,,transcriber',s ,,notes    ,in this    
e-text1 the following transcriptions are
 used3 italics are  represented between 
underscores1 bold face text is          
represented  between equals symbols1 and
 small capitals have been changed to    
,,all  ,,capitals4    ,more             
,transcriber's ,notes may be found at   
the end of the text4                    
,illustration3 ,,plate4 #a4             
,,angularly ,,laminated ,,steel         
,,barreled ,,gun    ,,laminated ,,steel 
,,barreled ,,gun            ,,gunnery   
,,in #aheh3    ,,being ,a ,,treatise    
,,on    ,,rifles1 ,,cannon1 ,,and       
,,sporting ,,arms2    ,,explaining ,,the
    ,,principles ,,of ,,the ,,science   
,,of ,,gunnery1    ,,and ,,describing   
,,the    ,,newest ,,improvements ,,in   
,,fire-,,arms4      ,,by ,,william      
,,greener1 ,c4,e41    ,,inventor ,,of   
,,the ,,expansive ,,principle ,,as      
,,applied ,,in ,,the ,,minie ,,and      
,,enfield ,,rifles1 ,,and ,,author ,,of 
8,,the ,,gun10 ,,etc4 ,,etc4      ,,with

 ,,numerous ,,illustrations4            
,,london3    ,,smith1 ,,elder ,,and     
,,co41 #ef1 ,,cornhill4    #aheh4       
7,the ,right of ,translation is         
reserved47          ,,preface4      ,the
 urgent need for practical information  
on the important subject of  ,gunnery is
 evinced by the numerous patents taken  
out during the last few  years1 most of 
which have fallen still-born1 through   
deficient practical  science on the part
 of the inventors4 ,my aim in producing 
this book has  been to point out the    
errors into which many ingenious        
inventors have  fallen1 and to show how 
similar failures may be avoided in      
future1 by  indicating the only right   
road to improvement in ,gunnery1--the   
strict  observance of scientific        
principles in every old process and in  
all new  inventions3 for it is to the   
ignorance or neglect of the principles  
of  the science that failures in        
,gunnery are due4    ,the necessity for 
progress in the science of ,gunnery is  

now rendered  more than ever imperative 
on our ,government by the prodigious    
energy and  activity of foreign         
,governments in providing armaments for 
land and sea  service1 the efficiency of
 which is ensured by adopting all the   
newest  improvements in fire-arms4 ,but 
the obstinate reluctance which all our  
previous ,governments have shown to     
enter upon the1 to them unwelcome1  duty
 of investigating and experimenting on  
warlike inventions1  necessitates strong
 8pressure from without20 for it may be 
truly said  that all great improvements 
in ,gunnery in ,england have been forced
 upon  the authorities by absolute      
necessity1 and it is still a question   
whether we shall profit by our recent   
experiences1 or1 as before1 allow  war  
to find us unprepared4 ,we have1        
doubtless1 armaments of gigantic        
proportions1 and mammoth vessels of war1
 capable of discharging an  ordinary    
ship's cargo of shot and shell at a     
broadside2 yet while  millions have been

 thus expended1 the improvement of the  
,gun1 without  which they would be mere 
masses of wood1 and targets for more    
skilful  opponents1 has been neglected4 
,the ,,gun and its ,,projectile will    
decide the victory in future fights4    
,indeed1 we are even now waging war with
 our neighbours1--not on the            
battle-field or the ocean wave1 but in  
the foundry2 engineers being our        
generals1 and founders our admirals4    
,the present able ruler of ,france is   
actively at work1 while we are but      
looking on3 he is casting cannon the    
like of which have never been seen1     
while we are spending thousands in      
experimenting on cast-iron and          
foundries2 and by the time our officials
  have discovered the best cast-iron for
 heavy guns1 the ,french batteries  on  
sea and land will be bristling with     
,,rifled ,,steel ,,cannon of tremendous 
range and endless endurance4    ,woe    
betide this country if at the           
commencement of a war we should find    

ourselves just where we are4    ,the    
,emperor ,napoleon1 as is well known1 is
 well versed1 theoretically  and        
practically1 in everything relating to  
,gunnery4 ,keenly alive to the  minutest
 points of progress he receives1        
investigates1 and immediately  adopts   
all inventions of value2 having the     
ability to perceive1 the  sagacity to   
appreciate1 and the liberality to reward
 merit wherever it  is shown4           
,compare his system with ours1 where men
 are placed in official  positions1 and 
entrusted with power1 not because of    
their ability to  fulfil the duties of  
their office1 but for very inferior and 
often  unworthy reasons2 where talent   
and fitness are not considered1 and     
consequently a long routine of forms is 
made to serve as 8a buffer0 to  resist  
the troublesome pertinacity of          
inventors1 who are apt to disturb  the  
serenity of reluctant or indifferent    
officials4 ,and when at last a  trial is
 granted1 the invention is either       

rejected or approved by  incompetent or 
prejudiced judges4 ,while this practice 
prevails1 ,england  must ever be        
behindhand in ,gunnery2 for improvements
 in cannon and  projectiles cannot be   
carried out by private enterprise4      
,in thus strongly expressing my opinion 
of the way in which progress is  balked1
 ,i am not merely echoing a cry1 but    
speaking from my own  knowledge and     
experience4 ,i am actuated by no feeling
 of disappointment1  for my invention of
 8the expansive bullet0 has been at last
 adopted  here1 after it had been copied
 in ,france4 ,my object is to induce    
public  investigation and inquiry1 and  
to ventilate this important subject2 and
  ,i trust that my antecedents1 and the 
fulfilment of my predictions in  matters
 of ,gunnery1 will give weight to this  
deliberate and  disinterested expression
 of opinion4    ,the great favour shown 
by lovers of shooting to my former      
efforts to  disseminate a better        
understanding of the principles of      

,gunnery1 has  been an additional       
stimulus to the production of the       
present work2 and ,i  have taken        
especial care that my observations      
should tend to the  improvement of      
sporting arms1 and the increased safety 
of the sportsman4    ,nor has the       
ingenious mechanic been overlooked1 for 
perfection of  gun-manufacture must ever
 go hand in hand with scientific        
principle2 and  the desire to promote   
their combination has prompted my       
endeavours to  elucidate the subject4   
,leaving to the reader to determine how 
far ,i have succeeded in my  efforts1 ,i
 merely wish to add that ,i make no     
pretension to literary  style1 but have 
aimed to produce a practical work for   
practical men4 ,i  have drawn upon my   
previous works for such portions of     
information as  were needful to give    
completeness to this view of the science
 of  ,gunnery1 its present state1 and   
probable future4      ,,william         
,,greener4      ,aston ,new ,town1      

,september #crd1 #aheh4                 
,,illustrations4      ,,list ,,of       
,,plates4      ,plate #a4--,laminated   
,steel ,barrels--,to face ,title4       
#b4--;,damascus and ,fancy ,steel       
,barrels          ,to face ,page #bbh   
#c4--,stub ,twist and ,stub ,damascus   
,barrels                  #bcd          
#d4--;,charcoal ,iron and 8,threepenny0 
,iron ,barrels           #bda           
#e4--8,twopenny0 ,iron and 8,sham ,damn0
 ,iron ,barrels          #bdj           
,,woodcuts4                             
,,page    ,cannon of #acij              
#f    ,iron ship gun of #aedj           
#aj    ,paixhan gun and traversing bed  
#fd    ,carronade                       
#fg    ,new plan of casting a hollow    
axle                 #ie    ,mallet's   
monster mortar                          
#ajj    ,russian #ef-pounder            
#aad    ,eight-inch ,british gun        
#aad    ,sixty-eight pound carronade    
#aaf    ,monck's #ef-pounder            
#aag    ,ten-inch or #hf-pounder        

#aag    ,thirteen-inch sea service      
mortar                 #aai             
,thirteen-inch land service mortar      
#aai    ,welding steel                  
#aee    ,wire twist and ,damascus iron  
#afj    ,steel and iron twist           
#agc    ,spirals of ,damascus1 c4       
#ahg    ,spirals of charcoal and skelp  
#ahh    ,spirals of ,wednesbury and     
8sham damn0 iron       #ahi    ,barrel  
welding                                 
#aia    ,method of plating barrels      
#aie    ,boring barrels                 
#aih    ,sections of conical breeches1  
double barrel      #bji    ,london and  
,birmingham proof marks                 
#bea    ,mode of proving guns           
#bed    ,sections of nipples            
#bhc    ,expansive plug bullet          
#cdc    ,enfield barrel and bullet      
#cgg    ,whitworth barrel and bullet    
#cgg    ,swiss bullet                   
#cia    ,greener's model carbine        
#dja    ,poly-groove rifle              
#djc    ,tranter's double trigger       

revolver                #dba            
,tranter's double action revolver       
#dbd    ,webley's revolver              
#dbe    ,harpoon gun                    
#dcb    ,shot tower                     
#dce            ,,table ,,of ,,contents4
        ,,chapter ,i4--,,ancient ,,arms4
      ,,page4      ,the bow--,the       
sling--,crossbow--,field artillery of   
the ,normans--    ,artillery of the     
ancients--,range of the crossbow and    
longbow--,the ram    of                 
,vespasian--,guns first employed in     
#acbg--;,guns at the battle of          
,cressy--,cannon of #acij--,skill of    
,english archers--,defensive armour--   
,portable firearms invented in          
#adcj--,primitive hand-gun--,iron cannon
    recovered from the ,mary ,rose1     
wrecked in #aede--8;,chambers0--,match- 
lock and                                
wheel-lock--,fire-lock--,damascus       
gun-barrels--,birmingham                
guns--,spanish pistol with              
magazine--,percussion lock--,the        

revolving    pistol not a new           
invention--,colt's                      
revolver--,breech-loading guns     #a   
,,chapter ,,ii4--,,on ,,gunpowder4      
,origin of its invention--,roger        
,bacon's recipe--,accidental discovery  
by a ,german monk--,gunpowder introduced
 by the ,saracens--,its explosive    and
 propellant properties--,composition of 
gunpowder--,nitre its                   
essence--,properties of sulphur as an   
ingredient--,proportions and            
constituents of ,french                 
gunpowder--,sulphur not always          
indispensable--    ,chemical principles 
of its composition--,component parts of 
different    gunpowders--,source of its 
explosive force--,explosion at          
,gateshead--    ,variations in strength 
and quickness of fire--,granulation of  
sporting    gunpowder and of artillery  
gunpowder--,importance of suitable      
granulation for different               
firearms--,large grain powder the more  
effectual expellant--,fine powder       

dangerous--,principle of granulation--  
,gun-cotton--,imperfect instrument for  
testing gunpowder--,charcoal--          
,operation of making gunpowder          
described--8,glazing0 detrimental--     
,utility of granulation--,fine grain    
powder--,dr4 ,ure on the projectile     
force of gunpowder--,dr4 ,hutton's      
calculations and experiments--,mode     
of controlling the destructive force of 
gunpowder--,experiments to test    the  
velocity of explosive force of different
 granulations--,the grain    should be  
proportioned to the length and bore of  
the gun--,chlorate of    potassa used by
 the ,french in making                  
gunpowder--,similar powder    proposed  
by ,mr4 ,parr1 and condemned by ,sir    
,william ,congreve--,velocity    in     
projectile force must be                
gradual--,curious experiment--,operation
 of    blasting stone1 c41 with         
gunpowder--,english sporting gunpowder--
    ,military and naval gunpowder--,fame
 of ,english gunpowder makers      #ah  

,,chapter ,,iii4--,,artillery4          
,definition of the term--,modern field  
gun--,english artillery behind    the   
march of science--,official obstacles to
 improvement--,various kinds    of      
,british artillery--,table of           
measurements1 and range of iron         
ordnance--,brass guns--,their peculiar  
property--,firing of brass and    iron  
guns compared--,range of brass          
ordnance--,paixhan guns--,traversing    
beds for ship guns--,ranges of ,paixhan 
guns and howitzers--,mortars--    ,their
 uses and varieties--,monster mortar at 
siege of ,antwerp--,table of    ,english
 mortar practice--,carronades--,table of
 weights of guns and shot    --,causes  
of ,recoil--,guns of our                
ancestors--,metal required in rear of   
the breech--,results of ,hutton's       
experiments--,weight in fore-part of    
gun injurious--,firm base for a gun     
essential--,leaden bed for mortars      
suggested--,new materials desirable for 
projectiles--,mr4 ,monk's gun           

unequalled--,principle of its           
construction--,wilkinson's              
opinion--,waste    of explosive force in
 ordnance--,the propellant force should 
be    accelerative--,this attainable by 
a proper granulation of powder--        
,government powder--,gunnery only in its
 infancy--,compound shot--,lead         
better than iron for cannon             
shot--,expenditure of shot at sieges of 
,ciudad ,rodrigo and ,badajos--,hutton's
 experiments--,the shrapnell            
shell--,improvements in gunnery--,the   
,greenerian rifle--,dangerous           
inefficiency of ,english                
artillery--,best metal for              
cannon--,increased    range destroys    
guns--,cause of mortars bursting--,the  
,lancaster gun--    ,english cast-iron  
inferior--,mallet's monster             
mortar--,wrought-iron    unsuited to    
large guns--,reason why--,shaft of the  
,leviathan--,new    method of welding   
iron shafts--,railway carriage          
axles--,nasmyth's    monster            

cannon--,light gun-barrels stronger than
 heavy ones--,brass guns    inferior to 
cast-iron--,defect of hoop and stave    
gun--,form and    dimensions of         
,mallet's monster mortar 7with          
engraving7--,cause of    deterioration  
of ,english cast-iron--,russian         
cast-iron more durable1    and          
why--,krupp's steel gun--,laminated     
steel gun-barrels--,captain             
,dalgren's improvements in ,american    
ordnance--,russian guns--,reinforce     
rings and trunnions objectionable1 and  
why--,rifled cannon essential--         
,range of steel rifled cannon--,best    
form of gun--,professor ,barlow on      
the strength of iron--,our artillery not
 constructed on scientific              
principles--,russian #ef-pounder1       
,english #h-;inch gun1 ,english         
carronade1    ,monck's #ef-pounder1 and 
#aj-;inch gun 7with cuts7--,land and sea
 service    mortars 7with cuts7--,joseph
 ,manton's rifle cannon--,projectiles   
for    rifled cannon--,rifle            

rockets--,mr4 ,whitworth's improvements 
in rifled    guns--,his polygonal       
projectile--,experiments with ,mr4      
,armstrong's    field-piece--,increased 
range and accuracy of rifled cannon with
    elongated projectiles--,table of    
comparative range of smooth-bored and   
rifled cannon--,shells for rifled       
cannon--,spiral motion of projectiles   
from smooth-bored guns--,breech-loading 
cannon useless and unsafe    #eh        
,,chapter ,,iv4--,,manufacture ,,of     
,,iron ,,for ,,gun-,,barrels4           
,improvement in gun barrels depends on  
the iron--,continental    manufacturers 
advance while ,english stand            
still--,cheap and inferior    guns of   
8,park-paling0--,scarcity of horse-nail 
stubs--,importance of    iron           
manufacture--,great value of steel in   
ancient times--,iron    originally made 
with wood charcoal--,coal coke unfit for
 making best    iron--,british iron ore 
inferior--,mr4 ,mushet on               
steel-iron--,english    workmen employed

 abroad--,english gun-makers' names     
forged in ,belgium--    ,indian ,iron   
and ,steel ,company--,indian process of 
making steel--,hammer-    hardening     
recommended--,difference of 8,silver    
steel0 and 8,twist steel0    --,method  
of making laminated steel--,it is spoilt
 by over-twisting--    ,watering of     
,damascus barrels--,proportions of      
carbon in steel and iron    --,damascus 
barrels often plated--,modern method of 
making ,damascus iron    7with          
cuts7--,objection to wire-twist         
iron--,figured barrels--,damascus       
barrels made in ,belgium--,damascus iron
 inferior in strength--,use of    old   
horse-shoe nails for gun-barrels--,stub 
iron alone insufficient--    ,prejudices
 of provincial gun-makers--,mixture of  
steel and stub iron--    ,importance of 
welding on an air furnace--,proportions 
of steel and stub    iron--,efficacy of 
hammer-hardening and reworking          
iron--,improvements in    superior iron 
owing to gun-makers--,explosions of     

steam-boilers owing    to neglect or bad
 construction--,boiler iron             
improveable--,steel-    ,damascus barrel
 iron--,manufacture of 8charcoal        
iron0--,imitation of    8smoke          
brown0--,gains from using inferior      
iron--,frauds in barrel making          
--,advice of ,edward ,davies in         
#afai--8,threepenny skelp iron0--       
8,wednesbury skelp0--,test of a safe    
gun--8,sham damn skelp0--,base guns     
made to sell--,their injurious effect on
 the gun-making trade--8,swaff-    iron 
forging40                               
#adf        ,,chapter                   
,v4--,,gun-,,making4      ,barrel       
welding--,birmingham welders--,different
 twists of metal    7illustrated with   
cuts7--,process of                      
welding--,hammer-hardening--,belgium    
welders--,mode of plating               
barrels--,belgium method 7with          
cut7--,profits    of                    
fraud--,qualifications of a good        
gun-barrel maker--,processes of         

boring and grinding--,proper inclination
 of double barrels--,elevation    of    
barrels should be proportionate to      
charge and distance--,brazing of        
barrels detrimental--,mr4 ,wilkinson's  
opinion--,solid ribs requisite--        
,advantage of the patent breech--,best  
shape of breech 7with cut7--,gun        
locks--,their scientific                
construction--,the ,barside             
lock--,messrs4    ,braziers' locks--,the
 stock1 fittings1 c4--,recipe for       
staining steel    barrels--,birmingham  
method of browning--,belgian            
method--,varieties of    iron for best  
barrels--,laminated steel barrels never 
known to burst--    ,base imitations of 
laminated steel--,cost of laminated     
steel barrels--    ,author's method of  
laminating--,stub ,damascus passed off  
for steel--    ,birmingham              
guns--,practice of forging names of     
eminent makers--,author's               
offer--,improved metal for              
axles--,author's imitation ,damascus    

7with    plate7--,joseph ,manton's      
merits--,prize medals awarded to        
author--    ,advantages of ,birmingham  
for gun making--8,london-made           
guns0--,foreign    imitations of        
,english guns--,periodical exhibition of
 guns recommended    --,steel-twist and 
stub ,damascus 7with plate7--,barrels of
 charcoal    iron--,inferior guns--,cost
 of skelp-iron guns--,cost of 8sham damn
 iron0    guns--,sham guns 7with        
plate7--,cost of 8park-paling0 guns     
#ahe        ,,chapter ,,vi4--,,the      
,,proof ,,of ,,gun ,,barrels4           
,proof-house of ,gun-maker's            
,company--,proof ,acts of #ahac and     
#ahae--    ,provisions of ,gun ,barrel  
,proof ,act of #ahee--,penal            
clauses--,schedule ,b    --,proof       
marks--,scale of charges for            
,proof--,mode of proving 7with cut7     
--,number of barrels proved in #aheg    
#bdc        ,,chapter ,,vii4--,,the     
,,science ,,of ,,gunnery4      ,new     
principle--,improved rifles--,useless   

inventions--,scientific    principles of
 gunnery3 #a4 ,the explosive power and  
its velocity4 #b4 ,the    retarding     
agents4 #c4 ,construction of the tube4  
#d4 ,form of projectile--    ,robins's  
theory--,hutton's experiments--,suitable
 velocity the germ of    the            
science--,author's experiments and their
 results--,penetrating power    of      
bullets--,resistance of the             
atmosphere--,friction detrimental--     
,construction of the tube--,the         
,cylindro-conoidal form best suited for 
projectiles--,jacob's and ,whitworth's  
bullets--,lengthened projectiles    tend
 to burst the barrel--,amount of heat   
needful to explode gunpowder            
--,advantage of unglazed                
powder--,percussion powder--,best form  
of nipple    7with cuts7--,propellant   
velocity the grand desideratum--,why    
short guns    shoot better than long    
ones--,true science of gunnery--,cause  
of guns    bursting--,mr4 ,blaine's     
difference of opinion with the author on

    explosive force--,shooting powers of
 different gun barrels--,tables of      
strength and pressure--,colonel         
,hawker's axiom--,mr4 ,daniel's remarks 
on    shot--,duck and swivel guns--,the 
wire cartridge--,bell-muzzle guns--,mr4 
,blaine on long barrels--,the just      
medium--,belgium guns will not stand    
,english proof--,cause of their         
inferiority--,french gun-makers behind  
the age--,author's notes on the         
8,specimens by ,french ,gun-makers at   
the    ,paris ,exhibition0--,on recoil  
in shooting--,causes and                
experiments--,mode    of determining the
 size of shot suited to the bore of     
gun--,mr4    ,prince's double gun       
#beg        ,,chapter ,,viii4--,,the    
,,french 8,,crutch10 ,,or               
,,breech-,,loading ,,shot ,,gun4        
,breech-loading fire-arms unsafe and    
inferior--,objections specified--       
,trial of breech-loading against        
muzzle-loading guns--,danger from using 
breech-loaders--,excessive recoil       

#cbi        ,,chapter ,,ix4--,,the      
,,rifle4      ,robins's prediction      
verified--,barrels first rifled at      
,vienna in #adih--    ,earliest         
elongated bullets--,captain ,delvigne's 
bullet--,the author's    expansive      
bullet--,his memorial to the ,board of  
,ordnance--,report of its    trial by   
the #fjth ,rifles in #ahcf--;,decision  
of the ,board of ,ordnance--            
,progress of the author's               
invention--,captain ,delvigne's patent  
of #ahdb    --,captain ,mini's bullet of
 #ahdg--,unsuccessful attempts of author
 to    have his claim to the invention  
of the expansive bullet recognised by   
,government--,secret report of ,select  
,committee on his invention--,his       
priority admitted by the ,emperor       
,napoleon--,the ,british ,government    
award the author #a1jjjl4 for his       
invention--,principle of the            
expansive rifle bullet--,projectiles may
 be lengthened with increase of         
range--,action of the expansive         

bullet--,defects of the ,mini bullet--  
,colonel ,hay's improvement--,author's  
experiments1 and their result--         
,spiral curve of the rifle              
barrel--,failure of the 8,pritchett     
bullet0--    ,captain ,tamissier's      
theory--,mini and ,greenerian bullet    
contrasted    7with cuts7--,author's    
improvement of #aheb 7with              
cut7--,general ,jacob's    bullet 7with 
cuts7--,remarks of ,lieutenant          
,symons--,the ,whitworth rifle    --,its
 defects--,report of trial of the       
,whitworth and ,enfield rifles--        
,author's comments thereon 7with        
cuts7--,importance of safety from       
accident--,the expansive bullet can be  
made superior to the ,whitworth--       
,fallacy of experiments--,comparative   
cost of ammunition for the    ,whitworth
 and ,enfield rifles--,defective        
cartridges--,hints to obviate           
defects--,vital principle of elongated  
projectiles--,a hollow bullet           
proposed1 its defects--,the ,swiss      

bullet--,doubtful utility of the        
deepening groove--,government rifle1    
with sword bayonet--,double rifles      
--,hints on rifle shooting--,author's   
expanding screw bands--,mr4    ,prince's
 breech-loading carbine--,revolving     
rifles--,french school of    rifle      
practice--,english school of rifle      
shooting at ,hythe--,double    rifled   
carbines recommended--,revolvers costly 
and fragile--,lieutenant    ,kerr's     
opinion of the ,enfield or ,greener's   
carbine--,government pistol    and      
carbine--,efficient arms of the         
,irregular ,cavalry of ,india--,first   
use of greased cartridges in            
,india--,the three-grooved and          
poly-grooved    rifle 7with             
cut7--,spherical bullets indispensable  
to smooth bored    muskets--,length and 
bore of military rifle--,elliptical     
bored rifle--    ,mr4 ,lancaster's      
bullet superseded by the ,greenerian    
bullet--,report of    committee on      
,lancaster's rifle--,the oval bore not a

 new invention--    ,inferiority of the 
two-grooved or ,brunswick rifle--,the   
,prussian needle    gun--,enfield rifles
 made for ,france1 ,russia1 and other   
states of    ,europe--,trials of        
,whitworth and ,enfield                 
rifles--,unsatisfactory results    of   
the ,whitworth rifle                    
#cch        ,,chapter ,x4--,,revolving  
,,pistols4      ,immense demand for     
them--,their value--,best               
manufacturers--,colonel    ,colt's      
repeating pistol described--,its double 
action discussed--    ,machine-made     
pistols not equal to hand-made--,dean   
and ,adams's revolver    described--,its
 improvements on ,colt's--,tranter's    
double trigger    revolver--,his        
lubricating bullet and other            
improvements--,webley's                 
revolver--,comparison of self-acting and
 cocking-lock pistols--    ,tendency of 
revolvers to foul--,lieut4 ,symons's    
opinion--,other defects    to be        
overcome--,author's preference for      

double-barrelled fire-arms in    warfare
                                        
#dac        ,,chapter ,,xi4--,,enfield  
,,rifles4      ,the name explained1 and 
weapon described--,its origin--,author's
 share    in its construction--,american
 machinery for gun-making--,extent and  
products of the ,enfield manufactory    
#dbi        ,,chapter ,,xii4--,,the     
,,harpoon-,,gun ,,for                   
,,whale-,,shooting4     #dcb            
,,chapter ,,xiii4--,,shot1 ,,caps1 ,,and
 ,,wadding4               #dce          
,,rifles1 ,,cannon1    ,,and            
,,sporting ,,arms4          ,,chapter   
,i4    ,,ancient ,,arms4      ,from the 
earliest ages of the world1 the         
jealousies and bickerings of  mankind   
have been fruitful causes of war4       
,sometimes1 perhaps1 justified  by      
political reasons2 at others1 it may be1
 arising solely from a  desire1 on the  
part of ambitious chiefs1 to extend     
their territories by  multiplying their 
conquests2 while1 in too many cases1 the

 struggle for  religious ascendancy has 
led to the most sanguinary and cruel    
battles4    ,war has been considered as 
a science from the most remote ages1 and
 the  ingenuity of the talented has     
successively been taxed to render it as 
perfect as possible4 ,it is true--      
8,man's earliest arms were fingers1     
teeth1 and nails1      ,and stones and  
fragments from the branching woods20    
but these soon gave place to others1    
more calculated to decide unequal1  and 
often protracted1 conflicts4    ,arms1  
in a general sense1 include all kinds of
 weapons1 both offensive  and defensive2
 and amongst the earliest may be classed
 the bow and  arrow1 as it gave         
facilities to man to capture the wild   
animals for  food1 probably before their
 use was required for the purposes of   
war4  ,the bow and the sling were the   
first means invented1 and next only to  
the human arm for projecting bodies with
 an offensive aim3 the great  principle 
which1 to the present day1 reigns       

unrivalled1 developing the  ruling      
passion of man to injure1 while         
remaining himself in comparative        
safety1--8self-preservation0 being 8the 
first law of nature40    ,to the bow and
 sling were soon added spears1 swords1  
axes1 and javelins1  all of which appear
 to have been used by the ,jews4 ,david 
destroyed  ,goliath with a stone from   
the brook4 ,the invention of the sling  
is  attributed1 by ancient writers1 to  
the ,phnicians1 or the inhabitants of   
the ,balearic ,islands4 ,the great fame 
that these islanders obtained arose     
from their assiduity in its use2 their  
children were not allowed to eat  until 
they struck their food from the top of a
 pole with a stone from a  sling4 ,from 
the accounts left us 7probably          
fabulous71 it appears that  the immense 
force with which a stone could be       
projected1 can only be  exceeded by     
modern gunnery4 ,even at that early age1
 leaden balls were in  use as           
projectiles2 though we cannot put much  

faith in ,seneca's account  of the      
velocity being so great as frequently to
 melt the lead4 ,the use  of the sling  
continued over a long period of time1   
even as late as the  ,huguenot war in   
#aegb4    ,the bow is of equal1 if not  
greater1 antiquity4 ,the first account  
we  find of it is in ,genesis1 #bast    
chapter and #bjth verse1 where the      
,lawgiver1 speaking of ,ishmael1 says1  
8,and ,god was with the lad1 and he     
grew and dwelt in the wilderness1 and   
became an archer40 ,the arms of the     
ancient ,greeks and ,persians were such 
as we have described1 with the  addition
 of chariots armed with scythes1 in     
which the chiefs sometimes  fought2     
though their main dependence was upon   
their heavy-armed  infantry4 ,elephants 
were afterwards used as adjuncts in     
their military  operations1 but their   
use does not appear to have been very   
great or  very permanent4    ,the       
,romans were armed much in the same     
manner as the ,greeks1 with a  slight   

difference in the form of their weapons2
 and the arms of the  early ,saxons were
 similar2 those of the ,normans were    
only altered in  their construction1    
except that to them appears to be       
awarded the  invention of the cross-bow1
 an instrument which afterwards became  
of  great repute in ,england and        
elsewhere4 ,it has also been asserted1  
that  the ,normans were the first to    
introduce a species of field artillery1 
from which stones and darts were thrown1
 and arrows1 headed with  combustible   
matter1 for firing towns and shipping4  
,the artillery-proper of the ancients1  
as the engines for projecting  masses of
 stone and such like materials may be   
termed1 reached to  wonderful           
perfection2 and the velocity with which 
missiles of every  description could be 
thrown from them1 attest the skill and  
ingenuity  exercised in their           
construction3 indeed it is quite evident
 they are  only excelled by the more    
portable1 and simply constructed1       

artillery  of our own day4    ,the great
 artillerist of the ,sicilians1         
,archimedes1 seems to have made  some of
 the most powerful engines2 but he1     
considering any attention to  mechanics 
as beneath the philosopher1 has not left
 us an account of any  one of them4     
,it is said of the cross-bow that a     
quarrel could be projected from  them   
#bjj yards1 so that we may imagine the  
force with which one of these  lumps of 
iron would strike even the strongest    
armour1--as the velocity1  to range that
 distance1 would not be far short of    
#ijj or #a1jjj feet per  second2 nearly 
equal to the effect of a ball from one  
of our old  imperfectly constructed     
muskets4    ,we are told incredible     
stories of the abilities of some of our 
bygone  archers4 ,should it be true1 as 
stated1 that an arrow could be shot     
nearly #gjj yards1 we can easily        
conceive the immense velocity with which
  it must have left the bow2 this range 
being quite equal1 if not  superior1 to 

that of the late unimproved rifles4     
,though we must bear in  mind1 that the 
peculiar shape of the arrow fits it to  
cut the atmosphere  with less resistance
 then the half sphere of a bullet2 and  
hence one  reason of its obtaining an   
extensive range4 ,there is a story told 
of the  famous ,robin ,hood1 and ,little
 ,john1 8who could shoot an arrow a     
measured  mile40 ,we suppose the mile   
was the reverse of an ,irish one1 or    
they had  the advantage of a precious   
stiff gale of wind4 ,historians         
sometimes  8draw the long-bow0 as well  
as archers4 ,many statements have       
descended  to us of the power of the    
battering rams of old2 but we have a    
much more  ready method of blowing open 
gates by a single bag of gunpowder2 and 
a  #fh lb4 shot has all the force that  
could be given even to that famous  ram 
of ,vespasian1 8the length whereof was  
only fifty cubits1 which came  not up to
 the size of many of the ,grecian rams1 
had a head as thick as  ten men1 and    

twenty-five horns1 each of which was as 
thick as one man1  and placed a cubit   
distance from the rest2 the weight1 as  
was customary1  rested on the hinder    
part1 and was no less than #a1ejj       
talents2 when it  was removed1 without  
being taken to pieces1 #aej yoke of     
oxen1 or #cjj  pairs of horses and      
mules1 laboured in drawing it1 and      
#a1ejj men  employed their utmost       
strength in forcing it against the      
walls40    ,with these remarks we shall 
proceed to introduce the invention of   
,gunnery4    ,barbour1 in his life of   
,bruce1 informs us that guns were first 
employed  by the ,english at the battle 
of ,werewater1 which was fought in      
#acbg1  about forty years after the     
death of ,friar ,bacon2 and there is no 
doubt  that four guns were used at the  
battle of ,cressy1 fought in #acdf1 when
  they were supposed to have been quite 
unknown to the ,french1 and tended  to  
obtain for ,british arms the victory4   
,froissart gives an excellent           

representation of a cannon and          
cannoneers1 in #acij1 a cut of which we 
give in the following page4    ,the use 
of guns in warfare is1 therefore1       
comparatively of modern date1  and the  
early specimens which are still extant1 
of which we have  drawings and          
descriptions1 must have been of very    
little service  compared with those of  
the present day4 ,the ,english          
musqueteer was  formerly a most         
encumbered soldier4 8,he had1 besides   
the unwieldy weapon  itself1 his coarse 
powder for loading in a flask1 his fine 
powder for  priming in a touch-box1 his 
bullets in a leathern bag1 with strings 
to  draw to get at them1 whilst in his  
hand were his musket-rest and his       
burning match2 and when he had          
discharged his piece1 he had to draw his
  sword in order to defend himself4     
,hence it became a question1 and was so 
for a long time1 whether the bow did not
 deserve a preference over the          
musket40#a      #a ,grose's 8,military  

,antiquities40    ,illustration3        
,froisart's ,gun4 #acij4    ,the mention
 of the long-bow is frequent in ,english
 history1 and its  use contributed1 in  
no mean degree1 to many important       
victories4 ,perhaps  it might be that   
our forefathers were more skilful in the
 use of their  weapons than their       
adversaries4    ,in our wars in ,france1
 in the reign of ,edward ,,iii41        
thousands suffered  by the ,english     
archery2 and the brilliant success which
 attended them  was1 at that time1      
attributed to their 8superior skill1    
combined with  the valour of the ,black 
,prince40 ,so highly was this practice  
esteemed1  that many statutes were      
enacted in successive reigns to         
encourage or  enforce it4    ,archery   
furnished matter for oratorical display1
 both in the senate and  the pulpit2 the
 palace and the cottage alike bore      
testimony to the great  importance which
 was attached to the art2 and it was at 
once the study  and pastime of the whole

 nation4 ,thus1 long after the          
introduction of  fire-arms1 the long-bow
 was held in great esteem2 and it is no 
wonder  that this favourite instrument  
should have been reluctantly            
relinquished1 after obtaining such      
universal popularity1 and becoming so   
intimately connected with many national 
and important events4 ,it is now        
superseded by the gun1 a more potent and
 destructive engine4 ,the bow1 so  much 
valued1 has vanished from our ranks by  
slow gradations1 to make way  for the   
musket2 and the quivers of cloth-yard   
shafts have been  supplanted by         
bristling bayonets4 ,these things are   
now practically  unknown as military    
weapons1 though they contended for      
superiority with  fire-arms during two  
centuries4    ,at this period1 and for a
 long time previously1 more attention   
was paid  to the fabrication of         
defensive armour1 than to the invention 
of weapons  of an offensive character2  
hence the perfection that was attained  

in  the manufacture of mail1 of every   
variety1 during the fourteenth and      
fifteenth centuries4 ,the splendid      
manner in which some of the chivalrous  
knights of that age chose to have their 
armour constructed and  ornamented      
sometimes proved fatal to themselves4   
,froissart relates that  ,raymond1      
nephew to ,pope ,clement1 was taken     
prisoner1 and put to death by  his      
captors1 in order that they might become
 possessed of his  magnificent armour4  
,those gorgeous and costly fabrications 
were likewise  doomed to give place to  
the advancing knowledge and skill of    
succeeding  generations2 being now only 
known as matters of history1 and        
regarded as  valuable curiosities4 ,so  
late1 however1 as the latter part of the
  sixteenth century1 armour formed part 
of the military equipment2 and the      
,french cavalry1 called carabins1 are   
described as having the cuirass  sloped 
off the right shoulder1 that they might 
the more readily couch  their cheeks to 

take aim1 while their bridle arms were  
protected by an  elbow gauntlet4    ,the
 invention of portable fire-arms is     
awarded to the ,italians by ,sir        
,samuel ,meyrick1 and1 in a memoir in   
the ,archologia of the ,society of      
,antiquarians1 he has named the year    
#adcj as the precise period of their    
introduction4    ,we have already stated
 that cannon1 or heavy ordnance1 was in 
use in the  ,english army in #acbg1 more
 than a century before that time4 ,it is
 not  improbable1 however1 that the     
,italians were the originators of small 
fire-arms1 for they had for many years  
been celebrated as skilful in  the art  
of making armour--,milanese armour being
 considered the most  valuable1 and it  
is natural that their attention should  
be directed to  the construction of     
offensive weapons of a different        
description4    ,the invention of the   
portable fire-arm1 in its primitive     
state1 was one  of extreme simplicity2  
the gun consisting merely of a tube     

fixed to a  straight stock of wood1     
about three feet in length1 furnished   
with  trunnions1 cascable1 and          
touch-hole3 the latter was1 in the first
  instance1 at the top1 like a large    
cannon1 but was afterwards altered to   
the side where a small pan was placed to
 hold the priming1 and lessen  the      
liability of its being blown away by the
 wind4 ,this contrivance was  the first 
step to the gun-lock4    ,before the    
adoption of the match-lock by the       
,english1 cannon1 as ,i have  before    
shown1 had been in use1 though they were
 of a clumsy description4               
,illustration    ,to the indefatigable  
exertions of ,mr4 ,dean1 we are indebted
 for the  recovery of several brass and 
iron guns1 belonging to the 8,mary      
,rose10--a vessel of war1 wrecked in the
 reign of ,henry ,,viii4 of ,england1   
and ,francis ,i4 of ,france1 in #aede3  
8while standing along the coast1  during
 a distant firing from the ,french      
fleet1 under ,admiral ,annebout1  she   

was overpowered by the weight of her    
ordnance1 and sunk1 together  with her  
commander and crew of #fjj men40 ,one of
 these iron guns is in an  excellent    
state of preservation1 considering it to
 have been immersed  above #cjj years4  
,the cut on next page will convey1      
together with the  following            
description1 a faint idea of its        
unwieldy and inefficient  construction4 
,it is composed of a tube of iron1 whose
 joint or overlap  is as its length2    
upon this is a succession of iron hoops1
 composed of  iron three inches square1 
being in fact immense rings2 these      
appear to  have been driven on while red
 hot1 and thus1 by their contraction1   
forming a much stronger gun1 when       
combined with the interior tube1 than   
the generality of accounts given of     
ancient guns would lead us to  expect4  
,it will be perceived1 that to describe 
it as 8composed of iron  bars hooped    
together10 is not correct4 ,we may also 
mention1 that if  parties describing    

guns of this primitive manufacture will 
observe  accurately1 they will find that
 this is the general method by which    
they  have been fabricated4 ,they all   
appear to have been loaded by removing a
  breech part1 or chamber1 inserting the
 charge1 replacing the chamber1  and    
securing it by wedging it behind2 as    
will be seen on a close  inspection4 ,no
 means of raising or depressing the     
muzzle appear  available2 the barrel or 
gun being sunk in a large block of      
timber1 and  secured there by bolts1 as 
a musket barrel is secured in its stock2
  while a large piece of iron1 or wood1 
was inserted perpendicularly into  the  
deck to prevent the recoil4 ,the        
advantage of 8chambers0 was  perfectly  
understood even at this early period2   
they were apparently  slightly conical1 
with a spherical bottom4 ,it is no mean 
evidence of  ancient skill1 and         
knowledge of gunnery and mechanics      
combined1 to  state1 that only a few    
years ago1 a gunmaker of some celebrity1

  constructed a number of rifles and    
pistols to load at the breech1 on the   
very same principle adopted in this gun 
#cab years ago4 ,strange1 evidence  from
 8the vasty deep0 to show 8there is     
nothing new under the sun40    ,during  
the sixteenth century1 fire-arms of     
every description then in use  underwent
 a variety of alterations and           
improvements2 each change  bringing with
 it a change of name1 which would       
neither be profitable or  interesting to
 enumerate here2 our object being to    
trace out the  advances which have been 
made in the manufacture of fire-arms    
since  their general adoption as weapons
 of war1 or auxiliaries to the sports   
of the field4    ,when first introduced 
into ,england1 the hand-gun1 as it was  
termed1 had  already received a slight  
improvement1 in having a covering for   
the pan  which contained the priming1   
and a sight on the breech1 to assist in 
giving greater certainty to the aim2 it 
remained thus until the trigger  of the 

cross-bow suggested a contrivance to    
convey1 with equal  certainty and       
greater rapidity1 the burning match to  
the pan4    ,the difficulty of using an 
instrument thus objectionably           
constructed1  was in some degree        
obviated by the ,germans2 who1 together 
with the  ,italians1 were no doubt at   
this early period the principal         
manufacturers2 they effected this1 to a 
certain degree1 by giving the  stocks a 
crooked form1 so that the breech could1 
with more ease1 be  brought to the level
 of the eye2 this was1 however1 only an 
alteration  of form1 without involving  
any principle or leading feature of     
mechanical invention4 ,succeeding the   
match-lock1 in the progress of          
improvement1 came the 8pyrites          
wheel-lock10 an invention then looked   
upon as exceedingly curious and         
ingenious2 this also is ascribed to the 
,italians1 and one of the first         
occasions of its being used1 is said to 
have been when ,pope ,leo ,x4 and the   

,emperor ,charles ,v4 confederated      
against ,france4 ,whether the ,italians 
are fairly entitled to the merit of     
this invention is1 however1 a matter of 
doubt1 as it is well known that         
wheel-locks were for a long period      
manufactured in ,germany4    ,the       
8snaphaunce0 or fire-lock1 is distinctly
 stated by ,grose to be of  ,dutch      
origin1--hence the name4 ,it was        
introduced into ,england in the  reign  
of ,charles ,,ii41 though its general   
adoption is stated not to have  taken   
place until the reign of ,william       
,,iii41 about #afib4 ,since that        
period1 until the present1 their use has
 been general in all the armies  of     
,europe4 ,how strange it seems that the 
,chinese and other ,asiatics  should    
have only the match-lock to the present 
day1 while there can be  no question    
that they used gunpowder some centuries 
before its  introduction into our       
portion of the habitable globe6    ,the 
,syrians were formerly celebrated for   

their skill in the working of  iron4    
,damascus gun-barrels were not to be    
obtained1 at certain periods1  at a     
price less than their weight in silver4 
,the elaborate mixtures in  their       
barrels1 swords1 and other weapons1     
entitle them justly to the  honour of   
being the best of iron workers1 as we   
shall hereafter have  occasion to show2 
and the splendour displayed in their    
inlaying attests  their taste and       
ability3 but as mechanicians1 formers of
 complex  machinery1 they never reached 
mediocrity4 ,turkey and ,greece1 as well
 as  other countries which were renowned
 as having been1 in days of yore1       
nurseries of the arts1 but which have1  
in later times1 degenerated into  a     
condition little better than            
semi-barbarous1 were remarkable for the 
great labour and pains which they       
bestowed upon the exterior ornaments  of
 their firearms2 but they never         
succeeded in improving the machinery  of
 the lock in the slightest degree4      

,although it was not until the latter   
part of the seventeenth1 or the         
beginning of the eighteenth century1    
that gun manufactories were  established
 in this kingdom1 yet we have attained  
to a degree of  perfection and          
excellence unequalled by any other      
nation in the world4  ,birmingham is the
 emporium of the world for guns1 from   
the most  inferior--the 8park paling10  
so called1 of the slave-trade1 with     
which  ships might yet be freighted at  
the cost of eight shillings and sixpence
  each--up to the elaborately-finished  
gun of the peer4 ,most of the           
alterations which have been made in     
gun-locks in ,england1 have been with  a
 view to simplify the machinery1 and    
obtain the greatest quickness in        
firing3 much complication has been      
discarded2 a thorough conviction  having
 seated itself in the minds of          
,englishmen1 that to attain  perfection1
 simplicity must be combined4    ,many  
splendid emanations of genius are left  

to us1 consisting of complex  mechanism 
for gunnery4 ,the most perfect we have  
ever seen1 is a pistol  made in ,spain  
about the end of the seventeenth        
century4 ,by moving a  lever towards the
 butt-end1 while the muzzle is          
depressed1 the lock is  primed1         
half-cocked1 and the hammer shut down2  
return the lever1 the  powder is in the 
breech1 and the ball before it4 ,we have
 seen it fire  twenty-six shots without 
a failure1 and with one supply of       
ammunition4  ,the magazine was in two   
tubes in the stock4 ,the chance of      
blowing up was  thought remote2 but it  
eventually blew up4 ,in short1 it would 
be  strictly advantageous to inventors  
in gunnery1 to be sure that there has   
been no previous invention combining    
their principle as well as their        
arrangements4    ,the mine of complex   
inventions was exhausted during the last
 century2  and the greatest benefactor  
to the science of gunnery will be he1   
who1  blowing away the cobwebs of       

mystery1 renders its principles as clear
 as  the silvered glass4 ,nothing now   
remains of the beautiful machinery of   
the flint lock2 the fancy cock and      
hammers have given place to a  8simple0 
hammer1 striking on a copper thimble1   
covering a steel pivot4  ,what would the
 old lock-filers say to this1 if they   
could return and  see their handiwork   
consigned to the scrap-box as old iron8 
,to those curious in the progress of    
invention as it relates to gunnery1  it 
would be highly interesting to visit the
 8,muse d',artillerie0 of  ,paris1 and  
there to study the classified selections
 in the possession of  the ,french      
,government4 ,among other specimens     
equally interesting1 he  will find      
revolving pistols1 revolving rifles1 and
 swords and revolving  pistols combined 
in one2 and these produced in the early 
part of the  seventeenth century4 ,the  
revolving pistol did not therefore      
originate  with the present generation2 
and however universally we may use the  

8,colt10 8,adams10 or 8,tranter10       
neither can lay the slightest claim to  
originality4 ,in that museum will be    
found four1 five1 and six charge        
chambers2 and though in all there is    
certainly an absence of movement in  the
 chamber1 produced by the cocking of the
 lock1 yet several present  the         
appearance of having formerly had some  
mechanical adjunct for  revolving the   
chamber3 this1 though well adapted to   
the present  percussion system1 must    
certainly have been troublesome to      
manage in the  old flint lock2 for when 
the first barrel was discharged1 the    
priming of  the other barrels would be  
lost during the revolution of the       
chamber4    ,a great improvement was1   
however1 soon introduced2 a hammer and  
pan were  attached to each division of  
the chamber1 and each being already     
primed1  presented itself in rotation in
 the face of the flint4 ,the gun or     
pistol  was by these protuberances      
rendered clumsy and cumbersome1 and thus

  fell1 no doubt1 into disuse2 but every
 real mechanic must see on              
investigating the subject1 that the     
principle was as perfect as that  which 
is now in use4 ,mr4 ,colt had           
considerable difficulty in securing a   
patent for his revolver4 ,the right of  
patent hinged on this simple  question3 
did he1 or did he not1 first introduce a
 crank or lever for  revolving the      
chambers during the cocking of the lock8
 ,after an  expensive trial it was      
decided that he did introduce it2 though
 doubts  are still entertained whether  
there is not now extant a pistol having 
the same crank movement as that found in
 the 8,colt0 and other revolvers4  ,at  
all events the invention of revolving   
pistols originated with our             
progenitors1 more than #bjj years ago1  
though their re-introduction is         
unquestionably due to ,mr4 ,colt2 and   
the 8old broth warmed up0 has no  doubt 
proved more nutritious than the original
 concoction4 ,in the ,paris  museum1 a  

number of breech-loading guns are to be 
seen2 ,i think more  than sixty         
varieties4 ,many of them are highly     
ingenious1 displaying  great mechanical 
knowledge and working skill1 and the    
whole1 kept in  splendid order1 cannot  
fail to command attention4    ,well had 
it been if the many hundred inventors in
 ,england and elsewhere  had studied1   
and made themselves intimately          
acquainted with the  productions there  
to be seen in such abundance4 ,monuments
 they are of  mis-spent skill and       
labour2 samples of the almost hopeless  
task of  fabricating complicated        
machinery which shall resist the action 
of  explosive gases at high pressure4   
,an experiment extending over two       
hundred years1 but unattended with      
success1 notwithstanding all the  skill 
and ingenuity brought to bear upon it1  
is1 we think1 sufficient  to prove that 
breech-loading guns cannot be made      
sufficiently durable to  yield any      
reasonable return for the extra expense 

and trouble attending  their            
fabrication4 ,nevertheless1 our         
8would-be mechanics hope against  hope20
 and to such we would1 in conclusion1   
tender a word of advice4  ,before       
spending your money1 make acquaintance  
7and an intimate one is  necessary7 with
 all that has been done before1 and if  
in your own  production you find        
principles which have been untouched by 
any previous  invention1 and untainted  
by any of the previous causes of        
failure1 then  patent your invention1   
and make a fortune--if you can4         
,great mechanical skill1 and even       
scientific principles1 are to be found  
in some of the earliest productions     
after the invention of fire-arms2  and  
thus is established the important fact1 
that want of experience was  the chief  
drawback under which they laboured3 one 
elaborate machine  being unequal to     
their requirements was succeeded by     
another2 and yet1  with all these       
examples patent to us1 we still         

fruitlessly fall back on  exhausted     
principles4    ,a more intimate         
knowledge of what our predecessors have 
accomplished  would be a great boon to  
our race4 ,foreign nations1 but         
especially  ,france1 have provided for  
this by their museums2 and we want here 
a  museum of progression1 an epitome of 
the mind of the present age1 and  which1
 continued to future generations1 would 
leave to no man the  fruitless toil of  
hauling in an endless rope4             
,,chapter ,,ii4    ,,on ,,gunpowder4    
,gunpowder being the base on which the  
superstructure of this treatise is  to  
be raised1 the history1 the use1 and the
 nature of this explosive  compound1 are
 here placed in the foreground2 as it is
 essential to the  correct conception of
 the various matters hereafter to be    
explained1  that the reader be first    
acquainted with the one grand principle 
in  fire-arms1 the propellant power of  
explosion4    ,gunpowder1 whether       
considered relatively to engines of war1

 or to those  arms used with so much    
success in the sporting field1 has1     
since its  first introduction1 been a   
source of much and frequent discussion4 
,in  regard to its origin1 we shall not 
much enlarge1 nor repeat the many       
suppositions and conjectures promulgated
 by the searchers after  antiquarian    
evidence4    ,the inhabitants of ,india 
were unquestionably acquainted with its 
composition at an early date4 ,alexander
 is supposed to have avoided  attacking 
the ,oxydracea1 a people dwelling       
between the ,hyphasis and  ,ganges1 from
 a report of their being possessed of   
supernatural means of  defence3 8,for10 
it is said1 8they come not out to fight 
those who attack  them1 but those holy  
men1 beloved by the gods1 overthrow     
their enemies  with tempests and        
thunderbolts shot from their walls20    
and1 when the  ,egyptian ,hercules and  
,bacchus overran ,india1 they attacked  
these people1  8but were repulsed with  
storms of thunderbolts and lightning    

hurled from  above40 ,this is1 no doubt1
 evidence of the use of gunpowder2 but  
as it  is unprofitable to investigate   
this subject further1 we shall merely   
confine ourselves to the ,european      
authorities4    ,many ascribe the       
discovery of gunpowder to ,roger ,bacon1
 the monk1 who  was born at ,ilchester1 
in ,somersetshire1 in the year #abad1   
and is said  to have died in #abhe4 ,no 
doubt he was by far the most            
illustrious1 the  best informed1 and the
 most philosophical of all the          
alchemists4 ,in the  #fth chapter of his
 ,epistles of the ,secrets of ,arts1 the
 following  passage occurs--8,for sounds
 like thunder1 and flashes like         
lightning1  may be made in the air1 and 
they may be rendered even more horrible 
than  those of nature herself4 ,a small 
quantity of matter1 properly            
manufactured1 and not larger than the   
human thumb1 may be made to  produce a  
horrible noise2 and this may be done    
many ways1 by which a  city or an army  

may be destroyed1 as was the case when  
,gideon and  his men broke their        
pitchers and exhibited their lamps1 fire
 issuing  out of them with great force  
and noise1 destroying an infinite number
 of  the army of the ,midianites40 ,and 
in the #aath chapter of the same        
epistle occurs the following            
passage3--8,mix together saltpetre with 
luru mone cap ubre1 and sulphur1 and you
 will make thunder and  lightning1 if   
you know the method of mixing them40    
,here all the  ingredients of gunpowder 
are mentioned1 except charcoal2 which   
is1  doubtless1 concealed under the     
barbarous terms used2 indeed1 the       
anagram is easily converted into        
carbonum pulvere1 with a little         
attention4    ,this discovery has also  
been attributed to ,schwartz1 a ,german 
monk1 and  the date of #acbj annexed to 
it2 a date posterior to that which may  
be  justly claimed for ,friar ,bacon2   
and as accident is stated to have been  
the means by which he discovered it1 we 

have taken that incident as the  subject
 of an illustration4    ,illustration   
,mr4 ,hallam1 referring to the authority
 of an ,arabic author1 infers that      
there is no question that the knowledge 
of gunpowder was introduced into        
,europe through the means of the        
,saracens1 before the middle of the     
#acth  century2 and no doubt its use    
then was more for fireworks1 than as an 
artillerist projectile force4 ,there is 
good evidence1 too1 that the use  of    
gunpowder was introduced into ,spain by 
the ,moors1 at least as early  as the   
year #acdc4 ,now1 as ,roger ,bacon is   
known to have been an ,arabic  scholar1 
it is not at all unlikely that he might 
have become acquainted  with the mode of
 making the composition1 and also with  
its most  remarkable properties1 by     
perusing some ,arabian writer with whom 
we are  at present unacquainted4        
,this invention1 by which the personal  
barbarity of war has certainly  been    
diminished1 is1 when considered as a    

means of human destruction1 by  far the 
most powerful that skill has ever       
devised1 or accident  presented2        
acquiring1 as experience shows us1 a    
more sanguinary dominion  in every      
succeeding age1 and subserving all the  
progressive resources of  science and   
civilization for the extermination of   
mankind3 which1 says  ,mr4 ,hallam1     
8appals us at the future prospects of   
the species1 and makes  us feel1        
perhaps1 more than in any other         
instance1 a difficulty in  reconciling  
the mysterious dispensation with the    
benevolent order of  ,providence40      
,the composition of gunpowder1 as       
regards the proportions of the          
ingredients1 has not undergone any      
material alteration2 the chemical       
proportions of the ancients being nearly
 those of the present day4    ,gunpowder
 is an explosive propellant compound1   
consisting of saltpetre  or nitre1      
charcoal1 and sulphur4 ,the terms1      
explosive and  propellant1 are not here 

used as synonymous--they are not        
convertible2  for a chemical mixture may
 possess the explosive power in a much  
higher degree than the propellant3      
fulminating gold1 silver1 and  mercury1 
are dreadfully explosive2 but they have 
not the same  projectile force1 nor can 
they be used as a substitute for it4    
,several  experiments have been made    
with compounds of this nature1 but the  
result  is the reverse of what might be 
expected4 ,nothing can resist the       
exceeding intensity of the action of    
fulminating powder2 a shot1 when  fired 
in this way1 is not projected as by     
gunpowder1 but is split into  fragments 
by the velocity of its explosion1 as we 
shall hereafter have  occasion to show4 
,nitre1 or saltpetre1 is strictly the   
essence of gunpowder4 ,it is a  triple  
compound of oxygen1 nitrogen1 and       
potassium4 ,the chemical action  of     
those elements on each other1 and the   
play of affinities between them  at a   
high temperature1 occasion the immense  

effect produced by gunpowder  on the    
application of fire or heat4 ,by        
universal consent1 sulphur is  included 
in the mixture1 but it is not absolutely
 necessary for the  8propellant power20 
for nitre and charcoal only will        
generate effects  similar to the        
compound with sulphur4 ,gunpowder made  
without sulphur  has1 however1 several  
bad qualities2 it is not1 on the whole1 
so  powerful1 nor so regular in its     
action2 it is also porous and friable1  
possessing neither firmness nor         
solidity4 ,it cannot bear the friction  
of  carriage1 and in transport crumbles 
into dust4 ,the use of sulphur1         
therefore1 appears to be not only to    
complete the mechanical combination  of 
the other ingredients1 but being a      
perfectly combustible substance1  it    
increases the general effect1 augments  
the propellant power1 and is  thought to
 render the powder less susceptible of  
injury from atmospheric  influence4     
8,there is one good reason10 says the   

,edinburgh ,encyclopdia1 8for the  use  
of sulphur1 although it does not        
contribute to the production of any     
elastic fluid4 ,the carbonic acid which 
is generated would doubtless  combine   
with the potash1 if it were not for the 
presence of the sulphur1  and thus so   
much elastic fluid would be lost4 ,that 
this is the case we  know to be true1   
from the fact that carbonate of potash  
is always formed  when nitre is         
decomposed by charcoal alone1 which ,i  
shall almost  immediately show40 ,this  
certainly would be the case1 to a       
certain  extent1 with gunpowder without 
sulphur--some carbonate of potash would 
be formed4    ,the sulphur1 we have no  
doubt1 from experiments we have made on 
this  subject1 is1 in part1 engaged     
during the explosion of gunpowder in    
expelling the sixth proportion of oxygen
 from the potash1 so as to  combine with
 the potassium1 to form a true sulphuret
 of that metal4 ,this  fact is easily   
ascertained1 from the circumstance that 

no sulphuretted  hydrogen can be        
detected1 by the most delicate tests1   
coming from the  residuum left after    
firing gunpowder1 until moisture has    
gained access  to it4 ,the bad smell    
which arises sometime after the burning 
of  gunpowder1 is occasioned by the     
decomposition of the moisture which the 
sulphuret of potassium attracts from the
 atmosphere2 giving rise1 by  this      
decomposition and liberation1 to the    
ftid foul gas1 called  sulphuretted     
hydrogen1 and the production of potassa1
 or the oxide of  potassium4    ,a      
commission of ,french chemists and      
artillerists was appointed by the       
,government1 in the year #agid1 to      
experiment upon the best proportions    
and constituents of gunpowder for the   
use of the ,french service4 ,the        
following were the proportions of five  
different kinds prepared at the         
,essonne works3--                       
----------------------------------------
--------                                

,no4,nitre4,charcoal4,sulphur4          
----                                    
----------------------------------------
--------    #a  #gfjj  #adjj    #ajjj   
,powder of ,be4    #b  #gfjj  #abjj     
#abjj           ,grenelle4    #c  #gfjj 
#aejj     #ijj           ,m4 ,morveau4  
#d  #ggcb  #acdd     #ibd               
,ditto4    #e  #ggej  #aejj     #gej    
,m4 ,keffault4                          
----------------------------------------
--------    ,the first and third1 after 
#bjj discharges with the proof mortar1  
were  declared the strongest1 and the   
third proportions were adopted at the   
recommendation of the commissioners4    
,some few years elapsed1 and the  first1
 owing to its better keeping quality1   
was substituted1 as it  contained less  
charcoal1 and a little more sulphur4    
,the ,french  ,government having always 
been extremely impressed with the value 
of  durability in gunpowder1 they have  
since returned to their ancient         
proportions3 #ge nitre1 #ab-a_/b        

charcoal1 #ab-a_/b sulphur4 ,the        
charcoal1  the absorbent of moisture1   
being further reduced1 and the sulphur1 
the  preserving ingredient1 being       
increased in the same ratio4    8,mr4   
,napier tried a small quantity made of  
nitre and charcoal only1 and  was much  
surprised to find it project a shot as  
far as the best powder  made in the     
usual manner4 ,it is found that1 in     
small charges1 sulphur is  advantageous2
 but1 in charges of several ounces1 the 
projecting force is  as great without as
 with it4 ,therefore1 under certain     
circumstances1  sulphur may be dispensed
 with2 but to make a good gunpowder1    
nitre and  charcoal are indispensable40 
,amongst the brilliant discoveries of   
modern chemistry may be classed the     
development of the fact1 that a chemical
 combination1 to constitute the  same   
compound1 always takes place in definite
 and unalterable ratios4 ,to  select one
 example out of a multitude3 one atom of
 carbon combining with  two atoms of    

oxygen produces the gas2 because more   
would answer no  useful end4 ,so1 with  
reference to the sulphur1 if it enter   
into  combination only with the         
potassium--the base of the nitre--the   
sulphur  should be in that proportion to
 form the sulphuret of that metal2 and  
in  this case there would be no         
superfluity1 for that would only add to 
the  weight of the charge of powder1 and
 diminish its absolute and effective    
energy4 ,the view of the case which we  
have taken supposes only two            
combinations1 viz4 carbon with oxygen1  
and sulphur with potassium4  ,should    
there be a more diversified play of     
affinities1 and the several  elements of
 the powder enter into more complicated 
action1 accurate  analysis would conduct
 us through all difficulties1 and point 
out what  the proportions of the        
ingredients ought to be in order to     
sustain that  action1 and to produce a  
perfect ultimate result4    ,we thus    
perceive how analysis bears upon the    

case4 ,we can see by such  reasoning on 
the subject1 that1 theoretically1 there 
can be but one set  of proportions      
calculated to produce the best and      
strongest gunpowder1  and that those    
proportions must depend upon the        
established and unerring  laws of       
nature4 ,the proportions1 then1 for     
gunpowder1 by these  considerations1    
will be those in which the carbon will  
just consume the  oxygen of the nitre1  
and combine with the sulphur as much as 
will  exactly saturate the potassium4   
,this will be effected by an atom each  
of  nitre and sulphur1 and three atoms  
of carbon2 or nitre #gee1 charcoal      
#ahh1 and of sulphur #aah4    ,in the   
present improved state of chemical      
science1 when the nature of  the bodies 
comprising gunpowder is so well known1  
as well as the  compounds resulting from
 their action on each other1 the        
proportions we  have named may be taken 
as the best for practice4    ,the       
charcoal should1 in particular1 not be  

less than the nitre1 as the  smallest   
portion less than the whole atom would  
be the same as to leave  out the whole  
atom1 in which case there would be no   
carbonic oxide  formed4 ,if1 for        
example1 instead of the proportions of  
nitre #gee1  charcoal #afb1 sulphur #ae1
 the carbon were #af1 then there would  
be #db  of carbon left in the residuum1 
and no carbonic oxide would be formed1  
since bodies cannot unite but in        
definite proportions4    ,from these    
considerations we can perceive the      
reason why a small  proportion of       
carbonic oxide is always formed during  
the decomposition  of nitre by charcoal2
 for it will be evident1 that as the    
nitric acid  contains five atoms of     
oxygen1 four of these must combine with 
two atoms  of carbon to form two atoms  
of carbonic acid1 while the odd atom of 
oxygen is compelled to take another atom
 to form carbonic oxide4 ,but  this is  
not the case in the combustion of       
gunpowder1 as carbonic acid  and        

nitrogen are the principal gases        
generated4    ,these proportions differ 
from any other formula yet prescribed2  
and1  though different in a great degree
 from the proportions laid down by      
various writers on the subject1 the     
reasons which are here given1 as has    
been seen1 are such as carry with them a
 conviction of their truth3 for  there  
cannot possibly be any benefit arising  
from a greater quantity of  any of these
 materials than is absolutely necessary 
to form the  composition in question2   
and if the smallest quantity be above   
what is  requisite to consume the whole1
 that1 however small it may be1 is      
highly  detrimental to the effective    
energy of the mass4 ,what we may here   
call  clean gunpowder1 such as may be   
used with confidence for repeated       
discharges of fire-arms of any          
description1 is of the greatest         
importance2 therefore1 it does not      
appear to us1 that any given            
proportions are so likely to accomplish 

that object as those before  specified4 
,,table ,,of ,,composition ,,of         
,,different ,,gunpowders4               
----------------------------------------
----------------                ,mills4 
,nitre4,charcoal4,sulphur4              
----------------------------------------
----------------    ,royal ,waltham     
,abbey              #gejj   #aejj       
#ajjj    ,france1 ,national ,mills      
#gejj   #abej   #abej    ,french        
,sporting                  #ghjj   #abjj
   #ajjj    ,french ,mining             
#fejj   #aejj   #bjjj    ,u4 ,s4 of     
,america                 #gejj   #abej  
#abej    ,prussia                       
#gejj   #acej   #aaej    ,russia        
#gcgh   #acei   #abfc    ,austria       
7,musket7                 #gbjj   #agjj 
#afjj    ,spain                         
#gfdg   #ajgh   #abge    ,sweden        
#gfjj   #aejj    #ijj    ,switzerland   
7,round ,powder7       #gfjj   #adjj    
#ajjj    ,chinese                       
#gejj   #addj    #iij    ,theoretical   

proportions as above #gejj   #acbc      
#aagg                                   
----------------------------------------
----------------    ,gunpowder consists 
of a very intricate mixture of sulphur1 
carbon  7charcoal71 and nitrate of      
potash 7nitre74    ,the proportions in  
which they exist are one equivalent of  
nitre1 one of  sulphur1 and three of    
carbon4 ,the great explosive power of   
gunpowder is  due to the sudden         
development from its solid constituents 
of a large  quantity of gases2 these    
gases are nitrogen and carbonic acid4   
,at the ordinary temperature of the     
atmosphere these gases would occupy a   
space three hundred times greater than  
the bulk of the gunpowder used2  but    
owing to the intense heat developed at  
the moment of explosion1 the  gases     
occupy at least #a1ejj times the bulk of
 the original gunpowder4  ,the mixture1 
consisting of one equivalent of nitre1  
one of sulphur1 and  three of carbon1   
would yield three equivalents of        

carbonic acid1 one of  nitrogen1 and one
 of sulphuret of potassium4 ,the change 
may be  represented thus1--      ,s  ,c 
,,kono  #c ,,co  ,n  ,,ks4    ,the only 
solid residue1 therefore1 is the        
sulphuret of potassium1 and  this is the
 compound which produces the sulphurous 
odour on washing out  a gun barrel2     
water is decomposed1 sulphuretted       
hydrogen and potash  being the result of
 the decomposition4    ,now supposing   
the elements of gunpowder to exist in   
these proportions1  it is essential1 in 
order to secure their perfect           
combination1 and thus  to produce the   
largest possible volume of gas1 that the
 elements should  be in the most minute 
state of subdivision4 ,chemical action  
is a force  exerted at insensible       
distances only1 and chemical substances 
having the  greatest affinity for each  
other will not combine1 unless their    
elements  are brought into immediate    
contact3 thus oxygen and hydrogen may be
  mixed together in the exact           

proportions to form water2 but no       
chemical  combination will occur1 simply
 because the ultimate particles of the  
two  gases are not sufficiently near to 
each other for their chemical           
affinities to be brought into play2 if1 
however1 these gases are  subjected to  
very strong pressure1 so as to bring    
their particles into  immediate contact1
 combination occurs1 and the production 
of water is  the result4    ,in order to
 insure the perfect combination of the  
elements of gunpowder  the same         
conditions are necessary2 that is to    
say1 the ultimate  particles of the     
nitre1 charcoal1 and sulphur1 must be   
brought into the  most direct contact1  
or the explosive power of the gunpowder 
will be  comparatively trifling4 ,if1   
for instance1 the nitre1 charcoal1 and  
sulphur be pounded in a mortar1 no      
explosion but a slow combustion will    
occur when the mixture is ignited2 so   
that unless this intimate mixture  of   
the elements is carefully attended to in

 the manufacture of  gunpowder1 it is   
easy to see that the article produced   
will be of  comparatively little value4 
,it is evident then that if tons of the 
elements of gunpowder were stored  in a 
warehouse which accidentally caught     
fire1 no explosion would occur  from the
 formation of gunpowder2 though its     
ingredients would greatly  increase the 
rapidity of combustion4    ,this remark 
is elicited by the recollection of a    
fearful explosion which  took place at  
,gateshead in #ahed4    ,it may be      
remembered that a warehouse caught fire 
from an adjoining  mill1 and the        
explosion was supposed to have been     
produced by the  ignition of the        
elements of gunpowder stored in the     
warehouse in a crude  state4 ,the upper 
story of the building contained a large 
quantity of  crude sulphur1 and the     
basement story about the same quantity  
of nitre1  whilst chemicals of various  
kinds were stored in other parts of the 
building2 but according to the accounts 

published there was no large  quantity  
of carbon in the warehouse2             
nevertheless1 a terrific explosion  took
 place1 and after a lengthened          
investigation1 the conclusion arrived   
at was this3 the sulphur melting1 mixed 
with the nitre1 gunpowder was  thus     
formed1 and igniting1 exploded1         
producing the terrible effects4    ,but 
gunpowder may be made without sulphur1  
whereas gunpowder without  carbon is an 
impossibility2 and though the elements  
of gunpowder had all  been present1 no  
explosion could have occurred1 unless   
they had become  mixed in the intimate  
manner already described4    ,it is true
 some of the chemical substances in the 
warehouse might have  produced a fearful
 explosion3 but a more plausible        
explanation is to be  found in the fact1
 that gunpowder was at that time much   
more valuable  abroad than at home2 and 
it is quite possible that some kegs of  
gunpowder might have been stored away in
 this warehouse1 until a  convenient    

opportunity presented itself for their  
removal4    ,the foregoing remarks will 
serve to explain how it is that powder  
varies  so much in strength and         
quickness of fire4 ,if the elements are 
imperfectly incorporated1 the powder can
 never be equal to that which is        
properly made2 and the manufacturer1    
having ascertained the best  proportions
 in which to mix the elements1 had      
better improve his  machinery for       
incorporating them1 rather than his     
knowledge of the  chemistry of          
gunpowder4 ,these observations will also
 serve to explain  the apparent anomaly1
 that the ,french1 and some of our other
 continental  brethren1 are held to     
produce a much inferior sporting        
gunpowder to that  which is manufactured
 in old ,england4    ,gunpowder is now  
made by all the sporting gunpowder      
manufacturers from  ,no4 #a to ,no4 #e  
grain2 and it appears certain that a    
further increase in  the size of the    
grain would be advantageous2 for many   

years of patient  and laborious         
experiment clearly show1 that the old   
notion of gunpowder  being blown out of 
an ordinary sized gun in an unburnt     
state1 is one of  the 8purest of vulgar 
errors30 such a thing indeed cannot     
possibly  happen unless the powder be   
bad1 or the gun imperfectly made1 or    
injudiciously charged4    ,i am         
satisfied that ,i am under rather than  
over estimate1 when ,i assert  that six 
drams of ordinary sporting gunpowder may
 be beneficially and  completely        
exploded in a barrel of #ad bore1 #b    
feet #f inches long1 with a  resisting  
projectile one ounce in weight above it4
 ,this1 however1 being  more than a     
double charge for such a gun1 cannot be 
pleasantly  practised2 and it is only   
asserted by way of argument4            
,assuming1 then1 for argument's sake1   
that six drams of gunpowder are  exactly
 consumed in passing from the breech to 
the muzzle of a gun #b  feet #f inches  
long1 and that the shot1 therefore1     

acquires its greatest  velocity as it   
leaves the muzzle1 it follows that the  
ordinary charge of  #b-a_/b drams will  
be wholly consumed before it has        
traversed half the  length of the       
barrel1 and consequently the charge of  
shot must here  acquire its greatest    
velocity4 ,it is certain1 then1 that the
 shot must  travel the latter half of   
the barrel at a diminished velocity1 and
 its  velocity must continue to diminish
 as it passes up the barrel2 for two    
obvious reasons--#ast1 ,the column of   
air in front of the charge is more      
condensed1 and thus offers a greater    
resistance to the exit of the  charge2  
#bnd1 ,the velocity is continually      
diminished by the increased  friction of
 the charge against the barrel4    ,the 
perfection of projectile science is to  
make the projectile acquire  its        
greatest velocity at the instant of     
leaving the muzzle2 and if1 by          
increasing the size of the grain of     
gunpowder1 we can diminish the  rapidity

 of its explosion--thus causing it to   
burn and generate fresh  gas up to the  
muzzle of the gun--the projectile will  
then acquire its  greatest velocity1 and
 leave the gun to the best advantage3   
this is the  important point which has  
hitherto been overlooked1 not only in   
fowling-pieces1 but in the expansive    
principle of rifles4    ,for artillery  
practice of every kind1 whatever the    
weight of the  projectile1 gunpowder of 
a granulation suited to the weight of   
that  projectile is essential1 if we    
would produce the greatest possible     
effect by the least expenditure of      
means4    ,in artillery1 at this most   
important time in war's history1 no     
attention  whatever is paid to this     
essential principle4 ,a long #aj-;inch  
gun1 a  #fh-pounder1 and a short        
#f-pounder are all charged with powder  
of the  same granulation2 whilst by a   
more judicious use of gunpowder of      
suitable granulation1 the range might be
 extended1 just as it is in  sporting   

arms1 to nearly #bj per cent4           
,artillerists seek to effect great range
 by doubling the weight of the  gun1 and
 projectile monsters meet us at all     
points1 to become in every  case        
8monster failures40    ,i fear that the 
most important points have been entirely
 lost sight of4  ,instead of            
ascertaining whether we have suited the 
projectile power to  the #h-;inch or    
#ef-pounder1 so as to get work from it  
which is now done by  the #aj-;inch1 we 
have1 in our anxiety to get range1      
looked only to the  form or material of 
the gun2 vital principles being totally 
excluded4  ,the construction of the gun 
being perfect1 the question is1 can the 
expellant force be brought to an equal  
state of perfection8    ,in order to    
obtain the best results from a gun1 the 
gun itself must be  perfect in          
construction1 and the expellant force   
must be brought to bear  in the best    
possible manner upon the projectile2 and
 this is to be done  by attending to the

 granulation of the powder1 which must  
be suited to  the length of the gun1 to 
its bore1 and to the weight of the      
projectile4    ,common-sense1           
engineering skill1 will demonstrate1    
that according to the  weight of matter 
to be projected must be the nature of   
the expellant2  accumulative--until it  
has overcome the inertia of that matter1
  accelerative--until it has            
communicated to it the highest state of 
velocity its power is capable of        
effecting4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it is
  inferior to this1 science has not     
extracted from it the full  horse-power 
it contains2 and we are uselessly       
expending force and  destroying our     
engines by undue pressure being exerted 
on one part1 and  inferior pressure on  
another2 whilst by a proper distribution
 of that  force1 durability of the      
cannon is insured1 and from twenty-five 
to  thirty per cent4 more work may be   
obtained from an equal quantity of      
powder1 provided its granulation be     

judiciously selected according to  the  
area of the gun4    ,there is abundant  
proof that on this engineering question 
we have  hitherto worked by the 8rule of
 thumb20 prejudice having been a        
stumbling-block1 which nothing but stern
 necessity will remove4 ,the            
authorities have but just discovered    
this1 although their attention was      
directed to it several years ago4 ,in   
the year #aheb1 ,i produced before  the 
,small ,arms ,committee1 at ,enfield1 a 
portion of gunpowder suited to  the     
expansive rifle2 it was tried to a      
limited extent1 and dismissed  with the 
remark1 8,we don't think there is much  
in it40 ,experience1  however1 has      
demonstrated the truth of my            
observations1 for1 in all  extreme range
 shooting with the expansive or         
8,greenerian0-principled  rifles1 not   
only is considerably greater accuracy   
obtained with it1  but an increase of   
range equivalent to fifteen or twenty   
per cent4    ,another advantage of using

 gunpowder of a suitable granulation is 
the  absence of sharp recoil2 and thus  
greater accuracy of range is            
obtained--accuracy of range and         
steadiness of weapon being inseparable4 
,large-grain gunpowder is not only a    
more effectual expellant than the  fine 
grain1 but is much more safe to use1 for
 by using it the risk of  bursting the  
barrel is much lessened2 as a very      
simple illustration will  show4 ,if we  
estimate the force generated by the     
usual charge of #b-a_/b  drachms 7,i    
confine the question to the #ad-;bore   
gun1 for uniformity7 to  be #e1jjj lbs41
 whether the powder be fine or coarse   
grain1 it follows  that the fine powder1
 igniting so rapidly1 will exert all its
 force on  the breech end of the gun2   
whereas the coarse powder1 igniting less
  rapidly1 distributes this force over  
the whole length of the barrel3  hence  
the greater risk of a gun bursting with 
fine powder than with  coarse4 ,if we   
suppose the fine powder to be entirely  

ignited when it  reaches half way up the
 barrel1 then the force of #e1jjj lbs4  
is exerted  on the lower half of the    
barrel2 but if the coarser grain is not 
entirely ignited until it reaches the   
muzzle1 then the force of #e1jjj  lbs4  
will be distributed over the whole      
length of the gun4    ,but this is not  
all4 ,the fine powder1 igniting almost  
instantaneously1  exerts its force in   
all directions at once1 and the barrel  
may burst at  the side before the charge
 has time to move2 whereas the coarse   
powder1  igniting as it does more       
slowly1 first lifts the charge1 and then
 the  volume of gas behind it increasing
 as the powder becomes more thoroughly  
ignited1 sweeps the charge out of the   
barrel with a velocity increasing       
towards the muzzle4    ,if time is not  
given for the charge to receive the full
 advantage of the  expansive force of   
the generated air1 the force is exerted1
 not upon the  charge1 but upon the     
barrel of the gun itself2 and that time 

is  necessary for the full development  
of this force1 is proved by the fact    
that miners mix their gunpowder with    
sawdust1 in order to diminish the       
rapidity of its explosion and thus get  
the advantage of its force in the       
distance3 from the miners1 then1 let us 
learn how to obtain the greatest        
benefit from this force1 and waste it   
not4    ,there can be no doubt of the   
importance of this principle2 little    
progress has1 however1 been effected    
from want of scientific  illustration2  
let it be defined like that of steam    
power1 and its  adoption will follow as 
a natural consequence4    ,for several  
years ,i have had gunpowder manufactured
 of various sizes1 at  the sight of     
which most sportsmen would express their
 astonishment4    ,one objection held by
 sportsmen to the large grained         
gunpowder is that  it does not come up  
the nipple of the gun2 now although ,i  
do not  consider this at all important1 
still if the specific gravity of the    

gunpowder were increased by compressing 
#a-a_/b1 #b1 or #c grains of  gunpowder 
into the space of #a grain1 by means of 
hydraulic pressure1  this objection     
would at once be obviated2 whilst at the
 same time1 the  powder would be less   
liable to absorb moisture1 or to become 
friable  with age3 either of which      
conditions is incompatible with good    
shooting4    ,the granulating of        
gunpowder1 to be of the greatest        
benefit1 should be  on a uniform        
principle2 the manipulation should be   
alike in all  particulars1 but          
especially in that part of the process  
which determines  the specific gravity4 
,the hydraulic pressure on the cake     
should be alike  in all cases3 in fact1 
the various sizes of grain might be     
produced from  the same cake1 and the   
desired object be thus obtained4 ,but so
 long as  the practice is followed of   
producing large grain from less         
condensed  cake1 the article produced   
will give unsatisfactory results2 and   

the  advantages which might be attained1
 as my experience denotes1 and which    
would be of the greatest service1 alike 
in sporting1 rifle1 and  artillery      
powder1 will be nullified4    ,great    
improvements are yet to be made1        
especially in the powder used for       
artillery2 whilst range1 accuracy1 and  
lessened recoils are points which  may  
be determined with almost mathematical  
precision4    ,great fame is in prospect
 for any one who can grasp and handle   
well this  granulation principle2       
especially if he can define the sizes to
 be used  for different varieties of    
guns4 ,artillerists who contend that a  
medium  size grain1 to suit all sizes of
 gun1 is advantageous1 might as well    
contend that cannon of a medium size    
would be preferable to so many          
different sizes1 because1 though we lose
 in range1 accuracy1 and recoil1  it    
would be more convenient to have but one
 sized gun4    ,in making large grained 
gunpowder1 the manufacturers defeat one 

of the  main objects to be gained by    
granulation1 from not subjecting it to  
the  same amount of pressure which is   
necessary for the granulation of the    
very fine grain4 ,in granulating very   
fine powder1 it is necessary to  subject
 the cake to such an amount of hydraulic
 pressure as shall give  the mass a     
marble-like structure1 or during the    
process of granulation1  the whole of it
 crumbles into dust2 but the coarser    
gunpowder may be  granulated without    
subjecting it to this high degree of    
pressure1 hence  each grain is more     
porous and of lesser specific gravity3 a
 difference  which it is most important 
to avoid4 ,it is clear1 therefore1 that 
according to the present mode of        
manufacturing gunpowder1 the large and  
the fine grain are of very different    
kinds2 the main difference being in     
their specific gravities4 ,gunpowder of 
less density burns with greater         
rapidity1 because it is more open and   
porous2 and if uniform density was      

observed1 the diversity in the size of  
the grain need not be so great2  whilst1
 at the same time1 this anomaly might be
 avoided--that the same  measure of fine
 and large-grained gunpowder contains a 
difference of the  expansive element    
amounting to fifteen or twenty per cent4
 ,as gunpowder  is now manufactured1 it 
is highly necessary in all comparative  
trials to  weigh1 and not to measure the
 charge1 or the results will be         
deceptive and worthless4 ,the           
granulation question struggles with     
undeserved difficulty4 ,gunmakers1      
either not understanding the question1  
or constructing the chambers of their   
guns improperly1 and not using  suitable
 nipples1 decry the adoption of         
large-grained gunpowder2 but  they      
forget the increased range obtained in  
the killing from their guns1  and the   
clt a long shot produces4 ,in trials of 
guns at thirty or  forty yards1 the     
difference in the shooting with fine and
 large-grained  gunpowder is not so     

apparent1 and the maker exclaims1 8,oh6 
the fine  powder shoots stronger1 and as
 close as the coarse40 ,i admit this to 
be  the case1 at short distances2 but   
the great advantage of using the large  
grain is sufficiently evident when      
shooting at forty-five1 fifty1 and      
sixty yards1 for then the fine grain    
entirely fails3 simply from the         
oft-repeated fact1 that the fine powder 
is more of a propulsive1 while  the     
large grain is an expellant force2 so   
that according to the law of  resistance
 in ariform fluids1 the one is sooner   
reduced to medium  velocity than the    
other1 which exerts its action more     
evenly4 ,powder of  larger grain is thus
 more suitable for the larger sizes of  
shot1 and  would give an increased range
 in usual shooting1 for the shot is kept
  better together1 and is projected to  
greater distances4 ,a common way of     
testing the quality of gunpowder is1 to 
rub it between the hands1 and  observe  
the darkness of the stain2 the darker   

the stain the more  inferior the        
gunpowder is held to be4 ,this test is1 
however1 decidedly  fallacious1 because 
the gunpowder may be of low specific    
gravity1 or it  may have become friable 
from age and other causes4    ,whales   
are shot with gunpowder proportioned to 
the weight of the harpoon  required to  
kill them4 ,duck guns of the largest    
calibre are  comparatively useless      
unless the gunpowder used is granulated 
according  to the weight of the         
projectile2 and the same law holds in   
regard to the  most 8mammoth0 engine yet
 to be devised by the mind of man4      
,gun-cotton has been before the world   
for some years1 but1 except as a        
curiosity1 it has attracted little      
public attention2 neither has it  gained
 any reputation as a projectile force4  
,it may be prepared by  steeping cotton 
wool for a few minutes in a mixture of  
nitric and  sulphuric acids1 thoroughly 
washing1 and then drying at a very      
gentle  heat4 ,it consists chemically of

 the essential elements of gunpowder3   
viz4 carbon1 nitrogen1 and oxygen2 but1 
in addition1 it contains another  highly
 elastic gas1 hydrogen4 ,the carbon in  
the fibres of the wool  presents to the 
action of flame a most extended surface 
in a small  space1 and the result is an 
explosion approaching as nearly as      
possible  to the instantaneous3 in      
consequence of its rapid ignition it    
produces a  violent kick2 sufficient    
time is not given to put heavy bodies in
  motion1 hence it cannot be usefully   
employed as a projectile agent4 ,no  one
 who values his limbs should trifle with
 it1 for fearful accidents  have        
resulted from its exposure to the heat  
of the sun1 and other very  simple      
causes4    ,there is an instrument used 
by some sportsmen1 and strongly         
recommended  by many gunmakers1 for     
testing the strength of different kinds 
of  gunpowder4 ,it consists of a chamber
 closed by a spring1 and fired like  an 
ordinary pistol4 ,when the powder       

explodes the spring is forced  forward1 
and moves an index round a graduated    
circle2 the more quickly  the powder    
explodes the farther does it lift the   
spring2 hence this is a  measure of     
quickness of fire1 but not of expellant 
force2 and from the  observations which 
have been made on gunpowder1 it must be 
evident to  any one who has paid the    
least attention to the subject1 that    
this  instrument is utterly useless4    
,an instrument to test the comparative  
strength of different kinds of          
gunpowder is yet a desideratum in       
projectile science2 and we cannot  doubt
 that such an instrument will be        
produced1 when the importance of  the   
granulation of gunpowder is more        
generally known and appreciated4    ,the
 charcoal formerly used was made in the 
common way1 by pits1 which  must have   
been seen by almost every one4 ,the     
method is now to distil  the wood in    
cast-iron cylinders1 extracting the     
pyroligneous acid1 c41  by heating them 

red hot1 and allowing all other volatile
 matter to  evaporate1 the charcoal only
 being retained in the cylinder or      
retorts2  hence arises the name cylinder
 gunpowder4 ,the best charcoal for      
sporting powders is the black dog wood2 
,government use willow and alder4  ,any 
charcoal does for common powders4       
,charcoal is ground in the same way  as 
the nitre4 ,sulphur is purified simply  
by fusing1 and when in that  state1     
skimming off the impurities3 it is      
cooled and pulverised in the  same way  
as the other two ingredients4 ,the three
 ingredients1 after  being carefully    
weighed in their due proportions1 are   
sifted into a  large trough1 and well   
mixed together by the hands4 ,they are  
then  conveyed to the powder mill4 ,this
 is a large circular trough1 having a   
smooth iron bed1 in which two           
millstones1 secured to a horizontal     
axis1  revolve1 traversing each other1  
and making nine or ten revolutions in a 
minute4 ,the powder is mixed with a     

small quantity of water put on the  bed 
of the mill1 and there kept subject to  
the pressure of the stones2  and if we  
calculate the weight of the two         
millstones at six tons1 it  follows that
 in four or five hours' incorporation on
 this bed1 it  subjects the ingredients 
to the action of full #aj1jjj tons4 ,it 
is this  long-continued grinding1       
compounding1 and blending together of   
the  mixture1 that alone renders it     
useful and good4 ,after this intimate   
mixing1 it is conveyed away in the shape
 of mill-cake1 and firmly  pressed      
between plates of copper4 ,bramah's     
press has been introduced of  late      
years--we should say with a good deal of
 improvement to the powder1  as will be 
shown hereafter--and by its means the   
mass is more compressed  and in thinner 
cakes4 ,it is then broken into small    
pieces with wooden  mallets1 and taken  
to the corning-house1 where it is       
granulated1 8by  putting it into sieves1
 the bottoms of which are made of       

bullocks'  hides1 prepared like         
parchment1 and perforated with holes    
about  two-tenths of an inch in         
diameter2 from twenty to thirty of these
  sieves are secured to a large frame1  
moving on an eccentric axis1 or  crank1 
of six inches throw2 two pieces of      
lignum vit1 six inches in  diameter1 and
 two inches or more in thickness1 are   
placed on the broken  press-cakes in    
each sieve4 ,the machinery being then   
put in rapid  motion1 the discs of      
lignum vit 7called balls7 pressing upon 
the  powder1 and striking against the   
sides of the sieves1 force it through   
the apertures1 in grains of various     
sizes1 on to the floor1 from whence  it 
is removed1 and again sifted through    
finer sieves of wire1 to  separate the  
dust and classify the grain4 ,one man   
works two sieves at a  time1 by turning 
a handle and eccentric crank2 the sieves
 being fixed to  a frame1 which is      
suspended over a bin by four ropes from 
the ceiling40    ,the grains afterwards 

undergo a process of glazing1 by        
friction  against each other1 in barrels
 containing nearly #bjj lbs41 making    
forty  revolutions in a minute1 and     
lasting several hours1 according to the 
fancy of the purchaser4 ,this part of   
the business we entirely disagree  with1
 as injurious to the quick and certain  
ignition4 ,gunpowder is  finally dried  
by an artificial temperature of #adj    
,fahrenheit1 which is  suffered         
gradually to decline4 ,the last process 
is sifting it clear of  dust1 and then  
packing it in canisters or otherwise4   
,the utility of the process of          
granulation results from the            
impossibility  of firing mealed powder  
sufficiently simultaneously to effect an
  explosion2 and also from the fact that
 gunpowder1 in a mass1 does not         
explode4 ,fire a solid piece of         
mill-cake1 and it does not flash off    
like  unto granulated powder1 but burns 
gradually1 though with an extreme  fury1
 until the whole is consumed4 ,this     

arises from its density1 the            
compression in the press2 it also       
teaches us one fact1 that to be of the  
greatest service1 the time each grain   
should occupy in burning should be      
proportioned to the size of the gun for 
which it is required2 since it  is clear
 that the explosion of a heap of        
gunpowder is but the rapid  combustion  
of all its parts4 ,this action1 as is   
well known1 is so rapid1  even in a     
large quantity of powder1 that it       
appears to be a sudden and  simultaneous
 burst of flame2 though philosophically 
and actually it is  not so4    ,fine    
grain1 when unconfined1 explodes quicker
 than large1 or is sooner  burnt out1   
and consequently generates more force in
 the same period of  time2 but when it  
comes to large quantities1 its very     
quickness is  detrimental to its force1 
by condensing the air around the        
exterior of  the mass of fluid which    
thus constrains its bound4 ,in small    
quantities1  the proportion of          

condensation is not so apparent1 and    
hence the reason  why greater velocities
 can be obtained with small arms than   
with cannon4    ,there exists a         
diversity of opinion in regard to the   
strength or  projectile force of        
gunpowder4 ,dr4 ,ure remarks--8,if we   
inquire how the  maximum gaseous volume 
is to be produced from the chemical     
reaction of  the elements of nitre on   
charcoal and sulphur1 we shall find it  
to be by  the generation of carbonic    
oxide and sulphurous acid1 with the     
disengagement of nitrogen4 ,this will   
lead us to the following  proportions of
 these constituents3                    
,hydrogen #a4     ,per ,cent4    #a     
prime equivalent of nitre          #ajb 
#gejj    #a                   sulphur   
#af           #aagg    #c               
charcoal        #ah           #acbc     
---          ------                     
#acf          #ajjjj    8,the nitre     
contains five primes of oxygen1 of which
 three combining with  the three of     

charcoal1 will furnish three of carbonic
 oxide gas1 while  the remaining two    
will convert the one prime of sulphur   
into sulphurous  acid gas4 ,the single  
prime of nitrogen is therefore1 in this 
view1  disengaged alone4    8,the       
gaseous volume1 in this supposition1    
evolved from #acf grains of  gunpowder1 
equivalent in bulk to #ge-a_/b grains of
 water1 or to  three-tenths of a cubic  
inch1 will be1 at the atmospheric       
temperature1  as follows3--             
,grains4   ,cubic ,inches4    ,carbonic 
oxide           #db          #adaf      
,sulphurous acid          #cb           
#dgb    ,nitrogen                 #ad   
#dgd                                    
-----                                   
#bcfb    being an expansion of one      
volume into #ghgc4 ,but as the          
temperature of  the gases1 at the       
instant of their combustive formation1  
must be  incandescent1 this volume may  
be safely estimated at three times the  
above amount1 or considerably upwards of

 #b1jjj times the bulk of the  explosive
 solid4    8,it is obvious that the more
 sulphur1 the more sulphurous acid will 
be  generated1 and the less forcibly    
explosive will be the gunpowder4 ,this  
was confirmed by the experiments at     
,essonne1 where the gunpowder that      
contained twelve of sulphur1 twelve of  
charcoal1 in #ajj parts1 did not  throw 
the proof shell so far as that which    
contained only nine of  sulphur and     
fifteen of charcoal4 ,the conservative  
property is1 however1  of so much       
importance for humid climates and our   
remote colonies1 that  it justifies a   
slight sacrifice of strength4    8,when 
in a state of explosion1 the volume10   
,dr4 ,hutton calculates1 8is  at least  
increased eight times1 and hence its    
immense power4 ,the  pressure exerted1  
if in a state of confinement1 will      
depend on the  dimensions of the vessel 
containing it2 so that it would be no   
difficult  undertaking to obtain any    
pressure above that of the atmosphere1  

up1 we  may fearlessly say1 to the      
enormous amount of #d1jjj lbs4 per      
square  inch40    ,the same quantity of 
gunpowder subjected to a variety of     
experimental  tests1 differs materially 
in its results2 at the same time it is  
only by  such a method that we can      
arrive at the relative strength or power
 which  it possesses4 ,dr4 ,hutton1     
whose authority in all mathematical     
calculations is very high1 and whose    
opinions and judgment in matters of     
this nature ought not to be unthinkingly
 controverted1 states #b1jjj feet  per  
second 7with cannon7 as the highest     
velocity which any projectile  had      
attained1 at the time of his writing1   
which had gunpowder for its  propellant 
power4 ,a much greater velocity is now  
given in all guns  fired at high        
elevations4 8,monks'0 gun attained a    
velocity of #b1djj feet  in the first   
second of its flight1 and this is now   
exceeded by rifled  cannon4    ,this    
advantage does not arise1 in our        

opinion1 so much from the superior      
quality of the gunpowder1 as from the   
improvements which have taken  place in 
the manner of applying it4 ,for         
instance1 where experiments are         
conducted1 as was the case with ,dr4    
,hutton1 with moving eprouvettes1 a     
certain loss is sustained1 in the same  
degree as the instrument is made  to    
recoil from its original position2      
therefore1 by restraining the  recoil1  
an increase of momentum is given to the 
projectile1 to the same  extent as had  
been exerted upon the eprouvette1 or    
cannon1 in driving  it several feet     
backward2 and instead of dividing the   
force thus  acquired between the shot   
and the gun1 by having the latter firmly
 fixed  and the recoil destroyed1 the   
whole power is exerted upon the former1 
and its velocity accelerated in the same
 proportion4    ,gunpowder1 though      
astonishing in its effect1 and          
tremendous in power1  may nevertheless  
be controlled within a limited sphere1  

and bounds put  upon its destructive    
energy4 ,the following curious          
experiment1 first  tried at ,woolwich on
 a small scale1 has since been carried  
out to a  great extent4 ,screw into each
 end of the breech part of a gun-barrel 
a  well-fitted plug2 drill a            
communication1 and put in a nipple2     
having  filled the barrel with powder1  
screw in the breech1 and fire a cap on  
it1 and the explosive fluid will escape 
by the small orifice like steam  from a 
pipe4 ,if the barrel be good1 it may    
safely be held in the hand1  merely     
using a towel to protect the hand from  
the heat the barrel  absorbs4 ,we have  
done it repeatedly with no              
inconvenience1 and even  carried this   
experiment much further2 firing two     
ounces of the best  powder in a barrel  
of good quality 7though not in the hand7
 yet the  barrel did not receive any    
violent motion by which it could be     
inferred  that it might not be done with
 safety4    ,we have before observed1   

that1 with very short guns1 fine        
gunpowder  produces the greatest result1
 inasmuch as there is no greater column 
of  air in the barrel than the explosive
 fluid is equal to displace2 or1  in    
other words1 the charge leaving the     
muzzle of the gun at the very  moment   
when the explosive force is strongest1  
all the power is thus  obtained of which
 it is capable2 but if used in a longer 
barrel1 and the  fluid has obtained its 
greatest power when the charge has      
twelve inches  of the barrel still to   
travel1 the column of compressed air yet
  remaining in the muzzle of the barrel1
 exerts a resisting influence1 in       
proportion to its density1 upon the     
charge1 and creates a dangerous and     
unpleasant recoil4    ,if a cartridge be
 placed in the centre of an open barrel 
eight feet in  length1 having a bullet  
abutting at each end large enough to    
fill the  barrel1 and a touch-hole is   
drilled as near the centre of the       
cartridge  as possible1 when it is      

fired1 the balls will certainly be      
discharged  from the barrel1 but with a 
very small degree of force3 in fact1    
merely  driven out4 ,with the same      
instrument1 vary the experiment3 place  
in it a  cartridge charged with one     
ball1 three feet from the muzzle1       
leaving a  column of air five feet in   
length to act against the explosive     
force of  the gunpowder1 and the ball   
will be driven one hundred yards with   
considerable force4 ,again1 let a third 
cartridge be introduced similar  to the 
last1 two feet from the muzzle1         
increasing the column of air to  six    
feet2 and the result1 in distance and   
velocity1 will nearly double  what has  
been obtained by the last experiment2   
tending to prove that air  thus forced  
back upon itself obtains a density1 and 
consequent resisting  influence1 nearly 
equal to a well-screwed breech4 ,in     
order to test this  principle further1  
,i put into the same tube a double      
charge of  gunpowder1 merely backed by a

 wadding1 two feet from the muzzle1 and 
then rammed down four balls as tight as 
possible into the short portion2  in    
discharging it1 the tube was burst      
immediately in rear of the charge4      
,in another experiment1 ,i took a common
 musket barrel1 having a plug of  iron  
firmly fixed into the muzzle2 the breech
 being unscrewed1 and a  ball introduced
 one-tenth of an inch less in diameter  
than the bore of  the barrel1 together  
with one drachm of gunpowder1 ,i then   
fired the  gunpowder1 and the explosive 
matter escaped by the touch-hole4 ,on   
examination1 it was found that the ball 
was flattened to the extent of          
one-third of its sphere4 ,the charge for
 the next experiment was  increased to  
two drachms2 when the ball in the       
discharge struck the  muzzle very       
slightly1 altering its shape in the     
least conceivable  degree4 ,the charge  
was next increased to three drachms1 and
 the ball  was extracted without any    
perceptible defect4 ,in the fourth      

trial1  another drachm was added1 with  
which the effect was greater than the   
tube was able to resist2 it was in      
consequence burst1 about three inches   
from the muzzle4    ,from this ,i infer 
that1 in the first trial1 the velocity  
of the ball was  not so great1 but that 
the air escaped past it1 by what is     
technically  called the windage1        
allowing it to strike the plug at the   
end of the  barrel with sufficient force
 to alter the shape of the lead in the  
manner described4 ,the second trial gave
 an increased velocity2 the  opposing   
forces being so nearly balanced that the
 ball scarcely reached  the end of the  
barrel1 and was very little injured4 ,in
 the third trial  the velocity became so
 great1 and the air was condensed to    
such an  extent1 that the ball struck   
upon a cushion-like surface so highly   
elastic that it was extracted without   
the least injury to its shape4 ,the     
last charge was too powerful1 inasmuch  
as the lateral pressure of  compressed  

air rent the tube asunder4    ,the one  
great cause of this and other barrels   
bursting1 arises from the  velocity     
becoming too great1 and thus driving    
back the air upon itself1  until the    
mutual repulsion of the particles forms 
an almost impenetrable  barrier1        
exerting a lateral pressure on the      
barrel1 and resisting the  passage of   
the elastic fluid4 ,to make the         
explanation plain2 supposing  that the  
charge had condensed the air for the    
distance of three or four  inches       
immediately preceding it1 and then come 
to rest1 the waves of  vibration1       
travelling at the rate of #a1cjj feet   
per second1 would  communicate to the   
remainder of the column the same        
pressure1 and an  equilibrium would take
 place4 ,but this not being the case1   
and the air  becoming still more highly 
compressed by the velocity not          
decreasing but  increasing1 the lateral 
pressure becomes greater than the fibres
 of the  iron are able to withstand1 and

 consequently the barrel is burst4 ,many
  accidents arise from this cause       
solely1 and without any blame being     
attached to either the maker or user of 
the gun4 ,while on this subject1  we may
 remark that this is the more likely1   
inasmuch as the powder with  which      
barrels are proved is not the strongest1
 and is also of a large  grain2 so that 
it is quite within the range of         
probability that a barrel  may1 and it  
does often1 stand proof1 and yet burst  
when it comes to be  used with extremely
 fine-grained strong powder2 as it is   
quite clear  that a high velocity must  
create danger4    ,to pursue the subject
 still further3 in order to procure     
conclusive  evidence in support of this 
argument1 ,i had a tube of iron         
manufactured1  sufficiently good in     
quality to bear an enormous pressure2 it
 was three  feet in length1 with a bore 
large enough to admit an ounce ball1 and
 the  sides of the arch were full a     
quarter of an inch in thickness4 ,a     

piece  of steel1 one inch in length1 was
 then turned of a size to fit the bore  
well1 but not so tight as to prevent its
 free action3 this ,i called a  piston4 
,from the centre of the tube to the     
muzzle1 were drilled1 on all  sides1 a  
number of small holes1 a quarter of an  
inch distant from each  other1 in all   
amounting to sixty-eight2 these were    
fitted with small  pieces of steel      
needles1 hardened1 projecting into the  
interior of the  tube a quarter of an   
inch1 so that the piston1 in its upward 
movement1  should strike these pins1 and
 thus enable me to judge how far it was 
driven by each experiment4 ,each end of 
the tube was then fitted with a  breech1
 firmly screwed in2 the upper one having
 a flat internal surface1  the lower    
one1 where ignition was to be           
communicated1 being a conical or  patent
 breech4 ,this machine ,i termed an     
explosion metre2 and it answered  its   
purpose4 ,with two drachms of the best  
canister gunpowder1 the piston  was     

propelled nineteen inches along the     
tube2 breaking eight pins4 ,the  same   
quantity of the fine diamond grain      
reached only eighteen inches1 or  four  
pins4 ,no4 #c grain1 of both ,laurence's
 and ,pigou and ,wilks'  manufacture1   
reached twenty-four inches1 or          
twenty-eight pins4 ,a very  superior    
powder1 containing in one grain five of 
diamond1 four of  canister1 and two of  
the above makers' ,no4 #b1 reached      
twenty-seven  inches1 and broke forty   
pins4 ,in each of these experiments the 
greatest  accuracy was observed1 in     
preparing the metre as well as in       
weighing the  charge4    ,these facts go
 far to prove that1 in all uses of      
gunpowder1 the grain  should be of a    
size proportioned to the length and bore
 of the gun2 for  if we have not an     
accelerating force to overcome the      
increasing  resistance of the compressed
 column of air in the barrel1 there is  
great  danger that the gun may be burst1
 and probably be productive of great    

mischief2 whilst a judicious application
 of the extraordinary power thus  placed
 at our disposal1 may be alike conducive
 to our safety and our  pleasure4 ,a    
musket ball can be driven through an    
half-inch boiler plate2  but this can   
only be accomplished by using as much   
powder as will  generate a gradually1   
though rapidly1 increasing power1 until 
the ball  has passed the limits of the  
tube4    ,nitre is not the only salt    
which has been employed in the          
manufacture of  gunpowder4 ,its quantity
 or proportion in the mixture has been  
lessened1  and the deficiency supplied  
by another elementary combination2      
namely1  by the chlorate of potassa4    
,the ,french succeeded in making powder 
of which potassa forms one of the       
component parts1 and they say it ranges 
the projectile double the  distance2 but
 this is doubtful4 ,the proportions of  
the mixture are  nitrate of potash      
twenty-five parts1 chlorate of potassa  
forty-five1  sulphur fifteen1 charcoal  

seven and a half1 and lycopodium seven  
and a  half parts4 ,in the year #ahji1 a
 similar kind of powder was proposed to 
the ,english ,government1 by a person of
 the name of ,parr2 but its             
introduction was very properly opposed  
by ,sir ,william ,congreve1 on  account 
of the danger attending its use1 and    
also from the fact that  there was no   
piece of ordnance in the service able to
 withstand its  effects4 ,the           
proportions were1 chlorate of potassa   
six parts1 fine  charcoal one part1     
sulphur one part4 ,these ingredients to 
be carefully  mixed together and        
granulated4 ,the above mixture was laid 
aside1 not  only from the want of power 
to restrain its effects1 but because it 
was  useless1 from the very extreme     
rapidity of its explosion3 it forms the 
atmospheric air into a wall of adamant1 
by the condensation confining it  to a  
comparatively small space2 it becomes   
lightning--an electric fluid1  which1   
from its very intensity1 cannot displace

 any great mass of air4    ,neither can 
any advantage arise from any greater    
velocity in projectile  force1 except we
 can obtain that by a graduated scale2  
for masses  cannot1 from a state of     
rest1 be put in extreme motion          
instantaneously3  philosophy teaches us1
 and experience makes it evident1 that a
 portion  of time must be occupied1     
however short that may be4 ,all motion  
is  gradual1 and cannot be obtained     
otherwise2 and hence the fact1 that     
lightning conveyed into a tube filled   
with projectiles would not drive  them  
out3 it would not project them1 but the 
blow would break them in  pieces4 ,so is
 it with this mixture2 it is useless    
from its very rapidity  of ignition4 ,we
 have shown that even fine grain        
gunpowder is too quick1  and that its   
quickness destroys its power2 how much  
more so is the  other3 and what would it
 avail us1 with these disadvantages4    
,a writer mentions what he conceives to 
be a curious fact3 he says1 8,if a      

train of gunpowder be crossed at right  
angles by a train of fulminating        
mercury1 laid on a sheet of paper on a  
table1 and the gunpowder lighted  by a  
red hot wire1 the flame will run on     
until it meets the cross train  of      
fulminating mercury1 when the           
inflammation of the latter will be so   
instantaneous as to cut off the         
connection with the continuous train of 
gunpowder1 leaving one half of the train
 unignited30 and again1 8,if the        
fulminating powder be lighted first1 it 
will go straight on1 and pass  through  
the train of gunpowder so rapidly as not
 to inflame it at all40  ,true2 and the 
cause is quite apparent3 the rapidity of
 combustion  condenses the air so       
quickly1 as to remove the grains of     
gunpowder  liable to come in contact    
with the flame1 and to form the         
condensed air  into a line of           
demarcation3 for heat cannot be taken up
 by the air  quicker than the atmosphere
 will convey sound2 and before the heat 

can  evaporate the explosion is over1   
and is consequently noiseless4    ,in   
all mining operations3 in the quarrying 
of stone1 the destruction of  sunken    
rocks1 or in any other operations where 
it is desirable to detach  large masses1
 the use of gunpowder is indispensable2 
not only because it  decreases manual   
exertion but also because it can be used
 under  circumstances and in situations 
unapproachable by other means4 ,it      
becomes1 therefore1 a consideration for 
the miner what kind is best  suited for 
the purpose2 the finest grained powder  
is useless as is well  known3 it is also
 more expensive2 but its principal      
defect arises from  its quickness of    
combustion4 ,masses cannot be detached  
without first  putting the whole in     
motion2 and as this cannot be done in a 
very short  time1 it is necessary to    
prolong the explosion1 so that the wave 
of  vibration may have time to travel   
throughout the whole of the mass acted  
upon2 and a repetition of these waves is

 necessary before any mass can  move4   
,now1 to obtain this1 it is necessary   
that matter be so  incorporated with the
 powder as to prolong that explosion2   
bituminous  substances might be applied 
with effect1 for their slow burning     
would  keep the heat necessary to hold  
the permanent gases at their utmost     
stretch of expansion4    ,it is obvious1
 from the extremely high character      
,english sporting  gunpowder has        
obtained all over the world1 that       
considerable improvement  must have been
 effected by the private manufacturers1 
either in the  purification or          
manipulation of ingredients2 indeed the 
unwearied care  bestowed on this point  
by several of our best makers is beyond 
all  praise4 ,to explain the various    
methods1 or otherwise enlarge upon this 
point1 would be injurious to individual 
skill and enterprise1 and be the  means 
of imparting knowledge to those who have
 not ability to invent1  but who gather 
from the brains of others4 ,the ,french 

set great value on  the 8,poudre de     
,chasse0 of ,england4 ,it is rather     
singular that we should  excel those who
 pride themselves so much on their      
chemical knowledge2  but1 as before     
remarked1 it is certain that the        
intimate incorporation  of the          
ingredients is of more importance than  
the chemical proportions4    ,all       
military and naval gunpowder is not     
manufactured of the greatest  strength  
that can be acquired 8at the ,government
 mills20 a sample is  furnished to each 
contractor with each contract1 and to   
this strength he  is limited4    ,the   
fame of our ,english gunpowder makers is
 patent to all the world1  and1 where   
skill is equal1 to name one rather than 
another would be  invidious2 though we  
must not lose sight of the facts herein 
established4 8,granulation10 properly   
understood1 is an equivalent point  to  
either chemical or mechanical knowledge 
and manipulation in gunpowder           
manufacture4 ,great anxiety to meet the 

wishes of the sporting world on  this   
point1 and to advance with the age1 has 
been aroused2 and specimens  have been  
kindly furnished to me1 not by one1 but 
by all the following  celebrated makers3
 ,messrs4 ,pigou and ,wilks1 ,curtis and
 ,harvey1 ,lawrence  and ,son1 ,john    
,hall and ,son2 and ,i have received    
also a very excellent  specimen from the
 ,scotch mills4    ,gunpowder of five   
sizes of granulation1 on the basis      
before alluded to3  namely1 ,no4 #b1    
containing two quantities of ,no4 #a1   
and ,no4 #c1 three1 and  so on in       
progression2 but it is imperative that  
all the various sizes be  produced from 
the same mill cake1 or be otherwise of  
the same  condensation or specific      
gravity1 and in all experiments of      
comparison1  equal weights are a 8sine  
qu non10 otherwise the comparison will  
be  futile2 as measure is1 for these    
very obvious reasons1 inapplicable in   
comparative tests4 ,when these points   
are carefully attained1 increased  power

 of killing1 8decreased recoil10 and    
much greater safety1 will be  the       
important benefits which the gunpowder  
manufacturers will confer on  every one 
using a gun4          ,,chapter ,,iii4  
,,artillery4      ,arcualia1 from       
8arcus1 a bow10 appears to have been the
 original name1  and included all sorts 
of 8missiles10 as well as the engines by
 which  they were propelled4 ,the sling1
 still in common use by the ,arabs on   
the  banks of the upper ,euphrates1     
being most probably the first kind of   
artillery1 and the bow and arrow a      
succeeding stage of improvement4        
,artillery1 now in the general          
acceptance of the term1 includes all and
  every description of gun1 of greater  
power and dimensions than muskets  and  
other shoulder guns4    ,modern         
civilization1 with its giant strides of 
improvement1 has rejected  the cumbrous 
and unsightly complication of springs1  
levers and wheels2  and given to us1 in 
their stead1 the light and handsome     

six-pounder  cannon2 which is so easy of
 transit that it can accomplish the most
  complex and difficult movements1 while
 the horses are at their fullest        
gallop4 ,a single minute now suffices to
 stop when at the greatest speed1       
unlimber1 load1 fire a couple of rounds1
 and remount2 the gun is  speedily at a 
distance--while the eye can scarcely    
follow1 or the mind  imagine1 the       
destruction that must follow when the   
8deep-tongued gun0  is fired in attack4 
,i shall now proceed to notice the      
comparative effects of guns of various  
calibre and power1 and attempt to convey
 to the reader a distinct idea  of their
 respective defects and advantages4 ,the
 artillery of ,england  comprises an    
immense variety of weapons of war1      
suited for various  purposes and        
situations1 as experience has dictated1 
or necessity  required4 ,the present    
state of our artillery requires an      
advance to the  front1 to be in a line  
with the march of science1 as regards   

the  knowledge of gunpowder and         
projectiles2 ,i may1 therefore1 be      
permitted  to animadvert on what appears
 to me to need improvement4    ,the     
profession may think it presumptuous in 
me to offer a suggestion or  give an    
opinion2 for it too frequently happens  
that individuals1 who  have employed    
their whole time and study on one       
especial subject1 think  they alone can 
understand it1 and consider any         
opposition to their  opinions1 or any   
doubt of the soundness of their         
conclusions1 little  short of a positive
 offence4    ,having given considerable 
attention to the subject1 ,i would now  
beg to  offer some remarks on the       
,government arrangements of gunnery1    
which are  not yet so perfect as they   
might be4    ,the authorities of the    
,ordnance ,department are1 ,i am sorry  
to state1 too  remiss in considering1   
and too unwilling to avail themselves of
 valuable  improvements and discoveries2
 clinging too much to prejudice in      

favour  of whatever has been heretofore 
in use4 ,to such an extent is this habit
  carried1 that many improvements become
 familiar to half the kingdom1  aye1 and
 are adopted by other countries1 before 
our guides take  advantage of them3 for 
truly talent and ingenuity are but      
scantily  patronized by them4 ,my wish  
is to aid in sweeping away the cobwebs  
which  still hang on the science of     
great gunnery2 and to push the spur of  
conviction deep1 that instead of        
,britain following1 she may1 in a time  
of peace1 lead the way in improvements2 
so that whenever war returns1  she may  
not be unprepared to wage it on equal   
terms4    ,i have in this chapter       
endeavoured to divest the subject of all
  extraneous matter1 and impart as much 
information as will enable the  reader  
to form an opinion for himself1 and     
understand something of a  science      
hitherto considered abstract1 and which 
is1 no doubt1 abstruse4  ,this ,i have  
sought to effect in plain language1     

avoiding1 wherever it  was possible1 all
 technicalities4    ,the guns of the    
,british nation may be divided into four
 classes--,park1  or ,field artillery1  
,siege guns1 or battering train1        
garrison guns1 and  marine artillery4   
,the numbers of different descriptions  
of rates1 or  weight of guns1 vary in   
all the different classes of the        
service4 ,there  are light1 medium1 and 
heavy six-pounders2 long and short      
twenty-four  pounders2 and two or more  
weights in all the varieties1 even up to
 the  ten-inch gun and thirteen-inch    
mortar4 ,we have iron ordnance and      
brass1  for long and short ranges1 for  
small or great velocity4 ,the rate1     
weight1 length1 charges1 point blank1   
extreme range1 c41 of iron guns1  will  
be found in the annexed table1 by which 
will be seen1 at a glance1  the various 
matters referred to4    ,,iron          
,,ordnance4                             
----------------------------------------
------------------     ,nature          

,charge   ,point ,extreme       of      
,weight4,length4     of     ,blank at   
,windage      ,gun4                     
,powder4  ,range4#e deg4 decreased4     
----------------------------------------
------------------    ,pounders4 cwts4  
ft4 in4lbs4  ozs4  yards4 yards4        
#cb      #fc    #i   #g  #aj   #aj-a_/b 
#chj   #aiej     --       #cb      #ef  
#i   #f  #aj   #aj-a_/b  #chj   #aiej   
--       #cb      #dh    #h   #j   #h   
#j      #ccj   #agdj     --       #cb   
#dj    #g   #f   #f    #j      #cdj     
#agjj    #jf       #cb      #cb    #f   
#f   #e    #j      #ccj   #afdj    #aa  
#cb      #be    #f   #j   #d    #j      
#bbe   #aejj    #aa       #cb      #be  
#e   #d   #d    #j      #bbe   #aejj    
#aa       #bd      #ej    #i   #f   #h  
#j      #cfj   #ahej     --       #bd   
#dh    #i   #j   #h    #j      #cfj     
#ahej     --       #bd      #dj    #g   
#f   #h    #j      #cdj   #ahjj     --  
#bd      #cc    #f   #f   #f    #j      
#bfj   #aefj     --       #ah      #db  

#i   #j   #f    #j      #cfj   #aghj    
--       #ah      #ch    #h   #j   #f   
#j      #cdj   #agcj     --       #ab   
#cd    #i   #j   #d    #j      #cfj     
#agjj     --       #ab      #bi    #g   
#f   #d    #j      #cdj   #afej     --  
#i      #bf    #g   #f   #c    #j       
#ccj   #afjj     --        #f      #ag  
#f   #j   #b    #j      #cbj   #aebj    
--    ,carronades4                      
#fh      #cf    #e   #d   #e   #aj-a_/b 
#bgj   #adbj     --       #db      #bb  
#d   #f   #c    #h      #bdj   #acej    
--       #cb      #ag    #d   #j   #b   
#aj-a_/b  #bce   #abfj     --       #bd 
#ac    #c   #i   #b    #j      #bbe     
#aaej     --       #ah      #aj    #c   
#d   #a    #h      #bbj   #aajj     --  
#ab       #f    #b   #h   #a    #j      
#bje   #ajjj     --                     
----------------------------------------
------------------    ,brass guns are   
invariably lighter1 and considered less 
likely to burst4  ,gun metal1           
technically so called1 is a compound of 

copper and tin1 in  the proportion of   
five1 eight1 and ten pounds of the      
latter to #ajj  pounds of the former4   
,the peculiar property of the tin is to 
give  hardness and solidity to the mass4
 ,the greater proportions are used      
principally for mortars1 as they require
 a greater degree of hardness  than     
other guns4 ,a peculiar property        
attaches to the using of brass  guns4   
,if a considerable number of rounds be  
fired in rapid succession1  the bore of 
the gun becomes to a certain extent     
elliptical4 ,this  peculiarity arises   
entirely from the extreme windage       
allowed by the  present established     
rules of ,british gunnery2 and is       
produced by the  tendency of the shot1  
when propelled by the explosive force1  
to strike  upwards from the breech1 and 
then rebound downwards1 and so on till  
it  reaches the muzzle4 ,iron guns are  
not liable to this 7although the same   
cause exists7 from the unductile nature 
of the cast iron4    ,brass guns are1   

after certain use1 recast3 this is done 
solid1 with the  cascable of the gun    
downwards1 to give a greater density to 
the metal at  the breech4 ,the boring   
and turning are performed simultaneously
 by a  very simple arrangement4 ,at the 
siege of ,badajos1 the firing continued 
for #ajd hours1 and the number of rounds
 that each gun fired averaged  #a1bdi2  
and at the siege of ,sebastian1 the     
quantity fired by each gun was  about   
#cej rounds1 in #ae-a_/b hours4 ,these  
guns being of iron1 none of  them were  
rendered unserviceable2 though three    
times the number of brass  guns would   
not have been equal to such long and    
rapid firing4 ,all brass  guns are      
bouched with a bolt of copper at the    
vent1 on the same  principle as flint   
guns for sporting were formerly with    
gold or platina2  copper withstanding   
the rapid escape of the flame better    
than the  gun-metal4 ,the charges1      
ranges1 c41 are as follows3--           
,,extreme ,,and ,,point ,,blank ,,range 

,,of ,,brass ,,ordnance1 ,,charge1 ,c4  
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
,charge4,point ,extreme,eleva-          
----              ,blank  ,range4 tion4 
----                            ,range4 
----------------------------------------
-------------------------               
lb4 oz4yards4 yards4 deg4     ,medium   
#ab-pounder #d   #j   #cjj  #a1bjj    #c
      ,light #ab-pounder  #d   #j   #bjj
  #a1jjj    #c      #i-pounder          
#c   #j   #cjj  #a1bjj    #c  ,with     
round solid    ,long #f-pounder    #b   
#j   #cjj  #a1bjj    #c  ,shot4         
,light #f-pounder   #b   #j   #bjj      
#a1jjj    #c      ,heavy #c-pounder   #a
   #j   #bjj  #a1jjj    #c              
#bd-pounder                             
howitzer          #b   #h   #bej    #iej
  #c-a_/b     #ab-pounder               
,with common ,shells4    howitzer       
#a   #d   #bjj    #iej  #c-c_/d ,when   
,shot is fired1    ,heavy #e-a_/b-;inch 
they increase the    howitzer           

#b   #j   #bej  #a1gej   #ab   elevation
 #a_/b a deg4    ,light #e-a_/b-;inch   
howitzer          #b   #j   #ajj  #a1cej
    #b                                  
----------------------------------------
-------------------------    ,the       
twelve1 ten1 and eight-inch guns1 almost
 form a class of themselves1  known as  
the 8,paixhan ,gun40 ,they are intended 
for throwing both hollow  and solid     
shot4 ,the larger are the description of
 ordnance with which we  at present arm 
our steam frigates4    ,these are       
unquestionably part of the many doubtful
 descriptions of  artillery which have  
been adopted of late years1 with a view 
to  fracture more than to secure a range
 of projectile4 ,they are enormous      
machines1 as will be seen on reference  
to their weights1 as given in the       
following table2 and their splintering  
powers are certainly very  extensive    
indeed4 ,but their range is contemptibly
 small1 if we take into  consideration  
their great weight4 ,the effect of the  

explosion of the  charge of one of these
 guns must be sensibly felt even by the 
strongest  built steamer in the world4  
,they are used with traversing beds4    
,the gun  carriage1 when recoiling1 in a
 backward direction1 being driven up an 
inclined railway1 with from #c to #d of 
elevation1 from the cascable of  the    
gun4 ,this greatly tends to lessen the  
distance which the gun would  be driven 
back1 and facilitates the running out of
 the piece to the  point of discharge4  
,the woodcut gives a representation of  
the traversing  beds2 and the following 
table displays the ranges1 c41 of this  
class of  heavy artillery4              
,illustration    ,,range ,,and          
,,elevation1 ,c41 ,,of #ab1 #aj1 ,,and  
#h-;,,inch ,,guns1 ,,at ,,point ,,blank 
,,and  ,,extreme1 ,,and #aj ,,and       
#h-;,,inch ,,howitzers4                 
----------------------------------------
------------------------                
,charge  ,point ,extreme,eleva-         
,nature of ,ordnance4 ,length4  ,weight4

 ,powder4 ,blank  ,range4tion4          
,range4                                 
----------------------------------------
------------------------                
ft4 in4  cwt4 qr4lbs4 ozs4yards4yards4  
deg4    #ab-;inch gun1 with             
hollow shot1       #h  #d     #ij   #c  
#ab   #j   #bdj   #a1eej  #f    weight  
#aab lbs4                               
#aj-;inch1 with                         
ditto1 weight #hf   #g  #f     #eg   #c 
#g   #j   #baj   #a1ejj  #f    lbs4     
,ditto               #h  #d     #fb   #a
   #h   #j   #bej   #a1djj  #e    ,ditto
               #i  #d     #hd   #j  #ab 
#j   #cbe   #a1gjj  #e    #h-;inch gun1 
with                                    
hollow shot1 #dh    #f  #h-a_/b #ej   #j
   #g   #j   #baj   #a1cjj  #e    lbs4  
#h-;inch ditto1                         
solid shot1 #fh     #h  #f     #fj   #j 
#i   #g   #cdj   #a1ejj  #e    lbs4     
,ditto               #i  #j     #fe   #j
  #aj   #j   #cjj   #c1bej #ae          
,ditto1 hollow shot  #i  #j     #fe   #j

  #ab   #j   #cgj   #b1ibj #ae          
#aj-;inch iron                          
howitzers           #e  #j     #dj   #j 
#g   #j  #b deg4 #b1jgh #ab             
#fjj             #h-;inch ditto         
#d  #j     #ba   #j   #d   #j  #c deg4  
#a1gbe #ab                              
#gcj                                    
----------------------------------------
------------------------      #b ,length
 of time occupied in flight1 #ad        
seconds1 and #ae-a_/d    seconds4       
,mortars are intended for three         
purposes2 firstly1 to bombard a town1 or
  injure the defenders' artillery2      
secondly1 to fire or overthrow the      
works1 and to spread havoc and slaughter
 among the troops2 thirdly1 to  break   
through the vaulted roofs of barracks   
and magazines which are not  bomb-proof1
 or1 in other terms1 are not strong     
enough to resist the  fire4    ,they    
consist1 as will be seen1 of five       
descriptions1 but the #aj-;inch is      
considered1 on the score of economy1 as 

equal to all useful purposes4  ,the     
,french have1 at various times1         
constructed mortars of enormously  large
 dimensions1 but certainly with no      
useful result4 ,the monster  mortar1    
used at the siege of ,antwerp1 fired    
only ten or twelve shots1  and with     
comparatively little effect4 ,it burst  
some time after1 while  under a course  
of experiment1 with a considerably less 
charge than it  had formerly withstood2 
thus affording one very conclusive and  
illustrative fact in the theory of      
vibrations in metals3 for there can  be 
no question but that the shell1 from the
 smallness of the charge1 was  too long 
detained in the mortar2 the waves of    
vibration caused by the  explosive force
 moving so rapidly through the mass that
 the metal at  last lost its cohesive   
nature from their very rapid succession4
    ,it will be perceived1 on reference 
to the adjoining tables1 that ranges    
are obtained by the modifications of    
charges4    ,,english ,,mortar          

,,practice4#c      #c ,artillerist's    
,manual4                                
----------------------------------------
------------------------                
#ac-;,,inch ,,iron4                     
#aj-;,,inch ,,iron4                     
,weight1 #af cwts4              #af     
cwts4 #b qrs4                  ,shell   
filled1 #bjj lbs4#d              #ib    
lbs4                    ,bursting       
powder1 #f lbs4 #b ozs4        #b lbs4  
#aj ozs4                    ,blowing    
powder1 #b ozs4              #a-a_/b    
ozs4                                    
----------------------------------------
------------------     ,ele-    ,charge4
  ,fuse4,range4 ,ele-    ,charge4       
,fuse4,range4    vation4                
vation4                                 
----------------------------------------
-------------------     deg4  lbs4  ozs4
 inch4yards4 deg4  lbs4  ozs4           
inch4yards4      #de    #b    #a-a_/b   
#aij   #dej  #de    #a    #j-a_/b #aij  
#dej            #b    #c     #bjj   #ejj

        #a    #b     #bjj   #ejj        
#b    #d-c_/d #baj   #eej        #a     
#c-a_/d #baj   #eej            #b    #f 
#bbj   #fjj        #a    #d-c_/d #bbj   
#fjj            #b    #g-c_/d #bcj      
#fej        #a    #f     #bcj   #fej    
#b    #i-a_/b #bdj   #gjj        #a     
#g-a_/b #bdj   #gjj            #b       
#aa-c_/d #bde   #gej        #a    #i    
#bde   #gej            #b   #ad     #bej
   #hjj        #a   #aj     #bej   #hjj 
#c    #j-a_/b #bee   #hej        #a     
#aa     #bee   #hej            #c    #c 
#bfj   #ijj        #a   #ab     #bfj    
#ijj            #c    #e-a_/b #bfe      
#iej        #a   #ac     #bfe   #iej    
#c    #h     #bgj #a1jjj        #a   #ad
     #bgj #a1jjj            #c   #aj    
#bge #a1jej        #a   #ae-a_/d #bge   
#a1jej            #c   #ab     #bhj     
#a1ajj        #b    #j-a_/b #bhj #a1ajj 
#c   #ad     #bhe #a1aej        #b      
#a-c_/d #bhe #a1aej            #d    #j 
#bij #a1bjj        #b    #c     #bij    
#a1bjj                                  

----------------------------------------
------------------                      
------------------------------------    
#h-;,,inch ,,iron4                      
#h cwts4 #a qr4                         
#df lbs4                              #a
 lb4 #ad ozs4                           
#a oz4                                  
---------------------------------       
,elevation4  ,charge4   ,fuse4,range4   
---------------------------------       
deg4   lbs4 ozs4   inch4yards4          
#ae     #j    #ad     #jhj   #ejj       
#a     #j     #ajj   #eej               
#a     #b     #aaj   #fjj        #de    
#j     #i-a_/b #aij   #dej              
#j    #aj-c_/d #bjj   #ejj              
#j    #ab-a_/b #baj   #eej              
#j    #ac-c_/d #bbj   #fjj              
#j    #ad-a_/b #bcj   #fej              
#j    #ae-a_/b #bdj   #gjj              
#a     #j     #bde   #gej               
#a     #j-a_/b #bej   #hjj              
#a     #a-a_/d #bee   #hej              
#a     #b     #bfj   #ijj               

#a     #b-c_/d #bfe   #iej              
#a     #c-a_/b #bgj #a1jjj              
#a     #d     #bge #a1jej               
#a     #d-c_/d #bhj #a1ajj              
#a     #e-a_/d #bhe #a1aej              
#a     #f     #bij #a1bjj               
---------------------------------       
----------------------------------------
------------------------                
#e-a_/b-;,,inch ,,brass4                
#d #b-eth-,,inch ,,brass4      ,weight1 
#a cwt4 #a qr4 #aj lbs4           #c    
qrs4 #ai lbs4        ,shell filled1 #af 
lbs4#e                 #h lbs4          
,bursting powder1 #aj ozs4              
#e ozs4         ,blowing powder1 #a_/b  
oz4                 #a_/b oz4           
----------------------------------------
------------------                      
,elevation4,charge4                     
,fuse4,range4,elevation4                
,charge4,fuse4,range4                   
----------------------------------------
------------------       deg4   ozs4    
dr4inch4yards4   deg4   ozs4            

dr4inch4yards4        #ae     #f    #j  
#jgc #cej      #ae     #d    #h  #jhj   
#dej               #g    #j  #jge #djj  
#d   #ab  #jhe #ejj               #g    
#h  #jhj #dej      #be     #d    #j     
#aaj #edj               #h    #j  #jhe  
#ejj                                 #be
     #e    #h  #aaj #dhj                
#de     #d    #h       #cjj      #de    
#b    #f  #afe #cjj               #d    
#ab       #cej             #b    #i     
#agj #cej               #e    #j  #age  
#djj             #b   #ab  #age #djj    
#e    #d  #ahj #dej             #c    #j
  #ahj #dej               #e    #h  #ahe
 #ejj             #c    #d  #ahe #ejj   
#e   #ab  #aij #eej             #c    #h
  #aij #eej               #f    #j  #aie
 #fjj             #c   #ab  #aie #fjj   
----------------------------------------
------------------      #d ,shells      
filled with sand1 which will account for
 the weight4      #e ,shells filled with
 sand1 which will account for the       
weight4            #ac-;,,inch ,,land   

,,service4         #aj-;,,inch ,,ditto4 
#h-;,,inch ,,ditto4    ,greatest charge1
 #h pounds powder4    #d-a_/b pounds4   
#a pound4      ,greatest range1 #b1gjf  
yards4       #b1ecf yards4     #a1gbj   
yards4    ,,weight ,,of ,,land ,,and    
,,sea ,,service ,,mortar4      ,inches4 
cwts4 qrs4 lbs4          ,inches4    #ac
     ,land service1    ,weight1    #cf  
#b     #j   ,length1  #cfefc    #aj     
do4                   #af   #b     #j   
#bhabe     #h          do4              
#h   #b    #ad           #bbejj         
#e-a_/b      do4  brass1            #a  
#a    #ae           #aeajd     #d-b_/c  
do4    do4             #j   #c    #bj   
#abgac    #ac     ,sea service1         
#ajj   #a    #ad           #ebhaj    #aj
         do4                    #eb   #j
     #j           #defbj                
,illustration    ,carronades are a short
 description of ordnance without        
trunnions1 but  fastened by a loop under
 the reinforce4 ,their construction is  
materially  different from that of guns4

 ,they have a chamber like a mortar1 a  
part  scooped out inside the muzzle1    
forming a cup1 and they have also a     
patch  on the reinforce4 ,the name      
arises from the ,carron ,foundry in     
,scotland1  the first of them having    
been cast there in #aggi4 ,the          
construction is  considerably lighter   
than that of guns of similar calibre4   
,their  principal use is on board ship2 
but they are sometimes used in          
casemates1 or retired flanks of         
fortresses4    ,the proportions of all  
guns to shot1 will be found below2 and  
in looking  at this table1 it will      
scarce be conceivable how such light    
guns can  project such heavy shot4      
,,comparative ,,weights ,,of ,,guns     
,,and ,,shot4                           
-------------------------------------   
,weight ,comparative           ----     
of     ,weight4                         
,guns4                                  
-------------------------------------   
cwts4     #ab-;inch ,gun         #ij    

#a to #aab    #aj  do4             #hd  
#a    #hb     #h  do4             #fe   
#a   #ajg     #h  do4             #fj   
#a    #if     #h  do4             #ej   
#a    #hb    #cb-pounder          #fd   
#a   #bbd        ,do4             #ef   
#a   #aif        ,do4             #dh   
#a   #afh        ,do4             #dj   
#a   #adj        ,do4             #cb   
#a   #aab        ,do4             #be   
#a    #hd    #bd-pounder          #ej   
#a   #bcc        ,do4             #dh   
#a   #bai        ,do4             #db   
#a   #ahf    #ah-pounder          #db   
#a   #bfa        ,do4                   
#cg-a_/b #a   #bcc    #ab-pounder       
#cd     #a   #cah        ,do4           
#bi     #a   #bgj        ,do4           
#ba     #a   #aif     #i-pounder        
#ca     #a   #bhe        ,do4           
#bf     #a   #cbc        ,do4           
#ag     #a   #baa     #f-pounder        
#bc     #a   #dbi        ,do4           
#ag     #a   #cbg    #fh-pound          
,carronades #cj     #a    #ei    #db    

do4             #bb-a_/d #a    #eh      
#cb  do4             #ag     #a    #fb  
#cb  do4             #be     #a    #if  
#bd  do4             #ac     #a    #ee  
#ah  do4             #aj     #a    #ef  
#ab  do4              #f     #a    #ef  
-------------------------------------   
,the recoil1 which in all the           
before-mentioned guns is very great1    
arises  from the blow communicated to   
the iron in immediate contact with the  
explosive fluid4 ,the granulatory system
 of the metal transmits to those        
grains1 or crystals1 immediately behind 
them1 the blow or concussion  they are  
subjected to1 and these again to others1
 and so on1 until the  vibration has    
passed through the metal1 from the      
interior of the breech  to the exterior 
of the gun4    ,i am satisfied that in  
all small guns1 from their slight       
substance1  recoil is communicated a    
great deal quicker than in larger ones2 
hence  arises the well-known fact that  
in shooting you receive a knock nearly  

simultaneous with the explosion4 ,the   
greater and heavier the gun 7even  carry
 it up to ,general ,miller's gun of #hd 
cwt47 if the proportion which  the shot 
bears to it be not too great1 the less  
will be the velocity of  recoil4 ,but in
 carronades1 as will be seen1 the       
proportions are as high  as #a to #ee1  
while in long guns1 it is #a to #dbi2 a 
very considerable  degree of difference4
    ,our ancestors had but a limited    
knowledge of the laws of projecting     
bodies by gunpowder4 ,their explosive   
power was not good2 for there is  clear 
proof1 even since the time of ,robins1  
that the purification of the            
ingredients has nearly doubled the      
explosive force4 ,the mechanical        
construction and outer mould of their   
guns1 were calculated to resist  and    
limit the effects of recoil to a great  
extent4    ,accumulation of metal in the
 rear of the breech-end of a gun is true
  science1 and of so easy an attainment1
 that wonder arises in the mind  why it 

has not been effected4 ,the extent to   
which this principle is  worked upon in 
our gunnery is very trifling2 though    
recoil can by this  simple arrangement  
be nearly destroyed1 or so lessened as  
to add  considerable percentage of range
 to the projectile4 ,add no considerable
  weight to the gun1 but add it         
judiciously1 behind the end of the      
chamber  and vent1 and immediately      
surrounding the breech4 ,i have tried   
this to a  great extent1 on a small     
scale1 8with fowling-piece barrels10 and
 find  that the greatest advantage      
arises from an additional inch of metal 
to  the extreme end of the barrel1 as   
the recoil is thereby lessened2 while1  
on the contrary1 by reducing the        
exterior end of the breech1 until it    
becomes of less thickness than the sides
 of the barrel1 the recoil is  doubled4 
,guns will some day be constructed as   
mortars are1 with the  axles1 or        
trunnions1 in rear of the tube and of   
the vent2 for by this  arrangement      

recoil would act less on the mass of    
metal forming the gun1  and more on the 
base from which it is fired4 ,we are    
quite aware that an  arrangement of this
 nature could only be applied to certain
 descriptions  of ordnance1 and in      
certain situations2 but on forts1 or    
batteries  commanding rivers and bays1  
and even in the bows of steam vessels1  
they  may be placed with great          
advantage4 ,but this objection may be   
started3  8,you could not use guns      
fitted in this manner horizontally1 or  
nearly  so40 ,why not8 ,the muzzle could
 be as easily raised or depressed as the
  breech1 by mechanical means4 ,i should
 much like to see the principle  tried1 
and ,i hope to do so4    ,the following 
results of experiments prove1 that if a 
true basis is not  laid down1 all the   
fabric raised upon it is but one of     
sand1 which will  crumble away from     
under us4 ,hutton says1--8,varying the  
weight of the  gun1 produced no change  
in the velocity of the ball4 ,the guns  

were  suspended in the same manner as   
the pendulous blocks1 and additional    
weights were attached to the pieces1 so 
as to restrain the recoil2 but  although
 the arcs of the recoil were thus       
shortened1 yet the velocity of  the ball
 was not altered by it4 ,the recoil was 
then entirely prevented1  but the       
initial velocity of the ball remained   
the same40 ,no doubt this  was the      
result of his experiments by the        
pendulous suspension of the  gun3 but   
here he erred2 for had he suspended a   
thousand tons to it1  without           
incorporating it in the gun1 the result 
would still have been  the same4 ,all   
the improvements effected1 or yet to be 
accomplished1 will  be obtained by a    
concentration of metal4    ,an excess of
 weight in the fore part of a gun is    
very injurious1 by  inducing and        
lengthening the tremulous vibration     
created by the  explosion4 ,the only    
necessity for strength forward in a     
cannon1 arises  from the necessity of   

resisting the lateral pressure from the 
condensation of the column of air in the
 tube4 ,the pressure of the  explosive  
gases is1 by the velocity obtained      
before reaching the fore  part1 of very 
little amount1 from the short period it 
is exerted on the  interior4 ,therefore 
weight1 in the fore part of a gun1 be it
 ever so  great1 will not prevent recoil
 if there is not a proportionate        
quantity  behind4 ,it will retard or    
lessen the distance to which the recoil 
will  drive the gun and carriage1 but   
the evil is then over4    ,if the       
slightest movement occurs in the gun1   
the shot is projected from  an unsound  
base or foundation4 ,it is precisely    
similar to a man who1 in  the act of    
throwing a stone1 slips his foot        
backwards3 the effect is at  once       
apparent on the stone4 ,if the trunnion 
of a gun breaks in the  discharge1 or a 
quoin flies out1 the shot is materially 
affected2 never  ranging1 under such    
circumstances1 the accustomed distance1 

nor with its  usual accuracy4 ,practice 
with mortars proves beyond dispute the  
necessity of a firm base for the gun1   
for with a much less charge they        
project a greater mass farther4 ,a      
mortar discharged on land1 exceeds in   
range the same description of gun on    
board of ship1 or on the                
best-constructed platform4 ,in truth1   
this is but another illustration of  a  
law of nature3 if you have not a solid  
fulcrum1 it matters little what  the    
power of your lever may be4 ,gunpowder  
is a powerful lever if  exploded on a   
solid base2 if not1 its effects become  
limited in  proportion4 ,unquestionably1
 much may yet be gained by an economical
  arrangement of our projectile force4  
,great and rapid as have been the       
acquisitions of knowledge in everything 
relating to gunnery in modern  times1   
there still remains1 ,i have no doubt1  
an unexplored mine of  valuable treasure
 to be added to the science4    ,it     
would effect a great improvement in the 

mortars used by the navy1  destroying   
the tremendous vibration and shake given
 to the ship1  increasing their         
efficiency and aiding the projecting    
power1 to place  them on beds of the    
softest lead1 not less than twelve      
inches in  thickness4 ,though this      
suggestion is only theoretical1         
experience would  soon determine the    
least degree of substance available4    
,advantage would  arise1 in the first   
place1 from the non-conducting tendency 
of the lead2  in the second1 from its   
density1 and1 of course1                
incompressibility4 ,the  one protecting 
the ship1 the other being the most solid
 bed for the  mortar that can by        
possibility be obtained4    ,the weight 
of a hollow #ac-;inch shell is #aij     
lbs42 the bursting powder #f  lbs4 #h   
oz42 the weight1 if cast solid1 would be
 #bij lbs43 thus the  action of so large
 a body on the atmosphere must be       
immense of itself4  ,there seems to be  
much difficulty in projecting masses of 

great  diameter1 from this cause2 and   
this should lead us to seek1 as indeed  
it  points to1 another material for     
fabricating projectiles4 ,as weight is  
less in substance1 and1 of course1 less 
in space1 much less resistance1  in     
proportion1 will exist in a bore of six 
inches than in one of twelve2  and a    
greater projectile force will be        
generated with fewer  countervailing    
disadvantages4    ,the first step in the
 vast improvements about to be effected 
in gunnery1  has been successfully taken
 by ,mr4 ,monk1 of ,woolwich arsenal1   
who has  induced the authorities to     
allow a gun to be made from drawings and
  calculations of his own4 ,the         
dimensions of the gun are as follows3   
length from cascable to muzzle1 #aa     
feet2 weight1 #ig cwt4 #c qrs42 bore1   
#g-g_/aj inches2 weight of solid shot1  
#ee lbs42 shell1 #db lbs42 windage1     
#jage2 charge1 #af lbs4 of powder2      
giving a range1 at #cb of elevation1  of
 #e1cbg yards4 ,a compound shot1 7a     

shell filled with lead71 was  projected 
#e1gbj yards1 or three miles and a      
quarter1 at a velocity1  during the     
first second of time1 of #b1djj feet per
 second1 and occupying  during the whole
 flight only #bi-a_/b seconds4 ,the     
comparative weight of  gun and shot is  
#a to #bbj4    ,a course of experiments1
 extending over seventeen years1 has    
firmly  established this gun as the best
 ever yet constructed4 ,many attempts   
have been made to excel it1 but all have
 failed4 ,guns have been made on        
drawings varying not more than          
three-tenths of an inch in their        
dimensions from those of his gun1 and1  
with extreme modesty1 the  individuals  
have claimed a right to compete with    
,mr4 ,monk2 and have  even obtained     
competing trials1 without any claim     
whatever to the  discovery of the       
principle of it2 coming into competition
 by no just  claim or merit1 but solely 
from the tendency to supersede any      
improvement emanating from a civilian4  

,eighteen1 twenty-four1 and  thirty-two 
pounders are now1 however1 constructed  
on this model2--indeed  the improvement 
is so great and so apparent1 as to      
overcome every  obstacle as yet thrown  
in its way4    ,with no wish to detract 
from the merit of ,mr4 ,monk's invention
 7upon  which ,i congratulate him and   
the country7 but1 in justice to myself1 
,i  may remind some of my readers1 that 
in 8,the ,gun10 published early in      
#ahce1 ,i clearly laid down the         
principle in projectile force1 on which 
this gun is constructed2 and as he has  
since so successfully  accomplished this
 great improvement1 he must permit me to
 say1 that the  principle is the same   
which ,i have striven for1 for many     
years4    ,wilkinson says1 8,guns cast  
on this principle1 although several     
hundredweight lighter altogether1 recoil
 less than those on the old  plan1 with 
equal charges of powder and ball1 in    
consequence of the  weight being        
properly distributed40 ,he adds1 8,one  

remarkable fact  attended these         
experiments1 namely1 that by increasing 
the windage a  little1 the range was    
increased also1 contrary to the received
 opinion2  but this may be explained by 
the circumstance1 that with very great  
velocities1 and long guns1 the column of
 air to be displaced before the  ball   
quits the gun is considerable1 and is   
condensed so rapidly1 that  it offers   
immense resistance to the passage of the
 bullet1 if it fit the  bore closely2   
but1 by reducing the size of the ball1  
and thus increasing  the windage1 the   
air has more space to rush round it1 and
 the ball  escapes with greater         
facility40    ,if the condensed air     
prevented the velocity being greater1 it
 argues  most clearly1 that there was an
 insufficiency of explosive matter to   
keep up the velocity until the ball of  
less windage left the muzzle2 and  the  
result with the ball of greater windage 
establishes this assumption4  ,for if   
the condensed air was allowed to pass   

the ball by the windage  into the tube1 
it proves beyond doubt that there was a 
deficiency of  matter there1 or that the
 pressure without was greater than that 
within4  ,how otherwise could such a    
result occur8 ,it is a clearly          
established  fact1 that with the        
generality of ordnance1 a full waste of 
one-fourth  of explosive force1 if not  
more1 occurs by the elastic fluid       
escaping  past the ball by the windage1 
instead of the reverse4 ,neither could  
the  condensed air rush into the gun by 
the windage if there are any  permanent 
gases generated2 which ,mr4 ,wilkinson  
himself says there are1  to the extent  
of 8#bej times the bulk of the powder in
 grain40 ,these  would offer a          
sufficient resistance to prevent the    
condensed air rushing  in4 ,i have      
found1 by an experiment before          
described1 that a ball driven  against a
 column of air which has no escape1 if  
the velocity be  trifling1 say #hjj feet
 per second1 the air will escape by the 

windage2  but double this even1 and it  
is so condensed as to form a cushion for
  the ball to strike against4 ,then how 
much less will the chance be of its     
escaping1 if the velocity become two    
thousand four hundred feet per  second4 
,no1 the cause is remote from that of   
,mr4 ,wilkinson's  supposition4 ,there  
is a want of force--an accelerative     
propellant  force--which should continue
 to the end of the tube1 be that length 
ever  so great2 and on this point1 for  
one1 turns the whole future improvement 
of gunnery4    ,the result wished for   
can be obtained by a systematical       
arrangement of  the granulation of      
powder4 ,that a much greater velocity   
than is obtained  in this gun--at       
present the greatest in any piece of    
ordnance in use1  and possessing a      
longer range than has been obtained by  
any power in  ,europe--may and will be  
attained1 ,i fearlessly assert4 ,i have 
obtained a  velocity with an ounce ball 
nearly doubling this2 and though1 as it 

will  be argued1 this may be too limited
 an experiment1 yet let us not forget   
that great results most frequently      
spring from little causes4 ,large       
rivers owe their origin to small        
springs1 and if the same principle by   
which we can penetrate a plate of iron  
half an inch thick with an ounce  of    
lead1 be fearlessly and judiciously     
carried through1 we may 7and no  doubt  
we shall7 live to see projectiles thrown
 #e-a_/d miles4 ,that this  will be     
difficult to accomplish ,i deny3 no     
difficulty attends it1  provided the    
principles before explained are duly    
carried out4    ,the great principle in 
a propellant force is so to arrange it  
that you  do not obtain too great a     
velocity at the first move of the       
projectile2  as no mass can be forced   
from a state of rest to a rapid state of
  motion1 without communicating to the  
gun a corresponding motion1 which  will 
create a recoil3 and the greater the    
motion1 the greater the  recoil4 ,if the

 explosive matter merely expands for a  
brief period1 and  is burnt out before  
the shot has reached midway the length  
of the gun1  the velocity there acquired
 will be reduced1 by the condensed      
column of  air in the other half of the 
barrel1 to the velocity it possessed    
when  only one fourth the length of the 
whole from the breech2 consequently it  
would be advantageous to cut the gun in 
two at the middle1 as a greater  force  
would be then generated advantageously1 
than by the whole4 ,but if  you so      
arrange the granulation of your powder  
that it shall proceed into  motion more 
gradually1 a rapidly increasing force of
 elastic fluid will  continue to be     
generated1 until it reaches its greatest
 maximum of  velocity 7which it should  
do just as the ball leaves the muzzle7  
then  you obtain with your means the    
greatest result possible4    ,we believe
 that the generality of gunpowder used  
by our ,government is  vastly inferior  
in strength to some made by private     

makers2 yet it is  not advisable to jump
 from one extreme to another4 ,what is  
wanted is the  proper blending of the   
qualities2 an addition of a quantity of 
,harvey's  quick powder to a charge1    
when it has driven the ball up          
three-fourths  of the tube of a gun1 and
 probably had acquired a velocity of    
#b1jjj feet  per second1 might so aid   
it1 that it would leave the muzzle with 
a  velocity of #c1jjj4    ,you cannot   
put a locomotive train in motion at     
once3 if it were  attempted1 you would  
break all the carriages2 but if you     
gradually add  your force1 you gain in  
time the greatest possible velocity4 ,i 
have  drawn a parallel case3 it is the  
same with gunpowder2 only the           
velocities are widely different4        
,therefore1 ,i may be pardoned1 if ,i   
say  gunnery is like steam1 but in its  
infancy4 ,let us but clearly see and    
understand aright the principle--knowing
 that the greater momentum the  less the
 action of the atmosphere--and if       

#c-a_/d miles can be obtained  with a   
ball #fj lbs4 weight1 #e-a_/d may be    
easily accomplished by a ball  of #abj  
lbs4 ,powder is made1 and can be had1   
that will do this4    ,the use of       
compound-shot has of late years become  
quite common in  experiments3 why lead1 
with its alloys1 has not been more      
extensively  used as a projectile for   
large guns1 has always appeared to me   
extraordinary4 ,its weight and density  
peculiarly fit it for this  purpose1 and
 its non-conducting principle is its    
greatest  recommendation4 ,how is it8   
,in no instance1 except as              
compound-shot1 do  we find any record of
 the use of leaden bullets on a large   
scale1 save  in ,sir ,howard ,douglas's 
8,naval ,gunnery10 where1 in a note1 he 
says1 8,a  very distinguished naval     
commander mentioned to me1 that he knew 
a  person who had served in an ,american
 privateer1 which1 being out of  shot1  
and unable to procure a supply of iron  
balls1 used leaden shot as  substitutes4

 ,this person always mentioned with     
great surprise the  superior effect of  
leaden balls40 ,well he might2 for the  
reader need not  be told that its       
greater specific gravity would add to   
its momentum1 and  a longer medium      
velocity be retained during its flight4 
,but it  possesses another              
recommendation1 superior to all these1  
in warfare3  that of communicating all  
its force1 all its velocity1 be they    
ever so  great1 to the body struck4     
,iron does not possess this quality2    
except to  a certain extent1 and that at
 low velocities4 ,hence the cause of its
  being found in naval warfare1 that    
balls at low velocities damage and      
destroy ships' sides more than at higher
 velocities1 even when passing  quite   
through4 ,lead1 in the act of striking  
hard substances1 iron or  stone for     
instance1 is partially flattened1 until 
the flat surface is  nearly equal to the
 diameter of the sphere of the ball2    
thus parting  with all the force it     

struck the object with1 and in most     
instances  falling motionless at the    
base of the object struck2 while in the 
stone1  the surrounding crystals or     
grains are1 by their abrasion on each   
other1  pounded into dust1 in proportion
 to the size and force of the body of   
lead striking them3 in many instances to
 many times the shot's bulk1 and  only  
flattening the lead1 less or more1 in   
proportion to the capability  of the    
stone to resist4 ,iron striking stone   
retains its shape3 the  grains are      
driven back upon each other1 and each   
offering its proportion  of elasticity1 
the ball is enabled to rebound back2    
which it does in  many instances to a   
considerable percentage of the whole    
distance it had  been projected4 ,the   
greater the velocity with which an iron 
ball is  projected the greater the      
rebound back from a hard substance such 
as  stone4 ,reversely1 the greater the  
velocity of lead1 the greater its       
effect on the object struck4 ,walls or  

fortifications struck by leaden  balls  
at the same velocities 7waiving the     
advantage to lead by its  greater       
specific gravity7 would be pounded into 
sand by less than  two-thirds the same  
number of lead as of iron shot4 ,any    
unprejudiced  person may soon satisfy   
himself of this1 by trying it with a    
musket or  fowling piece4 ,a leaden ball
 will pound itself a hole many times its
 own  bulk1 while an iron ball will not 
make a hole half its size4    ,i have   
tried many experiments to ascertain the 
penetrating powers of  iron and lead    
relatively1 by striking various objects1
 from a boiler  plate of half an inch   
thickness down to fir deals4 ,the same  
size of lead  will1 under certain       
circumstances1 punch a perfect hole in a
 plate of  half-inch thickness1 as ,i   
shall have occasion to show2 while1     
under  precisely the same arrangement1  
the iron ball would rebound back with   
very little diminution of force2 and if 
the plate of iron be at a  perfect right

 angle1 the iron ball would nearly      
return into the muzzle1  of the gun4 ,in
 truth1 ,i had a narrow escape seventeen
 years ago1 from a  bullet actually     
cutting the rim of my hat3 so that it   
will be well1 when  experimenting in    
this way1 to be sure that the person is 
well esconced1  for fear of unpleasant  
results4    ,lead1 therefore1 for       
destroying ships1 as well as stone      
walls1 is  unquestionably highly        
advantageous2 even if projected with the
 same  velocities as at present adopted 
for iron4 ,the additional weight would  
not decrease the destructive effects2 it
 would augment them4 ,i perfectly  agree
 with the ,american privateer1 that the 
wonderfully destructive  power of leaden
 cannon balls will create surprise1     
whenever they shall  come generally into
 use4 ,imagine the effect from a gun of 
the  dimensions of a #aj-;inch bore4 ,it
 is dreadful to contemplate4    ,the    
effect of lead will be easily understood
 when explained in the  following way4  

,if a #cf lb4 shot have a velocity of   
#b1jjj feet per  second1 the force is   
equal to the velocity multiplied by the 
weight1 or  #gb1jjj lbs4 ,the whole of  
this force would strike a wall1 and be  
left  there1 if communicated by soft    
lead2 if by iron1 at the same velocity1 
it would be minus the amount of force   
required to make it rebound to the      
great distance to which iron invariably 
returns4 ,though created by the         
elasticity of the iron itself1 this must
 be deducted from the effect  produced1 
and hence arises the great advantage the
 lead possesses4 ,we  are aware that    
iron driven with a slight velocity      
rebounds less2 true1  and less is its   
real effect2 for under the very same    
circumstances would  the great          
advantages of the lead predominate4 ,it 
may be objected1 that  lead is too      
easily misshaped2 8pure it is1 but with 
alloys not so40 ,at  low velocities it  
might1 but the greater velocities       
diminish that  chance1 as it is a well  

known fact that all dense incompressible
 bodies  are least affected by an       
extremely sharp motion4 ,all our        
arrangements in  warlike preparations1  
at present1 involve great weight of     
projectile for  fracturing1 not         
perforating4 ,during the siege of       
,ciudad ,rodrigo1 #b1aei  rounds1 of    
twenty-four and eighteen pounders1 were 
requisite to form the  small breach of  
thirty feet wide1 and #f1dgh rounds for 
the larger of #ajj  feet4 ,at ,badajos  
there was expended1 to form three       
breaches of #dj1 #ij1  and #aej feet    
respectively1 the enormous amount of    
#ca1hfa rounds of the  same sized iron  
shot4 ,we may be pardoned if we presume 
to say1 one-half  the number of lead    
shot would have done more1 and done it  
better4    ,if we bear in mind1 that the
 whole round of experiments from which  
,hutton drew his deductions1 were       
conducted with iron projectiles1 the    
inconsistency of taking his data as the 
standard will be apparent4 ,the         

dissimilitude of specific gravities     
being great1 namely1 #g1dbe and         
#aa1cbg--or one-third difference--it    
clearly shows1 without any effort of    
the imagination1 that the range must be 
in the same proportion1 with the        
addition of greater momentum4 ,for it   
will scarcely be denied1 that a  ball of
 gold or platina1 from the same cause1  
will maintain a velocity  longer1 and   
consequently range further1 than even   
lead4 ,hutton's theory  only establishes
 the principle1 that the lighter the    
body projected1 the  sooner it is acted 
upon by atmospheric resistance1 and a   
medium velocity  induced4 ,we cannot    
attribute his preferring iron to arise  
from an  opinion of its penetrating to  
greater depths2 for a man of his        
extensive  knowledge and research could 
scarcely be guilty of such an error4    
,but  even in our enlightened times we  
are told that elephants cannot be       
killed with any projectile but steel3   
leaden balls cannot do it4 ,i  should   

like to try1 and receive the tusks in   
return4    ,the shrapnell shell         
7invented by ,general ,shrapnell71 or   
spherical case  shot1 introduced into   
the ,british service of late years1 is  
probably the  most destructive of any   
missile in use4 ,it was intended to     
supersede--which it has done--canister  
and grape shot2 effecting the  same     
results at treble the range4 ,the       
construction and principle are  very    
simple1 being merely a shell of an      
unusually light description2 in  fact1  
little more than a light cast-iron      
hollow ball1 with a fuse hole4  ,a      
certain quantity of leaden1 or iron     
bullets is put into it1 and the         
interstices around the ball shaken full 
of powder2 a fuse of the length         
required is inserted1 and explodes the  
shell during its flight3 the            
peculiarity being1 that the body of     
small balls retain their medium         
velocity and travel on1 merely          
diverging1 latterly1 like an immense    

charge of bird shot4 ,they are usually  
fired from howitzers1 carronades1  and  
other wide bored-guns1 at or near       
horizontal ranges4 ,a considerable      
delay occurred before they were         
successfully perfected4 ,it was found   
that when the small balls did not pack  
perfectly tight1 or were packed         
overtight1 the case frequently exploded 
in the gun3 occasioned1 no  doubt1 by   
the friction creating a spark at the    
moment of the howitzer  being fired1 and
 thus exploding the shell before its    
time2 but we  believe such an occurrence
 rarely happens now1 from other         
improvements  since adopted4    ,the    
preceding pages appeared in my last work
 published in #ahdf4 ,they are  still so
 much in keeping with the state of      
gunnery at the present day1  and so     
prophetic of what has1 and is about to  
occur1 that they will be  regarded1 ,i  
trust1 as bearing the stamp of          
authority4    ,progress1 in its rapid   
advance1 has made many ,english guns    

objects for  the furnace or the museum2 
and many guns1 which formerly ranked    
high as  useful and important weapons1  
have become things of the past4         
,monsters are now all the rage1 with a  
range of three miles1 and  artillerists 
contemplate extending the range to      
double that distance2  whilst the       
projectiles used are not 8pounders10 but
 approximating to  tons4 ,so much for   
improvement4 ,in political economy we   
are told that  improvement to be good   
must be gradual2 but only effect some   
slight  improvement in gunnery1 make but
 one step in advance1 and the desire for
  further improvement then ranges at    
will1 and impossibilities are craved    
for and sought to be attained4          
,twelve years ago the success of ,mr4   
,monck 7certainly the first modern      
improver of ordnance17 led to the       
unlimited production of undigested      
plans for changes in gunnery2 but1      
unfortunately for the science1 no       
progress was made on the one great      

improvement of ,mr4 ,monck4    ,war     
found us ill prepared in the field1 and 
out-weighted 8afloat10 so  that almost  
as many men were killed by the bursting 
of mortars1 and  other ill-constructed  
guns1 as by the fire of the enemy3 so   
critical was  our situation1 indeed1    
that but for the general adoption in    
,england's  army of my great invention1 
the rifle on the expansive or           
8,greenerian0  principle1 and its       
skilful use by our brave soldiers1 the  
war had gone  against us4 ,our rifles   
were equal in range to our artillery1   
and this  saved us2 whilst the enemy1   
astonished at the effects produced by   
our  bullets1 and conscious of their    
inferiority both in the construction    
and use of small arms1 abandoned the    
contest3 but no doubt with a firm       
determination to profit by their        
dear-bought experience4    ,it is       
generally admitted that our artillery   
was never so effective as  that of the  
enemy1 and that more is due to the      

patient and enduring  bravery of the    
,british soldier than to our            
field-pieces and heavy  ordnance4 ,that 
,england's artillery was at this time   
most disgracefully  inefficient1 it     
would be folly to deny4 ,the larger guns
 were destroyed  in an inconceivably    
short space of time4 ,after five1 ten1  
or fifteen  rounds were fired the guns  
burst1 killing the gunners in great     
numbers4    ,the readers of my works are
 already familiar with my opinions on   
this  subject1 and their value will now 
be enhanced by the fact that they have  
been proved to be the opinions of a     
8practical man40 ,success in the        
improvement of small arms is a sure     
encouragement to those anxious for  the 
advancement of projectile science1 and  
it is a coat of mail in which  to fight 
against the prejudices and incompetency 
of official management4    ,who1 on     
reading my work of #ahda1 believed the  
prediction ,i therein made1  that small 
arms would be produced which would      

render field guns useless8  ,the fact   
is1 however1 firmly established1 that   
the best rifles on my  principle will   
out-range by several hundred yards the  
best 8six-pounder0  in her ,majesty's   
service2 and that1 too1 with a          
repetition of fire  wonderfully quick   
and effective3 as the ,russians in the  
,crimea can  testify1 on more than one  
occasion4    ,to endeavour to point out 
that an improvement may be effected in  
artillery equal to that which has been  
effected in small arms1 is the  object  
of the following pages4    ,the author  
asks a dispassionate perusal and careful
 study of his work1  in justice to      
himself and to the importance of the    
subject4 ,judging of  future            
probabilities by what has already been  
accomplished1 the reader  will be       
prepared for what follows4 ,that great  
and important changes must  take place  
in artillery cannot be doubted1 and     
should ,england refuse to  avail herself
 of the improvements to be effected1    

other nations1 and  amongst them our    
late opponent1 will be the first to     
seize and adopt  them4 ,in former works 
,i have asked the indulgence of my      
military readers  on account of my      
scanty military knowledge2 but          
professional men appear  to be equally  
in the dark with the uninitiated3       
indeed1 the lamentable  shortcomings of 
the ,english artillerists have placed   
them in the rank of  mere 8waiters upon 
providence0 for the next step towards   
improvement4  ,the present time is      
decidedly propitious2 let improvements  
now be made1  and we may surely hope    
that they will be appreciated by the    
public1 if  not by the ,government      
authorities4    ,what is the best metal 
for cannon8 is a question which has     
often been  asked1 and the answers have 
been very conflicting4 ,some have       
advocated  mixtures of copper and tin2  
others have advocated cast iron1 and    
more  recently wrought iron2 still more 
recently steel1 and1 lastly1 cast       

steel1 have had their advocates4        
,arguments as plentiful as summer       
flowers have been advanced in favour of 
each1 and the argument has been  carried
 on with a vast amount of prejudice and 
warmth1 according to the  degree of     
acquaintance with or attachment to the  
favourite metal of each  individual4 ,it
 is rare to meet with a mind free from  
bias1 equally well  acquainted with the 
merits of the several metals1 and their 
application  to the purposes intended4  
,still more rare is it to meet with a   
mind  possessing all this metallurgic   
knowledge1 and combining with it an     
intimate acquaintance with the          
principles of projectiles1 as well as a 
scientific knowledge of the construction
 of the engine 7the perfection  of which
 consists in its having no points which 
are weak or  unnecessarily strong72 and 
yet it is by such a combination of      
knowledge  and the application of these 
principles that we must be guided1 if we
  would be successful in the            

accumulation of projectile power4 ,in   
the  present age we are really alive to 
the advantage of 8playing at long       
bowls20 and the question now to be      
determined is1 what is the greatest     
weight of shot and shell we can throw1  
and how many miles can we project  it4  
,the ,americans were undoubtedly the    
first to discover the great  advantage  
of this question with their lesser      
frigates2 the late war has  developed it
 still more2 and it now remains to be   
ascertained how much  further can we go4
 ,for on this important point the       
superior efficacy of  artillery depends4
    ,at ,st4 ,sebastian1 in #ahac1      
cast-iron guns threw tons of shot at a  
range  of #a1ejj yards2 some particular 
guns firing as many as #c1jjj rounds1   
and  yet it is more than probable that  
had the same guns been used in the      
,crimea1 they would have burst with     
one-fourth the number of rounds4        
,experience proves that it is not the   
great number of rounds fired which      

strains and destroys the gun1 but the   
high elevation at which these guns  are 
placed1 in order to get range2 this it  
is which shakes and  disintegrates the  
crystalline structure of the metal1 and 
thus extreme  range is obtained at      
extreme cost4 ,a gun which at #f of     
elevation could  stand without a strain 
#bjj rounds1 would be likely at an      
elevation of  #cj to burst before #ej   
rounds were fired4 ,the explanation of  
this is  sufficiently simple4 ,a gun    
fired at #f recoils as the projectile is
  projected forward1 in proportion to   
its relative weight and friction2  but  
when brought up to an elevation above   
#cj the gun is entirely out of  the     
horizontal1 and cannot recoil as it does
 at an elevation of #f3 the  force is   
now exerted downward1 and the gun       
impinges on its support--i4  e41 either 
upon its bed on the deck of the ship1 or
 on the solid earth  of the battery1    
which is comparatively immovable2 thus  
the force which  displaced the gun in   

the first instance is now exerted on the
 sides of  the gun1 and the projectile  
receiving additional force is projected 
further4 ,but this increased range is   
obtained at the expense of the gun1     
which is rapidly destroyed3 #ej rounds  
being sufficient to render it  unfit for
 service4 ,to obviate this rapid        
destruction of cannon1 the  metal has   
been changed from the molecular to the  
fibrous2 that is from  cast iron to     
wrought iron4 ,one object of this       
chapter is to point out  the            
difficulties which arise in determining 
what the best metal for  cannon really  
is1 and to show the advantages to be    
gained by attending  to the proper      
construction of projectile engines1     
without attaching  undue importance to  
the material of which they are made4    
,before rejecting cast iron as useless  
for the construction of large  guns1 it 
would be well to assure ourselves that  
no better quality of  metal can be      
produced than that which is at present  

manufactured4 ,we  must also satisfy    
ourselves that we have clearly          
understood the proper  shape and form of
 cannon to resist concussions4 ,these   
concussions1 be it  remembered1 were    
more violent in the late than in any    
previous war2 and  it is an undoubted   
fact that we had many more fractures    
then than on any  previous occasion3    
first1 on account of the strain produced
 by the great  elevation required to get
 increased range2 and1 secondly1 on     
account of  the imperfect shape of the  
gun4 ,the average number of rounds fired
 from  the #ac-;inch mortars which burst
 at the bombardment of ,sweaborg was    
#abj1  and the fracture in all was      
peculiarly alike2 being at right angles 
to  the supports4 ,now1 that this is due
 to the form of the gun cannot be       
doubted2 and it will be shown more fully
 in a subsequent page4    ,but there is 
another cause to which ,i wish now to   
direct attention1  viz41 the jamming of 
the ,lancaster shell1 which takes place 

in the  increasing spiral of the oval   
gun at the very point where the         
projectile  acquires a proportional     
increase of velocity4 ,the effect of    
this may be  illustrated by running a   
locomotive at its maximum of speed over 
an  increasing curve in the railroad1   
with the certainty of landing it in an  
adjoining ditch4 ,the principle which   
determines the result is quite          
immutable3 viz41 that matter in rapid   
motion cannot be materially  affected by
 any force inferior to the primary      
force3 the tendency of the  body being  
to go straight forward2 whereas a slow  
train goes round a  curve with the      
greatest ease4 ,two motions can easily  
be given to matter  in a lower velocity2
 but not so easily when the velocity is 
much  increased4 ,hence ,i fear that the
 inventor of the ,lancaster gun must    
have  had a misconception of the true   
laws of motion2 for by increasing the   
degree of spiral at the muzzle1 instead 
of at the breech of the gun1 he  has    

rendered nearly useless what would      
otherwise have proved a most  formidable
 engine of war4    ,from these          
observations it may1 ,i think1 fairly be
 doubted whether the  bursting of cannon
 is owing entirely to the inferior      
quality of the cast  iron used in their 
formation2 though there can1 ,i think1  
be no doubt  that ,english cast iron is 
not only much inferior to what it       
formerly  was1 but that it is also      
inferior to that which is now           
manufactured in  ,russia4 ,why it is so 
will be subsequently explained4         
,these defects in cast iron have        
naturally led to many attempts to       
substitute for it a more durable metal2 
and in most cases the metal  selected   
has been wrought iron4 ,wrought iron has
 been used1 not only in  solid cannon1  
but in the original 8hoop and stave30   
8staves outside10  and 8staves inside10 
as in ,mr4 ,mallet's monster mortar4    
,forms of gun as  numerous as can be    
conceived have been constructed1 only to

 prove  themselves in every case most   
complete failures4 ,our friends at the  
,mersey ,works1 ,liverpool1 will1 no    
doubt1 demur to this assertion2 as  8all
 creations of the mind appear most      
perfect to the father of the  thought40 
,great credit is1 however1 due to the   
enterprise and energy displayed by  the 
inventors1 forgers1 and finishers of    
this great gun2 which has been  the     
wonder of many minds in this age of     
wonders3 and it is a highly  important  
invention1 as showing what we1 as a     
people1 are capable of  producing by our
 mechanical and engineering skill4 ,but 
here1 in my  estimation1 the wonder     
ceases2 for so sure as there is any     
truth in the  ,scotch proverb1 8,a silk 
purse cannot be made out of a sow's     
lug10 so  surely is it true that no man1
 however great his genius and working   
powers1 can make a good cannon of       
wrought iron4 ,when the hardness and    
ductility of silver can be imparted to  
and held by lead1 then will it be       

possible to make wrought iron accomplish
 all the purposes required of a  good   
cannon4    ,in vain may ,mr4 ,horsfall  
urge that his gun has never been burst4 
,why8  ,simply because it has not yet   
been subjected to the same amount of    
pressure on the square inch2 neither has
 it been tested at the same  elevation  
as some other #aj-;inch guns1 which1 in 
proportion to their size  have stood a  
more severe test4 ,it is a fact1 which  
may be clearly  demonstrated1 that if a 
#aj-;inch gun of #ie cwt4 be fired at an
 elevation  of #dj with #ag lbs4 of     
gunpowder1 then a gun of more than six  
times that  weight would not be         
overloaded if its due proportion of     
powder were  about #ajj lbs4 ,has this  
gun been fired with one half of this8   
,until it  has been satisfactorily      
proved to this extent1 we feel sure that
 the  authorities are justified in not  
considering ,mr4 ,horsfall's a          
successful  achievement4    ,whatever   
may be ,mr4 ,horsfall's impression with 

regard to the advantages  of wrought    
iron for making cannon1 ,i am satisfied1
 after a long and  careful study of the 
results of all its varieties1 from the  
most ordinary to the most perfect       
combination that has been               
manufactured--either for tenacity1      
tenuity1 or resistance of lateral       
pressures--that it cannot answer in     
large guns4    ,this ,i think any one   
will admit1 after considering the two   
following  facts2 which apply equally to
 all varieties and mixtures of wrought  
iron4    #a4 ,the strength of iron is at
 its maximum in the smallest mechanical 
structures4    #b4 ,the quality of the  
metal is improved as it is subjected to 
greater  pressure and condensation4     
,the extent to which this improvement   
may be carried has never yet been       
ascertained2 every fresh manipulation   
improves its quality4 ,the tenacity  of 
wrought iron is best displayed in a     
wire1 drawn out until it is not  thicker
 than a human hair4 ,large masses of    

wrought iron are weak and  spongy in    
geometrical progression with the mass1  
and the crystalline or  molecular form  
increases with the mass4 ,if large      
forgings are carefully  examined1       
crystals will be found whose facets     
would produce inches of  surface2 as was
 clearly demonstrated by the bursting of
 a #aj-;inch gun at  ,woolwich3 made1 if
 we mistake not1 by ,mr4 ,nasmyth4      
,another very important cause which     
renders large masses of wrought iron    
unsound 7and which was fatal in ,mr4    
,nasmyth's gun7 is the impossibility  of
 condensing tons of wrought iron equally
 all through the mass4 ,no one  has yet 
been able to overcome this difficulty4  
,when the force of a blow1 however      
great1 is exerted on the surface of a   
mass of metal1 its effect is neutralized
 within a few inches of the  surface2   
condensation takes place in inverse     
ratio from the point of  impact1 and    
thus the effect is limited4 ,the force  
which produces this  condensation tends 

also to elongate the fibres of the      
metal4 ,this  elongation is greatest in 
the immediate vicinity of the force2 the
  fibres in the interior of the mass are
 less elongated therefore than on  the  
exterior2 and the fibres in the interior
 of the mass being less  ductile 7from  
the cause already explained7 than those 
on the exterior1  the interior of the   
mass elongates1 by disintegration of its
 fibres or  crystals1 and a porous open 
mass is thus produced1 surrounded by a  
fibrous case4 ,instances of this are to 
be seen in broken engine-shafts  and    
anchors2 and1 indeed1 in all large      
masses of wrought iron1 whether         
fractured by design or accident4        
,another cause of this defect in large  
masses of wrought iron1 is the  long    
continued heat to which it is necessary 
to expose such large  forgings4 ,the    
iron expands as it is heated1 but it    
does not expand  equally all through the
 mass2 and the result of this is that   
the  interior becomes porous and spongy3

 an appearance which must have been     
observed by every one who has operated  
upon large masses4    ,the shaft of the 
,leviathan weighs #bf tons2 but1 instead
 of resisting  twenty-six times the     
pressure of a shaft one ton in weight1  
it will1  from the causes already       
mentioned1 be found unequal to half that
 amount4    ,we have watched with much  
interest the forging of these immense   
shafts2  and the difficulties attending 
the forging of this structure prove the 
accuracy of our reasoning on the        
strength of large masses of wrought     
iron4 ,the weight of the shaft when     
finished is #bf tons1 and the waste     
during the process of welding amounts to
 #gd or #ge tons4    ,the present shaft 
is the third which has been             
manufactured2 the two  first having     
proved notorious failures3 thus #bjj    
tons of iron have been  wasted2 which we
 think is sufficient proof either of the
 unfitness of  the material1 or of      
imperfection in the method of           

construction4  ,moreover1 ,i fear that  
when the vessel encounters a rolling    
sea1 the  sudden check and strain       
produced by the total immersion of one  
paddle-wheel and the freedom of the     
other1 will subject the present  shaft  
to a strain which will affect its       
duration2 and a vessel costing  nearly a
 million of money may thus be left to   
reach her port with  crippled powers of 
propulsion4    ,where1 it may be asked1 
is the skill in devising engines more   
powerful  than the ingenuity of man can 
beneficially work out8 ,this has indeed 
been done in the case of the ,leviathan2
 a monster vessel has been  built1 but  
all the engineering skill expended upon 
it has as yet been  insufficient to     
bring it to perfection4    ,the skill   
hitherto displayed in welding large     
forgings of wrought iron  into shafts1  
or other large masses1 has been of a    
very low order2 much  more may be done  
than has yet been accomplished1 if men  
will only set  about it in a scientific 

manner4 ,the present mode of proceeding 
is to  build a structure of iron much as
 a builder would raise a structure of   
bricks2 large and small pieces being    
mixed together until the requisite  mass
 is obtained4    ,now1 a much simpler   
method1 and one which we have tried on  
several  occasions1 is first to         
construct several segments of iron of   
the  requisite length1 and of dimensions
 equivalent to the intended object2     
each segment being fitted to fill its   
place amongst a given number of  other  
segments 7whether twenty1 forty1 or     
fifty segments be required17  so as to  
form a complete cylinder2 as the        
wood-cut will fully  explain3--         
,illustration    ,in welding this       
structure1 the heat is equally diffused 
all through the  mass2 and thus the     
great evil of unequal expansion and     
contraction is  avoided4 ,when the steam
 hammer is brought into play1 its face  
is a  8swage0 of circular form1         
calculated to clasp a large portion of  

the  upper part1 whilst a corresponding 
space is formed in the anvil2 and by    
gradually turning the shaft1 the whole  
is forged into a perfect round4  ,the   
peculiar advantage gained by this mode  
of proceeding1 is not only  the facility
 with which heat is diffused through the
 mass1 but that each  segment is made to
 act like a wedge on its neighbour2 thus
 producing the  most solid forging that 
has yet been attained4 ,this is rendered
 still  more perfect1 both as regards   
strength and durability1 from the fact  
that a hollow axle has been produced2   
the great advantages of which it  would 
be out of place to dilate upon in this  
work4    ,we trust that these           
anticipated misfortunes may be avoided  
by the  construction of a more perfect  
shaft2 and that1 not only for the sake  
of  the shareholders1 but for the credit
 of the engineer who devised this  great
 vessel--deservedly one of the wonders  
of the world4 ,a spare shaft  would be  
profitable ballast1 if of no more value 

to the ,leviathan4    ,rolled           
railway-carriage axles were constructed 
for me with perfect  success on this    
principle nearly twenty years ago1 at   
the ,walker ,iron  ,works1 near         
,newcastle-on-,tyne4 ,the idea has1     
however1 been in a measure  8shelved20  
but necessity will bring it into use    
again4    ,the only engineer who has1 by
 practical experience1 satisfied himself
  that large masses of wrought iron are 
totally useless for making heavy        
ordnance is ,mr4 ,nasmyth2 whose monster
 cannon1 which was to astonish the      
whole world1 proved1 when heated1 to    
have so little cohesion that it  would  
scarcely hold together whilst being     
lifted from the furnace to the  anvil4  
,and1 to his credit be it said1 ,mr4    
,nasmyth1 seeing that wrought  iron     
would not answer the purpose1 manfully  
gave up his hopeless task4  ,similar    
experience would probably make some of  
our present engineers  wiser men4    ,my
 experience in manufacturing the largest

 wrought iron guns which it is  prudent 
to construct1 sufficiently proves the   
truth of these assertions4    ,harpoon  
gun-barrels1 one inch and a half in the 
bore1 having the metal  at the breech   
end an inch and a quarter thick1 will   
stand a proof which  invariably bursts a
 thicker barrel2 in fact1 all experience
 tends to  show that light wrought iron 
or steel barrels are stronger than      
unusually heavy ones4 ,as all depends on
 the principle of condensing the  fibres
 of the iron1 ceteris paribus1 the      
greater the condensation the  greater   
the strength1 and the less the          
condensation the greater the  weakness4 
,that this argument applies principally 
to solid forged guns ,i am ready  to    
admit2 and that guns forged of hoops1   
rings1 and bars1 in smaller  sections1  
are free from this objection1 ,i am also
 ready to admit4 ,these  guns are1      
however1 liable to objections equally   
fatal1 both as regards  their enduring  
and projective powers1 as ,i shall      

presently show4  ,experience proves that
 brass guns are inferior1 both in       
sharpness of  shooting and in range1 to 
cast-iron guns3 this is undoubtedly     
attributable to the greater softness of 
brass than of cast iron2 and for  the   
same reason a wrought-iron gun1 though  
made as sound as one of cast  iron1     
would be inferior in these two important
 points4 ,but when a  wrought-iron gun  
is composed of many particles           
imperfectly secured 7and  no mechanical 
force is sufficient to secure perfect   
cohesion in large  masses71 the wrought 
becomes doubly inferior to the cast gun3
 a shot  projected from such a gun      
starts from an unsound base2 a large    
portion  of the explosive force is      
absorbed by the variety of sections     
composing  the gun1 to the injury both  
of the accuracy and length of range of  
the  projectile4 ,the softer metals     
cannot be beneficially used in the      
construction of large guns1 because they
 destroy the force of the  expellant    

without making any equivalent return2   
and the softer the metal  and the       
greater its substance1 the more clearly 
is this important fact  demonstrated4   
,thus1 in experiments made with large   
cannon for increasing  the weight of the
 gun beyond a certain proportion to that
 of the  projectile1 a gun of ten tons  
weight and ten inch bore would not      
exceed  in range a gun of five tons1 if 
the charge of powder were the same2 on  
account of the indisputable fact that   
much more force of the expellant  is    
destroyed1 whilst more than double the  
force is absorbed for the  recoil of the
 ten ton than of the five ton gun2 and  
the loss from these  two causes must    
materially affect the flight of the     
projectile1 though  fired at exactly the
 same elevation4    ,the great defect   
which experiment shows to exist in the  
hoop-and-stave  wrought iron gun1 and   
which renders the gun self-destroying1  
is  separation at points between the    
trunnions and cascable of the gun4 ,the 

force acting first upon the breech1 it  
yields1 and the force is then  brought  
to bear upon the longitudinal portion of
 the gun behind the  trunnions2 the     
staves have thus to bear the first      
strain1 and1 after a  few shots1 become 
elongated4 ,an opening of the hoops at  
their junction  with each other 7most   
frequently between the breech and       
trunnions7  begins1 after a very few    
shots1 to be distinctly visible1 and    
increases  at every discharge1 until    
further proceeding amounts to madness1  
or  recklessness of human life4    ,that
 enormous engine1 ,mallet's monster     
mortar1 of which ,i give an  engraving  
on page #ajj1 clearly proves this to be 
the case4 ,it will be  observed to be   
constructed with a solid cast iron      
breech end1 the  dimensions of which    
will be seen by referring to the        
engraving4 ,abutting  upon this are a   
succession of wrought iron hoops1       
ingeniously inserted  into each other1  
and more firmly secured by six outside  

staves of great  dimensions1 which1 at  
the muzzle ring1 pass through openings  
in the  muzzle ring1 with heads like    
enormous rivets4 ,the binding power is  
given  by 8quoin-like0 wedges1 driven   
through the opposite end of the stave1  
beneath the projection of the cast      
breech1 giving power to tighten the     
longitudinal binders by a blow when     
required4    ,illustration3 ,mallet's   
,mortar4    ,,dimensions4               
,tons4 cwt4 qrs4 lbs4    ,cast iron base
 with wrought iron breech shrunk    into
 bore                                   
#ba    #ai    #j    #b    ,wood carriage
 complete1 with wrought iron screw      
and spanner for elevating mortar        
#h     #h    #j   #ad    ,bottom part of
 mortar to fit on top of the breech   #g
     #e    #c   #bc    ,part of mortar  
7a ring7 to fit on the top of the       
above                                   
#e     #h    #c   #bc    ,do4  do4  do4 
#c     #j    #b   #ac    ,muzzle ring   
#a     #b    #c   #ab    ,wood ring     

#j     #j    #a    #j    ,wrought iron  
ring                                    
#j     #d    #c    #d    ,wrought iron  
conical ring to fix on top of muzzle    
ring                                    
#j     #c    #c   #be    ,t-headed      
bolts1 with gibs and keys for fixing    
mortar to base3 may be called outer     
staves          #a    #af    #b    #j   
,wood-wedges1 c41 for elevating         
#j    #ac    #c   #bb    ,outer pin1    
with cross for turning mortar round     
#j     #h    #c   #ad                   
------------------                      
,total weight     #ej    #ac    #b   #ba
          ,weight of shell unfilled1 #bf
 cwt4 #b qrs42 diameter1 #cf inches4    
,this is notorious as a monster failure1
 even with a charge of powder  amounting
 to only one half what the projector    
fondly hoped would be  perfectly        
harmless in its effects4 ,this          
,brobdignagian toy has proved to  be    
fearfully expensive1 the cost having    
been estimated at eight thousand        

pounds4 ,it has1 ,i believe1 been the   
largest and most expensive  experiment  
indulged in by the noble 8projector10#f 
and ,i sincerely hope  it will be the   
last4      #f ,lord ,palmerston4    ,the
 preceding pages will have done much to 
remove from an unbiassed mind  any      
favourable impression of the advantages 
expected to result from the  use of     
wrought-iron cannon4 ,the knowledge of  
this subject1 even among  talented and  
scientific men1 appears to be at a very 
low ebb1 as is  evinced by the multitude
 of failures that have taken place2 not 
one  success of any moment has as yet   
been attained1 and not a discovery has  
been made worthy of being chronicled4   
99       99       99       99       99  
,having enlarged thus much on the       
qualities of a metal which it is        
certain can never supersede the use of  
cast-iron1 even though it be  freed from
 the defects found practically to exist 
in our present  constructed iron        
artillery2 and having also alluded to   

the fact that the  form has much        
influence on the durability of cast-iron
 guns1 ,i now  proceed to the more      
important point of the qualities of     
cast-iron  itself4    ,little doubt     
exists that guns cast a hundred years   
ago were more durable  than those of    
more recent formation2 it is evident1   
therefore1 that  apart from mere form1  
some material depreciation must have    
taken place  in the quality of the      
metal4 ,the use of hot blast-furnaces1  
better  fluxes1 and improved chemical   
knowledge in the reduction of metallic  
ores1 though highly profitable in a     
commercial point of view1 doubling  the 
products of our mines1 and enriching    
their proprietors1 has1  unfortunately  
rendered ,english cast-iron perfectly   
unfit for the  formation of cannon1 if  
increased range and greater strain by   
high  elevation are to be the order of  
the day4    ,the durability of ,russian 
cast-iron is unquestionably greater than
 that  manufactured in ,england4 ,some  

cause must exist for this2 and the      
question arises1 is the ore superior to 
ours1 or does the superiority of        
,russian iron depend on their method of 
smelting8 ,the latter is1 we  believe1  
the cause of the superiority of ,russian
 iron2 for experiments  show that       
,russian ore1 smelted in an ,english    
furnace1 yields the same  kind of       
cast-iron as is produced from the ore   
found in ,england4 ,the  inference1     
therefore1 is plain1 that the difference
 in the process of  smelting makes all  
the difference in the quality of the    
iron4    ,two thousand years ago the    
,romans1 or their dependents1 smelted   
iron in  the county of ,durham3 vast    
accumulations of slag exist there at the
  present time2 and thousands of tons   
have been beneficially re-smelted by    
two adjoining iron-works1 and a         
percentage of iron obtained sufficient  
to prove that the ,romans were little   
indebted to fluxes or hot blasts  for   
the quality of iron they obtained4 ,the 

,russians cannot boast of  these        
adjuncts any more than the ,romans3 the 
old agents1 wood and  energy1 are alone 
employed in the smelting of their ores2 
and in the  absence of scientific aids1 
though they obtain a much smaller       
aggregate  quantity of metal1 yet it is 
undoubtedly of a much superior quality4 
,with the ,romans1 also1 the yield was  
meagre1 but the quality was good2  now1 
however1 circumstances are reversed1    
quantity1 not quality1 being  the order 
of the day4    ,the use of coals instead
 of wood in the process of smelting has 
introduced a mixture which is very      
prejudicial4 ,most of the coal1 even    
from our very best mines1 contains a    
large quantity of pyrites1 or           
bisulphuret of iron1 which1 combining   
with the cast-iron1 injures it to  an   
incalculable extent4    ,these facts    
fully explain why our cast-iron guns are
 not so good now as  formerly4 ,select  
the most suitable mine in the kingdom1  
erect a furnace  on the most improved   

principles1 employ wood fuel only1 avoid
 fluxes and  hot and cold blasts1 and be
 content with the small amount of metal 
produced1 and beyond all doubt the      
quality will be all that the most       
sanguine founder or artillerist could   
wish4    ,thus the inferiority of our   
cast-iron guns has been accounted for1  
and a  method suggested1 which1 if      
efficiently carried out1 would effect   
the  desired improvement4           99  
99       99       99       99    ,we are
 indebted to ,krupp for the first       
suggestion of1 as well as the  first    
attempt to introduce1 a cast steel gun  
of greater durability and  power than   
the best cast-iron gun which has yet    
been manufactured4  ,steel1 possessing1 
as it does1 hardness to any desired     
extent1 ductility  in an equal degree1  
tenacity unrivalled1 and all the other  
requisites1  is destined to take the    
place of all other metals in the        
construction of  artillery4 ,this metal 
waits only to be tested2 and the greater

 the  extent to which the trial is      
carried1 the more confident we are that 
it  will answer every purpose4          
,krupp1 like many other men with        
valuable ideas1 has been peculiarly     
unfortunate in his attempts to carry    
them out4 ,with a vast amount of        
knowledge of the science of metallurgy1 
he wants more knowledge in the  not     
inferior science of projectiles2 the    
most important point being to  ascertain
 the form of gun calculated to be       
suitable for new metal1 of  the use of  
which1 for cannon1 the world possesses  
no antecedent  knowledge4    ,the only  
failures ,mr4 ,krupp has made 7if they  
can1 strictly speaking1  be so called71 
have arisen from mal-construction1      
imperfect form1 and  unscientific       
combinations2 defects which might be    
expected from a mere  novice1 though not
 from experienced artillerists or       
founders of  artillery4 ,the trial of   
the only steel gun sent by ,mr4 ,krupp  
to this  country1 was conducted in the  

most absurd manner1 and on wholly       
unscientific principles4 ,i will        
endeavour to convey some idea of this   
most extraordinary of experiments4      
,whether ,mr4 ,krupp was unacquainted   
with the durability of his metal1 or was
 persuaded1 against his will1 to        
conduct the experiment as he did1 ,i    
know not1 but the following is what     
took place3--    ,in #ahea ,mr4 ,krupp  
brought to ,woolwich a specimen steel   
gun of ten-inch  bore1 weighing about   
four tons4 ,he was induced 7but why1 ,i 
am at a loss  to conceive17 to construct
 a cast-iron jacket1 or outer gun1 into 
which  his steel gun was inserted up to 
the trunnions4 ,the steel gun was       
separated from its cast-iron jacket by a
 space of half an inch in its  whole    
length1 except at each end1 where the   
jacket was fitted to the gun  with a    
moderate degree of tightness2 thus the  
gun and jacket consisted  of two tubes1 
one within the other1 fastened only at  
their extremities1  and that by a very  

slight force4 ,the result1 as might have
 been  expected1 was the bursting both  
of the gun and its case2 but that the   
steel gun or its jacket would have stood
 the test1 if subjected to it  singly1  
cannot be doubted4 ,the difference of   
expansion between the steel  gun and its
 jacket would be quite enough to account
 for its bursting4  ,had the contact of 
the two been perfect throughout the     
whole length1  but allowing half an inch
 all around for the expansion of the    
steel gun  in that part which was       
subjected to the greatest pressure1 the 
very act  of restraining it in other    
parts so as to prevent equal expansion1 
would  be perfectly certain to produce a
 fracture4 ,mr4 ,krupp's friends have   
complained loudly of unfair treatment1  
whether justly or not1 no opinion  need 
now be given2 but it is much to be      
regretted that his experiment  was not  
carried out on scientific principles4   
,the introduction of cast  steel guns   
will be the most essential improvement  

in artillery3 and an  extensive series  
of experiments1 extending over many     
years1 during which  time ,i have       
manufactured gun-barrels of steel alone1
 ought to give my  opinion some weight  
on this subject4    ,laminated steel    
gun-barrels were well known in #ahea2   
but the ,english  bugbear1 prejudice1   
raised a clamour against them1 which was
 echoed by  interest and ignorance1 and 
thus their general adoption was for a   
long  time prevented4 ,however1 in the  
short space of seven years1 they have   
become universally adopted1 with the    
most beneficial results2 better         
shooting1 less annoyance from recoil1   
less weight to carry1 and greater       
safety to the sportsman1 being the      
principal4 ,and so it will be with      
steel cannon2 as a short time will      
suffice to enable scientific            
investigation to remove all prejudices  
against them4    ,the external form of  
cannon is a question of vital           
importance1 but one  which is little    

understood by artillerists of the       
present day4 ,whilst it  is a           
demonstrable fact that all excessive    
bulk of cast-iron causes  weakness in   
proportion to the excess1 no effectual  
steps have as yet  been taken by the    
,government to ascertain what is the due
 proportion of  metal which ought to    
exist in different parts of the gun4    
,the ,american  authority on naval      
gunnery1 ,captain ,dhalgren1 has paid   
considerable  attention to this subject2
 and if the reports on the durability of
  ,american heavy ordnance can be relied
 on 7and there is no reason why  they   
should not7 his investigations have been
 attended with much  success4           
,captain ,dhalgren has extended the     
principle acted upon many years ago by  
,mr4 ,monck2 his great improvement      
consisting in lessening the weight of   
iron in front of the trunnions1 and     
adding to that of the breech4 ,in       
cannon1 as in fowling-pieces1 weight in 
the fore part is useless2  conducing    

neither to the safety of the gun1 nor to
 the smartness of its  shooting4 ,for   
endurance1 it is necessary that the     
expansion should be  equal in every part
 of the gun2 rigidity in one part       
increasing the  strain on the           
immediately adjacent parts1 which1 if   
much reduced1 are  thus rendered liable 
to fracture4 ,the breech has to endure  
the  lengthened explosion produced by   
the burning of the gunpowder2 and1 as   
this continues until it has overcome the
 inertia of the projectile1 it  is      
necessary in all cases that the maximum 
of strength should be in the  breech of 
the gun4 ,when the projectile is once in
 motion the strength of  the tube may be
 rapidly decreased2 the only strain it  
has to bear is  exerted whilst the      
projectile is passing over it2 and this 
strain1 in  properly constructed guns1  
becomes of shorter and shorter duration 
as  the projectile attains its highest  
velocity at the muzzle of the gun4  ,the
 greatest strain a gun has to bear near 

the muzzle is that produced  by the     
condensation of the column of air in    
front of the charge2 and in  almost     
every form of ,english ordnance the     
weight of metal here is  greater than is
 necessary4    ,the ,russian guns which 
have been brought to this country       
present the  same superabundance of     
metal at the muzzle1 whilst at the      
breech there  appears to be a           
deficiency2 and when we take into       
consideration the  extraordinary reports
 of their endurance1 we must ascribe it 
to some  other cause than the proper    
distribution of metal4 ,their endurance 
is no  doubt owing in part to the       
goodness of the metal1 in part also to  
the  form of the breech1 to the         
uniformity of thickness in the sides of 
the  arch1 and1 lastly1 to the absence  
of those protuberances called           
8reinforce rings40 ,these rings might   
with propriety be termed 8rings of      
destruction20 for wherever              
irregularities exist in the substance of

 the  metal1 there the waves of         
vibration are interrupted1 and the weak 
point  then becomes fractured4 ,the     
science of spring-making in all its     
varieties demonstrates the truth of this
 statement4 ,leave on a  coach-spring an
 abutment of metal like a 8reinforce    
ring10 and a few  motions will be       
sufficient to break it1 however well the
 spring may be  constructed in every    
other part4 ,the rigidity of this       
protuberance1 by  interrupting the waves
 of vibration1 causes additional        
vibration in the  adjacent and more     
yielding part1 and thus produces        
fracture4 ,the same  thing occurs in all
 ill-constructed artillery3 where the   
vibrations are  checked1 there is always
 a danger of some weaker part giving    
way4 ,but  the laws which regulate the  
distribution of vibrations in metal     
substances are not yet understood by    
artillerists1 or cannon would be        
differently constructed4 ,those         
unscientific protuberances called       

8trunnions10 which are to be seen in    
almost every description of gun1  prove 
the accuracy of my assertions4 ,these   
protuberances1 if  scientifically       
considered1 would soon be discarded1    
since they tend not  only to the rapid  
destruction of the cannon1 but also     
exert a most  injurious influence on the
 direction of the projectile4 ,the most 
wonderful shooting ever heard of 7and   
which has been before alluded to7  is   
partly to be attributed to the absence  
of trunnions4 ,trunnions act as  the    
fulcrum of a scale-beam2 they allow the 
breech and muzzle of the gun  to        
oscillate1 but in an opposite direction 
to a scale beam4 ,rifled  cannon can    
never be correctly constructed whilst   
any weight impinges on  the gun in front
 of the first starting point of the     
projectile2 they  must have the fulcrum 
behind the point of discharge1 and the  
more nearly  in a direct line the       
better4    ,rifled cannon will in some  
few years be perfectly constructed of   

cast  steel2 the projectile being made  
of gun metal1 i4 e41 ninety-five  parts 
of copper to five parts of tin1 or of   
lead and its alloys1 and at  a probable 
cost of ten times that of a cast-iron   
projectile of equal  weight4    ,rifled 
cannon must be elevated by raising the  
muzzle2 no depression of  the breech    
must occur as by the usual elevating    
screw2 and the recoil  must be received 
and borne by fastenings and axle in rear
 of the breech  only4 ,trunnions and all
 impinging influences are incompatible  
with  correctness of fire4 ,the muzzle  
must be raised in a similar manner to   
the raising of a hand rifle1 the recoil 
being thrown backwards1 in as  direct a 
line as possible with that of the shot4 
,it is only on account of the difficulty
 of experimenting with rifled  cannon   
that they are at all behind rifled      
muskets in point of  perfection4 ,the   
ardent lover of science is appalled when
 an experiment  costs hundreds of       
pounds4 ,we have not a ,general ,jacob  

everywhere who can  afford to spend a   
thousand or two in experiments2 but1    
nevertheless1 the  lover of science1    
could he experiment1 might attain such  
extraordinary  accuracy of range1 as to 
blow up a smaller magazine than that of 
,kurrachee at four times the distance2  
and that1 too1 with a more certain      
effect1 though with a projectile heavier
 than several of ,jacob's rifles  tied  
together4 ,correct direction is certain 
in proportion to the  increase of       
weight2 deflection being in the minimum 
with the heavier  weight1 from the well 
known law of momentum4 ,that astute and 
energetic  sovereign1 the ,emperor      
,napoleon1 is pursuing experiments with 
rifled  cannon2 with what result there  
can be little doubt4    ,it must be by  
the use of rifled cannon that our       
artillery will regain  the place it has 
lost4 ,a short time will suffice to make
 the disparity  between our artillery   
and small arms as great as when we were 
content  with the six-pounder field gun 

and old 8,brown ,bess40 ,ranges will    
only be  ruled by sight1 and objects    
will be hit eventually with as much ease
 at  #e1jjj yards as they now are at    
#a1jjj4 ,steel1 rifled cannon1 and      
projectiles of gun-metal will assuredly 
bring about as complete a  revolution in
 artillery as the ,greenerian rifle and 
bullet have effected  in small arms4    
,the form of gun best suited for all    
purposes has yet to be determined2  and 
we have pointed out these defects in our
 artillery with the hope  that some of  
the great practical philosophers of the 
present age may  devote themselves to   
the study of this question4 ,it is      
nearly allied to  the science of        
bell-making1 and a few more fractures of
 ,big ,ben will  extend our knowledge of
 the subject1 and produce a remedy which
 lies not  very deep below the surface4 
,the laws which should guide us in the  
construction of cast steel guns1 so as  
to insure their durability1 are  very   
analogous to those which determine the  

durability of bells2 for the  laws which
 regulate disintegration of crystalline 
structures are very  similar4 ,hitherto 
the rule of thumb has1 unfortunately1   
been the only  rule observed in         
measuring out the quantity of metal     
which shall  surround that portion of a 
cannon which has to sustain the most    
violent  concussion4    ,professor      
,barlow many years ago proved1 to the   
satisfaction of the  ,institution of    
,civil ,engineers1 that the metal in any
 cylinder decreases  in utility in      
proportion to the square of its distance
 from the centre3  that the outside of a
 gun of the form now used1 in fact1 is  
only  one-ninth as useful as the inside2
 being three times as far from the      
centre4 ,if we double the thickness1 the
 outside1 being five times as far  from 
the centre as the inside1 will be but   
one-twenty-fifth as useful2  or in plain
 ,english1 nearly useless4 ,the reason  
of this is simple1 and ,i  will         
endeavour to explain it4    8,a bar of  

cast iron one inch thick each way and   
#dj inches long will  stretch about     
one-twentieth of an inch1 if a weight of
 about four tons  be suspended by it4   
,when the weight is removed1 the cast   
iron nearly  recovers its previous form1
 and is uninjured2 but if it be         
stretched  more1 by a greater weight1 it
 is permanently injured4    8,a bar of  
the same thickness1 but three times as  
long--#abj inches--will  stretch three  
times as much1 or three-twentieths of an
 inch1 with the  same weight2 or if only
 one-third the weight--one ton and a    
third--be  suspended1 it will stretch   
one-twentieth of an inch1 the same as   
the  shorter bar4    8,if we suspend #af
 tons by four bars1 one inch thick and  
#dj inches long1  they will each stretch
 one-twentieth of an inch only1 and     
remain  uninjured2 but if we attempt to 
do so with two bars #dj inches long and 
two #abj inches long1 then1 when the    
whole have lengthened one-twentieth  of 
an inch1 the short ones are exerting a  

force of eight tons1 but the  long ones 
that of only two and two-thirds tons4   
,the weight1 therefore1  will still     
further lengthen the bars1 and          
permanently injure the short  ones2     
perhaps break them first1 and then the  
long ones4    8,this is the way a gun is
 burst4 ,the inside is a series of bars 
of iron1  say #dj inches long1 in the   
form of a ring2 the outside a series of 
rings1 representing the bars three times
 as long40    ,warfare1 since the first 
introduction of gunnery into ,europe1   
has been  like one continued series of  
experiments for testing the efficacy of 
our  guns4 ,no description of gun we now
 possess can lay any claim to  existence
 fifty years ago3 the great majority of 
our guns now in use are  of a much more 
recent date4    ,with one or two        
exceptions1 no artillery has been       
constructed on any  scientific theory2  
some alteration has been made1 and if a 
gun of a  certain form and dimensions   
gave a certain result1 then an extension

 or  emulation of that gun was tried2   
and if it succeeded a loud cry of       
exultation was raised1 and the discovery
 was announced to the world as a  great 
improvement4    ,illustration3 ,russian 
#ef-pounder gun4    ,illustration3      
#h-;inch ,british gun4    ,colonel      
,prejudice has invented a vastly        
improved description of gun2  another   
guess is made1 and so different forms of
 guns are multiplied4  ,can there be a  
more striking illustration of this than 
the one which  took place during the    
late ,crimean war8 ,it was boasted that 
the whole  human race might be          
exterminated by the new invention2 but  
the  8,lancaster gun0 turned out to be  
most unscientific in its construction1  
and most eccentric in its action4 ,had  
such a thing as scientific  knowledge in
 gunnery existed among the artillerists 
of the day1 such a  monstrosity would   
have been buried soon after its birth2  
instead of  being allowed to squander   
large sums of money at every discharge1 

and  then at last to become a           
8,whistling ,jemmy0 for our bluejackets 
to laugh  at4    ,the form of cannon no 
doubt exercises a vital influence over  
their  durability2 bad form and         
imperfection of material combined1      
tended to  produce the rapid destruction
 of our guns during the late important  
struggle4    ,the gun which has been    
experimented with to the greatest       
extent1 and  which has withstood all    
trials successfully1 is a ,russian      
fifty-six-pounder2 taken1 ,i believe1 at
 ,bomarsund4 ,in this gun there are  two
 great peculiarities2 the shape1 as will
 be seen in the diagram1  differs from  
all our own guns3 it is a 8chambered    
gun10 and the metal is  taken away from 
the outside precisely as the contraction
 increases on  the inside thus giving an
 equal thickness of metal in every part1
 of the  arc 7see page #aad74    ,in    
contrast with this1 we give a cut of our
 #h-;inch gun1 which most  nearly       
resembles it as a chambered gun 7see    

page #aad74    ,the reader's attention  
is especially directed to the           
dissimilarity in  the distribution of   
the metal in the two guns4 ,the want of 
uniform  thickness of metal in our      
#h-;inch gun must be sufficient to      
convince any  one that1 if the ,russian 
gun be properly constructed1 the        
principle of  ours must be radically    
wrong4 ,that such is the case1 indeed1  
,i cannot  doubt1 the ,russian gun      
having undergone such a test as would   
have  destroyed six of ours4 ,the gun   
has since been made two inches larger in
  the bore1 and even oval-bored1 for    
firing shells1 which should alone be    
enough to destroy it2 and yet with all  
this the gun remains perfect4    ,the   
gun which most nearly resembles this is 
our ,english carronade2 and  that these 
guns have some important principle in   
their shape is proved  by their great   
durability under all trials2 and ,i     
believe that the tests  to which the    
carronade has been subjected have been  

more severe than  that of any other     
piece in the ,british service4    ,there
 have been many shrewd conjectures as to
 the cause of this  durability2 one of  
these was very pungent1 viz41 8the      
invention was not  by one of the cloth40
 ,an examination of the drawing of the  
#fh-pounder  carronade will enable the  
reader to perceive the great similarity 
between this and the ,russian gun before
 spoken of 7see page #aad74             
,illustration3 #fh-pound carronade4     
,the manufacture of these guns was      
originally in the hands of the          
inventors1 and it is quite evident that 
they must have taken great pains  with  
the form of the gun1 and also have taken
 special care that the  material of     
which it was constructed was of the very
 best quality4    ,there is too much    
reason to doubt the proficiency of      
military men in  the science of         
metallurgy2 and the ,british system of  
depending solely on  their knowledge for
 the last half century1 has no doubt    

proved an  obstacle to advancement in   
the science of gunnery4                 
,illustration3 ,monck's #ef-pounder gun4
    ,the gun which ranks next is        
,monck's #ef-pounder4 ,although not a   
chambered  gun1 it will be seen1 from   
the diagram 7see p4 #aag71 to be an     
attempt  7if not a perfectly successful 
one7 to obtain uniformity of thickness  
in  every part of the arc4 ,the         
durability of these guns ranks as we    
have  placed them4    ,the next in      
rotation is the #h-;inch or #fh-pounder 
7see p4 #aad72 which1  although not the 
original sized gun that was rifled for  
the ,lancaster  shell1 yet it was the   
one eventually used for that projectile 
up to the  end of its very brief career4
    ,illustration3 #aj-;inch or         
#hf-pounder gun4    ,the #aj-;inch gun  
of #ie cwt41 delineated at page #aag1   
will be seen to be  defective in its    
outlines when tested by the principles  
before laid  down1 and the fact of more 
#aj-;inch guns bursting at ,sebastopol  

than any  others 7mortars only          
excepted71 may be taken as exclusive    
evidence of  its imperfection4    ,the  
bursting of mortars is quite notorious1 
especially the #ac-;inch  mortars used  
for sea-service in the attack on        
,sweaborg4 ,a slight  examination of the
 engraving of one will be sufficient to 
convince any  person that1 if what has  
already been advanced on the form of    
guns can  lay claim to being scientific1
 then this is of all guns the most      
unscientific that was ever manufactured4
 ,its durability1 too1 like its  shape1 
is of a very low order4                 
,illustration3 #ac-;inch sea-service    
mortar4    ,the #ac-;inch land mortar   
depicted below is a much more           
serviceable  production1 because it     
contains much less metal4               
,illustration3 #ac-;inch land-service   
mortar4    ,mortars will retain their   
place in spite of all improvements4     
,rifling is  inapplicable to them4      
,their principal utility consists in    

obtaining a  vertical fire2 the shell   
being pitched to a great height1 so as  
to fall  into places that cannot be     
assailed by a horizontal fire4    ,the  
late ,joseph ,manton has the merit of   
being the first modern inventor  of     
rifled cannon4 ,his idea was1 that if a 
motion on an axis parallel to  the      
horizon could be given to cannon balls1 
they would range farther and  with      
greater accuracy4 ,as there exists great
 difficulty in causing the  rifling in a
 gun to act upon an iron ball1 he       
constructed a cup of wood1  into which  
the ball was fitted1 projections being  
made upon the wood to  fit into the     
groves of the rifle2 the spinning motion
 thus being  communicated to the ball by
 its wooden adjunct4 ,the result was    
twofold2  for the expansions of the wood
 during the explosion1 filled the tube  
of  the gun tight1 and effectually      
destroyed the windage4 ,the government  
of  the day did offer him a premium of  
one farthing each2 but 8,joe0           

over-reached himself1 asking the sum of 
#cj1jjj down2 this was refused1  and the
 patent was allowed to expire without   
the ,government taking any  advantage of
 it1 and experiments ceased to be made  
in this direction4    ,rifled cannon    
have now1 however1 become a certainty4  
,mechanically  speaking1 they are as    
easily to be produced as hand rifles4   
,the general  application has1 however1 
vast difficulties1 which must be        
overcome  before their use can become   
general4 ,small arm projectiles suitable
 for  rifles must of necessity be made  
of ductile metal1 and all the attempts  
previously made1 whether with brass or  
iron guns1 are alike useless4 ,the  mass
 in motion1 even when of equal hardness 
with the gun 7as in the case  of cast   
iron guns and cast iron shot71          
invariably destroys that in a           
comparative state of rest2 and the      
rifling is obliterated after a very  few
 discharges4 ,in a brass gun the        
destruction is certainly not so  rapid1 

on account of the different nature of   
the metal2 yet the  destruction of the  
gun for all useful purposes is equally  
effectual4 ,it  is evident1 then1 that  
success cannot be obtained by using the 
present  materials in rifled cannon2 and
 the question inevitably arises1 what   
better material can we use8 ,wrought    
iron shells have already been           
thoroughly tried in the ,lancaster oval 
gun1 with a well-known result4    ,great
 hopes were at one time entertained1    
that something suitable would  result   
from ,mr4 ,bessemer's discovery of the  
combustion of carbon1 and  that an iron 
of sufficient ductility1 yet without the
 usual hardness1  would be produced2 but
 this1 it appears1 is still a myth4     
,extent of range and accuracy of fire in
 gunnery will in future be of so  much  
importance in war1 that it is not       
extravagant to assert1 that in  contests
 between well-matched belligerents1 the 
precious metals 7if they  gave any      
advantage to the user7 would be         

unhesitatingly used in  projectiles4    
,but on the score of economy1 science   
need not be impeded4  ,gun-metal        
projectiles and cast steel cannon would 
work as effectually  together as lead   
and iron in small arms4    ,some other  
mixtures less expensive might be        
produced 7lead and copper in  certain   
proportions are very ductile71 and at   
the same time sufficiently  strong to   
resist all tendency to squash2 as the   
softer metals would  inevitably do4 ,the
 more ductile metals are limited in     
their utility1 by  the same law which   
limits the use of pure lead3 that is1 to
 given  weight1 height of column1 or    
velocity4 ,great doubt exists whether a 
bullet made of gun metal1 and of the    
same proportionate dimensions and  form 
as an ,enfield bullet1 but fitted for a 
ten-inch gun1 would not1 if  fired with 
the proportionate charge of powder      
7namely1 seventeen  pounds71 be as      
completely squashed1 or driven in upon  
itself1 as the  ,enfield bullet if fired

 with the old ,brown ,bess charge of    
four drachms  and a half4               
,considerable time and experience will  
be required to ascertain the            
proportions of metallic mixture         
necessary to meet all contingencies2    
this1 however1 is a matter of detail1   
and must extend over so large an  area1 
that it can be handled only by the      
government officials1 with the          
necessary 8sinews0 of experiment4       
,nevertheless it must be undertaken2    
and the sooner it is done the better1   
for the prestige of that nation  which  
would lead the van of improvement in    
gunnery1 and increase its  power of     
attack and defence beyond those of its  
rivals4    ,rifled cannon is a generic  
term of endless application1 presenting 
to  the mind modifications of           
projectiles in endless variety1 ranging 
from  the 8light firebrand0 to the twice
 deadly rocket3 not rockets of that     
eccentric and erratic character by which
 ,congreve made an undying name2  but   

real bon fide rifle rockets1 which shall
 hit the dead-lights in  the            
quarter-gallery of a frigate1 carry away
 the halyards of your  enemies' ensign  
7making him drop his colours at the     
first shot7 or dash  the glass from the 
hand of the pilot4 ,all such imaginary  
feats will yet  be accomplished2 though 
the reader may smile at the idea4 ,my   
experience  with rockets goes to justify
 me in asserting that rockets discharged
  from a gun1 under certain             
circumstances1 can be as effectually    
controlled1 and kept to a direct course1
 as a bullet fired from a rifle4  ,the  
rocket1 however1 may be fired a much    
greater distance than we have  ever been
 able to project a bullet2 because1 in  
addition to the force  which projects it
 from the gun1 its flight is maintained 
by the self  sustaining agency in the   
body of the rocket4 ,rockets require a  
much  smaller charge of powder to       
project them than that which is used for
 a  bullet2 a rocket started by its own 

force1 expends1 in acquiring even an    
approximation to its highest velocity1  
at least one-third of the force  with   
which it is charged2 but when projected 
by a small charge of  gunpowder this    
force is saved1 and the flight of the   
rocket is  afterwards sustained by the  
force with which it is charged4         
,firing rockets from cannon can only be 
practised under certain  circumstances4 
,the observations already made on the   
granulation of  gunpowder will have     
prepared the reader for this            
announcement4 ,when  fired from a cannon
 under the old rgime1 the rocket was    
projected at  high velocity1 and the    
case of the rocket was destroyed by the 
very  force which set it in motion4 ,a  
rocket suitable for artillery should be 
cast of gun metal1 with a frame of      
considerable strength4 ,in form it      
should nearly approximate to an         
expansive bullet2 but1 instead of the   
limited length of one and three quarters
 diameter2 it should approach to  four  

diameters2 two of which1 at least1      
should be appropriated to the  cylinder 
behind the head4    ,the head is charged
 with composition more densely driven   
than is  customary in the ordinary      
rocket2 the tubes in the cylinder are   
also  charged with a composition equally
 dense4 ,the outer frame of the rocket  
is cast with suitable projections to fit
 the grooves of the gun3 the  spiral of 
these grooves is considerable1 being one
 turn in every three  feet1 in order to 
impart to the rocket an effectual       
spinning motion when  in a low state of 
velocity4 ,the rocket properly          
constructed is then  placed in the      
rocket-gun1 and fired in the usual way2 
but it is  essential that the gunpowder 
used should be of a suitable quality3   
its  combustion must be as slow as      
possible1 a starting velocity of from   
#ejj  to #hjj feet per second being     
sufficient to ensure the flight of the  
self-sustaining projectile to the end of
 its range4 ,this principle may  be     

extended from a light firebrand1 as     
already stated1 to that of a  rocket    
charged in the head with the most deadly
 and destructive  fulminate4    ,it may 
appear absurd to speak of fulminates    
being projected2 since all  experiments 
show that fulminates1 even when         
adulterated1 will not stand  the        
concussion of a discharge1 but          
invariably ignite in the gun1 however   
carefully placed or packed in the shell 
which contains them3 for this  reason   
fulminates have never been successfully 
used4 ,but if the  fulminate is placed  
in the head of a rocket1 this objection 
may be  obviated4 ,the gradual manner in
 which velocity is given to a rocket    
does  not subject it to violent         
displacement during its flight2 neither 
need  the concussion in the gun be      
severe1 owing to the nature of the      
gunpowder used1 which in its gradual    
expansion is analogous to steam3  thus  
the field for the application of        
fulminates is opened to an  unlimited   

extent4    ,my own experience on this   
subject has been limited to its         
application  for the saving of life from
 shipwreck1 where the application of a  
line  to the rocket limits its range and
 velocity2 but sufficient is left in a  
rocket of an inch and a half diameter   
effectually to carry out a line of  a   
quarter of an inch diameter to a        
distance of #fjj or #hjj yards3 that    
is1 more than double the distance       
obtained by either ,manby's apparatus   
or the rockets now in use2 which1       
lamentable to state1 are quite          
inadequate to the purposes for which    
they are intended4    ,though the       
improvements in rifled cannon are at    
present only in their  infancy1 they    
have nevertheless attained to an        
extraordinary degree of  perfection1    
verifying all our predictions to the    
letter4    ,a writer in the ,times makes
 the following statements in favour of  
,mr4  ,whitworth's improvements3--      
8,while some men of really inventive    

talent1 and a great many charlatans1    
have been permitted to waste the public 
money in trying vainly to  improve our  
artillery1 it seems passing strange that
 it should not long  ago have been      
discovered how impossible it was to hope
 for successful  results in the         
direction in which they were working4   
,it was clear that  while increased     
range and precision of firing were      
wanted1 it was nearly  as important to  
bring the charges of ammunition and the 
weight of metal  in guns into more      
manageable proportions to each other1   
and to the  facilities for transit on   
active service4 ,no sensible man can    
have  witnessed the frightful damage    
done to the efficiency of our army in   
the  ,crimea by the exigencies of the   
siege-train during the winter of #ahed-e
  without being impressed with this     
conviction4 ,the principle of the rifle 
offered an obvious suggestion for the   
proper means of working out the         
foregoing problem2 but then for         

artillery1 rifling by grooves would not 
do without the use of a pliant metal in 
the projectile1 and the cost of  lead   
rendered its application to that purpose
 impracticable4 ,it was  necessary1     
therefore1 to alter the existing mode of
 rifling1 and to  modify the bore of the
 cannon1 so that an iron projectile     
could be  discharged from it1 rotating  
on its own axis in the line of flight4  
,this  result once secured1 it is       
obvious that a field-piece or gun of    
position  would become a rifle on a     
large scale1 and that the same immense  
increase of range and of penetration    
which had been realised by the  smaller 
weapon as compared with ,brown ,bess1   
would be placed at the  command of the  
artillery service4 ,it is consolatory1  
after a series of  failures worthy even 
of ,brunel in launching the ,leviathan1 
that the  country has at last the       
well-grounded hope of an improvement by 
which  our ordnance may be placed on a  
proper footing4 ,in pursuing those      

careful experiments which he undertook  
for the ,government1 principally  to    
improve the rifle1 ,mr4 ,whitworth1 the 
eminent machinist1 adopted a  polygonal 
spiral bore of a uniform pitch1 but more
 rapid than could be  attained by       
grooves4 ,this bore has enabled him to  
surpass immensely the  range and        
penetration of the ,enfield rifle2 but  
even these advantages1  important as    
they are1 scarcely surpass those which  
it places within the  reach of our      
artillery service4 ,the strain of the   
projectile being  distributed evenly    
over every side of the polygon1 iron can
 be  substituted for lead in the        
projectile1 and this simple but         
beautiful  mechanical appliance at once 
becomes available for cannon40    ,the  
powerful aid of the ,times is 8almost   
success20 though in this  instance it   
has signally failed1 the boasted        
accuracy there spoken of  not having    
been yet obtained4 ,this has no doubt   
arisen in part from the  fact that ,mr4 

,whitworth's great mechanical knowledge 
would not suffice  to make him au fait  
at the compound science of gunnery4 ,his
 8polygonal  spiral bore of uniform     
pitch1 more rapid than could be obtained
 by  grooves10 is after all only an     
experimental gun1 not sufficiently      
developed as yet for practical utility4 
,still1 the writer already  alluded to  
has favoured us with the following      
remarks in the ,times3    8,moreover1   
,mr4 ,whitworth has discovered in the   
course of his  experiments1 that        
according to the quickness of the turn  
in the polygon  is the length of the    
projectile that may be fired2 so that   
#bd lb4 and  #dh lb4 shot have been sent
 to extraordinary ranges with half the  
usual  charge of powder1 from an        
ordinary #ab-pounder howitzer4 ,here1   
then1 is  at once the solution of the   
whole question which has troubled the   
brains  of so many inventors1 real or   
pretended1 for years4 ,the artilleryman 
at  one stride resumes the relative     

position to the soldier of the line     
which the ,enfield rifle had so         
perilously deprived him of1 and this    
mechanical country1 after finding       
herself on the level of ,france1        
,russia1 and other ,european ,states1 is
 once more1 as during the  ,peninsular  
campaigns1 enabled to assert her natural
 superiority in the  manufacture of     
cannon4 ,we trust that no petty         
jealousies on the part of  narrow-minded
 officials will be allowed to interfere 
with the course of  ,mr4 ,whitworth's   
experiments1 and that the encouragement 
which he is now  receiving from the     
,minister at ,war and the               
,commander-in-,chief will  enable him1  
at no remote date1 to realise for the   
benefit of the army  and the nation that
 revolution in gunnery which the results
 already  obtained by him promise40     
,report says that #be1jjjl4 is the      
amount of encouragement ,mr4 ,whitworth 
has received from the ,minister of ,war 
and the ,commander-in-,chief2 an        

adequate sum with which to conduct such 
an experiment1 but not  sufficient to   
insure success4    ,of the success of   
,mr4 ,whitworth's polygonal projectile1 
on a large  scale1 none need speculate1 
for the principle is self-destructive4  
,lancaster's oval shell1 oscillated in  
its flight1 took a flight so            
extraordinary1 on account of the        
resistance of the atmosphere on the     
protuberances of the oval1 that the     
principle may be regarded as fully      
established that enlarged projectiles   
must be smooth and free from            
projections that 8saw the air10         
otherwise range and accuracy of fire    
will be sacrificed4 ,the principle of   
,mr4 ,whitworth's polygonal bore is     
fully discussed in its proper place1 and
 will here receive only a  passing      
notice4    ,to ,mr4 ,w4 ,g4 ,armstrong1 
of ,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 much more     
credit is due  than can be claimed for  
,mr4 ,whitworth4 ,long before the paid  
efforts of  ,mr4 ,whitworth1 ,mr4       

,armstrong had made the subject of      
rifled cannon a  special study1 and the 
success of his investigations has been  
such as to  couple his name with those  
of the earliest inventors of effectual  
rifled  cannon4 ,mr4 ,armstrong may also
 lay claim to being an originator of    
wrought steel cannon2 though here his   
name stands second as an inventor1  for 
to ,mr4 ,krupp is due the honour of     
first introducing cast steel  cannon to 
the notice of our ,government4    ,mr4  
,armstrong tells his own tale so well in
 the columns of the ,times  that we     
cannot do better than quote it3--       
8,in the latter part of #ahed1 ,i       
submitted to the ,duke of ,newcastle1   
then  ,minister at ,war1 a proposal for 
a gun which ,i anticipated would possess
  great superiority over the common     
forms of light artillery1 and ,i        
undertook1 with his ,grace's authority1 
to construct a field-piece in           
conformity with the plan ,i had         
suggested4 ,the gun was accordingly soon

  afterwards made1 and has since1 during
 a period of nearly two years1  been the
 subject of numerous experiments1 partly
 upon the ordnance  firing-ground at    
,shoeburyness2 but principally under my 
own direction in  this neighbourhood4   
8,i have hitherto avoided publicity in  
reference to these experiments1  but1 as
 matured results of much interest and   
importance have now been  arrived at1   
and as other names are already before   
the public in  connection with gun      
experiments made during the same period1
 ,i feel that  ,i may now1 without      
impropriety1 give some information on   
the subject4    8,with a view to        
strength and durability1 the gun is     
composed internally  of steel and       
externally of wrought iron1 applied in a
 twisted or spiral  form1 as in a musket
 or fowling-piece4 ,the bore is nearly  
two inches in  diameter1 and is rifled4 
,the projectile is a pointed cylinder   
#f-a_/b  inches long1 and its weight is 
#e lb4 ,it is made of cast iron1 coated 

with lead1 and is fired from the gun    
with a charge of #aj ounces of  powder2 
it contains a small cavity in the       
centre1 and may be used either  as a    
shot or a shell4 ,when applied as a     
shell1 the cavity is filled with        
powder1 and a detonating fuse is        
inserted in front1 so as to fire the    
powder in the centre on striking an     
object4 ,when used as a shot1 the       
powder is omitted1 and an iron point1   
which favours penetration1 is           
substituted for the fuse4 ,the gun is   
constructed to load at the breech1  the 
object being not only to obviate the    
disadvantages of sponging and  loading  
from the front1 but also to allow the   
projectile to be larger in  diameter    
than would enter at the muzzle1 and thus
 to insure its taking  the impress of   
the grooves and completely filling the  
bore4 ,the piece  weighs #e cwt41 and is
 mounted upon a carriage which bears a  
general  resemblance to that of an      
ordinary #f-pounder field gun1 but which

  embraces a pivot frame and recoil     
slide4 ,a screw is also applied1 not    
only for elevating and depressing the   
gun1 but also for moving it             
horizontally1 by which means great      
delicacy of aim is effected4 ,the       
recoil slide has an upward inclination1 
which enables the gun1 after  running   
back1 to recover its position by        
gravity2 and its use is to  relieve the 
pivot-frame and adjusting screws from   
injurious concussion4    8,i shall now  
give some particulars of the experiments
 recently made with  this gun on the    
coast of ,northumberland1 near the      
village of ,whitley1  under the official
 inspection of ,colonel ,wilmot4        
8,fourteen shots were in the first      
instance fired from a distance of       
#a1ejj yards at a timber butt1 #e ft4   
wide #g-a_/b ft4 high4 ,six of these    
were expended in finding the elevation  
proper for the distance1 but  after that
 was determined every succeeding shot   
hit the object without  previous graze4 

,the final elevation of the gun was #d  
deg4 #bf min41 and  the mean lateral    
distance of the shot-marks from a       
vertical line through  the centre of the
 butt was only #aa-a_/b in4    8,persons
 who are conversant with artillery      
practice will be able to  appreciate the
 accuracy of this firing2 but1 for the  
information of  those who are           
unacquainted with the subject1 ,i may   
state that the  ordinary #f-pounder     
field-piece1 which in point of weight   
forms the  nearest approach to the      
present gun1 is perfectly useless at a  
distance  of #a1ejj yards1 and is very  
uncertain even at #a1jjj yards4 ,it is  
only1  therefore1 with heavy artillery  
that a comparison can be drawn2 and it  
will be sufficient to state that in     
tabulating the practice made with  such 
ordnance the deflections are invariably 
recorded in yards1 whereas  with this   
rifled gun they can only be properly    
given in inches4    8,with respect to   
penetration1 the following particulars  

will be regarded  as equally remarkable1
 considering the small weight of the    
shot and the  length of the range4 ,the 
butt was #c ft4 thick1 and was composed 
of six  layers of rock elm bolted       
together1 so as to form a solid block4  
,one  shot passed entirely through2     
another struck near the edge and        
glanced2  and the remaining six         
penetrated within a few inches of the   
opposite  side4    8,shell firing was   
next tried at a distance of #a1ejj      
yards2 the gun being  fired at the same 
elevation and with the same charge as in
 the previous  practice at the butt4    
8,in this case two targets were erected1
 one behind the other1 so as to  appear 
as one object when viewed from the gun1 
and a space of #cj feet  was left       
between them4 ,the front target was     
intended to exhibit the  perforations of
 the shell before bursting1 and the back
 one to show the  effect of the         
fragments resulting from explosion4     
8,after some preliminary experiments    

twenty-two shells were fired at the     
front target1 and of these only one     
missed the object of aim4 ,the          
following are the                       
particulars3--,seventeen hit the first  
target direct1  and burst behind it1 the
 fragments penetrating the second one2  
three  grazed and burst immediately in  
front of the first target1 and          
perforated both with the pieces2 one hit
 the bottom of the first target  and    
exploded in the ground1 and the         
remaining one missed entirely and  burst
 on some rocks nearly on line beyond4 ,a
 strong side wind was  blowing at the   
time1 and accounted for the deviation of
 this single  shell4    8,four shells   
and three shots were then fired at an   
elevation of #f  degrees1 from a        
distance of #b1jjj1 or1 more accurately1
 #a1ifd yards4 ,all  these struck within
 the breadth of the target2 but the     
elevation being  scarcely sufficient1   
they all fell a little short1 except one
 shell1  which1 ranging somewhat further

 than the others1 hit the target and    
burst as usual4    8,the results of this
 shell-firing were as follows3--,the    
front target  contained #ea holes1 and  
the back one #afd1 while the ground     
between and  adjacent to the targets    
exhibited about #gj perforations by     
fragments of  shells1 the greater       
portion of which were afterwards        
recovered by  digging4    8,with respect
 to ranges exceeding #b1jjj yards1 ,i   
may state that on  previous occasions   
the gun had been tried up to #c1jjj     
yards--a distance  which was reached    
with an elevation of #aa deg41 and the  
usual charge of  #aj ounces of powder1  
or #a-hth the weight of the projectile4 
,by  augmenting the charge the range is 
increased1 but the accuracy is          
impaired2 and ,i therefore adhere to the
 #aj-ounce charge1 which gives  ample   
penetration1 as the experiments at the  
butt will testify4 ,i may  also observe 
that the ranges obtained with this      
charge bear a favourable  comparison    

with those of the heaviest round-shot   
guns fired with a much  larger          
proportion of powder4    8,it is a      
curious fact1 and one which greatly     
increases the efficiency of  the shells1
 that owing to the bursting charge      
requiring a minute space  of time to    
mature its ignition after the firing of 
the fuse by impact1  the shell is       
enabled to travel four or five feet     
after striking an  object before        
disruption takes place4 ,hence1         
therefore1 it acts as a  shot before it 
bursts as a shell4 ,when it perforates a
 target the  explosion may be seen to   
take place at a few feet beyond1 and    
when it  grazes it has time to rise1 and
 may be observed to burst after clearing
  the ground4 ,if1 therefore1 it were   
fired against a ship1 it would first    
penetrate the side in its entirety1 and 
then1 bursting1 traverse the  deck in   
fragments2 or if directed against       
troops1 it would pierce the  front line 
as a bullet1 and operate like grape-shot

 beyond4 ,the shells  explode with equal
 certainty whether the first substance  
struck be hard  or soft2 and1 in fact1  
they even burst on the surface of water1
 provided  the elevation of the gun be  
not too great4 ,the bursting charge is  
very  small1 but it suffices to break   
the shell into about #cj pieces1 which  
pursue their forward course without too 
much dispersion4    8,it is impossible  
to contemplate the results obtained with
 this gun  without being impressed with 
the important part it is calculated to  
perform in warfare4 ,opposed to any     
ordinary field-piece1 it would be  like 
the ,greener rifle against the old      
musket2 and no gun could be  worked at  
an embrasure if a fire of shells were   
directed against it by  one of these    
rifled pieces placed within the distance
 of a mile4 ,in  naval operations1 also1
 guns of this description1 but of larger
 size1  might apparently be applied with
 great effect--more especially as a     
system of breech loading1 combined with 

a self-recovering recoil action1  would 
be peculiarly advantageous in firing    
from portholes4 ,even light             
#e-pounders1 sending their shells from  
great distances through the sides  of a 
ship and sweeping the decks with        
fragments of lead and iron1 would       
produce very destructive effects2 and a 
small swift steamer carrying a  few such
 guns might prove a very troublesome    
opponent to a large ship of  war4 ,but  
if the dimensions of the gun were       
increased so as to adapt it  for shells 
of #bj lb4 or #cj lb41 still more       
terrible injury could be  inflicted at  
greater distances2 and the ponderous    
artillery now used at  sea would be of  
little service when opposed to the      
accurate and  long-range firing of such 
rifled shell-guns40    ,since the       
publication of these remarks1 rifled    
artillery of ,mr4  ,armstrong's         
production has1 we believe1 been        
extensively tried4 ,the  results of     
these trials have been most             

extraordinary2 and the principle  is1 we
 believe1 identical with the expansive  
principle bearing my  cognomen3 an      
extension of the principle of the       
,greener and ,enfield  rifle1 hereafter 
to be described4 ,i have had the honour 
of being  consulted both by ,english and
 foreign authorities1 and ,i have       
assisted  in constructing rifled        
artillery for several years2 and the    
experience  thus obtained justifies me  
in making known to the world some of my 
observations on this subject4    ,rifled
 cannon with elongated projectiles1     
similar in shape and principle  to the  
,greenerian bullet1 give1 with charges  
inferior to those of the  old rgime and 
calibre1 more than double the range1    
with ten times  greater accuracy4       
,now1 either of these points1 if gained1
 would be most important  improvements1 
and when combined would produce the most
 extraordinary  results4 ,but this is   
not all3 a great diminution in the      
weight of the  gun might also be        

effected2 and these advantages may be   
still further  extended when we have had
 time to increase our knowledge of the  
valuable  materials with which we are   
only just now becoming acquainted4      
,the following table will show the      
advantages to be gained both in length  
and accuracy of range4    ,before       
reverting to the table1 it may be       
necessary to remind the reader  that the
 great reduction in the weight of guns  
arises from the adoption  of the        
elongated projectile4 ,for example3 the 
diameter of the  elongated projectile   
for an 8#ah-pounder0 is much less than  
the  diameter of the gun for the        
spherical #ah-pounder2 thus allowing the
  thickness of metal to be equal in both
 guns4 ,the gun for the elongated       
projectile may be greatly reduced in    
weight without at all diminishing  its  
strength1 simply on account of the great
 diminution in the diameter  of the arc4
    ,there is another important fact1   
which ,mr4 ,whitworth1 with all his     

boasting1 has carefully concealed3 viz41
 that a much greater pressure is        
exerted upon the square inch in the     
lesser than in the larger diameter  of  
bore2 and to conceal this fact1 whilst  
claiming merit for a bullet of          
#ej-;gauge exceeding in range one of    
#be-;gauge1 the charge of gunpowder     
being alike in both cases1 appears very 
like deception4 ,any engineer  will tell
 us that the pressure in the lesser is  
twice as great as in the  larger bore2  
and this explains why greater velocity  
is given to the  projectile4    ,with   
these explanations the reader will be   
better prepared to weigh  carefully my  
observations4 ,my task would1 doubtless1
 have been rendered  more easy1 if a    
clear elucidation of the principles of  
the expansive  bullet could have been   
given thus early in the work2 but it is 
thought  better to do this in its proper
 place4 ,i will only add here1 that     
although two bullets1 one elongated1 the
 other spherical1 and of equal          

diameter1 meet with the same amount of  
atmospheric resistance1 yet the  one    
containing twice as much matter as the  
other retains its medium  velocity      
nearly double the distance4 ,with these 
explanatory remarks ,i  give the        
following table3--                      
----------------------------------------
----------------------                  
,present ,range,present,reduced         
,weight,range when                      
of ,guns4     ,weight4when ,rifled4     
,rifled4                                
----------------------------------------
----------------------    #f-pndr4      
#a1ejj yds4    #ag    #ab cwts4         
#c1jjj yds4    #i-pndr4                 
#a1fjj        #bf    #ah         #d1jjj 
#ab-pndr4            #a1gjj        #cd  
#bb         #d1ejj      #ah-pndr4       
#a1ghj        #db    #bi         #e1jjj 
#bd-pndr4            #a1hej        #ej  
#cd         #e1ejj      #cb-pndr4       
#b1jjj        #fc    #db         #f1jjj 
#dh-pndr4            #b1ejj        #gj  

#de         #f1ejj      #ef-pndr4       
#e1jjj        #he    #fj         #h1jjj 
#fh-pndr4 or #h-;in4   #d1ejj        #he
    #fj         #h1jjj      #hf-pndr4 or
 #aj-;in4  #d1gjj        #ie    #fe     
#i1jjj                                  
----------------------------------------
----------------------    ,the reader   
must understand that all the guns given 
in this table were  not rifled1 and that
 they have not all been subjected to    
trial4 ,the #f1  #ab1 #ah1 #bd1 and     
#dh-pounders have been tried1 with the  
results given  above2 but the heavier   
guns have not as yet been tested3 the   
ranges and  weights given in the table  
have1 however1 been derived from the    
results  yielded in the trial of the    
lesser guns1 and may be safely relied on
 as  scientific data2 being1 in truth1  
rather under than over the mark4    ,all
 experiments clearly establish one very 
important principle1 long  known to     
those acquainted with the science of    
projectiles1 viz41 8,that  the heavier  

the projectile1 the less the            
deflection40 ,thus it is quite  possible
 that the longest ranges may ultimately 
be obtained without any  perceptible    
deflection4 ,and when we observe that   
the deflection of an  ordinary #cb-shot 
in a range of #b1jjj yards1 is #ej feet1
 and in #b1ejj  yards1 #hj feet1 whilst 
the elongated shot1 at a much greater   
distance1  is not deflected half as many
 inches1 ,i think we may fairly say that
 our  knowledge of gunnery is yet in its
 infancy4 ,fulminating powder may be    
used as an auxiliary in shells for      
various important purposes2 such1 for   
instance1 as destroying an entire fleet2
 and it is clearly within the  range of 
possibility that by its agency the      
largest ship may be  destroyed by a     
single shot4 ,the accuracy of rifled    
cannon renders it an  easy task to      
strike a plank only one inch above the  
water line1 and the  penetration of an  
elongated gun-metal or lead-alloyed     
shell would enable  us to reach the     

innermost parts of the magazine3 for it 
is scarcely  possible to produce even an
 iron casing which shall resist the     
power of  such projectiles4 ,it is      
possible1 therefore1 that we may see the
 noblest  fleet destroyed in a few      
minutes by the agency of such           
projectiles4    ,i will endeavour to    
give an outline of the method by which  
this may be  effected4 ,a long rifled   
cannon1 constructed for an elongated    
gun-metal  shell2 of from fifty-six to  
eighty-six pounds1 and with an extreme  
range  of from #f1jjj to #g1jjj yards1  
may be considered to be a suitable      
instrument4 ,this shell should be       
charged in the head with a given        
quantity of the fulminate1 such as would
 be most calculated to prevent  the     
tendency to explode from the concussion 
produced by the discharge of  the gun4  
,it will be necessary to place the      
fulminate in thin layers  between sheets
 of prepared caoutchouc1 or some other  
preparation of  ,india-rubber2 having   

thus arranged the fulminate in the head 
of the  shell and secured it there1 the 
usual method of filling the remainder is
  resorted to1 and the aperture is      
securely screwed up3 fuses not being    
necessary in this arrangement4    ,the  
difficulty in using this shell is to    
prevent its explosion when the  gun is  
discharged2 and to obviate this all our 
engineering skill is  required4 ,time   
and experience will show that1 by a     
modification of the  propelling agent1  
the shell may be started from a rifled  
cannon at a  very low velocity2 the     
velocity being increased like that of   
the rocket4  ,this is to be done by     
modifying the arrangement of the        
gunpowder so as  to ensure the shell    
acquiring its greatest velocity as it   
leaves the  muzzle of the cannon4 ,the  
result of this has been already shown4  
,on the  shell striking any object1 such
 as the ship's side1 the metal of the   
shell is driven in upon itself1 and an  
explosion of the fulminate  follows as a

 natural consequence4 ,experiment has   
proved that shells  exploding as they   
strike the ship's sides1 produce very   
little damage  beyond making a hole in  
the ship the size of the shell4 ,this1  
no doubt1  arises from the short space  
of time occupied by the shell in passing
  through the side of the ship2 all its 
force being exerted in the  interior    
instead of on the sides of the vessel4  
,all shells of the nature  alluded to   
would1 at certain distances1 take such a
 line of flight as to  ensure them      
dipping towards the centre of gravity1  
and thus exploding  the magazines1      
however deep below the water-line2 and  
when we consider  the destructive       
effects of fulminates1 we think it quite
 within the  range of probability that  
they might produce all the effects we   
have  spoken of4    ,there are many     
agents equally powerful to be introduced
 into destructive  warfare2 and with the
 advantages to be derived from          
improvements in  rifled shells1 which   

the ingenuity of the present race will  
certainly  effect1 he would be a rash   
man who would set any limits to the     
advancement of projectile science4 ,the 
great difficulty in the use of          
fulminates will be surmounted if these  
suggestions can be carried out2  and    
experiment is all that will then be     
necessary to establish the line  of     
proceeding4 ,to effect this is the      
province of the ,government of the      
country2 to wait for it to be perfected 
by individual skill and  enterprise     
would be unjust to science1 and         
injurious to the best  interests of the 
nation4 ,the needful expenditure can    
only be borne by  the nation1 and should
 be entered upon1 in order to effect    
improvement  in projectiles1 with the   
view of maintaining our land and marine 
artillery at the highest point of       
efficiency4    ,there is one question of
 great importance to inventors1 and to  
which ,i  have paid much attention1     
namely1 the obtaining a spiral motion in

 a  projectile which has been fired from
 a smooth bored gun4 ,all we have       
witnessed goes far to prove that the    
attainment of this is impossible1  in   
consequence of a principle not hitherto 
investigated by inventors4 ,if  the     
course of a projectile is changed from  
the straight to the spiral1  it can only
 be done at the expense of range2 and   
that for the following  reasons3 first1 
the force which is necessary to induce  
this spiral  movement must be exerted at
 the expense of the force which propels 
it  forward2 secondly1 when this spiral 
movement is acquired1 it is so much  in 
excess of the direct movement1 that     
after advancing a certain  distance it  
falls to the ground4 ,a very simple     
experiment will prove  this4 ,take an   
ordinary tin tube1 cut a bullet of an   
elongated  form--cylindro-conical if    
wished--having grooves from the point   
backwards1 with the degree of spiral    
necessary to effect the object in  view4
 ,let the bullet be made of cork or     

light wood1 such as can be  projected by
 a blast from the mouth1 and the result 
will be that the  projectile will go    
one-half the distance before the        
friction of the  atmosphere produces a  
motion on its axis parallel to its line 
of  flight2 from this point it gradually
 loses its velocity in a forward        
direction1 it spins until its force is  
expended1 and then falls  vertically to 
the ground4 ,to find the sequel1 try the
 same experiment  without grooving1 and 
the range1 with the same force1 will be 
found to  be double4 ,some years ago ,i 
witnessed such a trial with a           
#cb-pounder2  and1 to the astonishment  
of all present1 the bullet rose above   
the  horizontal line1 and then fell to  
the ground1 like the cork bullet of     
which we have already spoken4    ,the   
endeavour to produce breech-loading     
cannon is an effort to obtain           
uncalled-for and superfluous facility in
 gunnery2 and if a perfect              
breech-loading cannon could possibly be 

produced1 what would it avail8  ,what   
superior property could it possess over 
the solid gun8 ,it could not  be safety2
 for when we consider the very limited  
number of explosions by  which the very 
best guns are destroyed1 it can scarcely
 be possible for  a gun composed of many
 parts to endure the intense vibrations 
to which  large cannon are subjected4   
,the regular distribution of vibrations 
in  the metal of the gun is the great   
point to be attended to in the          
construction of artillery2 so that      
vibrations may not be incorrectly       
induced by malformation1 or by an excess
 or deficiency of metal at any          
particular point2 for where the waves of
 vibration are checked by an  unequal   
distribution of metal1 or other causes1 
there the weak point in  a gun is always
 found1 as all fractured guns clearly   
demonstrate4 ,an  intimate acquaintance 
with the metallurgy of cannon1 enables  
me to give  an almost unerring opinion  
as to the causes leading to the         

fracture4  ,most undoubtedly1 vibration1
 if judiciously distributed1 is the soul
 of  endurance2 but if injudiciously    
distributed is certain to result in the 
destruction of the cannon4 ,in          
structures composed necessarily of many 
joints1 obstruction to the waves of     
vibration must occur2 the different     
parts do not expand and vibrate equally2
 a kind of revulsion is induced2  part  
repels part1 and destruction ensues as a
 natural consequence4 ,under  no        
circumstances1 therefore1 can a         
breech-loader be as safe as a solid     
gun4    ,the facility with which        
breech-loaders can be charged is        
generally  trumpeted forth to the world 
as an advantage of vital importance2 but
  let us carefully examine this point   
and see if it has not been              
exaggerated--whether1 in fact1 a solid  
gun cannot be charged and  discharged as
 rapidly as a breech-loader4    ,in the 
first place1 all guns recoil2 this      
necessitates the relaying of  the gun   

after every discharge1 in order to      
obtain accuracy of aim2 and  if facility
 of loading is to be obtained at the    
expense of aim1 it can  scarcely be     
called an advantage4 ,aim consumes more 
time than loading4 ,a  six-pounder may  
be loaded and fired six times in the    
first minute2 but  it would be          
impossible to do this and re-lay the gun
 after each shot4  ,where then is the   
advantage of firing six shots per minute
 if you cannot  hit six objects8 ,and if
 breech-loaders could be fired sixty    
times per  minute1 what would they avail
 if aim was wanting8 ,the raising or    
depressing of the breech of a gun by    
means of the elevating screw2  slewing  
to the right or left1 spunging the gun1 
and ramming home the  powder and shot1  
all consume time2 hence we think that   
quickness of  loading is worthless4     
,breech-loading cannon cannot be        
constructed for bullets of larger       
diameter than that of the rifle bore1   
without a ductile bullet be used2  for1 

as is usual in breech-loading           
small-arms1 the bullet rifles itself  as
 it is forced up the grooves4 ,the      
projectiles for rifled cannon have      
hitherto been cast with corresponding   
grooves and lands to fit the  internal  
form of the cannon4 ,a compound shot1   
composed of iron1 and  covered          
externally with ductile metal1 has been 
tried in a few  instances2 but1         
unfortunately1 the difficulty of        
combining two metals so  dissimilar as  
iron and lead has been found so great as
 invariably to end  in a failure2       
therefore no prospect exists of bringing
 into play this1  the best point        
existing in breech-loading arms4        
,lastly1 the tendency of all guns to    
absorb the heat1 developed during       
explosion1 puts a limit to all extreme  
rapidity of fire2 even if this  was not 
already limited by the more essential   
point of taking aim4 ,at  ,sweaborg it  
was found necessary to allow an interval
 of five minutes  between each discharge

 of a mortar1 and yet the whole of them 
burst  after an average of #abj shots4  
,time and ingenuity spent in planning   
and  constructing breech-loading cannon 
will always end in disappointment and   
failure4 ,many are the plans extant1    
evincing great skill1 perseverance1  and
 everything needful in point of         
mechanical experience1 but betraying  a 
total ignorance of the metallurgic      
science and of practical results  from  
the use of the engine4 ,the study of    
these points will save money1  time1 and
 what is of more value1 brain-work1     
which might be better  employed4        
,striving to produce perfect            
breech-loading cannon is like  striving 
to square the circle4          ,,chapter
 ,,iv4    ,,on ,,the ,,manufacture ,,of 
,,iron ,,for ,,gun ,,barrels4      ,a   
considerable progress in improvement has
 taken place in manufacturing  the      
higher quality of iron since my last    
publication4 ,not that ,i  arrogate to  
myself any credit on that score1 but it 

is evident that good  frequently comes  
of flagellations1 whether on the body or
 the mind4 ,one  part of human nature   
will ever fear the exposure of bad      
qualities1 while  another is emboldened 
to advance in improvement if the        
slightest chance  exist of success or   
encouragement4 ,thus we often see men   
striving to  produce one invention on   
the back of another1 with wonderful     
perseverance1 finding many blanks and   
rarely a prize2 for truly in this       
competing age1 the mind must be strong  
that can fight long4 ,bitter is  the    
disappointment of the truly ingenious   
mind1 to see the produce of  his brains 
thrown as lumber into the herring       
barrel1--as the printer  terms the      
receptacle for what he sets no value    
upon2 while the valueless  contrivances 
of the mean and sordid are preferred and
 rewarded1 because  they enable the     
manufacturer to produce cheaper1 by     
foisting on the  public a deceptive or a
 spurious article4 ,all inventions for  

purposes  of deception1 are readily1    
aye1 eagerly1 patronised2 for they      
return  gold to the coffers sooner4     
,the improvement in the manufacture of  
gun-barrels depends on the quality  of  
the iron entirely2 for it would be a    
useless waste of time to  endeavour to  
make a good barrel of inferior metal4   
,science and  experience have worked a  
wonderful change in the mixture of the  
superior  qualities of iron3 we have had
 announcements of silver-steel barrels  
at  ten guineas a pair in the rough1 of 
,brescian steel barrels1 carbonised     
iron1 and ,i know not how many more     
descriptions or compounds of metals1  to
 form the best material for high-priced 
barrels4 ,we have now metal  which1 in  
the rod1 cannot be sold for less than   
one shilling and  twopence per pound3   
the iron for a pair of barrels thus     
costing sixteen  shillings and          
fourpence4 ,this is good2 nay1 more than
 good--'tis  excellent4 ,but there is a 
dark side of the picture1 over which ,i 

would  fain draw a veil3 but ,i must    
not4 ,belgium1 ,france1 ,holland1 and   
,germany1  are improving1 are marching  
onward1 and we1 alas6 are standing      
still4  ,competition and cheapness      
combined1 are driving our gun trade into
 a  labyrinth1 out of which it will be  
long ere it finds the clue of exit4     
,our manufacture of inferior gunnery has
 certainly reached a depth of           
inferiority which never any other       
manufacture in the world reached1 and   
,i hope never will4    ,during the      
existence of the slave-trade1 many      
thousand guns per year  were made of    
what is1 by the trade1 technically      
termed 8park paling10  a material only  
fit for such purposes2 and the cost of  
it was only  seven shillings and        
sixpence each spike2 but now we can     
furnish  slave traders with ship-loads1 
if they choose1 at only six shillings   
and sixpence each1 and it is still      
supposed that one of these  imitation   
guns is the blood-money for a           

fellow-creature4 ,it would be a  just   
and equitable law1 if our legislature   
would pass it1 8,that every  man should 
fire the guns he manufactures30 nothing 
would more surely  tend to improve the  
quality of guns of a low grade4    ,a   
considerable increasing difficulty      
attends the obtaining of horse-nail     
stubs from the continent4 ,in various   
continental markets from whence we  draw
 our supply1 the skill and ability of   
the gun-barrel makers have  increased2  
and the preference for superior         
fire-arms which is gaining  ground with 
many continental sportsmen1 has taught  
foreigners the value  of their old      
horse-nails2 and hence their increased  
scarcity4 ,the  inferior iron of which  
we make horse-nails prevents entirely   
the use of  our own2 consequently it    
requires no foresight to predict that   
our  manufacturers will soon resolve    
themselves into two descriptions--the   
very best and the very worst4 ,the      
latter are already actively employed1   

and the others are advancing2 as no     
doubt an increasing desire to obtain    
the most perfect gun pervades the       
thinking and affluent portion of the    
sporting world4    ,the manufacture of  
iron is a science truly worth the       
consideration of  the philosopher1 for  
it is fraught with the most important   
consequences1  considered either as a   
material of commerce1 or the means to an
 end4 ,in  advancing manufactures and   
the progress of improvement1 it has had 
an  effect on civilization unequalled by
 any known product1 gold not  excepted2 
for no substitute exists for iron1 or   
ever did4 ,no doubt the  ancients had   
their bronze1 of which they could form  
edge tools1 even  razors2 but that was a
 very limited use of cutting tools3     
enough1  perhaps1 for war or            
subsistence1 but not for the progress of
 the arts4    ,of the first discovery   
and use of iron we have no record2      
though its  value may be presumed from  
the fact1 that ,quintus ,curtius        

mentions that  8,alexander of ,macedon1 
received a present from ,porus1 an      
,indian chief1  of about #cj lbs4 weight
 of steel40 ,if this were a present fit 
for the  conqueror of the world1 its    
value1 even at that early date1 must    
have  been great indeed4    ,for many   
centuries1 up to the sixteenth1 all iron
 was produced by the  aid of wood       
charcoal2 and with such contracted and  
limited means1 it was  found that not   
more than #ej per cent1 of the metal    
contained in the ore  was extracted2    
consequently at this day all the ancient
 deposits of  slag are sought for and   
re-smelted1 yielding a handsome return  
to the  manufacturer4 ,the adoption of  
coal coke was a matter of necessity1 but
  it has been productive of extensive   
benefit in all manufactures of iron  of 
medium quality4 ,the opinions of many   
men of science lead to the  belief that 
it has benefited the higher quality     
also2 but ,i am quite  satisfied of the 
reverse4 ,the quantity formerly obtained

 in the yield  was1 as shown1 only #ej  
per cent4 of the quantity existing in   
the ore2  but yet it was the purest     
metal3 for it is unquestionable that the
 best  is soonest fused4    ,the iron   
ore of ,great ,britain is1 beyond a     
doubt1 inferior to that of  many parts  
of the world2 as all attempts to produce
 good steel from it  have been attended 
ultimately with disappointment4 ,mr4    
,mushet1 in his  excellent work on iron1
 says1 8,the successful exertions of    
individuals  have increased the         
manufacture of cast and malleable iron  
beyond all  precedent in this country2  
nor have we been without some           
enlightened  individuals1 who have      
laudably endeavoured to form a superior 
quality  along with the extension of    
their manufactures4 ,success has so far 
crowned their praiseworthy exertions1   
aided by the operation of  knowledge1 in
 removing the prejudices of the artisan1
 that bar iron of  our own manufacturing
 has been substituted1 to a great       

extent1 in place  of that formerly used 
of the ,swedish and ,russian marks2 but 
hitherto all  attempts have failed to   
make bars of proper quality to form     
steel1 in  any degree comparable to that
 we daily manufacture in great          
quantities  from foreign iron4    8,here
 we remain at an immense distance       
behind2 and while our manufacture  of   
iron goods exceeds the collective       
exertions of all ,europe1 we humbly     
feel our dependence upon two foreign    
markets for the supply of that          
steel-iron1 without which the beauty1   
the utility1 and extent of our  hardware
 manufactures would be essentially      
injured and abridged4    8,the policy of
 the foreign holders of this article    
communicates many  undue advantages to  
the favoured few to whom the steel-iron 
is consigned  in this country4 ,the     
rapid progressive rise in value of this 
iron1 for  many years past1 has already 
nearly doubled the price of steel to the
  workman1 and given the trade in       

general a melancholy foretaste of the   
evils of dependence and monopoly40      
,so it is with the scrap1 requisite to  
form good iron for gun-barrels4 ,i  have
 had several pairs of barrels sent from 
,berlin and ,vienna1 to be  fitted up in
 the ,english style1 with a certain     
knowledge that they were  wanted for    
patterns2 and in justice let it be said1
 the material and  figure in the barrel 
were most beautiful3 being a variety of 
,damascus1  or fancy pattern in the     
metal1 superior to anything seen of this
  country's manufacture4 ,true1 this is 
not an essential requisite1 being  more 
for appearance than utility2 but the    
fact clearly shows the  industry and    
will of the artisan4 ,the iron1 too1 in 
clearness and  density1 we can scarcely 
surpass2 therefore1 if ,i regret that we
 are not  advancing with our            
competitors1 it proceeds from a clear   
conviction of  the truth that we are    
slumbering upon our fancied superiority4
 ,a friend  who had lately visited      

,liege1 informed me that in one         
gun-maker's shop  alone1 were employed  
fourteen of our best workmen2 in fact1  
he brought  with him a gun which attests
 the great improvement the ,belgians    
have  made of late years4 ,i have had   
possession of three guns1 bearing on the
  lock and barrels1 8,joseph ,manton1   
,london20 8,joseph ,egg1 ,london20 and  
8,john ,manton and ,son1 ,london20 all  
of which were manufactured in  ,belgium2
 and so well is the imitation executed1 
that it would puzzle  most amateurs to  
discover the fraud4    ,recently a      
company1 entitled 8,the ,indian ,iron   
and ,steel ,company10 has  commenced    
importing and and manufacturing iron and
 steel from ,hindostan  ore1 and        
native-made bar iron4#g ,if they succeed
 in competing with  ,sweden and ,russia1
 this iron will be a valuable           
acquisition to the  ,british empire4    
,they have already issued a quantity #ce
 per cent4 cheaper  then the latter1 but
 quality is the end they should strive  

for4 ,however1  the business is in able 
hands1 and ,i have no doubt but that    
this object  will be kept prominently in
 view4      #g ,the fine quality of the 
,indian steel is generally acknowledged4
    ,the iron is first obtained by      
smelting1 in small quantities1 the      
wootz-ore1 or the magnetic oxide of     
iron1 which it found combined with      
about #db per cent4 of quartz2 the yield
 being1 out of #ajj parts of    ore1    
only #ae parts of metal3 but this is of 
the finest character4      ,the process 
by which the iron is converted into     
steel is as follows1    and fully       
accounts for that peculiar quality for  
which the ,indian    steel is valued4   
,the iron is cut into pieces and packed 
closely in a crucible of clay1          
containing about #a lb4 only of the     
iron1 mixed with a tenth part of        
dried wood cut small1 the whole covered 
over with green leaves4 ,the    crucible
 is then stopped1 by covering the mouth 
with tempered clay1 so    as to         

effectually exclude the air4 ,after a   
time that is1 as soon as    the         
clay-plugs are sufficiently hard1 from  
twenty to thirty of the    crucibles are
 built up in an arched form placed in a 
small blast    furnace1 and kept covered
 with charcoal2 thus being subjected to 
the    heat of the furnace for two or   
three hours4 ,the process is then       
complete4      ,as soon as the crucibles
 are cool1 they are broken open and the 
cakes    of steel are found rounded at  
the bottom4      ,the top of the cakes  
should be found covered with stri1      
radiating    from a centre1 and be free 
from holes or rough projections4 ,if the
    cakes are honeycombed1 the process  
has been imperfect and incomplete4      
,when re-melted and tilted into rods1 a 
very superior article has been    the   
result4      ,the natives prepare the   
cakes for being drawn into bars1 by     
annealing    them for several hours in a
 small charcoal furnace1 excited by     
bellows2 the current of air being made  

to play upon the cakes while    turned  
over before it1 whereby a portion of the
 combined carbon is    dissipated and   
the steel probably softened3 without    
which operation    the cakes would break
 in drawing them4 ,they are drawn by a  
hammer of    only a very few pounds     
weight1 but the repeated hammering      
greatly    tends to the production of a 
highly condensed and perfect article4   
,foreseeing the difficulty that would   
eventually beset us in obtaining a      
sufficient supply of old horse nails    
from ,germany and elsewhere1 ,i         
directed my experiments to steel        
entirely1 having formerly perceived     
that where the greatest quantity of     
steel existed in the mixture  necessary 
to form material for their best gun     
barrels1 there also  existed the        
greatest tenuous strength4 ,i had at    
that time a decided  objection to all   
steel1 as the following quotation from  
8,the ,gun0 will  show3--    8,we       
recommend hammer-hardening in all       

mixtures containing iron4 ,if you  throw
 the iron aside1 and confine your       
manufacture wholly to steel1 it  would  
be an evil1 from this simple            
cause3--steel is of itself close  enough
 in the grain2 hammering it1 therefore1 
in a cold state1 only  tends to make it 
more brittle4 ,but the reverse is the   
case with iron3  the more it is beaten  
the greater becomes its tenacity2 and   
when mixed  with steel in the way the   
stubs-composition is1 it prevents the   
particles of steel from becoming too    
hard40    ,mr4 ,adams1 of ,wednesbury1  
and the successors of ,mr4 ,clive1 of   
,birmingham1 manufacture a considerable 
quantity both of silver steel and       
common twist steel for the trade2 ,i    
make my own laminated steel3 the        
difference in silver steel and common   
twist steel merely consists in the      
variety of tortuous twisting the former 
undergoes1 while the latter is  rolled  
out into rods of #f-afths broad1 with   
the fibres running perfectly            

longitudinal4 ,the method of making or  
welding the pieces into a bloom1  is in 
the following way4 ,having collected a  
sufficiency of mild steel  scraps1 such 
as cuttings of saws1 waste from steel   
pen making1 old coach  springs1 and the 
immense variety of pieces arising from  
the various  manufactures of tools1 they
 are cut into pieces of equal           
dimensions1  polished in a revolving    
drum by their friction on each other1   
until  quite bright1 and then placed for
 fusion on the bed of an air furnace4   
,the parts first fused are gathered on  
the end of a similarly fabricated  rod1 
in a welding state1 and these gather    
together by their adhesion1  the        
remainder as they become sufficiently   
heated1 until the bloom is  complete4   
,the steel is then removed from the     
furnace1 and undergoes the  effect of a 
three-ton forge hammer and the tilt1    
until it forms a large  square bar2 it  
is then re-heated1 and thence conveyed  
to the rolling  mill1 where eventually  

it is reduced to the size of rod        
required4 ,i  generally have the metal  
required cut into short pieces of six   
inches  long4 ,a certain number are     
bundled together and welded1 and then   
drawn  down again in the rolling mill4  
,this can be repeated any number of     
times--elongating the fibres and        
multiplying their number to an          
indefinite extent as may be required4   
,illustration    ,the great advantage   
derived in this instance from           
air-furnace welding is  a chemical one2 
for while the small pieces of steel are 
fusing on the  bed of the air furnace1  
the oxygen is extracting the carbon1 and
 leaves  the resulting metal mild steel1
 or iron of the densest description2    
while the succeeding hammering and      
rolling and re-welding1 produce the     
mechanical arrangement of making the    
whole of an extremely fibrous           
description4 ,the polishing secures a   
clean metal2 indeed1 so free from       
specks are the generality of barrels    

thus made1 that it is scarcely  possible
 to imagine clearer metal4 ,when        
contrasted with the best of  ordinary   
iron1 by a powerful microscope1 the     
closeness and density of  grain are     
strongly apparent4    ,to such an extent
 has this been carried1 that ,i can     
produce specimens of  a considerably    
increased specific gravity4 ,the barrels
 made of this  metal1 in general1 beat  
all tried against them2 with this great 
advantage1 that the finer the polish in 
the interior the better they  shoot1 and
 continue longer free from lead4 ,the   
only difficulty is in the  working2 as  
the boring1 filing1 c41 are more        
difficult4 ,moreover1  greater care is  
required to see that they are not       
annealed1#h when in  the hands of the   
borer or filer2 for in such case they   
would be  considerably injured1 though  
not to the same extent as barrels of a  
softer nature4 ,i tested a great variety
 of bars by drawing them asunder        
longitudinally by the testing machine1  

and the average strength of a rod  of   
#f-afths broad by #e-afths thick and #ab
 inches long1 containing #adjfbe  solid 
inches of iron1 was equal to a tension  
of #aa1bjj lbs4 ,this  furnished a      
barrel having a thickness of metal in   
all parts of the arch  equal1 or        
#c-afths of an inch thick1 capable of   
bearing an internal  pressure of #f1jbb 
lbs4 to the inch of the tube4      #h   
,dr4 ,ure falls into an error in        
describing the process of barrel        
boring3 he says 8the barrel is first    
properly annealed1 and allowed to       
cool gradually10 c4 ,the barrel-maker   
that would take such a    proceeding    
with a barrel of ours should never do so
 to another4 ,the    ,doctor ought to   
have pointed out the evil tendency of   
this4 ,we never    saw it done1 and we  
doubt much whether he did1 though we    
have heard of    the practice1 which    
induces us to notice it1 but the ,doctor
 describes    it as a necessary         
proceeding4    ,the generality of barrel

 makers spoil this metal by an attempt  
to obtain  figure2 for all extreme      
twistings in the rod depreciate the     
metal1 by  separating the fibres3 to    
borrow a simile1 they obtain only an    
over-twisted rope4 ,this is not only    
disadvantageous but useless2 for  the   
extreme density of the metal renders the
 figure difficult to be  shown          
distinctly1 as acid acts upon it but    
slightly1 and never so well  as on metal
 fabricated from two differently        
constructed carbonised  materials4      
,many conjectures have been advanced1   
and an endless discussion created1  to  
account for the watering or 8jowher0 in 
oriental sword-blades1 and  genuine     
,damascus gun-barrels4 ,anything        
approaching the truth is seldom  met    
with2 though ,i think the explanation is
 very simple4 ,it must be well  known   
that there is an immense variety of     
different qualities in both  iron and   
steel3 no uniformity of quality is found
 in two productions out  of a hundred4  

,the very ore1 the coal1 the presence of
 oxygen1 the excess  of it1 all vary the
 quality of the material4 ,an excess of 
carbon is more  detrimental than a      
scarcity2 for where carbon has once     
been1 it leaves  an indelible mark1 and 
though extracted to as great an extent  
as  practicable1 it leaves a residue    
that possesses an affinity to absorb    
carbon again equal to the original      
quantity3 thus1 steel once made will    
never1 by any process yet known1 be     
reconverted back to iron of the same    
nature it was originally4    ,mr4       
,mushet has given us the proportions of 
carbon held in solution by  the various 
qualities of steel and iron1 and the    
reader will find them  in the note      
below4#i ,it inevitably follows1 as a   
principle1 that the  quantity of carbon 
contained in the metal--avoiding cast   
iron--will  increase or decrease1 and   
thus regulate the degree of hardness of 
the  metals in question4 ,a quantity of 
metals dissimilar in this particular1   

mixed together1 and run into a vessel in
 a state of fusion1 then1 when  cold1   
filed and polished1 will show a variety 
according to the place  they hold in the
 crystallised mass4 ,work and twist this
 material in all  the tortuous ways and 
shapes it is capable of1 and you only   
twist the  fibres of the different      
bodies in the same way2 and when they   
come to be  acted upon by acid or       
oxidisation1 they still retain their    
relative  positions1 forming the        
watering or figure1 as was the intention
 of the  tortuous twisting4 ,all the    
beautiful arrangements in ,damascus     
figures  are obtained in this way4      
,metals containing more or less carbon  
will  always produce this watering4 ,to 
obtain a satisfactory proof1 any person 
may case-harden a few pounds weight of  
stubs1 and afterwards melt them  in a   
crucible1 and run them into a receiver2 
when these are worked down  into the bar
 7or not1 as he pleases71 dress and     
apply a little sulphuric  acid1 and the 

peculiar situation the various stubs had
 taken in the  fluid state1 will be     
clearly discernible4      #i    ,iron1  
semi-steelified1 is made with charcoal  
#a-aejth part4    ,soft cast steel1     
capable of welding with ditto           
#a-abjth  do4    ,cast steel1 for common
 purposes1 with ditto         #a-abjth  
do4    ,cast steel1 requiring more      
hardness1 with charcoal   #a-ijth  do4  
,steel1 capable of standing a few blows1
 but quite    unfit for drawing with    
ditto                        #a-aejth   
do4    ,first approach to a steely      
granulated fracture is    from #a-ejth  
to                                      
#a-djth  do4    ,white cast iron1 with  
charcoal                       #a-beth  
do4    ,mottled cast iron1 with ditto   
#a-bjth  do4    ,carbonated cast iron   
#a-aeth  do4    ,and supercarbonated    
crude iron                       #a-abth
  do4    ,the original barrel-welders1  
the real ,damascus iron-workers1 were1  
like  some of ours of the present day1  

not the most conscientious  individuals1
 nor the most honourable4 ,for1 strange 
to say--but it is not  more strange than
 true--on examination of most real      
,damascus barrels to  be met with1 we   
find the iron must have been so valuable
 as to induce  the workmen to plate or  
veneer the superior mixture over a body 
of  the commonest iron3 all large       
barrels are thus made1 rifles           
especially4  ,i presume the moderns     
borrowed the invention2 and it would be 
well if  they made no more extensive use
 of it than on rifle barrels4    ,the   
modern method of making wire-twist and  
,damascus iron1 being  gradations from  
the same material1 are here described   
under one head3--    ,alternate bars of 
iron and steel are placed on each other1
 in numbers of  six each2 they are then 
forged into one body or bar2 after      
which1 if for  the making of wire-twist 
barrels1 they are rolled down into rods 
of  #c-hths of an inch in breadth1      
varying in thickness according to the   

size  of the barrel for which they are  
wanted3 if for ,damascus1 invariably    
#c-hths of an inch square4 ,when about  
to be twisted into spirals for  barrels1
 care must be taken that the edges of   
the steel and iron shall  be outermost2 
so that when the barrel is finished and 
browned it shall  have the appearance of
 being welded of pieces the size of     
wires1 the  whole length of the barrel4 
,a portion of the rod1 pickled in       
sulphuric  acid1 exhibits the following 
appearance1 the bright parts being the  
steel1 the other the iron4              
,illustration    ,when about to be      
converted into ,damascus1 the rod is    
heated the whole  length1 and the two   
square ends put into the heads 7one of  
which is a  fixture7 of a kind of lathe1
 which is worked by a handle similar to 
a  winch4 ,it is then twisted like a    
rope 7or1 as ,colonel ,hawker says1     
wrung  as wet clothes are7 until it has 
from twelve to fourteen complete turns  
in the inch1 when it presents this      

appearance4    ,illustration    ,by this
 severe twisting1 the rod of six feet is
 shortened to three1  doubled in        
thickness1 and made perfectly round4    
,three of these rods are  then placed   
together1 with the inclinations of the  
twists running in  opposite directions2 
they are then welded into one1 and      
rolled down into  a rod #aa-afths of an 
inch in breadth4 ,being pickled in acid1
 to eat away  the iron1 it exhibits the 
following appearance3--    ,illustration
    ,this iron has long been held in    
great esteem4 ,it looks pretty2 but     
certainly does not possess either the   
strength or tenacity of wire-twist      
iron4 ,it is well known that the        
strength of a rope may be destroyed by  
twisting it too much3 so is it with this
 sort of iron4 ,iron is best when  not  
twisted at all3 ,i speak of the bar4 ,it
 resembles wood1 inasmuch as  the       
strands or fibres run parallel1 firmly  
adhere1 and add strength to  each other2
 if you twist those fibres you tear them

 asunder1 and they no  longer support   
each other4 ,so it is with iron4    ,the
 objection made to the wire-twist is1   
that owing to the iron and  steel being 
perfectly separate bodies running       
through the whole  thickness of the     
barrel1 there is a difficulty in welding
 them  perfectly2 and1 of course there  
is danger of their breaking across1 at  
any trifling imperfection or mis-weld4  
,this objection is certainly well       
grounded1 as many barrels break in the  
proving4 ,i have seen a very  strong    
barrel indeed broken across the knee    
without the slightest  difficulty1      
while1 to all appearance1 it was        
perfectly sound4 ,this is  the reason   
why the manufacturers have ceased to    
make them1 except for  the ,american    
trade4    ,it may be said that the      
fibres in the ,damascus1 after being    
torn  asunder1 are welded anew4 ,true2  
but could you ever glue the fibres of a 
piece of wood 7twisted in the same way7 
together again1 to make them as  strong 

as before8 ,no3 cut several pieces of   
wood across the grain and  glue them    
together1 you would not expect them1    
though equal in substance  with a piece 
in which the grains run lengthwise1 to  
be of equal  strength4 ,in short1 ,i    
hold a ,damascus barrel to be little    
superior to a  common barrel1 in which  
the fibres run parallel to the bore4    
,all the varieties of figured barrels   
are but modifications of ,damascus4     
,the most endless variety possible may  
be attained2 a figure with the          
carbonised material1 showing only the   
ends or edges of the various  lamin1 or 
portions of the face of that lamin1 may 
with equal facility  be obtained1 if the
 patience of the artist be in           
proportion4 ,it would be  a never-ending
 task1 a subject for many volumes1 to   
endeavour to  describe a tithe of the   
varieties that might be1 and have been  
made4    ,the ,belgians are very expert 
at this sort of ornamental work4 ,the   
very  minute ,damascus figure they      

frequently produce1 is admirable1 if    
beauty  alone were the advantage sought 
in a gun barrel4 ,they use thirty-two   
alternate bars of steel and iron1 and   
roll them into a sheet of #c-afths      
thick1 and then slit them by a machine  
into square rods2 these are  twisted in 
the way just described1 but to such an  
extreme as to resemble  the threads of a
 very fine screw3 six of them are welded
 into one1  instead of three as with us4
 ,the figure is so extremely fine as to 
appear not to be larger than the finest 
needle4 ,i have seen barrels made  in   
,liege1 superior in minute figure to any
 real ,damascus barrel1 or  sword       
either4 ,our workmen here say the steel 
is better2 which ,i am  inclined to     
think is true3 it is a branch of the gun
 manufacture they  have long excelled   
in4 ,the very best 8,damascene0 workers 
are to be found  at ,la ,chafontaine1 a 
few miles from ,liege1 where they dwell 
in as  beautiful a dell as fancy could  
wish1 with a powerful hill-stream       

working their boring and grinding-mills1
 thus enabling them to send  their      
barrels into ,liege1 ready for the      
filer4 ,i have spent considerable  time1
 and taken great trouble1 to produce in 
,birmingham iron equally  good2 and ,i  
have succeeded3 but1 unfortunately1     
,englishmen are so  extravagant in their
 ideas of value1 as to render the       
constant  manufacture of this iron here1
 a losing speculation4 ,it can1 however1
 be  obtained from ,belgium now1 under  
the amended tariff1 at ten per cent4 on 
the value4 ,it can be purchased there1  
ready for barrel making1 at a  franc per
 pound2 and cheap it is at that price3  
two and a half francs  would not        
purchase it here4    ,that ,damascus    
iron is incompatible with goodness1 ,i  
can and shall  clearly prove4           
,experiment with the testing machine    
shows a rod of  wire-twist #c-hths      
square1 containing #afhge solid inches1 
as equal to a  tension of #aa1bjj lbs42 
whereas a rod1 when converted into      

,damascus of  #aa-afths of an inch in   
breadth1 by #d-afths in thickness1      
containing  #bfbe solid inches1 was only
 equal to #h1ifj lbs42 thus showing a   
clear  loss of full thirty-five per     
cent4 ,and when welded into barrels of  
the  dimensions described1 the relative 
internal strength of each is            
#e1jai-a_/b lbs41 and #c1bib lbs4 to the
 inch of tube4 ,this constitutes a      
great difference4 ,but unfortunately    
that is not all4    ,in the preceding   
chapter ,i noted the fact1 that all     
sorts of iron lose a  portion of their  
strength by being heated or softened2   
but ,i found that  ,damascus suffered   
more than any other sort of iron1       
excepting the  common kinds4 ,for       
instance1 the bar of wire-twist would1  
in the state it  came from the rolling  
mill1 bear #aa1bjj lbs41 but1 after     
softening1 it  would only bear #aj1ahj  
lbs41 being a diminution of #aj per     
cent4 ,a bar of  ,damascus suspending a 
weight of #h1idj lbs41 the measure of   

its strength1  when annealed1 was #g1hdj
 lbs41 being a falling off of #ab-a_/b  
per cent4  ,thus1 ,i trust ,i have      
clearly shown1 that whatever other      
quality ,damascus  possesses1 strength  
is not one of its properties4 ,it must  
not1 however1  be supposed that the     
above weight indicates its greatest     
strength2 on  the contrary1 its strength
 can be increased full #bb-a_/b per     
cent4 by  cold hammering4 ,still1       
however1 it will only hold its relative 
position  to other kinds of iron with   
respect to strength1 since they are all 
capable of having their strength        
increased by the same process4          
,damascus barrels have fallen much into 
disuse1 being rarely seen except  as    
pistol barrels1#aj which1 together with 
a great quantity of  counterfeits1 are  
made for the ,south and ,north ,american
 trades1 in the  shape of double and    
single guns of a flashy appearance--all 
invariably  veneered or plated with     
ribbons of this ornamental iron4 ,i     

shall now  dismiss this subject2 after  
remarking1 that certainly a very        
handsome  barrel may be made after this 
principle1 if too much twisting be      
avoided4 ,it has been seen that the rods
 are twisted until there is  fourteen   
turns in the inch of length3 an excess  
productive of the  detrimental effect   
mentioned2 while1 had there been but two
 turns1 a  large proportion of strength1
 if not all1 would have been retained4  
,one  turn only1 under the same         
circumstances1 would very likely be     
highly  beneficial2 indeed ,i have found
 it to be so3 one twist binds the       
interior strands1 as the outer does the 
interior in a rope1 and thus  adds      
strength4 ,this shows that there is a   
medium in all things4      #aj ,the     
,london makers are again using them     
extensively2 which is    certainly no   
proof of their judgment4    ,the use of 
old horse-shoe nails is of a date nearly
 coeval with the use  of small          
fire-arms4 ,these nails are made from   

rod iron of the best  description2 and  
the hammering cold1 or tempering the    
nail1 so benefits  and condenses the    
iron as to improve it greatly4 ,the     
method in use until  a late period1 was 
to fill and force into an iron hoop1 of 
six or seven  inches diameter1 as many  
stubs as it would contain1 to weld the  
whole1  and draw them down to a bar of  
such dimensions as might be required4   
,modern improvement1 however1 has shown 
the advantage of cleansing the  stubs   
perfectly by a revolving drum1 and then 
fusing and gathering them  into a bloom 
on the bed of an air-furnace4 ,thus a   
body of from #dj to  #ej lbs4 of melting
 iron can be obtained at one heat2 a    
matter of economy  and necessity1 where 
large quantities are required1 besides  
possessing  the superior advantage of   
having the whole mass equally heated3   
this  cannot be done by the old hoop    
method1 as the surface must be          
frequently  burnt before the interior is
 at all in a welding state4             

,experience taught the late ,mr4 ,adams 
and his brother ,george--who still      
manufacture some of the best gun iron in
 the world--that the stub iron  alone   
was insufficient2 for even then 7forty  
years ago7 the absurdity  of imagining  
that no barrels were or could be good   
without being soft1  was understood and 
acted upon by them4 ,they introduced at 
first  one-fourth of steel to three of  
stubs2 this having been found highly    
advantageous1 the prejudices of the     
gun-makers were gradually overcome1  or 
left in abeyance from ignorance of the  
introduction4 ,it is a fact1  that as   
late as #ahdb1 when ,i issued my former 
work1 men who had been all  their lives 
gun-makers 7by courtesy7 actually       
refused to believe that  any steel at   
all entered into the composition of the 
best barrels2 and  several whom ,i know 
perfectly well1 ordered the factors with
 whom they  dealt 8to be sure to send   
them no barrels with steel in1 as they  
did not  wish their customers' hands to 

be blown off40    ,charcoal iron has1 up
 to this day1 been the only stub twist  
barrels they  7and we believe two-thirds
 of the provincial makers also7 have    
ever been  served with4 ,reason with    
these men1 and they will snappishly tell
 you1  8,we pay the best price1 and we  
ought to have the best3 we don't see    
that  our neighbours have any better40  
,on one occasion of my calling upon one 
of the first provincial gun-makers in   
the kingdom1 the subject of  barrels was
 adverted to--8,an excellent work that  
of yours1 ,i dare say2  but1 sir1 you   
have done a deal of harm3 it is wrong to
 let gentlemen  know too much2 they give
 you far too much trouble3 they get too 
knowing40 ,these1 and such like         
observations1 are the only thanks ,i    
ever  received from the generality of   
the gun trade4 ,there are1 however1 some
  enlightened men who1 understanding the
 subject1 have appreciated my  motives2 
but by far the greater proportion have  
done the reverse1  asserting 8that ,i   

had told them nothing but what they knew
 before40    ,the mixture of a portion  
of steel with the stubs having clearly  
shown an  improvement1 an increased     
proportion has been adopted by various  
makers3  we have had as high as         
three-fourths of steel to one of iron4  
,where  proper attention is paid to the 
clipping of the steel to pieces1        
corresponding with the stubs1 and       
properly mixing the whole1 welding and  
forging by the heavy hammer1 reducing by
 a tilt and rolling down to the         
smallest description of rod1 a most     
excellent1 tenacious1 and dense body  of
 iron is thus obtained2 while1 by       
cutting into lengths of six inches1     
bundling a number together1 and         
re-welding them into a bar1 an increased
  density and tenacity is gained1 by an 
increase in quantity1 and an  elongation
 of the fibrous system4 ,any description
 of barrel1 of this  iron1 if made with 
a moderate degree of care and attention1
 is  considerably stronger than any     

explosive fluid ever yet compounded     
could  burst1 under any circumstances   
bordering on fair experiment4    ,the   
great advantage derived from welding on 
the bed of an air-furnace1  arises from 
an absence of the minute portions of    
charcoal1 of either  wood or coal1 as   
the case may be4 ,millions of these very
 minute portions  are imbedded in the   
midst of the metal in every part4 ,they 
are enclosed  in cells originally of    
their own dimensions1 but are drawn out 
with the  fibres to an indefinite       
extent1 forming a system of tubes that  
may be  compared to the capillary system
 in trees1 and making the iron of a     
spungy1 compressible nature4 ,it is the 
absence of these particles of  charcoal 
that gives part of the superiority to   
steel as now made for  gun-barrels2 and 
the existence of a portion of them      
causes the  inferiority of all other    
kinds of iron4 ,in a chemical analysis  
of iron1  a large portion of crude      
coal-charcoal or wood-charcoal is found1

  according as either has been used     
during the manufacture4 ,this is not of 
course given as so much carbon in the   
result1 though the injury is  equally   
detrimental as an excess of carbon is to
 the goodness of the  metal2 for it     
renders the whole porous1 and liable to 
attract moisture  and induce oxidation4 
,it must be kept prominently in view1   
and clearly  comprehended1 that the     
denser the body of metal1 the less the  
liability  to oxidise1 or in other words
 rust2 and here is the one great        
preservative principle in good iron3 8it
 is the fibre of dense  cocoa-wood1     
compared with that of willow or saugh40 
,in all situations  and for all         
purposes1 where iron is liable to sudden
 changes of either  heat or cold1 wet or
 dry1 the very best of iron should be   
obtained2 as  it will be less affected  
by the changes of temperature1 and amply
 repay  by its durability the extra cost
 in the first instance4    ,the very    
extensive round of experiments to which 

,i have submitted  mixtures of this     
nature1 clearly establishes all the     
conclusions ,i have  formed on these    
points4 ,the strength of the mixture1   
three parts steel  to one of stubs1     
gives a resistance in the rod of        
#f-afths broad by  #e-afths thick1 and  
#ab inches long1 containing #adjfbe     
solid inches1  equal to #aj1bie lbs4    
before separating2 thus being equal1 in 
a barrel of  the dimensions before      
mentioned1 to an internal pressure of   
#e1eee lbs4  to the inch of tube4 ,the  
proportions mentioned in my previous    
work are  #be lbs4 of stubs to #ae lbs4 
of steel2 the strength of this mixture  
in  the rod is equal to a tension of    
#h1ifj lbs41 and the barrel is capable  
of restraining a pressure internally of 
#d1hah lbs41 making full #ae per  cent4 
dissimilarity in favour of the larger   
proportion of steel3 indeed1  all       
experience points to the great          
advantage1 that steel1 properly  worked1
 possesses over iron alone4 ,great good 

can be effected by  condensing iron by  
hammer-hardening2 greater than ,i have  
shown steel to  be capable of receiving 
additionally3 as1 already having it     
naturally1  there is no necessity for   
using artificial means to obtain it4    
,nor is  steel so liable to depreciation
 in the hands of an inexperienced       
artisan2 as the degree of expansion is  
not more1 in the large proportion  of   
steel mixture1 than a loss of strength  
equal to #d-a_/b per cent1 by  heating  
and cooling gradually4 ,the loss in the 
mixture containing less  steel is       
#g-a_/b per cent4 ,the specific gravity 
of the two is in  proportion4    ,the   
frequent welding and re-rolling of iron 
is of the most beneficial  tendency1 the
 elongation of the fibres being highly  
advantageous2 for1 a  fibrous piece of  
iron may be compared to a wire rope1 the
 more strands  the greater tenacity2 and
 the smaller the strands1 even up to a  
proximity of fineness to the human hair1
 the greater the weight they  will bear 

in tension4 ,one large wire which1 when 
single1 will suspend  #ejj lbs41 will1  
when drawn down to six small ones1      
suspend #fjj lbs42 and  so on to the    
greatest extreme4 ,another great        
advantage received by the  repeated     
reworking of iron1 is obtaining an      
increased density2 for when  this is    
secured to a certain extent1 you have   
closed in proportion the  pores of the  
metal2 and in this state it is not      
liable to that degree of  expansion or  
contraction1 or that fluctuation in     
strength1 which arises  from softening  
the iron4 ,nor can you gain1 save to a  
limited extent1 any  improvement by     
hammering1--hammer-hardening1 for       
instance1--simply  because it is already
 improved to the utmost extent we are at
 present  acquainted with4    ,how      
wonderfully beneficial to mankind is    
this beautiful arrangement of  the      
metallic fibrous system6 ,without it    
what could we do8 our  manufactures     
would be confined to simple castings1 or

 crystallizations1  possessed merely of 
strength in proportion to the cohesive  
nature of the  metal4 ,where would be   
all the wonderful springs whose fineness
 vies with  the silken fibre8 ,of what  
could they be constructed8 ,all-powerful
 gold  would not suffice1 nor silver2   
though each1 in its place1 possesses    
wonderful properties4 ,gold and silver  
may both be spread in the thinnest      
conceivable coat over space incredible2 
on the gilded cup1 or1 still  thinner by
 electric agency1 on the plated epergne4
 ,but iron alone is to  the arts1 the   
8summum bonum0 for which there is no    
substitute3 it is  the 8sine qu non0 of 
practical mechanics4    ,improvements in
 the manufacture of a very superior iron
 may1 we believe1  be placed to the     
credit of the gunmaking profession      
exclusively2 no  other body or class of 
men having ever yet deemed it worth     
their trouble  to endeavour to obtain   
anything of a better description than   
bar iron1  suitable to make steel from4 

,mr4 ,mushet1 from whose work ,i have   
already  quoted1 has evidently been more
 intimately acquainted with the routine 
of iron manufacturing than any other    
person ,i ever met with or read of3  he 
understands the question perfectly2 yet 
he seems to care for nothing  further   
than a suitable steel iron4    ,how many
 and how fearful have been the          
explosions by all-powerful steam  since 
the period of its introduction4 ,how    
many weeping widows1 and how  many      
fatherless children have had to mourn   
its effects6 ,yet what has  human       
ingenuity done1 what have the wonderful 
energies of the present  race of        
scientific men accomplished to stay this
 annual slaughter8  ,comparatively      
little beyond discovery of mysterious   
causes where none  exist4 ,it reminds me
 of my first lesson in coursing--8,if   
you want to  find a hare1 young man10   
said the keeper1 8look at your feet3 you
 will  not find her at a distance40 ,so 
it is with the state of knowledge on    

steam boiler explosions2 if you want to 
find the cause1 look 8at your  feet30 do
 not endeavour to envelope in mystery1  
what you may find in  simple and natural
 causes4    ,i may here observe that ,i 
have been professionally engaged to     
inspect  the effects1 with a hope of    
finding the cause1 of thirty-four cases 
of  explosion1 where the sacrifice of   
human life was above an average of  two 
each1 or nearly one hundred1 and ,i     
never yet have found one single  case   
which could not be clearly demonstrated 
to have been caused either  solely by   
neglect of the superintendent1 or from  
sheer ignorance on the  part of the     
engineer constructing the arrangement of
 boilers4 ,for every  accident may      
sweepingly be said to be occasioned by a
 want of space  for the escape of the   
steam3 a too small valve1 in the first  
instance1  and in the second1 a         
villanous construction of what is called
 iron  boiler plate--a concentration of 
the veriest rubbish1 under the name of  

wrought iron1 ever gathered together4   
,for this reason1 ,i have drawn the     
reader's attention aside for a few      
moments4    ,the improvement of         
boiler-iron may detain us slightly1 if  
by the delay  any good can be           
accomplished4 ,for an inconsiderable    
increase of outlay1  a boiler might be  
rendered doubly safe to what it is at   
present1 by  simply using moderate      
caution in the selection of scrap iron1 
a perfect  cleansing of that scrap1 and 
by fusing the bloom on the bed of an air
  furnace4 ,the great advantage would be
 that you would get a stronger1 a  much 
denser1 and consequently a much better1 
metal3 nor is this all the  advantage2  
you might use a very much thinner plate1
 which would yet be  equally strong2 and
 science will tell you that steam would 
be more  easily generated1 as heat is   
more rapidly conducted4    ,there is a  
very handsome description of barrel-iron
 made1 generally  termed                
8,stub-,damascus40 ,the method of       

preparing it1 is of late  considerably  
altered4 ,a quantity of old files are   
hardened1 by being2  heated red-hot and 
immersed in water1 then broken in pieces
 with a  hammer1 and afterwards pounded 
in a mortar until the pieces do not     
exceed in size a corn of number five    
shot4 ,a proportion of #ae lbs4 of      
these to #be lbs4 of stubs1 is fused    
together on the bed of an  air-furnace1 
beaten down1 and rolled into rods4 ,the 
rod of #c-hths of an  inch square1 is   
twisted like a rope1 precisely in the   
same way as the  ,damascus4 ,the effect 
of this winding1 is to give a beautiful 
mottle to  the barrel2 which will be    
found depicted in plate ,no4 #c4        
,another mixture1 represented in plate  
,no4 #b1 was first made by ,mr4         
,wiswould1 of ,birmingham4 ,it is a     
compound1 so far as ,i have been able to
  ascertain1 of three parts of steel to 
two of iron1 intimately blended  and    
intermixed1 and twisted as just         
described4 ,it is a most beautifully    

clean and dense iron2 but the extreme   
twisting is to it1 as to all1  highly   
injurious and prejudicial4 ,the twisting
 is similar to the  ,damascus2 only that
 two twisted rods are welded together   
instead of  three1 and with the twist of
 the strands running in opposite angles1
 as  depicted in the wood-cut below4    
,illustration    ,the degree of strength
 is similar to that of the stub1 and    
other  ,damascus2 it being quite        
certain1 that1 be the composition what  
it may1  this rending of the cohesive   
attachment by twisting1 will eventually 
equalise the strength of the whole4     
,the use and introduction of what is    
called 8charcoal-iron10 is one of  the  
shams reared and supported by the hotbed
 of competition and  deception combined3
 a wish to foist on the purchaser a     
counterfeit for  the real metal4 ,i     
would not give shop-room to the best    
barrels ever made  from such a compound4
 ,i hate a scoundrel and a hypocrite2   
this iron  exemplifies the qualities of 

both4    ,this worthless compound       
consists principally of cuttings of     
sheet iron2  of which there is an       
endless supply in the neighbourhood of  
,birmingham1  from punchings and from   
one inferior metal and another4 ,after  
properly  cleaning1 a quantity is put   
into a charcoal furnace and melted1 cast
  into a pig1 then forged down to a bar1
 and rolled into rods  corresponding    
with the size of stub twist1 which it is
 intended to  represent4 ,the action of 
the charcoal communicates to it a       
portion of  carbon1 which1 when stained 
in a certain way1 gives an appearance   
much  resembling that beautiful metal   
just mentioned 7stub-,damascus72 but if 
every means imagined by the inventive   
faculty of man were employed upon  it1  
it could not be made into really good   
iron4 ,an iron which is  technically    
termed 8weak10 can never be made a      
strong bodied iron1 or an  8iron        
suitable to make steel10 to repeat a    
former quotation4 ,the  original iron   

from which these scraps generally come1 
is required to be  8weak0 iron1 for the 
facility with which it can be rolled    
into plates2  a strong fibrous iron is  
not necessary4    ,its greatest strength
 appears to be as follows3 #g-afths of  
an inch  broad1 and #e-afths thick1     
solid contents #adjfce inches1 will bear
 a  weight of #aj1jhj pounds2 so that if
 my calculations are correct1 it will   
bear only a pressure of #d1ebf pounds in
 the tube4 ,the loss of strength  by    
heating or softening1 being full #aj per
 cent4    ,this converted iron1 however1
 will not endure the test of browning by
  smoke1 or1 more properly1 flame2 as   
the oxygen invariably destroys the      
appearance of steel in twelve hours     
after its application4 ,by the old      
method of staining1 it would be as      
impossible for any man1 who was not a   
judge1 to point out the real from the   
counterfeit1 as to discern a copy       
executed by a clever artist from an     
original painting by one of the old     

masters4    ,but deception is ever      
fertile in expedients1 and an ingenious 
invention  was soon found out to imitate
 the advantage possessed by the 8smoke  
brown10 which they obtain by first      
browning or staining the barrels  very  
dark4 ,a weak solution of muriatic acid1
 or spirits of salt1 is  applied very   
lightly with a sponge1 and the colour is
 extracted from  those portions of the  
iron left more prominent1 by the        
excessive  pickling they are subjected  
to before staining2 they are then       
immediately dried1 scalded with hot     
water1 and the stain is complete2 it  is
 a most ingenious imitation4    ,i have 
already stated that this iron is very   
much used in consequence  of its        
cheapness2 its cost being only fourpence
 per pound1 while stub  twist costs     
fivepence4 ,it is also easily worked1   
being considerably  softer than any of  
the above-described kinds of iron4      
,it may be asked1 why so much inferior  
iron is used1 when the difference  in   

the price between the good and the bad  
is only a penny per pound8 ,the  reason 
is this3--,if a barrel filer receive an 
order for a pair of  barrels1 he 7having
 probably deceived his customer before1 
or1 at any  rate1 knowing that he can   
deceive him without running any risk of 
detection7 sends to the welder          
sufficient charcoal-iron to forge these 
barrels4 ,should the quantity amount to 
ten pounds1 he1 of course1 saves        
tenpence4 ,the welder receives two      
shillings less for welding this         
description of iron1 than for welding   
stub-twist2 so that here is  already a  
saving of #bs4 #aj;d4 ,at the           
boring-mill1 and the  grinding-mill1 the
 charge is also proportionate3 the wages
 of the  journeymen are less2 so that by
 imposing on his customer one pair of   
barrels manufactured of this sort of    
iron instead of the real  stub-twist1 he
 pockets a clear gain of above #is42 and
 should he  manufacture one hundred pair
 of such barrels in the year1 it would  

make  at the end no small item in the   
year's account of profit4    ,thus it is
 with all description of barrels4 ,the  
charge for making1 by  each workman1 in 
the various stages of the manufacture1  
is according to  the quality of each    
pair of barrels4 ,the saving1 then1 to  
the man who  makes one hundred pairs of 
barrels in the year1 though it be but a 
farthing in the pound of iron1 amounts  
to a considerable sum4 ,this  fraudulent
 gain of more than #es4 on a pair of    
pretended stub barrels1  is what is     
called in ,birmingham1 8doing the       
natives10 and is a reward  for ingenious
 knavery4    ,when orders are given by  
what are called general factors1 who    
very  kindly supply their country       
friends at a moderate commission of #dj 
to #ej  per cent41 these gentry take    
care to lap up the cream2 for we know   
from  facts that the barrel filer has   
sometimes scarcely five per cent4 for   
his trouble of overlooking4 ,one        
consequence naturally results from this1

  that every species of deception will  
be resorted to1 in order to  indemnify  
workpeople for their labour and trouble4
 ,at the present time1  ,i have no doubt
 that there are hundreds of guns made in
 ,birmingham1 the  barrels of which1 in 
some instances1 never enter the proof   
house3 as  eightpence per barrel1 the   
cost of proof1 is a great temptation6   
,besides1 a great number of barrels     
declared 8wasters0--such as  repeatedly 
bulged in the proof1 are full of flaws1 
have holes in the  sides1 or some other 
fault sufficient to condemn them in the 
eyes of a  moderately conscientious     
barrel-maker--are bought by men who live
 by  this species of fraud2 and are     
repaired with great neatness1 by putting
  in pieces artfully1 beating down      
swellings or bulges4 ,then the          
proof-mark 8of doubtful identity20 and1 
last of all1--mark6--they fit  them up1 
and send them to the engraver to have   
the name of some living  or defunct     
,london gun-maker of respectability     

engraved upon them1 and  palm them off  
upon some dealer as a good article4     
,i commend to the reader the advice of  
8,edward ,davies10 a gentleman who      
wrote in #afai2 who says 8,he that loves
 the safetie of his own person1  and    
delighteth in the goodness and beautie  
of a piece1 let him always  make choice 
of one that is double breeched2 and if  
possible1 a ,mylan  piece1 for they be  
of tough and perfect temper1 light1     
square1 and bigge  of breech1 and very  
strong where the powder doth lie1 and   
where the  violent force of the fire    
doth consist1 and notwithstanding thinne
 at  the end4 ,our ,english pieces      
approach very neare unto them in beautie
 and  goodness1 7their heaviness only   
excepted7 so that they be made of       
purpose1 and not one of these common    
sale pieces1 with round barrels1        
whereunto a beaten souldier will have   
great respect1 and choose rather  to pay
 double money for a good piece1 than to 
spare his purse and  endanger himself40 

,truly1 the fraternity have always1 we  
find1 been of  doubtful honesty3 always 
making 8sale pieces40    8,threepenny   
skelp iron0 is made from an inferior    
quality of scrap to  that from which    
8charcoal iron0 is made2 but unlike it1 
there is no  pretension of quality4 ,its
 inferiority is not denied2 it is poor  
in  quality1 and suits parties who      
cannot buy better4 ,the method of       
preparing is by an air-furnace1 forge1  
tilt and rolling mill1 as before        
described4 ,the greatest strength of a  
bar #aa-afths broad by #c-afths  thick1 
containing #aedfh solid inches1 is      
#g1hdj lbs42 or equal to an  internal   
pressure of #c1hda lbs4 to the inch of  
tube4 ,one particular  fact attaches to 
all kinds of inferior iron--the greater 
the mass acted  upon by the rollers the 
greater the variation of strength4 ,this
 arises  entirely from the increased    
sponginess of the metal1 and its greater
  expansibility4 ,for instance1 a rod   
#a-afth thicker1 is #ae per cent4       

weaker in proportion2 and so on to the  
greatest extent4 ,but on the other      
hand1 it is capable of recovering a     
great increase of strength by cold      
hammering2 greater than better iron4 ,a 
considerable quantity of this  iron is  
sold to engineers1 and used in the      
construction of locomotive  and other   
engines2 the price and uniformity of    
texture in grain fitting  it for that   
purpose4    8,twopenny0 or 8,wednesbury 
skelp0 is almost too bad to be used in  
making  an article which may endanger   
the limbs of our fellow creatures1 and  
is  now little used1 fortunately4 ,it is
 made of an inferior scrap to the       
former1 in precisely the same manner2   
and in point of strength is still       
lower4 ,the bar is generally #a and     
#a-afth inches in breadth1 by #c-afths  
thick1 the solid contents #b inches and 
#be-fdths1 and will bear a weight  of   
#g1hdj pounds2 consequently the strength
 will be #b1hdj pounds to the  inch of  
tube4    ,this is a great falling-off in

 strength2 and ,i would ask any one who 
values the safety of his hand1 if he    
would like to risk it1 by using a  gun  
made of iron possessing so low a degree 
of strength1 as compared to  the force  
of the charge it has to bear8 ,let him  
recollect that the force  of the charge 
may be increased by a variety of        
circumstances4 ,the  pressure of a      
certain quantity of powder1 on which a  
certain weight of  shot is placed1 is so
 many pounds to the inch2 and if you    
double that  weight of shot1 you nearly 
double the pressure4 ,in estimating the 
force  of pressure1 the opposing        
friction is also to be taken into       
account4 ,if  the gun be allowed to get 
very foul1 then friction is increased1  
and of  course a still greater pressure 
is thrown on the tube of the barrel4    
,all  these circumstances being taken   
into consideration1 ,i repeat1 that no  
barrel is safe1 whose power of          
resistance is not more than double the  
strength of a charge of sufficient force

 for general shooting4 ,every  bad gun  
should be thrown aside as unsafe1 or    
used with the greatest  caution4 ,bad   
and inferior guns are made from the     
foregoing material2 and  not many years 
have elapsed since it was thought good  
enough for  military arms4    8,sham    
damn skelp0 is made from the most       
inferior scrap4 ,i should not  have     
mentioned this description of iron had  
,i not seen hundreds of  barrels made of
 it1 all which are utterly unfitted for 
the use of any  person who cares at all 
for his safety4 ,i have met with them   
frequently  under the dignified name of 
twisted barrels4 ,guns that are fitted  
up at  from ten to twelve shillings each
 are not of course patent breeched1 but 
are made to appear so by staining them  
generally blue1 and by having a  couple 
of bands to imitate platina1 across the 
squares4 ,a projecting  part is welded  
on to the side1 into which the nipple is
 inserted1 and  the lock joints neatly  
under it4 ,many of them are good        

imitations2 but  only take the barrel   
out of the stock and the deception is   
instantly  apparent1 as it is rarely    
carried further than the outside4 ,the  
beautiful way in which the barrels are  
painted to imitate fine twist1  catches 
the eye of the simple countryman1 who is
 generally the dupe of  this artifice2  
and the persuasive eloquence of the     
itinerant  hardwareman1 seldom fails to 
extract from the pocket of his          
unsuspecting  purchaser sometimes thirty
 or forty shillings of his earnings for 
what  the modest trader rarely pays     
above fifteen shillings4 ,many are the  
anathemas vented1 when the deception is 
found out by some one more  knowing than
 the dupe1 who not unfrequently         
purchases his experience at  the expense
 of a finger or a hand4 ,it is          
astonishing what a quantity of  this    
rubbish is disposed of by hawkers who   
infest market towns and  villages with  
guns for sale4    ,but the ,english     
peasant is not the only dupe of this    

species of knavery4  ,thousands of these
 guns are sent monthly to the ,united   
,states1 to the  ,brazils1 and ,south   
,america2 where they are disposed of1   
among the poor  ,indians1 in exchange   
for skins and furs4    ,they are all    
understood to be 8proved40 ,how many are
 so who can tell2  but that some of them
 are not1 there can be no doubt4    ,it 
is said that the manufacture of these   
guns is a great support to the  gun     
trade of ,birmingham4 ,in one respect it
 is1 certainly2 yet would not  the      
interest of the trade be advanced1 if we
 were to manufacture none of  so        
inferior a quality8 8,but then10 it will
 be urged1 8we could not  compete with  
our rivals in ,germany and the          
,netherlands40 ,true1 we should  not be 
their rivals in the production of       
rubbish2 but the superiority of  our    
guns would then command a better market4
 ,by sending to the market an  article  
no better than theirs1 we have made     
foreigners indifferent about  the       

purchase of ours3 they say 8,the        
,english guns are no better than the    
,belgian or ,german2 we may as well     
purchase one as the other40 ,the force  
of this remark is illustrated by the    
state of the ,african trade4 ,the  base 
kind of articles we supplied them with  
some years ago1 has produced  a distrust
 of our manufacture1 which will not     
easily be removed2 and a  similar       
distrust is engendered by the same cause
 in the minds of our  present customers4
 ,it is much to be deplored that the    
eagerness for  present gain1 should     
render men blind to the consequences of 
their  conduct1 and lead them to prefer 
the immediate gratification of their    
avarice even to their own future        
prosperity2 to say nothing of the       
welfare of the trade of the country4    
,the method ,i suggested of testing all 
iron in the bar would go far to  destroy
 this trade4 ,i have not thought it     
worth while to test this iron4  ,but    
twist barrels are made of it4 ,should   

the reader meet with a double  gun so   
made1 let him avoid it3 it is unsafe1   
unless it be so heavy as to  be         
unmanageable4    ,a great many long     
rifle barrels are made of this iron1    
principally for  the ,american trade2   
but from their immense weight1 and the  
small charge  of powder required1 there 
does not exist the same danger from     
their  use4    ,fowling-piece barrels   
made of it may be generally recognised  
by the  smallness of the bore and the   
thickness of metal4 ,as the charge of   
powder used in proving is very small    
when compared with the charges for      
proving guns of a wider calibre1 we need
 not be surprised that many of  those   
that are proved stand proof4    8,swaff 
iron forging0 is a profitable branch of 
forging carried on in  ,birmingham under
 the above title4 ,it is a metal which  
is composed of  iron and steel filings1 
chippings of breeches1 pieces and       
cuttings of  the ends of the screws1    
lock-plates1 cocks1 the rough borings of

  barrels1 and all other small scraps   
found in gunmakers' and other           
workshops4 ,these are collected by the  
boys in each shop1 and when they  have  
accumulated1 are sold to the            
8swaff-forger10 the proceeds being      
considered as drinking money4 ,they are 
forged into bars of iron by  attaching  
them together and immersing them in     
diluted sulphuric acid2  then1 after    
draining it from them again1 and placing
 a large iron pan  full in a hot        
situation1 they become cemented together
 by the action of  the oxide4 ,the      
compound is then taken from the pan1 by 
turning it upside  down1 and is put into
 an air-furnace heated to a welding     
heat1 being  thence removed and beaten  
into a bar3 three men with light hammers
  beating it as quickly as they do in   
welding a gun-barrel4 ,this iron is     
sold to the gun-work forgers1 for the   
forging of the patent breeches1         
lock-plates1 furniture1 and other parts 
of the gun which they think  worthy of  

good iron2 but since cheapness has      
become so much the order of  the day1   
the use of this iron is confined to the 
forging of best  gun-work1 cast iron    
being thought quite good enough for     
common  gun-work4          ,,chapter ,v4
    ,,gun-,,making4      ,in this       
chapter ,i shall briefly describe the   
process of the manufacture  of guns of  
all qualities1 commencing with          
barrel-welding2 which1 in  importance1  
is inferior only to the quality of iron 
in the routine of  good gun-making4     
,birmingham1 and the surrounding        
districts1 are the only places in       
,england where barrel-welding is        
practised4 ,the superior advantage      
possessed in having coal nearly 7if not 
entirely7 free from the presence  of the
 sulphuret of iron1 which has always    
been found a considerable  hindrance to 
the obtainment of clear and good        
barrels1 is greatly in  their favour4   
,for a considerable period individuals  
in ,london contended  with the          

,warwickshire welders2 but being an     
unequal contest1 it ended in  favour of 
the provincialists4 ,this is to be      
regretted1 as there can be  no doubt but
 that greater reliance could be placed  
on the material of  the ,london         
manufacture4 ,but a considerable        
drawback existed with the  latter3 they 
made only one sort of barrel1 and that  
the best4 ,now it is  requisite to have 
a fire fitted for the purpose of welding
 best  barrels--tempered1 as it         
were--and this can only be effected by  
some  hours' using1 which is generally  
employed in the production of a number  
of very inferior barrels4 ,as the       
,london people made no common guns1 and 
needed no inferior barrels1 they welded 
their best barrels in a raw1  untempered
 fire2 and hence arose the admitted     
inferiority of their work4  ,the late   
,mr4 ,fullard struggled long and hard in
 the competition2 but  with his death1  
barrel-welding ceased in the metropolis4
 ,indeed it would  have been highly     

imprudent and unprofitable for any one  
to have entered  upon such a            
speculation2 there being no certainty of
 success1 but rather  of the contrary4  
,the ,birmingham barrel-welders are     
wonderfully clever  smiths3 they cannot 
be excelled4 ,if ridden with a curb1    
they do well2  but no opportunity must  
be given them1 or to a certainty they   
will  8bolt0 from the true path4    ,the
 metal rods are twisted by means of two 
iron bars1 the one fixed the  other     
loose4 ,in the latter there is a prong  
or notch to receive one end2  and when  
inserted1 the bar is turned by a handle4
 ,the fixed bar  preventing the rod from
 going round1 it is bent and twisted    
over the  moveable rod like the pieces  
of leather round the handle of a whip4  
,the  loose bar is unshipped1 the spiral
 knocked off1 and the same process      
recommenced with another rod4 ,the      
length of all the spirals depends on    
the breadth of the rod3 for instance1   
the stub-twist has sixteen circles  in  

six inches long2 a rod of five feet will
 make a spiral of only seven  inches2   
while iron1 of an inch in breadth1 will 
make a spiral of as many  inches long as
 there are twists3 hence the reason why 
best barrels have  more joinings than   
common ones of equal length4    ,the    
,damascus being rolled into rods of     
#aa-afths broad forms a spiral  with the
 appearance shown in the accompanying   
woodcut4    ,illustration    ,the fancy 
steel barrels and others1 where the rod 
is formed of more than  one piece1 such 
as the stub ,damascus1 c41 is of rather 
greater breadth1  like the              
representation below4    ,illustration  
,the iron made from stubs and steel1 and
 plain fibrous steel1 is  invariably    
rolled down into rods of #f-afths broad1
 forming a spiral1 as  below4           
,illustration    ,a proper attention to 
the fineness of the spiral will always  
enable an  amateur to detect any attempt
 at imposition4    ,the spiral formed   
from the rod of charcoal iron has a     

somewhat different  appearance2 but in  
cases where it is intended to supply the
 place of the  real stub iron it is of  
corresponding dimensions1 and in general
 very  difficult to detect without a    
very intimate knowledge indeed of the   
nature of iron4 ,when honestly intended1
 it forms a similar spiral to the       
accompanying one4    ,illustration      
,the wideness of the twist1 or the      
angular direction of the fibres1 will   
enable the most uninitiated to recognise
 a barrel made from threepenny  skelp   
iron3 the very few welds required1 is   
one cause of the cheapness  of barrels  
made from it4 ,judgment may be formed of
 it from the following  representation4 
,illustration    ,twopenny1 or          
,wednesbury skelp is coarser in the     
spiral still1 and  running so angular as
 not to be very difficult to detect4    
,illustration    ,all iron formed in    
spirals1 as a matter of certainty1 forms
 twist  barrels--the parties whose use  
they are intended for1 seldom know or   

care for anything further than having 8a
 twist barrelled gun40 ,the  advantage  
of sham damn iron being twisted is all  
imaginary3 if used at  all1 it may be   
twisted2 but those who value their      
safety would consult  it best by tying a
 large stone to such a gun and sinking  
it fathoms  deep4 ,but to satisfy those 
who may fancy such things1 ,i give a    
woodcut  of the spiral ready for        
welding4    ,illustration    ,the       
spirals being thus formed1 the welders  
commence their day's work4  ,the batch  
consists of a foreman1 one on whose     
skill all depends1 and two              
subordinates1 whose duty it is to blow  
the bellows1 strike1 c4    ,they proceed
 to weld probably a dozen long common   
barrels for the  ,american trade2 which 
are generally composed of the inferior  
iron  mentioned before1 rolled into two 
lengths of different thicknesses4       
,these skelps are heated1 and beaten on 
a groove until they form a tube  half   
closed4 ,they are then heated again1 and

 closed with one edge  over-lapping the 
other2 as a brazier would over-lap the  
edge of a tin  pipe1 for boys to blows  
peas with4    ,having got the two       
lengths of the whole dozen turned into  
tubes1 they  proceed to weld the longer 
length or forepart1 by heating it       
sufficiently for four or five inches1   
introducing a mandril of the  required  
size to suit the bore wanted1 and then  
beating it into a  perfect tube1 in a   
groove on the anvil1 of corresponding   
diameter2  heating it again and again1  
until the joint is closed the whole     
length4  ,they then proceed with the    
other eleven foreparts1 and advance the 
whole  to that stage before welding on  
the breech lengths2 which are now       
partially heated by laying on the       
outskirts of the fire1 to be in         
readiness3 they are then closed the same
 as the foreparts4 ,the end1 when  about
 to be jointed1 is opened a little on   
the peam of the anvil1 to  admit a      
portion of the end of the forepart2     

which is introduced as soon  as both are
 in a welding state3 the mandril is then
 introduced1 and the  joint is          
perfected1 in less time than we have    
occupied in the  description4 ,the other
 part of the tube is closed1 and the    
barrel is  then complete4 ,if1 however1 
the breech part is to be square or      
octagon  shaped1 it is not welded in a  
groove1 but on a plain surface4         
,competition has reduced this department
 of the trade to a low ebb2  thousands  
of these sort of barrels being now      
annually welded for about  eightpence   
each3 if to this we add one penny       
farthing per pound for six  pounds of   
iron1 we get a forged gun barrel for one
 shilling and  threepence halfpenny4    
,this is certainly a poor remuneration  
for sweating  over a furnace containing 
from two to three hundredweight of      
intensely  heated coal4 ,the            
introduction of welding by the rolling  
mill1 will  eventually supersede this   
arrangement2 a matter to be regretted   

only on  the score of its answering the 
purpose of preparing the fire for best  
welding4 ,of late years rolling has     
nearly superseded this description of   
welding4    ,illustration    ,they now  
commence the welding of twist barrels4  
,spirals that are  intended for the     
breech end1 are heated to a welding heat
 for about  three inches1 removed from  
the fire1 and jumped close by striking  
the  end against the anvil4 ,again they 
are heated1 and again jumped1 to  ensure
 the perfect welding4 ,they are then    
beaten lightly in a groove1 to  make    
them round4 ,the neatest part of the    
process consists in the  joining of the 
points of the two rods1 so as to make   
the barrel appear  as if it had been    
twisted out of one rod4 ,the ends of the
 two rods are a  little detached1       
brought from the fire1 and applied to   
each other2 a  gentle tap is then given1
 and the union is perfect in an instant4
 ,the  rapidity and dexterity with which
 this is accomplished1 ought to be seen 

to be duly appreciated4 ,this trouble is
 only taken with the best  barrels4 ,in 
the manufacture of barrels of an        
inferior description1 the  ends of the  
rods are cut in a sloping direction1 and
 when welded  together1 become quite    
square at the part where the pieces are 
joined4  ,in a finished barrel the      
points of junction are easily           
recognised4 ,by  tracing the twist1 a   
confusion will be found to exist for    
about an  eighth of an inch1 every six  
or seven inches2 and from this          
appearance  you may conclude that1 for a
 barrel so joined1 the welder had not   
the  best price4 ,having joined the     
whole of the spirals1 three inches are  
again heated to a welding heat1 the     
mandril is introduced1 and the tube     
hammered1 in a groove1 to the size      
required4 ,this operation is repeated   
until the whole length is finished4     
,then follows hammer-hardening3 that is1
 beating the barrel1 in a  comparatively
 cold state1 in a groove1 with light    

hammers1 for the space  of half an hour4
 ,this is a most important part of the  
process4 ,it closes  the pores1         
condenses the texture of the metal1     
compresses a greater  substance into    
less bounds1 increases greatly the      
strength of the  barrel1 and renders it 
more elastic4 ,yet this is seldom done1 
unless  specially requested2 and then a 
gratuity is1 of course1 expected either 
in money or beer4 ,a few pots of the    
juice of ,sir ,john ,barleycorn will    
infuse more strength into your barrels  
than you could purchase for ten  times  
the amount in money2 as they have the   
effect of making the hammers  descend   
with increased velocity4    ,if all     
barrels were hardened in this manner1   
their shooting powers would  be         
increased1 and they would not be so     
liable to burst in the hands of  the    
sportsman4 ,this1 however1 cannot be    
done1 unless the purchaser  either sees 
it done himself1 or has it done under   
the superintendence of  some person on  

whom he can depend4 ,the ,birmingham    
workmen1 if well paid  and well looked  
after 7to counteract the bad habits they
 have acquired  from being employed in  
the manufacture of so large a quantity  
of goods  of an inferior quality71 would
 produce an article superior to any that
  could be produced1 at the same cost1  
in any other part of the world4    ,the 
,belgian welders do their work at       
considerably less cost in coal than  our
 ,english workmen4 ,coal1 it is well    
known1 is very dear in ,liege1 and      
necessity may have taught them the      
extreme of economy both in the size  of 
their fire and the duration of it4 ,they
 effect this by adding to  two-thirds of
 coal1 beat into dust1 one-third of     
clay2 the latter is  mixed with the coal
 by being put into a wooden barrel1 the 
two well  stirred up together1 and the  
water drained from it4 ,even this       
mixture is  used sparingly3 the fire    
being scarcely larger than might be held
 in the  two hands1 while with us little

 short of two hundredweight suffices3   
which is unquestionably a great and     
unnecessary waste4 ,true the ,belgian   
does not get through the great quantity 
of work the ,englishman does by  having 
8a great many irons in the fire0 at     
once2 but he certainly does  it well and
 clean3 the quantity of earthy matter in
 the ,belgian's fire  gives a great     
heat1 which also is retained longer2 and
 it is also free  from any excessive    
quantity of particles of charcoal4      
,all twist barrels undergo a similar    
round2 the time and care bestowed  upon 
them depending entirely on the price1   
which varies from one pound  per pair   
down to eighteenpence1 and in some      
instances lower4    ,in a former work ,i
 noticed the introduction of a villanous
 system of  covering or plating barrels 
with fine iron over a body of very      
inferior  iron4 ,i here quote that      
description3--    ,the deceptions       
practised in this branch of manufacture 
are numerous1 and  injurious to the     

trade4 ,for instance1 if you wish to    
have a heavy single  barrel made from   
,damascus1 or any of the best irons1 and
 you send to the  manufacturer the      
weight of iron required1 the probability
 is1 that  unless you superintend the   
manufacture yourself1 iron of an        
inferior  quality will be introduced    
into the inside of the spirals4 ,by this
 fraud  they obtain iron worth          
threepence a pound more than that which 
they  knavishly insert into the barrel4 
,i had been repeatedly told of this     
practice1 but was incredulous4 ,however1
 ,i gave an order for four very  heavy  
rifle barrels to be made of ,damascus   
iron4 ,they were made2 but on  pickling 
these barrels for the purpose of showing
 the figure of the  ,damascus1 ,i       
discovered that the iron seemed to be   
much more easily eaten  away at the     
muzzle than on the surface4 ,this led me
 to examine them1  when ,i found that   
the inside was entirely composed of     
iron1 over which  the covering of       

,damascus had been twisted4 ,but for the
 pickling1 this  fraud never would have 
been detected2 yet for these barrels ,i 
was  charged at the rate of two barrels 
for each4 ,since this occurred1 ,i have 
subjected many heavy barrels to         
examination1 and have found the fraud to
  be very common4 ,the practice is not  
only dishonest1 but spoils the gun1  by 
destroying the shooting power1 in       
consequence of the metals1 being of     
different temperatures1 not acting      
together at the moment of expansion4    
,illustration    ,veneering or plating  
barrels is more extensively practised in
 ,belgium  than in any other nation we  
are acquainted with2 they do not conceal
 it1  but they use equally good iron1   
though not ornamented iron3 of this     
there is much doubt4 ,the method of     
accomplishing this is by having the     
iron required rolled down into ribbons  
of a thin description2 these are        
twisted spirally round a tube of common 
iron having the fibres running          

length-ways1 or parallel with the bore4 
,the accompanying cut will convey  an   
idea of this method4    ,many will ask  
what inducement have the welders to take
 this extra  trouble8 ,gain4 ,the cost  
of ,damascus is #g-a_/b;d4 per pound1   
and the iron  they use for this purpose 
is only #a-a_/d;d4 ,a pair of barrels   
take #ad  lbs4 of iron2 say #f lbs4 of  
this is ,damascus plate1 costing #cs4   
#i;d42  #h lbs4 is common1 amounting to 
#aj;d4 instead of #es41 or a saving of  
#ds4 #b;d4 a pair4 ,a splendid profit if
 you order one hundred4 ,the  borer     
charges less1 the iron is softer1 the   
filer has less1 and all  items clubbed  
amount to something4 ,the facility with 
which welders can  do this is wonderful2
 it clearly establishes their ability1  
and proves  their claim to be considered
 the cleverest blacksmiths on the face  
of  the earth4 ,it is not only the best 
descriptions of iron they plate with3   
twopenny skelp is more in use than any4 
,it is now rare to meet with  painted   

barrels3 all are genuine twist barrels1 
warranted2 for  they are mostly all     
plated1 even down to the gun costing but
 fourteen  shillings1 wholesale price4  
,this is a subject of serious           
importance2 one which the gun-makers1   
both  metropolitan and provincial1      
should resolutely condemn2 for safety as
  well as goodness of shooting cannot be
 secured in perfection with any  barrels
 so constructed4 ,i have met with plated
 barrels in guns which  cost the        
purchaser thirty-five guineas1 and ,i   
have detected them in some  of the first
 makers' guns2 for the perfection with  
which the fraud is  accomplished is     
wonderful1 and few can detect it who are
 not strictly up  to 8the dodge40 ,the  
application of a portion of sulphuric   
acid into the  tube at the breech end of
 the barrel1 is the best way of showing 
the  fraud2 for1 in most cases1 it is   
all bored out at the thin portion of    
the muzzle1 and the application there   
would1 under these circumstances1  be no

 test4    ,i have frequently been       
applied to by many masters in the trade 
for  advice in the recommendation of a  
barrel-maker4 ,it is at all times an    
invidious task to act as a selector for 
individuals1 and to give praise  to one 
man over another2 more especially where 
the merits of workmen  approximate near 
to each other4 ,but in barrel-making1 a 
man1 to be a  master of his trade1      
should not only be a good workman1      
breeching and  filing well1 but should  
possess a good eye in putting barrels   
together  7for here everything depends  
upon the eye7 and finishing them highly3
  these are only a portion of the       
abilities a barrel-maker should possess4
  ,several of the ,london barrel-makers 
are exceedingly good workmen1 for ,i    
have tried them all2 but only converse  
with them1 and you find the             
technicalities of the work is all they  
can discourse upon3 the iron1 the  vital
 principle1 is ,greek to them2 they know
 nothing about it1 and care  less4 ,how 

can these men be guides in the right    
direction8 ,they may have  seen barrels 
welded2 but1 if so1 it is only a matter 
of chance3 even in  ,birmingham1 where  
this can be seen daily1 nineteen out of 
twenty know  nothing theoretically4 ,you
 will frequently hear them heaping      
anathemas  on a hard barrel1 when       
floating it1 and wishing the man who    
invented  steel barrels 8in the shades  
below40 ,ask these men's opinions1 and  
if  they expect to have the job of      
filing the barrels1 they will surely    
recommend you soft iron1 stub-twist1 or 
charcoal-iron4    ,illustration         
,boring and grinding gun-barrels        
generally take place under the same     
roof2 the borer occupying a very small  
shop1 the grinder a large one4  ,two men
 and two boys are generally found in a  
shop4 ,there are four  benches1 to each 
a spindle1 in which there is an oblong  
hole to receive  the end of the boring  
bit4 ,the barrel is secured on a sort of
 carriage1  which is at liberty to      

traverse the whole length of the bench4 
,a boring  bit is then selected of      
suitable size2 it is put into the       
spindle1 and  the point introduced into 
the end of the barrel4 ,a sort of lever 
is then  taken and hooked on to a kind  
of staple1 or a piece of hooked iron 7a 
number of which are fixed in one side of
 the bench the whole length71  and      
passed behind the carriage to force it  
up to the bit2 this is  removed and     
fixed again1 until1 by forcing up the   
carriage1 the boring  bit has passed    
through the whole of the barrel4 ,during
 this operation a  stream of water is   
kept playing on the barrel to keep it   
cool4 ,a bit1 of  larger dimensions1 is 
next introduced and passed through2 then
 others of  still larger dimensions1    
until the whole of the scales or blacks 
are  entirely bored out2 or until the   
barrel has become so large in the bore1 
as to preclude any further boring with  
safety4 ,if the scales are of  great    
extent1 the fault is the forger's1 and  

the loss will consequently  be his4 ,if 
the barrels be found perfect1 they are  
sent back to the  filer1 or he comes to 
inspect them1 in order to ascertain     
whether they  be perfectly straight in  
the inside2 if not1 to make them so4    
,the necessity of great care and        
attention to this point1 must be very   
obvious2 for1 if not perfectly correct  
at this stage1 it will require  more    
skill and time to get it correct        
afterwards than the generality of       
barrel-makers are inclined to bestow4   
,when the inside has been found to be   
all right1 the barrel is ready for      
grinding4 ,many barrel-makers turn their
 barrels entirely by self-acting        
lathes1 and thus obtain a correct taper 
from breech end to muzzle4  ,experience 
has clearly convinced us that this is   
not the best shape1 but  slightly hollow
 towards the muzzle is preferable1 as   
additional weight  there is decidedly   
injurious1 and the shooting of barrels  
of lighter  construction is decidedly   

better4    ,the generality of           
,birmingham barrels are ground to the   
size required on  large stones1 which   
revolve at a terrific rate4 ,the skill  
acquired by  many of the workmen is     
astonishing4 ,over and over again1 have 
we seen  barrels coming from the mill   
put into the lathe1 and found almost as 
true as if they had been turned4 ,they  
have a method of allowing the  barrel to
 revolve in their hands at half the rate
 of the stone1 and by  this means they  
grind them so fine that many would be   
puzzled to  determine whether they had  
been turned or ground1 were the barrel  
smoothed lengthways merely to take out  
the marks of the stone4 ,we have  seen  
the squares of a rifle barrel ground to 
as perfect an octagon as  the eye could 
assist in forming4 ,best barrels are    
generally turned after  they are ground4
 ,inferior barrels are struck up with a 
large rubber1 or  smooth1 by boys2 in   
some instances by women4    ,there is   
one advantage derived from grinding     

barrels1 namely1 that the  friction of  
the stone being continuous1 the temper  
of the barrel is not  so much affected  
as where the tool in the slide-rest is  
cutting a  considerable portion at once2
 for all barrels are best1 and superior 
to  their compeers1 which require least 
metal to be either ground or turned  off
 their surface1 as there is a density on
 the outer which is not in  the interior
 portion4 ,the harder the material1 the 
less the extent of  this objection4     
,to obtain the true form1 it is         
important that they should be turned4   
,the  way of fixing them in the lathe is
 by having a number of plugs or         
mandrils1 which are perfectly true1 and 
of various sizes1 to fit  different     
bores2 these are centred and put in the 
lathe2 a carrier is  then secured on a  
part of the plug that projects out of   
the breech-end  of the barrel1 and then 
put into the face-plate of the lathe1   
which  carries it round4 ,the leading   
screw that travels the slide-rest1 is   

then  set in the angle to which the     
barrel is to be turned 7though some     
lathes  have not the power of           
alteration1 but turn all barrels in one 
angle72  the slide is next adjusted to  
the thickness of the muzzle wanted1 and1
  when all is ready1 the lathe is set   
going2 the leading screw is turned  at  
the same moment by the machinery        
connected1 which keeps the tool  cutting
 sufficiently keen to turn a barrel in  
about twenty-five minutes4  ,this being 
done1 nothing more is required than a   
fine smooth file to  remove the marks of
 the tool4    ,there can be no doubt of 
the superiority of this mode of turning 
barrels1 if due care only be taken with 
the tool4 ,if it get blunted by  any    
scales or impurities1 it is apt to tear 
pieces out of the barrel1  similar to   
the rings that may be noticed in a      
slovenly bored barrel1  owing to dirt   
getting on the edges of the bit4 ,in    
turning a barrel by a  common lathe1 it 
is fixed in the same manner as before2  

about an inch of  the surface at the    
breech and the muzzle is turned to the  
diameter  wanted2 the rest is then      
removed1 and half an inch more is turned
 four  or five inches from either end2  
then another half inch1 at another      
distance of four or five inches1 and so 
on1 according to the length2  making an 
allowance each time in the depth of the 
turning1 according to  the taper of the 
barrel4 ,the iron between these cuttings
 is then filed  off by floats the       
lengthways of the barrel1 or more       
frequently ground  off2 this is a sure  
mode of getting the barrels perfectly   
straight on  the outside1 and without   
any of those hollows and shades which   
may be  always discovered in an ill-made
 barrel4 ,it is astonishing how         
beautifully many barrels are struck by  
the float4 ,the mode of turning by  the 
lathe is1 however1 cheaper1 and is now  
confined to military barrels4    ,there 
is a great diversity of opinion as to   
the proper inclination of a  pair of    

double barrels4 ,it is needless to state
 the precise distance at  which the     
converging lines drawn from the centre  
of each barrel1 and  indicating the     
inclination of the barrels to each      
other1 should come to  a point4 ,if we  
take the point of convergence of those  
lines at #b-a_/b  yards1 it will follow 
that1 at #dj yards1 each barrel1 were it
 fixed in a  vice1 would throw the      
centre of its charge six inches on the  
opposite  side of the mark fired at2 but
 if the gun be fired from the shoulder1 
the recoil will invariably cause the gun
 to swerve outwards1 so that at  that   
distance it will never fail to throw the
 shot in a good direction  for the mark 
or bull's-eye4    ,the subject may be   
understood by the following             
observations4 ,all  tapering substances1
 when laid together were the taper      
extended1 would  come to a point at a   
certain distance4 ,gun-barrels are made 
to taper  towards each other1 and some  
more than others4 ,to make them uniform1

 it  requires that they should be       
reduced or flattened1 so that the thick 
or  heavy end should join closer1 to    
allow the point of convergence to be    
extended to a greater distance4 ,if1    
then1 we take two barrels two feet      
eight inches long1 and having a solid   
substance of metal at the breech  of    
#c-afths of an inch each and #a-afth at 
the muzzle2 it requires the  difference 
#d-afths to be multiplied #de times     
7there being that number of  lengths in 
#dj yards7 to ascertain what distance   
the points of the  different lines are  
from each other3 which will be eleven   
#d-afths of an  inch1 or five #aj-afth  
inches from the centre or line of sight4
 ,if you  wish to reduce it from the    
centre1 you have to join the barrels so 
much  nearer at the breech2 or should   
the inclination be too little1 the      
muzzle must be jointed closer4 ,as1     
however1 all guns are now made very     
heavy at the breech1 they very seldom   
require any closing at the muzzle3      

though it is customary to do it1 and to 
a great extent2 but it is owing  to the 
ignorance of the nature of shooting4    
,different lengths require a difference 
in the height of the rib4 ,a  greater   
height is also required for a person    
accustomed to use a crooked  stock1 and 
less height for one accustomed to the   
use of a straighter  one2 and so on4    
,few barrels are to be met with in which
 the elevation is  sufficient4 ,this is 
a species of innovation much practised  
by gunmakers  of the present day2 but   
whatever merit there may have been in   
the  original invention1 there is none  
in 8the improvement10 as they term it4  
,take any of the modern barrels1 and    
calculate what is the real elevation  of
 them1 and you will find it is not equal
 to the distance that charges  will     
droop at forty yards1 when we consider  
the very large charges of  shot that    
many are accustomed to use1 without a   
corresponding quantity  of powder4 ,it  
remains then to be decided what         

elevation a gun should  have for that   
distance4    ,i have tried the          
experiment some hundreds of times with  
guns of all  descriptions1 both with a  
rest and from the shoulder1 and standing
 as  firm as possible2 by turning       
quickly round1 and firing 7as we might  
do  were a bird to spring in a situation
 where we could only get a snap  shot7  
against targets such as are used in     
military ball-practice1 being  about six
 feet high1 and by means of which one   
can perceive where the  body of the shot
 had struck4 ,i have also fired against 
the steep sides  of sand-banks1 on      
which1 from their smoothness1 you can   
tell every shot  that has struck them4  
,my conviction is1 that almost all guns 
charged 7as  is the custom7 with heavy  
charges of shot1 droop full twelve      
inches in  forty yards2 though by using 
small charges of shot you will find them
 to  be thrown much more correctly than 
the heavy charges2 so that it is        
possible to make a gun too high on the  

rib for a shooter who thinks more       
powder and less lead preferable to much 
lead and little powder4    ,the         
elevation ,i have given will be found to
 be as near what is requisite  as       
possible1 if we continue to load as     
heretofore2 if reduced charges of  shot 
be adopted1 a less elevation will       
suffice4 ,to ascertain what  elevation  
at the breech for the above scale is    
requisite1 take the  thickness of the   
breech and muzzle1 and multiply the     
difference by as  many times as there   
are lengths of your barrels in the forty
 yards1 and  you will then ascertain    
what elevation they give of themselves2 
and to  make up the difference wanted1  
must be the elevation of the rib1 which 
may be calculated in the same way as the
 barrels2 the length of the  barrels    
being the only way of obtaining a       
correct idea of the height  required4   
,if making woodcock guns1 less elevation
 is required1 the  distance of shooting 
being shorter4 ,in large guns a greater 

elevation is  necessary4 ,we believe1   
however1 ,colonel ,hawker has fallen    
into an error1  when he says that long  
guns require a greater elevation than   
short ones4  ,does not a long gun keep  
the shot more together8 ,is not more    
force  generated8 and is not the initial
 velocity greater than in a short gun8  
,if these be facts1 why is more         
elevation required if the shot do not   
droop8 ,we apprehend the ,colonel means1
 if the same height be required to  be  
given above the mark4 ,nothing can be   
plainer than this--that if one  pair of 
barrels be four inches longer than      
another1 and the elevation  the same1   
there cannot be as many lengths in the  
forty yards of the  longer barrels as of
 the shorter1 and hence the difference  
when  multiplied4 ,i think1 therefore1  
he cannot have taken into consideration 
the superiority in their shooting2 for  
there cannot be a doubt that1 if  a gun 
keep the shot together longer1 it cannot
 require that allowance  for drooping   

which a shorter gun does4    ,as soon as
 the barrels are properly jointed2 care 
must be taken to see  that they are     
perfectly level4 ,if the barrels are not
 level1 it will be  impossible to shoot 
correctly1 as one barrel will throw the 
shot above1  the other below the mark4  
,this being done1 the barrels are bound 
together and brazed with hard solder or 
brass1 for about four or five  inches4  
,greater injury cannot be done to       
barrels than by this pernicious         
practice2 for they cannot be brazed     
without being heated to a white  heat2  
and by this heat all the advantages     
derived from hammering are  dissipated  
at once3 the condensation is gone1 and  
the strength is  reduced at least       
#ab-a_/b per cent4 ,and for what        
purpose8 ,under the  pretence that the  
barrels are firmer and not so liable to 
become loose4  ,this is a point trivial 
in importance compared to the excellence
 and  strength of the barrel2 for even  
if they have received no more hammering 

than is necessary in the forging1 they  
are still injured to the extent  of     
#ab-a_/b per cent43 for even beating    
them when hot improves them much1       
provided they be not heated again2 but  
if they have been cold hammered1  the   
injury is full #cj per cent4 ,this      
circumstance shows how little the       
principles of gun-making are understood 
by the first gun-makers1 the  brazing of
 barrels being practised by all4    ,mr4
 ,wilkinson admits this1 for he         
says--8,the practice of brazing the     
barrels is decidedly injurious1 by      
softening that part more than the       
other2 but if they were only soft       
soldered1 the inconvenience would be    
far greater1 as the barrels would be    
liable to some accident by the  repeated
 expansion and contraction that takes   
place in firing1 as well  as by the     
force required to turn out the          
breechings40 ,i can only say  that ,i   
have had considerably more than five    
thousand pairs of barrels  made and put 

together with soft solder only1 and not 
one pair has come  asunder from any of  
the causes mentioned2 nor ever will1    
with fair play4  ,on the contrary1      
barrels brazed can never be sound2 for  
at some distance  from the part heated  
for brazing1 you cannot get the barrels 
re-tinned  effectually1 and thus for a  
considerable space between the soft and 
hard  solder1 there is no cohesion at   
all4 ,barrels brazed together only for  
three or four inches at the breech-end1 
can never be sound3 they almost         
invariably become so rusted under the   
rib1 in a few years1 as both to         
seriously injure the barrels1 and force 
the rib upwards2 therefore1 if  you hard
 solder at all1 do so from breech to    
muzzle1 as that will be  preferable to  
partially doing it4 ,i feel quite       
satisfied1 and can prove  it to         
demonstration1 that this is undoubtedly 
the most injurious process  to which    
iron can be subjected2 and ,i believe   
the prejudice with which  the ,london   

barrel-makers stick to this practice is 
productive of  considerable injury to   
them3 more especially when we recollect 
that they  are the advocates 7in        
practice7 of a very inferior quality of 
,damascus  barrels3 an iron very        
susceptible of injury4 ,the ,belgian    
barrels1 and  ,french also1 are of good 
iron2 and ,i fear not contradiction in  
asserting  their inferiority to ,english
 barrels mostly consists in the foolish 
practice of brazing them together from  
end to end4 ,both chemically and        
mechanically it is a practice for which 
no valid excuse can be offered4    ,all 
barrels should have solid ribs for at   
least eight inches from the  breech3    
they tend to lessen the vibration of    
recoil1 as well as to  render the       
barrels more sound and firm4 ,no maker  
either understands  science or studies  
quality1 who advocates brazing and      
hollow ribs4    ,the invention of the   
patent breech was the emanation of a    
scientific  mind2 for it has been       

productive of more real benefit to the  
progress of  gunnery than any other     
improvement of the last two centuries4  
,experience  and study in the theory of 
guns and gunpowder1 give the mind a much
 more  enlarged view of the subject1 if 
regulated by the established laws of    
true and sound principles3 a want of    
thorough knowledge induces the          
individual to draw conclusions          
prematurely1 and thus he is apt to fall1
  and to lead others1 into error4 ,i    
confess1 that1 together with many       
hundreds more1 ,i once concluded that   
the great advantage of the patent       
breech arose entirely from the loose    
state in which the powder was  preserved
 while in the breech1 and its thus being
 more instantaneously  ignited4 ,but ,i 
have already shown that the quickness of
 powder is1 in a  great measure1 the    
greatest drawback to its efficacy1 and  
,i am clearly  convinced that           
compression1 in most instances1 is      
beneficial1 by  retarding the ignition  

to a certain extent4 ,here1 then1 is    
proof  positive1 that we have been on   
the wrong scent1 and running after a    
8,will o' the ,wisp40    ,illustration  
,there is the clearest evidence1 that   
the only advantage to be derived  from  
any conical form of breech1 does not    
arise from any peculiarity  attached to 
the ignition of the gunpowder1 but      
solely from the effect  of the angular  
shape2 conical form being best suited1  
or presenting the  least direct surface1
 to the action of the exploded fluid3   
the angles  receive the blow and throw  
it off at the same opposite angle1 and  
so on1  without receiving any amount of 
force from the element striking it1 and 
thus the elastic fluid is enabled to be 
resisted efficaciously4 ,the cone       
becomes and forms an artificial solid   
base1 to a certain extent2 and as  such1
 it is much more beneficial than the    
same quantity of powder  ignited on a   
flat surface--as a common plug breech1  
for instance2 for  here the direct      

quantity of space on the face of the    
breech receives the  same impulse as the
 ball projected1 and is acted upon in   
precisely the  same ratio in proportion 
to their different weights4 ,in a musket
 of #aa  lbs41 the comparative weight of
 gun and ball is as #a to #agf2 and     
exactly  in that proportion will be the 
distribution of impulse from the        
expellant fluid4 ,it thus becomes a     
plain question between the patent       
breech and the flat surface of the plug4
 ,the two halves of a parabola          
inverted1 or the shape of a parabolic   
spindle1 will be the best shape1        
according to the laws of science4 ,the  
representation given on page #bji  is as
 near as ,i can get the engraver to     
represent my views of the best  shape of
 breech4    ,a great variety of forms   
have been advocated and puffed2 some of 
them of  the most unscientific          
description possible3 but it matters    
not2 for if a  zealous advocate could be
 found to puff well the advantages of   

the old  matchlock1 he would find       
believers2 so prone are mankind to be   
deluded  by the veriest quackery4 ,the  
absurdity of exploding gunpowder in a   
shell at the breech of a gun1 and       
persisting in the advantage of it1  is  
certainly tilting at a windmill4 ,it    
will be asked how it is that            
,government do not adopt the patent     
breech in the musket8 ,i answer1        
because of a want of science in the     
direction1 and an imperfect system  of  
experiments4 ,in fact1 they say they do 
not find any advantage from  the patent 
breech in a musket3 that the range is as
 great without it as  with it4          
,government never considers the personal
 comfort of the private soldier1  or it 
would have long ago used the patent     
breech for military arms2 for1  setting 
aside the propellant advantage1 the     
recoil is 7as near as ,i have  been able
 to ascertain7 under the same           
circumstances1 as one to two in  favour 
of the angular breech4 ,this is no      

exaggerated statement3 ,i have  tested  
it1 and will stake my reputation upon   
its accuracy4 ,but the  superior        
knowledge of projectiles which          
artillerists have obtained since  the   
extensive introduction of chambers to   
nearly all descriptions of  ordnance1 is
 the clearest proof1 were any wanting4  
,the use of the ,gomer  form of chamber1
 is nearly universal in brass guns3 the 
shape is the  frustum of a cone with a  
spherical bottom4 ,the inutility of     
enlarging  on1 or describing1 the       
various shapes or plans of breeching1   
will be  apparent2 my intention being to
 point out the science of the question1 
not the folly of every invention4       
,there have been many good gun-lock     
makers2 but they have1 ,i fear1         
decreased much of late4 ,from the great 
demand for second-rate goods1  they are 
rarely called upon to make a first-rate 
article2 and thus1 from  being so little
 accustomed to make any but inferior    
locks1 they1 of  course1 are out of     

practice4 ,instead of the manufacture of
 the best  being encouraged1 it is      
becoming every day more rare to meet    
with a good  one4 ,there is a great     
degree of skill displayed in the making 
of locks1  though to the casual observer
 it is not apparent4 ,on the simple     
hanging  of the swivel depends all the  
smoothness of the play of the           
main-spring2  and on the placing the    
hole for the scear-pin depends the      
sweetness of  the scear playing on the  
tumbler4 ,many who now pass for         
excellent  workmen would find this a    
difficult undertaking1 simple as it may 
seem1  without a pattern by which to    
work4 ,all locks for percussion should  
have the greatest strength of mainspring
 at the moment they strike the  nipple1 
or as it is termed1 when the lock is    
down4 ,on the pitching the  scear       
depends the cutting of the bents1 and on
 their formation1 the  danger of the    
lock catching at half-cock1 when the    
trigger is made to  pull easy2 but these

 observations will be understood by a   
lock-maker  better than ,i can explain  
them4    ,the quality of all locks      
depends on the price they cost filing1  
and  unless you pay the workman a proper
 remuneration1 you may rely on having   
them somewhat inferior1 or in accordance
 with the price3 but this  requires a   
workman to point out2 so that any person
 who is not a  first-rate judge1 is     
completely dependent on the honesty of  
the workman4    ,there is more real     
science displayed in the construction of
 a gun-lock  than mechanics in general  
imagine4 ,the placing or hanging of the 
swivel  on the arm of a tumbler1 is an  
arrangement of leverage partaking of the
  multiplicate2 as the weight when at   
full cock1 is lessened by the lever     
bringing the moving force in the        
immediate vicinity of the axle1 and     
when down on the nipple1 increasing or  
multiplying that force by the           
divergence4 ,the ,barside lock possesses
 this advantage to a greater  degree    

than has yet been obtained by any       
backwork lock yet made2 though  ,i      
perceive no hindrance1 if properly      
understood and tried3 it is only        
needful to obtain a greater length of   
arm1 and a proportionate length of      
swivel4    ,the family of the ,braziers1
 of ,wolverhampton1 have long been      
celebrated  for the goodness of their   
locks2 which arises solely from the fact
 that  they take more pains1 and will   
not manufacture any but the best3 for it
  would be ridiculous to suppose that   
there are not plenty of men equally  as 
good1 and probably better1 workmen than 
themselves in the kingdom1  were they   
properly encouraged1 and confined to    
making nothing but  first-rate articles4
 ,the ,braziers have apprentices and    
journeymen1 and  it is preposterous to  
imagine that they file the tenth part of
 the locks  they furnish to the trade2  
but yet they have always1 and           
deservedly1  obtained a much better     
price than any other lock-filers out of 

,london4  ,several of ,brazier's workmen
 have of late years commenced           
manufacturing  on their own account1 and
 now most excellent locks can be had    
from ,w4  ,evans1 of ,bath-street1      
,birmingham1 who for many years held the
 first  place in ,joseph ,brazier and   
,sons' manufactory4    ,the operations  
of false breeching1 jointing locks1     
stocking1 c41 are  merely mechanical2   
requiring1 certainly1 great skill and   
ability1 but  yet involving no principle
 further than is contained in the proper
  suiting of the shape to the make of   
the user4 ,an endless variety of        
opinions has always existed1 and always 
will exist1 as to the  description of   
bend or crook best fitted for rapid     
shooting1 as flying  or running4 ,i have
 instructed1 and with success1 too1 many
 young  shooters1 who by commencing with
 a long and straight stock1 have        
attained a perfection in shooting       
scarcely to be excelled2 and they  never
 entertain afterwards any wish to change

 either length or bend4  ,therefore ,i  
recommend to all beginners to use as    
long and as straight a  stock as they   
can conveniently bring to the shoulder4 
,all practised  shooters have generally 
so accustomed themselves to one shape1  
that it  would be prejudicial to change4
 ,the practice of throwing off a stock  
at  the butt1 or bending from the hand  
to the heel-plate1 in a direction to    
the right1 so that the eye may get more 
readily in a line with the  centre of   
the breech and the sight1 is a practice 
not to be defended on  scientific       
principles4 ,the body will suit itself  
best2 and if the stock  be not too      
straight1 the eye will always find the  
true line4    ,the percussioning of a   
gun 7as the fitting-in of nipple1 boring
  breeches1 filing cocks1 c41 is        
termed17 is also a mechanical operation1
  requiring workmen of the very best    
abilities4 ,the desideratum to be       
obtained is nearly a direct             
communication into the barrel1 and an   

absence of unnecessary angles1          
antechambers1 c42 therefore it is       
needful that1 in a double gun1 the      
nipples should be inserted as near  the 
centre of the breeches as they can be   
conveniently placed1 with the  nipples  
standing1 not upright1 but at an angle  
of #de2 so that the blow  of the cock   
shall be in or as near a line with the  
imaginary upright of  the nipple as     
possible4    ,the various plans of      
copper cap1 copper tubes1 and ,i know   
not how many  other devices1 will be    
discussed under the head of guns and    
shooting4    ,finishing the stock1      
polishing1 engraving1 hardening1 c41    
strictly  speaking1 involve no science  
of consequence1 and as such it is       
scarcely  necessary to occupy the       
attention of the reader respecting them4
 ,the  best method of staining barrels  
is by the following recipe3 but one     
material fact must not be overlooked4 ,a
 considerable difficulty exists  in     
staining barrels all steel2 in such a   

case1 therefore1 the acid  should not be
 so much diluted4      #a   oz4 muriate 
tincture of steel4    #a   oz4 spirits  
of wine4    #a_/d oz4 muriate of        
mercury4    #a_/d oz4 strong nitric     
acid4    #a_/h oz4 blue stone4    #a    
quart of water4    ,these are to be well
 mixed1 and allowed to stand a month1 to
 amalgamate4  ,after the oil or grease  
has been removed from the barrels by    
lime1 the  mixture is laid on lightly   
with a sponge every two hours4 ,it      
should be  scratched off with a         
steel-wire brush night and morning1     
until the  barrels are dark enough2 and 
then the acid is destroyed by pouring on
  the barrels boiling water1 and        
continuing to rub them till nearly cool4
    ,the ,birmingham people brown their 
barrels of inferior quality in the      
following way1 to make them look equal  
to the best4 ,they dissolve as  much    
muriate of mercury as can be taken up in
 a dram-glassful of spirits  of wine2   
this solution is mixed with one pint of 

water1 or as much  diluted as the person
 requires4 ,a small quantity of the     
mixture is  poured on a little          
whitening1 and laid on the barrel with a
 sponge1  rather lightly2 as soon as    
dry1 it is brushed off1 and a fresh coat
 is  laid on2 and so on until the barrel
 is dark enough1 which is generally     
about two days4 ,the effect that the    
mercury has on every one of the  joints 
of the fibres is wonderful3 it never    
fails to make them1 in two  or three    
days at most1 a beautiful brown2 while  
the other parts1 being  harder1 remain1 
comparatively speaking1 quite light4    
,the rust is killed  by hot water1 but  
after that1 the barrels are suddenly    
immersed in cold  water2 which has the  
effect of heightening the brightness of 
both the  colours4 ,the appearance is   
beautiful1 and equally as fine to the   
eye as  stub-barrels browned in the same
 way2 though this process is mostly used
  for the charcoal iron and the         
threepenny iron barrels4 ,the only      

method  in which there is no deception1 
is the smoke brown or stain2 and1       
plainly speaking1 this and no other is  
the reason the gun-makers condemn  it4  
,as the acid is decidedly weaker1 and of
 course less liable to impart  injury to
 the iron1 no barrel can be browned by  
it1 to look well and  fine1 but the     
best2 or1 in other words1 none save     
those possessing steel  in their        
composition4    ,the method of staining 
is this3 the barrels are anointed with a
 little  vitriolic acid1 to cause the   
iron to receive the effect of the gas   
more  readily2 it is then washed off1   
and the barrels rubbed dry4 ,the forge  
fire must then be lighted1 and blown up 
with coal possessing as much  hydrogen  
gas and as little sulphur as possible4  
,when the coals are burnt  till they    
give out a clear white flame with no    
black smoke around it1  the barrels must
 be passed gradually through that flame 
backward and  forward1 until the whole  
are covered with a black sooty covering4

 ,place  them in as damp and cool a     
cellar as can be procured1 and allow    
them to  stand for eighteen hours2 at   
that time1 if the place is sufficiently 
damp1 the iron parts will be found      
covered with a red rust1 while the      
particles of steel still retain the     
original sooty coat4 ,scratch these  off
 with a steel brush1 the same as by any 
other method of staining2  then take a  
piece of linen cloth1 and wash or polish
 the barrels with  water and a little   
washed emery2 when the steel will be    
found of its  original bright colour1   
and the iron a shade darker1 with the   
outlines  of both distinctly preserved4 
,rub the barrels dry1 and again pass    
them  through the flame precisely as    
before2 but above all things be careful 
not to allow them to remain in the flame
 till they become hot enough to  melt   
the solder4 ,when you have once passed  
them through1 do not be in a  hurry to  
pass them again2 but in both be guided  
by moderation3 neither  allow them1     

after the first time1 to stand to rust  
more than twelve  hours each time4      
,polish them as before1 and you will    
find them a shade  darker at every      
smoking4 ,persevere1 until they become  
as dark as you  wish to have them4 ,the 
utmost you can obtain is a fine         
purple-black  colour on the iron2 and on
 the steel1 a shade inclined to a copper
  colour3 but if proper attention be    
paid to the polishing1 it will not      
change much from its original colour4   
,the barrels are taken out of stain in  
the same way as in the other  recipes1  
by hot water2 but you must continue to  
scratch or brush them  longer1 for by   
that means you obtain a greater gloss4  
,the principle of  this stain is simply 
thus3 the hydrogen gas contained in the 
coal acting  on the iron 7from being of 
a softer nature than the steel1 which it
 does  not affect71 and the flame also  
possessing a quantity of tar1 it is     
imperceptibly embodied by the iron      
during the action of the oxide2 and1    

when finished1 by filling up the spaces 
created1 it becomes decidedly  more     
impervious to damp or wet than the other
 stain1 which is entirely  composed of  
the oxide of iron4    ,the only         
objection to this brown has been found  
to arise from the  discharge of the     
black colour from the softer parts of   
the barrels2 as  it being but coal tar1 
the sweat of the hand1 hot water in     
washing1 c41  invariably extract it in a
 comparatively short time4    ,the      
recipe1 for the ,birmingham imitations1 
is as follows3--      #a   oz4 sweet    
nitre4    #a_/b oz4 tincture of steel4  
#a_/d oz4 blue vitriol4    #f   drops   
nitric acid4    #ad  grs4 corrosive     
sublimate4    #a   pint of water4       
,when the barrels are dark enough1 drop 
a few drops of muriatic acid in a  basin
 of water1 and wash the barrel slightly1
 to brighten the twists4    ,this last  
process is borrowed from the ,belgians4 
,in the working of their  extremely fine
 ,damascus barrels1 they found a very   

great difficulty in  staining them so as
 to produce a clear and distinct figure4
 ,the way  they now proceed is either to
 eat away the particles of iron1 leaving
  the steel prominent and the barrels   
bright2 or they polish them  extremely  
fine from end to end1 and then blue them
 in a stove with  charcoal4 ,the process
 is thus described in the notes to a    
,german  translation1 by ,dr4 ,schmidt1 
of ,weimar1 of my last edition of the   
8,science of ,gunnery40    8,the method 
of browning the ,damascus barrels1 which
 are so much admired  in ,england for   
their distinctness in colour and beauty 
of figure1 is  obtained very simply3    
namely1 first burnish the barrels very  
fine2 then  cover them with bone oil2   
pound1 or drop1 or strew wood-ashes all 
over2  then heat them in a cage of wire 
filled with charcoal1 until you obtain  
a dark first blue2 after they are cold1 
mix a small quantity of  sulphuric acid 
in water 7a quarter of a pint with so   
many drops72 then  take a hard brush and

 apply it to the barrel1 when the acid  
will extract  the colour from the steel1
 leaving the iron with its greater      
adhesion  covered with the blue colour4 
,great care must be used and skill      
displayed to keep a good colour and not 
to extract too much40    ,this we cannot
 do1 because we solder with tin4    ,the
 8,belgian ,damascus0 barrels are       
generally 8eat up10 as it is            
technically termed4 8,pickled0 is the   
term also used to describe the  process1
 which is simply eating away the softer 
metals from around the  steel or harder 
material4 ,the best preparation for this
 purpose is #a lb4  of the sulphate of  
copper 7known as blue vitriol7 dissolved
 in a gallon  of soft water1 at the     
boiling point1 and continued boiling in 
an  earthenware vessel1 until the       
quantity is reduced by evaporation #be  
per  cent42 let it cool1 and then pour  
it into a leaden trough or bath4 ,the   
barrels1 when properly secured at the   
muzzle and breech-ends to prevent  the  

liquid getting into the interior1 are   
immersed therein4 ,the solution  will   
act sufficiently upon the metals in the 
space of from fifteen to  twenty        
minutes2 care being taken to remove and 
carefully wash them with  cold water1   
and then1 after observing the progress  
of the pickling1  re-immersing them as  
before1 until the operation is complete4
 ,then pour  boiling water over them1   
and scratch them well with a steel      
brush1 which  will eventually give that 
beautiful bright 8wavy0 surface much    
admired  by many people4 ,laminated     
steel barrels also look very well1 after
 being  subjected to this operation4    
,having now detailed as much of the     
8modus operandi10 as the patience  of   
the reader will admit1 ,i shall         
endeavour to give a peep into the       
8sanctum sanctorum0 of the gun-makers'  
workshop4 ,i have shown in  detail what 
course ought to be pursued in the       
construction of guns of  the best       
quality only2 and before proceeding     

further shall finish this  part of the  
subject4 ,i am not1 as some would say1  
8going to expose the  whole secrets of  
the trade30 oh no1 only a portion4      
,there are six qualities or varieties of
 mixtures of iron for barrels of  best  
quality4 ,the plate-facing contains two 
kinds finished1 composed of  steel      
entirely1 but of different degrees of   
carbonization2 one is  composed entirely
 of a laminated series containing many  
scores of  distinct lamin in the        
thickness of the sides of the barrels1  
twisted  and beat into tortuous shapes4 
,the other1 of larger lamin1 but showing
  the edges of the lamin at an angle    
with the length1 and thus appearing     
larger than1 if presenting the side or  
end of the plates4    ,care must be     
taken that the great proportion of the  
fibres shall always  run round the tube1
 so that the greatest portion of        
strength may be  obtained1 together with
 a beautiful figure4 ,the cost of this  
arrangement  is considerable1 as it     

involves a great waste of metal1 and    
occupies a  considerable time to work   
and re-work--twisting1 faggoting with   
the bars  placed in various forms1 at   
acute angles to each other1 at right    
angles1  plaiting three or four rods    
together1 as a lady does her hair1      
cutting  these into pieces1 faggoting   
and welding them into one1 and1 in      
short1  undergoing an endless routine of
 manipulations1 which it would be       
strictly unprofitable to detail1 but are
 all productive of cost4 ,an  ingenious 
man may work and improve metal of this  
nature until its cost  equals the price 
of silver2 and1 if judiciously done1    
improving it  still1 even until he has  
wasted #ij per cent4 of the original    
material4    ,the ultimate              
characteristics and properties of iron  
have1 as yet1 never  been ascertained3  
it is capable of being condensed until  
it becomes  nearly1 if not quite1 equal 
to the specific gravity of silver or    
lead4  ,no pursuit1 mechanical or       

philosophical1 presents so great and so 
beneficial a research1 to the whole     
civilized and scientific world1 as      
iron4 ,i could twist and retwist iron1  
until1 from the beautiful and           
interesting results1 it would become    
with me a sort of monomania4 ,i  wonder 
not at the variety of patterns in a     
,damascus sword-blade3 the  mind conveys
 me to the scene1 and a regret arises   
that ,i did not live in  those times2   
yet still it is but a mechanical        
arrangement directed by an  ingenious   
mind1 and the ultimate benefit1 apart   
from the beauty1 is more  than          
imaginary4 ,however1 it proves that the 
,orientals were artists1 and  that they 
were appreciated3 were this the case now
 with us1 we could do  all they ever    
did1 and more4    ,laminated steel is   
now a great fact4 ,it is a name         
stereotyped in  ,belgium1 ,germany1     
,france1 and ,america1 as well as in the
 place of its  birth--,england2 and     
orders come from all quarters of the    

globe for the  celebrated laminated     
steel4 ,every writer of eminence is loud
 in its  praise1 and justly so too2 for 
about its merits there is no mistake4   
,no  combination of metals ever yet     
before tried since the birth of gunnery1
  can equal it1 either in density1      
ductility1 or tenacity4 ,a laminated    
steel barrel has never been known to    
burst4 8,reputed0 laminated steel       
barrels have been burst1 but no real one
 ever4 ,nor is it probable1 save  from  
malconstruction4 ,through inattention in
 the welding the best of  metal may be  
burnt2 but the better the iron1 the     
greater the difficulty4  ,steel is more 
liable to melt than burn2 so that1 with 
care and skill on  the part of the      
workman1 it will very seldom indeed     
occur4 ,but that  chance is provided    
for1 as far as human judgment can do1 in
 entrusting  such barrels only to       
first-rate and steady workmen4 ,such men
 are no  doubt1 to a certain extent1    
scarce2 but they may yet be found3 the  

,birmingham welder of proved skill and  
ability is inferior to none in the      
world4 ,laminated steel barrels are more
 scarce than welders4    ,although the  
various manufacturers of ,europe have   
complimented me by  adopting the name of
 my invention1 yet ,i am sorry to add it
 is but in  name3 there are very few    
even tolerable imitations of them4 ,the 
cost is  the 8bugbear30 the name costs  
nothing1 and can easily be assumed2 but 
to  make laminated steel barrels is     
quite another matter3 it touches the    
pocket1 and interferes with the profit2 
and it is only in very rare  cases      
indeed--although the order may be       
explicit as words can make  it--that the
 real article is supplied4 ,there are   
very few makers in  ,birmingham who in  
reality make 8laminated steel40 ,steel  
barrels are more  plentiful3 they care  
not so much for the price of the metal2 
it is the  after repeated manipulations 
that are evaded3 the labour and loss of 
material is too much1 and is necessarily

 8shirked10 and argument is  always met 
with the answer1 8,we see nothing in    
it40 ,yet the words  8laminated steel0  
are to be found engraved upon barrels of
 the lowest  quality of iron of which   
double barrels are made4 ,iron twist is 
subjected to a similar process to that  
already described as employed in        
producing ,damascus iron1 and which may 
be termed common iron ,damascus4        
,thousands of guns are made from this   
kind of metal1 and yearly sent to  the  
,united ,states of ,america2 yet all are
 unblushingly represented as  8laminated
 steel barrels40 ,the actual price      
charged for these sort of  guns in the  
,united ,states ,i know not1 but have no
 doubt for the whole  gun it is about   
equal to what would be the prime cost of
 a pair of real  laminated steel barrels
 alone4    ,purchasers should be fully  
acquainted with the fact that it is     
impossible to produce laminated steel   
barrels at a low figure3 labour1        
high-priced1 skilled labour1 is always  

costly2 and talent must be paid  for in 
all parts of the world4 ,the attainment 
of high class barrels at a  low figure1 
as a rule1 is an impossibility2 and the 
maker who would  pretend1 promise1 or   
undertake to make a laminated steel     
barrelled gun  under #ael4 to #bjl4 is  
an arrant deceiver3 he could never      
profitably  carry out such an intention1
 even if he possessed the ability to    
produce  the article4 ,for judgment1    
skill1 and ability1 as well as labour1  
are  required to produce laminated steel
 barrels4 ,steel alone is not           
laminated2 and that is another          
difficulty3 fortunately there are not   
many persons capable of effecting it4   
,my method of laminating steel is  kept 
as much out of sight as possible1 as a  
means of self-protection4    ,stub      
,damascus is by many makers called      
8steel30 both first and second  class   
stub2 and any attempt to reason them out
 of the absurdity is a  hopeless task4  
,many of the highest class makers still 

doggedly stick to  stub ,damascus1 and  
insinuate underhandedly that the benefit
 of steel is  doubtful3 few do it       
openly2 but ,i feel sorry to record the 
fact that  prejudice on this point is   
still rampant4    ,on the superior      
shooting properties of steel barrels ,i 
will enlarge in  another place4    ,the 
,exhibitions have told very beneficially
 on the future of ,birmingham2  the fact
 of standing highest in every           
competition will do 7and has done7  more
 to remove the prejudice entertained    
against ,birmingham manufacture  than   
aught beside4 ,sportsmen begin to       
understand the fact that it is  better  
to order their guns direct from the     
manufacturer than from the  mere        
salesman1 who can only take his goods on
 trust1 and warrants  without knowing   
that he can justly do so4 ,any system   
that would identify  the maker with his 
work would do all that is necessary to  
emancipate  ,birmingham from the stigma 
which prejudice has entailed upon her   

name2  and from which ,i hope to see her
 rise rapidly yet4 ,but ,i do not wish  
to  see her rise on the reputation of   
,london3 would that all ,birmingham guns
  were like those of ,london makers2 or 
superior to them1 if possible4    ,in   
addition to the serious evil of         
producing guns of such great            
inferiority in material1 and dubbing    
such barrels 8laminated steel10 a  far  
more serious one is the practice of     
unscrupulously adding to such  guns the 
names of makers who have spent the      
majority of their lives in  obtaining a 
name for their manufacture2 thus robbing
 them indirectly of  what is dear to all
 honest men--reputation4 ,few are judges
 sufficiently  qualified to detect a    
spurious gun of this description2 and   
the name  thus forged reflects unmerited
 discredit on a maker who would scorn to
  allow such an article to leave his    
manufactory3 but as long as the         
standard of moral honesty is so low1    
both among merchants and  manufacturers1

 such things will be4 ,men may excuse   
themselves for  affixing the names of   
men and firms to inferior or worthless  
guns by the  plea of having been ordered
 to do it by the exporters1 but they are
 not  the less doing a moral wrong1 in  
thus aiding in a deception which        
profits them not4 ,but such practices   
will continue1 until the sense of  right
 and wrong becomes more conscientious1  
and trade morality rises to  a higher   
standard than at present4    ,i have    
every reason to believe1 and have not   
the least hesitation in  stating the    
fact1 that not only is the epithet      
8laminated steel0 added  to guns the    
barrels of which do not contain a       
particle of steel1 but  that a far more 
serious misrepresentation and injury is 
perpetrated by  affixing the words      
8,william ,greener's ,laminated ,steel1 
indestructible by  ,gunpowder10 to many 
guns not even of middling fair quality1 
but the  veriest rubbish ever           
manufactured4 ,that this is a species of

 forgery  there can be no doubt2 yet the
 law of this country affords no remedy  
to  effectually prevent and punish the  
rascality of offering for sale an       
article fraudulently professing to be   
what it is not1 to the injury of  the   
purchaser as well as the manufacturer   
whose good name is thus  maligned4      
,forged 8,greener's0 are to be found    
principally in the ,american  markets2  
where batches of ten and twelve have    
been seen in various parts  of the      
,states1 principally in the hands of    
8itinerant merchants40 ,they  are1 ,i   
believe1 pretty plentifully produced in 
8,liege10 also2 where1 in  fact1        
forgeries on all our principal makers   
are produced4    ,as the law provides no
 effectual remedy or punishment for such
  rascality1 ,i now1 in order to lessen 
it as much as possible1 mark every  gun 
leaving my manufactory with a 8private  
mark0 in addition to its  number2 and on
 reference to me1 giving a description  
of the gun  purchased 8and its number10 

information will be returned of the     
private  mark1 which will stamp the     
article as real or spurious4 ,if the gun
 has  no number reference is useless1 as
 ,i number every gun that ,i send out1  
and the want is certain proof that it is
 a forgery4 ,but with a view to  lessen 
the evil as much as can be1 ,i may here 
say that the best double  gun1 with case
 complete1 that ,i can make will be     
freely given to any  individual who will
 produce evidence which will enable me  
to expose all  parties concerned in such
 nefarious dealing1 and justify me in   
holding  them up to public reprobation3 
which will be done as certainly as proof
  can be adduced4    ,there are ample   
fields of commerce in gunnery yet to be 
developed1 were  articles produced      
suitable for use1 not for show or       
deception4  ,inferiority of manufacture 
combined with deception is the worst    
course  ever adopted by any community4  
,if ,birmingham would repudiate such a  
course1 and refuse to make worthless    

articles1 attending more to quality     
than cheapness1 the gun trade would be  
more prosperous than it ever has  been4 
,time is rapidly realising the          
recommendations ,i have put forth of the
  great benefit to be obtained1 not only
 in steam boilers1 but various  other   
mechanical constructions1 by the use of 
higher qualities of  metals4 ,we have   
now even 8steel ships0 as well as steel 
guns1 giving  double the strength1 with 
half the weight2 and if all             
manufacturers of  high class machines   
adopted the same principles1 an immense 
saving would  be effected in the long   
run1 from the absence of repairs alone1 
in  addition to the greater durability  
of the machine4    ,there ought to be no
 accidents from the breaking of railway 
carriage  axles3 such an occurrence as  
the breaking of an axle is an           
everlasting  disgrace2 for axles could  
be constructed that no known 8fair      
application0 of strain could possibly   
break4 ,a simple combination of  steel  

and iron faggoted in segments1 as before
 described1 and rolled  hollow1 would   
enable axles to last double the time of 
those at present  in use3 #dj1jjj miles 
travelling is stated to be the maximum  
distance an  axle can be safely trusted2
 the destruction being mainly due to the
  heating in the journals1 or to        
galvanic action changing the fibrous    
iron  into crystalline in the immediate 
vicinity of the bearing4 ,axles         
constructed of different metals1 as     
steel and iron in conjunction1 would    
not be so affected2 and might be        
rendered still less likely to be so by  
a small hollow in the centre of the     
axle4 ,but this is a digression2  though
 ,i may be pardoned for it1 in          
consideration of the importance of  the 
subject4    ,illustration3 ,,plate4     
,,ii4    ,,damascus ,,barreled ,,gun    
,,fancy ,,steel ,,barreled ,,gun    ,the
 opposite plate 7,no4 #b7 represents my 
mixture in imitation of  ,damascus2 the 
process necessary to produce it1 as well

 as its companion1  has already been    
described4 ,these two also come under   
the head of  best barrels1 as they are  
costly1 and when honestly made 7not     
plated7  constitute1 with the defects   
before enumerated1 good barrels4    ,the
 cost of a really good first-rate gun   
must and will always vary1  according to
 the circumstances of manufacture or the
 peculiar  arrangements of the          
manufacturer4 ,joseph ,manton is        
entitled to the  gratitude1 not only of 
the present generation of gun-makers1   
but of all  succeeding ones1 for this   
reason1--he not only gave a character to
  ,english guns1 but so linked his name 
with improvements1 that it will  never  
be forgotten4 ,his was the mind to know 
and appreciate the value of  good       
workmanship2 he elevated the ,english   
artisan with himself1 and  raised the   
gunmaker to the acme of mechanical      
skill3 for1 without  invidious          
comparison of the ability required in   
other professions1 we  may say that a   

first-rate workman as a gun-maker#aa 7,i
 mean only a  gun-maker7 is one of the  
very best mechanics ,england can boast  
of1 or  in truth any part of the world4 
,gun-making is the profession of a man  
of  mind3 any man or any workman cannot 
make a gun1 working by square and  rule 
entirely1 as other mechanics do3 no1 the
 true gun-maker is an  artist1 and ,joe 
,manton made him so4      #aa ,barrel   
welders1 borers1 lock-filers1 c41 are   
not technically    gun-makers3 the      
latter are those workmen who1 having    
barrels1 locks1    wood for stock1 c41  
make them into a gun4 ,it has been      
customary to    say gunsmiths2 but this 
appellation can be applied to the worker
 in    iron only4    ,it is true1 we    
have not now that complex machine1 the  
flint-lock gun1  in which ,joe so       
peculiarly excelled2 but we have a more 
simple and a  more efficacious one in   
the percussion gun4 ,he was not so      
fortunate in  the latter as the former2 
but all men are at fault sometimes1 and 

he  could not be expected to fondle the 
child of another3 no1 it was for the    
first improvement of the workmanship of 
the gun1 that his memory must  be       
revered4 ,the ,english gun1 at the      
outset of his career1 was as far        
inferior to what he left it1 as the     
tawdry manufacture of the continent  is 
to ours of the present day4 ,the prices 
he obtained were enormous  certainly2   
but all men should be paid well1 who can
 prove they possess  extra brains and   
ability3 he remunerated his workmen on  
this scale1 and  he unquestionably had  
the best set the world ever saw4 ,we    
can1 at this  period1 far excel them1   
for the pupil sometimes exceeds the     
tutor2  but this arises from laying     
firmly the foundation of a superior     
system4    ,all my ambition has been to 
be able to make an article that cannot  
be  exceeded in goodness and neatness1  
combined with taste1 by the  generation 
in which we live4 ,in proof of this     
success ,i may mention that  the two    

,first ,class ,prize ,medals in the     
,great ,exhibition of #ahea2 two  more  
in #ahec at ,new ,york2 and1 lastly1 two
 at ,paris in #ahee1 were  awarded to   
me4    ,the best gun1 or as good a one  
as ever was constructed1 or ever will   
be1  should yield the maker a profit at 
#cel4 ,cheaper it cannot be made1 if  it
 be honestly the best4 ,i have studied  
and estimated the cost both  of town and
 country-made guns1 and am aware that   
the ,london maker would  be barely      
remunerated at this rate1 owing to the  
extra expenses he is  liable to4 ,but ,i
 also know1 without doubt1 that as good 
guns can be1 and  have been1 made in    
,birmingham as ever were produced in    
,london3 the  facilities ,birmingham    
possesses will always tell in that      
competition4  ,westley ,richards is an  
example2 for not much better guns can be
  manufactured than he produces daily1  
as most ,london gun-makers full well    
know4 ,let but some individual1 with the
 head and the cash1 try the  experiment 

of making guns himself at ,birmingham1  
and a fortune would be  the result2 as  
better workmen1 if well looked after1   
cannot be found in  the world4 ,but     
their talents are now prostituted in the
 production of  inferior articles2 and  
when wanted are1 of course1 amiss for   
any great  effort4 ,birmingham is a     
workshop where if one tool does not suit
 you you  can get another3 if a barrel  
be faulty1 or locks inferior1 you can   
have  a new one in the time a ,london   
house would take in ordering it4 ,these 
remarks are not dictated by any feeling 
of dislike to the metropolitan  makers1 
but from a conviction of their truth4   
,establishments like ,joe  ,manton's are
 not met with in ,london now-a-days--not
 one house in the  business can maintain
 them4    ,i cannot possibly have any   
wish to depreciate4 ,what benefit would 
be  gained by it8 ,but ,i cannot praise 
the ,london manufacturer against        
conviction2 and ,i am unfortunately too 
much in the secret3 ,i know too  well   

where and how the vast majority of      
,london guns are made4 ,why keep  up a  
distinction that does not exist8 ,why   
call a gun ,london-made because  the    
seller rents a shop and calls himself a 
gun-maker8 ,why not at once  say1 8,our 
manufactory is in ,birmingham1 as we    
find we can make both  better and       
cheaper there40 ,this is truth1 and     
ought to be told4 ,it is  now the       
extreme of folly to say1 8,these are    
,brummagem guns30 that term  only       
applies to the 8rubbish10 the low priced
 article1 which no honest  man has      
hardihood enough to brand with his own  
name1 but substitutes  that of some     
deceased member of the fraternity4 ,but 
when sensible  ,london tradesmen so far 
forget themselves as to designate the   
produce of  a 8brother chip0 as 8only   
,birmingham guns10 without ever having  
seen  or examined that work1 ,i feel    
sensitive on the point2 for though the  
term is strictly correct1 yet the       
meaning is slanderous4    ,i have always

 written and impressed upon sportsmen   
the imperative  necessity of obtaining  
the very best gun that hands could      
produce2 ,i  urged this sincerely1 and  
for doing so feel myself entitled to the
  gratitude of all gunmakers who delight
 in good work4 ,yet instead of the      
merit of my work being appreciated1 ,i  
have unfortunately had to contend  with 
the secret revilings of those who       
possess not the heart or ability  to    
compete with me4 8,a fair field and no  
favour0 has ever been my motto2  and1   
without egotism1 ,i can safely offer to 
make a gun or guns against  any maker in
 the world4 ,i do not claim this ability
 exclusively2 for ,i  can name several  
in ,birmingham1 who1 if they have the   
price1 will not  be far behind4 ,i may  
fearlessly point to the fact that       
throughout the  whole breadth of        
,england every gunmaker is a copyist of 
my patterns4  ,three months after the   
opening of the ,paris ,exhibition1      
imitations were  found in every         

gun-maker's shop in ,paris1 labelled1   
8,fusils de chasse a  l',anglais40      
,both the ,belgians and ,french are     
making vast strides in competition with 
us4 ,in ,liege they have very recently  
purchased guns by most of our           
celebrated makers as models2 and every  
part of the gun is being imitated  to   
the greatest nicety4 ,i have before     
alluded to twenty-six of ,westley       
,richards' guns1 forgeries1 having been 
sent to ,london2 in truth they  have    
taken us as a model1 and if we do not   
keep going ahead1 depend  upon it we    
shall be hard run4 ,in every respectable
 maker's shop abroad  you will find     
proof of this fact4 ,i brought to       
,england several specimens  of their    
productions1 and amongst others a pair  
of imitation 8,braziers'  locks20 these 
have been shown to many makers in       
,birmingham1 and  pronounced unanimously
 a fair pair of locks3 indeed no workman
 in the  kingdom but would have taken   
them to be of ,english manufacture4 ,in 

,paris  they carry their imitation1 if  
possible1 farther still4 ,i saw in ,le  
,page's establishment some very good    
work indeed1 and said so2 remarking     
that they were very little inferior to  
our best ,english guns4  8,inferior1    
indeed60 said he1 8we consider them     
quite as good1 ,i assure  you30 showing 
evidently a wish to have them as good4  
,the ,french may  excel us in the       
laudable desire to improve4 ,their      
periodical ,exposition  is a proof of   
this4 ,we should have our 8,exposition0 
also4 ,look at the  national importance 
it would give to our artists in all     
metals6 how many  bright men would then 
spring into notice6 what an impetus it  
gives to  competition4 ,artists and     
sculptors exhibit the effects of their  
genius3  why should not gunmakers also8 
,the highest skill is required in       
producing a gun3 a first-rate gun is    
indeed a work of art4 ,why is it not    
done8 8,self0 is the stumbling-block4   
,the first makers 8par excellence0  do  

not encourage it1 being jealous of being
 beaten by some provincial4  ,there     
wants unanimity1 a co-operative feeling1
 both in ,london and  ,birmingham4 ,a   
well-arranged 8,mutual ,improvement     
,society0 would be the  means of driving
 the 8rubbish0 out of the market1 and   
the sordid  manufacturer into a         
reformation of his ways2 it would show  
him that  honesty in his manufactures is
 as essential as honesty in his outward 
dealings4 ,i lament that this untoward  
feeling should exist2 more  especially  
in ,birmingham1 where they possess all  
the elements for future  prosperity3 but
 these are blighted1 from the want of an
 expansive1  liberal feeling to each    
other4 ,i hope to see this state of     
things  attained soon3 the seeds of     
improvement are taking root4            
,illustration3 ,,plate4 ,,iii4    ,,stub
 ,,twist ,,barreled ,,gun    ,,stub     
,,damascus ,,barreled ,,gun    ,the     
plate 7,no4 #c7 opposite represents stub
 twist and stub ,damascus2 the  former1 

if properly attended to in manufacture1 
will long hold its  station in the      
construction of good guns4 ,an excellent
 second-rate gun  can be made for about 
#bjl41 with case1 c4 ,at this time there
 are a  great number made at this price3
 in fact1 very few cost more2 even      
those of the best production of         
,birmingham4 ,superior articles to any  
yet  produced could be made there1 if   
occasion demanded it1 and if there were 
a sufficiency of heads to direct and    
control4 ,the generality of  gunmakers  
in ,birmingham are merely mechanics1 and
 when you say this1 all  has been said  
that can be3 a vast majority of         
excellent workmen have  never fired a   
gun1 and know nothing1 strictly         
speaking1 of its use4 ,a  gunmaker1 in  
the true meaning of the word1 is1 or    
ought to be1 an  enthusiast2 delighting 
in1 and living for1 his art alone2      
without being  clogged with prejudice or
 with a stubborn mind that refuses to   
advance1  but animated by a spirit to   

conceive and realize the emanations of  
genius4    ,i have already sufficiently 
enlarged upon the inferiority of barrels
  made from charcoal iron4 ,a great     
quantity of these guns are made or got  
up for the general factors1 who take    
orders for everything1 from 8a  needle  
to an anchor20 but they manufacture     
nothing1 and only employ  their money   
for a moderate return4 ,the hardwareman 
is the principal  seller of this        
description of guns2 he generally pays  
between eight and  ten pounds each for  
them1 and retails them at from twelve to
 fourteen  pounds1 if he can make his   
customers believe that they are as good 
as  they can get elsewhere for twenty   
pounds4 ,i have known a tradesman of    
this kind sell more guns in a season    
than three gun-makers in the same  town 
during the same time4 ,a certain portion
 of the warranty was  correct1 8that    
they were as good as could be got       
elsewhere for eighteen  pounds20 for the
 articles1 as far as barrels and locks  

are concerned1  are identically the     
same4    ,unfortunately1 the generality 
of gunmakers are content to live like   
the  snail1 who cares not how the world 
goes1 so long as his house remains      
whole above his head2 rather than try to
 improve their productions1 or  to meet 
the exigencies of the times1 they are   
content to allow the trade  to be       
injured by the influx of worthless      
articles1 to their own loss and  the    
discredit of the business generally4    
,the enormous prices which  gentlemen   
have been charged for provincial-made   
guns of the most  inferior quality1 has 
driven them to obtain still worse at a  
less cost4  ,an honourable and          
tradesmanlike method of conducting      
business will  always be appreciated1   
and if a gun be required at a low       
figure1 an  honestly-made article might 
be furnished at a price to suit the     
customer1 and of equal and mutual       
benefit to buyer and seller4 ,but this  
will not do3 high prices or no orders is

 the rule4 ,it would do very well  if   
nothing were manufactured but           
high-priced articles1 as good in        
quality as they pretend to be2 but few  
provincial makers have the means  to do 
this3 an establishment sufficiently     
large can only be supported in  certain 
districts4 ,i must be excused for making
 these remarks1 as ,i have  both the    
interest of the maker1 combined with    
that of the sporting  world1 in view1   
and have no other end to serve4 ,i do   
not include all1  only a part of the    
profession in these strictures1 for     
there are many  honourable exceptions4  
,the ironmonger receives these inferior 
guns1 and disposes of them as           
stub-twist barrels3 he knows no other1  
nor would he care if he did4 ,a  flashy 
outside is very captivating to the      
novice2 but one or two years'  use will 
soon show the quality of the article3   
the wood then shrinks1  the glue and wax
 wash out of the fittings1 and an       
apparently crazy and  breaking-up       

constitution displays itself most       
clearly3 for work put  together at a    
certain price will have only a certain  
duration4 ,were ,i  free of the         
gun-making profession entirely1 and     
asked for my  conscientious advice in   
the purchasing of a gun1 ,i should      
decidedly say1  buy a gun from no one   
who has not a character to lose2 who is 
not only  answerable for the article he 
sells1 but also capable of judging of   
the  quality1 and appreciates the value 
of good materials4 ,the trade is        
over-run with swarms of ,jew salesmen   
and others1 who cannot1 nor ever  will  
be1 able to duly understand and         
appreciate the responsibility  attached 
to the profession of a gun-maker4       
,there have been individuals in         
,birmingham who realised considerable   
sums  by manufacturing guns of this     
quality only for two or three sale shops
  of puffing celebrity in ,london1 and  
so extensive are their orders still1    
that an engraver is kept in full        

employment by them1 the excellence of   
whose forged imitations of names1 c41 is
 wonderful3 so devoid of shame  and     
debased in intellect do men become from 
perseverance in evil4 ,joe  ,manton's   
guns have become like pictures of       
celebrated masters2 had he  produced one
 per hour during his existence1 he could
 not have made  one-half of the number  
that bear his name4    ,guns made of    
threepenny skelp iron are plentifully to
 be met with in  sale-shops and         
pawnbroking establishments2 they        
generally bear false  colours and hail  
from fictitious ports1 and are bedecked 
with painted  stocks and tawdry         
imitation gold and silver ornaments2 but
 as to the  mechanical arrangement1 to  
use a ,brummagism1 they are as if they  
had  been pitched together4 ,a decent   
gun could be made with barrels of this  
quality1 if constructed a little heavier
 than usual2 and it would be  perfectly 
safe1 and suited for the use of those   
who could not purchase  better3 if firm 

and soundly fitted up1 with decent      
locks1 sound stock1  c41 it would be    
worth about eight guineas2 but you can  
get them by the  hundred in ,birmingham 
for #cl4 #aes4 each1 and1 if you        
particularly  wish it1 at #bl4 #aes41 or
 less2 and single guns1 with plated     
barrels1  about half that sum4    ,we   
have now reached the utmost limits of   
civilization1 and are about to  pass the
 great desert1 where science is never   
seen or heard of1 except  it be in the  
pretences of an inventor of deceptions3 
things of wood and  iron1 called guns4  
,pocket volcanoes would be a fitter     
title1 or portable  exploders--for no   
one can possibly expect anything but    
destruction who  uses such compounds of 
dangerous contrivances4 ,but for the    
edification  of those who use such1 we  
give the prices of each part and cost of
  manufacture of them3 the statement is 
literally true2 and1 except that  by    
possibility the items may vary a penny  
or two1 the whole is  substantially     

correct4      ,cost of ,material and    
,workmen's ,prices for making ,double   
and ,single  ,guns1 with 8,twopenny0 or 
8,wednesbury ,skelp ,iron0 ,twist       
,barrels4    ,,double ,,guns4           
s4   d4    ,double barrels1 twist1      
patent breeched            #ab     #j   
,pair of locks                          
#b     #j    ,wood for stock            
#j     #f    ,set of cast furniture     
#j     #e    ,stocking                  
#b     #j    ,screwing together         
#c     #j    ,percussioning             
#b     #j    ,polishing and engraving   
#a     #j    ,varnishing 7including     
painting7                    #j     #f  
,browning                               
#j     #f    ,finishing                 
#c     #j    ,ramrod1 tip1 and worm     
#j     #f    ,small work1 nails1        
escutcheons1 wood1 screws1 c4  #a     #j
                                        
----------                              
#a #h     #e                            
----------    ,,single ,,guns4          

s4  d4    ,single barrel1 twist1 c4     
#e     #i    ,lock                      
#a     #j    ,wood for stock            
#j     #f    ,set of cast furniture     
#d     #j    ,stocking                  
#a     #j    ,screwing together         
#b     #j    ,percussioning             
#a     #j    ,polishing and engraving   
#j     #h    ,stock varnishing and      
painting                      #j     #d 
,barrel browning                        
#j     #d    ,finishing                 
#b     #j    ,ramrod1 tip1 and worm     
#j     #f    ,small work1 c4            
#j     #h                               
--------                                
#af     #a                              
--------    ,common iron barrels plated 
with this iron can be furnished by      
barrel-makers1 double for eight         
shillings per pair1 single for four     
shillings each2 which deducted from     
each1 gives double complete1 #al4  #ds4 
#h;d41 and single #ads4 #d;d4 each2 and 
for these we have known  the factor     

charge the ironmonger1 double3 #cl4     
#ajs4 each1 and #al4  #aes4 single2 so  
it is strictly an imposition on both    
sides1 one  charging #el41 and the other
 #cl4    ,now for the next3 bad as is   
the preceding1 this is infinitely worse2
 the  former costs two-pence per pound1 
the present varies from one penny to    
one penny farthing per pound4 8,sham    
damn iron0 is similar in nature to      
brass2 a metal with fibres certainly1   
but they are like the fibres of  willow 
compared to oak3 it is an iron soft and 
spongy1 capable of being  condensed to  
an immense degree4 ,all slave           
gun-barrels are made of it4  ,mungo     
,park detailed some of the lamentable   
atrocities committed by these  guns     
bursting4 ,the many thousands of        
mutilated wretches who have lived  to   
curse the cupidity of their fellow-men1 
form not a bright side in the  picture  
of human nature2 but were you to bawl   
into the ears of those  employed in the 
construction1 all these and a thousand  

more such direful  effects of their     
handiwork1 you would not abate one in   
the number of  these man-traps4         
,cost of ,guns made of ,sham ,damn      
,iron4    ,,double ,,guns4              
s4  d4    ,double barrels1 plain iron1  
with side huts1 per pair    #g     #j   
,locks                                  
#a     #f    ,wood for stock            
#j     #f    ,stocking                  
#a     #b    ,furniture                 
#j     #e    ,screwing together         
#b     #j    ,percussioning             
#a     #d    ,polishing and engraving   
#j     #i    ,varnishing and painting   
stock                           #j      
#d    ,painting twist barrels           
#j     #d    ,rod1 tip1 worm            
#j     #d    ,small work                
#j     #g                               
--------        ,total                  
#af     #j                              
--------    ,,single ,,guns4            
s4  d4    ,single barrel1 ribbed and    
breeched                      #c     #h 

,lock                                   
#j     #i    ,wood for stock            
#j     #f    ,stocking                  
#j     #h    ,furniture                 
#j     #d    ,screwing together         
#a     #d    ,percussioning             
#j     #i    ,polishing and engraving   
#j     #f    ,varnishing and painting   
stock                           #j      
#d    ,painting twisted barrel          
#j     #c    ,rod1 tip1 worm            
#j     #d    ,small work                
#j     #d                               
--------          ,total                
#aj     #i                              
--------    ,the above guns are sold to 
the factor1 at #bjl4 and #abl4 the score
  respectively4 ,the ,jews sometimes get
 even them at that1 or a lower  price1  
as money happens to be plentiful or     
scarce4 ,there is a  description of     
tradesmen in this town of hardware1     
whose establishments  bear the          
euphonious titles of the 8slaughter     
shop0 and 8blood  house20 and in these  

emporiums of the productions of the     
needy2 may be  obtained gunnery of all  
kinds1 as well as all other material1   
the  productions of ,birmingham4 ,if the
 article costs little manufacturing1 it 
costs these men still less4 ,the        
slaughter-master is a cormorant1 who    
swallows the substance of the weak1 and 
once past his awful jaws he  cannot be  
made to disgorge4 ,here itinerant       
hardwaremen find an abundant  supply3 he
 has always a stock4 ,the wants of the  
poor are always  pressing1 and the      
gun-making portions of the inhabitants  
of ,birmingham  are not over provident1 
seldom caring for what to-morrow may    
bring  forth4 ,the painted pair of shams
 is faintly portrayed in the opposite   
engraving 7,plate #d72 and the          
uninitiated may be able to detect what  
,i  have endeavoured to acquaint them   
with4    ,illustration3 ,,plate4 ,,iv4  
,,charcoal ,,iron ,,barreled ,,gun      
,,threepenny ,,iron ,,barreled ,,gun    
,illustration3 ,,plate4 ,v4             

,,twopenny ,,iron ,,barreled ,,gun    ,a
 ,,sham ,,damn ,,barreled ,,gun    ,i   
shall just give the cost of the various 
items in the fitting-up of an  imitation
 gun for the ,african market1 combined  
with an imitation  musket for the same2 
the former is not so desperately bad as 
the latter1  the one being barely half  
an inch in the bore1 the other full     
three-quarters of an inch1 and yet their
 weights are not dissimilar4    ,you can
 have a shipload of these for #es4 #i;d4
 each4 ,it is  satisfactory to know that
 they send powder with them of          
corresponding  quality4      ,cost of   
8,african guns0 alias 8,park ,paling40  
s4  d4    ,common musket barrel1 or     
birding barrel      #b     #j    ,lock  
#j     #d    ,stock                     
#j     #d    ,stocking                  
#j     #e    ,brass furniture           
#j     #c-a_/b    ,screwing together1   
and finishing             #j     #i     
,polishing and hardening1 hammer1 c4    
#j     #d    ,steel rod                 

#j     #c    ,browning and painting     
barrel and stock       #j     #d        
,small items                            
#j     #c                               
------------                            
,total      #e     #c-a_/b              
------------          ,,chapter ,,vi4   
,,the ,,proof ,,of ,,gun ,,barrels4     
,for a considerable period subsequently 
to the introduction of the  manufacture 
of gunnery into ,england1 there existed 
no public proof1 or  test1 for the      
goodness and safety of barrels2 further 
than that the  feeling of the maker     
induced him to protect the limbs of his 
customer4  ,even so early as the        
seventeenth century1 the bias of human  
nature to  evil began to be displayed in
 the production of materials for guns1  
the  use of which was attended with loss
 of both life and limb4 ,in  consequence
 of the frequent bursting of inferior   
guns1 the ,company of  ,gunmakers of the
 ,city of ,london instituted a          
proof-house1 to which the  barrels of   

respectable makers were all sent to be  
proved4 ,the ,east ,india  ,company     
required all their muskets to undergo   
the same test2 hence it  became a custom
 to have barrels proved there3 many also
 underwent an  extra test on the        
premises of the manufacturer2 so jealous
 were  sportsmen1 and so necessary was  
it deemed to provide against any        
possibility of accident4 ,thus it was   
shown clearly that laws are not  always 
required to carry out certain results1  
but that it is sometimes  preferable to 
allow matters of this kind to be        
arranged according to  the knowledge of 
the parties interested2 for frequently  
when an  individual is aware that there 
is a law under which1 in case of need1  
he  can shelter himself--as many do at  
this day in case of guns bursting--he   
becomes careless3 he has always a ready 
answer1 8,i can assure you the  barrel  
was proved2 and there must have been    
some unfortunate cause for  her going3  
you could not have rammed the wadding   

home1 or you must have  put in an extra 
charge10 and such like excuses4 ,it is  
never for a moment  supposed that there 
was any insufficiency in the proof4     
,the great demand for rubbish of a      
villanous description during the        
existence of the slave trade1 induced   
some philanthropic gentlemen in         
,birmingham to found a ,company1 with   
suitable premises1 for the proof of  all
 gun barrels2 and an ,act of ,parliament
 was obtained in the year #ahac1        
incorporating the body4 ,the first ,act 
proved insufficient1 as the  ,birmingham
 makers found easy means of evading it2 
so they had to obtain  a fresh ,act in  
#ahae1 by which parties receiving any   
barrel to rib1  stock1 c41 without its  
having previously been proved1 became   
liable to  a penalty of twenty pounds1  
and not less than twenty shillings3 it  
also  enacted that any person or persons
 making and selling any gun1 the        
barrels of which had not been proved at 
either this or the ,london  proof-house1

 became liable to the same penalty2 and 
it further enacted1  that any person or 
persons forging the stamps or marks of  
either of the  two proof-houses1 should 
be liable to the same penalties1 and in 
default of payment1 to a certain term of
 imprisonment1 c4 ,it also  ordered1    
that all barrels be proved with the     
quantity of powder in  proportion to the
 various bores enumerated in the table4 
,the severe1 but just1 strictures cast  
upon the lax nature of this ,act of     
,parliament1 and the equally lax way in 
which its provisions were carried  out  
7individual benefit being held to be the
 most important element in  the         
interpretation71 imperatively called for
 an immediate improvement4  ,the heavy  
denunciations which ,i felt bound to    
visit on the defective  working of this 
8miscalled proof of gun barrels0 in my  
former works1 at  length opened the     
eyes1 not only of the sportsman and the 
trade1 but  also of the ,government2 and
 7,i believe in #ahed7 it was intimated 

to the  proof companies of ,london and  
,birmingham that the time had arrived   
8when gun barrels should be proved in   
reality20 and that if the  initiative   
was not taken by the trade1 the         
,government were prepared to  introduce 
a public ,act of ,parliament for that   
purpose4 ,the natural  consequence      
followed1 and in #ahee an ,act was      
passed entitled 8,the ,gun  ,barrel     
,proof ,act #ahee10 by which most       
extensive powers are delegated to  the  
two companies4    ,the clause of most   
vital importance enacts that all gun    
barrels shall be  proved twice2 first in
 the rough1 which is called provisional 
proof2 and  secondly1 when the barrels  
are soldered together1 breeched1 and    
percussioned4 ,thus1 in a comparatively 
finished state1 when all the  necessary 
reductions and other operations have    
been effected1 the  barrels become      
properly tested4 ,not only the metal of 
the barrels and  the soundness of the   
breeches1 but the screwing in of the    

nipples is  proved--a most important    
check on a very important branch of     
workmanship1 and which if imperfectly   
done renders the gun dangerous4    ,the 
first regulation enacts that 8barrels   
are not to be made up unless  proved1   
and marked as proved40    #bnd4 ,small  
arms are not to be sold or exported     
unless proved1 and marked  as proved4   
#crd4 ,barrels provisionally proved and 
reduced in strength are to be  deemed   
unproved4    #dth4 ,barrels reduced so  
that the mark does not represent the    
proof are  to be deemed unproved4       
#eth4 ,barrels with marks defaced are to
 be deemed unproved4    #fth4 ,barrels  
with marks removed are to be deemed     
unproved4    #gth4 ,barrels are to be   
marked according to scale4    ,here     
follows a list of offences3--           
,,xcix4 ,every person committing any of 
the following offences shall for        
every such offence be guilty of a       
misdemeanour1 and shall at the          
discretion of the court be sentenced to 

imprisonment1 with or without    hard   
labour1 for not more than three years1  
to wit3      #a4 ,every person who      
forges or counterfeits any stamp or any 
part of    any stamp already or         
hereafter provided or used by either of 
the two    companies for the marking of 
any barrel3      #b4 ,every person who  
sells or parts with the possession of   
any such    forged or counterfeit stamp 
or part of a stamp1 knowing the same to 
be    forged or counterfeit3      #c4   
,every person who knowingly marks any   
barrel with any such forged or          
counterfeit stamp or with any part of   
such forged or counterfeit    stamp3    
#d4 ,every person who makes up any      
barrel so marked1 knowing the same to   
be so marked3      #e4 ,every person who
 sells or parts with the possession of  
any barrel    so marked1 knowing the    
same to be so marked3      #f4 ,every   
person who forges or counterfeits or by 
any means whatever    produces an       
imitation upon any barrel of any mark or

 of any part of    any mark of any stamp
 already or hereafter provided or used  
by either    of the two companies for   
the marking of any barrel3      #g4     
,every person who sells or parts with   
the possession of any such    mark or   
part of a mark1 knowing the same to be  
forged or counterfeit    or an          
imitation3      #h4 ,every person who   
transposes or removes from any barrel to
 any other    barrel any mark or any    
part of any mark of any stamp already or
    hereafter provided or used by either
 of the two companies for making    any 
barrel3      #i4 ,every person who shall
 have in his possession or who shall    
part    with the possession of any mark 
or any part of any mark so transposed   
or removed1 knowing the same to be      
transposed or removed3      #aj4 ,every 
person without lawful excuse1 the proof 
whereof shall lie on    him1 having in  
his possession any such forged or       
counterfeit stamp or    part of a stamp1
 or any such forged or counterfeit mark 

or imitation    of a mark1 or any such  
transposed or removed mark1 knowing the 
same    respectively to be forged1      
counterfeit1 imitated1 marked1          
transposed1    or removed3      #aa4    
,every person who cuts or severs from   
any barrel any mark or any    part of   
any mark of any stamp already or        
hereafter provided or used by    either 
of the two companies for the stamping of
 any barrel1 with    intent that such   
mark or such part of a mark be placed   
upon or joined    or affixed to any     
other barrel3      #ab4 ,every person   
who places upon or joins or affixes to  
any barrel any    such mark or part of a
 mark so cut or severed3      #ac4      
,every person who1 with intent to       
defraud1 uses any genuine stamp         
already or hereafter provided or used by
 either of the two companies    for the 
marking of any barrel3      #ad4 ,every 
person who forges or counterfeits1 or by
 any means produces    an imitation upon
 any barrel of any mark1 or of any part 

of any mark1    of any stamp of a       
foreign country registered by the two   
companies    pursuant to the provisions 
of this ,act4      ,c4 ,every person    
committing any of the following offences
 shall for    every such offence be     
subject to a penalty as follows1 to wit3
      #a4 ,every person selling or      
exchanging1 or exposing or keeping for  
sale1 or exporting or importing1 or     
attempting to export or import    from  
or to ,england1 or having in his        
possession without lawful excuse    7the
 proof whereof shall lie upon him71 any 
barrel having thereupon    any mark of  
any forged or counterfeit stamp or part 
of a stamp already    or hereafter      
provided or used by either of the two   
companies for    marking any barrel1 or 
having thereupon any forged or          
counterfeit mark    or imitation of a   
mark of any stamp or part of a stamp so 
provided or    used1 or having thereupon
 any mark of any stamp or part of a     
stamp so    provided or used1 such mark 

having been transposed or removed       
thereto    from any other barrel1 shall 
for every such barrel so sold or        
exchanged1 or exposed or kept for sale1 
or exported or imported1 or    attempted
 to be exported or imported1 or so in   
his possession1 forfeit    not exceeding
 twenty pounds3      #b4 ,every person  
selling or exchanging or exposing or    
keeping for sale1    or exporting or    
attempting to export from ,england1 any 
small arm1 the    barrel or barrels     
whereof are not under this ,act duly    
proved and    marked as proved1 shall   
for every such barrel forfeit not       
exceeding    twenty pounds3      #c4    
,every person fraudulently erasing1     
obliterating1 or defacing1 or           
fraudulently causing to be erased1      
obliterated1 or defaced from any        
barrel1 any mark or any part of any mark
 of any stamp already or    hereafter   
provided or used by either of the two   
companies for the    marking of barrels1
 shall for every such offence forfeit   

not exceeding    twenty pounds3      #d4
 ,every person delivering or sending or 
causing or procuring to be    delivered 
or sent for sale1 or under pretence of  
sale1 or removing1    consigning1 or    
transmitting1 or causing or procuring to
 be removed1    consigned1 or           
transmitted for sale1 or under pretence 
of sale1 any    small arm1 the barrel or
 barrels whereof are not duly proved at 
the    ,proof-house of the ,gunmakers'  
,company1 or the ,birmingham            
,proof-house1    or some other public   
proof-house established by law1 and     
marked as    proved1 shall1 for every   
small arm so delivered or sent1 or      
caused or    procured to be delivered or
 sent1 or removed1 consigned1 or        
transmitted1 or caused or procured to be
 removed1 consigned1 or    transmitted1 
forfeit not exceeding twenty pounds4    
,the preceding list of offences against 
the proper conducting of the gun        
manufacture have been found1 after      
nearly three years' experience1 to      

fulfil the intentions of the framers#ab 
of the bill4 ,undoubtedly a much  more  
healthy tone has been given to the      
constitution of the trade2 and  it is to
 be fervently hoped that it will        
entirely eradicate the evil of          
producing such a vast amount of         
worthless and dangerous guns4 ,the      
double-proof has been too much for many 
of the 8sham damns40 ,no doubt  much    
remains to be done even yet2 but the    
trade is progressing towards            
convalescence1 after this severe        
purging4 ,with these remarks ,i shall   
introduce schedule ,b of the new ,act4  
#ab ,i had the honour of being one of a 
committee to frame the    clauses4      
,,schedule 7,b47    ,,rules ,,and       
,,regulations ,,applicable ,,to ,,the   
,,proof ,,of ,,small ,,arms4            
,classification of ,small ,arms4        
,first ,class4--,comprising             
single-barrelled military arms of smooth
    bore4      ,second                  
,class4--,comprising double-barrelled   

military arms of smooth    bore1 and    
rifled arms of every description1       
whether of one or more    barrels1 or   
constructed of plain or twisted iron4   
,third ,class4--,comprising every       
description of single-barrelled         
birding and fowling-pieces for firing   
small shot2 and also those known    by  
the names of ,danish1 ,dutch1 ,carolina1
 and ,spanish4      ,fourth             
,class4--,comprising every description  
of double-barrelled    birding and      
fowling-pieces for firing small shot4   
,fifth ,class4--,comprising revolving   
and breech-loading small arms of        
every description and system4      ,rule
 of ,proof4      ,the gunpowder used for
 proof shall be of equal quality and    
strength    with that which is now used 
by the ,honourable ,board of ,ordnance4 
,the balls used for the proof of barrels
 of all classes shall be of    lead1 and
 spherical1 and of the size and weight  
prescribed by the    scale for proof4   
,barrels for arms of the second class   

and of the fourth class1 and for        
breech-loading arms of the fifth class1 
shall be proved provisionally    and    
definitively1 and barrels for all other 
arms shall be proved once               
definitively4      ,conditions precedent
 to ,proof4      ,barrels for arms of   
the first class shall not be qualified  
for proof    until they shall be in a   
fit and proper state for setting up4    
,barrels for arms of the third class    
shall not be qualified for proof        
until they shall be in a fit and proper 
state for setting up1 with the    proper
 breeches in2 and all barrels lumped for
 percussioning shall be    proved       
through the nipple hole1 with the proper
 pins or plugs in4      ,barrels for    
arms of the second and fourth classes3  
,for provisional proof3--,if of plain   
metal1 shall be bored and ground1       
having plugs attached1 with touch-holes 
drilled in the plugs1 of a    diameter  
not exceeding one-sixteenth of an inch4 
,if any touch-hole    shall be enlarged1

 from any cause whatever1 to a dimension
 exceeding    in diameter one-tenth of  
an inch1 the barrel shall be            
disqualified for    proof4 ,notches in  
the plugs instead of drilled touch-holes
 shall    disqualify for proof4 ,if of  
twisted metal1 they shall be fine-bored1
    and struck up1 with proving plugs   
attached1 and touch-holes drilled as    
in the case of plain metal barrels4     
,for definitive proof3--,the barrels1   
whether of plain or twisted metal1      
shall be in the finished state1 ready   
for setting up1 with the    breeches in 
the percussioned state1 break-offs      
fitted and locks    jointed2 the top and
 bottom ribs shall be rough struck up1  
pipes1    loops1 and stoppers on4 ,all  
rifle barrels must be rifled2 the top   
and    bottom ribs of double barrels    
shall be struck up1 pipes1 loops1 and   
stoppers on1 the proper breeches in1 and
 the thread of the screws    shall be   
sufficiently sound and full for proof4  
,barrels for revolving arms of the fifth

 class shall have the cylinders    with 
the revolving action attached and       
complete4      ,barrels for             
breech-loading arms of the fifth class  
shall be subject to    provisional      
proof1 according to the class to which  
they belong1 and to    definitive proof 
when the breech-loading action is       
attached and    complete4      ,marks of
 ,proof4      ,the marks applicable to  
the definitive proof shall be the proof 
and    view marks now used by the two   
companies respectively4      ,the marks 
applicable to the provisional proof for 
the ,gunmakers    ,company shall be the 
letters 7,g4,p47 interlaced in a cypher 
surmounted    by a lion rampant1 and for
 the ,birmingham ,company shall be the  
letters    7,b4,p47 interlaced in a     
cypher surmounted by a ,crown4          
,illustration3 ,london marks4           
,illustration3 ,birmingham marks4       
,mode of affixing ,proof ,marks4        
,on arms of the first and third classes 
the definitive proof mark and    view   

mark shall be impressed at the breech   
end of the barrel1 and if    the barrel 
be constructed with a patent breech1 the
 view mark shall be    also impressed   
upon the breech4      ,on arms of the   
second1 fourth1 and fifth classes1 the  
provisional    proof mark shall be      
impressed at the breech end of the      
barrel2 the    definitive proof mark and
 view mark shall be impressed upon the  
barrel    above the provisional proof   
mark2 and if the barrel be constructed  
with a patent breech1 or with revolving 
cylinders or chambers1 the    view mark 
shall be also impressed upon the breech1
 or upon each of the    cylinders or    
chambers with which the barrel is       
connected1 as the case    may be4       
,on all barrels the gauge size of the   
barrel shall be struck1 both at    the  
provisional and at the definitive proof4
    ,scale for ,proof4    ,the ,scale   
following shows the ,proportions of     
,gunpowder applicable under  the        
foregoing ,rules and ,regulations to the

 ,proof of the various ,classes  of     
,arms as distinguished by the ,trade    
,numbers indicating the ,calibre4       
----------------------------------------
-----------------                       
,charges of ,powder     ,number         
,diameter    ,diameter  ,weight of   for
 ,proof4           of   of ,bore by of  
,balls for,balls for------------------  
,gauge4,calculation4   ,proof4          
,proof4    ,first ,class4               
------------------                      
,definitive ,proof4                     
----------------------------------------
-----------------             inches4   
inches4   grains4 grains4 ozs4 drs4     
#a      #affi       #afdi      #fgeb    
#dhab   #aa  444         #b      #acbe  
#acje      #ccdb    #bcbd    #e   #e    
#c      #aaeg       #aajg      #bbaa    
#aeca    #c   #h          #d      #ajeb 
#ajcb      #afdi    #aagf    #b  #aa    
#e       #igf        #ief      #acae    
#icj    #b   #b          #f       #hai  
#hii      #ajij     #gff    #a  #ab     

#g       #hgc        #hec       #ica    
#fef    #a   #h          #h       #hce  
#hae       #hab     #fjb    #a   #f     
#i       #hjc        #ghc       #gbj    
#dib    #a   #b          #aj      #gge  
#gee       #fdf     #dfe    #a   #a     
#aa      #gea        #gca       #ehf    
#dcg  444  #af          #ab      #gbi   
#gji       #ece     #dcg  444  #af      
#ac      #gaj        #fij       #dic    
#daj  444  #ae          #ad      #fic   
#fgc       #deg     #chc  444  #ad      
#ae      #fgg        #feg       #dbe    
#chc  444  #ad          #af      #ffb   
#fdb       #cii     #cfi  444  #ac-a_/b 
#ag      #fdi        #fbi       #cgd    
#cfi  444  #ac-a_/b      #ah      #fcg  
#fag       #ceb     #cdb  444  #ab-a_/b 
#ai      #fbf        #fjf       #ccd    
#cja  444  #aa          #bj      #fae   
#eie       #caf     #bgc  444  #aj      
#ba      #fje        #ehe       #cjj    
#bgc  444  #aj          #bb      #eif   
#egf       #bhg     #bdf  444   #i      
#bc      #ehg        #efg       #bgd    

#bdf  444   #i          #bd      #egi   
#eei       #bfb     #bcb  444   #h-a_/b 
#be      #ega        #eea       #bea    
#bcb  444   #h-a_/b      #bf      #efc  
#edc       #bdb     #bcb  444   #h-a_/b 
#bg      #eef        #ecf       #bca    
#bcb  444   #h-a_/b      #bh      #eej  
#ecj       #bbc     #bcb  444   #h-a_/b 
#bi      #edc        #ebc       #bad    
#bje  444   #g-a_/b      #cj      #ecg  
#eag       #bjg     #bje  444   #g-a_/b 
#ca      #eca        #eaa       ---     
#bje  444   #g-a_/b      #cb      #ebf  
#ejf       #aid     #bje  444   #g-a_/b 
#cc      #ebj        #ejj       ---     
#aia  444   #g          #cd      #eae   
#die       #ahb     #aia  444   #g      
#ce      #eaj        #dij       ---     
#aia  444   #g          #cf      #ejf   
#dhf       #agb     #aia  444   #g      
#cg      #eja        #dha       ---     
#aia  444   #g          #ch      #dig   
#dgg       #afb     #agh  444   #f-a_/b 
#ci      #dib        #dgb       ---     
#agh  444   #f-a_/b      #dj      #dhh  

#dfh       #aed     #agh  444   #f-a_/b 
#da      #dhd        #dfd       ---     
#afd  444   #f          #db      #dhj   
#dfj       #adf     #afd  444   #f      
#dc      #dgf        #def       ---     
#afd  444   #f          #dd      #dgc   
#dec       #aci     #afd  444   #f      
#de      #dfi        #ddi       ---     
#aej  444   #e-a_/b      #df      #dff  
#ddf       #acc     #aej  444   #e-a_/b 
#dg      #dfc        #ddc       ---     
#aej  444   #e-a_/b      #dh      #dei  
#dci       #abg     #aej  444   #e-a_/b 
#di      #def        #dcf       ---     
#aej  444   #e-a_/b      #ej      #dec  
#dcc       #abb     #aej  444   #e-a_/b 
----------------------------------------
-----------------                       
----------------------------------------
-----------------------                 
,charges of ,powder for ,proof4         
,number---------------------------------
----------------------     of           
,second ,class4               ,third    
,class4                                 

,gauge4---------------------------------
---------------------                   
,provisional ,proof4 ,definitive ,proof4
 ,definitive ,proof4                    
----------------------------------------
--------------------          grains4   
ozs4 drs4 grains4 ozs4 drs4 grains4 ozs4
 drs4       #a    #dhab   #aa  444      
#bdjf    #e   #h     #chej    #h        
#ab-c_/d      #b    #bcbd    #e   #e    
#aafb    #b  #aj-a_/b #ahei    #d   #d  
#c    #aeca    #c   #h      #gff    #a  
#ab     #abbe    #b  #ab-c_/d      #d   
#aagf    #b  #aa      #ehh    #a        
#e-a_/b  #ida    #b   #b-a_/b      #e   
#icj    #b   #b      #dfe    #a   #a    
#gdd    #a  #aa-a_/d      #f     #gff   
#a  #ab      #chc  444  #ad      #fab   
#a   #f-a_/b      #g     #fef    #a   #h
      #cbh  444  #ab      #ebe    #a    
#c-a_/d      #h     #fjb    #a   #f     
#cja  444  #aa      #dha    #a   #a-a_/b
      #i     #dib    #a   #b      #bdf  
444   #i      #cid  444  #ad-a_/b       
#aj    #dfe    #a   #a      #bcb  444   

#h-a_/b  #cgb  444  #ac-a_/b      #aa   
#dcg  444  #af      #bai  444   #h      
#cej  444  #ab-c_/d      #ab    #dcg    
444  #af      #bai  444   #h      #cej  
444  #ab-c_/d      #ac    #daj  444  #ae
      #bje  444   #g-a_/b  #cbh  444    
#ab          #ad    #chc  444  #ad      
#aia  444   #g      #cjf  444  #aa-a_/d 
#ae    #chc  444  #ad      #aia  444    
#g      #cjf  444  #aa-a_/d      #af    
#cfi  444  #ac-a_/b  #ahe  444   #f-c_/d
  #bie  444  #aj-c_/d      #ag    #cfi  
444  #ac-a_/b  #ahe  444   #f-c_/d  #bie
  444  #aj-c_/d      #ah    #cdb  444   
#ab-a_/b  #aga  444   #f-a_/d  #bgc  444
  #aj          #ai    #cja  444  #aa    
#aej  444   #e-a_/b  #bda  444   #h-c_/d
      #bj    #bgc  444  #aj      #acg   
444   #e      #bai  444   #h            
#ba    #bgc  444  #aj      #acg  444    
#e      #bai  444   #h          #bb     
#bdf  444   #i      #abc  444   #d-a_/b 
#aig  444   #g-a_/d      #bc    #bdf    
444   #i      #abc  444   #d-a_/b  #aig 
444   #g-a_/d      #bd    #bcb  444     

#h-a_/b  #aaf  444   #d-a_/d  #ahf  444 
#f-c_/d      #be    #bcb  444   #h-a_/b 
#aaf  444   #d-a_/d  #ahf  444   #f-c_/d
      #bf    #bcb  444   #h-a_/b  #aaf  
444   #d-a_/d  #ahf  444   #f-c_/d      
#bg    #bcb  444   #h-a_/b  #aaf  444   
#d-a_/d  #ahf  444   #f-c_/d      #bh   
#bcb  444   #h-a_/b  #aaf  444   #d-a_/d
  #ahf  444   #f-c_/d      #bi    #bje  
444   #g-a_/b  #ajb  444   #c-c_/d  #afd
  444   #f          #cj    #bje  444    
#g-a_/b  #ajb  444   #c-c_/d  #afd  444 
#f          #ca    #bje  444   #g-a_/b  
#ajb  444   #c-c_/d  #afd  444   #f     
#cb    #bje  444   #g-a_/b  #ajb  444   
#c-c_/d  #afd  444   #f          #cc    
#aia  444   #g       #if  444   #c-a_/b 
#aec  444   #e-a_/b      #cd    #aia    
444   #g       #if  444   #c-a_/b  #aec 
444   #e-a_/b      #ce    #aia  444   #g
       #if  444   #c-a_/b  #aec  444    
#e-a_/b      #cf    #aia  444   #g      
#if  444   #c-a_/b  #aec  444   #e-a_/b 
#cg    #aia  444   #g       #if  444    
#c-a_/b  #aec  444   #e-a_/b      #ch   

#agh  444   #f-a_/b   #hi  444   #c-a_/d
  #adb  444   #e-a_/d      #ci    #agh  
444   #f-a_/b   #hi  444   #c-a_/d  #adb
  444   #e-a_/d      #dj    #agh  444   
#f-a_/b   #hi  444   #c-a_/d  #adb  444 
#e-a_/d      #da    #afd  444   #f      
#hb  444   #c      #aca  444   #d-c_/d  
#db    #afd  444   #f       #hb  444    
#c      #aca  444   #d-c_/d      #dc    
#afd  444   #f       #hb  444   #c      
#aca  444   #d-c_/d      #dd    #afd    
444   #f       #hb  444   #c      #aca  
444   #d-c_/d      #de    #aej  444     
#e-a_/b   #ge  444   #b-c_/d  #abj  444 
#d-a_/b      #df    #aej  444   #e-a_/b 
#ge  444   #b-c_/d  #abj  444   #d-a_/b 
#dg    #aej  444   #e-a_/b   #ge  444   
#b-c_/d  #abj  444   #d-a_/b      #dh   
#aej  444   #e-a_/b   #ge  444   #b-c_/d
  #abj  444   #d-a_/b      #di    #aej  
444   #e-a_/b   #ge  444   #b-c_/d  #abj
  444   #d-a_/b      #ej    #aej  444   
#e-a_/b   #ge  444   #b-c_/d  #abj  444 
#d-a_/b                                 
----------------------------------------

--------------------                    
----------------------------------------
---              ,charges of ,powder for
 ,proof4                                
,number---------------------------------
----      of              ,fourth       
,class4                                 
,gauge4---------------------------------
---          ,provisional ,proof4       
,definitive ,proof4                     
----------------------------------------
--          grains4 ozs4 drs4 grains4   
ozs4 drs4       #a    #chej    #h       
#ab-c_/d #bdjf    #e   #h          #b   
#ahei    #d   #d     #aafb    #b        
#aj-a_/b      #c    #abbe    #b         
#ab-c_/d  #gff    #a  #ab          #d   
#ida    #b   #b-a_/b  #ehh    #a        
#e-a_/b      #e     #gdd    #a  #aa-a_/d
  #dfe    #a   #a          #f     #fab  
#a   #f-a_/b  #chc  444  #ad          #g
     #ebe    #a   #c-a_/d  #cbh  444    
#ab          #h     #dha    #a   #a-a_/b
  #cja  444  #aa          #i     #cid   
444  #ad-a_/b  #bdf  444   #i           

#aj    #cgb  444  #ac-a_/b  #bcb  444   
#h-a_/b      #aa    #cej  444  #ab-c_/d 
#bai  444   #h          #ab    #cej  444
  #ab-c_/d  #bai  444   #h          #ac 
#cbh  444  #ab      #bje  444   #g-a_/b 
#ad    #cjf  444  #aa-a_/d  #aia  444   
#g          #ae    #cjf  444  #aa-a_/d  
#aia  444   #g          #af    #bie  444
  #aj-c_/d  #ahe  444   #f-c_/d      #ag
    #bie  444  #aj-c_/d  #ahe  444      
#f-c_/d      #ah    #bgc  444  #aj      
#aga  444   #f-a_/d      #ai    #bda    
444   #h-c_/d  #aej  444   #e-a_/b      
#bj    #bai  444   #h      #acg  444    
#e          #ba    #bai  444   #h       
#acg  444   #e          #bb    #aig  444
   #g-a_/d  #abc  444   #d-a_/b      #bc
    #aig  444   #g-a_/d  #abc  444      
#d-a_/b      #bd    #ahf  444   #f-c_/d 
#aaf  444   #d-a_/d      #be    #ahf    
444   #f-c_/d  #aaf  444   #d-a_/d      
#bf    #ahf  444   #f-c_/d  #aaf  444   
#d-a_/d      #bg    #ahf  444   #f-c_/d 
#aaf  444   #d-a_/d      #bh    #ahf    
444   #f-c_/d  #aaf  444   #d-a_/d      

#bi    #afd  444   #f      #ajb  444    
#c-c_/d      #cj    #afd  444   #f      
#ajb  444   #c-c_/d      #ca    #afd    
444   #f      #ajb  444   #c-c_/d       
#cb    #afd  444   #f      #ajb  444    
#c-c_/d      #cc    #aec  444   #e-a_/b 
#if  444   #c-a_/b      #cd    #aec  444
   #e-a_/b   #if  444   #c-a_/b      #ce
    #aec  444   #e-a_/b   #if  444      
#c-a_/b      #cf    #aec  444   #e-a_/b 
#if  444   #c-a_/b      #cg    #aec  444
   #e-a_/b   #if  444   #c-a_/b      #ch
    #adb  444   #e-a_/d   #hi  444      
#c-a_/d      #ci    #adb  444   #e-a_/d 
#hi  444   #c-a_/d      #dj    #adb  444
   #e-a_/d   #hi  444   #c-a_/d      #da
    #aca  444   #d-c_/d   #hb  444   #c 
#db    #aca  444   #d-c_/d   #hb  444   
#c          #dc    #aca  444   #d-c_/d  
#hb  444   #c          #dd    #aca  444 
#d-c_/d   #hb  444   #c          #de    
#abj  444   #d-a_/b   #ge  444   #b-c_/d
      #df    #abj  444   #d-a_/b   #ge  
444   #b-c_/d      #dg    #abj  444     
#d-a_/b   #ge  444   #b-c_/d      #dh   

#abj  444   #d-a_/b   #ge  444   #b-c_/d
      #di    #abj  444   #d-a_/b   #ge  
444   #b-c_/d      #ej    #abj  444     
#d-a_/b   #ge  444   #b-c_/d            
----------------------------------------
--    ,n4,b4--,revolving ,arms of the   
,fifth ,class shall be proved once only1
 and  such ,proof shall be by the ,scale
 laid down for definitive ,proof of the 
,fourth ,class4    ,illustration    ,as 
soon as a number of gun barrels are     
loaded according to the foregoing       
scale1 they are taken to a house or     
detached building1 standing apart  from 
other offices4 7,the woodcut represents 
the interior accurately47  ,the house is
 lined throughout with thick sheet iron1
 and the windows1  which resemble       
,venetian blinds1 are constructed of the
 same metal4 ,iron  frames are laid the 
whole length of the room2 on these the  
barrels of  various qualities1 when     
about to be fired1 are placed4 ,in the  
front of  these frames lies a large mass
 of sand1 to receive the balls4 ,behind 

the  frame1 on which the twist barrels  
are fixed1 lies another bed of sand2  in
 which1 on the recoil1 the barrels are  
buried4 ,behind the frame1 on  which the
 common barrels or muskets are tried1 a 
strong iron bar is  placed1 having a    
number of holes large enough to receive 
the tang of the  breech1 but not the    
barrel4 ,the barrels being thus fixed1  
it is  impossible for them to fly back4 
,a groove runs along the whole length of
  each frame1 in which the train of     
powder is strewed to ignite the         
charges1 upon which the barrels are     
laid1 with the touch-holes  downwards4  
,when everything is ready for the proof1
 the windows are let close down1  the   
door is shut and secured1 and an iron   
rod heated red hot is  introduced       
through a hole in the wall4 ,on igniting
 the train1 a  tremendous explosion     
takes place4 ,the windows are then drawn
 up1 the  door opened1 and the smoke    
dissipated4 ,the twist barrels are found
  buried in the sand1 the common ones   

are thrown forwards2 some are found     
perfect1 others burst to pieces4 ,it is 
rarely that best barrels are  found     
burst2 more frequently they are bulged1 
or swelled out1 in places  which are    
faulty1 or of a softer temper4 ,those   
that are found perfect1  are then marked
 with the provisional punch of different
 sizes 7but  having the same            
impression71 according to the quality of
 the barrel4 ,in  ,london and           
,birmingham they have now an additional 
punch1 containing the  number of the    
bore by which the barrel has been tried4
 ,this mark easily  enables the observer
 to discover whether the barrel has had 
any  considerable quantity bored out    
after proving4 ,those that are bulged   
are  sent to the maker1 who beats down  
the swellings1 and sends back the       
barrels to be proved again4 ,they       
generally stand the second proof1       
though we have known a barrel undergo   
four proofs before it was marked4  ,the 
common barrels are required to stand    

twenty-four hours before they  are      
examined2 when1 if not burst1 any holes 
or other material  imperfections are    
made quite apparent by the action of the
 saltpetre4  ,such barrels are1 of      
course1 sent back unmarked4 ,those that 
are found  satisfactory are duly stamped
 and taken home4    ,the importance of  
the gun trade to ,england may be        
estimated from the  number of barrels   
proved during the last year1 #aheg1 of  
which the  following is a correct       
statement3--    ,provisional ,proof4    
,plain iron barrels                     
#ahe1ggf    ,twisted barrels            
#acf1hjd    ,saddle pistol barrels      
#cc1dhj    ,best pistol barrels         
#ifb    ,common pistol barrels          
#b1jff    ,revolving and double barrel  
pistols   #eg1ajf                       
-------                                 
,total       #daf1aid      ,definitively
 proved1 #gj1ajj1 being principally     
double barrels4    ,this is in          
,birmingham alone2 no doubt the ,london 

,company prove to the  extent of        
#bjj1jjj yearly1 which may also be      
debited to ,birmingham1 as  the barrels 
are all welded1 bored1 and ground before
 being sent to  ,london4 ,in addition to
 these may be counted the ,government   
contracts of  some hundred thousands    
yearly4    ,the passing of this ,act of 
,parliament levelled all distinctions   
between  ,london and ,birmingham proved 
barrels2 they are now treated precisely 
alike1 and one is equally good with the 
other4          ,,chapter ,,vii4        
,,the ,,science ,,of ,,gunnery4         
8,science begins at the point where mind
 dominates matter1 where the    attempt 
is made to subject the mass of          
experience to the scrutiny of    reason4
 ,science is mind brought into          
connection with nature40--,,cosmos4     
,a new era in the science of gunnery may
 be dated from the commencement  of the 
latter half of the nineteenth century2  
and long before its close  other        
improvements may be effected which shall

 eclipse even those of our  day4 ,a new 
elementary principle has been infused   
into the science4  ,rifles are now      
really weapons of the highest order2 in 
truth we may be  said to have only      
recently become acquainted with the     
principles on  which they should be     
constructed4 ,little of science had     
hitherto been  applied to them2 as      
military arms they were neglected for   
centuries1 to  be ushered into notice at
 last by the unassisted efforts of      
private  individuals2 ,government1 to   
whom arms were of the greatest          
importance1  having systematically      
neglected all improvement1 by invariably
 refusing  pecuniary aid1 the only      
grease at all calculated to overcome the
  friction retarding the wheels of      
progress4 ,it is an old proverb1 that   
8one extreme begets another10 and when  
changes are once started1 the           
difficulty is to stop them2 the tendency
 is to rush on from one  alteration to  
another1 before we are really well      

acquainted with what we  have so hastily
 thrown aside4 ,improvement does not    
always follow a  change2 the human race1
 and the ,english more especially1 have 
an  inordinate desire for 8the          
marvellous20 and multitudes of          
8wonderful  discoveries0 and inventions 
of the utmost value are heralded daily  
by  the ever eager press1 often to be as
 hastily forgotten1 or discovered1  even
 by their promulgators1 to be myths4    
,improvement1 to be at all beneficial1  
must bring with it all the  elements of 
improvement2 and to render it easy of   
attainment1 none of  its essential      
points should be costly4 ,in gunnery    
more especially1 it is  essential to    
avoid all unnecessary friction1 excess  
of recoil1 and waste  of gunpowder2     
whilst1 at the same time1 transport of  
the gun must not be  cumbersome1 and    
durability in all its points is         
essential4    ,how few study the subject
 in all its bearings6 ,how rapidly      
conclusions  are jumped at6 ,even in    

getting range1 if it is to be purchased 
at the  cost of other essential         
principles1 it is not economy to        
sacrifice  several even moderately      
valuable principles for the sake of     
range alone4  ,the experience of the    
present age has shown that all our      
important  discoveries have their       
limits3 the locomotive cannot be used   
with  advantage beyond a certain limited
 speed2 steam vessels attempted to be   
propelled at an unusual velocity have   
but a very brief endurance1 and  rapidly
 decay4 ,all matter has power only to   
effect a certain amount of  work1 and   
this is endured best at a medium        
application2 showing most  clearly that 
8the race is not always to the swift or 
the battle to the  strong40             
,experience is required in the greatest 
of modern inventions4  ,electricity1 at 
a moderate immersion1 subjected to a    
moderate  superincumbent weight1 is an  
effectual messenger1 swift as thought2  
but  when overweighted by immersion to  

depths where the superincumbent         
pressure amounts to thousands of pounds 
upon the square inch1 then the          
messenger becomes paralysed1 and refuses
 to obey man's will2 showing  very      
clearly that until that pressure be     
artificially removed by  insulating the 
conducting wire in tubes equal to       
restrain or keep from  it that enormous 
load1 the lasting success of an         
,atlantic telegraph is  very doubtful4  
,many similar instances might be cited  
to show the  necessity of considering   
well the established laws of nature1 and
 their  bearing on the object pursued4  
,in no science is this of more          
importance  than in gunnery2 and the    
hundreds of useless inventions in       
gunnery are  to be ascribed to the      
non-observance of these rules4 ,the     
two-grooved  rifle1 the 8steam gun10    
8the sciva10 8,warner's long-range      
myth10 and  many other inventions       
equally absurd1 engage the attention for
 a time1  but soon vanish3 in fact1 all 

experience shows that improvement can   
only  be effected in accordance with    
certain established principles of nature
  and practical science4    ,iron1 in   
quantities sufficient for all reasonable
 requirements1 is a  dutiful servant2   
but1 when required of colossal          
proportions1 it refuses  to obey3 giving
 us a hint from nature1 that we should  
be content with  moderation4    ,all the
 principles appertaining to science are 
based on certain  established laws2 the 
unsoundness of one renders the          
superstructure  unsound also2 and any   
deductions drawn from unsound principles
 are  comparatively worthless4 ,gunnery1
 as a science1 must be in uniformity    
with truth in all its parts1 or no      
science exists in its arrangements4     
,this will be best illustrated by       
dividing the subject into several       
heads3 #ast1 the explosive power and its
 velocity2 #bnd1 the retarding  agents1 
air and friction2 #crd1 the construction
 of the projectile tubes2  and #dth1 the

 form of projectile best calculated to  
attain a perfect  result4    #ast4 ,the 
explosive power4 ,gunpowder has been    
stated by different  authorities to     
liberate its gases with very different  
degrees of  rapidity4 ,hutton has given 
to it a much greater rapidity than      
,robins has  evidently even surmised2   
though1 no doubt1 as we have already    
shown1  high velocity in gunpowder      
depends on several circumstances--the   
degree  of purification of its          
ingredients1 their intimate mechanical  
mixture  7that the elements may exert   
their affinities with the utmost        
facility71  and1 lastly1 the degree of  
granulation observed3 and in addition1  
the  suitability of the tubes or vessels
 for carrying on correctly such         
important experiments4 ,robins and      
,hutton unquestionably may be regarded  
as the ,english1 if not the ,european1  
authorities1 and any work on the        
science of gunnery would be very        
incomplete without their valuable       

elucidations4    ,previously to the     
researches of ,robins1 the theory of    
atmospheric  resistance was but         
imperfectly surmised1 and when he made  
his statements  of the immense          
resistance which the fluidity of the air
 offered to  projectiles in a high state
 of velocity1 they were treated as the  
idle  chimeras of a speculative brain2  
and yet he only was enabled to estimate 
the real effect of the explosive nature 
and force of gunpowder to a very        
limited extent3 indeed1 so limited1 that
 ,hutton1 only twenty years             
subsequently1 speaking of ,robins'      
theory1 says1 8,mr4 ,robins and other   
authors1 it may be said1 have only      
guessed at1 rather than determined4     
,that ingenious philosopher1 in a simple
 experiment1 truly showed that1  by the 
firing of a parcel of gunpowder1 a      
quantity of elastic air was  disengaged2
 which1 when confined in the space only 
occupied by the  powder before it was   
fired1 was found to be nearly #bej times

 stronger  than the weight or elasticity
 of the common air4 ,he then heated the 
same  parcel of air to the degree of red
 hot iron1 and found it in that         
temperature to be about four times as   
strong as before2 whence he  inferred1  
that the first strength of the inflamed 
fluid must be nearly  #a1jjj times the  
pressure of the atmosphere4 ,but this   
was merely guessing  at the degree of   
heat in the inflamed fluid1 and1        
consequently1 of its  first strength2   
both which in fact are found to be much 
greater4 ,it is  true that this assumed 
degree of strength accorded pretty well 
with that  author's experiments2 but    
this seeming agreement1 it might easily 
be  shown1 could only be owing to the   
inaccuracy of his own further           
experiments2 and1 in fact1 with far     
better opportunities than fell to  the  
lot of ,mr4 ,robins1 we have shown that 
inflamed gunpowder is about  double the 
strength that he has assigned to it1 and
 that it expands  itself with the       

velocity of about #e1jjj feet per       
second40 ,on the same  subject he       
further says3--8,on this principle it   
was that ,mr4 ,robins made  all his     
experiments and performed all his       
calculations in gunnery4 ,but  it is    
manifest that this method of guessing at
 the degree of heat of the  flame must  
be very uncertain and unsatisfactory1   
being much below the  truth2 since all  
our notions and experience of the heat  
of inflamed  powder convince us that it 
is higher than that of red hot iron1    
and1  indeed1 it has clearly appeared   
from our experiments1 that its heat is  
at least double that of red hot iron1   
and that it increases the  elasticity of
 the elastic fluid more than eight      
times40    ,here is evidence1 though not
 conclusive1 of the immense force of    
gunpowder1 and also of the progress of  
knowledge on the subject2 yet it        
clearly shows the evil of coming to     
hasty conclusions1 however well         
supported by apparent facts1 as it has  

had in this case a tendency to  check   
inquiry and retard the advancement of   
knowledge4 ,for the extensive           
experiments of ,hutton were but limited 
in discovery1 because they were  not    
carried to a sufficient extent1 and     
thus1 they are quite unsuited to  the   
present day4 ,he was satisfied because  
he had gone further than any  of his    
predecessors2 and though he established 
and clearly proved the  soundness of his
 own theory1 yet he could not either    
view the subject to  its utmost bounds1 
nor yet go sufficiently far1 but that   
others1 taking  up the question where he
 left it1 may pursue the subject to a   
much more  remote limit4 ,the subject1  
indeed1 was limited to him4 ,he far     
excelled  ,robins1 no doubt1 as he has  
shown2 but that involves no detraction  
from  the merit due to ,robins for his  
experiments and discoveries1 no more    
than any individual proving the subject 
to be a more extensive one than  ,hutton
 did1 would excel ,hutton2 for the value

 of improvement is more to  be          
attributed to him who lays the          
foundation1 than to him who raises the  
building4 ,so is it in this case2       
,robins laid the foundation for an      
extensive knowledge of the nature and   
power of the explosive fluids1 and      
,hutton built upon that foundation a    
certain extent of superstructure1  and  
there he left it1 without roofing the   
building3 he considered the  question as
 settled4 ,common consent has1 as yet1  
received his conclusion  as unshaken and
 uncontroverted2 and it is not my       
intention to make the  attempt to       
controvert it1 but merely to show that  
his deductions fall  short of what the  
principles of gunpowder-making          
admit--carried out in  the more         
extensive way it has been within the    
last few years--owing to  the limited   
nature of his experiments4 ,this is     
rather an extensive  position for me to 
occupy1 or endeavour to hold3 but ,i do 
not mean the  size of the tools of      

experiment so much as the diversity of  
them2  for exploding ten thousand tons  
of powder in the same machine and in    
the same way1 would but give the same or
 similar results2 it is the  variety and
 the singularity of experiments that    
expand and increase the  fund of        
knowledge1 and enable the mind to       
conceive and comprehend the  immensity  
of the power and velocity of this       
wonderful combination4 ,we  have been   
principally indebted to the exertions of
 the chemist for means  of purifying and
 extracting from the ingredients which  
form this  astonishing compound force1  
the impurities and foreign substances   
which  exist1 to a certain extent1 in   
all the three1 and thus tending to form 
a  more perfect combustion by increasing
 the affinities4    ,hutton shows that  
gunpowder is but so much condensed air2 
for he says  8,we may hence1 also1      
deduce the amazing degree of            
condensation of the  elastic air in the 
nitre and gunpowder1 and the astonishing

 force  experienced by its explosion4   
,it has been found by ,mr4 ,robins1 and 
other  philosophers1 that #c-ajths of   
the mass of the powder consists of the  
pure condensed air1 or that the weight  
of the condensed air is equal to        
#c-ajths of the whole composition4 ,but 
the whole composition of the  powder    
consists of eight parts by weight1 of   
which six parts are nitre1  one part    
sulphur1 one charcoal2 of which the     
nitre or #c-dths of the  composition    
furnishes the whole of the condensed    
air1 while the sulphur  and charcoal    
only give the fire that produces the    
explosion4 ,but #c-ajths  of the whole  
mass of eight parts is equal to #d-ajths
 of the six parts  of nitre1 that is    
#d-ajths or #b-eths of the nitre        
consists of condensed  air1 or the      
weight of the gross matter in the nitre 
as four to six1 or  as two to three2 and
 these two parts1 it is probable1 are of
 equal  density or specific gravity4    
,yet the specific gravity of nitre is   

#a1ijj1  that of water being #a1jjj1 and
 of air #ab1 which is contained in      
#a1ijj1  as much as #a1ehc times2 that  
is1 the air in the nitre must be        
condensed  the amazing quantity of      
#a1ehc times1 if its specific gravity be
 equal to  the compound nitre itself40  
,also1 8,the air is condensed in the    
nitre  about #a1fjj times1 nearly double
 the density of water1 which may well be
  considered as probably the greatest   
degree of compression that air is       
capable of4 ,hence it may be perceived  
that a prodigious force must be  exerted
 by nature in generating nitre2 and as  
this great force actually  exists in    
nature1 it is very probable that the air
 in the nitre is thus  compressed into  
the most dense state possible1 and in   
this consists the  similitude among the 
different particles of nitre40    ,this 
extract from ,hutton enables us to      
divest the question of any              
technicalities1 and puts it in so plain 
a garb that the simplest mind  may      

comprehend it4 ,now1 the great          
improvement of chemistry has been to    
extract from the nitre the gross        
material which is contained in the      
proportions--#b-eths impurities1 and    
#b-eths condensed air2 thus1 half the   
quantity being useless1 the extraction  
of these alloys gives a greater         
quantity of condensed gases in the same 
quantity of matter2 for if we  take away
 #b-eths of the proportions of useless  
matter1 and supply its  place with      
#b-eths more condensed air1 we thus get 
#d-eth explosive matter  in the same    
bulk of material1 and thus simply obtain
 an immense increase  of power without  
an increase in bulk4 ,we have here      
evidence of the  progress that has been 
made in the science of explosive force4 
,considering the difference between     
gunpowder in #aghc and gunpowder in     
#aheh1 ,i cannot say1 with ,hutton1 that
 the force is doubled now to what  it   
was when he wrote2 but ,i believe that  
this would not be far from the  truth2  

for it must be quite clear--if he is    
correct 7which ,i believe he  is7 in    
saying the force of gunpowder consists  
in the quantity of  explosive matter let
 loose and expanded by heat--that the   
greater the  quantity of condensed      
matter we may have in any given weight1 
the  greater the force1 and the more    
rapid the explosion3 purified saltpetre 
thus forming nearly pure gaseous matter2
 as the diamond is pure carbon4  ,it    
seems singular1 and is rather           
presumptuous to say1 that ,hutton was   
not much of a chemist2 but had he been  
more so1 he must have perceived  that in
 the extraction of the foreign matter   
from the nitre1 existed the  means of   
obtaining an increased quantity of      
explosive power1 and a  proportionate   
increase of speed or velocity in that   
explosive material4    ,to ascertain the
 velocity best suited to all            
projectiles1 constitutes  the germ of   
the science2 and that we are approaching
 a new era in even  that more intimate  

portion of the science1 is daily        
apparent4 ,science  shows clearly that  
if a given force1 a quantity to be      
correctly  ascertained1 can produce a   
certain result1 the use of more is      
waste1 and  unworthy of the seeker after
 perfection2 and thus we have to        
determine  upon1 or define1 what is the 
degree or size of gun for certain       
effects3  a mere calculation nearly     
allied to that portion of engineering   
which  would define what power of engine
 would work a thousand cotton spindles1 
or raise a million gallons of water2 and
 all this will eventually be  done4     
,science requires that there should be  
no excess1 no waste1 no  unnecessary    
recoil1 and all that combined with the  
utmost range of  projectile2 this will  
have to be defined accurately before we 
can  clearly or truly say we are masters
 of the science of gunpowder4 ,true it  
is that the granulation of gunpowder    
gives a clear road to its  attainment2  
but it will be a wearisome journey to   

reach the summit3 yet  it must and will 
be effected1 and the nation that first  
attempts and  carries out the           
attainment1 will evince a real love for 
and mastery of  science4    ,the        
following practical experiments         
illustrate the degree of velocity  and  
the effects of projectiles so clearly1  
that they alone will convey  some idea  
of the high velocity of the evolutions  
of the gases in  gunpowder4    ,my      
experiments are1 like ,robins'1 on a    
small scale2 nor would ,i1 like         
,hutton1 try a brass gun of sixty       
calibres in length1 carrying a          
one-pound ball2 for one is strictly more
 limited than the other1 and  thus      
rendered the results laid down by him   
imperfect3 for1 as he says1  8,if you   
fill the tube with powder you get no    
greater velocity1 as there  is not a    
duration in the confinement to enable   
the powder to explode40  ,if he had     
assimilated the grain of his powder to  
the gun1 he would have  obtained a      

different result2 and a knowledge of    
this fact1 ,i apprehend1  makes all the 
difference4 ,the greatest velocity he   
obtained was with  powder #a-a_/b times 
the weight of the ball in a gun of sixty
 calibres in  length1 and the velocity  
he then obtained was only #c1aha feet   
per  second4 ,the inferences that       
probably induced him to recommend others
 not  to endeavour to obtain a greater  
velocity than #b1jjj feet per second1   
were1 like these experiments1 drawn from
 imperfect data4 ,with a ball of  an    
ounce weight in a barrel of sixty       
calibres1 and with #c-dths the  weight  
of ball in powder1 or #ab drachms1 a    
velocity can be given to the  ball to   
equal it in force to #df1hge pounds4    
,the velocity of this ball ,i  leave to 
the calculations of the mathematical    
world4 ,but1 however1 ,i  will give the 
results of a round of experiments tried 
to ascertain this2  and if the data laid
 down be correct1 that the velocity of a
 ball must  be multiplied by its weight 

to find the force1 the result will be   
the  establishment of a system of       
velocity never yet dreamt of4 ,i cannot 
but  imagine that there exists some     
error2 though where it is ,i know not3  
every deduction ,i have drawn is        
consequent upon the results hereafter   
described4    8,the power required to   
force a punch #jej inch diameter through
 an iron  plate #jjh inch thick is      
#f1jbe pounds1 through copper #c1ich    
pounds4 ,a  simple rule for determining 
the force required for punching may thus
 be  deduced3--    8,taking one inch    
diameter and one inch in thickness as   
the units of  calculation it is shown   
that #aej1jjj is the constant number for
  wrought-iron plates1 and #if1jjj for  
copper plates4    8,multiply the        
constant number by the given diameter in
 inches1 the  product is the pressure in
 pounds which will be required to punch 
a hole  of a given diameter through a   
plate of a given thickness40    ,now an 
idea struck me1 that this would form a  

very good test of the  comparative force
 of gunpowder1 and ,i consequently      
commenced an  extensive round of        
experiments4    ,in the first attempt ,i
 found the results to vary with the     
weight of the  pendulum of iron plate1  
and that it was necessary to obtain     
uniformity  of size and surface2 as it  
must be comprehended that the only      
resisting  medium to the pendulous plate
 was atmospheric resistance1 and a      
dissimilarity of size of surface would  
invariably give different  results4     
,having a number of plates of the       
different thicknesses  hereafter        
described1 ,i continued increasing the  
charge from a definite  quantity1 until 
the projectile was driven with          
sufficient velocity to  perforate the   
plate suspended4 ,the gun selected for  
this purpose was of  heavy material1    
weighing nearly seventeen pounds1 it was
 three feet  long1 the metal of the     
barrel as thick at the muzzle as at the 
breech1  and carried a spherical ball of

 sixteen to the pound1 or one ounce1 and
  which fitted tight with the thinnest  
patch procurable4 ,the bore was         
perfectly cylindrical1 and plain inside1
 being polished longitudinally  to a    
high state of fineness4 ,with a charge  
of twelve drachms of ,curtis  and       
,harvey's diamond grain powder1 the ball
 went through the half-inch  plate1 but 
went only a few yards further2 denoting 
that the effort  necessary had nearly   
exhausted its velocity and momentum4    
,the recoil of the gun was of the most  
severe description1 and the  shoulder   
had to be protected for many explosions 
previous to this high  charge4 ,the     
larger sized grain was insufficient1 ten
 drachms effecting  the greatest extent 
of power it seemed capable of1 and it   
became quite  apparent that the tube    
would not explode more powder1 as       
indications  convinced me3 when any more
 was added1 a portion came out unburnt4 
,the force necessary to effect this1 by 
the above calculation1 is #df1gie       

pounds4    ,the next plate was #g-afths 
thick1 and a charge of ten drachms      
punched  the piece out clean2 nine and a
 half drachms were equal to it1 when the
  centre of the pendulum could be hit   
fairly1 because there was then an  equal
 resistance from the atmosphere1 which  
cannot exist in cases where  the edge of
 the disc receives the blow4    ,i got  
with ease a perforation in a #f-afths   
plate1 with a charge of  either fine or 
coarse powder1 not exceeding eight      
drachms2 a charge of  seven drachms of  
fine grain was unequal to the task2 but 
seven drachms  of the coarse showed     
evidently greater effects produced1     
though the  perforation was not perfect4
 ,six and a half drachms of ,no4 #b     
grain  penetrated a plate of #e-afths   
thick easily1 while it took full six and
  three-quarters drachms of fine grain2 
five drachms of the larger  perforated a
 quarter-inch plate1 but it took full   
five and a half  drachms of fine grain  
to effect the same2 while a #c-afths    

plate took  three and three-quarters    
drachms of fine1 or three and a quarter 
of ,no4  #b grain2 and #a-hth plate was 
easily punched by a charge of two and a 
half drachms coarse or three drachms    
fine4 ,i will place the relative        
results in a table1 with the force      
effected by each3--      ,oz4           
,drachms4       ,punched a boiler plate 
,equal in force to    #a ball   #ab of  
powder   ,half-inch thick               
#df1hge lbs4    #a       #aj            
#g-afths                 #da1jae        
#a        #h            #f-afths        
#ce1aee       #a        #f-a_/b         
#e-afths                 #bi1bie        
#a        #e            #d-afths        
#bc1dcg       #a        #c-a_/d         
#c-afths                 #ag1egh        
#a        #b            #b-afths        
#aa1gah       ,were ,i to adopt the     
established method of calculation1      
multiplying the  weight of ball by the  
velocity1 ,i should get an answer that  
would point  to the utter impossibility 

of any such velocity being possible4    
,and yet  the result is1 according to   
the rule of figures1 correct2 but in    
truth  there are exceptions to many     
rules1 for they are only correct when   
applied to known products4    ,that the 
velocity of these balls was much1 very  
much1 greater than #g1jjj  feet per     
second of time1 there cannot be any     
doubt2 it was nearly three  times that4 
,yet ,i must not conceal the fact1 that 
this punching is the  more perfect1 the 
higher the velocity2 and it shows how   
the fibres of  iron are separated from a
 want of vibration to equilibrise the   
cohesion4  ,mr4 ,colthurst found that   
duration of pressure lessened the       
ultimate  force necessary to punch      
through metal1 and thus it may be that  
extremely quick pressure may produce the
 same4 ,therefore ,i suspect it is  not 
the most correct theory that calculates 
force to be accomplished at  all times  
by extreme velocity2 there will be found
 discrepancies in the  rule1 and one of 

them arises from no calculation ever    
having been made  with extreme          
velocities3 medium velocities may       
generally give such  conclusions1 but   
the very extreme in this case can never 
have been taken  into consideration at  
all2 as ,i have very little doubt--in   
fact1 ,i am  certain--that no person    
ever obtained such high velocity before4
 ,it  must1 and is a vast deal greater1 
incomprehensibly greater1 than any      
velocity obtained by ,hutton2 and much  
more extensive than ever could be       
obtained1 or1 in fact1 ever will1 by any
 ordnance whatever4 ,i wish much  ,i    
could have experimented with a gun of   
greater length and bore1 for  with one  
in every way fitted for the purpose1 ,i 
have no doubt of being  able to         
perforate an inch thickness of plate4   
,should any person possessing the       
opportunity and means1 wish to try the  
experiment1 ,i would advise them to get 
a barrel of #d-a_/b feet long1 #h  bore1
 to carry a #b oz4 ball1 and of a weight

 to allow of extending the  explosion up
 to #cj drs4 of powder2 they would then 
obtain the extent of  force ,i have     
suggested4 ,there is a certain point to 
be strictly  observed3 see that the     
plate you use is perfectly sound2 for if
  laminated1 or composed of various     
plates not firmly welded and attached1  
the experiment would be imperfect1 as   
there would be an uneven vibration      
created1 and acting as the hammer does  
when held against the point of  the nail
 while driving it in1 clinches the      
point1 so does the substance  in the    
portions of plate prevent a perforation4
 ,an ounce ball1 suspended  against the 
back of the pendulum1 by the jar or blow
 it receives and  communicates1         
completely prevents the effect1 and the 
ball is flattened1  instead of          
perforating the object struck3 so is it 
if you place a  #a_/d-;inch plate       
against any support2 it thus has the    
power of perfectly  resisting the force 
of the ball1 though fired with          

considerably more  power than is        
requisite under other circumstances4    
,the effect appears to  be chiefly      
mechanical2 the outer fibres are driven 
in upon those behind  them with such    
quickness that they lose cohesion1 or   
are condensed  quicker than the waves of
 vibration travel1 thus giving them no  
means of  communicating the vibration4  
,but when punched1 the rapidity of their
  motion produces in the metal a sound  
of the most intense vivacity1 which     
plays upon the ear for a considerable   
period1 with rather a pleasant  effect4 
,lead alone is capable of being used in 
this experiment2 except1  of course1 the
 precious metals1 which it would not be 
convenient to  use4 ,even an            
adulteration of the slightest quantity  
of solder is  sufficient to prevent the 
result which lead1 pure1 will invariably
 give4  ,lead projected against lead1 if
 sufficiently thick1 cannot perforate1  
but the lesser portion becomes          
flattened2 a cast-iron ball fired       

against  lead1 with a certain velocity1 
is broken into pieces1 affecting the    
lead  comparatively little3 showing     
beautifully the peculiarity of dense    
incompressible bodies to resist most    
effectually the greater the  velocity   
with which they are struck4 ,water will1
 if struck very sharply  with the flat  
of a sword1 act against the blow in a   
way to splinter the  blade into pieces4 
,the greater the velocity with which a  
ball is fired  into water1 the less the 
depth of penetration2 thus showing      
clearly the  many excellent properties  
of dense incompressible bodies as       
projectiles1  and proving the objection 
that lead is too soft for artillery to  
be  without a foundation1 and only      
entertained from a want of knowledge of 
its nature4    ,a point of great        
importance was exemplified during these 
experiments2  and as the question has   
lately given rise to considerable       
discussion1 it  will be well that the   
facts should be stated4    ,at very     

short distances from the muzzle of the  
gun the penetration was  found to be    
less than at distances more extended4   
,at five yards the iron  plate could not
 be perforated2 at ten yards the effect 
was much greater1  but fifteen yards was
 the least distance at which it could be
 said to be  effectually perforated2 at 
twenty yards the result was still more  
satisfactory1 clearly demonstrating that
 bullets gain both in velocity  and     
penetration for a considerable distance 
after leaving the muzzle of  the gun4   
,the following experiments verify this  
remark3--    ,in the report of the      
experiments which were carried on at    
,cork in #aheb1  it is stated that the  
power of penetration of an elongated    
rifle bullet  gradually increases as the
 range is increased1 up to #aij yards4  
,in order to prove this1 experiments    
were carried on at ,enfield for three   
days with a variety of fire-arms1 and   
different sorts of projectiles4  ,on the
 fourth day the experiments were        

repeated with the common musket  and    
,wilkinson's rifle4 ,the former1 at     
forty yards1 gave a penetration of  #bbe
 inches2 and the latter averaged #bge1  
in a target of green elm4  ,again3 at   
ninety yards1 the musket penetrated #bbe
 inches1 and the rifle  #ce inches4 ,at 
#abj yards1 the musket gave #be inches1 
and the rifle  #cbe4 ,both being        
subsequently fired at every successive  
ten yards up to  #bbj1 the result was   
that the penetration of the musket ball 
gradually  decreased in power as the    
distance increased1 while the elongated 
bullet  gained power of penetration up  
to #aij yards2 after which it slightly  
decreased4    #bnd4 ,consequent on the  
velocity of the explosive fluids is the 
resistance of that ariform fluid filling
 all space4 ,it has been  calculated    
that in a vacuum1 matter in motion would
 be a long time in  coming to rest2 and 
very providentially it is that nature in
 her grand  arrangements has made one   
element to control another4 ,in no other

  portion of nature's work has anything 
more wonderful than atmospheric  air    
been produced2 its action on the        
velocity of projectiles is of so        
extensive a nature1 that without clearly
 understanding that action1 the  science
 of gunnery never can be thoroughly     
acquired4 ,the resistance of  the       
atmosphere is in proportion to the      
velocity of the attempt to  displace it2
 the higher that velocity becomes1 the  
greater is the  resistance4 ,this is    
shown by the actions of all the         
fulminates4 ,a  quantity of the         
fulminate of silver exploded on a copper
 plate will  perforate that plate1 or1  
if fired upon a piece of wood1 will bury
  itself in that substance1 splintering 
it in proportion to the quantity4  ,now1
 ordinary gunpowder has no such effect  
as this1 because1 though it  may produce
 the same amount of expansive gas1 it   
produces it at  one-fourth the velocity 
of the fulminates3 the air is driven    
back upon  itself so gradually as to    

offer no very important resistance2 but 
the  action of the fulminates is so     
rapid and so violent that the high      
elasticity of the air has not time to   
yield1 and the force is driven  into the
 apparently more solid material1 the    
copper or the wood4    ,the mode in     
which atmospheric resistance mostly     
interferes with  projectile force is    
owing to the columnar form it assumes in
 the tubes  of all descriptions of      
gunnery4 ,if the velocity of gunpowder  
be as great  as we suppose it to be1 the
 displacement of a column of air must be
  effected by driving the whole column  
in a gun-barrel of many inches1  into a 
column probably less than half an inch  
in height2 or1 if the  length of the    
tube from the starting of the charge to 
the muzzle be #ch  inches1 then will the
 displacement require a force capable of
 condensing  thirty-eight atmospheres   
into one1 or something like #egj lbs42  
without  estimating the lateral pressure
 of that column on the sides of the     

gun-barrel1 which may be safely         
estimated at one-half more4 ,it may be  
supposed that the column would be       
partially in motion for a greater       
distance than half an inch in front of  
the projectile2 but this is  disproved  
by the fact that time is essential to   
put ariform matter in  motion1 and      
naturally it never does so at a greater 
velocity than it is  familiarly known to
 do in the shape of winds3 but the fact 
is better  illustrated by the frequent  
bursting of barrels near the muzzle1    
caused  by a piece of snow or clay1 a   
piece of paper or wadding4 ,were a      
current  established around this        
projection it would pass on1 but the air
 strikes  these light obstructions when 
in a high state of condensation1        
amounting  to many atmospheres in one3  
so many as to be nearly equal to a solid
  which is more powerful than the       
barrel2 the latter therefore succumbs to
  it4    ,the resistance of the air is  
so highly philosophical a question1 that

 ,i  merely touch on its actual bearings
 on the passage of projectiles to  show 
how the quantity of force is absorbed or
 expended in relation to  the quantity  
of the gunpowder employed2 which1 it may
 be assumed1 is a  proportion of nearly 
one-third of the whole1 or a quantity   
independent  of that necessary to give  
velocity to the leaden projectile1 to   
enable  it to overcome the still and    
uniform impeding agent up to the end of 
its  flight4 ,the rapid exit of the     
bullet from the barrel1 with a resisting
  influence of this weight into the     
comparatively insignificant one of #ae  
lbs4 to the square inch1 will fully     
explain how it is that a bullet         
increases in velocity even up to a      
considerable distance after leaving  the
 muzzle of the gun2 and further showing 
that in all arrangements of  truly      
scientific gunnery1 the increasing      
resistance must be met by a  fresh      
production of explosive fluid over every
 atom of space in that  tube1 where it  

is demonstrable that the resistance is  
increasing in a  geometrical progression
 as the point of exit is becoming       
nearer2 so that  gunnery1 unless all the
 contingencies are provided for1 must   
necessarily  remain an imperfect        
science4    ,intimately allied to the   
displacement of the atmosphere is the   
amount of  friction4 ,gunnery is now rid
 of the anomaly of being assisted by    
friction3 the detention of the          
projectile in the tube by artificial    
friction1 to enable more force to be    
generated1 is one of those  absurdities 
pardonable only in bygone days4 ,science
 is best consulted by  lessening        
friction2 guns of steel1 with interiors 
as fine as the polish  in a mirror1 are 
found to shoot best3 a rough road is but
 so much force  uselessly absorbed2 the 
experience of the last few years having 
proved  that a range of #a1hjj yards    
cannot be accomplished except with      
barrels  having surfaces as smooth as   
possible4    ,rifles1 no doubt1 are now 

in use in which1 by increasing the      
degree of  spiral1 friction is more than
 doubled1 perhaps trebled2 but such     
unscientific constructions are but as   
one error to counteract another4        
,unscientifically formed projectiles not
 having in themselves the  principles   
necessary for true flight1 have to      
receive a counteracting  agency in the  
shape of additional spinning1 on an axis
 coincident to the  line of flight1 to  
enable them to range a given distance1  
with1 as it  will be perceived1 an      
additional amount of expellant agency2  
but these  cannot be included in the    
category of scientific gunnery4    #crd4
 ,next to absence of friction is the    
construction of the gun barrel4         
,already have we shown that the inner   
surface of a gun barrel requires  to be 
like glass2 next to this it is necessary
 that the metal should be  composed of  
the most unyielding structure4 ,metals  
absorb force in  proportion to their    
softness3 a barrel constructed of lead  

gives the  worst result of any metal2 in
 truth1 as is the increase of tenacity  
and  density in the tube1 so is the     
increase of range in projectiles4 ,the  
wonderful results displayed by the use  
of steel guns of all descriptions  bear 
out this assertion to the fullest       
extent4 ,a yielding gun barrel may  be  
compared to the dragging of a heavily   
loaded waggon over boggy  ground1 which 
rises in a wave before the wheels during
 its progress4    #dth4 ,next in        
importance to the inflexibility of the  
gun barrel is the  form of projectile   
best calculated to displace the         
atmosphere during its  extended flight4 
,under the head of ,rifles this subject 
will be more  fully discussed2 but1 as  
thousands of years have stamped the     
arrow as  being in accordance with      
nature's laws1 it should no doubt be the
 object  of science to approximate the  
leaden projectile to that form as much  
as  possible1 and hence the             
cylindro-conoidal may be assumed to be  

the best  form of projectile4    ,that  
both ,jacob's and ,whitworth's bullets  
partake of a certain amount of          
8wabbling0 motion after leading the     
muzzle of the gun is certain1 from      
their length1 as well as from the fact  
that in both the centre of  gravity is  
in the hinder part of the bullet2 thus  
they are both in  reality bad in a      
scientific point of view4    ,if any    
merit can be claimed for either1 it is  
on account of the  mechanical ingenuity 
displayed in neutralizing the effects of
 want of  scientific principle4 ,the    
want of principle1 however1 is not the  
only  evil1 were such guns to come into 
general use2 their manufacture1 in the  
hands of that portion of the gun trade  
which never estimates  consequences1 and
 never studies the theory of the science
 at all1 but  manufactures all fire-arms
 by 8rule of thumb10 would prove        
dangerous in  the extreme4    ,the      
bursting of barrels in any attempt to   
project lengthened projectiles  is of a 

very different description to that which
 ordinarily occurs1 on  account of the  
different direction in which the force  
is applied4 ,in  consequence of their   
greater length1 and their increased     
friction  against the sides of the      
barrel1 they are more reluctantly set in
  motion--i4 e41 their inertia is with  
greater difficulty overcome4 ,the       
result of this is1 that in overcoming   
their inertia the greatest strain  is   
exerted backward1 on the breech of the  
gun2 which1 if not more firm  than      
usual1 is blown out1 entering the       
forehead of the shooter3 an  accident   
which would prove fatal not only to the 
gun1 but to the person  who used it4    
,this accident may no doubt be          
effectually guarded against by          
strengthening the breech end of the gun 
as well as the breech itself2  but      
without that precaution it is to be     
feared that such accidents would  be of 
frequent occurrence4    ,a considerable 
error may easily be promulgated1 as to  

the heat necessary  to be applied ere   
gunpowder will explode4 ,a late writer  
says1 it is  necessary to raise it to   
#fjj degrees before it is explosive4    
,this is a  splitting of hairs1 and such
 a palpable mystification1 that it is   
scarcely worth noticing4 ,but ,i will   
explain3 if you place upon a plate a    
few grains of powder1 by heating the    
plate underneath 7for instance1 on  a   
smith's fire17 you will see the sulphur 
giving out a blue flame1 it  being      
easily fused4 ,as the plate becomes     
heated to nearly a red heat1  the whole 
explodes1 in consequence of the charcoal
 and nitre not being  hot enough to     
allow the gases generating the heat to  
be liberated2 but  as soon as this does 
take place the explosion ensues4 ,now1  
it is a well  known fact1 that the      
smallest particle of matter possessing  
above #fjj  of heat1 will ignite any    
quantity of powder it comes in immediate
  contact with2 we will suppose with one
 portion of charcoal1 one of  sulphur1  

and one of nitre 7it matters not how    
small they are3 a ten  hundredth part of
 the substance of one of the smallest   
grains of powder  would suffice71 and if
 it has the means of communicating to   
these small  portions #fjj1 this is     
sufficient1 as their explosion induces  
also that  of the very largest quantity3
 for it ought to be perfectly           
understood1  that a great explosion is  
but so many millions of small ones      
combined1  and by their united force    
effecting the great results we see4 ,the
  ingredients of powder are ground and  
intimately mixed together on the  bed of
 the mill to the great extent they are1 
to the end that1 if  possible1 there    
shall not be in the composition two     
grains or portions  of one ingredient in
 immediate contact with each other2 but 
that1 when  the ignition does take      
place1 each may be present to add its   
peculiar  gas1 in order that each       
affinity may be supplied4 ,thus becomes 
evident  the necessity of a most        

extensive incorporation1 a blending and 
equal  division of mixture throughout   
the whole material4    ,the advantage of
 unglazed gunpowder is here fully shown2
 for it presents  an inequality1 a      
roughness of surface1 over which the    
flame from the  percussion mixture      
cannot travel without igniting some of  
the prominent  parts1 and thus the      
whole4 ,you may glaze powder and make it
 so smooth  that it would be very       
difficult indeed to ignite2 but except  
that it  enables the powder to resist   
moisture better1 it is otherwise very   
detrimental1 as tending both to prevent 
ignition and lengthening the  period of 
effecting it4    ,the flame from the    
percussion powder is of that intense and
 vivid  description1 that if a charge of
 powder in the breech of a gun is loose1
  the flame will form a mass of         
condensed air round itself1 and driving 
the grains of powder before it1 prevent 
the immediate contact of the  heat and  
the particles of powder1 until the heat 

is expended2 and thus  arises a 8miss   
fire40 ,if the powder is up only to the 
nipple1 there  being a quantity of air  
in the tube of that nipple1 the         
explosion of the  fluid will drive down 
this air1 and condense it between the   
powder and  top of the nipple to such an
 extent as to cause a certain 8miss     
fire40  ,it becomes requisite to find a 
remedy for this1 and it can only be done
  by bringing the powder into the very  
vicinity of the explosion on the        
nipple4 ,this can be effected in several
 ways1 but the most perfect is  to      
obtain as direct a communication as     
possible2 a widening of the             
perforations of the breech1 and space to
 allow the powder free access up  the   
nipple4 ,for this purpose we propose an 
improved form of nipple4 ,the  centre   
one of the three 7here shown in section7
 is considerably broader  and shorter   
than the others4 ,a cap made broader and
 not so deep would be  an improvement1  
as bringing the point of ignition nearer

 the charge1 and  thus effecting a      
saving of time2 for great and           
wonderfully quick as is  the explosion1 
it is clear to the senses that it may be
 quickened4 ,we  are not finding fault  
with the 8lightning being too slow10 as 
,colonel  ,hawker says2 but science     
means perfection1 and the nearer we can 
come to  it the better4                 
,illustration3 ,,old ,,plan ,,of        
,,nipple4    ,,newest ,,plan ,,of       
,,nipple4    ,,improved ,,nipple ,,of   
#ahce4    ,the nipples now in general   
use have the smaller orifice at the     
bottom1  and1 being lined with platina1 
never foul4 ,experience has shown that  
admitting the gunpowder into the nipple 
8is not advantageous10  especially with 
large grained powder2 by constructing   
the nipple with  the small orifice at   
the bottom1 the largest grain can be    
used  beneficially4 ,as the velocity of 
the fulminating gas is much greater     
than 8a train0 of gunpowder ever can be1
 quickness is also gained by  their     

adoption4 ,i have used them for many    
years with great success2  nothing but  
cost deters their general adoption4 ,the
 passing of the flame  through the very 
small opening in the platina1 by this   
very high  impingement1 increases its   
heat to a great extent1 ensuring        
explosion4    ,the true science of      
gunnery consists in knowing that a      
certain force is  requisite to effect a 
certain purpose1 or1 in other words1 to 
kill at a  certain distance2 and also   
how to arrange that force so as to      
effect the  purpose without having any  
extra force1 or any waste of powder1 nor
  yet too little1 but with a            
corresponding result3 a sufficiency2    
neither  more nor less4 ,this we have   
shown is attainable by the mechanical   
arrangement of granulation2 for it is   
useless to use less1 or to use an  iota 
more of fine grain powder1 if the size  
larger will effect the  purpose without 
that iota4 ,propellant velocity is the  
grand desideratum  in all gunnery2 the  

obtainment of this1 to the greatest     
extent1 is the  power of killing at the 
greatest distance3 all ranges are       
dependent on  velocity2 no extreme range
 can be obtained without a corresponding
  speed4    ,the very finest powder1 it 
will be perceived1 is fitted--perfectly 
fitted1 preferable1 indeed--to coarser  
grain for guns of a short length  of    
tube1 where a perfect combustion of the 
whole charge can be obtained  without   
any waste or want2 but as such is quite 
unsuited for longer  barrels3 ,i cannot 
too often repeat it4 ,the column of air 
is the ruling  power4 ,look what its    
effects are by ,hutton's calculations1  
with the  very low velocities he        
obtained6 ,so great as to bring all     
projectiles he  used to a medium        
velocity1 before they were projected    
beyond a certain  distance4 ,then what  
must its resistance be where the        
velocities are  trebled8 ,i say trebled1
 for my powder and the percussion       
combined have  more than trebled the    

velocities4 ,you must then clearly have 
a powder of  such grain as suits the    
capacity of your gun4 ,all barrels have 
a size of  grain that will suit them    
best1 and manufacturers of gunpowder    
will  consult their own profit and the  
convenience of sportsmen1 if they       
assimilate the grain of powder to       
various sizes2 as in shot1 to ,no4 #a1  
,no4 #b1 #c1 #d1 #e1 and so on3         
eventually this system must be adopted4 
,this will explain quite clearly how the
 fact 7singular to many7 occurs1  of    
short guns excelling their longer       
competitors1 and how frequently a       
particular maker obtains an immensity of
 credit for an excellent gun  only      
twenty-two inches3 8,beat my ,lord      
,so-and-so's of thirty inches60 and     
how1 8,when ,i cut four inches off my   
double1 she shot better than ever  she  
did40 ,all these occurrences are        
perfectly dependent on a knowledge  of  
the generating of the explosive force1  
and may be reversed at any  time by a   

person possessed of sufficient knowledge
 of these facts3 put  in coarse grain   
into the short gun1 and fine into the   
long1 and the  facts will be changed    
considerably1 as will be easily seen4 ,a
 degree of  mystery has hitherto existed
 as to the cause of this discrepancy2   
but ,i  trust this explanation will     
clear it up4    ,experiment has shown   
the error of stating that only a certain
 quantity  of powder could be consumed3 
the proportion stated was considerably  
below the actual quantity1 as the       
experiments of punching the plates      
show2 for since twelve drachms can be   
burnt in a three-feet barrel1  therefore
 ten drachms may be consumed in one two 
feet eight inches1 with  a given weight 
to lift4 ,in addition to this1 must be  
placed the fact of  improvement1 both in
 the composition and granulation of the 
powder2  which we have no hesitation in 
stating has been considerable1 within   
only a very few years1 all tending to   
the quickness of generating force4  ,the

 granulatory system1 if acted upon1 will
 give the sportsman or  soldier a       
completely new power in gunnery2 for it 
must be evident1 if we  have the means  
of projecting certain bodies with an    
extreme velocity1  say #e1jjj feet per  
second1 it becomes a simple calculation 
to ascertain  the quantity of force and 
length of tube to give to a certain     
weight4  ,take1 for instance1 an ounce  
ball in a barrel two feet six inches    
long4  ,extremely fine grain powder1    
from its rapidity of expansion1 gives to
  the ball this velocity at fifteen     
inches from the breech2 the remaining   
fifteen inches contain a column of air  
highly condensed1 which will  inevitably
 reduce this velocity back nearly fifty 
per cent41 or #b1ejj1  and with that    
velocity the ball leaves the muzzle4    
,therefore1 as we have  already said1 it
 must be evident you have here generated
 a high speed to  be as quickly reduced2
 and it shows clearly that if a         
different grain of  powder would expand 

from breech to muzzle1 increasing the   
velocity on a  granulated scale until it
 obtained the highest1 or #e1jjj feet   
per  second1 as the ball left the       
muzzle1 you would save here clear #ej   
per  cent4 in force1 with less recoil1  
less internal strain on the barrel1  and
 with exactly the same weight of powder2
 thus showing that you have  just a     
definite quantity of force in a definite
 quantity of powder4    ,the true       
science of gunnery is the knowledge how 
to best arrange the  collateral parts1  
so that you may obtain the greatest     
result with the  least means4 ,i have   
also clearly shown that the resistance  
of the  atmosphere is one1 and the      
principal obstruction in the attainment 
of  high velocities2 its resistance     
being regulated entirely by the degree  
of speed with which it is wanted to be  
displaced4 ,thus it is true1 as  both   
,robins and ,hutton have shown1 that    
only a certain velocity can be  obtained
 beneficially2 though the degree is     

considerably greater then  either       
conceived1 as far greater impetus has   
been obtained1 and  projected bodies    
have ranged much beyond their           
calculations1 and that  beneficially    
too4 ,one drawback on the theory of     
these gentlemen is their  calculating   
the velocities with iron projectiles2   
for the heavier the  material the more  
powerful the momentum1 and consequently 
the longer  retention of their velocity1
 from not presenting the same space to  
the  resisting medium1 the air4    ,the 
development of the system of granulation
 must and does exercise  considerable   
control over the shooting of barrels of 
every description4  ,i have already     
explained what has been hitherto        
considered the curious  phenomena of    
short and long barrels shooting so      
dissimilarly1 and this  illustration    
completely establishes the fact of the  
expulsive and  repulsive forces being   
controlled by each other3 as either     
preponderates1 so is the result4 ,the   

open-ended barrel projecting balls1  and
 eventually bursting1 is a beautiful and
 interesting elucidation1  both of the  
force of gunpowder and the stubborn     
nature of the  atmospheric fluid4 ,all  
these facts are valuable1 inasmuch as   
they lay  bare circumstances which have 
never been satisfactorily accounted for1
  and enable the mind of lowest capacity
 to understand the cause and  effect4   
,the superiority of one barrel in       
throwing shot stronger and more evenly  
distributed1 arises1 it will be easily  
seen1 from the absence1 or  existence   
of1 internal friction1 when contrasted  
with the different  degrees of expelling
 force1 and the degree of resistance    
from the  atmosphere2 it also accounts  
clearly for the fact of guns shooting   
stronger on one day than on another1 in 
fine and in rough weather3 the  weight1 
the resistance of the air1 is the only  
cause of the variation2  for gunpowder  
cannot drive back a dense atmosphere as 
quickly as a  lighter one4 ,the cause of

 guns bursting is to be placed to the   
account  of both air and the generation 
of the explosive fluid so               
instantaneously2 the solid front which  
air offers to quick compression1  throws
 the force on the barrel1 and the sides 
of the tube give way  because they are  
weaker3 this cannot occur so easily with
 powder of a  more gradually expansive  
force1 therefore safety is consulted in 
its  use1 in addition to the numerous   
advantages it otherwise possesses4      
,mr4 ,blaine1 in his ,encyclopdia of    
,rural ,sports1 has the following3 8,the
  increase of metal in the detonator1 we
 think1 with ,colonel ,hawker1 to be  an
 essential requisite1 first1 to resist  
the quicker1 and1 consequently1  more   
forcible1 expansive force applied by the
 ignition of the powder  through the    
agency of detonation1 and tend to lessen
 the recoil so much  more forcibly felt 
in most detonators4 ,this increased     
weight of  percussion ,mr4 ,greener1    
however1 objects to1 and inquires1      

#8,whether some  of the best flint guns 
met with1 have not been very light8' ,to
 this we  answer1 that it was the       
principle on which the explosion of the 
flint  gun was effected that enabled it 
to be made lighter1 and yet to remain   
equally safe in using2 but we also know1
 that where it was required to  add to  
the rapidity and force of the ignition1 
it then became necessary  to increase   
the substance of the barrel40           
,experience teaches the writer1 and ,i  
dare say it would ,mr4 ,blaine1 if he   
were to experiment to the extent ,i have
 done1 that there is no rapidity  in the
 ignition further than the closing of   
that point of ignition by  the cock1 and
 no 8force0 beyond what the comparative 
instantaneous  ignition of the gunpowder
 in the nipple creates4 ,this is quite  
sufficient to prevent the further       
penetration of the percussion flame2    
and the only increase1 to quote his own 
words1 8to resist the quicker1  and1    
consequently1 more expansive1 force     

applied by the ignition of the  powder  
through the agency of detonation10      
arises from an improvement 7as  it is   
termed7 in the granulation of the       
powder1 which alone creates the         
increased expansive force4 ,this will be
 clearly understood by any one  reading 
this work from the beginning2 the only  
difference between the  flint and       
percussion systems is the stopping of   
the orifice of ignition  in one1 and    
allowing it to escape in the other2 for 
the flame has to  travel to windward 7to
 use a nautical expression7 in the      
flint2 the  other has its own           
accumulating power to force ignition    
through the body  of the powder4 ,this  
alone constitutes the difference4 ,the  
necessity for  an increase of metal at  
the breech of a barrel does not arise   
from any  peculiarity in the mode of    
communicating the fire1 but in the      
increased  inflammability of the powder 
alone4 ,the extreme smallness of grain  
has  effected this more than the use of 

fulminating flame2 and the continuous   
cry for fine powder1 to get better up   
the nipples1 has produced an  alteration
 which is placed wrongfully to the      
credit of the percussion4    ,again1 he 
says1 8,mr4 ,greener1 however1 would    
have us acquire this  increase of power 
of resistance1 not by quantity of       
material1 but by  increased tenacity and
 elasticity in the metal the gun is     
formed of1 and  we agree that it would  
be a great improvement if it could be   
brought  about4 ,but what is our        
prospect of it8 ,is it not the general  
complaint  that gun metal is not by any 
means what it was8 ,we have shown that  
it is  not2 and1 therefore1 we do not   
think1 as ,mr4 ,greener asserts1 that   
any  recommendation of increased weight 
of metal to the percussion barrel       
beyond that of the flint gun 8is founded
 on ignorance20 but1 on the  contrary1  
that the very reason ,mr4 ,greener gives
 to prove it1 is that  which we think   
affords evidence of its perfect         

rationality1 the  explosive force       
created40 ,the answer given above       
applies to this also3  save on the score
 of lessening recoil1 superior quality  
is preferable1  to quantity4    ,the    
shooting powers of gun barrels are      
dependent on two                        
circumstances--goodness of metal1 and a 
proper shape of exterior3 it  cannot be 
too often repeated1 that a gun barrel is
 a spring1 to all  intents and purposes2
 if you add metal1 you add stubbornness1
 and  destroy that expansibility1       
without the existence of which the      
barrel  is1 comparatively speaking1     
useless4 ,heavy1 ponderous barrels do   
not  propel a charge of shot with either
 that smartness or degree of  closeness 
that a barrel more scientifically       
constructed does2 you have  less recoil 
certainly1 but the addition of half an  
inch of more metal  behind the butt of  
the breech would do this more           
effectually1 and save  you carrying an  
additional weight4 ,the gradual ignition

 of powder  obviates the necessity of a 
great thickness of metal in the sides of
 the  barrels2 but if it is determined  
to persevere in the use of peculiarly   
fine grained powder1 you would certainly
 be justified1 nay1 required1 to  have  
more and better metal than at present1  
for the electrical nature of  the       
explosion will throw upon the tube that 
force which would be more  judiciously  
employed in giving impetus to the charge
 of projectiles4    ,i have found that  
expansion will increase the shooting    
powers of a  barrel2 but then it must   
not be the expansion of an unelastic    
piece of  metal1 but of metal whose     
elasticity rebounds with a force equal  
to that  with which it expands2 for     
whatever else you may obtain by creating
  friction1 by boring the breech end of 
the barrel wider you obtain a  greater  
expansion1 as it no doubt has that      
tendency4 ,we find it an  invariable    
fact1 that when barrels are very heavy1 
compared with their  size of bore 7if a 

cylinder71 they shoot weak4 ,also1 when 
barrels are  made of irons of different 
temperatures1 where one is placed to    
prevent  the expansion or springing     
nature of the other1 they are never     
found to  shoot well4 ,as a proof of    
this fact1 let any one take the best    
barrel he  ever shot with1 and encase it
 with lead very tight2 fire it at a     
dozen  sheets of paper1 and see if the  
effect be equal to what it was when the 
barrel was unencumbered4 ,on the        
contrary1 it will be found to have shot 
very weak1 though close4 ,let him then  
examine the lead2 and1 if any  moderate 
substance1 he will find that the        
explosion has enlarged it  considerably4
 ,this experiment ,i have tried         
repeatedly1 and can vouch for  its      
truth4    ,the proof of barrels is      
another fact corroborating the truth of 
our  assertion4 ,what else can occasion 
the bulging1 but the expansion8 ,where  
the barrels are possessed of soft and   
hard portions 7which is the result  of  

different tempers of different metals71 
one expands further than the  other1 and
 then1 of course1 the soft part receives
 no assistance from  the hard1 and it   
does not return to its original state4  
,put on a barrel1 from the breech end to
 the muzzle1 a number of rings of  lead2
 be sure you have them tight1 and not   
further apart than three or  four       
inches2 fire that barrel with a usual   
charge1 and if it be a  correct taper   
for shooting1 it will have expanded the 
whole of the rings  an equal distance4  
,from the observations already made1 the
 reader will perceive that the  shooting
 of all barrels depends on a certain    
degree of friction4 ,the  degree of     
friction necessary1 varies according to 
the nature and  substance of the metal4 
,those metals that require least shoot  
best4 ,the  object of the friction is to
 create a greater force1 by detaining   
the  charge longer in the barrel4 ,if1  
then1 there should not be an extra      
quantity of powder to consume1 the      

friction would be a decided evil4       
,this may be understood by rifle        
practice1 in which we find that a short 
barrel of eighteen inches1 with a       
certain charge1 will throw a ball as    
straight1 and quite as strong1 or       
stronger1 than a barrel of three feet1  
loaded with a similar charge4 ,i account
 for this fact thus3 the barrel  of     
eighteen inches will burn all the powder
 put into it2 the long one  can do no   
more4 ,as soon as the ball has left the 
short barrel1 it meets  with no         
impediment but the air4 ,by the time the
 ball in the longer one  has travelled  
eighteen inches the powder is all       
consumed2 the volume of  air in the     
remaining eighteen inches acts as a     
destroyer of the force  given to it1 and
 it naturally drops its ball short of   
the other4  ,increase the charge of     
powder to as much as the long one can   
burn1 and  then it will throw its shot  
to nearly twice the distance of the     
other4    ,an addition of powder beyond 

the quantity the barrel can consume is  
disadvantageous2 the reverse will be    
found equally so4 ,thus it is with      
fowling-pieces4 ,the quantity of powder 
that a gun would burn in the  shape of a
 cylinder1 would be too little1 when1 by
 altering that shape1  you increase the 
friction4 ,the quantity must1 therefore1
 be increased1  or this friction will   
diminish the force of the shot4 ,it is  
on this that  the mistaken supposition  
is founded1 that short barrels will     
shoot as  far as long ones4 ,it is true 
that with a small charge1 or very fine  
powder1 the short barrel will kill at   
the distance of thirty yards1 as  well  
as the long one2 but put in the long one
 as much powder as it can  consume1 then
 try the two at twice the distance1 and 
you will find out  the mistake under    
which you have been labouring4    ,it is
 on the nature of the metal that the    
goodness of the shooting  principally   
depends4 ,that barrel which is possessed
 of the greatest  degree of elasticity  

and tenacity1 will throw its shot       
strongest and  closest with the least   
artificial friction4 ,it is on the      
knowledge of  the qualities and         
temperatures of the various irons1 and  
on practice in  the art of shooting1    
that a man's ability in making guns     
shoot with  precision must rest4 ,all   
plans are merely methods by which an    
unscientific maker has most frequently  
succeeded4 ,it would be no  difficult   
task to produce a hundred barrels which 
will shoot nearly  alike2 yet every     
barrel shall be different in its bore4  
,the length of friction depends entirely
 on the length of the barrel4  ,long    
barrels require more than short1 though 
the latter require it in a  greater     
degree4 ,a mode of creating friction1   
much practised by those who  are        
ignorant of the true method1 is to bore 
the barrels as rough and as  full of    
rings as possible4 ,these rings are     
often taken for flaws2 though  that may 
be ascertained by noticing whether or   

not they have the same  inclination as  
the twist1 and whether or not they are  
at the jointing of  a spiral4 ,if they  
be not1 the chance is that the barrel is
 ring-bored1  as it is termed4 ,this    
roughness1 however1 answers the same as 
friction  by relief2 but barrels thus   
roughened are very liable to lead1 and  
become foul4 ,while the well-bored      
barrel will fire forty shots as well  as
 twenty1 these cannot be fired more than
 twenty times with safety and  effect4  
,each of the barrels in the table below1
 if #c-afths thick at the breech1  is   
equal to the pressure stated4 ,the      
resistance of a charge of shot of  one  
ounce we find to be more than before    
stated2 and the additional  increase of 
explosive force obtained at the moment  
of ignition1 requires  the amount to be 
much greater in computation1 therefore1 
we may safely  take a pressure of #a1gjj
 pounds to the inch of tube4 ,the reader
 will  perceive1 on reference to the    
following table1 that with the tube     

filled  with powder for an inch in      
length1 which is a small charge1 the    
explosive force will be equal to #dj1jjj
 pounds1 or nearly #a1gjj pounds  to the
 inch4                                  
,pressure of  ,surplus                  
charge4    strength4    ,laminated and  
other steel barrels     lbs4        lbs4
       lbs4    are equal to a pressure  
of            #f1jbb      #a1gjj        
#d1cbi    ,wire twist                   
#e1jai-a_/b  #a1gjj      #c1cai-a_/b    
,new stub twist mixture                 
#e1eee      #a1gjj      #c1hee    ,old  
stub twist                        #d1hah
      #a1gjj      #c1aah    ,charcoal   
iron                         #d1ebf     
#a1gjj      #b1hbf    ,threepenny skelp 
iron                 #c1hda      #a1gjj 
#b1ada    ,damascus iron                
#c1bib      #a1gjj      #a1eib    ,fancy
 twisted steel                   #c1acd 
#a1gjj      #a1dcd    ,twopenny skelp   
iron                   #b1hdj           
#a1gjj      #a1adj    ,if the charge he 

increased to one ounce and a half1 the  
length it  occupies1 and the lateral    
pressure by the jamming1 will create an 
additional pressure in proportion1 or   
near #b1eej pounds1 as under3--         
,pressure of    ,surplus                
#a-a_/b oz4 shot4 strength4             
,laminated and other steel barrels      
lbs4       lbs4        lbs4    are equal
 to a pressure of            #f1jbb     
#b1eej      #c1dgb    ,wire twist barrel
                     #e1jai-a_/b  #b1eej
      #b1dfi-a_/b    ,new stub twist    
mixture                #e1eee           
#b1eej      #c1jje    ,old stub twist   
#d1hah      #b1eej      #b1bfh          
,charcoal iron                          
#d1ebf      #b1eej      #a1igf          
,threepenny skelp iron                  
#c1hda      #b1eej      #a1bia          
,damascus iron                          
#c1bib      #b1eej        #gdb    ,fancy
 twisted steel                   #c1acd 
#b1eej        #ehd    ,twopenny skelp   
iron                   #b1hdj           

#b1eej        #bij    ,a charge of shot 
two ounces weight will be greater in    
pressure than  barrels of these         
dimensions are equal to restrain1 and1  
consequently1 no  barrels should be     
charged to this extent at any time2 but 
inferior  barrels1 as a matter of       
certainty1 are sure to give way if so   
loaded4                                 
,pressure of   ,surplus4                
#b oz4 shot4                            
lbs4         lbs4         lbs4          
,laminated barrels1 c4                  
#f1jbb        #c1djj       #b1fbb       
,wire twist barrels                     
#e1jbi-a_/b    #c1djj       #a1fai-a_/b 
,new stub twist mixture                 
#e1eee        #c1djj       #b1aee       
,old stub twist                         
#d1hah        #c1djj       #a1dah       
,charcoal iron                          
#d1ebf        #c1djj       #a1abf       
,threepenny skelp iron                  
#c1hda        #c1djj         #dda       
,damascus iron                          

#c1bib        #c1djj    ,fancy steel    
barrels                 #c1acd          
#c1djj    ,twopenny skelp iron          
#b1hdj        #c1djj    ,the foregoing  
tables show clearly the danger of       
persevering in using  heavy charges of  
shot2 for it must be borne in mind that 
accidental  circumstances will increase 
this pressure1 and never can act so as  
to  lessen it3 a foul gun1 or a variety 
of other circumstances1 being sure  to  
increase the danger4    ,having fully   
explained the nature of gunpowder1 it   
remains to say  something about the     
other portion1 namely1 the shot4 ,that a
 barrel  creating explosive force1 until
 the charge is in the act of leaving the
  muzzle1 will shoot better than another
 which does not do this1 there  cannot  
exist a doubt2 for this is the germ of  
the science4 ,also that the  column of  
air in barrels1 where the explosive     
fluid is sooner expended1  acts upon the
 wadding1 and influences the lateral    
direction of the shot1  there can also  

be no doubt2 therefore1 more attention  
is requisite to  this point than is     
generally given4 ,i am quite certain    
that all  well-constructed barrels1 both
 as regards metal and exterior shape1   
shoot best1 shoot so longest1 and foul  
or lead less1 than barrels having  the  
aid of friction3 soft barrels require   
it1 no doubt1 but why make  soft        
barrels8 ,the others cost but little    
more1 and the superiority  admits of no 
question4 ,the quantity of shot is a    
matter of the first  consequence1 and ,i
 think that ,i have clearly established 
the fact1 that  the less the weight1 in 
proportion to the force1 the greater the
 speed  or velocity given to that       
weight2 hence it follows that to be     
beneficial  a certain quantity is       
suited4    ,all guns1 according to their
 bore and length1 will shoot a certain  
weight and a certain size of shot best4 
,a great deal of shot in a small  bore  
lies too far up the barrel1 and creates 
an unnecessary friction2  and the shot1 

by the compression at the moment of     
explosion1 becomes all  shapes3 a       
circumstance which materially affects   
its flight4 ,if of too  great a weight1 
the powder has not power to drive it    
with that speed and  force required to  
be efficacious1 because the weight is   
too great in  proportion4    ,those who 
reason from mathematical calculation    
will object to this  doctrine4 ,they    
will say1 the greater the weight the    
greater the effect4  ,no doubt it is so1
 if thrown with a proportionate force2  
but that cannot  be obtained with a     
small gun4 ,we must adapt the weight of 
projectile  force to the power we are in
 possession of2 and from many           
experiments1 ,i  am inclined to think1  
that a fourteen gauge1 two feet eight   
inches  barrel1 should never be loaded  
with above one ounce and a quarter of   
shot 7,no4 #f will suit best71 and the  
utmost powder she will burn4 ,a  fifteen
 gauge will not require more than one   
ounce2 and no doubt ,no4 #g  would be   

thrown by her quite as strong as ,no4 #f
 by the fourteen gauge  gun1 and do as  
much execution at forty yards with less 
recoil4 ,setting  aside all other       
reasons1 ,i should1 on this account1    
prefer the fifteen  gauge-gun1 if both  
be of a length2 as ,i find as much      
execution can be  done at the same      
distance with one as with the other4 ,to
 render a  fourteen gauge barrel        
superior1 ,colonel ,hawker is right in  
stating1 that  it should never be under 
thirty-four inches2 which description of
 barrel  ,i very much approve4 ,he also 
says1 8,you cannot have closeness and   
strength in shooting combined1 beyond a 
certain degree30 an observation1  in the
 truth of which ,i fully concur2 it     
being found that where there is  a      
greater degree of either strength or    
closeness1 the other requisite is       
always wanting4 ,neither would it be    
advisable1 as the sportsman will  find a
 medium decidedly the best3 a medium    
that will give the shots  fairly spread 

over a space of thirty inches diameter1 
at forty yards2  and so regularly1 that 
a space1 which would allow a bird to    
escape1  shall not occur above twice out
 of five shots1 and each shot to        
penetrate through thirty sheets of      
paper4 ,it will be found1 that a gun    
doing this regularly1 is far superior to
 one throwing twice as close and  not   
one-half through the paper2 as the      
latter will require four or five        
pellets to kill a bird1 when two of the 
other would be quite as  efficacious1 on
 account of penetrating twice as far4   
,in favour of small shot1 ,mr4 ,daniel's
 observations are so pertinent1  that ,i
 cannot do better than quote him4 ,he   
says1 8,the velocity of a  charge of    
,no4 #g being equal 7we will say nearly7
 to one of ,no4 #c at  that distance    
7#ce yards71 and since small shot fly   
thicker than large in  proportion to its
 size2 and as there are many parts about
 the body of a  bird1 wherein a pellet  
of ,no4 #g will affect its vitality     

equal to a  pellet of ,no4 #b1 the      
chances by using the former are         
multiplied in the  workman's favour2 for
 it is the number and not the magnitude 
of the  particles that kills on the     
spot4 ,they who prefer large shot1 and  
accustom themselves to fire at great    
distances1 leave nearly as many         
languishing in the field as immediately 
die4 ,whereas1 those that use  small    
shot1 and shoot fair1 fill their bag    
with little spoil or waste  beyond what 
they take with them from the field40 ,to
 an old gamekeeper of  his 7he tells us7
 he has often put the question1 8,why he
 was so partial  to small shot10 and his
 reply was1 8,sir1 they go between the  
feathers  like pins and needles2 whilst 
the large shot you use1 as often glance 
off as penetrate them40 ,no doubt1 here 
,mr4 ,daniel is as correct as may  be4  
,mr4 ,blaine says1 query8 ,but he ought 
to be aware1 as ,i suppose he  is1      
though allowing himself to lose sight of
 principles1 that small shot  can be1   

and are1 propelled from the barrel with 
an equal velocity with  the larger2 it  
is only in the length of range that the 
greater triumphs2  but if we take thirty
 or thirty-five yards' distance as an   
average1 the  latter will not 8lead0 in 
the race4 ,therefore1 the advocates of  
small  shot have unquestionably the     
better of the argument at this distance2
 at  greater1 ,i will not dispute it1   
though ,i have picked up ,no4 #e shot   
#cjj  yards from the spot fired from2   
larger1 ,no4 #c1 rarely reaches #djj    
yards4    ,hard shot is not so liable to
 be mis-shaped1 nor does it lose its    
velocity by contact1 as easily as soft4 
,under the head mixed shot1 ,blaine     
observes1 8,we do not believe any law   
in projectiles can be brought forward to
 prove its impropriety4 ,the mass  of   
shot is propelled by the expansive power
 of the powder2 it is ejected  in a     
mass2 and when it separates1 each shot  
carries with it its own  share of       
ejective force1 with very little        

interference with any other1  it being  
evident that the projectile force acting
 on each shot is in the  proportion of  
its area of dimensions10 c4    ,here is 
a great mistake4 ,the law of projectiles
 is not wanted to prove  its fallacy2   
the laws of motion will do that4 ,if you
 take any number of  equal or dissimilar
 sizes of shot1 and place it as a charge
 is placed in  a gun barrel1 occupying  
#c_/d of an inch of tube1 there is1 of  
course1 a  wadding between powder and   
shot2 this wadding is1 or ought to be1 a
  piston2 velocity is communicated to   
this piston by the explosion2 it  does  
so to the shot immediately above it1    
that to the layers above1 and  so on    
until the whole mass is in motion4 ,the 
velocity behind the piston  is          
increasing to a certain point1 where it 
ceases2 then it is that the  layer      
farthest from the piston1 having        
received its maximum from the  layers   
below1 travels quicker than its         
assistants2 who1 having parted  with    

their force1 fall behind in proportion3 
so does each layer1 even  until the last
 one which received it from the piston1 
having  communicated so much to his     
friends before him1 is left without     
himself4  ,it is an undisputed law in   
motion that one body may convey to      
another1  by contact1 nearly its own    
velocity1 but in so doing1 is sure to   
come to  rest immediately4 ,strike one  
billiard ball against another1 if the   
blow  is centrical1 the ball struck     
receives the motion1 the other comes to 
rest2 and so is it with shot3 it is only
 the layers next the muzzle  which      
strikes the target1 the remainder fall  
without travelling the same  distance4  
,i have fired three balls from a rifle1 
and having marked them  ,i found the    
uppermost projected farthest1 and the   
others in proportion4  ,this is easily  
proved4    ,thus1 it is quite clear that
 in all charges of mixed shot1 the      
larger  will extract the velocity from  
the smaller1 and consequently become    

useless for the purpose intended3 this  
fact is unquestionable4    ,in speaking 
of the longest duck or swivel guns1 ,i  
may instance ,colonel  ,hawker's account
 of the performance of such fowling     
artillery4 ,it  appears evident that    
they do not effect anything like the    
execution  which might be expected from 
their immense size and capability4 ,the 
reason of this is obvious4 ,from the    
great space of the interior1 in  order  
to receive that equal pressure on the   
inch which a common  fowling-piece      
receives1 they should be charged in     
proportion to the  increased size2 but  
then1 ,i scarcely need add1 they would  
become  ungovernable4 ,in addition to   
this objection1 they could not be forged
 of  malleable iron1 so as to be safe2  
on account of the impossibility of      
forging a barrel of that weight by hand 
hammers1 and the little  probability of 
hammers ever being invented to work by  
steam to do it  sufficiently quick4 ,the
 greater the weight of the barrel its   

strength is  gradually decreased1 owing 
to the impossibility of sufficiently    
beating  it throughout the whole body4  
,it must be well known to any one versed
 in mechanics1 that an  anchor-shank    
weighing some hundredweights is more    
easily broken than  iron one-twentieth  
part of the weight1 which has had the   
advantage of  being forged by hammers   
where the blows were felt through the   
whole  mass4 ,this cannot be the case in
 forging large barrels1 as the workmen  
cannot use hammers heavy enough2        
consequently the barrel is turned out   
of hand with the pores more open than a 
piece of cast iron4 ,they have  tried   
this with large guns for the artillery1 
and it has repeatedly  failed1 entirely 
from the want of sufficient power to    
compress the iron4    ,all guns1        
therefore1 of an unusual size1 are not  
of strength in  proportion to a small   
gun2 hence the reason they cannot with  
safety be  charged up to the            
corresponding scale4 ,neither are they  

of the length  they should be1 if the   
bore is to be the criterion4 ,it must be
  remembered that to be charged in      
proportion1 the pressure on the inch    
should be as many times the pressure on 
the inch of the small gun1 as  the one  
is the number of times larger than the  
other4 ,if we come exactly  to the real 
state of the case1 we doubt much 7when  
taking into  consideration the          
difference of surface7 that the pressure
 on the inch  in the large gun is equal 
even to that on a small gun4 ,the       
comparison  might be carried up to the  
largest artillery1 and ,i doubt whether 
it  would come up to this scale2 as it  
is well known that the heaviest guns    
will not throw their projectile as far  
in proportion as the small gun1  because
 you dare not generate the force        
required to do it4 ,the same  principle 
is applicable to artillery as to        
fowling-pieces4    ,from the above data1
 ,i would say1 never make duck-guns     
above  seven-eighths in the bore1 if you

 wish them to kill at a great distance2 
and not less than fifteen or sixteen    
pounds weight1 and full four feet  long2
 because then you can generate strength 
sufficient4 ,therefore1  instead of the 
large stanchion-guns being one hundred  
pounds weight1  they should1 strictly   
speaking1 be two hundred1 and so on4 ,in
 proof of  this ,i may just mention     
that1 upon repeated experiments1 ,i have
  ascertained that a double             
stanchion-gun1 with each barrel of the  
same  bore1 weight1 and length1 as a    
single gun1 will kill further than the  
latter2 simply owing to the advantage of
 the greater weight of the  double gun4 
,i have made observations1 when trying  
moderate-sized and  shoulder duck-guns  
on that fine level piece of sand before 
spoken of1  and by tracing the grazing  
of the shots ,i have been enabled to    
pick them  up4 ,the large shot from the 
duck-gun1 mostly ,no4 #b1 ,i found      
scarcely #djj  yards from the spot where
 she was fired2 the small shot1 five and

 six1  from a fourteen bore1 were       
repeatedly picked up at #cej yards3 thus
  showing that the large gun had not    
much advantage2 but yet making  probable
 many assertions made of killing at     
seventy1 eighty1 and  sometimes a       
hundred yards1 with a common-sized gun4 
,by this it appears  possible2 for shot 
that will fly that distance must kill1  
if it hit  during its flight through the
 first quarter of such a range2 but     
then1  at a single bird1 above          
fifty-five or sixty yards1 it is always 
twenty  to one against hitting the      
object at all2 as the pellets begin to  
separate rapidly at that distance1      
though their force is still  sufficient1
 and in large flocks is apt to do       
execution4    ,the invention of the     
patent wire cartridge is rather the     
production of a  scientific mind than   
the production of chance2 though the    
invention of  ,general ,shrapnell       
contains the principle1 and the         
perfection attained is  but the         

extension of that principle3 namely1 the
 means of projecting a  number of bodies
 of a similarity in size without        
subjecting them to an  extreme jamming  
by the lateral expansion1 and thus      
allowing each to  travel his allotted   
distance without any of his companions  
robbing him  of his speed by impact4    
,the great peculiarity of the wire      
cartridge is1  that being less than the 
bore1 and having no bottom wadding1 the 
explosive fluid acts all around1 between
 the sides of the barrel and the  net1  
by what may not inaptly be termed the   
windage1 and the shot are  thus expelled
 by a cushion-like force1 which does not
 jam or compress  them in the way it is 
liable to by a wadding forcing it       
outwards4 ,here  the net is of use to   
keep the whole in a mass2 but you must  
not suppose  the same would be obtained 
by a charge of shot1 without a wadding  
below4 ,the net opens1 after leaving the
 muzzle of the gun4 ,the  introduction  
of bone-dust is intended for1 and       

answers the purpose of  preventing the  
grains of shot being mis-shaped by the  
compression3  during their passage up   
the barrel they form with the bone-dust 
a  comparatively solid body1 and keep   
the pellets from impact1 thus  allowing 
them to go forth into the atmosphere    
beautifully round and  uninjured2 and1  
as such1 more likely to travel farther  
and stronger4 ,the  latter arrangement  
possesses all the science1 as the net   
can be  dispensed with2 for it aids the 
combination but slightly1 and in no case
  more than a moderate quantity of good 
paper would do4    ,the science of this 
mechanical construction of projectiles  
is perfectly  in keeping with all the   
established laws of motion1 and more    
particularly good in thus avoiding the  
necessity of lateral pressure on  the   
sides of the tube of the gun1 the upper 
end having the means of  better         
resisting the column of air in their    
progress outwards2 for there  can be no 
question but this controls and induces  

the divergence of the  shot in leaving  
the muzzle4 ,one of the old             
arrangements1 often laughed  at1 ,i mean
 the bell muzzle in old guns1 intimates 
that our ancestors  possessed some      
smattering of science2 as the relief in 
the muzzle of a  gun has a tendency1 by 
allowing a gradual expansion laterally1 
to keep  the charge of shot better      
together3 for it is quite apparent that 
any  body severely compressed for a     
certain distance1 expands in proportion 
when free of that restraint2 and the    
consequence is a tendency to fly  off at
 a tangent1 as the friction of a crooked
 barrel induces a ball to  fly in a     
curve contrary to the bend of the       
barrel4    ,the extreme relief we find  
in some old barrels is certainly not    
required2 but still it clearly shows    
that the principle was understood  and  
acted upon3 the very extreme has been   
produced by ignorance1 as  certainly as 
the suggestion was a proof of knowledge 
on the part of the  suggestor2 for many 

think1 if a small dose is good for a    
patient1 a  large one must be equally   
so4 ,like ourselves of the present day1 
having  discovered that fine gunpowder  
was advantageous1 we have carried the   
principle so far as undoubtedly to      
overstep the line to which it was       
beneficial we should advance2 thus      
clearly establishing the truth of the   
old adage1 8,one extreme begets         
another40    ,therefore1 in advocating  
the adoption of gun-barrels of the very 
essence  of iron1 ,i also say1 let that 
part of the tube whose duty is the      
generating of force be nearly           
cylindrical1 and let there be a gradual 
expansion of the bore for a few inches  
in approaching the muzzle1 that  the    
restraint of the lateral pressure may   
not be too rapidly loosened4  ,but yet  
let that expansion be so graduated that 
there shall not be an  extreme either   
way--only a scarcely perceptible relief2
 yet such as will  influence and prevent
 the divergence of the projectiles to a 

considerable extent4    ,blaine         
says--8,a very long barrel is liable to 
have the force of its  discharge        
lessened by the increase of counter     
pressure in the greater  volume of      
internal air in a long than in a short  
barrel40 ,the column of  air in the     
barrel is unquestionably calculated to  
lessen the force of  the discharge4 ,but
 ,i have already shown that this is     
completely  controlled by the system of 
granulation4 ,further1 he says--8,its   
force  must also suffer by the loss     
which the elasticity of the propelling  
gas  experiences in its lengthened      
transit through an extended range of    
barrel40 ,he is here supposing an       
instantaneous generation of force1      
which cannot possibly happen2 and if it 
did1 would be comparatively  useless4   
,but he is evidently on the right scent1
 if he could only follow  it up4        
,again1--8,in such cases1 it is         
probable1 that the shot1 which  should  
leave the mouth of the piece at the     

instant when the propelling  force has  
gained its maximum1 in a long barrel are
 detained beyond that  particular limit 
of capacity we have pointed out as      
inherent in each  barrel2 and which     
properties1 and which quantities of     
charge1 nothing  but repeated and varied
 trials can teach the owner of the gun40
    ,this is an excellent illustration  
of the 8theory0 of the resistance of    
the column of air in long barrels with  
very fine quickly-burnt powder2  and    
could he have pointed out the cause1 the
 explanation would have been  perfect2  
as it must be quite apparent to the     
reader that it is not the  length of    
barrel which is in fault1 but a want of 
a continuous producing  force in the    
powder2 for when all the charge is      
exploded1 the maximum  has been         
obtained4 ,this clearly proves that the 
charge was too small to  keep up that   
maximum1 or that the grain of the powder
 was too fine1 and  thus too quickly    
expended4 ,there is no discrepancy      

between the fact of  long barrels being 
preferable half a century ago1 and short
 ones now2  for it is in the improvement
 of gunpowder burning in half the time  
now  that it did then1 and leaves the   
question of length of barrel precisely  
where it has ever been4 ,you may have   
any length you like in moderation1  if  
you suit the grain of powder to it4     
,i am quite satisfied to steer between  
extremes2 avoiding alike too small  a   
charge of projectiles and too wide a    
calibre with too heavy a charge  of the 
former1 and preferring a size of bore   
that gives1 under all  circumstances1   
the greatest range with the least amount
 of explosive  material2 which neither  
requires that to be too fine a grain1   
nor too  coarse3 namely1 a bore of      
fifteen and two feet six inches long4   
,under  all the above circumstances     
combined1 this size will long hold a    
position in the front rank of sporting  
guns4    ,the ,belgians have long been1 
and still are1 our principal competitors

 in  supplying those parts of the world 
which do not rank gun manufacturing     
among their staple trade4 ,the cost of  
labour being small1 they have  great    
facilities for producing cheap material2
 and the extent to which  they tempt the
 eye of those inexperienced in gunnery  
is quite obvious to  the world2 but     
excepting the cheapness of the lower    
grade of guns1 the  ,belgian products   
are not at all to be placed on an       
equality with the  well made ,english   
manufacture4    ,in consequence of the  
relaxation of our custom laws1 foreign  
gunnery is  now admitted at ten per     
cent4 duty2 and as soon as this change  
was  made1 the ,belgians sent large     
quantities of their guns and pistols to 
,london2 whence they found their way    
through different parts of the  country4
 ,regular establishments were opened for
 the sale of their very  highly         
ornamented barrels3 ten different       
varieties were produced1 even  to the   
imitation of laminated steel4    ,these 

barrels were at first sent in the bored 
and ground state1 in large  quantities2 
their apparent low price and great      
beauty quite captivated  some of the    
8,brums10 so that for a period they were
 all the rage2 and  the ,belgians began 
to boast of the extensive trade they    
were doing4 ,but  nothing in this world 
runs smooth4 8,the best laid schemes of 
mice and  men oft gang agee20 and so it 
was with the ,belgian importations4 ,our
  proof was not exactly to their liking1
 or perhaps the iron was not equal  to  
the proof2 losses and discoveries began 
to accumulate3 8,too soft1 by  far10    
says one2 8,they are all plated10 says  
another2 8,filed it through1  by jingo60
 exclaimed a third2 8,common iron1 by   
all that's wonderful60  protested a     
fourth2 8,oh1 twisted iron1 under such  
inimitable ,damascus60  growled a fifth3
 in short1 steel over iron turned out to
 be the secret  of the whole business4  
,it is very probable that such facts as 
these soon established the  inferiority 

of 8the beautiful ,damascus and         
arabesque0 of the ,belgian              
manufacturers2 and they have1 ,i trust1 
disappeared for ever from the  ,english 
market3 at least1 they are not held in  
estimation by those  qualified to judge4
    ,their advocates have for years     
adduced the fact1 that the ,belgian laws
  required guns to be twice proved2 and 
our old laws not requiring this1  they  
had certainly a tangible argument2 but  
our improved proof laws have  now       
removed that anomaly1 and certainly our 
proof is now much superior1  even to    
that of the ,belgians3 so much so1      
indeed1 that ,i have now before  me a   
letter from a ,belgian barrel maker1    
who1 in reply to the inquiry  why he did
 not send any more barrels1 says very   
truly1 8your ,english  proof is too     
severe40    ,a very carefully conducted 
experiment on at least twenty best      
,belgian  barrels1 satisfied me of the  
indisputable fact1 that at least        
nineteen  out of the twenty were plated1

 and principally on twisted iron of the 
softest description2 as was shown by    
eating it entirely away1 by a           
lengthened immersion in a solution of   
the sulphate of copper4 ,this may  be   
done in the course of a few hours1      
leaving the ,damascus1 and the          
arabesque plating comparatively         
untouched4 ,the production of that      
extremely beautiful figure has to be    
effected by using metals of             
considerable dissimilarity in their     
state of carbonization2 the iron        
evidently being entirely decarbonized   
before mixing with the steel1 and  the  
steel even appearing extremely soft2    
although1 no doubt1 much of  this would 
be effected during the heating of the   
barrels to solder with  brass3 and it is
 well known this cannot be done1 except 
by heating them  to nearly a white heat4
    ,as this is the universal practice  
with all barrels which the ,belgians    
finish1 a good shooting gun is1 by all  
fixed laws of science1 a  scarcity with 

them4 ,but a point of still greater     
importance arises from  this injurious  
proceeding4 ,in the act of heating two  
tubes like gun  barrels1 it is an       
impossibility to heat them equally1 so  
that neither  shall be at a higher      
temperature than the other2 and again in
 lifting  them from the furnace1 and in 
cooling1 all are subject to bend by     
expansion and contraction alone2 the    
result is that perfectly straight       
,belgian hard soldered barrels are      
utterly unattainable4 ,to an            
unpractised eye the bending in and out  
appears trifling1 but  professionally1  
it is a very serious defect indeed2 and 
on that score  alone1 the ,belgian can  
never compete in quality with our own   
manufacture4 ,time1 however1 will no    
doubt remedy this2 already they are     
great imitators1 and they will1 no      
doubt1 become greater4 ,they are        
competitors whom respectable            
manufacturers need not fear2 and though 
they eschew the imitation of our higher 

quality1 they imitate1 even to  the     
name1 the 8marks0 of our leading makers4
 ,i still would welcome and  fraternize 
with them1 as highly skilled workers in 
elaborate mixtures of  metals suitable  
for ornamental gun-barrels4    ,the     
,french gunmakers have not yet realized 
the true value of the  shooting of their
 fowling-pieces4 ,this arises1 in a     
great measure1 no  doubt1 from the want 
of a proper field for improvement4      
,necessity has  always been an important
 improver1 and wild game creating the   
necessity  for good guns in ,england1 a 
different direction has been given to   
the  manufacturer1 owing to the         
continual cry for long killing guns2 and
 not  a doubt can exist that ,english   
guns are better constructed for that    
purpose1 than those of any other        
country4 ,attention to the shooting has 
always been the first study of every    
,english gunmaker1 and great  progress  
has been made during the last twenty    
years2 indeed1 a  comparison between the

 largest 8target0 of to-day1 and the    
best that  ,colonel ,hawker ever made   
with his crack ,joe ,manton1 will show a
  progressive improvement of nearly #ajj
 per cent41 not only in closeness  of   
shooting1 but also in penetration4 ,all 
this may not be due entirely  to the    
gun1 but in part to the gunpowder2 and  
to the sensible course we  now pursue of
 using less weight of shot1 avoiding    
artificial friction in  the barrels1    
instead of increasing it to retard the  
shot with the view  of increasing its   
power3 also by having the expellant     
agent accelerative  to the greatest     
extent1 closeness and strength of       
shooting are obtained1  with the least  
amount of recoil possible4    ,our      
,french competitors have paid much more 
attention to the artistic  decoration of
 their guns than to their usefulness2   
and the universal  result of this sort  
of proceeding1 ever since the invention 
of gunnery1  has been a total neglect of
 their power of extreme projection4 ,the

  metal1 like other portions of their   
work is1 in all cases1 manipulated  with
 a view to beauty only2 as the fact of  
their veneering1 or plating1  their     
barrels proves4    ,if at all masters of
 the science1 they must be aware that   
this weakens  the shooting of the       
barrels1 and is an injurious practice4  
,but the  greater fact remains1 that    
they continue to fix all their barrels  
together1 by brasing them with brass    
from end to end1 as they do in          
,belgium2 thus lessening the strength of
 the barrels in point of safety1  and   
nearly destroying any smart shooting    
power they might have  possessed4       
,the ,french appear to me to have only  
reached that stage of progress  which we
 attained forty years ago1 when every   
intelligent mechanic was  seeking after 
that 8useless thing10 even when         
attained1 8a perfect  safety gun20      
which1 from its complex character1 might
 have been  designated 8the dangerous   
gun20 indeed1 experience taught 7though 

not  without great cost7 that few would 
use it when attained1 and the           
consequence was that it fell into       
disuse4 ,our ,continental neighbours1   
however1 are mining it with great       
energy4 ,a little more of our           
experience1 and they1 also1 will see the
 folly of the attempt4 ,all the  facts  
go clearly to establish the truth of the
 assertion1 that for all  useful        
purposes they are half a century behind 
us in the essential part  of gun        
manufacturing4 ,the anxiety shown by all
 leading ,continental  sportsmen to     
obtain a first-class ,english gun1 and  
more especially of  laminated steel1 is 
very strong evidence in support of this 
assertion4  ,all the guns ,i exhibited  
in ,paris in #ahee were eagerly bought  
up at high  figures2 and ,i have since  
executed many orders for ,france1       
,austria1  ,prussia1 ,sardinia1 and     
,russia1 as well as for other northern  
states4    ,the display of artistically 
constructed guns by the ,french makers  

in  their ,great ,exposition of #ahee1  
was very great1 and by certain classes  
of sportsmen would be considered superb4
 ,my notes1 made at the time of         
inspection1 will show better than a     
description can do1 in what state of    
transition their manufacture is1 and how
 they vacillate between their  old and  
our present style3--    ,parisian       
gunmakers presented #cf2 ,rheims1 #a2   
,st4 ,etienne1 #ad4    ,leopold         
,bernard1 barrel-maker4--,very good     
work2 barrels made of two  spirals1     
inner and outer1 with the twist running 
the reverse way2 fine  figure2 mixture  
of steel and iron4    ,monsieur         
,gauvain4--,very good sound work2 all   
highly artistic2 the cock  formed so as 
to resemble a tree with a snake coiled  
round it1 the head  of the snake        
striking on the nipple4 ,several other  
guns of the latest  ,english patterns4  
,monsieur ,beringer4--,guns ornamented  
arabesque2 a medium show of work2       
principally breech-loaders4    ,monsieur

 ,caron4--,showy1 ornamental1 very      
middling4    ,lepage and                
,moutier4--,work good1 ornamented1      
principally arabesque4 ,game  and       
,english scroll pattern1 engraving1     
cocks1 c41 but inferior to the  ,english
 patterns of ,gauvain4    ,houllier     
,blanchard4--,good work2 designs        
,english2 a very novel pattern of       
figure in the barrels4    ,monsieur ,le 
,perrin4--,all his guns artistic2       
raised1 embossed1 artistic1  ornamental1
 heavy cocks to imitate my shape2 one   
good ,english pattern  soft gun4        
,monsieur ,lain4--,good sound work2     
,english pattern of twenty years ago4   
,monsieur ,andr4--,good work2 ornaments 
embossed2 8,devisme0 inlaying2  carving 
and embossing unequalled2 several       
,english pattern guns1 but of  the      
standard twenty years ago4              
8,thomas40--,guns well inlaid2 work     
medium4    ,albert ,benard1             
barrel-maker4--,iron very good1 but all 
lined2 bar  apparently reduced from a   

mass two inches square1 which tenuates  
the  figure extremely1 as the bars are  
only #a_/d inch thick4    ,gastienne    
,renette4--,all highly artistically     
ornamented2 work good1  carving very    
elaborate4 ,a novel mode of             
breech-loading3 a piece on hinge  turns 
out1 a cartridge1 slides in return to   
its place1 and a quoin like  a wedge    
forces it up into a chamber2 the wedge  
and head receiving all  the force of the
 recoil4    ,lenoir1                    
barrel-maker4--,iron very good2 thirty  
rods in a faggot #e  #f1  and welded and
 drawn down into #c_/h of an inch       
square3 an enormous  elongation of the  
fibres4    ,doye4--,good ,english       
pattern-work--nothing else4             
,fontereau4--,work1 all ,english        
pattern2 very good4    ,m4 ,brunn1      
successor to ,armand and                
,bourbon4--,highly embossed work3 a     
novel breech-loader2 artistic design for
 cock2 female figures with  fishes'     
tails in scroll on to the tumbler4      

,guerin4--,a novel safety guard2 locks  
while on the nipple at half cock1  and  
full cock2 swivel double like a split   
ring4    ,may4--,a novel safety guard1  
very likely to break the finger3 sure to
 do  it if on an ,english gun4          
,breech-loader3 central fire1 the same  
as now  made by ,lancaster4    ,loger1  
barrel-maker4--,bars faggoted #f  #b1   
and so formed to imitate  laminated     
steel4    ,dufour4--,all breech-loading 
guns2 but all work of the first class4  
,juelle ,magana1 barrel-maker1 ,st4     
,etienne4--,barrels well fitted and     
figure varying1 but not possessing the  
regularity observed in the  ,belgian    
barrels4                                
,chapellon4--,coutereau4--,exhibit some 
barrels filled1 with a charge of #ab    
inches of powder1 #f-a_/b inches of     
shot1 and warrant them not to burst on  
firing that charge4    ,delabourse1     
,paris4--,good work 8 la ,purdey40      
,lefaucheaux1 ,paris1 prize medalist1   
#ahea4--;,good embossed work2           

breech-loaders2 also very good imitation
 of ,english work4    ,such is a fair   
sample of the whole4 ,but the best work 
by far is that by  ,gauvain1 though not 
so highly estimated by the jury2 but    
that is in many  cases no test of       
ability whatever--as much depends upon  
the influence  and standing of the      
individual4    ,great exhibitions are   
calculated to effect great good if      
properly  carried out4 ,in that of the  
,english exhibitors at ,paris nothing   
could be  more reprehensible1 for the   
jurors left them to the tender mercies  
of  their foreign competitors4 ,in the  
case of the gun-makers1 nothing could   
be worse1 for the two jurymen appointed 
by the ,english ,government never1  ,i  
believe1 saw a gun1 home-made or        
foreign2 and the fact of my obtaining   
two first-class medals speaks much for  
the impartiality of our  ,continental   
brethren4      ,,recoil4    ,recoil     
varies according to the position of the 
gun2 when fired on the  horizontal1 the 

resistance to be overcome is the        
tendency of the  projectile to fall to  
the earth1 and its friction as it moves 
in a line  parallel to the earth4 ,when 
the muzzle is elevated this resistance  
is  increased1 because the force        
generated by the explosion of the       
gunpowder  has to exert its action more 
directly in opposition to the direction 
of  the force of gravity2 and when this 
force is exerted in a line directly     
opposed to the centre of gravity1 as it 
is when the gun is fired  vertically1   
then the recoil is doubled1 and is made 
more painful1  because the body resting 
on the earth cannot yield4    ,a gun    
fired in the direction of the earth1 or 
in the line of the centre  of gravity1  
would recoil much less 7perhaps fifty   
per cent4 less7 than  when fired        
vertically2 from the very obvious fact1 
that if the bullet  was not kept in     
position by its friction on the sides of
 the barrel1 it  would fall to the      
ground of itself4    8,the recoil of a  

gun is inseparable from a discharge of  
its contents--on  the broad principle   
that action begets reaction2 it is1     
therefore1 only  when the #8kick1' as it
 is called1 becomes painful1 that it is 
essential  to avoid or lessen it4       
,irregularity in the bore of the barrel 
is a very  common source of violent     
recoil2 contracted breeches also1 but   
more  than all1 the contraction of the  
barrel at its centre1 occasion recoil1  
and that of the most dangerous kind3 the
 expanding flame1 during its  ignition1 
presses violently to make its way       
through the contracted to  the wider    
part1 thus also destroying the expelling
 force4 #8,now1 action  and reaction    
being equal1 it follows1 that the weight
 of the piece being  the same1 the      
recoil will be in proportion to the     
quantity of the  powder1 and the weight 
of the ball1 or shot2 and that with the 
same  charge the recoil will be in      
proportion to the weight of the piece1  
or  the lighter the piece the greater   

the recoil4'0--,essay on ,shooting4     
,here is a true exposition of recoil1   
though not of contractions in the       
breech2 for there the action would not  
be directly back1 but have an           
inclination towards the muzzle2 for the 
reaction would not have time to  tell on
 the breech1 before the charge was out  
of the muzzle4 ,an  extremely spiralled 
rifle barrel destroys the explosive     
force of  gunpowder1 but the effects are
 not felt in the recoil1 being most all 
expended laterally4 ,blaine says1       
8,could we entirely obviate all recoil  
from a gun1 we should not only remove an
 unpleasant shock to our  persons1 but  
there is reason to believe we should    
much assist the range  and force of the 
shot likewise2 although there is an     
opinion prevalent1  that the degree of  
the recoil is in the proportion of the  
projectile  force40 ,of this1 however1  
some doubts are entertained1 which are  
warranted by the following              
fact3--8,mortars with iron beds         

immoveably  fixed in the earth throw    
their shot to greater distances than    
guns which  are affixed to carriages can
 do1 and which1 therefore1 can recoil4  
,this  has been incontestibly proved1   
both in large and small artillery4      
,having suspended a gun barrel1 charged 
with a determinate quantity of  shot1   
from the ceiling by two cords1 so as to 
allow of its recoil1 fire  it point     
blank at a target1 and mark the result  
accurately4 ,now1 fix the  same barrel  
to a block1 and charge it exactly with a
 similar charge2  then having moved the 
target fifteen yards further1 fire the  
barrel2 it  is probable that the last   
shot1 though at this increased distance1
 will  exceed the former1 both in range 
and force4' ,these and such like        
experiments are laughed at by the giddy 
and inconsiderate2 but it is by  these  
illustrations that the most important   
facts are brought to light4             
8,projectile force is1 therefore1 to be 
increased by resistance2 and the        

knowledge of this fact offers us a      
practical hint1 that when we stand      
immoveable to our shot1 not only by     
holding the gun tightly to our          
shoulder1 but by also leaning somewhat  
forward in our shooting  attitude1 we   
considerably increase the resistance1   
and1 consequently1 we  not only lessen  
the shock of the recoil to ourselves1   
but we aid the  force of the shot and   
extend its range4 ,that such is the     
case1 may be  further exemplified by the
 following experiment3--,throw a        
hand-ball  against any moveable body1   
and it will displace that body2 but the 
ball  will drop to the ground           
perpendicularly1 however hard the body  
against  which it is thrown may be4 ,fix
 the same body securely1 and then the   
rebound of the ball will be nearly equal
 to the force with which it was         
thrown40    ,the weight or amount of    
force with which a gun recoils against  
the  shoulder1 is due to1 and regulated 
by1 several circumstances4 ,the first   

and most important is the amount of     
explosive force generated before the    
charge is moved and during the act of   
moving1 and the amount of inertia  in   
the body of the projectile4 ,when a     
quantity of gunpowder is exploded       
without any resisting weight in front of
 it1 then the column of air  gives      
comparatively a slight recoil2 though   
there is1 in fact1  considerable recoil1
 but such as is due to the resistance of
 the air  only1 and1 consequently1 more 
like a push than a blow4 ,the exact     
amount  of recoil is also due to the    
difference between1 or proportionate    
weights of1 the charge of shot or bullet
 and the gun2 action and  reaction being
 always equal until one or the other    
body moves2 the  division then will be  
in favour of that moving fastest1 and   
hence the  obtaining of accelerative    
velocity3 it thus follows1 as a truism1 
that  the smaller the quantity of       
exploded gases that can be employed to  
first  move the charge1 the less the    

recoil4    ,the advantage of the        
granulation system is here again most   
clearly  shown2 and 7alluding again to  
the law of putting matter in motion     
gradually7 if you would gain the        
greatest benefit1 it is clear that1 in  
the same length of tube1 you would1 at  
the termination of the  accelerative    
power1 have gained a much greater amount
 of velocity than  could be obtained    
under any other circumstances with the  
more violently  explosive gunpowder4    
,many theories have been advanced1 and  
many conjectures made as to the  cause  
of the recoil of guns2 and it must be   
evident that the causes vary  with the  
form of gun1 with the nature of the     
gunpowder1 and the weight2  or peculiar 
arrangement of the shot or bullet4 ,for 
instance1 an ounce of  shot1 and an     
ounce of lead in the form of a round    
bullet1 fired from the  same gun would  
give two very different amounts of      
recoil1 when measured  by the spring    
cushion2 the ounce bullet not giving    

much more than half  the recoil produced
 by the ounce of shot4 ,this is owing to
 the simple  fact that the bullet being 
a compact body1 offers only the         
resistance of  its weight1 and the      
simple friction of sliding or rolling   
along the  barrel according as it is    
tight or loose2 but the tendency of the 
hundreds of shot corns is to 8jam and   
wedge0 in the most extreme manner1      
offering1 by their lateral pressure     
against the sides of the barrel1 the    
greatest amount of friction and         
reluctance to be driven out3 hence the  
reaction on the gun1 and thence on the  
shoulder of the shooter2 and the        
smaller the size of shot the greater the
 jamming4 ,again1 the same weight  of   
shot1 fired from a #af-;bore and a      
#ab-;bore will recoil much more in the  
smaller than in the larger bore1 even   
when all other points are equal2        
because the charge reaches higher in the
 #af-;bore1 thus offering at first  a   
greater amount of inertia4 ,secondly1   

there is also more tendency to  jam2    
and1 thirdly1 the extension of the      
surface of lateral pressure on  the     
tubes of the barrel must also add to    
recoil4 ,dirty guns1 it is well  known1 
kick violently1 simply from the greater 
friction1 or difficulty  of the matter  
of the charge being put in motion4      
,the question as to what the actual     
amount of recoil really is has never    
been settled satisfactorily2 the most   
erroneous opinions have been  given1 and
 assertions equally erroneous have been 
made1 by those who  have attended to the
 subject4 ,to clearly elucidate this    
question1 it is  absolutely necessary   
that the circumstances be reduced to one
 standard3  but the difficulty is to    
obtain that2 for it would vary according
 to  muscular development1 the weight   
and height of the sportsman4 ,indeed any
  principle laid down would be liable to
 be disputed1 from the very  different  
way in which every sportsman lifts his  
gun to his shoulder3 if  one presses it 

against his shoulder with a pressure    
equal to #e lbs41 he  will receive a    
certain amount of recoil2 he that       
presses it with a force  equal to #aj   
lbs4 will receive less2 and with a      
pressure of #cj lbs4 it  will be found  
to yield the least of all4 ,i will      
illustrate it in this  way4 ,take a     
spring cushion 7something like the      
spring machine found at  all fairs for  
testing the force of a man pressing     
against it71 if you  allow a gun to     
recoil against this when the starting   
pressure is only #e  lbs41 it will drive
 it up to #gj lbs41 or nearly so1 from  
the velocity  with which you have put   
the #g lbs4 of matter which is contained
 in the  gun into a long sweeping blow4 
,the next time you try1 put the starting
  point at #aj lbs41 and you will find a
 much less result in the extreme  weight
 denoted2 but carry on this experiment1 
placing the cushion with a  resisting   
force of #cj lbs41 and you will find the
 extreme recoil  indicated at from #dj  

lbs4 to #de lbs41 and even up to a      
higher starting  resistance4 ,but to    
this extent it is not advisable to go1  
for the strain  becomes too great on the
 handle of the gun-stock1 and there is  
too near  an apparent approach to a     
solid resistance1 which it is well-known
 would  break the best stock that was   
ever made4    ,having shown how we may  
approximately obtain the exact amount of
 force1  and how it may1 even with two  
persons1 give different results1 ,i will
  now state what ,i have found to be the
 result of many hundreds of trials  made
 with the view of deciding this         
question4 ,before doing so1 however1  ,i
 will further premise that hundreds of  
attempts have been made at  various     
times by different ,governments1 and by 
many talented men1 to  obtain a correct 
recoil machine which shall efficiently  
measure the  recoil1 and in such a      
perfect line with the intended direction
 of the  projectile as to obtain        
accurate results3 but this is found to  

be  perfectly unattainable1 though ,i   
believe the nearest approach to it has  
been made by ,mr4 ,whitworth during his 
experiments with the hexagonal  rifle4  
,to prove that it is impossible to get  
all the circumstances alike1 so as      
accurately to ascertain the exact force 
of the recoil1 one instance only  need  
be cited4 ,fire your gun at a fixed     
object1 then fire at an object  in      
motion1 and to your senses the recoil   
will appear double when fired  at the   
fixed object2 but it is not really so3  
in the latter instance1  the body of the
 person firing the gun1 and the gun     
itself being in  motion1 a considerable 
amount of the force of the recoil is    
absorbed in  overcoming the motion of   
the gun1 and then that of the shooters  
body1 so  that the effect is not        
noticed4 ,i have already alluded to the 
greater  force of recoil felt from the  
lighter pressure of the gun against the 
shoulder2 here the tendency of the gun  
and body moving in one direction  is to 

close them together1 and the proportion 
will be as the velocity of  that        
movement4 ,therefore1 to bring this to a
 conclusion1 ,i find that  under        
ordinary circumstances a #ab-;bore gun  
of #g-a_/b lbs4 weight1 #cj  inches in  
length1 with a charge of #b-a_/b drams  
of ,no4 #e grained  gunpowder1 and      
#a-a_/d oz4 shot1 the barrels draw-bored
 cylindrically1  with the least possible
 easing at the breech ends1 and metal of
 the best  laminated steel1 will recoil 
with a force of from #dj lbs4 to #dh    
lbs41 or  on an average #dd lbs43 this  
is the most satisfactory conclusion ,i  
have  been able to draw from my         
experiments4 ,this of course will vary1 
as ,i  have shown2 and it is also liable
 to deviations1 according to the state  
of the atmosphere1 and other collateral 
circumstances4 ,great variations  will  
of course arise from guns of fine or    
rough insides2 guns new or  old1 well   
kept or neglected2 and in guns bored    
larger at the  breech-ends1 in order to 

give artificial resistance to the escape
 of the  charge4 ,these last are now1 ,i
 trust1 obsolete1 except in that        
abortion  of science the 8,french       
breech-loading crutch gun20 and as an   
exception1  all ill-constructed guns4   
,the science of the question may now be 
regarded as clearly established4        
,gun-barrels of the utmost tenacity1    
with insides of a cylindrical form  as  
true as possible1 polished as fine as a 
mirror1 with a moderate  weight of shot 
calculated to suit the gun and a good   
charge of large  granulated gunpowder1  
will give the greatest killing power1   
with the  greatest amount of comfort1 or
 absence of recoil1 that is to be found 
in  the pursuit of shooting4    ,a point
 of considerable importance in obtaining
 regular and good  shooting--one1       
however1 which is frequently            
neglected--is that of  ascertaining what
 sized shot is particularly suited to   
the size of bore  used4    ,the correct 
adaptation of ,no4 #e or ,no4 #f for    

your particular gun is  easily attained4
 ,place in the muzzle an ordinary       
wadding1 press it into  the barrel the  
depth of the diameter of the shot1 which
 should be  exactly flush with the      
muzzle1 place as many shot corns on this
 as you  can1 without having more than  
one distinct layer1 and observe the size
  that best fills1 in concentric rings1 
the whole circumference of the  bore1   
leaving no half-spaces unfilled2 note   
whether it be ,no4 #e or ,no4 #f  shot1 
and keep to that size for your general  
shooting4 ,again1 on other  occasions   
you may wish to use larger shot 7,nos4  
#d1 #c1 or #b72 then  ascertain by the  
same method which fills the concentric  
rings most  perfectly3 the same should  
be done with the smaller sizes1 ,nos4 #h
 or #i4    ,the rationale of this       
proceeding is that any half-spaces are  
filled by  shot from above pressed in   
upon the lower layer1 disfiguring itself
 and  those it comes into contact with2 
this is multiplied up to the #ac or #ad 

layers of which the charge is composed1 
and the inevitable result is  that four 
or five pellets are pressed together    
until they adhere2 either  8balling0 or 
leaving empty spaces in the distribution
 of the charge1 to  the injury of the   
gun's shooting--a defect which may      
easily be obviated  by attending to the 
instructions given above4 ,one other    
point may be  observed1 viz41 that if   
#a-a_/d give #ae-a_/b layers of shot in 
concentric  rings1 the charge should be 
reduced until the rings are complete1   
for  the half-layer will do much        
mischief by its unequal pressure on the 
layers beneath it4 ,and it is further   
necessary to observe that in  loading a 
gun1 either with powder or with shot1   
the gun should be kept  as nearly in the
 upright position as possible3 the more 
upright the gun  is held1 the more      
perfectly will it be charged1 and the   
more perfect  will be its shooting4     
,a vast number of useless changes have  
of late years been introduced into  the 

construction of gunnery2 they have died1
 however1 a natural death1  as they     
ought to have done1 and have thus       
afforded additional evidence  that      
sportsmen of the present day only adopt 
what are really  improvements4 ,great   
professional reputation in a gunmaker is
 not now1 as  formerly1 all that is     
required to command a trial of          
individual plans of  improvement3 the   
improvement must be self-evident2       
nothing being taken  on trust3 a bon    
fide benefit to the sportsman is        
essential in the  present day to obtain 
patronage4    ,there has lately been    
introduced a very novel improvement in  
the  construction of double gun barrels1
 in order to overcome that defect  long 
admitted to exist in firing the second  
shot4 ,it has long been  known that in a
 #dj yards' flight1 shot falls several  
inches2 and it is  an established fact  
that few sportsmen can kill with the    
second shot so  well as with the first1 
although it is certainly within range of

 the  gun4 ,this no doubt arises in     
almost every case1 from the shot having 
fallen below the object in traversing   
the greater distance2 or1 in other      
words1 the second barrel1 in order to   
kill as well as the first1 ought  be    
fired six inches higher2 but this the   
best shots find it difficult to  do1 and
 it has therefore been proposed to do it
 for them4    ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4 ,prince1 of  
,no4 #ach1 ,bond-street1 has patented an
 improvement  to obviate this           
difficulty2 this he does by elevating or
 pointing upward  the second barrel1 so 
as to cover the calculated fall in the  
body of the  shot2 and the result is1   
that the second bird is as well aimed at
 and as  efficiently killed as the      
first4 ,the alteration is so exceedingly
  simple1 and the benefit resulting from
 it so apparent1 that the only  wonder  
is that it should never have been done  
before2 and it being the  improvement of
 a really practical sportsman of the    
very first class1 as  ,mr4 ,prince has  

long been known to be1 is sufficient to 
stamp his  invention as worthy of every 
consideration4          ,,chapter       
,,viii4    ,,the ,,french 8,,crutch10   
,,or ,,breech-,,loading ,,shot ,,gun4   
,sporting in ,france has never been     
brought to the same state of  perfection
 as in this country4 ,grouse-shooting on
 our wild romantic  hills is a very     
different sport from quail1 partridge1  
or rabbit  shooting in the vales and on 
the hills of the ,continent4 ,wild game 
requires great energy and perseverance  
on the part of the sportsman1  courage  
and strength on the part of the dog1 and
 last1 though not least1  great capacity
 on the part of the gun4 ,for many years
 the superiority of  the ,english       
manufactured gun1 as well as of the     
,english gunpowder1 and  the matchless  
skill of the ,english sportsman1 have   
been acknowledged by  all the world4    
,all things1 however1 have their        
limits--the longest lane  has a turning1
 and a very plausible and insidious     

innovation has been  made to detract    
from the acquired reputation of the     
,english sportsman1  and render his     
shooting inferior to that of some of our
 friends on the  other side of the      
,channel4    ,the ,french system of     
breech-loading fire-arms is a specious  
pretence1  the supposed advantages of   
which have been loudly boasted of2 but  
none  of these advantages have as yet   
been established by its most strenuous  
advocates4 ,how it is that the ,british 
sportsman has become the dupe of        
certain men who set themselves up for   
reputable gunmakers ,i know not4 ,it  is
 certain1 however1 that by these acts   
they have forfeited all claim to  the   
confidence of their too confiding       
customers1 and that they never  could   
have tested the shooting properties of  
their guns4 ,with regard to  the safety 
of these guns1 they display an utter    
want of the most  ordinary judgment2 and
 this is abundant proof that they       
considered  neither their safety1 nor   

7what is also of importance7 the economy
 of  the whole arrangement1 as regards  
their manufacture or their use4    ,guns
 are perfect only so long as they       
possess the power of shooting  strong   
and close1 with the least available     
charges4 ,the period has  passed when   
barrels were bored by rule of thumb1    
without any  well-defined intention2 the
 workman being ignorant as to whether he
  would have the bore of the barrel     
cylindrical1 or 7as was frequently the  
case7 in the form of two inverted cones1
 and thus he continued to bore  at the  
barrel until it was utterly useless1 or 
until by chance he hit  upon a tidy     
shooting bore4 ,barrels are now         
constructed so nearly alike1  that it is
 no stretch of truth to assert that     
ninety-six or ninety-eight  barrels out 
of a hundred can be made so nearly alike
 in their shooting1  as to render it    
very difficult to discover the real     
difference between  them4 ,yet1 in the  
face of this high state of perfection   

certain  ,english gunmakers introduce1  
and recommend to their patrons as an    
improvement1 a description of gun       
possessing the following negative       
qualities3--,first1 there is no         
possibility of a breech-loader ever     
shooting equal to a well-constructed    
muzzle loader2 secondly1 the gun is     
unsafe1 and becomes more and more unsafe
 from the first time it is used2  and1  
thirdly1 it is a very costly affair1    
both as regards the gun and  ammunition4
 ,nor are these negative qualities at   
all compensated for by  any of the      
advantages claimed for these guns by    
their advocates2 this  assertion ,i now 
proceed to establish4    ,in the first  
place recoil has been an important      
obstacle to contend  with1 ever since   
the invention of fire-arms1 and the     
methods of  lessening recoil have       
engaged the special attention of all    
inventors up  to the present day2 on    
this important point1 indeed1 very much 
depends4  ,gunnery is good only when    

recoil exists in a minimum degree4      
,force1  whether it be that of the      
gentle 8zephyr10 or of the mammoth      
steam-boiler which is capable of moving 
thousands of tons1 can always be        
measured1 and the friction of steam     
against the tube through which it       
passes can be measured also4    ,the    
time was1 when guns were so imperfectly 
constructed1 that the recoil  and       
friction of the charge against the      
barrel destroyed more than half  the    
force generated by the explosion of the 
gunpowder2 and this loss of  force      
having been obviated1 by finely         
polishing the interior of the  barrel1  
as well as by improving the metal of the
 gun1 has rendered  ,english guns       
superior in their performance to those  
manufactured in any  other country4     
,breeches of a conical form offer the   
greatest resistance  to the action of   
ariform bodies in a direct line2 this is
 the principle  of what is best known as
 8the patent breech30 to speak of which 

would be  a waste of time1 as nothing   
more is required to support its         
superiority  than the fact1 that in well
 constructed artillery of every country1
 the  interior form of the breech or    
chamber is more or less conical4 ,thus  
we  see that by adopting the crutch gun1
 we have to give up one of the  oldest  
and most universally acknowledged       
principles in lessening  recoil--namely1
 the conical form of the breech--and to 
adopt the very  reverse of this3 namely1
 the old right-angled1 flat-faced       
breech1 upon  which recoil can exert its
 utmost force with the certainty of its 
reaching the shoulder of the unfortunate
 user4    ,secondly1 to enable the gun  
to be loaded with a cartridge which     
shall  keep its place1 a complicated    
arrangement is necessary4 ,on inspection
 of  the barrel1 it will be perceived   
that a cavity has been formed larger    
than the bore of the barrel1 and that   
this in some cases only tapers  toward  
the further end4 ,this cavity exactly   

receives the cartridge1 and  the        
gunpowder is inflamed in a space much   
larger than the barrel1 which  it has   
afterwards to pass through4 ,the charge 
of shot is also started in  a larger    
space than that which it afterwards has 
to traverse1 and the  column must of    
necessity become contracted and         
elongated before it can  escape from the
 barrel4 ,the first consideration is at 
what cost of force  is all this         
effected8 ,thirty per cent4 would       
certainly be a shrewd  guess2 and who is
 there conversant with the nature of    
gunpowder hardy  enough to gainsay the  
fact8    ,i here present the reader with
 the measurement of a pair of           
barrels--bore #ab1 diameter of the      
cavity #aj1 or two sizes                
difference1--tried at the celebrated    
trial of ,breech versus  ,muzzle-loading
 fire-arms1 which took place in ,april  
last1 in the court  at ,cremorne4 ,the  
following are the results of the        
trial3--    ,class #a comprised twelve  

bore double guns1 not exceeding #g-a_/b 
lbs4 in  weight2 the charge for the     
breech-loaders was three drachms of     
powder1  and one ounce and a quarter of 
shot2 that for the muzzle-loaders1 two  
and three-quarter drachms of powder1 and
 an ounce and a quarter of shot4  ,the  
question will be asked why were both not
 charged alike8 and the  answer is1     
because the advocates for breech-loaders
 well knew the loss  of power caused by 
the enlarged breech end would require a 
larger  quantity of powder2 yet1 with   
this advantage1 the result was a verdict
  in favour of the muzzle-loaders of    
nearly two to one4 ,i quote from the    
,field4 ,the aggregate number of pellets
 in the targets from  breech-loaders was
 #agj1 the penetration #ai4 ,the        
aggregate number of  pellets put in by  
the muzzle-loaders was #bca1 the        
penetration #dh2 and  this was effected 
with a quarter of a drachm of powder    
less4    ,few will doubt that this must 
be the inevitable result4 ,force cannot 

be  expended and retained3 we 8cannot   
eat our cake and have it40 ,if force is 
destroyed by friction1 it is as useless 
as if it had never been  generated4 ,so 
much1 then1 for the shooting qualities  
of the  breech-loader4    ,and now comes
 the question1 of much more importance  
than the shooting  qualities of these   
guns3 namely1 can all this force--#cj   
per cent41 in  fact1 of the whole       
charge--be thrown away with no worse    
result than the  mere wasting of the    
powder8 ,is there no change taking place
 in the  barrel of the gun every time it
 is discharged8 ,iron and its           
combinations  are as certainly limited  
in their duration as is human life      
itself4  ,every bar of iron is capable  
only of resisting a certain amount of   
pressure2 every successive strain on its
 fibres deteriorating it more  rapidly2 
and whether it be the mainspring of the 
lock1 or a gun-barrel  itself1 a certain
 number of strains will destroy it4     
,this being the  case1 how much more    

rapidly must a breech-loader be         
destroyed where #cj  per cent4 of the   
charge is always 8absorbed0 on the sides
 of the barrel  in the cavity alone4    
,this a lengthened experiment will      
prove2 though the  fact is so           
self-evident1 that no experiment is     
required to demonstrate  it4    ,caution
 in gunnery is absolutely necessary     
under the most favourable               
circumstances1 and disregard of         
perfection in the construction of a gun 
is quite unpardonable2 then what shall  
be said of that member of society  who1 
with all those facts before him1 can say
 to his customers1 8,i  advise you to   
have a breech-loader3 they are really   
good guns80 ,in what  estimation such a 
tradesman must be held ,i will not      
venture to say4 ,much  more might fairly
 be said against these guns1 but ,i sum 
up the whole in  the following damnatory
 sentence3 ,breech-loaders do not shoot 
nearly so  well1 and are not half so    
safe1 as muzzle-loading guns4    ,it is 

said1 and truly1 that a breech-loader   
can be charged more rapidly  than a     
muzzle-loader2 but ,i hold this to be no
 advantage1 for this  reason3 all guns  
can be loaded more quickly than they are
 fired1 and the  tendency of all barrels
 to absorb heat1 puts a limit to        
rapidity of  firing2 indeed1 after ten  
rapid shots with each barrel1 both guns 
would  be about on an equality4 ,another
 question is1 can breech-loaders be used
  longer than muzzle-loading guns1      
without cleaning8 ,my opinion is1 they  
cannot4 ,at the trial already spoken of1
 after twenty-two shots had been  fired 
from the breech-loaders1 the            
cartridge-cases had to be extracted     
from the barrels with a hook1 and in    
several cases it was necessary to  cut  
them out with a knife2 whilst a         
muzzle-loading gun without friction     
would have gone on to a hundred shots   
without being wiped out4 ,there are  few
 plans or presumed improvements which   
have not some redeeming points2  but in 

the case of breech-loading fire-arms it 
is quite a task to find  even a         
resemblance to one4 ,all the advocates  
for breech-loaders whom ,i  have ever   
met with yield1 with this               
acknowledgment3 8,i must admit that ,i  
never liked them2 but so many gentlemen 
are asking for them that ,i was         
compelled to make them1 to keep my      
customers40 ,this is1 no doubt1 the     
truth2 but it is calculated to lead to  
serious calamities3 for it was  apparent
 to hundreds1 at the ,cremorne trials1  
that even the best and  newest          
breech-loading guns permitted an escape 
of gas at the breech to  an extent that 
,i never thought possible2 and if this  
occurs in new guns1  what will happen   
after a single season's shooting1 should
 any one be  found sufficiently reckless
 to use a breech-loader so long8    ,no 
fear need be entertained that the use of
 breech-loaders will become  general2   
manufactures on false principles soon   
show themselves  worthless1 however     

pertinaciously they may be puffed off4  
,the number of  accidents arising from  
the use of breech-loading fire-arms has 
not been  very great as yet2 though ,i  
have already heard of several very      
serious  cases1 from the use of         
well-made guns3 let us consider what    
would be  result if the workmanship was 
inferior8    ,there is one other point  
to which ,i may briefly allude before   
dismissing  the breech-loader to the    
8tomb of all the ,capulets40 ,the       
majority of  guns on this principle     
merely abut against a false breech2 and1
 from the  fact of there being no       
connection either by hook or by         
cohesion1 the  explosion causes a       
separation between the barrel and the   
breech to an  extent which would        
scarcely be credited4 ,this may1        
however1 be  satisfactorily demonstrated
 by binding a small string of gutta     
percha  round the joint1 when after     
explosion the string will be found to   
have  fallen in between the barrel and  

the breech2 thus showing that the       
muzzle droops in the act of being       
discharged1 which must must materially  
influence the correctness of fire4      
,the recoil of an ordinary #ab-;bore    
gun1 loaded at the muzzle1 varies from  
forty to forty-eight pounds1 seldom     
exceeding the latter2 that of a         
breech-loader varies from sixty-eight to
 seventy-six6 ,and this quite           
independently of the enormous force     
which is exerted on the sides of  these 
enlarged breech guns4 ,the shoulder left
 in the barrel1 too1 is a  formidable   
barrier for the charge to pass by2 and1 
in doing this1 the  circle of shot in   
immediate contact with the barrel       
becomes disfigured  and misshaped1 so as
 to insure its flight only to a very    
short distance4  ,in the muzzle-loader  
an average of #ahj shots strike a target
 of two feet  six inches diameter2 but  
breech-loaders of the same calibre will 
rarely  put in #abj shots2 showing a    
clear loss of #fj pellets4 ,this is due 

to the  enormous jamming they have      
undergone in passing from the greater to
 the  lesser area of the barrel4 ,it is 
said that the paper of the cartridge    
fills up this enlargement2 but any one  
who knows what the force of  gunpowder  
is1 must also know that paper           
intervening between the charge  and the 
sides of the barrel would be condensed  
at the moment of  explosion to          
one-fourth its original thickness4      
,,chapter ,,ix4    ,,the ,,rifle4       
,the ,rifle has at length taken its     
place among scientifically improved     
weapons4 ,mathematicians laboured long  
and earnestly to develope the  important
 principles involved in it1 and which   
lay hidden like latent  heat1 only      
waiting for the moment when they were to
 be extracted1 as  they were at length  
by experiment1 the result of necessity3 
indeed  necessity has done more for the 
improvement of gunnery than all the     
mental toil and labour bestowed on the  
science itself4 ,the philosopher  has   

sought in vain for that which mechanical
 skill unpatronised and  unheeded forced
 upon the world1 and that1 too1 in spite
 of prejudice and  contempt2 and the    
present generation see improvements     
brought out which  were predicted       
generations before--as the following    
quotation from  ,robins clearly         
shows3--8,whatever state shall          
thoroughly comprehend the  nature and   
advantages of rifle pieces1 and having  
facilitated and  completed their        
construction1 shall introduce into their
 armies their  general use1 with a      
dexterity in the management of them1    
they will by  this means acquire a      
superiority which will almost equal     
anything that  has been done at any time
 by the particular excellence of any one
 kind  of arms1 and will perhaps fall   
but little short of the wonderful       
effects  which histories relate to have 
been formerly produced by the first     
inventors of fire-arms40    ,that the   
result here predicted has now been      

obtained no one can doubt4  ,greater    
extension of range is yet attainable2   
but accuracy of range  amounts already  
to almost mathematical precision4 ,all  
that is now  required is1 that the same 
principle should be applied to the      
heaviest  projectiles2 and when these   
are projected under precisely the same  
laws1  experience will further establish
 this principle1 that 8the heavier the  
body in equal velocities the less the   
deflection from atmospheric             
resistance40 ,when this is demonstrated 
the present order of things will  be    
reversed2 heavy ordnance will exceed the
 shoulder rifle in extension  and       
accuracy of range1 whilst the shoulder  
rifle will again fall back to  its      
former state of comparative inferiority4
    ,barrels were first grooved or      
rifled at ,vienna1 about the year #adih4
 ,the  original object of grooving or   
rifling the barrels was to find space   
for  the reception of the foul residue  
produced by discharging the rifle1 and  

thus to diminish the friction of the    
bullet as it was forced down by the     
ramrod4 ,during the next twenty years a 
spiral turn was given to the  groove1   
and bullets were used with projections  
to fit the grooves1 the  degree of twist
 or spiral varying as the skill of the  
gun-maker thought  best4    ,the        
difficulty of loading rifles has at all 
times been a drawback to  their         
universal adoption as warlike weapons1  
and it has been reserved  for a humble  
individual to achieve that which all the
 talent devoted to  it for three        
centuries had hitherto failed to        
accomplish4    ,a multitude of claimants
 have 8put in their plea0 for a share in
 some  part of the invention2 and it may
 benefit not only the present but also  
the future generation1 if we give a     
succinct account of the approaches  made
 by different men towards the present   
established principle1 and  show the    
bearing each had in bringing about the  
revolution that has  taken place in the 

science of gunnery4    ,the earliest    
notice of an elongated bullet is        
,robins's 8egg-shaped10  which gives to 
the hemispherical end the centre of     
gravity1 thus  establishing the first   
essential principle2 but theory and     
practice were  here sadly discordant1   
for its wild uncertain flight1 caused by
 the  small end acting as a rudder1     
rendered his theory useless1 and it soon
  died of a natural death4    ,the next 
innovation on the spherical principle of
 bullets was the  attempt made by the   
late ,sir ,home ,popham to introduce    
elongated  sphero-cylindrical bullets   
into cannon1 with grooves and           
projections on  the exterior to impart a
 spinning motion1 which should be       
sustained by  the action of the         
atmosphere2 but this1 like ,robins's    
idea1 survived  only a very short time4 
,the next in rotation is a description  
given by  ,captain ,beaufoy1 in his work
 on the rifle called ,scloppetaria1 and 
published1 we believe1 in #ahjh4        

,captain ,beaufoy gives a drawing of an 
elongated bullet one and a quarter      
diameters in length1 having a           
hemispherical cavity accurately         
corresponding in shape to its           
counterpart at the opposite end4        
8,this10 he states1 8he had heard was   
beneficial from the fact of the rush of 
atmospheric air into the vacuum         
created1 thus inducing a forward motion 
by the kick  posteriori40  ,this        
apparently was but a surmise1 an idea   
never carried out1 for in the  same work
 a degree of spiral grooving is         
advocated with which the action  of this
 bullet1 had it ever been intended to be
 expansive in principle1  would be quite
 incompatible4    ,next comes the       
celebrated ,joseph ,manton with his     
invention1 intended to  give a spiral   
motion to the ball by the cup of wood   
already described  under the head of    
rifled cannon4 ,this very idea has since
 been revived  by ,general ,jacob2 and  
in #ahbb ,captain ,norton introduced to 

the notice of  the ,government his      
8,rifled ,shell0 for the explosion of an
 enemy's  tumbrils4 ,this was of        
necessity an elongated hollow bullet1   
containing a  small charge of gunpowder1
 which was ignited by the explosion of a
 cap  on a nipple1 screwed into the     
fore-end of the leaden shell4    ,here1 
no doubt1 was a partially expansive     
bullet2 for the bullet would  be driven 
in upon itself1 and thus expand from the
 weakness of the  hollow shell2 this    
near approach1 however1 to the invention
 was not  intentional3 the sole object  
in view was the action of the shell1 and
 no  more importance was attached to its
 expansion1 in ,captain ,norton's       
estimation1 than to the bullet described
 by ,captain ,beaufoy in his            
,scloppetaria4 ,it is only within the   
last few years that some friend1  with  
more acumen than the gallant officer1   
discovered his near approach  to the    
subsequent invention1 and a claim has   
been made on his behalf  which he       

himself never dreamt of1 during the many
 years we were  battering at the doors  
of prejudice2 closed as they were       
against  military innovation4    ,in    
#ahbf1 ,capt4 ,delvigne proposed to use 
an elongated bullet3 8having  observed  
that when a bullet was forced in by the 
old system of the  mallet1 its diameter 
was increased perpendicularly to the    
axis of the  barrel1 he came to the     
conclusion that by giving a chamber to  
the breech  of the rifle1 and loading   
with an elongated bullet having just    
sufficient windage to enter freely1 two 
or three taps from a steel  ramrod would
 flatten it sufficiently to make it take
 the form of the  grooves1 into which it
 would certainly penetrate when fired40 
,this  contrivance was1 however1 found  
to be useless for military purposes2 for
  after a trial1 extending over two or  
three years1 by the ,garde ,royal in    
,algeria1 it was given up in #ahcj4     
,this1 then1 is clear proof of an       
attempt to construct an expansive       

bullet1 and conclusive evidence also  of
 its failure4    ,from #ahcj to #ahci1  
no evidence can be found of any progress
 having been  made by these inventors4  
,in #ahcf ,i had the honour of producing
 the first  perfect expansive bullet4   
,during the winter of #ahce and the     
spring of  #ahcf1 ,i made an extensive  
series of experiments in order to       
overcome the  effect of the very        
extensive windage existing in military  
muskets at  that time2 better known in  
the present day by the name of 8,old    
,brown  ,bess40    ,the mean diameter of
 the bore was #gfj1 the diameter of the 
bullet was  #gja1 or of the better      
understood gauge of #aa and #ad bore1   
thus leaving  more than three sizes for 
windage4 ,to obviate this great         
discrepancy by  expanding a bullet from 
#ad to #aa bore1 so as to destroy the   
windage1 was  the first consideration2  
and1 indeed1 the first great step       
towards that  change of which we have as
 yet only seen the beginning4 ,i here   

give a  representation of my first      
attempt1 and the observations made upon 
it in  #ahda3--    ,five years ago ,i   
perfected and laid before the ,board of 
,ordnance a new  plan or system of      
constructing expansive balls1 which is  
accomplished by  having two dissimilar  
portions4 ,an oval ball with a flat end 
and a  perforation extending nearly     
through1 is cast2 a taper plug with a   
head  like a round topped button is also
 cast1 of a composition of lead1 tin1   
and zinc1 as below4    ,illustration3   
,,expansive ,,ball ,,before ,,using4    
,illustration3 ,,expansive ,,ball ,,with
 ,,plug ,,driven ,,home4    ,the end of 
the plug being slightly inserted into   
the perforation1 the  ball is put into  
the rifle or musket with either end     
foremost4 ,when the  explosion takes    
place1 the plug is driven home into the 
lead1 expanding  the outer surface1 and 
thus either filling the grooves of the  
rifle1 or  destroying the windage of the
 musket1 as the case may be4 ,the result

 of  this experiment was beyond         
calculation2 and for musketry1 where the
  stupid regulations of the service     
require #c-a_/b sizes of bore difference
  for windage1 it is most excellent1 as 
remedying this considerable  drawback   
upon the usefulness of the arm2 the     
facility of loading being  as great1 if 
not greater1 than by the present        
practice4    ,inventions1 however1 are  
of no use whilst kept in obscurity1 and 
my  first and natural course was to     
bring it under the notice of the parties
  for whose benefit it was intended4    
,accordingly1 in ,july1 #ahcf1 a        
memorial was duly drawn up1 and laid    
before the ,master-,general and ,board  
of ,ordnance1 soliciting a trial4 ,after
 overcoming some difficulties1 a  trial 
was ordered at the 8cost of the         
inventor10 and in ,august1 #ahcf1 it    
took place at ,tynemouth1 in            
,northumberland1 under the command of   
,major  ,walcot1 of the ,royal ,horse   
,artillery1 a party of the #fjth ,rifles

 being  the firing party4 ,the exact    
form of the memorial1 and the points    
claimed  by the inventor1 are as        
follows3--      8,to the ,right         
,honourable the ,master-,general and    
,officers of ,his    ,majesty's ,board  
of ,ordnance4 ,the humble ,memorial of  
,william ,greener1    ,gunmaker1 of     
,newcastle-upon-,tyne1 humbly sheweth-- 
8,that your memorialist has1 after      
considerable trouble and expense1       
discovered a method by which the        
facility of loading all rifles1         
muskets1 and other small fire-arms will 
be much increased1 as well as    a      
considerable additional force or range  
of the projectile be    obtained1 even  
with a less quantity of powder than at  
present used4    ,your memorialist has  
frequently loaded one of his ,majesty's 
rifles by    this method1 as quickly as 
any soldier could load the plain musket1
    and the balls when fired have       
received the same or greater effect from
    the action of the grooves of the    

rifle4 ,your memorialist's plan simply  
consists in the manufacture of a more   
ready kind of cartridge1 which    will  
answer for all fire-arms as at present  
constructed1 and will also    be a      
considerable saving to his ,majesty4    
8,your memorialist being aware1 from    
former communications with your         
,honourable ,board1 that in no case is  
any sum of money allowed for            
travelling expenses1 c41 and your       
memorialist being very far from    rich1
 is unable to attend any committee1     
either at ,woolwich or    elsewhere1    
your memorialist1 therefore1 suggests   
that if it meet the    approbation of   
your ,honourable ,board to issue an     
order to the officer    commanding the  
depot of his ,majesty's #ast ,brigade   
#fjth ,rifles1 at    present stationed  
in this town1 or to any other regiment  
or detachment    in the neighbourhood1  
to appoint a squad of men to fire #ajj  
rounds of    memorialist's and #ajj     
rounds of the cartridges now in use1 and

 to    compare their respective merits1 
the whole to be provided at your        
memorialist's expense4      8,and       
memorialist1 as in duty bound1 will ever
 pray4      8,,william ,,greener40      
,the success of the experiments far     
surpassed the expectations of the       
military men present2 and that they     
fully established all the points        
claimed1 will be evident from the       
following secret report made by ,major  
,walcott to the ,board of ,ordnance3--  
8,i then examined ,mr4 ,greener's       
ammunition1 and found he had not made   
it up into complete cartridges1 but that
 his ball was separate from    his      
powder4 ,i then examined the ball1 which
 being less than the barrel    of the   
rifle1 went down very easily--indeed    
slided down1 and is thus    formed4 ,the
 ball is cast with a hollow in it1 to   
which a plug of the    same metal is    
inserted1 but not going home4 ,the force
 of the charge is    said by ,mr4       
,greener so to act on this hollow ball  

as to expand it1    filling up the whole
 barrel1 preventing all windage1 and so 
truly    keeping its flight that the    
head of the plug first striking the     
object    fired at1 is then driven home2
 the ball becomes a solid1 and as such  
is equal to the present mode1 as well as
 having more force and with a    less   
quantity of powder than at present used4
      8,a detachment of the #fjth was   
then ordered to load with ,mr4          
,greener's1    and an equal number with 
his ,majesty's practice ammunition4 ,the
 first    certainly had the advantage in
 quickness of loading1 but this may be  
accounted for by ,mr4 ,greener's ball   
being put in separate from the          
cartridge2 for ,i am by no means certain
 7it being necessary that his    plug   
should be exactly in the centre1 either 
next the cartridge or    from it7       
whether1 when made into a complete form1
 should the plug have    shifted from   
its position1 it would not cost the     
soldier more time to    place it right2 

neither am ,i certain whether the plug  
might not be    liable to become jammed 
in the soldier's cartouch-box4          
8,after firing several rounds1 at #bjj  
yards1 at the target1 we    succeeded in
 obtaining some of ,mr4 ,greener's      
balls1 one of which that    had struck  
the target and did not go through ,i    
send 7marked7 as the    most favourable 
specimen of the day's practice1 the plug
 being driven    hard into the ball1 the
 others having lost their plugs4 ,mr4   
,greener1    whose wishes ,i complied   
with in every way ,i could1 then        
proposed    firing a number of rounds   
into a sandbank1 to show that the plugs 
did    not quit the ball4 ,a great many 
rounds were fired2 in many the plugs    
were out1 in many loosely fixed and     
easily removed1 and in a part    firm4  
,not having the advantage of the target 
,i had desired him to    bring1 a number
 of rounds were fired at the rifle's    
extreme range1 #cej    yards1 as the    
best means left of ascertaining the     

difference of range2    the only result 
of which was1 that it appeared          
invariably to me and    others on the   
slightest resistance from the first the 
plug quitted the    ball1 and therefore 
must have lessened its force from loss  
of weight4    ,the balls from both      
charges1 ,mr4 ,greener's and his        
,majesty's1 went    home to the target1 
but only one of the latter went through4
 ,i had    then fired most of ,mr4      
,greener's cartridges and balls1 and    
fifty    rounds of the practice         
ammunition of the #fjth4 ,i beg to      
submit with    the greatest deference   
that in so great a change as this       
proposed1    even should it be          
considered worthy any other trial1 that 
the    specimens ,i shall send up by the
 earliest opportunity may have          
competent examination--for1 although the
 balls of ,mr4 ,greener bear the        
impress of the grooves of the rifle1 ,i 
am not able to state whether    such may
 not equally well be produced by the    

action of being forced    from the rifle
 as by the expansion ,mr4 ,greener      
states to take    place--should the     
,master-,general deem it necessary that 
any further    experiment be made by me 
and with cartridges properly made up40  
,the immediate result was a very pithy  
epistle from the ,secretary to the      
,board1 saying1 that 8in consequence of 
the bullet ,i had submitted being  #8a  
compound1' it was totally unfit for his 
,majesty's service1 and no  more trials 
could be allowed40    ,this1 in #ahcf1  
was the universal mode of proceeding1 as
 subsequent  events clearly proved2     
whether from inability on the part of   
the  constituted military science       
controllers1 or from a fixed            
determination  to reject all            
improvements from civilians1 ,i knew    
not2 but time  explained it all1 as the 
sequel will show4    ,the total         
destruction1 in #ahda1 of the small arms
 department in the  ,tower of ,london1  
together with all the arms it contained1

 opened a vista  to improvement both in 
the principle and mechanical            
construction of 8,old  ,brown ,bess40   
,this opportunity was not lost4 ,a      
series of letters1 ,nos4 #a  to #f1     
appeared in the ,times in ,november and 
,december1 #ahda1 urging the  necessity 
of a radical change in the construction 
of military arms1 if  the nation was    
still to hold its high military         
prestige4 ,the sensation  created at    
this time was immense1 and no doubt laid
 the foundation stone  for that change  
which has rendered ,english arms        
superior to any in the  world1 instead  
of being1 as they formerly were1        
inferior to any in  ,europe4    ,in one 
of those letters1 which may still be    
found in the ,times of  ,december #beth1
 #ahda1 the following account is given  
of the progress ,i  had made in the     
invention since #ahcf2 and when the form
 and proportions  of my expansive bullet
 of #ahda are contrasted with the       
present and the  original form adopted  

by our ,government from the ,french of  
,captain ,mini  in #ahdi1 it must strike
 the reader as being so palpable a copy 
as to  leave no ground for argument4    
8,one favourite suggestion of ,hutton's 
has hitherto been strenuously  rejected1
 even by those to whom his              
recommendations have1 in other          
respects1 been laws--viz41 his plan of  
using #8oblong bullets4' ,some  years   
ago ,i laid before the ,board of        
,ordnance a very simple plan of  getting
 rid of all windage1 yet of loading     
easily1 and adding to the  weight of the
 projectile 7a favourite theory with the
 artillerists74  ,this was effected by  
employing an oblong ball of lead #8a    
diameter and a  half in length1' having 
a perforation extending through         
two-thirds of  it4 ,an iron plug of a   
conical shape is slightly inserted into 
this  perforation1 and the gun loaded   
with it4 ,when the explosion takes      
place1  this plug is driven home into   
the lead1 and1 by expanding its outer   

surface1 the projectile comes out of the
 gun fitting as tight as  possible1 and 
a line of flight is given to it of      
corresponding accuracy4  ,the advantages
 of this arrangement are numerous1 but1 
in naval warfare1  of the most important
 nature1 giving heavier metal with      
smaller rates1  and from the composition
 and shape of the projectile combined1  
producing  a corresponding destruction4 
8,but the authorities laid the plan upon
 the shelf1 where it will rest  until   
produced by some more important         
personage than myself4 ,the poor        
inventor obtains but poor encouragement1
 while his more wealthy  competitor is  
enabled to have every opportunity of    
trying schemes which1  in most cases1   
are not worth the consideration of any1 
save the friends  of the party40    ,in 
#ahdb1 powerful influence being brought 
to bear1 it was hoped that a  trial of  
my invention would result2 and in order 
to meet the strongly  expressed public  
opinion1 the ,board of ,ordnance ordered

 me to construct  them model arms on my 
own principle4 ,this was done1 and the  
trial  promised by the ,master-,general 
was demanded1 but as obstinately refused
  by the ,select ,committee at          
,woolwich1 whose power was superior to  
that of  the ,master-,general2 though he
 was fully pledged to afford me a trial4
    ,thus the progress of invention was 
delayed until #ahdh2 sometimes          
enlivened1 however1 by the bursting of a
 shell of intelligence in the  camp of  
military prejudice4 ,slashing letters   
appeared from time to time  on military 
incapacity4 ,meanwhile ,captain         
,delvigne and ,captain ,thierry         
continued their experiments1 and on     
,june #bast1 #ahdb1 a patent was        
obtained in ,france1 which is thus      
described3--    8,for having hollowed   
the base of my cylindro-conical bullet1 
not only  for motives mentioned in the  
descriptive memoir given with my demand 
for  a patent1 but besides to obtain its
 expansion 7son panouissement7 by  the  

effect of the gases produced through the
 ignition of the powder4 ,by  this means
 the effort of the powder itself1 which 
formerly caused  spherical bullets to   
deviate from the grooves1 now           
contributes to force  the bullets of my 
system more firmly into them40    ,in a 
paper published by ,m4 ,delvigne in the 
,spectateur ,militaire1 of  ,august1    
#ahdc1 we also find3--      8,in order  
to avoid too great friction ,i grooved  
the cylindrical    surface of the       
bullet2 but1 whilst ,i thus increased   
the windage of    the body of the       
projectile1 ,i reserved1 at the two     
extremities of the    cylindrical part1 
two circular rings of a diameter almost 
equal to    that of the calibre4 ,these 
two rings fixed accurately in the bore1 
secured the perfect position of the axis
 of the bullet1 which the blow    of the
 ramrod then forced tightly4 ,in case of
 foulness1 they easily    gave way to   
the blows of the ramrod1 and the axis of
 the bullet    remained in the required 

position4 ,the hollowing of the sides of
 the    bullet gives besides the means  
of fixing on the cartridge without      
increasing the diameter of the calibre4 
,but during these    investigations1 ,i 
made an important discovery1 which was1 
that the    gas produced by the ignition
 of the powder1 rushing into the vacuum 
formed at the base of the bullet1       
expanded it and forced it into the      
grooves4 ,i here give the idea1 a new   
one1 as ,i think1 and recommend    its  
application to such as occupy themselves
 with the effect of    fire-arms and    
powder4 ,the following1 however1 must be
 avoided3 if the    hollow is too deep1 
the expansion is too great1 and the     
consequent    friction enormous2        
sometimes even the gas will traverse the
 bullet1    and consequently the        
projectile is deprived of a             
proportionary amount    of velocity2 if 
too small1 the expansion does not take  
place40    ,in #ahdg and #ahdh ,captain 
,mini makes his first appearance on the 

boards2  and he proposed a hollow iron  
cup to fill up the cavity in ,delvigne's
  bullet1 and from this circumstance we 
get the name of ,mini rifle4    ,the    
serious defects in our arms were now1   
however1 becoming so glaring1  and the  
disgrace of getting worsted in          
skirmishes with contemptible foes  in   
the ,cabul and ,caffre wars1 as well as 
nearer home in the  ,mediterranean1     
raised public indignation against the   
military arms  department2 and this     
indignation reached such a pitch that an
 immediate  change was called for4 ,the 
so-called invention of ,captain ,mini   
offered  itself1 and was immediately    
adopted1 though the very same thing had 
previously1 on two occasions1 been      
rejected at my hands4    ,thus the      
history of the rifle is brought up to   
the adoption by the  ,government of my  
principle1 under the name of the ,mini  
rifle2 and the  validity of the pleas on
 the part of the several claimants for a
 share  in the invention has been       

succinctly stated4    ,during the       
succeeding years ,i several times made  
unsuccessful attempts  to obtain from   
the ,english ,government a recognition  
of my claim to the  invention4 ,true it 
is that insult was not added to injury1 
for they did  not tell me ,i had no     
claim as an inventor1 but they sheltered
 themselves  under the political plea of
 8,oh1 my dear sir1 the injustice did   
not  occur under our ,administration1 or
 we should be so happy to remedy it60   
,time went on1 and war came at length1  
and brought with it proof that but  for 
my invention we should have been ill    
prepared4 8,the queen of weapons  saved 
the fight30 so said the ,thunderer4     
8,when war's wild din was done10  the   
poor inventor was listened to4    ,the  
first step taken was through ,mr4       
,scholefield1 the member for            
,birmingham1 who moved in the ,house of 
,commons for copies of the              
correspondence between myself and the   
,board of ,ordnance in #ahcf1 and the   

papers therewith connected4 ,thus an act
 of glaring injustice was  exposed1 and 
there was evidence of proceedings having
 been enacted over  which ,i would      
rather draw a veil4 ,the authorities    
were no doubt shocked  at the injustice 
which the poor inventor had met with at 
the hands of  the then ,board of        
,ordnance4    ,thus ,i obtained the     
,secret ,report1 which elevates so high 
the names of  those who could designate 
a plan as 8useless and chimerical10#ac  
which  was destined eventually to create
 greater changes in gunnery than it had 
undergone from its earliest invention4  
#ac ,,the ,,secret ,,report ,,of ,,the  
,,select ,,committee4                   
,,present3--,major-,general ,millar2    
,colonel ,adye1 ,c4,b42 ,colonel ,tyer1 
,c4,b42 ,colonel ,drummond1 ,c4,b42 ,sir
 ,alex4 ,dickson1 ,k4,c4,b42 ,major     
,dundas4      8,woolwich1 #bith ,august1
 #ahcf4      8,,sir1--      8,i have the
 honour to report that1 in obedience to 
your minute1 dated    the #bbnd inst41  

,i assembled the ,select ,committee for 
the purpose of    considering a new     
invented cartridge for rifles1 made by  
,mr4 ,william    ,greener1 gunmaker1 of 
,newcastle4 ,patterns of these          
cartridges1 with a    report from ,major
 ,walcott1 ,royal ,horse ,artillery1 of 
a day's practice    with them at        
,tynemouth4 ,several balls that have    
been discharged at and    collected     
after that practice were submitted to   
the ,committee1 who1    after an        
attentive consideration1 is of opinion  
that the ends purposed    by ,mr4       
,greener have not been accomplished2    
that his plan is useless    and         
chimerical4 ,the ,committee do not1     
therefore1 recommend any    further     
trial in the terms solicited by ,mr4    
,greener in his memorial of    the #fth 
inst4      8,i have1 c41      8,,william
 ,,millar1 ,dep4-,adjut4-,gen40    ,i   
then disputed the fact of its being a   
,french invention before the  juries of 
the ,french ,exposition in #ahee2 there1

 however1 my evidence was  inadmissible1
 from the fact of it not having been    
exhibited1 and the  invention not being 
a recent one4 ,in spite of all this1 ,i 
still  persevered2 and my next step was 
to submit the subject to royalty4 ,i    
first submitted it to the ,emperor      
,napoleon1 who carefully investigated   
the facts of the case1 and admitted the 
,englishman's priority4  ,eventually the
 ,british ,government1 after much       
trouble1 also admitted the  fact1       
7though not until after it had been     
submitted to the successors  of the     
original select committee7 and awarded  
me the sum of #a1jjjl4 in  the army     
estimates of #aheg4    ,it is a fact1   
which all will acknowledge1 that the    
principles involved  in an invention    
should be best known to the inventor    
himself2 and if he  is unable to explain
 the very principles of such invention1 
then it is  quite fair to presume that  
he was not the original inventor4       
,now there is no evidence that either   

,delvigne or ,mini had any profound     
knowledge of the science of gunnery1 and
 their knowledge of the  principles of  
the expansive rifle was so meagre as to 
justify the  assumption1 that their only
 connection with its production was that
 of  copying from the ,times newspaper1 
or from my works published in #ahdb  and
 #ahdf4 ,my observations certainly      
appeared before any of theirs2 and ,i   
believe that no straining of facts can  
in any way connect them with the        
invention1 which was as perfect in #ahda
 as when they reproduced it in  #ahdh   
and #ahdi4    ,with these remarks1 ,i   
pass on to what is of more importance1  
viz41 the  principle of the expansive   
rifle4    ,it had long been known that  
to give a spiral motion to a bullet in a
  direction coincident to its line of   
flight1 was the standard of  perfection 
in rifle projectiles2 but this1 until   
the invention of the  expansive bullet1 
could never be attained with safety4    
,spheres receiving this motion are not  

likely to retain it1 because the        
periphery of the spherical bullet is1 in
 all cases1 subjected to much  more     
friction than the rest of the sphere2 a 
change would therefore  certainly be    
induced1 the axis of the spinning motion
 being changed from  one coincident to  
the line of flight to that of one       
vertical to the  same4 ,the two grooved 
rifle was an illustration of this2 for  
in all  cases the projections on the    
bullet induced a change1 the ring of the
  bullet revolving parallel to the      
horizontal line1 as ,i predicted in     
#ahda4    ,enough has been said to point
 out the prejudicial action of any      
projections on projectiles1 both as     
regards their accuracy and length of    
flight2 perfect smoothness of surface   
being1 in fact1 absolutely  necessary4  
,lengthened study and a series of       
experiments with bullets of  a          
sphero-cylindrical shape having grooves 
and projections on their  exterior      
identical with the grooving of the      

interior of the barrel1 led  me to      
consider the production of a bullet with
 a considerable cavity  7equal1 in fact1
 to two-thirds of its length7 at the    
same time adopting  as a standard one   
and a half diameters in the length of   
the bore of the  gun2 thus the thickness
 of the metal between the apex of the   
bullet and  apex of the cavity was      
nearly one half of the diameter1 as the 
following  diagram will show4           
,illustration    ,this enabled me to    
insure two important principles1 on     
which depended  the success of the whole
 invention4 #ast4 ,the centre of gravity
 was in  the head of the projectile4    
#bnd4 8,the force was communicated      
directly  to the centre of gravity      
during the explosion40 ,this is a most  
important principle1 which all writers  
presuming to give their version  to the 
theory of the expansive system1 have    
entirely overlooked4    ,if the arrow   
could receive the propelling force in   
the head1 its motion  would be even1 and

 free from 8hobbling10 as ,roger ,ascham
 wishes it to  be2 but if1 on the       
contrary1 it is received at the opposite
 extremity1  then there is a struggle   
between the head and the tail1 as to    
which  shall be first1 and a 8wobbling0 
motion is induced1 enduring until an    
equilibrium of velocity is established4 
,it is essential to all future progress 
in the science of projectiles1  that    
this point should be remembered1 and its
 importance duly estimated2  and it is  
possible to apply this principle to     
projectiles of any weight4  ,if this    
point be attended to1 where is the      
difficulty in extending the  length of  
our projectiles to that of arrows8 thus 
increasing their range  indefinitely4   
,there is1 in fact1 no law to limit the 
length of expansive  bullets3 the only  
limit to their length now is the        
tendency of lead to  squash2 but alloys 
of lead and other metals may yet be     
beneficially used  for projectiles1 and 
that to an extent of which at present we

 can form  no conception4    ,the range 
of vision of the human eye being        
inferior to the range of the  rifle will
 probably be the only limit to its use2 
and this range will  not be difficult to
 attain3 reduction in the size of bore  
enables us to  elongate the bullet      
without diminishing its weight or the   
accuracy of  its range2 but without the 
existence of a cavity to insure the     
force  being applied to the head of the 
bullet1 this cannot possibly be done2   
whilst all other shapes are limited in  
their application1 and an  extension of 
range cannot be obtained with them4     
,next to these two important points in  
the invention comes the question  of    
expansion1 whereby the grooves of the   
rifle are filled up with lead1  and     
windage is as far as possible obviated4 
,the expander ,i first  employed        
consisted of a tapering piece of iron1  
similar in shape to the  frustum of a   
cone1 and this1 when inserted into the  
cavity of the  bullet1 was flush with   

the bottom of the cylinder4 ,the force  
generated  by the ignition of the charge
 was exerted equally on the plug and on 
the  leaden cylinder2 the plug1 however1
 moving more rapidly than the lead1  is 
driven quicker into the bullet1 the     
bullet expands1 and thus the  filling up
 of the grooves is accomplished4 ,there 
can be no doubt that at  the same time  
an upward force is exerted by the plug  
on the leaden  bullet2 and that1 too1 of
 a more elastic character than would be 
exerted  by the gases themselves1 if    
they were allowed to act directly with  
all  their force upon the lead2 for it  
is a fact beyond all dispute1 that any  
force tending to set matter in motion   
gradually is more effective than  that  
which is instantaneous in its action4   
,many writers condemn in toto the ,mini 
principle and its cup4 ,mini  did not   
understand it2 and the introduction of  
the cup by him was1 ,i  believe1 an     
accident1 or the best he could do by    
copying my mode of  using it3 it was not

 the production of his own brain4    ,it
 has been urged as an argument against  
the use of this cup1 that  sometimes    
expansion does not occur4 ,this1        
however1 may easily be  accounted for by
 the fact that the cup is not tightly   
fitted into the  cavity of the bullet2 a
 space is left through which the elastic
 fluid  penetrates the cavity1 the cup  
then has as much pressure exerted upon  
it  behind as in front1 and hence it    
remains undisturbed4    ,then the cup is
 sometimes driven in so violently that  
it becomes  flattened against the flat  
surface of the upper portion of the     
cavity1  cutting the lead so entirely as
 to leave the cylindrical portion of the
  bullet in the breech of the gun2 this 
is well known to have been a  frequent  
occurrence on the first introduction of 
this bullet4 ,these  defects are        
instanced1 as evidence to show that     
,mini and others have no  claim whatever
 to the production of the original      
idea--they cannot even  now grasp it1   

but condemn it1 because it is beyond the
 limits of their  comprehension4 ,true  
it is that1 after blundering for several
 years1 our  ,government have come back 
to my original idea1 as the following   
quotation will show3--    8,colonel     
,hay10 says ,sir ,howard ,douglas1 8has 
introduced an important  improvement in 
the shape of the cup1 and in the figure 
of the cavity  into which it is forced  
on the firing of the charge4 ,it will be
  perceived that the cavity in the ,mini
 shot has the form of the frustum  of a 
cone1 while that of the cup is a        
hemisphere3 now all who have  examined  
the shot picked up after having struck  
an iron target or  penetrated into the  
earth1 find that the hemispherical cup  
is very  liable to be canted or turned  
instead of being forced directly into   
the  hollow space2 the lead of the shot 
is not driven equally into the  grooves 
of the rifle4 ,for this evil ,colonel   
,hay has proposed a remedy1  in giving  
both to the cup and the cavity in the   

shot conoidal forms2 by  which means the
 former must1 by the force of the       
powder1 proceed  directly forward in the
 hollow space1 and thus uniformly expand
 the  lower part of the shot in the     
bore40    ,if this is not conclusive    
evidence of the priority of my          
invention1 then  ,i cannot understand   
the ,english language4    ,the next     
object ,i sought to obtain in the       
invention was a reduction of  opposing  
surface1 and an increased momentum4 ,the
 law of atmospheric  resistance is as   
the area of displacement1 and the       
velocity with which  that displacement  
is effected4 ,thus1 a spherical bullet  
of one ounce  weight displaces a bulk of
 the atmosphere equal to the area of its
  hemisphere2 whereas an elongated      
bullet of the same weight would have to 
displace so much less as is the         
difference between their diameters4     
,these two bullets1 started at equal    
velocities1 are acted upon very         
differently by opposing forces2 the     

velocity of the spherical is  diminished
 much sooner than that of the elongated 
bullet1 on account of  its greater      
diameter3 hence the increased range of  
the elongated bullet4  ,let us suppose  
an extreme case4 ,take a bullet produced
 from a  description of hardened lead   
five diameters in length1 and presenting
 to  the atmosphere one-fifth the       
surface of a spherical bullet of equal  
weight2 the reasonable assumption would 
be that this bullet would range  a      
greater distance if projected at the    
same velocity1 and if the same  charge  
of gunpowder be used as with a spherical
 bullet4    ,the first series of        
experiments clearly established the fact
 that  increased range could be         
obtained1 and also with a vast reduction
 in the  charge of gunpowder3 with a    
saving1 in fact1 of nearly #ej per cent4
 ,two  drachms and a half were found    
equal to a range of fourteen hundred    
yards1 whilst four drachms and a half on
 the old system would rarely  reach half

 that distance4 ,these important points 
were gradually  developed1 though not   
without many disappointments and much   
mental  anxiety3 the last discovery1 to 
have rendered the task easy1 should have
  been the first4    ,extreme spiral    
curve in the rifle barrel is            
incompatible with the  correct action of
 the expansive bullet4 ,the             
old-established turns of one  in four   
feet1 one in three feet1 and one in two 
feet nine inches1 gave  results in the  
order ,i have placed them2 and it was   
not until the  adoption of a spiral     
approximating to one turn in five and a 
half up to  six feet1 that ,i found the 
success of my experiments uniform3 and  
this  fact illustrates one great        
obstacle which my invention had to      
contend  with before it was generally   
adopted4    ,the ordinary sporting      
rifles have invariably too much spiral2 
the amount  of friction generated by an 
expansive bullet in a rifle of this     
construction is enormous1 absorbing in  

many cases one half the power of  the   
expellant4 ,the result of this is most  
unsatisfactory3 the bullet  suddenly    
loosed from this immense friction1 and  
freed from the column of  air in the    
tube1 rushes so wildly forward as       
entirely to destroy  equilibrium in its 
flight2 and hence the very loud         
complaints of  disappointed             
experimenters4    ,the expansive        
principle now adopted combines such     
qualities that1  however long and loudly
 it may be condemned1 it will again     
assert its  superiority1 and hold       
undisputed the first place for          
generations to  come4 ,it is based on   
that law of nature which will always    
tell in  mechanical productions2 namely1
 minimum of friction1 and hence maximum 
of propulsion or velocity2 the greatest 
possible range with the least  amount of
 expellant agency4 ,the same law holds1 
even though the bullet  should be       
elongated and made into an arrow4 ,that 
which has been  introduced to the world 

as an improvement on my invention1 and  
modestly  termed the 8,pritchett        
bullet10 ,i rejected in #ahda as being  
inferior to  the expansive bullet3 any  
one who is curious1 and wishes to be    
convinced  of this fact1 will find the  
following quotation in the ,naval and   
,military ,gazette for ,february1       
#ahdb3--8;,a great improvement may be   
effected by using plugs of a cylindrical
 shape1 having the upper end  round1 and
 the part next the powder flat or       
concave2 for rifles1 to be  of use1 must
 be constructed for high velocity1 and  
this can be done by a  proportionate    
spiral and the use of a plug similar to 
that given above4  ,in this case we may 
load with the greatest facility1 and the
 bullet  expanding1 forces itself into  
the grooves of the rifle1 and thus      
receives the modicum of spiral motion   
required40 ,a perusal of 8,captain      
,jervis on the ,musket ,rifle0 would    
lead one to infer that this was a  great
 invention on the part of ,mr4          

,pritchett1 and that it would  supersede
 to a certainty the more perfect        
expansive bullet2 but ,mr4  ,pritchett's
 so-called invention has sunk into      
oblivion1 from whence it  will never    
emerge4    ,from practice ,i found that 
the most material defect in this bullet 
was  its uncertainty of action3 it was  
driven in upon itself1 and thus its     
diameter was increased4 ,a slight       
difference in the hardness of the lead1 
a bullet moulded when the metal was hot1
 and the reverse1 would be such         
insuperable difficulties as to render   
their adoption quite  impracticable2    
moreover1 when rapid firing became      
necessary1 the  enormous friction       
created by the heat and hardness of the 
previous  deposit from exploded powder1 
rendered the use of these bullets highly
  dangerous2 as was proved in the       
,crimean war4 ,i trust they are now for 
ever abandoned1 for their adoption did  
not show great intelligence on  the part
 of their advocates4    ,the expansive  

principle not being adopted in the      
armies of ,france and  other            
,continental nations1 may be justly     
attributed to the experimenters  of the 
,french school having been led astray2  
claiming1 as they did1 the  entire merit
 of the invention4 ,it is but fair that 
whilst endeavouring  to establish my own
 claim to the invention1 ,i should point
 out the  discrepancies existing in the 
theory of my opponents4    ,that        
considerable imperfections exist in the 
expansive rifle used in  ,france1 is    
evident from the results of their       
experiments1 and the time  which has    
been wasted in discussing the principles
 necessary for  correcting the flight of
 the bullet by 8annular rings0 being    
applied to  its cylindrical part4       
,captain ,tamissier's theory is 8that an
 elongated bullet in passing  through   
the air1 describing the curve of the    
trajectory1 maintained its  axis        
parallel in its successive positions to 
the position it had at  starting1 and   

that the angle formed by this axis with 
the element of the  trajectory--that is1
 the direction of the motion--changed   
every instant4  ,the action of          
atmospheric resistance would also be    
altered by the  surface presented by the
 projectile2 as the point of application
 of this  force would not always pass   
through the centre of gravity1 but would
  establish a rotatory motion different 
from that with which the bullet  was    
originally animated3 in different words1
 the bullet1 by preserving  its original
 position1 would after a time be        
pursuing its path with its  broadside   
foremost2 that is1 with the point of its
 axis above the line  of the trajectory 
and the near end below4    8,to remedy  
this1 and increase the precision of fire
 with these bullets1  ,captain          
,tamissier thought it was necessary to  
create resistances to the  atmosphere as
 far as possible behind their centre of 
gravity1 in order  to bring the point of
 the bullet back to its original course4

 ,for this  purpose he formed a number  
of circular grooves on the cylindrical  
part  of the bullet1 in imitation of the
 feathers of an arrow2 which1 he says1  
are placed at the hinder part to        
engender resistances40    ,the folly of 
such a theory must be very apparent to a
 practical man4 ,the  engraving below of
 a bullet obtained direct from ,captain 
,mini in  ,december1 #ahee1 and with    
which the troops were then experimenting
 at  ,vincennes1 when compared with my  
bullet of #ahdc1 renders any further    
argument unnecessary4    ,illustration3 
,,minie ,,bullet1 #ahee4                
,illustration3 ,,greenerian ,,bullet1   
#ahdc4    ,with this ,i contrast my     
bullet of #ahda1 at page #ced1 and a    
very slight  inspection will be         
sufficient to satisfy any one of its    
superiority3  every practical           
rifle-shooter knows that the smoother   
all the surfaces  of the bullet1 the    
more extensive and accurate is the      
range4 ,that the  ,french experiments   

should have given unsatisfactory results
 ,i am not at  all surprised3 the flat  
surface on the point of the bullet must 
offer a  large space for the resistance 
of the atmosphere1 during #a1jjj yards  
of  flight4 ,then to this must be added 
the effect produced by the rings  around
 the bullet2 and when the resistance of 
the atmosphere and that  produced by the
 friction of the bullet are added       
together1 we need not  be surprised that
 the results of the experiments turned  
out very  unsatisfactory4 ,surely1 if   
the ,french school invented the bullet  
which  produced this wonderful          
revolution in gunnery1 they would have  
rendered  it perfect1 instead of        
producing it in a more rude state in    
#ahdh than ,i  had produced it in #ahdj4
    ,another point affording strong     
evidence that the whole was copied from 
my work of #ahdb1 is this4 ,in my       
original plan the bottom of the cavity  
of the bullet was flat1 exactly as it   
now appears in ,captain ,mini's  annular

 ringed bullet4 ,in #ahdc this was      
changed into a hemispherical  bottom2   
and this exists in all ,english         
expansive bullets1 as the  adjoining    
woodcut will show4    ,in #aheb ,i      
produced a new form of cup1 intended to 
obviate the use of the  heavier         
substance1 or conical piece of iron4 ,in
 addition to a cup of a  parabolic      
spindle shape1 it had a rim like that on
 a man's hat1 as the  woodcut will show4
    ,illustration    ,a great advantage 
is gained by this contrivance in        
effectually expanding  the bullet1 and  
thus closing up stray appendages1 which 
are found to  exert considerable        
influence on the ultimate direction of  
the bullet4 ,a  slight tail of          
cartridge-paper1 a string1 or an        
appendage of any  description1 exerts   
such an important influence on the      
bullet's flight1  as to cause it in some
 instances to describe a curve1 the     
termination of  which is very eccentric1
 and commences from the very base of its

  starting4 ,it is evident1 then1 that  
great accuracy is necessary in order  to
 produce a perfect expansive bullet4    
,english bullets are pressed into  shape
 by machinery1 whilst in ,france they   
are formed in the ordinary  mould2 this1
 however1 is at all times an uncertain  
mode of making them3  a slight cavity in
 the head of the bullet would make it   
eccentric in  its flight2 and this is   
very difficult to avoid3 a slight       
puncture1 or  an eruption on the        
surface1 would1 during a lengthened     
flight1 be  materially acted upon by the
 atmosphere1 so as to influence in a    
great  degree the direction of its      
flight4    ,the scientific world is     
deeply indebted to ,general ,jacob1 of  
the ,scinde  ,horse1 for the zeal and   
energy he has displayed in carrying out 
his  principle of projectiles4 ,he      
experimented on a scale never before    
attempted by any private individual2 his
 explosive projectiles have  created    
universal interest1 and the great ranges

 he obtained will hand  down the        
,general's name in the history of       
gunnery to all future  generations4     
,whilst ascribing all credit to ,general
 ,jacob for the benefit he has  bestowed
 on projectile science1 it is not less  
my duty to point out how  unfortunate   
for science1 and for the ,general's     
scientific reputation1  were the defects
 which exist in the system of which he  
is so strenuous  an advocate4           
,general ,jacob's principle differs from
 mine as widely as the poles are        
separated from each other4 ,in mine     
there exists the least amount of        
friction1 the minimum of spiral motion1 
and a most extensive range1 with  the   
smallest expenditure of expellant force4
    ,in the ,general's invention these  
points are exactly reversed3 friction   
is at the highest point1 the degree of  
spiral in the groove is more than       
double1 and the charge1 as a matter of  
course1 is much greater4 ,the  range is 
greater1 no doubt2 as it ought to be1   

being obtained at treble  cost4 ,cost1  
in all cases1 is the key to success or  
failure2 not cost in  a monetary sense  
only1 but cost of wear and tear4        
,destruction of the  barrel1 and the    
amount of buffeting by recoil1 are      
points of cost2 and  the principle of   
,general ,jacob is so nearly allied to  
that of the  8hexagonal0 rifle1 that    
many will think1 and perhaps not without
 good  reason1 that the one has given   
rise to the production of the other4    
,the  great length of column1 #b-a_/b   
diameters in height1 is so extreme1 as  
to  be evidence in itself of the very   
unsound principles on which this rifle  
is constructed4 ,when bullets composed  
entirely of lead are used1 the  result  
is that the bullet is so driven in upon 
itself1 as to upset the  whole          
structure1 8swaging0 it whilst in the   
barrel into a long  cylindrical tube of 
lead1 as the wood-cut1 exhibiting the   
bullet before  and after firing1 will   
sufficiently explain2 whilst the        

friction and  lateral pressure on the   
tube of the barrel1 which must be       
necessary to  effect the change in the  
bullet1 require no further comment4     
,illustration3 ,,point ,,of ,,bullet    
,,before ,,firing4    ,illustration3    
,,whole ,,bullet ,,after ,,firing4      
,the experience gained by ,general      
,jacob induced him subsequently to      
adopt an iron or zinc-pointed bullet1 as
 is depicted in the wood  engraving4    
,illustration3 ,,complete ,,bullet4     
,illustration3 ,,metal ,,point4    ,thus
 departing from the true science of the 
question1 instead of giving  the centre 
of gravity to the head of the bullet1 he
 tries to overcome  the difficulties by 
which his system is beset1 by increasing
 the spiral  motion4 ,as other writers  
take a similar view of the question1 ,i 
insert  the following quotation from a  
small work by ,lieutenant ,simons1      
,bengal  ,artillery1 entitled 8,a       
,treatise on ,fire-arms10 where we have 
the  following appropriate remarks1     

strongly bearing on the peculiarities of
  this system3--    8,every point upon  
the surface of a projectile in motion1  
whether it be a  rocket1 javelin1 ship1 
bullet1 arrow1 or any other description 
of  projectile1 is the end of a lever1  
the fulcrum of which is situated in  the
 projectile's centre of gravity4 ,the   
effect of the air to upset1 i4  e41 to  
force the light or pointed end of such  
projectile to the rear1  or to unsteady1
 or cause to waver1 the same1 depends   
upon the lengths of  the levers at the  
ends of which it acts1 and upon the     
angles at which  it presses against such
 levers1 as determined by the positions 
of the  points and by the shape of the  
projectile2 it likewise depends upon the
  specific intensity of the pressure1   
which is doubtless greatest in the      
neighbourhood of those parts of the     
projectile which least easily allow  the
 air to escape past them4    8,an       
illustration in part of the truth of the
 foregoing proposition will  present    

itself to the conceptions of those who  
have taken notice of the  manner of the 
flight of rockets1 or who have witnessed
 shells projected  from mortars at night
 time4 ,the light of the burning fuse1  
particularly  during the first part of  
the flight of the shell1 is seldom      
obscured  from the sight of the         
beholders in the battery from which it  
is fired4  ,the end of the fuse         
protruding beyond the general surface of
 the shell  is the end of a lever whose 
fulcrum is the shell's centre of        
gravity4  ,the pressure of the air      
against this lever as the shell moves   
forward1  drives it to the rear1 in     
which place it would remain steady1 did 
the  shell in its course describe a     
straight line2 a curve1 however1 being  
the line actually described1 it follows 
that the direction from which  the      
resistance created by the shell's own   
motion comes1 is ever varying2  whereby 
the occurrence of an equilibrium is     
prevented1 and the shell is  caused to  

oscillate laterally as it were4 ,if the 
size of the fuze end of  it1 however1 be
 at all considerable1 the shell will    
rarely topple over1  and1 in            
consequence1 the light of the fuze1     
during the ascending curve1  will       
generally be visible4    8,the more     
rapidly a ball is made to reach its     
goal1 the nearer will the  line         
described by it approach to a straight  
one1 and the less will it  roll4 ,it is 
possible that the old musket-ball did   
not roll much during  the first fifty or
 hundred yards of its flight1 and that  
the accuracy of  shooting with it will  
have been less on this account4 ,a ball 
which does  not roll1 may be said to be 
#8in position2' there is inherent in it 
a  fixed tendency to deviate from the   
line in which it is projected4 ,now a   
shell which rolls much by reason of its 
comparatively slow motion1 is  ever     
tending to stray in different           
directions1 and1 therefore1 a  movement 
in the wrong direction1 at one moment1  

being compensated for  the next by a    
corresponding movement in the opposite  
direction1 it may  be by this means a   
recipient of an amount of accidental    
compensation to  which1 perhaps1 the    
musket-ball is a stranger4    8,such    
being the manifest effect of projections
 upon the surface of a  shell1 it is not
 difficult to imagine what must be the  
unseen effect of  projections on the    
surface of a rifle ball4 ,one           
projection1 placed  without regard to   
effect upon such surface1 would make the
 ball jog and  oscillate much after the 
manner that has been described4 ,two or 
more of  proper form and construction   
will1 on the contrary1 if properly      
placed  upon a projectile1 hold it      
steady1 and so impart to it a fixed     
tendency  to digress1 thereby preparing 
it to be usefully operated upon by      
spiral  motion4    8,so much as has been
 said will1 ,i think1 suffice to        
disprove that not  unfrequently         
entertained notion to the effect that   

the light end of a  bullet is kept      
forward by the operation of the spiral  
motion imparted to  it4 ,i could cite   
more than one person and pamphlet       
7,general ,jacob71  apparently under the
 influence of this belief1 but which    
certainly does  not accord with theory1 
and the practical incorrectness of which
 was  thus manifested to me40    ,the   
,whitworth rifle1 which was introduced  
to the world with a clarion  flourish   
from the ,times1 has not made any very  
rapid progress toward  perfection4 ,it  
still drags out an existence1 it is     
true1 but its boasted  superiority is   
all a myth2 as time and experience will 
show4    ,like the former1 but more     
meritorious1 invention of ,general      
,jacob1 it is  based on an unsound      
principle1 an untenable theory1 good    
only in  seeming1 which collapses when  
grasped by the hand of practical        
experience4    ,the peculiarity         
connected with this weapon is the       
extraordinary  circumstances under which

 it first saw the light3--,it was       
produced by  the aid of ,plutus1        
dragging in reputed science to fashion  
on the instant  a weapon superior to the
 tardy results of three centuries2      
though during  that period numbers of   
talented individuals had devoted their  
lives to  the study of gunnery4         
,wealth is generally believed to be able
 to remove all obstructions1 and  even  
to purchase capacity1 if need be2 though
 it can scarcely enable one  individual 
to surpass the experience of ages1      
however talented that  individual may   
be4 ,the attempt thus to obtain such    
assistance was a  slight by the         
,government of the day to the improvers 
of ,british  fire-arms2 they were passed
 over as of no value1 and the country's 
wealth was thrown into the lap of a     
talented1 but at the same time1 not  a  
practical man4    ,the ,government of   
this country had on all previous        
occasions exacted  from inventors their 
brains and their money1 as an offering  

in exchange  for patronage2 on this     
occasion1 however1 they departed widely 
from  their usual custom1 for the       
8mountain came to the mouse40 ,it would 
have  been a grateful compliment if the 
,government had said to the inventor1   
8,you have done something for the good  
of your country with your limited       
means1 here are thousands of pounds at  
your command2 do something  better1 for 
we need it40 ,but nothing of the kind   
was done3 a selection  was made1        
justified by no antecedent              
qualifications4 ,the first thing        
necessary was the acquirement in a very 
short time of a practical  knowledge of 
gunnery1 in order that a weapon should  
be produced superior  to any other2 but 
whether success has attended these      
efforts or not is  still doubtful1 and  
this is in itself a fit rebuff to the   
,minister1 who  expected1 like the      
citizen's wife1 that 8gold would        
purchase capacity40    ,the great defect
 in the hexagonal-bored rifle is the    

extreme amount of  friction1 and the    
consequent useless expenditure of means4
    ,the bullet is produced in the most 
accurate manner in a lathe1 and is      
composed of an alloy of lead1 tin1 and  
manganese1 so as to render it  hard     
enough to resist the tendency to squash 
or swage2 which is the case  in ,general
 ,jacob's principle4 ,the angles on the 
bullet are cut with the  greatest       
precision1 in order to fit the groove of
 the barrel2  constituting1 in fact1 a  
female screw of two turns in every      
thirty-nine  inches of length4    ,as   
fair play has always been my motto1 ,i  
am actuated by no other desire  than    
that of enabling the reader to form a   
true conception of the  intricate nature
 of projectile science2 and though the  
eulogium bestowed  on the inventor's own
 creation is rather egotistical1 ,i give
 it entire1  dissecting it afterwards in
 the manner ,i think most conducive to a
  correct knowledge of the real science 
of gunnery4    8,,the ,,whitworth ,,and 

,,enfield ,,rifles4      8,for the last 
few days a very interesting and         
important series of    experiments has  
been in progress at the ,government     
,school of ,musketry1    ,hythe1 in     
order to test the comparative merits of 
these two rifles4    ,the trial1 which  
was of the most searching and impartial 
character1    was conducted by ,colonel 
,hay1 the able head of the school1 and  
has    terminated in establishing beyond
 all doubt the great and decided        
superiority of ,mr4 ,whitworth's        
invention4 ,the ,enfield rifle1 which   
was    considered so much better than   
any other as to justify the formation   
of a vast ,government establishment for 
its special manufacture1 has    been    
completely beaten4 ,in accuracy of fire1
 in penetration1 and in    range1 its   
rival excels it to a degree which hardly
 leaves room for    comparison4         
8,the following table gives the best    
results that have been obtained    from 
#aj shots of each arm respectively1 in  

the course of the    experiments1 which 
have extended over a week in time1 and  
were brought    to a close yesterday in 
the presence of ,lord ,panmure and of a 
number    of military and scientific    
spectators3--                           
----------------------------------------
-                 ,range in             
,elevation4,figure of        ,,rifle4   
yards4             ,merit4              
----------------------------------------
-                             ,deg4     
,feet4    ,whitworth              #aae  
#jcg    ,enfield      #ejj       #acb   
#bbd    ,whitworth              #bbj    
#ajj    ,enfield      #hjj       #bde   
#daa    ,whitworth              #cde    
#bda    ,enfield     #a1ajj      #dab   
#hjd    ,whitworth              #ejj    
#dfb    ,enfield     #a1djj   #fbj to   
#g4 ,no hits    ,whitworth              
#fdj    #aafb    ,enfield     #a1hjj    
--      --                              
----------------------------------------
-      ,it would appear from these      

figures that at #ejj yards in #aj shots 
the    ,manchester rifle has a superior 
accuracy of #ahg of a foot2 at #hjj     
yards #caa2 at #a1ajj yards #efc2 and   
that at #a1djj yards and upwards    the 
,enfield weapon ceases to afford any    
data for a comparison4 ,in              
penetration the results obtained have   
been equally decisive2 the    ,whitworth
 projectile1 with the regulation charge 
of powder1 going    through #cc         
half-inch planks of elm1 and being      
brought up by a solid    oak bulk       
beyond1 while the ,enfield ball could   
not get past the #acth    plank4        
8,the shooting on ,tuesday was more to  
satisfy ,lord ,panmure and the    other 
strangers present upon the comparative  
merits of the two weapons    than to    
show the limit of what each could do    
under favourable    circumstances4      
,still1 the targets of every #aj shots  
on either side    bore decisive evidence
 of the superiority of the new rifle1 as
 a    glance at the following table will

 prove3--                               
----------------------------------------
                 ,range                 
in,elevation4,figure of        ,,rifle4 
yards4            ,merit4               
----------------------------------------
                            ,deg4       
,feet4    ,whitworth             #bbb   
#ada    ,enfield        #hjj    #bde    
#efg    ,whitworth                      
#abg    ,enfield        #ejj      --    
#ccj    ,whitworth                      
#acc    ,enfield        #ejj      --    
#dja                                    
----------------------------------------
      8,the last entry in the table     
records the mean radial distance from a 
central point of #aj shots fired from a 
table-rest1 by ,colonel ,hay and    ,mr4
 ,gunner1 the manager of the ,enfield   
factory4 ,both are first-rate           
marksmen1 yet at #ejj yards the         
,manchester rifle in the hands of the   
former gives three times as good        
shooting as the latter can get out of   

the ,government arm4 ,all the other     
trials were made by firing from a       
beautifully-constructed machine rest1   
which placed both weapons on a          
footing of perfect equality as to the   
conditions under which they were        
tested4 ,in addition to the foregoing   
experiments1 there was one for          
showing that with cylindro-conoidal     
balls on the expansion principle    of  
those used for the ,enfield rifle1 very 
superior shooting could be    obtained  
from ,whitworth's hexagonal bore4 ,this 
was most satisfactorily    established1 
the mean deviation on the target from   
the centre of the    group of #aj hits  
being only #he of a foot at #ejj yards' 
range4 ,it will    be observed that at  
#ejj yards' range1 at which the practice
 commenced1    the shooting of          
,whitworth's rifle was so much better   
than the other    that no greater       
distance was attempted4 ,a reference to 
the first table    of experiments will  
also demonstrate that the target made by

 the    former weapon at #a1ajj yards is
 nearly as good as that made by the     
latter at #ejj4 ,these are great results
 to have achieved1 and amply    justify 
the forethought of the late ,lord       
,hardinge in securing the    services of
 so eminent a mechanic as ,mr4          
,whitworth for the improvement    of the
 rifle4 ,until he took the subject in   
hand the proper principles    for       
guidance in the construction of the     
weapon had not been accurately          
determined4 ,the manufacture was still  
conducted by rule of thumb1 and    in a 
very hap-hazard way on the most         
important points4 ,the use of    grooves
 and an expansive projectile made it    
impossible to secure the    requisite   
amount of pitch in the rifling and the  
indispensable    hardness of metal in   
the bullet for penetration4 ,moreover1  
from the    small amount of bearing1 the
 wear and tear both in the barrel and in
    the projectile were enormous1 and   
the length of the latter could not    be

 increased without causing it to capsize
 in its flight4 ,by the    polygonal    
bore and rapid pitch to which the form  
of the bullet    accurately conforms1   
,mr4 ,whitworth has rendered stripping  
impossible1    and1 his rifle when fired
 acting exactly like a male and female  
screw1    the projectile must rotate    
with perfect steadiness and precision on
    its axis4 ,he can increase its      
length so considerably as to secure     
space for converting it into a shell if 
necessary2 and1 being able to    use    
metal of any degree of hardness1 he can 
adapt its form and    strength exactly  
to the work which it has to perform4    
,thus with a    rifle #ci inches long   
and half-inch bore1 having a turn in #bj
 inches1    or two turns in its length1 
he finds no difficulty in penetrating a 
wrought-iron plate #f-ajths of an inch  
thick or cutting a core out of    a     
piece of solid timber half a foot thick2
 and some idea may be formed    of the  
extraordinary power of this arm when we 

mention that his    projectiles in their
 flight rotate at the rate of #ae1jjj   
revolutions    per minute4 ,the question
 of driving holes in the #d-;inch breast
 plates    of floating batteries is at  
once solved by the application of these 
principles to artillery1 the            
construction of which this new rifle    
proves must be completely               
revolutionized4 ,a weapon which in      
expert    hands will make good practice 
at #a1djj yards1 and the range of which 
can be very easily helped by a telescope
 if necessary1 gives the coup    de     
grace to our present system of field    
batteries4 ,at the ,alma it    would    
have silenced the ,russian guns or      
driven them from their    position1     
rendering the rush of the ,light        
,division1 with the heavy    loss of    
life consequent thereon1 unnecessary4   
,nor during the siege of    ,sebastopol 
would the rope mantlets of the ,redan   
and the ,malakhoff    having given much 
protection to the men working behind the

    embrasures10 c41 c41 c4    ,so much 
for the praise bestowed by ,mr4         
,whitworth on his own production4  ,a   
beautiful experiment it has been1 and   
one for which the scientific  world is  
bound to be thankful2 giving1 as it     
does1 perhaps a faint idea  only of what
 is yet to be effected4    ,however1 all
 is not gold that glitters3 it is very  
well to do all this  by straining every 
principle that can be brought to        
bear1--extra charge1  bullets hardened  
and turned with mathematical precision1 
steel barrels1  with a fineness of      
polish in the interior like that of a   
looking-glass--these are all great      
adjuncts in the trial against an        
ordinary unprepared gun1 taken from a   
number promiscuously1 and which  perhaps
 might be the worst specimen in the     
possession of the party at  ,hythe4 ,but
 these are trifles when compared with   
the two following facts4  ,the diameter 
of the bore of ,mr4 ,whitworth's is     
#ejj1 or half-inch at the  largest      

diameter1 and #dej at the smallest1 or a
 mean1 taking the two  extremes1 of     
fifty bore2 the ,enfield is #egg1 or    
twenty-five bore1 and  the bullets on   
leaving the guns were the same weight   
exactly4 ,the length  of the ,enfield   
bullet is #g_/h inch1 that of the       
,whitworth is #a-c_/h inch4  ,but all   
this will be more fully seen from the   
woodcuts4    ,illustration3 ,,enfield   
,,barrel ,,and ,,pritchett ,,bullets4   
,illustration3 ,,whitworth ,,barrel     
,,and ,,bullets4    ,thus it will be    
seen that the amount of resistance or   
displacement of  atmospheric air by one 
bullet is nearly double that of the     
other1 and  this is a most important    
point in ,mr4 ,whitworth's favour2 but  
the  quantity of gunpowder used in the  
one is precisely the same as that used  
in the other1 though ,mr4 ,whitworth's  
rifle is little more than half the  size
 of bore1 the pressure on the square    
inch being consequently nearly  double2 
hence the circumstances are not         

sufficiently equal for ,mr4  ,whitworth 
to claim for his rifle any great        
superiority3 the gun may take  the      
attention of the unwary1 but its        
principles will not bear  investigation4
    ,let me change the circumstances of 
the case1 by retaining the principle  of
 the ,enfield1 but changing the bore to 
the same as ,mr4 ,whitworth's1          
increasing at the same time the length  
of projectile1 and ,i will engage  to   
beat it with a much reduced charge4 ,the
 extreme degree of female  screw or     
spiral1 one turn in twenty inches1 or   
two turns in the whole  length of the   
barrel1 creates1 as must be familiar to 
the most obtuse  mind1 an enormous      
amount of friction1 and in consequence  
of this an  equal quantity of force is  
absorbed3 in other words1 there is a    
useless  waste of force4    ,the        
,enfield barrel has but a proportion of 
turn1 one in six feet six  inches1 or   
exactly half a spiral in the three feet 
three1 generating #cjj  per cent4 less  

friction than in the ,whitworth rifle2  
so that on this  score alone the saving 
would be very great1 and in this trial  
the  ,whitworth would be inferior to the
 ,enfield2 the inventor1 therefore1 has 
unjustly laid claim to superiority1 as  
the trial has been conducted on  very   
unequal terms4    ,mr4 ,whitworth says  
his bullet rotates at the rate of       
#ae1jjj revolutions  in a minute2 now   
the friction on the periphery of a      
bullet having this  extreme spinning on 
an axis1 must very much lessen its      
range4 ,if we  weigh force1 and         
carefully calculate its expenditure in  
#b1jjj yards1 the  periphery has made   
#d1jjj revolutions4 ,now look at the    
shape of the  hexagonal body depicted in
 the woodcut at page #cgg1 and estimate 
the  friction it will undergo4 ,the     
,enfield in the same distance would     
rotate  only #a1jjj times1 thus         
affording another gain of #cjj per cent4
 ,the  question1 therefore1 which arises
 is this3 ,if all this can be done      

equally well with the ,enfield1 why not 
do it8 ,and the answer is1 because      
there is nothing to be gained by it4    
,great doubts now exist whether the     
bore #be is not too great a reduction3  
in fact1 you will find no military      
advocates for it4 ,the faculty will tell
 you that small wounds are not so       
destructive as large ones3 the human    
body is as much affected by the  shock  
as by the penetration of a bullet4 ,many
 other reasons might be  advanced in    
favour of increased size of bullet1 and 
much more important  reasons must be    
given1 before the whole military system 
has to be  re-changed1 than a mere gain 
of #cjj or #djj yards2 whilst there can 
be  little doubt that the ranges we now 
possess in the ,enfield are more than   
equivalent to our wants4 ,the human eye 
cannot define precisely at #ijj or      
#a1jjj yards1 and yet greater accuracy  
is required to fire a ball at a         
distance of #b1jjj yards2 again1 it is a
 question which has frequently  arisen  

in my mind1 in how many situations in   
,england or on the ,continent  can we   
get a clear view of #b1jjj yards4 ,the  
effort1 indeed1 to increase  range      
appears like seeking after a remedy for 
a disease which has never  yet been     
discovered4    ,if ranges of #b1jjj     
yards and upwards are required1 rifled  
cannon will  again take their proper    
place2 for on investigating the tables  
of  practice published by ,general      
,jacob1 ,i find the average distance of 
shot from the centre of butt to be1 at  
#b1jjj yards1 nearly #i feet1 with  #acg
 degrees elevation2 whilst the          
,whitworth is said to be #aa-a_/b feet1 
with about #h degrees of elevation4 ,i  
saw1 some time ago1 some practice  at   
,shoeburyness with an #ah-pounder rifle 
cannon1 which gave a range of  #c1fej   
yards1 with an elevation of #jaj-c_/d   
degrees1 and a breeze blowing  across1 a
 mean deflection of only #cj inches from
 the centre4 ,this throws  ,jacob1      
,whitworth1 and the ,enfield all into   

the shade together2 yet there  can be no
 doubt that this can be excelled1 when  
heavier guns are brought  to the same   
state of perfection as this #ah-pounder4
 ,the case therefore  stands thus3 the  
,jacob rifle has a greater range than   
the ,enfield1 at a  cost of #ajj per    
cent4 more friction1 and an expenditure 
of #ej per cent4  more of projectile    
force2 the ,whitworth has also a greater
 range1 but at  a cost of #cjj per cent4
 more friction1 and #ajj per cent4      
additional  projectile force4 ,with     
these observations ,i leave this subject
 in the  hands of the public1 being     
convinced that projectile power obtained
 at  such a cost will never come into   
general use2 though the production of   
the ,whitworth rifle will always be     
looked upon as an experiment of very    
great interest4    ,there is but one    
other point relating to the use of guns 
on such a  principle1 and that is their 
safety2 which is always of the greatest 
importance4 ,it is a well-known fact    

that the first movement of  projectiles 
depends very much on the amount of      
inertia in that  projectile2 and        
different forms of projectiles1 though  
of the same  weight1 will offer very    
different amounts of resistance to      
motion4 ,no  one can doubt that two     
columns of lead1 each of an ounce in    
weight1 one  being as high again as the 
other1 will offer different amounts of  
resistance2 first1 from the law that the
 time occupied in overcoming  inertia is
 in proportion to the length of that    
body2 secondly1 if these  columns of    
metals are confined in tubes1 then the  
friction on the one  which is half an   
inch long will be much less than on the 
other1 which is  one inch in length3 and
 this is1 on the mildest terms1 the     
relative  position of the two4 ,there   
can be no doubt that a much greater     
pressure  is required to start the      
longer column of double the length2 but 
when we  consider that there are the    
facets of six angles1 with a spiral     

inclination of one in nineteen1 the     
difficulty of starting this bullet      
becomes still more apparent4 ,now       
suppose the gun has been loaded a few   
hours1 and a certain amount of adhesion 
has been effected between the  bullet   
and sides of the barrel1 by the unctuous
 deposit from previous  discharges1 then
 the difficulty of starting the bullet  
instantaneously  will be still more     
increased3 supposing the breech end of a
 barrel1 with  the ordinary charge of   
the ,enfield cartridge and bullet1 has a
 force  exerted upon it of #b1jjj pounds
 in the square inch1 then in the        
hexagonal not much less than double that
 strength will be requisite to  meet the
 contingencies of dirty guns3 in fact ,i
 know that a serious  accident did occur
 very recently with a double rifle      
constructed on  ,whitworth's principle1 
notwithstanding all the care bestowed   
upon it by  a first-rate maker2 and ,i  
believe that this gun1 if it is to be   
used  with safety1 must have a barrel   

double the strength of other rifles4    
,the doubtful nature of ,mr4            
,whitworth's experiments must be        
apparent from  the fact that they were  
made in a shed1 from which strong       
currents of  air were excluded3 any     
bullet would range accurately in vacuo1 
or in  atmosphere equally quiescent2    
deductions1 therefore1 drawn from such  
experiments must be worthless4 ,battles 
occur not under such favourable         
circumstances2 protuberances on bullets 
tell most in high currents1 and  least  
in a quiet atmosphere2 so that had the  
experiments been instituted  in the open
 air1 they would doubtless have yielded 
a different result4  ,the hexagonal     
bullet of large size has been proved to 
be very eccentric  indeed in its flight2
 hence a bullet of the smallest         
dimensions was  used1 for had it been   
larger1 its great enemy1 the atmosphere1
 would  have rendered the chance of even
 partial success perfectly hopeless4    
,now1 observe what would be the effect  

of extension of length and  decrease of 
diameter in the ,greenerean expansive   
bullet4 ,harden it by  alloys1 as       
adopted in the ,whitworth2 use the same 
charge1 and the  probability is great1  
that1 from the absence of extreme       
friction1 it  will excel in range1      
accuracy1 and penetration the           
,whitworth1 as much as  that does now   
the ,enfield4    ,if the ,government can
 see any important advantage to be      
gained by  extending the range we now   
possess2 if anything is to be gained by 
reduction from #be to #ej bore2 if1     
indeed1 there is any point which is     
advantageous in the ,whitworth1 ,i will 
pledge my reputation that this  may be  
obtained in the expansive principle3 and
 that1 too1 with a much  less           
expenditure of expellant force4    ,the 
8hoodwinking0 of the public by not      
disclosing the fact that the  pressure  
of the gunpowder in the ,whitworth was  
double1 the bore being  but one-half1 is
 at best an attempt at concealment not  

creditable to the  parties concerned4   
,knowledge of the principles which      
regulate projectile  science is not so  
scanty as to allow the palm to be       
carried away from  the profession1 and  
worn by a gentleman who1 on his own     
admission1 is  unpractised in the       
science of gunnery4 ,the science to be  
effectually  improved must be carried on
 at the cost of the nation1 as ,mr4     
,whitworth's experiments were4 ,this    
fact certainly bears the appearance  of 
a good precedent1 and ,i hope it may be 
extended4    ,mr4 ,whitworth1 like      
,general ,jacob1 has had to sacrifice   
scientific  economy in order to obtain  
the points he required4 ,i have already 
dilated upon the truism that all        
projectiles range with the greatest     
economy which have the centre of gravity
 in the head or fore part of the        
bullet4 ,i have also pointed out the    
fact that the elongated projectiles     
which have not the centre of gravity in 
the head1 turn over during their  flight

 after leaving the muzzle of the gun2   
and this is also found to be  the case  
in rifles having a greater degree of    
spiral than the ,enfield1  one turn in  
six feet #f inches4 ,to meet this       
difficulty1 therefore1  ,general ,jacob 
adopts one turn of spiral in every three
 feet3 thus his  bullet in passing out  
has double the friction of the ,enfield2
 and when  we look at the fact that he  
is further compelled to increase the    
length  of his bullet to #b-a_/b        
diameters1 a little reflection will     
point out the  entire want of economy in
 his whole arrangement4    ,on turning  
to the ,whitworth1 we find that1 in     
order to ensure his bullet  keeping     
point foremost in its flight1 he has to 
double the very great  spiral adopted by
 ,jacob3 thus we have all its           
concomitant disadvantages1  friction1   
expenditure of matter1 and danger of    
bursting the gun4 ,when we  contemplate 
such arrangements as exist in these two 
guns1 it must be  evident that they are 

both self-destructive4 ,no system of    
projectiles  can be durable which is    
effected by straining all the           
acknowledged  principles of mechanics2  
and this has been done in each of these 
cases4    ,the scientific world knows   
well that a much higher rate of speed   
can be  attained in railway travelling  
than is daily practised2 but they also  
know that it can only be obtained in the
 same way as ,jacob and ,whitworth      
obtained their range in gunnery3 namely1
 by an excessive expenditure of  fuel1  
and a wear of engine amounting to       
comparative destruction2 whilst1  at the
 same time1 the danger is so much       
increased that it would be folly  and   
recklessness to persist in such a       
course4 ,the question1 therefore1       
resolves itself into this2 that in      
locomotion and in projectile science1   
if we would have them perfect1 we must  
study the mode of obtaining the         
greatest results with the least         
expenditure of means4    ,facility of   

loading must at all times be of great   
importance3 the  soldier cannot have the
 means of cleaning his rifle when in    
action1 and  yet if the hexagonal       
principle were to be adopted1 it must be
 repeatedly  cleaned1 or it would be    
almost impossible to load it1 and when  
discharged it would either burst or its 
fire would not be effective4  ,during   
such a war as that in ,india1 going on  
day and night1 a soldier  could not be  
expected to wash out his rifle after    
every half-dozen  shots4    ,the field  
in which experiments are carried on is  
very different from  that of a battle4  
,experiments1 as detailed1 sometimes    
turn out most  fallacious when put to   
the use for which they are intended2 and
 in no  case is this more apparent than 
in breech-loading arms3 thousands of    
rounds may be fired in a few days with  
great success2 but extend that  over    
twelve months1 a certain number being   
fired every day1 and the gun  being     
cleaned after each day's practice1 and  

long before thousands are  fired1 the   
gun displays weak points--points which  
could not be  discovered in the lesser  
experiment4 ,so it is in practice3 a gun
 left  dirty for hours is undergoing    
rapid destruction2 the unctuous deposit 
from gunpowder has such an affinity for 
iron that minute galvanic cells  are    
formed on its surface in a very short   
time3 half an hour after a gun  has been
 discharged in a damp atmosphere these  
operations may be seen to  be going on  
with rapidity1 and an old gun on the    
hexagonal principle 7if  one should last
 long enough to grow old7 would not be a
 very desirable  weapon1 in point of    
safety4    ,the comparative cost of     
ammunition for the hexagonal rifle and  
the  ,enfield1 is a point of no little  
importance4 ,calculation gives the      
former at something equivalent to       
#d-a_/b;d4 or #e;d4 at each discharge1  
while the latter cannot exceed          
#a-a_/d;d41 or at most #a-a_/b;d4--a    
serious question for the ,chancellor of 

the ,exchequer4    ,that this sum may be
 lessened by the employment of machinery
 is not  unlikely2 but this can only be 
done to a limited extent1 it being      
essential that mathematical nicety1 as  
well as the right degree of  hardness1  
should be strictly observed1 otherwise  
the power of  penetration will be       
sacrificed3 and of this property a great
 deal has  been made4 ,there are few who
 do not know that a pound hammer will   
soon  drive to the head a fine-pointed  
slender nail2 whilst a short1 thick1    
stumpy nail requires three times the    
force3 again1 if fine steel  polished   
nails were constructed1 a still smaller 
amount of force would  suffice4 ,if such
 effects are carefully studied1 much may
 be done with  very little means4       
,very recently a statement appeared in  
the press that1 owing to some  ill-made 
cartridges being served out to the      
troops in ,india1 the men  found it     
almost impossible to load their ,enfield
 rifles at all2 having  to call in the  

aid of trees and stones against which to
 butt the ramrod1  in order to force the
 bullet home4 ,the same account         
attributed this  defect to the careless 
construction of these cartridges by the 
contractors4 ,this1 however1 is unjust2 
all cartridges for the ,enfield  rifles 
being alone produced in the laboratory  
at ,woolwich2 and hence the  defect is  
the more unpardonable4 ,it is easy to   
conceive that in ,india1  where the heat
 is intense1 the grease on the cartridge
 might have  disappeared2 the unctuous  
deposit of gunpowder on the interior of 
the  barrel is also rendered more       
adhesive1 and necessarily offers greater
  obstruction to the ramming down of the
 bullet4 ,the very slight  difference   
between the diameter of the bullet and  
that of the bore1 or  windage1 must     
necessarily add to the difficulty under 
such  circumstances2 but if half a size1
 or a few decimals of diameter1 were    
taken from the sides of the bullet and  
added to its length1 the  difficulty    

would be effectually removed3 with      
increased length1 and  increasing means 
of expansion1 if necessary1 such an     
occurrence could  never take place4     
,the original expanding bullet was      
intended to fill up the difference of   
three sizes of gauge2 surely1 then1     
there can be no difficulty in  expanding
 a much less diameter of bullet one     
half1 or even full one size  of gauge4  
,where would be the difficulty in having
 the bullet #bf-;bore1 or  even smaller1
 and expanding it to #be4 ,the          
occurrence1 indeed1 of such a  fact as  
that alluded to is to an intelligent    
mind quite  incomprehensible2 it could  
only arise from gross incompetency--some
  cobbling with the bullet's cup in the 
pressing1 or perhaps enlargement  by    
wear1 or more likely still from the     
pulp-made cartridge paper4 ,that  this  
difficulty has been experienced is      
obvious2 and the inference is  strong1  
that the official managers of these     
affairs are still in the  midst of a    

long experiment3 it is clear that they  
are not perfectly  masters of the       
practice of gunnery1 and it is almost   
time the people of  this country had    
their work better done4 ,it is more than
 probable that1  instead of meeting this
 difficulty with the proper spirit of   
improvement1 they will fly off at some  
other tangent1 and adopt the  nostrum of
 some 8arrant quack20 thus effectually  
adding to the  complication4    ,each   
regiment ought to have moulds1 and the  
means of making their  cartridges on    
such emergencies2 a body of provident   
officials ought to  attend to this1 that
 a repetition of it may be avoided4     
,an ordinary mind would have perceived  
that1 in such lengthened  operations as 
those our soldiers have been engaged in1
 the cleaning of  their arms would be   
almost impossible2 still the men are not
 instructed  that in such a difficulty  
an oiled rag passed up and down the     
barrel  would diminish it2 neither is   
such a simple remedy provided3 let us   

trust1 however1 that this misfortune    
will lead to improvement4 ,if this      
difficulty is encountered in the        
,enfield1 which is1 comparatively       
speaking1 a smooth bore1 what would be  
the difficulty in the hexagonal  bore   
with two turns in #ci inches6 ,the      
possibility of loading the latter  would
 be very remote indeed1 if not quite    
impracticable1 and a total bar  to      
anything like its general adoption4     
,pure lead is indispensable for all     
rifle bullets1 but more especially  for 
the expansive1 which is in reality      
useless without it4 ,a lubricating      
grease1 of a given consistency for      
various climates1 is also a  desideratum
 yet to be accomplished2 how desirable  
it would be1 is shown  by all the       
accounts of good shooting ,i have ever  
received or met with4    ,a vast number 
of projectiles have been produced1 and  
strenuously  advocated2 but from the    
total want of scientific arrangement in 
their  construction they have had but a 

very short existence4 ,the vital        
principle in all elongated projectiles  
is to have the centre of gravity  in the
 fore end2 wanting that1 an unnecessary 
spinning motion must be  resorted to1 at
 the cost of immense friction3 for the  
tendency to change  position can only be
 obviated by excessive spiral motion2   
whilst in a  bullet having the centre of
 gravity in the head1 much less spiral  
motion  suffices3 its scientific        
construction admits of no tendency to   
change2  straight forward is its natural
 inclination1 and to this inclination it
  adheres4    ,a late writer on         
projectiles has laboured hard to condemn
 the expansive  principle and the cup2  
he has even aspired to lecture on it    
before  ,royalty1 and as an improvement 
upon it1 he recommends the following    
invention of his own3--    8,in my      
endeavours to remedy the evils which    
have been so often and  justly          
complained of1 ,i attempted the         
construction of several bullets1        

particularly with the view of solving   
the question--can a  cylindro-conoidal  
bullet be contrived1 which will have a  
flat surface  for its base1 and the     
centre of gravity in the fore part8 ,in 
my attempts  from time to time ,i met   
with less or more success until ,i      
arrived at my  last improvement1 the    
principle of which has afforded me so   
much  satisfaction1 that ,i fancy ,i    
have only to describe it1 to enable any 
intelligent marksman to perceive at once
 the utility of the contrivance4    8,in
 the end of the bullet1 which is a fair 
cylinder for half its length1  ,i formed
 a cavity of a conical form1 similar to 
the inside of a small  thimble1 which   
stretches forward somewhat more than    
half the length of  the bullet1 and     
which is wide enough to reduce          
sufficiently the weight  of the hinder  
end1 so as to throw the centre of       
gravity into the fore  part1 even after 
the explosion of the charge takes place4
 ,on the edge of  the cavity ,i made an 

indentation1 or shoulder1 about a       
twelfth of an  inch in depth1 and upon  
this ,i placed an iron disc of the same 
thickness1 which closes up the cavity   
even with the end of the bullet1  making
 a flat surface of that part2 so that it
 may be called a hollow  flat-ended     
bullet1 though to all appearance solid40
    ,the adoption of the disc1 and the  
closing of the orifice at the bottom  of
 the bullet1 is merely the production of
 an elongated plug with weak  sides1    
which must necessarily be driven in upon
 themselves1 and thus  shortened2 and in
 so doing they expand4 ,the disc        
prevents the  possibility of the        
explosive gases acting upon the centre  
of gravity or  the head1 and thus the   
advantage of that being the primary     
motion is  lost2 and which ensures the  
absence of 8wobbling10 a principle      
inherent  in all plug bullets after     
leaving the muzzle3 and a defect which  
it was  the main object of my invention 
to avoid4 ,the idea is evidently that of

  ,captain ,norton1 as evinced in his   
rifle shell1 and consequently is a      
plagiarism1 either deliberate or        
accidental4    ,illustration3 ,,swiss   
,,bullet4    ,the ,swiss bullet has     
obtained to some extent a reputation1   
admitting1  like the ,lancaster         
elliptical bullet1 of being put into    
higher velocity4  ,its range1 however1  
is limited1 from the very great friction
 it  undergoes in passing up the barrel3
 it is driven in upon itself until it   
becomes a mere plug of lead with a      
hemispherical head2 and the centre of   
gravity being behind1 ensures its flight
 frequently terminating by  turning     
8topsy turvy40 ,moreover1 it cannot be  
used on a large scale1  except by the   
addition of a hard metal point1 as in   
,general ,jacob's  bullet4    ,the      
wisdom displayed in rifling barrels with
 the gathering or deepening  groove may 
be doubted2 it admits of serious        
consideration1 whether or  not it tends 
to increase the friction of the bullet  

passing outward4 ,it  is evident that   
did the bullet expand all at once it    
would do so2 but as  this is well known 
not to be the case1 the question arises 
what is the  advantage gained8 for it is
 asserted on high authority that it     
improves  the shooting4 ,the mere       
deepening of the grooves at the breech  
end can  have but little effect2 and the
 question is1 does the shallowing of the
  grooves as the bullet approaches the  
muzzle1 produce the effect8 ,we  think  
it does4 ,in the process of rifling     
these barrels1 the rifling  tool1 by a  
very ingenious arrangement of screws1 is
 caused gradually to  cut deeper as it  
travels from the muzzle to the breech1  
so that when  finished the depth of     
grooves at the muzzle is #jje of an     
inch2 half-way  down the barrel it is   
#jaj1 and at the breech end #jae3 thus  
gradually  deepening #aj_/ajjj of an    
inch1 whereas the usual method of       
rifling is to  have one uniform depth of
 #jaj inches4 ,from the contraction of  

the  protuberances on the bullet from   
#a_/aj to #a_/ejjj of an inch in passing
 up  the barrel1 results the apparent   
benefit3 such a reduction would surely  
allow of the bullet continuing its      
flight with less friction on the        
atmosphere2 for it cannot be too often  
repeated that perfect smoothness1  even 
to a polished surface1 is essential to  
the easy passage of all  bullets through
 the air4    ,there are some rather     
curious deductions obtained by practice 
alone1  which to ordinary minds appear  
of trifling importance2 but they clearly
  show that correct rifle-shooting can  
only be obtained by the most  perfect   
arrangement in the rifling and          
scientific construction of the  barrels4
    ,the ,government have lately adopted
 a highly finished and costly rifle     
arm1 with sword bayonet attached to the 
usual form of bar soldered to  the end  
of the barrels on the right side4 ,when 
these barrels were first  constructed1  
they were made lighter than experience  

subsequently showed  they ought to be2  
for it was found that the barrel not    
expanding equally  with the other       
portions at this necessarily rigid      
point1 influenced the  shooting of the  
gun to a considerable extent2 so that an
 increase of  metal was found necessary4
    ,the difficulty of obtaining good   
shooting with double rifles1 one side   
of each barrel being held rigid whilst  
the other is yielding1 explains  the    
difficulty1 and points to the remedy3 an
 increase of metal1 or1 what  would be  
more convenient1 the adoption of the    
most perfect laminated  steel for all   
double rifles2 it being self-evident    
that soft barrels and  correct          
rifle-shooting are to a certain extent  
incompatible4    ,double rifles have    
nearly superseded single ones2 for few  
who can afford  the additional price    
will use the latter1 when in the same   
weight he can  have two useful weapons4 
,the one great end generally sought in a
 rifle  is sufficient weight to         

neutralise the force of the explosion or
 recoil2  and the additional barrel     
answers this as effectually as          
additional  thickness of iron in the    
single4 ,but there is one objection     
which ,i have  never been able to master
 in the construction of double rifle    
barrels1  and ,i much doubt the         
possibility of effectually overcoming   
it--another  proof that mathematical    
demonstrations are frequently wrong in  
practice1  however correct in theory4   
,many hold it to be essential that      
double  rifle barrels should be put     
together perfectly parallel4 ,i followed
 this  rule1 and was at considerable    
cost in perfecting tools for the        
purpose2  yet1 strange to say1 in trial 
,i found invariably that the right      
barrel  threw the ball slightly to the  
right1 and the left to the left4 ,this  
,i  have been at enormous trouble to    
ascertain1 and am enabled positively  to
 declare it is an indisputable fact4    
,the cause of it is evidently the       

recoil not striking the stock in the    
centre1 but on one side2 which  causes  
the gun to swerve to that side4 ,however
 small or unapparent the  recoil may be1
 still there is a recoil2 and hence its 
effect4 ,to remedy  this it is necessary
 to incline the barrels in1 towards the 
muzzle1 to  counteract that tendency2   
but in doing this another evil is       
created1 for  you can only do this to   
suit a given distance1 either #ajj1     
#aej1 or #bjj  yards1 as may be         
determined4 ,thus it will be perceived a
 deficiency must  exist at all times2   
and it shows clearly the necessity for  
motion being  resisted centrically1 if  
truth is to be maintained4 ,this defect 
in the  double rifle will always be a   
drawback to the 8most correct shooting20
  yet under ordinary circumstances it   
may not be a matter of vital            
importance1 neither does there exist any
 means of sighting to overcome  the     
difficulty4 ,the only way to obtain a   
double rifle perfectly  true--perfectly 

parallel1 is to construct the barrels   
one above the  other1 as double pistols 
are now constructed4 ,the only objection
 to them  is the difficulty attending   
the arrangement of the locks1 as one    
cock  must strike the nipple the        
thickness of the barrel below the other1
 and  is an unsightly matter at best4   
,these facts lead to another1 namely1   
the  necessity of all rifles being      
stocked as straight as possible1        
avoiding  in all cases any casting off  
in the butt2 as it is evident that these
  matters have considerable influence on
 the correctness of shooting4    ,one   
great drawback to correct shooting is   
produced from the stock being  thrown   
off at the butt end2 and1 in other      
cases1 from imperfections in  the       
stocking of the gun--all truth depending
 on the barrel or barrels  being both   
stocked and held perfectly level in the 
act of using4 ,it must  be quite clear1 
that in case the right barrel of a pair 
be depressed but  the #cbnd part of an  

inch1 the angle of the sight on the top1
 instead of  giving elevation1 will     
cause the line of flight of ball to be  
to the  left1 and 8vice vers40          
,therefore1 first of all be sure the gun
 is  held square2 and great advantage   
will be found in pointing the muzzle in 
all cases a few feet below the object1  
and raising it in a perfect line        
upwards to the bull's eye4 ,if this can 
be done well1 in addition to the  gun   
being held square1 the better half of   
the difficulty is overcome2  further    
practice will make perfect4    ,the     
point next in importance1 is to take off
 the weight of the pull in  the trigger1
 during the upward motion2 overcoming   
the last atom of  weight as the muzzle  
sight covers the bull's eye4 ,it must be
 done so  gradually1 that no jerk or    
pull can move the gun1 be it ever so    
triflingly3 in fact1 all good shots fire
 thus while the gun is in  motion4 ,if  
the sight cannot be correctly obtained  
during the movement1  always take the   

rifle down from the shoulder1 and raise 
it again2 for  depend upon it1 rifle    
shooting can never be acquired          
perfectly1 where  the habit is practised
 of holding the gun at the shoulder1    
8poking0 the  muzzle about and seeking  
the bull's eye4 ,all good shooting is   
produced  from the shoulder2 an absence 
of pulsation in the body which is       
induced  by holding a weight4 ,the      
shoulder rests are found to be the cause
 of  vibration2 resting one part of the 
body and straining another begets it    
instantly1 and where rests are used they
 should be merely supports for  the     
muzzle1 and not for the centre of the   
gun4 ,if the centre is placed  upon it1 
the action of recoil is almost sure to  
jump the gun upwards4  ,the best        
shooting can be accomplished from the   
shoulder1 if the above  instructions be 
carefully followed4 ,avoid in all cases 
gripping a rifle  tightly1 or you will  
most assuredly communicate the pulsation
 of the  body to the rifle4    ,during  

the ,crimean war many of the ,enfield   
rifles expanded so much with  the       
,pritchett plug bullet as not only to   
loosen all the bands on the  stock1 but 
also to produce a visible effect on the 
barrel2 and to remedy  this the         
,government adopted my expanding screw  
bands1 which admit of  being tightened  
by the screw when necessary4    ,the    
production of a perfect breech-loading  
small arm is as difficult as  the       
production of a perfect breech-loading  
cannon1 and that is so  problematical as
 to amount1 in my humble opinion1 to    
nearly an  impossibility4 ,all          
experience teaches that a perfectly     
sound base of  projection in the gun is 
indispensable1 if good direction and    
velocity  are required2 without which   
there can be no good shooting4 ,if this 
be a  law1 how can it be obtained where 
soundness is absent8 ,joints1 slides1   
and their attendants1 are all           
incompatible with soundness3 the two    
cannot exist together2 and hence no     

breech-loader can give the same  results
 as a solid constructed gun barrel1     
unsoundness and absorption of  power    
being always found to go hand in hand   
together4    ,i have had considerable   
experience in breech-loading guns1      
having  obtained one or two patents2 and
 very careful attention to the subject  
has satisfied me that the question was  
sufficiently ventilated soon  after the 
adoption of gunnery1 and that it was    
exhausted by many  hundreds of inventors
 as ingenious as those of the present   
day2 the  result being in all cases a   
total failure4    ,one of the best      
breech-loading carbines of the present  
day is  undoubtedly that of ,mr4 ,f4 ,w4
 ,prince1 and those to whom they are    
unobjectionable will certainly find in  
this the simplest and a most  effective 
weapon of the kind3 ,mr4 ,prince has    
certainly made the most of  the         
practical knowledge he has brought to   
bear upon the invention4    ,revolving  
rifles are1 like revolving pistols1     

complicated weapons1  useful only for   
certain purposes2 requiring1 as they do1
 very great care  and cleanliness1 to   
insure at best their limited services4  
,long barrels  are useless1 because all 
the velocity that can be given to the   
projectile has to be generated in the   
revolving chambers2 all the  superfluous
 force escaping at the joint of breeches
 and barrels4 ,for any  useful purpose1 
a nine-inch would be better than a      
longer barrel1  allowing the bullet to  
leave the muzzle at a much higher       
velocity than  it would do after passing
 through a barrel of thirty inches4 ,it 
is  evident1 indeed1 that a revolving   
pistol and a revolving rifle are        
possessed of power in inverse ratio to  
their lengths4    ,the ,french          
,government are making great efforts to 
improve their military  system1 in      
imparting to every soldier as much      
information relative to  his weapons and
 the best method of using them1 as is   
compatible with his  limited education4 

,their institution of a normal-school   
for the  instruction of the whole army  
in all that relates to guns1 shooting1  
and  natural 8trigonometry10 is proof of
 this4 ,a detachment from every         
infantry regiment in the service arrives
 at 8,vincennes0 early in the  spring1  
and the men undergo a complete course of
 instruction during the  whole of the   
summer and autumn months1 or until by   
ability they acquire  all that is to be 
taught4 ,the first and a very essential 
part of the  duty is to teach them to   
judge of distance2 for this purpose a   
soldier  takes a target1 and runs       
straight ahead as far as he pleases4    
,having  planted it1 each man is called 
upon to judge the distance1 which is    
recorded in a report of the day4 ,this  
exercise is carried on to a great       
extent1 until each becomes well able to 
judge correctly2 then commences  the    
instruction in shooting1 each soldier   
using an elevation according  to the    
distance he calculates he is from the   

target2 and this is  practised at all   
distances1 from #ejj to #a1jjj paces4   
,the greatest degree  of perfection     
attained by the instructed is rewarded1 
by promotion or  otherwise2 and such    
skill in shooting is displayed by these 
various  detachments as would truly     
astonish our military officers4    ,the 
accomplishment of a school of           
instruction for teachers of rifle       
shooting to the ,british army is now an 
established fact2 the results1  most    
flattering to the projectors1 more than 
verifying their  anticipations4 ,the    
degree of perfection attained by some   
before leaving  ,hythe is so            
extraordinary1 that ,i will leave the   
reality to be imagined  or witnessed2   
and it will well repay the journey4 ,the
 standing order  lately issued1 awarding
 substantial benefits to the adept in   
shooting1  is sure to bear its fruits1  
and is only the first step to many      
others of  no less importance4          
,double rifled carbines can be          

constructed of so light a weight that   
their exclusive use for cavalry purposes
 is not far distant1 #e-a_/b  pounds    
being sufficient weight to ensure       
perfect safety4 ,a carbine of  this     
description1 from #ah to #bj inches in  
the barrel1 could give a  practical     
range of from #fjj to #gjj yards1 with  
an extreme range of #a1jjj  to #a1ajj4  
,a cavalry soldier armed with two of    
these would be equal to  four of the    
present day1 for they would be no       
greater encumbrance than  the late      
carbine used by the ,guards1 which      
approaches #aj lbs4 in weight2  and a   
pair of double carbines could easily be 
carried at the saddle bow1  their length
 being no obstacle4    ,revolvers have  
not yet been1 and ,i fear they never can
 be1 made  sufficiently durable to      
become a useful cavalry appendage4 ,the 
fact may  be concealed1 but it is true1 
nevertheless1 that their fragile nature1
  independently of their great cost1    
will always confine their use to an     

exclusive few3 indeed1 revolving and    
breech-loading weapons are among  the   
doubtful class of arms1 not fully       
developed as yet1 even if they  ever can
 be4    ,the adoption of double carbines
 will eventually throw all other small  
arms for cavalry purposes into the back 
ground2 a range of #a1jjj yards  with a 
toy #e-a_/b lbs4 in weight is one of the
 greatest wonders of this  wonderful    
age1 showing the astonishing change     
which has been effected in  gunnery3 for
 a deadly power now exists in the most  
,lilliputian toy as  well as in the     
,brobdignagian monster2 and that1 too1  
at immense  distances4 ,in proof of     
this1 ,i will just quote a letter from  
that  gallant officer1 ,lieutenant      
,william ,a4 ,kerr1 ,southern ,mahratta 
,irregular  ,horse4      8,camp1        
,bejapore1 ,may #bith1 #aheh4           
8,,sir1      8,i have received the      
,enfield carbine1 and am much pleased   
with it in    every respect4 ,it cannot1
 ,i consider1 be improved on1 and is by 

far    the best weapon for the mounted  
service ,i have ever handled4 ,it is but
    due to you that ,i should mention1  
that your work1 as put into the         
carbine1 is far beyond what ,i expected 
at the money4 ,i hope to be in a        
position1 at no very distant date1 to   
give you a heavy commission1 and    will
 certainly recommend you in every way ,i
 can4 ,i have knocked over a    deer at 
#djj yards with the carbine1 and make   
very good practice up to    #hjj yards1 
by firing with two drachms of fine rifle
 powder4 ,i have    given it1 and       
,prince's breech-loader1 a fair trial2  
the latter cannot    be compared to the 
former2 it has not the same range1 power
 of    projection1 or of shooting2 it   
moreover fouls in the proportion of at  
least #c to #a more4 ,had ,i had such   
carbines at ,kolapore1 ,i would have    
destroyed the #bgth ,native ,infantry in
 an hour4      8,i am1 sir1 yours1 c41  
8,,william ,a4 ,,kerr40    ,the weight  
of this single carbine is only #e-a_/d  

lbs41 and it is #bj  inches in the      
barrel4 ,the great power of shooting    
would justify a  reduction of length to 
#ae inches1 thus reducing the weight to 
a little  over #d-a_/d lbs42 and yet    
this carbine would be more certain in   
its  effects at #fjj yards1 than old    
,brown ,bess at #aej4 ,the complaint    
that  carbines are found to be an       
encumbrance in the service is no longer 
valid3 they may be made to form merely a
 portion of the saddle with the  same   
facility of handling as a pistol1 and   
with a hundredfold greater  accuracy of 
range4    ,illustration3 ,mr4 ,greener's
 ,model ,carbine1 #bb inches long in the
  barrel1 4#egg bore1 #e-a_/d lbs4      
weight4    ,the hybrid affair1 adopted  
by the ,government1 of a pistol made to 
serve  as a carbine by the introduction 
of a loose butt1 is of doubtful         
utility3 if valuable as a carbine1 it   
will never be used as a pistol2  hence  
it had been much better to make it a    
carbine at once1 thus  rendering it at  

the same time more durable and less     
costly3 even a  double carbine might be 
constructed at about twice the price    
paid for  the socket joint alone4 ,but  
there is still a want in the ,government
  establishment of 8designers0 of       
ability2 all that has been effected by  
way of improvement has been done by     
feeling the way3 a kind of              
progressional experiment1 with a total  
absence of mind to grasp good  ideas1   
and to hold them fast4 ,the arms used by
 the corps of ,guides who  have         
distinguished themselves so much in     
,india are now seven years old1  and    
they will bear comparison with the best 
arms our ,government are only  just now 
producing3 in fact1 the irregular       
cavalry in ,india have always  been     
armed with weapons in advance of those  
of the ,government troops2  and the     
explanation of this is very suggestive1 
they provide arms for  themselves1 and  
are more alive than the ,government     
officials to the  importance of having  

good ones4    ,the adoption of greased  
cartridges in ,india by some irregular  
corps1  took place in carbines supplied 
by me eight or nine years ago2 and the  
origin of the idea was this3--    ,the  
principal objection urged against the   
adoption of the rifle1 is that  of      
loading4 ,i know not how quickly it is  
possible to load a musket2 but  with    
cartridges properly made1 ,i think ,i   
could load and fire a rifle  four times 
in a minute4 ,but then it will be said1 
at the conclusion of  so many shots1 the
 rifle gets so foul1 that it will be    
difficult to get  the ball down4 ,not   
difficult at all4 ,have your cartridges 
made with a  saturated cover1 to        
surround the ball1 and fit properly the 
grooves of  the rifle4    ,it would     
clean the barrel so much1 as to allow   
forty shots to be fired  with as much   
ease as you now fire twenty4 ,or let a  
steel-wire brush be  attached to the    
rifle2 and by screwing it to the end of 
the rod1 you  can1 by two or three times

 rubbing up and down1 remove any        
accumulation  of dirt from the powder4  
,if1 however1 the covering ,i have      
mentioned were  used with a weighty rod 
to the rifle1 there would be no occasion
 for  cleaning1 short of fifty shots4   
,experience leaves no room for doubt    
that a few grooves are better than      
many1 in all expansive-principled       
rifles3 the nearer the approach to a    
smooth surface the better1 and the three
 divisions of grooves and  projections  
adopted by the ,british ,government is  
the best to meet all  requirements4     
,they will shoot as well as poly-grooved
 rifles2 and if  three grooves give the 
same result1 more are unnecessary and   
useless4  ,the advantage of the         
atmosphere acting to keep the bullet    
steady by its  current down the grooving
 on the bullet seems to meet with no    
confirmation2 improved shooting accruing
 by the grooves being reduced1  as in   
the case of the gathering-grooved rifle 
experiments4 ,in all cases  of wild     

animal shooting at short distances with 
small charges1 the many  grooves will be
 an advantage3 the same as those        
formerly adopted1 and  which are shown  
in the cut4    ,illustration            
,expansive bullets may be effectually   
used2 but in varying charges1           
incidental to game shooting1 the same   
form of cavity in the bullet as  is     
observed in the ,enfield would not act1 
therefore a large cavity would  be      
preferable to enable the less charge to 
act in expanding the lead  into the     
grooving4    ,for other purposes than   
war1 rifles will continue to be         
constructed on  the poly-groove         
principle1 and with spherical bullets4  
,the perfect  destruction of various    
animals is dependent generally on two   
causes3 the  penetration into the body1 
and the shock to the system during that 
act  of penetration4 ,no doubt exists   
that a spherical bullet would combine   
these two qualities best4 ,the #be bore1
 the #cb and #ej hexagonal bore  would  

be1 practically speaking1 useless for   
the killing of elephants1  tigers1 c4   
,the effectual and instant killing of   
seals on ice is an  illustration3       
failing to kill a seal dead1 he will to 
a certainty reach  his hole in the ice1 
and disappear1 to the shooter's serious 
disappointment4 ,small bore elongated   
bullets were very rapidly adopted1  and 
as rapidly abandoned4 8,they did not    
kill dead20 the spherical bullet  did   
this better4 ,it would be wise to pause 
and consider whether a good  military   
rifle is a good game-shooting rifle or  
not3 whether the hole in  the beast be  
wide enough4 ,i am inclined to think the
 reduction to a bore  of #be too small  
for this purpose4 ,in military muskets  
of smooth bore1  the elongated bullet is
 not applicable3 very little benefit is 
gained in  using them in a smooth bore2 
and1 although the original invention    
contemplated this1 experience decided   
otherwise4 ,the spherical bullet  being 
thus indispensable1 it follows that one 

size should be adopted  which combines  
the greatest number of favourable       
points4 ,many years ago  ,i made        
numberless experiments to ascertain this
 fact1 and had it  demonstrated beyond  
all doubt to be a bore of #ah and a     
bullet of #ai2 the  difference in size  
admitting of the paper of the cartridge 
with a  moderate degree of tightness4   
,the ultimate range of such a musket    
with  three drachms of gunpowder1 would 
be equal to the range of the ,enfield2  
but1 of course1 without one-tenth its   
accuracy4 ,yet for close quarters1      
line-firing1 or quickness of loading1   
the musket will hold its place for      
centuries to come2 and that this opinion
 is entertained by many  officers1 is   
proved by the fact that our ,government 
is at this moment  issuing contracts for
 #ajj1jjj plain-bored muskets3 #ag bore1
 #c feet #c  inches long in the barrel4 
,the near approximation of bore to my   
standard  is suggestive of the influence
 my writings have had after many years1 

as  the following extract from my book  
of #ahdb shows3--    8,military rifles  
should never be shorter than three      
feet--say three feet  three inches1 with
 half-turn of spiral--the length of the 
musket4 ,they  should not be larger in  
the bore than a ball eighteen to the    
pound1 as  at that length a force1      
calculated to throw an extreme distance1
 might  be generated4 ,whatever may be  
the arguments for heavy substances1 they
  do not avail here1 as it is impossible
 to throw them either with  velocity or 
accuracy2 for there never can be        
certainty1 where so much  elevation is  
required4 ,the size of ball we have     
mentioned1 can be thrown  with great    
certainty1 as far1 if not farther1 than 
any soldier in her  ,majesty's service  
can accurately survey a single object4  
,for the purpose  of annoying a dense   
body of men1 such as a square column1   
such a rifle  would be an invaluable    
gun2 as the muskets now made will not   
throw a  ball one-half the distance4 ,as

 to the actual range of a rifle of this 
bore and length1 ,i should think it     
would reach1 effectively1 the  distance 
of #a1ejj yards40    ,the experimental  
or competitive trials by the ,royal     
,engineers at ,chatham  to prove the    
superiority of the elliptical bored     
rifle over the ,enfield1  is another of 
those occasional clap-traps with which  
the public are  amused4 ,the ordinary   
reader would judge and set it down for  
an  established fact that the elliptical
 rifle was1 as has generally been       
represented1 an invention purely        
,lancasterian1 gun and bullet2 while the
  real facts are quite contrary3 true1  
the barrel is rifled1 slightly          
elliptical1 and having 8an increasing   
spiral20 but the ammunition is  that of 
the ,enfield--the 8#8,greenerian'       
expansive bullet with the centre  of    
gravity in the head40 ,the bullet that  
,lancaster adopted1 as well  known1 had 
a leaden plug4 ,i quote from the report 
of the select  committee3--      8,the  

plug bullet used by ,mr4 ,lancaster does
 not appear suitable for    military    
service1 for when the plug is driven    
into the bullet by the    ignition of   
the powder1 it generally nips the paper 
of the cartridge    between itself and  
the base of the bullet1 and carries a   
portion of it    away1 as may be seen by
 the specimens sent to the committee2   
upon the    amount of paper so carried  
away by the ball depends the accuracy or
    inaccuracy of its flight2 and the   
plugs do not in all cases remain        
firmly attached to the bullet40    ,what
 then are these trials conducted to     
prove8 ,it cannot be the  superiority of
 ,lancaster's bullet2 for he has        
abandoned that1 8and uses  the          
,enfield40 ,is it the rifling8--if so1  
let us see what the same  committee say 
of that3--      8,the chief peculiarity 
of this rifle consists in the inner     
surface of    the barrel being smooth1  
instead of cut into grooves1 as in most 
rifled barrels4 ,as a substitute for    

grooves1 the interior of the    barrel  
is cut into the form of an ellipse1     
whose major axis exceeds    the minor by
 #jje of an inch4 ,the ball is rifled by
 being forced 7when    expanded by the  
explosion of the gunpowder7 into the    
major axis of the    ellipse1 which thus
 fulfils the office of grooves in       
conducting the    ball into the required
 degree of spiral motion4      8,as ,mr4
 ,lancaster has adopted the ,american   
plan of a #8gaining-twist1'    or       
#8increasing spiral1' and applied it to 
his smooth-bored barrels    with        
elongated projectiles1 it may be as well
 to consider the merits    of this      
system4      8,the advantages are       
supposed to be3      8#ast4 ,increased  
accuracy4      8#bnd4 ,less recoil4     
8#crd4 ,an absence of the tendency a    
ball has1 when starting with a    rapid 
spiral1 to twist the rifle over sideways
 to the right or left1    according to  
the inclination of the grooves4         
8#dth4 ,a diminution of the tendency a  

ball has to #8strip' when first         
started4      8#ast4 ,the alleged       
increased accuracy has been by some     
attributed to    the supposition that   
the revolutions of the bullet round its 
own axis    increase in rapidity while  
passing through the air1 in consequence 
of    having acquired that motion when  
passing through the barrel1 under the   
influence of the grooves2 but it is     
difficult to imagine how a leaden       
bullet can carry within itself1 after   
leaving the muzzle1 any power of        
increasing its own rotatory or          
progressive motion4      8#bnd4 ,that   
there should be less recoil is natural1 
as the bullet meets    with less        
opposition when first started from a    
state of rest2 but the    amount of     
recoil in all rifles now made for       
expanding projectiles is    quite       
inconsiderable1 and not worth noticing4 
8#crd4 ,the tendency of a bullet to     
twist the rifle on one side is now      
avoided by reducing the spirality of the

 grooves4 ,instead of being    one turn 
in three or four feet as formerly1 it is
 now one turn in six    feet six inches1
 and sometimes only one turn in eight or
 nine feet4      8#dth4 ,the advocates  
of this system maintain that a bullet is
 less    likely to #8strip1' or pass out
 of the barrel without rifling itself1  
when conducted gradually into the       
required degree of spirality4 ,but      
the question is1 whether in a           
well-constructed rifle1 the bullet      
does strip8 and if not1 then a          
gaining-twist is unnecessary and        
objectionable1 as it offers to the      
ball's progress a continually           
increasing opposition1 while the ball   
itself is subjected to a    continually 
increasing urging force from the        
inflamed gunpowder in the    barrel1 so 
that1 as the velocity of the ball       
increases1 so also does    the          
resistance to its escape4 ,a projectile 
is set in motion gradually1    and is   
7or should be1 if the quality and       

quantity of the powder1 and    the      
barrel1 have a right proportion to each 
other7 at its greatest    velocity just 
before leaving the muzzle2 consequently 
the tendency of    a ball would be to   
yield to the increasing force of the    
powder and    pass straight out of the  
barrel without following the grooves2   
and    this more especially in a smooth 
bore1 which has no clearly defined      
edges to hold and guide the ball to its 
proper degree of spirality1    but where
 the lead may be compressed along the   
smooth surface so as to    pass straight
 along the barrel40    ,so much for the 
gaining twist2 it requires no further   
argument4 ,the oval  bore is not an     
invention of ,mr4 ,lancaster3 it is     
older than ,captain  ,beaufoy's book1   
8,scloppetaria10 published in #ahjh1 for
 in it you will  find a description how 
to rifle a smooth bore2 and he gives    
drawings of  the tools to do it with4   
,if these statements are facts--and ,i  
defy them being gainsaid--what          

connection has this gentleman with it at
 all8 for what purpose is it  pompously 
announced that the ,lancaster elliptical
 bored rifle shoots  superior to the    
,enfield1 when there is not such a      
thing8 ,the superior  shooting of one   
man over another is more than sufficient
 explanation4  ,the highly unscientific 
theory of putting a bullet into         
excessive  spiral motion at the instant 
it has acquired a maximum of velocity is
  untenable1 admitting of no lucid      
explanation4 ,the ,enfield rifle has    
evidently many enemies1 who do not      
hesitate in injuring her reputation1    
nor hesitate about the means of doing   
it4 ,all elliptical bores are but  the  
two-grooved rifle in disguise3 an idea  
fast exploding4    ,the truth of my     
opinion about the two-grooved or        
,brunswick rifle1  introduced into the  
service in #ahdj1 is now proved4 ,many  
of my readers  will recollect that in my
 books of #ahdb and #ahdf ,i termed this
 8an  abortion of science30 it has since

 died with that cognomen2 though it  was
 puffed up1 as my readers will remember1
 by many high authorities1  and amongst 
the rest by ,dr4 ,ure1 who said nearly  
as much for it as is  now advanced in   
favour of the hexagonal rifle4 ,on      
referring to the  report of the ,select 
,committee on ,small ,arms1 published in
 #aheb1 ,i find  the following account  
of it3--      8,at all distances above  
#djj yards the shooting was so wild as  
to be    unrecorded4 ,the ,brunswick    
rifle has shown itself to be much       
inferior    in point of range to every  
other arm hitherto noticed4      8,the  
loading of this rifle is so difficult   
that it is wonderful how    the rifle   
regiments have continued to use it so   
long--the force    required to ram down 
the ball being so great as to render any
 man's    hand unsteady for accurate    
shooting4 ,comment is unnecessary40     
,the ,prussian needle gun1 too1 has     
departed this life3 another instance  of
 the absurdity of adopting plans        

containing in themselves the reverse  of
 scientific principles2 for it may      
safely be accepted as an axiom that     
success at the present day can only     
arise to mechanical constructions  which
 are based on those immutable           
foundations of mechanical science in    
accordance with great ,nature's laws4   
,that the principles of the expansive or
 8,greenerian0 rifles are fast  gaining 
the approbation of all scientific men   
qualified by their  pursuits to judge1  
is evident from the fact that           
,birmingham has  contributed1 within the
 last twelve months1 a considerable     
number of  workmen to construct ,enfield
 rifles in all the principal ,states of 
,europe4 ,france1 and ,russia           
especially1 are expending large amounts 
in  manufacturing this arm2 so that it  
is no stretch of imagination to  suppose
 that in a few years the equilibrium of 
arms will be again  established1 all    
nations being armed with equally good   
weapons1 to  contrast with the          

contemptible ones of bygone times4      
,before separating for the recess1 a    
question was asked from the  officials  
by an honourable member in the ,house of
 ,commons3--8,when a  report would be   
given in as to the relative merits of   
the ,enfield and  ,whitworth rifles as  
military weapons80 ,the answer given was
 evidently  intended to mystify2 for1   
from the most intimate inquiries ,i have
 made1  ,i find that no experiments     
whatever are in progress4 ,the last took
 place  at ,woolwich1 in ,october1      
#aheg1 and terminated so very           
unsatisfactorily1  that ,mr4 ,whitworth 
wished to make some alterations in his  
rifles1 in  order to overcome the       
difficulties presented4 ,up to the      
present time the  authorities inform me 
that no other rifles have been sent in  
for further  trial4    ,the defects     
demonstrated in these experiments were  
precisely those  pointed out in this    
chapter4 ,on reversing their positions1 
8hard bullets  v4 soft10 the penetration

 of the ,enfield was found to be equal  
to that  of the ,whitworth2 the same    
number of elm deals being perforated4   
,this  proves what may be done by       
8mechanical dodges10 and how intimately 
acquainted those in charge of 8gunnery  
experiments0 ought to be with all  its  
ramifications1 or they1 too1 may be     
hoodwinked4    ,the difficulty of       
loading was here more strongly          
exemplified than at  ,hythe4 ,the       
deposit from the 8,government gunpowder0
 became so tenacious  in the 8hexagonal 
grooves10 that after a certain number of
 shots1  loading became a very difficult
 matter indeed2 so much so1 that ,mr4   
,whitworth considerately provided a very
 superior description of  gunpowder1    
with which the hexagonal rifle worked a 
little better4 ,the  recoil1 too1 was of
 that severe kind as to leave strong    
recollections of  its force on the minds
 of the reluctant operative shooters    
employed to  carry out the experiment4  
,the entire result may be summed up1 in 

the  mildest term1 as 8unsatisfactory40 
,the concealment of this result may be  
probably a considerate act on the part  
of the late ,government2 the  parts     
acted by some of the members of it must 
be strong in the  recollection of       
others2 and letting down quietly this   
very highly  inflated 8wind-bag10 when  
it showed symptoms of collapse1 was     
doubtless  a judicious act4             
,,chapter ,x4    ,,revolving ,,pistols4 
,revolving or repeating pistols have now
 become as necessary in war as  the     
rifle4 ,the peculiarity of the contests 
in various parts of ,america  first     
showed the necessity of a weapon being  
constructed1 the moral and  destructive 
effects of which should be equal4       
,colonel ,colt was unquestionably the   
first to overcome the difficulties      
found to exist in the earliest          
productions1 and when the introduction  
of  the revolver into ,europe became    
general1 and the demands for it         
increased1 the manufacturers were       

enabled1 from the commencement1 to      
avoid the defects which he had overcome 
in the course of his experience2  and   
thus1 their task was a lighter one than 
his4 ,an immense number of  revolving   
pistols have been constructed in a very 
short time2 but1 like  all new creations
 in mechanical science1 the production  
has been  distinguished by quantity     
rather than quality4 ,the general       
adoption of  these arms has been greatly
 impeded by the very inferior quality   
produced4 ,revolving pistols may be had 
from #ajs4 upwards2 but as to  the      
utility of such cheap trash nothing can 
be said4 ,the possession of  one may    
have a moral effect on the courage of   
the bearer1 and its  appearance may act 
on the fears of the opponent1 but the   
danger is  greatest to him who fires4   
,the complicated arrangement of all     
repeating  fire-arms requires that they 
should be of the very best workmanship1 
if  they are to be safe and efficient   
weapons4 ,that they have been of the    

utmost use to the allied armies in the  
,crimea1 and in that more  desultory but
 treacherous struggle in the ,east1 is  
certain4 ,many and  valuable lives have 
been saved by their ready application4  
,the moral  effect of the revolver was  
amply demonstrated where one noble young
  soldier held his post at 8,rewah0 by  
the dread of his revolver alone2 the    
mutineers knowing well that six of them 
must fall before they could  reach him1 
and feeling that each might be one of   
the six1 he held his  own until relief  
came4    ,again1 a tale is told of      
another gallant officer who shot five in
  succession1 reserving the sixth for   
that arch-miscreant ,nana ,sahib2 but   
unfortunately that sixth barrel missed  
fire4 ,how many thousands of lives  that
 shot might have saved had it been      
successfully fired6 ,with all  good1    
however1 comes a certain amount of evil3
 no perfect weapon has  ever yet been   
constructed2 but this shows how         
desirable it is that a  perfect revolver

 should be invented1 if possible4       
,there are but few manufacturers of     
revolvers who have reached any degree   
of eminence3 ,colt1 ,dean1 ,adams1      
,tranter1 and ,webley1 comprise nearly  
all  the distinguished men in this      
country4 ,there are a multitude of      
second-rate makers in ,england1 ,france1
 and ,belgium2 but the most  celebrated 
makers in ,europe are those ,i have     
enumerated2 and in order  to guide the  
reader as far as my knowledge will      
serve1 ,i will  impartially point out   
the advantages and defects belonging to 
each  production4    ,the construction  
of ,colonel ,colt's repeating pistol is1
 according to his  own description1 a   
motion got by cocking the lock and      
rotating the  cylinders2 as described in
 the following quotation3--      8,they 
differ from those formerly made1        
principally in the greater    simplicity
 and the better proportions of the parts
 of the lock and the    framework4      
,important additions and improvements   

have been made in the    loading lever  
and rammer for forcing the balls firmly 
into the    cylinder1 the employment of 
the helical or spiral groove on the     
arbor    on which the cylinder turns1   
whose sharp edges are intended to       
prevent    fouling by scraping off any  
smoke or dirt accumulating in the       
cylinder    from the lateral fire       
entering the centre opening1 and the    
inclined    plane leading to the        
recesses on the periphery of the        
cylinder1 to    direct the bolt below   
the opposite shoulder in the recesses2  
thus    preventing the cylinder from    
being accidentally thrown too far by the
    sudden action of cocking4 ,the lock 
is now composed of five working         
parts1 instead of seventeen1 as         
formerly2 and it is obvious that if     
the several parts of the machinery are  
made proportionally strong for    the   
work they have to do1 so is the arm     
rendered more efficient by the          
greater simplicity of the general       

construction4      8,in all arms having 
a moveable breech it is desirable to    
bring the    barrel and cylinder as     
nearly in contact as possible1 in order 
to    prevent the escape of lateral     
fire1 and yet to leave freedom for      
motion1 without friction3 this is now   
effected by the base pin1 on    which   
the cylinder turns1 entering a          
corresponding opening in the    under   
part of the barrel1 being there held in 
place by a key passing    through and   
bearing against the back end of the slot
 in the barrel1    and the fore end of  
the slot in the base pin1 which is thus 
drawn up    to the bottom of the hole1  
and yet the barrel is prevented from    
being    brought too close upon1 or in  
absolute contact with1 the cylinder1    
whilst its end is still held in its     
proper position with respect to    the  
cylinder4 ,in the event of any abrasion 
of the end of the cylinder    or of the 
barrel1 by deepening the cavity1 or     
filing the end of the    base pin1 the  

key can be driven further in1 and the   
proper distance    for the readjustment 
of those parts be maintained1 whilst the
    essential rigidity of structure is  
secured4      8,in loading the present  
arm1 it is necessary to draw back the   
hammer    to the half notch1 to allow   
the cylinder to be rotated freely by    
hand2    a charge of powder is then     
placed in each chamber1 and the balls1  
without wadding or patch1 are put one at
 a time upon the mouths of the          
chambers1 turned under the rammer and   
forced down1 by the lever1 below    the 
mouth of the chamber4 ,this is repeated 
until all the chambers are    loaded4   
,percussion caps are then placed on the 
nipples1 when1 by    drawing back the   
hammer to the full catch1 the click or  
lever is    brought into contact with   
one of the ratchet teeth1 on the base of
 the    cylinder1 bringing the nipple   
into the precise position to receive the
    blow of the hammer3 the arm is then 
in a condition for being    discharged  

by simply pulling the trigger2 and a    
repetition of the same    portion       
produces the like results1 until all the
 chambers are    discharged through the 
barrel4      8,the movements of the     
revolving chamber and hammer are        
admirably    provided for4 ,the breach1 
containing six cylindrical cells for    
holding    the powder and ball1 moves   
one-sixth of a revolution at a time2 it 
can1 therefore1 only be fired when the  
chamber and the barrel are in a         
direct line4 ,the base of the           
cylindrical breech being cut externally 
into a circular ratchet of six teeth    
7the lever which moves the    ratchet   
being attached to the hammer71 as the   
hammer is raised in the    act of       
cocking1 the cylinder is made to        
revolve1 and to revolve in one          
direction only4 ,while the hammer is    
falling1 the chamber is firmly    held  
in its position by a lever fitted for   
the purpose2 when the    hammer is      
raised1 the lever is removed and the    

chamber released4      8,so long as the 
hammer remains at half-cock the chamber 
is free1 and    can be loaded at        
pleasure4 ,the rapidity with which these
 arms can be    loaded is one of their  
great recommendations1 the powder being 
merely    poured into each receptacle in
 succession1 and the balls being then   
dropped in upon it1 without any wadding1
 and driven home by the    ramrod1 which
 of course is never required to enter   
the barrel4      8,while carried in the 
pocket1 or belt1 there is no possibility
 of an    accidental discharge of these 
pistols4 ,whenever it is required to    
clean the barrel and chamber1 they can  
be taken to pieces in a moment1    wiped
 out1 oiled1 and replaced4      8,the   
hammer at full-cock forms the sight by  
which aim is taken4 ,the    pistol is   
readily cocked by the thumb of the right
 hand1 a plan in    every way far       
superior to the arrangement whereby the 
hammer is raised    by a pull on the    
trigger3 this is in every respect most  

objectionable1    the pull materially   
interfering with the correctness of aim2
 and the    sear-spring having the duty 
of the main-spring to perform as well1  
is    apt constantly to be getting out  
of order4      8,the ramrod attached to 
these pistols consists of a very clever 
but    simple compound lever1 which1    
forcing the ball effectually home1      
hermetically seals the chamber          
containing the powder1 and by the       
application of a small quantity of wax  
to the nipple before capping1    the    
pistol may be immersed for hours in     
water without the chance of a           
miss-fire40    ,the great disadvantage  
said to be existing in this revolver is 
the  necessity of cocking and           
half-cocking at every discharge2 which  
double  action is difficult in certain  
positions where revolvers are of the    
greatest use1 as in a mele surrounded by
 many enemies1 where the  cocking and   
firing by one pulling motion1 as in     
,tranter's and ,dean's1 is  more        

expeditious3 in fact1 certificates are  
published by officers who1  at the      
battle of ,inkermann1 would have been   
cut down had the slightest  delay been  
necessary for cocking the pistol4 ,on   
the other hand1 it is  said1 that no    
certain aim can be taken where the      
pulling up and sudden  liberation of the
 mainspring discharges the pistol2 the  
act of  discharging it destroying the   
aim4 ,these two points have their       
advocates  and their objectors1 as has  
always been the case with new plans4    
,the mechanical construction of ,colt's 
pistol is effected entirely by          
machinery1 and on this account          
superiority is claimed for it2 in my    
opinion1 however1 the boasted benefits  
of machinery have never yet been        
realised4 ,the manufacture of guns      
without machinery is difficult1 but  the
 entire use of it is unnecessary4       
,certain portions of pistol-making  can 
never be done as they should be by      
machinery2 and ,i have not yet  been    

able to discover anything in ,colt's    
manufacture to make me advocate  the use
 of machinery4 ,i should not consider a 
pistol made by hand1 and  equal to the  
best of ,colt's1 as well made2 a        
hand-made pistol ought to  be much      
better in all respects4    ,dean and    
,adams were the first makers of note who
 contested the palm with  ,colt4 ,they  
thus describe their pistol3--      8,the
 barrel1 the lock-frame1 and top-bar    
were all forged out of one    piece of  
iron3 the chamber to contain five       
charges1 revolved on a    centre pin1   
which could be either drawn entirely1 or
 partially out1 as    was required and  
was held in its position by a side      
spring2 the    toothed ratchet was      
secured to the base of the chamber by   
two screws1    so as to admit of its    
being renewed1 when it was abraded by   
use1 and    motion was given to it by a 
ratchet pall1 connected with the hammer1
    which was lifted by pulling the     
trigger4 ,the hammer moved on a         

transverse pin1 and was pressed down on 
the nipple by a back spring in    the   
stock1 being connected with it by a     
swivel link2 the trigger was    kept in 
position by a horizontal bent spring1   
and had attached to it    the           
hammer-lifter and the ratchet pall2 the 
point of the former fell    into a notch
 in the base of the hammer1 so that as  
the trigger was    pulled1 the hammer   
was raised1 until the rounded portion of
 the base1    acting as a cam1 forced   
the lifter out of the notch1 and allowed
 the    hammer to descend on the nipple 
and to explode the percussion-cap4 ,on  
withdrawing the finger from the trigger1
 the lifter and ratchet pall            
descended and again slipped into the    
notches of the hammer and the           
chamber1 in readiness for repeating the 
operation of firing4 ,the    lifter was 
retained in contact with the hammer1 by 
a small flat    spring1 the upper end of
 which was attached to the pall1 while  
the    lower end acted upon the lifter1 

which1 in turning on its centre1        
brought the lower prolongation against  
the spring1 below the centre1    so as  
to press the upper end in the proper    
direction1 in order that    its action  
might be certain4      8,the rotation of
 the chambers was obtained by a ratchet 
pall1 acting    on a tooth each time the
 trigger was pulled1 thus causing the   
chambers    to revolve1 so far as to    
bring a nipple into the proper position 
for    receiving the blow of the hammer1
 and in that situation it was held by   
a projecting stop on the back of the    
trigger4      8,in order to load the    
chambers it was necessary that they     
should    revolve free of the stop3 this
 was effected by pressing inwards       
another stop1 attached to a spring on   
the side of the lock1 which    engaged  
the point of the hammer and prevented it
 from descending on    the nipple1 until
 the chambers were loaded1 when1 on the 
trigger being    pulled1 the side spring
 stop was released and resumed its      

original    position1 leaving the weapon
 ready for action4      8,the bullets   
were cast with a small #8tang' on them1 
which served to    fix a wad on each2   
thus no ramrod was required in loading1 
the bullets    being merely pressed in  
with the finger4 ,the aperture of the   
barrel    was slightly expanded at the  
lower end to admit of the bullets       
entering more readily in firing4 ,the   
rifling of the barrel was the    reverse
 of the ordinary system1 as it consisted
 of three projecting    #8feathers1' or 
ridges1 extending the length of the     
tube1 leaving very    wide grooves      
between them4      8,it would be        
observed1 that the cocking and firing   
were performed by    the same action of 
the trigger2 therefore the rapidity of  
firing was    proportionally great2 the 
arm was very light1 its construction    
simple1    and its action certain40     
,the defect of cocking and firing by the
 same action of the trigger must  have  
been important2 for new patents were1 ,i

 believe1 taken to cover  both plans1   
and they now manufacture what is termed 
a double-action  pistol1 which acts     
either by cocking with the finger1 or by
 the trigger1  as of old4 ,the important
 improvement in the durability and      
soundness of  ,dean and ,adams's pistol 
over ,colt's is1 that the barrel1 the   
lock-frame1  and top bar1 are all forged
 out of one piece of iron2 thus1 the    
cylinders revolve in a frame which      
cannot undergo any displacement4    ,in 
,colt's1 the barrel is supported by a   
crooked elbow1 rising from the  centre1 
or revolving pin2 its principal support 
consequently is some  distance below the
 tube of the barrel1 but parallel to it3
 the effect of  long firing is to bend  
this elbow1 causing the barrel to fall  
or droop  downward1 instead of          
continuing in a straight line with the  
chambers2  thus1 an opening between the 
chambers and the barrel is established1 
increasing the space for lateral escape4
    ,next1 though certainly not least1  

is ,tranter's pistol1 of three          
different modes of construction4 ,the   
name of this manufacturer has risen     
higher than that of his ,london         
competitors2 owing1 no doubt1 in a great
  measure1 to the generally entertained 
opinion that all essential  improvements
 in the ,english revolving pistols have 
arisen from the skill  and untiring     
industry of ,mr4 ,william ,tranter4     
,whether the opinion that  he originated
 all the improvements claimed for ,dean 
and ,adams's pistol  is well founded or 
not1 ,i cannot say3 ,i only reiterate   
the opinion2 and  ,i believe1 from the  
very great attention ,mr4 ,tranter has  
paid to the  subject1 and from his great
 mechanical skill1 that he is quite     
capable  of effecting these             
improvements4 ,any admirer of beautiful 
arrangements  in gunnery has only to    
examine one of his double-trigger       
revolving  pistols1 to be struck with   
the elaborate nature of his             
improvements4 ,i  give a wood-cut of it 

on the next page1 and some quotations   
from his own  description of its        
quality3--    8,w4 ,tranter's patents   
for a double trigger1 a safety-hammer   
spring1 an  elongated socket for the    
chamber1 a loading lever1 and a         
lubricating  bullet for revolving arms1 
increase the value and efficiency of    
these  arms as defensive weapons4       
,illustration3 ,half size of the medium 
#ed gauge double-trigger  ,revolver4    
8,by means of the patent double-trigger 
the pistol can be held more  firmly in  
the hand while being fired1 and only one
 hand is required to  raise the hammer  
and fire the pistol4 ,a perfectly       
accurate and quicker  aim can be taken1 
and the pistol discharged at the instant
 desired2 the  hammer can be raised     
again without lowering or removing the  
pistol from  the object till the whole  
of the chambers are fired off4 ,the     
chamber is  held firmly opposite the    
front barrel before the hammer begins to
 fall1  and also at the moment it is    

discharged2 the chamber cannot be turned
  away from the front barrel by the     
hammer at the moment it is discharged4  
,in cases of emergency the pistol can be
 fired with the greatest rapidity  by   
pulling both triggers together4 ,the    
exploded caps do not get into  the works
 and render the pistol useless till     
removed4 ,but little  practice is       
required to enable a person to shoot    
with accuracy4    8,the patent safety   
hammer spring always acts with the      
hammer and  trigger2 should anything    
accidentally lift the hammer1 the       
safety-spring  instantly falls under it 
and prevents it falling upon the cap1   
thereby  preventing an accidental       
discharge4 ,the safety-spring also      
facilitates  the loading1 by allowing   
the hammer to rest upon it while the    
chambers  are being charged1 and at the 
same time acting as a safety-spring     
during  the operation of loading4 ,the  
pistol can be carried with perfect      
safety  when loaded1 either in the      

pocket or holster1 by allowing the      
hammer to  rest upon the safety-spring4 
8,by means of the patent elongating     
socket1 the chamber can be properly  and
 readily adjusted to the frame of the   
pistol2 and as the chamber with  use    
becomes too free1 and the strength of   
the shooting depreciated1 the           
elongating socket enables it to be      
readjusted as perfectly as when first   
made--an important consideration with   
these arms4    8,the patent loading     
lever enables the pistol to be loaded   
with greater  facility1 and fits the    
lubricating bullet to the chamber so    
exactly that  the powder cannot fail to 
bend up the flange of the bullet and    
distribute the lubrication all over the 
inner surface of the chamber and        
barrel2 it also fixes the bullet so     
firmly in its place in the chamber  that
 it does not fall out with being carried
 in the pocket or holster1  neither does
 it project forward with the firing of  
the pistol4    8,the patent lubricating 

bullet1 with the lubricating            
composition1  effectually lubricates the
 inner surface of the chamber as far as 
the  bullet enters1 also the face of the
 chamber where it comes in contact  with
 the front barrel1 and the whole of the 
inner surface of the front  barrel2     
thereby preventing any deposit of lead  
or powder that may deform  the bullet1  
enabling the pistol to be loaded with   
the greatest ease  after firing a number
 of shots1 and facilitating the passage 
of the  bullet through the front barrel4
 ,the accurate fitting of the bullet and
  the repellent properties of the       
lubrication completely protect the      
powder from exposure to wet or damp1 and
 effectually prevent one chamber        
igniting the powder in the other while  
being fired4 ,the pistol has been  fired
 five hundred times in succession with  
the lubricating bullets  without being  
cleaned or getting out of order1 the    
last fifty shots  being fired with as   
much accuracy as the first2 the pistol  

could then be  loaded and fired with the
 greatest facility1 there being no      
deposit  which interfered either with   
the loading or firing4    8,w4 ,tranter 
has taken out another patent for        
improvements in fire-arms1  and having  
combined with those improvements some of
 the improvements  comprised in his     
former patents1 recommends the above as 
possessing  every requisite for a       
double-action cocking revolver40        
,these revolvers will be found to       
possess the following advantages3--     
8,the pistol can be used with one hand1 
and fired with the greatest  rapidity   
and facility by pulling the trigger with
 the fore finger only4    8,the hammer  
can be raised and the pistol fired as an
 ordinary  fowling-piece4    8,the      
spring lock for locking the chambers    
enables the pistol to be  carried       
safely1 and can be released when        
required by the thumb of the  right     
hand4    8,the lock of the pistol is    
simple1 and not liable to derangement4  

,it can  be easily taken to pieces when 
required1 and as easily put together    
again4    8,the patent elongating socket
 is combined with this revolver in the  
same  manner as with the patent         
double-trigger revolver1 and with the   
same  advantages4    ,illustration3     
,tranter's double-action ,revolver4     
8,the new patent loading lever is       
attached to this revolver in the same   
manner and with the same advantages as  
to the patent double-trigger  revolver40
    ,webley's patent revolving pistol is
 an improvement upon ,colt's best       
pistol1 the cylinder rotating by the    
cocking of the lock4 ,the advantages    
obtained are1 an exceedingly simple     
construction in the rotating  movement1 
enabling the patentee to manufacture    
them at a lower price  than any of the  
preceding makers1 and thus to produce1  
what is a great  desideratum1 a good and
 reasonable priced pistol4              
,illustration3 ,webley's ,revolver4     
8,keep your powder dry0 was the old     

watchword3 8,take care of your          
ammunition0 ought to be the watchword of
 the present day4    ,facility of       
loading is no doubt to a certain extent 
an advantage1 but  doubts exist whether 
breech-loading guns1 if brought to such 
a state of  perfection as to come into  
general use1 would not1 from their very 
facility of loading1 become a serious   
evil4    ,the difficulty which          
,commanding ,officers have to contend   
with in war is  in restraining their men
 from firing too rapidly1 using two     
shots where  one would suffice2 but the 
process of loading inculcates care of   
it1  takes considerable trouble1 and    
hence men husband their fire the more4  
,the two different principles of        
revolvers illustrate this4 ,the         
self-acting one is apt to be fired more 
than once2 a man in a state of          
excitement may pull twice before he     
pauses1 and two shots are expended      
where one would have sufficed4 ,the     
cocking-lock pistol1 in addition to  the

 less pull required in firing1 gives    
time for observation1 as the  necessity 
for cocking every time creates a pause1 
and is an admonition  to coolness3 this 
is often very advantageous in shooting  
game1 in which1  as in the more serious 
affair of shooting men1 deliberate      
coolness is  required4    ,therefore1   
excepting only the chance--the very     
remote chance1 that may  arise1         
requiring you to fire six shots as      
rapidly as possible--so  rapidly that   
the cocking pistol would be too slow1 ,i
 would myself prefer  the cocking       
pistol2 from the fact of being able to  
take much better aim  with it1 and there
 being less chance of missing1 through  
the heavy pull  necessary to raise the  
cock and fire the pistol on the         
self-acting  principle4 ,the almost     
general adoption1 in the present day1 of
 the  cocking-lock1 and its application 
in both ,adams's and ,tranter's         
self-acting principles1 is proof of the 
general bias towards the same  opinion4 

,the tendency of all revolving pistols1 
and of course revolving rifles  also1 to
 foul in the barrel after a few shots1  
is a very serious  drawback to their    
efficiency in use4 ,the following       
quotation from  ,lieutenant ,symons'    
work is one opinion which ,i select from
 a number in  my possession3--          
8,revolving pistols only ought          
now-a-days1 in my opinion1 to be made   
breech-loading2 and of these the pistol 
of ,colonel ,colt is a very good        
specimen4 ,i can generally hit a target 
the size of a man with this  pistol at a
 distance of #aej yards when clean1 i4  
e41 with the first  shot2 and ,i on one 
occasion put five out of the six shots  
into the  target successively4 ,when    
foul1 however1 the bullets will not fly 
steadily and on their points4 ,i one    
day1 for the purpose of experiment1     
fired #fj rounds without cleaning1 at   
planks placed a few yards off only1     
when latterly the bullets1 instead of   
cutting the circular holes they  had    

been doing1 commenced to make marks in  
the planks as if nails an  inch long had
 struck them sideways4 ,on taking off   
the barrel to  ascertain the cause1 ,i  
found that it was nearly choked up with 
lead4 ,the  barrel of this pistol       
rapidly fouls1 though the chambers do   
not40    ,it also furnishes a complete  
answer to the absurd proposition of     
imparting spiral motion to a bullet1 by 
means of an increasing spiral1  after it
 is put into high velocity4 ,the fouling
 of the barrel by lead to  an extent 7as
 ,i have seen7 of a considerable portion
 of the bore1 is  absolute proof that   
the bullet does not follow the course of
 the  grooving3 in its passage through  
the directing barrel it passes straight 
out1 with the velocity imparted to it in
 the chamber4    ,the experience of this
 fact induced ,mr4 ,tranter to invent   
his  lubricating bullet1 the only form  
of pistol with which many shots can  be 
fired without cleaning4 ,there are1 in  
reality1 many defects to be  overcome   

7though it is very doubtful whether they
 will ever be7 before  revolvers can in 
any degree be relied upon for constant  
operations4 ,i  know for a fact that at 
this moment ,government have in store   
many  thousands1 disabled for all useful
 purposes1 though by the most trivial   
circumstances2 fouling with lead being  
one of the most prominent  defects1 or  
some trifling disarrangement of the     
rotating machinery1 such  as it might be
 supposed could be repaired3 but they   
are returned to  store as hopeless1 in  
the usual course1 and thus their fate is
 sealed as  a military weapon4    ,the  
double-barrelled under-and-over pistol  
was entirely discarded for  the new toy2
 but hopes are entertained that the     
former will soon be  restored to the    
lost preference of all who value their  
own safety1 and  would rather depend on 
two certainly destructive shots than six
  uncertain ones4 ,for my own personal  
use in any scene of combat1 my  reliance
 would be on a pair of double-barrelled 

pistols2 or what is of  more use still1 
on double carbines4 ,the ,emperor of the
 ,french1 however1  is arming his       
sailors with revolving pistols2 and     
lately1 in ,india1 a  squadron of       
,dragoons used the revolver with deadly 
effect on a body of  rebel ,sepoys4     
,,chapter ,,xi4    ,,enfield            
,,machine-,,made ,,rifles4              
,enfield1 the seat of the ,government   
manufacture of small arms1 will  become 
a celebrated place in future history2   
its productions being now  one of the   
wonders of the present age4 ,the term   
8,enfield ,rifle0 does not  denote any  
one improvement1 but a series of        
improvements2 ,enfield being  merely the
 name of the place where the manufactory
 is situated4    ,the ,enfield rifle    
differs from the original rifled musket 
7better known  as the ,mini musket7 in  
the fact of the bore having been reduced
 to  #egg1 and the weight of the arm to 
#i lbs4 ,the regulation ,mini musket    
was #aj lbs4 #h-c_/d oz4 in weight1 so  

that a saving of #a-a_/b lbs4 has been  
effected by the adoption of the present 
gun4 ,the size of the bore was  #gjb1   
and the weight of the bullet #fhj       
grains1 whilst the present  regulation  
musket is only #egg bore1 the bullet    
being #ebj grains in  weight4    ,the   
model arms ordered by ,lord ,hardinge1  
the ,commander-in-,chief1 in  #aheb1 of 
,messrs4 ,greener1 ,purday1 ,richards1  
,lancaster1 and ,wilkinson1  formed the 
base from which the ,enfield was        
constructed4 ,the 8,sight0 was  ,westley
 ,richards' invention4 ,the ,expanding  
,bands for securing the stock  and      
barrels 7without which a machine-made   
musket would always be an  uncertainty7 
are an invention of mine2 several other 
points were also  adopted on my         
recommendation3 as1 for instance1 the   
furniture being  case-hardened1 as in   
the rifle-corps gun1 and the fastenings 
of the  bayonet4 ,these points1 however1
 being merely suggested improvements1   
and  not1 strictly speaking1 inventions1

 conferred no benefit on me beyond  the 
compliment involved in their adoption4  
,it is well known that1 but for my      
evidence before a committee of the      
,house of ,commons in #ahdh1 the        
swivel-lock would not have been so soon 
adopted as it was4 ,thus it is evident  
that much of the outer form1 as  well as
 the principle1 of the present arm is   
due to my exertions4 ,much  surprise was
 shown by the ,select ,committee in     
#aheb that ,i did not give  in for trial
 some improvement upon my own principle 
7which1 by the by1  they had not at that
 time admitted72 but prudence taught me 
otherwise3  to have done so would have  
affected the soundness of my claims4    
,about the year #ahea it was determined 
to adopt some portion of the  ,american 
system of manufacturing guns by the aid 
of machinery4 ,a  commission was        
appointed and sent out to the ,united   
,states in order to  inspect the        
operations of their mechanism1 and to   
ascertain the  advisability of adopting 

the whole1 or a portion1 of their       
machinery in  ,england4 ,to the         
selection of the members of that        
commission1 and to  their judgment1 may 
be ascribed whatever is ill or good in  
the system2  the majority being military
 men connected with military matters1   
and the  others machinists1 the bias was
 no doubt in favour of machinery4 ,the  
,enfield manufactory1 at its starting1  
was intended to be a moderate  affair1  
,i believe2 but now it has expanded into
 such gigantic  proportions that1 if it 
continues in action1 the manufacture of 
military  arms must partially cease to  
be the trade of ,birmingham3 for all    
large  establishments of machinery must 
be employed1 to protect them from       
decay2 and whatever may be the cost of  
production1 machinery must go on1  or be
 entirely given up4    ,the extent of   
the ,enfield manufactory may be         
estimated from the fact  that it now    
produces weekly #a1ajj stand of arms    
complete1 and employs  men and boys to  

the number of #a1cjj4 ,at this rate of  
production1 a very  few years will      
suffice to place such a stock of arms at
 the command of  the ,government as will
 render the employment of foreign       
artisans  unnecessary4 ,enfield         
machine-made arms are undoubtedly       
specimens of the  highest class of that 
description2 but whether they will be   
found as  durable as hand-made arms ,i  
very much doubt3 time alone can decide  
this4          ,,chapter ,,xii4    ,,the
 ,,harpoon ,,gun4      ,whale shooting  
has now become a great fact2 no other   
means being used to  capture this       
monster of the deep but the harpoon gun1
 when it is  possible to obtain it4     
,although little doubt remains but that 
whales1  like 8grouse10 are becoming    
scarce1 and that in a short time they   
will  become almost extinct1 yet their  
great value when captured will always   
stimulate hardy and daring seamen to    
pursue them even into their  remotest   
haunts4 ,the following cut represents   

the boat and gun now in  use4           
,illustration    ,experience has proved 
the value of this invention2 and every  
ship that  goes to the fishing has now a
 full complement of six harpoon guns4   
,nine-tenths of the fish got within the 
last few years have been shot4  ,from a 
calculation ,i made after the conclusion
 of a late season1 the  result must have
 been very satisfactory and profitable  
to the owners of  the ships1 and also to
 the gun-makers4 ,i have every reason to
 know that  the amount of money realised
 by these harpoon guns amounted to      
little  short of #ajj1jjjl42 and this   
from guns of my manufacture alone3 for  
,i1  like most inventors1 have          
competitors1 who manufacture upon my    
model and  at less than my price4       
,harpoon guns are similar to small      
swivel guns2 they are of #a-a_/b inch   
bore and #c feet long in the barrel1    
which when stocked and complete  weighs 
#ge lbs4 ,the construction of the lock  
is very simple1 being upon  the         

principle of a saddle pistol lock2 the  
caps1 the nipples1 and lock1  are       
completely and effectually covered1 and 
protected from damp1 or  spray from the 
sea4 ,the lock is also securely bolted  
until the moment it  is wanted2 when by 
the removal of a pin1 the trigger string
 is pulled1  which fires the gun4 ,the  
harpoon is projected with considerable  
accuracy  to any distance under         
eighty-four yards2 that being the       
greatest range  ever obtained with this 
description of gun4 ,the charge is very 
small to  project #dj lbs4 weight2 for  
the harpoon itself is #aj-a_/b lbs41    
with an  increasing weight of three-inch
 line from the gun to the extreme range1
  in all weighing full #dj lbs4 ,this   
immense improvement is the result of    
calculations1 deduced from the nature of
 gunpowder4 ,the charge is short  of an 
ounce of powder2 but is1 or ought to be1
 good powder1 of the  largest grain2    
fine powder will not do it1 but1 on the 
contrary1 would  jump up the end of the 

harpoon1 or bend it1 so that it would be
 of no  further use until repaired4     
,,chapter ,,xiii4    ,,on ,,shot1       
,,caps1 ,,and ,,wadding4      ,patent   
shot being still produced as at the time
 of publishing previous  editions of my 
works1 ,i have no important improvement 
to record4    ,illustration    ,the     
manufacture is very simple3 the lead is 
first tempered by the aid of  arsenic1  
in the proportions required by the slag 
7a technical term7 for  the kind used2  
some lead taking more and some less4    
,the melted metal is  then poured into a
 perforated pan placed over the mouth of
 the pit1 or  tower 7whichever may be in
 use47 ,messrs4 ,walkers1 ,parkers1 and 
,co4 have  towers in their various      
factories where they make shot2 the cut 
represents the one in ,newcastle4       
,messrs4 ,locke1 ,blackett1 and ,co4    
cast  down the shaft of a pit1 and by   
this means obtain a greater fall4 ,the  
fluid metal takes a globular shape in   
falling1 and the concentric motion  of  

each particle round its axis keeps it in
 this form until its passage  through   
the air has extracted the heat1 and     
before it reaches the body  of water    
placed to receive it4 ,the only         
difficulty is in casting very  large    
sizes2 for if the distance the drops    
fall be not sufficiently  great1 and    
they reach the water in a semi-fluid    
state1 the resistance of  the water     
misshapes them4 ,about three different  
sizes come out through  one pan4 ,these 
are separated by the aid of riddles1 or 
tabled1 as the  process is termed4 ,a   
quantity of the shot is placed on a     
slight incline1  when those that do not 
run off are rejected4 ,the whole are    
then polished  in a machine termed a    
drum1 with a mixture of black lead4     
,this gives to  the shot that beautiful 
polish which captivates the eye1 but    
which  injures the shooting of the gun1 
as the black lead adheres to the        
interior of the tube4 ,all shot should  
be used unpolished2 and the  addition of

 hardness is unquestionably another     
advantage4 ,slag-lead is  lighter than  
other lead1 but it is much harder1 and  
thus more suitable  for shot4 ,i regret 
the disuse of shot made with            
quicksilver1 as it is  unquestionably   
much superior1 though more costly4 ,a   
considerable  improvement is yet to be  
introduced in the manipulation of       
shot-making2  and ,i shall commence a   
round of experiments with that object at
 the  earliest opportunity4    ,copper  
caps are now a misnomer3 very few are to
 be met with4 ,brass caps  boiled to the
 colour of copper are the rule1 the     
former the exception4  ,good caps are   
made in ,birmingham1 if a remunerative  
price is paid for  them2 and ,i have the
 pleasure to name several makers3       
,messrs4 ,e4 and ,a4  ,ludlow1 ,messrs4 
,pursall and ,philips1 and ,mr4 ,cox4   
,it must be borne in  mind that         
cheapness means inferiority3 every      
article is made according  to price4    
,the mixture of fulminating mercury     

composition is3      ,fulminating       
mercury   #c grains or ounces4          
,chlorate of potash    #e do4           
,sulphur               #a do4           
,powdered glass        #a do4    ,the   
above is one of the best compounds in   
use4      ,chlorate of ,potash    #f    
grains or ounces4    ,sulphur           
#c   do4    ,glass1 powdered       #a   
do4    ,charcoal1 ditto       #a_/b do4 
,is the best mixture where the corrosive
 principle is not heeded4    ,messrs4   
,eley1 ,brothers1 were the first        
manufacturers who turned their          
attention to making waterproof copper   
caps for sporting purposes1  commencing 
it in #ahcg4 ,the principle is simple1  
the excellence mainly  consisting in the
 quality of the ingredients used1 and   
their being  thoroughly secured from the
 effects of moisture4 ,they are so      
constituted  that the largest portion of
 the percussion powder and the weakest  
part  of the waterproof covering which  
lines the inner surface of the cap1 are 

immediately over the surface of the     
nipple2 consequently1 when the blow     
ignites the percussion powder1 the      
larger portion of the explosion is      
forced down the nipple1 and is of such  
intensity of heat 7especially in        
platina-lined nipples7 that it will     
ignite the gunpowder some distance  up  
the barrel3 in an eprouvette it will do 
so at four or five inches  from the     
nipple4 ,a miss-fire thus very seldom   
occurs1 as the heat is  sure to         
penetrate to the charge1 even when a gun
 has become foul after a  long day's    
shooting and the powder cannot pass     
freely through the  chambers to the     
nipples4 ,it is well known that caps    
which do not possess  these igniting    
qualities may be fired through          
gunpowder1 and frequently  fail to      
ignite it1 from the want of proper      
attention to the constitution  of the   
fulminate and its mixture4 ,in all      
cheaply manufactured caps this          
inferiority is sure to prevail1 and the 

manifold advantages to be  derived from 
the sterling quality of all sporting    
adjuncts is now fully  appreciated by   
sportsmen generally4 8,penny wise and   
pound foolish0 is a  proverb more borne 
in mind than formerly1 and the          
conviction is now  general that a good  
gun only proves to be so when proper    
attention is  paid to the loading in    
every particular4    ,good wadding is as
 essential as good gunpowder3 a perfect 
separation  must be maintained between  
the exploded powder and the shot1 or no 
result can be depended upon2 cheap      
wadding1 therefore1 according to the    
above adage1 is out of favour4          
,cartridges of wire1 or 8universal10 are
 now so well known as to need no        
treatise to point out their advantages4 
,a more striking example of the         
progress of knowledge in properly       
estimating the value of high-class      
manufactures cannot be adduced than in  
the case of ,eley1 ,brothers1 who  have 
by unwearied industry in the production 

of sporting ammunition of  the first    
quality1 nearly obtained a monopoly in  
that department of  gunnery4    ,i can  
safely refer to the ,manufacturers to be
 found in the advertising  list as able 
to supply the sportsman with all        
requisites1 from a gun 8to  a           
turnscrew10 and on such terms as will be
 found to be advantageous to  the       
purchaser4      ,,finis4                
,,london3      ,,printed ,,by ,,smith1  
,,elder ,,and ,,co4      ,,little       
,,green ,,arbour ,,court4               
,advertisements4        ,,william       
,,greener1    ,,gun ,,manufacturer1     
,,aston ,,new ,,town1 ,,birmingham1     
,,highest ,,prize ,,medallist ,,in      
#ahea1 #ahec1 ,,and #ahee1    ,in       
returning thanks to the ,sporting ,world
 for their distinguished  support during
 many years1 begs to intimate to them   
that he has now  accomplished the long  
cherished wish of establishing his      
manufactory in  ,birmingham1 the seat of
 the gun manufacture1 where the         

facilities of  producing a first-rate   
gun are superior to any other locality  
in the  world2 for here he can reject   
imperfect materials and replace them1   
while makers in other parts of the      
kingdom would be writing about the      
deficiency4 ,here he can exercise his   
own judgment on the goodness of         
material during the progress of         
production2 here he can carry out any   
alteration or improvement in barrels or 
locks that may suggest itself2  and here
 eventually will settle the whole       
manufacture for the kingdom4  ,this is  
nearly accomplished now1 for it would be
 idle to conceal the  fact that a vast  
majority of what is sold in ,london1 as 
,london make1 is  made here4 ,here the  
best workmen are congregating and meet  
with the  greatest encouragement4 ,under
 these circumstances he has judged it   
best  to avail himself of the means     
offered of producing1 without 8egotism10
  guns equal1 if not superior1 to       
anything yet produced by any maker      

whatever4 ,this may be considered a wide
 assertion1 but to prove he does  not   
make it rashly he is prepared to test   
the fact by a competition with  any     
maker whatever1 barring none2 to be     
decided by the following five  points3  
#ast1 safety--the greatest difficulty in
 bursting2 #bndly1  lightness2 #crdly1  
goodness of shooting--strength and      
closeness combined  with the least      
charges2 #dthly1 durability2 #ethly1    
beauty and taste  combined4    ,he      
considers it a crime of great magnitude 
that guns should burst2 they  never do  
so where proper metal is used4 ,he will 
produce an ordinary  weight of barrel   
which he will allow any one to burst if 
they can2 in  fact1 he believes it to be
 the greatest difficulty to do so4      
,w4 ,g4 will undertake contracts for    
quantities of arms subject to private   
arrangement1 such as military arms1     
shipping ditto1 rifles or sealing  guns1
 for foreign powers or private          
companies1 provided in all cases the    

quality be sufficiently good to enable  
him to brand them with his name2        
anything inferior he declines to make4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,the prices of his guns are as under3-- 
,double rifles of every superior quality
 of taste and        s4 d4    finish1   
case complete with every requisite      
#dj   #j   #j    ,double guns of very   
superior quality1 with laminated        
steel barrels1 c41 case and every       
requisite complete     #ce   #j   #j    
,double rifle1 second quality1 same     
material1 but not so    highly finished1
 case complete                          
#cj   #j   #j    ,double gun1 second    
quality1 same material1 but not so      
highly finished1 case complete          
#be   #j   #j    ,double rifle1         
excellent quality1 stubs ,damascus1 no  
case  #ah   #j   #j    ,double gun1     
excellent quality1 laminated steel1 no  
case   #ae   #j   #j    ,double rifle1  
good                                    
#aj  #aj   #j    ,double gun1 good      

#h  #aj   #j    ,double rifle1 no       
engraving1 c4                           
#h   #j   #j    ,double gun1       ditto
                                    #f  
#j   #j    ,very best single rifles1    
superior style and finish1 case         
complete                                
#ba   #j   #j    ,second quality1 case  
#af  #af   #j    ,good quality1 no case 
#aj  #aj   #j    ,plain1 ditto          
#e   #j   #j    ,sealing rifles         
#c  #aj   #j    ,very best single gun1  
case complete                       #af 
#af   #j    ,second quality1 with case  
#ab  #ab   #j    ,good quality          
#g   #j   #j    ,plain1 ditto           
#d   #j   #j    ,sealing or other guns  
in quantity                          #c 
#j   #j    ,enfield musket percussion1  
swivel locks                    #b   #j 
#j    ,enfield rifle1 plain ditto       
#a   #e   #j    ,the above includes     
every size which can be fired from the  
shoulder4    ,pistols1 ,cutlasses1      
,pikes1 c41 supplied on the most        

moderate ,terms4    ,business done for  
cash on delivery only4    ,foreign      
,bills for orders payable in ,london1 or
 reference for payment in  any part of  
,england4    ,n4,b4--,w4 ,g4 now        
manufactures a very superior double     
waterproof copper  and iron cap4        
,,schuyler1 ,,hartly1  ,,graham4        
,,maiden ,,lane1 ,,new ,,york1    ,,sole
 ,,agents ,,in ,,the ,,united ,,states  
,,of ,,america    ,,to    ,,william     
,,greener1    ,,gun ,,manufacturer1     
,,aston ,,new ,,town1 ,,birmingham4     
,every description of ,sporting ,guns   
imported on reasonable ,terms4          
,,powder ,,flasks1 ,,shot ,,pouches1    
,,washing ,,rods1 ,,and ,,implements    
,,of ,,every  ,,description ,,requisite 
,,for ,,the ,,sporting ,,field4         
,,eley',s ,,caps ,,and ,,waddings1      
,,patent ,,cartridges4    ,,starkey',s1 
,,pursall ,,and ,,phillips',s1 ,e4 ,,and
 ,e4 ,,ludlow',s1 ,,and ,,other         
,,manufacturers' ,,copper ,,caps4       
,e4 ,,baylis ,,and ,,son1               

,manufacturers of    ,,every            
,,description ,,of ,,military    ,,and  
,,sporting ,,implements1                
,,dog-,,collars1 ,,handcuffs ,,and      
,,leg-,,irons4    ,contractors to the   
,honourable ,board of ,ordnance4        
,,st4 ,,mary',s ,,square1 ,,birmingham4 
,,thomas ,,derrington ,,and ,,son1      
,dealers in    ,,gun ,,and ,,pistol     
,,stocks1    ,,wholesale ,,and ,,retail4
    ,a large quantity of fine           
well-seasoned ,gun-stocks always on     
hand4    ,,walnut ,,trees1 ,,walnut     
,,planks1 ,,or ,,stocks1 ,,bought4      
,,reed',s ,,buildings1                  
,,shadwell-,,street1 ,,birmingham4      
,,philip ,,webley1    #hd1 ,,weaman     
,,street1 ,,birmingham1    ,,present    
,,contractor ,,to ,,the ,,hon4 ,,board  
,,of ,,ordnance1    ,,patentee ,,of     
,,safety ,,revolving ,,pistols4         
,illustration    ,p4 ,,webley           
respectfully informs the public1 that he
 is prepared to supply  in any quantity 
his    ,,patent ,,revolving ,,pistols1  

which he can confidently recommend1 as  
they embrace all latest  improvements   
with the greatest possible simplicity of
 construction1 and  are pronounced by   
men of experience1 both civil and       
military1 to be most  efficient weapons4
    ,the action is very similar to the  
ordinary gun lock2 the thumb being  used
 to bring the hammer to cock1 while the 
arm is extended2 the chamber  at the    
same time revolving and firmly locked at
 the moment of discharge1  by a spring  
underneath1 thus obviating the objection
 to other ,patent  ,pistols1 which are  
self-acting4    7,large size #dh1 middle
 #fj1 small #abj bores74    ,p4 ,w4 also
 manufactures ,officers' ,double1 ,under
 and ,over1 ,breast and  ,single        
,pistols4    ,p4 ,w4 particularly       
invites attention to his ,under and     
,over ,pistols1  which are rifled and   
made to suit the present ,government    
size cartridge4    ,p4 ,w4 also         
manufactures every description of       
,revolving1 ,saloon1 ,holster1  ,pocket1

 ,inlaid and ,fancy ,pistols4           
,,bullet ,,moulds    of every           
description1 ,greenerian1 ,minie1       
,pritchett1 ,whitworth1 ,jacob1  ,cone1 
,spherical1 c4 ,rifle sights1 both      
military and burden4 ,rifle  strap1     
,furniture1 ,gunlocks1 and all other    
,implements4    ,,present ,,contractor  
,,to ,,the ,,honourable ,,board ,,of    
,,ordnance4        ,,percussion ,,caps4 
,e4 ,,and ,a4 ,,ludlow1    ,,military   
,,percussion ,,cap ,,makers1    ,,and   
,,present ,,government ,,contractors1   
,manufacturers of the ,patent ,double   
,waterproof ,central ,fire and          
,anticorrosive ,caps2 ,chemically       
prepared edged ,gun ,wadding2           
,cartridges of  every description4      
,inventor and sole ,manufacturer of the 
,improved  ,flanged 7or ,hat7 ,caps1 as 
adopted by all the leading sportsmen of 
the  day1 and acknowledged by all to be 
the best and most ready primer ever     
introduced4    ,samples with ,price     
,list may be obtained at the ,works4    

#gb ,,and #gc ,,legge ,,street1         
,,birmingham4        ,,joseph ,,bourne1 
7,,contractor ,,to ,h4 ,m4',s ,,war     
,,department17    ,manufacturer of      
,guns1 ,muskets1 ,revolvers1 ,pistols1  
,rifles1 and ,small  ,arms suitable for 
the various markets and ,governments of 
the world4    ,no4 #e1 ,,whittall       
,,street1 ,,birmingham4        ,,by     
,,her ,,majesty',s ,,royal ,,letters    
,,patent4    ,,moore ,,and ,,harris1    
,,improved ,,fowling ,,and ,,rifle      
,,gun1 ,,and    ,,pistol ,,makers1      
,,st4 ,,mary',s ,,square1 ,,birmingham4 
,improved ,breech-,loading ,guns1       
,repeating ,arms1 and every approved    
article  in the above line4        ,,by 
,,her ,,majesty',s ,,royal ,,letters    
,,patent4    ,,pursall1 ,,phillips ,,and
 ,,son1    ,,manufacturers ,,of ,t4     
,,starkey ,,and ,,co4',s    ,,central   
,,fire ,,water-,,proof ,,safety ,,cap1  
,,contractors ,,to ,h4 ,m4',s ,,hon4    
,,board ,,of ,,ordnance1    ,,and ,,to  
,,the ,,hon4 ,,east ,,india ,,company4  

,,manufacturers ,,of    ,,percussion1   
,,imperial1 ,,and ,,anticorrosive       
,,copper ,,caps ,,tubes4    ,primers1   
,cartridges1 c41 of every description1  
,chemically ,prepared1  and other ,gun  
,waddings4    #bb1 ,,whittall ,,street1 
,,st4 ,,mary',s ,,square1 ,,birmingham4 
,,pigou ,,and ,,wilks1    ,,gunpowder   
,,manufacturers1    ,,dartford ,,and    
,,london4        ,,charles ,,lawrence   
,,and ,,son1    ,,gunpowder             
,,manufacturers1    ,,battle ,,and      
,,london4        ,,john ,,hall ,,and    
,,son1    ,,gunpowder ,,manufacturers1  
,,faversham ,,mills ,,and ,,london4     
,,curtis ,,and ,,hervey1    ,,gunpowder 
,,manufacturers1    ,,hounslow ,,mills  
,,and ,,london4        ,,the ,,prize    
,,medal    ,,awarded ,,to    ,,joseph   
,,brazier ,,and ,,son1    ,,the ,,ashes 
,,works1    ,,wolverhampton1            
,manufacturers of ,gun ,locks of the    
very best description for the ,london   
and ,scotch trades2 ,shot ,pouches1 ,gun
 ,implements1 c4 c4    ,patentees of    

,improved ,revolving ,pistols1 c4       
,,rifle ,,maker ,,to ,,the ,,war        
,,department4    ,,william ,,tranter1   
,,inventor1 ,,patentee1 ,,and           
,,manufacturer    ,,of ,,the            
,,double-,,trigger ,,safety             
,,revolvers1    ,,double ,,action       
,,cocking    ,,revolvers1    ,,revolving
    ,,chamber ,,rifles    ,,and         
,,carbines1    ,,oscillating            
,,breech-,,loading    ,,rifles1         
,,lubricating    ,,bullets1 c4          
,illustration3 ,,double ,,trigger       
,,revolver4    #ac1 ,,st4 ,,mary',s     
,,square1 ,,birmingham4        ,,james  
,,townsend1    #aa  #ab1 ,,sand         
,,street1 ,,st4 ,,mary',s ,,square1     
,,birmingham4    ,,manufacturer ,,of    
,,air ,,canes1 ,,air ,,guns1 ,,and ,,air
 ,,weapons    ,of every description1    
upon an improved construction1 adapted  
for  numerous ,sports and ,amusements1  
viz4--,killing ,rabbits1 ,rooks1 ,sea   
,fowl1  c41 with ball1 destroying       
vermin1 small birds1 and collecting rare

  specimens with shot1 and fish near the
 surface of the water with  harpoons and
 lines4    ,,also1    ,manufacturer of  
,powder1 ,walking-,stick ,guns1 ,rifles 
of every variety1  ,saloon ,pistols1    
,bulleted ,caps1 ,needle ,rifles1 c41 c4
    ,n4,b4--,agents for the ,london     
,armoury ,company for the sale of       
,,adams' ,,patent ,,revolver ,,pistols4 
,and likewise ,agent for    ,,colonel   
,,colt',s ,,patent ,,revolver ,,pistol4 
,,an ,,assortment ,,of ,,each ,,always  
,,kept ,,in ,,stock4        ,w4 ,r4     
,,pape4    ,,gun ,,and ,,rifle ,,maker1 
#dd1 ,,westgate ,,street1               
,,newcastle-,,on-,,tyne4    ,possesses  
the highest practical knowledge of what 
a ,gun ought to be for  general sporting
 purposes1 and the fact of submitting   
every ,gun to the  severest tests1      
before being finally finished1 gives him
 every  confidence in stating1 that for 
shooting powers and other good          
qualities1 his guns cannot be excelled  
by any maker whatever2 for proof  of    

which1 see the amount of shooting at    
,ashburnham ,park1 ,london1 on  the #ith
 ,april #aheh1 in the ,field ,newspaper 
of #agth ,april1 #aheh4        ,,thomas 
,,kilby ,,and ,,son1    ,,gun ,,barrel  
,,manufacturers1    #aa1 ,,court1       
,,steelhouse ,,lane1 ,,birmingham4      
,every description of ,double and       
,single ,barrels1 ,rifle and ,revolving 
,pistol ,barrels1 warranted equal to    
those of any other ,manufacturer of  the
 day4    ,,country ,,orders ,,punctually
 ,,attended ,,to4        ,,eley',s      
,,ammunition4    ,,eley ,,brothers1     
,,london1 beg to call the attention of  
,sportsmen to the  advantages to be     
derived from the use of the ,wire       
,cartridge1 in the  pursuit of all kinds
 of large or small game4    ,as there   
are few ,sportsmen who are not in the   
habit of using these  ,cartridges1 they 
are so well known as to make a          
description of them  scarcely requisite4
 ,the shot is packed within a wire cage1
 which is  constructed so as to allow   

them to escape from it gradually while  
the  charge is in motion4 ,they cause   
all guns to shoot with double the       
strength which can be obtained by the   
ordinary mode of loading1 and with  much
 greater regularity1 as each shot       
retains its spherical form4    ,the     
,royal ,cartridge is mostly used in this
 country for killing wild  game4    ,the
 ,green ,cartridge is the sort generally
 in demand for ,india and  ,america1    
being made for foreign field sports with
 the largest drop shot1  and also with  
mould shot1 and will be found very      
effective at large game  where the      
,sportsman has not a rifle in the field4
        ,,eley',s    ,,double           
,,waterproof ,,central ,,fire ,,caps4   
,these ,caps are now well known and     
approved1 being found superior to all   
others for their certainty and rapidity 
of fire1 either in dry or wet  weather4 
,for ,india and the ,colonies1 or any   
climate where ,caps may be exposed to   
great vicissitudes of heat1 cold1 or    

moisture1 they are particularly         
recommended1 as they cannot be injured  
by any amount of exposure to wet  or    
heat1 nor their qualities impaired1 if  
kept for years in a tropical  climate4  
,the ignition at all times is safe and  
certain1 whilst in humid  weather1 the  
discharge is as instantaneous as with   
the ordinary ,cap on  the dryest day4   
,for testimonials as to their value for 
shooting in ,india see ,colonel         
,jacob's work on 8,rifles and           
,projectiles40    ,they have been much  
approved for the rifle in foreign field 
sports1  where the ,cap is often allowed
 to remain a long time upon the nipple4 
,being perfectly waterproof1 they will  
bear immersion in sea-water for  days   
without injury2 but when testing them in
 this manner1 it is  necessary to blow  
the water out of them before placing    
them upon the  nipple4    ,concaved     
,felt1 and chemically prepared ,cloth   
,gun ,waddings1 to prevent  the leading 
of guns1 warranted not to blow to pieces

 in the barrel4    ,cartridges for      
,breech-loading ,shot ,guns1 ,rifles1   
c42 also for ,sharp's  ,breech-loading  
,rifles1 and ,prince's ,breech-loading  
,carbines4    ,cartridges made for      
,needle ,rifles1 very simple and        
effective in their  construction4       
,skin ,cartridges1 suitable for ,adams'1
 ,deane's1 and ,colt's                  
,revolvers--warranted to leave no       
deposit when fired4    ,also ,rifle     
,shell ,tubes1 as manufactured by       
direction of ,colonel ,john  ,jacob1 of 
the ,bombay ,artillery1 and every       
description of ammunition for  sporting 
or military purposes4    ,sole          
,contractors to the ,war ,department for
 ,waterproof ,military ,caps1  ,revolver
 ,cartridges1 ,jacob's ,rifle ,shell    
,tubes1 c4    ,eley's ammunition may be 
had of all ,gunmakers and ,dealers at   
home or  abroad4    ,,eley ,,brothers1  
,,london4    7,,wholesale ,,only47      
,,william ,,evans1    ,,thirteen ,,years
 ,,with ,,joseph ,,brosier ,,and ,,son1 

,,gun ,,lock ,,manufacturer1    #ae     
,,bath ,,street1 ,,birmingham4          
,,charles ,,maybury1    ,,manufacturer  
,,of    ,,every ,,description ,,of      
,,sportsman',s ,,guns1    ,,rifles1     
,,pistols1 ,,etc41    ,,revolvers ,,on  
8,,tranter',s0 ,,and ,,all ,,other      
,,patent ,,improved ,,principles1       
,,for ,,home ,,and ,,exportation1    #ae
 ,,st4 ,,mary',s ,,square1 ,,birmingham4
        ,w4 ,,and ,c4 ,,scott ,,and     
,,son1    ,,gun ,,and ,,pistol ,,makers1
    #ie1 ,,bath ,,street1 ,,birmingham4 
,,guns ,,for ,,home ,,use ,,and         
,,exportation4          #fe1 ,cornhill1 
,london1 ,september1 #aheh4      ,,new  
,,and ,,standard ,,works    ,,published 
,,by    ,,smith1 ,,elder  ,co4          
,,works ,,in ,,the ,,press4    ,social  
,innovators and their ,schemes4 ,by     
,,william ,,lucas ,,sargant1 ,author  of
 8,the ,science of ,social ,opulence10  
c4      ,post #hvo4    ,indian ,scenes  
and ,characters1 ,sketched from ,life4  
,by ,prince ,,alexis  ,,soltykoff4      

,sixteen ,plates in ,tinted             
,lithography1 with ,descriptions4       
,colombier    ,folio4      7,nearly     
,ready47    ,christianity in ,india4 ,by
 ,,john ,,william ,,kaye1 ,author of    
8,life of ,lord  ,metcalfe10 c4         
#hvo4 7,in the ,press47    ,lectures and
 ,addresses on ,literary and ,social    
,topics4 ,by the late ,rev4  ,,fred4 ,w4
 ,,robertson1 of ,brighton4 ,post #hvo4 
7,just ,ready47    ,tents and ,tent     
,life4 ,by ,capt4 ,,godfrey ,,rhodes1   
#idth ,regt4 ,post #hvo41  with         
,twenty-eight ,plates1 #abs4 cloth4     
,the ,life of ,j4 ,deacon ,hume1 ,esq41 
late ,secretary to the ,board of        
,trade4 ,by the ,rev4 ,,charles         
,,badham4 ,post #hvo4    ,phantastes3 a 
,faerie ,romance for ,men and ,women4   
,by ,,george ,,macdonald1  ,author of   
8,within and ,without40 ,post #hvo4     
,historic ,notes on the ,old and ,new   
,testament4 ,by ,,samuel ,,sharpe1 ,esq4
      ,new and ,revised ,edition4 ,post 
#hvo4    ,the ,parents' ,cabinet of     

,amusement and ,instruction1 for ,young 
,persons4      ,a ,new and ,revised     
,edition4      ,in ,shilling ,volumes1  
,post #hvo41 with a ,frontispiece       
printed in ,oil    ,colours1 and        
numerous ,woodcuts1 in a handsome       
,illustrated ,binding4      ,,volume ,i4
 ,,will ,,be ,,published ,,on ,,the     
#a,,st ,,of ,,december4      ,,new      
,,publications4    ,,cheaper ,,edition4 
,the ,life of ,charlotte ,bront4        
7,,currer ,,bell47 ,author of 8,,jane   
,,eyre10  8,,shirley10 8,,villette10 c4 
,by ,,mrs4 ,,gaskell1 ,author of 8,north
 and ,south10  c4      ,fourth ,edition1
 ,revised1 ,one ,volume1 with a         
,portrait of ,miss ,bront    and a ,view
 of ,haworth ,parsonage4 ,price #gs4    
#f;d4      8,all the secrets of the     
literary workmanship of the authoress of
 #8,jane    ,eyre' are unfolded in the  
course of this extraordinary            
narrative40--,times4      8,mrs4        
,gaskell has produced one of the best   
biographies of a woman by a    woman    

which we can recall to mind40--,athenum4
    ,gunnery in #aheh3 being a ,treatise
 on ,rifles1 ,cannon1 and ,sporting     
,arms4 ,by ,,william ,,greener1 ,author 
of 8,the ,gun40      ,demy #hvo41 with  
,illustrations1 price #ads41 cloth4     
,personal ,adventures during the ,indian
 ,rebellion1 in ,rohilcund1  ,futteghur1
 and ,oude4 ,by ,w4 ,,edwards1 ,esq41   
,b4,c4,s4      ,post #hvo41 price #fs4  
cloth4      8,for touching incidents1   
hair-breadth #8scapes1 and the pathos of
    sufferings almost incredible1 there 
has appeared nothing like this    little
 book of #8,personal                    
,adventures4'0--,athenum4      8,among  
the stories of hair-breadth escapes in  
,india this is one of the    most       
interesting and touching40--,examiner4  
8,a very touching narrative40--,lit4    
,gazette4      8,no account of it can do
 it justice40--,globe4    ,the ,crisis  
in the ,punjab4 ,by ,,frederick ,h4     
,,cooper1 ,esq41 ,c4,s41  ,umritsir4    
,post #hvo1 with ,map1 price #gs4 #f;d4 

cloth4      8,the book is full of       
terrible interest4 ,the narrative is    
written with    vigour and earnestness1 
and is full of the most tragic          
interest40--,economist4      8,one of   
the most interesting and spirited books 
which have sprung out    of the sepoy   
mutiny40--,globe4    ,eight ,months'    
,campaign against the ,bengal ,sepoys1  
during the ,mutiny1  #aheg4 ,by ,colonel
 ,,george ,,bourchier1 ,c4,b41 ,bengal  
,horse ,artillery4      ,with ,plans4   
,post #hvo1 price #gs4 #f;d4 cloth4     
8,a right manly1 fair1 and forcible     
statement of events40--,athenum4        
8,colonel ,bourchier relates his        
adventures in a free and graceful       
manner40--,literary ,gazette4    ,the   
,parsees3 their ,history1 ,religion1    
,manners1 and ,customs4 ,by  ,,dosabhoy 
,,framjee4      ,post #hvo1 price #ajs4 
cloth4      8,an acceptable addition to 
our literature4 ,it gives information   
which    many will be glad to have      
carefully gathered together1 and formed 

into    a shapely whole40--,economist4  
,homely ,ballads for the ,working ,man's
 ,fireside4 ,by ,,mary ,,sewell4        
,post #hvo1 cloth1 ,one ,shilling4      
,,new ,,publications--continued4    ,the
 ,chaplain's ,narrative of the ,siege of
 ,delhi4 ,by the ,rev4 ,j4 ,e4 ,w4      
,,rotton1 ,chaplain to the ,delhi ,field
 ,force4      ,post #hvo1 with a ,plan  
of the ,city and ,siege ,works1 price   
#ajs4 #f;d4    cloth4      8,a simple   
and touching statement1 which bears the 
impress of truth in    every            
word40--,athenum4      8,an earnest     
record by a ,christian minister of some 
of the most    touching scenes which can
 come under observation40--,literary    
,gazette4    ,the ,defence of ,lucknow3 
,a ,,staff-,,officer',s ,,diary4 ,by    
,capt4 ,,thos4 ,f4  ,,wilson1 #acth     
,bengal ,n4 ,i41                        
,assistant-,adjutant-,general4          
,sixth ,thousand4 ,with ,plan of the    
,residency4 ,small post #hvo41 price    
#bs4 #f;d4      8,the story of the      

glorious garrison of ,lucknow is told in
 this volume    with all its thrilling  
and painful details40--,nonconformist4  
8,the #8,staff ,officer' supplies exact 
military information with               
distinctness40--,globe4    ,life and    
,correspondence of ,lord ,metcalfe4 ,by 
,,john ,,william ,,kaye4      ,new and  
,cheap ,edition1 in #b ,vols41 ,small   
,post #hvo1 with ,portrait1    price    
#abs4 cloth4      8,one of the most     
valuable biographies of the present     
day40--,economist4      8,an edition    
revised with care and                   
judgment40--,globe4    ,narrative of the
 ,mission from the ,governor-,general of
 ,india to the  ,court of ,ava in #ahee4
 ,with ,notices of the ,country1        
,government1 and  ,people4 ,by ,,captain
 ,,henry ,,yule1 ,bengal ,engineers4    
,imperial #hvo41 with #bd ,plates 7#ab  
coloured71 #ej ,woodcuts1 and #d        
,maps4 ,elegantly bound in cloth1 with  
gilt edges1 price #bl4 #abs4 #f;d4      
8,a stately volume in gorgeous golden   

covers4 ,such a book is in our    times 
a rarity4 ,large1 massive1 and beautiful
 in itself1 it is    illustrated by a   
sprinkling of elegant wood-cuts1 and by 
a series of    admirable tinted         
lithographs4444 ,we have read it with   
curiosity and    gratification1 as a    
fresh1 full1 and luminous report upon   
the    condition of one of the most     
interesting divisions of ,asia beyond   
the    ,ganges40--,athenum4    ,the     
,education of the ,human ,race4 ,now    
first ,translated from the ,german  of  
,,lessing4      ,fcap4 #hvo1 antique    
cloth1 price #ds4       ,this remarkable
 work is now first published in         
,english4      8,an agreeable and       
flowing translation of one of ,lessing's
 finest    ,essays40--,national ,review4
      ,the ,essay makes quite a gem in  
its ,english form40--,westminster       
,review4      8,this invaluable         
,tract40--,critic4    ,the              
,autobiography of ,lutfullah1 a         
,mohamedan ,gentleman1 with an ,account 

of his ,visit to ,england4 ,edited by   
,e4 ,b4 ,,eastwick1 ,esq4      ,third   
,edition1 ,small ,post #hvo4 ,price #es4
 cloth4      8,we have read this book   
with wonder and delight40--,athenum4    
8,it bears the strongest resemblance to 
,gil ,blas of anything we have    ever  
read40--,spectator4    ,the ,life and   
,correspondence of ,sir ,john ,malcolm1 
,g4,c4,b4 ,by ,,john  ,,william ,,kaye4 
,two ,volumes1 #hvo4 ,with ,portrait4   
,price #cfs4 cloth4      8,this book    
deserves to participate in the          
popularity which it was the    good     
fortune of ,sir ,john ,malcolm to       
enjoy40--,edinburgh ,review4      8,mr4 
,kaye has used his materials well1 and  
has written an interesting    narrative1
 copiously illustrated with valuable    
documents40--,examiner4      ,,mr4      
,,ruskin',s ,,works ,,on ,,art4         
,notes on the ,pictures in the          
,exhibition of the ,royal ,academy1 c41 
for  #aheh ,by ,,john ,,ruskin4         
,fifth ,thousand4 #hvo1 price ,one      

,shilling4    ,the ,political ,economy  
of ,art4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4       
8,a most able1 eloquent1 and well-timed 
work4 ,we hail it with    satisfaction1 
thinking it calculated to do much       
practical good1 and we    cordially     
recommend it to our readers40--,witness4
      ,mr4 ,ruskin's chief purpose is to
 treat the artist's power1 and the art  
itself1 as items of the world's wealth1 
and to show how these may be    best    
evolved1 produced1 accumulated1 and     
distributed40--,athenum4      8,we never
 quit ,mr4 ,ruskin without being the    
better for what he has    told us1 and  
we therefore recommend this little      
volume1 like all his    other works1 to 
the perusal of our                      
readers40--,economist4      8,this book1
 daring1 as it is1 glances keenly at    
principles1 of which    some are among  
the articles of ancient codes1 while    
others are    evolving slowly to the    
light40--,leader4    ,the ,elements of  
,drawing4      ,second ,edition4 ,crown 

#hvo4 ,with ,illustrations drawn by the 
,author4      ,price #gs4 #f;d41 cloth4 
8,the rules are clearly and fully laid  
down2 and the earlier exercises         
always conducive to the end by simple   
and unembarrassing means4 ,the    whole 
volume is full of                       
liveliness40--,spectator4      8,we     
close this book with a feeling that1    
though nothing supersedes a    master1  
yet that no student of art should launch
 forth without this    work as a        
compass40--,athenum4      8,it will be  
found not only an invaluable acquisition
 to the student1    but agreeable and   
instructive reading for any one who     
wishes to refine    his perceptions of  
natural scenery1 and of its worthiest   
artistic                                
representations40--,economist4          
8,original as this treatise is1 it      
cannot fail to be at once    instructive
 and suggestive40--,literary ,gazette4  
8,the most useful and practical book on 
the subject which has ever come    under

 our notice40--,press4    ,modern       
,painters1 ,vol4 ,,iv4 ,on ,mountain    
,beauty4      ,imperial #hvo1 with      
,thirty-five ,illustrations engraved on 
,steel1 and    #aaf ,woodcuts1 drawn by 
the ,author4 ,price #bl4 #ajs4 cloth4   
8,considered as an illustrated volume1  
this is the most remarkable    which    
,mr4 ,ruskin has yet issued4 ,the plates
 and woodcuts are profuse1    and       
include numerous drawings of mountain   
form by the author1 which    prove ,mr4 
,ruskin to be essentially an artist4 ,he
 is an unique man1    both among artists
 and writers40--,spectator4      8,the  
present volume of ,mr4 ,ruskin's        
elaborate work treats chiefly of        
mountain scenery1 and discusses at      
length the principles involved in    the
 pleasure we derive from mountains and  
their pictorial    representation4 ,the 
singular beauty of his style1 the hearty
 sympathy    with all forms of natural  
loveliness1 the profusion of his        
illustrations form irresistible         

attractions40--,daily ,news4    ,modern 
,painters1 ,vol4 ,,iii4 ,of ,many       
,things4      ,with ,eighteen           
,illustrations drawn by the ,author1 and
 engraved on    ,steel4      ,price     
#chs4 cloth4      8,every one who cares 
about nature1 or poetry1 or the story of
 human    development--every one who has
 a tinge of literature or philosophy1   
will find something that is for him in  
this volume40--,westminster    ,review4 
8,mr4 ,ruskin is in possession of a     
clear and penetrating mind2 he is       
undeniably practical in his fundamental 
ideas2 full of the deepest    reverence 
for all that appears to him beautiful   
and holy4 ,his style    is1 as usual1   
clear1 bold1 racy4 ,mr4 ,ruskin is one  
of the first    writers of the          
day40--,economist4      8,the present   
volume1 viewed as a literary            
achievement1 is the highest    and most 
striking evidence of the author's       
abilities that has yet been             
published40--,leader4      8,all1 it is 

to be hoped1 will read the book for     
themselves4 ,they will    find it well  
worth a careful perusal40--,saturday    
,review4      ,,works ,,of ,,mr4        
,,ruskin--continued4    ,modern         
,painters4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4         
,imp4 #hvo4 ,vol4 ,i41 #eth ,edit1 #ahs4
 cloth4 ,vol4 ,,ii41 #dth ,edit41 #ajs4 
#f;d4 cloth4      8,mr4 ,ruskin's work  
will send the painter more than ever to 
the study    of nature2 will train men  
who have always been delighted          
spectators of    nature1 to be also     
attentive observers4 ,our critics will  
learn to    admire1 and mere admirers   
will learn how to criticise3 thus a     
public    will be                       
educated40--,blackwood's ,magazine4     
8,a generous and impassioned review of  
the works of living painters4 ,a        
hearty and earnest work1 full of deep   
thought1 and developing great    and    
striking truths in art40--,british      
,quarterly ,review4      8,a very       
extraordinary and delightful book1 full 

of truth and goodness1    of power and  
beauty40--,north ,british ,review4      
,the ,stones of ,venice4      ,complete 
in ,three ,volumes1 ,imperial #hvo1 with
 ,fifty-three ,plates and    numerous   
,woodcuts1 drawn by the ,author4 ,price 
#el4 #aes4 #f;d41 cloth4    ,,each      
,,volume ,,may ,,be ,,had ,,separately4 
,,vol4   ,i4 ,,the ,,foundations1 with  
#ba ,plates1 price #bl4 #bs4 #bnd ,ed4  
,,vol4  ,,ii4 ,,the ,,sea ,,stories1    
with #bj ,plates1 price #bl4 #bs4       
,,vol4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,fall1        with 
#ab ,plates1 price #al4 #aas4 #f;d4     
8,this book is one which1 perhaps1 no   
other man could have written1 and    one
 for which the world ought to be and    
will be thankful4 ,it is in the         
highest degree eloquent1 acute1         
stimulating to thought1 and fertile in  
suggestion4 ,it will1 we are convinced1 
elevate taste and intellect1    raise   
the tone of moral feeling1 kindle       
benevolence towards men1 and    increase
 the love and fear of ,god40--,times4   

8,the #8,stones of ,venice' is the      
production of an earnest1 religious1    
progressive1 and informed mind4 ,the    
author of this essay on    architecture 
has condensed into it a poetic          
apprehension1 the fruit of    awe of    
,god1 and delight in nature2 a          
knowledge1 love1 and just    estimate of
 art2 a holding fast to fact and        
repudiation of hearsay2 an    historic  
breadth1 and a fearless challenge of    
existing social    problems1 whose union
 we know not where to find              
paralleled40--,spectator4    ,the ,seven
 ,lamps of ,architecture4      ,second  
,edition1 with ,fourteen ,plates drawn  
by the ,author4 ,imperial    #hvo4      
,price #al4 #as4 cloth4      8,by the   
#8,seven ,lamps of ,architecture1' we   
understand ,mr4 ,ruskin to    mean the  
seven fundamental and cardinal laws1 the
 observance of and    obedience to which
 are indispensable to the architect1 who
 would    deserve the name4 ,the        
politician1 the moralist1 the divine1   

will find    in it ample store of       
instructive matter1 as well as the      
artist4 ,the    author of this work     
belongs to a class of thinkers of whom  
we have too    few amongst              
us40--,examiner4      8,mr4 ,ruskin's   
book bears so unmistakeably the marks of
 keen and    accurate observation1 of a 
true and subtle judgment and refined    
sense    of beauty1 joined with so much 
earnestness1 so noble a sense of the    
purposes and business of art1 and such a
 command of rich and glowing            
language1 that it cannot but tell       
powerfully in producing a more          
religious view of the uses of           
architecture1 and a deeper insight into 
its artistic principles40--,guardian4   
,lectures on ,architecture and          
,painting4      ,with ,fourteen ,cuts1  
drawn by the ,author4 ,second ,edition4 
,crown #hvo4    ,price #hs4 #f;d4 cloth4
      8,mr4 ,ruskin's                   
lectures--eloquent1 graphic1 and        
impassioned--exposing    and ridiculing 

some of the vices of our present system 
of building1    and exciting his hearers
 by strong motives of duty and pleasure 
to    attend to architecture--are very  
successful40--,economist4      8,we     
conceive it to be impossible that any   
intelligent persons could    listen to  
the lectures1 however they might differ 
from the judgments    asserted1 and from
 the general propositions laid down1    
without an    elevating influence and an
 aroused enthusiasm40--,spectator4      
99       99       99       99       99  
,a ,portrait of ,john ,ruskin1 ,esq41   
,engraved by ,f4 ,,holl1 from a ,drawing
  by ,,george ,,richmond4      ,prints1 
,one ,guinea2 ,india ,proofs1 ,two      
,guineas4      ,,recent ,,works4        
,sermons4 ,by the late ,,rev4 ,,fred4   
,w4 ,,robertson1 ,a4,m41 ,incumbent of  
,trinity ,chapel1 ,brighton4    ,,first 
,,series--,fourth ,edition1 ,post #hvo1 
price #is4 cloth4    ,,second           
,,series--,fourth ,edition1 price #is4  
cloth4    ,,third ,,series--,second     

,edition1 ,post #hvo1 with ,portrait1   
price #is4  cloth4      8,very beautiful
 in feeling and occasionally striking   
and forcible in    conception to a      
remarkable degree40--,guardian4         
8,mr4 ,robertson1 of ,brighton1 is a    
name familiar to most of us1 and        
honoured by all to whom it is           
familiar40--,globe4      8,these sermons
 are full of thought and beauty4 ,there 
is not a sermon    in the series that   
does not furnish evidence of originality
 without    extravagance1 of            
discrimination without tediousness1 and 
of piety    without cant or             
conventionalism40--,british ,quarterly4 
,esmond4 ,by ,w4 ,m4 ,,thackeray1 ,esq4 
,a ,new ,edition in ,one ,volume1 ,crown
 #hvo1 price #fs4 cloth4      8,mr4     
,thackeray has selected for his hero a  
very noble type of the    cavalier      
softening into the man of the eighteenth
 century1 and for his    heroine one of 
the sweetest women that ever breathed   
from canvas or    from book since       

,raffaelle painted and ,shakspeare      
wrote40--,spectator4      8,apart from  
its special merits 8,esmond0 must be    
read just now as an    introduction to  
8,the ,virginians40 ,it is quite        
impossible fully to    understand and   
enjoy the latter story without a        
knowledge of 8,esmond40    ,the new tale
 is in the strictest sense the sequel of
 the old1 not only    introducing the   
same characters1 but continuing their   
history at a    later period40--,leader4
    ,captivity of ,russian ,princesses  
in the ,caucasus3 including a ,seven    
,months' ,residence in ,shamil's        
,seraglio1 in the ,years #ahed-e4       
,translated  from the ,russian1 by ,h4  
,s4 ,,edwards4      ,with an authentic  
,portrait of ,shamil1 a ,plan of his    
,house1 and a ,map4    ,post #hvo1 price
 #ajs4 #f;d4 cloth4      8,a book than  
which there are few novels more         
interesting4 ,it is a    romance of the 
,caucasus4 ,the account of life in the  
house of ,shamil is    full and very    

entertaining2 and of ,shamil himself we 
see    much40--,examiner4      8,the    
story is certainly one of the most      
curious we have read2 it    contains the
 best popular notice of the social      
polity of ,shamil and    the manners of 
his people40--,leader4      8,the       
narrative is well worth                 
reading40--,athenum4    ,religion in    
,common ,life4 ,by ,,william ,,ellis4   
,post #hvo1 price #gs4 #f;d4 cloth4     
8,a book addressed to young people of   
the upper ten thousand upon    social   
duties40--,examiner4      8,lessons in  
,political ,economy for young people by 
a skilful    hand40--,economist4    ,the
 ,sea ,officers ,manual2 being a        
,compendium of the ,duties of a         
,commander2 ,first1 ,second1 ,third1 and
 ,fourth ,officer2 ,officer of the      
,watch2 and ,midshipman in the          
,mercantile ,navy4 ,by ,,captain ,a4    
,,parish1 of  the ,east ,india ,merchant
 ,service4      ,second ,edition1 ,small
 ,post #hvo1 price #es4 cloth4      8,a 

very lucid and compendious manual4 ,we  
would recommend youths intent    upon a 
seafaring life to study it40--,athenum4 
8,a little book that ought to be in     
great request among young               
seamen40--,examiner4      ,,recent      
,,works--continued4    ,annals of       
,british ,legislation1 a ,classified    
,summary of ,parliamentary  ,papers4    
,edited by ,,professor ,,leone ,,levi4  
,,the ,,twenty-,,fifth ,,part ,,is      
,,just ,,issued4    ,antiquities of     
,kertch1 and ,researches in the         
,cimmerian ,bosphorus4 ,by  ,,duncan    
,,mcpherson1 ,m4,d4      ,imperial      
,quarto1 with ,fourteen ,plates and     
numerous ,illustrations1    including   
,eight ,coloured ,fac-,similes of       
,belies of ,antique ,art1 price    ,two 
,guineas4    ,the ,principles of        
,agriculture2 especially ,tropical4 ,by 
,p4 ,,lovell  ,,phillips1 ,m4,d4        
,demy #hvo1 price #gs4 #f;d4 cloth4     
,westgarth's ,victoria1 and the         
,australian ,gold ,mines in #aheg4      

,post #hvo1 with ,maps1 price #ajs4     
#f;d41 cloth4    ,tauler's ,life and    
,sermons4      ,translated by ,,miss    
,,susanna ,,winkworth4 ,with a ,preface 
by the ,,rev4    ,,charles ,,kingsley4  
,small #dto1 ,printed on ,tinted ,paper1
 and bound in antique style1 with    red
 edges1 suitable for a ,present4 ,price 
#aes4    ,chandler's ,visit to ,salt    
,lake2 being a ,journey ,across the     
,plains to the  ,mormon ,settlements at 
,utah4      ,post #hvo1 with a ,map1    
price #is4 cloth4    ,doubleday's ,life 
of ,sir ,robert ,peel4      ,two        
,volumes1 #hvo1 price #ahs4 cloth4      
,cayley's ,european ,revolutions of     
#ahdh4      ,crown #hvo1 price #fs4     
cloth4    ,bunsens 7,chevalier7 ,signs  
of the ,times2 or1 ,the ,dangers to     
,religious  ,liberty in the ,present    
,day4 ,translated by ,miss ,susanna     
,winkworth4      ,one ,volume1 #hvo1    
price #afs4 cloth4    ,payn's ,stories  
and ,sketches4      ,post #hvo1 price   
#hs4 #f;d4 cloth4    ,stoney's          

,residence in ,tasmania4      ,demy     
#hvo1 with ,plates1 ,cuts1 and a ,map1  
price #ads4 cloth4    ,the ,court of    
,henry ,,viii43 being a ,selection of   
the ,despatches of  ,,sebastian         
,,giustinian1 ,venetian ,ambassador1    
#aeae-aeai4 ,translated by  ,,rawdon    
,,brown4 ,two ,vols41 crown #hvo1 price 
#bas4 cloth4      ,,recent              
,,works--continued4    ,forbes' 7,sir   
,john7 ,sight-seeing in ,germany and the
 ,tyrol4      ,post #hvo1 with ,map and 
,view1 price #ajs4 #f;d4 cloth4         
,undine4 ,from the ,german of 8,de la   
,motte ,fouqu40      ,price #as4 #f;d4  
,conolly on the ,treatment of the       
,insane4      ,demy #hvo1 price #ads4   
cloth4    ,hopkins's ,handbook of       
,average4      #hvo1 price #abs4 #f;d4  
cloth4    ,morice's ,hand-,book of      
,british ,maritime ,law4      #hvo1     
price #es41 cloth4    ,adams's ,history 
and ,topography of the ,isle of ,wight4 
,quarto1 #be ,steel ,plates1 cloth1 gilt
 edges1 price #bl4 #bs4    ,waring's    

,manual of ,therapeutics4      ,fcap4   
#hvo1 price #abs4 #f;d4 cloth4    ,vogel
 on ,disorders of the ,blood4           
,translated by ,,chunder ,,coomar ,,dey4
      #hvo1 price #gs4 #f;d4 cloth4     
,duncan's ,campaign with the ,turks in  
,asia4      ,two ,vols41 post #hvo1     
price #bas4 cloth4    ,ross's ,account  
of ,red ,river ,settlement4      ,one   
,volume1 post #hvo1 price #ajs4 #f;d4   
cloth4    ,ross's ,fur ,hunters of the  
,far ,west4      ,two ,volumes1 post    
#hvo4 ,with ,map and ,plate4 #bas4      
cloth4    ,russo-,turkish ,campaigns of 
#ahbh-i4 ,by ,,colonel ,,chesney1       
,r4,a41 ,d4,c4,l41  ,f4,r4,s4           
,third ,edition4 ,post #hvo1 with ,maps1
 price #abs4 cloth4    ,thomson's       
,military ,forces and ,institutions of  
,great ,britain4 #hvo1 price  #aes4     
cloth4    ,the ,militiaman at ,home and 
,abroad4      ,with ,two ,etchings1 by  
,,john ,,leech4 ,post #hvo1 price #is4  
cloth4    ,levi's ,manual of the        
,mercantile ,law of ,great ,britain and 

,ireland4 #hvo1  price #abs4 cloth4     
,thomson's ,laws of ,war ,affecting     
,commerce and ,shipping4      ,second   
,edition1 greatly enlarged4 #hvo1 price 
#ds4 #f;d4 boards4      ,,works ,,on    
,,india ,,and ,,the ,,east4             
,suggestions ,towards the ,future       
,government of ,india4 ,by ,,harriet    
,,martineau4      ,second ,edition4     
,demy #hvo1 price #es4 cloth4      8,the
 genuine1 honest utterances of a clear1 
sound understanding1    neither obscured
 nor enfeebled by party prejudice or    
personal    selfishness40--,daily ,news4
      8,as the work of an honest able   
writer1 these ,suggestions are well     
worthy of attention1 and no doubt they  
will generally be duly                  
appreciated40--,observer4    ,british   
,rule in ,india4 ,by ,,harriet          
,,martineau4      ,fifth ,thousand4     
,price #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4      8,a good  
compendium of a great                   
subject40--,national ,review4      8,a  
succinct and comprehensive              

volume40--,leader4    ,traits and       
,stories of ,anglo-,indian ,life4 ,by   
,lieut4-,colonel ,,addison4      ,with  
,eight ,illustrations1 price #es4 cloth4
      8,a collection of amusing         
anecdotes40--,critic4    ,tiger         
,shooting in ,india4 ,by ,,lieutenant   
,,william ,,rice1 #beth ,bombay ,n4 ,i4 
,super ,royal #hvo4 ,with ,twelve       
,plates in ,chroma-lithography4 #bas4   
cloth4      8,these adventures1 told in 
handsome large print1 with spirited     
chromo-lithographs to illustrate them1  
make the volume before us as    pleasant
 reading as any record of sporting      
achievements we have ever    taken in   
hand40--,athenum4      8,a remarkably   
pleasant book of adventures during      
several seasons of    #8large game'     
hunting in ,rajpootana4 ,the twelve     
chromo-lithographs are    very valuable 
accessories to the narrative2 they have 
wonderful spirit    and                 
freshness40--,globe4    ,the ,commerce  
of ,india with ,europe1 and its         

,political ,effects4 ,by ,b4 ,a4        
,,irving1 ,esq41 ,author of 8,the       
,theory and ,practice of ,caste40       
,post #hvo1 price #gs4 #f;d4 cloth4     
,views and ,opinions of                 
,brigadier-,general ,jacob1 ,c4,b4      
,collected and  ,edited by ,captain     
,,lewis ,,pelly1 ,late ,political       
,secretary ,persian  ,expeditionary     
,force4      ,demy #hvo1 price #abs4    
cloth4    ,papers of the late ,lord     
,metcalfe4 ,selected and ,edited by ,j4 
,w4 ,,kaye4      ,demy #hvo1 price #afs4
 cloth4    ,the ,life of ,mahomet and   
,history of ,islam to the ,era of the   
,hegira4 ,by  ,,william ,,muir1 ,esq41  
,bengal ,civil ,service4      ,two      
,volumes #hvo1 price #cbs4 cloth4       
,,works ,,on ,,india ,,and ,,the        
,,east--continued4    ,tracts on the    
,native ,army of ,india4 ,by            
,brigadier-,general ,,jacob1 ,c4,b4     
#hvo1 price #bs4 #f;d4    ,rifle        
,practice4 ,by ,brigadier-,general      
,,jacob1 ,c4,b4      ,fourth ,edition1  

#hvo1 price #bs4    ,the ,english in    
,western ,india2 being the ,early       
,history of the ,factory at  ,surat1 of 
,bombay4 ,by ,,philip ,,anderson1 ,a4,m4
      ,second ,edition1 #hvo1 price     
#ads4 cloth4    ,life in ,ancient       
,india4 ,by ,,mrs4 ,,speir4      ,with  
,sixty ,illustrations by ,g4 ,,scharf4  
#hvo1 price #aes41 elegantly    bound in
 cloth1 gilt edges4    ,the ,cauvery1   
,kistnah1 and ,godavery3 being a ,report
 on the ,works  constructed on those    
,rivers1 for the ,irrigation of         
,provinces in the  ,presidency of       
,madras4 ,by ,r4 ,,baird ,,smith1       
,f4,g4,s41 ,lt4-,col4 ,bengal           
,engineers1 c41 c4      ,in demy #hvo1  
with #ai ,plans1 price #bhs4 cloth4     
,the ,bhilsa ,topes2 or1 ,budhist       
,monuments of ,central ,india4 ,by      
,,major  ,,cunningham4      ,one        
,volume1 #hvo1 with ,thirty-three       
,plates1 price #cjs4 cloth4    ,the     
,chinese and their ,rebellions4 ,by     
,,thomas ,,taylor ,,meadows4      ,one  

,thick ,volume1 #hvo1 with ,maps1 price 
#ahs4 cloth4    ,on the ,culture and    
,commerce of ,cotton in ,india4 ,by ,dr4
 ,,forbes ,,royle4  #hvo1 price #ahs4   
cloth4    ,the ,fibrous ,plants of      
,india fitted for ,cordage1 ,clothing1  
and ,paper4  ,by ,dr4 ,,forbes ,,royle4 
#hvo1 price #abs4 cloth4    ,the        
,productive ,resources of ,india4 ,by   
,dr4 ,,forbes ,,royle4 ,super ,royal    
#hvo1 price #ads4 cloth4    ,royle's    
,review of the ,measures adopted in     
,india1 for the ,improved  ,culture of  
,cotton4 #hvo1 #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4        
,,works ,,on ,,india ,,and ,,the        
,,east--continued4    ,a ,sketch of     
,assam2 with some ,account of the ,hill 
,tribes4 ,coloured  ,plates1 #hvo1 price
 #ads4 cloth4    ,butler's ,travels and 
,adventures in ,assam4 ,one ,volume     
#hvo1 with ,plates1  price #abs4 cloth4 
,dr4 ,wilson on ,infanticide in ,western
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,rev4 ,james ,coley's ,journal of the   
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#ds4 cloth4    ,crawfurd's ,grammar and 
,dictionary of the ,malay ,language4 #b 
vols4 #hvo1  price #cfs4 cloth4         
,roberts's ,indian ,exchange ,tables4   
#hvo4 ,second ,edition1 enlarged1 price 
#ajs4 #f;d4 cloth4    ,waring on        
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,laurie's ,pegu4 ,post #hvo1 price #ads4
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,interpreter3 a ,grammar of the ,turkish
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half-bound4    ,the ,bombay ,quarterly  
,review4 ,nos4 #a to #i at #es4 #aj to  
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cloth4    ,baillie's ,moohummudan ,law  
of ,sale4 #hvo1 price #ads4 cloth4      
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,gingell's ,ceremonial ,usages of the   
,chinese4 ,imperial #hvo1 price #is4    
cloth4      ,,new ,,cheap ,,series ,,of 
,,popular ,,works4    ,in ,small ,post  
#hvo1 with large ,type1 on good ,paper1 
and neat cloth  binding4    ,lectures on
 the ,english ,humourists of the #ahth  
,century4 ,by ,w4 ,m4  ,,thackeray1     
,author of 8,vanity ,fair10 8,the       
,virginians10 c4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4      
cloth4    ,british ,rule in ,india4 ,by 
,,harriet ,,martineau4      ,price #bs4 
#f;d41 cloth4    ,the ,political        
,economy of ,art4 ,by ,,john ,,ruskin1  
,m4,a4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4  cloth4    ,,to
 ,,be ,,followed ,,by    ,the ,town2 its
 ,memorable ,characters and ,events4 ,by
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,,and ,,other ,,standard ,,works4       
99       99       99       99       99  
,,cheap ,,series ,,of ,,popular         
,,fictions4    ,well printed1 in large  
type1 on good paper1 and strongly bound 
in  cloth4    ,jane ,eyre4 ,by ,,currer 
,,bell4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4        

8#8,jane ,eyre' is a remarkable         
production4 ,freshness and originality1 
truth and passion1 singular felicity in 
the description of natural    scenery1  
and in the analysation of human thought1
 enable this tale to    stand boldly out
 from the mass1 and to assume its own   
place in the    bright field of romantic
 literature40--,times4    ,shirley4 ,by 
,,currer ,,bell4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4      
cloth4      8,the peculiar power which  
was so greatly admired in #8,jane ,eyre'
 is not    absent from this book4 ,it   
possesses deep interest1 and an         
irresistible    grasp of reality4 ,there
 are scenes which1 for strength and     
delicacy of    emotion are not          
transcended in the range of ,english    
fiction40--,examiner4    ,villette4 ,by 
,,currer ,,bell4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4      
cloth4      8,this novel amply sustains 
the fame of the author of #8,jane ,eyre'
 and    #8,shirley' as an original and  
powerful writer40--,examiner4           
,wuthering ,heights and ,agnes ,grey4   

,by ,,ellis and ,,acton ,,bell4 ,with   
,memoir  by ,currer ,bell4 ,price #bs4  
#f;d4 cloth4    ,a ,lost ,love4 ,by     
,,ashford ,,owen4 ,price #bs4 cloth4    
,deerbrook4 ,by ,,harriet ,,martineau4  
,price #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4    ,paul       
,ferroll4 ,fourth ,edition4 ,price #bs4 
cloth4    ,,to ,,be ,,followed ,,by     
,school for ,fathers4 ,by ,,talbot      
,,gwynne4 ,price #bs4 cloth4 7,now      
,ready47    ,tales of the ,colonies4 ,by
 ,,charles ,,rowcroft4 ,price #bs4 #f;d4
 cloth4      ,,new ,,novels4    7,,to   
,,be ,,had ,,at ,,all ,,libraries74     
,eva ,desmond2 or1 ,mutation4 #c vols4  
7,now ready47    ,my ,lady3 a ,tale of  
,modern ,life4 #b vols4 7,just ready47  
,maud ,skillicorne's ,penance4 ,by      
,,mary ,,catherine ,,jackson1 ,author of
 8,the  ,story of ,my ,wardship40 #b    
vols4      8,the style is natural1 and  
displays considerable dramatic          
power40--,critic4    ,the ,crudest      
,wrong of ,all4 ,by the ,author of      
8,margaret2 or1 ,prejudice at  ,home40  

#a vol4      8,it has the first         
requisite of a work of fiction--it is   
amusing40--,globe4    ,the ,moors and   
the ,fens4 ,by ,f4 ,g4 ,,trafford4 #c   
vols4      8,the plot is unhackneyed1   
and the composition is particularly     
good40--,critic4      8,the plot is     
natural1 and skilfully worked out2 many 
of the scenes are    described with     
great power1 and the characters look    
like portraits    from life40--,ladies' 
,newspaper4    ,gaston ,bligh4 ,by ,l4  
,s4 ,,lavenu1 ,author of 8,erlesmere40  
#b vols4    ,the ,three ,chances4 ,by   
the ,author of 8,the ,fair ,carew40 #c  
vols4    ,the ,white ,house by the ,sea3
 a ,love ,story4 ,by ,m4                
,,betham-,,edwards4 #b  vols4           
,riverston4 ,by ,,georgiana ,m4 ,,craik4
 #c vols4    ,the ,professor4 ,by       
,,currer ,,bell4 #b vols4    ,the ,noble
 ,traytour4 ,a ,chronicle4 #c vols4     
,farina2 a ,legend of ,cologne4 ,by     
,,george ,,meredith4 #a vol4    ,below  
the ,surface3 a ,story of ,english      

,country ,life4 #c vols4    ,the ,roua  
,pass2 or1 ,englishmen in the           
,highlands4 ,by ,,erick ,,mackenzie4 #c 
vols4    ,kathie ,brande4 ,by ,,holme   
,,lee4 #b vols4    ,friends of ,bohemia2
 or1 ,phases of ,london ,life4 ,by ,e4  
,m4 ,,whitty1 ,author  of 8,the         
,governing ,classes40 #b vols4          
,lucian ,playfair4 ,by ,,thomas         
,,mackern4 #c vols4      ,,novels       
,,forthcoming    ,sylvan ,holt's        
,daughter4 ,by ,,holme ,,lee1 ,author of
 8,kathie ,brande10 c4 #c  vols4        
7,nearly ready47    ,lost and ,won4 ,by 
,,georgiana ,m4 ,,craik1 ,author of     
8,riverston40 #a vol4    ,an ,old ,debt4
 ,by ,,florence ,,dawson4 #b vols4      
,old and ,young4 #a vol4    ,a ,new     
,novel4 ,by the ,author of 8,amberhill40
 #c vols4    ,a ,new ,novel4 ,by the    
,author of 8,tales of the ,bush10 c4 #c 
vols4           99       99       99    
99       99      ,,new ,,books ,,for    
,,young ,,readers4    ,by the ,author of
 8,round the ,fire10 c4    ,old         

,gingerbread and the ,school-boys4      
,with ,four ,coloured ,plates4 ,price   
#cs4 cloth4 7,now ,ready47    ,unica3 a 
,story for ,sunday4      ,with ,four    
,cuts4 ,price #cs4 cloth4 7,now ,ready47
    ,willie's ,birthday2 showing how a  
,little ,boy did what he ,liked1 and how
  he ,enjoyed it4      ,with ,four      
,illustrations4 ,price #bs4 #f;d41      
cloth4    ,willie's ,best3 a ,sunday    
,story4      ,with ,four ,illustrations4
 ,price #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4               
8,graceful little tales1 containing some
 pretty parables1 and a good    deal of 
simple feeling40--,economist4           
8,extremely well written story books1   
amusing and moral1 and got up in    a   
very handsome style40--,morning ,herald4
    ,uncle ,jack1 the ,fault ,killer4   
,with ,four ,illustrations4 ,price #cs4 
cloth4      8,an excellent little book  
of moral improvement made pleasant to   
children2 it is far beyond the          
common-place moral tale in design and   
execution40--,globe4    ,round the      

,fire3 ,six ,stories for ,young         
,readers4      ,square #afmo1 with ,four
 ,illustrations1 price #cs4 cloth4      
8,charmingly written tales for the      
young40--,leader4      8,six delightful 
little stories40--,guardian4            
8,simple and very                       
interesting40--,national ,review4       
8,true children's stories40--,athenum4  
99       99       99       99       99  
,the ,king of the ,golden ,river2 or1   
the ,black ,brothers4 ,by ,,john        
,,ruskin1  ,m4,a4      ,third ,edition1 
with #bb ,illustrations by ,,richard    
,,doyle4 ,price #bs4    #f;d4           
8,this little fancy tale is by a        
master-hand4 ,the story has a charming  
moral40--,examiner4    ,rhymes for      
,little ,ones4      ,with numerous      
,cuts4 ,price #as4 #f;d4 cloth4         
,,miscellaneous4    ,sir ,john          
,herschel's ,astronomical ,observations 
made at the ,cape of ,good  ,hope4 #dto1
 with plates1 price #dl4 #ds4 cloth4    
,darwin's ,geological ,observations on  

,coral ,reefs1 ,volcanic ,islands1 and  
on ,south ,america4 ,with maps1 plates1 
and woodcuts1 #ajs4 #f;d4 cloth4        
,levi's ,commercial ,law of the ,world4 
,two ,vols41 royal #dto1 price #fl4     
cloth4    ,playford's ,hints for        
,investing ,money4 ,second ,edition1    
post #hvo1 price  #bs4 #f;d4 cloth4     
,sir ,john ,forbes's ,memorandums in    
,ireland4 ,two ,vols41 post #hvo1 price 
#al4 #as4 cloth4    ,leigh ,hunt's ,men1
 ,women1 and ,books4 ,two ,vols4        
,price #ajs4 cloth4    -------- ,table  
,talk4 #cs4 #f;d4 cloth4    --------    
,wit and ,humour4 #es4 cloth4           
-------- ,jar of ,honey4 #es4 cloth4    
,juvenile ,delinquency4 ,by ,m4 ,,hill  
and ,c4 ,f4 ,,cornwallis4 ,post #hvo1   
price  #fs4 cloth4    ,doubleday's ,true
 ,law of ,population4 ,third ,edition1  
#hvo1 #ajs4 cloth4    ,mc,cann's        
,argentine ,provinces1 c4 ,two ,vols41  
post #hvo1 with  illustrations1 price   
#bds4 cloth4    ,goethe's ,conversations
 with ,eckermann4 ,translated by ,,john 

,,oxenford4  ,two ,vols41 post #hvo1    
#ajs4 cloth4    ,kavanagh's ,women of   
,christianity ,exemplary for ,piety and 
,charity4 ,post  #hvo1 with ,portraits1 
price #abs41 in embossed cloth1 gilt    
edges4    ,elementary ,works on ,social 
,economy4 ,uniform in foolscap #hvo1    
half-bound4        ,i4--,,outlines ,,of 
,,social ,,economy4 #as4 #f;d4          
,,ii4--,,progressive ,,lessons ,,in     
,,social ,,science4                     
,,iii4--,,introduction ,,to ,,the       
,,social ,,sciences4 #bs4               
,,iv4--,,outlines ,,of ,,the            
,,understanding4 #bs4      ,v4--,,what  
,,am ,i8 ,,where ,,am ,i8 ,,what ,,ought
 ,i ,,to ,,do8 c4 #as4 sewed4           
,swainson's ,lectures on ,new ,zealand4 
,crown #hvo1 price #bs4 #f;d4  cloth4   
,swainson's ,account of ,auckland4 ,post
 #hvo1 with a ,view1 price #fs4  cloth4 
,,poetry4    ,the ,six ,legends of ,king
 ,goldenstar4 ,by the late ,,anna       
,,bradstreet4 ,fcap4  #hvo1 price #es4  
8,the author evinces more than ordinary 

power1 a vivid imagination1    guided by
 a mind of lofty aim40--,globe4         
,england in ,time of ,war4 ,by ,,sydney 
,,dobell1 ,author of 8,balder10 8,the   
,roman10 c4 ,crown #hvo1 #es4 cloth4    
8,that ,mr4 ,dobell is a poet1          
#8,england in time of ,war' bears       
witness in    many single lines1 and in 
two or three short poems40--,athenum4   
,the ,cruel ,sister1 ,,and ,,other      
,,poems4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 #ds4 cl4          
8,there are traces of power1 and the    
versification displays freedom and      
skill40--,guardian4    ,poems of ,past  
,years4 ,by ,sir ,,arthur ,,hallam      
,,elton1 ,bart41 ,m4,p4 ,fcap4  #hvo1   
#cs4 cloth4      8,a refined1 scholarly1
 and gentlemanly mind is apparent all   
through    this volume40--,leader4      
,poems4 ,by ,mrs4 ,,frank ,p4 ,,fellows4
 ,fcap4 #hvo1 #cs4 cl4      8,there is  
easy simplicity in the diction1 and     
elegant naturalness in    the           
thought40--,spectator4    ,poetry from  
,life4 ,by ,c4 ,m4 ,k4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 cl4 

gilt1 #es4      8,elegant verses4 ,the  
author has a pleasing fancy and a       
refined    mind40--,economist4          
,poems4 ,by ,,walter ,r4 ,,cassels4     
,fcap4 #hvo1 price #cs4 #f;d4 cloth4    
8,mr4 ,cassels has deep poetical        
feeling1 and gives promise of real      
excellence4 ,his poems are written      
sometimes with a strength of            
expression by no means                  
common40--,guardian4    ,garlands of    
,verse4 ,by ,,thomas ,,leigh4 ,fcap4    
#hvo1 price #es4 cloth4      8,one of   
the best things in the #8,garlands of   
,verse' is an ,ode to ,toil4    ,there1 
as elsewhere1 there is excellent        
feeling40--,examiner4    ,balder4 ,by   
,,sydney ,,dobell4 ,crown #hvo1 #gs4    
#f;d4 cloth4      8,the writer has fine 
qualities2 his level of thought is      
lofty1 and his    passion for the       
beautiful has the truth of              
instinct40--,athenum4    ,poems4 ,by    
,,william ,,bell ,,scott4 ,fcap4 #hvo1  
#es4 cl4      8,mr4 ,scott has poetical 

feeling1 keen observation1 deep thought1
 and    command of                      
language40--,spectator4    ,poems4 ,by  
,,mary ,,maynard4 ,fcap4 #hvo1 #ds4     
cloth4      8,we have rarely met with a 
volume of poems displaying so large an  
amount of power1 blended with so much   
delicacy of feeling and grace of        
expression40--,church of ,england       
,quarterly4    ,poems4 ,by ,,currer1    
,,ellis1 and ,,acton ,,bell4 ,fcap4     
#hvo1 #ds4 cloth4    ,select ,odes of   
,horace4 ,in ,english ,lyrics4 ,by ,j4  
,t4 ,,black4 ,fcap4 #hvo1  price #ds4   
cloth4      8,rendered into ,english    
,lyrics with a vigour and heartiness    
rarely1 if    ever1                     
surpassed40--,critic4      ,london3     
,printed by ,,smith1 ,,elder  ,,co41    
,little ,green ,arbour ,court4          
,,transcriber',s ,,notes    ,this e-book
 uses the text of the original work4    
,inconsistent  capitalisation1          
hyphenation and spelling have been      
retained  7spungy_/spongy and           

spunging_/sponging2 scear_/sear2        
immoveable_/immovable2  ,mini_/,minie1  
bareled_/barelled1 brasing_/brazing2    
,froissart_/,froisart2  fuse_/fuze2     
,greenerean_/,greenerian2 ,monk_/,monck2
 etc471 except as mentioned  below under
 ,changes4    ,the two typographical    
forms of fractions 7for example1 #a_/b  
and #a-hth7  have been retained4    ,the
 ,list of ,plates shows 7slightly7      
different texts from the captions in    
the plates themselves4    ,the ,list of 
,illustrations is incomplete1 and not   
all illustrations have  the captions    
listed in the ,list of ,illustrations4  
,the sometimes slight difference in     
wording between the ,table of ,contents 
and the actual chapter headings has been
 retained4      ,textual remarks        
,page #ab1 snaphaunce is not a ,dutch   
word2 it is derived from the ,dutch     
snaphaan4    ,page #fd1 footnote3 the   
original does not show the footnote     
anchor2 the  footnote has been included 
without its anchor4 ,possibly the       

footnote  refers to the ,point ,blank   
,range data for the #aj-;inch and       
#h-;inch  howitzers4    ,page #bci1     
price calculations3 the total for single
 guns should be #ais4  #i;d4 ,the other 
amounts given in the text do not        
correspond with the  table2 this has not
 been changed4    ,page #bdj1 price     
calculations3 the totals for double and 
single guns  should be #afs4 #c;d4 and  
#is4 #i;d41 respectively4    ,page #ac  
7first set of advertisements71 amount of
 shooting is possibly an  error for     
account of shooting4    ,french accents 
have not been corrected or added 7,andr1
 ,minie1  panouissement1 etc471 ,latin  
accents have been retained1 unless      
mentioned below4      ,changes made to  
the text    ,footnotes and illustrations
 have been moved2 some illustrations    
have  been rotated #ij    ,some         
missing_/incorrect punctuation has been 
added or corrected silently    ,page    
vii3 ,polygroove changed to ,poly-groove
 as elsewhere    ,page ix3 ,firelock    

changed to ,fire-lock as in the text    
,page xi3 ,badajoz changed to ,badajos2 
,mallett changed to ,mallet 7#bx7 as  in
 the text    ,page xvi3 manufactury     
changed to manufactory as in the text   
,page #e3 a cubic distance changed to a 
cubit distance    ,page #h3 likwise     
changed to likewise    ,page #bc3       
suphuretted changed to sulphuretted     
,page #bg 7table73 #i4ij changed to #iij
    ,page #db3 horizonal changed to     
horizontal    ,page #fc3 almost from a  
class changed to almost form a class    
,page #ia3 enginering changed to        
engineering    ,page #aca3 impres       
changed to impress    ,page #aci3 fusees
 changed to fuses    ,page #adj3 wthin  
changed to within    ,page #aed3        
furnance changed to furnace    ,page    
#aei3 is is changed to is    ,page #afj3
 exhibibits changed to exhibits    ,page
 #aff3 ,ther changed to ,there    ,page 
#afi3 #adjbfe changed to #adjfbe        
,page #baa3 fustrum changed to frustum  
,page #bai3 ,weimer changed to ,weimar  

,page #bbi3 artizan changed to artisan  
,page #bci3 ,wedgebury changed to       
,wednesbury as elsewhere    ,page #bdi3 
twent changed to twenty    ,page #bga3  
answert hat changed to answer that      
,page #cja3 expansive powder changed to 
expansive power    ,page #cjc3          
impossibity changed to impossibility    
,page #cag3 filed changed to filled     
,page #cef3 frustrum changed to frustum 
,page #ceh3 frustrum changed to frustum 
,page #dcf3 to to changed to to    ,page
 #e 7first set of advertisements73      
,,steeet changed to ,,street    ,page #h
 7first set of advertisements73         
,,brmingham changed to ,,birmingham     
,page #c 7second set of advertisements73
 ,gobe changed to ,globe    ,page #e    
7second set of advertisements73         
,bouchier changed to ,bourchier