj years2 it has proved a very uncertain chronometer1 because of the great variation in the volume of water at different stages in its history4 ,the recession of ,scarboro ,heights and other changes due to wave action on ,lake ,ontario have been estimated by ,coleman as requiring from #bd1jjj to #bg1jjj years4 ,fairchild has estimated that #cj1jjj years have elapsed since the ice left the ,lake ,ontario region of ,new ,york4 ,in ,europe the most accurate chronology is that of ,baron de ,geer on the terminal moraines and related marine clays of northern ,sweden4 ,for the retreat of the ice northward over a distance of #cgj miles in ,sweden #e1jjj years were allowed2 for the time since the disappearance of the ice in ,sweden1 #g1jjj years2 for the retreat of the ice from ,germany across the ,baltic1 #ab1jjj years2 giving a total of #bd1jjj years as compared with a total of between #cj1jjj and #ej1jjj years allowed by ,penck for the retreat of the ice-fields of the ,alps4 ,,note ,,vii ,,the ,,most ,,recent ,,discoveries ,,of ,,anthropoid ,,apes ,,and ,,supposed ,,ancestors ,,of ,,man ,,in ,,india ,it is possible that within the next decade one or more of the ,tertiary ancestors of man may be discovered in northern ,india among the foot-hills known as the ,siwaliks4 ,such discoveries have been heralded1 but none have thus far been actually made4 ,yet ,asia will probably prove to be the centre of the human race4 ,we have now discovered in southern ,asia primitive representatives or relatives of the four existing types of anthropoid apes1 namely1 the gibbon1 the orang1 the chimpanzee1 and the gorilla1 and since the extinct ,indian apes are related to those of ,africa and of ,europe1 it appears probable that southern ,asia is near the centre of the evolution of the higher primates and that we may look there for the ancestors not only of prehuman stages like the ,trinil race but of the higher and truly human types4 ,as early as #ahhf several kinds of extinct ,old ,world primates1 including two anthropoid apes related to the orang and to the chimpanzee1 were reported from the ,siwalik hills in northern ,india1 and recently ,dr4 ,pilgrim1 of the ,geological ,survey1 has described three new species of ,siwalik apes resembling ,dryopithecus of the ,upper ,miocene of ,europe1 also an anthropoid which he has named ,sivapithecus and regards as actually related to the direct ancestors of man1 a conclusion which may or may not prove to be correct4 ,another extinct ,indian ape1 ,palopithecus1 is of very generalized type and is related to all the anthropoid apes4 ,,note ,,viii ,,anthropoid ,,apes ,,discovered ,,by ,,carthaginian ,,navigators,,bj ,the ,periplus of ,hanno purports to be a ,greek translation of a ,carthaginian inscription on a tablet in the temple of ,chronos 7,moloch7 at ,carthage1 dedicated by ,hanno1 a ,carthaginian navigator1 in commemoration of a voyage which he made southward from the ,strait of ,gibraltar along the western coast of ,africa as far as the inlet now known as ,sherboro ,sound1 the next opening beyond ,sierra ,leone4 ,hanno is a very common ,carthaginian name1 but recent writers think it not improbable that this ,hanno was either the father or the son of that ,hamilcar who led the great ,carthaginian expedition to ,sicily in #dhj ,b4 ,c4 ,in the former case the ,periplus might be assigned to a date about #ebj ,b4 ,c42 in the latter1 some fifty years later4 ,the narrative was certainly extant at an early period1 for it is cited in the work on ,marvellous ,narratives ascribed to ,aristotle1 which belongs to the third century ,b4 ,c41 and ,pliny also expressly refers to it4 ,the authenticity of the work is now generally conceded4 ,according to the narrative the farthest limit of ,hanno's voyage1 which was undertaken for purposes of colonization1 brought him and his companions to an island containing a lake with another island in it which was full of wild men and women with hairy bodies1 called by the interpreters gorillas4 ,the ,carthaginians were unable to catch any of the men but they caught three of the women1 whom they killed1 and brought their skins back with them to ,carthage4 ,pliny1 indeed1 adds that the skins in question were dedicated by ,hanno in the temple of ,juno at ,carthage1 and continued to be visible there till the destruction of the city4 ,there can be no difficulty in supposing these 'wild men and women' to have been really large apes of the family of the chimpanzee1 or pongo1 several species of which are in fact found wild in western ,africa1 and some of them1 as is now well known1 attain a stature fully equal to that of man4 ,,bibliography ,a ,agassiz1 ,l4 #ahcg4a ,discours prononc l'ouverture des sances de la ,socit ,helvtique des ,sciences ,naturelles ,neuchtel le #bd ,juillet1 #ahcg1 par ,l4 ,agassiz1 ,prsident4 ,actes1 ,soc4 ,helvtique1 ,sci4 nat41 #bb;e ,sess41 #ahcg1 pp4 v-xxxii4 #ahdj4a ,etudes sur les glaciers4 ,ouvrage accompagn d'un atlas de #cb planches4 #hvo4 ,neuchtel1 #ahdj4 #ahdj4b ,on ,glaciers and ,boulders in ,switzerland4 ,rept4 #ajth ,meeting1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,glasgow1 #ahdj1 pp4 #aac1 #aad 7,trans4 ,sections74 ,alcalde del ,rio1 ,h4 #aiab4a ,les cavernes de la rgion cantabrique 7,espagne74 7,with ,breuil and ,sierra47 ,see ,breuil1 ,h41 #aiab4b4 #aiac4a ,la ,pasiega4 7,with ,breuil and ,obermaier47 ,see ,breuil1 ,h41 #aiac4a4 ,anthony1 ,r4 #aiaj4a ,l'encphale de l'homme fossile de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints4 7,with ,m4 ,boule47 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,paris1 tome #aej1 #aiaj1 pp4 #adeh-adfa4 #aiaa4a ,l'encphale de l'homme fossile de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints4 7,with ,m4 ,boule47 ,see ,boule1 ,m41 #aiaa4a4 #aiab4a ,l'encphale de l'homme fossile de ,la ,quina4 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,paris1 tome #aee1 #aiab1 pp4 #ia-ic4 ,arcelin1 ,a4 #ahfi4a ,l',age du ,renne en ,mconnais1 etc4 7,with ,ferry1 ,h47 ,see ,ferry1 ,h41 #ahfi4a4 d',ault du ,mesnil1 ,g4 #ahif4a ,note sur le terrain quaternaire des environs d',abbeville4 ,rev4 de l',ecole d',anthropol41 ,paris1 #ahif1 anne ,,vi1 pp4 #bhd-bif4 #ahih4a ,l',age de la ,pierre4 7,with ,salmon1 ,p41 et ,capitan47 ,see ,salmon1 ,p41 #ahih4a4 ,avebury1 ,lord 7,sir ,john ,lubbock74 #aiac4a ,prehistoric ,times as ,illustrated by ,ancient ,remains and the ,manners and ,customs of ,modern ,savages4 ,seventh edition1 thoroughly revised and entirely reset4 7,henry ,holt ,co47 #hvo1 #aiac4 ,b ,bchler1 ,e4 #aiab4a ,das ,wildkirchli1 die lteste prhistorische ,kulturstation der ,schweiz und ihre ,beziehungen zu den altsteinzeitlichen ,niederlassungen des ,menschen in ,europa4 ,schr4 ,ver4 fr ,geschichte des ,bodensees1 ,heft ,,xli4 ,bardon1 ,l4 #aiji4a ,dcouverte d'un squelette humain moustrien a la ,bouffia de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints 7,corrze74 7,with ,bouyssonie47 ,see ,bouyssonie1 ,a41 #aiji4a4 ,bayer1 ,j4 #aiab4a ,das geologisch-archologische ,verhltnis im ,eiszeitalter4 ,zeitschr4 fr ,ethnol41 #dd ,jahrgang1 ,heft #a1 #aiab1 pp4 #a-bb4 ,bgouen1 ,le ,comte4 #aiab4a ,les statues d'argile prhistoriques de la caverne du ,tuc d',audoubert 7,arige74 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,inscrip4 et ,belles-,lettres1 #aiab1 pp4 #ecb-ech4 #aiab4b ,une nouvelle grotte gravures dans l',arige1 la caverne du ,tuc d',audoubert4 ,congr4 ,internat4 d',anthropol4 et d',archol4 prhist41 ,,xive ,sess41 ,genve1 #aiab1 pp4 #dhi-dig4 ,berry1 ,r4 ,j4 ,a4 #aiad4a ,the ,place in ,nature of the ,tasmanian ,aboriginal as ,deduced from a ,study of his ,calvaria4--,part ,,ii1 ,his ,relation to the ,australian ,aboriginal4 7,with ,a4 ,w4 ,d4 ,robertson47 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,edinburgh1 vol4 ,,xxxiv1 part ,,ii1 #aiad1 pp4 #add-ahi4 ,blackenhorn1 ,m4 #aiaa4a ,die ,pithecanthropus-,schichten aus ,java4 7,with ,selenka1 ,l47 ,see ,selenka1 ,l41 #aiaa4a4 ,bonarelli1 ,g4 #aiji4a ,palanthropus 7n4 g47 heidelbergensis 7,schoet474 ,perugia ,riv4 ital4 ,palaeont41 vol4 #ae1 #aiji1 pp4 #bf-ca4 ,bonnet1 ,r4 #aiad4a ,diluviale ,menschenfunde in ,obercassel bei ,bonn4 7,with ,verworn and ,steinmann47 ,,iii1 ,die ,skelete4 ,see ,verworn1 ,m41 #aiad4a4 ,boucher de ,crvecur de ,perthes1 ,j4 #ahdf4a ,antiquits celtiques et antdiluviennes3 ,mmoire sur l'industrie primitive ou des arts leur origine4 ,tome ,i1 #ahdf4 ,tome ,,ii1 #aheg4 ,tome ,,iii1 #ahfd4 ,paris1 #hvo4 ,boule1 ,m4 #ahhh4a ,essai de palontologie stratigraphique de l'homme4 ,rev4 d',anthropol41 #ahhh1 sr4 #c1 tome ,,iii1 pp4 #abi-add1 #bgb-big1 #che-daa1 #fdg-fhj4 #ahii4a ,sur l'existence d'une faune d'animaux arctiques dans la ,charente l'poque quaternaire4 7,with ,chauvet1 ,g47 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,paris1 tome #abh1 pp4 #aahh-aaij4 #aije4a ,l'origine des olithes4 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xvi1 #aije1 pp4 #a-aa4 #aijf4a ,les ,grottes de ,grimaldi 7,baouss-,rouss74 ,tome ,i1 fasc4 ,,ii--,gologie et ,palontologie4 ,publies sous les auspices de ,s4 ,a4 ,s4 ,albert ,ier1 ,prince de ,monaco4 ,monaco1 #dto4 #aijh4a ,l'homme fossile de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints 7,corrze74 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,paris1 #aijh1 tome #adg1 pp4 #acdi-aceb4 #aijh4b ,l'homme fossile de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints4 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xix1 #aijh1 pp4 #eai-ebe4 #aiji4a ,l'homme fossile de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints 7,corrze74 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xx1 #aiji1 pp4 #beg-bga4 #aiaj4a ,l'encphale de l'homme fossile de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints4 7,with ,r4 ,anthony47 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,paris1 tome #aej1 #aiaj1 pp4 #adeh-adfa4 #aiaj4b ,les ,grottes de ,grimaldi 7,baouss-,rouss74 ,tome ,i1 fasc4 ,,iii--,gologie et ,palontologie 7suite74 ,monaco1 #aiaj4 #aiaa4a ,l'encphale de l'homme fossile de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints4 7,with ,r4 ,anthony47 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xxii1 #aiaa1 pp4 #abi-aif4 #aiab4a ,la taille et les proportions du corps de l',homo neanderthalensis4 ,c4 ,r4 ,inst4 franc4 ,anthrop41 #aiab1 pp4 #eg-fj4 #aiac4a ,l'homme fossile de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints4 ,ext4 ,ann4 ,pal41 tome ,,vi1 #aiaa1 pp4 #aaa-agb #a-fd1 ,pl4 ,,xvii-,,xx ,pl4 ,i-,,iv2 tome ,,vii1 #aiab1 pp4 #ba-aib #fe-bjh1 ,pl4 ,,iv-,,xix ,pl4 ,v-,,xvi2 tome ,,viii1 #aiac1 pp4 #a-gj #bji-bgh1 ,paris1 #dto4 ,bourgeois1 l',abb4 #ahfg4a ,dcouverte d'instruments en silex dans le dpt ,elephas meridionalis de ,saint-,prest1 aux environs de ,chartres4 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,paris1 tome #fd1 pp4 #dg1 #dh4 ,bourrinet4 #aijf4a ,l',abri ,mge1 une station magdalnienne ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 7,with ,capitan1 ,breuil1 and ,peyrony47 ,see ,capitan1 #aijf4a4 #aijh4a ,la grotte de la ,mairie ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 ,fouilles d'un gisement magdalnien4 7,with ,capitan1 ,breuil1 and ,peyrony47 ,see ,capitan1 #aijh4a4 #aiab4a ,les gravures sur cascade stalagmitique de la grotte de la ,mairie ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 7,with ,capitan1 ,l41 ,breuil1 and ,peyrony47 ,see ,capitan1 ,l41 #aiab4a4 ,bouyssonie1 les ,abbs ,a4 et ,j4 #aiji4a ,dcouverte d'un squelette humain moustrien la ,bouffia de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints 7,corrze74 7,with ,bardon47 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xix1 #aiji1 pp4 #eac-eah4 ,breuil1 l',abb ,h4 #aijf4a ,l',abri ,mge1 une station magdalnienne ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 7,with ,capitan1 ,bourrinet1 and ,peyrony47 ,see ,capitan1 ,l41 #aijf4a4 #aijf4b ,la caverne d',altamira ,santillane prs ,santander 7,espagne74 7,with ,cartailhac47 ,see ,cartailhac1 ,e41 #aijf4a4 #aijh4a ,la grotte de la ,mairie ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 ,fouilles d'un gisement magdalnien4 7,with ,capitan1 ,bourrinet1 and ,peyrony47 ,see ,capitan1 #aijh4a4 #aijh4b ,les peintures et gravures murales des cavernes pyrnennes4 7,with ,cartailhac47 ,see ,cartailhac1 ,e41 #aijh4a4 #aiji4a ,l',aurignacien prsolutren4 pilogue d'une controverse4 ,rev4 prhist41 anne #d1 #aiji1 pp4 #e-df4 #aiji4b ,crnes palolithiques faonns en coupes4 7,with ,obermaier1 ,h47 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xx1 #aiji1 pp4 #ebc-ecj4 #aiji4c ,l'volution de l'art quaternaire et les travaux d'douard ,piette4 ,rev4 ,archol41 sr4 #d1 tome ,,xiii1 pp4 #cgh-daa4 #aiaj4a ,la caverne de ,font-de-,gaume aux ,eyzies 7,dordogne74 7,with ,capitan and ,peyrony47 ,see ,capitan1 ,l41 #aiaj4a4 #aiaj4b ,les peintures et gravures murales des cavernes pyrnennes4 ,,iv--,gargas1 ,cne4 d',aventignan 7,hautes-,pyrnes74 7,with ,cartailhac47 ,see ,cartailhac1 ,e41 #aiaj4a4 #aiaa4a ,l'abri sculpt de ,cap-,blanc ,laussel 7,dordogne74 7,with ,lalanne47 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xxii1 #aiaa1 pp4 #che-djh4 #aiab4a ,l'ge des cavernes et roches ornes de ,france et d',espagne4 ,rev4 ,archol41 tome ,,xix1 #aiab1 pp4 #aic-bcd4 #aiab4b ,les cavernes de la rgion cantabrique 7,espagne74 7,with ,alcalde del ,rio1 and ,r4 ,p4 ,k4 ,sierra47 ,see ,alcalde del ,rio1 #aiab4a4 #aiab4c ,les gravures sur cascade stalagmitique de la grotte de la ,mairie ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 7,with ,capitan1 ,l41 ,peyrony1 and ,bourrinet47 ,see ,capitan1 ,l41 #aiab4a4 #aiab4d ,la statuette de mammouth de ,pedmost4 7,with ,maska and ,obermaier47 ,see ,maska1 #aiab4a4 #aiab4e ,les peintures rupestres d',espagne4 7,with ,serrano ,gomez and ,cabre ,aguilo47 ,,iv--,les ,abris del ,bosque ,alpra 7,albacete74 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xxiii1 #aiab1 pp4 #ebi-efb4 #aiab4f ,les premiers travaux de l',institut de ,palontologie humaine4 7,with ,obermaier47 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xxiii1 #aiab1 pp4 #a-bg4 #aiab4g ,les subdivisions du palolithique suprieur et leur signification4 ,congr4 ,intern4 d',anthrop4 d',archol4 prhist41 ,c4 ,r41 ,,xive ,sess41 ,genve1 #aiab1 pp4 #afe-bch4 #aiac4a ,travaux executs en #aiab4 7,with ,obermaier47 ,travaux de ,i',institut de ,palontologie humaine4 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xxiv1 #aiac1 pp4 #a-af4 #aiac4b ,la ,pasiega ,puente-,viesgo 7,santander1 ,espagne74 7,with ,obermaier and ,alcalde del ,rio47 ,peintures et gravures murales des cavernes palolithiques4 ,institut de ,palontologie humaine4 ,monaco1 #dto1 #aiac4 ,broca1 ,p4 #ahfh4a ,sur les crnes et ossements des ,eyzies4 ,bull4 ,soc4 d',anthropol41 ,paris1 sr4 #b1 tome ,,iii1 pp4 #cej-cib4 #ahge4a ,instructions craniologiques et craniomtriques de la ,socit d',anthropologie de ,paris4 ,ext4 ,mm4 ,soc4 d',anthropol41 tome ,,ii1 sr4 #b1 #bjc pp41 #f ,pls41 ,paris1 ,masson et ,cie41 #hvo41 #ahge4 ,brckner1 ,e4 #aiji4a ,die ,alpen im ,eiszeitalter4 ,see ,penck1 ,a41 #aiji4a4 ,bchner1 ,l4 ,w4 ,g4 #aiad4a ,a ,study of the ,curvatures of the ,tasmanian ,aboriginal ,cranium4 ,communicated by ,professor ,r4 ,j4 ,a4 ,berry4 ,proc4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,edinburgh1 vol4 ,,xxxiv1 part ,,ii1 #aiad1 pp4 #abh-adc4 ,buckland1 ,w4 #ahbc4a ,reliqui ,diluvian2 or1 ,observations on the ,organic ,remains contained in ,caves1 ,fissures1 and ,diluvial ,gravel1 and on ,other ,geological ,phenomena1 attesting the action of an ,universal ,deluge4 ,london1 #dto1 #ahbc4 ,butler1 ,s4 #aiaa4a ,evolution1 ,old and ,new2 or1 the ,theories of ,buffon1 ,dr4 ,erasmus ,darwin1 and ,lamarck1 as compared with that of ,charles ,darwin4 ,with a ,preface by ,r4 ,a4 ,streatfield 7dated ,october1 #aiaa71 ,new ,york 7,dutton71 #hvo4 ,c ,cabre ,aguilo1 ,j4 #aiab4a ,les peintures rupestres d',espagne4 7,with ,breuil and ,serrano ,gomez47 ,see ,breuil1 ,h41 #aiab4e4 ,capitan1 ,l4 #ahih4a ,l',age de la ,pierre4 7,with ,salmon1 ,p41 and d',ault du ,mesnil47 ,see ,salmon1 ,p41 #ahih4a4 #aijf4a ,l',abri ,mge1 une station magdalnienne ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 7,with ,breuil and ,peyrony47 ,rev4 de l',ecole d',anthropol41 anne ,,vi1 #aijf1 pp4 #aif-bab4 #aijh4a ,la grotte de la ,mairie ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 7,with ,breuil1 ,bourrinet and ,peyrony47 ,fouilles d'un gisement magdalnien4 ,rev4 de l',ecole d',anthropol41 anne ,,xviii1 #aijh1 pp4 #aec-agc4 #aiaj4a ,la caverne de ,font-de-,gaume aux ,eyzies 7,dordogne74 7,with ,breuil and ,peyrony47 ,peintures et gravures murales des cavernes palolithiques publies sous les auspices de ,s4 ,a4 ,s4 le ,prince ,albert ,ier de ,monaco4 ,monaco1 #dto1 #aiaj4 #aiab4a ,les gravures sur cascade stalagmitique de la grotte de la ,mairie ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 7,with ,breuil1 ,peyrony1 and ,bourrinet47 ,congr4 ,intern4 d',anthropol4 et d',archol4 prhist41 ,c4 ,r41 ,,xive ,sess41 ,genve1 pp4 #dih-ead4 #aiab4b ,station prhistorique de la ,ferrassie1 ,commune de ,savignac-du-,bugue 7,dordogne74 7,with ,peyrony47 ,rev4 ,anthropol41 anne ,,xxi1 no4 #a1 #aiab1 pp4 #bi-ej4 ,cartailhac1 ,e4 #aijc4a ,la ,france prhistorique d'aprs les spultures et les monuments4 ,deuxime dition1 avec #afb gravures dans le text4 ,paris1 #hvo1 #aijc4 #aijf4a ,la caverne d',altamira ,santillane prs ,santander 7,espagne74 7,with ,breuil47 ,peintures et gravures murales des cavernes palolithiques publies sous les auspices de ,s4 ,a4 ,s4 ,prince ,albert ,ier de ,monaco4 ,monaco1 #dto1 #aijf4 #aijh4a ,les peintures et gravures murales des cavernes pyrnennes4 7,with ,breuil47 ,,iii--,niaux 7,arige74 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xix1 #aijh1 pp4 #ae-df4 #aiaj4a ,les peintures et gravures murales des cavernes pyrnennes4 7,with ,breuil47 ,,iv--,gargas1 ,cne4 d',aventignan 7,hautes-,pyrnes74 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xxi1 #aiaj1 pp4 #abi-aej4 #aiab4a ,les ,grottes de ,grimaldi 7,baouss-,rouss74 ,tome ,,ii1 fasc4 ,,ii--,archologie4 ,peintures et gravures murales des cavernes palolithiques publies sous les auspices de ,s4 ,a4 ,s4 ,prince ,albert ,ier de ,monaco4 ,monaco1 #dto1 #aiab4 ,chamberlin1 ,t4 #ahie4a ,glacial ,studies in ,greenland4 ,,iii--,coast ,glaciers between ,disco ,island and ,inglefield ,gulf4 ,journ4 ,geol41 vol4 ,,iii1 #ahie1 pp4 #fa-fi4 #aije4a ,geology4 7,with ,salisbury1 ,r4 ,d47 ,american ,science ,series1 ,advanced ,course1 vols4 ,i and ,,ii4 ,second edition1 revised1 ,new ,york1 #hvo1 #aije4 de ,charpentier1 ,j4 #ahda4a ,essai sur les glaciers et sur le terrain erratique du bassin du ,rhne4 ,lausanne1 #hvo1 #ahda4 ,chauvent1 ,g4 #ahii4a ,sur l'existence d'une faune d'animaux arctiques dans la ,charente l'poque quaternaire4 7,with ,boule1 ,m47 ,see ,boule1 ,m41 #ahii4a4 de ,christol4 #ahbi4a ,notice sur les ossemens humains fossiles des cavernes du dpartement du ,gard4 ,ext4 ,acad4 ,montpellier1 #be pp4 et planche4 ,montpellier1 #hvo1 #ahbi4 ,christy1 ,h4 #ahge4a ,reliqui ,acquitanic4 7,with ,lartet1 ,e47 ,see ,lartet1 ,e41 #ahge4a4 ,collignon1 ,r4 #ahij4a ,l'anthropologie au conseil de revision2 mthode suivre4 ,son application l'tude des populations des ,ctes-du-,nord4 ,bull4 ,soc4 d',anthropol41 ,paris1 sr4 #d1 tome ,i1 #ahij1 pp4 #gcf-hje4 ,commont1 ,v4 #aijf4a ,les dcouvertes rcentes ,saint-,acheul1 l',acheulen4 ,rev4 de l',ecole d',anthropol41 ,paris1 anne ,,xvi1 #aijf1 pp4 #bbh-bda4 #aijh4a ,les industries de l'ancien ,saint-,acheul4 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xix1 #aijh1 pp4 #ebg-egb4 #aiji4a ,l'industrie moustrienne dans la region du nord de la ,france4 ,congr4 ,prhist4 de ,france1 ,ve ,sess41 #aiji1 pp4 #aae-aeg4 #aiji4b ,saint-,acheul et ,montires4 ,notes de gologie1 de palontologie et de prhistoire4 ,mm4 ,soc4 ,gol4 du ,nord1 tome ,,vi1 iii4 #aiab4a ,moustrien faune chaude dans la valle de la ,somme ,montires-les-,amiens4 ,congr4 ,intern4 d',anthropol4 et d',archol4 prhist41 ,c4 ,r41 ,,xive ,sess41 ,genve1 #aiab1 pp4 #bia-cjj4 ,cope1 ,e4 ,d4 #ahic4a ,the ,genealogy of ,man4 ,amer4 ,nat41 vol4 ,,xxvii1 #ahic1 pp4 #cba-cce4 ,d ,dana1 ,j4 #ahge4a ,manual of ,geology3 ,treating of the ,principles of the ,science with ,special ,reference to ,american ,geological ,history4 ,second edition1 ,new ,york1 #hvo1 #ahge4 ,darwin1 ,c4 #ahga4a ,the ,descent of ,man and ,selection in ,relation to ,sex4 ,vols4 ,i and ,,ii4 ,london 7,murray71 #hvo1 #ahga4 #aiji4a ,the ,descent of ,man and ,selection in ,relation to ,sex4 ,second edition1 revised and enlarged1 ,new ,york 7,appleton71 #hvo1 #aiji4 #aiji4b ,the ,origin of ,species by ,means of ,natural ,selection1 or the ,preservation of ,favored ,races in the ,struggle for ,life4 ,with additions and corrections4 ,from sixth and last ,english edition1 ,new ,york 7,appleton71 #hvo1 #aiji4 ,dawkins1 ,w4 ,boyd4 #ahhj4a ,early ,man in ,britain and ,his ,place in the ,tertiary ,period4 ,london1 #ahhj4 #ahhc4a ,on the ,alleged ,existence of ,ovibos moschatus in the ,forest-,bed1 and on its ,range in ,space and ,time4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,london1 #ahhc1 vol4 ,,xxxix1 pp4 #ege-eha4 ,dawson1 ,c4 #aiac4a ,on the ,discovery of a ,palolithic ,human ,skull and ,mandible in a ,flint-,bearing ,gravel overlying the ,wealden 7,hastings ,beds7 at ,piltdown1 ,fletching 7,sussex74 ,with an ,appendix by ,prof4 ,g4 ,elliot ,smith4 7,with ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward47 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,london1 vol4 ,,lxix1 part ,i1 #aiac1 pp4 #aag-aea1 ,pls4 #ae-ba4 #aiac4b ,prehistoric ,man in ,sussex4 ,zoologist1 ser4 #d1 vol4 #ag1 pp4 #cc-cf4 #aiad4a ,supplementary ,note2 ,on the ,discovery of a ,palolithic ,human ,skull and ,mandible in a ,flint-,bearing ,gravel1 etc4 7,with ,a4 ,s4 ,woodward47 ,with an ,appendix by ,prof4 ,grafton ,elliot ,smith4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 vol4 ,,lxx1 #aiad1 pp4 #hb-ii1 ,pls4 #ad1 #ae4 ,dchelette1 ,j4 #aijh4a ,manuel d'archologie prhistorique celtique et gallo-romaine4 ,tome ,i--,archologie prhistorique 7#aijh74 ,tome ,,ii--,archologie celtique ou protohistorique4 ,premire partie--,age du ,bronze 7#aiaj74 ,deuxime partie--,premier ,age du ,fer ou ,epoque de ,hallstatt 7#aiac74 ,appendices 7#aiaj74 ,appendices 7,supplment7 7#aiab74 ,paris1 #hvo1 #aiaj-aiac4 ,desnoyers1 ,j4 #ahfc4a ,note sur des indices matriels de la coexistence de l'homme avec l',elephas meridionalis dans un terrain des environs de ,chartres1 plus ancien que les terrains transport quaternaires des valles de la ,somme et de la ,seine4 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,paris1 tome #ef1 #ahfc1 pp4 #ajgc-ajhc4 ,dietrich1 ,w4 ,o4 #aiaj4a ,neue fossile ,cervidenreste aus ,schwaben4 ,jahreshefte1 ,ver4 vaterl4 ,naturk41 ,wrttemberg1 #ff ,jahrg41 #aiaj1 pp4 #cah-ccf4 ,dubois1 ,e4 #ahid4a ,pithecanthropus erectus1 eine ,menschenaehnliche ,uebergangsform aus ,java4 ,batavia1 #dto1 #ahid4 ,dupont1 4 #ahff4a ,etudes sur les fouilles scientifiques excutes pendant l'hiver de #ahfe-ahff dans les cavernes des bords de la ,lesse4 ,bull4 ,acad4 ,r4 de ,belgique1 sr4 #b1 tome ,,xxii1 #ahff1 pp4 #ca-ed4 #ahga4a ,les temps anthistoriques en ,belgique4 ,l'homme pendant les ges de la pierre dans les environs de ,dinant-sur-,meuse4 ,deuxime dition4 ,bruxelles 7,muquardt71 #hvo1 #ahga4 ,e ,eccardus1 ,j4 ,g4 #agej4a ,de ,origine et ,moribus ,germanorum eorumque vetustissimis colonis1 migrationibus ac rebus gestis4 7,ioh4 ,guil4 ,schmidii71 #dto1 ,goetting1 ci i ccl 7#agej74 ,elbert1 ,j4 #aijh4a ber das ,alter der ,kendeng-,schichten mit ,pithecanthropus erectus ,dubois4 ,n4 ,jahrb4 ,mineral4 ,gol4 u4 ,pal41 ,,xxv ,beil4-,bd41 #aijh1 pp4 #fdh-ffb4 ,ewart1 ,j4 ,c4 #aijd4a ,the ,multiple ,origin of ,horses and ,ponies4 ,trans4 ,highl4 ,agri4 ,soc4 ,scotland1 #aijd1 pp4 #a-ci4 #aijg4a ,on the ,skulls of ,horses from the ,roman ,fort at ,newstead1 near ,melrose1 with ,observations on the ,origin of the ,domestic ,horses4 ,trans4 ,r4 ,soc4 ,edinburgh1 vol4 ,,xlv1 part ,,iii1 no4 #bj1 #aijg1 pp4 #eee-ehg4 #aiji4a ,the ,possible ,ancestors of the ,horses ,living under ,domestication4 ,science1 n4 s41 vol4 ,,xxx1 no4 #gfc1 ,august #ac1 #aiji1 pp4 #bai-bbc4 ,f de ,ferry1 ,h4 #ahfi4a ,l',age du ,renne en ,mconnais4 ,mmoire sur le gisement archologique du clos du ,charnier ,solutr1 ,dpartement de ,sane-et-,loire4 7,compte rendu des fouilles opres en #ahfg et #ahfh par ,,mm4 ,h4 de ,ferry et ,a4 ,arcelin47 ,trans4 ,intern4 ,congr4 ,prhist4 ,archol41 ,,iiie ,sess41 ,london1 #ahfh 7published #ahfi71 pp4 #cai-cej1 ,pls4 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,fischer1 ,e4 #aiac4a ,fossile ,hominiden4 ,sonderabd4 ,handwrterbuch ,naturwiss41 ,bd4 ,,iv1 pp4 #ccb-cfj1 ,jena1 #hvo1 #aiac4 ,fraipont1 ,j4 #ahhg4a ,la race de ,neanderthal ou de ,canstadt en ,belgique4 7,with ,lohest1 ,m47 ,arch4 ,biol41 tome ,,vii1 #ahhg1 pp4 #ehg-geg4 ,fraunholz1 ,j4 #aiaa4a ,die ,kastlhng-,hhle1 eine ,renntierjgerstation im bayerischen ,altmhltale4 ,mit einem ,beitrag von ,max ,schlosser4 7,with ,obermaier47 ,beitrge1 ,anthropol4 u4 ,urgesch4 ,bayerns1 ,bd4 ,,xviii1 #aiaa4 7,unpaged separate47 ,g ,gaudry1 ,a4 #ahgf4a ,matriaux pour l'histoire des temps quaternaires4 ,fasc4 ,i4 ,paris1 #dto1 #ahgf4 #ahij4a ,le ,dryopithque4 ,mm4 ,soc4 ,gol4 de ,france1 ,pal4 ,mm4 no4 #a4 ,paris1 #dto1 #ahij4 ,geikie1 ,j4 #ahid4a ,the ,great ,ice ,age and ,its ,relation to the ,antiquity of ,man4 ,third edition1 largely rewritten4 ,london1 #hvo1 #ahid4 #aiad4a ,the ,antiquity of ,man in ,europe1 being the ,munro ,lectures1 #aiac4 ,edinburgh1 #hvo1 #aiad4 ,godwin-,austen4 #ahdj4a ,on the ,geology of the ,southeast of ,devonshire4 ,trans4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ser4 #b1 vol4 ,,vi1 pp4 #dcc-dhi1 ,pl4 ,,xlii4 ,gorjanovi-,kramberger1 ,k4 #aija4a ,der palolithische ,mensch und seine ,zeitgenossen aus dem ,diluvium von ,krapina in ,kroatien4 ,mitt4 ,anthrop4 ,gesell4 ,wien1 ,bd4 #ca1 pp4 #afc-aig1 #d ,pls41 #ac ,figs4 #aijc4a ,nachtrag 7to the above74 ,mitt4 ,anthrop4 ,gesell4 ,wien1 ,bd4 #cb1 pp4 #ahi-baf1 #d ,pls41 #ag ,figs4 #aijf4a ,der diluviale ,mensch von ,krapina in ,kroatien4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,paloanthropologie4 ,studien ber ,entwicklungsmechanik des ,primatskelettes mit besonderer ,bercksichtigung der ,anthropologie und ,descendenzlehre4444 ,herausgegeben von ,dr4 ,otto ,walkhoff1 ,wiesbaden1 #dto1 #aijf4 #aiji4a ,der vordere ,unterkieferabschnitt des altdiluvialen ,menschen in seinem genetischen ,verhltnis zum ,unterkiefer des rezenten ,menschen und den der ,anthropoiden4 ,zeitschr4 ,abstammungs-u4 ,vererbungsl41 ,bd4 ,i1 pp4 #daa-dci4 ,h ,harl1 ,e4 #ahii4a ,notes sur la ,garonne4 ,bull4 ,soc4 d',hist4 ,nat4 ,toulouse1 anne ,,xxxii 7,oct41 #ahii71 pp4 #adi-aih4 #aijh4a ,faune quaternaire de la province de ,santandr 7,espagne74 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,gol4 de ,france1 sr4 #d1 tome ,,viii1 #aijh1 pp4 #hb-hc4 #aiaj4a ,les mammifres et oiseaux quaternaires connus jusqu'ici en ,portugal4 ,mmoire suivi d'une liste gnrale de ceux de la ,pninsule ,ibrique4 ,ext4 tome ,,viii1 ,communicaes1 ,service ,gol4 du ,portugal4 ,haug1 ,e4 #aijg4a ,trait de ,gologie4 ,tome ,i--,les ,phnomnes gologiques 7#aijg74 ,tome ,,ii--,les ,priodes gologiques 7#aiaa74 ,paris1 #hvo4 ,hauser1 ,o4 #aiji4a ,homo aurignacensis ,hauseri1 etc4 ,see ,klaatsch1 ,h41 #aiji4a4 ,heim1 ,a4 #ahid4a ,ueber das absolut ,alter der ,eiszeit4 ,vierteljahrschrif4 naturf4 ,gesell4 ,zurich1 ,bd4 #ci1 #ahid1 pp4 #ahj-ahf4 ,hilzheimer4 #aiac4a ,studienreise zu den palolithischen ,fundstellen der ,dordogne4 ,see ,wiegers1 #aiac4a4 ,hrdlika1 ,dr4 ,a4 #aiad4a ,the ,most ,ancient ,skeletal ,remains of ,man4 ,report1 ,smithsonian ,institution1 etc41 #aiac1 pp4 #dia-eeb1 ,pls4 #a-da4 ,publication #bcjj4 ,government ,printing ,office1 ,washington1 #hvo1 #aiad4 ,huntington1 ,e4 #aijg4a ,the ,pulse of ,asia4 ,new ,york1 #hvo1 #aijg4 ,j ,james1 ,w4 #aijb4a ,the ,varieties of ,religious ,experience4 ,a ,study in ,human ,nature4 ,being the ,gifford ,lectures on ,natural ,religion delivered at ,edinburgh in #aija-aijb4 ,new ,york1 #hvo1 #aijb4 ,johnson1 ,j4 ,p4 #aiac4a ,the ,stone ,implements of the ,tasmanians4 ,nature1 vol4 #ib1 no4 #bbih4 ,k ,keane1 ,a4 ,h4 #aija4a ,ethnology4 ,cambridge ,geographical ,series4 ,stereotyped edition4 ,cambridge1 #hvo4 #aija4 ,keith1 ,a4 #aiaa4a ,ancient ,types of ,man4 ,harper's ,library of ,living ,thought4 ,new ,york1 #abmo4 #aiaa4 #aiaa4b ,discovery of the ,teeth of ,palolithic ,man in ,jersey4 ,nature1 vol4 #hf1 no4 #bafi1 ,may #be1 #aiaa1 p4 #dad4 #aiaa4c ,the ,early ,history of the ,gibraltar ,cranium4 ,nature1 vol4 #hg1 no4 #bahd1 ,september #g1 #aiaa1 pp4 #cac1 #cad4 #aiab4a ,cranium of the ,cr-,magnon ,type found by ,mr4 ,w4 ,m4 ,newton in a ,gravel ,terrace near ,dartford4 ,rpt4 #hb;d ,meeting1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,dundee1 #aiab1 pp4 #eaf1 #eag4 #aiab4b ,hunterian ,lecture on ,certain ,phases in the ,evolution of ,man4 7,abstract47 ,brit4 ,med4 ,journ41 #aiab1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #gcd-gcg1 #ghh-gij4 #aiac4a ,the ,piltdown ,skull and ,brain ,cast4 ,nature1 vol4 #ib1 no4 #bbid1 ,october #af1 #aiac1 pp4 #aig-aii4 #aiac4b ,the ,piltdown ,skull and ,brain ,cast4 ,nature1 vol4 #ib1 no4 #bbig1 ,november #f1 #aiac1 p4 #bib4 #aiac4c ,the ,piltdown ,skull and ,brain ,cast4 ,nature1 vol4 #ib1 no4 #bbii1 ,november #bj1 #aiac1 pp4 #cde1 #cdf4 ,kennard1 ,a4 ,s4 #aiac4a ,discussion of ,on the ,discovery of a ,palolithic ,human ,skull and ,mandible 444 at ,piltdown1 ,fletching 7,sussex74 ,see ,dawson1 ,c41 #aiac4a1 p4 #aej4 ,king1 ,w4 #ahfd4a ,the ,reputed ,fossil ,man of the ,neanderthal4 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,sci41 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #hh-ig1 ,pls4 ,i1 ,,ii4 ,klaatsch1 ,h4 #aiji4a ,homo aurignacensis ,hauseri1 ein palolithischer ,skeletfund aus dem unteren ,aurignacien der ,station ,combe-,capelle bei ,montferrand 7,prigord74 7,with ,hauser47 ,prhist4 ,zeitschr41 ,bd4 ,i1 #aiji 7,heft #c-d1 #aiaj71 pp4 #bgc-cch4 ,koken1 ,e4 #aiab4a ,die diluviale ,vorzeit ,deutschlands1 von ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 ,,ii--,geologischer ,teil von ,ernst ,koken4 ,die ,geologie und ,tierwelt der palolithischen ,kultursttten ,deutschlands4 ,see ,schmidt1 ,r4 ,r41 #aiab4a4 ,kraemer1 ,h4 ,weltall und ,menschheit4 ,geschichte der ,erforschung der ,natur und der ,verwertung der ,naturkrfte im ,dienst der ,vlker4 ,band ,,ii4 ,berlin1 n4 d4 ,l ,lalanne1 ,g4 #aiaa4a ,l'abri sculpt de ,cap-,blanc ,laussel 7,dordogne74 7,with ,breuil1 ,h47 ,see ,breuil1 ,h41 #aiaa4a4 ,lamarck1 ,j4 #ahji4a ,philosophie ,zoologique4 ,paris 7,duminil-,leseur71 #hvo1 #aiji4 #ahae4a ,histoire naturelle des animaux sans vertbres4444 ,tomes #a-g 7#ahae-ahbb74 ,paris 7,verdire71 #hvo1 #ahae-ahbb4 ,lartet1 ,e4 #ahfa4a ,nouvelles recherches sur la coexistence de l'homme et des grands mammifres fossiles rputs caractristiques de la dernire priode gologique4 ,ann4 ,sci4 ,nat41 sr4 #d1 ,zoologie1 tome ,,xv1 #ahfa1 pp4 #agg-bec1 ,pl4 ,x4 #ahge4a ,reliqui ,acquitanic4 7,with ,christy47 ,being ,contributions to the ,archology and ,palontology of ,prigord and the ,adjoining ,provinces4 ,edited by ,rupert ,jones4 ,london1 #dto1 #ahge4 ,leverett1 ,f4 #aiaj4a ,comparison of ,north ,american and ,european ,glacial ,deposits4 ,zeitschr4 fr ,gletscherk41 ,bd4 ,,iv1 #aiaj1 pp4 #bda-caf4 ,lubbock1 ,sir ,j4 7,see ,avebury1 ,lord74 #ahfb4a ,on the ,evidences of the ,antiquity of ,man afforded by the ,physical ,structure of the ,somme ,valley4 ,nat4 ,hist4 ,rev41 #ahfb1 pp4 #bdd-bfi4 ,lyell1 ,sir ,c4 #ahfc4a ,the ,geological ,evidences of the ,antiquity of ,man with ,remarks on the ,theories of the ,origin of ,species by ,variation4 ,second revised edition4 ,london 7,murray71 #hvo1 #ahfc4 #ahfg4a ,principles of ,geology or the ,modern ,changes of the ,earth and ,its ,inhabitants ,considered as ,illustrative of ,geology4 ,tenth and entirely revised edition4 ,vol4 ,i1 #ahfg4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #ahfh4 ,london 7,murray71 #hvo1 #ahfg-ahfh4 #ahgg4a ,principles of ,geology or the ,modern ,changes of the ,earth and its ,inhabitants ,considered as ,illustrative of ,geology4 ,eleventh and entirely revised edition4 ,vol4 ,i1 #ahgg4 ,vol4 ,,ii1 #ahgb4 ,new ,york 7,appleton71 #hvo1 #ahgb-ahgg4 ,m ,mac,curdy1 ,g4 ,g4 #aije4a ,the ,eolithic ,problem4 ,evidences of a ,rude ,industry ,antedating the ,paleolithic4 ,amer4 ,anthropol41 n4 s41 vol4 ,,vii1 no4 #c1 #aije1 pp4 #dbe-dgi4 ,mahudel4 #agdj4a ,sur les prtendues pierres de foudre4 ,hist4 ,acad4 ,r4 ,inscript4 et ,belles-,lettres1 ,paris1 tome ,,xii1 #agdj1 pp4 #afc-afh4 ,makowsky1 ,a4 #ahib4a ,der diluviale ,mensch im ,lss von ,brnn4 ,mitt4 ,anthropol4 ,gesell4 ,wien1 ,bd4 ,,xxii 7,n4 ,f4 ,bd4 ,,xiii71 pp4 #gc-hd4 ,marett1 ,r4 ,r4 ,anthropology4 ,home ,university ,library of ,modern ,knowledge4 ,new ,york 7,henry ,holt ,co471 #abmo1 n4 d4 ,martin1 ,h4 #aiaj4a ,astragale humain du ,moustrien moyen de ,la ,quina4 7,ext41 ,bull4 ,soc4 prhist4 de ,france1 #aiaj1 p4 #cia47 ,reviewed by ,m4 ,boule4 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xxii1 #aiaa1 pp4 #cab1 #cac4 ,martin1 ,r4 #aiad4a ,lehrbuch der ,anthropologie in systematischer ,darstellung4 ,mit besonderer ,bercksichtigung der anthropologischen ,methoden4 ,fr studierende rzte und ,forschungsreisende4 ,jena1 #hvo1 #aiad4 ,martins1 ,c4 #ahdg4a ,recherches sur la priode glaciaire et l'ancienne extension des glaciers du ,mont-,blanc depuis les ,alpes jusqu'au ,jura4 ,rev4 deux mondes #ahdg1 tome #ag1 pp4 #iai-idb4 ,maka1 ,k4 #ahhf4a ,fund des ,unterkiefers in der ,schipka-,hhle4 ,verh4 ,berliner ,gesell4 f4 ,anthropol41 ,ethnol4 u4 ,urgesch41 #ahhf1 pp4 #cda-cej4 #aiab4a ,la statuette de mammouth de ,pedmost4 7,with ,obermaier and ,breuil47 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xxiii1 #aiab1 pp4 #bgc-bhe4 ,massnat1 4 #ahfi4a ,objets gravs et sculpts de l',augerie ,basse 7,dordogne74 ,matr4 pour l'hist4 de l'homme1 anne ,v1 sr4 #b1 pp4 #cdh-cef4 ,morlot1 ,a4 #ahed4a ,notice sur le ,quaternaire en ,suisse4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,vaudoise1 ,sci4 nat41 #ahed1 pp4 #da-de4 de ,mortillet1 ,a4 #ahfi4a ,essai d'une classification des cavernes et des stations sous abri1 fonde sur les produits de l'industrie humaine4 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,paris1 tome #fh1 #ahfi1 pp4 #eec-eee4 de ,mortillet1 ,g4 #ahgb4 ,classification des ges de la pierre4 ,classification des diverses priodes de l'ge de la pierre4 ,c4 ,r4 ,congr4 ,intern4 d',anthropol41 d' ,archol4 ,prhist41 ,,vie ,sess4 ,bruxelles1 #ahgb1 pp4 #dcb-ddd4 ,munro1 ,r4 #ahic4a ,on the ,relation between the ,erect ,posture and the ,physical and ,intellectual ,development of ,man4 ,rpt4 #fc;d ,meeting1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,nottingham1 #ahic1 ,presidential ,address1 ,section of ,anthropology1 pp4 #hhe-hhi4 #aiab4a ,paleolithic ,man and the ,terramara ,settlements in ,europe4 ,being the ,munro ,lectures in ,anthropology and ,prehistoric ,archology in connection with the ,university of ,edinburgh4 ,edinburgh1 #hvo1 #aiab4 ,n ,nehring1 ,a4 #ahhj4a bersicht ber vierundzwanzig mitteleuropische ,quatr-,faunen4 ,zeitschr4 deutsch4 geolog4 ,gesell41 #ahhj1 pp4 #dfh-eji4 #ahif4a ,die kleineren ,wirbeltiere vom ,schweizersbild bei ,schaffhausen4 ,n4 ,denkschr4 allg4 schweiz4 ,gesell4 gesam4 ,naturwiss41 ,bd4 ,,xxxv1 #ahif1 pp4 #dj-gg4 ,neumeyer1 ,m4 #ahij4a ,erdgeschichte4 ,band ,i1 #ahie4 ,band ,,ii1 #ahij4 ,leipzig1 ,r4 #hvo1 #ahij-ahie4 ,nicolle1 ,e4 ,t4 #aiaj4a ,report on the ,exploration of the ,palolithic ,cave-,dwelling known as ,la ,cotte1 ,st4 ,brelade1 ,jersey4 7,with ,sinel1 ,j47 ,man1 #aiaj1 nos4 #aja-ajb1 pp4 #ahe-ahh4 ,niezabitowski1 ,e4 #aiaa4a ,die berreste des in ,starunia in einer ,erdwachsgrube mit ,haut und ,weichteilen gefundenen ,rhinoceros antiquitatis ,blum4 7tichorhinus ,fisch474 ,bull4 ,acad4 ,sci4 ,cracovie1 ,classe des ,sci4 ,mathmat41 etc41 #aiaa1 sr4 ,b2 ,sci4 nat41 pp4 #bdj-bff4 ,nesch1 ,j4 #aijb4a ,das ,schweizersbild1 eine ,niederlassung aus palolithischer und neolithischer ,zeit4 ,die praehistorische ,niederlassung am ,schweizersbild bei ,schaffhausen4 ,die ,schichten und ihre ,einschlsse4 ,n4 ,denkschr4 allg4 schweiz4 ,gesell4 gesam4 ,naturwiss41 ,bd4 ,,xxxv1 zweite ,verbesserung1 pp4 #a-abj4 ,o ,obermaier1 ,h4 #aiji4a ,crnes palolithiques faonns en ,coupes4 7,with ,breuil47 ,see ,breuil1 ,h41 #aiji4b4 #aiji4b ,les formations glaciaires des ,alpes et l'homme palolithique4 ,l',anthropol41 tome ,,xx1 #aiji1 pp4 #dig-ebb4 #aiji4c ,die ,aurignacienstation von ,krems 7,n4-,o474 7,with ,strobel47 ,see ,strobel1 #aiji4a4 #aiaa4a ,die ,kastlhng-,hhle1 eine ,renntierjgerstation im bayerischen ,altmhltale4 7,with ,fraunholz und ,schlosser47 ,see ,fraunholz1 ,j41 #aiaa4a4 #aiab4a ,der ,mensch der ,vorzeit4 ,mnchen1 ,r4 #hvo1 #aiab4 #aiab4b ,les premires travaux de l',institut de ,palontologie humaine4 7,with ,breuil47 ,see ,breuil1 ,h41 #aiab4f4 #aiab4c ,la statuette de mammouth de ,pedmost4 7,with ,maska et ,breuil47 ,see ,maska1 #aiab4a4 #aiac4a ,la ,pasiega ,puente-,viesgo 7,santander1 ,espagne74 7,with ,breuil and ,alcalde del ,rio47 ,see ,breuil1 ,h41 #aiac4b4 ,osborn1 ,h4 ,f4 #ahid4a ,from the ,greeks to ,darwin4 ,an ,outline of the ,development of the ,evolution ,idea4 ,new ,york1 #hvo1 #ahid4 #aiaj4a ,the ,age of ,mammals in ,europe1 ,asia and ,north ,america4 ,new ,york1 #hvo1 #aiaj4 ,p ,penck1 ,a4 #aijh4a ,das ,alter des ,menschengeschlechts4 ,zeitschr4 fr ,ethnol41 ,jahrg4 #dj1 ,heft #c1 #aijh1 pp4 #cij-djg4 #aiji4a ,die ,alpen im ,eiszeitalter4 7,with ,brckner1 ,e47 ,band ,i1 ,,ii1 ,,iii4 ,leipzig1 ,r4 #hvo1 #aiji4 ,peyrony1 ,m4 #aijh4a ,la grotte de la ,mairie ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 7,with ,capitan and ,breuil47 ,see ,capitan1 ,l41 #aijh4a4 #aiaj4a ,la caverne de ,font-de-,gaume aux ,eyzies 7,dordogne74 7,with ,breuil and ,capitan47 ,see ,capitan1 #aiaj4a4 #aiab4a ,les gravures sur cascade stalagmitique de la grotte de la ,mairie ,teyjat 7,dordogne74 7,with ,breuil1 ,bourrinet1 and ,capitan47 ,see ,capitan1 #aiab4b4 ,piette1 ,e4 #aijg4a ,l'art pendant l',age du ,renne4 ,album de cent planches dessines par ,j4 ,pilloy4 ,paris1 small folio1 #aijg4 ,pilgrim1 ,g4 #aiac4a ,the ,correlation of the ,siwaliks with ,mammal ,horizons of ,europe4 ,records1 ,geol4 ,survey ,india1 vol4 ,,xliii1 part #d1 pp4 #bfd-cbf1 ,pls4 #bf-bh4 ,q ,quatrefages1 ,a4 #ahhd4a ,hommes fossiles et hommes sauvages4 ,etudes d',anthropologie4 ,paris1 #hvo1 #ahhd4 ,r ,reeds1 ,c4 ,a4 #aiae4a ,the ,graphic ,projection of ,pleistocene ,climatic ,oscillations4 ,bull4 ,geol4 ,soc4 ,amer41 vol4 #bf1 no4 #a1 #aiae1 pp4 #ajf-aji4 ,reid1 ,c4 #aijh4a ,the ,pre-,glacial ,flora of ,britain4 7,with ,e4 ,m4 ,reid47 ,journ4 ,linn4 ,soc4 ,botany1 vol4 ,,xxxviii1 #aijh1 pp4 #bjf-bbg4 #aiac4a ,discussion of ,on the ,discovery of a ,palolithic ,human ,skull and ,mandible 444 at ,piltdown 444 ,sussex4 ,see ,dawson1 ,c41 #aiac4a4 ,reinach1 ,s4 #ahhi4a ,antiquits nationales4 ,dscription raisonne du ,muse de ,saint-,germain-en-,laye4 ,i--,epoque des alluvions et des cavernes4 ,paris1 #hvo #ahhi4 #cbb pp4 #aiac4a ,rpertoire de l',art quaternaire4 ,paris1 #abmo1 #aiac4 ,retzius1 ,a4 #ahfd4a ,ethnologische ,schriften4 ,,iii--,ueber die ,form des ,knochengerstes des ,kopfes bei verschiedenen ,vlkern4 ,stockholm1 #dto1 #ahfd4 ,rigollot4 #ahed4a ,mmoires sur des instruments en silex trouves ,saint-,acheul4 ,amiens1 #ahed4 ,ripley1 ,w4 ,z4 #ahii4a ,the ,races of ,europe4 ,a ,sociological ,study4 7,lowell ,institute ,lectures47 ,accompanied by a ,supplementary ,bibliography of the ,anthropology and ,ethnology of ,europe1 etc4 ,new ,york1 #hvo1 #ahii4 ,rivire1 ,e4 #ahig4a ,la grotte de ,la ,mouthe 7,dordogne74 ,bull4 ,soc4 d',anthropol41 ,paris1 sr4 #d1 tome ,,viii1 #ahig1 pp4 #cjb-cbi2 #dhd-dij2 #dig-eja4 #ahig4b ,la grotte de ,la ,mouthe 7,dordogne74 ,c4 ,r4 assoc4 fran4 pour l'avanc4 sci41 #bfme ,sess41 ,saint-,etienne1 #ahig1 pp4 #ffi-fhg4 ,robertson1 ,a4 ,w4 ,d4 #aiad4a ,the ,place in ,nature of the ,tasmanian ,aboriginal as ,deduced from a ,study of his ,calvaria4 7,with ,berry1 ,r4 ,j4 ,a47 ,see ,berry1 ,r4 ,j4 ,a42 #aiad4a4 ,rutot1 ,a4 #aijb4a ,les industries primitives4 ,dfense des olithes4 ,les actions naturelles possibles sont inaptes produire des effets semblables la retouche intentionelle4 ,bull4 et ,mm4 ,soc4 ,anthropol41 ,bruxelles1 tome ,,xx 7#aijb71 mm4 ,,iii4 #aijg4a ,a fin de la question des olithes4 ,bull4 ,soc4 ,belge ,gol41 ,procs-,verbal1 #aijg1 tome ,,xxi1 pp4 #baa-bag4 ,rzehak1 ,prof4 ,a4 #aijf4a ,der ,unterkiefer von ,ochos4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,kenntnis des altdiluvialen ,menschen4 ,verhandl4 naturf4 ,ver41 ,brnn1 ,bd4 ,,xliv 7#aije71 pp4 #ia-aad4 ,published in #aijf4 ,s ,salisbury1 ,r4 ,d4 #aije4a ,geology4 7,with ,chamberlin1 ,t4 ,c47 ,see ,chamberlin1 ,t41 #aije4a4 ,salmon1 ,p4 #ahih4a ,age de la pierre3 habitations nolithiques4 7,with d',ault du ,mesnil and ,capitan47 ,le ,campignien4 ,rev4 de l',ecole d',anthropol41 anne ,,viii1 #ahih1 pp4 #cfe-djh4 de ,sautuola1 ,m4 #ahhj4a ,breves apuntes sobre algunos objetos prehistricos de la provincia de ,santander4 ,madrid1 #ahhj1 #d pl4 ,schaaffhausen1 ,d4 #aheg4a ,theilen des menschlichen ,skelettes im ,neanderthale bei ,hochdal4 ,sitzungsber4 niederrhein4 ,gesellsch4 f4 ,natur u4 ,heilkunde1 ,bonn1 #aheg1 pp4 xxxviii-xlii4 #aheh4a ,zur ,kenntniss der ltesten ,rassenschdel4 ,mller's ,archiv1 ,jahrg4 #aheh1 pp4 #dec-dgh4 ,schliz1 ,a4 #aiab4a ,die diluviale ,vorzeit ,deutschlands1 von ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 ,teil ,,iii--,anthropologischer ,teil4 ,die diluvialen ,menschenreste ,deutschlands4 ,see ,schmidt1 ,r4 ,r41 #aiab4a4 ,schlosser1 ,m4 #aiaa4a ,die ,kastlhng-,hhle1 eine ,renntierjgerstation im bayerischen ,altmhltale4 7,with ,fraunholz und ,obermaier47 ,see ,fraunholz1 #aiaa4a4 ,schmerling1 ,p4-,c4 #ahcc4a ,recherches sur les ,ossemens ,fossiles dcouvertes dans les cavernes de la province de ,lige4 ,lige1 #dto1 #ahcc4 ,schmidt1 ,r4 ,r4 #aiab4a ,die diluviale ,vorzeit ,deutschlands4 ,i--,archologischer ,teil3 ,die diluvialen ,kulturen ,deutschlands1 ,r4 ,r4 ,schmidt4 ,,ii--,geologischer ,teil3 ,die ,geologie und ,tierwelt der palolithischen ,kultursttten ,deutschlands1 ,ernst ,koken4 ,,iii--,anthropologischer ,teil3 ,die diluvialen ,menschenreste ,deutschlands1 ,a4 ,schliz4 ,stuttgart1 #dto1 #aiab4 ,schoetensack1 ,o4 #aijh4a ,der ,unterkiefer des ,homo heidelbergensis aus den ,sanden von ,mauer bei ,heidelberg4 ,ein ,beitrag zur ,palontologie des ,menschen4 ,leipzig1 #dto1 #aijh4 ,schuchert1 ,c4 #aiac4a ,climates of ,geologic ,time4 ,reprint1 ,carnegie ,inst4 of ,washington1 ,publication ,no4 #aib1 pp4 #bfc-bih4 ,schuchhardt1 ,c4 #aiac4a ,palolithische ,fundstellen der ,dordogne4 7,with ,wiegers und ,hilzheimer47 ,see ,wiegers1 #aiac4a4 ,schwalbe1 ,g4 #ahig4a ,ueber die ,schdelformen der ltesten ,menschenrassen mit besonderer ,bercksichtigung des ,schdels von ,egisheim4 ,mitt4 ,philomat4 ,gesell4 ,elsass-,lothringen1 ,jahrg4 #e 7#ahig71 ,heft ,,iii1 pp4 #gb-he4 #ahii4a ,studien ber ,pithecanthropus erectus ,dubois4 ,zeitschr4 f4 ,morph4 u4 ,anthropol41 ,bd4 ,i1 ,heft ,i1 pp4 #af-bb1 ,pls4 ,i-,,iii4 #aija4a ,der ,neanderthalschdel4 ,bonner ,jahrb41 no4 #ajf1 ,bonn1 pp4 #a-gb4 #aija4b ber die specifischen ,merkmale des ,neanderthalschdels4 ,verh4 ,anat4 ,gesell41 ,bonn1 #aija1 pp4 #dd-fa4 #aijd4a ,die ,vorgeschichte des ,menschen4 ,braunschweig1 #hvo1 #aijd4 #aijf4a ,das ,schdelfragment von ,brx und verwandte ,schdelformen4 ,zeitschr4 fr ,morphol4 und ,anthropol41 ,sonderheft1 #aijf1 pp4 #ha-ahb1 ,pls4 ,i-,,ii4 #aiad4a ,kritische ,besprechung von ,boule's ,werk3 ,l'homme fossile de ,la ,chapelle-aux-,saints mit eigenen ,untersuchungen4 ,zeitschr4 ,morph4 u4 ,anthropol41 ,bd4 ,,xvi1 ,heft #c1 pp4 #ebg-faj4 #aiad4b ber einen bei ,ehringsdorf in der ,nhe von ,weimar gefundenen ,unterkiefer des ,homo primigenius4 ,anat4 ,anzeiger1 ,band #dg1 nos4 #ac-ag4 ,oktober1 #aiad1 pp4 #ccg-cde4 ,selenka1 ,l4 #aiaa4a ,die ,pithecanthropus-,schichten auf ,java4 7,with ,blanckenhorn47 ,geologische und palontologische ,ergebnisse der ,trinil-,expedition 7#aijg-aijh74 ,herausgegeben von ,m4 ,lenore ,selenka und ,prof4 ,max ,blanckenhorn1 ,leipzig1 #dto1 #aiaa4 ,serrano ,gomez1 ,p4 #aiab4a ,les peintures rupestres d',espagne4 7,with ,breuil and ,cabre ,aguilo47 ,see ,breuil1 #aiab4e4 ,sierra1 ,r4 ,p4 ,l4 #aiab4a ,les cavernes de la rgion cantabrique 7,espagne74 7,with ,alcalde del ,rio and ,breuil47 ,see ,alcalde del ,rio1 #aiab4a4 ,smith1 ,g4 ,e4 #aiab4a ,presidential ,address to the ,anthropological ,section 7,b4 ,a4 ,a4 ,s474 ,rpt4 #hb;d ,meeting1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,dundee1 #aiab1 pp4 #ege-eih4 #aiac4a ,the ,controversies concerning the ,interpretation and ,meaning of the ,remains of the ,dawn-,man ,found near ,piltdown4 ,abstract4 ,meet4 ,manchester ,lit4 and ,philosoph4 ,soc41 ,november #ah1 #aiac4 #aiac4b ,on the ,discovery of a ,palolithic ,human ,skull and ,mandible in a ,flint-,bearing ,gravel overlying the ,wealden 7,hastings ,beds7 at ,piltdown1 ,fletching 7,sussex74 ,with an ,appendix by ,prof4 ,grafton ,elliot ,smith4 ,see ,dawson1 ,c41 #aiac4a4 #aiac4c ,the ,piltdown ,skull4 ,nature1 vol4 #ib1 no4 #bbib1 ,october #b1 #aiac1 p4 #aca4 #aiac4d ,the ,piltdown ,skull and ,brain ,cast4 ,nature1 vol4 #ib1 no4 #bbif1 ,october #cj1 #aiac1 pp4 #bfg1 #bfh4 #aiad4a ,supplementary ,note on the ,discovery of a ,palolithic ,human ,skull and ,mandible at ,piltdown 7,sussex74 7,with ,dawson and ,woodward47 ,with an ,appendix by ,prof4 ,grafton ,elliot ,smith4 ,see ,dawson1 ,c41 #aiad4a4 ,smith1 ,w4 #ahid4a ,man the ,primeval ,savage4 ,his ,haunts and ,relics from the ,hill-,tops of ,bedfordshire to ,blackwall4 ,london1 #hvo1 #ahid4 ,sollas1 ,w4 ,j4 #aijj4a ,evolutional ,geology4 ,presidential ,address to the ,geological ,section 7,b4 ,a4 ,a4 ,s474 ,rpt4 #gjth ,meeting1 ,brit4 ,assoc4 ,adv4 ,sci41 ,bradford1 #aijj1 pp4 #gaa-gcj4 #aiaa4a ,ancient ,hunters and ,their ,modern ,representatives4 ,london1 #hvo4 #aiaa4 #aiac4a ,paviland ,cave3 ,an ,aurignacian ,station in ,wales4 7,the ,huxley ,memorial ,lecture for #aiac47 ,journ4 ,r4 ,anthropol4 ,inst4 of ,gr4 ,brit4 ,ireland1 vol4 ,,xliii1 #aiac1 pp4 #cbe-cgc4 ,steinmann1 ,c4 #aiad4a ,diluviale ,menschenfunde in ,obercassel bei ,bonn4 7,with ,verworn and ,bonnet47 ,,iv--ber das geologische ,alter der ,fundstelle4 ,see ,verworn1 ,m41 #aiad4a4 ,strobel1 ,j4 #aiji4a ,die ,aurignacienstation von ,krems 7,n4-474 7,with ,obermaier1 ,h47 ,mit einem ,anhang von ,oskar von ,troll4 ,jahrb4 ,altertumskunde1 ,bd4 ,,iii1 #aiji1 pp4 #abi-adh1 ,pls4 ,,xi-,,xxi4 ,t ,tomes1 ,c4 ,s4 #aiad4a ,a ,manual of ,dental ,anatomy1 ,human and ,comparative4 ,edited by ,h4 ,w4 ,marett ,tims and ,a4 ,hopewell-,smith4 ,seventh edition4 7,j4 and ,a4 ,churchill47 ,london1 #hvo1 #aiad1 #faf pp4 von ,troll1 ,o4 #aiji4a ,die ,aurignacienstation von ,krems 7,n4-474 7,with ,strobel and ,obermaier47 ,mit einem ,anhang von ,oskar von ,troll4 ,see ,strobel1 ,j41 #aiji4a4 ,u ,upham1 ,w4 #ahic4a ,estimates of ,geologic ,time4 ,amer4 ,journ4 ,sci41 vol4 ,,xlv1 #ahic1 pp4 #bji-bbj4 ,v ,verneau1 ,r4 #ahhf4a ,la race de ,cr-,magnon4 ,rev4 ,anthropol41 sr4 #c1 tome ,i1 #ahhf1 pp4 #aj-bd4 #ahia4a ,cinq annes de sjour aux les ,canaries4 ,paris1 #ahia4 #aijf4a ,les ,grottes de ,grimaldi 7,baouss-,rouss74 ,tome ,,ii1 fasc4 ,i--,anthropologie4 ,monaco1 #dto1 #aijf4 ,verworn1 ,m4 #aiad4a ,diluviale ,menschenfunde in ,obercassel bei ,bonn4 7,with ,bonnet and ,steinmann47 ,i--,fundbericht1 ,verworn4 ,,ii--,die ,kulturstufe des ,fundes1 ,verworn4 ,,iii--,die ,skelete1 ,bonnet4 ,,iv--ber das geologische ,alter der ,fundstelle1 ,steinmann4 ,die ,naturwissenschaften1 ,heft #bg1 ,jahrg4 #b1 #c ,juli #aiad1 pp4 #fde-fej4 de ,vibraye4 #ahfd4a ,note sur des nouvelles preuves de l'existence de l'homme dans le centre de la ,france une poque o s'y trouvaient aussi divers animaux qui de nos jours n'habitent pas cette contre4 ,c4 ,r4 ,acad4 ,sci41 ,paris1 tome #eh1 #ahfd1 pp4 #dji-daf4 ,villeneuve1 ,l4 #aijf4a ,les ,grottes de ,grimaldi 7,baouss-,rouss74 ,tome ,i1 fasc4 ,i--,historique et ,dscription4 ,monaco1 #dto1 #aijf4 ,volz1 ,w4 #aijg4a ,das geologische ,alter der ,pithecanthropus-,schichten bei ,trinil1 ,ost-,java4 ,n4 ,jahrb4 ,miner41 ,geol4 u4 ,palontol41 ,festband1 #aijg1 pp4 #bef-bga4 ,w ,walcott1 ,c4 ,d4 #ahic4a ,geologic ,time as ,indicated by the ,sedimentary ,rocks of ,north ,america4 ,amer4 ,geol41 vol4 ,,xii1 no4 #f1 #ahic1 pp4 #cdc-cfh1 ,pl4 ,,xv4 ,wiegers1 ,f4 #aiac4a ,eine ,studienreise zu den palolithischen ,fundstellen der ,dordogne4 7,with ,schuchhardt and ,hilzheimer47 ,zeitschr4 f4 ,ethnol41 ,jahrg4 #de1 ,heft ,i1 #aiac1 pp4 #abf-afj4 ,wilser1 ,l4 #ahih4a ,menschenrassen und ,weltgeschichte4 ,naturwiss4 ,wochenschr41 ,band ,,xiii1 ,heft ,i1 #ahih4 ,woodward1 ,a4 ,s4 #aiac4a ,on the ,discovery of a ,palolithic ,human ,skull and ,mandible in a ,flint-,bearing ,gravel overlying the ,wealden 7,hastings ,beds7 at ,piltdown1 ,fletching1 ,sussex4 7,with ,dawson1 ,c47 ,with an ,appendix by ,prof4 ,grafton ,elliot ,smith4 ,see ,dawson1 ,c41 #aiac4a4 #aiad4a ,supplementary ,note on the ,discovery of a ,palolithic ,human ,skull and ,mandible at ,piltdown 7,sussex74 7,with ,charles ,dawson47 ,with an ,appendix by ,prof4 ,grafton ,elliot ,smith4 ,see ,dawson1 ,c41 #aiad4a4 #aiad4b ,on the ,lower ,jaw of an ,anthropoid ,ape 7,dryopithecus7 from the ,upper ,miocene of ,lrida 7,spain74 ,quart4 ,journ4 ,geol4 ,soc41 ,london1 vol4 ,,lxx1 pp4 #caf-cbj1 ,pl4 ,,xliv4 #aiae4a ,a ,guide to the ,fossil ,remains of ,man in the ,department of ,geology and ,palontology in the ,british ,museum 7,natural ,history71 ,cromwell ,road1 ,london1 ,s4 ,w4 ,with #d plates and #ab text-figures4 ,printed by order of the trustees of the ,british ,museum4 #hvo1 #aiae1 #cc pp4 ,,index ,,index,,bk ,a ,abbeville1 #aji1 #aaf1 #abd1 #abe1 #abg1 #adi1 #aeb1 #aef1 #aff1 #afg1 #bdd1 #cca ,abri ,audit1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bee1 #bfi1 #bgg1 #cje1 #cjg1 #cji1 #caa1 #cad ,abri ,dufaure1 #dga ,abri ,mge1 #dce1 #ddb ,abris1 see ,rock ,shelters ,achenheim1 #cj1 #afj1 #afa1 #afg1 #agf1 #aie1 #bhd1 #cad ,achenschwankung1 see ,postglacial ,stage ,acheulean1 #ad-af1 #ah1 #cj2 chronology1 #cc1 #da1 #hi2 climate1 #aab1 #aag1 #aah1 #afe1 #aff1 #agc1 #agd1 #age-agg1 #ahf2 fauna1 #add-adh1 #afe2 geography 7physical71 #aff2 human fossils1 #bd1 #aha-ahe2 industry1 #ad1 #af1 #ah1 #da1 #ajh1 #aac1 #abb-abd1 #afi-agc1 #agg-ahj1 #bgj1 #bhj1 #cfb2 stations1 #aea1 #aeh-afb1 #aff-afi2 see ,origin schylus1 on the prehistory of man1 #c1 #eje ,aggsbach1 #bi1 #dce1 #ddh ,agriculture1 #b1 #dhf1 #dif ,aiguille1 needle1 #bga1 #caj1 #cac1 #chg1 #chh1 #cia1 #cib1 #ddj1 #ddc-dde1 #ddi1 #dfa1 #dfb ,alactaga jaculus1 #cgc1 #cgd2 see ,jerboa ,alces1 #ahg1 #bhg1 #cfi2 latifrons1 #gj1 see ,moose ,alento1 #afg ,alpera1 #dfi1 #dig ,alpine fauna1 see ,fauna ,alpine race1 #bgh1 #deh1 #dgi1 #dhj1 #dha1 #dhd1 #dhe1 #dia1 #dii1 #ejj ,alpine vole1 #cga1 see ,arvicola nivalis ,altamira1 #ag1 #cai1 #cba1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cdf1 #cfh1 #che1 #cid1 #cie1 #cii1 #djh1 #dae1 #daf1 #dbb-dbg1 #dcd1 #dce1 ,pl4 ,,viii ,ancestry of ,man1 see ,man ,ancona1 #afg ,andernach1 #afj1 #aie1 #bgi1 #cgb1 #cgh1 #dce ,anthropoid ,apes1 #c1 #ba2 ancestry1 #di-fa2 brain1 #eb-fj2 compared with ,grimaldi1 #bff1 with ,neanderthal1 #i1 #bag1 #bcj-bcc1 #bcg-bdj1 with ,piltdown1 #adj1 #ada1 with ,pithecanthropus1 #i1 #gg-gi2 known to ,carthaginians1 #eaa1 #eab2 recent discoveries1 #eaa ,anthropology1 rise of1 #c-aj ,antilope saiga1 see ,saiga antelope ,anvils1 bone1 #baa1 #bec1 #bef1 #bga2 see ,compresseur ,apes1 see ,anthropoid ,arboreal life1 effects of1 #ef1 #eg ,archology1 rise of1 #aj-ah ,archer1 #cbi ,arctomys marmotta1 #ahb1 #cgj2 see ,marmot ,arcy-sur-,cure1 #bad1 #bai1 #dce ,argali sheep1 #df1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #cga2 see ,ovis argaloides ,arrow1 #bad1 #beh1 #bgj1 #bgb1 #cdd1 #cec1 #ced1 #daj1 #dej1 #dig ,art1 #ac1 #ad1 #ag1 #ba1 #cae-ccj1 #ccb1 #cdg-cej1 #cib-dcd1 #ddi1 see ,aurignacian1 ,magdalenian1 ,solutrean1 ,engraving1 ,painting1 ,sculpture1 ,industry2 implements used in1 #bgj1 #cji-cab1 #cba1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #che1 #cif1 #dae1 #dfc2 means of dating1 #cag-cbj ,arudy1 #dce1 #dcf ,arvicola1 amphibius1 #adg2 gregalis1 #cgc2 nivalis1 #cgj1 #cga ,ascoli ,piceno1 #afg ,ass1 wild 7kiang71 see ,horse ,aurensan1 #dce1 #dch1 #dga ,aurignac1 #e1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #bge1 #bgi1 #bij1 #bid1 #cad ,aurignacian1 #ad-af1 #ah1 #bge1 #bgf2 art1 #cae-ccj1 #djc1 #djd1 #djh2 burial customs1 #cjb-cje2 chronology1 #cc1 #da1 #cea2 climate1 #abc1 #bha-bhf2 fauna1 #bhe-bhi2 human fossils1 #bhi-cje2 industry1 #af1 #ah1 #da1 #ajh1 #bfi-bga1 #bge-bgg1 #bhj1 #cje-cac1 #cbi1 #ccj1 #cfb2 stations1 #bge1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #bhi1 #cjg1 #cac-cae2 see ,origin ,aurignacian race1 see ,combe-,capelle man ,aurochs1 see ,bos primigenius and ,cattle ,australian head type1 #acf1 #bbh1 #bcb1 #bcd ,awl1 see ,poinon ,axe1 #dic1 #did ,azilian1 see ,azilian-,tardenoisian ,azilian-,tardenoisian1 #af1 #bge1 #dea1 #def2 art1 #def2 burial customs1 #dge-dgi2 chronology1 #bge1 #def1 #dei2 climate1 #dfc1 #dfh2 fauna1 #dfc1 #dff1 #dfh-dgj1 #dga1 #dgb1 #dgd2 human fossils1 #dfa1 #dge-dhe2 industry 7,azilian71 #ae1 #af1 #ah1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bge1 #bgf1 #def1 #dei-dfe1 #dff1 #dgj-dge1 7,tardenoisian7 #af1 #ah1 #bgj1 #bga1 #dej1 #def1 #dfe-dfh1 #dgj-dgb1 7painted pebbles7 #cid1 #def1 #dfa1 #dfc-dfe2 stations1 #dei1 #dfc1 #dff1 #dfg1 #dgb-dge2 see ,origin ,b ,badegoule1 #bgi1 #cca1 #ccf1 #dce ,badger1 #afe1 #bja1 #cdc1 #cfg1 #ddg1 #dih2 see ,meles taxus ,ballahhle1 #bgi1 #cca1 #ccf ,baltic race1 #deh1 #dhf1 #ejj2 see ,maglemose ,balverhhle1 #dga ,baouss ,rouss1 see ,grimaldi1 ,grottes de ,baousso da ,torre1 see ,grimaldi1 ,grottes de ,barma ,grande1 see ,grimaldi1 ,grottes de ,bton de commandement1 #bga1 #caa1 #cab1 #cde1 #ceh1 #cei1 #chh1 #cia1 #dcb1 #ddc-dde1 #ddi ,baumannshhle1 #afj1 #aie1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #dci ,bear1 #dc1 #dd1 #fb1 #ie1 #if1 #afe1 #bac1 #bde1 #bfd1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #ccc1 #cdc1 #cdh1 #cfg1 #cgh1 #dcj1 #dda1 #ddg1 #dfa1 #dfh1 #dih2 see ,cave-bear and ,ursus ,beaver1 #fc1 #ie1 #acd1 #afe1 #ahb1 #bhh1 #cdh1 #cfg1 #ddg1 #dfa1 #dfh1 #dih1 see ,castor2 giant1 ,,iii1 #aee1 see ,trogontherium ,bernifal1 #cba1 #cie1 #cif1 #dce ,billancourt1 #aji1 #adi1 #aeb ,bison1 ,wisent1 #ac1 #dc1 #dd1 #fi1 #ga1 #ie1 #ih1 #ajf1 #abe1 #adg1 #afe1 #aib1 #aid1 #aif1 #bjb1 #bjf1 #baa1 #bbc1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #cag1 #cba1 #ccc1 #cdh1 #cec1 #cef1 #cfd1 #cfh1 #cgb1 #che1 #djc1 #dje1 #djf1 #daj1 #dad1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dbc-dbh1 #dcj1 #dca1 #ddi1 #dff1 #dfi1 #dif1 #dih1 #eje1 #ejf1 ,pls4 ,,vii and ,,viii2 see ,bison ,bison1 antiquus1 #fi2 priscus1 #ga1 #ie1 #adh1 #cfh1 see ,bison ,blade1 see ,couteau and ,lame ,blville1 #afg ,boar1 wild1 #b1 #c1 #dc1 #dd1 #gf1 #ie1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #dba1 #dbf1 #ddg1 #dfa1 #dff1 #dfh1 #dih2 see ,sus ,bockstein1 #bhe1 #cad1 #dce1 #ddb ,bois ,colombes1 #aji1 #adi1 #aeb ,borer1 drill1 see ,peroir ,bos1 #ga1 #cfi1 #dje2 longifrons1 #dih2 primigenius1 #ga1 #id1 #bbb1 #cfh1 #dac1 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dih2 taurus1 #ddg1 #dih2 see ,cattle ,bossuet1 on the prehistory of man1 #ejc1 #ejd ,brachycephaly1 #g1 #h1 #gh1 #ahc1 #deg1 #deh1 #dgh-dhe ,brain1 anthropoid1 #ea1 #eb1 #ef1 #ei2 ,brnn1 #ccd1 #dij2 ,combe-,capelle1 #bcf1 #cjb1 #dij2 ,cr-,magnon1 #bgb1 #bib1 #bid1 #bii1 #dij2 evolution of1 #h1 #i1 #ef-fj2 ,grimaldi1 #bfi1 #dij2 ,modern1 #ef-ei1 #hc1 #hd1 #adj1 #bce1 #cjc1 #dij2 ,neanderthal1 #i1 #eh1 #ei1 #bce-bcg1 #dij2 ,ofnet1 #dhj1 #dij2 ,piltdown1 #eh1 #ei1 #aci-ada1 #bcf1 #dij2 ,pithecanthropus #i1 #eh1 #ei1 #hc1 #hd1 #dij ,brassempouy1 #ad1 #bgi1 #cad1 #cbb1 #cca1 #cdg1 #cee1 #cic1 #cie1 #dcc-dce1 #dch ,brive1 #cjg1 #cad ,bronze ,age1 #ab1 #ah1 #ba1 #bjb1 #bfg1 #dfj1 #dfa1 #dgf ,bruniquel1 #bgi1 #cdh1 #chh1 #dbg1 #dce1 #dcf ,brnn1 #bgi1 #cae1 #cbb1 #cca1 #ccd-ccg1 #cie1 ,pl4 ,,ii2 race1 #bc1 #beg1 #bgf1 #bgh1 #cjb1 #cca1 #ccc1 #ccd-cch1 #dhj1 #dhi-dia1 #ejj2 see ,brx1 ,galley ,hill1 ,pedmost1 ,human fossils1 and ,origin ,brx1 #ccd2 see ,brnn race ,buchenloch1 #bde1 #cad1 #dce ,buffon1 ,g4 ,l4 ,l41 #c ,bhl1 see ,postglacial ,stage ,burial customs1 #bd1 #bae1 #bba-bbc1 #bgj1 #bga1 #cjb1 #cjc-cje1 #ccg1 #cgf-chj1 #dge-dgi ,burin1 graver1 #bgj1 #cjf-cjh1 #caj1 #chf1 #chi1 #dgj ,c ,cabeo da ,arruda1 #dfg1 #dga1 #dgd ,camargo1 #bgi1 #bid1 #cad1 #cca1 #dce ,campignian1 #dic-die ,campigny1 #dga2 see ,campignian ,camps1 open1 #bi1 #cj1 #agf1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #cad1 #ccd1 #ccg1 #cda-cdc1 #ddb1 #ddh ,canary ,islands1 #dec1 #ded1 #ejf-eaj ,canis1 lagopus1 #aic1 #bjf1 see ,fox1 arctic2 neschersensis1 #ccc2 suessi1 #adg2 see ,dog1 ,jackal1 and ,wolf ,cannibalism1 #ahd1 #dgg ,cannstatt1 #aj1 #aje1 #bah1 #bbj1 #cca ,cap-,blanc1 #cag1 #cie1 #dbh1 #dca1 #dce ,capreolus1 #gj1 #adg1 #cfg1 #dfi2 see ,deer1 roe- ,capri1 #afg1 #afh ,caramanico1 #afg ,castillo1 #cc1 #aej1 #afb-afe1 #afg1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bgi1 #cad1 #cai1 #cbj1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cca1 #cdb1 #cdi1 #cie1 #djb1 #djh1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dei1 #dfj1 #dga ,castor1 #fi2 fiber1 #adg1 #ahc1 #dgj2 see ,beaver ,cattle1 wild 7,aurochs1 ,urochs1 urus71 #dc1 #dd1 #fb1 #ff1 #gf1 #ie1 #ih1 #ajf1 #aai1 #abe1 #adh1 #afe1 #ahb1 #aib1 #bjf1 #baa1 #bad1 #bde1 #bfe1 #bhd1 #bhh1 #cbe1 #ccc1 #cdh1 #cef1 #cfh1 #cgb1 #cib1 #dje1 #dac1 #dfa1 #dff1 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dig1 #dih1 #eje1 #ejf2 see ,bos and ,leptobos ,cave-bear1 #aj1 #aa1 #ac1 #ahb1 #aid1 #aig1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bjf1 #baj1 #baa1 #bab1 #bac1 #bah1 #bhg1 #dja1 #dac2 see ,ursus spelus ,cave-hyna1 #aa1 #bab1 #bah1 #bfe1 #bhg1 #bhh2 see ,hyna crocuta spela ,cave-leopard1 #bjf1 #bhg2 see ,felis pardus spela ,cave-lion1 #bja1 #bjf1 #bfe1 #bhg2 see ,felis leo spela ,caverns1 #bd2 formation of1 #cj-cc1 #bab2 life in1 #b1 #cj1 #cb1 #baa-bac1 #deg ,cavillon1 ,grotte de1 see ,grimaldi1 ,grottes de ,cazelle1 #dce ,cephalic index1 #h1 #dhj1 #dij ,ceppagna1 #afg ,cergy1 #aji1 #adi1 #aeb ,cervus1 carnutorum1 #ga2 dama1 #dih2 dicranius1 #ga2 elaphus1 #gj1 #id1 #adg1 #cfg1 #cib1 #dbf1 #dfa1 #dfi2 maral1 #cfg1 #ddg2 sedgwicki1 #fi1 #ga2 see ,deer and ,stag ,chaffaud1 ,grotte du1 #cif1 #djd1 #dce1 #dch ,chaleux1 ,trou de1 #dce ,chamois1 ,rupicapra1 #dd1 #df1 #bja1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #ceg1 #cfe1 #cff1 #cfi1 #cga1 #dff ,champs1 #dce1 #dcf ,champs ,blancs1 #cca1 #cdh1 #dce ,chancelade1 #bgi1 #cgf-cgh1 #chb1 #dce ,chapelle-aux-,saints1 ,la1 #g1 #i1 #bjc1 #bad1 #bbb-bbd1 #bbf-bcb1 #bce-bch1 #bda-bdc1 #bde1 #bdf ,chtelperron1 #cje1 #cjg1 #cad2 see ,pointe ,chellean1 #ad-af1 #ah2 chronology1 #cc1 #cd1 #aac-aae1 #abj2 climate1 #aag1 #aah2 fauna1 #add-adh2 geography 7physical71 #aae1 #aaf1 #aed-aeg2 industry1 #ab1 #ad1 #af1 #ah1 #da1 #ajh1 #aad1 #adh-aed1 #bgj1 #bhj1 #cfb2 stations1 #adi1 #aeb1 #aed-aeh2 see ,origin ,chelles1 #af1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aaf1 #adi1 #aeb1 #aed1 #afg1 #bdd ,chimpanzee1 #c1 #h1 #di1 #eb-ef1 #eh1 #ei1 #gh1 #adj1 #bbg1 #bca1 #bce1 #dij1 #eaa1 #eab ,chipping1 see ,flint ,chisel1 see ,ciseau ,chronology1 #aj1 #ab-ad1 #af1 #ah-bd1 #da1 #eaj2 tables1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #cc1 #da1 #dc1 #ed1 #ajh1 #bhj1 #cfb1 #cie1 #dia2 means of estimating1 #ai1 #bj1 #bb-bd1 #cag-cbj ,ciseau1 chisel1 #bgj1 #bga1 #chh1 #cib1 #ddd ,climate1 effect on fauna1 #df1 #dg1 #aib1 #aid1 #bje1 #bhd-bhg2 effect on man1 #cc1 #big1 #ccb1 #cgb1 #chb2 glacial1 #bj1 #bi1 #cd1 #cg-dc1 #fd-ff1 #hi1 #ajd1 #aje1 #aad1 #aag1 #ahh-aid1 #bjb1 #bje1 #bha1 #bhe2 interglacial1 #bj1 #bi1 #cj1 #cc1 #cd1 #cg-da1 #dc1 #fg1 #ij1 #ia1 #ie1 #ajc1 #aab1 #aag1 #aah1 #ahf-ahh2 ,pliocene1 #fc2 ,postglacial1 #bc1 #da1 #dc1 #bgf1 #bha-bhd1 #cfa-cfc ,clothing1 #b1 #agh1 #ahf1 #bac1 #chh1 #cib1 #dif ,cogul1 #cid1 #dig ,colombes1 #aji1 #adi1 #aeb ,combarelles1 #cai1 #cie-cig1 #cii-dja1 #dce ,combe--,roland1 #cca ,combe-,capelle1 #afg1 #aib1 #aif1 #aig1 #aii1 #baa1 #bde1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #beb1 #bec1 #bee1 #bgi1 #cad2 man 7,homo aurignacensis71 #cjb1 #cjc1 #cch ,combo-,negro1 #dce1 #dcf ,compresseur1 #bga2 see ,anvils ,continental outline1 #ai1 #cd-cg1 #fd1 #fe1 #ga1 #hf1 #ib1 #aje1 #aae1 #aaf1 #aee1 #aef1 #aff1 #ahi1 #aij1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhh1 #cfb ,cotte de ,st4 ,brelade1 ,la1 #bad1 #bbe1 #bde ,cotts1 ,les1 #bac1 #cad ,coup de poing1 #aac1 #aad1 #aba1 #abi1 #acj1 #aeb-aed1 #afi-agc1 #agg-ahj1 #bbb1 #bea-bed1 #bef1 #bgj ,couteau 7knife1 blade71 #acj1 #agb1 #agg1 #ahj1 #bgj1 #cjf1 #cjh1 #caj1 #chf1 #chi1 #dhh1 #did ,crayford1 #aih1 #bde ,crteil1 #aji1 #adi1 #aeb ,cricetus phus1 #cgc1 #cgd2 see ,hamster ,cr-,magnon1 #bgi1 #bia1 #cad1 #cca1 #dcg1 ,pl4 ,,ii2 man1 #g1 #bgc1 #bgi1 #bia-bid1 #cjj1 #cja2 race1 #g1 #bc1 #ed1 #bdj1 #beg1 #beh1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bfc1 #bfe-bgf1 #bgh1 #bhj-bhb1 #bhd1 #bhi-cje1 #ccf1 #cea1 #ceh1 #cgf-chb1 #dcd1 #ddj1 #ddc1 #ddi-ded1 #deg-dei1 #dhi-dib1 #dii1 #ejj1 #ejf-eaj1 ,pl4 ,,vii ,cromer1 ,forest ,bed of1 #fd1 #fg1 #fh1 #ga ,crosle ,biscot1 #dce ,crouzade1 #cca1 #cda1 #dce1 #dcg ,culture1 see ,industry ,cyon alpinus fossilis1 #bja ,d ,dart-thrower1 see ,propulseur ,daun1 see ,postglacial ,stage ,deer1 #dd1 #abe1 #acd1 #bde1 #bfe1 #cef1 #dbf1 see ,cervus2 ,axis1 #fb1 #ga1 #gf1 #ajb2 fallow1 #bfe1 #dfi1 #dig1 see ,cervus dama2 giant1 #dc1 #id1 #if1 #afe1 #ahg1 #bjf1 #baa1 #bac1 #bhh1 #cce1 see ,megaceros2 polycladine1 #fc1 #ajb1 see ,cervus dicranius and sedgwicki2 red1 #dd1 #bhg1 #dbf1 #ddg1 see ,cervus elaphus and ,stag2 roe-1 #dd1 #id1 #ie1 #afe1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bhg1 #djd1 #ddg1 #dff1 #dfh1 #dhh1 #dih1 see ,capreolus2 rusa1 #gf ,dicerorhinus 7,r471 antiquitatis1 #df1 #ajf1 #bhe1 see ,rhinoceros1 woolly2 etruscus1 #da1 #fc1 #fi1 see ,rhinoceros1 ,etruscan2 merckii1 #da1 #ib-id1 #aag1 #adh1 #bfc1 see ,rhinoceros1 ,merck's ,dog1 domestic1 #dgd1 #dhf1 #dhh1 #dig1 #dii ,dolichocephaly1 #g1 #h1 #gh1 #bbj1 #bcj1 #bca1 #bff1 #bfh1 #ccd1 #ccf1 #cch1 #deg1 #dgh-dha ,domestic ,animals1 #ddg1 #dff1 #dgd1 #dhf1 #dhh1 #dig-dii ,drill1 see ,peroir ,dryopithecus1 #f1 #di1 #ej1 #eaa ,drnten1 #bj1 #aag1 #aai ,drntenian1 #ajg1 #aai ,duruthy1 see ,sorde ,e ,ehringsdorf1 #afg1 #aha1 #bad ,elasmothere1 ,e4 sibiricum1 #df1 #bhf1 #cgc ,elephant1 #ch1 #dc1 #dd1 #dg1 #gb1 #gf1 #hf1 #ia-ie1 #ajb1 #aag1 #aai1 #abc1 #abd1 #adg1 #adh1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afa1 #agd1 #agg1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #aib1 #bje1 #bde1 #bfd2 see ,elephas ,elephas1 antiquus1 #bg1 #da1 #dg1 #gb1 #gf1 #ib-id1 #if1 #aag1 #abc1 #abe1 #adh1 #afe1 #bfc2 hysudricus1 #gf2 meridionalis1 #bf1 #bg1 #da1 #fb1 #fi1 #gb1 #ib1 #abe2 planifrons1 #fb2 primigenius1 #bf1 #df1 #ajf1 #bhe2 trogontherii1 #da1 #ic1 #ajb1 #aag2 see ,elephant and ,mammoth ,elevation1 see ,continental outline ,enfants1 ,grotte des1 see ,grimaldi1 ,grottes de1 and ,grimaldi race ,engis1 #dce1 #dec ,engraving1 #cag1 #cai-cbd1 #cbf1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #cec1 #cee1 #cef1 #ceh1 #cib-djg ,eoanthropus dawsoni1 #ach1 see ,piltdown ,eolith1 #aa1 #fh1 #hd-hf1 #ace ,eolithic1 ,era1 #ag1 #ah2 industry1 #ag ,equus1 caballus celticus1 #cfg-cfi1 #djj1 #djh1 #dab1 #dai1 #dca1 #dcb1 #dih2 przewalski1 #aid1 #cfg1 #cgc1 #djh1 #daj1 #dai2 stenonis1 #bg1 #fb1 #fc1 #fi1 #gb2 see ,horse ,erect attitude1 #d1 #eg-fj1 #gc1 #gd1 #hb1 #bda-bdd ,ermine1 ,mustela erminia1 #df1 #bjg1 #cgj1 #ddg1 #dfi ,etruscan rhinoceros1 see ,rhinoceros ,eyzies1 ,les1 #ac1 #bdi1 #bgi1 #cca1 #cgh1 #chh1 #cid1 #dce ,f ,fate1 ,grotte delle1 #bde1 #bdg ,fauna1 #ai-ba1 #ch-dg1 #fa-fd1 #ff1 #fi1 #ajh2 ,acheulean1 #aag1 #adg1 #adh1 #afe1 #agg1 #ahb2 ,african-,asiatic1 #dc1 #dd1 #dg1 #fb1 #fc1 #ga1 #gb1 #hf1 #ia-id1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bhg2 alpine1 #dd1 #df1 #bjf1 #bhg2 ,aurignacian1 #bhd-bhi2 ,azilian-,tardenoisian1 #dff1 #dfh-dgj1 #dgb2 ,chellean1 #aag1 #abe1 #add-adh2 forest1 #dd1 #ga1 #bjf1 #bhg2 glacial1 #aje1 #ajf1 #aag1 #aij-aid1 #aif1 #aig1 #bje-bad1 #bfe2 interglacial1 #fi-gb #ia-ih1 #aja-ajc1 #ajh-aab1 #aag1 #aai1 #abc-abe1 #ahf-ahh1 #bfe2 ,magdalenian1 #cfd-cgf1 #che1 #cig-dcd1 #ddi1 #dff1 #dfi2 meadow1 #dd1 #ga1 #bjf1 #bhg2 ,mousterian1 #aag1 #ahf-ahh1 #aij-aid1 #aif1 #aig1 #aii-bad1 #bah1 #bba-bbc1 #bbe1 #bfc1 #bfd2 ,pliocene1 #ed1 #fa-fd1 #add2 ,postglacial1 #bha1 #cfd1 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dih1 #dii2 ,pre-,chellean1 #ajh-aab1 #aag1 #abe2 ,siwalik1 #gf2 ,solutrean1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #cdc1 #cdh2 steppe1 #dd1 #df1 #aid1 #bjf1 #bha1 #bhg1 #cfb-cff1 #cgc-cgf1 #ddi1 #dej2 tundra1 #dd1 #df1 #aij-aid1 #bjf-baa1 #bha1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #cdh1 #cfa1 #cfb-cff1 #cgj-cgc2 migrations of1 #ai1 #cd-cg1 #fb-fd1 #ga1 #gb1 #bjb1 #bje-baj1 #bhg2 represented in ,palolithic art 7list71 #cff2 see ,climate1 for effect of1 and ,faunal lists ,faunal lists1 #ie1 #abe1 #adg1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bhg1 #cff ,faune chaude1 #ci1 #ia1 #aib2 see ,mousterian fauna ,faune froide1 see ,mousterian fauna ,faustkeil1 see ,coup de poing ,fes1 ,grotte des1 #bgi1 #dce ,felis1 leo1 #gb1 #ib1 #dfi2 leo antiqua1 #adg2 leo spela1 #dg1 #ahh2 manul1 #ddg2 pardus spela1 #bja2 see ,cave-leopard1 ,cave-lion1 ,leopard1 ,lion1 and ,wildcat ,femur 7thigh-bone71 #gc1 #gd1 #gg1 #hj1 #bcg-bda1 #bff1 #bih1 #cgf1 #chj ,fre-en-,tardenois1 #af1 #dfe1 #dga ,ferrassie1 ,la1 #g1 #bad1 #baf1 #bai1 #bbd1 #bcb1 #bcg1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bfi ,fire1 use of1 #b1 #afe1 #bab1 #bac ,first ,glacial ,stage1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,first ,interglacial ,stage1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,fishing1 #cee1 #che1 #cij1 #dej1 #dfe1 #dga ,flake1 see ,levallois ,flaking1 see ,flint ,flint1 chipping1 #agj2 cleavage1 #aga2 flaking1 #afi ,floors1 ,mousterian1 #aih1 #aii ,flora1 #bj2 ,acheulean1 #aag1 #aah1 #agd1 #age2 ,chellean1 #aag1 #aah2 glacial1 #fe1 #ajh1 #aag-aai1 #aia1 #aib1 #bjb1 #bjh2 interglacial1 #bj1 #fg1 #ij1 #ia1 #aag-aai2 ,mousterian1 #aii2 ,pliocene1 #fa1 #fc2 ,postglacial1 #cfa1 #cgb1 #cge1 #dfc1 #dhh2 ,pre-,chellean1 #aag1 #aah2 ,pre-,neolithic1 #dhh ,font-de-,gaume1 #bhc1 #cad1 #cah1 #cai1 #cba1 #cbe1 #cca1 #cdi1 #cef1 #ceh1 #cfe1 #cgb1 #cie-cig1 #cii1 #djf-dji1 #dab1 #dad-dbd1 #dce1 #ddi ,font ,robert1 #bgg1 #caa1 #cad1 #cca1 #cdj1 #cdd ,forestian1 ,upper1 #cfb2 ,lower1 #bhb ,forests1 see ,flora ,foro1 #afg ,fourth ,glacial ,stage1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,fox1 #dc1 #fc1 #ga1 #bjf1 #bfe1 #bhg1 #ccc1 #cdc1 #cdh1 #cff1 #ddg1 #dih1 see ,vulpes2 arctic1 #dd1 #df1 #aic1 #bjg1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #cdh1 #cgj1 #ddg1 #dfh1 #dfi1 see ,canis lagopus4 ,freudenthal1 #bgi1 #dce ,frileuse1 #afg ,frontal1 ,trou de1 #dce ,fuente del ,frances1 #dce ,furfooz1 #g1 #bgi1 #dha-dhc1 ,pl4 ,,ii2 race1 #bgh1 #deh1 #dhj1 #dhb-dhe1 #dhi1 #dia1 #dib1 #ejj2 see ,grenelle1 ,ofnet1 and ,origin ,furninha1 #afg1 #afh ,g ,galley ,hill1 #bh1 #cjb1 #ccg1 #cch2 see ,brnn race ,gansersfelsen1 #dce ,garenne1 #dce1 #ddj ,gargano1 #afg ,gargas1 #ca1 #cjg1 #cad1 #cag1 #cbe1 #cbg1 #cdi1 #cid1 #cie ,germolles1 #cjg1 #cad ,gibbon1 #di-ed1 #eh1 #fa1 #fc1 #gg1 #eaa2 see ,hylobates ,gibraltar skull1 #g1 #i1 #adj1 #bad1 #bae1 #baf1 #bai1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bcb1 #bcc1 #bcf ,glacial ,epoch1 #ah-bc1 #cc1 #dj1 #da1 #dc1 #ed2 chronology1 #ah-bc1 #dj1 #da1 #ajh1 #ahh1 #bhj1 #cfb2 see ,climate1 ,continental outline1 ,fauna1 ,glaciers2 ,first ,glacial ,stage 7,gnz71 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #cg1 #ch1 #da1 #dc1 #fd-ff2 ,second ,glacial ,stage 7,mindel71 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #cc1 #cg1 #ch1 #da1 #dc1 #fe1 #hf-ij2 ,third ,glacial ,stage 7,riss71 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #cc1 #cg-ci1 #da1 #dc1 #id1 #ajd-ajf1 #aae2 ,fourth ,glacial ,stage 7,wrm71 #ah1 #bb1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #cj1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf-ch1 #da1 #dc1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aag1 #afj1 #ahh-aie1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bhj1 #bha1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #cfb1 ,laufenschwankung1 #da1 #ajh1 #bhj1 #cfb2 ,first ,interglacial ,stage 7,gnz-,mindel or ,norfolkian71 #bc1 #bf1 #bi1 #cc-ce1 #ch1 #da1 #dc1 #ff-gb1 #hd1 #ie1 #aae2 ,second ,interglacial ,stage 7,mindel-,riss71 #bc1 #be1 #bi1 #cc1 #ch1 #dj1 #da1 #dc1 #fi1 #ij-ie1 #aji-aaa1 #aad1 #aae2 ,third ,interglacial ,stage 7,riss-,wrm71 #bc1 #be1 #bi1 #cc1 #cd1 #cf1 #ch-da1 #dc1 #fi1 #id1 #ajg1 #ajh1 #aab1 #aac1 #aae-aai1 #ahf-ahh1 #bhj1 #cfb2 ,postglacial ,stage1 #ah-bc1 #bi1 #cb1 #cc1 #cf1 #da1 #dc1 #ajh1 #bhj-bhd1 #cfb1 #dfh1 #eaj1 ,bhl1 #bc1 #be1 #bf1 #da1 #ajh1 #bgf1 #bhj1 #bha1 #cfa1 #cfb1 #cgj1 #cgb1 #ddf1 #ddg1 #ddi1 ,gschnitz1 #bc1 #da1 #ajh1 #bgf1 #bhj1 #bha1 #cfb1 #cfc1 #cgb1 #ddi1 #dej1 ,daun1 #bc1 #da1 #ajh1 #bgf1 #bhj1 #bha1 #cfb1 #cfc1 ,achenschwankung1 #be1 #bf1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhd ,glaciers1 #fd-ff1 #hi1 #ij1 #id1 #ajd-ajf1 #aah1 #ahi1 #aij1 #cfa-cfc ,glutton1 see ,gulo luscus and ,wolverene ,gobelsburg1 #dce1 #ddh ,goccianello1 #afg1 #afh ,gorge d',enfer1 #cca1 #dce ,gorilla1 #di1 #eb1 #ed-ef1 #eaa1 #eab ,goulaine1 #dce1 #dch ,gourdan1 #bad1 #bgi1 #cca1 #cda1 #cfi1 #chh1 #cib1 #dce1 #dch ,goyet1 #dce ,grattoir1 #abi1 #acj1 #agg1 #bed1 #bgj1 #cjf-caj1 #chf1 #cij1 #dgj1 #dgc1 #did2 carn1 #cjh1 #cji1 #dfc ,graver1 see ,burin ,gravette1 etching tool1 #bgj ,gravette1 ,la1 #bgg1 #caa1 #cad ,gray's ,thurrock1 #bh1 #aji1 #aaf1 #abh1 #adi1 #aeb1 #aef1 #aeg ,greek conception of nature and of the prehistory of man1 #a-c ,grenelle1 #bgi1 #dha1 #dhb1 #dhd2 race1 see ,furfooz ,grze1 ,la1 #cad1 #cag1 #cbg1 #cca1 #cie1 #cif ,grimaldi1 ,grottes de 7,baouss ,rouss71 #bde1 #bdg1 #bfb-bfe1 #bgi1 #bid1 #bie1 #cab-cad1 #cba1 #cbc1 #chj2 ,baousso da ,torre1 #bfc1 #bid2 ,barma ,grande1 #bfc1 #bid2 ,cavillon1 ,grotte de1 #bfc1 #bid2 ,enfants1 ,grotte des1 #bfc-bfe1 #bib1 #bid-big1 see ,grimaldi race2 ,prince1 ,grotte du1 #bfb1 #bfc ,grimaldi race1 #g1 #ai1 #bde1 #bfj1 #bfb-bfi1 #bgh1 #bgi1 #bid1 #cja1 #cad1 #dij-dib ,gschnitz1 see ,postglacial ,stage ,guanches1 #dec-dee1 #ejg-eaj ,gudenushhle1 #bde1 #bdh1 #bgi1 #cjg1 #cad1 #dce1 #ddh ,gulo luscus1 #dfi2 borealis1 #aic2 see ,wolverene ,gnz1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,h ,hachette 7tranchette1 chopper1 cleaver71 #bgj1 #dhh1 #did ,hammer-stone1 see ,percuteur ,hamster1 #df1 #fc1 #adg1 #afe1 #bhg1 #cfb1 #cfd1 #cgd ,hand-axe1 see ,coup de poing ,hand-stone1 see ,coup de poing ,hare1 #bhi1 #ccc1 #cfh1 #ddg1 #dfh1 #dih1 see ,lepus 7timidus72 arctic1 #df1 #bjg1 #bhg1 #cdh1 #cgj1 #ddg1 #dfh1 #dfi1 see ,lepus variabilis2 tailless1 see ,lagomys and ,pika ,harpoons1 #cee1 #chc-che1 #chg1 #chh1 #cij1 #cia1 #ddj1 #ddc-dde1 #ddi1 #dej1 #def1 #dfj-dfb1 #dfe1 #dff1 #dgj1 #dgd1 #dhf1 #dhg ,hastings1 #dga1 #dge ,heidelberg man1 ,mauer1 #g1 #bc1 #bd1 #dj1 #da1 #ec1 #ed1 #ij1 #ie-aja1 #aad1 #ach1 #adc1 #add1 #bad1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #dhi1 #dia1 #dib1 ,pl4 ,,ii ,heidelberg race1 see ,heidelberg man and ,origin ,helin1 #aji1 #aaf1 #abg1 #abh1 #adi1 #aeb1 #aff1 #afg ,helvetian1 see ,drntenian ,hermida1 ,la1 #dce ,hippopotamus1 ,h4 major1 #ch1 #ci1 #da1 #dc1 #dd1 #dg1 #fi1 #ga1 #hf1 #ia1 #ib-id1 #ajb1 #aag1 #abc-abe1 #acd1 #adg1 #adh1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afe1 #agd1 #agg1 #ahf1 #aib1 #aii1 #bfc1 #bfd ,hhlefels bei ,htten1 #dce1 #ddb ,hhlefels bei ,schelklingen1 #dce1 #ddb ,hohlestein1 #cad1 #dce ,hommes1 ,grotte des1 #bgi1 #dce ,homo1 aurignacensis1 see ,combe-,capelle man2 heidelbergensis1 see ,heidelberg man2 mousteriensis1 see ,neanderthal race2 neanderthalensis1 see ,neanderthal race2 sapiens1 #g1 #i1 #aj1 #ed1 #bcj-bcd1 #beg1 #bfj1 #bfa1 #bgh1 #ccd1 #dhd1 #dij1 #dia1 #ejj ,horace1 on the prehistory of man1 #c1 #ejd ,hornos de la ,pea1 #bde-bdg1 #cad1 #cca1 #cie1 #dce1 #dcf ,horse1 #de1 #afe1 #ahb1 #aib1 #bbe1 #bhd1 #cee1 #che1 #cib1 #djd1 #dje1 #djg1 #djh1 #daj1 #dab-dad1 #dca1 #dcb1 #dfi1 #dih2 ,desert1 ,plateau or ,celtic1 see ,equus caballus celticus2 ,forest or ,nordic1 #ie1 #adg1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #cfg1 #cfi1 #djj1 #dih2 ,hipparion1 #fc2 kiang or wild ass1 #aid1 #bhe-bhg1 #cff1 #cfg1 #cgb-cgd1 #djj1 #ddg2 ,solutr1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #dad2 ,steno's1 #cd1 #if1 #aaj1 #aaa1 #abe1 see ,equus stenonis2 ,steppe1 see ,equus przewalski ,hteaux1 ,les1 #bgi1 #cgh1 #cgi1 #dce ,hoxne1 #aeh ,human figures1 #cag1 #cba-cbc1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #ccg1 #ceg1 #cic1 #cie1 #cii1 #dcc1 #dcd1 #dig ,human fossils1 #d1 #aa2 distribution of1 #bad1 #bgi2 tables of1 #g1 #bai1 #bid1 #ccf1 #cgh1 #dij2 see ,lists ,human races1 see ,lists and ,origin ,hunting1 #b1 #aa1 #aff1 #bjb1 #baa-bad1 #bhc1 #cgb1 #def1 #dga1 #dif1 #dig ,hyna1 #dc1 #fb1 #gf1 #aaj1 #adg1 #adh1 #aee1 #afe1 #ahh1 #bad1 #bde1 #bfe1 #cag1 #cef1 #dgf2 see ,cave-hyna and ,hyna ,hyna1 brevirostris1 #abe2 crocuta1 #ajb1 #adg2 crocuta spela1 #dg1 #ajb1 #ahh2 striata1 #ib1 #ajb2 see ,hyna ,hylobates1 #f2 see ,gibbon ,i ,ibex1 ,ibex priscus1 #dd1 #df1 #bja1 #bjf1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #cba1 #cdh1 #ceg1 #cfi1 #cga1 #cia1 #dja1 #dje1 #dcc1 #ddg1 #dff1 #dfi1 #dig ,ice ,age1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,ice-fields1 #ai1 #bb2 see ,glaciers ,implements1 #aa1 #bg-cj1 #acj1 #bgj1 #bga2 art1 #bgj1 #cbi1 #ccj2 see ,eolith1 ,flint1 ,industry1 ,lists1 ,neolith1 ,palolith ,industry1 #d1 #aa1 #ab-ad1 #ai1 #cc1 see ,acheulean1 ,aurignacian1 ,azilian-,tardenoisian1 ,chellean1 ,campignian1 ,magdalenian1 ,mousterian1 ,neolithic1 ,pre-,chellean1 ,solutrean2 see ,lists and ,implements ,interglacial ,stages1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,iron ,age1 #ab1 #ah1 #ba1 #bjb1 #bfg ,irpfelhhle1 #bde1 #bdh ,istein1 #dfi1 #dga-dgc ,isturitz1 #cdg1 #cie ,j ,jackal1 #dc1 #dd2 see ,canis neschersensis ,javelin point1 see ,sagaie ,jerboa1 #df1 #aid1 #bhg1 #cfd2 see ,alactaga jaculus ,k ,krlich1 #cad ,kartstein1 #bde1 #bdh1 #cad1 #dce ,kastlhng1 #cgj1 #dce1 #ddb ,kent's ,hole1 #aj1 #aeb1 #bdd1 #bde1 #dce1 #ddj ,kesslerloch1 #bgi1 #bhf1 #cee1 #cfa1 #cfd1 #cgh1 #chc1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dda1 #ddb1 #ddd-ddf1 #ddi ,kiang1 wild ass1 see ,horse ,kleinkems1 #dga ,knife1 blade1 see ,couteau and ,lame ,knight1 ,charles ,r41 see ,restorations ,kostelk1 #dce1 #ddh ,krapina1 #g1 #afb1 #afg1 #aha-ahe1 #bad1 #bai1 #bbj1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bef ,krems1 #aai1 #bdh1 #bhi1 #cjg1 #cad1 #dce1 #ddh ,l ,lacave1 #bgi1 #cca1 #cdj1 #cde1 #cdg1 #cia ,lagomys1 #fc2 pusillus1 #bjb1 #cgj1 see ,pika ,lagopus1 see ,ptarmigan ,lamarck1 on man1 #d ,lame1 blade1 #bga ,lampe1 lamp1 #bgj1 #dja1 #djb ,laufenschwankung1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,laugerie ,basse1 #ac1 #ad1 #bge1 #bgi1 #cca1 #cdh1 #cgf-cgh1 #che1 #chh1 #cib1 #djg1 #dcd1 #dce1 #dga ,laugerie ,haute1 #ac1 #ad1 #bgi1 #bid1 #bif1 #cad1 #cca1 #cdf1 #ceb1 #dce ,laussel1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdi1 #bge1 #cac1 #cad1 #cag1 #cbf-cbi1 #cca1 #ceb1 #cie1 #dce ,lauterach1 #cad ,lemming1 #df1 #aia1 #aic1 #aid1 #bjb1 #bjg1 #bha1 #bhg1 #ccc1 #cdh1 #cfa1 #cfd1 #cgj1 #dfi1 #dgf2 see ,myodes ,leopard1 #bfe1 #cdh2 see ,cave-leopard and ,felis pardus spela ,leptobos1 #ga2 elatus1 #fb2 etruscus1 #fc2 see ,cattle ,lepus1 #dfi2 cuniculus1 #cfd1 see ,rabbit2 timidus1 #cfd1 see ,hare2 variabilis1 #bjf1 see ,hare1 arctic ,levallois1 #afg1 #agi ,levallois flake1 #afg1 #afh1 #agi1 #ahj1 #aii1 #bej1 #bea ,limeuil1 #bgi1 #dce ,lion1 #dc1 #hf1 #id-if1 #ih1 #adh1 #afe1 #ahh1 #bha1 #cag1 #cdh1 #cef1 #cfe1 #cgh1 #djj1 #djg1 #ddf1 #dfh1 #dgb1 #dih2 see ,cave-lion and ,felis leo ,lissoir1 polisher1 smoother1 #bgj1 #bga1 #chj1 #chh1 #cib1 #def1 #dfc1 #dff1 #dgj ,lists and ,tables1 chronology1 #ah1 #ba1 #bb1 #bc1 #cc1 #da1 #ed1 #ajh1 #bhj1 #cfb2 climatic changes1 #ch1 #ci1 #da1 #dc1 #aag1 #aia1 #aib1 #bge1 #bha1 #bhd1 #cfa-cfd2 fauna1 #ba1 #da1 #dc1 #ed1 #fb1 #ie1 #abe1 #adg1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bhg2 human fossils1 #g1 #i1 #bai1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bci1 #bff1 #bid1 #bie1 #ccf1 #cgh1 #dij2 human races1 #da1 #ed1 #ajh1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #cfb1 #deh1 #dij1 #dia1 #dii1 #ejj2 industries1 divisions of1 #ah1 #aac1 #aad1 #bdh1 #bdi1 #beb1 #cdj1 #chi1 succession of1 #ab1 #ac1 #ad1 #af1 #ag1 #ah1 #cc1 #da1 #ajh1 #bhj1 #cfb2 implements1 #acj1 #agb1 #bed1 #bgj1 #bga1 #cjf1 #cjh1 #caj ,liveyre1 #cca1 #dce ,loam1 #e1 #bd1 #bg1 #bh ,loess1 #e1 #bc-be1 #bi1 #cj1 #cf1 #ch1 #df1 #ig1 #ajc1 #aab1 #aae1 #aag-aai1 #abb-abd1 #aea1 #aei1 #afa1 #afb1 #agd1 #agf1 #aha1 #beb1 #bha1 #bhb1 #bhd1 #bhf1 #cad1 #ccd1 #ccg1 #cfd1 #cgf1 #ddb1 #ddh2 stations1 see ,camps1 open ,longueroche1 #dce1 #dga ,lorthet1 #djf1 #djg1 #dce1 #dch1 #dga ,lourdes1 #bgi1 #chh1 #dcb1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dch1 #dga ,lower ,rodent ,layer1 see ,rodent ,layers ,lucretius on the prehistory of man1 #a1 #b1 #ejc ,lussac1 #bgi1 #dce ,lutra vulgaris1 #adg2 see ,otter ,lynchus lynx1 #dfi2 see ,lynx ,lynx1 #dc1 #fc1 #bjf1 #bhg1 #cfg1 #dff2 see ,lynchus lynx ,m ,macaque1 #ed1 #fa1 #fc1 #fi1 #gf ,macerata1 #afg ,machrodus1 #da1 #fi1 #bdd2 see ,sabre-tooth tiger ,madeleine1 ,la1 #ac1 #af1 #bgi1 #cea1 #chc-chi1 #cih1 #dce1 #ddc1 #dde1 #ddi1 #dga ,magdalenian1 #ad-af1 #ah1 #bgf1 #bgg1 #cea-cfj2 art1 #cea-ceg1 #cfe1 #cff1 #cic1 #cie-dcd2 burial customs1 #cgf-chj2 chronology1 #ah1 #cc1 #da1 #ajh1 #bgf1 #bhj1 #bha1 #cea1 #cfa-cfd2 climate1 #bgf1 #cfj-cfd1 #cgj-cgf1 #ddc1 #ddg1 #ddi1 #dej2 fauna1 #cfa-cgf1 #ddc1 #dde-ddg1 #ddi1 #dej2 human fossils1 #cgf-chb2 industry1 #ad-af1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bge1 #bgf1 #cea-cef1 #ceh1 #chb-cib1 #dcf1 #ddj1 #ddc-dej2 stations1 #cea1 #dcd-ddi2 see ,origin and ,rodent ,layers ,maglemose1 #deh1 #dga1 #dhg1 #dhh1 #eja ,magrite1 ,trou1 #cad1 #cca1 #cdd1 #dce ,mairie1 ,grotte de la1 #cag1 #cie1 #djj1 #dje1 #dab1 #dac1 #dce1 #ddb ,malarnaud1 #bad1 #bai ,mammoth1 #aj1 #dc1 #ajb1 #aji1 #aag1 #acd1 #adg1 #adh1 #agg1 #ahg1 #aid1 #bjj1 #bjb1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bac1 #bah1 #bha1 #bhh1 #bhi1 #caf1 #cag1 #cba1 #cbd-cbf1 #ccc1 #ccg1 #cdh-cej1 #cef1 #cfd1 #cgb1 #che1 #dja1 #djc1 #dbj1 #dba1 #dbg1 #dbi1 #ddi1 #dej1 #dgf1 see ,elephas2 woolly1 #ac1 #dj1 #da1 #dc1 #ajf1 #aag1 #agd1 #ahg1 #aij-aib1 #aif1 #bje1 #bjg1 #bjh1 #baj1 #bah1 #bba1 #bhe-bhi1 #ccd1 #cce1 #cfc1 #cgj1 #cgb1 #chd1 #cig1 #cih1 #dbj1 #dbg1 #ddf1 see ,elephas primigenius ,man1 ancestry of1 #c-g1 #di-fd1 #dia1 #eaa ,mantes-la-,ville1 #afg ,marcilly-sur-,eure1 #bad ,mare-au-,clercs1 ,la1 #afg ,marignac1 #aji1 #abf1 #adi1 #aeb ,markkleeberg1 #afg ,marmot1 ,arctomys marmotta1 #ahb1 #bja1 #bjf1 #bfe1 #cgj ,marsoulas1 #cad1 #cai1 #cba1 #cbh1 #cgc1 #cid1 #cie1 #cif1 #cii1 #djc1 #dje1 #dae1 #daf1 #dce1 #dga1 #dhe ,marten1 #ga1 #afe1 #bja1 #bfe1 #cfg1 #chj1 #ddg1 #dih2 see ,mustela martes ,martinshhle1 #dce1 #dga ,mas d',azil1 #ae1 #af1 #bgi1 #cai1 #ceg1 #cge1 #chj1 #che1 #chh1 #cia-cif1 #dcb1 #dcc1 #dce1 #dcg1 #ddi1 #deh-dfe1 #dga1 #dgb1 #dgd ,massat1 #dcg1 #dga ,mastodon1 #fb1 #gj1 #acd ,maszycka1 #dce1 #dcf1 #ddi ,mauer1 see ,heidelberg man ,mc,gregor1 ,j4 ,howard1 see ,restorations ,mediterranean race1 #bfa1 #bgh1 #deg1 #deh1 #dgi1 #dhj1 #dhe1 #dhi1 #dia1 #dib1 #dii1 #ejj ,megaceros1 #de1 #fh1 #gj1 #ajf1 #adg1 #ahb1 #aif1 #bhg1 #cfg2 see ,deer1 giant ,meles taxus1 #adg2 see ,badger ,mentone1 #bdg1 #cbb1 #cie1 #dgb1 #dgc2 see ,grimaldi1 ,grottes de ,merck's ,rhinoceros1 see ,dicerorhinus and ,rhinoceros ,mesaticephaly1 #h1 #dgi ,metternich1 #bhd1 #cad ,micoque1 ,la1 #aac1 #afg1 #afh1 #agi1 #aib1 #aif1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bdi ,microlith1 see ,microlithique ,microlithique1 microlith1 #bgj1 #cjf1 #cjh1 #caj1 #chh1 #cif1 #dej1 #dgj-dgb ,migration1 of fauna1 see ,fauna2 of human races and industries1 see ,origin ,mindel1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,miskolcz1 #bde1 #bdh1 #cca ,mommenheim1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bdh ,monkeys1 #ed1 #fa-fc ,montconfort1 #bgi1 #cca1 #dce ,montfort1 #cda1 #dga ,monthaud1 #cca1 #cdf ,montires1 #aji1 #abg1 #adi1 #aeb1 #ahf1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bhc1 #cad1 #cca ,moose1 #dd1 #id1 #if1 #bfe1 #bha1 #cdh1 #cff1 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dgb1 #dhh1 #dif-dih2 see ,alces ,moulin-de-,laussel1 #cca ,mousterian1 #ad-af1 #ah1 #cj1 #ahf-ahh1 #bdh-bej2 burial customs1 #bbb1 #bbc1 #bga2 chronology1 #ah1 #cc1 #da1 #ajh1 #bhj1 #cfb2 climate1 #aag1 #abc1 #ahh-aii1 #bjb1 #bje1 #bjg2 fauna1 #aag1 #aij-aid1 #aif1 #aii-bad2 flora1 #aii2 human fossils1 #bah-bbf2 industry1 #ad-af1 #aac1 #bdh-bef1 #bgj1 #bga2 stations1 #aid-bjb1 #bdd-bdh2 see ,caverns1 life in1 ,floors1 and ,origin ,moustier1 ,le1 #ac1 #af1 #aif-aii1 #bad1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bea1 #bec1 #bee2 man1 #g1 #aif1 #bad1 #bba-bbc1 #bbf1 #bbh1 frontispiece ,mouthe1 ,la1 #ag1 #bdf1 #bgi1 #cad1 #cag1 #cbj1 #cba1 #cid1 #cie1 #cih1 #cii1 #dja ,mugem1 #dga1 #dgd1 #dhf ,munzingen1 #afj1 #aie1 #dce1 #dci1 #ddb1 #ddc ,murals1 see ,painting ,musk-ox1 #db-dd1 #df1 #fe1 #ff1 #ahg1 #aia1 #aic1 #bjg1 #bhe1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #cdh1 #cfb1 #cff1 #cgj2 see ,ovibos moschatus ,mustela1 erminea1 see ,ermine2 martes1 #adg1 #dfi1 see ,marten4 ,myodes1 lemmus1 #baj2 obensis1 #bjf1 #bhe1 #cgj2 torquatus1 #aic1 #bjb1 #bjf1 #bhe1 #cgj1 #dda1 #ddf1 #ddg2 see ,lemming ,n ,narbonne1 #dce1 #dcg ,naulette1 ,la1 #g1 #bad1 #bba1 #bbh ,neanderthal1 cave1 #ca1 #bad1 #baf1 #bag1 ,pl4 ,,ii2 burial customs1 see ,mousterian2 man1 #e1 #g1 #i1 #ef1 #aha1 #baf-bai1 #dij2 race1 frontispiece1 #e-g1 #i1 #bc1 #dj1 #da1 #ed1 #acf1 #ahb1 #aia1 #aif1 #baa-bdd1 #bef1 #beh1 #bfc1 #bgb1 #dia1 #dib1 anatomical features1 #ec-ef1 #ahc1 #ahd1 #bjc1 #bai-bbc1 #bbf-bdd1 #dij1 chronology1 #da1 #ajh1 #beg1 #bfb1 #bhj1 #dia1 compared with ,cr-,magnon1 #big1 #bih1 discoveries1 #aha-ahe1 #bae-bbf1 distribution of1 #bad1 #bai2 see ,origin ,necklace1 #cjb1 #cjd1 #cgf1 #cgh1 #dcg1 #dgb ,needle1 see ,aiguille ,negroid race1 #bfa1 #bfb1 #bff-bfi1 #bgh1 #cja1 #cjb1 #cba1 #dib ,neolith1 #aa1 #dif ,neolithic1 ,new ,stone ,age1 #aj1 #ac1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #da1 #ajh1 #bhj1 #cfb1 #ddg1 #dhb1 #dhd-dhf1 #dhh1 #dic-eja ,neopithecus1 #di ,neschers1 #bde1 #dce1 #dch ,niaux1 #cad1 #cai1 #cec1 #cgc1 #cia1 #cid1 #cie1 #djj1 #djf1 #dji-daa1 #dab1 #dbi1 #dce ,niedernau1 #cgj1 #dce ,norfolkian1 see ,first ,interglacial ,stage and ,forest ,bed of ,cromer ,nutons1 ,trou des1 #dce ,o ,oban1 #dgd1 #dge1 #dhf ,obercassel1 man1 #g1 #bgi1 #cec1 #cgh1 #chj-chb1 #dce1 #ddc ,oberlarg1 #dce ,ochos1 #bad1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbh1 #bde1 #bdh ,ofnet1 #bgi1 #bhe1 #cad1 #cca1 #cgj1 #dce1 #dfi1 #dga1 #dgc1 #dge-dha2 races1 #ddb1 #deg-dfj1 #dhj1 #dha1 #dij1 #dia1 #ejj2 see ,furfooz race and ,origin ,ojcow1 #cca1 #dcf1 #ddi ,ondratitz1 #cca ,orang1 #c1 #di1 #eb-ed1 #ef1 #gg1 #eaa ,origin1 of industries1 ,acheulean1 #bfa1 #dib1 ,aurignacian1 #bfa1 #bhi1 #cje-cjg1 #cbb1 #dib1 ,azilian-,tardenoisian1 #deg1 #dgj-dgb1 #dib1 ,chellean1 #abf1 #bfa1 #dib1 ,magdalenian1 #cea-cec1 #chc1 ,mousterian1 #bfa1 ,pre-,chellean1 #abf1 ,solutrean1 #ccj1 #cca1 #cdj1 #cec1 #dib2 of human races1 ,alpine1 #deh1 #dhd1 #dhe1 ,brnn1 #cca1 #dib1 ,cr-,magnon1 #bfa1 #cbb1 #dib1 ,furfooz1 #dib1 ,grimaldi1 #bfb1 ,heidelberg1 #dib1 ,mediterranean1 #dib1 ,neanderthal1 #dib1 ,ofnet1 #deg1 #dhd1 #dhe1 ,piltdown1 #dib1 ,teutonic1 #dhf ,otter1 #fc1 #ga1 #gf1 #afe1 #bja1 #bhg1 #dfh1 #dih2 see ,lutra vulgaris ,ovibos1 #cgf2 moschatus1 #aic1 #dde1 #ddg1 see ,musk-ox ,ovis argaloides1 #cfi2 see ,argali sheep ,p ,painted ,pebbles1 see ,azilian-,tardenoisian industry ,painting1 #cje1 #caf-cah1 #cbj1 #cba1 #cbd1 #cbe1 #cbg1 #cbh1 #ccj1 #ceh1 #cfe1 #cid-cif1 #djd-djf1 #djh-dbi1 #dfd1 #dfe1 #dgd1 #dif1 #dig ,pair-non-,pair1 #bgi1 #cjg1 #cad1 #cag1 #cbj-cbb1 #cca1 #ccf1 #cid-cif ,palolith1 #aa1 #bd1 #hd1 #he1 #aji1 #aaa1 #aeh1 #chi ,palolithic1 ,old ,stone ,age1 #ac1 #af1 #ah1 #ai1 #ba1 #bh1 #cc1 #da1 #ajh1 #afj1 #bhj1 #cfb2 ,lower ,palolithic1 #ad1 #da1 #ajh1 #aac1 #aad1 #bad1 #bhj1 #cfb1 #dij1 #dia2 ,upper ,palolithic1 #ad1 #da1 #ajh1 #bad1 #bge1 #bgf1 #bgh1 #bhj1 #cfb1 #cie1 #cif1 #dij1 #dia1 #ejj2 chronology1 #ah1 #da1 #ajh1 #bhj1 #cfb1 #def ,palopithecus1 #di1 #eaa ,parietal ,art1 see ,painting ,pasiega1 ,la1 #cai1 #cie1 #djb-dje ,pataud1 #bde1 #bdf1 #cca ,paviland1 #bgi1 #bhi1 #bij1 #bid1 #cad1 #ddj ,pech de l',az1 #bad1 #bai1 #bde ,peroir1 drill1 borer1 #acj1 #ace1 #aec1 #agb1 #agi1 #bec1 #bed1 #bgj1 #cjf1 #cjh1 #caj1 #caa1 #cdd1 #cdf1 #che1 #chf1 #chh1 #cij1 #cib1 #dgj1 #dgc1 #dhh ,percuteur1 hammer-stone1 #acj1 #bed1 #bgj1 #cjf ,pescara1 #afg ,petit ,puymoyen1 #bad1 #bde1 #bdf ,pic1 pick1 #did ,pierre de jet1 throwing stone1 #acj1 #agb1 #bac1 #bed1 #bgj1 #cjf ,pika1 #df1 #cfb1 #ddg2 see ,lagomys 7pusillus7 ,piltdown1 #aji1 #aaf1 #abh1 #acj-ace1 #adi1 #aeb1 #bad1 ,pl4 ,,ii2 industry1 #abg1 #abh1 #acc-ace2 man 7,eoanthropus71 #g1 #bc1 #bd1 #dj1 #ej1 #ec1 #ed1 #ef1 #acj-ade1 #bad1 #dhi-dia2 race1 see ,piltdown man and ,origin ,pindal1 #cad-caf1 #cbe1 #cdi1 #cid1 #cie ,pithecanthropus1 ,trinil race1 #g1 #bc1 #bd1 #dj1 #ec1 #ed1 #hf1 #dia1 #eaa1 ,pl4 ,,ii2 anatomical features1 #i1 #aj1 #ec1 #ef1 #gd1 #gg-hd1 #bcc1 #bcd1 #bdj1 #dij2 discovery1 #gc-gg ,placard1 #bgi1 #cca1 #ccc1 #ccd1 #cdj1 #cde-cdh1 #ceb1 #cec1 #cee1 #cgh-chj1 #chc1 #che1 #chi1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dch ,planing tool1 see ,grattoir ,pleistocene1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,pliohylobates1 #di1 #ed ,pliopithecus1 #di1 #ed ,poignard1 dagger1 poniard1 #bga1 #cib1 #dcb ,poinon1 awl1 #bga1 #cjh1 #cdf1 #cib1 #dgj ,pointe1 point1 knife1 lance head1 spear head1 #ae1 #aac1 #aec1 #agb1 #agg1 #agi1 #bdh-bee1 #bgj1 #cjf1 #cjh1 #caj1 #caa1 #dgc2 ,chtelperron1 #cjf1 #cjg1 #caa2 pointe cran1 shouldered1 #bgj1 #cjh1 #caj1 #cac1 #ccd1 #cdj1 #cdb1 #cde1 #cdf1 #ceb2 pointe face plane1 #cda2 pointe de lance1 #bga1 #cjf2 pointe de laurier1 laurel leaf1 #ae1 #bgj1 #caj-cab1 #ccd1 #ccg1 #cci-cda1 #cdd1 #cde1 #cdg1 #cdh1 #ceb2 pointe de sagaie1 javelin point1 #bga1 #cjh1 #cdj1 #cdf1 #ced1 #cee1 #cfa1 #cfd1 #cgj1 #chc1 #chg1 #cij1 #ddb1 #ddi1 #dfb1 #did2 pointe de saute1 willow leaf1 #cdj1 #cdd1 #cdg2 pointe soie1 #bgj1 #caj1 #caa1 #cac1 #cdj1 #cde ,polisher1 see ,lissoir ,portel1 ,le1 #cai1 #cid1 #daa1 #dab ,postglacial ,stage1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,pottery1 #dfa1 #dff1 #dgd1 #dhf1 #dhh1 #dif ,praule1 ,trou de1 #dce ,pre-,chellean1 #af1 #ah1 #cf1 #da2 chronology1 #ah1 #cc1 #dj1 #da1 #ij1 #ajg-aae1 #bhj1 #cfb2 climate1 #ajh1 #aab1 #aad1 #aag1 #aah1 #abc2 fauna1 #ajh-aab1 #aag1 #abd1 #abe2 industry1 #dj1 #aad1 #abj-acj1 #bgj2 stations1 #aji1 #aaf1 #abb-abh1 #adi1 #aej-aeb1 #aeh1 see ,continental outline and ,origin ,pedmost1 #beg1 #bgi1 #cca1 #cda1 #cde1 #cdh1 #cdi1 #cff1 #cie1 #dbg2 see ,brnn race2 mammoth hunters1 #bgi1 #ccg ,primates1 #c-aj1 #dj1 #di-fd1 #gc-hd1 #hf1 #adj1 #ada1 #bag1 #bai1 #bbg1 #bca1 #bcc-bce1 #bcg-bdj1 #dij1 #dia ,prince1 ,grotte du1 see ,grimaldi1 ,grottes de ,propliopithecus1 #di1 #ed ,propstfels1 #cgb1 #dce1 #ddb1 #dfi ,propulseur1 spear thrower1 dart thrower1 #bga1 #cee1 #cia1 #dcb1 #dcc1 #dcf1 #dde1 #ddi ,ptarmigan1 ,lagopus1 #dd1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #cgj1 #cga1 #cge1 #dfi ,q ,quartz1 #aff ,quartzite1 #afc1 #afd1 #bfe ,quina1 ,la1 #i1 #aac1 #baa1 #bac1 #bad1 #bde1 #bdf1 #bdh1 #bec-bef2 man1 #g1 #i1 #bad1 #baf1 #bag1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbe1 #bcf1 #bcg1 #bdh ,r ,rabbit1 #bfe1 #cdc1 #cfh1 #dfh2 see ,lepus cuniculus ,racloir1 scraper1 #aac1 #aad1 #acj1 #ace1 #agb1 #agh1 #bji1 #bdh1 #bej1 #bea1 #bec-bee1 #bgj1 #cjf1 #chg1 #chh1 #dgj1 #dgb1 #dgc1 #dhh ,rangifer tarandus1 #aic1 #bji1 #baj1 #bhe2 see ,reindeer ,ruberhhle1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #cad ,raymonden1 #cdi1 #cgf1 #chh1 #dce ,reilhac1 #cca1 #dga ,reindeer1 #ac1 #da1 #dc1 #dd1 #df1 #ajb1 #ajc1 #ahg1 #aia-aid1 #aif1 #aig1 #bjb1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bji1 #baj-bab1 #bad1 #bba1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bhd1 #bhe1 #bhf-bhi1 #cad1 #cag1 #ccb1 #ccc1 #cfe1 #cff1 #cgj1 #cgb1 #che1 #cib1 #cii1 #dje1 #djg1 #daa-dac1 #dae1 #dai-dba1 #dbi1 #dcc1 #ddj1 #dda1 #dde1 #ddg1 #dfa1 #dfb1 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dga1 #dgd1 #dha1 #dih2 see ,rangifer ,reindeer ,epoch1 ,period1 #ac1 #ad1 #ajb1 #aib1 #bge1 #bhf1 #cfc1 #cge1 #cib1 #dch1 #def1 #dei ,religion1 #bgb1 #ceh-cfj1 #dfc1 #dfe1 #eja ,remouchamp1 #dga1 #dgd ,ressaulier1 #dce1 #dcf ,restorations1 ,knight1 ,charles ,r41 frontispiece1 #ceh2 ,mc,gregor1 ,j4 ,howard1 #i1 #gi-hb1 #hg1 #acg1 #adj1 #adb1 #adc1 #ade1 #bjc1 #bdb1 #bdc1 #bgc1 #bic1 #cjj1 #cja2 ,rutot-,mascr1 #gc1 #aja1 #dhd1 #die ,retouch1 #afi-agb1 #bdh1 #bfi1 #cjf1 #cjh1 #caj1 #cca1 #ccb1 #cch1 #cci1 #ceh1 #chi ,rey1 #cca ,rhens1 #bhd1 #cad ,rhinoceros1 #ch1 #ci1 #dc1 #dd1 #fb1 #gf1 #abc1 #bba1 #bde1 #bhi1 #ccg1 #cef1 #cfe1 see ,dicerorhinus2 ,etruscan1 #cd1 #ie-ig1 #aja1 #aji1 #aaj-aab1 #aag1 #abe1 #acd1 #add1 see ,d4 etruscus2 ,merck's 7broad-nosed71 #bg1 #dc1 #dg1 #ic1 #id1 #ig1 #ajb1 #aji1 #aai1 #abd1 #abe1 #acd1 #adg1 #adh1 #aea1 #aee1 #aeg1 #afa1 #afd1 #afe1 #agg1 #ahb1 #ahf1 #ahg1 #aib1 #bje1 #bfc-bfe1 see ,d4 merckii2 woolly1 #aa1 #ac1 #dj1 #da1 #aag1 #adh1 #agd1 #ahg1 #aij1 #aia1 #aif1 #aii1 #bje1 #bjf1 #bjh-baj1 #bac1 #bah1 #bbc1 #bbe1 #bha1 #bhe-bhh1 #cad1 #cai1 #cbd-cbf1 #cdh1 #cfc1 #cff1 #cgb1 #djj1 #dji1 see ,d4 antiquitatis ,riss1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,river-drifts1 #e1 #aa1 #ab1 #bc2 formation1 #bd-bg1 #ij1 #aai1 #aed-aeg1 #ahf2 stations1 #aad-aaf1 #aai-abd1 #aed-aef2 terraces1 #bj1 #bc1 #bd-bh1 #cd1 #he1 #ij1 #ajd1 #aed-aeg1 #afb ,robenhausen1 #dga1 #die ,roccamorice1 #afg ,roche au ,loup1 #cjg1 #cad ,rochette1 ,la1 #bde1 #bdf ,rock ,shelters1 #cb1 #cc ,rodent ,layers1 #ddg2 ,lower1 #bjf1 #bjg1 #baa1 #bha1 #cad2 ,upper1 #bha1 #cfa1 #cfc1 #ddf ,romanelli1 #cjf1 #cad ,rderbach1 #afg ,rdersheim1 #afg ,rupicapra1 see ,chamois ,ruth1 ,le1 #cad1 #cca1 #dce ,rutot-,mascr1 see ,restorations ,s ,sablon1 #afb1 #afg ,sabre-tooth tiger1 #cd1 #dc1 #fb1 #fi1 #gj1 #gb1 #id1 #ajb1 #aaj-aab1 #aag1 #abe1 #add1 #adg2 see ,machrodus ,sagaie1 javelin point1 see ,pointe de sagaie ,saiga antelope1 #dd1 #df1 #aid1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #ccc1 #ceg1 #cfb1 #cff1 #cgc1 #cgd1 #cgf1 #ddi ,saiga tartarica1 see ,saiga antelope ,salitre1 #dce ,saint ,acheul1 #e1 #ad1 #af1 #aji1 #aaf1 #aai-abd1 #abg-abi1 #adi-aeb1 #aee1 #afb1 #afc1 #aff1 #afg1 #agj1 #bdd1 #bde1 #bdi1 #bhc1 #cad1 #cca1 #dce1 #ddj ,saint ,lizier1 #dce ,saint ,martin d',excideuil1 #cca ,saint ,prest1 #ag1 #fg-fi ,san ,isidro1 #aji1 #abf1 #adi1 #aeb1 #afg1 #bde1 #bdf ,sciurus vulgaris1 #cfg2 see ,squirrel ,schmiechenfels1 #cgb1 #dce1 #dfi ,schussenquelle1 #cgb1 #dce1 #ddb ,schussenried1 #dce1 #dda2 see ,schussenquelle ,schweizersbild1 #bhf1 #cfa1 #cfd1 #cgj1 #dce1 #dda1 #ddb1 #ddd-ddg1 #ddi1 #dfj ,scraper1 see ,racloir ,sculpture1 #cag1 #cbj-cbc1 #cbh1 #cbi1 #cdg-cdi1 #cef-ceh1 #cib1 #cic1 #cie1 #cif1 #dbg-dcd ,second ,glacial ,stage1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,second ,interglacial ,stage1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,seven ,oaks1 #dga1 #dge ,shelters1 abris1 see ,rock ,shelters ipka1 #bad1 #bai1 #bba1 #bbh1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bdh1 #dce1 #ddi ,sireuil1 #cad1 #cbb1 #cie ,sirgenstein1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bde1 #bdh1 #bhe1 #cad1 #cca1 #cgj1 #cgb1 #dce1 #dda1 #dfj ,sivapithecus1 #eaa ,siwalik1 see ,fauna ,solutr1 #af1 #bgi1 #bhc1 #bhf1 #bhh1 #bid1 #cad1 #ccj1 #cca1 #cda-cde1 #cgc1 #dce1 #dcf1 #dch ,solutrean1 #ad-af1 #ah1 #da1 #bgj1 #bga1 #bgf1 #bgh1 #bhj2 art1 #cdg-cej1 #ceg2 burial customs1 #ccb2 chronology1 #ah1 #cc1 #da1 #ajh1 #bhj1 #cfb2 climate1 #da1 #ajh1 #bgf1 #bhj1 #bha1 #ccb1 #ccc2 fauna1 #ccb-ccd1 #cdc1 #cdh1 #cff2 human fossils1 #bgi1 #ccd-ccg2 industry1 #bge-bgh1 #ccj-ccb1 #ccd1 #cch-cdh1 #cea1 #ceb1 #ced1 #ceh2 stations1 #cbf-cbh1 #cca1 #ccg1 #cdj-cdh1 see ,origin ,somme ,river1 #ab1 #aaj1 #aab1 #aad-aag1 #aai1 #abj1 #abb-abe1 #abg1 #afb1 #beb1 #bgf ,sorde1 #bgi1 #cgh1 #dce1 #dch ,souzy1 #dce ,spermophilus rufescens1 #aid1 #cgc2 see ,suslik ,spear-point1 see ,pointe ,speech1 power of1 #d1 #eh1 #fj1 #aci1 #adj ,spiennes1 #abg1 #abh1 #die ,spy1 #afb1 #bad1 #bdd1 #bde1 #caa1 #cad1 #cca2 man1 #g1 #aha1 #bad1 #bah-bbj1 #bbf1 #bbh1 #bbi1 #bca-bcc1 #bce-bcg1 #bdd1 #bef1 #beg1 #dij ,squirrel1 #ddg1 #dih2 see ,sciurus vulgaris ,stag1 #dc1 #dd1 #ie1 #ajf1 #aai1 #ahg1 #bja1 #bjb1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bhh1 #ccc1 #cfd1 #cfg1 #cgj1 #cgb1 #dje1 #dbf1 #dbi1 #def1 #dfa1 #dfc1 #dfh1 #dfi1 #dha1 #dhh1 #dig1 #dih2 see ,cervus elaphus and ,deer1 red ,stegodon1 #gf1 #acd ,strassberg1 #dce ,stratification of ,castillo1 #afd2 ,enfants1 ,grotte des1 #bfe2 ,heidelberg1 #ig2 ,madeleine1 ,la1 #che2 ,mas d',azil1 #dfa2 ,ofnet1 #dgf2 ,piltdown1 #acc2 ,placard1 #ccc-ccd2 ,saint ,acheul1 #abb1 #abc1 #aej2 ,schweizersbild1 #ddg2 ,sirgenstein1 #bjb ,subsidence1 see ,continental outline ,sureau1 ,trou du1 #dce ,sus1 arvernensis1 #fc2 scrofa1 #ga2 scrofa ferus1 #adg1 #afe1 #cfh1 #dfi2 scrofa palustris1 #dii2 see ,boar ,suslik1 #bjf1 #bhi1 #ddg2 see ,spermophilus rufescens ,t ,tables1 see ,lists ,tardenoisian1 see ,azilian-,tardenoisian ,tasmanian compared with ,neanderthal1 #bcb1 #bcc2 see ,neanderthal ,taubach1 #aai1 #afg1 #bad ,tectiforms1 #bhc1 #bhd1 #djc1 #djd ,terraces1 see ,river-drifts ,teutonic race1 #deh1 #dhf1 #dhh1 #dii-eja ,teyjat1 #chh1 #cid1 #cif1 #dce2 see ,mairie1 ,grotte de la1 and ,abri ,mge ,thiede1 #cad ,third ,glacial ,stage1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,third ,interglacial ,stage1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,throwing stone1 see ,pierre de jet ,thumb1 opposable1 #ee1 #eh1 #fj1 #bdj ,tibia1 shin-bone #bcg-bci1 #bda1 #bff1 #bih ,tilloux1 #aji1 #adi1 #aeb1 #afg ,torralba1 #aji1 #abf1 #adi1 #aeb ,tourasse1 ,la1 #dga1 #dhf ,trilobite1 ,grotte du1 #cad1 #cbd1 #cbf1 #cca1 #cdj1 #cda1 #cdd1 #cdg1 #ddj ,trinil race1 see ,pithecanthropus ,trogontherium1 #de1 #fi1 #id2 see ,beaver1 giant ,tuc d',audoubert1 #cb1 #cie1 #cif1 #djf1 #dbg-dca1 #dce ,tundra1 see ,climate1 glacial2 see ,fauna ,turbarian1 ,lower1 #cfa2 ,upper1 #cfc ,u ,upper drift1 #aia ,upper ,rodent ,layer1 see ,rodent ,layers ,urochs1 ,aurochs1 see ,bos primigenius and ,cattle ,ursus1 arctos1 #ajb1 #adg1 #baa1 #dfi2 arvernensis1 #fc1 #id1 #ajb2 deningeri1 #ajb2 spelus1 #de1 #ahc1 #baj1 #baa1 #cfi2 see ,bear and ,cave-bear ,v ,vache1 ,grotte de la1 #dce1 #dcg1 #dga ,valle1 #dce1 #dff1 #dga1 #dgd ,venosa1 #afg ,villejuif1 #cj1 #afg1 #agf ,volgu1 #cca1 #cci1 #cde ,vlklinshofen1 #bhd1 #cad ,vulpes1 #dfi2 see ,fox ,w ,warm fauna1 see ,faune chaude ,weimar1 #afg ,wierschowie1 #bde1 #bdh1 #cca ,wildcat1 ,felis catus1 #dc1 #fc1 #ie1 #bhg1 #dih ,wildhaus1 #cad1 #dce ,wildkirchli1 #bjj1 #bja1 #bde1 #bdg1 #bef ,wildscheuer1 #bhf1 #cad1 #cgj1 #dce1 #ddb1 #ddd ,willendorf1 #cj1 #bgi1 #caa-cae1 #cbb1 #cie ,winterlingen1 #dce ,wisent1 see ,bison ,wolf1 #dc1 #dd1 #ga1 #ie1 #adg1 #afe1 #ahg1 #bjf1 #bfd1 #bfe1 #bhg1 #bhh1 #ccc1 #cdc1 #cdh1 #cef1 #cff1 #dda1 #ddg1 #dfh1 #dih2 see ,canis suessi and ,cyon alpinus fossilis ,wolvercote1 #afg ,wolverene1 glutton1 #dd1 #df1 #ga1 #aic1 #bhg1 #bhi1 #cdh1 #cgj1 #ddg1 #dfh1 #dih2 see ,gulo luscus ,wrm1 see ,glacial ,epoch ,wste ,scheuer1 #dga ,z ,zonhoven1 #dga1 #dgd ,zuffenhausen1 #cad ,illustration3 ,,the ,,principal ,,cavern ,,regions ,,of ,,southwestern ,,europe ,,including ,,the ,,caverns ,,that ,,contain ,,paleolithic ,,mural ,,decorations ,region traversed in the author's motor tour of #aiab through the ,palolithic caverns of ,italy1 ,france1 and ,spain4 ,,footnotes3 ,a ,the folding map at the end of the volume exhibits the entire extent of the author's tour4 ,b ,lucretius was born #ie ,b4 ,c4 ,his poem was completed before #ec ,b4 ,c4 ,in the opening lines of ,book ,,iii he attributes all his philosophy and science to the ,greeks4 ,see ,appendix1 ,note ,i4 ,c ,lucretius1 ,on the ,nature of ,things1 metrical version by ,j4 ,m4 ,good4 ,bohn's ,classical ,library1 ,london1 #ahij4 ,d ,horace was born #fe ,b4 ,c41 and his ,satires are attributed to the years #ce-bi ,b4 ,c4 ,see ,appendix1 ,note ,,ii4 ,e schylus was born #ebe ,b4 ,c4 ,see ,appendix1 ,note ,,iii4 ,f ,georges ,louis ,leclerc ,buffon 7b4 #agjg1 d4 #aghh74 ,for reviews of ,buffon's opinions and theories see ,osborn1 #ahid4a1 pp4 #acj-i2 also ,butler1 #aiaa4a1 pp4 #gd-agb4 ,g ,jean ,baptiste ,pierre ,antoine de ,monet1 known as the ,chevalier de ,lamarck 7b4 #agdd1 d4 #ahbi74 ,for a summary of the views of ,lamarck see ,osborn1 #ahid4a1 pp4 #aeb-aha2 also ,butler1 #aiaa4a1 pp4 #bce-cad1 an excellent presentation of ,lamarck's opinions4 ,h ,references are indicated by numbers only throughout the text4 ,at the close of each chapter is a list giving the author1 date1 and reference number for every citation4 ,a full list of all the works cited1 including those from which illustrations have been taken1 together with complete references1 will be found in the bibliography at the end of the book4 ,i ,the best reference works on the history of ,french and ,german ,palolithic ,archology are3 ,cartailhac17#ab7 ,la ,france ,prhistorique2 ,dchelette17#ac7 ,manuel d',archologie1 ,t4 #a2 ,reinach17#ad7 ,catalogue du ,muse de ,st4-,germain3 ,alluvions et ,cavernes2 ,schmidt17#ae7 ,die diluviale ,vorzeit ,deutschlands2 ,avebury17#af7 ,prehistoric ,times4 ,j ,the ,cannstatt skull and ,cannstatt race are now regarded as ,neolithic1 and therefore not contemporary with the mammoth or the cave-bear4 ,k ,note that lists and tables of races1 cultural stages1 faun1 etc41 in this volume are given not in chronological but in stratigraphic order1 beginning with the most recent at the top and ending with the oldest at the bottom4 ,l ,this table is a modification of that of ,obermaier in his ,mensch der ,vorzeit47#ch7 ,to each period of the chronologic reckoning should be added the #aijj years of our era4 ,m ,bison and wild cattle are grass eaters1 and their natural habitats are the open plain and meadow regions4 ,they also range into open forest lands where grasses can be found4 ,the prehistoric 'urus' and 'wisent' of ,europe were both found in forests1 but this may not have been their natural habitat in ,palolithic times4 ,see ,appendix1 ,note ,,iv4 ,n ,a recent article by ,a4 ,smith ,woodward describes the fourth known specimen of ,dryopithecus1 lately discovered in northern ,spain 7see ,woodward1 #aiad4b74 ,o ,there is a vast ,pithecanthropus literature4 ,that chiefly utilized in the present description includes ,dubois17#ac7 ,fischer17#ad7 ,schwalbe17#ae7 ,bchner47#af7 ,p ,in the ,trinil skull as restored by ,mc,gregor 7,fig4 #cf7 the cranial capacity is #ijj c4cm4 ,q ,these horses are now identified respectively as ,e4 mauerensis1 ,e4 mosbachensis1 and ,e4 sssenbornensis4 ,r ,this glaciation as it occurs in northern ,europe has been termed ,polandian by ,geikie2 in the ,alps ,penck has termed it the ,riss2 in ,america it is known as the ,illinoian from the great drifts it deposited over the ,state of ,illinois4 ,s ,this stage is known as the ,helvetian or ,drntenian of ,geikie2 it is the ,riss-,wrm of ,penck's terminology and the ,sangamon of the ,american glaciologists4 ,t ,modified after ,schmidt4 ,u ,the weakness of ,penck's argument for placing the ,chellean in the ,second ,interglacial was exposed by precise observations of ,boule7#e7 and ,obermaier7#f7 in the ,alps1 the ,jura1 and the ,pyrenees4 ,v ,the writer is indebted to ,m4 ,marcelin ,boule and to ,m4 l',abb ,henri ,breuil for their observations on this fauna and culture period4 ,w ,industry similar to the ,chellean1 but not necessarily of the same age1 is distributed all over eastern ,africa from ,egypt to the ,cape4 ,x ,schmidt regards the ,strpyan implements1 which are considered by ,rutot and others to be transitional1 between the ,mesvinian and the ,chellean1 as closely similar to the ,pre-,chellean of ,france and probably of the same age4 ,y ,the original paper describing this remarkable discovery was read before the ,geological ,society of ,london1 ,december1 #aiab1 and published as a separate pamphlet in ,march1 #aiac4 ,a discussion as to the geologic age by ,kennard1 ,clement ,reid1 and others was held at the time of the reading of the original paper4 ,z ,by the author of this work1 and also by ,professor ,j4 ,howard ,mc,gregor of ,columbia ,university and ,doctor ,william ,k4 ,gregory of ,columbia ,university and of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,,aa ,guide to the ,fossil ,remains of ,man1 #aiae4a4 ,,ab ,the reconstruction 7,fig4 #ff7 of the ,piltdown skull made by ,professor ,j4 ,h4 ,mc,gregor has a cranial capacity of about #acjj c4cm4 ,the brain 7,fig4 #gj7 is seen to be very narrow and low in the prefrontal area1 the seat of the higher mental faculties4 ,in the reconstruction the cranial region is in the main very like the second restoration by ,doctor ,smith ,woodward1 but the jaws differ in some respects4 ,the tooth hitherto regarded as a right lower canine1 is now placed as the left upper canine1 in accord with the conclusions of the author of this work and of ,doctors ,matthew and ,gregory of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,the dental arches are more curved1 thus more human and less ape-like than in the ,smith ,woodward restoration1 and the chin region is made somewhat deeper1 thus giving a somewhat less prognathous aspect to the face4 ,,ac ,the early ,teutonic designation of these animals was as follows3 bison1 'wisent1' wild ox1 'auerochs1' 'urochs' 7the 'urus' of ,csar74 ,the urus survived in ,germany as late as the seventeenth century1 while a few of the bison or 'wisent' survive to the present time4 ,the bison was distinctively a short-headed animal1 while its contemporary1 the urus1 was long-headed and less agile4 ,at ,drnten1 near ,zrich1 remains of the urus are found associated with those of the hardy1 straight-tusked elephant and of ,merck's rhinoceros4 7,see ,appendix1 ,note ,,iv47 ,,ad ,the author was guided through this station by ,doctor ,hugo ,obermaier in the summer of #aiab4 ,,ae ,the entire fourth glaciation has been termed ,mecklenburgian by ,geikie27#f7 the recession may correspond with his ,fourth ,interglacial ,stage1 the ,lower ,forestian4 ,it is the ,wrm of ,penck in the ,alpine region1 with a first and second maximum separated by the recession known as the ,laufenschwankung4 ,in ,america it is the early ,wisconsin with the ,peorian recession interval1 followed by the late ,wisconsin1 which is the final great glaciation of ,america4 ,,af ,obermaier1 ,breuil and ,schmidt assign ,la ,micoque to the transition between late ,acheulean and early ,mousterian times4 ,,ag ,the climate of the tundras is extreme1 the winter temperature falling on an average to #bg;,f4 below zero1 while in summer the temperature is about #ej;,f4 ,in the subarctic steppes the average ,january temperature hardly exceeds #cj;,f41 while that of ,july is #gj;,f4 ,,ah ,the last of this very primitive race of the great island of ,tasmania became extinct in #ahgg47fb7 ,,ai ,this cavern1 like many of those discovered in the early days of anthropological research1 was not carefully explored in reference to the all-important horizontal bedding of the layers of flint flakes and of animal remains4 ,,aj ,see ,appendix1 ,note ,,vi4 ,,ak ,named in honor of the reigning ,prince of ,monaco1 whose generous gifts and personal interest made the adequate exploration of these grottos possible4 ,,al ,this correlation agrees in the main with that of ,schmidt in his ,diluviale ,vorzeit ,deutschlands47#aj7 ,,am ,obermaier17#ai7 ,r4 ,martin47#bj7 ,,an ,denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form4 ,,ao ,denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form4 ,,ap ,denotes very frequent occurrence of a typical form4 ,,aq ,breuil17#cd7 ,schmidt47#ce7 ,,ar ,the writer had the privilege of visiting all these caverns in the company either of ,professor ,emile ,cartailhac1 or of the ,abb ,breuil4 ,,as ,despite ,schwalbe's statement1 the supraorbital ridges in this skull appear to form a complete bridge4 ,doctor ,hrdlika regards the related ,pedmost skull as distinctly showing ,neanderthaloid affinity4 ,,at ,obermaier17#de7 ,r4 ,martin47#df7 ,,au ,from notes by ,doctor ,robert ,h4 ,lowie 7,nov4 #af1 #aiad7 of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history on the opinions of ,marett 7,anthropology7 and of ,james4 ,,av ,after ,obermaier17#aj7 ,r4 ,martin17#aa7 and others4 ,,aw ,this custom is observed again in ,azilian times in the burials at ,ofnet on the ,danube 7see page #dge74 ,,ax ,the whole history of these successive discoveries1 beginning with the finding of an engraved bone1 in #ahcd1 in the grotto of ,chaffaud1 and concluding with the discoveries of ,lalanne1 and of ,bgouen1 in #aiab1 is summarized in the admirable little handbook by ,salomon ,reinach47#bc7 ,this convenient volume also includes outline tracings of the more important drawings and sculptures found in western ,europe up to the present time4 ,,ay ,only a few drawings from this cavern have as yet been published1 such as the famous mammoth of ,combarelles2 the entire work is in the hands of ,breuil4 ,,az ,the stations of ,castillo1 of ,pasiega1 and of ,altamira were visited by the writer1 under the guidance of ,doctor ,hugo ,obermaier1 in ,august1 #aiab4 ,,ba ,letter of ,october #bc1 #aiab4 ,,bb ,j4 ,bayer7#cd7 has lately expressed the opinion that the industry of the open 'loess' stations of ,munzingen1 ,aggsbach1 and ,gobelsburg is not really of ,magdalenian age1 but represents an atypical ,aurignacian4 ,,bc ,lucretius1 ,on the ,nature of ,things1 metrical version by ,j4 ,m4 ,good4 ,bohn's ,classical ,library1 ,london1 #ahij4 ,,bd ,bossuet1 ,jacques ,bnigne1 ,discours sur l',histoire universelle 7first published in #afha71 pp4 #i1 #aj4 ,edition conforme celle de #agjj1 troisime et dernire dition revue par l'auteur4 ,paris1 ,librairie de ,firmin ,didot ,frres1 #ahde4 ,,be ,the ,satires1 ,epistles and ,ars ,poetica of ,horace1 the ,latin ,text with ,conington's ,translation1 pp4 #bi1 #ca4 ,george ,bell ,sons1 ,london1 #aijd4 ,,bf schylus1 ,prometheus ,bound4 ,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning1 ,poetical ,works of ,elizabeth ,barrett ,browning1 pp4 #adh1 #adi4 ,oxford edition1 #aijf4 ,henry ,frowde1 ,london1 ,edinburgh1 ,glasgow1 ,new ,york1 and ,toronto4 ,,bg ,kobelt1 ,w41 ,die ,verbreitung der ,tierwelt1 pp4 #djc-g4 ,c4 ,h4 ,tauchnitz1 ,leipsic1 #aijb4 ,,bh ,abercromby1 ,hon4 ,john1 ,the ,prehistoric ,pottery of the ,canary ,islands and ,its ,makers4 ,royal ,anthropological ,institute1 ,november #ag1 #aiad4 ,nature1 ,december #c1 #aiad1 p4 #chc4 ,,bi ,verneau1 ,dr4 ,r41 ,cinq annes de sjour aux les ,canaries4 7,ouvrage couronn par l',acadmie des sciences1 #ahia47 ,,bj ,bunbury1 ,e4 ,h4 ,history of ,ancient ,geography1 vol4 ,i1 pp4 #cah-ccc4 ,john ,murray1 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,,bk ,authors' names are given in the bibliography and in the reference lists at the end of each chapter4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,passages in italics are indicated by italics4 ,passages in bold are indicated by bold4 ,superscripted characters are indicated by superscript4