,,the ,,history ,,of ,,modern ,,painting ,illustration3 ,,anton ,,graff ,,portrait ,,of ,,the ,,artist ,,the ,,history ,,of ,,modern ,,painting ,,by ,,richard ,,muther ,,professor ,,of ,,art ,,history ,,at ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,breslau ,,in ,,four ,,volumes ,illustration ,,volume ,,one ,,revised ,,edition ,,continued ,,by ,,the ,,author ,,to ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,xix ,,century ,,london3 ,,published ,,by ,j4 ,m4 ,,dent ,,co4 ,,new ,,york3 ,e4 ,p4 ,,dutton ,,co4 ,,mcmvii ,printed by ,,morrison ,,gibb ,,limited ,edinburgh ,,contents ,,page ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ix ,,introduction ,old and new histories of art4--,seeming restlessness of the nineteenth century4--,to recognise style in modern art1 and to prove the logic of its evolution1 the principles of judgment in the old art-histories are also to be employed for the new4--,the question is1 what new element the age brought into the history of art1 not what it borrowed eclectically from earlier ages #a ,,book ,i ,,the ,,legacy ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,chapter ,i ,,commencement ,,of ,,modern ,,art ,,in ,,england ,the commencement of modern art in ,england4--,two divisions of modern art since the sixteenth century4--,classic and naturalistic schools4--,english succeed the ,dutch in the seventeenth century4--,william ,hogarth3 his purpose and his inartistic methods4--,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4--,thomas ,gainsborough4--,comparison between them4--,reynolds1 an historical painter2 ,gainsborough1 a painter of landscape4--,pictures of ,richard ,wilson show the end of classical landscape4--,those of ,gainsborough1 the beginning of paysage intime #i ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,historical ,,position ,,of ,,art ,,on ,,the ,,continent ,english influence upon the art of the ,continent from the middle of the eighteenth century4--,sturm-und-,drang period in literature4--,rousseau4--,goethe's ,werther4--,schiller's ,robbers4--,spain3 ,francis ,goya1 his pictures and etchings4--,france3 ,antoine ,watteau frees himself from baroque influences1 and directs the tendency of ,french art towards the ,low ,countries4--,pastel3 ,maurice ,latour1 ,rosalba ,carriera1 ,liotard4--,society painters3 ,lancrat1 ,pater4--,the decorative painters3 ,franois ,lemoine1 ,franois ,boucher1 ,fragonard4--,society turns virtuous4--,jean ,greuze4--,middle-class society and its depicter1 ,jean ,baptiste ,simon ,chardin4--,germany3 ,lessing frees the drama from the classical yoke of ,boileau1 and1 following the ,english1 produces in ,minna the first domestic tragedy4--,daniel ,chodowiecki as the portrayer of the ,german middle class4--,tischbein goes back to the national past4--,posing disappears in portrait painting4--,antoine ,pesne4--,anton ,graff4--,christian ,lebrecht ,vogel4--,johann ,edlinger4--,the revival of landscape4--,rousseau's influence4--,english garden-style succeeds the ,french style4--,disappearance of nature choisie in painting4--,hubert ,robert4--,joseph ,vernet4--,salomon ,gessner4--,ludwig ,hess4--,philip ,hackert4--,johann ,alexander ,thiele4--,antonio ,canale4--,bernardo ,canaletto4--,francesco ,guardi4--,don ,petro ,rodriguez de ,miranda4--,don ,mariano ,ramon ,sanchez4--,the animal painters3 ,franois ,casanova1 ,jean ,louis de ,marne1 ,jean ,baptiste ,oudry1 ,johann ,elias ,riedinger4--,an event in the history of art3 in place of the prevailing ,cinquecento and the sublime style of painting degraded at the close of the seventeenth century1 a simple and sincere art succeeds throughout the whole of ,europe4--,return to what ,drer and the ,little ,masters of the sixteenth century and the ,dutch of the seventeenth century originated #da ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,classical ,,reaction ,,in ,,germany ,the influence of the antique at the end of the eighteenth century shows no advance1 but an unnatural retrograde movement1 and notes in ,germany the beginning of the same decadence which had happened in ,italy with the ,bolognese1 in ,france with ,poussin1 and in ,holland with ,grard de ,lairesse4--,the teachings of ,winckelmann1 ,anton ,rafael ,mengs1 ,angelica ,kauffmann4--,the younger generation carries out the classical programme in the value it sets upon technical traditions4--,asmus ,jacob ,carstens4--,buonaventura ,genelli #hj ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,classical ,,reaction ,,in ,,france ,in ,france also the classical tendency in art was no new thing1 but a revival of the antique which was restored to life by the foundation of the ,french ,academy in ,rome in #affc4--;,influence of archological studies4--,elizabeth ,vige-,lebrun4--,the ,revolution heightens the enthusiasm for the antique1 and once more gives ,classicism an appearance of brilliant animation4--,jacques ,louis ,david4--,his portraits and his pictures in relation to contemporary history4--,david as an archologist4--,jean ,baptiste ,regnault4--,franois ,andr ,vincent4--,gurin #ih ,,book ,,ii ,,the ,,escape ,,into ,,the ,,past ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,nazarenes ,influence of literature4--,wackenroder4--,tieck4--,th e ,schlegels4--,instead of the antique1 the ,italian ,quattrocento appears as the model for the schools4--,frederick ,overbeck4--,philip ,veit4--,joseph ,fhrich4--,edward ,steinle--,julius ,schnorr von ,carolsfeld4--,their pictures and their drawings #aag ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,munich ,,under ,,king ,,ludwig ,i ,peter ,cornelius4--,wilhelm ,kaulbach4--,their importance and their limitations #ada ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,d,,sseldorfers ,on the ,rhine1 a school of painting instead of a school of drawing4--,wilhelm ,schadow1 ,carl ,friedrich ,lessing1 ,theodor ,hildebrandt1 ,carl ,sohn1 ,heinrich ,mcke1 ,christian ,koehler1 ,h4 ,plddemann1 ,eduard ,bendemann1 ,theodor ,mintrop1 ,friedrich ,ittenbach1 ,ernest ,deger4--,why their pictures1 despite technical merits1 have become antiquated #aeg ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,legacy ,,of ,,german ,,romanticism ,alfred ,rethel and ,moritz ,schwind oppose the ,roman with the ,german tradition4--,their pictures and drawings #afg ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,forerunners ,,of ,,romanticism ,,in ,,france ,last years of the ,david school wearisome and without character1 except in portrait painting4--,franois ,grard1 the ,king of ,painters and ,painter of ,kings2 his portraits of the ,empire and ,restoration periods4--,commencement of the revolt3 ,pierre ,paul ,prudhon2 his pictures and the story of his life2 ,constance ,mayer4--,revival of colouring4--,antoine ,jean ,gros and his pictures of contemporary life2 discrepancy between his teaching and his practice #ahi ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,generation ,,of #ahcj ,the revolt of the ,romanticists against ,classicism in literature and art4--,thodore ,gricault and his early works4--,the ,raft of the ,medusa4--,eugne ,delacroix3 protest against the conventional1 and renewed importance of colour4--,delacroix's pictures2 influence of the ,east upon him4--,his life and struggles4--,the ,classical reaction4--,j4 ,a4 ,d4 ,ingres and the opposition to ,romanticism4--,his classical pictures4--,excellence of his portraits and drawings #bai ,,chapter ,,xi ,,juste-,,milieu ,moderation the watchword of ,louis ,philippe's reign1 in politics1 literature1 and art4--,jean ,gigoux1 a follower of ,delacroix and an inexorable realist4--,eugne ,isabey4--,middle position occupied by ,ary ,scheffer between the ,classical and the ,romantic schools2 decline of his popularity4--,hippolyte ,flandrin1 as a religious painter a ,french counterpart to the ,nazarenes4--,paul ,chenavard1 compared to ,cornelius4--,thodore ,chassriau2 his short and brilliant career4--,lon ,benouville4--,lon ,cogniet and his pictures4--,transition from the ,romantic school to the historical painters4--,the great writers of history3 renewed activity in this field3 historical tragedies and romances4--,art takes a similar course3 popularity and facility of historical painting4--,eugne ,devria2 ,camille ,roqueplan4--,nicolaus ,robert ,fleury2 ,louis ,boulanger4--,paul ,delaroche2 his popularity and its causes2 his defects as a painter4--,delaroche's pictures4--,thomas ,couture #bee ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,post-,,romantic ,,generation ,france under the ,second ,empire2 the society of the period not represented in ,french art4--,continuation of the old traditions without essential change4--,alexandre ,cabanel4--,william ,bouguereau4--,jules ,lefbure4--,henner4--,paul ,baudry3 his pictures2 decoration of the ,grand ,opera ,house4--lie ,delaunay3 his pictures1 decorative painting1 and portraits4--,the ,genre froce2 predilection for the horrible in art4--,numerous painters of this school4--,laurens4--,rochegrosse and his pictures4--,henri ,regnault #bgh ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,historical ,,school ,,of ,,painting ,,in ,,belgium ,belgium to #ahcj4--;,david and his school4--,navez1 ,matthias van ,bree4--,gustav ,wappers1 ,nicaise de ,keyzer1 ,henri ,decaisne1 ,gallait1 ,bifve4--,ernest ,slingeneyer1 ,guffens and ,swerts4--,the ,exhibition of ,belgian pictures in ,germany #cja ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,revolution ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,colourists ,anselm ,feuerbach1 ,victor ,mller4--,the ,berlin school3 ,rudolf ,henneberg1 ,gustav ,richter1 ,knille1 ,schrader1 and others4--,the ,munich school3 ,piloty1 ,hans ,makart1 ,gabriel ,max4--,the historical painters and the end of the illustrative painting of history #cag ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,victory ,,over ,,pseudo-,,idealism ,the ,historical ,picture of ,manners as opposed to ,historical ,painting1 an advance in the direction of intimacy of feeling4--,the ,antique ,picture of ,manners3 ,charles ,gleyre1 ,louis ,hamon1 ,grme1 ,gustave ,boulanger4--,the ,picture of ,costume from the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4--,france3 ,charles ,comte1 ,alexander ,hesse1 ,camille ,roqueplan4--,belgium3 ,alexander ,markelbach1 ,florent ,willems4--,germany3 ,l4 v4 ,hagn1 ,gustav ,spangenberg1 ,carl ,becker4--,the importance of ,hendrik ,leys1 ,ernest ,meissonier1 and ,adolf ,menzel as mediators between the past and ordinary life1 between the heroic art of the first half of the nineteenth century and the intimate art of the second half #cfc ,,bibliography #cia ,,list ,,of ,,illustrations ,,plates ,,in ,,colour ,,page ,,anton ,,graff3 ,portrait of ,himself ,frontispiece ,,reynolds3 ,mrs4 ,siddons #bj ,,gainsborough3 ,the ,sisters #ch ,,greuze3 ,the ,milkmaid #eh ,,chardin3 ,the ,house of ,cards #fd ,,watteau3 ,fte ,champtre #gd ,,angelica ,,kauffmann3 ,portrait of a ,lady as a ,vestal #hf ,,elizabeth ,,vig,e-,,lebrun3 ,portrait of the ,painter with her ,daughter #ajj ,,cornelius3 ,let there be ,light #add ,,schwind3 ,the ,wedding ,journey #ahb ,,regnault3 ,general ,prim #cjj ,,meissonier3 ,a ,cavalier #cgh ,,in ,,black ,,and ,,white ,,baudry1 ,,paul4 ,portrait of ,baudry #bhf ,charlotte ,corday #bhg ,truth #bhh ,the ,pearl and the ,wave #bhi ,cybele #bij ,leda #bia ,edmond ,about #bib ,,bendemann1 ,,eduard4 ,the ,lament of the ,jews #afe ,,bi,,fve1 ,,edouard4 ,portrait of ,bifve #cad ,the ,league of the ,nobles of the ,netherlands #cae ,,bouguereau1 ,,william ,,adolphe4 ,brotherly ,love #bha ,,cabanel1 ,,alexandre4 ,portrait of ,cabanel #bgi ,the ,shulamite #bhj ,,carstens1 ,,asmus ,,jacob4 ,portrait of ,himself #hh ,scylla and ,charybdis #ij ,argo ,leaving the ,triton's ,mere #ia ,children of the ,night #ib ,priam and ,achilles #ic ,,chardin1 ,,jean ,,sim,,on4 ,portrait of ,himself #fc ,grace before ,meat #fe ,,chass,,riau1 ,,th,,odore4 ,apollo and ,daphne #bei ,,chodowiecki1 ,,daniel4 ,portrait of ,chodowiecki #ff ,the ,family ,picture #fg ,all ,sorts and ,conditions of ,women #fh1 #fi ,the ,morning ,compliment #gj ,the ,artist's ,nursery #ga ,,cogniet1 ,l,,on4 ,tintoretto ,painting his ,dead ,daughter #bfa ,the ,massacre of the ,innocents #bfc ,,cornelius1 ,,peter4 ,portrait of ,cornelius #adc ,from the ,frescoes in the ,friedhofshalle1 ,berlin #ade ,marguerite in ,prison #adf ,the ,apocalyptic ,host #adg ,the ,fall of ,troy #adi ,,couture1 ,,thomas4 ,portrait of ,couture #bga ,the ,love of ,gold #bgc ,the ,romans of the ,decadence #bge ,the ,troubadour #bgg ,,david1 ,,jacques ,,louis4 ,portrait of ,david #ajb ,madame ,rcamier #ajc ,the ,oath of the ,horatii #aje ,the ,rape of the ,sabines #ajg ,helen and ,paris #aji ,belisarius asking ,alms #aaa ,the ,death of ,marat #aac ,,delacroix1 ,,eug,,ne4 ,portrait of ,delacroix #bbf ,dante's ,bark #bbg ,hamlet and the ,grave-diggers #bcj ,tasso in the ,mad-house #bca ,entry of the ,crusaders into ,constantinople #bcc ,jesus on ,lake ,gennesaret #bce ,horses ,fighting in a ,stable #bcg ,medea #bch ,the ,expulsion of ,heliodorus #bci ,,delaroche1 ,,paul4 ,portrait of ,delaroche #bfd ,the ,assassination of the ,duke of ,guise #bfe ,the ,princes in the ,tower #bfg ,strafford on his ,way to ,execution #bfi ,,delaunay1 ,,lie4 ,diana #bic ,boys ,singing #bid ,madame ,toulmouche #bie ,,feuerbach1 ,,anselm4 ,portrait of ,himself #cah ,hafiz at the ,well #cai ,pieta #cba ,iphigenia #cbb ,portrait of a ,roman ,lady #cbc ,mother's ,joy #cbe ,medea #cbg ,dante ,walking with ,high--born ,ladies of ,ravenna #cbi ,f,,hrich1 ,,joseph4 ,portrait of ,fhrich #abf ,from the ,legend of ,st4 ,gwendolin #abg ,ruth and ,boaz #abh ,the ,departure of the ,prodigal ,son #abi ,jacob and ,rachel #acj ,,gainsborough1 ,,thomas4 ,portrait of ,gainsborough #cd ,mrs4 ,siddons #ce ,wood ,scene1 ,village of ,cornard1 ,suffolk #cf ,the ,market ,cart #cg ,the ,duchess of ,devonshire #ch ,the ,watering ,place #ci ,,gallait1 ,,louis4 ,portrait of ,gallait #cab ,egmont's ,last ,moments #cac ,,genelli1 ,,bonaventura4 ,the ,embassy to ,achilles #id ,thetis lamenting the ,fate of ,hector #ie ,odysseus and the ,sirens #if ,portrait of ,genelli #ig ,g,,rard1 ,,fran,,ois4 ,portrait of ,grard #aij ,mlle4 ,brongniart #aia ,madame ,visconti #aib ,cupid and ,psyche #aic ,madame ,rcamier #aid ,g,,ricault1 ,,th,,odore4 ,portrait of ,gricault #bba ,the ,wounded ,cuirassier #bbb ,chasseur #bbc ,the ,raft of the ,medusa #bbd ,the ,start #bbe ,g,r,,me1 ,l,,on4 ,the ,cock-fight #cfg ,,gessner1 ,,salomon4 ,landscape #ge ,landscape #gf ,,goya1 ,,francisco4 ,portrait of ,himself #db ,the ,majas on the ,balcony #dc ,the ,maja ,clothed #dd ,the ,maja ,nude #de ,de ,que ,mal ,morira 7from ,los ,capriccios7 #df ,soplones 7from ,los ,capriccios7 #dg ,se ,repulen 7from ,los ,capriccios7 #dh ,que ,pico de ,oro 7from ,los ,capriccios7 #di ,volaverunt 7from ,los ,capriccios7 #ej ,quien lo ,creyera 7from ,los ,capriccios7 #ea ,linda ,maestra 7from ,los ,capriccios7 #eb ,devota ,profesion 7from ,los ,capriccios7 #ec ,otres ,leyes por el ,pueblo #ed ,,greuze1 ,,jean ,,baptiste4 ,portrait of ,greuze #eh ,head of a ,girl #ei ,girl carrying a ,lamb #fj ,girl looking up #fa ,girl with an ,apple #fb ,,gros1 ,,antoine ,,jean 7,,baron74 ,saul #bae ,portrait of ,gros #baf ,the ,battle of ,eylau #bag ,,guardi1 ,,francesco4 ,venice #gg ,,hamon1 ,,louis4 ,my ,sister's not at ,home #cfe ,,henneberg1 ,,rudolf4 ,the ,race for ,fortune #ccj ,,henner1 ,,jean ,,jacques4 ,susanna and the ,elders #bhd ,the ,sleeper #bhe ,,hildebrandt1 ,,theodor4 ,the ,sons of ,edward #afa ,,hogarth1 ,,william4 ,portrait of ,himself #ab ,the ,harlot's ,progress 7,plate ,,vi47 #ac ,the ,rake's ,progress 7,plate ,,ii47 #ad ,the ,rake's ,progress 7,plate ,,vii47 #ae ,the ,rake's ,progress 7,plate ,,viii47 #af ,marriage la ,mode 7,plate ,v47 #ag ,the ,enraged ,musician #ah ,gin ,lane #ai ,,ingres1 ,,jean ,,auguste ,,dominique4 ,portrait of ,ingres #bdb ,the ,maid of ,orleans at ,rheims #bdc ,portrait of ,himself as a ,youth #bdd ,bertin the ,elder #bde ,study for the ,odalisque in the ,louvre #bdg ,the ,source #bdh ,oedipus and the ,sphinx #bdi ,paganini #bea ,mlle4 de ,montgolfier #beb ,the ,forestier ,family #bec ,,kauffmann1 ,,angelica4 ,portrait of ,herself #hf ,,kaulbach1 ,,wilhelm4 ,portrait of ,kaulbach #aea ,the ,deluge #aeb ,prince ,arthur and ,hubert #aec ,marguerite #aef ,,de ,,keyzer4 ,portrait of de ,keyzer #cjh ,the ,battle of ,woeringen #cji ,,laurens1 ,,jean ,,paul4 ,the ,interdict #bih ,,lef,,bure1 ,,jules4 ,truth #bhc ,,lessing1 ,,carl ,,friedrich4 ,the ,sorrowing ,royal ,pair #afd ,the ,hussite ,sermon #cce ,,leys1 ,,hendrik4 ,portrait of ,leys #cfi ,a ,family ,festival #cgj ,the ,armourer #cga ,mother and ,child #cgb ,,luminais1 ,,evariste4 ,les nervs de ,jumiges #big ,,makart1 ,,hans4 ,portrait of ,makart #cda ,the ,espousals of ,catterina ,cornaro #cdc ,the ,feast of ,bacchus #cde ,,max1 ,,gabriel4 ,portrait of ,max #cdg ,a ,nun in the ,cloister ,garden #cdi ,the ,lion's ,bride #cea ,light #cec ,the ,spirit's ,greeting #cee ,adagio #cef ,a ,winter's ,tale #ceg ,madonna #cei ,,mayer1 ,,constance4 ,portrait of ,mayer #bja ,the ,dream of ,happiness #bjb ,the ,tomb of ,prudhon and ,constance ,mayer at ,pre-,lachaise #bjc ,,meissonier1 ,,ernest4 ,the ,man at the ,window #cgc ,a ,man reading #cgd ,reading the ,manuscript #cge ,polcinello #cgf ,a ,reading at ,diderot's #cgg ,a ,halt #cgh ,,mengs1 ,,anton ,,rafael4 ,portrait of ,himself #hd ,mount ,parnassus #he ,,menzel1 ,,adolf4 ,portrait of ,menzel1 #ahcg #cgi ,frederick the ,great and his ,tutor #chj ,the ,round ,table at ,sans-,souci #cha ,frederick the ,great on a ,journey #chc ,illustration to ,kugler's ,history of ,frederick the ,great #chd ,portrait of ,frederick the ,great #che ,reifspiel #chg ,when will ,genius ,awake8 #chh ,,overbeck1 ,,frederick4 ,portrait of ,overbeck #aah ,the ,annunciation #aai ,the ,naming of ,st4 ,john #abj ,christ ,healing the ,sick #aba ,christ's ,entry into ,jerusalem #abb ,the ,resurrection #abc ,the ,seven ,lean ,years #abd ,portrait of ,himself and ,cornelius #adj ,,pesne1 ,,antoine4 ,portrait of ,himself and ,daughters #gb ,,piloty1 ,,carl4 ,portrait of ,piloty #ccf ,girdonists on the ,road to the ,guillotine #ccg ,under the ,arena #cci ,,prudhon1 ,,pierre ,,paul4 ,portrait of ,himself #aie ,joseph and ,potiphar's ,wife #aif ,study directs the ,flight of ,genius #aig ,le ,coup de ,patte du ,chat #aih ,cupid and ,psyche #aii ,the ,unfortunate ,family #bjd ,the ,rape of ,psyche #bje ,le ,midi #bjf ,la ,nuit #bjg ,l'enjouir #bjh ,marguerite #bji ,les ,petits ,dvideurs #baj ,the ,vintage #baa ,the ,virgin #bab ,christ ,crucified #bac ,madame ,copia #bad ,,regnault1 ,,henri4 ,salome #bii ,the ,moorish ,headsman #cjj ,,rethel1 ,,alfred4 ,the ,emperor ,otto at the ,tomb of ,charlemagne #afi ,the ,destruction of the ,pagan ,idols #agj ,hannibal's ,passage over the ,alps #aga ,death at the ,masked ,ball #agb ,death the ,friend of ,man #agc ,,reynolds1 ,,sir ,,joshua4 ,portrait of ,himself #bj ,dr4 ,johnson #ba ,garrick as ,abel ,drugger #bb ,heads of ,angels #bc ,samuel ,richardson #bd ,miss ,reynolds #be ,edmund ,burke #bf ,mrs4 ,abington #bg ,edmund ,malone #bh ,oliver ,goldsmith #bi ,lady ,cockburn and her ,daughters #cj ,bishop ,percy #ca ,the ,girl with the ,mousetrap #cb ,dr4 ,burney #cc ,,richter1 ,,gustav4 ,portrait of ,himself #cca ,a ,gipsy #ccb ,,scheffer1 ,,ary4 ,portrait of ,scheffer #beg ,marguerite at the ,well #beh ,,schnorr ,,von ,,carolsfield1 ,,julius4 ,portrait of ,schnorr #abe ,adam and ,eve after the ,fall #abe ,,schrader1 ,,julius4 ,cromwell at ,whitehall #ccc ,,schwind1 ,,moritz4 ,portrait of ,schwind #age ,from the ,wartburg ,frescoes #agf ,from the ,wartburg ,frescoes #agg ,wieland the ,smith #agh ,from the ,story of the ,seven ,ravens #agi ,a ,hermit leading ,horses to a ,pool #aha ,nymphs and ,stag #ahd ,rbezahl #ahe ,the ,fairies' ,song #ahg ,,slingneyer1 ,,ernest4 ,the ,avenger #caa ,,sohn1 ,,carl4 ,the two ,leonoras #afc ,the ,rape of ,hylas #aff ,,steinbruck1 ,,eduard4 ,elves #afb ,,steinle1 ,,eduard4 ,the ,raising of ,jarius' ,daughter #aca ,i have trodden the ,winepress alone #acb ,portrait of ,steinle #acc ,book ,illustration #acd ,the ,violin ,player #ace ,,sylvestre1 ,,joseph ,,no,l4 ,locusta ,testing in ,nero's ,presence the ,poison prepared for ,britannicus #bif ,,veit1 ,,philip4 ,portrait of ,veit #acf ,the ,arts introduced into ,germany by ,christianity #acg ,the two ,marys at the ,sepulchre #aci ,,wappers1 ,,gustav4 ,portrait of ,wappers #cjc ,the ,sacrifice of ,burgomaster van der ,werff at the ,siege of ,leyden #cje ,the ,death of ,columbus #cjg ,,watteau1 ,,antoine4 ,portrait of ,watteau #ef ,la ,partie ,carre #eg ,the ,music ,party #gc ,the ,return from the ,chase #gd ,,introduction ,the historian who wishes to relate the history of painting in the nineteenth century is confronted with quite other demands than await him who undertakes the art of an earlier period4 ,the greatest difficulty with which the latter has to cope is the deficiency of sources4 ,he manifestly gropes in the dark with regard to the works of the masters as well as to the circumstances of their lives4 ,after he has searched archives and libraries in order to collect his biographical material1 the real critical problem awaits him4 ,even amongst the admittedly authentic works1 those which are undated confront those whose chronology is certain4 ,to these must be added those nameless ones1 as to whose history there is a doubt2 to these again1 those whose origin is to be ascertained4 ,it needs a quick eye to separate the schools and groups1 and finally to recognise the notes which are peculiar to the master4 ,with none of these difficulties is the historian of modern art confronted4 ,the painters of the nineteenth century have very seldom forgotten to attach a name and date to their works1 and the circumstances of their lives are related with an accuracy that was1 earlier1 rarely the lot of the foremost men in history4 ,it is all the more difficult1 face to face with such a chaos of pictures1 to discover the spiritual bond which connects them all1 to construct a building out of the immense supply of accumulated bricks1 the piled-up mass of rough material4 ,the evolution of modern painting is more complicated and varied than that of the art of an earlier period1 just as modern life itself is more complicated and varied than that of any previous age4 ,how quietly1 slowly1 and surely was the evolution of that older period carried out4 ,one simple proportion was maintained between art and the universal life of culture4 ,customs1 views of life and art1 were so intimately bound up together1 that the knowledge of the age in general naturally comprises that of art4 ,standing before some old altar-piece of the school of ,cologne1 it is as though one were watching in some broad high dome2 everything is quiet all round1 and the august figures in the picture lead their calm1 grave existence in illustrious grandeur4 ,the message of ,christianity1 ,my kingdom is not of this world1 meets in art1 too1 with a clear expression4 ,humility and devotion are joined together1 making for a refinement in the feeling of life that is unsurpassed in its hieratic tenderness and gracious innocence4 ,in the fifteenth century1 the age of discoveries1 a new spirit entered the world4 ,commerce and navigation discovered new worlds1 painting discovered life4 ,the human spirit grew freer and more joyous2 it was no longer satisfied with yearning for the other world alone1 it felt itself at home also in this world1 in the glory of the earth4 ,pictures1 too1 were inspired with some of those joyous perceptions with which the citizens of the fifteenth century issued from their narrow walls out under ,god's free heaven1 something of that ,easter ,day mood in ,faust4 ,people still went on painting ,madonnas and saints1 subjects of a religion which had spread from the far ,east over the whole ,west2 but with the severe simplicity of the heavenly1 there was universal awakening of all the charm and roguery and energy of the earthly4 ,it is the first virginal contact of the spirit with nature4 ,on men's works there rests the first morning-dew of spiritual life2 they remind one of woodlands in spring3 ,botticelli1 ,van ,eyck1 ,schongauer4 ,after the ,italians had become vigorous realists in the fifteenth century1 they rose in the sixteenth1 the century of inspired humanism1 to majesty4 ,the time of hard grappling with the overwhelming fulness of actuality is over4 ,those great masterpieces ensue in which the unlaboured effort shines forth in the most felicitous achievement3 ,raphael1 ,michael ,angelo1 ,titian4 ,at the same time the ,german manner is most directly opposed to the ,romance4 ,they disdain to ingratiate themselves into men's minds by outward grace of form1 but win the heart by their deep religious feeling and intimate sensibility4 ,they are ,german to the core1 racial even to the stiffness of the ,german character1 but full of feeling and truth to life4 ,drer in his woodcuts and copper engravings is inwendig voller figur2 in them he offers the concentrated1 homely treasure of his heart4 ,holbein is great by the incomparably real art of his portraits4 ,the century of that joyous revival of ,paganism1 the ,olympian vivacity of the ,renaissance1 is followed by the age to which the ,jesuits gave life and character4 ,for those stately churches in the ,jesuit style1 with their fortissimo effect1 their huge1 sculptured ornaments and their gleaming1 gold decorations1 the classic quietness of the old masters ceases to be appropriate4 ,it is a question of a more stirring and impressive treatment of sacred subjects1 wherein the whole passion of renewed ,catholicism should be brought to expression4 ,spain1 the country of the ,inquisition1 set the classic stamp on this enhanced religious feeling4 ,here all that monarchical and sacerdotal impulse which founded and aggrandised the ,spanish nation1 founded too its true representative in painting4 ,painters endowed their church pictures with a passionate fervour and a flush of extravagant sensuousness of the national1 ,spanish1 local colour1 such as are found united in the art of no other age or country4 ,necessarily1 moreover1 such a feudal system as that of ,spain1 with its grandees and princes of the ,church1 involved also an art of portrait painting which ranks with the highest that has issued in this kind from any country whatever3 ,murillo1 ,velasquez4 ,in ,flanders1 the second stronghold of the ,jesuits1 we have the titan ,rubens4 ,a joyously fleshly ,fleming1 he seizes nature by the throat and drags her there where he stands erect1 as though he were lord of the world4 ,freedom had found its way into victorious and ,protestant ,holland4 ,here there flourished an art neither courtly nor fostered by the ,church4 ,it stood in the closest connection with the burgesses1 showed clear signs of the struggle through which country and people had won independence4 ,in the first place1 painting celebrated as its worthiest subject the free burgher1 the tighter in the heroic struggle for freedom4 ,at no time was portrait-painting practised to such an extent1 and the sitters not aristocratic courtiers1 but proud burgesses of a free community2 the men grave1 strong1 self-reliant2 the women faithful1 pure1 and modest4 ,the workmanship is correspondent3 simple1 solid1 domestic2 and soon there followed the glorification of that which they prized the more after their struggles had been accomplished3 the quiet1 comfortable delight of hearth and home4 ,during the ,war of ,independence the ,dutch had learnt to love their fatherland1 and they were the first1 as artists1 fully to grasp the poetry of landscape4 ,art now no longer shines only upon the eyes of ,mary and the ,hosts of ,heaven3 it settles upon arid country hills1 streams upon the sea waves1 is at home in peasants' houses and the dark woods1 wanders through the streets and alleys1 makes a temple of every market4 ,the religious sentiments1 however1 which stirred ,protestant ,holland had to find appropriate expression2 the living essence of biblical subjects was to be released from a narrow1 ecclesiastical sphere1 and approached anew with all the deep1 ,german inwardness4 ,these tendencies were all united in ,rembrandt--perhaps of all masters1 since the ,christian era1 the mightiest proclaimer of the great ,pan2 to him the cosmic powers of light and air signified the divinity that ,michael ,angelo had painted under a beautiful human form4 ,finally1 in the eighteenth century1 comes rococo1 with its rustling frou-frou and its delicate charm4 ,the whole life of that noble society1 which exchanged court costume for silken pastoral garments1 formality and rank for charm and grace1 was a lively play1 an extravagant game4 ,the king played with his crown1 the priest with his religion1 the philosopher with his wisdom1 the poet with the art of rhyme4 ,they did not hear as yet the hoarse threatening voice of the disinherited1 ,car tel est notre plaisir4 ,what this age possessed of beauty and charm1 its peculiar grace and wanton vivacity1 its reckless1 inassailable frivolity1 was proper also to its art4 ,light and gracious as the whole life of that harmless1 merry generation1 it glided through the age untroubled1 led by ,cupidons1 and kissed by the wandering winds4 ,it is only to-day that we understand once more the charming masters of that elegant century4 ,the painters of every epoch looked at nature with their own eyes1 and also with the eyes of their age and of their country4 ,so the art of every period appears as the mirror and abstract chronicle of its age4 ,with irresistible majesty1 and conscious of its inspiration1 it lays hold of the external world1 and gives back to it its own picture infinitely exalted4 ,it is the enlightened expression of the age1 as upright1 as fresh1 as fanatic1 or as unnatural as its generation4 ,therein lies the strength of the painters of rococo1 that they painted the artificiality of the time with such unsurpassable naturalness4 ,it is just these infinitely various manners of paying court to nature--unceasingly throughout the course of centuries1 now violently1 now softly and tenderly1 at times1 too1 not without passing infidelity1--it is just these which determine the beauty and value1 the mystery and essence of art1 and are in the history of art all that tends to its variety and unsurpassable charm4 ,the nineteenth century not only shows a new age1 but probably begins a new section of universal history4 ,it is probable that in contrast with this epoch of stirring movement1 during which the readjustment of all political and social relations1 the new discoveries in the instruments of commerce1 trade1 and industry have given an entirely new aspect to the world1 the next thousand years will sum up all the previous centuries as the old world4 ,new men require a new art4 ,one would be inclined to surmise from this that the art of the nineteenth century presented itself as something essentially personal1 with a sharply distinctive style4 ,instead of this it offers at first view1 in contrast with those old ages of uniform production1 a condition like that of ,babylon4 ,the nineteenth century has no style--the phrase that has been so often quoted as to have become a commonplace4 ,in architecture the forms of all the past ages live again4 ,the day before yesterday we built ,greek1 yesterday ,gothic2 here ,baroque1 there ,japanese3 but amidst all these products of imitative styles there rise up stations and market-places which1 with the robust elegance of their iron colonnades1 herald the greatness of fresh conquests4 ,in the province of painting there are similar extremes4 ,in no other age have minds so diverse flourished side by side as ,carstens and ,goya1 ,cornelius and ,corot1 ,ingres and ,millet1 ,wiertz and ,courbet1 ,rossetti and ,manet4 ,and the existing histories excite a belief that the nineteenth century is a chaos into which it is possible only for some later age to bring order4 ,perhaps1 however1 it is already quite possible1 if one only resolves uncompromisingly to apply to the new age those principles which have been tested in the treatment of the old histories of art1 if one endeavours to study those artists who are in part still our contemporaries as objectively as though they were masters long dead4 ,that is to say3 one is wont1 in a review of an older period in art1 not to inquire what it had caught from an earlier age1 but rather what it had introduced that was new4 ,it was not because they imitated in their turn that the old masters became great2 not because they looked backwards1 but rather because they went forwards1 that they made the history of art4 ,we are not grateful1 for instance1 to the ,dutchmen of the middle of the sixteenth century--,frans ,floris and his contemporaries--that they forsook ,dutch naturalism1 and bootlessly exerted themselves in the way of ,michael ,angelo and ,raphael4 ,we can see no remarkable merit in the fact that the ,bolognese at the beginning of the seventeenth century gathered their honey from the flowers of the ,cinquecento4 ,and we are even less inclined to see in the contemporaries of ,adrian van der ,werff1 who endeavoured to refine the rugged1 primeval ,dutch art by the study of the ,italians1 more than clumsy imitators4 ,just as much will the interest of the historian of the art of the nineteenth century be bestowed in the first degree upon the works which have really created something independent and transcending all the earlier ages4 ,he will not give especial prominence to those domains which had their flowering-time in other days than our own1 but he will ask3 ,where is that distinctive element which appertains to the nineteenth century only8 ,what are the new forms which it has found1 the new sentiments to which it has given expression8 ,not those whose activity lay in clothing--however cleverly--the artistic necessities of the age in the store of already transmitted forms1 but the pathfinders1 who went forwards and created anew1 require our attention4 ,even if1 after the old masters1 they can only be granted a place in the third or fourth class1 they must nevertheless always take precedence of those others1 because they exhibited themselves as they were1 instead of making themselves large by standing on the shoulders of the dead4 ,many of those who were once valued highly1 who1 thriving on the inheritance of the past1 accomplished what was apparently of importance1 measured by this standard will arouse little interest1 because their artistic speech1 depending on a foundation of the established canonical works of old1 is not their own but borrowed4 ,in others1 on the contrary1 who1 apart from the dominating tendency1 had the courage rather to be insignificant1 and yet remain themselves1 observing with their own eyes nature which surrounded them1 or navely abandoning themselves to the disposition of their artistic fantasy1 in them will be seen the essential vehicles of the modern spirit4 ,and then it will be apparent that the art of the nineteenth century as well as that of every earlier period had its peculiar garment1 even if for official occasions it preferred to unpack from its wardrobe the state costumes of earlier ages4 ,it is only because this distinction between the eclectic and the personal1 the derived and the independent1 has not yet been carried out with sufficient strictness1 that it has hitherto1 in my opinion1 been found so difficult to discover the distinctive style of modern art1 and to make clear the logic and sequence of its evolution4 ,,book ,i ,,the ,,legacy ,,of ,,the ,,eighteenth ,,century ,,chapter ,i ,,commencement ,,of ,,modern ,,art ,,in ,,england ,if the question arises1 why modern art has been compelled to find expression for itself in a form different from that of the art of the earlier centuries1 we must first call attention to the change that has taken place in the fundamental conditions of society4 ,formerly1 the chief supporters of art were the two leading powers of ,church and ,king4 ,the most noted works of ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo1 of ,velasquez and ,murillo1 of ,rubens and ,van ,dyck1 were executed either for the churches or for the reigning princes of their country4 ,the patron of modern art is the citizen4 ,the old culture of the clerics and aristocrats has been superseded by that of the middle classes1 and the beginnings of modern art must therefore be sought in the country in which this class first developed its distinctive character--in ,england4 ,england1 as early as the eighteenth century1 was already a land of citizens4 ,at a time when there was to be found on the ,continent acute mockery of what was old and outworn1 conjoined with the most enthusiastic and joyous faith in the future1 the great and wealthy ,england had established herself in the van of the new age4 ,here ,voltaire saw with astonishment for the first time1 when he arrived in ,london as an exile at the age of thirty-two1 the free1 open life of a great people2 here he learnt to know a country where there is much difference of rank1 but none that is not based on merit2 where one could think freely without being restrained by slavish terror4 ,here was the idea of a modern free state already accomplished at a time when1 upon the ,continent1 the thunderclouds of the impending storm hardly cast their first shadow4 ,here the notion of a united family life had first developed1 upon the foundation of a civil order and security4 ,here1 therefore1 were first broken down those barriers around the territory of literature and art within which the spirit of the ,renaissance had raised its wonderful flowers1 and the road was begun along which the nineteenth century should advance4 ,simultaneously with the growth of the middle classes there arose the need for a domestic1 practical literature4 ,books were required which people could read by their fireside1 in the seclusion of the family circle1 in country districts4 ,for that1 the stiff and antiquated poetry of courtiers and academicians1 which had hitherto been poured out upon the world from ,france1 was hardly suitable4 ,to the cold ,classicism represented by ,pope1 there succeeded in ,english literature--far earlier than was the case elsewhere--the delineation of what was immediately contemporary4 ,at the same time that ,mdlle4 de ,scudry--when it was a question of describing the court of the ,great ,king1 the society of ,louis ,,xiv--felt herself bound to translate her theme into the antique and write a ,cyrus1 the ,english novel had taken its motives from actual life4 ,defoe's ,robinson ,crusoe is the first book in which man and nature are depicted without the introduction of antique types or fairies2 the first novel in which the details of real life are displayed1 and what had been hitherto neglected is granted an exact delineation4 ,at a time when people in other countries were occupied with representations of the antique1 the ,english novelists had embarked on the intimacy of the family circle4 ,after ,richardson1 who laboriously yet with animation described everyday life1 followed ,fielding1 with his sharp observation1 homely and humorous2 then ,goldsmith1 with his serene outlook of untroubled equanimity1 his unsurpassed miniatures2 ,smollett1 with his crude and satirical character sketching2 and the audacious and witty ,laurence ,sterne1 whom ,nietzsche has called the most gallant of all authors4 ,at the same time tragedy1 too1 descended from the court and the nobility into the sphere of domestic life2 showing that here too were significant fortunes and conflicts1 which stories strike a truer human note than those of kings and heroes4 ,painting moved along the same road2 and whilst in other countries1 with the beginning of the century1 the high1 aristocratic art1 which was the offspring of the ,renaissance1 gradually waned1 the plebeian paintings of ,hogarth laid the foundations of that art which prevailed in the bourgeois nineteenth century4 ,english art had this advantage in playing a pioneering part1 that it had no old traditions to stand in its way2 it had no great past4 ,in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries ,england had been content to offer hospitality to ,holbein and ,van ,dyck1 and to collect the works of foreign masters in her galleries4 ,her art sprang into existence suddenly and unexpectedly at the beginning of the eighteenth century1 and thence developed exclusively on native lines4 ,since the ,english could not lean either upon an old or a foreign model1 nor enter into a round of subjects that had already been brought to perfection1 they turned from the outset quite naturally into the road which was only to be trodden later by the other nations still in the bondage of tradition4 ,they took up1 to a certain extent1 the thread which the ,dutch1 who appeared in the seventeenth century as the most modern people in art1 had let drop3 the progressive ideas of ,holland had come over to ,england with the glorious revolution1 with ,william of ,orange and ,queen ,anne2 whilst in ,holland itself the ,french invasion of #afgb had caused a reaction to the courtly idea1 against which the ,english took up an attitude of conscious and rigid protest4 ,this opposition is clearly expressed by the ,english sthetic writers4 ,the most important name to be mentioned is that of ,shaftesbury4 ,beneath the favour of the court in ,france1 he says1 art has suffered4 ,we ,englishmen live in an age in which freedom has arisen4 ,such a people does not require1 in order that art may prosper1 an ambitious king to breed1 by means of his pensions1 a race of flattering ,court painters4 ,our civil liberty affords us a sufficient foundation1 and our liberty leads us to absolute verity in art4 ,thus did ,shaftesbury enunciate his leading sthetic doctrine2 it was his constant message1 and it was constantly repeated with great emphasis3 ,all beauty is truth4 ,the search after truth leads you to nature4 ,truth is the mightiest thing in the world1 since it exercises sovereign rights over the creations of the imagination4 ,but what must art be in order to produce truth8 ,the strictest imitation of nature4 ,by this word ,shaftesbury does not understand what we understand by the word nature2 not1 in the first instance1 so much the nature surrounding us1 in its outward manifestations1 but1 above all1 an intimate human reality4 ,let the painter represent the reality of human inwardness4 ,still life1 the animal world1 landscape1--all that1 ,shaftesbury explains1 is most valuable4 ,but another and a higher life exists in man than in the beasts and the woods1 and there is the true object of art4 ,in no case should the artist proceed from external vision2 for then he will obtain fashionable attitudes1 theatrical unreality1 or1 in the most favourable instance1 a formal1 decorative embellishment4 ,of what value is that in comparison with a single real presentation of character8 ,how insignificant would every external form seem in contrast to each single feature of this intimate manner6 ,here is the second characteristic of ,english painting4 ,it proceeds neither1 like that of the sixteenth century1 from formulas1 nor1 like the ,dutch1 from the picturesque1 but1 like to the ,english novel of character1 from an intellectual impulse2 it strives not after beauty of form and physical1 sensuous grace1 but1 in the first place1 after intellectual expression4 ,and from this there follows immediately a third trait4 ,if art is to make the inwardness of man its subject1 the artist cannot remain an indifferent portrayer4 ,he will make great distinctions1 will bring into prominence what is meritorious or censurable in every character--he will become a moralist4 ,only so can he conform to that last and highest function which ,shaftesbury assigns to the painter4 ,the liberty which the ,english nation had fought for in the glorious ,revolution brought forth1 in the course of years1 while ,shaftesbury was writing1 a fruitful crop of dissoluteness and licence4 ,the mortification of the flesh of the ,puritans was followed by so violent a recrudescence of sensuality that it was as though the whole menagerie of the passions had been unchained4 ,london swarmed with criminals2 drunkenness was an epidemic4 ,the moral idea awoke amongst the cultivated classes4 ,might it not be possible1 with the help of education1 for that to be overcome8 ,and so ,shaftesbury's view of art comprised a third1 and very dangerous1 element2 namely1 that to fulfil the most serious mission of that culture which had ensued from the free and natural conditions in ,england--even in the realm of sthetics--the painter1 like the poet1 must appear as the moral teacher of his age4 ,imagine an artist who fulfils these conditions and you have1 as a result1 ,hogarth1 with all his qualities and defects4 ,illustration3 ,,hogarth4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself4 ,what marks the greatness of ,hogarth is his freedom from foreign and ancient influences4 ,the eighteenth century came in as an academic age in art4 ,turning away from life1 it spent itself in allegory and the imitation of typical figures that had been inherited from the ,renaissance and petrified into academic work4 ,gods1 in whom no one any longer believed1 hovered1 at least in paint1 over a race which was without enthusiasm4 ,then came ,hogarth1 and his quick vision discovered the new way4 ,he looked out upon the life surrounding him1 with its manifold idiosyncrasies1 and felt himself with pride to be the son of a new age1 in which rigid1 conventional forms were everywhere penetrated by the modern ideas of free thought1 the rights of man1 conformity to nature in morals and manners4 ,this world which confronted him he depicted truly as it was1 in all its beauty and its ugliness4 ,with him was the origin of modern art4 ,before his paintings and engravings pale idealism disappeared4 ,it was he who resolved and set out to bring into the world a new and independent observation of life4 ,he was a painter who1 with as little aid from foreign influences as from those of the past1 went his own way and kept to it1 and devoted his art1 unblemished by the pallor of a borrowed ideal of beauty1 soberly and exclusively to the realities of surrounding life4 ,it seemed to me unlikely1 writes he1 that by copying old compositions ,i could acquire facility for those new designs which were my first and greatest ambitions4 ,works of old ,italian masters1 artistic contemplations1 which went back to ,raphael and the ,caracci1 were ignored and ridiculed by him4 ,his rude strength of painting1 directed to the living truth1 was a protest against all that idealism which was the heritage of the ,renaissance1 and had grown quite bombastic under the hands of its imitators4 ,nature1 he writes1 is simple1 plain1 and true in all her works2 and with this principle he has founded a strong ,english school on the solid foundation of truth to nature4 ,illustration3 ,,hogarth4 ,,the ,,harlot',s ,,progress1 ,,plate ,,vi4 ,an ,englishman by birth1 character1 and disposition1 he depicted his fellow-countrymen2 he made his sketches in the midst of the hubbub of the street4 ,his world is ,london1 the world-city1 old merry ,england1 which1 in contrast with the ,puritanism of to-day1 still lived through its golden age of riot4 ,in such a world--a world existing to this day1 only more decently berouged--moved ,hogarth2 in the company of wine-bibbers1 in gambling hells1 in rooms of poets1 in cellars of highwaymen1 in the death-chambers of fallen maidens4 ,the ,harlot's ,progress1 which he produced in a series of pictures1 brought him his first success4 ,he then published further series of similar careers over crooked courses--,the ,rake's ,progress1 ,marriage la ,mode4 ,he painted the rabble of ,london1 their society and their morals2 those who went in cotton and rags and those in satin and silk4 ,in his writings he censures the old painters plainly because in their historical style they had quite passed over the middle classes4 ,and he went with great knowledge to these new subjects4 ,in the ,national ,gallery1 which possesses the originals of ,marriage la ,mode1 one is astounded at the technical qualities of ,hogarth's painting4 ,whoever has been misled by the engraved reproductions1 and looks for bad1 distorted drawing1 may here learn to know him as a painter in the fullest sense of the word4 ,there is no sign left of the defective caricature which disfigures the engravings2 there is a severe1 unadorned manifestation of realism1 of an art that has from the outset rooted itself in modern life4 ,under the manners and graces of the age ,hogarth stands a self-made man1 a healthy ,anglo-,saxon personality1 full of sturdy independence and impeccable common sense4 ,he attracts by a sharpness of observation1 a penetration into idiosyncrasies of character1 a grip upon the most trivial changes in men's emotions and play of features1 the like of which is to be found in hardly one of his predecessors4 ,illustration3 ,,hogarth4 ,,the ,,rake',s ,,progress1 ,,plate ,,ii4 ,against these qualities it must be understood that an equal number of defects is to be set off4 ,the inartistic part of him was that he followed the sthetic theories of the age1 and looked upon art as merely a means to ends alien to itself4 ,with him painting was an instrument to disseminate the inventions of his poetic-satiric humour2 it was a form of speech to him4 ,he is not unjustly called on that account a comedian of the pencil1 the ,molire of painting4 ,we look at other pictures1 but his we read4 ,the commentaries on them are in some respects the rendering back of the pictures into their proper element4 ,lessing called the drama his pulpit2 with ,hogarth his art was a pulpit4 ,he wanted1 like ,hamlet1 to hold the mirror up to nature1 to show virtue her own feature1 scorn her own image1 and the very age and body of the time his form and pressure4 ,pictures beneath his hands became moral sermons4 ,in the six pictures in ,the ,harlot's ,progress1 with which he started in #agcc1 and which to-day1 since the originals have perished1 can be considered only in the copper engravings after them1 all these attributes are recognisable4 ,mary ,hackabout comes innocent from the country to the town with the intention of seeking a situation as a servant-girl4 ,she speedily falls a victim to temptation1 becomes the mistress of a ,jewish banker1 whom she soon loses by her infidelity1 descends to be a thief1 and comes to the work-house4 ,released from there1 she becomes the companion of a highwayman1 until she ends her pitiful life in a disorderly house1 leaving behind her a poor crippled boy1 who1 at his mother's funeral1 is playing with a top4 ,the conclusion of the paintings shows how the other women bid farewell to the corpse1 and buoy themselves up for their coming pleasures by drinking from the spirit bottle1 which stands on the coffin1 while the priest1 who is come to give the blessing1 announces his visit for the evening4 ,the second series1 which is to be seen to-day in the ,soane ,museum1 describes in eight tableaux the somewhat similar life of a young man1 the ,rake4 ,as an ,oxford student he has promised marriage to a pretty but poor girl1 when suddenly the death of a wealthy uncle throws him into the vortex of ,london life4 ,he wishes to buy himself freedom from his sweetheart1 but she disdainfully refuses the money and supports herself and her child honestly with the labour of her hands4 ,the seducer1 winning fame in the world of women and sport1 rapidly paces the road to ruin2 yet he repairs his finances once again by a marriage with a rich and one-eyed old lady4 ,once more on his feet1 he flings himself into games of chance1 and comes to the sponging-house1 whither his better half follows him4 ,it is the last straw when a play which he has offered to a manager is refused1 and he can no longer buy himself a pint of ale2 there remains only the final fall into the misery of frenzy1 and in the last picture we find him amongst the lunatics bound in chains as a madman4 ,only his student love1 ,sarah ,young1 of ,oxford1 whom he had treated so scurvily1 cannot forget him1 and1 with tears1 seeks him out again in the madhouse4 ,illustration3 ,,hogarth4 ,,the ,,rake',s ,,progress1 ,,plate ,,vii4 ,the third and most famous series was completed many years after the ,rake--in #agde4 ,hogarth has admittedly taken particular pains with the six oil paintings of ,marriage la ,mode1 which have been placed in the ,national ,gallery2 and these painted novels reveal in strength and beauty of execution the high-water mark of his work as a painter4 ,the whole is quieter1 simpler1 less overloaded with ingenious accessories4 ,the impoverished lord has married his son1 who is already worn out with excesses1 to the strong and healthy daughter of a city alderman4 ,a girl is born2 then they go their separate ways4 ,the husband surprises the wife with a lover1 and is stabbed by him2 the unfaithful wife1 moved by this1 begs her dying husband for forgiveness4 ,as a young widow1 deprived of her woman's honour1 she goes back to the bourgeois1 ,philistine ennui of her father's house1 and when she learns of her lover's condemnation she escapes from the burden of her misery by means of poison4 ,the father is sufficiently provident to take the wedding ring off her finger before the body is cold1 lest it should be stolen from the corpse4 ,in the last sequence ,hogarth passed over completely to the moral sermon and the study of crime4 ,the series ,industry and ,idleness1 in #agdg1 was comprised in twelve sheets1 which he produced only in rough engravings1 as he wished exclusively to influence the masses4 ,two apprentices enter a cloth-weaving business at the same time1 of whom one rises1 through his zeal for the interests of the business1 to a marriage with his master's beautiful daughter1 to the rank of alderman1 and finally to be ,lord ,mayor of ,london4 ,the idle apprentice grows1 on the down grade1 from a gambler into a vagabond4 ,he is transported1 comes back again1 and ends on the scaffold4 ,the two comrades meet for the last time when the honest man announces his death-warrant to the knave4 ,illustration3 ,,hogarth4 ,,the ,,rake',s ,,progress1 ,,plate ,,viii4 ,garrick1 as we can see from his epitaph on ,hogarth1 has not unjustly characterised his art1 in these words-- ,farewell1 great painter of mankind6 ,who reached the noblest point of art1 ,whose pictured morals charm the mind1 ,and through the eye correct the heart4 ,illustration3 ,,hogarth4 ,,marriage ,,la ,,mode1 ,,plate ,v4 ,hogarth painted stirring and humorous scenes1 full of effective morality1 with which he sought to cheer1 terrify1 and improve humanity4 ,his five-act tragedies end always with the triumph of ,virtue and the punishment of ,vice4 ,as one of his contemporaries said1 he exercised the art of hanging in colours4 ,the twelve plates of the parallel biographies of ,industry and ,idleness he employed as an illustrated weekly sermon for the benefit of the working classes1 and he was able to observe with satisfaction that they had an actual influence on the conduct of the people1 as instanced in the diminution of gin shops4 ,yet for all that1 in the elevation of public morality1 the highest aim of art is not1 as ,garrick asserted1 fulfilled4 ,who has ever seen such a painter8 ,would he be a painter8 ,it is exactly by this moralising with the brush that ,hogarth stands in such abrupt opposition to his predecessors1 the ,dutch4 ,they were painters1 nothing but painters1 and in their painting reckoned on eyes which could appreciate their pictorial subtilty4 ,man was for them a patch of colour2 the real delight of their eyes was the rich light that came mellowed through the shadows1 and played upon the ruffed garments and the clumsy forms4 ,with ,hogarth1 in the place of the idea of colour1 the anecdote is brought in4 ,he saw the world not so much with the eyes of the painter1 as with those of the physician1 the criminologist1 the pastor4 ,the familiar element1 that serene and comfortable observation of an everyday occurrence upon which ,dutch art was based1 has altogether disappeared in his pictures4 ,he did not paint because something pictorial urged him1 but saw in men the actors of the parts which he had in his mind4 ,this departure from the purely picturesque is in part explained by the predominance of literature in ,england at that time4 ,in a country where the tragedy of familiar life as well as the domestic novel had arisen there was imminent peril that a young school of painting working without traditions should branch off also on to those lines4 ,hogarth desired to give painting a new manner2 he seized upon what was epic or dramatic1 and painted the pictorial counter parts to ,smollett's and ,richardson's novels4 ,in the age of enlightenment the painter makes way for the writer4 ,with this idea he himself wrote3 ,i have endeavoured to treat my subjects as a dramatic writer2 my picture is my stage1 my men and women my players1 who1 by means of certain actions and gestures1 are to exhibit a dumb show4 ,illustration3 ,,hogarth4 ,,the ,,enraged ,,musician4 ,moreover1 to explain the growth of this sort of literary hybrid1 one is forced to consider the changed conditions under which painting was introduced into ,england at large4 ,art1 which hitherto had shone forth her enchantment upon the few1 was conducted from the first in free ,england along the broad road of popularity1 and given over to a public which had to be educated to art by degrees2 and this admission of the mass of the people to the enjoyment of art1 in a proportion hitherto unheard of1 must inevitably have a retrogressive effect upon painting itself4 ,instead of the earlier amateur of really distinguished culture1 there stood the ,people4 ,but just as in the ,middle ,ages works of art were seen to be a sort of picture-writing for the people--picturis eruditur populus1 said ,gregory the ,great1--so now the new patrons could hardly require other than those works of art in which a story was pictorially told4 ,these could be understood even by the man whose understanding was otherwise wholly closed to matters of art2 and hence it came about that almost all the genre painters--for very nearly a century--followed with more or less intelligence in the footsteps of ,hogarth4 ,to treat him1 as is frequently done1 because of this popularisation of art1 because of this transformation of the picture into the picture story1 as a pattern instance of tastelessness1 would lead to very dangerous consequences1 and should be the less employed because ,hogarth's pictures are1 at least1 comparatively well painted1 whereas many of his successors could escape the deluge only in the ,noah's ,ark of their talent for narration4 ,what ,hogarth could do when he put off the schoolmaster1 he has shown moreover in his portraits4 ,there he is an entirely great painter4 ,his pictures have none of that ,van ,dyck elegance1 which had become the mode in ,england before him2 they are robust1 crude1 ,anglo-,saxon1 strongly and broadly painted withal1 sketches1 in the best sense of the word4 ,his ,shrimp ,girl1 in the ,national ,gallery1 for instance1 is a masterpiece to which the nineteenth century can hardly produce a rival4 ,in the history of painting it is notorious that the latter half of the last century belongs especially to portraiture1 and here the ,english occupy the first rank4 ,neither ,hogarth nor ,reynolds nor ,gainsborough was a genius like ,titian1 ,velasquez1 or even ,frans ,hals4 ,their art is not to be compared with that of the greatest of all portrait painters1 but they surpassed all the painters of the eighteenth century2 they were not only the greatest in ,england since ,van ,dyck1 but the first portrait painters in ,europe at the time4 ,illustration3 ,,hogarth4 ,,gin ,,lane4 ,reynolds and ,gainsborough lived almost at the same period4 ,the former1 born in #agbc1 died in #agib2 the latter1 born in #agbg1 died in #aghh4 ,they had as models men and women of the same society4 ,they went the same road1 side by side4 ,many celebrities strayed from one studio to the other1 and were painted by ,reynolds as well as by ,gainsborough4 ,these are just the pictures which show us so distinctly how widely the two1 who were usually mentioned in the same breath1 differed from each other in spite of having grown up on the same soil4 ,even their outward man displays this dissimilarity4 ,reynolds appears in his ,portrait of ,himself in the ,uffizzi ,gallery at ,florence1 in the red mantle of the ,president of the ,academy1 the official cap on his head1 while the hand resting on the table holds a copy of his ,discourses2 close by is a bust of ,michael ,angelo4 ,the complexion is that of a man who sits much within doors4 ,a pair of spectacles with large1 round glasses leads one to conclude that he injured his eyesight early with much reading4 ,gainsborough1 with his refined ,roman nose1 the haughty1 curved sensuous lips1 and the expression of his face which speaks at once of innocence and refinement1 gives an impression far more than ,reynolds of the child of nature and the gentleman4 ,his cheeks are fresh and rather ruddy2 a depth of soul lies within the large blue eyes1 that are somewhat melancholy1 yet have such a free outlook upon life4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself4 ,joshua ,reynolds' father was a clergyman1 a most learned man1 who kept a ,latin school4 ,he gave the boy1 it is recorded1 that most uncommon ,christian name1 for the remarkable reason that he hoped thereby to draw the attention of a great personage1 who bore the same name1 towards his young namesake4 ,his son was to become a physician4 ,but books on other subjects which he read at his desk at school made a greater impression on the boy4 ,in the well known ,treatise on ,painting1 by ,richardson1 he discovered his vocation4 ,from the perusal of this book he developed a taste for things artistic1 studied the works on perspective of ,pater ,pozzo1 read everything he could find on art1 and copied as a preliminary all that fell into his hands in the way of woodcuts and copper engravings4 ,one of the earliest drawings which remain from his childhood represents the interior of a library4 ,at the age of nineteen he came to ,london to a well-known master1 ,hudson1 the favourite painter with the gentry of the day1 who required #abj with a pupil4 ,he was already convinced that only in ,london could he find the means to attain fame1 and even as early as #agdd he took a fine establishment and kept open house in order to attract attention4 ,he was soon in a position to complete his artistic education by means of residence in ,italy4 ,in #agdf he had painted the portrait of a ,captain ,keppel1 who shortly afterwards was appointed ,commodore of the ,mediterranean squadron1 and invited the young painter to go for a cruise in his ship4 ,they sailed in #agdi1 and ,reynolds was able to spend three years in ,italy4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,reynolds4 ,,mrs ,,siddons4 ,his first impression was one of bitter disappointment4 ,where was that rich colouring in the ,italian classics which he had been led to expect from ,english mezzotints8 ,everything struck him as lifeless1 pale1 insipid4 ,whereupon he affected the opinion that there was no more to be seen in ,rome4 ,raphael1 in particular1 appeared to him to be a mediocre painter1 whom only a remarkable chance had brought to such a pitch of fame4 ,surrounded by the great masterpieces of the ,cinquecento1 he employed himself in drawing caricatures1 and made a sort of travesty of the ,school of ,athens1 in which he drew caricatures of the ,english colony in ,rome at that time1 in the attitudes of figures in the pictures of ,raphael4 ,but he very speedily changed his opinion1 and began to follow the paths of the great dead4 ,he went indefatigably through the galleries of ,rome1 from ,rubens to ,titian1 from ,correggio to ,guido and ,raphael4 ,he studied so hard in the ,vatican1 that he took a chill in the cold rooms1 which left him all his life a little deaf4 ,that sojourn at ,rome was to ,reynolds what1 a hundred years later1 his visit to ,spain was to ,lenbach4 ,he had already at ,hudson's acquired great facility as a copyist1 and of ,guercino1 in particular1 he had made numerous copies4 ,during this ,italian tour1 however1 he became the greatest connoisseur of old masters that the eighteenth century possessed4 ,it is related that the ,chevalier ,van ,loo1 when he was in ,england in #agfc1 vaunted himself one day1 in ,reynolds' presence1 upon his unfailing discrimination in telling a copy from an original4 ,whereupon ,reynolds showed him one of his own studies of a head1 after ,rembrandt4 ,the ,chevalier judged it to be1 indisputably1 a masterpiece by the great ,dutchman4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,dr4 ,,johnson ,he left ,rome in ,april #ageb1 and made a further visit to ,naples1 to the cities of ,tuscany1 and to ,venice4 ,the careless notes of travel that he made on this journey show the clear insight which he had attained into the ,italian schools4 ,they all deal with questions of technique1 on effects of light and shadow1 on the mystery of chiaroscuro4 ,for ,titian1 in particular1 he had an extravagant devotion1--he would ruin himself1 he said1 if he might only possess one of the great works of ,titian4 ,when he returned to ,england in #ageb1 at the age of thirty1 his talent was fully developed1 and the connoisseurs were unanimous in hailing him as a new ,van ,dyck4 ,with the portrait of ,miss ,gunning1 afterwards the ,duchess of ,hamilton1 he appeared in #agec as a power in ,english art4 ,as early as #agee1 when ,hogarth was compelled to give up portrait painting for lack of patrons1 one hundred and twenty-five persons sat for ,reynolds1 and after that about one hundred and fifty people were painted by him annually2 and this brought him in a yearly income of about #af1jjj4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,garrick ,,as ,,abel ,,drugger4 ,at first he took up his quarters in ,st4 ,martin's ,lane1 which was then the most fashionable place of residence for artists2 but in #agfj he bought a house1 ,no4 #dg ,leicester ,square1 the most select quarter of ,london1 and furnished it with the most palatial splendour4 ,the studio1 which he built for himself1 was as large as a ballroom1 and furnished with a quite modern luxury4 ,the large corridor that led to it had a gallery of pictures by old masters4 ,it was the age of the great literary and dramatic revival in ,england4 ,garrick stood at the zenith of his popularity1 ,burke had already made himself a name1 ,johnson had produced his ,dictionary1 ,richardson had reached the summit of his fame1 ,smollett had written ,peregrine ,pickle1 ,gray had attracted notice by his verse4 ,all these and others who set the vogue in literature and the drama1 the principal figures in politics1 the leaders of fashion1 lounged in that luxurious studio and gossiped with ,reynolds of the theatre1 both before and behind the scenes1 of the doings in ,parliament and the scandal of the ,court1 of literature and of art4 ,at the time when ,goldsmith was putting the finishing touches to his ,travels he was a guest of the house4 ,gibbon1 the historian1 and ,sterne1 whose ,sentimental ,journey was just then the talk of the town1 spent their vacant hours with him2 and ,burke as well1 while he discussed with him his treatise on the ,sublime and the ,beautiful4 ,all these claimed a niche in ,reynolds' portrait gallery1 where all the talents were met together4 ,the whole ,english nobility also flocked to him4 ,for forty years onwards from #ageb it was considered the proper thing to be painted by him4 ,his pictures were multiplied immediately at the hands of the engravers4 ,in the complete catalogue of ,reynolds' works1 ,hamilton counts1 so far back as #ahbj1 no fewer than #fge plates1 engraved after ,reynolds by more than a hundred artists1 and amongst these the mezzotints of ,samuel ,cousins are by far the finest4 ,only an incredible industry1 enabling him for a long succession of years to paint almost without intermission with a facility and regularity like that of ,rubens1 rendered it possible for ,reynolds to complete1 exclusive of portraits1 quite a number of religious and mythological pictures1 of which he himself was especially proud4 ,he painted with great speed and dexterity1 rose very early1 breakfasted at nine o'clock1 was in his studio punctually at ten2 and there till eleven he worked on pictures which had been commenced4 ,on the stroke of eleven the first sitter arrived1 who was succeeded by another an hour later4 ,thus he painted till four o'clock1 when he made his toilette1 and thenceforward belonged to society1 for in spite of his scholarly temperament one can by no means consider ,reynolds as a solitary eccentric4 ,although he remained a bachelor after ,angelica ,kauffmann had declined his hand1 his house was a central gathering-point for noble ,london4 ,he gave balls to which the whole of ,society was invited1 and drove in a magnificent carriage1 with coachmen in blue and silver liveries4 ,the ,literary ,club was founded at his instigation1 where with ,johnson1 ,burke1 ,goldsmith1 ,gibbon1 and ,garrick he shared in conversation both profound and brilliant4 ,he was made a baronet1 and when the ,royal ,academy was founded in #agfh1 became its first president4 ,the dinners of the ,academy1 which he organised at the distribution of prizes1 play a part in the history of ,english cookery4 ,reynolds had promised that on each of these reunions he would speak on some question of art4 ,in this manner originated1 during his twenty-three years of office1 those fifteen discourses upon painting which show the highest result of his literary energy4 ,they were not his maiden essays4 ,as far back as #ageh ,johnson had invited him to publish an article upon ,art in a journal which he had founded1 ,the ,idler4 ,in #agha he made a journey through ,holland and ,flanders1 upon which1 anticipating ,fromentin1 he wrote an exceedingly fine book4 ,in his ,discourses so high a degree of literary talent was displayed that they were at one time said to be the work of ,johnson or ,burke4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,heads ,,of ,,angels4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,samuel ,,richardson4 ,they are sthetic treatises and essays in the history of art1 of an enduring value4 ,originating from a vast insight1 and expressed in a precise style1 they treat of the laws of classic art1 the variation in styles1 the causes of the finest bloom in art4 ,certainly eclecticism is preached too4 ,the modern artist1 it is declared1 can only stand on the shoulders of his forebears4 ,the great ,italians must be his models1 and of these the greatest is ,michael ,angelo4 ,his last essay closes with these words3 ,i reflect1 not without vanity1 that these discourses bear testimony of my admiration of that truly divine man1 and ,i should desire that the last words which ,i should pronounce in this ,academy1 and from this place1 might be the name of ,michael ,angelo4 ,when he died1 his friend ,edmund ,burke wrote in the funeral oration which he dedicated to him3 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds was1 on many accounts1 one of the most memorable men of his time4 ,he was the first ,englishman who added the praise of the elegant arts to the other glories of his country4 ,in taste1 in grace1 in facility1 in happy invention1 and in the richness and harmony of colouring1 he was equal to the greatest masters of the renowned ages4444 ,in full affluence of foreign and domestic fame1 admired by the expert in art and by the learned in science1 courted by the great1 caressed by sovereign powers and celebrated by distinguished poets1 444 the loss of no man of his time can be felt with more sincere1 general1 and unmixed sorrow4 ,he was buried with great pomp in ,st4 ,paul's ,cathedral4 ,the pictures left unfinished at his death fetched at auction #cg1jjj2 the whole fortune which he left is estimated at #hj1jjj4 ,the biography of ,thomas ,gainsborough reads quite differently4 ,the traveller who rides from ,london to ,birmingham passes through some of the fairest scenery in the island4 ,he finds himself in the heart of fresh and tender ,english nature4 ,small rivulets flow through the gently undulating country4 ,wide meadows clothe the soft hollows in the valleys with abundant green4 ,in grassy enclosures deer and roes are feeding2 they push forwards inquisitively as the train passes4 ,fragrant linden trees rise dreamily in the suave1 park-like landscape1 through which the ,stour winds along like a riband of silver4 ,on the bank of this enchanting stream ,thomas ,gainsborough1 the son of a simple clothier1 was born4 ,reynolds' vocation had been brought about through the perusal of a book4 ,in the scenery and the woods that were in the neighbourhood of his home1 ,gainsborough1 who was so alive to all the beauty of nature1 received the decisive impression of his life4 ,here he roamed as a boy1 while he neglected his school lessons4 ,tom will be hung some day1 reflected his schoolmaster2 ,tom will be a genius1 thought his parents4 ,he sketched the parks and castles of the neighbourhood4 ,in his later life he used to say that there was no picturesque old tree trunk1 no meadow or woodland glade or stream within a four-mile radius of ,sudbury1 that he did not retain a recollection of from his childish years4 ,like ,constable1 when he was an old man1 he still thought with gratitude of his home1 of all that beauty upon which he had looked1 and which had made him a painter4 ,here1 in the green woods and fresh pastures of his birthplace1 he trained himself4 ,at the age of ten he was a painter4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,miss ,,reynolds4 ,a sojourn of four years in ,london seems to have added little to his ability4 ,elegant in his manners1 lively in his conversation1 a born gentleman1 he might have become completely the man of fashion4 ,but he was far too diffident1 with his nave simplicity1 to force himself amongst the stars of the world of art in ,london1 far too distinguished and retiring to join in the race after the favour of the public1 and so at the age of eighteen he returned to his native place with the unencouraging prospect of playing the part of a simple painter in the provinces4 ,first and last1 the woods remained his chief delight4 ,one morning1 as he was painting there1 he looked up from his easel and saw a young and beautiful girl in a light summer dress1 peeping coquettishly from behind the trunk of a tree4 ,she blushed1 he spoke to her shyly4 ,soon afterwards ,margaret ,burr became his wife1 and the whole history of his life with her remains a charming idyll1 like the spring morning on which he made her acquaintance4 ,married at the age of nineteen1 he installed himself at ,ipswich1 his wife's native place1 and there he spent fifteen years in great happiness1 firm in the conviction that he would end his days there4 ,there he painted his first portraits1 which1 from #agfa1 were forwarded by a carrier's cart to ,london for exhibition in the ,royal ,academy4 ,from ,ipswich he went to ,bath1 the fashionable watering-place1 where he painted the visitors who came in the summer for the cure4 ,finally1 in the end his portraits met with approval in ,london4 ,that gave him courage in #agfd to proceed thither himself2 and there he took very modest rooms4 ,on his arrival he was as yet very little known2 he came from the provinces1 which he had till then never left1 at a time when ,reynolds stood at the pinnacle of his fame1 and had visited ,italy and ,spain4 ,yet he gradually won a reputation4 ,franklin was one of the first to sit to him4 ,soon he became the favourite painter of the king and the royal family4 ,george ,,iii was painted eight times by him1 ,pitt seven times1 ,garrick five4 ,lord ,chancellor ,camden1 ,sir ,william ,blackstone1 ,johnson1 ,laurence ,sterne1 ,richardson1 ,burke1 ,sheridan1 ,mrs4 ,graham1 ,lady ,montagu1 ,mrs4 ,siddons1 ,lady ,vernon1 ,lady ,maynard1 and the names of many other celebrities and beauties are bound up with his4 ,his life-work1 excluding sketches1 consists of no more than three hundred pictures1 of which two hundred and twenty are portraits--a very small number in comparison with the four thousand paintings of ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,thomas ,gainsborough painted irregularly4 ,even when he was in his studio he might be seen standing for hours gazing out of his window dreamily at the grass4 ,in other features of his life too he was equally different from ,reynolds3 unaccountably1 he was one moment a brilliant1 animated companion1 the next plunged in melancholy4 ,he dreamed much1 while ,reynolds painted and wrote4 ,in the evenings he usually sat at home with his dear little wife1 completed no treatises or discourses on his art1 but made sketches or sometimes music4 ,reynolds was a scholar-painter1 ,gainsborough a painter-musician4 ,it was said of him that he painted portraits for money and landscapes for amusement1 but that he made music because he needs must4 ,he collected musical instruments as ,reynolds did a library4 ,even in his pictures he gives his people1 for preference1 violins in their hands4 ,to the ,musical ,club which he had founded in ,ipswich he remained faithful all his life1 and in that neighbourhood1 or in ,richmond or ,hampstead1 he spent the summer every year4 ,here amidst that green nature it was also his wish to be buried4 ,his funeral was a very quiet one4 ,in the peaceful graveyard at ,kew1 ,thomas ,gainsborough sleeps tranquilly under the shady willows1 far from the noise and tumult of the great city4 ,sir ,joshua said at his grave3 ,should ,england ever become so fruitful in talent that we can venture to speak of an ,english school1 then will ,gainsborough's name be handed down to posterity as one of the first4 ,yes1 one might say to-day1 as the first of all4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,edmund ,,burke4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,mrs4 ,,abington4 ,joshua ,reynolds is certainly a great painter1 and deserves the high veneration in which his compatriots hold him4 ,it is not without a certain awe that1 in the ,diploma ,gallery of the ,royal ,academy1 one can look upon the armchair that he used during his sittings1 upon which all who were famous in eighteenth-century ,england have sat4 ,reynolds is one of the greatest ,english portrait painters1 and1 resembling most the classical masters1 showed in the highest degree the qualities we admire in them4 ,his colouring is of an amazing softness1 depth1 and strength2 his chiaroscuro is warm and vaporous4 ,there are portraits by him which1 in the subtlety of their tone1 resemble the best of ,rembrandt's2 others1 whose noble colouring approaches the chef-d'oeuvres of ,van ,dyck4 ,master of the whole mechanism of the human body1 he possessed in the highest degree the rare art of setting persons surely and unconstrainedly on their feet4 ,his portraits are pictures2 one needs no whit to be acquainted with the persons they represent2 they satisfy as works of art in themselves1 and as psychological studies by a man who had the capacity of sounding the depths of the human heart4 ,the complete catalogue of all those who sat for ,sir ,joshua during the space of half a century forms an uninterrupted commentary on the contemporary history of ,england4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,edmund ,,malone4 ,there we see the skilful portrait of ,sterne1 with his look of witty mockery2 the marvellous ,bohemian1 ,oliver ,goldsmith1 who even then had the manuscript of his ,vicar of ,wakefield in his pocket2 ,johnson1 who1 in one1 sits at his writing-table1 on which stands an ink-pot and a volume of his ,english ,dictionary1 and in another is peering into a book with his short-sighted eyes screwed up tightly1 and his whole posture awkward and unwieldy4 ,garrick1 who went from one studio to the other1 appears also more than once in ,reynolds' portrait gallery4 ,amongst his portraits of military dignitaries1 that of ,general ,lord ,heathfield1 the famous defender of ,gibraltar1 whom he painted in full uniform1 is one of the most noticeable4 ,strong as a rock he stands there1 with the key of the fortress in his hand4 ,what a contrast between these figures and those of the contemporary ,french portraits6 ,there1 those friendly and smiling ministers1 those gallant and dainty ecclesiastics1 those scented1 graceful marquises1 who move with such elegant ease about the parquet floor1 and from whose faces a uniform refinement has erased all the roughness of individuality2 here1 expressive1 thoughtful heads1 characters hardened in the school of life1 many of the faces coarse and bloated1 the glance telling of cold resolution1 the attitude full of self-reliant dignity and gnarled1 plebeian pride4 ,the same bourgeois element predominates in the pictures of the ladies4 ,van ,dyck's noble1 eminently intellectual figures always wore the glamour of the ,renaissance4 ,in the background an artistically arranged curtain1 a column1 or the view of the quiet avenues of some broad park4 ,from ,reynolds we get strong active women in their everyday clothes1 and with thoughtful countenances3 good mothers1 surrounded by their children1 whom they kiss and enfold in a tender embrace4 ,the idea of half-symbolical representation has vanished1 and in its place is introduced the idea of home and the family4 ,the pictures of children by this childless old bachelor were an artistic revelation to the existing generation1 and are the delight of the world of to-day4 ,in other portraits of ladies1 that noticeable characteristic of the ,english nation1 their predilection for domestic animals and for sport1 finds an expression4 ,the beautiful ,duchess of ,devonshire he painted as she gently restrained with her finger her little daughter's caresses1 which would fain have disordered her coiffure2 a whole gallery of noble ladies he represented feeding their poultry or petting their lap-dogs2 ,lady ,spencer in her riding-habit1 her whip in her hand1 her horse reined in1 her cheeks flushed from her gallop4 ,nelly ,o',brien looks an actress1 a woman who turned men's heads1 and she does it still to-day in ,reynolds' picture4 ,there lurks something enigmatic1 perplexing in the smile of this sphinx--only ,monna ,lisa had such a smile1 but ,nelly's eyes are deeper1 more desirous4 ,one feels that in the three centuries since ,monna ,lisa love has taken on a new and subtler nuance4 ,the portrait of ,mrs4 ,siddons is the most famous of the pictures of actresses which ,reynolds painted1 and ,mrs4 ,siddons1 of all the women of that time1 is the one whose portrait occupied the painters most4 ,she was the daughter of ,roger ,kemble1 the actor1 and sister of that pretty actress1 ,mrs4 ,twiss1 whose portrait by ,reynolds 7in #aghd7 we also have1 and of the famous ,john ,philip ,kemble1 who figures so often in the portrait gallery of ,lawrence1 as ,hamlet1 ,cato1 ,coriolanus1 ,richard ,,iii1 etc4 ,born to the boards1 as it were1 she had1 when still a child1 joined her parents on their ,thespian pilgrimages1 and had had many engagements in the provinces1 at ,birmingham1 ,manchester1 and ,bath1 before she was recruited by the playwright ,sheridan for the ,drury ,lane company in ,london4 ,she made her dbut there on #ajth ,october #aghb1 and was hailed forthwith as the greatest actress of her time4 ,lady ,macbeth was her great part2 in that she was painted both by ,romney and ,lawrence4 ,reynolds painted her as the ,tragic ,muse4 ,a diadem encircles her hair1 she sits upon a throne1 the throne rests upon clouds4 ,behind her stand two allegorical beings1 ,crime and ,remorse1 two quite unfortunate figures4 ,but the principal figure is truly great1 in its noble1 regal attitude1 and quite unconstrained in its dramatic pose4 ,reynolds had the composition in his mind many weeks before ,mrs4 ,siddons sat for him in the autumn of #aghc4 ,take your seat upon the throne for which you were born1 and suggest to me the idea of the ,tragic ,muse4 ,with these words he conducted her to the pedestal4 ,i made a few steps1 the actress relates1 and then took at once the attitude in which the ,tragic ,muse has remained4 ,when the picture was finished1 says ,sir ,joshua1 gallant as ever3 ,i cannot lose this opportunity of sending my name to posterity on the hem of your garment4 ,and he1 who hardly ever signed his pictures1 wrote in large characters his name and the date on the gold-embroidered border of the dress4 ,the original picture has been in the possession of the ,grosvenor family since #ahbb2 a second copy is in the gallery at ,dulwich4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,oliver ,,goldsmith4 ,reynolds loved to depict his sitters in mythological or historical settings4 ,thus he painted ,mrs4 ,hartley1 her son as a nymph and the youthful ,bacchus1 the three ,misses ,montgomery as the ,three ,graces crowning a term of ,hymen1 a little girl sitting on the grass as the ,age of ,innocence1 ,lady ,spencer as a gipsy telling her brother's fortune1 ,mrs4 ,sheridan as ,st4 ,cecilia4 ,the five ,heads of ,angels1 as they are called1 in the ,national ,gallery1 are five different studies of the lovely child-head of little ,isabella ,gordon4 ,garrick1 in one of his pictures1 is set between the allegorical figures of ,tragedy and ,comedy4 ,reynolds himself was frankly proud of these portraits in the mood of history4 ,he was1 as he said1 in general only a portrait painter because the world required it2 that which he aspired after was the great manner of historical painting4 ,nevertheless1 pictures1 such as the ,little ,hercules with the ,serpent1 ,cupid unfastening the ,girdle of ,venus1 ,the ,death of ,dido1 ,the ,forbearance of ,scipio1 ,the ,childhood of the ,prophet ,samuel1 or ,the ,adoration of the ,shepherds1 do not cause us to deplore too bitterly that he rarely found time for such mythological and historical pictures4 ,his putti are derived from ,correggio2 in the arrangement of drapery he resembles ,guido2 in his ,venus he is a coarser ,titian4 ,reynolds' own manner in these pictures is merely the eclectic accumulation of the peculiarities of the old masters--he brought no new element into historical painting4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,lady ,,cockburn ,,and ,,her ,,daughters4 ,and herein lies his principal weakness4 ,hogarth declared3 ,there is only one school1 that of nature4 ,reynolds3 ,there is only one doorway to the school of nature1 and of that the old masters hold the key4 ,the great men of old were for him the object of constant and conscious thought4 ,he has endeavoured in his writings to propound a sort of general foundation of painting1 has adopted the principles of the best painters in every land1 was indefatigable in exploring the secrets of the old masterpieces1 and has therefore won the praise of having set the ,english school1 which had hitherto possessed no perfected tradition of painting1 technically on firm feet4 ,he was the founder of a scientific technique of painting derived from the ancients1--the ,lenbach of the eighteenth century4 ,upon the mixture of colours1 the gradations of light and shade1 technically and sthetically1 no artist has pondered more than he1 who knew the great ,netherlanders1 ,rubens1 ,van ,dyck1 and ,rembrandt1 as well as1 or better than1 his particular favourites1 the ,italians4 ,he made experiments all his life long to discover the stone of the wise ,venetians2 but he met with the same experience as ,lenbach4 ,and these experiments in the direction of the colour effects of the old masters were the bane of his pictures' durability4 ,it was well said by ,walpole3 ,if ,sir ,joshua is content with his own blemished pictures1 then he is happier than their possessors1 or posterity4 ,according to my view1 he ought to be paid in annual instalments1 and only so long as his works last4 ,and ,haydon opined that ,reynolds sought by tricks to obtain results which the old masters attained by the simplest means4 ,he endeavoured by means of asphaltum to give his pictures the artistic tones of the galleries1 with the result that1 to-day1 the majority have lost every sign of freshness4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,bishop ,,percy ,with regard to the pose also1 and similar conceptions1 one can never quite get away from the thought of ,van ,dyck and other old masters4 ,reynolds' chief endeavour1 not only as regards colouring1 but also in other respects1 was to resemble the ancients1 and this has brought into his pictures something imitative and laboured4 ,he dearly loved the ,romans and ,venetians2 we believe to-day that he loved almost too dearly the ,bolognese4 ,and just that fine1 artistic education which he received in ,italy and ,holland1 and the scientific method in which he practised his art1 did harm to ,reynolds1 and brought into his pictures too much reminiscence1 too many alien touches4 ,he has in most cases understood it--how to bring into uniformity the numerous borrowings of his palette1 all that he had taken from ,leonardo1 ,correggio1 ,velasquez1 and ,rembrandt4 ,yet he has never quite forgotten the old masters and looked only at his model1 for the sake of the very daintiest lady or the freshest ,english boy4 ,for his children he thought of ,correggio's ,cherubim1 for his schoolboys of ,murillo1 for the portrait of ,mrs4 ,hartley of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 for that of ,mrs4 ,sheridan of ,raphael4 ,there lacked in him that spontaneity which denotes the great master4 ,by his erudition in art1 ,sir ,joshua elevated himself on the shoulders of all who had preceded him4 ,he obtained thereby the piquant effects in his portraits1 but it was at the price of the penalty that from many of his works it is rather a rancid odour of oil and varnish which exhales than the breath of life4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,the ,,girl ,,with ,,the ,,mousetrap4 ,gainsborough can certainly not be compared with ,reynolds in the mass of his work4 ,he was master neither of his powers of industry nor of his smooth and brilliant methods of painting that were always sure of their effect4 ,in many of his pictures he gives the impression of a self-taught man1 who sought to help himself to the best of his power4 ,just as little has he the psychological acuteness of ,reynolds4 ,a portrait painter puts no more into a head than he has in his own2 thus the acute thinker1 ,reynolds1 was able to put a great deal into his heads1 whilst ,gainsborough1 the dreamer1 was often enough quite helpless when he confronted a conspicuously manly character4 ,in his whole temperament a painter of landscape1 before his model too he sat as before a landscape1 with eyes that perceived but did not analyse4 ,what1 with ,reynolds1 was sought out and understood1 was felt by ,gainsborough2 and therefore the former is always good and correct1 while ,gainsborough is unequal and often faulty1 but in his best pictures has a charm to which those of the ,president of the ,academy never attained4 ,gainsborough1 too1 at his death murmured the name of an old master4 ,we are all going to ,heaven1 and ,van ,dyck is of the company4 ,but what distinguishes him from ,reynolds1 and gives him a character of greater originality1 is just his nave independence of the ancients1 which resulted partly from the different nature of his education in art4 ,reynolds had lived for two years in ,rome and explored all the principal cities of ,italy1 had visited ,flanders and ,holland1 learnt to wonder at ,rembrandt1 and developed an enthusiasm for chiaroscuro4 ,gainsborough in his rural seclusion had been able neither by travel on the ,continent to study the great masters of the past1 nor to assimilate the traditions of the studio4 ,he contented himself with the beauties which he saw in his native country1 studied them in their touching simplicity1 without troubling himself about academic rules4 ,he lived in ,london until his death1 without once leaving ,england2 and that gives to his pictures a distinct nuance4 ,the one studied pictures and books1 the other only the book of nature4 ,his portraits never aim at any external effect1 nor are they raised into the historical2 they seek to give no other impression than that of a quite subjective truth to nature1 both in arrangement and in colouring4 ,nothing intruded between his model and himself1 no sombre old master obscured his canvas4 ,his execution is more personal1 his colour fresher and more transparent4 ,the very personages seem with him to be more elegant1 more gracious1 more modern than with ,reynolds1 in whose work1 through their kinship to the ,renaissance1 they received a suggestion of style1 classical and ancient4 ,in his pictures the ,englishman is clearly revealed1 an ,englishman of that delicacy and noble refinement which is present to a unique degree in the works of ,english painters of the present day4 ,illustration3 ,,reynolds4 ,,dr4 ,,burney4 ,the passage from ,hogarth to ,gainsborough marks a chapter in the history of ,english culture4 ,hogarth is the embodiment of ,john ,bull2 you can hear him growl1 like some savage bull-dog4 ,that brutal1 indecorous robustness of ,england's aggressive youth becomes1 in ,gainsborough's hands1 agreeable1 refined1 gentle1 and seductive4 ,reynolds1 with his robustness as of the old masters1 might be best compared with ,tintoretto2 ,gainsborough1 in his quite modern and fantastic elegance1 is a more tender1 subtle1 and mysterious spirit1 poet and magician at once1 like ,watteau4 ,there one listened to the full1 swelling chords of the organ2 here to the soft1 dulcet1 silvery notes of the violin4 ,reynolds loved warm1 brown and red tones2 ,gainsborough essayed for the first time1 in a series of his happiest creations1 that scale of colour1 coldly green and blue1 in which to-day the majority of ,english pictures are still painted4 ,everything with him is soft and clear2 the tone of those blue or light yellow silks1 which he loved especially1 is that of the most transparent enamel2 the background fades away into dreamy vapour1 the figures are surrounded with an atmosphere of seduction4 ,what a masterpiece he has created in the ,blue ,boy1 his most popular and most individual picture4 ,one can describe every piece of the clothing1 but it is impossible to reproduce the harmony of the painting1 the rich1 pure blue of the costume1 which stands out against a lustrous1 brown background of landscape4 ,how the stately youth stands1 noble from head to foot1 in the brown and green autumn landscape1 with its canopy of sky6 ,master ,bootall was by far the most elegant portrait painted in ,england since ,van ,dyck1 and withal of a nervosity quite new4 ,see that youthful pride in the gaze1 that mobile sensibility in the pose6 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,,gainsborough4 ,have men grown different1 then1 or does the painter see further8 ,one finds in ,van ,dyck no such expressively nervous physiognomy4 ,the suggestion of melancholy1 the deep reverie1 the noble1 aristocratic haughtiness1--,gainsborough was the first to discover that1 and give it its full expression4 ,and the same man who painted the noble elegance of this youthful grand seigneur depicted also peasant children coming fresh from the green fields and woodlands of their village homes4 ,in ,sir ,joshua's children there was often something borrowed from ,correggio2 the children of ,gainsborough breathe a rustic charm1 an untamed savagery2 they are the very offshoots of nature1 who disport themselves as freely as the wild things in the woods4 ,but his women in particular are creatures altogether adorable4 ,while ,reynolds1 the historical painter1 liked to promote his into heroines1 those of ,gainsborough1 with their pure1 transparent skins1 their sweet glances 7in which there lies so admirable a mixture of languishing fragility1 innocence1 and coquetry71 are the true ,englishwomen of the eighteenth century4 ,his ,mrs4 ,siddons is not in theatrical costume1 but in a simple walking-dress2 no ,tragic ,muse1 but the passionate1 loving woman who once1 a romantic1 impulsive miss1 escaped from a convent at the risk of her life1 to join a handsome young actor of her father's troupe who had entirely fascinated her4 ,what a charming grace in the pose1 what fine taste in the arrangement1 what wonderful purity of colouring6 ,with the exception of ,watteau1 ,i know of no older master who could have painted such moist1 dreamy1 sensuous1 tender eyes4 ,the marvellous ,mrs4 ,graham1 in the ,national ,gallery of ,scotland1 is1 from the purely pictorial standpoint1 perhaps the greatest of all his works4 ,yet how beautiful is the double portrait of that young married couple1 the ,halletts1 who1 tenderly holding hands1 pass along a deserted path in some secluded garden2 or that pale1 languishing ,mrs4 ,parsons1 with her enchanting smile1 and that mysterious language of the eyes4 ,gainsborough was no keen observer1 but he was a susceptible1 sensitive spirit who intercepted the soul itself1 the play of the nerves1 the slightest suggestion of spiritual commotion4 ,there moves through the majority of his portraits a pathetic tenderness1 a breath of dreamy melancholy1 that the persons themselves hardly possessed1 but which he transfused into them out of himself4 ,melancholy is the veil through which he saw things1 as ,reynolds saw them through the medium of erudition4 ,reynolds was all will and intelligence1 ,gainsborough all soul and temperament2 and nothing can show the difference between them better than the fact that ,reynolds1 who had formed his style on early models1 when he had no sitters painted historical pictures2 whilst ,gainsborough in like circumstances painted landscapes4 ,herein he was a pioneer1 whilst ,reynolds was an issue of the past4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,gainsborough4 ,,mrs4 ,,siddons4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,gainsborough4 ,,wood ,,scene1 ,,village ,,of ,,cornard1 ,,suffolk4 ,in the domain of landscape painting1 too1 the new germs of naturalism1 which had ventured above ground on all sides in the fifteenth century1 had been again stunted in the ,great ,renaissance4 ,the theory had been promulgated in the sixteenth century--in accordance with the idealistic methods of the age--that it behoved the painter to improve upon nature just as much as upon the human body4 ,with the lofty style of the great figure painters1 and their artfully pondered composition1 there corresponded a school of landscape which was likewise conceived of1 in the first degree1 as an honourable1 architectural framing for a mythological episode4 ,england too possessed1 in ,richard ,wilson1 a believer in this doctrine1 which became so widely promulgated in the seventeenth century through the influence of ,claude ,lorraine4 ,the home of his soul was ,italy4 ,he scraped together a small sum of money by portrait painting1 borrowed the rest1 and felt himself in his element for the first time when he had reached ,venice4 ,here1 at the instance of ,zucarrelli1 he became a painter of landscapes1 and was aided in his endeavours by ,joseph ,vernet in ,rome4 ,he was on the way to become a painter in great request1 and in many of his pictures he shows a most delicate notion of well-balanced and gracious composition in the manner of ,claude4 ,but his success was of no long duration4 ,wilson1 like so many other of his contemporaries1 had the fixed idea that the ,creator had only made nature to serve as a framework for the ,grief of ,niobe and as a vehicle for classical architecture4 ,the interpolated stage scenery of trees and the classic temples of this ,english ,claude1 contain nothing which had not been already painted better by the ,frenchman4 ,when the king1 in order to assist him1 asked him on one occasion to represent ,kew ,gardens in a picture1 he composed an entirely imaginary landscape and illuminated it with the sun of ,tivoli4 ,the king sent him back the picture1 mordant epigrams appeared in the journals1 and ,reynolds scoffed at him in his ,discourses4 ,after that ,wilson spent his days in the alehouse1 until he got delirium1 and died half starved at the age of seventy4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,gainsborough4 ,,the ,,market ,,cart4 ,the patriotic ,english were too much bound up with their own soil to acquire a taste for the exotic1 ideal scenery of ,wilson4 ,there existed in them that patriotism1 that feeling for home1 which had turned the ,dutch of the seventeenth century into landscape painters4 ,in this province also they were destined to step in1 as the inheritors of the ,dutch1 to bring the germ of intimate landscape to its full fruition4 ,lovely and luxuriant valleys with their soft grass1 sweet woodlands with their vari-coloured foliage1 golden1 swaying cornfields and picturesque little cottages1 with that indescribable softness of atmosphere1 must of themselves direct the eye of the writer and the painter to all these beauties4 ,it was an ,englishman who in the eighteenth century wrote the most memorable book upon the charms of nature4 ,james ,thomson1 in his ,seasons1 is the first great nature painter amongst the poets4 ,taine finds the whole of ,rousseau anticipated in him4 ,thirty years before ,rousseau1 ,thomson had forestalled all the sentiments of ,rousseau1 almost in the same style4 ,he has not only1 like ,rousseau1 a profound feeling for the great wild aspects of nature1 for the forms of clouds1 effects of light and contrasts of colour1 but he delights also in the smell of the dairy1 in small birds1 in the woodland shadows1 and the light on the meadows1--in all things sequestered and idyllic4 ,nature6 great parent6 whose unceasing hand ,rolls round the ,seasons of the changeful year1 ,how mighty1 how majestic are thy works6 ,with what a pleasing dread they swell the soul ,that sees astonished and astonished sings4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,gainsborough4 ,,the ,,duchess ,,of ,,devonshire4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,gainsborough4 ,,the ,,sisters4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,gainsborough4 ,,the ,,watering ,,place4 ,it was a remarkable chance which ordained that ,thomas ,gainsborough1 the first man who as a painter depicted the gracious charms of the country of his birth1 the comeliness of its expanses of deep green lush meadows1 the strength of the lofty1 wide-spreading trees1 as seen with the eyes of a lover1 should be born in the spring of the same year in which ,thomson's ,spring appeared4 ,that he knew and admired ,thomson is proved by his dedication to him of that delightful ,musidora in the ,national ,gallery1 a lovely woman bathing her feet in some shady forest pool4 ,it is said that he only sent half a dozen landscapes to the ,academy during the eighteen years that he exhibited there4 ,on the other hand1 they hung in his house in ,pall ,mall in long rows on the walls of his studio4 ,after his death his widow held a sale1 at which fifty-six landscapes were sold4 ,gainsborough must be accounted one of the moderns1 so nave and intimate is the impression which his pictures produce4 ,he1 who passed his whole youth in the idyllic loveliness of the woods1 was fitted to be the delineator of that mellow ,english nature4 ,he understood the murmur of the brooks and the sighing of the winds4 ,like his own life1 so regular and peaceful1 gently swaying as though to the friendly elements1 are the trees in his pictures1 with their peaceful tranquillity2 no storm disturbs the calm of a ,gainsborough picture4 ,his was a contented1 harmonious spirit1 like ,corot's4 ,his landscapes know no tempestuous grandeur2 they are a playground for children1 a place for shepherds to rest4 ,the calm of mid day1 the haze of twilight1 the dew and the pearls of morning1 said ,constable1 are what we find in the pictures of this good1 kindly1 happy man4444 ,as we look at them the tears spring to our eyes1 and we know not whence they come4 ,the solitary shepherd with his flock1 the peasant returning from the wood with his bundle of faggots1 whispering woods and open dales1 sweet little peasant children with their pitchers in springtime1--that is what he loved to paint and what he painted1 with as much sought-out refinement as with tender truth to nature4 ,his landscapes are like windows opening on the country1 not compositions1 but pieces taken straight out of that fruitful ,english nature4 ,every year he used to return to his green pastures1 and paint very early1 when the sun rose4 ,before him rose a cluster of trees1 all round the farm the flocks were grazing1 thousands of busy bees flew buzzing from flower to flower2 goats1 with their kids1 were feeding in the meadows1 wild doves cooed1 and the birds in the wood sang their praises to the ,creator4 ,thus do the landscapes of ,gainsborough affect us4 ,they are soft and tender as some sweet melody in their discreet intimacy1 without colorist effects1 as wonderfully harmonious as nature herself4 ,a thatched cot1 that peeps timidly from between the great trees1 a silvery dale shut in by weeping willows1 a bridge leading to some lush1 green meadow1--those are ,gainsborough's materials4 ,the famous ,cottage ,door is now at ,grosvenor ,house4 ,a young peasant woman1 with her youngest child in her arms1 is standing by the door of a country cottage1 before which her other children are playing1 some half naked2 deep contentment is all around1 huge old oaks spread their sheltering branches over the roof on both sides2 golden rays of sunshine dance across the meadow4 ,only ,frederick ,walker has1 in later days1 painted such peasant women and such children1 at once so tender and so natural4 ,of the four pictures in the ,national ,gallery1 ,the ,wood ,scene1 ,the ,watering ,place1 ,market ,carts1 and ,peasant ,children1 ,the ,watering ,place is the most celebrated4 ,in the foreground a quiet pasture with cows1 close by the herdsman1 a ,suffolk labourer2 in the background a noble old ,norman castle1 perhaps ,hedingham ,castle1 near ,sudbury4 ,it is through pictures like these that ,england has become the native-land of intimate landscape--paysage intime4 ,as figure painters1 as well as landscape painters1 the ,english in the eighteenth century laid a course of their own1 and it was not long before the other nations followed them4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,,the ,,historical ,,position ,,of ,,art ,,on ,,the ,,continent ,goethe compared the history of knowledge with a great fugue3 the parts of the nations first come to light1 little by little2 and this analogy1 already once made by ,hettner1 holds true in a very high degree of the history of art during the eighteenth century4 ,the three great nations of culture--the ,german1 the ,english1 and the ,french--take up their parts in turn1 and through all there sounds one common1 equal1 dominant note4 ,england was in the vanguard of that great period of struggle known as the age of enlightenment4 ,since the middle of the eighteenth century ,english influences had begun to fertilise the ,continent4 ,the truth and naturalness of ,english ideas were introduced as models1 and ,england became in her whole culture the schoolmistress of the ,continent4 ,in every region war was declared against the pedantry brought over from the past1 while new conditions were aimed at4 ,obviously it was not so easy for other nations to take their stand on the basis of modern society4 ,england had accomplished her revolution in the seventeenth century2 ,france was only preparing herself for hers4 ,for all other nations1 too1 the eighteenth century was a transition period1 in which the old and the new civilisation of culture were parting--an age of prodigious controversy1 full of ,sturm und ,drang4 ,men did homage to every kind of extravagance1 and went into ecstasies over virtue4 ,the sarcasm of scoffers went hand in hand with the deepest sentimental feeling for nature2 superstition flourished by the side of enlightenment and learning2 in the salons of the aristocracy courtly abbs file past with the greatest thinkers1 glowing with a holy zeal for the rights of man4 ,and1 in the midst of all this contradiction1 there exists that simple1 virtuous middle class which is preparing to make the ascent which will lead it to power4 ,one may imagine oneself in a salon of the ancien rgime1 in which wit is lord1 and laughter and merriment reign4 ,into that salon enters abruptly a rough plebeian1 with none of the fine tact of that company1 yet a great1 aristocratic spirit1 a man who despised such a society and would make the world anew4 ,such is one's impression of the effect produced at the time by the appearance of ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau4 ,voltaire was the first on the ,continent to break through social barriers1 but none the less he coined his heart for gold in society4 ,rousseau signifies a great advance3 he gave up his place1 laid aside rapier1 silk stockings1 and perruque1 and clothed himself after the manner of a common man in order to earn his bread as a copier of music4 ,he is1 as ,weigandt has called him1 the first man of the bourgeois century1 the first pioneer of the new age4 ,against the traditions bequeathed by the past1 which in the course of time had become over-refined and corrupt1 he set up the natural conditions demanded by reason4 ,his fight against inequalities of rank is1 as it were1 a foretaste of the revolution4 ,what hellish monsters are these prejudices4 ,i know no dishonourable inferiority other than that of character or education4 ,a man who is trained to an honourable mind is the equal of the world2 there is no rank in which he would not be in his place4 ,it is better to look down upon nobility than upon virtue1 and the wife of a charcoal-burner is worthy of more respect than the mistress of a prince4 ,those were words in which the coming revolution was presaged4 ,illustration3 ,,portrait ,,of ,,goya4 ,,by ,,himself4 ,from3 ,los ,capriccios4 ,the ,nouvelle ,heloise appeared in #agfa4 ,thirteen years later followed ,goethe's ,werther1 that history of a young ,titan whose zeal for liberty felt all the partition walls of ,society to be prison walls1 and who rose against everything that was ceremonial1 against all the subordinations of the social hierarchy1 against all trivial and rigid rules of prudent everyday life4 ,werther abhorred rules in every sphere4 ,one can say much in favour of rules1 about as much as one can say in praise of bourgeois society4 ,he scoffed at the ,philistines1 who daily went along the same measured way4 ,he saw in ,society1 having hitherto moved in the simple world of the bourgeois1 the most sacred and the most pitiful emotions wholly without clothing4 ,and this ,society outraged him1 and sent him with contumely from its midst4 ,working folk carried him to the grave1 and no minister of religion followed him4 ,soon afterwards young ,schiller came upon the scene with his first works1 which were a declaration of war against all the foundations of human society1 those manifestoes of revolution which1 were they new writings to-day1 no ,court ,theatre would dare to produce4 ,the fierce1 rampant lion1 with the inscription ,in ,tyrannos1 which was displayed on the title-page of the second edition of the ,robbers1 was an intimate symbol of the deep revolutionary spirit that inspired the whole age4 ,i grew disgusted with this ink-stained age1 when ,i read in my ,plutarch of great men4 ,fie1 fie upon the flaccid1 castrated century1 that has no other use than to chew over again the deeds of the past4 ,let me imagine an army of fellows like you1 and ,i see a republic arising in ,germany1 in comparison with which those of ,rome and ,sparta would be convents of nuns4 ,in a loud voice ,ficsco proclaims itself on the very title-page to be a republican tragedy4 ,intrigue and ,love even aims full at the rottenness and corruption of the actual time4 ,it can be traced--and ,brandes has done it in his ,haupstrmungen--how in the literature of the age1 the life of sensibility and idealism prevailing in the previous century gradually dwindles1 and in its stead quite modern progressive views--religious1 political1 and social--surge up in an ever-increasing wave4 ,the authors were the bold inciters to the battle4 ,they were all leaders in the battle for liberty against fossilised tradition1--some in the field of poetry only1 others in the whole sphere of intellectual life4 ,these are they who gave the signal for the war-cry of the ,revolution--,liberty1 ,equality1 ,fraternity2 who rent asunder the old society1 inaugurated the age of citizenship1 and were at the same time the first to lose1 as quite modern spirits1 their faith in another world4 ,illustration3 ,,goya4 ,,the ,,majas ,,on ,,the ,,balcony4 ,a wonderful chance ordained that1 in the province of art1 the most powerful figure of that storm and tumult1 the one artist of the age of the race of ,prometheus1 to which belonged the young ,goethe and the young ,schiller1 should be born in the most medival country in ,europe1 on ,spanish soil4 ,against an art that was more catholic than catholicism1 courtly and mystical1 there came by far the greatest reaction in ,goya4 ,from ,roelas1 ,collantes1 and ,murillo to him there is hardly any transition4 ,francisco ,goya preached ,nihilism in the home of belief4 ,he denied everything1 believed nothing1 doubted of everything1 even of that peace and liberty which he hoped to be at hand4 ,that old ,spanish art of religion and dogma was changed under his hands to an art of negation and sarcasm4 ,his attitude is not that of an insolent and impetuous youth1 who puts out his tongue at the ,academy and strikes with audacious hand at the academicians' high powdered perruques2 it is the attitude of the modern spirit1 which begins by doubting all things which have been honoured hitherto4 ,his ,church pictures are devoid of religious feeling1 and his etchings replete with sneers at everything which was previously esteemed as authority4 ,he scoffs at the clerical classes and the religious orders1 laughs at the priestly raiment which covered the passions of humanity4 ,spanish art1 which began in a blind piety1 becomes in ,goya revolutionary1 free1 modern4 ,illustration3 7,laurent1 photo47 ,,goya4 ,,the ,,maja ,,clothed4 ,goya is1 in his whole nature1 a modern man1 a restless1 feverish soul2 nervous as a dcadent2 temperament to his finger-tips4 ,his style in portraiture1 his art of composition1 his whole method1--all speak to our artists to-day in a language easily understood1 and on many of them the influence of ,goya is unmistakable4 ,he is one of the most fascinating figures of the beginning of the century4 ,as audacious as he was clever1 as versatile as he was fantastic1 a keen observer as well as a strong creative spirit1 he fascinates and astonishes in his pictures1 just as in his wonderful etchings1 by a remarkable mixture of the bizarre and the original4 ,his pictures1 whether they be violent or eccentric1 tender or hard1 gloomy or joyous1 nearly always move and palpitate with life itself1 and they will always keep their attraction4 ,there is no one of ,goya's pictures1 not even the flimsiest sketch1 at which one can look coldly4 ,he was born in a village in the province of ,aragon1 the son of a small landed proprietor1 in #agdf4 ,at the age of fourteen1 having already painted frescoes in the church of his native-place1 he went to ,saragossa as an apprentice2 and there he showed himself to be vivacious and passionate1 and soon became the champion among his comrades in all their pastimes and brawls4 ,restless1 and always thinking of adventure1 he refused every regular kind of education1 disarranged everything in his master's studio1 worked when he could1 drew his sword when he had a mind to1 nourished in his head dark thoughts on liberty1 came and went and loved1 dallied with his knife1 snapped his fingers at the ,inquisition1 which was after him1 and fled from ,madrid1--such was he at twenty1 and such he remained all his life4 ,illustration3 7,laurent1 photo47 ,,goya4 ,,the ,,maja ,,nude4 ,italy1 whither he fled on account of a duel1 did not alter him4 ,there were new love quarrels4 ,he fought1 stabbed a rival1 was wounded himself1 amused himself extremely1 studied little1 observed1 admired1 but neither painted nor copied anything4 ,it was thanks to this indolence that the great past did not take him prisoner4 ,he did not know much1 but for what he knew he could thank himself4 ,he loved the old painters1 but platonically2 their works did not lead him astray4 ,in this lies the explanation of his qualities and his faults3 that marvellous mixture of seductive grace and visible weakness1 of subtlety and brutality1 of refinement and ignorance4 ,he merits equally sympathy and blame1 is as genial as he is unequal4 ,but one would not wish him to be otherwise3 if there had been more order and proportion in his works his good qualities would have been lost4 ,he would have suffered in spontaneity1 vivacity1 originality1 and quietly taken his anchorage in the sleepy haven of mediocrity4 ,as he is1 he is wholly the child of his country3 from head to foot a ,spaniard of the eighteenth century1 a son of that downfallen ,spain that was dying from loss of blood4 ,for hundreds of years a black cloud1 extinguishing all joy1 had hung over ,spanish life1 a cloud out of which1 only here and there in dismal lightning flashes1 there emerged obscure figures of sombre despots1 sick ascetics1 and silent martyrs4 ,all mundane inclinations were suppressed1 all sensuous desires prohibited4 ,men spent their nights with their eyes fixed upon the gory histories and passionate exhortations of the ,old ,testament1 hearing in imagination the menacing1 thunderous voice of a dreadful ,god1 until at last in their own hearts the fanatical inspiration of the prophetic seer awoke anew1 and their feverish forms were torn asunder by ecstatic visions and religious hallucinations4 ,when ,goya began his career the sinister country of the ,inquisition had grown frivolous4 ,a breath of revolution was passing over men's minds4 ,an intoxicating odour of mundane voluptuousness penetrated everywhere1 even into the convents themselves2 the figures of the ,french ,rococo ,olympus had brought confusion into the ,christian paradise4 ,spain no longer believed2 it laughed at the ,inquisition1 trembled no more when it was threatened with the pains of ,hell4 ,it had grown frivolous1 wanton1 epicurean1 full of grace and laughter4 ,the rosy-red and blue shepherds of the ,trianon had made an entry into the sombre ,court of ,aranjuez4 ,literature1 taste1 and art were infected by ,french influences1 ,parisian sparks of wit1 lightning esprit1 and ,parisian immorality2 and the same rumbling earthquake which wrecked the throne of ,france was soon to shatter that of ,spain4 ,in ,goya's works there is a refulgence of all this4 ,but1 like every great artist1 he is not only the expression of his epoch1 but also its leader2 he almost anticipates the age which shall succeed it4 ,like a figure of ,janus1 on the border-line between two centuries1 standing in a manner between two worlds1 he was the last of the old masters and the first of the moderns--even in that special sense in which we employ the word to-day4 ,illustration3 ,,goya4 ,,de ,,que ,,mal ,,morira4 ,from ,los ,capriccios4 ,through a commission to design cartoons for the ,spanish manufactories of tapestry1 he was brought into contact with the ,court4 ,member of the ,academy of ,san ,fernando in #aghj1 ,pintor del ,rey1 with an income of #ab1ejj francs in #aghf1 he became soon afterwards the ,director of the ,madrid ,academy--the drollest ,director of an ,academy that man can imagine6 ,goya1 the peasant youth1 with his bull neck and matador-like strength1 lived at the ,spanish ,court in the midst of the enervated scions of a dissolute aristocracy1 who1 with their sickly and anmic features1 indolent and impotent1 skulked through life1 young men prematurely old4 ,naturally he was the idol of the women1 hated by the courtiers on account of his caustic wit1 a terror to all husbands because of his perpetual intrigues1 and at the same time feared as the best swordsman in ,madrid1 who drew his rapier with the indifference with which we light a cigarette4 ,it is only as the outcome of such a personality that his works are to be understood4 ,illustration3 ,,goya4 ,,soplones4 ,from ,los ,capriccios4 ,goya was far too great a sceptic to put a religious sentiment into matters in which he no longer believed2 his talent was far too modern for the religious abstraction to be able to seize him4 ,his ,christ on the ,cross1 therefore1 in the ,museo del ,prado1 is simply tedious1 a bad academical study4 ,his frescoes in ,san ,antonio de la ,florida1 at ,madrid1 exhibit a pretty1 decorative motive--considerable movement1 grace1 and spirit4 ,but amongst them are angels who sit there most irreverently1 and1 with a laugh of challenge1 throw out their legs la ,tiepolo4 ,the chief picture represents ,st4 ,antony of ,padua raising a man from the dead4 ,but all that interested him in it were the lookers-on4 ,on a balustrade all around he has brought in the lovely1 dainty faces of numerous ladies of the court1 his bonnes amies1 who lean their elbows on the balcony and coquette with the people down below4 ,their plump1 round1 white hands play meaningly with their fans2 a thick cluster of ringlets waves over their bared shoulders2 their sensual eyes languish with a seductive fire2 a faint smile plays round their voluptuous lips4 ,several seem only just to have left their beds1 and their vari-coloured1 gleaming silks are crumpled4 ,one is just arranging her coiffure1 which has come undone and falls over her rosy bosom2 another1 with a languishing unconsciousness and a careless attitude1 is opening her sleeve1 whose soft1 deep folds expose a snow-white arm4 ,there is much chic in this ,church picture4 ,one very immodest angel is supposed to be the portrait of the ,duchess of ,alba1 who was famed for her numerous intrigues4 ,illustration3 ,,goya4 ,,se ,,repulen4 ,from ,los ,capriccios4 ,in his portraits1 too1 he is unequal4 ,he became the fashionable painter at the court4 ,the politicians1 poets1 scholars1 great ladies1 actresses1 all the famous folk of his epoch1 sat to him4 ,he daubed more than two hundred portraits2 but they were good only when the subject amused him4 ,his portraits of the ,royal ,family have something vicious and plebeian4 ,he is too little in earnest1 too little of an official1 to paint court pictures4 ,one might imagine that he with difficulty restrained himself from laughing at the pompous futility which stood before him4 ,it irritated him to be obliged to paint these great lords and ladies in poses so ceremonial1 instead of making them1 like the angels of ,san ,antonio1 throw up their legs and skip over parapets4 ,the ,queen1 ,marie ,louise1 is frankly grotesque2 and the family of ,charles ,,iv look like the family of a shopkeeper who have won the big prize in a lottery1 and been photographed in their ,sunday clothes4 ,but1 ah6 when something gives him pleasure6 ,in the ,exhibition of ,portraits at ,paris1 in #ahhe1 there was the portrait of a young man1 dressed in gray1 which excelled ,gainsborough for grace4 ,with what a noble nonchalance this young elegant stands there1 reminding one1 in attitude and costume1 of the incroyables of ,charles ,vernet4 ,with what equanimity does he look out on life1 in his satisfaction at the good fit of his clothes4 ,the wonderful harmony of the grey tones was rendered with all ,gainsborough's delicacy4 ,the same man who in those pictures of ceremony let himself go in a manner so brusque and frenzied1 here revelled1 a very ,proteus in his chameleon-like qualities1 in soft and mellow and seductive tones4 ,one might say that he has thought here of ,prudhon and ,greuze1 and joined their study to the cult of ,velasquez4 ,illustration3 ,,goya4 ,,que ,,pico ,,de ,,oro6 ,from ,los ,capriccios4 ,still more charming was he in his pictures of young girls1 when he was himself fascinated by the attractions of his subjects4 ,the infantile ,donna ,maria ,josefa 7at the ,prado7 and the twelve-year-old ,queen ,isabella of ,sicily 7at ,seville7 are admirable pictures4 ,in them the candour and grace of budding youth1 the whole poetry of young maidenhood1 have won life and expression from the enamoured tenderness of an artist hand4 ,seduced by beauty1 he renounced all irony1 thought only of those big1 wide-opened eyes of velvet1 those rosy young lips2 of that warm carnation and the elegant slimness of that soft young neck that rose in delicate contour from the shoulders4 ,or again1 that marvellous double portrait of ,la ,maja in the ,academy of ,san ,fernando3 a young girl painted once clothed and once nude1 both pictures in exactly the same pose1 and both flooded with the same extraordinary sensuous charm4 ,this is not the uncertain1 sarcastic painter of those ,state pictures4 ,it is an attentive observer1 who depicts with sensitive devotion the harmonious lines of the irradiating1 young1 human body so worthy of celebration4 ,the transparent stuff that covers the body of ,la ,maja clothed reveals all that it hides2 in the other picture the unveiled nudity sings the high pan of the flesh4 ,the drawing is sure1 the modelling of a marvellous tenderness4 ,the heaving bosom1 the slender limbs1 the tantalising eyes--every part of that nervous body1 with its ivory whiteness1 stretched out on the milk-white couch made for love1 breathes of pleasure and voluptuousness4 ,in pictures of this kind ,goya is wholly one of us4 ,grown independent of every traditional rule1 he abandoned himself entirely to his own impressions1 and produced enduring works1 vibrating with life1 because he was himself fascinated with nature4 ,he showed here an idea of modernity that almost makes him seem a contemporary of our own--that zeal for the pictorial1 for colour and light1 which attracts us so much to-day4 ,very characteristic also of the changed aspect of the age are his designs for the famous tapestry in ,santa ,barbara1 with which he made his dbut at ,madrid4 ,they are very crude in decoration4 ,two or three neat young girls1 with big1 black1 moist eyes1 here and there pleasing details--a couple of men carrying a wounded companion--are unable to gloss over the heaviness of the composition and colour4 ,but it was of great consequence that ,goya should have had courage for so bold a step as to make use of character scenes in decorative painting at a time when everywhere else1 without exception1 ftes champtres predominated4 ,illustration3 ,,goya4 ,,volaverunt4 ,from ,los ,capriccios4 ,in his oil paintings he went much further in this direction4 ,in that impetuous manner peculiar to him he endeavoured to get a firm grip on the pictorial side of ,spanish life1 at home and in the streets1 wherever he found it4 ,the most fearful subjects--such as the two great slaughter scenes in the ,french invasion1 painted with such breadth and fierceness--alternate with incidents of the liveliest character4 ,everything is jotted down1 under the immediate influence of what has been observed1 by rapid methods1 and on this account produces an effect of sketches taken with complete directness from nature4 ,in those careless pictures1 swept with large strokes of the brush1 there rises before us the mad drama of public holiday in the streets and in the circus3 processions1 bull-fights1 brigands1 the victims of the plague1 assassinations1 scenes of gallantry1 national types--all observed with the acuteness of a ,menzel4 ,the ,majas on the balcony in the ,montpensier ,gallery1 the ,breakfast on the ,grass1 the ,flower ,girl1 the ,reaper1 the ,return from ,market1 the ,cart attacked by ,brigands1 are the most piquant1 vividly coloured of these pictures4 ,the ,romeria de ,san ,isidoro is full of such a sparkling1 stirring life as the most modern of the impressionists alone have learned again to paint4 ,a few dashes of colour1 a few well-placed1 bold strokes of the brush1 and at once one sees the procession move1 the groups passing each other by just as1 in the marvellous sketches of the funeral of ,sardina1 in the ,academy of ,san ,fernando1 one can see the young couples revolve madly in the dance1 and the lances of the bull-fighters redden the sand of the arena4 ,the superabundance of such phantasy could not1 of course1 be achieved by the tardy brush4 ,he required a quicker medium1 that would permit him to express everything4 ,therefore he executed his numerous etchings1 by which he was rendered famous1 before people had learnt to appreciate him as a painter3 the ,capriccios1 the ,malheurs de la ,guerre1 the ,bull-fights1 the ,captives--those marvellous and fantastic pages in which he expressed everything that his feverish1 satirical soul had accumulated for contempt1 and hatred1 and anger1 and scorn4 ,the etcher's needle was the poisoned dagger with which he attacked all that he wished to attack3 tyranny1 superstition1 intrigue1 adultery1 honour that is sold and beauty that lets itself be bought1 the arrogance of the great and the degrading servility of the little4 ,he made an awful and jovial hecatomb of all the vices and the scandals of the age4 ,whomsoever he pilloried was laid bare in all respects2 physically and morally1 no single trait of him was forgotten4 ,and he did it so wittily that he compelled even the offended person to laugh4 ,neither ,charles ,,iv himself1 nor the ,court1 nor the ,inquisition1 which bled most beneath his thrusts1 dared to complain4 ,illustration3 ,,goya4 ,,quien ,,lo ,,creyera6 ,from ,los ,capriccios4 ,in his ,capriccios ,goya stands revealed as a figure without even a forerunner in the history of art4 ,satirical representations of popular superstitions1 bitter1 mordant attacks on the aristocracy1 the government1 and all social conditions1 unprecedented assaults on the crown1 on religion and its doctrines1 inexorable satires upon the ,inquisition and the monastic orders1 make up this most remarkable book4 ,it had hardly appeared in #agif before the ,inquisition seized it4 ,goya parried this stroke1 however1 by dedicating the plates to the king4 ,a painter and a colorist1 in this book he displays his genius as an etcher4 ,the outlines are drawn with light and genial strokes only2 then comes the aquatinta1 the colouring which overspreads the background1 and gives localisation1 depth1 and light4 ,a few scratches of the needle1 a black spot1 a light produced by a spot of white ingeniously left blank--that sufficed to give life and character to his figures4 ,illustration3 ,,goya4 ,,linda ,,maestra6 ,from ,los ,capriccios4 ,the ,misres de la ,guerre are intrinsically more serious4 ,all the scenes of terror that occurred in ,spain as a sequel to the ,french invasion and the glory of ,napoleon here utter their cry of lamentation4 ,a few plates amongst them are worthy of comparison with the finest of ,rembrandt's1--the sole classic for whom ,goya cherished a veneration4 ,all the undertakings which followed these--the ,bull-fights1 the ,proverbs1 the ,captives1 the fantastic landscapes--tell of a long study of the great ,dutch master4 ,especially celebrated were the seventeen new plates which he added to the ,malheurs de la ,guerre in #ahad1 at the time of the restoration of ,ferdinand ,,vii4 ,they are the political and philosophical testament of the old liberal1 the keen free-thinker1 the last and utmost fight for all that he loved against all that he hated4 ,with sacred wrath and biting irony he waged war against the intrigues and hypocrisy of the obscurantists who throttle progress and suppress freedom of thought4 ,with passionate wrath he rushed upon kings1 priests1 and dignitaries4 ,it seems incredible that the plate entitled ,nada--a dead man1 who comes out of his grave and writes with his corpse-fingers the word ,nada 7nothing7--that this plate can be the work of a ,spaniard of the eighteenth century4 ,everywhere there is the same hatred of tyranny1 of social injustice1 of human stupidity1 the same incredulous effort after a dimly conceived ideal of truth and liberty4 ,it is neither the amiable fairyland of ,callot nor the bourgeois pessimism of ,hogarth4 ,goya is more inexorable and acute2 his phantasy1 borne on larger wings1 takes a higher flight4 ,he sees direful figures in his dreams1 his laugh is bitter1 his anger rancorous4 ,he is a revolutionist1 an agitator1 a sceptic1 a nihilist4 ,his chronique scandaleuse grows into the epos of the age4 ,one understands why such a man should no longer feel secure in ,spain1 and1 towards the close of his life1 go into exile in ,france4 ,there1 too1 in the home of the revolution1 art1 ever since the beginning of the century1 had freed herself more from the tradition of the ,renaissance1 and betaken herself to the new way1 which the ,dutch1 and soon afterwards the ,english1 had laid down in the seventeenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,goya4 ,,devota ,,profesion4 ,from ,los ,capriccios4 ,all that had been produced in ,paris1 up to the close of the seventeenth century1 had had its birthplace in the ,italy of ,leo ,x4 ,the light of the ,italian ,renaissance had suffused ,france ever since the appearance of ,rosso and ,primaticcio4 ,rome had been the cradle of ,simon ,vouet and ,nicolas ,poussin4 ,france endeavoured1 in rich decoration and masterly swing of lines1 to overtop the ,italians1 whose formul were studied partly in ,rome and partly in the ,palace of ,fontainebleau1 that ,rome in petto4 ,those religious pictures of ,lebrun1 arranged in panels1 appeared with their theatrically elegant attitudes and their flowing drapery1 with their slim1 oscillating limbs and their florid gestures4 ,all ,olympus1 all the saints and the heroes1 were set to work to do honour to the great king4 ,was it necessary to glorify his acts1 then it was done by portraying him as ,cyrus or ,alexander4 ,the people of the seventeenth century did not exist for painters4 ,lebrun and ,mignard1 as inheritors of ,roman culture1 hovered over life without seeing it4 ,their ideals were a hundred and fifty years old1 ingenious variations on the sixteenth-century pattern4 ,then came the death of the ,grand ,monarque1 and with him the tradition of the ,renaissance went also to its grave4 ,the old age was outworn1 and the new began to supersede it4 ,the world was weary of the majestic1 the stiff1 and the pompous1 whose glamour had blinded it for sixty years4 ,the sun-king was dead1 and the sun of the ,italian ,renaissance had set4 ,french society breathed once more4 ,the ostentation of the court had become an onerous ceremony1 the monarchical principle an unendurable constraint4 ,the nightmare that had oppressed it1 the ennui that had come from ,versailles1 disappeared4 ,air and light and mirth penetrated the salons4 ,people shook off the heavy yoke of majesty from their shoulders1 abandoned their heroic1 ostentatious palaces1 and bought themselves petites maisons in the ,bois4 ,they had suffered1 they wished to be glad2 they had been bored1 they wished to be amused4 ,enough of pater-nosters and stately etiquette6 they wished to live4 ,away with the antique temples and goddesses of ,poussin6 away with those devoted martyrs who mortified themselves and killed the flesh6 ,away with the semblance of the heroic1 with pomp and glamour1 with the service of ,god and the service of lords6 ,here's to the service of the ladies4 ,here's to the thatched roofs of farmhouses2 the woods in whose thickets one can lose one's way and exchange a kiss2 rosy flesh and little turned-up noses2 everything which gave a thrill of voluptuousness after the unapproachable1 icy-cold nobility of the past4 ,long live ,love6 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,goya4 ,,otres ,,leyes ,,por ,,el ,,pueblo4 ,so thought ,france when ,louis ,,xiv was dead1 and the man was already grown up in the ,low ,countries who was chosen to give a shape to these dreams1 to abolish the ascendency of gods and kings and heroes1 and to show the upper classes their own image reflected in the mirror of art4 ,antoine ,watteau1 who guided the stream of ,french art into this new channel--of the ,netherlands--was by birth and training a ,fleming4 ,his birthplace1 ,valenciennes1 although ,french territory since the ,peace of ,nymeguen1 resembled in its whole character a ,flemish town4 ,in the church here he first saw any of ,rubens' pictures4 ,here1 through ,grin1 he became instructed in ,flemish traditions4 ,rubens and ,teniers are the two masters from whom his own art sprang4 ,during the years when the war of the ,spanish ,succession had changed the ,french frontier provinces into a huge military camp1 he painted soldiers and camp scenes1 such as the ,march in the collection of ,edmund ,rothschild1 where a party of recruits are straggling along a high plain in a fierce storm4 ,later came pictures of country life in the manner of ,teniers1 like the ,retour de ,guinguette1 engraved by ,chedel1 a landscape in which on the right a party of rustics are carousing at a table in front of a farmyard1 while on the other side half-drunken men and women are going home4 ,louis ,,xiv had made before the pictures of ,teniers his well-known mot3 ,otez moi ces magots4 ,now1 through ,watteau1 the magot makes its entrance into ,french art4 ,thus in his chief picture in this manner1 ,la ,vraie ,gaiet1 the figures are unmistakably after ,teniers4 ,the men are short and sturdy1 entirely ,flemish4 ,only the costumes have changed with the mode4 ,but the women are not in the least ,flemish4 ,the clean caps and tidy kerchiefs1 the freshly ironed aprons1 and neat little feet that trip so lightly and quickly along the street that no dirt seems to soil them1 give these peasant girls a certain desirability in which it is not hard to discover the transition to ,french grace4 ,the elegant motions and fine heads point to that ,watteau who was to become soon afterwards the unsurpassable delineator of feminine coquetry4 ,gillot and ,rubens led him into the new road4 ,the ,teniers-like character of his figures disappeared1 they became gracious and noble4 ,in place of the magot came elegant ,french society4 ,gillot was the first in ,paris to break with the pompous ,louis ,,xiv style1 and to begin the representation of the cheerful life of comedians1 to replace the dwellers in ,olympus by characters of the ,french and ,italian stage4 ,rubens had been the first in his ,garden of ,love1 of the ,dresden and ,madrid ,galleries1 to invite to the embarkation for the ,island of ,cythera4 ,watteau acquired something from everyone he studied1 and yet resembles none4 ,after having hitherto sought his personages on the highways and in camps1 he was now to become the painter of ftes galantes1 the painter of ,society4 ,for in his shepherds and shepherdesses there lives the elegance of ,france4 ,the gods of the ,renaissance1 in whom no one any longer believed1 glided into the costumes of ,harlequin and ,pierrette4 ,in lieu of the great and the pathetic there came the small1 the gay1 the graceful1 the dainty4 ,the architectural symmetry of composition disappeared1 and the stiff stage-scenery character of landscape vanished4 ,the grave formality of geometrical construction is changed into freedom and joyousness1 just as the rhetorical1 exact1 measured periods of ,boileau were relaxed1 under the hands of ,voltaire1 into sentences unconstrained1 buoyant1 and crisp4 ,watteau's art betokened the triumph of naturalism over the mannerism into which the ,french art of the seventeenth century1 based on the ,italian ,renaissance1 had dwindled4 ,as it is said in an old poem-- ,pare la ,franoise1 un jour ,dame ,nature ,eut le desir coquet de voir sa portraiture4 ,que fit la bonne mre8 ,elle enfanta ,watteau4 ,watteau became for ,french art what1 a hundred years before1 ,rubens had been for ,flemish--the deliverer4 ,he delivered them from the oppressive yoke of the ,italian tradition4 ,in his world1 where there were no longer any naked goddesses1 but where the corset was opened only just wide enough to reveal a rosy bosom1 there was nothing more left of the past4 ,it is no longer antique beauty1 no longer the plastic cold of the ,venus di ,milo1 no longer the marble perfection of ,raphael's ,galatea4 ,into those tender1 feminine hands1 into those lace sleeves1 out of which snow-white arms come languishingly forth1 into those slender waists1 and teasing1 dimpled chins1 something of coquetry1 of sensibility1 something subtle and spiritual1 has entered1 that seems to transcend physical beauty4 ,his young men are tall and supple1 his women entirely indescribable1 with their air of quiet roguishness and their exquisite coiffures4 ,quite modern is that distinguished sense for costume which made him a leader of fashion4 ,mysterious landscapes1 that exhale peace and happiness all around6 ,rightly has ,edmond de ,goncourt called him a lyric poet1 the great poet of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,antoine ,,watteau4 ,illustration3 ,,watteau4 ,,la ,,partie ,,carr,e4 ,in this way the development proceeded4 ,the pompous representation which portrait painting had practised hitherto was gone4 ,people would no longer be masters of the ceremonies1 but human beings4 ,new forms of technique were discovered1 such as pastel painting4 ,no other material was capable of rendering the peculiar fragrance of this fugitive flower nature1 the graceful appearance of this rococo style1 of these ladies with the touch of powder in their hair1 and their moist1 dreamy eyes1 as ,maurice ,latour1 ,rosalba ,carriera1 and later the ,swiss1 ,liotard1 painted them4 ,of those who endeavoured1 on the model of ,watteau's style1 to depict the life of the fashionable world1 none approached the delicacy of that national genius4 ,lancret and ,pater followed him1 but more roughly1 more soberly1 more drily4 ,lancret in his whole conception1 compared with ,watteau1 is a homely1 often a somewhat cumbrous journeyman2 ,pater1 an artist of greater elegance1 has the fickleness of the virtuoso4 ,both in conviction and in art they lacked that poetic1 glorifying breath which pervades ,watteau's creations4 ,in ,watteau one believes that these gracious beings1 these tall and nervous cavaliers1 these amiable coquettes and comely women1 actually represent originals in noble society2 whereas in the works of his disciples it often happens that the paid model1 selected from a lower circle of society1 appears to us to be not congruous with the elegance of her wardrobe4 ,these dancers1 huntsmen1 and noble maidens are not wholly what they should represent4 ,but how delicious they are1 these ,french gossips1 so long as one is mindful not to think of ,watteau6 ,what grace is theirs too6 ,what innate tact6 ,with what a pleasant adroitness do they understand how to rivet our attention1 and to keep far1 far away from the tedium in which their classical ancestors1 with their natural heaviness1 waded6 ,instinctively and without effort they rejected the rhythmically balanced composition and correct nobility of form of the classics1 and found a characteristic expression for unconstrained gestures1 pleasing movements1 and refined elegance4 ,illustration3 ,,greuze4 ,l',art4 ,even the decorative painters abandoned more and more the much-worn paths of the ,italians4 ,franois ,lemoine gave them1 by ,rubens' aid1 the transition to a manner peculiarly ,french1 elegant1 sensuous1 charming4 ,his pupil1 ,franois ,boucher1 followed him4 ,like the sons of the seventeenth century1 he made exhaustive use of mythological subjects and was often a superficial artist1 and in his later works he became entirely a mannerist2 but he was not so at the beginning4 ,it was a great advance for ,france when ,boucher gave his pupils the advice to abstain from imitation of the great ,italian masters1 and not to grow as cold as ice4 ,and what a great naturalist he is in his numerous drawings and etchings1 and in those marvellous groups of chubby children who are playing and tumbling about on clouds1 or playing musical instruments shooting arrows1 or sporting with flowers6 ,it is not every one who has the stuff to make a ,boucher even his great antagonist ,david has said of him4 ,in ,fragonard1 again1 there was summed up all the joy of life and the frivolity1 the lustrous1 luxurious talent1 the charming amiability and nimble sureness1 of ,french art in the eighteenth century4 ,fragonard has painted everything4 ,his great decorations are careless inspirations1 sparkling with spirit and life4 ,with him pastoral scenes alternate with episodes of everyday life--children1 guitar players1 women reading4 ,fragonard is a piquant1 ingenious painter4 ,perhaps hardly any other painter has so much kissing in his pictures4 ,his etching1 ,l'armoire1 of #aggh1 is well known4 ,in that he already stood on the sure ground of popular life4 ,the old rustic1 who is armed with a formidable cudgel1 is beating open1 with the assistance of his wife1 the doors of a great clothes cupboard1 in which a handsome young fellow has hidden himself2 close by is a pretty farm girl1 weeping in confusion into her apron2 in the background the curious and amazed little sisters are looking on4 ,illustration3 ,,greuze4 ,,the ,,milkmaid4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,greuze4 ,,head ,,of ,a ,,girl4 ,j4 ,f4 de ,troy had1 at the same time1 abandoned himself to a more frolicsome manner1 had played upon painting in pictures such as ,the ,proposal of ,marriage and ,the ,garter with something of that frivolity which later came into fashion through ,baudouin4 ,that1 however1 was only for a very short time4 ,life was beginning to be in earnest--that is rather the impression one receives much earlier1 from turning over the engravings of those years4 ,amongst the elders of the actual rococo age1 contentment and gaiety still rule4 ,as the heirs of an old civilisation1 the aristocracy understood1 with a refined and unique understanding1 how to turn life into a feast4 ,silk trains rustle over the parquet1 silk shoes trip1 eyes gleam1 diamonds flash1 white bosoms heave4 ,tall cavaliers advance to their sprightly partners1 gossip and smiles fly around1 ,knights of ,malta and abbs hang over the chairs and pay their court4 ,yes1 this autumn of the old ,french culture was of a marvellous beauty for the fortunate1 and those fortunate ones knew1 as no other generation has ever done1 how to enjoy life with serenity1 in a fairy glamour of rooms gleaming with ,venetian chandeliers1 where rosy ,cupidons laughed down bewitchingly from their light1 gold moulded panels4 ,under ,louis ,,xvi the ,french salon acquired another aspect4 ,its walls1 its whole architecture1 were more sombre4 ,the ,cupidons still sported on the ceiling1 but they were forgotten1 like ghosts of the past2 their shafts were already impotent4 ,the vivacious1 dancing couples have disappeared4 ,festivity has been banished from the big rooms3 here and there is seen an earnest conversational party2 gentlemen playing cards or ladies reading philosophical books4 ,social and political interests have sprung up with which people of education prefer to occupy themselves4 ,numerous works on commerce and constitutional methods have appeared during the last fifty years4 ,in place of scandal there crop up arguments1 for and against the ,parliament1 for and against the ,jesuits4 ,enlightenment had won its victory4 ,henceforth development is no longer compatible with sensuous delight4 ,it is still the same society as before1 but without pleasure4 ,one almost breathes the air of #aghi4 ,gaming is only a struggle against ennui2 the foreheads of women are furrowed with reading4 ,society has grown serious and sombre1 as it were1 with a presentiment of what is to come1 as though destiny might thus be set aside4 ,the writings of ,diderot afford the clearest instance of this changed spirit of the age1 and art too must become virtuous1 and work for the amelioration of the world4 ,thus ,diderot upheld the sentimental and emotional subject against the ftes galantes of the rococo painter4 ,boucher derived his inspiration from the slough of prostitution2 only a moral upheaval could tend to a high style4 ,with ,boucher the idea of honour1 of innocence1 has become something strange2 the new age requires virtue1 bonnes moeurs4 ,but where are the virtues to be found8 ,naturally1 there alone1 where ,rousseau had discovered them4 ,rousseau taught that man by nature was good1 that he was noble1 conscious of his moral obligations1 self-sacrificing and uncorrupted when he came from the hands of his ,maker1 and that it was civilisation which first corrupted him4 ,it followed that the most civilised are the most corrupt1 and virtues are to be met with1 if anywhere1 amongst the lower orders1 who are the least affected by culture4 ,not beneath an embroidered waistcoat1 only beneath a woollen smock1 can a noble heart beat4 ,the happy ignorance of the young ,savoyard1 eating his cheese or his oranges in a church porch1 lies nearer to the original perfection of mankind than the most subtle erudition of the most ingenious of the encyclopdists4 ,amongst nature's noblemen one must seek for the secret of virtue1 which has been lost by the aristocracy in the stream of civilisation4 ,thus beneath the gis of ,rousseau's philosophy the ,third ,estate makes its entry into ,french salons4 ,from the man of the people society wanted to learn how to become once more simple1 unassuming1 and virtuous2 and it was a gruesome irony of fate that this man of the people should reveal himself later1 when the guillotine stood in the ,place de la ,concorde1 as by no means so lamblike1 modest1 and self-sacrificing as that noble society had imagined him4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,greuze4 ,,girl ,,carrying ,a ,,lamb4 ,greuze represented this phase of ,french art when the riotous carnival of rococo had come to an end1 and the ,ash ,wednesday of rule and fasting and penitence had ensued4 ,it was considered that the aim of art must be to instruct and elevate1 not merely to amuse2 it should set an example to raise and inspire the good1 to serve as a warning for the bad4 ,rendre la vertu aimable1 le vice odieux1 le ridicule saillant1 voil le projet de tout honnte homme qui prend la plume1 le pinceau ou le ciseau4 ,in these words ,diderot formulated his programme4 ,it was his wish that the corrupt man1 when he went to an exhibition1 should feel pricks of conscience at the pictures and read in them his own condemnation4 ,si ses pas le conduisent au ,salon1 qu'il craigne d'arrter ses regards sur la toile4 ,educational effects1 moral stories told in pictures1 that is the keynote of ,diderot's demands upon the painter1 and of the accomplishment of ,greuze in answer to this claim4 ,he is the ,french ,hogarth1 whether he paints in sombre colours the misery that the drunkard brings upon his family1 and the horrors of poverty1 or depicts in brighter tones the love of children for their parents and the works of charity2 and with him too1 as with the ,englishman1 his title was chosen with a didactic after-thought to heighten the effect of his picture4 ,thus such scenes as these occurred3 ,the ,father's ,curse1 ,the ,consolation of ,age1 ,the ,son's ,correction1 ,the ,ungrateful ,son1 ,the ,beloved ,mother1 ,the ,spoilt ,child1 ,the ,lame ,man tended by his ,relations1 and ,the ,results of ,good ,education4 ,he had this1 too1 in common with ,hogarth3 he liked to develop his moral stories in long series1 which invariably ended with the triumph of virtue and the punishment of vice4 ,the didactic story of ,bazile et ,thibaut attempted to relate in twenty-six chapters the influence of a good education on the formation of a whole life2 and1 just as in ,hogarth's story of the two apprentices1 here too1 at the conclusion1 the well-educated ,thibaut pronounces sentence of death over his old friend ,bazile1 the badly educated1 and now condemned murderer4 ,the fact that in other things the two moral apostles differ greatly from each other is accounted for by the difference in the national characteristics of those to whom they variously appealed4 ,hogarth scourged the vices of the ,third ,estate in order to raise them to morality4 ,rape1 bloodshed1 debauchery1 disorderliness1 gluttony1 and drunkenness--that was the channel through which in ,england at that day the furious flood of the uncontrolled spirit of the populace poured itself1 foaming and raging with fearful natural force4 ,hogarth swung over these human animals the stout cudgel of morality in the manner of a sturdy policeman and ,puritan bourgeois4 ,with such people a delicate forbearance would have been misplaced4 ,at the foot of every prison-scene he inscribed the name of the vice that he had pilloried there1 and subjoined the predicted damnation from ,holy ,writ4 ,he reveals it in its hideousness1 he steeps it in its filth1 traces it to its retribution1 so that even the most vitiated conscience must recognise it and the most hardened abhor it4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,greuze4 ,,girl ,,looking ,,up4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,greuze4 ,,girl ,,with ,,an ,,apple4 ,greuze employs the ,third ,estate as a mirror of virtue1 sets forth its noble qualities as an edification to an aristocracy that has grown vicious4 ,less primitive and1 for that very reason1 less original than ,hogarth1 he never forgets that he lives in the most refined social period in history4 ,he does not strangle his culprits to provide terrifying examples1 but nearly always leaves a corner open for repentance4 ,he knew that he dared not exact too much from the nerves of his noble public2 he merely wished to stir them to a soft vibration4 ,he did not paint for drunken ,english people1 but for those perfumed marquises who1 later on1 bowed with so courtly an elegance before the guillotine2 for those sensitive ladies in whom virtue now excited the same sensual delight that vice had done before4 ,they welcomed in him the high priest of a sort of orgie of virtue1 to whose festivals they had grown reconciled4 ,the century which in its first half had danced as light-heartedly as any other the can-can of life1 becomes1 in its second half1 sad of soul1 enthusiastic over the reward of justice1 the punishment of transgressors1 over honour and the navet of innocence4 ,time after time do his contemporaries praise precisely that sense of virtue in the art of ,greuze4 ,so that in ,france1 as in ,england1 the burden of interest was laid no longer upon the art1 but upon an accessory circumstance4 ,for since1 in the hands of ,greuze1 the picture had been turned into an argument1 in ,france1 as in ,england1 art ceased to be an end--it became only a means4 ,he made painting a didactic poem1 the more melodramatic the better1 and was driven thereby on the same sandbank upon which ,hogarth1 and all genre painters who would be more than painters1 have made shipwreck4 ,in order to bring out his story with the utmost possible distinctness1 he was too frequently compelled unduly to accentuate his point4 ,the effect became affected1 the pathos theatrical4 ,his picture of the ,father's ,curse in the ,louvre1 with the infuriated old man1 the son hurrying wildly away1 and the weeping sisters1 resembles the last act of a melodrama4 ,the ,country ,wedding1 where the father-in-law has given the young bridegroom the purse with the dowry1 and now pathetically observes1 ,take it1 and be happy1 might just as well have been entitled ,the ,father's ,last ,blessing4 ,in the picture in which a noble dame takes her daughter to the bedside of two poor persons who are ill1 to accustom her in early life to works of charity1 the personages in the picture1 arranged exactly as if upon a stage1 must have been themselves uncommonly moved by the touching and praiseworthy action4 ,greuze was the father of genre painting in ,france--that barbaric1 story-telling art which replaced tableaux vivants based upon the literary idea by the ,dutchmen's picturesque and well-observed selections from nature4 ,beyond that1 however1 it must not be forgotten that he1 like ,hogarth1 psychologically opposed to the earlier art1 showed practical progress in many of his works4 ,there were few in ,french art before him who depicted the emotions of the soul with such refinement as ,greuze in his ,reading of the ,bible4 ,in proportion to the understanding and character of the individual is the impression of the listener reflected on his countenance4 ,that was something new in comparison with the laughing gods of ,boucher4 ,and that ,greuze was also capable of the most highly pictorial magic when he could once bring himself to lay aside the moral teacher is proved by his rosy1 inspired heads of young girls4 ,he never grew weary of painting these pretty children in every situation and attitude at that seductive age which hides the charming feet beneath the first long gown4 ,blonde or brunette1 with a blue ribbon in the hair1 a little cluster of flowers in the bodice1 they gaze out upon life with their big1 brown child eyes1 full of curiosity and misgiving4 ,a light gauze covers the soft lines of the neck1 the shoulders are as yet hardly rounded1 the pouting lips are fresh as the morning dew1 and only the two rosy1 budding breasts1 that fight lustily against their imprisonment1 and seem1 like ,sterne's starling1 to cry1 ,i cannot get out1 betray that the woman is already awake in the child4 ,greuze's name will always be associated with these girl types1 just as that of ,leonardo is with the dreamy1 smiling sphinx-like head of ,mona ,lisa4 ,in them he has given an unsurpassable expression to the ideal of innocence at the end of the eighteenth century1 and provided in them a new thrill of beauty for his contemporaries4 ,and a blas society which had indulged in every licence bathed itself with passionate delight in the unknown mystery of this surging flood4 ,yes1 after the stimulating champagne of rococo1 people had even come to delight in simple black bread4 ,and so1 out of bourgeoisie itself1 a school of painting was developed as fresh and healthy as this4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux ,arts4 ,,chardin4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself4 ,chardin1 the carpenter's son1 is at the head of this domestic art in the eighteenth century4 ,after ,greuze1 the painter of refined taste1 he seems1 a comfortable1 healthy1 bourgeois master in whom the ,dutchman of the best period once more appears upon earth4 ,after the king had1 up to the close of the seventeenth century1 been the centre round which everything turned1 the solitary personality which dared to appear independent1 and upon which the rest of the world formed itself2 after the circles round the court had next freed themselves1 and gained the right to enjoy life and art for themselves1 there still remained a third step to surmount4 ,society abdicates in favour of a free and healthy bourgeoisie4 ,a surgeon's sign was the first work which brought the young man1 who had received no systematic education1 into notice4 ,the surgeon is in his shop attending to a man who has been wounded in a duel1 grouped around are curious bystanders1 while the commissary of police investigates the case with a grave countenance4 ,it is the first picture of the ,parisian life of the people4 ,and ,chardin1 with his middle-class origin1 remained the advocate of middle-class domestic life4 ,he is the ,watteau of the ,third ,estate4 ,greuze owes his success1 in the first place1 to the ingenious manner in which he made himself the spokesman of the moral tendency of his age4 ,it interested contemporary society to be told that it is beautiful to see married folk live together in happiness2 that young mothers do a good action in nursing their children1 when it is possible1 themselves2 that man should repent of his sins2 and that he who honours his father and mother lives long in the land4 ,nowadays we thank him for these wise counsels1 but say1 at the same time1 that we could have done without them4 ,we no longer see the necessity of illustrating the ten commandments1 and notice now all the more the mannerisms1 the rhetorical strokes of advocacy which the painter must employ in order to plead successfully4 ,chardin's effect is as fresh to-day as it was a hundred years ago1 because he was a sheer artist1 who did not seek to tell a story1 but only to represent1--a realist of the finest stamp1 belonging in his exquisite sense of colour values to the illustrious family of the ,terburgs4 ,his pictures have no purpose4 ,the washerwoman1 the woman scraping carrots1 the housewife at her manifold tasks--that is ,chardin's world2 the atmosphere in which these figures move1 the shimmering light that floats in the half-dark kitchen1 the wealth of sun-rays that play upon the white tablecloths and brown-panelled walls--those are his fields of study4 ,chardin lived in an old studio1 high up near the roof1 a quiet1 dark room that was usually full of vegetables which he used for his still life4 ,there was something picturesque about the dusty walls where the moist green of vegetables mingled so harmoniously with the time-worn1 sombre brown of the wainscoting1 and the white table-cloth was flooded with the silvery green which poured in from a little skylight4 ,in this peaceful and harmoniously toned chamber were laid those small domestic scenes1 which he so loved to paint1 and which were called by the ,french1 in contrast to the ,ftes ,galantes1 ,amusements de la ,vie ,prive4 ,the clock ticks1 the lamp burns1 water is boiling on the homely tiled stove4 ,there is an effect in every one of his pictures1 as though he had lived them himself1 as if they were reminiscences of something dear to him and familiar4 ,in contrast to ,greuze he shunned all critical moments1 and depicted only the quiet life of custom1 everyday life as it befell in a constant1 regular routine4 ,there are no hasty movements with him1 no catastrophes nor complications2 he has a preference for still life in the world of men1 just as in nature4 ,he is par excellence the painter of ,intimitt 7intimate life72 which is not the same as a genre painter4 ,painters who in the manner of genre have depicted domestic scenes in rooms are to be found in every school2 but how few have known how to depict the poetry of the family life with such truth1 with such an absence of affectation and insipidity6 ,with ,chardin art and life are interfused4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,b4 ,s4 ,,chardin ,,the ,,house ,,of ,,cards ,illustration3 ,,chardin4 ,,grace ,,before ,,meat4 ,no ,dutchman1 however1 had penetrated into the nursery4 ,chardin1 in surprising the child-world at their games1 in their joys and sorrows1 has opened out to art a new province4 ,and with what affectionate devotion has he not absorbed himself in the spirit of the little people6 ,i know of no one before him who has painted the unconscious spiritual life of the child with such discreet tenderness3 the little hands that grasp at something1 the lips that a mother would like to kiss1 the dreamy wide-open young eyes4 ,in this ,chardin is a master4 ,it is not only obvious expressions of joy and sorrow1 but those refined shades1 so difficult to seize1 of observation1 thoughtfulness1 consideration1 calm reflection1 quaintness1 obstinacy or sulking1 which he analyses in the eyes of the child4 ,there is the little girl playing with her doll1 and lavishing on her all the love and care of a tender mother4 ,there is an elderly1 half-grown-up little lady teaching her younger brother the mysteries of the alphabet4 ,then come the games and the tasks4 ,they build card-houses1 blow bubbles1 or are wholly engrossed in their drawing-books and home-lessons4 ,how attentive the little girl is whose mother has just given her her first embroidery materials4 ,how charmingly embarrassed is the small boy whom she hears his lesson4 ,and what trouble she takes in the morning1 that her darling shall be clean and tidy when he goes to school4 ,in one picture the cap on the little girl's head is crooked1 and her mother is putting it straight1 whilst the child with a pretty pride is peeping curiously in the glass4 ,again1 there is the boy just saying good-bye4 ,he is neat and well combed2 his playthings1 too1 have been nicely tidied up1 and his books are under his arm4 ,his mother takes his three-cornered hat off again in order to brush it properly4 ,when school is over1 you see them sitting at dinner4 ,the table is laid with a snow-white cloth1 and the cook is just bringing in a steaming dish4 ,it is touching to see how prettily the small boy clasps his hands and says his grace4 ,and when they are again off to afternoon school the mother sits alone4 ,she looks charming in her simple house-dress1 with the loose sleeves1 her clean white apron and kerchief1 her striped petticoat and coquettish cap4 ,soon she takes her embroidery on her lap and stoops forward to take a ball of wool out of her basket4 ,next she sits before the fire in a cosy corner against a folding screen4 ,a half-opened book rests in her hand1 a tea-cup stands close by1 a homely atmosphere of the living room hovers round her4 ,then1 like a true housewife1 she takes up her house-keeping book1 or goes into the kitchen to help the cook1 while she scrapes carrots or scrubs the cooking utensils or brings in the meat from the larder4 ,it is all rendered with such truth and simplicity that one acquires an affection for ,chardin1 who with his art got to the root of family life and bestowed upon it the subtlest gifts of observation and generous comprehension1 while none the less his domesticity never became commonplace4 ,illustration3 ,,daniel ,,chodowiecki4 ,his contemporary1 tienne ,jeurat1 painted scenes at country fairs1 and ,jean ,baptiste le ,prince pictures of guardrooms and similar subjects4 ,in ,holland ,cornelis ,troost went on parallel lines with him4 ,he depicted the life of his age and of his nation--comic scenes1 banquets1 weddings1 and the like--in pastels or water colours1 and that without seeking inspiration from any of the ,dutch classics1 but with a vivid1 intelligent comprehension4 ,even ,italian art ended in two genre painters1 the ,venetians ,rotari and ,pietro ,longhi1 who have bequeathed to us such charming little pictures of the life of that age--fortune-tellers1 dancing-masters1 tailors1 apothecaries1 little boys and girls at play or at their tasks4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,chodowiecki4 ,,the ,,family ,,picture4 ,germany presented no such great manifestation as ,chardin1 although there too the tendency was the same4 ,there too1 after the devastation of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 a moral1 active bourgeoisie had at last sprung up that was prepared to take up the line which had been already laid down by the ,english4 ,lessing was the first in this magnificent struggle for evolution4 ,he wrote1 in his ,miss ,sarah ,sampson1 the first ,german tragedy without the support of great mythical or historical heroes1 and without the stiff ponderousness of the ,alexandrine4 ,he declared1 like ,moore1 that helmets and diadems do not make tragic heroes2 he even in his ,minna set vividly before the eyes of his contemporaries something in the immediate present1 the ,seven ,years' ,war4 ,and just as ,lessing liberated the ,german drama from the jurisdiction of ,boileau1 so art began to mutiny against the classicism which had come in through the medium of ,france1 and which had been inherited from the age when it was the pride of ,german courts to be small copies of ,versailles4 ,how exceedingly abhorrent to me are our berouged puppet painters1 cries the young ,goethe1 in his essay on ,german style and art1 ,i could not sufficiently protest2 they have caught the eyes of the women with theatrical poses1 false complexions1 and gaudy costumes2 the wood engravings of manly old ,albrecht ,drer1 at whom tyros scoff1 are more welcome to me4444 ,only where intimacy and simplicity exist is all artistic vigour to be found1 and woe to the artist who leaves his hut to squander himself in academic halls of state4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,chodowiecki4 ,,all ,,sorts ,,and ,,conditions ,,of ,,women4 ,daniel ,chodowiecki1 with all his commonplaceness1 is a genuine expression of this phase of ,german art4 ,he in ,germany1 ,hogarth in ,england1 and ,chardin in ,france1 are products of the same tendency of the age4 ,after ,lessing had produced in ,minna the first domestic ,german tragedy1 ,chodowiecki1 following the road of ,hogarth and ,chardin1 was able to become the painter of the ,german middle class4 ,he is not a master of such penetrating strength as they were1 but he is no less an artist of notable merit4 ,he is certainly no genius--in fact almost a handicraftsman1 sober and philistine1 but1 like ,hogarth1 a self-made man who in his whole artistic and personal outlook was rooted in the soil of his city and of his age4 ,berlin society of that day was the basis of his art1 the daily life of house and street his domain4 ,he began by illustrating poems and depicting scenes out of the ,seven ,years' ,war and the ,history of ,charles the ,great1 and went on from that to the pleasant1 homely life of the small bourgeoisie4 ,himself of the middle classes1 he chiefly worked for them1 and with his sensitive and dexterous graving tool he kept the liveliest and most exhaustive chronicle of the ,german bourgeoisie of that age4 ,at times almost too reasonable and prosaic1 a genuine ,nicolai1 he has in other plates an enchanting freshness1 and--which should not be forgotten--is more of an artist than ,hogarth1 since he is neither moralist nor satirist4 ,his object1 without any moral after-thought1 was the true and kindly observation of life as displayed in the world around him4 ,he took the wholly nave delight of the genuine artist in turning everything he saw into a picture4 ,these chronicles of his have some1 it may be but a particle1 of the spirit of ,drer4 ,simultaneously1 the young ,tischbein delved into the past of the nation1 the age of ,conradin and the ,hohenstaufen1 with the intention of finding there the simplicity which the academic pictures had come to lack2 and1 later on1 he painted in ,hamburg extremely realistic historical pictures of his own period1 such as that which is to be found in the ,oldenburg ,gallery3 ,entry of ,general ,benigsen into ,hamburg1 #ahad4 ,he did good work too as a portrait painter4 ,in his best picture1 ,goethe amongst the ,ruins of ,rome1 the head of the poet is energetic and full of strength1 the colouring of an excellent clear grey4 ,in portrait painting in general1 the revolution is reflected with especial clearness4 ,the artificial manner that had been copied from the seventeenth century1 the age of long perukes1 gives way1 slowly but surely1 to an ever-growing naturalness1 simplicity1 and originality4 ,at that time1 while the spirit of ,louis ,,xiv still hovered over everything1 the passion of the individual to be king in his own sphere had penetrated into the family4 ,the honest citizen1 therefore1 would not let himself be painted as such1 but only as a prince1--he1 himself1 in gala dress1 with a pompous air1 as stately as though he were giving an audience to the spectator1 his wife in silk and gold and lace2 she has a great mantle of state worn loose over her shoulders and hips1 and looks down with an assumption of grandeur on her grandchild1 who is half respectful and half inclined to make fun4 ,the frame is as rich as the costume1 and probably bears a crown4 ,we are with difficulty persuaded that these are pictures of simple citizens1 that the man1 apart from the hours during which he sat to the painter1 is an industrious tradesman1 and the wife1 glancing out so haughtily1 most probably darned his stockings4 ,their portraits seem to form part of an ancestral gallery4 ,this age of princely state was followed by that of fraternity4 ,in place of berouged and postured portraits with allegorical accessories1 there appeared simple1 unpretentious likenesses of human beings in their work-a-day clothes2 in place of stiff attitudes1 genre motives with the easy naturalness of everyday life4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,chodowiecki4 ,,the ,,morning ,,compliment4 ,in ,berlin1 ever since #agji1 ,antoine ,pesne had been for half a century the centre of artistic life1 and in his works the revolution may be traced4 ,something familiar and intimate takes the place of that stately pomp4 ,the princes1 hitherto1 had liked to be represented in medival armour or antique equipment2 ,pesne painted them in the costume of the time4 ,and in his portraits of his friends and his family circle he has been still more unconstrained4 ,there is the charming picture of #agah1 in the ,new ,palace at ,potsdam1 which shows the painter himself with his wife and his two children2 the portrait of ,schmidt the engraver1 in the ,berlin ,museum2 and the beautiful picture of #aged in the collection of ,colonel ,von ,berke1 at ,schemnitz1 which depicts him again at the age of seventy-one with his two daughters4 ,pesne is revealed in these characteristic portraits1 as well as in his character pictures in the ,dresden ,gallery 7,the ,girl with the ,pigeons1 #agbh1 ,the ,cook with the ,turkey-hen1 #agab71 as a thoroughly sane and strong realist1 of a kind which became almost extinct in ,berlin a hundred years later4 ,in the next generation1 in the ,sturm-und-,drang period1 ,anton ,graff1 the ,swiss1 took the lead with his simple1 domestic1 honest1 real portraits4 ,it was a happy disposition of fate that ,graff's activity just corresponded with the great period of the awakening of intellectual life in ,germany1 that ,lessing and ,schiller1 ,bodmer and ,gessner1 ,wieland and ,herder1 ,brger and ,gellert1 ,christian ,gottfried ,krner and ,lippert1 ,moses ,mendelssohn and ,sulzer1 and a long succession of other poets and scholars of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century1 found in him a portrait painter whose quick and agile hand left us their features in the truest and most authentic manner4 ,what and how robust his art is1 how clear and plastic the execution of the heads1 how adroit and infallible the technique6 ,besides ,graff1 there worked in ,dresden ,christian ,leberecht ,vogel1 likewise a most independent1 picturesque1 and sensitive artist1 who1 if only for his pictures of children1 deserves a place of honour in the history of art in the eighteenth century4 ,in the portrait of his two boys1 in the ,dresden ,gallery1 the navet of child-life is observed with such tenderness and rendered with such vigour as only ,reynolds understood4 ,the boys are sitting close together on the ground4 ,one1 in a brown frock1 is holding a book on his knees1 which the other1 in a red frock1 with a whip in his hand1 is looking at4 ,the thoughtful expression of the little ones is quite charming2 the execution broad and strong1 the colour treatment delightful and tender4 ,in ,munich lived the excellent ,johann ,edlinger1 the most industrious of these sturdy masters1 who were so modest and yet so capable4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,chodowiecki4 ,,the ,,artist',s ,,nursery4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux ,arts4 ,,antoine ,,pesne4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself ,,and ,,daughters4 ,in the domain of landscape the ,continent produced no one who could be compared with ,gainsborough2 but here1 too1 the ,english influence made itself felt4 ,it can be traced how the same feeling for nature which had given birth to ,thomson's ,seasons and ,gainsborough's landscapes1 afterwards found expression in ,france and ,germany1 and dissipated the prevailing taste in gardens4 ,the seventeenth century--with the exception of the ,dutch--had set nature in order with the garden shears4 ,as ,lebrun in his historical compositions endeavoured to outdo the ,italians1 so ,lentre's garden style exemplified the perfection and exaggeration of the gardens of the ,italian ,renaissance1 which themselves again were laid out on the plan of the old ,roman gardens from existing descriptions4 ,a garden reminded one more of state apartments1 which one could only walk through with measured steps1 quietly and respectfully1 than of nature1 where one is1 and dares to be1 human4 ,corresponding to this formally planned1 correctly measured style of garden there was a school of landscape which improved nature on artistic principles1 and1 by the arrangement of bits of nature1 produced a world peculiarly full of style4 ,landscapes were nicely laid-out parks1 which1 like the figure pictures1 made for an abstract beauty of mass and lines1 and which1 by means of accessories1 such as classical ruins1 would turn one's thought to the ancient world4 ,nature must not1 as ,batteux taught1 be the instructor of the artist1 but the artist must select the parts and build up his picture4 ,out of many leaves he takes only the most perfectly developed1 puts only such perfect leaves on one tree1 and so obtains a perfect tree4 ,let the essential of his production be nature choisie1 a selection of objects that are capable of producing agreeable impressions2 his aim le beau vrai qui est reprsent comme s'il existait rellement et avec toutes les perfections qu'il peut recevoir4 ,the eighteenth century went back from this noble1 improved nature1 step by step to the divine beauty of unimproved nature2 just as those masters untouched by the ,romans1 ,drer and ,altdorfer1 ,titian and ,rubens1 ,brouwer and ,velasquez1 had painted her4 ,the great ,watteau1 too1 was here for the most part in advance of his age1 in that1 instead of the stiffly designed stage scenery of ,poussin1 he gave ,elysian landscapes1--abodes of love1 that now glisten in the sunshine of the young morning1 now are suffused with golden light and the misty shadows of the evening twilight4 ,the rose in her young bud is odorous1 the nightingale sings1 the doves coo1 the light boughs whisper to the soft west wind1 bright silver rivulets ripple1 the wind sighs through the tall branches4 ,watteau knew nature and loved her1 and rendered her in her transparent beauty with the intoxicated eyes of a lover4 ,the spirit of nature1 not of humanity1 dominates in his pictures4 ,it is only because nature is so lovely that man is so happy4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,photo1 ,mansell4 ,,watteau4 ,,the ,,music ,,party4 ,but still more modern is the effect1 when instead of painting ,elysian landscapes with happy inhabitants1 he drew mere bits of rural nature1 poor solitary regions in the neighbourhood of big towns1 where bricklayers are working on the scaffolding of some house1 or peasants are riding with their horses over some stony byway4 ,out of a number of spirited drawings1 this side of his perception in landscape is especially notable in the picture in the ,new ,palace at ,potsdam1 in the left background of which a small stream flows past a farmhouse1 whilst in front a peasant is laboriously dragging a two-wheeled cart over the rough ground4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,photo1 ,mansell4 ,,watteau4 ,,the ,,return ,,from ,,the ,,chase4 ,it is interesting to observe1 at that time1 after ,watteau and his ,english predecessors1 the widespread growth of this new feeling for nature4 ,thomson was followed by ,rousseau1 who1 on his lonely wanderings1 looked with moved eyes at the gold of the corn crop1 the purple of the heather1 the majesty of the trees1 and the wonderful variety of flowers and grasses4 ,he delighted in the blossoming of spring1 the copses and rivulets1 the song of birds1 shady woods1 and the landscapes of autumn1 where the reapers and vine-dressers were working4 ,he is the author of that lively feeling for nature that henceforth was aroused through the whole of ,europe4 ,a breath of pure mountain air1 a wholesome draught of fresh water from ,lake ,leman1 were brought suddenly into the sultry atmosphere of salons1 and filled people's hearts with a new and charming sensation when ,rousseau's works appeared4 ,it was over with all efforts of stylists as soon as ,rousseau declared that everything was good just as it came out of the lap of the universal mother1 nature4 ,illustration3 ,,watteau4 ,f,,te ,,champ,,tre4 ,goethe1 the pupil of ,rousseau1 presages1 in his whole conception of nature1 something of the manifestation of the school of ,fontainebleau4 ,he had something of ,daubigny when1 as ,werther1 he lies on the bank of the stream and looks down thoughtfully at the worms and small insects4 ,he makes one think of ,dupr or ,corot when he says3 ,as nature declines upon autumn1 within me and around me it grows autumn2 or1 ,i could not now draw so much as a stroke1 and ,i have never been a greater painter than at the present moment2 or1 ,never have ,i been happier1 nor has my perception of nature1 down to the pebble or the grass beneath me1 been fuller and more intimate4 ,yet1--,i know not how ,i can express myself1 everything swims and oscillates before my soul1 so that ,i can seize no outline4 ,a great1 shadowy whole waves before my soul1 my perception grows indistinct before it1 even as my eyes do4 ,illustration3 ,,gessner4 ,,landscape 7,,etching74 ,thus were the ,french gardens delivered by the ,english4 ,just as figure painting renounced lofty1 architectural1 formal composition1 so those bisected and upholstered gardens were supplanted by irregular and1 as it were1 accidental bits of nature4 ,people took no more trouble1 in ,rousseau's phrase1 to dishonour nature by seeking to beautify her1 but laid out gardens in harmony with ,goethe's remark in ,werther3 ,a feeling heart1 not a scientific art of gardening1 suggested the plan4 ,close to ,versailles1 near the box-tree patterns of ,lentre1 lay the ,petit ,trianon1 with its pond1 its brook1 and its dairy1 where the unfortunate ,marie ,antoinette used to dream4 ,and if painting still loitered on its preliminary return to nature1 that only implied that the great artists--they only came in #ahcj6--were not yet born4 ,great artists can only raise themselves on the shoulders of their predecessors1 whose value lies in their utility4 ,the ,french landscapes of the eighteenth century1 seen in the light of historical development1 are of no importance2 but1 nevertheless1 they gave a considerable stimulus in that they sought to animate the style of ,poussin with a closer perception of nature4 ,hubert ,robert is certainly strongly decorative1 but he has a light touch2 one cannot take him at his word1 but he is intelligent1 and has sometimes grey and green tones that are soft and beautiful4 ,joseph ,vernet painted coast scenery1 views of harbours1 storms at sea1 likewise with decorative1 superficial effects of light2 he let flashes of lightning streak black clouds1 sun-rays dance over lightly ruffled waves1 silver moonshine play mysteriously upon the water1 and caused conflagrations to break out and red flames to shoot up to heaven4 ,he is somewhat inane and motley in his colouring4 ,but he had ceased to see in the parts of nature nothing but materials for the construction of nicely fitting scenery4 ,he no longer attempted to speak to the reason by means of lines1 but to touch the soul through humour1 and he employed in his scenery not only buildings and ruins1 gods and ancient shepherds1 but also modern groups of every kind4 ,in ,switzerland1 the charming etchings and water-colours of ,solomon ,gessner must be especially mentioned4 ,ludwig ,richter1 indeed1 pointed them out as the eighteenth century works which1 after the engravings of ,chodowiecki1 he loved the best4 ,gessner venerated ,claude1 and had an enthusiasm for ,poussin1 but his pictures have no traces of the lofty style of the heroic school of landscape4 ,he sketched his native meadows1 trees1 and brooks2 he loved all that was small and secluded and cosy1 arbours and hedges1 quiet little gardens and idyllic nooks4 ,he approached everything with a very childlike and faithful observation of nature4 ,a second ,swiss1 ,ludwig ,hess1 dedicated a similar subtile sense of nature and loving zeal as much to his native ,switzerland as to the ,roman ,campagna4 ,illustration3 ,,gessner4 ,,landscape 7,,etching74 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,guardi4 ,,venice4 ,the ,german ,philip ,hackert has been prejudiced rather than profited by the monument which ,goethe erected to him4 ,as ,goethe's enthusiasm was not in due proportion with ,hackert's importance1 he ceased later to attract attention1 though this he did not merit1 as he was always a vigorous and healthy landscape painter4 ,he did not see nature with the tender sensibility of the ,swiss4 ,he looked at a landscape somewhat insipidly1 as ,chodowiecki at his models4 ,but his drawing is sober1 the atmosphere of his pictures clear and fresh2 he cannot be tedious in his composition4 ,in ,dresden there lived ,johann ,alexander ,thiele1 who roamed through ,thringen and ,mecklenburg as a landscape painter4 ,even in ,italy landscapes were the most independent performances which the eighteenth century had brought forth there4 ,there worked in ,rome the ,netherlander1 ,vanvitelli1 who depicted in graceful water-colours ,roman and ,neapolitan street life2 and ,giovanni ,paolo ,pannini1 the peintre des ftes publiques1 in whose pictures groups of richly coloured figures moved through splendid palaces4 ,venice was the home of the ,canaletti4 ,in ,antonio ,canale's town pictures of ,venice1 ,rome1 and ,london there is at once so subtle an atmospheric movement1 the water is so clear1 the air so transparent1 that even if they represent mere streets and buildings1 they yet leave an impression of landscape achieved in a broad1 pictorial method4 ,bernardo ,canaletto produces an effect by the fine1 cool1 damp light of his northern studies even simpler and more intimate1 while by his discovery that sunshine does not--as it was hitherto believed--gild but silver the object it falls on1 he became one of the fathers of realistic landscape4 ,the most ingenious1 however1 of the school of ,canale1 not to say one of the cleverest landscape painters of the century1 was ,francesco ,guardi4 ,antonio ,canale was a great artist1 and shows it never better than in his distinguished etchings1 but as a painter he interests the collector more than the connoisseur4 ,there his qualities are too often petrified into an excessive formality2 he shows something too much of the camera obscura4 ,guardi is ingenious and startling4 ,where you have accuracy in ,canale1 in him you find spirit4 ,canale shows us the real ,venice1 ,guardi shows it as we have dreamed it to be4 ,he has not ,canale's knowledge of perspective and architecture1 but he fascinates us4 ,he is a musician and a poet whose palette resounds with the purest harmonies4 ,in his pictures the whole seductive legend of the fallen ,queen of the ,adriatic abides4 ,garlanded gondolas glide peaceful and fairy-like1 majestic as vessels in some distant wonderland1 over the clear1 green water of the canals1 beneath the high1 marble palaces1 which mirror their columns and balconies1 their arches and their loggias in the stream4 ,foreign ambassadors pass in great state through the ,piazza di ,san ,marco2 all that proud1 ,venetian nobility greets them2 and thick throngs of people in their ,sunday attire move to and fro beneath the ,hall of the ,procuration4 ,gay bands of musicians row along the ,piazzetta and the ,riva4 ,a moist breeze sweeps over the water2 the sunshine1 now subdued and mellow1 now dancing coquettishly1 plays upon the water or on the houses4 ,francesco ,guardi1 the magician of ,venice1 is an animated1 exquisite1 always ingenious improvisatore1 strong as few others are in the direct transference of his personal impression to canvas4 ,every stroke of his brush takes effect1--in each one of his pictures one sees the nervous exaltation of the hand2 and that gives him a power of attraction which1 compared with ,canale1 is like that of the clay model1 in which the hand of the sculptor is still perceptible1 compared with the cold1 marble statue4 ,even ,spain1 which1 except for the colossal figure of ,velasquez1 had so far produced no painters of landscape--even ,spain1 after the middle of the century1 turned into this road4 ,don ,pedro ,rodriguez de ,miranda painted his broad1 clear1 and vigorously observed highland studies2 ,don ,mariano ,ramon ,sanchez his small views of towns and harbours4 ,and1 as in ,england1 hand in hand with that came paintings of animals4 ,in ,france1 ,franois ,canova was working1 the painter of huge battle scenes and small pictures of animals2 ,jean ,louis de ,marne1 who was famous for his cattle1 market scenes1 village pictures1 and the like2 and the great ,jean ,baptiste ,oudry1 who painted with breadth and freedom animals alive and dead1 wild and tame1 still-life of every kind4 ,in ,augsburg lived ,johann ,elias ,riedinger1 whose field of activity embraced the entire animal world1 dogs and horses1 stags and roes1 wild boars1 chamois1 bears1 lions1 tigers1 elephants1 and the hippopotamus--which he depicted with fine observation1 both in their proud solitude and at strife with men4 ,if we cast one more glance back to the road which art had travelled since the commencement of the century1 we can have no doubt as to the end which was proportionately aimed at in all countries4 ,until quite recently a courtly1 aristocratic art had shed its light upon the whole of ,europe4 ,in the seventeenth century the ,dutch alone had maintained their isolation4 ,they who entered fresh into art1 and had to break with no tradition1 gave at that time the first expression to the new spirit1 in that they resolutely recalled art from its courtly surroundings to the humbler dwellings of the middle classes4 ,they painted what ,drer and the little masters had only graved upon wood blocks and copper plates4 ,still1 they wished to paint these things less for their own sakes than because so intimate a light was shed upon them4 ,through elements of light they contrived to cast over everyday moments a sort of fairy inspiration4 ,watteau and his successors made a further advance in the conquest of the visible world1 in that they desired to paint their age1 for its own sake1 in all its grace2 and by the middle of the century we find this new1 intimate1 familiar art1 independent of ancient tradition1 triumphing all along the line4 ,sublime painting is more and more forsaken4 ,art becomes more and more indigenous to her world and age4 ,aristocratic ,watteau is succeeded by ,hogarth1 ,greuze1 ,chardin1 and ,chodowiecki1 who treat the ,third ,estate no longer in the ,dutch chiaroscuro1 but in all its heavy reality as a valid object of art4 ,instead of that lofty1 majestic1 vainglorious painting of mere representations1 which was the outcome of ,cinquecento1 and which at the expiration of the seventeenth century had sunk1 through abstraction1 into something uniform1 trivial1 and tedious1 there appeared on all sides an art which was simple and sincere1 which plunged into the life of every day1 observed man in his relations with nature1 with his fellows1 with his faithful animals1 and with his household goods--an art which created the variety of its representations out of its own experience4 ,so with landscape1 the most modern branch of art2 it reached in the schools of all nations a greater significance--at least1 in extent--than it had ever possessed in the history of art4 ,and this development proceeded without its being established that any one country had direct influence on any other4 ,the ideas hung in the atmosphere2 they were the ideas of the century4 ,it is as though the departing age would hold a mirror before us--a magic mirror--which foretells the future2 as though it would point out that nineteenth century art1 advancing further along this road1 should be domestic-human1 and that it should find in landscape its most appropriate expression4 ,it was not given to painting to proceed straight forward in this course1 for through favour1 partly of the changed current of literature1 partly of the revolution1 the flame of reactionary classicism shot up brightly once more before it expired4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,,the ,,classical ,,reaction ,,in ,,germany ,a hundred years ago there lived a man of the name of ,asmus ,carstens2 and he was the pioneer and founder of the new ,german art4 ,that has become since ,fernow a standing maxim in manuals of the history of art4 ,dilettantism1 however1 is not an element1 but an end4 ,it is on this account1 therefore1 that later times will see in ,carstens1 not a pioneer1 but only one of the close followers of that tendency of which the founders were the brothers ,caracci1 and the offshoots ,lebrun1 ,lairesse1 and ,van der ,werff4 ,it is1 at all events1 historically clear that ,hogarth and ,gainsborough1 ,watteau1 ,greuze1 ,chardin1 and ,goya were the men to whom the future belonged4 ,their art survived the overthrow of the ,classicalism represented by ,mengs and ,carstens1 which1 through external circumstances1 once more got the upper hand for a short time1 and it became the foundation on which1 after the disappearance of this tendency inherited from the past1 the moderns built further4 ,the former represented progress1 because they moved forwards2 ,carstens and ,david1 reaction1 because they looked backwards--backwards to an age which had long ago been buried4 ,there is always danger to a living art in the contact with any great art of the past4 ,only those who are themselves highly gifted may hope to emulate the great ones of the earlier centuries2 lesser geniuses perish in the attempt4 ,painters like ,leonardo and ,raphael1 like ,titian and ,poussin1 taking the ,greeks as their masters1 produced immortal works1 and ,goethe and ,schiller proved to us that the ,hellenic spirit is still alive and active in our midst4 ,but would anyone dare to mention ,mengs and ,carstens in the same breath with these giants8 ,the close of the eighteenth century was a period of antiquarian revival4 ,the ruins of ,pstum had been brought to light1 ,greek vases and ,roman monuments had become known to the public by the works of ,hamilton and ,piranesi4 ,in #agfb ,stuart and ,revett published their splendid work on the ,antiquities of ,athens4 ,to a ,german1 however1 was to fall the honour of becoming the hero of the archological period4 ,the ,history of ,ancient ,art1 by ,johann ,joachim ,winckelmann1 appeared in #agfd1 and this writer devoted his literary energies to the hymning of the glories of the re-discovered treasures of antiquity4 ,in the realm of pictorial art he may also be looked upon as the chosen of fate4 ,already1 nine years before the appearance of his ,history of ,art1 he had given1 at the age of thirty-eight1 his first writing to the world1 ,thoughts upon the ,imitation of ,greek ,works1 in which the reformation motive is epitomised in this sentence3 ,the sole means for us to become--ay1 if possible1 inimitably great--is the imitation of the ancients4 ,from ,winckelmann the stone kept on rolling4 ,in ,greek sculpture the painter can attain to the most sublime conception of beauty1 and learn what he must lend to nature in order to give dignity and propriety to his imitation1 writes ,solomon ,gessner in #agei4 ,in #agfb ,hagedorn of ,dresden deplored1 in his ,treatise on ,painting1 that ,terburg and ,metsu never showed us fair ,andromache amongst her industrious women1 instead of ,dutch sempstresses4 ,in #agff ,lessing wrote his ,laocon1 and1 like ,winckelmann1 saw in the sculpture of the ,greeks the ideal to be imitated4 ,from this point forward he despised landscape and genre painting1 and especially everything which illustrates intimate emotions and actions1 and would confine the composition of pictures to an arrangement of two or three ideal figures which please by physical beauty4 ,soon afterwards1 with almost astonishing partiality1 ,goethe intervened in a notable manner on behalf of ,classicism with the most flagrant contradiction of the ideas of his youth4 ,nature alone1 he had said in ,werther1 makes the great artist2 and in his essay upon ,german ,method and ,art he aimed this sentence at ,winckelmann and his followers3 ,you yourselves1 admirable beings1 to whom it was given to enjoy the highest beauty1 you are hurtful to genius2 it will be raised up and borne along on no strange wings1 were they even the wings of the dawn4 ,in the same essay occurs the beautiful passage3 ,if art is produced out of an inward1 single1 independent conception1 untroubled by1 unconscious indeed1 of1 all that is extraneous1 then whether she be born of rough wildness or of cultivated sensibility1 she is complete and living4 ,soon afterwards he wrote again these great words3 ,rembrandt appears to me in his biblical subjects as a true saint who saw ,god present everywhere1 at every step1 in the chamber and in the fields1 and did not need the surrounding pomp of temples and sacrifices to feel drawn towards ,him1--an observation made at a time when the academic and erudite writer on art was still for years to perceive in the biblical pictures of the great ,dutchman only a crude conception of form4 ,in another passage1 upon the frescoes of ,mantegna1 in the ,church of the ,anchorite1 at ,padua1 there occur the following sentences1 showing the deepest historical perception3 ,how sharp and sure a modernity stands out in these pictures6 ,from this modernity1 which is quite real1 and not merely seeming1 with factitious effects1 speaking only to the imaginative faculty1 but solid1 detailed1 and conscientiously circumscribed1 and which at the same time has something austere and industrious and painstaking--from this issued subsequent painters such as ,titian2 and now the liveliness of their genius1 the energy of their nature1 enlightened by the spirit of their predecessors1 built up through their strength1 was able to soar ever higher and higher1 to rise from earth and create divine but real figures4 ,but1 alas6 later on he did not draw the conclusion which followed quite logically from these observations for the judgment of contemporary ,german art4 ,he came back from ,italy as a disciple and follower of ,winckelmann's writings on art4 ,art has once for all1 like the works of ,homer1 been written in ,greek1 and he deceives himself who believes that it is ,german4 ,something pagan entered into his soul1 a breath from the calm of ,olympus4 ,he derided his earlier ,gothic inclinations1 contemptuous of all that was opposed to ,greek notions of form1 mild and indulgent to all that bore at least the outward semblance of the antique4 ,he preferred a cold ideal manner to what was natural1 and held ,greek art the absolutely valid model4 ,from it should be derived a fixed canon1 a table of accepted laws1 to be the standard for the artist of our own days1 and of every age4 ,the ,prize ,essays1 which he published with ,heinrich ,meyer in the ,propylen1 and later in the ,jena ,literary ,journal1 required the treatment of subjects exclusively from the ,hellenic legendary cycles1 whereby the artist should become accustomed to come out from his own age and surroundings2 the composition of pictures was to correspond strictly with the style of the antique frieze4 ,amongst his contemporaries voices were not wanting to point out how fatal this programme was4 ,notably1 ,wilhelm ,heinse1 in #aggf1 wrote this golden sentence3 ,art can only direct itself to the people with whom it lives4 ,every one works for the people amongst whom fate has thrown him1 and seeks to plumb its heart4 ,every country has its own distinctive art1 just as it has its own climate1 its scenery1 its own taste1 and its own drink4 ,similarly1 ,klopstock opposed ,winckelmann's theories in these lines-- ,nachahmen soll ich nicht und dennoch nennet1 ,dein ewig ,lob nur immer ,griechenland4 ,wem ,genius in seinem ,busen brennet1 ,der ahm' den ,griechen nach6--der ,griech' erfand4 ,again1 in the ,german ,republic of ,letters1 in the chapter ,on ,high ,treason3 ,it is high treason for any one to maintain that the ,greeks cannot be surpassed4 ,in a letter to ,goethe1 in the year #ahjj1 ,schiller wrote3 ,the antique was a manifestation of its age which can never return1 and to force the individual production of an individual age after the pattern of one quite heterogeneous1 is to kill that art which can only have a dynamic origin and effect4 ,madame de ,stal1 in her book on ,germany1 says3 ,if nowadays the fine arts should be confined to the simplicity of the ancients1 we should not then be able to attain to the original strength which distinguished them1 while we should lose that intimate1 composite feeling for life which is especially found in us4 ,simplicity in art would easily turn with the moderns into coldness and affectation1 whereas with the ancients it was full of life4 ,in #agig ,counsellor ,hirth published in ,schiller's ,hor his well-known treatise on ,beauty in ,art1 which1 in opposition to the inanimate type of beauty of ,winckelmann1 upheld the characteristic as the first principle in art4 ,most remarkable1 however1 is the breadth of historical outlook which was peculiar to ,herder1 and the stern actuality with which in his ,plastik1 and in the ,vierten ,kritischen ,wldchen1 he turned against those pitiful critics1 those wretched and narrow rules of art1 that bitter-sweet prattle of universal beauty1 through which the younger generation is being ruined1 which is nauseating to the master1 and which1 nevertheless1 the rabble of connoisseurs takes in its mouth as words of wisdom4444 ,shadows and sunrise1 lightning and thunder1 the brook and the flame the sculptor cannot model2 but is that therefore to be a reason why it should not be done by the painter8 ,what other law has painting1 what other power and function1 than to depict the great scheme of nature with all her manifestations1 in their great and beautiful aspect8 ,and with what magic it does this6 ,they are not clever who despise landscape painting1 the fragments of nature of the great harmony of creation1 who depreciate it or entirely forbid it to the sincere artist4 ,is a painter not to be a painter8 ,is he to turn statues with his brush1 and fiddle with his colours1 just as it may please their antique taste8 ,to represent the scheme of creation seems vulgar to them2 just as though heaven and earth were not better than an old statue4444 ,doubtless ,greek sculpture stands in the sea of time like a lighthouse1 but it should be only a friend and not a commander4 ,painting is a scheme of magic1 as vast as the world and as history1 and certainly not every figure in it can or ought to be a statue4 ,in a picture no single figure is everything2 and if they are all equally beautiful1 no one then is beautiful any longer4 ,they become a dull monotony of long-limbed ,greek figures with straight noses1 who all stand there and parade and take as little part in the action as possible4 ,now1 when this misrepresentation of beauty cries scorn at the same time upon the whole conception1 upon history1 upon character1 upon action1 and this openly attacks that as a lie1 there comes a discord1 something insupportable1 into painting1 which certainly the antique pedant is unaware of1 but which is felt all the more by the true friend of the antique4 ,and finally1 our own actual age1 the most fruitful subjects of history1 the liveliest characters1 all feeling of a simple truth and precision1 will be antiquarianised away4 ,posterity will stand and gape at such fantasies in practice and theory1 and will not know what we were1 in what age we lived1 nor what brought us to this wretched folly1 to the wish to live in another age1 in another nation and climate1 and thereby to abandon1 or vitiate deplorably1 the whole order of nature and history4 ,these sentences1 however1 stood in isolation1 or else they came too late4 ,immediately after it had been heralded by the literary movement1 after the archologists had verbally announced its aim1 formulated its principles and laws1 ,german art turned into the new paths4 ,it happened for the first time in the history of art1 wrote ,goethe1 that important talents took pleasure in disciplining themselves by the past1 and so founding a new epoch in art4 ,des ,deutschen ,knstler's ,vaterland1 ,ist ,griechenland1 ist ,griechenland was sung in the academies4 ,and this violent grasping after the ideal of a foreign race brought a bitter revenge1 since not one of the artists who now appeared had the genius to create anything new out of the old4 ,illustration3 ,photo ,union1 ,munich4 ,,mengs4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself4 ,the disciples of ,winckelmann had not been1 like ,goethe and ,schiller1 vigorous naturalists until the spirit of ancient times had looked upon them1 and they were consequently still less able to resist her glance4 ,they entered upon the new road not with that generative impulse of the creative mind1 whose superabundance did not know what course it should take1 what stream it should find4 ,they adopted the forms1 as they had been provided by the greater ages1 without any doubt as to their absolute excellence1 or the least attempt at any happy innovation4 ,and if they have better understood the ,greeks than their predecessors in ,italy and ,france were able to do1 then one is never less like an original nature than when one imitates them faithfully4 ,winckelmann's road to inimitability led not only to a more hollow and lifeless ,classicism than there ever had been1 to a more cheerless and unpleasant art than any which the school of ,bologna had produced4 ,it tended1 above all1 since the thinking people had thought out the classic idea--which the other nations had not--to the sacrifice of all pictorial technique1 of the whole knowledge which the age had up till then possessed4 ,there is a legend in the history of the ,church1 that at the time of the donation of ,constantine a voice was heard from ,heaven3 ,this day has poison entered into the body of the ,church4 ,to the ,german art of our century this poison was the writings of ,winckelmann4 ,first of all it was ,anton ,rafael ,mengs1 whose originally strong and great talent was distorted by the counsels of the learned4 ,as in the works of the ,caracci1 those only are to-day of any interest which reveal themselves least as eclectics and most as children of the seventeenth century1 so with ,mengs--he is only enjoyable now where he did not try to be antique1 but sympathised without too much reflection on the traditions of his age4 ,he is particularly so in his fine pastel portraits in the ,dresden ,gallery1 which are wholly influenced by the taste for rococo1 and are its last expiring manifestation4 ,they are a testimony that it was not without some justice that the ,apelles of ,dresden was called by his contemporaries the most remarkable ,german painter of the eighteenth century4 ,rosalba ,carriera and ,liotard seem weak and insipid beside him2 ,reynolds only at his best had that characteristic clearness1 that plastic energy of modelling1 and that life-like colouring4 ,there is nothing insipid or affected1 nothing of that simpering affability that his successors brought into vogue4 ,and when we remember that they proceeded from a youth of sixteen1 the strength and simplicity of intuition seem incredible4 ,in his later portraits1 too1 painted in oil1 the better ones are directly classic2 very noble in their clear1 subtile1 grey tone1 strikingly alive1 and1 withal1 of an extraordinary independence which shows no leaning upon any other master whatever4 ,mengs belongs to those portrait painters who look into the souls of their sitters1 and he ranks1 in works like his portrait of himself1 in the ,munich ,gallery1 amongst the best portrait painters of the eighteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,mengs4 ,,mount ,,parnassus4 ,in his huge ecclesiastical paintings he is the son of that period which had just commenced to be touched by the pallor of thought1 and groped eclectically now in this direction and now in that4 ,first of all must the weeds be rooted up1 wrote ,zanotti in his ,directions to a ,young ,man upon ,painting4 ,and then we must go back again to ,cimabue and ,giotto1 and again1 a few years later1 to ,buonarotti and ,sanzio1 and their noble successors whose footsteps are no longer sought or followed by any one4 ,but when such a happy resurrection will take place1 ,god knows6 ,the old ,ismael ,mengs believed that that was his concern2 he chose ,antonio da ,allegri and ,rafael ,sanzio as sponsors for his son4 ,anton ,rafael should become the eclectic reformer of art1 and as he was probably the first painter who1 by the express permission of the ,elector of ,saxony1 was allowed to visit the hitherto inaccessible ,dresden ,gallery1 this wish was easy of accomplishment4 ,illustration3 ,,angelica ,,kauffmann4 ,cassell ,co4 ,he was quick in freeing himself from the immediate tradition of the age1 and in harmony with the teaching of the ,caracci1 in returning to the so-called higher models of painting4 ,when one runs across such of his pictures in some gallery--notably his altar pieces--they strike one as the works of some good master of the seventeenth century whose name one cannot1 for the moment1 recollect4 ,his famous ,holy ,night1 in which he wished to enter into rivalry with ,correggio1 has something of a ,maratti about it1 only the heads are more vacant and insipid4 ,it is that unfortunate ,parnassus in the ,villa ,albani which first marks the collapse of this great talent4 ,when1 upon the advice of his friend ,winckelmann1 he turned from the study of ,raphael and ,correggio to that of the antique1 ,mengs forfeited not only the remnant of all that was essentially natural1 but even all the picturesque qualities which had hitherto distinguished him4 ,after painting had so long taken sculpture in tow1 now sculpture seemed anxious to be revenged on it1 and there was a manifestation of those prettily painted figures in plaster which for some score years afterwards paraded in every ,german picture4 ,for ,winckelmann's mistake1 as ,herder had already pointed out with great justice1 consisted not only in this1 that he set up for imitation a departed ideal for the consciousness of his contemporaries1 but notably in that he obtruded principles upon modern painting which might be valid in ancient sculpture4 ,since the antique ideal was solely a plastic one1 and neither the ,greek ,prussian nor1 later1 ,meister ,ephraim was clear as to the difference between sculpture and painting1 they practically recommended the painter to work after plastic models4 ,the fact that ,lessing1 in discussing the limits of painting in his ,laocon1 took a work of sculpture as his starting-point1 proves that to him the laws and conditions of both arts were valued as the same4 ,they denounced the confusion of the art of painting with poetry1 and instead advocated the confounding of painting with sculpture1 which was no less hazardous4 ,illustration3 ,,angelica ,,kauffmann4 ,,portrait ,,of ,a ,,lady ,,as ,a ,,vestal4 ,in this manner there came an alien element into ,mengs' hitherto quite pictorial apprehension2 a vain and exclusively reproductive ideality deprived his figures of the last remnant of truth to nature which he had formerly understood how to give them4 ,it is difficult to believe that ,winckelmann's paroxysm of friendship should have burst out1 upon the completion of the ,parnassus1 into this pan3 ,during the whole of the new age a more beautiful work has not appeared in painting2 even ,raphael would have bowed his head4 ,the whole is nothing more than a mlange of plagiarism and banal reminiscences1 without soul or perception1 without freshness or individuality2 a mere plastic warehouse1 and not even a painted antique group1 but a daubed compilation of solitary statues1 colder and more lifeless than any ,baltoni ever painted4 ,there was an audacious1 strong aim1 genial strength and an overwhelming flow of fantasy in the contemporary works of the great dcorateur ,tiepolo2 here there is a mere work of intellect which with philological aid builds up the composition entirely of borrowed materials4 ,the only thing which even still points in this work to the good old times is a more solid study of form and colour than all that which originated in ,germany during the next fifty years4 ,the figures are painted with a strength and bloom which are still quite worthy of the rococo4 ,the good ,angelica is the second representative of this phase of transition4 ,she1 too1 at the persuasion of her friend ,winckelmann1 clothed herself as an ancient ,vestal1 but her true woman's nature left in her classical raiment still a neat fashion of rococo4 ,through her intercourse with ,winckelmann she became somewhat of a blue-stocking1 and studied the historians of antiquity in order to find there subjects like ,cornelia1 the mother of the ,gracchi1 ,agrippina with the urn of ,germanicus1 ,phryne1 and the like4 ,still more there were the tender legends of the ancients1 out of whose store she satisfied her patrons3 ,adonis at the chase1 ,psyche1 ,ariadne abandoned by ,theseus or found by ,bacchus1 the death of ,alcestis1 ,hero and ,leander4 ,in these she is soft to the point of sentimentality1 and pleasant to the point of nausea4 ,goethe says of her with justice3 ,the forms and traits of the figures have little variety1 the expression of the passions no force1 the heroes look like gentle boys1 or girls in disguise4 ,but he also says of her3 ,the lightness1 grace in form1 colour1 conception1 and treatment is the one ruling quality of the numerous works of our fair artist4 ,no living painter has surpassed her either in grace of representation or in the taste and capacity with which she handles her brush4 ,and this decision1 too1 can still be endorsed4 ,angelica knew how to impart to those clear lines and forms demanded by ,winckelmann a grace now coquettish1 now sentimental1 but always extremely lovable4 ,she has struck soft and--notably in her portraits of women--very tender colour chords4 ,she and ,mengs were the last who still possessed considerable technical knowledge4 ,almost everything which has survived of the tradition of craftsmanship in ,germany in the nineteenth century is traceable to ,mengs' influence1 and that fact so offended his successors that they no longer counted him as one of them1 but put him contemptuously aside as a mannerist painter by recipe4 ,such technical knowledge1 wrote ,goethe1 hinders that complete abstraction and elevation over the real1 which is asked of identical representations in sculpture1 which merely furnish forms in their highest purity and beauty4 ,colouring1 light and shadows1 do not give such value to a painting as noble contour alone1 wrote ,winckelmann1 and these sentences became the starting-point of the next generation4 ,winckelmann's error when he recommended the imitation of ,greek sculpture to the modern painter consisted still further in this1 that he confused noble simplicity and quiet grandeur with lack of colour and coldness4 ,herder had written well3 ,in distinction to the compact harmony of form in sculpture1 painting has her harmonious unity in colour and light4 ,i do not know why many theorists should have spoken so contemptuously of what is called chiaroscuro1 the grouping of light and shade2 it is the instrument of genius with every scholar and master1 the eye with which he sees1 the flashing1 spiritual sea with which he sprinkles everything1 and on which1 indeed1 every outline also depends4 ,this divine1 spiritual sea of light1 this fairyland of adjusted light and shade1 is the business of painting3 why should we fight against nature1 and not allow every art to do what it alone can do and do best8 ,illustration3 ,photographic ,union1 ,munich4 ,,carstens4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself4 ,his words died away4 ,the philosophic tendency of the century1 which sought to penetrate into the soul of things1 and to recreate things from the throne of the universe of the abstract1 tried its hand also upon painting4 ,by abstracting from the manifestation of colour1 and touching upon form and line1 it came to believe that in these plastic elements it had discovered the ,essential of which it was in search4 ,once on the road to execute statues in paint1 the question ensued1 ,ought we to paint our statues8 ,and as that age1 following in ,winckelmann's track1 understood no word of the significance which the specific1 picturesque principles had for the ,greeks1 it was only logical that they should endeavour to reconcile the idea of immaculate whiteness with that of classical beauty1 to see pure beauty in absence of colour1 and in consequence to accentuate the question1 ,ought we to paint our pictures8 ,to painters the most suspicious element in a painting became the paint6 ,there is nothing more urgent for them to do than to deprive themselves ascetically of all coloristic means of expression4 ,painting is shown to be an essential form of corruption--,the brush is become the ruin of our art1 wrote ,cornelius--and there commences the era of a cartoon style hitherto unprecedented1 which is to be carried on by the most highly endowed in the most earnest fashion4 ,while during the rococo the sense of colour had reached1 through a piquant arrangement of the most tender and variegated tones1 its highest point of refinement1 there followed now as a reaction an absolute lack of colour4 ,the ideal is seen in an abstract beauty of line1 colour as a secondary matter and a vain show4 ,it was of as much value as a vari-coloured dress1 which nature could put on or off1 without being less nature thereby4 ,amongst painters there was talk of nothing but outlines4 ,this line style1 whose world is not the wall or the canvas1 but white paper1 can do with a proportionately meagre study of nature4 ,why1 therefore1 when the ideal was so easy of attainment1 drudge in the academy1 where1 moreover1 since the introduction of ,mengs' ,classicism1 universal desolation of the spirit and doctrinaire pedantry reigned8 ,as ,mengs had broken with the taste of the rococo1 so the younger generation broke with its technique1 whilst they left the academy in open dissatisfaction1 and threw off in contempt the whole paraphernalia of technical traditions4 ,carstens plays the momentous rle in ,german art as the first who trod this path4 ,he has more individuality than ,mengs2 antiquarianising with him is not exclusively an external derivation and a cold imitation3 he lives in the antique2 the world of the ,greek poets is his spiritual home1 and their profound thoughts find in him a subtle interpreter4 ,but he has1 at the same time1 the melancholy fame of being the first of the frivolous to renounce the national inheritance1 the knowledge bequeathed by the rococo age1 and so definitely to cut the chain which should otherwise have connected ,german art of the nineteenth century with that of the eighteenth4 ,through the ,investigations of ,beauty in ,painting1 by ,daniel ,webb1 which was founded on ,winckelmann's ,thoughts on ,imitation1 the seed of ,hellenism was already sown in the youth's soul4 ,he heard talk of the dwarf intelligences of the age2 how the studios of inferior artists were full of gaping visitors1 whilst the halls of the ,vatican stood deserted4 ,learn the taste for beauty in the antique1 the cooper's apprentice learns from ,webb's works4 ,let us meditate upon the style of the painter's art in the ',laocon1' with regard to the fighter4 ,notice the sublimity in the divine character of ,apollo4 ,let us stand hushed before the exquisite beauty of the ,venus di ,medici4 ,these are the extreme incentives of the art of drawing4444 ,the ,belvedere ,apollo and the daughter of ,niobe offer us an ideal of nobility and beauty4 ,raphael's drawing never reached to such a height of perfection as we find in the statues of the ,greeks4444 ,whither do you carry me1 gods and demigods and heroes who live in marble8 ,i follow your call1 and1 ,imagination6 thy eternal laws4 ,i go into the ,villa ,medici and breathe there the purest air4 ,i stretch myself on a flowery plot1 the shadow of the orange trees covers me2--there1 unmolested1 ,i gaze at a group full of the highest feminine beauty4 ,niobe1 my beloved1 beautiful mother of beautiful children1 thou fairest among women1 how ,i love thee6 ,so dreamed ,asmus ,jacob in the wine-cellar at ,eckernfrde1 or in his solitary chamber by the dim light of his lamp1 as he had been seized with giddiness before all the great and marvellous revelations of art which this book had afforded him4 ,in his enraptured fantasy he painted the hour nearer and nearer when he should attain to a sight of the works which were described4 ,could he have looked into the future1 what a picture would have come before his eyes6 ,would he have recognised himself in the broken-down man1 with the pale countenance1 the grief-marked expression1 and the decrepit figure1 who in ,rome gazed spellbound at the ,colossus of ,monte ,cavallo8 ,illustration3 ,,carstens4 ,,scylla ,,and ,,charybdis4 ,our ,holsteiner was two-and-twenty years old when he discarded the cooper's apron and entered the ,copenhagen ,academy1 being then too old for any regular training4 ,his head was so full of inventions that it could not enter his mind to begin from the beginning4 ,drawing from the life did not satisfy me2 the fellow1 too1 who sat as my model1 although he was for the rest well built1 seemed to me1 in contrast with the antique from which ,i had attained a higher ideal of beauty1 so petty and imperfect that ,i thought ,i could easily learn to draw a better figure if ,i only confined myself to that4 ,i resolved not to visit the academy1 in spite of the other artists impressing upon me the importance and utility of academic study4 ,he stayed daily1 instead1 for hours together before the casts in the antique room1 and a holy feeling of adoration1 almost compelling me to tears1 pervaded me4 ,there ,i never drew at all after an antique4 ,when ,i attempted it1 it was as though all my emotion was chilled by it4 ,i thought that ,i should learn more if ,i gazed at them with great studiousness4 ,illustration3 ,,carstens4 ,,argo ,,leaving ,,the ,,triton',s ,,mere4 ,thus he reached1 as ,fernow says1 the method whereby he did not tread the ordinary way of imitation1 gradually progressing to a special invention1 but began at once with invention4 ,there he was the true child of his age4 ,at a period whose creative power found its highest expression in philosophy and poetry1 the painter strove for the reputation only of being the poet of his pictures4 ,and ,carstens encountered the old tragedians and philosophic writers with a fine1 poetic understanding4 ,the ,greek ,heroes with ,cheiron1 ,helen at the ,skan ,gate1 ,ajax1 ,phoenix and ,odysseus in the ,tent of ,achilles1 ,priam and ,achilles1 ,the ,fates1 ,night with her ,children1 ,sleep and ,death1 ,the passage of ,megapenthes1 ,homer before the ,people1 ,the ,golden ,age--all these prints have really something of the noble simplicity and quiet harmony of ,greek art4 ,illustration3 ,,carstens4 ,,children ,,of ,,the ,,night4 ,it can be understood1 then1 that such subjects should be in the highest degree interesting to an archologist4 ,when ,carstens1 in ,april #agie1 was organising the famous exhibition of his collected works in ,rome1 ,fernow published in ,wieland's ,deutscher ,merkur a discourse in which he celebrated him as the creator of a new epoch4 ,from the very first1 however1 an equally resolute opposition was excited in artistic circles4 ,the painter ,mller1 nicknamed ,the ,devil's ,miller1 who at that time wandered about ,rome as a cicerone1 proves that ,winckelmann's principles1 even at the threshold of the century1 by no means met with universal acceptance4 ,the ,writing of ,herr ,mller1 ,painter in ,rome1 upon the ,exhibition of ,herr ,professor ,carstens1 with the motto ,amicus ,plato1 ,amicus ,socrates1 magis amica veritas1 was published in #agig in ,schiller's ,hor4 ,carstens imitated2 he worked rather by reminiscence and understanding than by fantasy4 ,isolated figures do not bring their individuality to an expression4 ,then he pointed out the models1 discussed the lack of colour1 and proved numerous sins of the draughtsman against nature in detail4 ,the artist must ever seek to find characteristic expression2 composition comes in the second degree4 ,technique1 even if the previous age has been an epoch of fabrication1 must always stand in the foreground2 it is not only from the artist1 but from the connoisseur1 that knowledge is demanded1 and in consequence of this exhibition ,carstens is recommended to forbear from his fantastical geniality1 observe nature1 and achieve a picture exactly1 since it is only from nature that the ideal springs1 and consequently nothing can be great and beautiful in the representation which is not right and true4 ,in almost similar words1 later on1 ,koch1 in his ,thoughts on ,painting1 and with him the majority of artists1 has censured ,carstens4 ,and posterity cannot but allow them to be in the right as against the archologists4 ,illustration3 ,,carstens4 ,,priam ,,and ,,achilles4 ,admirable in ,carstens is the zeal with which he defended his ideal1 the sacred fire which burned within him and sustained him1 even during those years when his sickly frame was weakened by consumption4 ,art was1 as he wrote1 his element1 his religion1 his beatitude1 his existence4 ,and it is already something great to wear oneself out alone for the sake of an ideal4 ,carstens was a sublime dreamer4 ,it will not be forgotten of him that1 in an age when abundant mediocrity and manufacture were all-prevailing1 he once more pointed1 unfaltering in his noble and pure intention1 to the sublimity of artistic creation4 ,the history of art1 however1 has not to deal with hearts1 but to judge logically by results2 and it would not be doing justice to the old masters1 nor to those earnest rococo painters who sat at their easels with less noble intentions1 but with so much greater knowledge of their craft1 if one were to proclaim ,carstens1 in consideration of the self-sacrifice and renunciation which he showed in the fight for his ideal1 as a martyr and a genius1 a pioneer of ,german art4 ,he was not a genius1 as he thought himself1 and announced so proudly to ,heinitz1 the ,minister2 for that he possessed too little originality4 ,it is not imagination1 but reminiscence1 which created his works4 ,the outlines of his plates are done with fine sentiment1 but sentiment taken from the ,greeks1 and he required no genius to recognise in his recollection and his hand a transcript of ,greek forms4 ,what pleases us in ,carstens is in substance not ,carstens1 but an echo of what we like in the ,greek statues and vases1 in ,michael ,angelo and other old masters4 ,illustration3 ,,genelli4 ,,the ,,embassy ,,to ,,achilles4 ,he was not a martyr1 because in his struggles he met with assistance and encouragement such as were granted to no old master1 and if1 in spite of that1 he never rose above the cares of life1 that is only a proof of the limitations and partiality of his art4 ,he had lost all decorative facility2 still more was the inheritance of oil painting first naturally mislaid by him1 and by draughtsmanship alone not even ,drer nor ,rembrandt could have lived4 ,this deficiency in technique must even debar him from claiming any higher signification than that of a clever dilettante4 ,he is not an artist who does not in the midst of his exaltation think to put himself in possession of the means which can turn the lispings of genius into a fully intelligible language4 ,carstens' plates seduce by a certain wavy treatment of the lines1 but no one of them can sustain critical appreciation4 ,it is inconsistent to work in the beautiful and not to become free of ugliness1 to move in the great1 in the sublime1 and at the same time to fall from one defect of form to another1 from coarse uncouthness into the most elementary sins against drawing and proportion4 ,carstens was a draughtsman who could not draw1 and1 with this limitation of his genius1 by no manner of means a founder of ,german art4 ,one cannot call him a mannerist1 because with him art and individuality corresponded2 but1 nevertheless1 like ,mengs and ,lairesse1 he gave art at second-hand1 and only differs from them in that with him commences that complete abandonment of the idea of colour which after him disfigured ,german art4 ,for the future it was quite indifferent that ,thorwaldsen took suggestions from ,carstens1 and ,genelli trod in his footprints as a draughtsman4 ,illustration3 ,,genelli4 ,,thetis ,,lamenting ,,the ,,fate ,,of ,,hector4 ,bonaventura ,genelli1 if one takes for once the standpoint of the painters of his time1 who desired to be the poets of their works1 is certainly a not unremarkable poet4 ,in him1 who was born in the year of ,carstens' death1 the spirit of the little ,holsteiner was raised to life1 and the figure which he assumed in this new incarnation actually made an impression like a picture out of beauty-illuminated days of ,hellas4 ,the muscular1 thick-set figure of a youthful ,hercules1 with a broad chest and sturdy neck1 a head of short brown curly hair1 full lips fringed by the compact beard of a ,sophocles1 the short ,greek nose1 grave eyes glancing out from beneath the strong brows--such was ,genelli1 a ,hellene left stranded in ,germany1 the last ,centaur1 as ,heyse has depicted him in his novel--an antediluvian1 mythological enigma on four sound legs sprung upon our godless world4 ,thus he sat1 as he himself writes1 in ,rome1 in his dirty chamber1 bare except for a chair or two1 rickety or quite broken down1 and on the wall a pair of hawks nailed up1 whose pinions served as models for his winged figures4 ,thus he sat later in his little house in the ,sendlingergasse at ,munich1 and lived in his world of imagination4 ,perhaps1 had he been the child of a more fortunate period in art1 he might have become a strong and memorable painter2 as a successor of ,carstens he has left behind him a legacy of two suites of copper prints--the two tragedies of the ,profligate and the ,witch4 ,he existed1 moreover1 only in contour2 he never rose above harmoniously outlined silhouette4 ,it was only to this point that his talent would sustain him4 ,the more he wished to produce shadow1 water-colour1 or even oil1 the more tedious and pale and vague did he become4 ,and even in his drawing he shares with ,carstens the desolate generalisation of form1 the eternal euphony which so soon becomes wearisome and monotonous4 ,to beauty of line everything is offered up4 ,the blank characterlessness of the faces is even more noticeable with him than with ,carstens1 who had1 after all1 in his youth drawn excellent portraits in crayons1 and on this account was able to give even to his ,greeks more individual traits and a certain variety of expression4 ,with ,genelli the heads are treated as no more than parts of the body1 and as they gave no opportunity for flowing lines1 they have not even the same graciousness as the limbs4 ,his women fared worst1 for whilst he could be his own model for his men1 he created the ewig ,weibliche out of his inner consciousness4 ,in men and women the eyes1 in particular1 are merely animal4 ,illustration3 ,,genelli4 ,,odysseus ,,and ,,the ,,sirens4 ,carstens' influence on ,german art has been then entirely a negative one4 ,it was not on such a foundation that a ,german art could arise4 ,he prepared no ground for his successors on which they could build further2 but through his abandonment of the whole capital which1 since ,stephen ,lochner1 had been handed down at compound interest from one generation of painters to another1 he rather cut away the ground from under their feet4 ,for very easily can art go astray1 but it is a difficult and lengthy process for her to recover herself4 ,the art which was born in that humble studio in ,rome to the sickly1 neurotic man1 the famous draughtsman1 needed later1 in order to become technically healthy again1 an impulse replete with life from abroad4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,bonaventura ,,genelli4 ,,chapter ,,iv ,,the ,,classical ,,reaction ,,in ,,france ,in ,france also modern art began with a stream of antiquarianism which flowed from the same archological source4 ,de ,brosses published a history of the ,roman ,republic1 and wrote on ,herculaneum4 ,leroy produced his ,ruines des plus anciens monuments de la ,grce in #ageh4 ,shortly afterwards the ,recueils d',antiquit of ,caylus and ,hamilton were published4 ,the former undertook his great journeys1 and presented the ,academy of ,inscriptions with a succession of archological treatises4 ,he is perhaps the first since ,batteux and ,coypel who again makes of the modern painter a positive demand for a quiet beauty of lines after the manire simple et noble du bel antique4 ,the architects begin to take counsel of ,vitruvius1 and to work after some model borrowed from the antique4 ,soufflot rebuilt the ,pantheon1 and produced the ,temple of ,pstum4 ,even in #agfc ,grimm could write3 ,for some years past we have been making keen inquiry for antique ornaments and forms4 ,the predilection for them has become so universal that now everything is to be done la ,grecque4 ,the interior and exterior decorations of houses1 furniture1 dress material1 and goldsmiths' work all bear alike the stamp of the ,greeks4 ,the fashion passes from architecture to millinery3 our ladies have their hair dressed la ,grecque1 our fine gentlemen would think themselves dishonoured if they did not hold in their hands une bote la ,grecque4 ,even ,diderot's preference for the ethical and emotional1 as ,greuze had painted it--and as ,diderot himself had dramatised it--veered round at the commencement of the sixties into an enthusiasm for the antique4 ,after #agfa he carried on in the salons a war of extermination against poor old ,boucher1 and lectured him in a menacing voice upon the great and severe taste of antiquity4 ,he twitted him with possessing neither reality nor taste1 and produced in proof the fact that1 in the whole catalogue of ,boucher's figures1 not four could be found which could be employed in relief1 or even as statues4 ,the new taste demanded pure and simple lines1 the beauty of sculpture2 it went back to the antique4 ,when a ,french translation of ,winckelmann appeared in #agfe he spoke out1 on the occasion of a review of the book1 clearly and plainly3 ,il me semble qu'il faudrait tudier l'antique pour apprendre voir la nature4 ,in the same vein ,watelet pronounced on ,boucher3 ,jamais artiste n'a plus ouvertement tmoign son mpris pour la vraie beaut telle qu'elle a t sentie et exprime par les statuaires de l'ancienne ,grce4 ,thus the change in the artistic outlook was heralded long before the curtain went up upon the events of #aghi4 ,madame ,vige-,lebrun1 the ,french ,angelica ,kauffmann1 possessed of a tender1 soft1 sympathetic talent1 is perhaps the truest representative of this gracious1 entirely ,french transition style1 over which like a breath1 but only like a breath1 hovers the antique4 ,she has in her portraits1 in an especially refined manner1 fixed that age when noble ladies desired to forget the ,marquise and ,duchess1 to exhibit only the wife and mother1 and believed that by unconstraint of attitude in their simple white robe1 the scarf thrown modestly over the shoulders1 they had effected a return to antique simplicity4 ,boucher1 moved to the depths of his consciousness by ,diderot1 resolved to paint a picture taken from ancient history4 ,greuze painted ,severus and ,caracalla1 ,fragonard ,choereas and ,callirhe4 ,hubert ,robert grew more and more archological1 and played in his landscapes with ancient remains and classical ruins4 ,vien became enthusiastic over antique gems1 and thought he must draw the conclusion1 from the noble calm of these figures1 that the amiable coquetry and capricious garments of rococo were without nobility4 ,his plan was to study the antique--,raphael1 the ,caracci1 ,domenichino1 ,michael ,angelo1 and1 in one word1 all those masters whose works convey the character of truth and grandeur4 ,but what gave far other significance to the ,french classicism of the ensuing period was that great event in the world's history1 of which ,france became the theatre at the close of the eighteenth century4 ,in the secluded gardens of ,versailles1 where the goat-footed ,pan embraced the tall1 white nymphs by an artificial water-fall1 the noble lords and ladies1 clad as ,pierrots and ,columbines1 overheard in the midst of their whispered flirtations the menacing earthquake which was announced in thunder from ,paris4 ,soon they beheld the earth crack and burst asunder1 as that time came when the air was filled with the smoke of powder1 when the first notes of the ,marseillaise rang out1 and in the ,place de la ,concorde1 where to-day the loveliest fountains in the world are playing1 blood ran from a dozen guillotines4 ,that aprs nous le deluge of the ,marquise de ,pompadour had become a dire1 prophetic truth1 and in that flood of blood and horrors the artistic ideal of the eighteenth century was also washed away4 ,the ,revolution gave the death-blow to rococo4 ,at one stroke it overthrew the most pleasant of all ,french periods1 the truest presentiment of ,french grace and esprit1 the noble and amiable art of ,louis ,,xv1 which the melancholy1 life-emitting ,watteau1 ,boucher1 and ,fragonard cause to hover before us as in the clouds of a dream4 ,classicism1 however1 attained through it a new and stronger basis1 a certain connection with modern life1 since it was transposed by it from the ,museum of ,antiquity into the middle of the ,place de la ,concorde beneath the guillotine4 ,what the age of the ,revolution demanded of art was at all events not a noble style1 as ,vien had required of it1 but rather in the first place a ,spartan virtue4 ,various philosophical writers had drawn a parallel between the organisation of the old and the modern state2 they had exerted themselves to show that the old ,republics were models of an almost absolute perfection1 which the modern should1 in so far as it was possible1 imitate4 ,they had contrasted the moral conditions of ,sparta and the ,roman ,republic with the moral constitution of contemporary1 monarchical ,france4 ,they had quoted on every opportunity the acts of virtue1 renunciation1 courage1 and patriotic sacrifice of the great men of antiquity2 they had used these deeds as a means of proving their thesis1 and their ideas aroused deep echoes in men's hearts4 ,illustration3 ,,elisabeth ,,vig,e-,,lebrun4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,the ,,painter ,,with ,,her ,,daughter4 ,the sentiment of ,rome had entered into the people as a thing of flesh and blood even before the catastrophe had ensued4 ,we were more prepared1 wrote ,nodier1 for the particular tone of the language of the ,revolution than people would have believed1 and it cost us little pains to pass from the studies of our gymnases to the strife of the forum4 ,in the schools we had prize compositions set of this kind3 ,who stands higher1 the elder ,brutus who judged his children1 or the younger ,brutus who judged his father8 ,and so ,livy and ,tacitus have done more to overthrow the monarchical system than ,voltaire and ,rousseau4 ,it was evident then that ,france1 so soon as she had freed herself from her kings1 so soon as she had spoken the word ,republic1 must take the ,roman ,republic as her pattern4 ,people lived in an atmosphere of antiquity2 the great citizens of ,rome and ,athens were ranged with the ,french ,national ,convention2 ,scvola1 ,scipio1 ,cato1 ,cincinnatus1 were the idols of the populace4 ,the speakers in the council cited the ancients in preference2 ,madame ,vige-,lebrun gave soupers la ,grecque4 ,everything was ordered according to the ,voyage d',anacharsis--garments1 viands1 amusements1 and the table1 all were ,athenian4 ,madame ,lebrun herself was ,aspasia2 ,m4 l',abb ,barthlmy1 in a ,greek dress with a laurel wreath on his head1 recited a poem2 ,m4 de ,cabiers played the golden lyre as ,memnon1 and young boys waited at table as slaves4 ,the table itself was set entirely with ,greek utensils1 and all the viands were actually those of ancient ,greece4 ,children were given ,greek and ,roman names4 ,people called themselves ,romans4 ,mais1 je l'aimais1 ,romains6 cried ,coulon at the death of ,mirabeau4 ,paris is ,rome4 ,in the theatre the bust of ,brutus is set opposite that of ,voltaire1 and the actor says3 ,o buste rver de ,brutus1 d'un grand homme1 transport dans ,paris tu n'as point quitt ,rome4 ,and as with the bust of ,brutus in the theatre1 that of ,mucius ,scvola appears in the cafs1 which ,parisian journalists1 still full of remembrances of ancient history studied in the gymnasium1 liken to the ,lyceum and the ,porch4 ,in every case ancient ,rome is set up as the exemplar4 ,the ,parisian collection of engravings on copper possesses a reproduction of the guillotine1 with the inscription3 ,a similar machine was used for the execution of the ,roman1 ,titus ,manlius4 ,a valet committed suicide1 and quoted the illustrious example of ,seneca4 ,had it been possible1 people would have gladly thrown themselves back eighteen hundred years into the past1 with all its grandeur1 its simplicity1 and its ruthlessness4 ,political and social forms did not suffice2 even the implements and costume of the ancients were again brought into honour4 ,furniture put on antiquarian shapes2 the walls were decorated la ,grecque4 ,the lively frivolity of rococo1 with its freaks and fancies1 was no longer adapted to the boudoir of the age of revolution1 now transformed into the political council-room4 ,twists and curves were no longer permitted3 everything had to be straightforward1 logical1 ungenerous1 inexorable4 ,men went clad wretchedly1 with red ,phrygian caps and no breeches4 ,women and girls cast aside their ordinary attire and put on straight1 falling drapery1 discarded their heeled shoes and bound sandals round their feet1 shook the powder from their locks and tied their hair in a ,greek knot4 ,dressed in white raiment without adornment1 but decked in the virtue of simplicity1 they appeared in the cabinet of the president1 in order to surrender their jewels for the salvation of their country1 like those ,roman matrons in the time of ,camillus4 ,and1 in co-operation with the building up of this new world1 painting also advanced4 ,it was only when it assisted to arouse civic virtue1 it was said at a sitting of the jury at the ,salon of #agic1 that painting could possess a right to exist in the new state1 and as the handmaid of this patriotism might fulfil an even higher mission than it had done in ancient ,greece and ,rome4 ,the ,greeks and ,romans were indeed only slaves1 but we ,french are by nature free1 philosophers in character1 virtuous in our every perception1 and artists through our taste4 ,in proportion as the ,french ,republic transcended the old free states1 so too must ,french art take the lead of the antique4 ,all that stimulated art in ,greece1 the gymnastic exercises1 the public games1 the national festivals1 is also accessible to the ,french1 who possess above all that which the ,greeks lacked1 the feeling for true liberty4 ,to depict the history of a free people is indeed quite another mission for the true genius than to embody scenes out of mythology4 ,through this fresh nuance1 which classicism thus acquired1 the ground was cut from under the feet of those who devoted themselves to the study of the antique as conceived by ,diderot4 ,the new moral age would have no traffic with those artists in whom the last smile of the eighteenth century was personified4 ,their pictures1 full of grace and caprice1 fell into the same disrepute into which everything of yesterday had come1 and it was only with a bitter smile that they followed the course of events4 ,the younger ,moreau1 that animated master of rococo1 became academically cold and tedious when he designed his book on the ,french costume of the ,revolution4 ,the good ,fragonard1 who was only fifty-nine in #aghi1 and lived till #ahjf1 saw himself hooted in spite of his ,choereas4 ,he1 the true representative of frivolous tenderness1 of fair and roseate hues1 had lost every right to exist in the new world1 and ended his life by a sad death when1 after the ,reign of ,terror1 there was no longer a place for ftes galantes4 ,a delightful portrait of himself1 which he painted in the first period of the ,revolution1 shows us an old man1 clothed entirely in black1 softly melancholy1 standing in a formal1 dusky-brown salon4 ,on the table on which his arm rests lies a guitar1 at his feet a portfolio of engravings2 but he neither plays the guitar nor looks at the prints4 ,in the shadows of the falling evening he reminds himself forlornly of past days1 and his bald forehead1 where so many rose-coloured dreams have passed1 is overcast with gloomy shadows4 ,greuze1 too1 outlived himself4 ,it was no use for him to pretend more and more to the utmost virtue1 and to paint an ,ariadne at ,naxos4 ,he died in misery and oblivion in #ahje4 ,the demands which this new classicism made were able to be satisfied by no one any longer1 not even by ,vien4 ,however loudly he might proclaim himself a student of the ,greeks1 he1 nevertheless1 remained a very timid and lukewarm revolutionary4 ,an old man1 cold and peaceful and stolid1 moderate in everything1 he had neither the energy nor the audacity of the reformer4 ,he had been the ,court painter of ,louis ,,xvi1 a most monarchically disposed and loyal man1 and was a suspect on this ground alone to those who were in power in #aghi4 ,his pictures1 too1 describe no more than the end of a world4 ,greuze1 ,fragonard1 and ,vien1 in spite of their assumed seriousness1 survived only as gallant phantoms in the new age1 by the side of those men of more rugged countenance who inaugurated the nineteenth century4 ,illustration3 ,,jacques ,,louis ,,david4 ,l',art4 ,jacques ,louis ,david first satisfied the new requirements1 and in so doing lent to ,french classicism1 if only for a few years1 a certain touch of far greater vivacity4 ,he it was who carried through1 in all its consequence1 that reformation in taste which ,vien had sought in externals1 in costume1 furniture and decoration2 who inspired the gems painted by ,vien with republican pathos1 and became in this way the great herald of that age which read ,plutarch and made ,paris into a modern ,sparta4 ,david1 ,prix de ,rome after three successive failures1 still came from that corrupt epoch against which ,republican prudery was so excited4 ,at the age of twenty-six he had already painted ,soffits1 in the manner of his kinsman ,boucher1 to say it with respect4 ,but the journey to ,rome converted ,saul into ,paul4 ,in #agge ,vien1 on his appointment as director of the ,roman ,academy1 had taken him to ,italy as his best pupil1 and hardly dreamt at that time that this young man would strike out on such an entirely new path from his ,roman studies4 ,he did not wait for the ,revolution to be converted2 when the hour struck he was ready4 ,thus his first pictures were in a manner the prelude to the ,revolution4 ,in them he had already quite consciously entered upon the road along which he was to go later4 ,his ,oath of the ,horatii and his ,brutus1 both painted in ,rome in #aghd1 proclaimed his programme4 ,the little1 rosy loves1 the doves of ,venus1 and all the charming frivolity and gallantry of rococo1 received their final dismissal1 and rough men walked in their stead4 ,he broke his staff over all that he had previously venerated1 and declared loudly that he had sinned when in his youth he had believed in the flowery palette of rococo1 and completed in tender tones those ceiling frescoes which ,fragonard had commenced in the house of ,mdlle4 ,guimard4 ,capricious frivolities had to make way for a manlier art1 matter that was worthy to rivet the gaze of a free nation upon itself4 ,already1 long before the taking of the ,bastille1 the painting of young ,david was valued by the rising generation as the artistic embodiment of their political ideas1 imbibed while they were still at school4 ,when the ,horatii was completed it was not only old ,pompeo ,battoni who exclaimed1 when he saw the picture in ,david's ,roman studio1 ,tu ed io soli siamo pittori1 pel rimanente si puo gettarlo nel fiume4 ,in ,paris his success was universal2 all the critics were unanimous in praise2 ,david was the man after the heart of the age1 for his picture was the first which spoke clearly and perceptibly of the pathos of the revolution which stood at the threshold4 ,people saw in it an example of patriotism which knew no obstacles1 since not even love for their sister1 who was betrothed to the enemy1 prevailed upon the ,horatii to refrain from combat with the ,curiati4 ,his next picture1 ,brutus as he received the lictors1 when they bring him the bodies of his sons who have been implicated in a monarchical conspiracy1 was greeted as allegorical of the incorruptible justice of republicanism4 ,the populace saw in it the glorification of the chastisement of all traitors to liberty1 and acclaimed ,david because he had founded the sinewy style which should characterise the heroic deeds of the revolutionaries1 children of liberty1 equality1 and fraternity4 ,and one understands--when one also adds the influence of ,napoleon--this reaction of military simplicity against the effeminacy of rococo4 ,illustration3 ,,david4 ,,madame ,r,,camier4 ,david1 at the outbreak of the ,revolution1 no longer a young man1 but forty years old1 was the terrible painter of the age1 its despotic dictator4 ,as a deputy in the ,convention he not only ruled over painting1 but also imposed his taste upon sculpture1 ivory work1 goldsmiths' work1 and decoration4 ,he designed the new costumes for the deputies and ministers4 ,as organiser of public ftes1 he brought to life again the whole of republican ,rome4 ,he was one of those rare artists who are the men of their hour4 ,to a new plebeian race1 to whose feverishly excited patriotism the soft1 luxurious1 aristocratically reprehensible art of rococo must seem as a mockery of all the rights of men1 he showed1 for the first time1 the man1 the hero who died for an idea or for his country2 and he gave this man huge and elastic muscles1 like those of a gladiator who struggles in the arena4 ,he was a second ,hercules1 cleansing the ,augan stables2 with his own strong shoulders he thrust back the petulant band of painters who had tarried too long in the island of ,cythera4 ,he applied art to the heroism of the day1 gave it the martial attitude of patriotism1 inspired it with the spirit of ,robespierre1 ,st4 ,just1 and ,danton4 ,the more obtrusively his heroes paraded their patriotism1 the more people saw in them a picture of the ,french nation1 as true as a transposition could hope to be4 ,this strained rhetorical pathos dwelt in the mind of the age4 ,talma moved the people to enthusiasm when he played the ,horatii of ,corneille in the classic cothurnus4 ,when ,david painted1 the state declamations of the orators still rang in his ears4 ,robespierre is said to have spoken from the tribune slowly1 rhythmically1 artistically3 a ,bossuet in his rostrum1 a ,boileau in his chair1 while the volcano quivered beneath his very feet3 his philippics were carefully divided into three sections1 like academic discourses3 his patriotism resolved itself into tirades with correctly composed periods4 ,in ,david's pictures we have an exact correspondence with all this3 the rigid classicality of his composition1 figures grouped as though on parade2 his cold pathos1 the counterpart to that of the orators' fine sentiments set forth in fine phrases4 ,the great distinction between the beginning of modern art in ,germany and in ,france is that in ,france the new style was not only called forth by the influence of a scientific programme from outside1 but stood in conjunction with a great transformation in culture1 and that it was compelled at first to concern itself not only with imitation and philological retrospect1 but with the free expression of the characteristically modern spirit4 ,german art had no new pronouncement to make through the medium of the antique2 it followed1 on the other hand1 the programme of an artistically barren scholar who forgot that archology is not art1 recommended imitation as the path to perfection1 and perpetually reminded the artists who followed him how widely they deviated from the correct lines of the model4 ,afterwards they rebuke it1 and say it is not antique and consequently not good art1 as ,albrecht ,drer had complained of such people4 ,in the earnest sentiment1 the exalted ,roman spirit1 the declaiming over rugged1 masculine virtues1 freedom and patriotism1 that found expression in ,david's first pictures1 there lived something of the ,catonian spirit of the ,terror2 and that still gives them historical value4 ,his enthusiasm was not1 first and foremost1 for antique art1 but for the ideas of country1 duty1 freedom1 progress4 ,the words antiquity and democracy were of like meaning to him4 ,illustration3 ,,david4 ,,the ,,oath ,,of ,,the ,,horatii4 ,and how thoroughly this man was permeated with the spirit of his age is shown still more when he discarded the cothurnus1 boldly attacked the present1 and gave himself up entirely to the delineation of what came under his direct observation in his own life and experience4 ,there he became not only a rhetorician1 a revolutionary agitator1 but a really great painter4 ,lepelletier on his death-bed1 the assassinated ,marat1 and the dead ,barre1 are works of a mighty naturalist4 ,lepelletier1 one of the many deputies who had voted for the death of ,louis ,,xvi1 was treacherously assassinated in ,paris1 on #bjth ,january #agic1 by a valet of the king's4 ,the body was publicly exhibited2 ,david painted it1 and on #bith ,march presented the picture to the ,convention4 ,as the portrait of the first ,martyr of ,liberty1 it was hung in the ,convention chamber4 ,on #acth ,july #agic ,marat1 the man-of-terror1 fell a victim to the knife of ,charlotte ,corday4 ,david was presiding at the ,jacobin ,club when the news was brought him1 and he embraced the citizen who had arrested the girl4 ,deputations of the people appeared in the ,convention to express their grief for the heavy loss4 ,suddenly a voice was heard to cry3 ,o es tu1 ,david8 ,tu as transmis la posterit l'image de ,lepelletier mourant pour la patrie1 il te reste encore un tableau faire4 ,silence succeeded in the ,assembly4 ,then ,david started up3 ,je le ferai4 ,on #aath ,october he informed the ,convention that his ,marat was finished4 ,the people asked for their murdered man back again1 longed to look once more on the features of their truest friend4 ,they cried to me3 ',david1 take up your brush1 avenge ,marat1 so that the enemy may blanch when they perceive the distorted countenance of the man who became the victim of his love for freedom4' ,i heard the voice of the people1 and obeyed4 ,thus ,david spoke in the ,assembly when he presented the ,republic with the picture of the murdered man--one of the most thrilling representations of that awful age4 ,the body is lying in the bath4 ,only the naked upper part of the body1 and the head1 with a dirty cloth tied round it1 and fallen back upon the right shoulder1 are visible2 one hand1 resting back on the side of the bath1 still holds a paper in a convulsive grip2 the other hangs down limp and dead to the ground4 ,over this head1 with the half-closed eyelids1 and the mouth distorted from the death-throes1 ,caravaggio would have rejoiced1 there is such keen naturalism in every stroke of the brush4 ,like ,gricault1 in later times1 ,david was then a regular visitor at the ,morgue1 attended at executions1 and took an interest in the convulsive muscular movements of the guillotined4 ,and the colour1 too1 like the drawing1 is of a naturalistic strength to which he never again attained4 ,the light falls slantingly on the corpse from above and throws the head1 shoulder1 and one arm into strong relief1 while all the rest is left in obscurity4 ,in this awful still-life of uncompromising reality and tragical grandeur he has created a work in the midst of an age of storm which will survive all storms and all changes of taste4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,david4 ,,the ,,rape ,,of ,,the ,,sabines4 ,illustration3 ,,david4 ,,helen ,,and ,,paris4 ,his portraits have no less strikingly survived the fiery ordeal of time4 ,in them1 too1 he is neither rhetorical nor cold1 but full of fire and the freshness of youth4 ,face to face with his model1 he forgot the ,greeks and ,romans1 saw life alone1 was rejuvenated in the youth-giving fount of nature1 and painted--almost alone of the painters of his generation--the truth4 ,here his effect1 when otherwise he was lacking in all navet1 is actually nave and intimate4 ,the best painters have never treated flesh better4 ,he had an aversion to palette tones1 and sought after nature with unexampled attention4 ,the fine pearl-grey of his colouring is as delicate as it is distinguished2 in his portraits1 especially1 the relief-tones of blue and light rose seem almost to anticipate the delicate1 toned-down tints of modern ,impressionism4 ,himself an ardent ,revolutionist1 he was1 as it were1 created to be the portrayer of those men of an austerity like ,cato's1 and those women with their free1 masculine1 proud gaze2 that valiant generation that felt within itself a desire to begin civilisation again and found religion anew4 ,the portrait of ,lavoisier and his wife reminds one in its refinement of ,madame ,vige-,lebrun4 ,the chemist is sitting by a table covered with instruments2 his wife1 in an elegant light gown1 bends attentively over him4 ,the picture dates from #aghh1 and it still looks like some good work of the age of ,louis ,,xvi4 ,again1 how intimate is the effect of the marvellous portrait of ,michael ,grard and his family4 ,the good man1 in his shirt-sleeves1 seems to feel really at home2 a small boy is leaning against his knee1 a girl is playing on the clavicorde4 ,there is not the slightest suggestion of pose or a conventional type of beauty in this stout old gentleman sitting so comfortably in his bourgeois nglig1 and with honest eyes gazing out so inquisitively round him4 ,in a few other pictures the spiritual life of women is portrayed with remarkable tenderness4 ,one of the earliest is the exceptionally fine portrait of his mother-in-law1 ,madame ,pcoult1 in #aghc2 then1 in #agij1 the portrait of the ,marquise d',orvilliers1 with that expression of dreamy languor which plays round the eyes of the beautiful woman4 ,the ,louvre possesses1 in the portrait of ,madame ,rcamier1 perhaps the most charming and attractive woman's portrait that ,david ever painted4 ,the beautiful ,juliette lies stretched on a divan of antique pattern4 ,she wears a white dress1 her soft rosy feet are bare4 ,the arrangement of the room coquettes primly with that simplicity which was paraded at the time4 ,apart from the divan1 there is only a huge bronze candelabra to be seen4 ,then there is ,barere's portrait4 ,he stands on the tribune1 and delivers the speech which is to cost ,louis ,,xvi his life4 ,the face is small and insignificant1 the gaze cold and harsh1 and on the mouth there is a shadow of bitter hate and narrow fanaticism4 ,but the triumph of these portraits of men is that of ,bonaparte4 ,david was one of the first of the men of the ,revolution to come beneath the spell of the ,little ,corporal4 ,one day1 while he was working in his studio at the ,louvre1 a pupil rushed in breathlessly3 ,general ,bonaparte is outside the door6 ,napoleon entered in a dark-blue coat that made his lean yellow face look leaner and yellower than ever4 ,david dismissed his pupils1 and drew1 in a sitting of barely two hours1 the stern head of the ,corsican4 ,thus he passed into the service of ,napoleon4 ,this man1 who viewed himself only as the coping-stone of the ,republic--after the example of ,augustus when he transformed the ,roman ,republic into the ,empire--was unwilling to show any opposition to the republican tastes4 ,the first painter of the ,republic was appointed to be the ,imperial ,court painter4 ,what he had been under ,robespierre he was under ,napoleon3 the dictator of his age1 who maintained a supremacy over the whole of art similar to that which ,lebrun held beneath ,louis ,,xiv4 ,the ,marat was the great work of his revolutionary1 the ,coronation of his monarchical period1--that colossal picture which1 completed between #ahjf and #ahjg1 has handed down to posterity a true representation of the ceremonial pageants that took place in ,notre ,dame on #bnd ,december #ahjd4 ,the moment selected is when ,napoleon places the crown1 which is carried on a velvet cushion by the ,duc de ,berg1 upon the head of the ,empress1 who kneels before him in a white robe and a crimson mantle4 ,the picture contains portraits of all the personages present at the ceremony1 amongst them being ,david himself1 as he stands on a platform and sketches at a small table4 ,the whole composition of this picture and the grouping of the figures is full of stately gravity4 ,real energy and patience must have been required to paint this immense picture1 though it shows not the least sign of fatigue4 ,with the exception of ,menzel's ,coronation of ,william ,i1 ,i know of no historical picture of the century of as high an artistic value1 with the like noble sublimity of colour1 with so tender1 quivering a light4 ,there are certain portions of the ,coronation in which the white robes1 the deep-red velvet of the mantles1 and gold embroideries affect us like a symphony in colours4 ,when the picture was completed ,napoleon visited ,david's studio1 accompanied by the ,empress1 his ministers1 and his staff4 ,the ,court drew up1 and the ,emperor moved up and down in front of the picture1 hat in hand1 for more than half an hour1 examining it in all its details4 ,finally1 with one of those dramatic effects of which he was so fond1 he lightly raised his hat3 ,c'est bien1 trs bien2 ,david1 je vous salue4 ,illustration3 ,,david4 ,,belisarius ,,asking ,,alms4 ,david had now still better opportunities than at an earlier period of proving his great capacity as a portrait painter4 ,his portraits of the ,emperor1 of the ,pope1 of ,cardinal ,caprara1 and of ,murat symbolise the brutal greatness of an age which worshipped strength4 ,even at the close of his life1 when the ,restoration had exiled him from ,france1 there resulted in ,brussels graceful and tenderly observed portraits1 such as that of the daughter of ,joseph ,bonaparte1 which will perpetuate his name4 ,one1 in the ,praet ,collection at ,brussels--three women of indescribable ugliness--marks the pinnacle of his pictorial strength and keen naturalism4 ,they are the ,three ,fates of #ahaj1 and he has painted them with the true artist's delight1 and with a massiveness like that of ,frans ,hals4 ,when these works were brought together at the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahhi1 universal astonishment prevailed when it was discovered what a great painter this ,louis ,david was4 ,he appeared in these pictures as an artist who stood completely within his age1 who shared its passions and was permeated by its greatness2 he even appeared as a charmeur who handled the phenomena of colour and light as few others have done4 ,it is true1 ,david showed himself in this favourable light at the exhibition only because the entirely archological side of his talent was not represented4 ,for at the bottom of his heart he too was an archologist4 ,many of his works1 such as ,the ,death of ,socrates1 ,brutus1 ,the ,oath in the ,tennis ,court1 and ,the ,rape of the ,sabines1 are specimens of a barren theory4 ,against all the caprice of the eighteenth century1 with its charming1 alluring grace1 he opposed a strict1 inexorable system1 as he believed he saw it in the antique4 ,simplicity1 however1 beneath his hands became dryness1 nobility formal4 ,he saw in painting a sort of abstract geometry for which there existed hard-and-fast forms4 ,there was something mathematical in his effort after dry correctness and erudite accuracy4 ,the infinite variety of life with its eternal changes was hidden from his sight4 ,the beautiful1 he taught with ,winckelmann1 does not exist in a single individual2 it is only possible to create a type of it by comparison and through composition4 ,the human being of art ought always to be a copy of that perfect being1 primitive man1 whom the ,roman sculptors had still before their eyes1 but who had deteriorated in the course of ages4 ,thus in ,france1 too1 the sensuous art of painting was converted into an abstract science of sthetics4 ,the classic ideal weighed upon ,french art and prescribed for all alike the same heroic style1 the same elevation1 the same marble coldness and monotony of colour4 ,jean-,baptiste ,regnault1 and ,franois ,andr ,vincent1 whose studios were most frequented after ,david's1 worshipped the same gods4 ,after ,david's departure1 ,gurin1 in particular1 endeavoured to bequeath to the students those genuinely academic rules which his pupil1 ,delacroix1 has summed up in these words3 ,in order to make an ideal head of a negro1 our teachers make him resemble as far as possible the profile of ,antinous1 and then say1 ',we have done our utmost2 if he is1 nevertheless1 not beautiful1 we must altogether abstain from this freak of nature1 with his squat nose and thick lips1 so unendurable to the eyes4' ,when he had to paint his ,insurrection in ,cairo1 therefore1 ,egyptians as well as ,arabs must first be supplied with heads of ,antinous and transformed from modern soldiers into ancient warriors1 ,romans of the time of ,romulus1 before they could enter into the kingdom of art4 ,everything was sacrificed to line1--an inflexible1 inexorable1 correct1 and icy line1 the conventional1 ideal line1--not the true line which follows from observation of the infinite variety of nature4 ,nevertheless1 even in works constructed as these were by rule and line1 we cannot fail to be impressed by the technical ability displayed by the artist4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,david4 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,marat4 ,france1 who in her outward relations has generally had a feverish longing for change1 has been in literary and artistic respects1 as a rule1 exceedingly conservative1 has upheld authority1 supported an academy1 and prized limitations and proportion above everything4 ,they had upset the monarchy1 murdered the hated aristocrats1 built up the republic1 done away with ,christianity before they ever thought of touching the three unities of the drama4 ,voltaire1 who had a reverence for nothing in heaven or earth1 respected the received treatment of the ,alexandrine verse4 ,and ,david1 the great painter of the ,revolution1 who cast the pictures of ,boucher out of the ,louvre1 and whose pupils used to shoot bread-crumbs at ,watteau's masterpiece1 the ,voyage ,cythre1 yet conveyed with him into the new age1 as an inheritance from rococo1 its prodigious knowledge4 ,the good old traditions of the technique of ,french painting were little shaken by him and his school4 ,the ,academy described by ,quatremre as the eternal nursery garden of incurable prejudices1 was indeed overthrown1 but ,david became immediately the head of a new one4 ,this age of absorption in politics developed an art to correspond1 more disciplined than ever1 girt round by an iron cuirass2 and this art1 notwithstanding multifarious phases1 at no time lost its touch1 technically1 with the acquisitions of former epochs1 but evolved itself in its various directions from one centre1 distracted from its path by nothing brought into it from outside4 ,gricault1 ,delacroix1 ,courbet1 and ,manet1 widely as they differ from one another1 are links in one chain of evolution4 ,art comes from knowledge4 ,this maxim1 which ,david held in honour1 has remained to the present day a dominant force in ,french art1 and by virtue of this knowledge1 which ,david received from the old masters and guarded as a sacred trust1 ,france became in the nineteenth century the chief school of technique for all other nations4 ,from the ,french the other nations learned their grammar and syntax2 through them they acquired a wider horizon and a deeper insight into the great mystery of nature4 ,decoration ,,book ,,ii ,,the ,,escape ,,into ,,the ,,past ,,chapter ,v ,,the ,,nazarenes ,herein lies the great difference between ,france and ,germany4 ,although following along new lines1 the art of ,france did not thereby suffer as regards the quality of its execution2 in spite of all ,classicism it remained the disciplined art of the schools4 ,these favourable preliminaries were lacking in ,germany4 ,it was not allotted to ,german painting to grow up in nave contentment with the technical inheritance of its forefathers1 but1 on the contrary1 at the entrance of its new career it broke so completely with its predecessor--the art of the eighteenth century--that it could no longer adopt even its technical traditions4 ,it arose out of the negation of earlier art1 an absolute negation such as the world had never seen before4 ,it began with a self-made man who had never acquired the charter of craftsmanship1 who never learnt to paint4 ,in ,france1 revolutionary pictures inspired with intense pathos1 and frankly naturalistic portraits of masterly technique2 with ,carstens1 outlines showing refined feeling1 but faulty very generally in execution1 sketches drawn roughly with the pencil1 crayon1 or red chalk4 ,it had taken many generations of painters1 whose lives had been spent in careful devotion to the work1 to collect the technical capital which ,carstens so carelessly flung to the winds4 ,the next step along this way was taken by the ,nazarenes4 ,just as it was inevitable that cold and lifeless ,classicism should follow the brightness and animation of rococo1 so it was necessary1 according to the law of extremes which alternate in every evolution of culture1 that1 next to the antique1 should come its exact opposite1 the ,gothic or ,middle ,ages4 ,the antique was so monotonous that people longed for variety of colour again2 it was so cold and statuesque that they longed for something soulful1 so ,greek and pagan and severe that they hankered again after something ,christian1 would believe again like children4 ,even in the young days of the old pagan1 ,goethe1 religion formed the favourite topic of the beaux esprits1 and in the same year1 #agig1 that ,carstens died1 this cult of the emotional life found1 for the first time1 expression in literature4 ,in every library one finds a dainty1 finely printed book in small octavo1 without the author's name1 with the title ,herzensergiessungen eines ,kunstliebenden ,klosterbruders1 and with a sort of head of ,raphael as a frontispiece1 in which1 with his prominent eyes1 full lips1 and long neck1 he looks like some intellectual1 ,christ-inspired1 consumptive enthusiast4 ,it is the pale1 gentle face of ,wackenroder4 ,illustration3 ,,frederick ,,overbeck4 ,first ,winckelmann1 then ,wackenroder4 ,in the very personalities of these two the whole opposition between ,classicism and the ,nazarenes is reflected4 ,a student barely twenty years old1 a mild1 modest1 contemplative soul1 who had attached himself from early youth with womanly devotion to his more energetic friend ,tieck1 and written letters to him that read like a young girl's effusions to her sweetheart1 he entered the ,erlanger ,university with his friend at the ,easter of #agic4 ,they saw ,nuremberg4 ,more than once they made pilgrimages to the old fashioned town1 the treasury of ,german art2 and the spirit of the past powerfully inspired them4 ,whilst for ,lessing and ,winckelmann ,gothic art only meant barbarian art1 the wonders of ,nuremberg were now observed with fresh eyes4 ,in a sort of intoxication of art the friends wandered through churches1 stood by the graves of ,albrecht ,drer and ,peter ,vischer1 and a vanished world rose before them4 ,the spires and turrets behind falling walls and ramparts1 the old1 stately1 patrician houses1 which jutted out their oriel windows1 as it were with curiosity1 into the crooked streets1 were peopled to their imagination with picturesque figures in bonnet and hose from that great time when ,nuremberg was the living1 swarming school of native art1 when an exuberant1 artistic spirit governed within its walls1 when ,master ,hans ,sachs and ,adam ,kraft and ,peter ,vischer and ,albrecht ,drer and ,willibald ,pirkheymer were alive4 ,shortly after that they came to ,dresden1 and devoted themselves in the gallery there to an enthusiastic cult of the ,madonna4 ,the ,herzensergiessungen eines ,kunstliebenden ,klosterbruders1 which appeared a year before ,wackenroder's death in his twenty-sixth year1 was the result of these wanderings and studies4 ,in this tender production of a visionary youth the spirit of ,romantic art found expression4 ,winckelmann was an archologist2 ,wackenroder1 an enthusiast of the ,middle ,ages2 on the one side knowledge only1 on the other all feeling2 for the one1 paganism1 for the other1 ,christ4 ,for it is from the first a leading principle of the ,klosterbruder1 that the finest stream of life only issues from the streams of art and religion when they flow in company4 ,he valued the older painters because they had made painting the true handmaid of religion2 art was to him an object of devotion4 ,picture galleries1 he says1 ought to be temples2 he would liken the enjoyment of works of art to prayer2 let it be a holy feast day to him if he go with a serious and composed mind to their observance2 indeed1 reverence for art and reverence for ,god were so closely interwoven that he was fain to kneel down before art1 and offer it the homage of an eternal and boundless love4 ,this devotion to art1 of which he himself was full1 he found nowhere in his times4 ,the age of enlightenment was to him an undevout and inartistic age4 ,only in his wanderings through the uneven streets of ,nuremberg did the deepest yearning of his soul seem satisfied4 ,he applied himself to medival1 and especially to ,german art4 ,his standpoint is the same which the young ,goethe had adopted when he intervened with ,herder for ,german style and art1 and dedicated his pamphlet on ,german architecture to the shade of ,erwin von ,steinbach4 ,he is reluctant that one should condemn the ,middle ,ages because they did not build such temples as the ,greeks1 any more than that one should condemn the ,indians because they spoke their language and not our own4 ,it is not only beneath ,italian skies1 under majestic domes and ,corinthian columns1 that true art thrives1 it lives too under pointed arches1 intricately decorated buildings1 and ,gothic spires4 ,illustration3 ,,overbeck4 ,,the ,,annunciation4 ,it was all said so simply and heartily that soon the whole world began to be ,wackenroderite4 ,the ingenious and enthusiastic youth was succeeded by theoretic reasoners4 ,tieck1 who published his ,phantasies upon ,art in #agii1 after ,wackenroder's death1 and amplified it with his own explanations1 was no longer a genuine but a counterfeit ,klosterbruder4 ,he first played with ,catholicism1 and uttered the momentous sentence3 ,the best of the later masters up to the most recent times have had no other aim than to imitate some one of the primitive or typical artists1 or even several together2 nor have they easily become great by any other method than by having successfully imitated somebody4 ,his ,sternbald is still more haunted by the spirit of monastic devotion4 ,illustration3 ,,overbeck4 ,,the ,,naming ,,of ,,st4 ,,john4 ,illustration3 ,,overbeck4 ,,christ ,,healing ,,the ,,sick4 ,the particular starting-point was in this case too1 as it had been before for ,winckelmann1 the ,dresden ,gallery1 where1 at the turn of the century1 ,augustus ,william and ,frederick ,schlegel1 the two ,gotter-buben1 held their cultured rendezvous4 ,the ,schlegels had taken possession of the gallery1 wrote ,dora ,stock1 and with ,schelling and ,gries spent almost every morning there4 ,it was a joy to see them writing and teaching there4 ,sometimes they talked to me about art4 ,i felt myself often quite paltry1 ,i was so far from any wisdom4 ,fichte1 too1 they initiated into their secrets4 ,you would have laughed if you could have seen them drag him about and assail him with their convictions4 ,the journal ,europa1 founded by ,frederick ,schlegel in #ahjc1 became the rallying-point of the new movement1 and his articles published therein contained the germs of all the efforts and errors of the young school4 ,in his discourse on ,raphael he compares the pre-,raphaelite period with that succeeding it1 and considers the proposition that indubitably the corruption of art was originally brought about by the newer school which was marked by ,raphael1 ,titian1 ,correggio1 ,giulio ,romano1 and ,michael ,angelo so unquestionable that he does not find it in the least necessary to prove it4 ,he casually puts forward as an obiter dictum dropped in amongst a series of quite opposed notions the idea that every art ought to have a national foundation1 and that any imitation of a foreign form of art is deleterious4 ,the result follows that it is to be deplored that an evil genius has alienated artists from the circle of ideas and the subjects of the old painters4 ,culture can only attach itself to what has been constituted4 ,how natural it would be1 then1 if painters were to go on in the old way1 and cast themselves anew into the ideas and disposition of the old painters4 ,the artist should follow the painters prior to ,raphael1 especially the oldest1 should strive to copy carefully their truth and simplicity long enough for it to become second nature to his eye2 or he may select the style of the old ,german school as a pattern4 ,illustration3 ,,overbeck4 ,,christ',s ,,entry ,,into ,,jerusalem4 ,illustration3 ,,overbeck4 ,,the ,,resurrection4 ,the latter counsel originated from the discovery in #ahjd of the ,cologne ,cathedral picture1 referred to by ,schlegel in his ,europa4 ,through the secularisation of the monasteries1 attention was again directed to the old ecclesiastical pictures which people had hitherto passed by unnoticed4 ,from the monasteries1 churches1 guild halls1 and castles which the ,french had plundered1 countless masses of paintings of every sort were extricated4 ,a great deal perished2 nearly all1 however1 that had hitherto been kept as heirlooms1 and for the most part almost inaccessible1 now became movable1 attainable property4 ,the brothers ,boissere began their celebrated collection1 which is to be seen to-day in the ,munich ,pinakothek4 ,while hitherto one had1 at the most1 known of ,drer1 now one touched upon an age which lay behind the ,reformation1 an age in which ,catholicism was flourishing1 in which not great artists but nameless monks represented art1 and it was soon all fire and ardour over the sweetness1 navet1 and faith of these pictures4 ,fernow had still pronounced generally against the capacity of the ,catholic religion1 with its ,jewish-,christian mythology and martyrology1 to satisfy the demands of a pure taste in art4 ,carstens had written down for himself the sentence from ,webb's work3 ,the art of the ancients was rich in august and captivating figures3 their gods had grace1 majesty1 and beauty4 ,how much meaner is the lot of the moderns6 ,their art is subservient to the priests4 ,their characters are taken from the lowest spheres of life--men of humble descent and uncouth manners4 ,even their ,divine ,master is in painting nowhere to be seen according to a great idea2 ,his long1 smooth hair1 ,his ,jewish beard and sickly appearance would deprive the most exalted beings of any semblance of dignity4 ,meekness and humility1 ,his characteristic traits1 are virtues edifying in the extreme but in no way picturesque4 ,this lack of dignity in the subject renders it intelligible why we look so coldly at these works in the churches and galleries4 ,the genius of painting expends its strength in vain on ,crucifixions1 ,holy ,families1 ,last ,suppers1 and the like4 ,not five years had elapsed after ,carstens' death when1 according to an impression of ,dorothea ,veit1 ,christianity was once more the order of the day4 ,william ,schlegel's poem1 ,the ,church's ,alliance with the ,arts1 from which1 later1 ,overbeck borrowed the thought for his picture1 can be looked upon1 as ,goethe already wrote1 as the true profession of faith of the young school4 ,where previously ,augustus ,william had described in his sonnets the ,io1 ,leda1 and ,cleopatra of the ,dresden ,gallery1 it was now the ,madonna who received the homage of the gallant poet4 ,by ,frederick1 ,christianity was recommended to the artist as a formal model and a source of sthetic enjoyment1--as it was1 at the same time1 by ,chateaubriand as prdilection d'artiste4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,overbeck4 ,,the ,,seven ,,lean ,,years4 ,even more profound did the tendency become during the ,war of ,independence1 which at the same time gave the death blow to ,classicism4 ,distress taught how to pray4 ,in those years of humiliation the young generation abandoned the classic ideal for ever1 and ,schenkendorf cried imperiously3 ,we would see no more pagan pictures on any ,german walls4 ,french frivolity was contrasted with ,german seriousness1 ,german ,christianity with the free-thought of the ,french2 there was a return from the cold philosophy of enlightenment to the vigorous feeling of medival faith4 ,frederick ,schlegel1 the author of ,lucinde1 who had written as lately as #agii3-- ,mein einzig ,religion ist die1 ,dass ich liebe ein schnes ,knie1 ,volle ,brust und schlanke ,hften1 ,dazu ,blumen mit sssen ,dften1 was converted to ,catholicism4 ,schelling wrote his ,philosophy of ,revelation2 ,grres1 the editor of the ,rothen ,blut1 ended as the author of the ,christian ,mystic4 ,here set in the period of the ,nazarenes4 ,what ,schlegel had said was to become true1 that the ,german artist has either no character at all or he must have the character of the medival masters1 true-hearted and thoughtful1 innocent withal1 and somewhat maladroit4 ,in architecture the ,hellenic school is succeeded by the ,gothic1 painting passes from the reverence of the ,greek statues to that of old ,italian pictures4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,julius ,,schnorr ,,von ,,carolsfeld4 ,rome remained for the ,nazarenes1 too1 the centre of influence1 only they no longer made pilgrimages1 like the ,classicists1 to ancient but to ,christian ,rome4 ,overbeck of ,lbeck came in #ahaj with ,pforr of ,frankfort and ,vogel of ,zrich2 the ,dsseldorfer1 ,cornelius1 followed in #ahaa1 ,schadow and ,veit of ,berlin in #ahae1 ,schnorr von ,carolsfeld of ,leipzig in #ahah1 the ,viennese ,fhrich and ,steinle in #ahbg and #ahbh4 ,in all of them there lived the perception that in such a serious age men should be of high moral endeavour1 and art the expression of the religious capacity of their lives4 ,illustration3 ,wigand1 ,leipzig4 ,,schnorr4 ,,adam ,,and ,,eve ,,after ,,the ,,fall4 ,there still stands to-day1 on a secluded hillock of the ,monte ,pincio a small church1 whose faade is adorned with the statues of ,st4 ,isidore1 the patron of husbandmen1 and of ,st4 ,patrick1 apostle of ,ireland4 ,a court with weather-beaten cloisters and an old well separates the church from the monastery which lies behind it1 where the cells of the monks1 ,irish and ,italian ,franciscans1 are placed4 ,above1 on the terrace of the house1 one has a charming view of ,rome and the ,campagna1 of ,monte ,cavo and the heights of ,tusculum4 ,below stretch the gardens of the ,capucin ,convent1 and farther back the grounds and avenues of the ,villa ,ludovisi4 ,on the first floor is a large hall1 the walls of which have been decorated by the hand of some old monk with frescoes1 and which1 formerly a refectory1 is used to-day as a theological lecture-room4 ,this was the room where ,overbeck and his friends in the first period after their arrival stood for one another as models4 ,lethire1 the director of the ,french ,academy1 had obtained permission for them to install themselves in the deserted rooms of the monastery of ,san ,isidoro1 which had been spared by ,napoleon1 for which they paid the small sum of three scudi monthly4 ,illustration3 ,,joseph ,f,,hrich4 ,graphische ,kunst4 ,we led a truly monastic life1 relates ,overbeck2 held ourselves aloof from all1 and lived only for art4 ,in the morning we marketed together2 at midday we took it in turns to cook our dinner1 which was composed of nothing but a soup and a pudding1 or some tasty vegetable1 and was seasoned only by earnest conversation on art4 ,overbeck1 as a good housekeeper1 kept accounts2 the principal items of the daily outlay occurred for polenta and risotto1 oranges and lemons2 every now and then oil1 too1 was noted down4 ,the afternoons were dedicated to the study of the creations of art in ,rome4 ,with beating hearts and holy awe they passed over the threshold of the ,stanze4 ,in the chapel of ,san ,lorenzo they became familiar with the seraphic ,fiesole1 whose frescoes transcend everything in purity of conception4 ,they shunned the paganism of ,st4 ,peter's1 and marvelled with all the more intimate devotion at the old ,christian monuments4 ,the churches of ,san ,lorenzo and ,san ,clemente1 the cloisters of ,st4 ,john ,lateran and ,st4 ,paul's-without-the-,walls1 made an ineffaceable impression upon the young men4 ,at the twilight hour they wandered up on to ,monte ,cavo4 ,and of evenings we drew studies of drapery--glorious folds6--from ,pforr's big ,venetian mantle1 in which we took turns to pose for one another4 ,their whole hearts1 however1 first swelled when they undertook a journey to ,tuscany4 ,in ,orvieto1 ,luca ,signorelli awaited them1 whose frescoes especially impressed ,cornelius mightily4 ,at ,sienna they found teachers who were still more sympathetic to them1 ,duccio and ,simone ,martino1 those masters of a tender1 intimate spirit and a charming sweetness of expression4 ,in the ,campo ,santo at ,pisa they turned their attention to ,fiesole's pupil1 ,gozzoli4 ,those became their great teachers in art4 ,just as ardent ,christians wander to the grave of the princes of the apostles in order to confirm their faith and quicken their zeal1 so should zealous young artists derive strength and illumination from the silent and yet so eloquent speech of the sublime geniuses of art4 ,an artist of real worth will find in the masterpieces of painting at ,rome everything necessary for him in order to reach the right path4 ,but1 to be sure1 a well-made plait of hair does not certainly constitute one a ,raphael1 because ,raphael1 too1 arranged his hair with feeling4 ,study alone leads to nothing4 ,if since ,raphael's age1 as one can almost declare1 there has been no painter1 that is the fault of nothing else than of the fact that art has been vanquished by workmanship4 ,one learnt at the academies to paint excellent drapery1 to draw a correct figure1 learnt perspective1 architecture--in short1 everything1 and yet no painter was produced4 ,there is one want in all recent painting--heart1 soul1 sentiment4 ,let the young painter then watch1 before everything1 over his sentiments3 let him allow neither an impure word on his lips nor an impure thought in his mind4 ,but how can he guard himself from that8 ,by religion1 by study of the ,bible1 the one and only study which made ,raphael4 ,this view now certainly contradicts the accustomed principles that everything must be systematically learnt2 mere learning produces certainly an instructed but also a cold artist4 ,on that ground it is not good either to study anatomy from dead bodies1 because one dwarfs thereby certain fine sensibilities1 or to work from female models1 for the same reason4 ,let the painter be inspired by his subject as those of old were1 and the result will be the same4 ,like those old painters1 let every artist remind himself that the truest use of art is that which leads it heavenwards1 its one function that of having a moral effect upon men4 ,how pure and holy1 cries ,cornelius to ,xeller1 as late as #aheh1 was the end at which we aimed6 ,unknown1 without encouragement1 without aid1 except that of our loving ,father in heaven4 ,illustration3 ,f,,hrich4 ,,from ,,the ,,legend ,,of ,,st4 ,,gwendolin4 ,it is obvious that between the ascetics of the monastery and the ,classicists direct friction must ensue4 ,to them the ever repeated and pale reflexions of ,greek sculpture said nothing1 while the ,classicists scoffed at the religionists1 for whom the sarcastic brawler1 ,reinhart1 invented the nickname of ,nazarenes1 which has since become a watchword4 ,the opposition was historically immortalised when ,bunsen1 the ,prussian envoy1 invited the whole colony to the christening of his little daughter1 and ,niebuhr touched glasses with ,thorwaldsen to the health of old ,jupiter4 ,only ,cornelius joined in2 the others started and looked upon the young ,dsseldorfer as a heretic4 ,this positive ,christian standpoint1 which allowed art to be esteemed only as a religious service1 pictures only as a means of ecclesiastical edification1 irritated also the old man of ,weimar at the first start4 ,the effort of the ,nazarenes to make piety the foundation of true artistic activity was to him a continual subject of contempt4 ,religion no more bestows talent for the arts than it gives taste4 ,he spoke with irony of the valiant artists and ingenious friends of art who had resort to the honourable1 nave1 yet somewhat coarse taste of the fourteenth and fifteenth-century masters4 ,he constantly employed of them the expression star-gazing4 ,he had already mockingly remarked of ,wackenroder's ,herzensergiessungen what an unwarrantable conclusion it was1 that because a few monks were artists1 all artists should therefore be monks4 ,he called the life of the ,nazarenes a sort of masquerade which stood in opposition to the actual day1 and wrote in the pages of ,art and ,antiquity that manifesto1 the ,new ,german ,religious-,patriotic ,art1 or ,history of the ,new ,pietistic ,false ,art since the ,eighties1 which so deeply wounded the young enthusiasts4 ,the doctrine was that the artist needed piety above everything to equal the work of the best4 ,what an attractive doctrine6 ,how eagerly we should accept it6 ,for in order to become religious one need learn nothing4 ,the whole movement reached nothing beyond a slavish imitation of ,giotto and his immediate followers4 ,of course1 it was inconsistent of ,goethe to reproach contemporary art for imitating that of the ,middle ,ages1 and to praise the latter only when it imitated the antique4 ,speaking as a man of ,mengs' school1 and merely proposing ,hellenic art as a canon instead of early ,italian1 he had1 after all1 no right to be angry if ,frederick ,schlegel opposed classical models with medival4 ,otherwise1 however1 even to-day little can be added to ,goethe's animadversions4 ,illustration3 ,f,,hrich4 ,,ruth ,,and ,,boaz4 ,as with ,carstens1 so with the ,nazarenes1 we are warned by the idealistic tendency which inspired the young enthusiasts4 ,there are but few painters with whom life and art have been in such complete agreement as with the gentle1 mild1 and modest ,overbeck1 the ,apostle ,john1 as he got to be called1 that young man1 that serene soul who looked upon art simply as a harp of ,david for the praise of the ,lord1 to whom the hope that through his works one soul had been strengthened in faith and piety was of far more value than any fame1 and who ended at last in a sort of religious mania4 ,with the ,nazarenes1 too1 as with the ,classicists1 it was pure exaltation which drove them to free themselves from the trammels of the school1 in order to get back from dead fabrications to creations of art1 which1 proceeding out of the living spirit1 once more had a soul4 ,even the much-despised conversion of the ,protestants among them to the ,catholic ,church arose out of the deep conviction that they also1 as well as their art1 must be united in religion4 ,illustration3 ,f,,hrich4 ,,the ,,departure ,,of ,,the ,,prodigal ,,son4 ,in a certain sense they even show an advance in art4 ,they found between themselves and the great painters of the eighteenth century a gulf that could no longer be spanned4 ,after ,carstens had thrown overboard every colouristic acquisition1 it was indeed something that the ,nazarenes no longer saw the highest aim of painting in black and white design1 but turned1 though with timidity and hesitation1 to the study of the ,italian ,quattrocento with its joyous delight in colour1 and so became the first real painters after the cartoon period4 ,only that was as yet simply an advance for the nineteenth century1 and not especially for the history of art4 ,this was as little enriched with new forms and discoveries by the ,nazarenes as by the ,classicists4 ,the former1 too1 were imitators1 and only changed masters when they fled from the antique to the ,middle ,ages1 and copied the old ,italians in lieu of the ,greeks4 ,the ,classicists had imitated with a certain cold erudition2 the ,nazarenes out of the depths of their emotion4 ,as the former used ,greeks1 so did they use the fourteenth-century painters1 as patterns of calligraphy from which they made their copies1 cut their stencils after the ,italian form1 and1 like ,mengs1 were able to reproduce in their works only a very weak reflection of those departed spirits4 ,as eclectics they would stand on the same rung with the academics of ,bologna1 except that the ideal of the latter school was a combination from ,leonardo1 ,raphael1 ,michael ,angelo1 ,correggio1 and ,titian1 and that it possessed an incomparably greater facility in technique4 ,illustration3 ,f,,hrich4 ,,jacob ,,and ,,rachel4 ,the ,nazarenes abandoned on principle the employment of the model1 from fear lest it might entice them away from the ideal representation of the character to be depicted4 ,they sought in a dilettante manner to supply the control over the material which alone makes the artist1 by enthusiasm for the material4 ,only ,cornelius dared to draw from the female form4 ,overbeck refused to do so1 from modesty4 ,the ,virgin ,mary was to him the highest ideal of womanhood1 the paler1 the more virtuous1 the more akin to the ,lamb of ,god2 and he would have deemed it a sacrilege to have depicted her as purely womanly4 ,they therefore only occasionally sat to one another for studies of drapery1 and1 for the rest1 in order not to be naturalistic1 painted their pictures from imagination in the seclusion of their cells4 ,as the ,catholicism of ,schlegel was an anmic system1 so the painters1 too1 deprived their figures of blood and being in order to leave them only the abstract beauty of line4 ,they are beings who are exalted above everything1 even above correctness of drawing1 and who must expire of a lack of blood in their veins4 ,the command1 ,seek ye therefore first the kingdom of ,god1 and ,his righteousness1 and all these things shall be added unto you1 was carried out by the ,nazarenes only too well4 ,illustration3 ,,steinle4 ,,the ,,raising ,,of ,,jairus' ,,daughter4 ,they have created only two works which will survive1 and which possess an historical significance as pre-eminent1 works of the whole movement in common--the frescoes of the ,casa ,bartholdi and of the ,villa ,massini4 ,when the intelligence of the ,battle of ,waterloo had penetrated even into the silent cells of the monks1 they believed that art too should participate in this universal elevation1 and become a factor again in the development of the ,german nation4 ,it must not be used1 wrote ,cornelius in his famous letter to ,grres1 as a mere plaything1 or to tickle the senses1 not merely for the delectation and pomp of high and rich ,maecenases1 but for the ennoblement and glorification of public life4 ,the means of this artistic elevation1 and at the same time a new means of popular culture1 was to be the introduction of fresco painting4 ,illustration3 ,,steinle4 ,i ,,have ,,trodden ,,the ,,winepress ,,alone3 ,,and ,,of ,,the ,,people ,,there ,,was ,,none ,,with ,,me4 ,and thus the ,brothers of ,san ,isidoro re-discovered what had1 as a matter of fact1 always been quietly practiced by the rustics painters1 but since ,mengs' time had no longer been employed by the art painters1 and had been forgotten for half a century4 ,the ,prussian consul at ,rome1 ,bartholdy1 gave them the commission4 ,an old mason1 who had last arranged wall-plastering under ,mengs1 was recruited as technical adviser2 ,carl ,eggers1 of ,neustrelitz1 zealously made chemical researches2 and it is said to have been ,veit who1 at ,cornelius' request 7,now1 ,philip1 you make the first attempt671 was the first to paint the portrait of a head in fresco1 whilst his companions looked on with amazement and delight4 ,then the others set to work1 and painted away at it in the name of ,god4 ,yes1 believe me1 my friend1 it is a desperate matter to paint over a whole room in a manner which one has never before practised oneself nor seen practised by others4 ,every day we tell each other that we are fine bunglers1 and give each other a regular dressing down4 ,you can have no conception how strange it feels at first when one is confronted by damp plaster and lime4 ,and nevertheless we construct daily fresh castles in the air for painting churches1 monasteries1 and palaces in ,germany4 ,the frescoes represent1 in six mural paintings and two lunettes1 the history of ,joseph in ,egypt1 from his sale to his recognition by his brethren4 ,the two latter are the work of ,cornelius and ,overbeck1 the others of ,veit and ,schadow4 ,the work was prolonged through many years1 interrupted by manifold difficulties1 and when one stands to-day before the transferred pictures in the ,berlin ,national ,gallery one cannot refrain from admiring them4 ,illustration3 ,,edward ,,steinle4 ,there lives within them an unpretentiousness and sincerity of sentiment1 and1 in spite of all deficiencies and lack of independence1 somewhat of that lofty inspiration which raises the pictures of really earnest artists1 even if they are faulty1 far above any fabricated productions4 ,an association of young men1 which1 unconcerned about success and material profit1 contended only for ideal products1 found here for the first time an opportunity to display what it wanted4 ,in the interpretation of ,pharaoh's dream and in the recognition by the brethren1 ,cornelius1 in formal language1 full of character1 and without any phrases and posture1 displayed all that he had derived from the great ,italians in nobility of grouping and fine arrangement of lines4 ,overbeck reaches the same height in his allegory of the seven lean kine4 ,but it is not only as youthful works of artists1 who1 if they belonged to a period of decadence1 yet were1 withal1 the greatest representatives of a period of ,german art1 that these pictures are worthy of high esteem2 they are essentially the best that these masters have created4 ,cornelius1 notably1 shows a study1 a care for execution1 indeed even a harmony of colouring1 that stands in surprising opposition to his later negligence4 ,from the conception that the artistic performance is determined in the invention1 and the design1 but that the pictorial execution is an indifferent1 mechanical accessory which could be supplied even by other people1 he was at that time still free4 ,illustration3 ,,steinle4 ,,book ,,illustration4 ,when the pictures had been unveiled in #ahai a festival of ,german artists was held in ,rome4 ,rckert1 ,bunsen1 the ,humboldts1 the ,herzes were there2 ,cornelius1 ,veit1 and ,overbeck had arranged the transparencies4 ,the centre of all1 writes the ,danish romantic ,atterbom1 was the ,crown ,prince ,ludwig of ,bavaria1 the idol of every ,german artist1 whose ruling passion is for the fine arts and fair ladies4 ,everything was in old ,german masques1 the ladies in wide ruffs4 ,the ,crown ,prince was in the utmost good humour1 and treated the artists as his equals4 ,a toast was drunk to ,german unity4 ,the scene struck me like a beautiful dream out of the ,middle ,ages4 ,german unity at a ,roman fancy ball6 ,the ,german nation a beautiful dream out of the ,middle ,ages6 ,the ,crown ,prince ,ludwig1 when he took ,cornelius and ,schnorr out of the ,roman circle1 at least created a fatherland for ,german art1 and later on the others also found at home a suitable sphere of activity4 ,philip ,veit1 who went to ,frankfort in #ahcj as ,director of the ,staedel ,institute1 was the first to settle down1 and for all his energy could only for a very short time make that city into a seat of the ,christian tendency in art4 ,of his pictures there1 the fresco painted for the ,staedel ,institute1 ,the ,introduction of ,christianity into ,germany by ,st4 ,boniface1 is by far the most important4 ,the apostle has hewn down the oak of ,thor1 and from where it once stood there flows forth the new spring of ,christianity4 ,the old ,germans shrink back timorously1 but the youths listen to the preacher1 and follow his direction to the figure of religion which approaches with the palm of peace4 ,in the background a church rises1 and in the distance1 by a limpid river1 a flourishing town1 in contrast to the sombre1 primeval forest to which the ,germans who reject religion are flying4 ,the two ,marys at the ,sepulchre1 in the ,berlin ,national ,gallery1 and the ,assumption1 in the ,frankfort ,cathedral1 date from a later period4 ,it was of no avail to him that he mingled with his ,nazarenism a certain air of the world1 which found expression in a less ascetic language of form and a somewhat stronger sense of colour4 ,in #ahda he had already a feeling that the restless1 struggling age had passed him by4 ,he abandoned his post and went to meet oblivion as ,director of the ,gallery at ,mayence4 ,illustration3 ,munich1 ,albert4 ,,steinle4 ,,the ,,violin ,,player4 ,overbeck1 the only one who could not tear himself from ,rome1 remained1 till his death in #ahfi1 the ,young ,german ,raphael1 as his father had called him in a letter from ,lbeck in #ahaa3 a devout1 religious poet1 pure of soul and of fine culture1 as one-coloured and one-sided as he was mild and tender4 ,at the outset he knew1 at least1 how to extract from the old masters a certain nave piety without positive character1 whereas later he lost himself more and more in the arid formalism of dead dogmas4 ,what was in his power to give he has given in pictures such as the ,entry of ,christ into ,jerusalem and the ,weeping over the ,body of ,christ--both in the ,marienkirche at ,lbeck1 in the ,miracle of ,roses1 in ,santa ,maria ,degli ,angeli at ,assisi1 in the ,christ on the ,mount of ,olives in the ,hospital at ,hamburg1 and the ,betrothal of ,mary in the ,berlin ,national ,gallery--pictures which expressed nothing that would not have been expressed better at the end of the fifteenth century4 ,his ,holy ,family with ,st4 ,john and the ,lamb1 of #ahbe1 in the ,munich ,pinakothek1 is in composition and type a complete imitation of the ,florentine ,raphael2 his ,lamentation of ,christ in the ,lbeck ,marienkirche is reminiscent of ,perugino2 his ,burial would never have existed but for ,raphael's picture in the ,borghese ,gallery4 ,his sentiment coincided exactly in devotion and godliness with that of ,fra ,angelico or of the old masters of ,cologne1 and when he devoted himself to programme-painting he lost all intelligibility4 ,in the ,triumph of ,religion in the ,arts1 which he completed in #ahdf for the ,staedel ,institute1 and in which he wished to embody the favourite ideas of ,romanticism1 that art and religion must flow together in one stream1 he has copied the upper part from the ,disputa1 the lower part from the ,school of ,athens1 and worked up both into a tedious and scholastically elaborated whole4 ,it is only through a series of unpretentious sketches which he prepared for engravings1 lithographs1 and woodcuts that his name has still a certain lustre4 ,plates such as the ,rest in the ,flight1 the ,preaching of ,st4 ,john1 or the series ,forty ,illustrations to the ,gospel1 the ,passion1 the ,seven ,sacraments1 may be contemplated even to-day1 since in them at least no tastelessness of colour stands in the way4 ,these plates1 too1 like his pictures1 are less observed than felt--felt1 however1 with an innocence and cheerfulness of heart often quite childlike4 ,illustration3 ,,philip ,,veit4 ,it shows above all much self-understanding that all these masters in their later years restricted themselves exclusively to design1 which better expressed their character4 ,in compositions and sketches of this kind1 which were only drawn1 and were thus untrammelled by the fruitless struggle with the difficulties of the technique of painting and a complete lack of the notion of colour1 they moved more freely and lightly4 ,in their frescoes and oil-paintings1 partly through insufficient technique1 partly through their all too servile imitation of foreign ideals1 they went astray4 ,as draughtsmen1 they had more courage to be themselves1 and while in the completer paintings many a fine trait1 many an intimate reflection of the soul was lost1 or through the obduracy of the material did not attain a right expression1 here their spiritual and emotional qualities can be better valued4 ,joseph ,fhrich1 one of the most staunchly convinced champions of these reactionary tendencies1 has become1 entirely owing to his extensive activity as a draughtsman1 somewhat more familiar to our modern knowledge than most of his contemporaries4 ,he had begun as a draughtsman4 ,as a student of the ,prague ,academy he was an enthusiast for ,schlegel1 ,novalis1 and ,tieck2 and even before his journey to ,rome he had etched fifteen plates for ,tieck's ,genoveva4 ,it was ,drer who exercised the deciding influence upon his further development4 ,he had been led to him through ,wackenroder1 and had copied his ,marienleben in #ahba4 ,here ,i saw1 he says in his ,autobiography1 a form before me which stood in trenchant opposition to that of the ,classicists1 who are anxious to palm off as beauty their smoothness and pomposity borrowed from the misunderstood antique1 and their affected delicacy as grace4 ,in contrast with that absence of character which prevailing academic art mistakes for beauty ,i saw here a keen and mighty characterisation which dominated the figures through and through1 making them1 as it were1 into old acquaintances4 ,the strong and godly ,german middle age took then in ,fhrich's heart the same place which the ,italian ,quattrocento had filled in ,overbeck's range of thought4 ,and this old-,german tendency was only temporarily interrupted by his sojourn in ,rome4 ,after he came to ,rome in #ahbf he became a ,nazarene1 and was accustomed there to look back at the tendencies of his youth as an error2 and both at ,prague1 where he returned in #ahbi1 after collaborating at the frescoes in the ,villa ,massini1 and at ,vienna1 where from #ahda he held the post of professor in the ,academy1 he found rich opportunity for putting into practice his ecclesiastical and orthodox views of art4 ,illustration3 ,,veit4 ,,the ,,arts ,,introduced ,,into ,,germany ,,by ,,christianity4 ,his frescoes in the ,johannis-und-,altleschenfelder ,church in ,vienna are1 perhaps1 more harmonious in colour1 but no more independent in form1 than the works of the others4 ,in his old age he returned once more to the impressions of his youth1 and so found himself again4 ,as a boy1 in his little native village of ,kratzau1 in ,bohemia1 he had tended the cows in summer time and had acquired a certain sincere knowledge of nature and shepherd-life4 ,he had to thank ,drer for his preference for the idyllic and patriarchal family scenes in ,sacred ,history1 and these tendencies found pleasing expression in pictures like ,jacob and ,rachel1 or ,the ,passage of ,mary across the ,mountains4 ,no matter that the figures in ,jacob and ,rachel are taken out of the early pictures of ,pinturicchio and ,raphael1 they are still interwoven1 with their background of landscape1 into an idyll of great navet and charm4 ,more especially1 however1 did the qualities which he owed to ,drer acquire value--a sturdy characterisation1 a nave art in telling the story1 and a great wealth of fresh traits1 straight from nature--in the serial compositions of his old age4 ,there is no sentimental vagueness1 nothing academical4 ,fhrich had a keen eye for what was intimate1 familiar2 a tender sense of the individualities of landscape in woodland and meadow1 of the charm of everyday life as well as of the animal world2 and though an idealist1 he knew how to assimilate ingeniously what he had observed with a certain realistic fulness4 ,the old story of ,boaz and ,ruth grew beneath his hands into a delicious idyll of country life4 ,from the story of the ,prodigal ,son he has extracted with sensitiveness the purely human kernel1 and as late as the winter of #ahgj-ga1 at the age of seventy-one1 he illustrated the legend of ,st4 ,gwendolen1 in which he depicted with tender reverence the escape of a human soul1 withdrawn from the world and resigned to ,god's will1 into ,nature and her peace4 ,edward ,steinle1 who went from ,rome to ,vienna in #ahcc1 and settled in ,frankfort in #ahch1 is called1 not very appropriately1 by his biographer1 ,constantine ,wuzbach1 a ,madonna painter of our time4 ,his name deserves to come down to posterity rather for what he created outside the essential characteristics of his art4 ,in his frescoes in the minster at ,aachen1 in the choir of the cathedrals of ,strasburg and ,cologne1 he stood firm on the standpoint of the ,nazarenes2 which is as much as to say they contained nothing novel in the history of art4 ,in his fairy pictures1 however1 imagination broke through the narrow confines of dogma1 and entwined itself in creative enjoyment round the vague figures of fable4 ,his ,loreley1 in the ,schack ,gallery1 as she looks down1 a ,medusa-like destroyer1 from the tall cliff2 his watchman who looks dreamily into space over the houses of the old town2 his violin player on his tower who plays1 forgetful of the world1--these have something musical1 poetical1 that freshness of sentiment and unsought navet which as an inheritance of his ,viennese home was also peculiar in such a high degree to ,schwind4 ,the ,romantic aspiration is revealed in ,steinle1 even1 in a certain yearning after colour4 ,there lives in his works a refined feeling for colour that1 especially in his water-colours1 rarely forsakes him4 ,take1 for instance1 the fresh1 tinted pen-drawings1 engraved by ,schaffer1 in which he displayed with the navet of ,memlinc the life of ,st4 ,euphrosyne2 the five aquarelles of ,grimm's ,snow-,white and ,rose-,red2 or his illustrations to ,brentano's poems1 such as the ,chronicle of the ,wandering ,student1 and the ,fairy ,tale of the ,rhine and ,radlauf the ,miller1 in which he developed a delight in the world and an idea of landscape that in the ascetic ,nazarene excite astonishment4 ,illustration3 ,,veit4 ,,the ,,two ,,marys ,,at ,,the ,,sepulchre4 ,julius ,schnorr von ,carolsfeld went1 after the completion of the ,ariosto ,room of the ,villa ,massini1 first to ,vienna1 then in #ahbg to ,munich1 in order to paint the ,nibelungen in the halls of the royal residence of that time1 and in the imperial halls of the state palace the history of ,charlemagne1 ,frederick ,barbarossa1 and ,rudolf of ,hapsburg4 ,he also1 however1 created his best work at the close of his life in ,dresden1--the forcible woodcuts of his ,picture ,bible1 which narrated the world's sacred history in strong and vigorous strokes4 ,strangest to the present-day taste have become the drawings of ,cornelius4 ,his plates to ,goethe's ,faust have1 indeed1 a certain austere strength of conception1 which he learnt from ,drer2 but also faults of drawing1 exaggerations1 crudities1 and errors in perspective1 which he did not find in ,drer4 ,in his second work1 the ,nibelungen cycle1 an intentional old-,german angularity1 with an unintentional modern clumsiness1 has effected a msalliance even less attractive4 ,illustration3 ,,overbeck4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself ,,and ,,cornelius4 ,,chapter ,,vi ,,the ,,art ,,of ,,munich ,,under ,,king ,,ludwig ,i ,more than seventeen hundred years ago there reigned a ,roman emperor who loved art passionately4 ,he looked upon it from an intellectual altitude which few have reached1 and he valued it as the monumental consummation of ,grco-,roman culture4 ,standing upon a plane of intellectual elevation1 himself gifted with artistic intuition1 he knew of no higher enjoyment for a ruler than the cultivation of the architectural and other forms of art4 ,it was he who opened up to the energy of artists a field such as has never been offered to them before or since4 ,he spent upon his works sums incalculable1 so that his people grew restless under their emperor's mania for building4 ,his villa at ,tivoli1 which attained to the extent of a town1 was in itself a copy of everything that he most loved and admired in the world4 ,it united nearly all the renowned buildings of ,athens in one masterly reproduction4 ,and then with architecture came the other arts4 ,the most magnificent collections of sculpture were formed1 for none had better opportunities of acquiring the antique masterpieces of the ,greek towns4 ,numberless frescoes1 scenes from those cities and regions which had most impressed him on his travels1 adorned the walls4 ,and yet subsequent generations have viewed with unconcern this halcyon period in the history of art4 ,though his contemporaries fancied that the splendour of the ,greek sun was still radiating over them1 it was but a borrowed lustre1 which never went beyond the reproduction or copying of classic examples4 ,whatever ,greek temples the emperor might build and decorate1 he failed to summon into being a ,phidias or a ,polygnotes to revive for him the forms of the antique4 ,the names of the artists who worked for him are forgotten4 ,they had no originality2 they copied the types of the ,grecian and ,egyptian periods1 and their art was but a repetition of old ideals1 without character of age or place4 ,the fifteen colossal columns of his ,olympieion that are still standing impress one as foreign to ,athens1 and would seem more in place at ,baalbeck or ,palmyra than in this city of the ,muses4 ,epictetus would have smiled at the emperor diverting himself with an album of the wonders of the world1 as a piece of sentimentality4 ,the age of ,hadrian produced thousands of buildings1 statues1 and pictures1 but no original works4 ,will a different judgment be pronounced in the lapse of time upon the artistic creations of ,king ,ludwig ,i8 ,ludwig also--his biography reads like that of ,hadrian--was an enthusiastic admirer of art4 ,after the ,peace of ,vienna1 when the political aspirations of ,germany had been frustrated1 he alone among the numerous ,german princes of the old alliance fostered homeless art1 and thus fulfilled a noble mission4 ,the king's splendid enthusiasm for the ideal significance of art1 which he hoped would lead the ,german people1 then seeking to work out its individuality1 from out of its ,philistine narrow-mindedness to nobler and greater things--this enthusiasm will redound to his enduring honour4 ,schiller's idea of educating humanity by sthetic means had in him grown into a living and powerful sentiment4 ,all that it was possible to accomplish in the cause of art1 on the basis of existing development1 his endeavours have fully realised4 ,in the course of twenty-three years he spent more than #c1jjj1jjj from his privy purse1 and made ,munich what it is1 the principal art centre of ,germany2 changed it from a ,boeotia into an ,athens2 founded its art collections1 and erected the buildings which give the town its character4 ,then he offered those new walls to the painter ,cornelius1 and commanded him to cover them4 ,you are my field-marshal1 do you provide generals of division4 ,in #ahad ,cornelius had written to ,bartholdy3 ,the most powerful and unfailing means to restore ,german art and bring it into harmony with this great period and the spirit of the nation would be a revival of fresco-painting as it existed in ,italy from the days of the great ,giotto to those of the divine ,raphael4 ,and through this royal command the dream was realised beyond all expectation4 ,no such lively artistic animation had been witnessed since the great periods of ,italian art2 an animation which does not cut the worst figure in ,german history in those sad times of political stagnation and reaction4 ,but that there was a living soul of art in those days posterity will no more acknowledge than it does in the case of the age of ,hadrian4 ,wie bei ,bartholdy als ,kind1 so in ,massimis ,villa als ,jngling ,teutshes ,fresco wir sehn1 aber in ,mnchen als ,mann1 sang ,king ,ludwig4 ,now1 after two generations1 it can be seen that fresco-painting at ,munich from #ahbj to #ahdj produced less original conceptions of the ,german art of the nineteenth than weak reflections of the ,italian art of the sixteenth century4 ,various favourable circumstances combined at that time to cause ,cornelius to be specially looked upon by his contemporaries as an incomparable master4 ,since ,tiepoli1 ,german monumental art had remained dormant4 ,the frescoes at ,munich were the first attempts made to revive it4 ,and it seemed as though with ,cornelius1 ,german art had at once risen to the dizzy heights to which ,italian art had been led by ,michael ,angelo4 ,the lookers-on believed in ,buonarotti's resurrection4 ,as in the ,sistine ,last ,judgment1 the movement of his heroic figures appeared plastic and pathetic1 and his types1 not excepting the women1 gave that impression of the terrible1 which none but ,signorelli and ,michael ,angelo had attained before him4 ,his advent1 it was said1 might almost make one believe in a kind of metempsychosis2 as though the spirit of the great ,florentine master1 that giant of the ,renaissance1 had been restored to humanity4 ,at that very period the ,italian art of the ,cinquecento enjoyed the exclusive favour of the ,german scholars4 ,it alone was worthy of imitation2 in it the sthetic philosophers sought for rules and laws to govern the development of art4 ,and as they thought that all the qualities of this artistic method were to be found in the works of ,cornelius1 it was only logical to arrive at the conclusion which the ,crown ,prince ,ludwig summed up in the following words3 ,there has been no painter like ,cornelius since the ,cinquecento4 ,illustration3 ,,peter ,,cornelius4 ,at the same time the intellectual character of his work harmonised with the wishes of a period in which the leaders of ,german thought tried to forget the dreary dulness of life by plunging into the most profound speculations4 ,what does it matter1 writes ,hallman1 if we lack all joyous1 independent national feeling8 ,what though we do not even try to resuscitate this feeling with wars and battles8 ,we strive after something higher6 ,the world is beginning to respect ,german intellect and learning4 ,we believe that in this we are in advance of other nations1 and we seek a mode of expression1 we want to give a form to that lofty thought through our art1 in order that we may bequeath to posterity an image of our fortunate condition4444 ,therefore it is a remarkable sign of the times that painting strives to make the weighty output of intellectual thought a common treasure of all who are neither able nor disposed to follow speculation to its dizzy heights1 nor erudition to its lowest depths2 that painters try to transform the results of those investigations into fresh and ever lively conceptions--the element of art4 ,to accomplish this none was better fitted than ,cornelius4 ,what a weight of thought and learning his works display6 ,in the ,pinakothek1 ,cornelius' main idea was to paint the life and work of ,nature as illuminated by the figures of the ,greek gods4 ,for the series of paintings in the ,hall of the ,gods1 ,hesiod's ,theogony offered a basis upon which to demonstrate the idea of the triumph of the creative mind in heaven and upon earth4 ,in the second room1 human passion1 power1 and tyranny were illustrated in scenes of ,greek heroic life from the ,iliad4 ,the frescoes in the ,ludwigskirche were to follow the ,christian apocalypse as a concatenation1 and to depict it in symbolic treatment from the ,creation to the ,last ,judgment4 ,the frescoes for the ,campo ,santo at ,berlin were meant to represent the universal and most exalted fortunes of humanity1 the manifestation of divine grace towards the sins of mankind1 the redemption from sin1 perdition1 and death1 the triumph of life and eternity4 ,each of these paintings is a treatise4 ,each fresco bears a definite relation to the other2 deep philosophic speculations weave their threads from one to the other4 ,or else the painter revels in a suite of compositions which trace a network of intellectual combinations from one picture to the other4 ,as he himself expressed it1 he delivered his diploma lecture through his paintings4 ,and this painted erudition harmonised with the requirements of those times of dominating intellectual tendencies4 ,the scholars saw in ,cornelius the poet1 the doctor-in-philosophy2 held that the principal value of the work of art lay in its intellectual contents1 and felt that their loftiest mission was to express these contents still more correctly than the painter himself4 ,the idea1 they said1 was the alpha and omega of the painter's art1 and must be accepted at its full value1 even when represented in the most shadowy external form4 ,these opinions have now vanished entirely4 ,a more extended intercourse with the old masters and with the art of other countries has gradually cured the ,germans too of that mental hypertrophy from which they suffered in their view of art--a complaint whose characteristic symptom was the entire lack of sensuousness1 of that sensibility to beauty of form and external charm which always has been and always must be the predominating mood of a society in which art is to flourish4 ,they have gradually reached the point at which one interests one's self in a picture for the sake of the painting of it1 looks first at the picture1 and only then asks what the painter's idea may have been1 or what the spectator is to gather from it4 ,no poem will find favour which offers acceptable thoughts in badly worded1 halting1 unmelodious verse2 nor do the loftiest thoughts in themselves suffice to make a work of art4 ,profundity of thought is a thing that has little to do with pure art2 and the subject alone1 however world-stirring the ideas in it may be1 never makes a thing artistic4 ,we have learnt to find the most intense enjoyment in the mere contemplation of ,titian's ,earthly and ,heavenly ,love1 although we may not yet know what this picture is really meant to convey4 ,and we know none the less that what renders ,raphael's ,school of ,athens immortal is not its catalogue of ideas1 which has been drawn up by an anonymous pedant1 but the master's artistic power1 the intensity with which he expresses what was barely showing bud in the material1 the self-reliant strength and sureness with which the form and colour have succeeded in outlining and creating every figure and every movement in the picture4 ,illustration3 ,,peter ,,cornelius4 ',,let ,,there ,,be ,,light'4 ,illustration3 ,,cornelius4 ,,from ,,the ,,frescoes ,,in ,,the ,,friedhofshalle1 ,,berlin4 ,no less has the comparative study of art gradually refined people's sensibility to originality4 ,we are no longer compelled to place an artist on the same level with a master of ancient art because of the outer resemblance of their work4 ,we have progressed so far as to respect in art none but original genius1 and to look upon imitation as a testimonium paupertatis though ,praxiteles or ,michael ,angelo be the model4 ,in this we find the explanation of the low esteem in which some of the old masters are now held4 ,the contemporaries of ,mabuse and ,marten ,heemskerk thought that in these painters they had found again the great primeval1 ,titanic nature of ,michael ,angelo1 his vast motives and majestic forms4 ,to-day we say of them1 and with justice1 that they produced nothing better than caricatures of ,michael ,angelo1 that they expressed themselves in shallow phrases1 that their religious pictures are cold and inflated1 and that their mythological presentations with naked figures impress us as bombastic and repellent4 ,houbraken1 in his biography of ,grard de ,lairesse1 wrote3 ,a whole book could be filled with the description of his innumerable pictures and panels1 ceilings and frescoes4 ,to-day we dismiss this unattractive mannerist in a few lines4 ,what his contemporaries described as his ,michaelangelesque and majestic fierceness appears to us1 looking back1 as a mere pale imitation4 ,illustration3 ,,cornelius4 ,,marguerite ,,in ,,prison4 ,measure ,cornelius by the same rule1 and the result is no less melancholy4 ,merciless history paused for a moment to consider whether it ever saw his equal1 and then passed on to the order of the day1 as it did with his predecessors4 ,to us he is no longer the original genius that he was to his contemporaries1 but an imitator4 ,the retrospective history of art marks a new epoch with him1 ,heinrich ,hess1 and ,schnorr3 the advance from the paths of the early ,italians1 trodden by the ,nazarenes1 to this link with the golden age of the ,cinquecento4 ,the works of ,cornelius are mighty shadows cast into our days by the gigantic figures of ,michael ,angelo4 ,but only shadows6 ,there is no blood in them4 ,a direct line leads from ,michael ,angelo to ,millet2 but ,i doubt whether the master would delight in ,cornelius1 who has only used him as a gradus ad ,parnassum4 ,the works of ,cornelius are the products of a civilised yet artistically poor period4 ,the idealism of ,michael ,angelo had raised itself upon the naturalistic shoulders of ,donatello and ,ghirlandaio2 this new ,cornelian idealism sprang into being full-grown from reminiscences1 and was therefore from the outset without backbone4 ,it is the fruit of a decadence1 not the mature product of a full-blown art1 which has taken centuries to grow and ripen4 ,in ,michael ,angelo the aspirations of ,italian art1 from ,giotto onward1 attained their zenith4 ,cornelius1 standing solitary in an inartistic period that had lost every tradition and all technical method1 believed in the possibility of rising to the same level by making the forms borrowed from ,michael ,angelo convey scraps of modern knowledge4 ,in doing this he could not but confirm the experience1 thus described by ,goethe in his ,theory of ,colour3 ,even the most perfect models are delusive1 by causing us to pass over necessary decrees of culture1 and thus generally carrying us beyond the goal into a domain of boundless error4 ,illustration3 ,,cornelius4 ,,the ,,apocalyptic ,,host4 ,at the same time that ,heinrich ,hess was carrying on his calligraphic exercises after ,raphael and ,andrea del ,sarto in the ,basilika at ,munich1 ,cornelius was making his schoolboy sketches after ,michael ,angelo4 ,what is great in his master is empty pose in him2 what is furia in the former is a laboured imitation in the latter4 ,while the terrific ,florentine ,master found within himself the expression of his superhuman figures1 his learned follower copies attitudes1 gestures1 groups--familiar to anyone who has been to ,italy and passed a few hours in the ,sistine ,chapel4 ,one seems to hear the old ,florentine's great voice toned down through the telephone1 and irritating us with false pathos at moments when pathos is quite superfluous4 ,all the faces are distorted with grimaces1 heads of hair are puffed up as though with serpents1 garments fly about2 people shout instead of speaking1 open their mouths wide as though they were giving the word of command to an army1 stretch out their arms as though they would embrace the world4 ,a mother bearing a child in her arms squeezes it to death4 ,a cook roasting a leg of mutton bastes it with a ,herculean gesture1 and a butler emptying a leather bottle has the air of a river-god meditating a flood4 ,in order that his human beings may look vigorous and heroic1 he makes them walk in seven-league boots1 dislocate their limbs1 expand the gigantic measurement of the body far beyond the human4 ,every head shows a different colouring3 one red as sealing-wax1 another rose-pink1 a third caput mortuum4 ,added to this1 the academic drapery arrangements1 those florid garments with their rolling1 writhing folds1 for which there is no real justification1 and which have no use but that of ornament4 ,ah1 says ,goethe1 in one of his letters1 how true it is that nothing is remarkable but what is natural3 nothing grand but what is natural3 nothing beautiful1 nothing1 etc41 etc41 but what is natural4 ,michael ,angelo is not at all easy to understand2 and ,cornelius' study of him resulted in the very same mannerism into which the ,dutchmen had fallen three hundred years earlier1--the only difference being that he surpassed them in erudition4 ,but although this quality would no doubt have greatly helped him had he written books1 we cannot take it into account in discussing his artistic merits1 any more than we can judge ,grard de ,lairesse by his literary achievements4 ,nay1 more1 as he had elected to confine himself to painting1 his erudition became a curse to him1 bringing him to disregard beauty of form in a manner as yet unknown in the history of art4 ,not only was he filled with ardour for the loftier thoughts1 without allowing any other forms for their presentation but those which were mere reminiscences of former art periods--he did not even give himself leisure thoroughly to assimilate the forms borrowed from ,michael ,angelo1 and to animate them with fresh life4 ,hence the fact that1 as an artist1 he remains greatly below the level of the ,dutch copyists1 in whose work there is at least no faulty drawing and tasteless colouring to be found4 ,he asked for walls1 not as panels to paint on1 but as tablets on which to inscribe his thoughts2 felt exclusively as a poet1 a man of learning1 brooding ideas4 ,engrossed in developing these ideas1 he valued form and colour no more than an author would the embellishing of his manuscript with flowing letters and an artistic arrangement of inks4 ,it is only by this means that we can explain the unjustifiable carelessness with which he surrendered his cartoons to his pupils1 and allowed them a free hand in the carrying them out1 or account for the evanescent colouring in the ,glyptothek and in the ,ludwigskirche1--a colouring which was even at that time far below the general level1 and which could only be excused in the case of a self-trained and quite untutored school4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,cornelius4 ,,the ,,fall ,,of ,,troy4 ,a man of this kind1 who had nothing to teach that was worth the learning1 and who excelled only in intellectual qualities which could not be imparted to others1 must needs prove the most dangerous academy-principal ,germany has had since she first boasted an academy4 ,so much the more as his pupils readily submitted to the personal fascination of this earnest little man with his black clothes1 his pompous appearance1 his flashing eagle eye1 which made one believe that1 ,dante-like1 he had looked upon heaven and hell4 ,as there are men born to command an army1 so ,cornelius was born to be the head of a school of painting1 said ,king ,ludwig4 ,we can scarcely help smiling at ,schwind's account of the trembling awe with which1 upon his arrival from ,vienna1 he presented himself to the master4 ,the red-haired stripling1 in his outgrown clothes1 timidly strolling round the rooms of the ,glyptothek suddenly sees ,cornelius himself1 high on a scaffolding1 in all his glory1 in an effulgence such as surrounds the head of ,phoebus ,apollo4 ,accustomed to seeing young artists stoop before him1 now stammering1 now paling1 now blushing1 the demi-god descends to the level of the unknown mortal4 ,he is quite a little man1 in a blue shirt1 with a red belt4 ,he looks very stern and distinguished1 and his black1 gleaming eyes impress you4 ,he descended from his throne1 changed his blue smock for an elegant frockcoat1 drank a glass of water with an easy manner1 and made my flesh thrill with a short explanation of what had been painted and what was still to be done1 tucked a few writing books under his arm1 and went upon his business to the academy4 ,illustration3 ,,wilhelm ,,kaulbach4 ,the reformation of the academy1 instigated by him at ,munich1 demonstrated the one-sidedness of his point of view4 ,he turned it into a school for fresco-painting4 ,a professorship in genre and landscape painting appears to me superfluous1 he wrote to the king in #ahbe2 true art knows no subdivision4 ,but as he himself had only partially mastered fresco painting1 he did not even succeed in establishing a school of fresco painters4 ,it was only one of designers of cartoons4 ,read the great poets3 ,homer1 ,shakespeare1 ,goethe2 do not forget to include the ,bible4 ,the brush has become the ruin of our art4 ,it has led from ,nature to ,mannerism4 ,by means of this teaching ,cornelius infused all his own defects into his academy1 which for that reason was doomed from the outset to an early decease4 ,a war of extermination1 often leading to the most burlesque scenes1 was declared by the ,cornelians against the ,langerians1 who were despised because they had retained a few of the technical acquirements of the peruke period4 ,when ,cornelius's attention was drawn to the fact that in one of his cartoons he had given a ,greek hero six fingers he answered with indifference3 ,ay1 and if he had had seven1 how would it affect the general idea8 ,illustration3 ,,kaulbach4 ,,the ,,deluge4 ,it was only natural1 therefore1 that his pupils should feel above using a model4 ,it is said that at the time when they were turning ,munich into an ,athens1 and the painters were covering the city walls with frescoes1 ,munich possessed but one model1 and the poor fellow died of starvation4 ,and then1 how they hated colours6 ,they were so difficult to manage6 ,who1 pray1 wanted to learn fresco painting by hard labour1 and swallow the chalk-dust8 ,it was much easier to copy their lord and master1 whose name was on their lips1 but not a spark of whose genius was in their heads1 with every sort of mannerism4 ,when nature once produces a new birth she does so with a lavish hand4 ,talents1 talents enough for centuries6 ,in these words ,cornelius himself did honour to his pupils--to ,carl ,herrmann1 ,strhuber1 ,hermann ,anschtz1 ,hiltensperger1 and ,lindenschmit the elder1 the mention of whose names evokes a painful memory of the arcades in the palace garden at ,munich4 ,what survives of ,cornelius is only the man1 the individual4 ,posterity will doubtless always honour him for the unflinching energy with which he upheld his ideal from youth to failing age2 for his courage in propounding and defending what seemed right to him2 for refraining from putting on velvet gloves with the multitude1 but frankly showing them his nails4 ,this high-mindedness of ,cornelius1 and his lofty conception of the aims of art1 must always command our respect4 ,all his works are the product of a serene1 great1 and noble soul4 ,his is a physiognomy with a proud1 vigorous profile1 which expresses an intellectual tendency1 and can never be forgotten4 ,he was a man--as a painter1 a curse to ,german art1 but a self-conscious1 aristocratic mind4 ,as he himself said3 ,art has its high-priests and also its hedge-priests2 and when at the end of his life he made his profession3 ,never1 under any circumstance of my life1 have ,i lost my pious reverence for the divinity of art2 never have ,i sinned against it1 we none of us refuse to accept his word4 ,illustration3 ,,kaulbach4 ,,prince ,,arthur ,,and ,,hubert4 ,this unfailing earnestness which suffuses ,cornelius's work raises him high above ,wilhelm ,kaulbach1 and secures for him lasting fame1 when that of ,kaulbach shall have been buried with the last of the cultured patrons for whom he worked1 and by whom he was placed on a pedestal4 ,look at both of them from a purely artistic point of view1 comparing them with the old masters1 and both of them sink equally into insignificance4 ,but if we come to accept the problem of art criticism as a matter of psychology rather than of sthetics1 if we search for the relations between the work of art and the soul of its author1 we cannot but look upon ,kaulbach as by far the inferior4 ,cornelius endeavoured to raise the masses to his level1 paid for his idealism with unpopularity1 and was never understood4 ,kaulbach1 the humble servant of the public1 changed the ,spartan iron of the art of ,cornelius for the base coin of the art unions2 to tickle the multitude1 he clothed voluptuous sensuality in the stately garment of the earnest ,muse1 and was hailed with jubilation throughout his life4 ,but the valise with which alone1 according to the fairy-tale1 one can enter upon the journey to immortality1 was still lighter in his case4 ,idealistic painting1 as professed by ,cornelius1 had skimmed all the cream from religious and mythological subjects2 so ,kaulbach tried to give something more actual in its stead4 ,he found this in the philosophy of history1 in the images of epochs in the history of the world which were then so much in vogue1 and handed his public1 eager for knowledge1 a printed programme upon which he had catalogued the gigantic thoughts and even weightier references which the picture was said to contain4 ,as the masses were awed by the severity of the ,cornelian conception of forms1 he softened it down with superficial calligraphic elegance3 what was sturdy and angular in the former was by him changed into a coquettish effeminacy4 ,this he effected by daubing his pictures1 which were in no way colour conceptions1 with insipid combinations of colour1 and replaced with oleographs ,cornelius's illuminated monumental woodcuts4 ,by these concessions to the picturesque he drove the axe into the tree which the designers of cartoons had planted4 ,the part he plays is that of a man of compromise between ,cornelius and ,piloty2 his frescoes are too sugary2 his oil-paintings too faulty4 ,it was he who buried the era of cartoons1 although the obsequies were conducted with all pomp4 ,a spiritual battle1 an aerial battle1 the ,battle of the ,huns1 is the first of his works4 ,beneath1 a real historical event2 above1 the same reproduced in the spiritual world4 ,the battle is over2 the field is hidden beneath the corpses of the slain2 but the spirits continue the combat in mid-air1 and strive to turn the occasion to account for a display of nudity4 ,next came the ,destruction of ,jerusalem1 crammed with ingenious references1 and elucidated with long1 printed commentaries4 ,this programme-painting played its trump card on the staircase of the ,berlin ,museum1 where a space of #bdj feet by #bh feet is occupied by the intellectual manifestations of the historical ,weltgeist2 the total evolution of culture with every people of every period in its principal historical phases2 those incidents which1 in the evolution of universal history1 mark the important knots with which the closely entwined threads of the national dramas of the universe are bound together4 ,the ,battle of the ,huns1 the ,destruction of ,jerusalem1 were included in the series2 and to them were added the ,tower of ,babel1 the ,rise of ,greece1 the ,crusades1 and the ,reformation4 ,the whole of ,hegel's philosophy was reproduced on the walls4 ,but as the pictures are not new through any novelty or greatness of their conception1 we need certainly not enter into the astounding profundity of their philosophy4 ,the eye is struck with mere compositions1 built up according to certain formulas1 and tableaux vivants1 put together with more or less cleverness1 theatrical in effect and crude in colour4 ,of his other large pictures1 the ,naval ,battle at ,salamis caused a special stir through its sinking harem4 ,in his ,nero he contrasted the orgies of the ,romans of the decadence with the enthusiasm for death of the early ,christians4 ,again1 in his great cartoon in charcoal of ,peter ,arbue1 he inflated to monumental dimensions a drawing suitable for a comic paper4 ,kaulbach is not an artist to be taken seriously4 ,woltmann1 who made the same observation twenty years ago1 tried at least to vindicate the illustrator1 and expressed his regret that a man who had the stuff in him of a ,german ,hogarth should unfortunately have been caught in the toils of the ,cornelian school4 ,but this comparison does little justice to ,hogarth4 ,there is nothing in the illustrations of ,kaulbach which many other artists could not have improved upon4 ,in his ,reynard the ,fox he adapted1 for the benefit of the ,german public1 ,grandville's ,scnes de la ,vie prive et publique des ,animaux1 published in #ahdb4 ,his illustrations for ditions de luxe 7,the ,women of ,goethe1 etc47 marked the first steps of the road which ended in ,thuman4 ,and ,thuman stands higher than ,kaulbach4 ,the faint1 unaccented drawing1 the oval beauty of heads1 declamatory and expressionless1 the academic touch are common to both of them4 ,but only with ,kaulbach do we find the penetrating perfume of the demi-monde1 the voluptuous1 satirical laughter which is not even stilled before ,goethe1 the pandering sensuality which cannot touch the purest and tenderest figures in ,german poetry without using them as a pretext to fling nudities to the public like bones to a dog4 ,in his ,dance of ,death suite1 ,kaulbach turned into frivolity what ,rethel had before expressed solemnly and earnestly4 ,like the two augurs1 who could not meet without laughing1 so at last the satirical designer began to laugh at his own monumental pictures4 ,after completing in his series of mural paintings at the ,berlin ,museum his ,apotheosis of the ,evolution of ,human ,culture1 he explained in his friezes that the whole was1 after all1 nothing but a dustbin and a lumber-room4 ,when he was commissioned to depict a suite of paintings for the upper walls of the new ,pinakothek at ,munich1 the artistic life of that town1 as glorified by ,king ,ludwig--a suite which the weather has since been kind enough to render almost invisible--he fulfilled his task by mocking at what he should have glorified4 ,all die ,meister ,kunstbahnbrecher1 wie die ,herren selbst sich nennen1 ,wahrlich ,widderkpfe sind sie1 ,mauern damit einzurennen4 ,mit dem ,loche in der ,mauer ist's noch lange nicht geschehen1 ,da muss erst der ,held erscheinen1 siegreich dadurch einzugehen4 ,gegen jenes ,ungeheuer ziehen sie zu ,feld mit ,phrasen1 ,wie die sieben ,schwaben einstmals ritterlich bekmpft den ,hasen4 ,voran zieht der edle ,ritter ,schnorr1 der ,knste ,don ,quixote1 ,seine ,rosinante setzt er1 statt des ,pegasus in ,trotte2 ,heiliger ,hess1 sein ,sancho ,pansa1 ,du nicht liebst das offene ,streiten1 ,und du lsst dich sachte1 sachte1 'rab von ,deinem ,esel gleiten4 ,was ist denn so grosses ,neues in der ,neuen ,kunst geschehen8 ,nichts1 als was sie nicht der aften1 lngst vergangnen abgesehen4 ,wnde ich auch ,lorbeerkrnze all um diese ,alltagsfratzen1 ,wrden sie sie doch nur zieren zu bedecken hohle ,glatzen4 ,this is the commentary written by ,kaulbach himself2 and ,thophile ,gautier called the suite un carnaval au soleil4 ,the king in his youth spent millions in order to elevate art1 says ,schwind2 and now in his old age he pays another thousand pounds in order to be laughed at for it4 ,heine's loud1 scornful laughter resounds over the grave of romantic literature2 and so the monumental period of ,german art ends in self-derision4 ,moreover1 as the mural paintings of the new ,pinakothek1 like the frescoes in the ,arcades and most of the other monumental products of the period1 are falling into ruin1 and only show traces of their past beauty in a few faint spots of colour not yet entirely effaced1 it is quite clear that it was an inherent fallacy of ,cornelius to expect a renovation of national ,german art from fresco painting4 ,the ,venetians of the sixteenth century well knew why they did not take up fresco painting4 ,monumental painting1 as aimed at by ,cornelius1 must remain an imported plant that cannot possibly thrive in a northern climate2 and oil-painting1 since the ,van ,eycks the medium and basis of art-culture among the ,teutonic races1 took its revenge upon his one-sidedness and his ,michaelangelesque disdain1 in the fact that at ,munich it had to be learnt again right from the beginning4 ,illustration3 ,,kaulbach4 ,,marguerite4 ,,chapter ,,vii ,,the ,d,,sseldorfers ,on the ,rhine there existed a school of painting instead of a school of drawing1 a fact which at that time placed ,dsseldorf next in importance to ,munich4 ,wilhelm ,schadow1 its first director1 was lacking in any personal distinction as an artist1 but he had received from his great father a tendency towards perfection of technique1 which brought him and his school into direct opposition with the purely philosophical painters of the severe ,cornelian tradition1 and which has even in our days been able to exercise an authoritative influence4 ,in ,rome he was the only one of the ,nazarenes amenable to the ,french influence1 while the others nervously held aloof from the members of the ,french ,academy4 ,and this formal bent of his talent later gave him the qualifications of a sound teacher4 ,immediately upon his arrival at ,dsseldorf1 in ,november #ahbf1 he was escorted by a stately throng of students3 ,carl ,friedrich ,lessing1 ,julius ,hbner1 ,theodor ,hildebrandt1 ,carl ,sohn1 ,h4 ,mcke1 and ,christian ,koehler1 who were afterwards joined by ,eduard ,bendemann1 ,ernest ,deger1 and others4 ,these became the mainstay of the celebrated ,old ,dsseldorf ,school1 which was soon supported by the jubilant enthusiasm of its contemporaries4 ,at the ,berlin exhibitions the new school of painting passed from one triumph to the other4 ,young men fresh from school suddenly made names that were honoured throughout ,germany1 by reason of the remarkable manner in which their works succeeded in expressing the sentimental romanticism of the time4 ,the ,wars of ,liberty of #ahac1 which had caused a gust of joyous enthusiasm to penetrate even into the peaceful seclusion of the ,nazarenes1 were not1 like the wars of #ahgj1 the outcome of careful calculation1 but the result of a sudden burst of ardour1 and the disillusion had now followed upon the enthusiasm4 ,in #ahaj1 with the ,french bayonets gleaming outside the windows1 and the ,french kettledrums drowning the sound of his voice1 ,fichte delivered at the ,berlin ,university his famous speeches which sounded the rveill for ,germany4 ,at the same time ,kleist wrote his ,hermannschlacht3 ,napoleon was to be treated as ,hermann had treated ,varus4 ,was blasen die ,trompeten1 ,husaren heraus1 pealed through the air2 the song of ,got1 der ,eisen wachsen liess rose heavenwards in brazen accords4 ,and not long after1 the same lions who had beaten the ,corsican at ,leipzig1 and had with ,arndt conceived the idea of a great1 united fatherland1 had once more become the same easy-going people1 drinking their beer and smoking their pipes in their little duodecimo principalities as of old4 ,those dreary times1 which saw no prospect of relief in their own days1 must needs nourish a devotion to the past4 ,that haughty antiquity1 which had been possessed of the ideal to which the present had not been able to attain1 became the object of a fanatical adoration4 ,men lost themselves in the old storehouses of faded ,german reminiscences1 and fled for inspiration to the times of a consolidated ,german ,empire4 ,this return to the ruins of the past was a protest against the grey1 colourless present4 ,the patriotic frenzy of the poets of freedom changed into enthusiasm for the vanished glories of medival ,germany4 ,they remembered with longing and yearning the days when the robber-knights ruled town and country from their strongholds4 ,schenkendorff sang hymns inspired by the old cathedrals1 rummaged with holy horror among the skeletons of knights and heroes in the chapel1 and wrote a poem in memory of the thousandth anniversary of the death of ,charlemagne2 ,arndt1 the bard of the wars of freedom1 violently attacked the industrialism of the time1 declaiming against steam and machinery2 ,zacharias ,werner composed his poem1 ,das ,feldgeschrei sei3 alte ,zeit wird neu4 ,this revival of romanticism opened up a wide field to science and poetry4 ,the apotheosis of the old imperial times was made manifest amid fairy-like glamour4 ,poetry grasped the pilgrim's staff1 or rode with beauteous dames on milk-white palfreys through forest and glade4 ,enchanted genii1 elves1 fairies1 and goblins were encountered on the road4 ,nowhere is there so sweet a scent of blossoms1 so innocent a sound of children's merriment1 as in ,tieck's delightful and dainty fairy-tales1 or in the works of ,clemens ,brentano1 those precious stories of ,father ,rhine1 of the water-nymphs and the crystal castles at the bottom of the green current1 pictures full of charming wilfulness1 dreamily winsome1 like summer evenings on the ,rhine4 ,uhland sang1 as once had sung the knightly poets with the golden harps-- ,von ,gottesminne1 von khner ,helden ,muth1 ,von lindem liebesinne1 von ssser ,maiengluth4 ,to this day we seem to peep between the weather-beaten castles1 standing on their grey rocks along the ,rhine ,valley1 into the realm of romance as into an enigma propounded by mountain and dale4 ,rhine and romance6 ,no spot in ,germany was better fitted to become the cradle of a romantic art than ,dsseldorf1 the peaceful town on the legend-haunted banks of the green river4 ,in the fifteenth century1 in addition to the school of ,florence1 where flowed a rich current of political and human life1 where great buildings1 monuments1 and frescoes kept architects and sculptors and painters uniformly busied1 there existed in the remote ,umbrian valleys1 in the land of miracles and visions1 that school of painting in oils which saw its only eternal ideal in the deep eyes and soft aspect of the ,madonna1 and made the visionary aspirations of the soul1 emotions1 and sentiment the exclusive subject of their pictures4 ,in the same manner1 in the nineteenth century1 we find in contrast with the ,munich school1 with its numerous architectural products1 its massive statuary1 and the epic-dramatic fresco painting of ,cornelius--wedding the ,german to the ,greek1 and ,faust to ,helen--that lyrico-sentimental ,dsseldorf school of painting which embraced ,madonnas and prophets1 knights and robbers1 gipsies and monks1 water-nymphs and nuns with the same languishing tenderness4 ,in matter and technique it completes the art of ,cornelius and the ,nazarenes2 that of the ,munich master by its encouragement of oil-painting2 that of the ,nazarenes by the stress which it lays upon the more worldly side of medival life1 upon chivalry1 and in a less degree upon that other pillar of medivalism the ,church4 ,the ,nazarenes are archological and ascetic2 the ,dsseldorf school is insipid in a modern way1 feeble1 colourless1 and sentimental4 ,count ,raczynski and ,friedrich von ,uechtritz have given us interesting descriptions of life at ,dsseldorf at that time1 and their story reads like a chapter of ,tacitus' ,germania4 ,grand dieu6 ,bons et affectueux allemands6 exclaimed a ,parisian critic of the ,count's book in sad emotion1 and held up this virtuous ,german life1 as an example worthy of imitation1 to his compatriots1 the decadents of fashionable artistic ,paris1 fallen into modern luxury4 ,undisturbed by the hum of a big city1 and without any communication with its surroundings1 the ,dsseldorf colony of artists lived its life of seclusion4 ,the painters saw none but painters4 ,they herded together in the studios1 and the sole recreation in the intervals of their work was a visit to another studio4 ,the whole of the day was devoted to painting2 when the picture was complete it went to the art union2 and the hours of tediousness were overcome with the assistance of a little intrigue4 ,hildebrandt possessed the nucleus of a collection of beetles4 ,lessing1 the hunter1 collected pipes and antlers1 and only felt himself at home in the little room which he occupied with ,sohn when it assumed the appearance of a gamekeeper's cottage4 ,convinced that politics were the ruin of character1 they allowed no questions of the day to interfere with the calmness of their artistic life4 ,few of them ever read a newspaper4 ,in the year of revolution1 #ahcj1 their sole interest in the events around them was concentrated in the fear that a war might disturb their idyllic life4 ,the end of the day's work saw them in summer-time bent on a pilgrimage to the ,stockkmpchen1 to refresh themselves with a cup of buttermilk1 to play at bowls1 or to enjoy a race among the cabbage patches of the garden4 ,in winter they made a point of meeting at seven o'clock every ,saturday night at the inn for a literary reading4 ,each taking his part they recited the dramas of ,tieck1 of ,calderon1 and ,lopez2 or ,uechtritz read extracts from ,german history1 the ,crusades1 the period of the emperors1 the riots of the ,hussites4 ,every ,sunday night there met at ,schadow's a very distinguished intellectual circle1 consisting of ,judge ,immermann 7the reformer of the stage at ,dsseldorf71 ,felix ,mendelssohn the composer1 ,kortum1 author of the ,jobsiade1 and ,assessor von ,uechtritz1 with their ladies4 ,but the great gala-days were the theatrical performances which took place twice a week4 ,under the leadership of ,immermann the theatre had become the place whence the young painters gathered their liveliest suggestions4 ,some of them went even so far as to take part in amateur performances1 conducted by ,immermann1 and given in ,schadow's house1 under the auspices of the whole of the distinguished society4 ,and thus the pictures of this school were not conceived under the influence of life1 but of the theatre4 ,the ,dsseldorf artists were youths whose productions were not rooted in life1 but in reading and culture2 youths who always moved in good society1 and who had passed through the great ordeals of life1 but only on the boards representing the universe4 ,theodor ,hildebrandt became the ,shakespeare of ,dsseldorf4 ,the translation of the works of the ,english poet by ,schlegel had been published some time earlier1 and ,immermann1 in ,dsseldorf1 had been the first to offer ,shakespeare a home on the ,german stage4 ,the performances of his tragedies were regarded as red-letter days4 ,during the three years of ,immermann's leadership 7#ahcd-cg71 ,hamlet1 ,macbeth1 ,king ,john1 ,king ,lear1 ,the ,merchant of ,venice1 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,othello1 and ,julius ,csar were performed on fifteen occasions in all4#a ,to give the titles of these plays is at once to characterise the subject-matter of ,hildebrandt's paintings4 ,he very often had a hand in the staging of the plays1 and is said to have shown a remarkable histrionic talent in the performances at ,schadow's4 ,he rarely went to other poets for his inspiration1 as in his ,pictures from ,faust and his ,beware of the ,water ,nymph1 where he honoured ,goethe1 and in his ,brigands1 where he may have been inspired by one of the many variations on ,rinaldo ,rinaldini that flooded the market at the time1 or perhaps also by ,byron1 whose influence was very marked on the ,dsseldorf school4 ,goethe's ,frauengestalten1 more especially the ,leonoras1 were reproduced in oils by old father ,sohn4 ,eduard ,steinbruck painted ,genevives1 ,red ,riding ,hoods1 ,elves1 and ,undines1 after ,tieck and ,fouqu2 ,h4 ,stilke's ,pictures from the ,crusades introduced ,walter ,scott to the ,german public4 ,uhland's first ballads had brought into fashion the damsels who from the ramparts of their castles wave a sad farewell to the lonely shepherds2 the ancestral tombs1 in which the last knight of his race takes his everlasting rest2 the lists1 where melancholy heroes stab themselves4 ,his ,love-song of the ,shepherd to the ,shepherdess-- ,und halt ich dich in den ,armen ,auf freien ,bergeshhn1 ,wir sehn in die weiten ,lande ,und werden doch nicht gesehn1 gave ,bendemann the motive for his picture of the same name4 ,young ,lessing had to thank ,uhland for the subject of his first success1 ,the ,sorrowing ,royal ,pair1 which at one bound made his name one of the most honoured in ,german art4 ,wohl sah ich die ,eltern beide ,ohne der ,kronen ,licht ,im schwarzen ,trauerkleide1 ,die ,jungfrau sah ich nicht4 ,after ,brger he painted a ,leonora--of course in so-called medival costume1 in order to avoid the unpicturesque attire in fashion during the ,seven ,years' ,war2 and at the same time as ,hildebrandt1 ,a ,mourning ,brigand1 who1 in the full light of the evening sun1 sits brooding on a rock over the depravity of the world4 ,that all of them were frantically enthusiastic for the ,hohenstaufens is due to the publication of ,von ,rainer's ,history in #ahbc1 which took a greater hold of the public than did ,schiller's ,history of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 and inspired numerous dramas4 ,illustration3 ,,hildebrandt4 ,,the ,,sons ,,of ,,edward4 ,illustration3 ,,steinbruck4 ,,elves4 ,even the idyllic and touching scenes from the ,old ,testament and the ,hebrew elegies are easily traced back to theatrical inspirations4 ,with the exception of the frescoes of the ,casa ,bartholdy1 the subjects of which were selected with an eye to the religious belief of their purchaser1 the ,nazarenes found all the subject-matter they wanted in the ,new ,testament4 ,the ,passion of ,our ,lord was unable to inspire the ,dsseldorf school4 ,as compared to the few ,christian paintings by ,w4 ,schadow1 and the dreamy ,madonnas of ,deger1 ,ittenbach1 and little ,perugino ,mintrop1 we find a far greater number of scenes from the ,old ,testament1 which at the time gave birth to numerous dramas4 ,hbner1 always inclined to idyllic and melancholy scenes1 painted ,ruth and ,boaz1 his first great picture1 which established his reputation4 ,after ,klingemann had utilised the whole life of ,moses by turning it into a theatrically effective sequence1 ,christian ,koehler scored a success with his ,moses hidden in the ,bulrushes and his ,finding of ,moses1 and then1 incited by ,raupach's ,semiramis1 abandoned his biblical heroines for ,oriental ones4 ,theodor ,hildebrandt took ,tieck's ,judith as an inspiration for his picture of this ,jewish heroine4 ,kehren's ,joseph reveals ,himself to his ,brethren was begun after the opera ,joseph in ,egypt had been performed at ,dsseldorf4 ,bendemann1 in #ahcb1 played his trump card with his ,lament of the ,jews1 now in the ,cologne ,museum1 after ,byron had made his propaganda1 suggested by the sad lives of the children of ,israel1 and ,friedrich von ,uechtritz had caused his drama1 ,the ,babylonians in ,jerusalem1 to be performed1 ending as it does with the sending of the ,jews into captivity in ,babylon-- ,wein' ber die die weinen fern in ,babel1 ,ihr ,tempel brach1 ihr ,land ward1 ach6 zur ,fabel6 ,wein'6 es erstart der heil 'gen ,harfe ,ton1 ,im ,haus ,jehovas haust der ,sptter ,hohn4 ,and his oil-paintings of a later date1 ,jeremiah on the ,ruins of ,jerusalem 7#ahcd71 now in the ,german ,emperor's collection1 and the ,sending of the ,jews into ,captivity in ,babylon 7#ahgb71 in the ,berlin ,national ,gallery1 were variations on the same theme4 ,the productions of the ,dsseldorf school were thus in perfect harmony with the programme issued by ,pttmann in his book4 ,pictorial representations may be taken from two ranges1 ,history or ,poetry2 the painter may choose an historical fact as a subject for representation1 or reproduce in visible form the rhythmically shaped fancy of a stranger4 ,history shows him figures full of expression1 and even a less powerful artist will find it possible to make a true copy of them4 ,if the painter works from poems his representations are sure to meet with approval1 as they render the beautiful and the attractive in visible shape4 ,but the greatest success lies in store for those works which depict in harmony with the mood of the times historical or poetical performances which express human suffering in its various stages1 from homely and everyday griefs to the silent sorrow of irretrievable catastrophe4 ,illustration3 ,,sohn4 ,,the ,,two ,,leonoras4 ,thus the scale of sorrow from sad melancholy to painful suffering became the speciality of the ,dsseldorf school4 ,at the foot of the scale we find the pictures which represent the common1 yet keen sorrow of parents at the death or the sad future of their children4 ,lessing's ,royal ,pair mourn the death of their daughter2 ,hagar grieves because she is forced to abandon her son ,ishmael in the desert2 ,genoveva1 because the roe is so long in coming to the rescue4 ,the mortal grief of love is represented by ,lessing's ,leonora2 grief of love at separation by ,sohn's and ,hildebrandt's pictures of ,romeo and ,juliet4 ,even the murderers of the ,sons of ,edward mourn at their crime when they see the children-- ,girdling one another ,within their innocent alabaster arms3 ,their lips were four red roses on a stalk1 ,which in their summer beauty kissed each other4 ,job grieves at the downfall of his house2 ,hbner's ,ruth1 because her weeping mother-in-law entreats her to depart2 ,stilke's ,pilgrim in the ,desert1 because his horse has died of thirst2 ,plddeman's ,columbus1 because he knows himself to be unworthy of the grace of ,god which enabled him to discover ,america2 ,kiederich's ,charles ,v1 because he has retired too early to his monastery1 and is plagued by the ticking of his watch4 ,the ,hohenstaufens1 of course1 appealed more to the pity of the public3 the misfortunes of the beautiful ,enzin1 of ,manfred and ,conrad1 gave birth to a sentiment of profoundest sadness4 ,even brigands mourn at the depravity of the world4 ,the age had come to despise its own ,philistine situation so deeply that it looked up to the brigands1 the adversaries of civil order1 as to representatives of justice4 ,all depravity1 it was said1 originated with the public functionaries1 and to the noble brigands was allotted the task of revolutionising existing things4 ,their ally in this was to be the poacher4 ,at a time when a revision of the game-laws was the sole timid wish the people ventured to lay before its princes1 it was only logical that the poacher should be looked upon as the victim of injustice1 as the rescuer of the small man from the claws of feudal despotism4 ,the numerous pictures that glorify him1 as he falls weltering in his blood beneath the guns of the gamekeepers1 make pendants to ,raupach's ,smugglers1 and to the rest of the highly esteemed literature which turned the life of the poacher into sentimental dramas or novels4 ,illustration3 ,,lessing4 ,,the ,,sorrowing ,,royal ,,pair4 ,fortunately we1 in our days1 find great difficulty in entering into the spirit which gave birth to these productions4 ,a world lies between it and the present1 just as between the ,germany of to-day and the ,germany of #ahcj4 ,men of the younger generation1 who were still at school when ,bismarck spoke his word of blood and iron1 can hardly understand how this modern1 realistic ,germany can have been1 two generations ago1 a sentimental ,germany4 ,now the significance of the ,dsseldorf school in the history of civilisation lies in the fact that they are the real representatives of that age of sentimentality4 ,a generation that melted away in tearful dreamings must needs enthusiastically recognise its own flesh and blood in those knights and damsels1 squires and pages1 monks and nuns1 who1 infinitely amorous or infinitely religious1 were all infinitely sentimental2 and things that now only evoke a smile or a shrug must needs have moved them to tears4 ,look where you will1 you meet the same world4 ,it hung on the walls1 it displayed itself in engravings1 lithographs1 and coloured prints2 if one lay down for a siesta1 one found a lovelorn knight and damsel or a praying nun stitched on the cushion2 if one put one's foot on a carpet1 one trod upon noble hunting-dames on horseback1 falcon on wrist2 one carried them in one's pockets on cigar-cases and handkerchiefs2 the traveller and the cheap tripper took them abroad on their knapsacks4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,bendemann4 ,,the ,,lament ,,of ,,the ,,jews4 ,technically1 the pictures of this school were not without their merits4 ,the greatness of ,michael ,angelo may not have been ,bendemann's1 and ,sohn's carnations are far removed from the melting colouring of ,titian4 ,but as opposed to the one-sidedness to which fresco painting at ,munich was given up1 the encouragement of oil-painting at ,dsseldorf must be looked upon as praiseworthy4 ,these painters were the first in ,germany to try again to learn how to paint in oils4 ,the extreme artistic clumsiness that had reigned under ,cornelius was followed by a period in which1 under ,schadow1 earnest studies and serious work were devoted to an effort again to master a technical medium4 ,their friendly emulation led to surprising progress1 which assured to the ,dsseldorf school a technical superiority over all the other ,german schools of the period4 ,illustration3 ,,sohn4 ,,the ,,rape ,,of ,,hylas4 ,if1 nevertheless1 their pictures have not maintained their position as vital works of art1 it is due to the fact that they were produced under the pressure of that mechanical idealism which makes all their productions so utterly unattractive to us4 ,the ideal line of beauty has turned the figures into bloodless shadows and washed-out theatrical forms4 ,as philosophy was to ,cornelius1 so to the ,dsseldorfers was poetry their ,noah's ,ark4 ,the interest aroused by the poet was their ally2 the breath of the wind that set their boat afloat2 the general poetical tendency made up for the deficiency in artistic interest4 ,had it not been for the support of the poets1 their sugary1 insipid figures would have from the beginning been unable to hold their own4 ,for after having been retouched by ,idealism1 nothing vital remained in those romantic kings1 fantastic knights1 ,jews1 and stage princesses2 nothing particular and characteristic in their generalisation1 nothing generally human4 ,with them a king is always an heroic prince in black harness1 a woolly beard1 and a scarlet cloak4 ,a queen is represented as proud and dark1 or tender and fair-haired4 ,in the much-beloved couples from poems1 characterisation goes no further than general contrasts3 the brunette in red attire with white sleeves2 the tender blonde with the complementary garment of pale violet2 the one with luxurious embonpoint1 the other languidly slender--men brown1 women white1 youths rosy4 ,knights wear silvery helmets with or without plumes2 now with open1 now with shut visor2 sometimes they sit on poetic palfreys1 now of slender1 now of sturdy build4 ,the only impressions they are subject to may be interpreted with the assistance of the plaster bust3 honour1 fidelity1 love4 ,and as sentiment and heroism are national virtues of the ,germans1 they are bound to show sentimental expression whilst killing their adversaries4 ,even the brigands are generalised lay figures4 ,the ,dsseldorf ideal of beauty aimed at a certain tender1 vaguely graceful swing of outline that anxiously avoided all manly and strong1 energetic and characteristic expression1 all that could remind one of nature4 ,they rejected ,leonardo da ,vinci's advice1 to tug at the nipple of ,mother ,nature1 but looked upon her merely as their aunt2 and for this1 despised ,nature took her revenge by making their figures shapeless and phantom-like4 ,and as their dread of painted stupidities did not once bring them to make bold mistakes1 we can neither praise nor censure their pictures1 cannot enjoy them or take offence at them1 but look at them sine ira et studio1 with a lukewarm feeling of utter indifference4 ,,footnote3 #a ,as is still the case in most of the ,german theatres1 the programme changed every night4 ,two or three consecutive performances of one play remain a rarity4 ,,chapter ,,viii ,,the ,,legacy ,,of ,,german ,,romanticism ,it was reserved for two younger men to reach the aim that hovered in the far distance before ,cornelius and the ,dsseldorfians4 ,and1 by one of fortune's remarkable freaks1 the greatest ,german monumental painter of the nineteenth century came from the ,dsseldorf1 the greatest ,romanticist from the ,munich school4 ,alfred ,rethel was twenty-four years old when he received the commission to paint the frescoes in the ,kaisersaal at ,aachen1 and had previously worked in the ,dsseldorf ,academy1 and then with ,veit at ,frankfort4 ,but the pictures are suggestive neither of his ,dsseldorfian nor of his ,nazarene training4 ,the deeds of ,charlemagne1 the ancestor of the ,german ,imperial dynasties1 are nobly1 and1 at the same time1 vigorously embodied in them4 ,rethel had studied the harsh strength of his ,albrecht ,drer1 but only as a kindred spirit studies his kin4 ,neither ,cornelius nor ,schnorr has depicted the old ,german heroic might and the vanished imperial grandeur1 the great past1 the iron ,middle ,ages1 with such notable traits4 ,how plain in his heroic greatness stands the mighty conqueror of the ,saxons by the overthrown pagan idols2 how simply and majestically does he march into conquered ,pavia4 ,what an inexorable and irresistible warrior he seems1 as he rages amongst the ,moors who flock round the cars of their idols2 and with what grave phantom dignity does he gaze in death upon the young ,emperor ,otto1 who has forced his way into his vault1 and kneels trembling before the lifeless frame of his great forefather4 ,there is no vestige of pose1 nothing superfluous2 everywhere simplicity1 compression1 lucidity4 ,only what is necessary is inscribed here1 in the lapidary style4 ,no meaningless phrase interrupts his narrative2 the inner meaning is never sacrificed to any external beauty of line2 his forms like his thoughts are severe and precise4 ,he draws with a sure hand in crisp lines1 like a writer who aims at the utmost brevity and so lays especial emphasis on his sentences and words4 ,the self-revelation in these pictures is admirable--the illuminating clearness with which they tell what they have to say without the aid of any commentator1 the directness with which they present in an artistic aspect the substance to be given4 ,and with this substance the painting corresponds4 ,it is to be deplored that ,rethel himself could carry out in colour only four of his designs1 and that the completion of the rest was entrusted to the painter ,kehren1 who spoilt by his effort after charm of colour the collective impression of the series4 ,the pictures painted by ,rethel himself are1 in the simplicity of their colouring1 in remarkable accordance with the powerful style of his drawing4 ,rethel's painting has something stern and grey1 bare and sombre4 ,he belongs to the stylists whose implement is rather charcoal than the brush2 but he had1 although no colourist1 a free command of colour1 and never committed any fault of taste1 but with a remarkably sure instinct used colour in the mass1 simply1 but yet with significant effect4 ,he might have been the man to create a monumental ,german art4 ,a tragic destiny6 ,heinrich von ,kleist1 the greatest ,german poet of the post-classical age1 who was chosen for so high a vocation1 the creation of a new dramatic style1 shot himself2 and the giant1 ,alfred ,rethel1 was to end in madness4 ,barely forty years old was he when he walked by the warder's side in the courtyard at ,dsseldorf1 picking up flint-stones1 a poor1 simple madman4 ,only two series of designs ensure1 apart from the frescoes at ,aix1 the immortality of his name3 ,hannibal's ,passage over the ,alps1 and the ,dance of ,death4 ,as a draughtsman1 just as a painter of frescoes1 he is the same ,titan1 sounds the same stern1 manly note4 ,here the heroic hosts of the ,carthaginians stand anxious1 yet resolved1 at the foot of the grim ,alpine pass2 steep1 beetling cliffs1 precipice1 ice and snow1 tower before them4 ,now the climb begins1 and the struggle with the fierce1 barbaric folk of the mountains1 who swing themselves on leaping-pole like wild animals over the gaping crevices in the ice4 ,yonder are men1 horses1 an elephant1 hurled into the abyss2 some have spitted themselves on jagged branches of trees in their fall1 others twine themselves together in horrible coils2 at last the most advanced have reached the heights1 and the heroic figure of the commander points out proudly to them1 as they breathe once more1 the plains of ,italy4 ,over his second work there broods the shadow of that mental darkness which was to surround him4 ,when1 in the year #ahdh1 the political storm burst over the soil of ,europe1 ,rethel's fantasy reaped a rich harvest4 ,he drew his ,dance of ,death1 represented ,death the ,leveller1 who drives poor fools behind the barricades4 ,the ghostly and spectral1 that horror of death that breaks in upon us in the midst of life1 had been the propensity of ,german art since ,drer and ,holbein4 ,like them1 ,rethel loved the world of the diabolical1 and similarly chose for his embodiment of it the sturdy1 simple contours of the old ,german wood engravings4 ,death as the hero of revolution makes a commencement4 ,there he rides as the town-executioner1 a cigar between his lips1 his scythe in his hand4 ,he sits shambling in the saddle1 his smock and tall boots dangle on his bony figure4 ,dressed like a charlatan1 he excites the people before the tavern against the rulers1 that he may earn his harvest at the barricade4 ,he himself stands firm and proud1 like a general on the field of battle1 the flag in his hand1 and the bullets of the soldiers whistling harmlessly through his bony ribs4 ,but the artisans who follow him are not invulnerable as he is2 the grape-shot sweeps them down off the barricade4 ,the contest is over2 triumphant1 with a wreath of bay round his skull1 mocking venom in his glance1 ,death rides with his banner unfurled across the barricade1 where the dying writhe in their gaunt death-struggle1 and children bewail their fallen fathers4 ,the plate1 ,death as the ,assassin1 takes up the story of the outbreak of cholera at a masked ball in ,paris4 ,in terrified haste the dancers and musicians leave the hall4 ,only one mummy-like spectre1 the ,cholera himself1 a shape of horror1 keeps his ground1 as though turned to stone1 and holds the triumphant scourge like a sceptre in his bony hand4 ,death1 in a domino1 with two bones for a fiddle1 plays a call to the dance2 and beneath the awful sounds of his tune the people1 stretched on the ground1 in sick convulsions1 grinning with distorted features1 behind their jesters' masks1 twist and turn4 ,illustration3 ,,rethel4 ,,the ,,emperor ,,otto ,,at ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,charlemagne4 ,there is something of ,th4 ,a4 ,hofmann's wild fantasy of the ague-fit in this picture1--something morbid1 satanic1 that suggests ,flicien ,rops2 yet1 at the same time1 something so pithy and virile1 and in form so compressed1 well-balanced1 and correct1 that it brings the old ,germans1 too1 to our recollection4 ,and the reconciliation with which the series ends is pathetic4 ,in the high steeple1 lit by the rays of the setting sun1 the grey old bellringer1 his worn hands clasped in prayer1 has fallen quietly asleep in his armchair4 ,a calm peace rests upon his good1 old1 devout countenance4 ,the thin hands1 with their marks and furrows1 tell a long tale of hard work1 sorrow1 and longing for rest4 ,and the weary veteran has made a pilgrimage for the health of his poor soul1 as prove the pilgrim's hat and staff by the wall2 and now ,death has really come1 the well-known presence indeed1 but this time with no grin of mockery1 rather in profound pity4 ,in his ingenious manner of giving an expression of mockery1 cold indifference1 or compassion to the head of the skeleton1 ,rethel stands on a level with ,holbein4 ,to the old ringer1 ,death1 who before had grinned so diabolically1 is a gentle and trusted friend4 ,quietly and pensively he performs the task that the old man has done so often when he attended the departure of some pilgrim of earth with the solemn notes of his bell4 ,rethel himself had still to drag through many years in an obscure night of the spirit before for him1 too1 ,death1 as the friend1 rang the knell4 ,illustration3 ,,rethel4 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,the ,,pagan ,,idols4 ,and now for him who was the most admirable of them all1 ,lady ,adventure's true knight4 ,master ,schwind1 you are a genius and a ,romanticist4 ,this stereotyped compliment was paid by ,king ,ludwig to the painter on each occasion that1 without buying anything of him1 he visited his studio4 ,and with equal regularity ,schwind1 when he had sat down again at his easel1 after the royal visit1 to smoke his pipe1 is said to have muttered something extremely disloyal4 ,in this trait the whole ,schwind is already revealed1--free from all ambition1 every inch an artist4 ,w4 ,h4 ,riehl has described a series of such episodes1 which one must know in order to understand ,schwind1 that highly gifted child of nature1 who separates himself from the group of philosophical1 meditative artists of his age1 both as an individual and as an audacious1 original genius of effervescent wit4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,rethel4 ,,hannibal',s ,,passage ,,over ,,the ,,alps4 ,when an sthetic once hailed him as the creator of an original1 ,german kind of ideal1 romantic art1 ,schwind repeated very slowly1 weighing each word3 ',an original1 ,german kind of ideal1 romantic art4' ,my dear sir1 to me there are only two kinds of pictures1 the sold and the unsold2 and to me the sold are always the best4 ,those are my entire sthetics4 ,or a noble amateur comes to him with the request that he would take him just for a few days into his school1 and instruct him especially in his masterly art of drawing in pencil4 ,whereupon ,schwind3 ,it does not require a day for that1 my dear ,baron2 ,i can tell you in three minutes how ,i do it1 ,i can give you all the desired information at once4 ,here lies my paper1--kindly remark it1 ,i buy it of ,bullinger1 #f ,residenz ,strasse2 these are my pencils1 ,a4 ,w4 ,faber's1 ,i get them from ,andreas ,kaut1 #aj ,kaufinger ,strasse2 from the same firm ,i have this indiarubber too1 but ,i very seldom use it1 so that ,i use this penknife all the more1 to sharpen the pencils2 it's from ,tresch1 #aj ,dienersgasse1 and very good value4 ,now1 ,i have all these things lying together on the table1 and a few thoughts in my head as well2 then ,i sit down here and begin to draw4 ,and now you know all that ,i can tell you4 ,again he asks to be decorated with an order1 because he is ashamed to mix in such a naked condition with his bestarred confrres1 and after the bestowal of the desired decoration he says3 ,i wore it only once1 at the last ,new ,year's leve1 but ,i vowed at the same time that six horses should not drag me there again4 ,before1 there was at any rate a beautiful queen there1 and then the court ladies laughed at one2 but amongst men only1 the stupidity of it is not to be endured4 ,when he grumbles over commissions which have been given to others1 and adds good-temperedly1 ,indeed1 ,i'm an envious fellow2 when he paints the most delicate pictures and then growls1 ,what am ,i to do with the things1 if nobody buys them8 when he indulges in outbursts of wrath1 and a minute later has forgotten again the abusive words which the others spitefully bring up against him years afterwards1--then here1 too1 his happy humour forces its way everywhere1 that divine navet which forms the soul of his and of all true art4 ,illustration3 ,,rethel4 ,,death ,,at ,,the ,,masked ,,ball4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,rethel4 ,,death ,,the ,,friend ,,of ,,man4 ,schwind remains a personality by himself--the last of the ,romanticists1 and one of the most amiable manifestations in ,german art4 ,he was free from the malady of that sham ,romanticism which sought the salvation of art in the resurrection of the ,middle ,ages1 misunderstood1 and grasped sentimentally1 and as it were by stencil4 ,he was spiritually permeated by that which had given ,romanticism the capacity to exist3 the sense of that forgotten and imperishable world of beauty which it has again discovered4 ,the others sought for the blue flower1 ,schwind found it2 resuscitated in all its fary beauty that fair night of enchantment which holds the mind captive4 ,he incorporated the romantic idea in painting as ,weber did in music1 and his works1 like the ,freischtz1 will live for ever4 ,many a man listened to him holding forth upon water-nymphs1 gnomes1 and tricksy kobolds1 as of beings of whose existence he appeared to have no doubt whatever4 ,on one occasion1 while out walking near ,eisenach in the ,annathal1 a friend laughingly observed to him that the landscape really looked as if gnomes had made the pathway and had had their dwellings there4 ,don't you believe it was so8 ,i believe it1 answered ,schwind in all seriousness4 ,he lived in the world of legend and fairy-tale4 ,if ever a fairy stood beside the cradle of a mortal man1 assuredly there was one standing by ,schwind's2 and all his life long he believed in her and raved about her4 ,born in the land where ,neidhart of ,neuenthal had sung and the ,parson of the ,kahlenberg had dwelt1 to his eyes ,germany was overshadowed with ancient ,teutonic oaks3 for him1 elves hovered about watersprings and streams1 their white robes trailing behind them through the dewy grass2 a race of gnomes held their habitation on the mountain heights1 and water-nymphs bathed in every pool4 ,in him part of the ,middle ,ages came back to life1 not in livid1 corpse-like pallor1 but fanned by the revivifying breath of the present day4 ,for that is what is noteworthy about ,schwind2 he is a ,romanticist1 yet at the same time a genuine1 modern child of ,vienna4 ,there are three things in each of which ,vienna stands supreme3 hers are the fairest women1 the sweetest songs1 and the most beautiful waltzes4 ,the atmosphere of ,vienna sends forth a soft and sensual breath which encircles us as though with women's arms2 songs and dances slumber in the air1 waiting only for a call to be awakened4 ,vienna is a place for enjoyment rather than for work1 for pensive dreaming rather than for sober wakefulness of mind4 ,moritz ,schwind was a child of this city of beautiful women1 songs1 and dances1 as may be observed in the feminine nature of his art1 in its melody and rhythm3 in music1 indeed1 it had its source4 ,in song-singing1 bell-ringing ,vienna it was difficult for him to guess in what direction his talents lay2 but all his life long he kept an open eye for the charms of beautiful womanhood4 ,no artist of that time has created lovelier forms of women1 beings with so great a charm of maidenly freshness and modest grace4 ,instead of the goddesses1 heroines1 and nun-like female saints1 whose appearance dated from the ,italy of the ,cinquecento1 ,schwind depicted modern feminine charm4 ,the group of ladies in ,ritter ,kurt is1 even to the movement of their gloved fingers1 graceful in the modern sense4 ,he was a painter of love--a breath of ,walter von der ,vogelweide's ideal perfection of womanhood pervades his pictures4 ,durchssset und geblmet sind die reinen ,frauen1 ,es ward nie nichts so ,wonnigliches anzuschauen1 ,in ,lften1 auf ,erden1 noch in allen grnen ,auen4 ,schwind1 too1 painted frescoes1 and in them he is very unequal4 ,all his life long he complained of the lack of important commissions2 it was fortunate for him that he did not get more of them4 ,such a painter as he can execute no orders but his own1--just as good poems do not come to order4 ,a long list of wall paintings--the ,tieck room and the figure-frieze in the ,habsburg ,hall of the new palace at ,munich1 the frescoes in the ,kunsthall and in the ,hall of ,assembly of the ,upper ,house at ,karlsruhe1 those in the ,castle of ,hohenschwangau1 even the theatre pieces in the loggia and in the foyer of the ,vienna ,opera ,house--could be easily struck out of ,schwind's work1 without detriment to his reputation4 ,only when the subject permitted him to strike a simple note of fairy music was he charming even in his wall-paintings1 and therefore those which depict scenes from the life of ,st4 ,elizabeth in the ,wartburg are rightly the most celebrated4 ,like ,rethel in the field of the heroic1 so ,schwind in that of romantic legend reached the goal which the former kept before his eyes1 for the revivifying of the time when there was an enthusiasm for fresco painting4 ,his paintings are poor in colour1 motley1 magic-lantern views in the style of the heraldically treated figures seen in the frescoes and stained glass of the ,romanesque and early ,gothic ,middle ,ages1 and yet in every line as delightful as the man himself4 ,nowhere do we find glaring contrasts1 nowhere any violent agitation in the expression of the faces4 ,it is by the avoidance of all landscape accessories1 and by a hardly noticeable change in the simple plant-ornamentation in the background1 that the events represented are made to lose touch with actual reality4 ,in the first picture1 bright-hued birds flit here and there among the rose-branches forming the decorative work2 in that which treats of ,st4 ,elizabeth's expulsion1 the ,wartburg rises in the background1 while little singing angels are perched upon the boughs of the bare winter-stripped trees that overlook the miserable cell in which ,st4 ,elizabeth dies4 ,a touch of the true-heartedness of the ancient ,teuton1 a breath of peacefulness1 permeates ,schwind's ,wartburg pictures like the waft of an angel's wings4 ,illustration3 ,,moritz ,,schwind4 ,graphische ,knste4 ,schwind1 like ,rethel1 is numbered among the few artists of that period who were able to preserve their absolute simplicity against the great painters of ,italy4 ,i went into the ,sistine ,chapel1 he says of his journey to ,rome1 gazed upon ,michael ,angelo's work1 and sauntered back home to work at my ',ritter ,kurt4' ,i take the greatest possible pleasure in my present picture1 although the subject is absolutely crazy4 ,i love to paint trees and rocks and old walls1 and ,i have put plenty of them into it1 besides a fellow on horseback and in full armour4 ,what does it matter8 ,one must work according to one's natural capacity4 ,even at the time when ,i was studying at ,munich ,i came to the conclusion that that of which the mind of itself takes hold1 and that which takes hold of it1 is the one only right thing for every man who has a vocation4 ,art consists of this unconscious taking hold and being taken hold of4 ,deus in nobis4 ,and therefore the young artist will do well to be careful in visiting the museums4 ,you go to the galleries where the works of the great masters are to be seen4 ,there you see1 all at once and all together in confusion1 works of every school and of every era4 ,it is extremely likely that you are overwhelmed by the mass1 and beauties of every kind1 belonging to tendencies and epochs altogether diverse1 shake the ground under your budding vocation1 and like fifty various climates influencing a single plant1 arrest a growth which is possible only in one1 and that a favourable one4 ,the imitation of the ,italians in especial can as a rule have only the effect of estranging us from our own individuality1 a fact which was once again fully borne in upon me when ,i saw ,overbeck's new altar-piece in the ,cathedral of ,cologne4 ,it may sound severe and uncalled-for from me1 but every man who has forgotten his mother-tongue is tottering on his feet4 ,the imitation of foreigners is the dangerous blind alley into which our art has betaken itself4 ,when ,i exhibited ',ritter ,kurt' people said1 ',it is ,old ,german1' and forthwith it stood condemned1 as if that were a disgrace1 and as if one should not rather have saluted the fact with joy1 as the right thing for us ,germans4 ,the art of painting which ,i follow is the ,german1 and glass-painting must be taken as its foundation4 ,illustration3 ,,schwind4 ,,from ,,the ,,wartburg ,,frescoes4 ,in ,schwind one might imagine an old ,german master of the race of ,albrecht ,altdorfer come to life again4 ,in the small1 simple pictures of landscape and fairy-tale1 which ,count ,schack has collected in his private gallery for the quiet and devout enjoyment of thousands1 he has given us his best work as a painter4 ,yet even his pictures have the failings of his time4 ,compared with ,drer1 he seems like a gifted amateur2 there are manifold empty1 dead spaces to be observed among his figures2 their action is at times misconceived and puppet-like2 and his sense of colour was always limited4 ,one may be permitted to look forward to some master1 at the head of a coming epoch in art1 who shall combine with ,schwind's ,german fairy imagination the sensuous1 dashing colour-elf that possessed ,boecklin4 ,there might a school of art arise1 to follow for the future the path which ,franz ,stuck has struck out4 ,as to technique1 ,schwind was a child of the cartoon era2 as regards tenderness of feeling1 he is a modern4 ,it is difficult to persuade a non-,german of ,schwind's greatness1 in presence of the pictures2 but when they are reduced to black-and-white they appeal to every one4 ,the heliogravure enables one to imagine what the original does not show2 it incites the soul to further poetic creation1 it announces what ,schwind would be were he alive to-day4 ,an elfland kingdom of enchantment1 full of genuine poetry and beauty1 opens out before us2 a fairy garden1 where the blue flower pours forth the whole of its sense-benumbing perfume4 ,count von ,gleichen2 the boy's miraculous horn2 the mountain spirit ,rbezahl1 wandering along through the wild mountain forest2 the hermits2 the elves' dance2 the erlking2 the knight and the water nymph1--they are flooded with all the enchantment of ,romanticism1 they possess deep feeling without mawkishness1 the old-,german note of fairy legend and ,hans ,memlinc's childlike simplicity1 yet at the same time the life of the present day1 full of feeling and rich in delicate shades4 ,how strong and brave are the men2 how tender1 noble1 and charming the women6 ,what a modest1 maidenly art it is6 just as its master was an innocent1 harmless1 and joyous being4 ,illustration3 ,,schwind4 ,,from ,,the ,,wartburg ,,frescoes4 ,his works1 in comparison with those of his contemporaries1 who were devising systems by means of which art should be brought back to the classical1 bear the stamp of nave creations in which no hypocrisy1 no decorative nothingness finds expression4 ,as against the erudite treatises of the ,cornelius school1 they preached for the first time the doctrine1 that in works of art what is important is not the quantity of learning displayed therein1 but the quality of the feeling exhibited4 ,with all their inequalities1 all their incorrectness1 all their weak points1 they are inspired1 sung1 dreamed1 and not put together in cold blood according to recipes3 in them is the pulsation of a human heart1 a tender human heart full of delicate feeling4 ,this it is which constitutes his magical attraction to-day1 which makes him the firm bond of connection between the moderns4 ,he was no imitator1 no soulless calligraphist performing laborious school exercises after the manner of the old masters2 he spoke the language of his time4 ,he was one of the first who at that time laid aside the prejudice against modern costume1 and in his ,symphony turned to artistic account1 in one fantastic whole1 even ,franz ,lachner's frockcoat and ,frulein ,hetzenecker's modern society toilette4 ,if you may paint a man hidden in an iron stove--what is called a knight in armour--you may still more permissibly paint a man in a frockcoat4 ,in general1 one can paint what one will1 provided always that one wills what one can4 ,and it was only by means of this present-day temper that ,romanticism could find so full-toned an expression in his works4 ,only because he was truly a citizen of the present day and felt its blood beating in his veins1 could he feel the congenial elements of the past4 ,to him the old-time legends were no antiquarian1 erudite1 pedantic lumber2 they were a part of himself1 and he interpreted them in more childlike simplicity of manner and with more delicate feeling than any artist of former times1 because he observed them with the eye of the present age1 with an eye made keen with longing4 ,just as in his ,wedding ,journey he raised all reality into the poetry of purest romance1 so is his ,romanticism saturated with a sense of reality charged with memories of home4 ,out of his fairy-tale pictures is breathed a charming fragrance of the long-vanished days of earth's first springtide1 and yet for that very reason a breath of the most modern ,dcadence4 ,he is distinguished from ,mares and ,burne-,jones1 from ,puvis de ,chavannes and ,gustave ,moreau1 by a very unmodern attribute--he is bursting with health4 ,he is still navely childlike1 free from that elegiac melancholy1 that temper of weary resignation1 which the end of the nineteenth century first brought into the world4 ,illustration3 ,,schwind4 ,,wieland ,,the ,,smith4 ,illustration3 ,neft1 ,helio4 ,,schwind4 ,,from ,,the ,,story ,,of ,,the ,,seven ,,ravens4 ,yet ,schwind was one of the first to feel and give expression to that modern sense of longing desire which turns back from a nervous1 colourless age1 from the prosiness of everyday life1 towards a vanished ,saturnian era1 when man still lived at peace and undisturbed in happy union with nature4 ,for even this proclaims him our contemporary1 that the temper of his pictures develops itself from the landscape4 ,a landscape painter through and through--almost in ,boecklin's sense1 who transformed the temper of ,nature into the contemplation of living beings--he spoke of the rest and peace of ,german forests1 of that hour of summer's night when no wind blows1 no leaflet moves1 when to the solitary wanderer in the woods the mists rising from the meadows are transformed into white veils of the elves1 and the gold-rimmed waves of the sea into the yellow hair of mermaids frolicking in the moonlight to the magic notes of their golden harps4 ,he felt and loved his landscapes rather than studied them1 yet they are saturated with an entirely modern sentiment for ,nature4 ,no ,german1 at that time1 had caught and understood the interweaving of the forest boughs with such intimate familiarity4 ,the fresh sunshine of the morning breaks through the light green of the young beeches1 and leaps from bough to bough1 transforming the glittering dewdrops into diamonds1 and the beetle1 creeping comfortably over the soft moss1 into gold and precious stones4 ,da gehet leise nach seiner ,weise der liebe ,herrgott durch den ,wald 7,the dear ,god holy1 ,he passeth slowly1 as ,his wont is1 through the wood74 ,with a few boldly drawn lines and light colours we are transported into the midst of the forest world1 and all around us opening buds and verdurous green1 sweet scents1 and the murmur of leaves4 ,when one has set one's love and joy on a beautiful tree so fully1 he said to ,ludwig ,richter1 one depicts all one's love and joy with it1 and then the tree looks quite different from an ass's fine daub of what he thinks it should be4 ,illustration3 ,albert1 ,helio4 ,,schwind4 ,a ,,hermit ,,leading ,,horses ,,to ,a ,,pool4 ,only so intimate a connection with ,nature could enable ,schwind to imagine landscapes1 which in their virginal old-world mood form at once the echo of the figures and of their actions4 ,these green meadows and flower-besprent hills1 these gloomy wooded slopes1 these smooth valleys through which glittering waters glide murmuring along1 are fit and suitable dwelling-places for the delicate fabulous beings of the flower-entwined old fairy legends4 ,schwind lived with ,nature4 ,he gave the name of ,tanneck 7,fir-tree ,corner7 to the little country house which he built for himself on the ,starnberger ,see1 and the fresh scent of pinewood1 the rustling sound of ,german forests1 pour forth from his pictures4 ,like young ,siegfried1 he understood the language of birds1 and went eavesdropping to hear what the pine trees whispered to one another4 ,illustration3 ,,schwind4 ,,the ,,wedding ,,journey4 ,still freer1 more spontaneous1 and lighter than in his oil paintings was his touch in his water-colours1 in which the colour is only breathed over the forms like a delicate vapour2 and quite especially in his illustrations--so far as the word may be employed with respect to him1 for he never illustrated1 he gave shape to his own thoughts1 and that only which moved his innermost being he brought fully formed before one's eye4 ,the ,bilderbogen and the ,fliegende ,bltter of ,munich obtained from him witty and humorous inventions1 such as ,the ,almond ,tree1 ,puss in ,boots1 ,the ,peasant and the ,donkey1 ,herr ,winter1 and ,the ,acrobat ,games4 ,his fairest legacy consists of three cyclic works3 ,cinderella1 ,the ,seven ,ravens1 and ,the ,beautiful ,melusina2 wherein he glorified with praise the beauty and fidelity of women1 and their capacity for self-sacrifice4 ,cinderella1 which appeared in #ahee1 at the ,munich ,exhibition1 is a fairy-tale1 than which poet has seldom1 indeed1 narrated a chaster1 tenderer1 or more fragrant4 ,in #aheh followed the touching story of the good sister who releases her brothers by dint of unspeakable suffering and endurance1 to-day the priceless pearl among the gems of the ,weimar collection4 ,for twenty years1 as he said1 the work had been in his thoughts4 ,so far back as in #ahdd he wrote to ,genelli3 ,i believe that it will give something which may please people who have a sense for love and faithfulness1 and for a touch of the power of enchantment4 ,when an acquaintance of his gazed upon it with dismay1 and ingenuously asked for whom the thing was intended1 and whither it was to go1 ,schwind turned his penetrating1 flashing little eyes upon him1 and then said3 ,do you know1 ,i painted that for myself2 it is the dream of my life2 no one shall buy it2 some day ,i shall give it to a friend4 ,it is an imperishable work1 full of grace1 modesty1 and charm4 ,schwind takes the story up at the fateful moment when the lonely maiden1 who is determined to release her enchanted brothers by assiduous spinning and constant silence1 is discovered by a hunting party4 ,there1 amid the enchantment of the forest solitude1 she sits in the hollow of a tree and spins away at the seven shirts1 to free her seven brothers4 ,thus the king's son catches sight of her4 ,the fire of love kindles in his eyes4 ,in one long kiss the maiden gives herself to him4 ,the wedding takes place1 and like another ,st4 ,elizabeth she is seen standing1 soon afterwards1 distributing alms to starving beggars4 ,yet1 meanwhile1 she has fallen under suspicion owing to her continuous silence2 even her husband becomes distrustful1 because in the quiet of night he has observed that she is not resting by his side1 but is quietly up and spinning4 ,and the catastrophe comes when the silent queen gives birth to twins1 who1 to the horror of all around1 fly off in the form of ravens4 ,tranquil and affectionate1 the young mother awaits her fate4 ,then follow the sentence of the ,vehm-tribunal1 the pathetic parting from her husband1 the preparation for death4 ,there is only one hour more to pass by before the seven years are over and the spellbound brothers set free4 ,the good fairy appears in the air1 hour-glass in hand1 and brings solace to the hard-pressed heroine4 ,the beggars1 too1 whose benefactress she had been1 bring help1 and hold the gate of the dungeon in force4 ,so the time runs out1 the spell is broken1 and the brothers hasten1 on milk-white horses1 to save their sister from the stake4 ,in ,schwind's marvellous drawings the story passes quickly on1 stroke by stroke1 deeply moving and soul-stirring in its dramatic force4 ,the ,beautiful ,melusina was the kiss of the water-nymph1 with which ,romanticism led her faithful knight to his death1 only to disappear together with him out of ,german art4 ,the winter has dealt me a sore blow2 ,i shall never be able to do anything more4 ,carl ,maria von ,weber and ,uhland had already gone before2 ,schwind was lying on his sick-bed when the ,german victories created a ,german fatherland4 ,he learned1 however1 all the long series of glorious tidings that came from the field of war1 saw the tumultuous joy and the dazzling sea of fire which surged through ,munich in ,january #ahga1 and heard the joyful news that ,germany was at last united4 ,then he had a glass of champagne poured out for him1 and drank it to the new empire and the future of the nation4 ,in the middle of a wood of lofty beeches in ,bernrieder ,park1 on the ,starnberger ,see1 there stands a small rotunda1 within is a prattling fountain1 right round the walls runs a frieze1 depicting the legend of the ,beautiful ,melusina4 ,it is ,schwind's monument4 ,with him ,german ,romanticism perished2 reality itself had now become so marvellous4 ,when1 in #ahej1 ,hbner had to paint a figure of ,germania for a page in ,king ,ludwig's album1 he depicted a queenly woman1 prone on the ground1 with her face in the dust1 amidst a desolate landscape and under a cloudy sky4 ,the crown has fallen from her head and a skull lies by her side1 while on the frame are inscribed these words from the ,book of ,lamentations3 ,mine eye runneth down with rivers of water for the destruction of the daughter of my people2 the crown of our head is fallen4 ,when ,schwind died1 ,germany had re-arisen4 ,in the very year of his death1 ,lenbach painted his first ,bismarck pictures3 in ,bismarck was embodied that power by means of which the dream of a nation was fulfilled4 ,illustration3 ,,schwind4 ,,nymphs ,,and ,,stag4 ,thus ,schwind's works are not only the sign of a completed period in ,german history1 but also at the same time both the climax and the conclusion of an art-epoch4 ,schwind had lived through the entire revolution which ,german painting had at that time undergone4 ,at his death the sound of the hunting horns of ,romanticism had died away4 ,he had lived long enough to have the opportunity of criticising neatly1 as follows1 the dry1 unpoetical school of historical painting then making its appearance1 as if introduced by gaudily costumed models1 a school which made its first hit with ,lessing's ,ezzelino3 ,i will explain the picture to you4 ,ezzelino is seated in his dungeon1 and two monks are attempting to convert him4 ,one of them recognises that all pains are thrown away upon the old sinner1 and takes himself off1 regretfully desisting from all further endeavour2 the other still has hopes1 and continues his exhortations4 ,but ,ezzelino only keeps his angry gaze fixed before him1 muttering1 ',leave me alone6 ,don't you see that ,i am--posing as a model6' ,he had had occasion to write to his friend ,bauernfeld3 ,i have seen so many schools of so-called painting in my time that it is an absolute horror to me2 he had asked ,piloty3 ,what calamity are you preparing for us now8 and had thought it his duty to address to one of the younger painters the question3 ,are we then an academy of the ,fine or of the ,ugly ,arts8 ,a man like me1 with his ideas1 walks like a ghost amid the battle of the virtuosi1 in which the whole life of art has gone astray1 he used sadly to say4 ,his last wonderful works stand alone in a time which was dazzled by the flash of arms characterising the ,franco-,belgian school of art4 ,it was not till much later that ,hans ,thoma took up the threads which connect the work of ,schwind with the present epoch4 ,when he died he was a solitary1 isolated man taking leave of a generation in which he had no part4 ,the period of historical painting which followed him produced no single work distinguished by ,schwind's sense of fragrant legendary poetry4 ,the charming forest fairy who had appeared to him showed herself to no other2 like the betrayed ,melusina1 she had returned to rest again1 solitary1 in her fountain home4 ,fantasy1 tender soul that she is1 had taken wings1 whither none can tell4 ,that is why nobody has a single idea1 as ,schwind said in his drastic way4 ,the ,muse of ,schwind1 the last ,romanticist1 was a chaste1 pensive1 soulful maiden2 while that of ,piloty1 the first colourist1 was a noisy1 bloodthirsty ,megra4 ,yet one can have no doubt as to the necessity of this evolutionary change4 ,illustration3 ,albert1 ,helio4 ,,schwind4 ,,rubezahl4 ,schwind himself is among the masters who have been1 and are1 and shall be4 ,he was different from all that was arising around him2 he embodied the spirit of the future1 and exercises over the art of the present day so great an influence that where two or three painters are gathered together in the name of the beautiful1 he has his place in the midst of them1 and is present1 invisible1 at every exhibition4 ,but he exercises this influence only spiritually4 ,young artists study him as if he were a primitive master4 ,enraptured1 they find in him all those qualities for which there is to-day so ardent a longing--innocent purity and touching simplicity1 a mystic1 romantic submersion in waves of old-time feeling and a charming youthful fervour4 ,they do not study him in order to paint like him4 ,our heads are full of poetry1 but we cannot give it expression1 are the words with which ,cornelius himself characterised this period4 ,germany had original geniuses indeed1 but no fully matured school to compare with the ,french2 as yet the ,germans did not know how to paint4 ,up to this time the course of painting in ,germany had been a bold but imprudent flight through the air2 in its ,kaulbach-like cloud-heights it had melted away to a shadow1 only to fall again1 somewhat roughly1 to the ground4 ,it died of an incurable disease--idealism4 ,the painters of that time1 one and all1 had never become real artists2 strictly speaking1 they had always remained amateurs4 ,he alone is a great artist in whom the will and the performance1 the substance and the form1 are in complete accordance4 ,painters who never knew exactly what is meant by painting1 artists whose most noticeable characteristic was that they had no art-capacity1 were only possible in the first half of the nineteenth century in ,germany1 where for that very reason they were admired and praised4 ,what now began was a necessary making good what had been so long neglected4 ,for craftsmanship is the necessary presupposition of all art1 which can no longer suffer any one to be called a master who has not learnt his business4 ,in the atmosphere of incense which surrounded ,cornelius in ,munich1 the dogma that salvation was to be found in ,german art alone1 and that the ,german nation was the chosen people of art1 had reached a height of self-adoration which came near to megalomania4 ,in the proud enthusiasm of those times1 great in their aims as in their errors1 the ,germans had as false an opinion as possible of the art of foreign countries4 ,in the very years when the first railways were ousting the old mail-coaches the mutual interchange of endeavour and ability between the various nations was slower and scantier than ever before4 ,how ,german artists had wandered abroad in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries1 in that great age when ,drer crossed the ,alps on ,pirkheymer's pony1 and when ,holbein obtained from ,erasmus letters of introduction for ,england6 ,with what joy ,drer1 in his letters and in his journal1 gives an account of the recognition accorded him in artistic circles in ,italy and the ,dutch cities6 ,nearly all the ,german painters had1 in the course of their long wanderings1 made acquaintance with either the ,netherlands or ,italy4 ,they knew exactly what was going on in the world around them4 ,drer and ,raphael used to send drawings to each other1 so as to know each other's handwriting4 ,it was only in the first half of the nineteenth century that the ,germans1 once proud in the consciousness of possessing the finest comprehension of1 and the greatest receptivity for1 foreign intellectual wares1 lived apart in timid isolation4 ,into the suburban still-life of the ,german schools of art not a sound made its way of what was taking place elsewhere4 ,only thus was it possible for the ,germans to imagine that among all modern nations they alone had a vocation for ,art4 ,no one had the least idea that in ,england1 the land of machines and beefsteaks1 there were men who painted2 and people went so far as to proclaim piety1 morality1 thoroughness1 accurate draughtsmanship1 and diligent execution the monopoly of ,german art2 and superficiality1 frivolity1 and empty straining after effect the ineradicable national failing of that of ,france4 ,illustration3 ,,schwind4 ,,the ,,fairies' ,,song4 ,with some such ideas in their heads the majority of the ,german painters1 in the autumn of #ahdc1 found themselves confronted by ,gallait's ,abdication of ,charles ,v and ,bifve's ,agreement of the ,dutch ,nobility2 two ,belgian pictures which at that time were going the round of the exhibitions in all the larger towns of ,germany4 ,and it was not long before the belief in the old gods1 which had for thirty years held sway in the city of ,king ,ludwig1 was completely undermined by the younger generation4 ,even for the great gods1 day comes to an end4 ,night of annihilation1 descend with the dusk6 ,diogenes expelled from his philosophic tub could not have felt more uncomfortable than the ,german painters in presence of the ,belgian pictures4 ,as till then the incapacity to paint had been belauded as one of the strongest possible proofs of the higher artistic nature and of genuine greatness1 so now it was perceived that nevertheless1 on the banks of the ,scheldt and of the ,seine1 a much greater school of painting was in full bloom1 and producing splendid fruit4 ,illustration ,,chapter ,,ix ,,the ,,forerunners ,,of ,,romanticism ,,in ,,france ,in ,france the first decade of the century gave no premonition of the powerful development which was shortly to take place in ,french art4 ,a legion of characterless pupils issuing from ,david's studio wearied the world with their aimless works1 and hurled their thunderbolts against all rising talent4 ,the austere catalogue of the ,salon was a pell-mell of ,belisarii1 ,tlmaques1 ,phdras1 ,electras1 ,brutuses1 ,psyches1 and ,endymions4 ,girodet and ,gurin wearied themselves in putting on canvas the chief scenes in the classical tragedies at that time so frequently performed--,pygmalion and ,galatea1 the ,death of ,agamemnon1 and the like--and painted portraits between times2 ,girodet's dry and poor1 ,gurin's solemnly vacant4 ,the universal note was that of tedium4 ,franois ,grard alone1 the ,king of ,painters and ,painter of ,kings1 survives1 at least in his portraits4 ,like ,david he is redeemed only by his portrait painting1 and his successes in that direction eclipse even ,mme4 ,vige-,lebrun1 the amiable1 gifted1 and graceful painter of ,marie ,antoinette's days4 ,at the outbreak of the ,revolution she had left ,france4 ,everywhere extolled and welcomed with open arms1 she painted ,mme4 de ,stal in ,switzerland1 and at ,naples ,lady ,hamilton1 the famous beauty of the time of the ,directory4 ,but when1 in #ahaj1 she returned to ,paris1 she had been forgotten4 ,the day on which ,marie ,antoinette picked up her brush for her1 as ,charles ,v had done for ,titian1 was to remain the happiest in her life4 ,she belonged to the ,ancien ,rgime1 and although her death did not take place till #ahdb1 at the age of eighty-seven1 her work was already over in #agib4 ,in her old age she busied herself in writing memoirs of the splendour of her youthful days1 from the famous mythological dinner in the ,rue de ,clry1 where her husband appeared in the character of ,pindar and recited his translation of ,anacreon's odes1 to the triumphs which accompanied her journey round ,europe4 ,grard took the place which she had left vacant at her departure1 and filled it well1 especially in his youth4 ,when1 in the ,exhibition of ,portrait ,painting held at ,paris in #ahhe1 there appeared the likeness of ,mlle4 ,brongniart1 from the collection of ,baron ,pichon1 painted by ,grard in #agie1 at the age of twenty-five1 there was general astonishment at the familiar and intimate grasp of character it displayed4 ,the portrait of this young girl standing in her white dress1 so tranquil and without pose1 has in the firmness of its draughtsmanship the austere charm and dignity of a ,bronzino4 ,and later none could give to the aristocracy of ,europe a nobler or more natural bearing than did ,grard1 who became their tried and trusted depicter3 yet in his last days he descended into theatrical exaggeration4 ,endowed as he was with all the captivating qualities of a cultured man of the world1 he had from the beginning avoided as the plague the revolutionary politics in which ,david was for some time engaged1 and when at the instance of the elder master he was appointed a member of the ,revolutionary ,tribunal1 he alleged illness in order to be absent from its sessions4 ,he was a man of the salons1 the born painter of the great world1 his house the centre of a distinguished circle of society4 ,not a celebrity1 not an emperor or king1 but wished to be painted by ,grard4 ,and just as he had been the chosen portrait painter of the ,bonaparte family1 so after the ,restoration he was still the official favourite of the ,court4 ,josephine took the fashionable painter under her high protection1 ,napoleon's marshals defiled before him1 and the aristocracy which returned with ,louis ,,xviii vied with one another for his favour4 ,illustration3 ,,fran,,ois ,g,,rard4 ,l',art4 ,grard's three hundred portraits are a continuous catalogue of all those who in the first quarter of the century played any part in ,france upon the political1 military1 or literary stage4 ,a man of supple talent and fine tastes1 he completely satisfied the desires of a society which1 after the storm of the ,revolution1 opened its salons again and re-established its former hierarchy of rank4 ,the portrait with rich background of upholstery1 and the depicting of public ceremonies1 were reintroduced by him into the field of art4 ,the people whom he painted are no longer citizens1 as with ,david1 but princes1 generals1 princesses2 and their surroundings allow of no doubt as to whether they are to be addressed as ,sir1 as ,your ,serene ,highness1 or as ,your ,excellency4 ,no one knew how to flatter in so tactful a manner1 particularly in portraits of ladies4 ,it was to him1 therefore1 that ,mme4 ,rcamier had recourse when she was dissatisfied with ,david's likeness of her4 ,grard's1 which she destined for ,prince ,augustus of ,prussia1 one of her admirers1 gave the fair ,juliette the fullest satisfaction4 ,in the former she was represented reposing on a couch1 austere and without charm1 like a tragic muse4 ,here she sits in a pleasant1 lazy attitude upon a chair1 in a transparent robe which fully displays her form2 about her lips plays a half-melancholy1 half-coquettish smile1 and she1 the great actress who had turned so many men's heads1 gazes with gentle child-eyes as innocently upon the world as though she believed the story about babies and the stork4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,g,,rard4 ,,mlle4 ,,brongniart4 ,the background1 too1 that colonnade leading nowhither1 is characteristic of the change in the manner of regarding things4 ,the older schools of painting had1 in the case of portraits1 managed the treatment of the background in two different ways4 ,the old ,dutch and ,germans--,jan van ,eyck and ,holbein--aimed at showing a man1 not only portrayed with the subtlest fidelity to truth1 but also in the surroundings in which he was usually or by preference to be found4 ,the ,italians renounced all representation of such scenes1 and gave only a quiet1 neutral tone to the background4 ,gorgeous decorative scenery was introduced by the court painter ,van ,dyck1 and since the second half of the seventeenth century had continually risen in popular favour4 ,mignard1 ,lebrun1 and ,rigaud had brought into fashion1 for portraits of princely personages1 that stately pillared architecture1 with broad velvet curtains swelling and descending in ample folds1 which at that time was so remarkably in keeping with the whole cut of the costumes1 with the enormous full-bodied wigs and the theatrical attitudinising of that epoch4 ,for the likenesses of generals and warlike princes the favourite background was one which represented1 by means of a number of small figures1 entire battles1 marches1 sieges1 and so forth4 ,both these methods1 and1 together with them1 that of an ideal1 lightly indicated park landscape1 were put an end to by the ,revolution1 under the influence of which all extravagant pomp1 not only in life1 but even in portrait painting1 was replaced by an ascetic sobriety4 ,grard1 the ,court painter of the ,bourbons1 who on their return had learnt nothing and forgotten nothing1 reintroduced the gorgeous pillar decoration1 which still remained the authoritative style under ,stieler and ,winterhalter1 and has only in the bourgeois era of to-day given way to the simple1 neutral-toned background of the ,italians4 ,david1 by the way1 never forgave ,mme4 ,rcamier for having preferred his pupil to himself4 ,when1 in #ahje1 after the completion of ,grard's likeness of her1 she approached ,david on the subject of finishing his1 he answered drily3 ,madame1 artists have their caprices as well as women2 now it is ,i who will not4 ,as an historical painter ,grard was an imitator of the mannerist ,girodet4 ,paintings such as ,daphnis and ,chloe1 or the famous ,psyche receiving ,cupid's first kiss 7#agih71 made indeed a great sensation among the ladies1 who for some time afterwards painted their faces white1 to resemble the gentle ,psyche2 but from the artistic point of view they do not rise above the ordinary level of the ,classical school4 ,as an historical painter he took much the same course as ,david2 he began as a ,revolutionist in #agie with the usual ,belisarius1 and ended as a ,royalist with a ,coronation of ,charles ,x4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,g,,rard4 ,,madame ,,visconti4 ,the more stiff and sober the antique style of ,david became1 the sooner a counter-current was likely to arise1 and the change of taste showed itself first in the circumstance that1 from #ahaj on1 a master came more and more to the front who1 already old1 had hitherto lived in obscurity1 almost despised by his contemporaries4 ,this was the amiable1 sympathetic1 charming1 sweet1 and great ,prudhon1 the lineal descendant of ,correggio1 a solitary painter1 the gracefulness of whose art was at first unappreciated1 but who1 as the orthodox academicians began to be more and more tedious1 exercised a correspondingly greater influence over the younger generation4 ,he is the one refreshing oasis in the desert wilderness of the ,classical school4 ,what a difference between him and ,david6 ,when the elegant grace of ,watteau fled from the ,french school1 and the new ,spartans dreamed of founding a ,greek art1 ,david was the hero of this buskined theatrical school of painting4 ,he painted ,the ,horatii and ,brutus1 and thought to bring ancient ,rome back to life by copying the shapes of old ,roman chairs and old ,roman swords4 ,that was the antique style of his first period4 ,later1 having made the discovery that1 compared with the ,greeks1 the ,romans were semi-barbarians1 he abandoned the ,roman style1 and thought to make a great stride forwards by copying ,greek statues and carefully transferring them to his pictures4 ,this pure ,grecian character is represented in his ,rape of the ,sabines4 ,later again1 he turned to the more ancient ,greeks1 and the result was the most academic of his pictures1 his ,leonidas4 ,a mixture of dryness and declamatory pathos2 diligence without imagination2 able draughtsmanship and an absolute incapacity of drawing anything whatever without a model2 careful arrangement without the slightest trace of that gift of the inner vision whereby the whole is brought complete and finished before the eye1--these exhaust the list of ,david's qualities4 ,by means of casting and copying he thought to come near to that art of the antique whose soul he dreamed of embracing1 when he held but its skeleton in his hands4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,g,,rard4 ,,cupid ,,and ,,psyche4 ,and meanwhile1 away from the broad high-road1 and almost unnoticed1 was living that painter whom ,david contemptuously called the ,boucher of his time4 ,he it was who truly cherished the gods of ,greece in his heart1 under whose brush the dead statues began to breathe and to feel the blood flowing in their veins1 as in the old days when the ,renaissance dug them out of the ground4 ,his appearance on the stage indicates the first protest against the rigid system pursued by the painter of the ,horatii and of ,brutus4 ,prudhon also believed in the antique1 but he saw therein a grace which no ,classicist had ever seen2 he also contrasted the simplicity of the ,grecian profile with the capricious1 wrinkled forms of the rococo style2 he too had spent his youth in ,italy1 but had not thought it criminal to study ,leonardo and ,correggio2 he did not bind himself either to cold sculpture or to the delicate morbidezza of the ,lombards as the only means of grace4 ,he remained a ,frenchman heart and soul1 in that he inherited from ,watteau's age its womanly softness and elegance4 ,in a cold1 ascetic age he still believed in tenderness1 gaiety1 and laughter--he who as a man had but little reason to take delight in life4 ,prudhon was ten years younger than ,david1 and was born at ,cluny1 the tenth child of a poor stone cutter4 ,he grew up in miserable circumstances1 cherished only by a mother who devoted the whole of her love to this her youngest born1 and to whom the child1 a delicate pliant creature1 clung with girl-like tenderness4 ,his parents used often to send him out with the other poor children of the little town to gather faggots for the winter in the wood belonging to the neighbouring ,benedictine monastery4 ,there the handsome1 sprightly boy with the large melancholy eyes attracted the notice of the priest1 ,pre ,besson1 who made him a chorister and gave him some instruction4 ,here1 in the old abbey of ,cluny1 surrounded by venerable statues carved in wood1 by old pictures of saints and artistic miniatures1 he recognised his vocation4 ,an inner voice told him that he was to be a painter4 ,and now his ,latin exercise books began to fill with drawings1 and he carved little images with his penknife out of wood1 soap1 or whatever came to his hand4 ,he squeezed out the juice of flowers1 made brushes of horsehair1 and began to paint4 ,he was inconsolable on finding that he could not hit off the colouring of the old church pictures4 ,it was a revelation to him when one of the monks said to him one day3 ,my boy1 you will never manage it so3 these pictures are painted in oils2 and he straightway invented oil painting for himself4 ,with the help of the instruction which he now received at ,dijon from an able painter1 ,devosge1 he made rapid progress4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,g,,rard4 ,,madame ,r,,camier ,,detail4 ,nevertheless a generation was yet to pass before he was really to become a painter4 ,his marriage1 on #agth ,february #aggh1 with the daughter of the notary of ,cluny1 became the torment of his life4 ,a linen-weaver and three of his father-in-law's clerks were present at the wedding4 ,his wife was quarrelsome1 their income small1 and their family rapidly increasing4 ,he betook himself to ,paris to seek his fortune1 with a letter of introduction to the engraver ,wille4 ,take pity on this youngster1 who has been married for the last three years1 and who1 were he to come under some low fellow's influence1 might easily fall into the most terrible abyss2 so ran the letter1 which a certain ,baron ,joursanvault had given him4 ,he hired himself a room in the house of ,m4 ,fauconnier1 the head of a firm engaged in the lace trade1 who lived in the ,rue du ,bac with his wife and a pretty sister4 ,the latter1 ,marie1 was eighteen years of age1 and1 like ,werther's ,lotte1 was always surrounded by her brother's children1 whom she looked after like a little housewife4 ,prudhon1 himself young1 sensitive1 and handsome1 loved and was loved1 and made her presents of small flattering portraits and pretty allegorical drawings1 in which ,cupid was represented scratching the initials ,m4 ,f4 7,marie ,fauconnier7 on the wall with his arrow4 ,that he was married and several times a father she never knew1 till one day ,madame ,prudhon arrived with the children4 ,and you never told me6 was her only word of reproach4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,pierre ,,paul ,,prudhon4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself4 ,prudhon himself now went to ,italy--a journey accompanied by serious difficulties4 ,at ,dijon he had competed for the ,prix de ,rome1 and had been so simple as to make a sketch for one of his rivals4 ,he owed it to the latter's honesty that the scholarship nevertheless fell to himself4 ,he started on his journey2 but when he reached ,marseilles1 and was ready to embark1 the vessel was unable to weigh anchor for several weeks1 owing to stormy weather4 ,and even on the voyage it became necessary to disembark again1 so that months had elapsed before he arrived in ,rome1 penniless1 and having embraced1 according to classical custom1 the land he had come to conquer2 for he had fallen out of the carriage on the way4 ,fortunately his dearly bought sojourn in ,italy did him no harm4 ,he had indeed intended to draw only from the antique and after ,raphael2 but after the lapse of a very few weeks he found his ideal in ,leonardo4 ,him he calls his ,master and ,hero1 the inimitable father and prince of all painters1 in artistic power far surpassing ,raphael6 ,in a small sketch-book1 half torn up1 dating from this time1 and still in existence1 we have already the whole ,prudhon4 ,it contains copies of ancient statues1 made laboriously and without pleasure in the work2 then comes ,correggio's disarmed ,cupid1 a delicious little sketch1 and with the same pencil that drew it he has written down the names of the pictures he purposes painting later on3 ,love1 ,frivolity1 ,cupid and ,psyche4 ,it is as it were the secret confession of his fantasy1 a preliminary announcement of his future works4 ,here and there are found sketches hastily dashed off of beautiful female forms in the graceful attitude which had excited his admiration in the women of the ,aldobrandini ,wedding4 ,but1 above all1 the young artist observed all that was around him4 ,he lived in unceasing intercourse with the beautiful1 and his soul was nurtured by the spirit of the works which surrounded him4 ,he accumulated pictures1 not in his sketch-book1 but in himself2 so much so that1 when he was afterwards interrogated as to his ,italian studies1 his only answer was3 ,i did nothing but study life and admire the works of the masters4 ,he avoided association even with scholars who had taken the ,prix de ,rome4 ,the elegant and graceful sculptor ,canova was the only one with whom he permitted himself any intercourse4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,prudhon4 ,,joseph ,,and ,,potiphar',s ,,wife4 ,when his scholarship had run its course1 at the end of ,november #aghi1 he found himself again in ,paris1 and the struggle against poverty began once more4 ,even while in ,italy he had sent all his savings to his wife1 who had straightway squandered them in drink with her brother1 a sergeant in a cavalry regiment4 ,at ,paris he had to act as parlour-maid and nursery-maid4 ,the faces of two more women rise up in his life like fleeting stars1 and both of them died before his eyes4 ,the first was the mysterious stranger who appeared one day in his studio and commissioned him to paint her portrait4 ,she was young1 scarcely twenty years of age1 with great blue eyes1 but her face was weary and wan as though from long sleepless nights4 ,your portrait8 asked ,prudhon1 with features so troubled and sad8 ,he set to work1 silent and indifferent2 but with every stroke of his brush he felt himself more mystically attracted to this young girl1 evidently as unhappy and as persecuted by fate as himself4 ,she promised to return on the morrow2 but neither on that day nor on the next did she appear4 ,one afternoon he was wandering dreamily along the street1 thinking of the unknown fair one1 when his eye almost mechanically caught sight of the guillotine1 and he recognised in the unhappy victim at that very moment ending her days the mysterious visitor of his studio4 ,to keep the wolf from the door1 ,prudhon was obliged for some years to draw vignettes on letter-sheets for the ,government offices1 business cards for tradesmen1 and even little pictures for bonbonnires4 ,for this the representatives of high art held him in contempt4 ,greuze alone treated him amicably1 and even he held out no hopes for his future4 ,you have a family and you have talent1 young man2 that is enough in these days to bring about one's death by starvation4 ,look at my cuffs4 ,then the old man would show him his torn shirt-sleeves--for even he could no longer find means of getting on in the new order of things4 ,to his anxieties about the necessities of life were added dissensions with his wife4 ,he became the prey of a continual melancholy2 he was never seen to smile4 ,even when a separation had been effected his tormentor persecuted him still1 until she was relegated to a madhouse4 ,but now a change comes over the scene with the entrance of ,constance ,mayer4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,study ,,directs ,,the ,,flight ,,of ,,genius4 ,this amiable young painter1 his pupil1 was the star that lighted up his old age4 ,she was ugly4 ,with her brown complexion1 her broad flat nose1 and her large mouth1 she had at first sight the appearance of a mulatto4 ,yet to this large mouth belonged voluptuous lips ever ready to be kissed2 above this broad nose there were two eyes shining like black diamonds1 which by their changeful expression made this irregular1 gamin's face appear positively beautiful4 ,she was seventeen years his junior1 and he has painted her as often as ,rembrandt painted his ,saskia4 ,he has immortalised the dainty upturned nose of his little gipsy1 as he called her1 in pictures1 sketches1 pastels1 all of which have the same piquant charm1 the same elegant grace1 the same joyous and merry expression4 ,in her he had found his type1 as his namesake ,rubens did in ,hlne ,fourment4 ,constance ,mayer became the muse of his delicate1 graceful work4 ,and she too died before his eyes1 having cut her throat with a razor4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,le ,,coup ,,de ,,patte ,,du ,,chat4 ,the master and the pupil loved each other4 ,as sentimental as she was passionate1 as gay as she was piquant1 nervous and witty1 she possessed every quality that was likely to captivate him1 as she chattered to him in her lively and original way1 and flattered his pride as an artist4 ,this love seemed to promise him rest and a bright ending for his days4 ,he entered into it with the passion of a young man in love for the first time4 ,mlle4 ,mayer1 after her father's death1 was dependent on no one4 ,her studio in the ,sorbonne was separated from her master's only by a blind wall4 ,she was with him the entire day1 worked at his side1 was his housekeeper1 and saw to the education of his daughter1 to whom she was at once a mother and an elder sister2 and ,prudhon transferred to her all the tender love which as a child he had cherished for his mother4 ,in his gratitude he wished to share his genius with his friend1 and to make her famous like himself4 ,it is pathetic to note in ,mlle4 ,mayer's studies with what patience and devotion he instructed her1 how he strove to animate her with his own spirit1 and to give her something of his own immortality4 ,even his own work was influenced by the new happiness4 ,to the period of his connection with ,constance belong his masterpieces1 ,justice and ,vengeance1 ,the ,rape of ,psyche1 ,venus and ,adonis1 and ,the ,swinging ,zephyr4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,cupid ,,and ,,psyche4 ,these brought him at last even outward success4 ,in #ahjh the ,emperor gave him the ,cross of the ,legion of ,honour for his picture of ,justice and ,vengeance1 and he became1 if not the official1 at least the familiar painter of the ,court4 ,the fine portrait of the ,empress ,josephine belongs to this period4 ,when the new ,empress ,marie ,louise wished to learn the art of painting1 ,prudhon1 in #ahaa1 became her drawing master2 and when on the birth of the ,king of ,rome the city of ,paris presented to the ,emperor the furniture for a room1 he was commissioned to provide the artistic decoration4 ,criticism began to bow its head when his name was mentioned2 and the younger generation of painters soon discovered in him1 once so contemptuously reviled1 the founder of a new religion1 the want of which had long been felt4 ,he began to make money4 ,constance ,mayer seemed to bring him luck3 her death affected him all the more deeply4 ,illustration3 ,,constance ,,mayer4 ,by nature nervous and highly strung1 jealous and keenly conscious of her equivocal position1 she could not make up her mind1 when the painters were ordered to move their studios from the ,sorbonne1 either to leave ,prudhon or openly to live with him4 ,on the morning of #bfth ,march #ahba she left her model1 the little ,sophie1 alone1 after giving her a ring4 ,soon afterwards a heavy fall was heard1 and she was found lying on the ground in a pool of blood4 ,prudhon lingered on for two years more1 two long years spent as it were in exile4 ,solitary1 tortured by remorse of conscience1 and with continual thoughts of suicide1 he lived on only for his recollections of her1 in tender converse with the memorials she had left1 insensible to the renown which began gradually to gather round his name4 ,the completion of the ,unfortunate ,family1 which ,constance had left unfinished on her easel1 was his last tte--tte with her1 his last farewell4 ,he left his studio only to visit her grave in ,pre-,lachaise1 or to wander alone along the outer boulevards4 ,an ,ascension of the ,virgin and a ,christ on the ,cross were the last works of the once joyous painter of ancient mythology3 the ,mater ,dolorosa and the ,crucified--symbols of his own torments4 ,death at length took compassion upon him4 ,on the #afth of ,february #ahbc ,france lost ,prudhon4 ,his art was the pure expression of his spiritual life4 ,his life was swayed by women1 and something feminine breathes through all his pictures4 ,in them there speaks a man full of soul1 originally of a joyous nature1 who has gone through experiences which prevented him ever being joyous again4 ,he has inherited from the rococo style its graces and its little ,cupids1 but has also already tasted of all the melancholy of the new age4 ,with his smiles there is mingled a secret sadness4 ,he has learnt that life is not an unending banquet and a perpetual pleasure2 he has seen how tragic a morrow follows upon the voyage to the ,isle of ,cythera4 ,the bloom has faded from his pale cheeks1 his brow is furrowed--he has seen the guillotine4 ,he1 the last rococo painter and the first ,romanticist1 would have been truly the man to effect the transition from the eighteenth to the nineteenth century by a path more natural than that followed by ,david4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,constance ,,mayer4 ,,the ,,dream ,,of ,,happiness4 ,even his fugitive sketches1 thrown off in the days of his poverty1 have a quite peculiar charm and a thoroughly individual sentiment4 ,there are vignettes of his for letter-sheets1 done for the ,government offices1 which in a few pencil touches contain more manly elegance and poetry than do ,david's most pretentious compositions with all their borrowed ,classicism4 ,prudhon was the only painter who at that time produced anything of conspicuous merit in the art of ornament4 ,even drawings such as ,minerva uniting ,law and ,liberty1 which from their titles would lead one to expect nothing more than frozen allegories1 are imbued1 not with ,david's coldness1 but with ,correggio's charm4 ,french grace and elegance are united1 without constraint1 to the beauty of line found in ancient cameos4 ,he it was who first felt again the living poetry of that old mythology1 which had become a mere collection of dry names4 ,he is commissioned to draw a card of invitation for a ball1 and he sends a tender hymn on music and dancing4 ,in extravagant profusion he scatters forth1 no matter where1 poetic invention and grace such as ,david in his most strenuous efforts sought for in vain4 ,it was during this time that ,prudhon became the admirable draughtsman to whom the ,french school have awarded a place among their greatest masters4 ,these drawings and illustrations were the necessary preparation for the great works which brought him to the front at the beginning of the century4 ,even his first picture1 painted in #agii--to-day half-destroyed--,wisdom bringing ,truth upon the earth1 at whose approach ,darkness vanishes1 must1 to judge from early descriptions1 have been marked by a seductive and delicate grace4 ,and the celebrated work of #ahjh1 ,justice and ,vengeance pursuing ,crime1 belongs certainly1 so far as colouring is concerned1 rather to the ,romantic than to the ,classical era4 ,for during the latter1 one faculty especially had been lost1 and that was the art of painting flesh4 ,prudhon1 by deep study of ,leonardo and ,correggio1 masters at that time completely out of fashion1 won back this capacity for the ,french school4 ,in wild and desolate scenery1 above which the moon1 emerging from behind heavy clouds1 shines with a ghostly light upon the bare rocks1 the murderer is leaving the body of his victim4 ,he strides forth with hasty steps1 purse and dagger in hand1 glancing back with a shudder at the naked corpse of a young man which has fallen upon a ledge of rock1 lying there stiff and with outstretched arms4 ,above1 like shapes in the clouds1 the avenging goddesses are already sweeping downwards upon him4 ,justice pursues the fugitive with threatening1 wrathful glance2 while ,vengeance1 lighting the way with her torch1 stretches out her hand to grasp the guilty one4 ,in that epoch this picture stands alone for the imposing characterisation of the persons1 for its powerful pictorial execution1 and the stern and grandiose landscape which serves as setting to the awful scene4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,the ,,tomb ,,of ,,prudhon ,,and ,,constance ,,mayer ,,at ,p,,re-,,lachaise4 ,in general1 ,prudhon was not a tragic painter2 his preference was for the more joyous1 light and dreamy1 delicately veiled myths of the ancients4 ,his misfortunes taught him to flee from reality1 and on the wings of ,art he saved himself1 in the realm of legendary love and visionary happiness4 ,so we see ,psyche borne aloft by ,zephyr through the twilight to the nuptial abode of ,eros4 ,a soft light falls upon her snowy body2 her head has fallen upon her shoulder1 and one arm1 bent backwards1 enframes her face4 ,silent like a cloud1 the group moves onward--a sweet-scented apparition from fairyland4 ,now1 enraptured genii visit the slumbering ,fair ,one in forest-shadows1 under the shimmering moon2 now she is stealing secretly down to bathe in a tranquil lake1 and gazes with astonishment upon her own likeness in the gloomy mirror4 ,here ,venus1 drawing deep breaths of secret bliss1 is seated1 full of longing love1 by the side of ,adonis4 ,who else1 at that time1 could draw nude figures of such faultless beauty1 so slender and pure1 with lines so supple and yet so firm1 and enveloped in so full and soft a light8 ,or again1 he paints ,zephyr swinging roguishly by the side of a stream4 ,a gentle breeze plays through his locks1 and the cool darkness of the wood breathes through all things round4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,prudhon4 ,,the ,,unfortunate ,,family4 ,prudhon's work is never a laborious patchwork of fragments of antique forms picked up here and there1 never the insipid product of the reason working in accordance with recipes long handed down2 it is thoroughly intuitive4 ,never keeping too closely to his model1 he gave to his creations the movement and the divine breath of life4 ,in his hands with dreamlike fidelity the ,antique rose up again renewed1 new in the sense of his own completely modern sentiment1 and in that of those great masters of the ,renaissance who had wakened it to life three hundred years before4 ,for ,prudhon1 as is shown by his landscape backgrounds1 is altogether ,jean ,jacques ,rousseau's contemporary1 the child of that epoch in which ,nature revealed itself anew2 and1 as is proved by his figures1 he is a congenial spirit to ,antonio da ,allegri and ,vinci4 ,in fresh recollection of ,correggio1 he loves a soft exuberance of flesh and a delicate semi-obscurity2 in enthusiastic reverence for ,leonardo1 those heads of women1 with deep1 sensuously veiled eyes1 and that mysterious delicate smile playing dreamily round the wanton mouth4 ,only1 the enchanting sweetness of the ,florentine and the delicious ecstasy of the ,lombard are toned down by a gentle melancholy which is entirely modern4 ,the ,psyche borne up to heaven by ,zephyr changes in the end1 when purified and refined1 into the soul itself1 which1 in the form of the ,madonna1 ascends into heaven1 transfigured with longing desire2 and ,venus1 the goddess of love1 is transformed into ,love immortal1 ,who1 stretched upon the ,cross1 yet reacheth out ,his hand to thee4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,the ,,rape ,,of ,,psyche4 ,this man1 with his soft tenderness and fine feeling for the eternal feminine1 was as though fashioned by ,nature to be the painter of women of his time4 ,if ,david was the chief depicter of male faces bearing a strong impress of character1 delicate1 refined1 womanly natures found their best interpreter in ,prudhon4 ,his heads of women charm one by the mysterious language of their eyes1 by their familiar smile1 and by their dreamy melancholy4 ,no one knew better how to catch the fleeting expression in its most delicate shades1 how to grasp the very mood of the moment4 ,how piquant is his smiling ,antoinette ,leroux with her dress la ,charlotte ,corday1 her coquettish extravagant hat1 and all the amusing chic of her toilette6 ,madame ,copia1 the wife of the engraver1 with her delicately veiled eyes1 has become in ,prudhon's hands the very essence of a beautiful soul4 ,a languishing weariness1 a remarkable mingling of ,creole grace and gentle melancholy1 breathes over the portrait of the ,empress ,josephine4 ,she is represented seated on a grassy bank in a dignified yet negligent attitude1 her head slightly bent1 her gaze wandering afar with a look of uncertain inquiry1 as though she had some faint presentiment of her coming misfortune2 and the dreamy twilight-shadows of a mysterious landscape are gathering around her4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,le ,,midi4 ,coming after a period of colour asceticism1 ,prudhon was the first to show a fine feeling for colour4 ,even during the revolutionary era he protested in the name of the graceful against ,david's formal stiffness4 ,he sought to demonstrate that human beings do not in truth differ very widely to-day from those in whom ,leonardo and ,correggio delighted1 that they are fashioned out of delicate flesh and blood1 not out of marble and stone4 ,standing beside ,david1 he appealed to the art of colour4 ,but as with ,andr ,chnier1 a spirit congenial to his1 it was long before he attained success4 ,his modesty and his rustic character could effect nothing against the dictatorial power of ,david1 on whom had been showered every dignity that ,art could offer4 ,people continued to ridicule poor ,prudhon1 who worked only after his own fantasy1 who had fashioned for himself in chiaroscuro a poetic language of his own1 till the question was raised again from another side1 and this time by a young man who came directly out of ,david's studio4 ,antoine ,jean ,gros was one of ,david's pupils1 and stood out among his fellows as the one most submissively devoted to his master2 yet it was he who1 without wishing it or knowing of it1 was preparing the way for the overthrow of ,david's school4 ,he was born #agth ,march #agga1 at ,paris1 where his father was a miniature painter4 ,his vocation was determined in the studio of ,mme4 ,vige-,lebrun1 who was a friend of his parents4 ,in the ,salon of #aghe1 which contained ,david's ,andromache beside the ,body of ,hector1 he chose his instructor4 ,he was then the handsome youth of fifteen represented in his portrait of himself at ,versailles1 with delicate features1 full of feeling1 on which lies an amiable1 gentle cast of sentimentality4 ,two large1 dark-brown eyes look out upon the world astonished and inquiring1 dark hair surrounds the quiet1 fresh face1 and over it is cocked a broad-brimmed felt hat4 ,in this picture we see a fine-strung1 sensitive nature1 a soul which would be plunged by bitter experiences into depths of despair1 in proportion as success would raise it to heights of ecstasy4 ,in #agib he competed unsuccessfully for the ,prix de ,rome1 and this failure was the making of him4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,la ,,nuit4 ,he went to ,italy on his own account1 and was an eye-witness of the war which ,napoleon was there waging4 ,there he beheld scenes in which archology had no part4 ,for when ,augereau's foot-soldiers carried the bridge of ,arcola by assault1 they had little thought of imitating an antique bas-relief4 ,gros observed armies on the march1 and saw their triumphant entry into festally decorated cities4 ,he learnt his lesson on the field of battle1 and on his return placed on record what he had himself gone through4 ,in ,italy he caught the poetry of modern life1 and at the same time was enabled as a painter to supplement ,david's lectures with the teaching of another surpassing master4 ,it was in ,genoa that he became acquainted with ,rubens4 ,as ,prudhon's originality consisted in the fact that he was the first of that period again to stand dreaming before ,leonardo and ,correggio1 so did ,gros' lie in this1 that he studied ,rubens at a time when the ,antwerp master was also completely out of fashion4 ,his instinct as a painter had at the very commencement guided him to ,rubens' ,st4 ,ignatius1 which in his letters he described as a sublime and magnificent work4 ,when he was subsequently appointed a member of the ,commission charged with the transference of works of art to ,paris1 he had abundant opportunities of admiring critically the works of the sixteenth and seventeenth century masters4 ,the two impressions thus received had a decisive effect upon his life4 ,gros became the great colourist of the ,classical school1 the singer of the ,napoleonic epos4 ,compared with ,david's marmoreal ,grco-,romans1 ,gros' figures seem to belong to another world2 his pictures speak1 both in purport and in technique1 a language which must more than once have astonished his master4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,l',,enjouir4 ,he was fortunate enough to be presented to ,josephine ,beauharnais1 and through her to ,bonaparte1 in the ,casa ,serbelloni at ,milan2 and ,gros1 whose earnest desire it was to paint the great commander1 was appointed a lieutenant on his staff4 ,he had occasion1 in the three days' battle of ,arcola1 to admire the ,dictator's impetuous heroism2 and he made a sketch of the ,general storming the bridge of ,arcola at the head of his troops1 ensign in hand4 ,it pleased ,napoleon1 who saw in it something of the dmonic power of the future conqueror of the world2 and when the picture was exhibited in ,paris in #ahja it met there also with the most striking success4 ,the greater warmth of colour1 the broader sweep of the brush1 and the life-like movement of the figures seemed1 in comparison with ,david's monotonous manner1 to be far-reaching innovations4 ,with his ,napoleon on the ,bridge of ,arcola ,gros had found his peculiar talent4 ,what his teacher had accomplished as painter to the ,convention1 ,gros carried to a conclusion in that span of time during which ,napoleon lived in the minds of his people as a hero4 ,he too made an occasional excursion into the domain of ,greek mythology1 but he did not feel at home there4 ,his field was that living history which the generals and soldiers of ,france were making4 ,he won for contemporary military life its citizenship in art4 ,david1 wishing to remain true to history and to style1 had depicted contemporary events with reluctance4 ,what ,grard and ,girodet had produced was interesting as a protest on the part of reality against classical convention1 but on the whole it was unsatisfying and wearisome4 ,gros1 the famous painter of the ,plague of ,jaffa and of the ,battle of ,eylau1 was the first to attain to high renown in this field4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,marguerite4 ,these are two powerful and genuine pictures1 two pre-eminent works which will endure4 ,gros stands far above ,david and all his rivals in his power of perception4 ,the elder painter is now out of date1 while ,gros remains ever fresh1 because he painted under the impulse given by real events1 and not under the ban of empty theories4 ,a realist through and through1 he did not shrink from representing the horrible1 which antique art preferred to avoid4 ,in an epoch when ,rome and ,greece were the only sources of inspiration he had the courage to paint a hospital1 with its sick1 its dying1 and its dead4 ,when in the ,egypto-,syrian campaign the plague broke out after the storming of ,jaffa1 ,napoleon1 accompanied by a few of his officers1 undertook1 on #gth ,march #agii1 to visit the victims of the pestilence4 ,this act deserved to be celebrated in a commemorative picture4 ,gros took it in hand1 and represented ,napoleon1 in the character of consoler1 amid the agonising torments of the dying2 deviating from historical accuracy only so far as to transfer the scene from the wretched wards of the lazaretto to the courtyard of a pillared mosque4 ,in the shadows of the airy halls sick and wounded men twist and writhe1 stare before them in despair1 rear themselves up half-naked in mortal pain1 or turn to gaze upon the ,commander-in-,chief1 a splendid apparition full of youthful power1 who is tranquilly feeling the plague boils of one of their comrades4 ,here and there ,orientals move in picturesque costumes1 distributing the food which negro lads are bringing in4 ,and beyond1 over the battlements of the ,moorish arcades1 one sees the town with its fortifications1 its flat roofs and slender minarets1 over which flutter the victorious banners of the ,french4 ,on one side lies the distant1 glittering blue sea1 and over all stretches the clear1 glowing southern sky4 ,like a new gospel1 like the first gust of wind preceding the storm of ,romanticism1 this picture standing in the ,louvre1 surrounded by its stiff ,classical contemporaries1 excites a sensation of pleasure4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,les ,,petits ,d,,videurs4 ,gros' heroes know1 as ,david's do1 that they are important1 and show it perhaps too much1 but at least they act4 ,the painter felt what he was painting1 and an impulse of human love1 an heroic and yet human life1 permeates the picture4 ,moreover1 ,gros did not content himself with the scanty palette and the miserable cartoon-draughtsmanship of his contemporaries4 ,this treatment of the nude1 these despairing heads of dying men1 show none of the stony lifelessness of the ,classical school2 this ,moorish courtyard has no resemblance to the tragedy peristyle so habitually employed up to that time2 this ,bonaparte laying his hand upon the dying man's sores is no ,greek or ,roman hero4 ,the sick men whose feverish eyes gaze upon him as on the star of hope1 the negroes going up and down with viands1 are no mere supernumeraries2 the sea lying in sunshine beyond1 full of bustling sails1 and the harbour gaily decked with many-coloured flags1 point in their joyous splendour of colouring to the dawn of a new era4 ,the young artists were not mistaken when1 in the ,salon of #ahjd1 they fastened a sprig of laurel to the frame of the picture4 ,the ,state bought it for sixteen thousand francs4 ,a banquet at which ,vien and ,david presided was given in honour of the painter4 ,girodet read a poem1 of which the conclusion ran as follows-- ,et toi1 sage ,vien1 toi1 ,david1 matre illustre1 ,jouissez de vos succs2 dans son sixime lustre1 ,votre lve1 dj de toutes parts cit1 ,auprs de vous vivra dans la postrit4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,the ,,vintage4 ,in his ,battle of ,eylau1 exhibited in #ahjh1 ,gros has given us a companion picture to the ,plague of ,jaffa3 in one a visit to a hospital1 in the other the inspection of a field of battle after the fight is over4 ,the dismal grey hue of winter rests upon the white sheet of snow stretching desolately away to the horizon1 only interrupted here and there by hillocks beneath which annihilated regiments sleep their last sleep4 ,in the foreground lie dead bodies heaped together1 and moaning wounded men2 and in the midst of this horror of mangled limbs and corrupting flesh he1 the ,conqueror1 the ,master1 the ,emperor1 comes to a halt1 pale1 his eyes turned towards the cities burning on the horizon1 in his grey overcoat and small cocked hat1 at the head of his staff1 indifferent1 inexorable1 merciless as ,fate4 ,ah6 si les rois pouvaient contempler ce spectacle1 ils scraient moins avides de conqutes4 ,the classical posturing which still lingered1 a disturbing element1 in the ,plague picture1 has been put aside completely4 ,the conventional horse from the frieze of the ,parthenon1 which ,david alone knew1 has given way to the accurately observed animal1 and the colouring too1 in its sad harmony1 has fully recovered its ancient right of giving character to the picture4 ,it was1 beyond all controversy1 the chief work in the ,salon of #ahjh1 rich in remarkable pictures2 neither ,grard's ,battle of ,austerlitz1 nor ,girodet's ,atala1 nor ,david's ,coronation piece endangered ,gros' right to the first place4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,the ,,virgin4 ,napoleon before the ,pyramids1 at the moment when he cries1 ,soldiers1 from the summit of those monuments forty centuries contemplate your actions1 constitutes1 in #ahaj1 the coping-stone of the cycle4 ,gros alone at that time understood the epic grandeur of war4 ,he became1 also1 the portrait painter of the great men from whom its events proceeded4 ,his picture of ,general ,massna1 with its meditative1 slily tenacious expression1 is the genuine portrait of a warrior2 and how well is heroic1 simple daring depicted in the likeness of ,general ,lasalle1 without the commonplace device of a mantle puffed out by the wind6 ,his portrait of ,general ,fournier ,sarlovse1 at ,versailles1 has a freshness of colouring1 the secret of which no one else possessed in those days except the two ,englishmen1 ,lawrence and ,raeburn4 ,gros was far in advance of his age4 ,a painter of movement rather than of psychological analysis1 he brought out character by means of general effect1 and gave the essentials in a masterly way4 ,his portraits1 just as much as his historical pictures1 have a stormy exposition4 ,in ,david all is calculation2 in ,gros1 fire4 ,almost alone among his contemporaries1 he had studied ,rubens1 and like him gave colour the place due to it4 ,at times there is in his pictures a natural flesh-colour and an animation which make this warm-hearted man1 who has not been sufficiently appreciated1 a genuine forerunner of the moderns4 ,surrounded as he was by orthodox ,classicists1 he cried in a loud voice what ,prudhon had already ventured to say more timidly3 ,man is not a statue--not made of marble1 but of flesh and bone4 ,illustration3 ,,prudhon4 ,,christ ,,crucified4 ,but as with ,prudhon1 so with ,gros4 ,this man1 of exaggerated nervousness1 was lacking in that capacity for persistence which belongs to a strong will conscious of its aim2 he lacked confidence in himself and in the initiative he had taken4 ,so long as the great figure of ,napoleon kept his head above water he was an artist2 but when his hero was taken from him he sank4 ,the ,empire had made ,gros great1 its fall killed him4 ,the incubus of ,david's antique manner began once more to press upon him1 and when ,david after his banishment 7in #ahaf7 committed to him the management of his studio in ,paris1 ,gros undertook the office with pious eagerness1 on nothing more anxiously intent than as a teacher once more to impose the fetters of the antique upon that ,art which he had set free by his own works4 ,it is not ,i who am speaking to you1 he would say to the pupils1 but ,david1 ,david1 always ,david4 ,the latter had blamed him for having taken the trouble to paint the battles of the ,empire1 worthless occasional pieces1 instead of venturing upon those of ,alexander the ,great1 and thus producing genuine historical works4 ,posterity requires of you good pictures out of ancient history4 ,who1 she will cry1 was better fitted to paint ,themistocles8 ,quick1 my friend6 turn to your ,plutarch4 ,to depict contemporary life1 which lies open before our eyes1 was1 he held1 merely the business of minor artists1 unworthy the brush of an historical painter4 ,and ,gros1 who reverenced his master1 was so weak as to listen to his advice3 he believed in him rather than in his own genius1 in the strength of others rather than his own4 ,he searched his ,plutarch1 and painted nothing more without a previous side-glance towards ,brussels2 introduced allegory into his ,battle of the ,pyramids2 composed in homage to ,david a ,death of ,sappho2 and painted the cupola of the ,pantheon with stiff frescoes2 while between times1 when he looked ,nature in the face1 he was now and then producing veritable masterpieces4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,prudhon4 ,,madame ,,copia4 ,his ,flight of ,louis ,,xviii in the ,museum at ,versailles1 shows him once more at his former height4 ,it is one of the finest of modern works1 as ,delacroix called it in #ahdh1 in an essay contributed to the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes2 at once familiar and serious4 ,napoleon had left ,elba1 marched on ,paris1 and had reached ,fontainebleau1 when1 in the night of the #aith-#bjth ,march #ahae1 ,louis ,,xviii determined to evacuate the ,tuileries with all speed4 ,accompanied by a few faithful followers and by the officers of his personal service1 he abandons his palace and takes leave of the ,national ,guards4 ,there is something pathetic in this sexagenarian with his erudite ,bourbon profile1 immortalised in the large five-franc pieces of his reign1 with his protruding stomach and small thick legs1 looking like a dropsical patient going to hospital4 ,his bearing is most unkingly4 ,gros has boldly depicted the scene1 even to the pathological appearance of the king1 just as he saw it1 forgetting all that he knew of antique art4 ,he had himself seen the staircase1 the murmuring crowd1 the lackeys hurrying by1 lantern in hand1 at their wits' end1 and the fat1 gouty king1 who in his terror has forgotten all kingly dignity4 ,that was an historical picture1 and yet as he painted it he reproached himself anew for having forsaken the real art of historical painting4 ,at the funeral of ,girodet in #ahbd the members of the ,institute talked of their irreparable loss1 and of the necessity of finding a new leader for the school who should avert with a strong hand that destruction which hot-headed young men threatened to bring upon it4 ,you1 ,gros1 observed one of them1 should be the man for the place4 ,and ,gros answered1 in absolute despair2 ,why1 ,i have not only no authority as leader of a school1 but1 over and above that1 ,i have to accuse myself of giving the first bad example of defection from real art4 ,the more he thought of ,david1 the more he turned his back upon the world of real life4 ,with his large and wearisome picture of ,hercules causing ,diomedes to be devoured by his own ,horses 7#ahce7 he sealed his own fate4 ,conventionality had conquered nature4 ,illustration3 ,,gros4 ,,saul4 ,the painters overwhelmed him with ridicule1 and a shrill shout of derision rose from all the critics4 ,already1 for some time past1 a few writers had risen to protest against the ,classical school4 ,they spoke with fiery eloquence of the rights of humanity1 the benefits of liberty1 the independence of thought1 the true principles of the ,revolution1 and found numerous readers4 ,they fought against rigid laws in the intellectual as well as the social sphere2 they pointed out that there were other worlds besides that of antiquity1 and that even the latter was not peopled exclusively by cold statues2 they delighted in describing the great and beautiful scenes of ,nature1 and opened out once more a new and broad horizon to art and poetry4 ,the ,spring was awakening2 ,gros felt that he had outlived himself4 ,arming himself against the voices of the new era with the fatal heroism of the deaf1 he became the martyr of ,classicism in ,french art4 ,he was a ,classic by education1 a ,romantic by temperament2 a man who took his greatest pride in giving the lie as a teacher to the work he had accomplished as an artist1 and this discordance was his ruin4 ,on the #beth of ,june #ahce1 being sixty-four years of age1 he took up his hat and stick1 left his house without a word to any one1 and laid himself face-downwards in a tributary of the ,seine near ,meudon4 ,it was a shallow place1 scarce three feet deep1 which a child could easily have waded through4 ,it was not till next day1 when he had been dead for twenty-four hours1 that he was discovered by two sailors walking home along the bank4 ,one of them struck his foot against a black silk hat4 ,in it there was a white cravat marked with the initial ,g41 carefully folded1 and upon it a short note to his wife4 ,on a torn visiting-card could still be read the name1 ,baron ,gros4 ,a little farther on they saw the corpse1 and as they were afraid to touch a drowned man1 they drew lots with straws to decide which of them should pull him out4 ,i feel it within me1 it is a misfortune for me to be alone4 ,one begins to be disgusted with one's self1 and then all is over1 he had once in his youth written to his mother with gloomy foreboding4 ,such was the end of a master every fibre of whose being was in revolt against ,classicism1 and who had so great a love for colour1 truth1 and life4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,antoine ,,jean1 ,,baron ,,gros4 ,more important events were yet to take place before the signal of deliverance could be expected4 ,it was the young men who had grown up amid the desolate associations of the ,restoration who were to lead to victory the new movement of which ,prudhon and ,gros had been the forerunners4 ,the dictatorship over art of that ,classical school which had been taken over from the seventeenth century was limited to a single generation--from the birththroes of the ,revolution to the fall of the ,napoleonic ,empire4 ,for although many of ,david's pupils survived until the middle of the century1 yet they were merely academic big-wigs1 who1 compared with the young men of genius who were storming their positions1 represent that mediocrity which had indeed attained to external honours1 but had remained stationary1 fast bound to antiquated rules4 ,the future belonged to the young1 to a youth which from the standpoint of our own days seems even younger than youth commonly is1 richer1 fresher1 more glowing and fiery--the ,generation of #ahcj1 the vaillants de dix-huit cent trente1 as ,thophile ,gautier called them in one of his poems4 ,illustration3 ,photo1 ,levi4 ,,gros4 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,eylau4 ,,chapter ,x ,,the ,,generation ,,of #ahcj ,during the years which elapsed between #ahbj and #ahdh ,france produced a great and admirable school of art4 ,after the convulsions of the ,revolution and the wars of the ,empire1 that generation had arisen1 daring and eager for action1 which de ,musset describes in his ,confessions d'un ,enfan du ,sicle4 ,and these young men1 born between the thunders of one battle and another1 who had grown up in the midst of greatness and glory1 had to experience1 as they ripened into manhood1 the ignominy of ,charles ,x's reign1 the period of clerical reaction4 ,they saw monasteries re-erected1 laws of medival severity made against blasphemy and the desecration of churches and saints' days1 and the doctrine of the divine origin of the monarchy proclaimed anew4 ,and when young men spoke of glory1 says de ,musset1 the answer was1 ',become priests6' ,and when they spoke of honour1 the answer was1 ',become priests6' ,and when they spoke of hope1 of love1 of strength and life1 ever the same answer1 ',become priests6' ,the only result of this pressure was to intensify all the more the impulse towards freedom4 ,the political and intellectual reaction could only have the effect of impelling the poetic and artistic emotions of young and unquiet spirits into opposition1 on principle1 to all that was established1 into a fiery contempt for public opinion1 into the apotheosis of unrestrained passion and unfettered genius4 ,the ,french ,romanticists were anti-,philistines who regarded the word bourgeois as an insult4 ,for them ,art was the one supreme consideration2 it was to them a light and a flame1 and its beauty and daring the only things worth living for4 ,for those who put forward such demands as these1 the eunuchism of the ,classical--an expression of ,george ,sand's--could never suffice4 ,they dreamed of an art of painting which should find its expression in blood1 purple1 light1 movement1 and boldness2 they held in sovereign contempt the correct1 pedantic1 colourless tendency of their elders4 ,an inner flame should glow through and liberate the forms1 absorb the lines and contours1 and mould the picture into a symphony of colour4 ,what was desired and sought for1 in poetry and in music1 in plastic art and in painting1 was colour and passion3 colour so energetic1 that drawing was1 as it were1 consumed by it2 passion so vehement1 that lyrical poetry and the drama were in danger of becoming feverish and convulsive4 ,a movement which reminds one of the ,renaissance took possession of all minds4 ,it was as though there were something intoxicating in the very air that one breathed4 ,on a political background of grey upon grey1 consisting of the cowls of the ,jesuits of the ,restoration1 there arose a flaming1 refulgent1 blustering literature and art1 scintillating with sparks and bright hues1 full of the adoration of passion and of fervid colour4 ,romanticism is ,protestantism in literature and art--such is ,vitet's definition of the movement4 ,literature1 which1 adapting itself to the politics of the government1 had begun in ,chateaubriand with an enthusiastic fervour for ,catholicism1 ,monarchy1 and ,medivalism1 had in the twenties become revolutionary2 and the description of its battles is one of the most glowing chapters in ,george ,brandes' classic work4 ,there was a revolt against the pseudo-antique1 against the stiff handling of the ,alexandrine metre1 against the yoke of tradition4 ,then arose that mighty race of ,romantic poets who proclaimed with ,byronic fire the gospel of nature and passion4 ,de ,musset1 the famous child of the century1 the idol of the young generation1 the poet with the burning heart1 who rushed through life with such eagerness and haste that at the age of forty he broke down altogether1 worn out like a man of seventy1 deliberately wrote bad rhymes in his first poems1 for the purpose of thoroughly infuriating the ,classicists4 ,so1 too1 he wrote his dramas1 in which love is glorified as a serious and terrible power with which one may not trifle1 as the fire with which one must not play1 as the electric spark that kills4 ,so ,george ,sand1 the female ,titan of ,romanticism1 published her novels1 with their subversive tendencies and their sparkling animation of narrative4 ,between these two rises the keen bronze-like profile of ,prosper ,mrime1 who prefers to describe the life of gypsies and robbers1 and to depict the most violent and desperate characters in history4 ,finally1 ,victor ,hugo1 the great chieftain of the ,romantic school1 the ,paganini of literature1 unrivalled in imposing grandeur1 in masterly treatment of language1 and in petty vanity1 found submissive multitudes to listen to him when he rose in fierce and fiery insurrection against the rigid laws of the bloodless ,classical style1 and substituted for the actionless and ill-contrived declamatory tragedies of his time his own romantic dramas1 breathing passion and full of diversified movement4 ,the conflict was deadly4 ,the young generation hailed with applause the new ,messiah of letters1 and grew intoxicated with the harmony of ,hugo's phrases1 which sounded so much fuller and fierier than the measured speech of ,corneille and ,racine4 ,the ,thtre ,franais1 recently benumbed as with the quiet of the grave1 became all at once a tumultuous battlefield4 ,there they sat1 when ,hugo's ,cromwell and ,hernani were produced on the stage1 correct1 well dressed1 gloved1 close shaven1 with their neat ties and shirt collars1 the representatives of the old generation1 whose blameless conduct had raised them to office and place4 ,and in contrast to them1 in the pit were crowded together the young men1 the ,jeune ,france1 as ,thophile ,gautier described them1 one with his waving hair like a lion's mane1 another with his ,rubens hat and ,spanish mantle1 another in his vest of bright red satin4 ,their common uniform was the red waistcoat introduced by ,thophile ,gautier--not the red chosen for their symbol by the men of the ,revolution1 but the scarlet-red which represented the hatred felt by these enthusiastic young men for all that was grey and dull1 and their preference for all that is luminous and magnificently coloured in life4 ,they held that the contemplation of a beautiful piece of red cloth was an artistic pleasure4 ,a similar change took place at the same time in ladies' toilettes4 ,as the ,revolution had in ladies' costumes rejected all colour in favour of the ,grecian white1 so now dresses once more assumed vivid1 and especially deep red hues2 deep red ribbons adorned the hat and encircled the waist4 ,illustration3 ,,th,,odore ,g,,ricault4 ,deep red--that was the colour of the ,romantic school2 the flourishing of trumpets and the blare of brass its note4 ,flashes of passion and ferocity1 rivers of sulphur1 showers of fire1 glowing deserts1 decaying corpses in horrible phosphorescence1 seas at night-time in which ships are sinking1 landscapes over which roaring ,war shakes his brand1 and where maddened nations fall furiously upon one another--such are the subjects1 resonant with shout of battle and song of victory1 which held sway over ,french ,romanticism4 ,at the very time when at ,dsseldorf the young artists of ,germany were painting with the milk of pious feeling their lachrymose1 susceptible1 sentimental pictures1 utterly tame and respectable2 when the ,nazarene school were holding their post-mortem on the livid corpse of old ,italian art1 and seeking to galvanise it1 and with it the ,christian piety of the ,middle ,ages1 into life again2 at that very time there arose in ,france a young generation boiling over with fervour1 who had for their rallying cry ,nature and ,truth1 but demanded at the same time1 and before all else1 contrast1 pictorial antithesis1 and passion at once lofty and of tiger-like ferocity4 ,in those very years1 when in ,germany1 the cartoon style of ,carstens having died away1 progress was limited to a timid and unsuccessful pursuit of that revelry of colour which marked the ,quattrocentisti1 the ,french took at once1 as with the seven-leagued boots of the fairy-tale1 the great stride onward towards the ,flemings4 ,through ,napoleon1 ,france had grown richer1 not only in glory1 but in art treasures1 gathered together from all countries into ,paris1 as trophies of the victorious general4 ,the abundant collections thus accumulated brought to bear upon that generation the quickening influence of the best that had been done in the art of painting4 ,nowhere could one study either the ,venetian colourists or ,rubens to greater advantage than in the ,louvre1 and it was by virtue of this unrestrained intercourse with the masters who represent the most perfect blossom of colouring that the ,byronic spirits of #ahcj succeeded in giving full expression to the glowing full-coloured life of things which hovered before their heated imagination4 ,it is unnecessary to say that this was accompanied by a great widening of the range of subjects treated4 ,the ,romantic school showed that there were other heroes in history and poetry besides the ,greeks and ,romans4 ,they painted everything1 if only it possessed colour and character1 flame1 passion1 and exotic perfume4 ,romanticism was the protest of painting against the plastic in art1 the protest of liberty against the academic teaching of the ,classical school1 the revolution of movement against stiffness4 ,illustration3 ,g,,ricault4 ,,the ,,wounded ,,cuirassier4 ,it was in the studio of ,gurin1 the tame and timid ,classicist1 that the young assailants grew up1 the daubers of #ahcj1 who called the ,apollo ,belvidere a shabby yellow turnip1 and who spoke of ,racine and ,raphael as of street arabs4 ,they were tired of copying profiles of ,antinous4 ,the contemplation of a picture by ,girodet was wearisome to them4 ,it was ,thodore ,gricault1 a hot1 hasty passionate nature1 of ,beethoven-like unruliness and of heaven-storming boldness1 who spoke the word of deliverance4 ,he was a ,norman1 sturdily built and serious in manner4 ,even while he was studying in ,gurin's studio he had already grasped some of the ideas which ,gros had in his mind1 and1 although not his pupil1 ,gricault may be said to have continued his work1 or at least would have been able to do so had he lived longer4 ,like him1 he had from his youth up contemplated1 full of wonder1 the rolling sea and the thunder-laden skies2 like him1 he had a predilection for fine horses2 and1 being of a somewhat melancholy disposition1 he preferred to treat of the darker aspects of life4 ,his aspiration was to paint the surging sea1 proud steeds rushing past at a gallop1 suffering and striving humanity1 great deeds1 pathos and frenzy in every form4 ,his first works were splendid horsemen1 whose every muscle twitches with nervous movement4 ,during his short stay in ,charles ,vernet's studio he had already taken an interest in cavalry1 and begun the studies of such subjects1 which he continued to the day of his death4 ,afterwards1 while he was working under ,gurin and before his visit to ,italy in #ahag1 he often went to the ,louvre1 copied pictures and studied ,rubens1 to the great annoyance of his teacher1 who with horror beheld him entering upon so perilous a path4 ,illustration3 ,g,,ricault4 ,,chasseur4 ,here again he followed in the steps of ,gros1 whose portrait of ,general ,fournier ,sarlovse was hung in the ,salon of #ahab close by ,gricault's ,mounted ,officer4 ,this picture1 a portrait of ,m4 ,dieudonn1 an officer in the ,chasseurs d',afrique1 crossing the battlefield sword in hand on a rearing horse1 was the first work exhibited by ,gricault1 then twenty-one years of age4 ,it was an event4 ,gros found himself supported1 if not surpassed1 by a beginner who had his own enthusiasm for colour and movement1 for profiles broadly and boldly delineated4 ,in #ahad followed the ,wounded ,cuirassier1 staggering across the field of battle and dragging his horse behind him4 ,these were no longer warriors seated on classical steeds foaming with rage1 but real soldiers in whom there was nothing of the ,greek statue4 ,then ,gricault went to ,italy1 but in this case also it was not to pursue archological studies in the museums1 but to see the race of the barberi during carnival4 ,to this time belong those studies of horses1 for the possession of which collectors vie with one another to-day1 sketches made in the open air1 out in the street or in the stables4 ,the ,horses at the ,manger and ,horses fighting were among the pearls of the collection of ,french drawings in the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahhi4 ,in #ahai he completed his greatest picture1 that which most people alone call to mind--not quite fairly--when his name is mentioned--,the ,raft of the ,medusa4 ,what a tragedy is there represented6 ,for twelve days the unfortunate wretches have been on the deep1 starving1 in utter despair and ready to lift their hands against each other4 ,they were a hundred and fifty1 now they are but fifteen4 ,one old man holds upon his knees the corpse of his son2 another tears his hair out1 left alone in life after seeing all his dear ones perish4 ,in the foreground lie dead bodies which the waves have not yet swept away4 ,but far away in the distance a sail appears4 ,one points it out to another3 yes1 it is a sail6 ,a mariner and a negro mount upon an empty barrel and wave their handkerchiefs in the air4 ,will they be seen8 ,the anxiety is terrible4 ,and ever higher and higher the grey waves roll on4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,g,,ricault4 ,,the ,,raft ,,of ,,the ,,medusa4 ,illustration3 ,g,,ricault4 ,,the ,,start4 ,how must such a scene have impressed a generation which for long years had seen nothing in the ,salon but dry mythology and painted statues6 ,gricault was the first to free himself from the tyranny of the plaster-of-,paris bust1 and once again to put passion and truth to nature in the place of cold marble4 ,just as he commissioned the ship's carpenter who had constructed the raft and was one of the saved to make him a model of it1 so also he moved into a studio close to the hospital1 for the purpose of studying the sick and dying1 of sketching dead bodies and single limbs4 ,it must be admitted that one would wish for a yet firmer grasp of the subject4 ,in form1 ,gricault still belongs to the school of ,david4 ,a good deal of ,classicism shows itself in the fact that he thought it necessary to depict the majority of the figures naked1 in order to avoid unpictorial costumes4 ,there is still something academic in the figures1 which do not seem to be sufficiently weakened by privation1 disease1 and the struggle with death2 but what man can free himself at one stroke from the influence of his time and environment8 ,even in the colouring there lingers some touch of the ,classical school4 ,it offends no one1 a fact to be insisted on in comparing him with the ,nazarenes2 but as yet it plays no part in expressing the meaning of the picture4 ,from the distance1 indeed1 whence the rescuing ship is drawing near1 a bright light shines forth upon a scene otherwise depicted in dull brown4 ,save for this1 the intention of the picture is not expressed by means of colour1 and it even shows some retrogression as compared with ,gricault's earlier works4 ,he had begun with ,rubens1 yet these studies in colouring did not last4 ,in the ,wounded ,cuirassier of #ahad dark tones took the place of the former cheerfulness1 and so in the ,raft of the ,medusa he imagined the tragedy could be represented only in sombre hues4 ,he spread over the whole scene a monotonous unpleasant brown shade1 and in his endeavour to lay all weight upon human emotion he went so far as almost to suppress the sea1 which nevertheless played the chief part in the drama1 and whose deep blue would have afforded a splendid contrast4 ,discoveries are not to be made all at once1 but only when their hour is come4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,eug,,ne ,,delacroix4 ,the next step in ,french art was to be that of reinstating the significance of colour in the full rights conquered for it by ,titian1 so that it should no longer be merely a tasteful tinting of the figures1 but should become truly that which gives its temper to the picture4 ,it was not reserved for ,gricault to effect this4 ,a trip to ,london1 which he made in #ahbj1 in company with his friend ,charlet1 was the last event of his life4 ,there the sportsman awoke in him once more1 and he painted the ,race for the ,derby at ,epsom4 ,soon after his return he was thrown from his horse while riding1 but lingered on for two years longer1 suffering from a spinal complaint4 ,with a few more years in which to develop he should have been one of the great masters of ,france1 but he died when scarcely in his thirty-second year4 ,yet he lived long enough to observe1 in the ,salon of #ahbb1 the dbut of one of his comrades from ,gurin's studio4 ,a greater than himself1 to whom with dying voice he had given a few words of advice1 arose as the intellectual heir of the young painter so prematurely carried off1 and carried to its issue the struggle which he had begun4 ,it was on #bfth ,april #agii1 at midday1 that the first genuine painter's eye of the century saw the light1 at ,charenton ,saint-,maurice4 ,gricault had made a beginning1 but it was the impetuous1 powerful genius of ,eugne ,delacroix which entered in and completed his work4 ,what ,gros had dimly perceived1 but had not dared to express1 what ,gricault had barely had time with a courageous hand to point out1 a hand too soon stiffened in death--the modern poetry of colour1 of fever1 and of quivering emotion--it was reserved for ,delacroix to write4 ,that child will grow up to be a famous man2 his life will be extremely laborious1 but also extremely agitated1 and always exposed to opposition4 ,thus had a madman prophesied of the boy one day when he and his nurse were taking a walk near the lunatic asylum at ,charenton4 ,and he was right4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,delacroix4 ,,dante',s ,,bark4 ,delacroix was another of the pupils who had grown up in ,gurin's studio1 but he became the latter's antipode4 ,even in his student years he took counsel1 not of the antique1 but of ,rubens and ,veronese2 and when ,gricault was painting his ,raft of the ,medusa1 ,delacroix belonged to the little band of enthusiastic admirers which gathered round the young master4 ,he served as model for the half-submerged man to the left in the foreground of that picture4 ,after busying himself at first almost entirely with caricatures1 and studies of horses1 and with ,madonnas in the ,classical style1 he exhibited in #ahbb his ,dante's ,bark1 in a pictorial sense the first characteristic picture of the century4 ,one is inclined even to-day to repeat ,david's exclamation when he caught sight of the work1 the first great epoch-making life-utterance of the revolutionary ,romanticists3 ,d'o vient-il8 ,je ne connais pas cette touche-la4 ,there were thoughts in it which had not been conceived and expressed in the same manner since the time of ,tintoretto4 ,dante and ,virgil1 ferried by ,phlegyas over ,acheron1 are passing among the souls of the damned1 who grasp hold of the boat with the energy of despair4 ,a theme taken from a medival author2 an antique figure1 that of ,virgil1 but seen through the prism of modern poetry4 ,while the ,florentine1 stiff with horror1 gazes upon the swimming figures which cling to the boat with teeth and nails1 ,virgil1 tranquil and serious1 turns on them a face which the emotions of life can no longer affect4 ,the work obtained a decisive success4 ,a carpenter in ,delacroix's house had made for the young painter an inartistic frame of four boards4 ,when he went to the exhibition and looked for his picture in the side-rooms he could not find it4 ,the frame had fallen to pieces during removal1 but the picture had been hung in an honourable place in the ,louvre1 in a rich frame ordered for it by ,baron ,gros4 ,you must learn drawing1 my young friend1 and then you will become a second ,rubens1 was the salute which this remarkable man1 whose theory ever gave the lie to his practice1 gave the young master4 ,naturally ,delacroix would not now have been admitted into the school of ,david1 or would have been placed there in the lowest rank--with ,rubens and a few other immortals1 who drew no better than he did4 ,he was absolutely opposed to all the exact1 regular1 well-balanced1 colourless traditions which held sway in ,david's school with their pedantic erudition and bourgeois discretion4 ,the principle of the ,classicists was the ,greek type of beauty1 and the translation of sculpture into painting4 ,in ,delacroix's picture there was no longer anything of that sort4 ,gricault had already broken away from the academic stencilling of form1 and had substituted natural expression1 life1 and emotion for conventional types2 ,delacroix now set aside the sullen colouring of the ,classical school1 and its painted statues made way for the colour-symphonies of the ,venetians4 ,these reforming qualities found in his second work1 a few years later1 a much fuller expression than in the ,dante's ,bark4 ,at that time the ,greeks1 that heroic nation1 struggling and dying for its religion and independence1 had excited everywhere the deepest sympathy and enthusiasm4 ,delacroix was the very man to be inspired by such a theme4 ,from the agitation caused by the martyrdom of ,greece1 and from his taste for ,byron's poetry1 resulted in #ahbd the celebrated ,massacre of ,chios1 on which he was already employed in #ahba1 before the completion of his ,dante's ,bark1 and in which his power of expression as well as of colour was carried much further than in the earlier picture4 ,in the ,dante's ,bark there were still1 both in form and colour1 reminiscences of the great ,florentine masters2 as1 for instance1 in the female figure in the foreground1 which is almost an exact reproduction of ,michael ,angelo's ,night4 ,the event depicted was comparatively quiet and tranquil1 and the well-balanced composition would have done honour to the most rigorous follower of ,david4 ,the only novelty lay in the treatment of colour1 and in the substitution of the individual and characteristic for the typical and ideal4 ,but undoubtedly it was now possible not only to produce in colour more powerful chords1 but also in expression to strike notes more dramatic1 for the academic plaster-of-,paris heads of the ,david school had depicted human emotion only in icy immobility4 ,delacroix had put all these possibilities into the new picture4 ,the pyramidal configuration has resolved itself into an unconstrained grouping of figures4 ,here we have for the first time the artistic spirit intoxicated with colour1 the ,orlando ,furioso of colourists1 the pupil of ,rubens1 ,delacroix4 ,an entire world of deep feeling and of painfully passionate poetry1 an entire world of tones1 which the master under whose eyes he painted his ,dante could not have conceived1 lies enclosed within the frame of this picture4 ,the figures1 sitting1 kneeling1 partly reclining1 with their half-starved bodies and their gloomy1 brooding1 hopeless faces2 the desperate struggle between the conquerors and their victims in the far distance2 the contrast between this scene of horror and the luminous splendour of the atmosphere1 and the wealth of colour in the whole1 made and still make this fine painting one of the most impressive pictures in the ,louvre4 ,it is a work which flames in glow of colour more than any that had appeared in ,france since the days of ,rubens4 ,the ,english had been his teachers4 ,it is here only that colour and effect are understood and felt1 ,gricault had previously written from ,london4 ,delacroix's work had already been sent off to the ,salon when ,constable's first pictures were just arriving there1 and the impression which they made upon him was so powerful that1 at the very last moment1 and in the ,louvre itself1 he gave his picture a brighter and more luminous colouring4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,delacroix4 ,,hamlet ,,and ,,the ,,grave-,,diggers4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,delacroix4 ,,tasso ,,in ,,the ,,mad-,,house4 ,and indeed it was not till now that the ,classicists perceived how great an opponent had arisen against them4 ,not only did the aged ,gros call the ,massacre of ,chios le massacre de la peinture1 but all the critics talked about barbarism1 and prophesied that on this path ,french painting would hasten to its destruction4 ,the prize of the ,salon was awarded1 not to the ,massacre1 but to ,sigalon's ,locusta1 an unimportant work of compromise1 though very clever and well studied in draughtsmanship4 ,it was said that ,delacroix's picture was lacking in symmetrical arrangement1 that he showed too great a contempt for the beautiful1 that indeed he appeared systematically to prefer the ugly--that is to say1 he was blamed for the very qualities wherein lay his importance as a reformer4 ,accustomed as they had been for many years to an art in which intellect1 correctness1 and moderation held sway1 not one of the critics was in a position to perceive all at once the value of this fiery spirit4 ,delcluze1 the indefatigable defender of the sacred dogmas of the ,classical school1 characterised dramatic expression and composition marked by action as the reef whereon the grand style of painting must inevitably be wrecked4 ,the modern schools of art1 he taught as late as #ahbd1 exist1 flourish1 and have their being only by the utilisation of what we can learn from the ,greeks4 ,even acknowledging the progress in colour which the work showed1 it nevertheless belonged1 he said1 to an inferior genus1 and all its excellences in colouring could not outweigh the ugliness of its form4 ,therewith began the battles of the ,romantic school1 and all the daring of ,thophile ,gautier1 ,thiers1 ,victor ,hugo1 ,sainte-,beuve1 ,baudelaire1 ,brger-,thor1 ,gustave ,planche1 ,paul ,mantz1 and others had to be called upon in order to storm the heights held by the batteries of the ,classical critics4 ,count ,forbin gave proof of no less courage when he bought the picture1 torn to shreds as it was by hostile criticism1 for the ,state1 at the price of six thousand francs4 ,this enabled ,delacroix to visit ,england4 ,he spent the time from spring to autumn of #ahbe in ,london1 where he consorted amicably with all the artists of the day4 ,and he took an interest not only in ,english art1 but also in literature and the drama4 ,his preference for ,shakespeare1 ,byron1 and ,walter ,scott1 who were already his favourite poets1 found new sustenance4 ,an ,english opera made him acquainted with ,goethe's ,faust2 and henceforth these poets entered into the foreground of his works4 ,a picture of ,tasso 7the poet in a cell of the madhouse1 through the window of which two grinning lunatics look in upon him7 in #ahbf1 the ,execution of the ,doge ,marino ,faliero and the ,death of ,sardanapalus1 both after ,byron1 in #ahbg1 and ,faust in his ,study in #ahbh1 followed the ,massacre--all of them obviously the works of a painter who loved bright1 glowing colour1 had studied ,rubens and had recently returned from ,england4 ,in #ahbh was published1 in seventeen plates1 his cycle of illustrations to ,faust1 to accompany a translation of the poem into ,french2 and this was followed by a number of lithographs on ,shakespearian subjects4 ,and here we may notice a singular exchange of parts4 ,when the word ,romantic was first heard in ,germany it had originally much the same sense as ,roman4 ,the ,german ,romanticists were moved to enthusiasm by ,roman ,catholicism and ,roman church painting4 ,but when ,romanticism reached ,france1 the word came to mean exactly the opposite3 a preference for the ,german and ,english spirit as compared with the ,greek and ,latin1 and an enthusiasm for the great ,anglo-,saxon and ,german poets1 ,shakespeare and ,goethe1 in whom1 contrasting with ,racine's correctness1 were to be found unrestrained genius and glowing passion4 ,this influence of poetry over art may easily become dangerous1 if painters sponge1 so to speak1 upon the poet1 as the ,dsseldorf school did1 and make use of his work only for the purpose of enabling works1 in themselves valueless1 to keep their heads1 artistically speaking1 above water1 by means of their extrinsic poetical interest4 ,but ,delacroix had no need of any such support4 ,he was not the poets' pupil1 but their brother4 ,he did not study them in order to illustrate their works1 but was imbued with their spirit and possessed by their souls4 ,he lived with them2 he did not borrow his subjects from them1 but rather made use of them to express in his own powerful language the strongest emotions of the human heart4 ,nor did he ever forget that painting must1 before all1 be painting4 ,endowed as he was with a poet's soul1 he conceived things as a painter1 not laboriously translating passages from the poets1 but simply thinking in colour4 ,what the musician hears1 what the poet imagines1 he saw4 ,the scenes of which he read appeared at once before his eyes as sketches1 in great masses of colour4 ,for him1 composition1 action1 and colour ever united together into one inseparable whole4 ,illustration3 ,,delacroix4 ,,entry ,,of ,,the ,,crusaders ,,into ,,constantinople4 ,the journey to ,morocco1 which he made in the spring of #ahcb1 in company with an embassy sent by ,louis ,philippe to the ,emperor ,muley ,abderrahman1 is noteworthy for a further progress in his ability as a colourist and a new broadening of his range of subjects4 ,when he returned to the port of ,toulon1 on #eth ,july #ahcb1 he had seen ,algiers and ,spain1 and had assimilated an abundance of sunshine and colour4 ,it is in his ,oriental pictures that his painting first reaches its zenith1 just as ,victor ,hugo's mastery over language was at its highest point in his ,orientales4 ,goethe1 in his ,west-stliches ,divan1 celebrated what is quiet and contemplative in the ,oriental view of life4 ,obermann sang of the land of legend1 of buried treasures1 of ,aladdin and the wonderful lamp2 but for ,byron 7who was practically the first to introduce into ,europe the perfume and colour of the ,east71 for ,hugo1 and for ,delacroix1 it was the distant1 bright-hued1 barbaric land of the rising sun1 the land of sanguinary warfare and overthrow1 the home of light and colour4 ,here it was that the ,french ,romanticists found the world that realised their dreams of colour4 ,the ,east became for them what ,rome had been for the ,classical school4 ,from the feeble and misty sun of ,paris1 and from the grey skies of the ,boulevard des ,italiens1 they turned to ,africa4 ,his enthusiasm for this newly discovered world resounds1 full and clear1 in ,delacroix's letters4 ,were ,i to leave the land in which ,i have found them1 he wrote1 during his stay in ,morocco1 of the men whom he saw about him there1 they would seem to me like trees torn up by the roots4 ,i should forget the impressions ,i have received1 and should be able only in an incomplete and frigid manner to reproduce the sublime and fascinating life which fills the streets here1 and attracts one by the beauty of its appearance4 ,think1 my friend1 what it means to a painter to see lying in the sunshine1 wandering about the streets and offering shoes for sale1 men who have the appearance of ancient consuls1 of the reincarnated spirits of ,cato and ,brutus1 who lack not even that proud1 discontented look which those lords of the world must have had4 ,they possess nothing save a blanket in which they walk1 sleep1 and are buried1 and yet they look as dignified as ,cicero in his curule chair4 ,what truth1 what nobility in these figures6 ,there is nothing more beautiful in the antique4 ,and all in white1 as with ,roman senators or at the ,greek ,panathena4 ,his palette was thus further enriched in lucid tints1 the contrasts he formerly delighted in became less sharp and glaring1 the gloomy background hitherto preferred was superseded by a bright serenity and a golden lustre4 ,the colour-effect of his ,algerian ,women has been not unaptly compared to the impression produced by a glance into an open jewel casket4 ,in his ,convulsionaries of ,tangier he has depicted with wild1 demoniac energy the religious frenzy of a ,turkish sect4 ,green1 blue1 red1 and violet hues unite to produce an effect as of a sounding flourish of trumpets1 recalling the music of the janizaries4 ,the ,entry of the ,crusaders into ,constantinople resembles an old delicately tinted carpet1 full of powerful1 tranquil harmony4 ,even in his old age he wrote3 ,the aspect of that country will be for ever before my eyes2 the types of that vigorous race will move in my memory as long as ,i live2 in them ,i truly found the antique beauty again4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,delacroix4 ,,jesus ,,on ,,lake ,,gennesaret4 ,the contemplation of such scenes induced ,delacroix to undertake the representation of antique subjects1 which he had hitherto avoided1 not because he disliked the antique1 but because of the aversion he felt for ,david's treatment of it4 ,during his sojourn in ,africa he had come to the conclusion that the painting of scenes from ancient history should not be based upon the imitation of statues and bas-reliefs1 as with ,david and his pupils2 but that it should be imbued with the movement and passion of modern life1 since the ancient ,greeks were men of flesh and blood like ourselves4 ,therefore it is that he snatches the marble mask from the faces of ,david's puppets4 ,flemish blood begins to move in the ,greek statues1 ,flemish passion to break through their inflexible rhythm4 ,paintings such as the ,justice of ,trajan of #ahdj represent the antique in a thoroughly personal and modern paraphrase1 just as ,shakespeare or ,byron had seen it4 ,the mad ,medea is1 from the point of view of colour1 certainly the chief work of this group4 ,it was of course impossible that a man so highly endowed with emotional pathos should pass untouched the tragedy of the life of ,christ and the sufferings of the ,christian martyrs4 ,by the ,revolution religious themes had been absolutely excluded from representation1 and up to this time the young innovators of the ,restoration period had also felt an aversion for them4 ,their ideas were as little attuned to ,catholic as to academic tradition4 ,delacroix was the first to treat once more of biblical subjects1 so far as they are imbued with dramatic and passionate movement4 ,like ,rubens1 he regarded the lives of the saints1 the story of the ,gospels1 and the tragedy on ,golgotha as a poetical narrative like any other4 ,his ,mary1 like that of the ,flemish painters1 is a sorrowing woman1 the embodiment of unending grief4 ,alongside of these easel pictures he produced1 during a period of more than twenty-five years1 a long list of monumental and decorative works2 and they too were the most inventive1 the boldest1 and the most original which monumental painting produced during this epoch1 not in ,france only1 but in ,europe4 ,in this sphere also1 where1 under the pressure of old traditions and conventional types1 it is so difficult to avoid plagiarism1 ,delacroix maintained his individuality4 ,in #ahce1 at the suggestion of his friend ,thiers1 he was commissioned to paint the interior of the ,chamber of ,deputies in the ,palais ,bourbon--the most important commission which had fallen to the lot of any ,french artist since ,gros painted the cupola of the ,pantheon4 ,not long afterwards he decorated with verve and enthusiasm the ceiling of the ,louvre1 choosing for his subject the ,triumph of ,apollo4 ,in the ,library of the ,luxembourg he had recourse to the ,divina ,commedia1 and treated in a masterly manner the theme so familiar and sympathetic to him4 ,in his works there is something of the joyous and sportive energy of ,rubens' allegorical pictures1 but not the least trace of imitation4 ,he understood decorative painting in the sense of the great old masters1 ,giulio ,romano and ,veronese1 not as wall didactics and lectures on archology2 he knew that descriptive prose has nothing whatever to do with the walls of a building1 but that the sole aim of such paintings is to fill the house with their solemn grandeur1 to make the whole building resound as it were with sacred organ music4 ,between #ahec and #ahfa came also the wall paintings in the ,church of ,saint ,sulpice1 and one would almost think that ,delacroix finished them in feverish excitement1 to show for the last time how enormous a store of passion and power still lay in the soul of a sexagenarian4 ,shortly after their completion1 on #acth ,august #ahfc1 he died1 who was1 in the words of ,silvestre1 the painter of the genuine race1 who had the sun in his head and a thunderstorm in his heart1 who in the course of forty years sounded the entire gamut of human emotion1 and whose grandiose and awe-inspiring brush passed from saints to warriors1 from warriors to lovers1 from lovers to tigers1 from tigers to flowers4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,delacroix4 ,,horses ,,fighting ,,in ,a ,,stable4 ,in these words ,delacroix is very aptly characterised4 ,his range of subjects included everything3 decorative1 historical1 and religious painting1 landscape1 flowers1 animals1 sea pieces1 classical antiquity and the ,middle ,ages1 the scorching heat of the south and the mists of the north4 ,he left no branch of the art of painting untouched2 nothing escaped his lion's claws4 ,but there is one bond uniting all3 to all the figures for which he won the citizenship of art he gave passion and movement4 ,his predominant quality is a passion for the terrible1 a kind of insatiability for wild and violent action4 ,his over-excited imagination heaps pain1 horror1 and pathos one upon another4 ,the critics called him the tattooed savage who paints with a drunken broom4 ,there is nothing pretty or lovable about his art2 it is a wild art4 ,he depicted passion wherever he found it1 in the shape of wild animals1 stormy seas1 or battling warriors2 and he sought it in every sphere1 in nature no less than in poetry and the ,bible4 ,hardly any painter--not even ,rubens--has depicted with equal power the passions and movements of animals3 lions in which he is own brother to ,barye2 fighting horses1 in which he stands side by side with ,gricault4 ,no other artist painted waves more grand1 wind-beaten1 foaming1 dashing1 towering on high4 ,looking at them1 one divines all the horrors concealed beneath the roar of the blue surface1 horrors which were as yet so insufficiently suggested in ,gricault's ,raft of the ,medusa4 ,in his historical pictures there reigns now terror and despair1 as in the ,massacre of ,chios2 now gloomy horror1 as in the ,medea2 now feverish movement1 as in the ,death of the ,bishop of ,lige4 ,he passes from ,dante to ,shakespeare1 from ,goethe to ,byron1 but only to borrow from them their most moving dramatic situations--,hamlet at ,yorick's grave1 his fight with ,laertes1 ,macbeth and the ,witches1 ,lady ,macbeth1 ,gretchen1 ,angelica1 the ,prisoner of ,chillon1 the ,giaour1 and the ,pasha4 ,all time is his domain1 all countries are open to him2 he hurries through the broad fields of imagination1 a lordly reaper of all harvests4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,delacroix4 ,,medea4 ,and at the same time1 in all his great human tragedies1 he compels the elements to obey him as if they were his slaves4 ,the passions of men set heaven and earth in motion4 ,the agonising cries of victims find in his paintings an echo in the sullen shadows and the leaden1 heavy clouds of the sky4 ,the gloomy shores which ,dante's boat is approaching are as desolate as the spirits who wander through the night4 ,but where splendour and glory reign1 as in the ,entry of the ,crusaders into ,constantinople1 the air1 too1 glistens and shines as though saturated with dust of gold4 ,in his pictures a human soul which was great and full of meaning1 and which possessed such combustibility that it took fire of itself1 expressed itself recklessly1 with the volcanic strength of an elemental power4 ,this proud self-reliance explains also how it was that this painter of unruly genius was1 as a man1 very far from being a revolutionist4 ,for ,delacroix the outer world had no existence2 that world alone existed which was within him4 ,after his picture of ,the ,barricades in #ahca he avoided all political allusions1 painted1 read1 and led a tranquil1 measured1 uniform life4 ,in society polite and reserved1 of aristocratic coldness1 gentlemanly in appearance1 and well-bred2 in his speech curt1 mordant1 emphatic1 and occasionally witty1 he could nevertheless show himself1 when he chose1 an amiable1 original talker1 full of piquant ideas4 ,moreover1 he was a great writer and critic1 whose essays in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes have the perfect classic stamp4 ,nevertheless1 he was always displeased when any one put him forward as the chief of official ,romanticism1 and saluted him as the ,victor ,hugo of painting4 ,surrounded as he was by young assailants of tradition who would allow no merit to anything old1 he found pleasure in acknowledging his admiration for ,racine1 whom he knew by heart1 and whom1 when need was1 he defended against the younger generation4 ,he was too diplomatic to stir up against himself unnecessarily the hatred of those whom the long-haired ,samsons of ,romanticism called ,philistines4 ,so far as in him lay1 his quiet and methodical life should suffer no interruption4 ,worshipper though he was of light and colour1 he was almost always shut up in his gloomy studio1 and it was only when he found himself brush in hand that the reserved man became the passionate1 vibrating painter4 ,then the memories with which his study of the poets had stored his mind grew in his fantasy into grand pictures glowing with life4 ,by these visions he was excited1 set on fire1 and filled with enthusiasm4 ,his studio was open but to few1 for the intrusion of visitors chilled his inspiration1 and he found it difficult to recover the proper frame of mind4 ,not till evening did he take his first meal1 for he thought he could work with greater intensity when hungry4 ,during a period of forty years he lived in his various studios1 quiet and solitary1 inventing1 drawing1 and painting without intermission1 his door always bolted1 so that when it suited him he could give out that he was ill of a fever4 ,every morning before work he drew an arm1 a hand1 or a piece of drapery after ,rubens4 ,he had formed the habit of taking ,rubens to himself when other people were drinking their coffee4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,delacroix4 ,,the ,,expulsion ,,of ,,heliodorus4 ,indeed1 when one speaks of ,delacroix1 the name of ,rubens rises almost involuntarily to one's lips2 and yet there is a profound difference between him and the great ,flemish master4 ,rubens has the same passion1 the same ever-active fancy2 yet all his pictures rest in triumphant repose1 while every one of ,delacroix's seems to resound as with a cry of battle4 ,looking at ,rubens' works you feel that he was a happy1 healthy man2 but by the time you have seen half a score of ,delacroix's it is borne in upon you that the life of the artist was one of strife and suffering4 ,rubens was the very essence of strength1 ,delacroix was a sick man2 the former full of fleshly joyous sensuality1 the latter consumed by a feverish internal fire4 ,his portrait of himself in the ,louvre1 with its pale forehead1 its large dark-rimmed eyes1 its lean1 hollow face1 its parchment-like skin stretched tightly over the bones1 explains his pictures better than any critical appreciation4 ,delacroix was one of the mes maladives1 the spirits sick unto death1 to whom ,baudelaire addresses himself in his ,fleurs du ,mal4 ,delicate from his youth up1 thoroughly nervous by nature1 he prolonged his sickly existence throughout his life by sheer energy of will4 ,even in his childhood he passed through serious illnesses1 and later on he suffered in turn from his stomach1 throat1 chest1 and kidneys4 ,like ,goethe in his old age1 he felt well only when the temperature was high4 ,he was short in stature4 ,a leonine head1 with a lion's mane1 surmounted a body that seemed almost stunted4 ,with his eyes flashing like carbuncles1 and his disordered prickly moustache1 his was the fascinating ugliness of genius4 ,it was only by the strictest dieting in his quiet retreat at ,champrosay that he prolonged his life for the last few years4 ,in his youth he hovered like a butterfly from flower to flower2 when grown old and hypochondriacal he withdrew into solitary retirement1 work was the only medicine for diseased conditions of all kinds1 to which he found himself daily more and more a victim4 ,only thus could this sickly man1 doomed from his very birth1 come to produce no less than two thousand pictures--a number all the more astonishing as ,delacroix1 even when his health permitted him to work at his easel1 by no means possessed ,rubens' sovereign facility of production4 ,the fever of work alternated1 in his case1 with the extremest exhaustion4 ,there was something morbid1 nervous1 over-excited in all he did4 ,even work1 he writes1 is merely a temporary narcotic1 a distraction2 and every distraction1 as ,pascal has said in other words1 is only a method which man has invented to conceal from himself the abyss of his suffering and misery4 ,in sleepless nights1 in illness1 and in certain moments of solitude1 when the end of all things discloses itself in its utter nakedness1 a man endowed with imagination must possess a certain amount of courage1 not to meet the phantom half-way1 not to rush to embrace the skeleton4 ,the feverish disposition which he brought with him into the world was heightened by the acrimonious feuds in which1 as a painter1 he was forced to engage1 and which left great bitterness behind them in his mind4 ,his life and his art were in accord1 in as much as both were battles4 ,it is not easy to live when one is always ill2 not easy to meet with recognition when one proclaims the exact opposite of that which for a generation past all the world has held to be true4 ,and ,delacroix took not a single step to meet his opponents half-way4 ,he did not trouble himself for a single moment to please the public2 and therefore the public did not come to him4 ,controversies such as that which took place over the ,massacre of ,chios continued decade after decade1 and the exhibition of each of his pictures was the signal for a battle4 ,no work of his1 writes ,thor1 but called forth deafening howls1 curses1 and furious controversy4 ,insults were heaped upon the artist1 coarser and more opprobrious than one would be justified in applying to a sharper4 ,at ,charenton1 where he was born1 is the ,bedlam of ,france4 ,hence the epithet continually hurled at him by the critics1 who called him the runaway from ,charenton4 ,until the year #ahdg his pictures could without difficulty be excluded from the ,salon4 ,he irritated people by his violence1 by the abruptness of his compositions1 by his arrangement of figures with a view to pathos at the expense of plastic elegance2 he displeased by the incompleteness of his works1 which were regarded as sketches1 not finished paintings4 ,when ,louis ,philippe ordered a picture from his brush1 it was on the express condition that it should be as little a ,delacroix as possible4 ,there was general ill-humour among the academicians when1 at ,thiers' suggestion1 he was commissioned to decorate the ,palais ,bourbon4 ,and ,delacroix1 ambitious and sensitive as he was1 was deeply hurt by every mortification of this kind1 and affected by every gust of criticism as by a change of wind4 ,continually denounced in the newspapers1 attacked1 wounded1 delivered over to the wild beasts1 as he called it1 he never had a moment of rest--he who1 with his irritable temperament and fragile health1 needed rest more than any man4 ,it was not until almost all his works were brought together in the ,universal ,exhibition of #ahhe that it became evident how great an artist this ,delacroix was1 whom his country for forty years had not understood1 and to whom the ,institute had closed its doors to the last4 ,yet he was no sooner dead than all with one voice proclaimed him a genius2 his smallest drawing is to-day worth its weight in gold1 while during his lifetime he seldom got more than two thousand francs for his largest paintings4 ,his sketches1 great works in small frames1 have for the most part found their way to ,america4 ,the sale of the pictures he left behind him produced three hundred and sixty thousand francs4 ,delacroix1 therefore1 was victorious1 but not as ,rubens was2 and his ceiling of the ,louvre1 with the ,triumph of ,apollo1 one of his most remarkable works1 strikes one almost as an allegory of his own life4 ,what especially attracted and inspired the artist in this painting were the spasms and convulsions of the misshapen monsters which the god expels from the earth--the serpent twisting itself in movements of pain and fury1 raising its head on high1 hissing rage1 and vomiting venom and blood4 ,the god himself1 who in the midst of a sea of light ascends into heaven in a golden chariot drawn by radiant steeds1 shows in his sturdy limbs and attitude ready for defence1 and in his wrathful face1 no trace of the proud majesty and joyous splendour which ,greece connected with the name of ,apollo4 ,he is a mortal who has fought and conquered1 not a god who triumphs in tranquil power4 ,he is ,delacroix1 not ,rubens2 a ,titan1 not an ,olympian god4 ,the artistic power in ,delacroix could in no wise submit to the confinement imposed by the ,french spirit of his time4 ,it was not possible for a single man1 though endowed with the most splendid courage1 to overthrow in a moment all the traditions of ,french art4 ,any one who knows the ,french must feel that ,david's ,latin style could not so suddenly disappear out of their art1 that it was not possible at a blow to banish all that had hitherto held sway and to replace it by its opposite4 ,ever since ,poussin they had sought in ,roman antiquity the formul of their art4 ,the predilection which the ,parisians have even to-day for the representation of ,racine's and ,corneille's tragedies1 the admiration which even the most extreme ,naturalists bestow upon ,poussin and ,lesueur1 prove abundantly how deep ,classicism is rooted in the flesh and blood of the ,french people4 ,brandes has remarked1 very acutely1 that1 strictly speaking1 even ,romanticism was on ,french soil in many respects a ,classical phenomenon1 a product of ,french ,classical rhetoric4 ,they never saw the dances of the elves1 never heard the delicate harmony of their roundelays4 ,in ,victor ,hugo1 the great opponent of ,corneille1 ,corneille himself was re-embodied4 ,he too is a draughtsman1 constructs his poems like architectural works1 chisels the form1 polishes the verse1 and confines his colouring within powerfully conceived ,michelangelesque outlines4 ,illustration3 ,j4 ,a4 ,d4 ,,ingres4 ,l',art4 ,once the first eager impulse of the ,romantic school had subsided1 these old ,classical tendencies showed themselves anew and with all the greater vehemence4 ,even ,hugo's dramas1 with their predilection for all that is exuberant and monstrous1 with their overflowing lyricism and sonorous pathos1 became in the long run wearisome4 ,he1 who had hitherto been the idol of the young generation1 was now called the ,pater ,bombasticus of the literature of the world4 ,classicism found its poet and its muse4 ,an unknown but very worthy young man1 not endowed with wealth of imagination1 but imbued with the most honourable intentions1 came to ,paris from the provincial town where he had grown to manhood1 with a manuscript in his pocket4 ,and ,franois ,ronsard's ,lucrce1 a tragedy from the antique1 in its style sober and severe1 reminding one of ,racine1 was represented amid thunders of applause1 shortly after ,hugo had been hissed off the stage4 ,enthusiastic admirers saw in it a glorious return to the great tragic drama of ,france1 an emanation from the spirit of ,corneille1 and praised its clear1 measured1 and at once classic and familiar language4 ,together with its poet1 the ,classical reaction found its actress4 ,in #ahch a young untrained child made her dbut at the ,thtre ,franais--a ,jewish girl who had sung in the streets to the accompaniment of her harp4 ,rachel appeared upon the boards1 and restored its former power of attraction to the old ,classical repertoire1 to the very tragedies which the ,romantic school had banished from the theatre amid mockery and derision4 ,the ,cid1 ,mrope1 ,chimne1 and ,phdre recovered their place upon the stage4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,ingres4 ,,the ,,maid ,,of ,,orleans ,,at ,,rheims4 ,painting took the same course4 ,in opposition to the young painters who had burst into the arena with their gay-coloured uniforms1 their gilded helmets and waving banners1 ,ingres came forth in the great tournament of ,romanticism in the character of the ,black ,knight4 ,an old gentleman1 a man who in all his being belonged to the generation that was passing away1 who was fifty years of age at the time of the ,revolution of ,july1 stations himself suddenly as the angel of the flaming sword1 or1 in the phrase of his opponents1 as the gendarme of ,classicism1 at the gates of the ,academy1 barring them against every suspicious-looking person4 ,and the young men1 eccentric1 eager for action as they were1 who had recently fought with so much fury1 had to retreat before him4 ,golden sunshine and glow of colour were once more tabooed1 and their representative heroes1 ,veronese1 ,rubens1 and ,delacroix1 regarded as flickering ,will o' the ,wisps1 whom every aspiring beginner should avoid as serpents and firebrands4 ,one day when ,ingres was taking his pupils through the ,louvre he said1 on entering the ,rubens gallery3 ,saluez1 messieurs1 mais ne regardez pas4 ,the acrimony of the strife was so great that it extended even to the personal relations of the rival chiefs1 and ,ingres was attacked by convulsive spasms whenever he heard the name of the painter of the ,massacre of ,chios4 ,when in #ahee he had had a separate room prepared for his own pictures in the ,universal ,exhibition of that year1 and observed ,delacroix in the distance1 just before the opening ceremony1 he asked the attendant3 ,has not somebody been here8--there is a smell of brimstone4 ,now the wolf is in the sheepfold was his observation when ,delacroix was elected to the ,institute4 ,he regarded him as the hangman1 as the ,robespierre of painting4 ,i used to love that young man1 but he has sold himself to the evil one 7,rubens71 said he1 in righteous indignation1 to his pupils4 ,illustration3 ,,ingres4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself ,,as ,a ,,youth4 ,this famous thing1 the ,beautiful1 ,delacroix had once written1 must be--every one says so--the final aim of art4 ,but if it be the only aim1 what then are we to make of men like ,rubens1 ,rembrandt1 and1 in general1 all the artistic natures of the ,north1 who preferred other qualities belonging to their art8 ,is the sense of the beautiful that impression which is made upon us by a picture by ,velasquez1 an etching by ,rembrandt1 or a scene out of ,shakespeare8 ,or again1 is the beautiful revealed to us by the contemplation of the straight noses and correctly disposed draperies of ,girodet1 ,grard1 and others of ,david's pupils8 ,a satyr is beautiful1 a faun is beautiful4 ,the antique bust of ,socrates is full of character1 notwithstanding its flattened nose1 swollen lips1 and small eyes4 ,in ,paul ,veronese's ',marriage at ,cana' ,i see men of various features and of every temperament1 and ,i find them to be living beings1 full of passion4 ,are they beautiful8 ,perhaps4 ,but in any case there is no recipe by means of which one can attain to what is called the ideally beautiful4 ,style depends absolutely and solely upon the free and original expression of each master's peculiar qualities4 ,wherever a painter sets himself to follow a conventional mode of expression he will become affected and will lose his own peculiar impress2 but where1 on the contrary1 he frankly abandons himself to the impulse of his own originality1 he will ever1 whether his name be ,raphael1 ,michael ,angelo1 ,rubens1 or ,rembrandt1 be sure master of his soul and of his art4 ,as compared with the principles thus laid down1 ,ingres represents the revulsion towards that formalism which had borne sway over the greater part of the history of ,french art4 ,painting is nothing more than drawing1 said ,poussin4 ,had ,god intended to place colour at the same height as form1 wrote ,charles ,blanc1 ,he would not have failed to furnish ,his masterpiece1 ,man1 with all the hues of the humming-bird4 ,once more1 instead of the glowing colour of the ,romantic school1 absorbing the form into itself1 the firm stroke of the outline was set forth2 instead of its pathos1 breathing forth passionate emotion1 men returned to study the chill tranquillity of stone4 ,once more dramatic composition and mastery over movement were held in abhorrence1 as incompatible with that pursuit of plastic beauty which was the highest goal of art4 ,the only point in question was1 how to avoid the one-sidedness of ,classicism4 ,david1 as a child of the ,revolution1 had naturally been limited to ,ancient ,rome2 but now that the legitimate monarchy had been re-established there was no reason why one should not revere1 not only pagan1 but also ,christian ,rome1 and in ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo the maturest blossom of the latter4 ,thus the ,classical school was enriched by ,ingres with features of greater vivacity4 ,he entered into a direct relationship with the great ,italian masters1 while ,david had none save with the rigid ,roman antique4 ,by him the ,classical severity of ,david was relaxed1 the refractory sharpness of the outlines relieved by a treatment of form which had the effect of making every figure appear to be worked in metal4 ,illustration3 ,,ingres4 ,,bertin ,,the ,,elder4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,jules ,bapst1 the owner of the picture47 ,ingres was born in #agha1 under the ,ancien ,rgime4 ,as a young man he lived through the triumphs of the ,empire and the ,classical school1 and it was only natural that he should become ,david's pupil4 ,in #agif he entered his studio1 and studied there with such assiduity that he never noticed what was taking place in that of ,gros4 ,when he went to ,italy he studied there the masters whom his own teacher had arrogantly despised4 ,he learned from the ,cinquecento how to draw and model more accurately1 more firmly1 and at the same time with a more intimate grasp of the subject than was usual in the school of ,david4 ,this innovation made him a progressive ,classicist1 and gave him1 during the early years of the ,restoration1 almost the appearance of an assailant and revolutionary4 ,himself the incarnation of the academic spirit1 he had to resign himself to see his first works rejected by the ,salon1 a fact which did not deter him from continuing to work obstinately at his easel4 ,je compte sur ma vieillesse2 elle me vengea4 ,and this revenge was granted him in the fullest measure4 ,when one has seen the outward appearance of a man1 one knows his character1 his spirit1 and his genius4 ,ingres' portrait of himself contains the analysis of his art4 ,he was quite a small man1 of a swarthy complexion1 with features sharp and as if cast in bronze4 ,his thick black hair stood up stubbornly on end1 so that he had to grease it carefully every day4 ,under hair of this kind there is almost always an obstinate brain4 ,the jaws projected1 as is the case with men endowed with a strong will4 ,the eyes were large and piercing1 with that bold eagle-glance which fills parents with fond hopes1 but does not touch the hearts of young women4 ,when he appeared to be excited1 it was only the excitement of work expressing itself in him4 ,this little man1 in his large cloak1 seemed to say when he stood at his easel1 pencil in hand3 ,i shall be a great painter1 for ,i am determined to be one4 ,he kept his word4 ,strength of will1 hard work1 study1 obstinacy1 patience--these are the elements of which ,ingres' talent is compounded4 ,vouloir1 c'est pouvoir1 was his motto4 ,one would think ,buffon had had him in mind in that passage in which he defines genius as patience4 ,the trinity-in-unity of his qualities consisted of correctness1 balance1 exactness2 qualities which go to make rather a great architect or mathematician than an interesting painter4 ,ingres' range of subjects was unusually wide4 ,pictures on themes taken from antiquity 7,oedipus and the ,sphinx and ,virgil reading the neid72 costume pictures 7,henry ,,iv and his ,children and the ,entry of ,charles ,v into ,paris72 religious paintings 7,madonnas1 ,christ giving the ,keys to ,st4 ,peter1 and ,st4 ,symphorian72 nude female figures 7the ,odalisque1 the ,liberation of ,angelica1 and ,the ,source72 allegories 7,the ,apotheosis of ,homer and ,the ,apotheosis of ,napoleon72 pictures of public functions 7,bonaparte as ,first ,consul and ,napoleon on the ,throne72 and even a painting taken from the life 7,pius ,,vii in the ,sistine ,chapel71 are included in the list4 ,yet1 notwithstanding his astonishing diversity of themes1 there is hardly an artist more one-sided in his principles4 ,ingres thought exclusively of purely plastic art3 beauty of form and harmony of line alone attracted him2 he was insensible to the charm of colour4 ,his standpoint was the ,institute of ,rome2 the ,italian ,cinquecento the exclusive object of his worship4 ,he carried this study as far as plagiarism1 and as director of the ,roman ,academy made free with the intellectual property of the ,cinquecento masters1 as if they had lived only on his account4 ,when ,delacroix was painting the ,expulsion of ,heliodorus in ,saint ,sulpice1 he put forth the whole strength of his creative genius to avoid all reminiscence of ,raphael's fresco4 ,ingres' power of invention consisted in discovering1 with a weird certainty1 whether the subject of which he wished to treat had already been painted by an ,italian or other ,classical master4 ,the picture ,jupiter and ,thetis1 of #ahaa1 is put together after a design on a ,greek vase1 and represents in its studied archaism the ginetan period of his art4 ,the ,vow of ,louis ,,xiii1 of #ahbd1 was his confession of faith as regards the ,cinquecento4 ,the motive was taken from the ,madonna di ,foligno1 the curtains from the ,madonna di ,san ,sisto1 the floating angels from the ,madonna del ,baldacchino1 and the candlesticks as well as the little angels with the inscribed tablet are from the same source4 ,it is all beautiful1 of course1 for it is all ,raphael2 only1 it would have been more rational if ,ingres had lived in the time of ,raphael instead of in the nineteenth century4 ,one would take the picture to have been painted under ,raphael's eyes1 and it bears to his works the same relation as ,raphael's earlier pictures do to ,perugino's4 ,the ,christ giving the ,keys to ,st4 ,peter is also put together out of elements derived from the school of ,urbino4 ,in his ,st4 ,symphorian1 which was belauded as the ne plus ultra of style1 he turned by way of variety to the imitation of ,michael ,angelo3 the action is violent1 the muscles swollen4 ,the ,apotheosis of ,homer is an admirable lecture in archology1 a sitting of the great academy of genius1 in which the poses are so fine and the heads so full of marble idealism that in comparison with it ,raphael's ,school of ,athens has the effect of the wildest naturalism4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,ingres4 ,,study ,,for ,,the ,,odalisque ,,in ,,the ,,louvre4 ,thus ,father ,ingres stands forth as a cold1 stiff1 academic painter1 as a doctrinaire who has not progressed much further than the much-reviled ,david4 ,he represents1 as ,th4 ,rousseau said1 only to a moderate degree the good old art which we have lost4 ,in the words of ,diaz3 ,let him be shut up with me in a tower1 without engravings1 and ,i wager that his canvas will remain untouched1 whilst ,i shall succeed in producing a picture4 ,he possessed an arid ability which leaves one cold in presence of even his most important works4 ,how lifeless is the effect produced by his paintings of nude single figures1 his ,odalisque and his ,freeing of ,andromeda1 which brought him especial fame6 ,ingres could not paint flesh1 and in this respect he is indicative of an enormous retrogression as compared with ,prudhon4 ,the striving after sculpturesque beauty1 and1 in connection therewith1 the repression of all individuality1 became in him almost a religion4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,ingres4 ,,the ,,source4 ,one finds it difficult to-day to account for the fame which once belonged to his picture of ,the ,source1 the nude figure of a standing girl pouring water out of an urn that rests on her left shoulder and is steadied by her right arm raised over her head4 ,the picture undoubtedly exhibits qualities of draughtsmanship which in recent days ,ingres alone possessed in so high a degree4 ,but when1 in pursuit of his ,classical conception1 he had eliminated every touch of nature1 he proceeded to destroy the rest of the impression by the cold violet tones which are not only condemned by colourists1 but which even ,raphael would have considered false and ugly4 ,here1 as in all his female figures1 he attains to a certain grace1 but it is an animal1 expressionless grace4 ,skilful as he was in delineating the muscles of the human body1 he was yet absolutely incapable of painting heads expressive of feeling or emotion4 ,he depicted the form in itself1 the abstract1 typical1 absolute form4 ,he was dominated only by a love for the beaut suprme1 so that when he was in presence of nature he could not refrain from purifying and generalising4 ,everywhere we see beautiful lines1 bodies modelled with admirable skill1 but we never enter into any closer relationship with his figures4 ,they do not live our life or breathe our atmosphere2 they have not our thoughts3 they are foreign to all that is human4 ,jean ,auguste ,dominique ,ingres1 ,member of the ,institute1 ,senator1 etc41 the stylist held in honour as a superior being1 the high-priest of pure form and outline1 will in all times command the esteem1 and in some respects the admiration1 of the student of the history of art2 the enthusiasm1 never4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,ingres4 ,,oedipus ,,and ,,the ,,sphinx4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,ingres4 ,,paganini4 ,and yet1 notwithstanding all this1 ,i am an enthusiastic admirer of ,ingres4 ,indeed1 it has happened to me1 in the collection of engravings at the ,louvre1 to catch myself saying3 ,ingres6 great1 beloved ,master6 ,i have much to ask your pardon2 for you were one of the greatest and most refined spirits to whom the century has given birth4 ,for ,i doubt whether any one down to the present time has rightly understood the mysterious figure of ,ingres1 the man who in his youth was enraptured by l'esprit1 la grce1 l'originalit de ,vataux et la dlicieuse couleur de ses tableaux1 and who1 at a later time1 not because of failing powers but deliberately and of set purpose1 adopted a calmer system of colour tones2 of this ,classicist par excellence1 who is counted among the greatest artists1 in the familiar and graceful style1 in the history of art4 ,ingres is one of the rare masters whom even their opponents are forced to admire4 ,in the stern1 sculpturesque modelling of his naked figures he displays remarkable power4 ,his painting1 also1 has a curiously intimate appeal1 due to its cool1 metallic harmonies of colour--light blue1 rose1 and pale yellow in particular4 ,but above all ,ingres commands attention by his portraits4 ,from his first residence at ,rome1 that is1 from the beginning of the century1 he painted portraits which imprint themselves on the memory like medals struck in metallic sharpness in the style of ,mantegna4 ,here too he is unequal1 at times cold and commonplace1 but usually quite admirable4 ,in these paintings1 cast as it were in bronze1 there is something that comes from the fresh original source of all art2 they have that vein of realism by which the vigorous idealism of ,raphael is distinguished from the conventional idealism of a professor of historical painting4 ,here one finds real treasures1 creations of remarkable vital power1 and in admirable taste4 ,they show that ,ingres1 apparently so systematic1 had a profound love for living nature1 and they ensure the immortality of his name4 ,his historical pictures are works which compel our esteem1 but his portraits are splendid creations which can truly stand comparison with the great old masters4 ,so far back as #ahjf there appeared in the ,salon his likeness of ,napoleon ,i1 with his bloodless1 corpse-like face1 enchased with such art that ,delcluze called it a ,gothic medal4 ,the ,emperor is seated like a wax figure upon the throne1 surrounded by the attributes of majesty--stiff1 motionless as a ,byzantine idol4 ,it was followed in #ahjg by the portrait of ,mme4 ,devauay1 which even to-day impresses the beholder most pleasingly1 notwithstanding the pedantic style in which it is painted4 ,one feels in it fire and youthfulness1 the enthusiasm and ardour of a new convert1 who has for the first time discovered in nature beauties other than those he had learnt to see in the ,academy4 ,moreover1 he possessed a very distinguished and personal taste in drawing4 ,the face is of exquisite grace1 the eyes tenderly seductive and delicately veiled4 ,ingres is already announced as he was afterwards to be4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,ingres4 ,,mlle4 ,,de ,,montgolfier4 ,in ,holbein's portraits the whole ,german community of his time has been handed down to us2 in ,van ,dyck's1 the aristocracy of ,england under ,charles ,i4 ,so also ,ingres has depicted for us1 with all its failings and all its virtues1 the middle-class hierarchy of ,louis ,philippe's reign1 which felt itself to be the first estate1 the summit of the nation1 felt sure of the morrow1 was proud of itself1 of its intelligence and energy1 which pursued with correctness its moral course of life1 revered order and hated all excess--including that of the colourist4 ,the same spirit animated this splendid bourgeois of art4 ,his ,bertin the ,elder is justly his most celebrated1 enduring work2 not the mere painted petrifaction of a newspaper potentate1 but one of those portraits which bring a whole epoch home to the mind4 ,it tells of the triumph of the bourgeoisie under the ,monarchy of ,july more fully and clearly than does ,louis ,blanc's ,histoire de ,dix ,ans4 ,in the best of humours1 with the four-square solidity of a knowledge of his own worth1 which is full of character1 this modern newspaper demi-god sits on his chair as on a throne1 the throne of the ,journal des ,dbats1 like a bourgeois ,jupiter ,tonans1 with his hands on his knees4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,ingres4 ,,the ,,forestier ,,family4 ,but however highly one must estimate the importance of such a work1 ,ingres is nevertheless at his highest1 not in his painted likenesses1 but in his portrait drawings4 ,in the former the hard colouring is still1 at times1 offensive4 ,almost always the flesh looks like wood1 the dress like metal1 blue robes like steel4 ,his drawings1 from which this defect is absent1 are to be admired without criticism4 ,ingres lived in his youth1 at ,rome1 as a drawer of portraits4 ,for eight scudi he did the bust1 for twelve the whole figure1 raging inwardly the while at being kept from great art by such journey-work4 ,there is a story told of him1 that when one day an ,englishman knocked at his door and asked1 ,does the draughtsman who makes the small portraits live here8 he shut the door in his face1 with the words3 ,no2 he who lives here is a painter4 ,to-day these small masterpieces of which he was ashamed sell for their weight in gold4 ,in the ,paris ,exhibition of #ahhi there was ,mme4 ,chauvin with her ,chinese eyes2 ,mme4 ,besnard on the terrace of the ,pincio with her broad hat and her elegant sunshade2 ,mrs4 ,henting with her innocent smile of an honnte femme2 ,mrs4 ,cavendish1 an affected young blonde1 with her overladen travelling dress and her crazy coiffure4 ,strange1 that a man like ,ingres should rave so about new fashions and pretty toilettes6 ,in these pieces an artistic eye which was now inexorable1 now tender and full of fancy1 has looked on nature1 and1 in flowing pencil-strokes1 has caught with spirit and with the certain touch of direct feeling the real fulness of life in what he saw4 ,these drawings1 especially the portrait of ,paganini and ,the ,forestier ,family1 show that ,father ,ingres possessed not only a highly cultivated intelligence and an iron strength of will1 not only the genius of industry1 but also a heart1 a genuine1 warm1 and fine-feeling heart2 that he was in his innermost being by no means the cold academician1 the stiff doctrinaire he appears in his large pictures1 and which he became by his opposition to the ,romantic school4 ,here we have an enchanter such as the ,primitives were and the ,impressionists are1 like ,massys and ,manet1 like ,drer and ,degas1 like all who have looked ,nature in the face4 ,and while these drawings1 at once occasional and austere1 place him as a draughtsman on a level with the greatest masters in the history of art1 they also show him1 the reactionary1 to be at the same time a man of progress1 the connecting link between the great art of the first half and the familiar art which rules over the second half of the nineteenth century4 ,,chapter ,,xi ,,juste-,,milieu ,as is usually the case1 the heroes were succeeded by a generation less heroic and more practical4 ,in this1 art was in keeping with the deliberate and tranquil course of the state itself1 which had fallen back again into the old groove1 and with the homely1 ,philistine character assumed in the course of years by the citizen monarchy of the tricolour4 ,the bourgeoisie which had effected the ,revolution of #ahcj was soon appalled at its own temerity4 ,even in literature it inclined towards a temperate and lukewarm mediocrity4 ,it was astonished to find itself admiring ,casimir ,delavigne4 ,it found in ,auber and ,scribe its ideal of music and comedy1 as in ,guizot1 ,duchtel1 ,thiers1 and ,odilon ,barrot its ideal of politics4 ,the intellectual exaltation which had gone before and followed after the ,revolution of ,july had calmed down1 and that which was to rise out of the ,revolution of ,february was as yet latent4 ,the same elder generation which had looked upon ,napoleon ,bonaparte's stony ,csarian eye1 when1 like a god of war1 unapproachable in his power he rode by at the head of his staff1 now saw the ,roi ,citoyen1 the long-exiled ex-school-master1 homely and fond of law and order1 as every day at the same hour he passed alone on foot and in plain clothes through the streets of ,paris1 the famous umbrella in his hand1 rewarding each ,vive le ,roi6 with a friendly smile and a grateful hand-shake4 ,the umbrella became the symbol of this deedless monarchy1 and the word ,juste-milieu1 which ,louis ,philippe had once employed to indicate the course to be followed1 became the nickname of all that was weak and without energy1 lustreless and undignified1 in the age4 ,the golden mean was triumphant in politics1 literature1 and painting4 ,the artists who gave this period its peculiar stamp constitute1 as compared with the heaven-assaulting generation of #ahcj1 only1 as it were1 a collateral female branch of that elder male line of good painting4 ,to reconcile opposite tendencies1 to avoid harshness1 in short1 to bring about an artistic compromise between ,ingres and ,delacroix1 was the end towards which their efforts were chiefly directed4 ,jean ,gigoux1 a remarkable artist1 has the merit of having given the most effective support which ,delacroix received in his battle against the beaut suprme of the ,classical school4 ,when1 in the ,universal ,exhibition of #ahhi at ,paris1 his picture of ,the ,last ,moments of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 painted in #ahce1 emerged from the seclusion of a provincial museum1 its healthy fidelity to nature was the cause of general astonishment4 ,the personages indeed wear costly costumes1 and are surrounded by wealth and magnificence1 but they themselves are common1 ugly human beings4 ,here there is no trace of idealism1 not even in the sense of ,gricault1 who1 notwithstanding his love of truth1 remained faithful to the heroic type4 ,the faces are1 with religious devotion1 painted exactly after nature by a man who evidently loved the youthful works of ,guercino and had zealously studied ,drer4 ,at the same time was exhibited the portrait of the ,polish ,general ,dwernicki1 painted in #ahcc1 whom also ,gigoux depicts as a man1 not as a hero4 ,war has made him not lean but fat1 and in ,gigoux's picture his red nose and prominent stomach are reproduced with cruel fidelity to nature4 ,it is a declaration of war against every kind of idealism4 ,even in his religious paintings in ,saint ,germain l',auxerrois he held fast to this principle1 and this circumstance gives him a place to himself1 apart from all the productions of his contemporaries4 ,in a period which1 with the solitary exception of ,delacroix1 was still absolutely devoted to the doctrine ,exagrer la beaut1 his works are of a healthy1 soul-refreshing ugliness4 ,a portion of ,delacroix's charm in colour descended to ,eugne ,isabey4 ,he is certainly not a great artist1 but a delightful1 sympathetic individuality1 a painter who affords one pleasure even at this day4 ,amid the group of ,classicists of his time he has the effect of a beautiful patch of colour1 of a palette on which shades of tender blue1 mauve1 lilac1 brilliant green1 silver-grey1 red faded by sunshine1 and opalescent mother-of-pearl combine in subtle harmony4 ,his pretty1 picturesquely costumed ladies are grouped together in luminous gardens1 sheltered by delicate half-shadows1 or ascend and descend the castle stairs1 letting their long trains sweep behind them1 and toying gracefully with fan or sunshade2 while gallant cavaliers do them homage1 and with bent head whisper sweet nothings in their ears4 ,the slender greyhound plays a special part in these aristocratic comedies2 its straight lines give a counterpoise to the soft flowing costumes of his figures4 ,isabey is altogether in his element when he has to portray a ceremony requiring rich attire4 ,then he binds together1 as it were1 a bouquet sparkling with colour1 shot with the hues of ample damask folds and heavy gold-embroidered silk4 ,now his colouring is chic1 capricious1 and coquettish1 now it is that of the most delicate faded ,gobelin tapestry4 ,if he has to paint a sea-view1 he rumples the waves about like a ball-dress and pranks the ships up in bridal attire4 ,his very storms have a festal appearance1 like the anger of a beautiful woman4 ,one must not look for life in his pictures2 they are to the truth much what ,gounod's ,faust is to ,goethe's4 ,watteau is his spiritual ancestor2 but he is not so full of life and wit as the painter of the gallant world of the eighteenth century4 ,he does not depict his contemporaries1 but the life of a vanished age2 yet he has the same predilection for scenes of high life1 and a studied1 mannered gracefulness which is often charming and always pleasant to the eye4 ,he shares with ,delacroix the latter's broad style1 freedom from constraint1 and delight in colour4 ,but where ,delacroix is rough and violent1 ,isabey is caressing and insinuating3 they are not brothers1 but distant cousins4 ,and1 like ,delacroix1 he had no imitators2 he went on his bright and delightful path in solitude1 and remained without companions in the little gilded house1 lit up with fantastic lanterns1 which he assigned to be the coquettish home of charming beings of both sexes4 ,illustration3 ,,ary ,,scheffer4 ,l',art4 ,a curious position1 half-way between the ,romantic and the ,classical schools1 was occupied by ,ary ,scheffer1 who was1 a generation ago1 the favourite of the greater part of the aristocracy of ,europe1 but is now known1 to the ,german public at least1 only because he is said to have painted with snuff and green soap--a phrase of ,heine's1 which1 however1 gives a very false impression of him4 ,a ,german-,dutchman by birth1 a ,classicist by training1 ,scheffer in his youth came also in contact with the leading spirits of the ,romantic school2 and these various influences1 of race1 education1 and intercourse1 are clearly reflected in the faces of his figures4 ,his forms are thoroughly classic and generalised2 only the expression of the face is ideal1 while the eye is romantic1 and1 ,scheffer's ,german blood making itself felt--sentimental4 ,it was precisely this mid-way position which his contemporaries found so much to their liking4 ,they called his painting a great art full of style1 uniting the sentiment of ideal beauty with a captivating power of expression4 ,but history cares but little for these men of compromise1 and regards this indecision as the chief defect of his genius4 ,scheffer's draughtsmanship is dry and hard1 his colouring without tenderness or charm4 ,these failings are ill-assorted with the attitudes and physiognomy of his figures1 which have always an affectation of weakness1 exhaustion1 and moral suffering4 ,he is a sentimental ,classicist1 and his subjects the antithesis of the ,grco-,roman ideal to which he does homage in his technique4 ,his ,suliote ,women was already1 in sentiment1 form1 and colour1 only a subdued and weakened reminiscence of the ,massacre of ,chios4 ,at a later time he entirely forsook historical subjects 7such as ,gaston de ,foix and others71 and attached himself with enthusiasm to the ,gospels and to the works of the poets1 especially of one poet4 ,when he had recourse to the ,bible as a source of inspiration1 he selected tender episodes1 the sadness of which he transmuted into tearfulness4 ,so also1 when he represented scenes from ,faust or ,wilhelm ,meister1 he gave to ,goethe's animated and impassioned characters something melancholy1 suffering1 and contemplative4 ,heine said of his ,gretchen3 ,you are no doubt ,wolfgang ,goethe's ,gretchen1 but you have read all ,friedrich ,schiller4 ,even before her fall1 before she is in love1 ,marguerite is pensive and sad like a fallen angel4 ,mignon1 ,francesca da ,rimini1 and ,st4 ,monica were also favourite figures for his delicate and contemplative spirit4 ,he alone in ,french art inclines a little1 in his tearful sentimentality1 to the ,romantic school of ,dsseldorf4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,ary ,,scheffer4 ,,marguerite ,,at ,,the ,,well4 ,hippolyte ,flandrin was the ,french counterpart of the ,german ,nazarenes4 ,he is an example of how ,ingres' teaching resulted in stiff conventionality4 ,ingres was a dangerous master to follow4 ,his pupils formed round him a small1 faithful1 and submissive band1 swore like those of ,cornelius by the master's doctrines1 and for that very reason never attained to any distinctive character of their own4 ,none of them possessed ,ingres' many-sided talent4 ,his empire1 like that of ,alexander the ,great1 was divided among his successors1 each of whom governed his own little realm with greater or less ability4 ,hippolyte ,flandrin devoted himself to religious painting1 which in his hands for the first time regained a greater importance in ,french art2 but he followed much more slavishly than ,ingres in the paths of the ,italian masters of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries4 ,this painter1 worthy of respect1 full of conviction1 learned and of sterling worth1 but colourless and cold1 who decorated the churches of ,st4 ,vincent de ,paul and ,st4 ,germain des ,prs1 has enriched the history of art by no new gift4 ,an indefatigable worker1 but endowed with little intellectual power1 he went no further than to follow out strictly the rules which ,ingres taught his pupils and had himself acquired from the old masters4 ,after ,flandrin1 as winner of the ,prix de ,rome in #ahca1 had become intimately acquainted with the art treasures of ,italy1 he seldom met with any difficulty4 ,his cartoons are flowingly and correctly executed with a firm hand1 like the fair copy of a school essay4 ,of draughtsmanship he knew all that is to be learned2 he remembered much1 arranged his reminiscences1 and thought little for himself4 ,he was a miniature copy of his master1 at once more poorly endowed and more fanatical1 a purely mathematical genius2 his art is a cold geometrical knowledge1 the adaptation of anatomical studies to conventional forms1 an arrangement of groups and draperies in strict accordance with celebrated exemplars4 ,had not the primitive ,italian masters1 the painters of the ancient ,christian catacombs1 the saintly ,fra ,angelico1 and the mosaic artists of ,ravenna done their work long before him1 ,flandrin's paintings would never have seen the light1 any more than those of the ,nazarene school4 ,in both cases one can assign almost every face and figure to its original in the pictures of the ,italian masters4 ,only a certain blond1 tender1 slightly melancholy1 modern face of a ,christian maiden is ,flandrin's peculiar property4 ,he transferred these same ascetic and pure principles to portrait painting1 and thereby acquired for himself a large practice as the painter of the femme honnte4 ,these women conversed with him and blushed in his presence2 in his pictures we find grace and delicacy1 eyes sparkling or meek1 tenderness and mocking laughter1 all translated into a nun-like1 unapproachable appearance1 which under the ,second ,empire gained the greater approbation among ladies1 since it was seldom found in real life4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,chasseriau4 ,,apollo ,,and ,,daphne4 ,alongside of this ,overbeck1 endowed with greater artistic powers than his ,german congener1 there stands as the ,french ,cornelius ,paul ,chenavard1 a man who revolved in his fertile brain philosophical conceptions deeper almost than those of the ,german master4 ,he dreamed of broad1 symbolical1 decorative pieces1 embracing all time and all space1 wherein all the cosmogonies of the universe should be united4 ,like ,cornelius1 he wished to be a ,michael ,angelo1 but he succeeded no better than the ,german4 ,he spent fifteen years in the churches and museums of ,italy1 pencil in hand1 accumulating a vast collection of studies1 from which his great painted history of the world was to be built up4 ,but when he went back to ,paris his materials from the old masters had grown upon him to such an extent that he never recovered his individuality4 ,for four years he worked with feverish diligence1 and completed eighteen cartoons1 each six metres in height and four in breadth1 intended for the walls of the ,pantheon4 ,so far as colour is concerned1 they have attained no greater success than the ,campo ,santo frescoes of ,cornelius4 ,chenavard could draw much better than the ,german1 but was not much better as a painter2 the works of both have a literary rather than an artistic value4 ,brief and brilliant was the career of ,thodore ,chassriau1 who shot across the heavens of art like a gleaming meteor1 first as a devotee of form1 in ,ingres' sense of the word1 and afterwards1 like ,delacroix1 as an enthusiastic lover of sunshine and the clear light of ,africa4 ,born in #ahai at ,st4 ,domingo1 he followed his teacher ,ingres in #ahcd to the ,villa ,medici2 but even in his first picture1 the ,susanna of #ahci1 now in the ,louvre1 he proved himself by no means an orthodox pupil4 ,he has not the least understanding for the ideas or the changes which have entered into art in our time1 and knows absolutely nothing of the poets of recent days4 ,he will live on as a reminiscence and a reproduction of certain ages in the art of the past1 without having created anything to hand down to the future4 ,my wishes and my ideas do not in the least correspond with his4 ,in these words ,chassriau has himself pointed out what it was that distinguished him from ,ingres4 ,unfortunately he produced but little4 ,personally a very elegant1 blas gentleman1 he plunged on his return from ,italy into the whirlpool of ,parisian life4 ,he was remarkably ugly2 but his black1 piercing eyes made him the idol of the ladies1 and he hurried through life with such haste that he broke down altogether at the age of thirty-six4 ,beyond various decorative paintings for the church of ,saint ,mry and for the ,salle des ,comptes in the ,palais d',orsay1 only a few ,eastern pictures1 and1 best and most characteristic1 a couple of lithographs1 remain to represent his work4 ,in these delicate mythological compositions a chord is struck which found no echo until1 a generation later1 it was heard again in the work of the ,french ,new ,idealists and the ,english ,pre-,raphaelites3 there speaks in them a ,romantic ,hellenism1 a something dreamily mystic1 which makes him a remarkable link between ,delacroix and the most refined spirit in the modern school1 ,gustave ,moreau4 ,it was purely an act of gratitude in ,moreau when he affixed the dedication ,to ,thodore ,chassriau to his fine picture of ,the ,young ,man and ,death4 ,lon ,benouville will be remembered only for his picture of the ,death of ,st4 ,francis1 in the ,louvre1 a good piece of work in the manner of the ,quattrocento4 ,lon ,cogniet deserves to be mentioned because in the fifties he brought together in his studio so many foreign pupils1 especially ,germans4 ,he enjoyed above all others the reputation of being able to initiate beginners both quickly and with certainty into the peculiar mysteries of craftsmanship4 ,all that a master can teach1 and that can be learned from his example1 was to be obtained from this kind and fatherly instructor4 ,even after he had long given up painting1 his grateful pupils used to meet together yearly at a banquet given in the patriarch's honour4 ,as an artist he belongs to the list of the great men who have paid for overpraise in their lifetime by oblivion after their death4 ,his ,massacre of the ,innocents of #ahbd--;a woman who1 mad with terror1 thinks to hide herself and her child from the assassins of ,bethlehem under an open stairway--could give pleasure only in a time which hailed with enthusiasm ,ary ,scheffer's heads resembling plaster busts full of expression4 ,occasionally1 too1 he painted landscapes--the chimerical1 vague creations of a man who had lived but little in the open air4 ,his finest picture1 ,tintoretto ,painting his ,dead ,daughter by ,lamplight1 of #ahdc1 the engravings of which once enraptured ,france and ,germany1 has to-day a somewhat insipid effect1 and shows whither his genius was leading him--in technique a coarser ,schalcken1 in sentiment a weaker ,delaroche4 ,illustration3 ,,cogniet4 ,,tintoretto ,,painting ,,his ,,dead ,,daughter4 ,delaroche was the ,titian of ,louis ,philippe's age1 the spoiled child of the ,juste-milieu1 one of the most insignificant and at the same time one of the most famous painters of the century2 and in this double capacity is an interesting proof that in art the ,vox populi is seldom the ,vox ,dei4 ,what a difference between him and the great spirits of the ,romantic school6 ,they were enthusiastic poets2 their predilection for ,medivalism was concerned only with its sthetic charm1 with the twilight shadows of its picturesque churches1 the sounding presage of its bells1 the motley processions of that world gleaming bright with uninterrupted colour4 ,and what further allured their imaginative powers was the unruly character of certain epochs1 the destructive war of wild factions1 and the blazing1 consuming power of passion4 ,the historical motive1 as such1 was with them only a pretext for launching forth into flashing orgies of colour1 according to the example1 which they followed merely in externals1 of the ,venetian and ,flemish masters4 ,they knew1 as genuine painters1 that only in the pigment on their palette slumbers that power of exciting emotion by means of which the art of painting touches the chords of men's souls4 ,enthusiasts of colour and of passion1 they raved about the poets merely because the latter more readily enabled them1 by means of the fierce vehemence of the awakened powers of nature1 to invest with form the feverish1 agitated1 and terrible dreams of their fantasy4 ,so it was that ,delacroix told of conflagration1 of battle and warfare1 of murder and pillage1 of the bitterness and pains of love4 ,at the same time1 no doubt1 he studied the vari-coloured costumes of past ages--his drawings show as much--but he made use of them simply as a storehouse of bright hues1 as a lexicon by means of which he might embody his visions of colour4 ,to manufacture historical vignettes and play the part of a teacher of history would have been in his eyes a thing to be held in contempt as the work of subservient illustrators4 ,yet perhaps it was by taking this very course that far greater successes were to be attained1 so far as the verdict of the multitude is considered4 ,the decade following upon #ahbj was a season of brilliant blossom for the art of writing history in ,france4 ,by his ,history of the ,english ,revolution1 in #ahbf1 ,guizot won for himself a place in the foremost rank of ,french authors4 ,he began in #ahbi his famous lectures at the ,sorbonne1 and commenced in #ahcb the publication of his ,sources of ,french ,history4 ,even before him1 ,augustin ,thierry had written in #ahbe his ,history of the ,conquest of ,england by the ,normans1 followed by ,stories from the ,merovingian ,times1 and was now engaged in the preparation of his great work1 the ,history of the ,origin and ,progress of the ,third ,estate4 ,not unworthy to be compared with these writers1 and soon to stand beside them1 were two young men working in collaboration--,mignet and ,thiers--who came to the front in #ahbc-bd with their ,history of the ,revolution4 ,at the impulse thus given1 historical societies and unions had arisen in every province of ,france1 and were developing an ever-increasing activity4 ,what learning had begun1 poetry carried further4 ,a number of writers1 young and old1 began to consider what poetic use might be made of the materials which these investigations had brought to light1 and few years had passed before the number of historical romances and dramas was hardly to be computed4 ,vitet1 the elder ,dumas1 and de ,vigny put historical tragedy in the place of classical1 and the modern novel of ,george ,sand1 ,balzac1 and ,beyle was ousted by the historical romance4 ,during the same years was completed the process by which grand opera forsook fantastic for historical subjects1 such as ,auber's ,muette de ,portici and ,rossini's ,guillaume ,tell4 ,illustration3 ,,cogniet4 ,,the ,,massacre ,,of ,,the ,,innocents4 ,art also sought to turn to account the new materials furnished by historical science1 and sthetic minds hastened to enumerate the advantages which were to be expected of it4 ,on the one hand--and this was nothing new--the artist1 whose curse it was to be born in an inactive and colourless age1 would find here all that he sought1 for history offered him the contemplation of a magnificent life1 full of movement4 ,on the other hand--and this was the chief point--painting might also fulfil an important mission on behalf of culture1 if by virtue of its more easily understood method it could supplement the science of history1 and by recalling the great memories of the past keep alive that patriotism which in unfavourable conjunctures is so frequently found wanting4 ,guizot recommended ,french history1 the history of chivalry1 to painters1 as the first and most important source of inspiration4 ,we want historians in the art of painting1 wrote ,vitet2 and his cry was not unheard4 ,while the ,romanticists had seen in the old costumes nothing more than elements out of which a dashing colour-symphony could be obtained1 troubling themselves little about the meaning or the narrative import of their pictures1 their successors went over1 bag and baggage1 into the camp of the historians4 ,in the place of pure painting1 there arose an art laden with scientific documents1 which busied itself in reconstructing former times with antiquarian exactness4 ,while the former had produced nought but genuinely artistic colour-improvisations1 so now a didactic aim1 together with historical accuracy1 became the main consideration4 ,the painter was commissioned as a chronicler1 an official of the state1 to console citizens for the lamentable present by an appeal to the glorious past4 ,he became a professor of history1 a theatrical costumier who rummaged records1 chose masks1 cut out dresses1 arranged scenic backgrounds1 for no other purpose than to depict correctly and legibly on the canvas an historical event4 ,and ,mme4 ,tout le ,monde found in these pictures exactly what she required4 ,on the one hand1 the didactic aim of historical painting1 with its long explanations in the catalogues1 answered precisely to the needs of the educated middle classes4 ,under the picture there was always a pretty card on which was printed this or that quotation from some historical writer4 ,one read the description1 and then satisfied one's self that the corresponding picture was really there and that it was in keeping with the description4 ,one recalled to mind the lessons in history one had learned at school1 and was pleased to be reminded in so pleasant a fashion that before the nineteenth century people did not wear trousers and frock-coats1 but knitted hose and mantles4 ,on the other hand1 there still survived enough of the ,romantic unruliness to allow one to be shocked in a decorous and moderate manner1 and with the help of the catalogue a picture might be permitted to make one's flesh creep in an agreeable way4 ,for the average painter of mediocre ability historical exercises of this sort must also have been very alluring1 inasmuch as they made no demand upon specially artistic qualities--upon any peculiar aptitude of the fancy1 eye1 or palette4 ,the historian must indeed possess the power of combination1 but much more that of sober investigation2 too much imagination or too great a sense of humour would be dangerous to him4 ,so also the historical painter required neither fancy1 sentiment1 nor power of perception2 a certain capacity for compiling facts was all that was necessary4 ,it was enough to ferret out of some popular book on history the story of a murder1 and to possess a work upon costumes4 ,by such means1 men of a certain ability could easily manage1 with the help of the studio technique founded by the ,romantic school1 to put together the most imposing show-pieces4 ,and even the critics allowed themselves frequently to be so far misled as to give to those models who were decked out in the finest costumes1 and labelled with the names of the most celebrated personages1 precedence over their more modest companions4 ,consequently it happened that in the time of the citizen monarchy a great number of painters entirely devoid of talent1 whose only merit was that they attached to this or that chapter of universal history pictures showing some laboured animation1 became in the twinkling of an eye leaders of the schools4 ,illustration3 ,,paul ,,delaroche4 ,l',art4 ,paul ,delaroche la funbre mine ,s'entour avec plaisir de cadavres et d'os ,jane ,grey1 ,mazarin1 hros et hroine ,chez lui tout meurt 444 except ces tableaux4 ,eugne ,devria was the first and most important painter deliberately to enter upon this course4 ,when his picture of the ,birth of ,henry ,,iv was exhibited in the ,salon of #ahbg his appearance was welcomed as that of a new ,veronese1 and his work joyfully saluted as the first historical picture in which the local colour of the epoch represented was accurately observed4 ,henceforth ,devria dressed always in the style of ,rubens1 and his house became the headquarters of the ,romantic school4 ,he was perhaps the only member of this group in whom some breath of ,delacroix's spirit survived1 but unfortunately he never found again either the ,venetian tone or the male accent of his youth1 and though he painted many more pictures he never contributed a second notable work to art4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,delaroche4 ,,the ,,assassination ,,of ,,the ,,duke ,,of ,,guise4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,delaroche4 ,,the ,,princes ,,in ,,the ,,tower4 ,shortly afterwards ,camille ,roqueplan began to alter his manner4 ,up to that time he had been exclusively a painter who1 like ,watteau and ,terborg1 listened with a voluptuous shudder to the piquant rustle of silk1 velvet1 and satin dresses2 now he devoted himself to depicting with perspicuity various scenes from history1 renounced his airy and radiant fantasies1 and became1 in his ,scene from the ,massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 nothing but a tedious schoolmaster4 ,nicolaus ,robert ,fleury1 the painter of ,charles ,v in the ,monastery of ,st4 ,just1 of the ,massacre of ,st4 ,bartholomew1 of the ,religious ,conference at ,poissy1 and of other historical anecdotes1 carefully conceived and laboriously executed1 devoted himself1 like ,lessing1 to the propagation of noble ideas4 ,his pictures were manifestoes against religious fanaticism1 and philanthropic discussions concerning the trials and persecutions of the freethinkers4 ,in order to give them the stamp of historical verisimilitude1 he buried himself with the zeal of an archivist in the study of the period to be represented2 often directly transferred into his pictures figures from ,diepenbeeck or ,theodor van ,thulden2 and having the faculty of seizing in old paintings those tones of colour which belong rather to the epoch than the master1 he succeeded in giving his works a certain documentary and archaic character for which1 on his first appearance1 he obtained ample credit4 ,louis ,boulanger1 after his ,mazeppa of #ahbg1 was a famous painter4 ,but the highest success was that attained by ,paul ,delaroche1 inasmuch as he understood better than any other1 not only how to cater for the cultured public by the didactic nature and historical accuracy of his pictures1 but also how to touch the heart by means of a lachrymose sentimentality4 ,paul ,delaroche belongs1 by the date of his birth1 to the eighteenth century4 ,being one of ,gros' pupils1 he had never borne the yoke of the ,classical school in its fullest weight1 and therefore had never had occasion to revolt against it4 ,when the ,romanticists came to the front1 he had gone or rather been dragged along with them1 for to his circumspect nature ,romanticism was an abomination1 and his cool and deliberative spirit felt itself much more at home in the society of the ,classicists4 ,the works of the historians opened to him a welcome outlet by which to avoid a rupture with either party1 and ,delaroche found his vocation4 ,he assumed the rle of a peacemaker between the quarrelling brothers1 placed himself as mediator between ,montagues and ,capulets1 and thus became--like ,casimir ,delavigne in literature--the head of that ,school of ,common ,sense on whose banner glittered in golden letters ,louis ,philippe's motto of the ,juste-milieu4 ,ingres was cold1 reserved1 and colourless2 ,delaroche aspired to an agreeable1 sparkling1 highly seasoned1 bituminous art of painting4 ,delacroix was genial and sketchy2 ,delaroche inscribed carefulness and exactness on his banner4 ,the former had given offence by his boldness2 ,delaroche won the conservatives over to himself by his well-bred bearing and moderate attitude4 ,people thought ,delacroix too wild and poetical2 ,delaroche took care to give them only a touch of the eagerness of ,romanticism1 and set himself to reduce the passionate vehemence of ,delacroix to rational1 ,philistine limits1 and to soften down his native unruliness into sentimental pathos4 ,this position which he assumed as a mediator made him the man of his age4 ,the life of ,delacroix was a long struggle4 ,but for the commissions entrusted to him by the state he might have died of starvation1 for his sales to dealers and lovers of art brought him scarcely five hundred francs a year4 ,his studio held many pictures1 leaning mournfully against each other in corners4 ,delaroche1 on the other hand1 was overwhelmed with praise and commissions4 ,the representatives of eclecticism in philosophy and of the ,juste-milieu in politics found themselves compelled to praise an artist who was neither revolutionary nor reactionist1 neither ,romantic nor ,classical1 who had bound himself over neither to draughtsmanship nor to colouring1 but united both elements in vulgar moderation4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,delaroche4 ,,strafford ,,on ,,his ,,way ,,to ,,execution4 ,illustration3 ,,thomas ,,couture4 ,l',art4 ,already in his first notable works1 in #ahca1 ,the ,princes in the ,tower and ,oliver ,cromwell1 he has fully assumed his lukewarm manner4 ,he might have represented the murder of the princes1 but fearing that the public would not stand it1 he preferred merely to suggest the approaching death of the weeping and terrified children by placing in front of the bed a small dog1 which is looking uneasily towards the door1 where the red light of torches indicates the approach of the assassins1--a ,dsseldorf picture with improved technique4 ,it is just the same with his melodramatic and lachrymose ,cromwell4 ,it would be hardly possible to represent one of the greatest figures in universal history in a more paltry manner1 and to this day it is not quite certain whether the picture was intended to be serious or humorous4 ,the great statesman in whom was embodied the political and ecclesiastical revolution of ,england must have been extremely busy on the day of ,charles ,i's funeral1 and have had better things to do than stealthily to open the coffin and contemplate1 with a mixture of childish curiosity and sentimental pity1 the corpse of the king whom he had fought and conquered4 ,eugne ,delacroix had treated this subject in a sketch1 in which ,cromwell1 at the funeral of ,charles1 gazes in quiet contempt upon the weak monarch who had not known how to keep either his crown or his head4 ,as a work of art this little water-colour is worth ten times as much as ,delaroche's great1 long-meditated1 carefully executed painting4 ,from the very beginning he had no sense for the passionate or dramatic4 ,from the first day1 had the tailor who prepared costumes struck work1 his artistic greatness would have fallen away to nothing2 from the commencement he produced nothing but large1 clumsily conceived illustrations for historical novels4 ,planch pointed out long ago that all the costumes are glaringly new1 that all the victims look as if they had got themselves up for a masked ball1 that this sort of painting is much too clean and pretty to give the argument the appearance of probability4 ,thophile ,gautier1 who had proclaimed the powerful originality of ,delacroix1 fumed with rage against these saliva-polished representations1 this art for the half-educated1 disguised in false1 ,philistine realism1 this art of historical illustration for the familiar use of the bourgeois4 ,to rank timorous1 half-hearted talent higher than reckless and awe-inspiring genius--this was in ,gautier's eyes the sin against the ,holy ,ghost1 and he sprang like a tiger upon the popularity of talents such as these4 ,he could1 as he himself said1 have swallowed ,delaroche1 skin1 hair1 and all1 without remorse2 meanwhile1 the public raised him upon the shield as its declared favourite4 ,he won the intellectual middle class over to himself with a rush1 as he industriously went on rummaging in manuals of ,french and ,english history for royal murders and battle-deaths of kings4 ,with his ,richelieu1 ,mazarin1 and ,strafford1 but especially with his ,execution of ,lady ,jane ,grey and ,murder of the ,duke of ,guise in the ,castle of ,blois1 he made hits such as no other ,french artist of his time could put to his account4 ,just then1 in his youthful work1 ,the ,states-,general at ,blois1 ,ludovic ,vitet had put the murder of the ,duke of ,guise upon the stage4 ,nothing could be better-timed than to transform this operatic scene into colour4 ,the historians of civilisation admired the historical accuracy of the courtiers' dress1 all the upholstery of the room1 the lofty mantelpiece1 the carved wardrobes1 the praying-stool with the altar-piece over it1 the canopy-bed with its curtains of red silk embroidered with lilies and the king's initials in gold4 ,playgoers compared the scene with that which they had witnessed on the stage in ,vitet's piece1 and the comparison was not unfavourable to the painter4 ,for ,delaroche1 in order to be as far as possible in keeping with the stage representation1 was accustomed to commission ,jollivet1 the chief mechanician of the ,opera ,house1 to prepare for him small models of rooms1 in which he then arranged his lay-figures4 ,that is the further great difference between ,delaroche and ,delacroix1 between the vagrant painter of history and the artist4 ,the latter had the gift of the inner vision1 and only painted things which had intellectually laid hold upon him and had assumed firm shape in his imagination4 ,it was while the organ was playing the ,dies ir that he saw his ,piet in a vision--that mighty work which in power of expression almost approaches ,rembrandt4 ,is not ,tasso's life most interesting8 he writes4 ,you weep for him1 swaying restlessly from side to side on your chair1 when you read the story of his life2 your eyes assume a threatening aspect1 and you grind your teeth with rage4 ,such passionate emotion was wholly unknown to ,delaroche2 he painted deeds of murder with the wildness of ,mieris4 ,delacroix everywhere grasps what is essential1 and gives to every scene its poetical or religious character4 ,a couple of lines are for him sufficient means wherewith to produce a deep impression4 ,in presence of his pictures one does not think of costumes2 one sees everywhere passion overflowing with love and anger1 and is intoxicated with the harmony of sentiment and colour4 ,delaroche1 like ,thierry1 had merely a predilection for the historical anecdote which1 dramatically pointed1 keeps the beholder in suspense1 or else1 simply narrated1 amuses him4 ,the colour and spirit of events had no power over his imagination2 he merely apprehended them with a cool understanding1 and put them laboriously together in keeping with it4 ,delacroix sought counsel from nature2 but in the moment of creation1 in front of the canvas1 he could not bear direct contact with it4 ,the influence of the model1 he wrote1 lowers the painter's tone2 a stupid fellow makes you stupid4 ,delaroche draped his models as was required1 made them posture and pull faces1 and while he was painting1 laboriously screwed them up to the pathos demanded by the situation4 ,such a method of procedure must necessarily become theatrical4 ,just as in his historical pictures he endeavoured to transform ,delacroix's passion into operatic scenes1 so he perfected his position as a man of compromise by imitating the academic style in his ,hemicycle4 ,here it was ,ingres' laurels which robbed him of his sleep4 ,the fame which this picture has acquired is mainly due to ,henriquel ,dupont's fine engraving4 ,it does not attain to any kind of solemn or serious effect4 ,one might imagine one's self in some entirely prosaic waiting-room1 where all the great men of every age have agreed to meet together for no matter what ceremonial purpose2 one sees there a carefully chosen collection of costumes of all epochs1 with well-studied but expressionless portraits of the leaders of civilisation4 ,here also ,delaroche has not risen above respectable mediocrity1 and his characteristics remain1 as ever1 thoroughly middle-class4 ,illustration3 ,,couture4 ,,the ,,love ,,of ,,gold4 ,his likeness of ,napoleon is perhaps that which shows most clearly how paltry a soul this painter possessed4 ,it is not ,devastation in human shape1 not the man in whom his officers saw the ,god of ,war and of whom ,mme4 de ,stal said1 ,there is nothing human left in him4 ,the intellect of that ,corsican1 with his great thoughts striding as in seven-leagued boots1 thoughts each of which would give any single ,german writer material for the rest of his life1 was hidden to the inquisitive glance of a painter who had never seen in the whole of human history anything more than a series of petty episodes4 ,and one who is not able to paint a good portrait is not justified in intruding into other regions of art4 ,for similar reasons the religious paintings with which he busied himself in his last days have likewise enriched art with no new element4 ,they are a ,philistine remodelling of the ,biblical drama1 in the same style as his historical pictures4 ,in the end he appears himself to have become conscious how little laborious compilations of this kind have in common with art1 and since with the best will in the world he could produce nothing better than he had painted in the thirties1 he lost all pleasure in his vocation and abandoned himself to gloom and pessimism1 from which death set him free in #ahef4 ,thomas ,couture1 who after ,delaroche was most in vogue as a teacher in the fifties1 was of greater importance as an artist1 and in his ,romans of the ,decadence produced a work which1 from the point of view of the ,juste-milieu1 is worthy of consideration even to-day4 ,he was a remarkable man4 ,his parents1 shoemakers at ,senlis1 seem to have regarded the thick-headed1 slowly developing boy as a kind of idiot1 and are said to have treated him with no excessive gentleness4 ,he was sent away from school because he could not understand the simplest things1 and studied without success in the studios of ,gros and ,delaroche4 ,and yet1 after he had made his dbut in the ,salon of #ahdc with the ,troubadour1 a fine picture in the style of ,devria1 his ,orgie ,romaine of #ahdg made him at one stroke the most celebrated painter in ,france4 ,pupils thronged to him from every quarter of the globe1 and he left a deep and enduring impression upon every one of them4 ,a very short1 corpulent1 broad-shouldered1 thick-set1 proletarian figure1 with thick disorderly hair1 a blouse1 a short pipe1 and a gruff manner1 he used to stride through the lines of his pupils1 who regarded him with wonder on account of his ability as a teacher and his remarkable powers4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,couture4 ,,the ,,romans ,,of ,,the ,,decadence4 ,yet1 when a few years had elapsed1 no one heard of him again4 ,after his ,love of ,gold and a couple of portraits1 he felt that he was unfruitful1 and gave up the battle4 ,the ,falconer1 an excellent picture1 with charming qualities of colour1 was the last work to give any proof of ,couture's technical mastery4 ,he fell out with ,napoleon1 who wished to employ him2 made many enemies by his writings1 especially among the followers of ,delacroix1 whom he criticised beyond measure2 and finally1 embittered1 and abandoning all artistic work1 he buried himself in his country place at ,villers de ,bel1 near ,paris4 ,thither ,americans and ,englishmen used to come to order pictures of him1 and were much astonished to hear that the old gardener's assistant1 as they took him to be1 sitting on the grass and mending shoes or old kettles1 was ,couture4 ,the news of his death in #ahgi caused general astonishment2 it was as if one long buried had come to life again4 ,it had meanwhile become evident that even his ,romans of the ,decadence was only a work of compromise1 the whole novelty of which consisted in forcing the results attained by the ,romantic school in colouring into that bed of ,procrustes1 the formul of idealism4 ,the work is undoubtedly very noble in colouring1 but what would not ,delacroix have made of such a theme6 or ,rubens1 indeed1 whose ,flemish ,kermesse hangs not far from it in the ,louvre4 ,couture's figures have only absolute beauty1 nothing individual2 far less do they exhibit the unnerved sensuality of ,romans of the decline engaged in their orgies4 ,they are merely posing1 and find their classical postures wearisome4 ,they are not revelling1 they do not love2 they are only busied in filling up the space so as to produce an agreeable effect1 and in disposing themselves in picturesque groups4 ,even the faces have been vulgarised by idealism3 everything is as noble as it is without character4 ,there is something of the hermaphrodite in ,couture's work4 ,his art was male in its subjects1 female in its results4 ,his ,decadence was the work of a decadent1 a decadent of ,classicism4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,couture4 ,,the ,,troubadour4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,charles ,sedelmeyer1 the owner of the picture47 ,,chapter ,,xii ,,the ,,post-,,romantic ,,generation ,four years after ,couture painted his ,roman ,orgy1 ,napoleon ,,iii ascended the throne1 and the ,parisian orgy began4 ,it was a remarkable spectacle that the capital offered in those days--a spectacle of fairy-like1 flashing and sparkling splendour4 ,even to-day1 when ,republican ,paris endeavours as much as possible to obliterate every memory of the ,empire1 ,napoleon's spirit lives in the external appearance of the city and hovers over every conspicuous point4 ,augustus might say that he had found his capital a city of plaster and lime1 and left it one of stone and bronze2 ,napoleon has the right to maintain that he raised palaces where there had been barracks4 ,notwithstanding all the imprecations uttered against his rule1 the most thorough-going ,republicans reluctantly concede to him the possession of one good quality3 he knew how to bring prosperity to the shop2 il faisait marcher le commerce4 ,one hears it said that the beautiful city on the ,seine is but the shadow of what it then was4 ,le niveau a baiss6 says the ,parisian1 when he calls to mind the gorgeous days of the ,empire4 ,the extravagant elegance1 the magnificent luxury1 which used to roll in superb carriages along the ,boulevards and the ,champs ,elyses towards the ,bois de ,boulogne1 and exhibited itself in the evening in the boxes of the theatres2 the lustre which emanated from the ,court1 and the concourse of all the nabobs of the world1--all this must in those days have given to ,parisian life a sparkling splendour1 a something stupefying and intoxicating1 an alacrity of enjoyment which had no parallel elsewhere4 ,to the respectable1 pedantic bourgeoisie which ruled under ,louis ,philippe had succeeded a new generation of men of the world1 which drank to the lees all the refined pleasures that a modern great city has to offer4 ,the gentlefolk of the ,empire understood the art of living better1 cultivated and exhausted it after a more inventive fashion1 than any generation that had gone before4 ,in the ,tuileries sat the man of the ,second of ,december1 the connoisseur and promoter of all refined tastes4 ,in his person the age was embodied1 that age depicted by ,zola in ,la ,cure1 in the passage where he describes the halls1 illumined as if by enchantment1 of the imperial palace4 ,there1 all the splendour of over-civilisation glitters and gleams1 with its bright eyes and sparkling jewels1 with its breath of intoxicating perfumes floating from naked shoulders and arms and half-veiled voluptuous bosoms2 while the green1 sphinx-like eye of ,napoleon ,,iii rests indifferently on the alabaster sea of white shoulders bowing before him1 as he reviews all that he has possessed and all that he can yet enjoy4 ,dumas' ,dame aux ,camlias1 ,diane de ,lys and ,le ,demi-monde1 ,barrire's ,filles de ,marbre1 ,augier's ,mariage d',olympe1 give the impress of the period upon literature1 and the single phrase ,the ,lady of the ,camelias conjures up a world of forms and of scenery4 ,la ,nouvelle ,babylone is the title of the fine book in which ,joseph ,pelletan depicted the mysterious ,paris of those years1 the great city which cherished in its bosom the lowest and highest extremes of a refined world of pleasure1 and was at the same time an inexhaustible fountain of arduous work4 ,one would have imagined that these new conditions of ,imperial ,france would have left their impress1 in some way or other1 upon the art of painting also2 just as in the works of ,rembrandt1 ,frans ,hals1 ,jan ,steen1 ,terborg1 ,ostade1 ,pieter de ,hooch1 and ,van der ,meer of ,delft the entire seventeenth century is reflected1 clearly and with animation1 treated with charming familiarity or else with grandiose effect1 in its spirit1 its manner of feeling1 its habits and costumes4 ,what a domain painting would have had2 from the official festivals and the bustle of public life down to the complete delineation of the family home6 ,literature had entered into this course a quarter of a century before1 and had shown the path--a path leading to new worlds4 ,but in ,french art ,french society is not reflected4 ,not a single painter has left us a picture of this splendid ,paris1 dancing on a volcano and yet so amiably delightful4 ,classicism and historical painting still held the field1 as if turned to stone1 and show1 in essentials1 hardly any modification4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,alexandre ,,cabanel4 ,so far back as in #ahcc1 ,charles ,lenormant wrote of the school of ,david3 ,even the great painter ,ingres was not able to rejuvenate a school which was breaking up from old age1 or to restore their full resonance to the slackened and worn-out chords2 his only office was to give the old synagogue honourable burial4 ,take away this last scion of the ,classical school1 and the curtain may fall--the farce is ended4 ,he might have said the same thing forty years later1 for with ,cabanel and ,bouguereau ,classicism has limped on1 almost unchanged1 to our own days4 ,its art was a correct1 conventional picture-stencilling1 which might just as well have flourished a generation earlier4 ,classicism--which in ,david was hard and ,spartan1 in ,ingres cold and correct--has become pretty in ,cabanel and ,bouguereau1 and is completely dissolved in the scent of roses and violets4 ,only a certain perfume of the demi-monde brings the persons who appear as ,venus1 as naiads1 as ,aurora or ,diana1 into complete accord with the epoch which produced them4 ,for ,ingres the female body itself was the exclusive canon of beautiful form2 now the swelling limbs begin to stretch themselves voluptuously forth4 ,ingres still treats the human eye as it was treated in ancient sculpture1 as something animal1 soulless1 and dead2 now it begins to twinkle provocatively4 ,a modern refined taste plays round the classical scheme4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,cabanel4 ,,the ,,shulamite4 ,illustration3 ,,bouguereau4 ,,brotherly ,,love4 ,alexandre ,cabanel1 the incarnation of the academician1 was1 under ,napoleon ,,iii1 the head of the cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,he was a fortunate man4 ,born at ,montpellier1 the city of professors1 nourished from his earliest youth on academic milk1 winner of the ,grand ,prix de ,rome in #ahde1 awarded the first medal at the ,universal ,exhibition of #ahee1 he went on his way1 laden with orders and offices1 amid the tumultuous applause of the public4 ,among the artists of the nineteenth century none attained in so high a degree all those honours which lie open to a painter in our days4 ,yet1 as an artist1 he remained all his life on the plane of the school of ,ingres4 ,even his ,death of ,moses1 the first picture which he sent from ,rome to the ,salon1 was entirely pieced together out of ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo4 ,after that he laid himself out to provide ,england and ,america with those women1 more or less fully attired1 who bore sometimes biblical1 sometimes literary names3 ,delilah1 the ,shulamite woman1 ,jephthah's daughter1 ,ruth1 ,tamar1 ,flora1 ,echo1 ,psyche1 ,hero1 ,lucretia1 ,cleopatra1 ,penelope1 ,phdra1 ,desdemona1 ,fiammetta1 ,francesca da ,rimini1 ,pia dei ,tolomei--an endless procession4 ,but the only variety in this poetical seraglio lay in the inscriptions on the labels2 the way in which the figures were represented was always the same4 ,his works are pictures blamelessly drawn1 moderately well painted1 which leave one cold and untouched at heart4 ,they possess that unusual polish and that dexterity of exposition which1 like good manners in society1 create a favourable impression1 but are insufficient in themselves to make a man a pleasant companion4 ,nowhere is there anything that takes hold upon the soul1 nowhere any touch to prove that the artist has felt anything in his painting1 or force the beholder to feel for himself4 ,the unvarying faces of his figures1 with their eternal dark-rimmed eyes1 resemble not living human beings but painted plaster casts4 ,one would take his ,cleopatra1 apathetically observing the operation of the poison1 to be stuffed1 like the panther at her feet4 ,one seeks in vain for a figure that is sincere or interesting1 for a face alluring in its truth to nature4 ,his ,venus of #ahfb made him the favourite painter of the ,tuileries1 and the insipid1 rosy tints of that picture became more and more feeble in the course of years1 until his works resembled wearisome cartoons1 coloured by no matter what process4 ,he was ,picot's pupil1 it is true1 but in reality ,ingres was his grandfather1 a grandfather far1 far greater than himself1 whose portraits alone show the entire littleness of ,cabanel4 ,all his life long ,ingres was in his portraits a fresh1 animated1 and admirable realist4 ,cabanel indeed also painted in his earliest days likenesses of ladies which were full of serious grace1 uniting a powerful fidelity to nature with considerable elegance4 ,but his success was fatal to him4 ,moreover1 as a portrait-painter1 he became the depicter of society1 and society ruined him4 ,in order to please his distinguished customers1 he devoted himself far more than is good for portrait-painting to smooth rosy flesh1 large glassy eyes1 and dainty fine hands1 and over-idealised his sitters till they lost every appearance of life4 ,illustration3 ,,lef,,bure4 ,,truth4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,goupil1 the owners of the copyright47 ,william ,bouguereau1 who industriously learnt all that can be assimilated by a man destitute of artistic feeling but possessing a cultured taste1 reveals even more clearly1 in his feeble mawkishness1 the fatal decline of the old schools of convention4 ,he has been compared to ,octave ,feuillet1 who also never extricated himself from the scented atmosphere of distinguished society2 but the comparison is unjust to ,feuillet4 ,bouguereau is in his ,madonna-painting a perfumed ,ary ,scheffer1 in his ,venus-pictures a greater ,hamon2 and in his perfectly finished and faultless stencilling style of beauty he became from year to year more and more insupportable4 ,his art is a kind of painting on porcelain on a large scale1 and he gives to his ,madonnas and his nymphs the same smooth rosy tints1 the same unreal universalised forms1 until at last they become a juste-milieu between ,raphael's ,galatea and the wax models one sees in hairdressers' shops4 ,only in one sense can his religious painting be called modern2 it is an elegant lie1 like the whole of the ,second ,empire4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,henner4 ,,susanna ,,and ,,the ,,elders4 ,close by ,bouguereau's ,venus in the ,luxembourg hangs the well-known colossal figure of a beautiful nude woman with unnaturally over-developed thighs1 which by the shining mirror in its uplifted right hand proclaims itself to be ,truth4 ,jules ,lefbure1 the painter of this picture1 is also completely a slave to tradition2 he came from ,cogniet's studio1 and won the ,prix de ,rome in #ahfa4 ,but he at least possesses more taste1 elegance1 and character2 his painting of the nude is more distinguished1 truer1 and more powerful4 ,he is in the broader sense of the word a worshipper of nature1 and was so in his youth especially4 ,his ,sleeping ,girl of #ahfe and his ,femme couche of #ahfh are smooth and honest studies from the nude1 of delicate1 sure draughtsmanship1 and have therefore not become antiquated even to-day4 ,unfortunately he did not find this masculine accent again1 when at a later time he grouped ideal figures together to make pictures of them4 ,his ,diana surprised of #ahgi was a very clever composition of well-ordered lines1 possessing even fine details1 especially one or two charming heads1 but as a whole it is lifeless and uninteresting4 ,like ,bouguereau1 he lacks power1 and1 notwithstanding his distinction and his capacity for arrangement1 he is not painter enough to be truthfully entitled a painter of the nude4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,henner4 ,,the ,,sleeper4 ,in general1 ,french art1 however willingly it took to this sphere during the period we are considering1 is rich indeed in well-drawn documents1 but poor in works which1 considered as painting1 can bear the most distant comparison with ,fragonard and ,boucher4 ,the ,revolution had put an end to the joyous flesh-painting of ,french art4 ,at the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth century the painter of tender and life-like flesh-colour was not the reformer ,david1 but the despised ,prudhon4 ,the former found his ideal in statues1 and turned flesh to stone4 ,the latter1 a direct descendant of ,correggio1 gave expression to life with a tender mellowness4 ,ingres was again1 like ,david1 a very mediocre flesh-painter1 and the ,romanticists entered this sphere but seldom4 ,delacroix indeed has in his ,massacre a couple of excellent touches1 but they are isolated phenomena in his work4 ,after #ahej the approved system was to give nude female figures the appearance of being made of terra-cotta1 biscuit1 or ivory4 ,the forgotten art of painting velvety1 soft flesh1 and of making it vibrate in light1 had to be learned over again1 and to this meritorious task ,henner devoted himself--the modern ,correggio from ,alsace1 who stands to ,cabanel in the same relation as ,prudhon to ,david4 ,even ,henner in his later days has become very much a mannerist1 and has done some very bad work4 ,to-day he prefers a heavy1 pasty1 buttery style of painting1 with faces which look as if they had been pickled in oil1 and have an unreal expression2 his contrasts of light and shade1 once so delicate1 have become raw and forced4 ,yet beside ,cabanel he still appears the true poet of female flesh-painting1 the dreamy graceful depicter of refined sensuality4 ,prudhon's delicate ideal and his language of vibrating tenderness are revived in ,henner4 ,his ,nymph resting in the ,luxembourg has the same soft morbidezza1 the same delightful mystery1 in which ,prudhon before him had enveloped the sweetness of smiling faces and the beauty of female forms4 ,he too chose the ,lombards as his guides4 ,after winning the ,prix de ,rome in #aheh1 he sent to the ,salon of #ahfe a ,susanna1 which already shows his ability as a flesh-painter and his relationship to ,correggio4 ,and a ,lombard he has remained all his life4 ,one could with difficulty find a more delicate and smooth study of the nude than his ,biblis of #ahfg4 ,illustration3 ,,paul ,,baudry4 ,since that time another tendency highly characteristic of ,henner has shown itself in his work4 ,in his endeavour to render the tint and tender softness of flesh as delicately as possible1 he sought at the same time for light which should intensify the clear tone of the nude body4 ,these he found in that time of evening1 which one might call ,henner's hour1 when the landscape1 overshadowed by the twilight1 gradually loses colour1 and only a small blue space in the sky or a silent forest-lake still for a moment preserves the reflection of vanishing daylight4 ,in this tranquil harmony of nature after sunset1 the white pallor of the human body seems to have absorbed all the daylight and to be giving it forth again1 while the surrounding landscape is already merging into colourless shadow4 ,this is ,henner's second manner1 and he raised it into a system4 ,every year since then there has appeared in the ,salon one of those pale nymphs1 standing out so mistily against the dark green of an evening landscape1 or one of those ,virgilian eclogues1 in which the gloaming rests caressingly upon nude white bodies4 ,and by this method of painting flesh and of throwing light upon it1 ,henner has won for himself an important place in modern art4 ,paul ,baudry1 the powerful decorator of the ,grand ,opera ,house at ,paris1 marks the close of this tendency4 ,in his work the endeavours of all those talented artists who sought to found a new school of ideal painting upon the basis of the study of the ,italian ,classicists came to a crowning height2 and at the same time ,baudry took a further step onward1 in that he vivified the classical scheme with a yet more marked cast of modernity4 ,his first picture1 on the murder of ,marat1 was feeble4 ,what ,david had executed smoothly and forcibly in his dead ,marat1 ,baudry spoiled in his ,charlotte ,corday4 ,the bath1 the night-table with the inkstand on it1 the map on the wall1 and all the fittings of the room1 are painted with the greatest finish1 but the young heroine in her petrified idealism has no more life in her than there is in the furniture4 ,his ,pearl and ,wave1 which is hung in the ,luxembourg close to ,cabanel's and ,bouguereau's ,birth of ,venus1 gave proof of progress4 ,a deep-blue wave1 towering on high and crowned with foam1 has washed a charming woman ashore like a costly pearl4 ,she seems to have just awakened out of slumber1 and her roguish1 moistly gleaming eyes are smiling4 ,saucily she leans forward her fair-haired head under her bended arms1 and stretches out in easy motion her youthfully slender yet fully proportioned body4 ,bouguereau's and even ,cabanel's female beauties are waxen and spoiled by retouching1 but ,baudry's ,cypris is a living being1 and preserves some of the individual charm of the model4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,baudry4 ,,charlotte ,,corday4 ,it is this breath of realism which gives their attractiveness to ,baudry's pictures in the ,paris ,opera ,house4 ,he cannot indeed be ranked as a truly great master of decorative painting1 as the ,fragonard of the nineteenth century2 he was too eclectic4 ,the five years1 from #ahea to #ahef1 which as winner of the ,prix de ,rome he spent in the ,villa ,medici1 were the happiest of his life4 ,he saw in the ,italian galleries neither ,holbein nor ,velasquez1 neither ,rembrandt nor ,botticelli nor ,caravaggio4 ,he saw nothing and revered nothing save the pure tradition of the ,cinquecento1 which was to him the ,alpha and ,omega of art4 ,he dreamed of great decorative works which should place him on an equality with those old masters4 ,it was therefore joyful news to him when1 at the suggestion of his old comrade ,charles ,garnier1 he was commissioned to adorn the ,opera ,house4 ,baudry was then thirty-five years old1 in possession of his full powers1 and yet he thought it necessary to go back to ,italy to interrogate the masters of the ,renaissance anew4 ,for a full year he worked ten hours daily in the ,sistine ,chapel4 ,as soon as he knew ,michael ,angelo by heart1 he betook himself to ,england to copy ,raphael's cartoons1 and then in #ahgj for the third time to ,italy1 before he felt himself capable of covering the five hundred square metres of canvas4 ,the task took him four years1 and when it was exhibited at the ,palais des ,beaux-,arts in #ahgd1 prior to being placed in its final resting-place1 there was general astonishment at a single man's power to produce so much and such great work4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,baudry4 ,,truth4 ,to-day his praise cannot be sounded so high4 ,the place to which he aspired1 by the side of the great masters of the ,renaissance1 will not fall to ,baudry's lot2 he is hardly to be reckoned even among the great ,french masters of the nineteenth century4 ,to rise even so far he lacked the first and most essential gift--originality4 ,he was a model pupil in his youth1 and a pupil he remained all his life4 ,he always saw nature through the medium of art1 and never had the courage to take a fresh breath and plunge into its fountain of youth4 ,between him and reality there was ever the prism of the old pictures that he loved2 brush in hand1 he devoted himself1 turn by turn1 and with equal enthusiasm1 to ,michael ,angelo1 ,titian1 ,correggio1 ,bronzino1 and even ,ingres4 ,as soon as he returned from ,italy for the first time1 as holder of the ,prix de ,rome1 he exhibited several pictures which were altogether ,titian in colouring1 altogether ,raphael in style4 ,each of them1 even the most important1 calls some other painting to one's mind4 ,his ,fortune and the ,child is a variation upon ,titian's ,divine and ,earthly ,love2 his ,death of a ,vestal ,virgin a reminiscence of the ,death of ,peter ,martyr2 his ,warrior in the ,opera ,house is the painted double of ,rude's ,marseillaise4 ,how many gestures1 attitudes1 and figures could1 by a close analysis1 be shown to be borrowed in turn from ,veronese1 ,andrea del ,sarto1 ,correggio1 or ,raphael6 ,his works are a synthesis of the favourite forms of the ,cinquecento2 they are the testament of the ,cinquecento masters4 ,he was a ,parisian ,primaticcio1 a posthumous member of the old school of ,fontainebleau4 ,in him was embodied the last smile of the ,renaissance1 the results of which he assimilated and reduced to formul4 ,he lacked creative imagination1 and his pictures are wanting in individual character4 ,the nervous movement and sinewy stretchings of his young men's bodies would never have been painted but for ,donatello's ,david4 ,of his women1 the powerful and muscular are descended from ,michael ,angelo's ,eve1 the more slender and elegant come down from ,rosso4 ,his palette1 with its blue and white tints1 is bright and flowery1 but it is no less artificial than his composition4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,baudry4 ,,the ,,pearl ,,and ,,the ,,wave4 7,by permission of ,mr4 ,w4 ,h4 ,stewart1 the owner of the picture47 ,nevertheless1 it would be unjust to speak of ,baudry's work as merely faded ,classicism1 or as ,michael ,angelo and water4 ,he was not merely a pupil of the ,italians2 he contributed something ,parisian of his own1 something pretty1 mannered1 refined1 graceful1 seductive1 and smiling1 and felt himself independent enough to give to his conventional figures this sprightly addition of genuinely modern nervosity4 ,the birth-certificates of his young men were drawn up in ,florence1 those of his young women in ,rome1 three hundred and fifty years ago2 yet there is in the latter something of the ,parisienne1 in the former something of the modern dandies who know the fevered life of the ,boulevards4 ,in his delightful art there is ,french wit1 there is a touch of the piquant1 of the feminine1 of the ambiguous1 which almost amounts to indecency4 ,one can still recognise the charming model in the figures of his dancers and ,muses2 you can see that ,music's or ,poetry's waist was laced up in a close-fitting corset before she sat for the picture4 ,one may meet these women at any moment1 trailing their dresses along the sidewalks of the ,boulevards1 or riding negligently in their carriages back from the ,bois de ,boulogne4 ,and still more modern than the wasp-like form of the body is the character of the face and the smile on the lips4 ,thus ,baudry has given a new shade to the manner in which one can obtain inspiration from the old masters4 ,to all that he borrowed he added a personal and charming note4 ,he possesses an elegance and grace which are neither ,correggio's1 nor ,raphael's1 nor ,veronese's1 but ,french and ,parisian4 ,his ,muses and ,cupids1 his ,comedy and his ,judgment of ,paris1 are documents of the ,french spirit in the nineteenth century1 and--together with a few small and fine portraits on a green or blue background la ,clouet1 among which that of his friend ,about takes the first rank--they will always assure him an important place in the history of ,french art4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,baudry4 ,,cybele4 7,by permission of the ,marquise ,arconati-,visconti1 the owner of the picture47 ,illustration3 ,,baudry4 ,,leda4 ,another artist who worked with ,baudry at the decoration of the ,grand ,opera ,house was lie ,delaunay1 who painted in a hall leading out of the foyer three large pictures on the myths of ,apollo1 ,orpheus1 and ,amphion1 and was at that time less appreciated than he deserved4 ,delaunay was born in the same year as ,baudry1 and1 like him1 was a ,breton4 ,in their genius also they are very similar4 ,he shared in ,baudry's admiration of the masters of the ,renaissance1 but his worship was less for the ,cinquecento than the fourteenth century4 ,it was in ,flandrin's studio that he prepared himself for his entry into the cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,his first picture1 in #ahdi1 ,christ healing a ,leper1 was1 with respect to its ,roman manner of conceiving form and its bronze-like firm draughtsmanship1 still entirely in the style of ,ingres4 ,it was not till he went to ,italy in #ahef1 as winner of the ,prix de ,rome1 that he turned from the works of the ,roman school to those of the early ,renaissance masters1 to whom he was attracted by their rigorous study of form and their manly severity4 ,his sketch books were filled with drawings after ,paolo ,uccello1 ,filippo ,lippi1 ,pollajualo1 ,ghirlandajo1 ,botticelli1 ,gozzoli1 and ,signorelli4 ,it was just at this time that ,french sculpture was making its significant revolt against the antique and in favour of ,donatello1 ,verrocchio1 and ,della ,robbia2 that the ,prix de ,florence was founded1 and that ,paul ,dubois' ,florentine ,singer appeared4 ,delaunay became as a pupil of the ,quattrocento masters one of the greatest draughtsmen of the century1 a healthy ,naturalist in the sense in which the ,primitives were so1 with a concise and firm power of design which only ,ingres amongst modern ,french painters shares with him4 ,the bodies of his nude male figures are strained in nerve and muscle like those of ,donatello2 they have the essential elegance and powerful rhythm of ,dubois' statues4 ,even the two pictures which he sent from ,italy to the ,salon1 ,the ,nymph ,hesperia fleeing from the ,pursuit of sacus1 and the ,lesson on the ,flute in the ,museum at ,nantes1 were works of great taste and sincerity1 studied with respectful and patient devotion to nature1 without striving after sentimental effect and without conventional reminiscences4 ,when in #ahfa he returned from ,rome1 he completed the frescoes in the church of ,st4 ,nicholas in ,nantes1 which1 in their strict severity1 remind one of ,signorelli's ,cycle at ,orvieto4 ,in #ahfe appeared in the ,salon his ,plague at ,rome1 which afterwards passed into the ,luxembourg1 and which is not devoid of tragic accent4 ,in that collection hangs also his ,diana of #ahgb1 a proud nude figure drawn with firm and manly lines1 and full of grave dignity1 after the manner of ,feuerbach4 ,at the same time as his ,diana he exhibited his portrait of a ,mlle4 ,lechat1 seated like one of ,botticelli's ,madonnas in front of a trellis of roses--in the style of the old masters1 and yet modern1 naturalistic1 and in excellent taste4 ,thenceforth he took his place among the first portrait painters of his time4 ,there is an inexorable love of truth1 a something bronze-like and stony in his pictures1 finished as they are with the firm impress of medals4 ,instances of this may be found in his fine portrait of ,mme4 ,toulmouche1 whom he has represented in a white summer costume1 with black gloves1 seated in the midst of cheerful landscape2 and also in several male heads drawn with that firmness of modelling which ,bronzino in his best days alone possessed4 ,after the completion of the ,opera paintings he finished1 in #ahgf1 twelve decorative pictures for the great hall of the ,council of ,state in the ,palais ,royal4 ,his last works1 which remained unfinished1 were designs for the ,pantheon--scenes from the life of ,st4 ,genevive--in which he followed in the footsteps of the great fresco colourists of ,upper ,italy1 ,gaudenzio ,ferrari and ,pordenone4 lie ,delaunay was no original genius1 and as a pupil of the painters of the ,quattrocento has not enriched the history of art in any way1 but he stands forth1 in a time which cared for nothing but external effect1 as a very loyal1 serious1 and honest artist1 whose works all bear the stamp of a healthy1 manly spirit4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,baudry4 ,,edmond ,,about4 ,though in the works of these masters the ,classicism of ,ingres passes away1 in part enfeebled and in part imbued with modern elements and vivified by a more direct study of nature1 yet on the whole ,paul ,delaroche dominates this period also4 ,historical painting takes the highest places in the ,salon1 and shows itself altered only in this respect1 that1 instead of ,delaroche's tameness of style1 we have sensational subjects1 arguments which revel in scenes of horror and display of corpses4 ,literature had already entered upon this path4 ,even ,mrime in his last novel1 ,lokis1 was clearly the forerunner of that tendency in taste which ,taine characterised by the words1 ,depuis dix ans une nuance de brutalit complte l'lgance4 ,flaubert himself1 in his ,salambo1 was to some extent carried away by the stream4 ,consider1 for instance1 the descriptions of ,gisko crawling1 a maimed1 shapeless stump1 out of the ditch into ,matho's tent1 and of how his head is sawn off2 of the tortures inflicted by the ,carthaginian people upon the captured ,matho2 or of how the mercenaries are starved to death in the rocky valley where they were imprisoned4 ,vying with this tendency of literature1 painting attained in its chosen themes an over-excitation which reached the limits of the possible4 ,while ,delaroche had only in a very timid manner led the way to the tragedies of history1 the younger artists hunted up all the most horrible deeds of blood to be found in the great ,book of ,martyrs of the story of man1 and elaborated them on gigantic canvases4 ,it would be quite impossible to draw up a catalogue of all the murders at that time perpetrated by ,french art4 ,they might be arranged under various headings1 as biblical1 historical1 political murders2 murders in connection with robbery1 and murders arising out of revenge2 with subdivisions corresponding to the means employed1 as poison1 the dagger1 the halter1 broadsword and rapier1 the bowstring1 strangling1 burning1 etc4 ,this was the time when1 on account of this dominance of the ,genre froce1 the public used to call the ,salon the ,morgue4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,delaunay4 ,,diana4 ,toudouze painted the ,fall of ,sodom with a dozen copper-coloured ,abyssinians1 larger than life1 rolling on the ground in convulsions1 while ,lot's wife1 dying and half-consumed by fire1 gnashes her teeth as she raises the corpse of her child over her head4 ,in a picture of ,george ,becker's were represented the corpses of ,king ,saul's sons1 delivered over by ,david to the ,gibeonites1 hanging alongside of each other in a dark forest scene on a cross-shaped framework1 like butcher's meat from the shambles4 ,their mother stands beneath the scaffold1 swinging a knotted club to protect the corpses from an antediluvian vulture4 ,in a painting by ,brhan1 ,cyaxares1 ,king of the ,medes1 gives a banquet1 and by way of dessert has his guests the ,scythian leaders massacred by his mercenaries4 ,in one by ,matthieu1 ,heliogabalus has hit upon a yet happier idea1 for at the conclusion of the meal he sets half-starved lions and tigers upon his guests4 ,aim ,morot depicted in a large picture ,the ,wives of the ,ambrones in the battle of ,aqu ,sexti4 ,they are hurling themselves like a horde of furies upon the ,roman horsemen who are attacking the camp4 ,half-naked1 or entirely so1 with their hair flowing behind them1 they throw themselves upon the ,romans1 catch hold of the swords by the blade1 tear their eyes out1 and are trampled beneath the horses' hoofs4 ,especially popular were the voluptuous and cruel wild beasts from the menagerie of the ,csars4 ,nero in particular suited the atmosphere of the period2 his ghost haunted the novel1 the stage1 sculpture1 and painting1 and there seemed to be a general agreement to immortalise him and the morally monstrous personality of ,locusta4 ,in a picture by ,sylvestre he is represented with florid cheeks1 glowing with fat1 and gloating over the mortal agony of a slave lying on the ground1 upon whom ,locusta has tested the poison intended for ,britannicus4 ,aublet varied the same theme by making a negro lad the victim1 while several corpses of negroes lying in the background suggest that the ,emperor was not quite satisfied with ,locusta's first experiments4 ,round ,nero1 the more entirely to fill his magnificent ,golden ,house1 the charming shades of his congenial comrades in crime weave their flitting dances4 ,pelez depicted the strangling of the ,emperor ,commodus by the gladiator to whom the ,empress had entrusted the task1 and painted with tender interest the marks caused by suffusion of blood which the athlete's hand had left upon the unhappy prince's neck4 ,a very familiar figure is that of ,seneca1 with distorted features1 uttering his last words of wisdom while the blood pours from his opened veins4 ,after the madness of the ,csars comes the atrocious history of the ,merovingian kings4 ,luminais1 the painter of ,gauls and barbarians1 represented in his large picture ,les nervs de ,jumiges the sons of ,king ,clovis ,,ii1 who1 after the muscles of their knees have been destroyed by fire1 are set helplessly adrift in a boat on the ,seine4 ,then followed torture scenes from the time of the ,inquisition1 and saints burning at the stake4 ,the conception which this post-,romantic generation had of the ,east was of cruelty and voluptuousness mixed1 a thing pieced together out of white bodies1 purple streams of blood1 and brown backgrounds4 ,here1 the favourite ,sultana contemplates the severed head of her rival1 which stares at her out of its glassy eyes2 there1 eunuchs are making ready to strangle a woman condemned to death4 ,in works such as these the genius1 powerful in composition1 of ,benjamin ,constant1 celebrates its triumphs4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,delaunay4 ,,boys ,,singing4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,delaunay4 ,,madame ,,toulmouche4 ,yet1 notwithstanding all the means of allurement furnished by such themes1 these paintings almost invariably fail to produce the anticipated effect4 ,not that it is the brutality of the subjects that makes them unpleasant4 ,art in all times has busied itself with the horrible4 ,how voluptuously does ,dante depict the horrors of ,hell6 ,what imagination was ever peopled with figures more dreadful than those conceived by ,shakespeare8 ,cruelty and death have a poetry of their own3 why should ,art prudishly abstain from depicting them8 ,only1 if the result is to be a good picture1 the subject must be in strict congruity with the talent employed upon it1 and in the majority of these works this conformity is lacking4 ,the subjects alone had become more savage and brutal4 ,in the manner of treatment there is none of the wild effect which the ,neapolitans of the seventeenth century gave to their scenes of martyrdom4 ,spirits truly wild1 like ,delacroix and ,caravaggio1 are not to be met with every day4 ,the painters who launched out upon these bloodthirsty themes took absolutely no inward enjoyment in tragical subjects1 but simply painted them as if after precepts learned at school4 ,and as they were also deficient in that knowledge of nature which is acquired only by direct study of life1 not one of them was in a position to give to his historical scenes that naturalistic weight which alone gives to such themes a character of convincing probability4 ,true1 these pictures compel respect on account of their unusual ability4 ,these naked bodies1 twisting themselves in the most varying postures of pain1 give proof by their correct draughtsmanship of the most painstaking anatomical studies1 yet after all they are nothing more than inverted ,laocons4 ,the ,classical spirit haunts them still1 and a discordant effect is produced when subjects so full of wild passion are tranquilly depicted according to cold conventional rules4 ,over all these figures and scenes1 even the most horrible1 lies the veil of a ,classical embellishment1 which deprives them altogether of that directness which lays hold on the imagination4 ,the pictures are good studies of costume1 and make an admirable impression by their resplendent glow of colour2 they are show-pieces1 brilliant stage effects1 as happily conceived as any of ,sardou's4 ,but the recipe for their production is still that of the school of ,delaroche3 avoidance of all extremes1 generalised forms1 careful composition1 crude lukewarmness1 or the affectation of daring4 ,scarce one of these painters has given to his wild subject an equal wildness of treatment2 not one has raised himself from the paltry level of ,delaroche to the artistic height of ,delacroix4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,sylvestre4 ,,locusta ,,testing ,,in ,,nero',s ,,presence ,,poison ,,prepared ,,for ,,britannicus4 ,laurens alone1 surnamed by his comrades the ,benedictine1 because his predilection was for forgotten themes from ecclesiastical history1 constitutes in a certain sense an exception to the rule4 ,he too belongs to the group of historical painters whose theory is that a picture should represent an historical fact with absolute accuracy4 ,but he is more masculine than ,delaroche4 ,his personages are truer to nature1 or1 if one will1 less banal2 the general effect is warmer and fuller of life2 he has a greater power of attracting attention4 ,there is nothing great in his work1 but there is no cold pedantry3 the art of combination is more adroit1 so that one is less aware of calculation1 and may sometimes observe a grim earnestness4 ,he really loves the terrible1 while the others merely made use of it for the manufacture of what are nothing more than tableaux4 ,to the ,inquisition especially he was indebted for notable successes1 and at times he was able to depict its dark scenes of horror in a very subtle manner4 ,when he heaps up1 in front of a church1 corpses to which the priests have refused burial2 when he disinters popes in order to place them in the dock before their accusers2 when he opens coffins to reveal the decomposed features of some erstwhile beauty1 he sets even blunted nerves on the stretch2 and as he has therein attained the goal he had proposed to himself1 his art is not without its justification4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,luminais4 ,,les ,,nerv,s ,,de ,,jumi,,ges4 ,among the younger generation1 ,rochegrosse1 an artist of daring genius1 appeared for a while to have taken to such themes by free choice1 and not solely through the traditions of the studio4 ,one seemed to observe in his works a truly emotional temperament flaming behind the trammels of conventionality1 and was almost inclined to rank him among the spirits of storm and stress who trace their descent from ,delacroix4 ,after his first picture1 in which ,vitellius is represented dragged through the streets of ,rome and ill treated by the populace1 he achieved success with a scene taken from the destruction of ,troy4 ,here ,andromache1 raging with impotent anguish1 is struggling against a number of ,greeks who have snatched her child from her arms to throw it down from the ramparts4 ,this brutal strife is depicted with the highest naturalistic power4 ,neither the heroine nor the warriors belong to the ideal figures of the style of compromise4 ,andromache is of a fulness of form almost approaching corpulence1 and the ,greeks remind one of ,indians on the warpath4 ,mangled corpses complete the picture1 and on the bare wall to the left1 over the stairs1 hang dead bodies abandoned to corruption and the birds of prey4 ,in his third picture he took for his theme the horrors of the barbarous and ferocious ,peasants' ,war in the fourteenth century1 as ,mrime had described them in his book entitled ,la ,jacquerie2 and his work is all the more effective as there lurks in the subject a certain grim modern touch which reminds one of the ,social ,democracy1 of the insurrection of the ,commune1 of something which might happen even to-day4 ,the insurgents break into the hall1 where the ladies of the castle have taken refuge with their children4 ,one alone stands erect1 the grandmother in her nun-like widow's dress1 and stretches her arms behind her with a gesture of energy1 as if to shield the younger ones at her back4 ,the foremost intruder ironically takes off his cap4 ,another lifts up on his pike the fair-haired1 bleeding head of the lord of the castle2 a third has similarly transfixed his reeking heart4 ,others are pressing in from without1 breaking the window panes with their weapons1 which are yet dripping with blood4 ,beneath frightful figures are seen1 the most horrible that of a woman standing on the window-sill1 her hands propped upon her knees1 gazing with insane laughter upon the mortal terror of the aristocratic ladies4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,laurens4 ,,the ,,interdict4 ,in his subsequent pictures ,rochegrosse did not go so far afield4 ,his ,murder of ,julius ,csar was a work of art in white upon white1 full of crude imagination1 with white walls1 white reflections of light1 white togas1 and dark red blotches of blood4 ,his grass-eating ,nebuchadnezzar proved that from the sublime to the ridiculous there is often only a step4 ,between times he painted archological trifles for ladies of literary culture1 such as the ,battle of the ,sparrows of #ahij2 but in his great ,fall of ,babylon he has proved once more what he can do4 ,no doubt it is not a fine work3 it is a mere decorative piece1 but an astonishingly spirited performance4 ,the scene is the palace of the ,babylonian kings1 the decorative construction of which the recovered monuments and the recent scientific investigations had rendered it possible to reproduce4 ,rochegrosse consulted with the zeal of an archologist all the treasures of the ,louvre and the ,british ,museum1--,assyrian friezes1 ornaments1 and costumes1--and then set forth in these surroundings the famous banquet at which the ,prophet ,daniel explained the words ,mene1 ,tekel1 ,peres4 ,the day begins to break2 in the distance the army of the ,medes advancing to attack the palace has burst open the gate2 ,belshazzar leaves the table in terror1 and takes to his weapons2 the naked women1 still intoxicated1 stretch their limbs1 or remain lazily indifferent lying on the ground2 around is a dazzling confusion of mosaics1 of polychrome architecture1 of fantastic images of animals1 of glittering tapestries shot with many hues and pleasing to the eye2 of flowers1 vases1 fruits1 pastry1 and nude bodies of women4 ,the grey light of morning strives to overcome that of the half-extinguished lamps1 and rests with leaden weight upon the gigantic still-life below4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,regnault4 ,,salome4 7,by permission of ,m4 ,georges ,petit1 the owner of the copyright47 ,if some portion of ,delacroix's wild genius appears to have descended upon ,rochegrosse1 yet was ,henri ,regnault1 as a colourist1 the greatest of ,delacroix's heirs--even allowing for the exaggerated renown which came to him in ,france1 from the fact that he was the last to fall in the war of #ahgj4 ,his portrait of ,general ,prim of #ahfi1 which1 rejected by the sitter1 came eventually to the ,louvre1 is somewhat reminiscent of ,velasquez and ,delacroix1 but is nevertheless1 with those of ,gricault1 amongst the finest equestrian portraits of the century4 ,in his ,salome he has depicted a black-haired girl with twitching feet1 resting upon a stool after her dance1 and contemplating with the cruelty of a tigress the platter which she holds ready for the head of ,john the ,baptist1 while her glowing red mouth with its dazzling teeth smiles like that of an innocent child4 ,in her he has embodied with infernal subtlety the demon of voluptuous wantonness1 and has composed a symphony in yellow of seductive and dazzling charm4 ,she is attired in transparent gold-inwoven robes1 which have a caressing congruity with the resplendent texture of the background4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,regnault4 ,,the ,,moorish ,,headsman4 ,his ,moorish ,headsman is a symphony in red4 ,in his pale rose-red garb the tall ,moor stands in majestic dignity1 wipes a few drops of blood from the blade of his sword1 and glances with careless indifference--a type of the dreamy cruelty of ,oriental fatalism--without anger and without pity1 without hatred and without satisfaction1 upon the severed head with its distorted eyes1 which1 rolling down a couple of steps1 has stained the white marble with purple patches of blood4 ,i will cause the genuine ,moors to rise again1 at once rich and great1 terrible and voluptuous1--so the voice of ,delacroix speaks out of this picture by ,regnault4 ,his paintings1 like those of his master1 have the effect of splendid ,oriental costumes2 they are shot with every hue1 they lighten and glisten1 they are inwoven with magnificent arabesques of gold and silver1 with sparkling embroideries and precious stones4 ,the ,orlando ,furioso of art lives once more in these fascinating harmonies1 in the power1 splendour1 and lustre of the colouring4 ,just as ,baudry at the close of the ,classical period produced in his paintings for the ,opera ,house the noblest work after the idealist formul1 so ,regnault in his ,salome and his ,prim has completed the last defiant works of the formul of ,romanticism4 ,we have thought it advisable to follow this development of the art of painting down to its close1 just as in treating of the older periods we have proceeded1 not upon chronological principles1 but upon those of historical style4 ,now that the old art has been followed to the grave1 it will be all the easier1 later on1 to perceive clearly how the new arose slowly out of its invisible depths4 ,and as ,france since #ahcj has become the high school of art for other nations1 those paths have at the same time been indicated along which the art of painting was proceeding during these years in other countries4 ,illustration3 ,,henri ,,regnault ,,general ,,pr,m ,,chapter ,,xiii ,,the ,,historical ,,school ,,of ,,painting ,,in ,,belgium ,belgian art had gone through the same history as ,french art since ,david4 ,when the ,french patriarch came to ,brussels to pass the remainder of his days there in honour1 he found the ground already well prepared4 ,the ,classicists had long since made their way into art1 and the old ,flemish tradition was dying out4 ,lens and ,herreyns are the last colourists in the sense of the good old time1 but they are associated with the good old time only through the qualities of their colouring4 ,as a degenerate descendant of ,van ,dyck1 ,lens painted with a feeble brush sweet1 insipid1 sugary work for boudoirs and prie-dieu chairs2 and had lost his feeling for nature to such a degree that he gave the aged the same flesh tint as children1 and men the full breasts of hermaphrodites4 ,herreyns1 appointed director of the ,antwerp ,academy in #ahjj1 was more masculine2 and although likewise conventional and wanting in individuality1 he was none the less a painter of breadth and boldness4 ,he was most enraptured with a model with a copper-coloured skin and knotted muscles1 or with pretty and ruddy children1 and fat nurses with swelling breasts4 ,this bold worker embodied in his own person the art of a great epoch1 but did nothing to renew it4 ,these painters1 indeed1 only mixed for a new hash the crumbs fallen from the table at which giants had once sat4 ,they looked backwards instead of around them1 and lighted their modest little lamp at the sun of ,rubens4 ,france was the only country where art followed the great changes of culture in the age4 ,hence ,flemish painting had been crossed with ,french elements long before ,david's arrival4 ,and ,paris was for the artists of #ahjj what ,italy had been for those of #afjj4 ,they made their pilgrimage in troops to the studio of ,suve1 who had originally come from ,bruges1 but had lived since #agga on the ,seine4 ,there1 and there only1 recipes for the composition of great figure pictures were to be obtained4 ,and thus art completed what the ,empire had in a political sense begun4 ,the artistic barriers fell as the geographical ones had done before1 and the ,belgian painters went back to ,brussels1 ,antwerp1 ,ghent1 and ,bruges as men annexed by ,france4 ,david on his arrival needed only to shake the tree and the fruit fell ripe into his lap4 ,he entered ,flanders like a conqueror1 and left the signs of ravage behind him on his triumphal progress4 ,in ,brussels a court gathered round him as round a banished king1 and a gold medal was struck in memory of his arrival4 ,he took ,flemish art in his powerful hands and crushed it4 ,for1 needless to say1 he saw nothing but barbarism in the genius of ,rubens1 and inoculated ,flemish artists with a genuine horror of their great prince of painters4 ,he continued to teach in ,brussels what he had preached in ,paris1 and became the father-in-law of a deadly tiresome ,franco-,belgian school1 to which belonged a succession of correct painters2 men such as ,duvivier1 ,ducq1 ,paelinck1 ,odevaere1 and others4 ,for the aboriginal1 sturdy1 energetic1 and carnal ,flemish art was prescribed the mathematical regularity of the antique canon4 ,the old ,flemish joyousness of colour passed into a consumptive cacophony4 ,and then was repeated in ,belgium the tragedy which ,classicism had played in ,france4 ,everything became a pretext for draperies1 stiff poses1 sculptural groupings1 and plaster heads4 ,phdra and ,theseus1 ,hector and ,andromache1 ,paris and ,helen1 were1 as in ,paris1 the most popular subjects4 ,and so great a confusion reigned1 that a sculptor from whom a wolf was ordered included the history of ,romulus and ,remus gratuitously4 ,the only one whose works are still partially enjoyable is ,navez4 ,he was1 like ,ingres in ,france1 the last prop of this art1 chiselled1 as it were1 out of stone2 and even after the fall of ,classicism he remained in esteem1 because1 like ,ingres1 he knew how to steer a prudent course between ,david1 the ,italians1 and a certain independent study of nature4 ,a touch of realism was mingled with his mania for the ,greeks2 only to a limited extent did he correct ugly nature2 he would have ventured to represent ,socrates with his negro nose and ,thersites with his hump1 and1 again1 like ,ingres he has left behind him enduring performances as a portrait painter4 ,his correct1 cold1 and discreet talent grew warm at the touch of human personality1 and his drawings1 in particular1 prove that he had warmth of feeling as an artist4 ,as his biographer tells us1 he seldom laid down the sketch-book in which he fixed his impressions as he talked4 ,every page was filled with sketches of a group1 a figure1 or a gesture seen in the street and rapidly dashed off1 as realistically as even ,courbet could desire4 ,and these he transferred1 when he painted in the noble style4 ,as ,navez had importance as an artist1 so had ,matthias van ,bree--,herreyns' successor in the directorate of the ,antwerp ,academy--importance as a teacher4 ,he worked in ,belgium1 like ,gros in ,paris1 only in another way4 ,while ,gros as an artist was the forerunner of ,romanticism1 and as a teacher an orthodox ,classicist1 ,van ,bree is tedious as an artist1 but as a teacher he fanned in the young generation a glowing love for old ,flemish art4 ,no one spoke of ,rubens1 ,van ,dyck1 and the great art of the seventeenth century with so much warmth and understanding2 and whilst with the charcoal in his hand he composed buckram cartoons1 he dreamt of a youth who should arise to renew the old ,flemish tradition4 ,before long this young man had grown up4 ,he had seen the artistic treasures of ,antwerp and ,paris4 ,here ,rubens had delighted his eyes1 and there ,paul ,veronese4 ,as he admired both in the ,louvre1 he heard behind him the voice of the young ,romanticists who1 like him1 had an enthusiasm for colour and movement1 and blasphemed the stiff1 colourless old ,david4 ,gustav ,wappers1 also1 had paid toll to ,classicism1 and painted in #ahbc a ,regulus after the well-known recipe4 ,all the greater was the astonishment when1 in #ahcj1 he came forward with his ,burgomaster van der ,werff3 ,burgomaster van der ,werff of ,leyden1 at the siege of the town in #aegf1 offers his own body as food to the famished citizens4 ,the very subject could not fail to create enthusiasm in the great body of the people1 excited as they were by ideas of liberty3 the brilliant method of presentation did this no less4 ,what the old ,van ,bree looked for1 the return to the splendour of colour and sensuous fulness of life of the old masters1 was achieved in this picture4 ,in the same year1 when ,belgium had won her nationality and independence once more1 a painter also ventured to break away from the ,french formul of ,classicism1 and to treat a national theme in the manner of those painters who in former centuries had been the glory of ,flanders4 ,wappers was greeted as a national hero2 his part it was to bring to an issue with the brush that good fight which others had fought with the musket and sabre4 ,his picture was a sign of the delivery of ,flemish art from the ,french house of bondage4 ,whilst older men were horrified1 as the followers of the school of ,delaroche were afterwards horrified at the ,stone-breakers of ,courbet1 the younger generation looked up to ,wappers as a ,messiah4 ,everything in the ,brussels ,salon faded before the freshness of the new work2 a springtide in painting seemed to be at hand1 and the wintry rigidity of ,classicism was warmed by a burst of sunshine1 the old gods trembled and felt their ,olympus quake4 ,gustav ,wappers was held to be the leader of a new ,renaissance4 ,in him the great era of the seventeenth century was to be continued4 ,the iridescence of silken stuffs1 the whole colour and festal joyousness of the old masters1 were found once more4 ,as in ,france there rose the shout1 ,an ,ingres1 a ,delacroix6 so there resounded in ,belgium the battle-cry1 ,a ,navez1 a ,wappers6 ,the picture was bought by ,king ,william ,,ii of ,holland1 and in #ahcb ,wappers was made ,professor of the ,antwerp ,academy4 ,illustration3 ,bruyllant1 ,brussels4 ,,gustav ,,wappers4 ,the ,exhibition of #ahcd confirmed him in his new position as head of a school4 ,this was a genuine triumph1 which he gained by his ,episode in the ,belgian ,revolution of #ahcj4 ,a scene out of the blood-stained days of the street fights in ,brussels--that glorious final chapter of the struggle of the ,belgian people for freedom from the ,french yoke--was nothing less than an event in which every one had recently taken part4 ,at a period when so few realised how closely the great masters of the past were bound to their own time and imbibed from it their strength and nourishment1 this new painter1 in defiance of all theories1 had drawn boldly from life4 ,this picture was regarded as a hymn of jubilation for what was attained and a threnody for the sacrifice it had cost4 ,and the neighbourhood of the church1 where he had laid the action1 stamped it almost as the votive picture of the ,belgian people for its dead4 ,on the right an artisan standing aloft upon a newly thrown up earthwork is reading to his attentive comrades the rejected proclamation of the ,prince of ,orange4 ,on the left a reinforcement is coming up4 ,in the foreground boys are tearing up the pavement or beating the drum2 and here and there are enacted various tragical family scenes4 ,here a young wife with a child on her arm clings with all the strength of despair to her husband1 who resists her and finally tears himself from her grasp and hurries to the barricade--the cry of love is drowned amid the clash of arms4 ,there1 supported on the knee of his grey-headed father1 rests a handsome young fellow with closing eyes and the death-wound in his heart4 ,it seems as though the ,horatian dulce et decorum est might be said to wander over his features and to glorify them4 ,for patriotism as well as for mere sentiment1 here are noble scenes enough and to spare4 ,not only all ,brussels1 but all ,belgium1 made a pilgrimage to ,wappers' creation4 ,every mother beheld her lost son in the youth in the foreground whose life has been sacrificed2 every artisan's wife sought her husband1 her brother1 or her father amongst the figures of the fighting-men on the barricades4 ,all the newspapers were full of praise1 and a subscription was set on foot to strike a medal in commemoration of the picture4 ,if1 up to this time1 ,wappers had been merely praised as the renewer of ,belgian art1 he was now placed alongside of the greatest masters4 ,thiers induced him to exhibit in ,paris the much discussed work1 the fame of which had passed beyond the boundaries of ,belgium4 ,the ,episode made a triumphal tour of all the great towns of ,europe before it found its home in the ,muse ,moderne2 and ,wappers' fame abroad increased yet more his celebrity in ,flanders4 ,thanks to him1 the neighbouring nations began to interest themselves in the ,belgian school4 ,all were united in admiration of the mighty conception and the harmonious scheme of colour4 ,the ,german ,morgenblatt published a study of him in #ahcf4 ,wappers counted as the leading painter of his country4 ,illustration3 ,bruyllant1 ,brussels4 ,,wappers4 ,,the ,,sacrifice ,,of ,,burgomaster ,,van ,,der ,,werff ,,at ,,the ,,siege ,,of ,,leyden4 ,yet the same year brought him his first rivals4 ,his entry on the stage had given strength to a group of young painters belonging to the same courageous movement1 and the ,brussels ,salon of #ahcf concentrated their efforts4 ,nicaise de ,keyzer made his appearance in heavy armour4 ,as early as #ahcd he had come forward with a great picture1 a ,crucifixion1 in which he desired to compete with ,rubens1 as it seemed1 in the latter's most special province4 ,yet the work merely testified to its author's excellent memory3 the majority of the heads1 gestures1 and draperies had been made use of in old pictures in precisely the same fashion4 ,consciously or not1 he had copied fragments direct1 and welded them together in a new composition4 ,if1 in spite of this1 the name of de ,keyzer already flew from mouth to mouth1 he owed it to the nimbus of romance which irradiated his person4 ,the story went that an ,antwerp lady on one of her walks had seen a young man drawing in the sand1 while his flock was at pasture not far off4 ,she stepped up and offered him a pencil1 and he1 a new ,cimabue1 began forthwith to sketch a picture of the ,madonna4 ,the drawing was so beautiful 7so the tale ran7 that the lady would have held it a sin to allow the genius to end his days as a shepherd4 ,he came to town1 received instruction1 and learned to paint4 ,a little idyll illuminated by the amiability of a lady was quite enough to prepare a friendly reception for ,de ,keyzer4 ,and since he1 like a tractable1 modest young man1 hearkened attentively to criticism1 he satisfied all desires when1 in #ahcf1 he came forward with his ,battle of the ,spurs at ,courtrai1 #acjb4 ,in its quiet elegance the work answered to the peaceful mood which prevailed once more after the days of revolt and political insurrection4 ,he was given special credit for clearness of composition and antiquarian exactness4 ,de ,keyzer had chosen the moment when the ,count of ,artois was expiring on the knees of a ,flemish soldier2 another ,fleming had his arm raised to protect his general from the approaching ,french4 ,for the rest1 there is a lull in the fight1 though the battlefield in the background is indicated with the minuteness of an historian3 none of those carnages of blood and smoke of which the world was grown once more weary1 but a correct1 well-disciplined battle1 a skilful composition of fine gestures1 helmets1 cuirasses1 and halberts4 ,even the ,count's spur1 says ,alvin1 is drawn after the original1 the only remaining spur out of seven hundred which lay scattered on the field after the day of ,courtrai4 ,in the same year ,henri ,decaisne completed his ,belges ,illustres4 ,the famous past was supposed to give its blessing to the great present4 ,the artist1 who in ,paris had painted portraits with success1 had been esteemed there by ,lamartine1 and celebrated by ,alfred de ,musset in a brilliant article in the ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 now gratified a long cherished desire of the ,belgian national pride when he united the heroes of the land in an ideal gathering4 ,soon afterwards ,gallait and ,bifve trod the stage of ,belgian painting4 ,in point of size their pictures surpassed all that that age1 accustomed as it was to vast canvases1 had yet witnessed4 ,the ,abdication of ,charles ,v measured twenty feet2 it was hung in the ,salon ,carr of the ,louvre above ,paul ,veronese's ,marriage at ,cana4 ,an entire court of great ladies and gentlemen1 clad in velvet and brocade1 move in the gorgeous hall of state of a king's castle4 ,the solemn moment is represented when ,charles ,v1 erect and dominating the entire assembly1 cedes the government of his possessions to ,philip3 and here is a mine of profound criticism of the philosophy of history4 ,this old man1 with one foot in the grave1 whose forceful head still bears1 like a ,caryatid1 the heavy burden of empire1 embodies the splendour1 fame1 and might of bygone days4 ,faltering1 he steps down from the throne1 as though hesitating at the last moment whether he should appoint as his successor this son whom he both loves and fears2 and1 lifting to heaven his tired1 sunken eyes1 he commends unto ,god the future of the realm4 ,philip1 the only one in the assembly entirely clothed in black1 who receives the gift of dominion with an icy coldness1 is transformed by the able exegesis of the critics into the satanic demon conjuring up the powers of hell4 ,the picture even gives a glimpse into the future4 ,for as he speaks ,charles leans his left hand upon the shoulder of another young man1 ,william of ,orange4 ,this indicates that soon the nation will wrest their independence from the double-tongued ,jesuitical policy of ,philip4 ,to the left of this central group1 robed in velvet and silk1 stand the ladies around ,margaret1 the sister of the ,emperor2 she1 in the garb of a nun1 sits in her chair as in a prie-dieu4 ,to the right1 near the throne1 are pages and priests1 and amidst them ,egmont and ,horn1 standing aloof and silent1 look upon the scene4 ,the ,abdication had a grand success4 ,it confirmed the hopes which had been set on ,gallait ever since the completion of his ,tasso1 and it was proudly ranked amongst those works which did special honour to the young nation4 ,wappers saw himself eclipsed1 and ,louis ,gallait took the lead4 ,illustration3 ,,wappers4 ,,the ,,death ,,of ,,columbus4 ,edouard de ,bifve's ,treaty of the ,nobles formed the historical supplement to this work2 after the triumph of the kingdom came the triumph of the people4 ,the picture represents the signing of the defensive league1 against the ,inquisition and other breaches of privilege1 which the nobility of the ,netherlands entered into in #aeff1 in the ,castle of ,cuylenburg1 near ,brussels2 it was hailed by the ,berliner ,staatszeitung as a landmark in the chronicle of historical painting4 ,this heroic era of ,belgian painting was brought to a close in #ahdh by ,ernest ,slingeneyer1 who1 as early as #ahdb1 obtained a brilliant success with his ,sinking of the ,french ,battleship ,le ,vengeur4 ,his ,battle of ,lepanto was the last great historical picture1 and the entire vocabulary of admiration known to art criticism was showered upon it by the ,brussels press4 ,even a new period of religious painting seemed about to dawn4 ,german art1 up to that time little regarded in ,belgium1 had since the fifties been discussed with considerable detail in the journals1 and such names as ,overbeck1 ,w4 ,schadow1 ,veit1 ,cornelius1 and ,kaulbach had speedily acquired a favourable reputation4 ,an exhibition of ,german cartoons instituted in ,brussels in #ahfb served--strangely enough--to sustain this high appreciation4 ,the young nation believed that it could not afford to lag behind ,france and ,germany1 and commissioned two ,antwerp painters1 ,guffens and ,swerts1 who had early made themselves familiar with the technique of fresco1 to found a ,belgian school of monumental painting4 ,to this end they entered into a correspondence with the ,german artists1 and1 after long studies in ,italy and ,germany1 adorned with frescoes the ,church of ,notre ,dame in ,st4 ,nicolas in ,east ,flanders1 ,st4 ,george's ,church in ,antwerp1 the town halls of ,courtrai and ,ypres1 a few churches in ,england1 and the ,cathedral of ,prague2 and on these frescoes ,herman ,riegel1 in #ahhc1 published a book in two volumes4 ,illustration3 ,bruyllant1 ,brussels4 ,,de ,,keyzer4 ,at the present day this religious fresco painting1 which handed on the doctrine of the ,german ,nazarenes--the doctrine that nothing remained to the nineteenth-century artist except to imitate the old ,italians as well as he could--can no longer command such exhaustive disquisition4 ,and not it alone3 the whole ,belgian artistic revival of #ahcj appears in a somewhat dubious light4 ,after the disconsolate wilderness of ,classicism this period marked an advance4 ,every ,salon brought some new name to light4 ,the ,state had contributed a big budget for art1 and extended its protecting hand over the great painting which was the glory of the young nation4 ,what could not be got into the ,muse ,moderne1 founded in #ahde1 was divided amongst the churches and provincial museums4 ,the number of painters and exhibitions increased very noticeably4 ,beside the great triennial exhibitions in ,brussels1 ,antwerp1 and ,ghent1 there were others in the smaller towns1 such as ,mons and ,mechlin4 ,the ,belgian painters of #ahcj appear1 no doubt1 as great men1 when one considers to what a depth art had sunk before their advent4 ,wappers especially widened the horizon1 by breaking the formula of ,classicism and renewing the tradition of the brilliant colourists of the seventeenth century4 ,de ,bifve1 ,de ,keyzer1 ,slingeneyer1 severally contributed to the ,belgian ,renaissance4 ,the old ,flemish race knew itself once more in this fond quest of beautiful and radiant colouring4 ,the historical painting had even a certain actual interest4 ,standing so near to the glorious ,september days when the country won its independence1 the painters wished to draw a parallel between the glorious present and the great past1 and to waken patriotic memories by the apotheosis of popular heroes4 ,and yet the ,muse ,moderne of ,brussels is not one of those collections in which one willingly lingers4 ,the works in the old museum1 hard by1 have remained fresh and living and in touch with us2 those in the new gallery seem to be divided from us by centuries4 ,for the mischief with pictures which do not remain for ever young is precisely this--they grow old so very soon4 ,posterity speaks the language of cold criticism2 and those powers must be great which are even favoured with a verdict4 ,the luxuriant wreaths of laurel which fall upon the living are no guarantee of enduring fame1 while in the crowns awarded after death every leaf is numbered4 ,in how few of these once lauded works there dwells the power to speak in an intelligible language to a generation which tests them1 not for their patriotism1 but for their intrinsic art4 ,the ,belgian school of #ahcj has left behind it the trace of respectable industry1 but a supreme work is what it has not brought forth4 ,illustration3 ,bruyllant1 ,brussels4 ,,de ,,keyzer4 ,,the ,,battle ,,of ,,woeringen4 ,how hard it is to see anything epoch-making in ,wappers' ,van der ,werff4 ,how theatrically the figures are posturing1 how improbable is the composition1 and what an unwholesome dose of sentimentality is to be found in that burgomaster1 who is offering himself as a prey to the multitude6 ,the heads are those of troubadours4 ,and these jerkins brought fresh out of the wardrobe1 these neatly ironed white ruffles1 all this rich velvet and glittering pomp1 how little it resembles the torn rags of a half-starved people after a nine months' siege6 ,his revolutionary picture of #ahcd is an unfortunate transposition into a sentimental key of the ,freedom on the ,barricades by ,delacroix4 ,here also are play-actors rather than men and women of the people4 ,this old man who is kissing the banner1 the wife who winds her arms about her husband as ,venus does about ,tannhuser1 the pale girl who has fallen in a faint1 the warrior who1 with his eyes turned up to ,heaven1 is breaking his sword--these are figures out of a melodrama1 not revolutionaries storming the barricades1 nor famishing artisans fighting for their very existence4 ,and the thin1 spick-and-span colouring is in just as striking a contrast with the forceful action of the scene4 ,an idyll could not be carried out with more prettiness of manner than is this picture which represents the rising of a people4 ,the artisans are as white as alabaster4 ,a light rouge rests upon the cheeks of the women1 as when ,boucher paints the faltering of virtue4 ,and afterwards ,wappers' course went further and further down hill4 ,only in these two early works1 in which he responded to a political movement by an artistic endeavour1 does he seem1 in a certain sense1 individual and powerful4 ,all the others are stereotyped productions which1 having nothing to do with the ,belgian national movement1 have all the more to do with the ,parisian cole du bon sens4 ,even his ,christ in the ,grave1 painted in #ahcc1 and now in ,st4 ,michael's ,church at ,louvain1 with its artificial grace and pietistical sentimentality1 might have been painted by ,ary ,scheffer4 ,the pathetic scenes from ,english and ,french history of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries which followed this merely reflect that painting of historical anecdote which was invented by ,delaroche4 ,agnes ,sorel and ,charles ,,vii1 ,abelard and ,eloise1 ,charles ,i taking leave of his children1 ,anne ,bullen's parting from ,elizabeth1 ,peter the ,great presenting to his ministers the model of a ,dutch ship1 ,columbus in prison1 ,boccaccio reading the ,decameron to ,joanna of ,naples1 the brothers ,de ,witt before their execution1 ,andr ,chnier in the prison of ,saint-,lazare1 ,louis ,,xvii at ,simon the shoe-maker's1 the poet ,camoens as a beggar1 ,charles ,i going to the scaffold--all are subjects treated by others before him in ,france1 and neither in their conception nor their technique have they anything original4 ,in the last-mentioned picture1 exhibited in ,antwerp in #ahgj1 he attained the limit of sugary affectation3 a young girl has sunk on her knees1 and1 with dreamily uplifted eyes1 offers to the ,stuart ,king who is going to his death--a rose6 ,wappers is merely a reflex of ,french ,romanticism1 although he cannot be brought into direct comparison with any ,parisian master4 ,the passion of ,delacroix stirred him but little3 nothing points to a relationship between him and that great spirit4 ,one is rather reminded of ,alfred ,johannot1 whom he resembles in his entire gamut of emotion as in his treatment and selection of subjects4 ,in both may be found elegance of line1 ,byronic emphasis1 histrionic gestures1 and the same stage properties borrowed from the theatre2 never the genuine movement of feeling1 only empty and distorted grimaces4 ,of the others who appeared with him the same may be said4 ,all ,belgian matadors of the forties and fifties came to grief1 and are interesting in the history of art only as symptomatic phenomena1 as members of that school of ,delaroche which encompassed the world4 ,they abandoned the antique marble1 the chlamys1 and the leaden forms of the ,classicists1 to set in their place a motley picture of the ,middle ,ages1 made up of cuirasses1 mail-shirts1 fleshings1 and velvet and silken doublets4 ,one convention followed the other1 and pedantic dryness was replaced by melancholy sentimentalism4 ,as skilled practitioners they understood the sleights of their art1 but never rose to individual creation4 ,amongst many painters there was not a single artist4 ,as regards ,de ,keyzer1 it seems as if throughout his whole life he had wished to remain true to the memory of his benefactress3 a simpering feminine trait runs with enervating sweetness through all his works1 even through that ,battle of the ,spurs which founded his reputation4 ,according to old writers1 the athletic bodies of the ,flemings were the terror of the ,french chivalry at ,courtrai4 ,de ,keyzer has made of them mere plaster figures1 and the pale1 meagre colouring is in keeping with the languid conception4 ,in the battles of ,woeringen1 of ,senef1 and ,nieuwpoort1 which followed on this picture1 and were executed for the ,belgian and ,dutch ,government1 he succeeded still less in overcoming his affectation2 and he first found the fitting province for his mild and correct talent when in later years he began to render little anecdotes of the ,emperor ,maximilian or ,justus ,lipsius out of the studio of ,rubens or ,memlinc4 ,for these there was need of little but a certain superficial play of colour and an elegant painting of textures4 ,illustration3 ,bruyllant1 ,brussels4 ,,slingeneyer4 ,,the ,,avenger4 ,ernest ,slingeneyer is stronger and more masculine4 ,yet what an unrefreshing chaos of blue1 red1 saffron1 and citron-yellow is that ,sea-fight at ,lepanto6 ,slingeneyer felt that the chiaroscuro with which ,wappers saturated his ,episode was not in keeping with this action under open sky4 ,but rightly as he felt this1 he had not the strength to solve the problem of open-air painting4 ,what a barbaric effect these red1 brown1 and yellow bodies make in their motley theatrical pomp6 ,how the composition of the picture savours of apotheosis6 ,as for his later work1 his thirteen gigantic pictures1 gloires de la ,belgique1 in the great hall of the ,brussels ,academy1 like ,de ,keyzer's mural paintings above the staircase of the ,antwerp ,museum1 they would never have been painted had they not had ,delaroche's hemicycle as their forerunner4 ,illustration3 ,bruyllant1 ,brussels4 ,,louis ,,gallait4 ,and ,gallait's ,abdication of ,charles ,v--one fails to understand how it was possible that so much able disquisition was suggested by this picture4 ,how slight a smattering of the erudition of a stage manager is necessary for the representation of such a scene3 the throne on one side2 before it the lords and gentlemen in a semicircle1 to the left front the ladies to make a fine effect for the eye1 and in the background balconies with curious spectators1 to widen out the spectacle4 ,it is all pure theatre2 an icy ceremony with prettily got up supernumeraries4 ,all the heads have the discreditable appearance of family portraits painted after death1 and then washed over with a faint conventional tinge of red4 ,the whole thing is like a huge piece of still-life1 which an adroit painter has put together out of a mixture of heads1 gold1 jewels1 mantles1 and perukes4 ,delaroche seems to have contributed the composition1 ,devria the sumptuous costumery2 and as for the colouring1 ,isabey1 with his sunbeams shimmering in gold and silver1 may not improbably have had something to do with that4 ,what was spontaneous in ,wappers is replaced in ,gallait by cold calculation4 ,once and once only did this correct and frigid painter give evidence of a certain dramatic vein2 it was when in #ahea he painted ,the ,brussels ,guild of ,marksmen paying the ,last ,honours to ,egmont and ,horn4 ,with a brutal audacity the decapitated heads are set to their bodies4 ,bloodless and livid1 with clotted and tangled beards1 they both really look as if they had been studied direct from nature4 ,but the rest of the picture1 the surrounding of theatrical attractions1 parade costumes1 and false pathos1 is all the less in keeping with this study of death4 ,how ,zurbaran or ,caravaggio would have treated the theme6 ,they would have veiled the unessential figures in darkness1 and irradiated the heads only with a trenchant light4 ,what ,gallait has made of it is the final tableau of an opera of costume4 ,the two sergeants of ,alva who are on guard1 and the men who are showing their reverence1 tread the stage like bad actors1 scrupulously arrayed and making pathetic gestures4 ,their action has been studied from drawing-school copies2 no genuine cry of passion ever breaks through4 ,heads1 hands1 and outlines have all a sickly idealism2 a studious and sedulously polished manner of painting has ruined the intrinsic spirit of the work as a whole4 ,thophile ,gautier was right when he wrote of ,gallait3 ,tout le talent qu'on peut acqurir avec du travail1 du got1 du jugememt1 et de la volont1 ,m4 ,gallait le possde4 ,gallait's ,last ,obsequies1 hung in that same ,salon of #ahej which contained ,courbet's ,stone-breakers1 and the words of recognition accorded to it1 were the last obsequies given to the parting genius of historical painting4 ,a few years went by1 and ,gallait's fame died away4 ,after #ahea he painted fourteen other great historical pictures 7,egmont's ,last ,moments1 ,johanna the ,mad by the ,corpse of her ,husband1 ,alva at the ,window during the ,execution of the two ,counts1 etc471 and1 occasionally1 sentimental genre pictures1 such as ,the ,oblivion of ,sorrow in the ,berlin ,national ,gallery2 in this a small boy is playing the fiddle for the consolation of his sister1 who had sunk upon the high-road exhausted by hunger4 ,he also painted many portraits4 ,but nothing gave him a niche in the memory of his contemporaries4 ,the ,pest at ,tournai1 painted in #ahhb1 was a work extremely creditable to his old age2 it was nevertheless a picture which appeared to another generation merely as a phantom2 and when1 on #bjth ,november #ahhg1 the announcement of his death passed through the land1 it came unexpectedly1 like that of a person already believed to have been long dead4 ,illustration3 ,bruyllant1 ,brussels4 ,,gallait4 ,,egmont',s ,,last ,,moments4 ,finally1 ,edouard de ,bifve1 who in #ahdb shared ,gallait's triumph in ,germany1 and was afterwards named in the same breath with him1 is the man who marks the complete corruption of this tendency4 ,if the sturdy ,wappers1 the emasculate ,de ,keyzer1 and the eclectic ,gallait tricked out their pathetic heroes with noble heads like that of the ,antinous1 and offered their contemporaries an adroit theatrical art1 a parade1 and a hollow pathos1 the incapable ,bifve never got beyond the painting of tableaux vivants laboriously presented4 ,terrible and of ,shakespearian impressiveness is the scene in which the half-famished ,ugolino hurls himself upon his son in an appalling ecstasy of frenzy1 a curse against ,god and man upon his lips4 ,upon the canvas1 six metres wide1 which ,bifve in #ahcf devoted to this theme1 there is represented an old gentleman1 who1 though certainly a little pale1 contrives to maintain in perfection the punctilious bearing of a cavalier1 and in the midst of his fasting cure has picturesquely draped round his shoulders an ermine mantle1 as if he had been asked out to dinner4 ,before him stands a young man1 possessing that graceful outline beloved of ,paul ,delaroche4 ,devria1 ,ary ,scheffer1 and ,johannot were better painters of such monumental illustrations of the classics4 ,as yet the shivering art of ,belgium had learnt only to warm itself at the ,parisian fireside4 ,even ,bifve's ,league of the ,nobles of the ,netherlands1 despite its national subject-matter1 was no more than a lucky hit1 which he owed to his long residence in ,paris4 ,and how tiresomely is the scene played out6 ,one would wish to catch the mutterings of insurrection from these men who personify the ,belgian people2 but ,bifve's picture is restful and dignified4 ,egmont and ,horn1 the lions of the occasion1 are conducting themselves like honest citizens who are bored at a party4 ,seated in his chair1 the handsome ,egmont thinks merely of showing his fine profile to the ladies in the gallery1 and ,horn1 who steps towards the table to make his signature1 does it with the elegance of a lover inscribing verses in a young lady's album4 ,three brothers with clasped hands swear the well-known oath to die together4 ,illustration3 ,bruyllant1 ,brussels4 ,,edouard ,,bi,,fve4 ,it is a little irony in the history of art that in #ahdb these two same pictures set all ,germany in tumult1 and diverted the whole stream of painting into a new course4 ,but how was it possible that the ,german painters stood before them as if struck by lightning8 ,it must be remembered that for a whole generation ,germany had seen nothing but coloured cartoons1 and that the enthusiasm for ,franco-,belgian art had been so prepared that the least touch was enough to set it in flames4 ,illustration3 ,bruyllant1 ,brussels4 ,,bi,,fve4 ,,the ,,league ,,of ,,the ,,nobles ,,of ,,the ,,netherlands4 ,since the wars of liberation ,germany had been very reserved in her attitude towards the ,french4 ,until the year #ahdb original works of the ,french and ,belgian school had never been hung in any ,german exhibition4 ,but in spite of this1 a high1 even enthusiastic1 appreciation of ,french and ,belgian painting was being spread1 especially amongst the younger generation4 ,even in engravings and lithographs after ,french pictures it was believed that qualities of colour were discoverable which were wanting in ,german painting4 ,heine and other authors1 who had wandered to ,paris1 the lofty tower of ,freedom1 to escape from the depressing condition of ,german affairs1 had done what in them lay for the dissemination of this cult4 ,the rising generation of the forties had been driven by ,heine's notices of the ,salon into an almost hostile attitude towards the dominant art schools of ,germany1 the schools of ,dsseldorf and ,munich4 ,the stylists on the ,isar and the sentimental elegiac painters on the ,rhine met with the same antipathy from the younger generation4 ,the appearance of the two ,belgian historical pictures1 which were really nothing more than offshoots of the great ,french school1 gave nourishment of doubled strength to this tendency to seek salvation in ,paris4 ,the ,german painters were startled out of contentment with their beloved cartoons1 and to many a man it seemed as if the scales had fallen from his eyes4 ,they perceived what an admirable thing it is that a painter should be able to paint4 ,what they could have learnt long before from any good old picture1 and in their turbulent enthusiasm for ideas had not learnt1 was made suddenly clear to them by these new paintings4 ,they came to the conclusion that it was impossible for ,god ,almighty to have poured light and colour over the objective world with the intention that painters should transform it into a world of shadowless contours4 ,they recognised that the style of cartoon work had led away from all painting1 and that it was therefore necessary to do honour once more to the despised handiwork and technique of art1 as the fundamental condition of its well-being4 ,however much the sthetic party might warn them not to renounce the ,reformation of painting1 which had been begun and perfected forty years before1 and not with modern technique to sink back into the pre-,cornelian1 ornamental model painting1 the demand for colour1 which had been so long neglected1 asserted its rights more and more loudly4 ,king ,ludwig's saying was repeated as though it were a new revelation3 ,the painter must be able to paint4 ,colour was the battle-cry of the day1 the battle-cry of youth1 to whom the world belongs4 ,in place of the ideal of contour came the ideal of hue and pigment4 ,cartoons1 in the sense of the old cartoon school1 no one would draw any longer4 ,to paint pictures1 finished pictures1 was the tendency of the day4 ,and since painting is to be learnt from the living only1 and such as could paint lived in ,germany no longer1 they packed their trunks1 and set out to learn from the go-ahead neighbour4 ,as ,rome had been hitherto1 so was ,paris now1 the high school of ,german art4 ,to ,paris6 and ,painting6 were the cries throughout all ,germany4 ,,chapter ,,xiv ,,the ,,revolution ,,of ,,the ,,german ,,colourists ,from #ahdb dates the pilgrimage of the ,german artists to ,paris1 ,antwerp1 and ,brussels4 ,in ,delaroche1 ,cogniet1 and ,couture1 in ,wappers and ,gallait1 they believed they could discover the secrets of art which were hidden from ,german teachers4 ,the history of art can scarcely offer another example of such a sudden overthrow of dogmas hitherto dominant by dogmas directly opposed to them4 ,during the first half of the century the painters of ,germany were pious men1 humorous1 witty1 and intelligent men2 they had a sharply cut profile1 and so enchained the multitude by their human qualities that nobody remarked how little they understood of their craft1 or that they were too superior to learn to draw correctly1 held colour unchaste1 and made virtues of all their failings4 ,the next generation was condemned to learn painting during the whole of its natural life4 ,the former were problematic natures3 beings who united with a ,titanic force of will an actual achievement which is hardly worth mentioning2 who regarded the mere handicraft of art as beneath their dignity2 who1 in their revelations to mankind1 were resolved to burden their spirit as little as possible with any sensuous expression of their genius1 and1 above all1 meant not to degrade themselves by the manual labour of learning to paint1 and thereby wasting their valuable time4 ,the latter were not ashamed of painting4 ,by devoting themselves with vehemence to the colouring and technique of oil-painting1 they accomplished the necessary revolution against the abstract idealism of the school of ,cornelius4 ,in their opulence of ideas the draughtsmen of cartoons had made a notch in the history of art by casting the technical tradition overboard4 ,to have reinstated this as far as they could1 with the aid of the ,french1 is the peculiar merit of the generation of #ahej4 ,rgle gnrale3 si vous rencontrez un bon peintre allemamd1 vous pouvez le complimenter en franais4 ,so runs the motto--not complimentary to ,germany1 but quite unassailable--which ,edmond ,about prefixed to his notices on the ,paris ,universal ,exhibition of #ahee4 ,anselm ,feuerbach was the first distinguished ,german artist who made the journey to ,paris with a proper knowledge of the necessity of this step4 ,in ,germany he was the greatest representative of that ,classicism of which the principal master in ,france was ,ingres1 and the continuator ,thomas ,couture4 ,and he succeeded in accomplishing that which the ,german ,classicists of the beginning of the century strove after in vain4 ,whilst they contented themselves with suggestions and an indeterminate symbolisation of poetical ideas after the ,greek writers1 ,german ,classicism achieved in ,feuerbach's ,symposium of ,plato a great1 noble1 and faultless work1 which will live4 ,he moved upon classic ground more naturally and freely and with more of the ,hellenic spirit than even the ,french4 ,for the classic genius was begotten in him1 and not inoculated from without4 ,in the ,vermchtniss the son calls his father's book the prophetic seal of his own original being4 ,he inherited the classic spirit from the enthusiastic scholar1 the subtile author of the ,vatican ,apollo1 to whom the genius of ,greece had so fully and completely revealed itself4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstngl4 ,,anselm ,,feuerbach4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself4 ,a remarkable nature3 philologer and dreamer1 ,german and ,greek1 one who rejoiced in beauty and in the life of the senses1 and whose proud muse strayed through life solitary and with leaden weights upon her feet1--such was ,anselm ,feuerbach1 and by that division of his being he was ruined4 ,equipped with a superior education1 an appearance of singular nobility1 and with proud family traditions1 he emerged like a shining meteor in ,dsseldorf1 when he began his career at the age of sixteen1 brilliant1 precocious1 and already a favourite amongst women4 ,this was in #ahde4 ,he ran through all the schools in ,germany1 ,belgium1 and ,france4 ,in regard to the living1 he believed himself to be indebted to the ,french alone1 and eagerly claimed the merit of having been the first to seek them out4 ,but it was in ,italy that he had passed through his novitiate as an artist4 ,a glorious hour it must have been when ,feuerbach1 full-blooded and dedicated to the worship of beauty1 entered ,venice in #ahee1 in company with that cheerful and convivial poet ,victor ,scheffel4 ,in the town of the lagoons1 whither he had come on a commission from the ,court of ,karlsruhe to copy the ,assumption of ,titian1 ,feuerbach made the second determining step of his life4 ,the third he made when his stipendium was withdrawn1 and1 full of youthful confidence in his luck and his good star1 he undertook his journey to ,rome4 ,illustration3 ,albert1 ,munich4 ,,feuerbach4 ,,hafiz ,,at ,,the ,,well4 ,illustration3 ,albert1 ,munich4 ,,feuerbach4 ,,pieta4 ,he was handsome1 small1 and refined1 and rather pale and spare--of that delicacy which in highly bred families is found in the last heirs with whom the race dies out--and he had dark locks which clustered wildly round his head4 ,the moulding of his features was feminine1 and his complexion southern2 his eyes1 shadowed by long lashes1 were brown1 sometimes fiery1 sometimes sad and earnest1 and his glance was swift4 ,he loved to sing ,italian songs to the guitar in his fine1 deep voice1 and ,boecklin and ,reinhold ,begas would join in4 ,the impressions he received in ,italy were formative of his life4 ,for he learnt to understand the divine simplicity and noble dignity of antique art better than ,couture was capable of understanding them2 and he achieved a simple amplitude to which the ,french ,classicism had never risen4 ,from his first works1 to which the ,dsseldorf egg-shell is still sticking1 down to the ,symposium of ,plato--what a route it is1 and through what phases he passes4 ,hafiz at the ,well1 surrounded by voluptuous1 half-naked girls1 painted at ,paris in #aheb1 was his first eminent achievement4 ,in subject it is a late fruit from ,daumer's study of ,hafiz3 as a work of art it is one of the most genuine products of the school of ,couture4 ,no other ,german artist has surrendered himself so entirely to the ,french4 ,with a large brush1 never losing sight of the complete effect1 ,feuerbach has painted his canvas1 almost for the sake of showing that he has assimilated everything that was to be learnt in ,paris4 ,the same influence preponderates in the ,death of ,pietro ,aretino1 done in #ahed4 ,but1 side by side with the ,parisian master1 the later ,venetians have an unmistakable share in this work4 ,the capacity to grasp things in a monumental largeness is already announced4 ,evidently ,feuerbach has studied ,paul ,veronese1 and realised how high he stands above the ,french painters4 ,at the same time he has examined the other ,venetians for their technique1 and discovered something which has appealed to him in ,bordone's colouring4 ,but ,dante walking with high-born ,ladies of ,ravenna1 finished at ,rome in #aheg1 was the ripest fruit of his ,venetian impressions4 ,in sunny warmth of colour1 fine golden tone1 and quiet simplicity of pictorial treatment1 no modern has come so near to ,palma and ,bordone4 ,and in ,dante's ,death1 of #aheh1 there predominates a still greater depth and golden glow1 a grave and devout beauty4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,feuerbach4 ,,iphigenia4 ,in the following works1 however1 ,feuerbach1 with a conscious purpose1 denies himself the quality to which the ,dante pictures owe a principal part of their powerful effect3 the mild glow1 the sunny beaming of colour4 ,he confines himself to a cool scheme of tone1 reduced to grey1 almost to the point of colourlessness2 to a glimmer of leaden blue1 a moonlight pallor4 ,at the same time he has concentrated the whole life of his figures in their inward being1 whilst every movement has been taken from their limbs4 ,even the expression of spiritual emotion in the eyes and features has been subdued in the extreme4 ,the ,piet1 both the ,iphigenias1 and the ,symposium of ,plato are the world-renowned proofs of the height of classic inspiration which he touched in ,italy4 ,measure1 nobility1 unsought and perfected loftiness characterise the ,piet1 that mother of the ,saviour who bows herself in silent agony over the body of her ,divine ,son1 and those three kneeling women1 whose silent grief is of such thrilling power1 precisely because of its emotionlessness4 ,for ,iphigenia ,feuerbach has given of his best4 ,she is in both examples--the first of #ahfb1 the second of #ahga--;a figure sublime beyond human measure1 grand like the figure of the ,greek tragedy4 ,but the ,symposium of ,plato will always assert its high value as one of the finest pictorial creations of an imagination nourished on the great art of the ancients1 and filled brimful with the splendour of the antique world4 ,there is nothing in it superfluous1 nothing accidental4 ,the noblest simplicity of speech1 a ,greek rhythm in all gradations1 the beautiful lines of bas-relief1 decisive colour and stringent form--that is the groundwork of ,feuerbach's art4 ,and through it there speaks a spirit preoccupied with greatness and heroism4 ,thus he created his ,medea in the ,munich ,pinakothek1 that picture of magnificent1 sombre melancholy that affects one like a monologue from a ,sophoclean tragedy4 ,thus he painted his ,battle of the ,amazons1 one of the few nude pictures of the century which possesses the perfectly unconcerned and unsexual nudity of the antique4 ,italy had set him free from all the insincere and calculated methods which had deformed ,french art since ,delaroche2 it had set him free from all theatrical sentiment1 by which he had accustomed himself to understand everything that was forced in costume1 pigment1 pose and movement1 light and scenery4 ,in the place of the ordinary treatment from the model1 with its set gestures and grimaces1 he gave an expression of form which was great1 simple1 and plastic4 ,his study seems to have been an incessant exercise of the eye1 to see and to hold fast to the essential1 to the great lines of nature as of the human body4 ,illustration3 ,albert1 ,munich4 ,,feuerbach4 ,,portrait ,,of ,a ,,roman ,,lady4 ,in the full possession of these powers1 which he acquired amid the elementary simplicity and heroic majesty of ,roman landscape by constant intercourse with the great painters of the past1 he determined in the summer of #ahgc to accept an invitation from the ,vienna ,academy4 ,his friends rejoiced4 ,at last this worker1 who had been abandoned in a foreign land1 seemed to have found in his native country a place which offered him a new life4 ,he was but little more than forty3 yet all was so soon to be over4 ,from ,rome he came to the restless capital which had just lived through the birththroes of a new epoch2 from the side of ,michael ,angelo to the side of ,makart6 ,the sketches for a series on the wars of the ,titans1 which he began after his arrival1 promised the greatest things4 ,they display a sureness and majesty which find no parallel in the ,german art of those years4 ,but they were destined never to be completed4 ,feeling himself1 like ,antus1 strong only on ,roman soil1 he lost his power in ,vienna4 ,reserved1 innately delicate1 a mystical1 ideal nature like that of ,faust1 and one which only with reluctance permitted to a stranger a glimpse of its inner being2 in his life1 as in his art1 high-bred and simple1 hating both as painter and as man everything overstrained or sentimental2 in his judgment harsh1 severe1 and uncompromising1 lonely and proud1 he was but little adapted to make friends for himself4 ,the indifference with which his study for the ,fall of the ,titans was received in the ,vienna ,exhibition wounded him mortally4 ,vienna1 which is so much disposed to laughter1 laughed4 ,criticism was rough and unfavourable4 ,he left ,vienna and went to ,venice4 ,the tragical fate of a party of voyagers1 drowned as they were playing and singing together on a night journey to the ,lido1 gave him the motive for his last picture1 ,the ,concert1 which was found unfinished after his death1 and came into the possession of the ,berlin ,national ,gallery4 ,on #dth ,january #ahhb he died1 alone in a ,venetian hotel4 ,hier ruht ,anselm ,feuerbach1 ,der im ,leben manches malte1 ,fern vom ,vaterlande1 ach1 ,das ihn immer schlecht bezahlte4 ,so runs the epitaph which he made for himself4 ,and posterity might alter it into-- ,hier ruht ein deutscher ,maler1 ,bekannt im deutschen ,land2 ,nennt man die besten ,namen1 ,wird auch der seine genannt4 ,however1 one must not go too far4 ,in familiar conversation ,feuerbach once said of himself that when the history of art in the nineteenth century came to be written1 mention would be made of him as of a meteor4 ,so isolated1 and so much out of connection with the artistic striving of his contemporaries1 did he believe himself to be1 that he held himself justified in saying3 ,believe me1 after fifty years my pictures will possess tongues1 and tell the world what ,i was and what ,i meant4 ,in truth1 he owes his resurrection less to his pictures than to the ,vermchtniss4 ,a book has opened the eyes of ,germany to ,feuerbach's greatness1 and since that time the worship of ,feuerbach has gone almost into extremes4 ,throughout his lifetime--like almost every great artist who has died before old age--he was handled by the ,press without much comprehension4 ,the critics blamed his grey tones1 the connoisseurs complained of his unpatriotic subjects or missed the presence of anecdote4 ,his admirers were the refined1 quiet people who do not praise at the top of their voices4 ,he never met with recognition1 and that poisoned his life4 ,it is generous of posterity to make up for the want of contemporary appreciation4 ,but when he is set up as a pioneer1 whose work pointed out the art of the future1 the judgment becomes one which a later posterity will subscribe to only with hesitation4 ,illustration3 ,,feuerbach4 ,,mother',s ,,joy4 ,feuerbach presents a problem for psychological rather than artistic analysis4 ,whoever has read the ,vermchtniss feels the personal element in these works1 sees in them the confessions of a proud1 unsatisfied1 and suffering soul1 and in their author no son of the ,renaissance born out of due season1 but a modern who has been agitated through and through by the dcadent fever4 ,in his book ,feuerbach appears as one of the first who felt to his inmost fibre all the intellectual and spiritual contradictions which are bred by the nineteenth century1 and who cherished them even with a sort of tenderness1 as contributing to a high and more subtilised condition of soul4 ,he was one of the first who1 in the same way as ,bourget and ,verlaine1 studied moral pathology under the microscope1 and who1 with a tired soul and worn-out feelings1 sought for the last refinement of simplicity4 ,and this weary resignations seems also to speak from his pictures4 ,not one of the old painters has this modern melancholy1 this air of dejection which hovers over his works4 ,even the ladies round ,dante are filled with that sadness which comes over youth on the evenings of sultry summer days1 when it is struck by a presentiment of the transitoriness of earthly things4 ,it is as if these figures would all some day or other vanish into the cloister1 or1 like ,iphigenia1 sit lonely upon the shore of a sea1 whither no ship should ever come to release them4 ,and it is certainly not by chance that ,iphigenia had such a hold upon the artist2 he repeatedly set himself to render her figure afresh1 and1 later1 ,medea steps beside her as the impersonation of the still more intense sense of desertion which filled the artist's spirit4 ,the woman of ,colchis1 who sits shivering on the shore of the sea1 chilled through and through by the consciousness of her abandonment2 the daughter of ,agamemnon1 who in spirit is seeking the land of the ,greeks1 with the boundless sea spreading wide and grey before her1 like her own yearning1--both are images of the lonely ,feuerbach1 who1 like ,hlderlin1 the ,werther of ,greece1 flies to a dreamy ,hellas as to a happy shore1 to find peace for his sick spirit4 ,his ,symposium of ,plato has not that exuberant sensuousness1 that mixture of esprit and voluptuousness1 of temperance and intemperance1 which marks the ,athenian life under ,pericles2 nor has it the ,olympian blitheness with which ,raphael would have executed the subject4 ,a breath of monkish asceticism is over every joy1 subduing it4 ,these ,greeks have tasted of the pains which ,christianity brought into the world4 ,or take his ,judgment of ,paris in ,hamburg4 ,nude women life-size1 ,loves1 southern landscape1 gay raiment1 golden vessels1 brilliant ornament1 beauty--those are the elements of the picture2 and how little have such words the power to render the impression6 ,but ,feuerbach's three goddesses have an uneasiness1 as if each one of them knew beforehand that she would not receive the apple2 ,paris is sitting just as cheerlessly there4 ,and by borrowing his loves from ,boucher1 ,feuerbach has shown the more sharply the opposition between the ,hellenic legend which he interprets and the funereal mien with which he does it4 ,the blitheness of the antique spirit is tempered by the sadness of the modern mind4 ,he tells these old myths as never a ,greek and never a master of the ,renaissance would have told them4 ,olympus is filled with mist1 with the colouring of the ,north1 with the melancholy of a later and more neurotic age1 the moods of which are for that very reason more rich in nuances--an age which is at once graver and more disturbed by problems than was the old ,hellas4 ,feuerbach's pictures are octaves in the language of ,tasso1 but of a repining lyrical mood which ,tasso would not have given them4 ,the brightest sunshine laughed over the ,greece of the ,renaissance2 over that of ,feuerbach there rests a rainy1 overcast ,november mood4 ,even works of his like the ,children on the ,sea-shore and the ,idyll reveal a pained and suffering conception of nature1 that tender and subdued spirit that ,burne-,jones has2 it is as if these blossoms of humanity were there to waste away in buds that never come to fruition1 as if it were no longer possible to breathe into creation the true joyousness of youth4 ,even the five girls1 making music out of doors1 in the picture ,in ,spring1 look like young widows1 putting the whole tenderness of their souls into elegiac complaints for their lost husbands4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstngl4 ,,feuerbach4 ,,medea4 ,to this resigned and mournful expression must be added the uncomfortable motionlessness of his figures4 ,they do not speak1 and do not laugh1 and do not cry2 they know no passions and sorrows which express themselves by the straining of the limbs4 ,everything bears the impress of sublime peace1 of that same peace by which the works of ,gustave ,moreau1 ,puvis de ,chavannes1 and ,burne-,jones are to be distinguished from the ecstatic and sentimental tirades of the ,romanticists4 ,in ,feuerbach's works this is the stamp of his own nature4 ,the antique beauty becomes shrouded in a mysterious veil2 and life is illuminated as by a mournful light1 which rests over bygone worlds4 ,what heart-rending keenness is often in the effect of the melancholy tinge of these subdued bluish tones6 ,that colour is the genuine expression of the temperament reveals itself clearly enough in ,feuerbach4 ,when he began his career1 his head full of ideals and his heart full of hopes1 his pictures exulted in a ,venetian splendour1 in full and luxuriant golden harmonies2 as joy after joy was shipwrecked in the stream of time they became leaden1 sullen1 and corpse-like4 ,as ,frans ,hals in his last days1 when his fellow-creatures allowed him only the bare necessities of life1 accorded to the figures in his pictures only so much colour as would give them the appearance of living human beings2 as ,rembrandt's magical golden tone changed in the sad days of his bankruptcy into a sullen1 monotonous brown1 so a deep sadness broods over the pictures of ,feuerbach1--something that savours of memory and remorse1 the mournful atmosphere and dark mood of evening which the bat loves4 ,even as a colourist he has the melancholy lassitude of the end of the century4 ,that is what distinguishes him from his contemporaries4 ,the other idealists of those years painted their pictures without hesitation and with the facility of a professor of calligraphy2 they remembered1 arranged their reminiscences1 and rubbed their hands with self-complacency when they came near their model4 ,they did not yet feel the throb of the nineteenth century1 and impersonality was their note4 ,feuerbach1 the neurotic brooder1 was a personality4 ,after a long mortification1 the human spirit1 the living1 suffering1 human spirit1 celebrated its renaissance in his works4 ,under its influence the jejune painting of prettiness practised by others was changed to modern pessimism and sorrowful resignation4 ,the more he gave way to these moods the more modern he became1 the more he was ,feuerbach and the further he departed from the works of art which were regarded by his contemporaries and himself as eternal exemplars4 ,he has been reproached with oddities and strange eccentricities4 ,the critics reminded him how far he departed from the lines of his models2 indignantly they asked him why he1 the pale1 delicate1 sick1 neurotic1 and overstrained man1 the uncertain1 faltering1 and tortured spirit1 did not paint like the blithe1 improvising ,raphael1 like the jubilant and convivial ,veronese1 like the sensuous1 exuberant ,rubens4 ,and ,feuerbach himself becomes perplexed4 ,like ,gros in ,france1 he is conscious both of his strength and his weakness4 ,he does not stand sovereign above the old painters1 like ,boecklin and those other idealists of the present4 ,he runs through life in ever fresh astonishment at the novelty which is revealed to him in the works of earlier centuries4 ,the nerves of this latter day vibrate1 the blood of the nineteenth century throbs in him--yet he has the wish to imitate4 ,the history of every one of his works is a fight1 a desperate struggle1 between the individuality of the artist1 his own inward feeling1 and the absolute ,beauty which hovered beyond him cold and unpliable4 ,in his first drawings he begins boldly2 one knows his hand and says3 ,only ,feuerbach can have done that4 ,and then one is able to trace1 step by step1 and from sketch to sketch1 what pains he takes that the finished picture may be as little of a ,feuerbach as possible4 ,the personal and individual element in the drawings is lost1 what is ,feuerbachian in the composition1 the personal contribution of the artist1 is effaced1 and finally there is produced in the picture the marvellous look of having been painted by a genuine old ,venetian as a ghost4 ,and ,feuerbach felt the dissonance4 ,he feels that he fully expresses himself no more1 and also that he does not reach the level of the old masters4 ,he adds borrowed1 conventional figure1 like the ,boucher ,cupids in the ,judgment of ,paris--figures against which every fibre of his being revolts--just to arrive at an outward resemblance to the old pictures1 an impression of exultation and joyousness and the spirit of the ,renaissance4 ,and when he stands opposite his work he seems to himself like a gravedigger in a harlequin's jacket4 ,he scrutinises himself in despair1 and one day comes to feel that his power of production is exhausted4 ,splendid and unapproachable1 from the walls of the galleries1 the art of the classic masters stares him in the face2 and he enters into a dramatic life-and-death struggle with it4 ,he will not be ,feuerbach1 and cannot become a ,classic4 ,the curtain falls and the tragedy is over4 ,such destinies have been before in the world1 no doubt2 but in our time they have multiplied1 and seem so much the sadder because they never come to the average man1 but only to great and peculiarly gifted natures4 ,illustration3 ,albert1 ,munich4 ,,feuerbach4 ,,dante ,,walking ,,with ,,high-,,born ,,ladies ,,of ,,ravenna4 ,these matters--a silent historical sermon--one reads1 with the help of the ,vermchtniss1 out of ,feuerbach's works4 ,there his pictures possess tongues2 there comes out of them a sound like the cry of a human heart2 the whole tragedy of his career becomes present--what he succeeded in doing and what remained unapproachable4 ,yet later generations1 which will judge him no longer psychologically1 but only as an artist1 generations with which he no longer stands in touch through his ethical greatness1 will they also feel this in the presence of his finished pictures8 ,to them will he be pioneer or imitator1 forerunner or continuator8 ,will he take his place by ,boecklin and ,watts1 or by ,couture and ,ingres8 ,it is perhaps a happy chance that in the history of art one sometimes stumbles upon personalities that mock at all chemical analysis4 ,feuerbach1 at any rate1 is a great figure in the ,german art of these years4 ,his is a high-bred1 aristocratic art1 free from any illustrative undertone1 and from loud and motley colour4 ,it is true that his figures also pose1 but never clumsily or without expression1 never theatrically4 ,at a time when declamation was universal he did not declaim1 at least he never did so with a forced pathos2 and it is principally this which gives him a very high and special place amongst the ,german painters of the transitional period4 ,he is always simple1 grave1 majestic4 ,everything that he does has style1 and that makes him so peculiar in an art which is so often petty4 ,illustration3 ,,henneberg4 ,,the ,,race ,,for ,,fortune4 7,by permission of the ,berlin ,photographic ,co41 the owners of the copyright47 ,but a different judgment is formed when one compares him with the ,french and the old masters4 ,a meteor ,feuerbach was not2 for he stood on the ground of the ,couture school1 and raised himself later to yet greater simplicity1 going back to purer sources1 to the ,venetians and the ,romans4 ,he is more austere and manly than ,couture1 but he is1 as he stands in his finished pictures1 a ,roman of the ,cinquecento1 who has been in ,venice2 not an original genius of the nineteenth century1 like ,boecklin4 ,boecklin paints the antique figures in their eternal fulness and youth2 but he is quite modern in sentiment and in his highly developed technique4 ,feuerbach in regard to technique stands now on ,french soil1 now on ,venetian or ,roman2 and in his sentiment he is an imitator of the ,cinquecentists1 or1 if you will1 a phenomenon of atavism4 ,his writings and drawings show him concerned with the present1 his paintings with the past4 ,the modern temperament1 artistically restrained1 breaks out no more1 the nerves have no rle1 no human sound is forced from his figures4 ,he learnt through the spectacles of the great old masters to look away from everything petty in life1 but he never laid those spectacles down4 ,this modern man1 who was so neurotic as a writer1 sought as a painter1 for the sake of the ideal1 to have no nerves at all4 ,before many of his pictures one wishes for a fire2 they make an effect so cold that one shivers4 ,the quality in them which calls for boundless admiration is his splendid artistic earnestness4 ,there speaks out of them a sacred peace4 ,yet1 when he is set up as a pioneer1 it must never be forgotten that he is not self-sufficient as1 shall we say1 ,millet1 but has attained his majesty of conception only in the leading-strings of masterpieces of a great period1 and precisely in the leading-strings of those masterpieces from the numbing influence of which modern art was forced to set itself free1 before it could come to the consciousness of itself4 ,illustration3 ,,gustav ,,richter4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,himself4 ,together with ,feuerbach--and having1 like him1 previously received enlightenment as to colouring at the ,antwerp ,academy--,victor ,mller1 of ,frankfort1 had gone to ,couture in #ahdi4 ,he resided until #aheh on the banks of the ,seine1 and was especially influenced by ,delacroix1 and perhaps also a little affected by ,courbet4 ,at least his ,wood ,nymph--a voluptuous woman lying in a wood--which first made him known in ,germany in #ahfc1 seems but little removed from the healthy realism and exuberant vigour of the master of ,ornans4 ,otherwise1 like ,delacroix1 he has occupied himself almost exclusively with ,shakespeare4 ,hamlet at the ,grave of ,yorick1 ,ophelia1 ,romeo and ,juliet1 ,hero and ,leander1 were pictures of a deep1 sonorous glow of colour2 the characters in them were seized with great intellectual concentration1 and the surrounding landscape filled with that sombre poetry of nature which in the hands of ,delacroix so mystically heightens the impression of human tragedies4 ,victor ,mller was of a bold1 uncompromising talent1 full of southern glow and wild ,romanticism2 a powerful1 forcible realist1 who never sought the empty1 sentimental1 ideal beauty known to his age4 ,in a period dominated almost from end to end by a jejune and rounded beauty1 he gives pleasure by a healthy1 refreshing ugliness4 ,all the heads in his pictures were painted after nature with a religious devoutness2 painted by a man who openly loved the youthful works of ,riberas and ,caravaggio4 ,and just as surprising is the power of expression1 the deep and earnest sentiment1 which he attained in gestures and physiognomy4 ,while ,makart1 in his balcony scene from ,romeo and ,juliet1 never got away from a hollow1 theatrical affectation1 ,mller's picture glows throughout with a sensuous passion that saps the blood4 ,a new ,delacroix seemed to have been born2 an extraordinary talent seemed to be rising above the horizon of our art1 but ,germany had to follow to the grave her greatest offshoot of ,romanticism before he had spoken a decisive word1 just as she lost ,rethel1 the greatest son of the cartoon era1 in the flower of his age4 ,of the others who made the pilgrimage to ,paris with ,feuerbach and ,mller1 not one has a similar importance as an artist4 ,their merit was that they made themselves comparatively able masters of technique1 and taught the new gospel when they returned to ,germany4 ,to their superiority in technique and colour1 given them by a sound ,french schooling1 they owed their brilliant success in the fifties4 ,they were1 at the time1 the best ,german painters1 and great at a time when ability was novel and infrequent4 ,as soon as it became customary and commonplace1 there remained little to raise them above the average4 ,illustration3 ,,richter4 ,a ,,gipsy4 ,that is true of the entire ,berlin school of the fifties and sixties4 ,the most independent of the many artists who journeyed from the ,spree to the ,seine is1 probably1 ,rudolf ,henneberg1 who died young4 ,his technique he owed to ,couture1 in whose studio he worked from #ahea1 and his subject-matter to the ,german classical authors4 ,born a ,brunswicker1 he felt himself specially attracted by his countryman ,brger1 and became a ,northern ballad painter with ,french technique4 ,movement1 animation1 wildness1 and a certain romantic eeriness1 proper to the ,northern ballad--these are ,henneberg's prominent features1 as they are ,brger's4 ,his pictures have a bold caprice and a peculiarly powerful and sombre poetry4 ,the hunting party storm past irresistibly1 like a whirlwind1 in his ,wild ,hunt1 the illustration to ,brger's ballad1 which in #ahef won him the gold medal in ,paris4 ,und hinterher bei ,knall and ,klang ,der ,tross mit ,hund und ,ross und ,mann4 ,a ,dsseldorfian ,romanticism1 from the ,wolf's ,glen1 is united to ,couture's nobleness of colouring in his ,criminal from ,lost ,honour1 of #ahfj4 ,and a part--even if only a small one--of the spirit which created ,drer's ,the ,knight1 ,death1 and the ,devil lives in his masterpiece ,the ,race for ,fortune1 a picture breathed on by the spirit of sombre1 medival ,romanticism1 which made his name the most honoured in the ,exhibition of #ahfh4 ,illustration3 ,,schrader4 ,,cromwell ,,at ,,whitehall4 ,the negation of power1 an almost feminine painter of no distinctive character1 a new edition of ,winterhalter1 was ,gustav ,richter4 ,his popularity is connected with the fisher-boys and odalisques1 the reproduction of which every sempstress at one time used to wear on her brooch1 while in printed colours they added splendour to all the bonbon and handkerchief boxes4 ,the accomplished workmanship and sparkling treatment of material which he acquired in ,paris made him in #ahfj1 after ,eduard ,magnus had made his exit1 the most famous painter of feminine beauty4 ,a pleasure-loving man of the world1 elegant in appearance1 fame1 honour1 and distinction were showered upon him1 and he became the shining spoilt darling of society1 the central point of an extensive and animated convivial intercourse4 ,his works were carried out in a style which1 at that time1 had not been learnt in ,berlin1 and had an air of ,court life which was held to be exceedingly fashionable4 ,it was later that the banal emptiness and insipid taste of his toilette portraits first became obvious1 and that their everlastingly sweet and doll-like smirk1 and their kind and winning eyes1 always the same1 began to grow tiresome4 ,in all his life-size chromolithographs there is a distinction of build and appearance1 which in the originals was perhaps to have been desired1 although the originals unquestionably looked like something that was more human and individual4 ,in riper years1 after the happiness of family life had been given him1 he executed works which assure his name a certain endurance2 this he did in some of his family portraits1--for instance1 in those of his boys and his wife4 ,to this last period belongs the ideal portrait of the ,baroness ,ziegler as ,queen ,louisa1 which became such a popular picture in ,prussia4 ,but ,richter's great compositions1 which once charmed the visitors at exhibitions1 are now forgotten4 ,in ,jairus's ,daughter--admired in #ahef as a fine performance in colouring--what strikes one now that its colouring has long been surpassed is the inadequacy and theatricality of its characterisation1 the outward show1 and the banality of this handsome young man who performs his miracle with a declamatory pose4 ,the ,building of the ,pyramids1 painted for the ,maximilianeum in ,munich1 with its swarming crowd of dark-coloured people1 and the royal pair come to inspect with an endless train1 is a gigantic ethnographical picture-sheet1 which did not repay the expenditure of twelve long years of work4 ,in ,paris ,otto ,knille learnt to approach huge canvas and wall spaces with fearlessness1 and by executing the many monumental commissions which fell to his share in ,prussia1 he put this ,french talent to usury in a manner which was as blameless as it was uninteresting4 ,some good paintings by ,julius ,schrader1 such as the historical pictures with which his fame is associated1 have remained fresh for a longer period4 ,the ,death of ,leonardo da ,vinci1 as well as the ,surrender of ,calais to ,edward ,,iii1 ,wallenstein and ,seni at their ,astrological ,studies1 ,the ,dying ,milton1 and ,charles ,i parting from his ,children1 are only a collection of what the ,parisian studios had transmitted to him4 ,delaroche and the illustrative and theatrical painting of history1 having gone the rounds in ,belgium1 in the next decade demanded their sacrifice in ,germany4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,lessing4 ,,the ,,hussite ,,sermon4 ,here also similar political and literary conditions were prescribed4 ,a backward people1 uncontent with itself1 pined for deeds and glory4 ,through the presentment of the great dramas of the past the spirit of the present was to be quickened1 as a relaxed body by massage4 ,here also the knowledge of history levelled the ground for painting1 as it did in ,france4 ,while1 in the imagination of the ,romanticists1 different ages melted dreamily into each other1 and the ,hohenstauffen period1 because of its tender melancholy character1 gave the keynote for all ,german history1 the scientific writing of history had1 since the thirties1 entered as a power into literature4 ,schlosser began his ,universal-historische ,uebersicht der ,geschichte der alten ,welt1 which swelled to nine volumes1 and represented with a completeness hitherto unapproached the civilisation of antiquity4 ,his history of the eighteenth century was a still greater departure1 for1 after the example of ,voltaire1 he included manners1 science1 and literature in his account of political events4 ,on the uncompromising subjectivity of ,schlosser followed the scientific objectivity of ,ranke1 who1 a master of the criticism of sources1 delineated with delicate1 silver-point portraits the ,papacy after the ,reformation1 the ,french ,court1 the policy of the princes of the age of the ,reformation1 ,cromwell1 and the heroes of the rising power of ,prussia4 ,luden1 ,giesebrecht1 ,leo1 ,hurter1 ,dahlmann1 ,gervinus1 and many others began their great labours4 ,german painting1 like ,french1 sought to take advantage of the results of these scientific investigations2 and ,schnaase was the first who1 in the ,kunstblatt in #ahcd1 described historical painting as the pressing demand of the age1 and the cultivation of the historical sense in such a disconsolate epoch as a truly religious necessity4 ,soon afterwards ,vischer began to preach historical painting as a new gospel4 ,history1 he says1 is the revelation of ,god4 ,his ,being is revealed in it as much as in the sacred writings of religion4 ,historical painting is therefore the completion and full exemplification of those principles which1 five centuries back1 in ,giotto1 led to the movement of the new ,christian painting4 ,it is called forth by the development of all forms of life and knowledge1 and is the last and highest step which sacred painting is able to reach3 it is the final completion of sacred painting itself4 ,who represents the ,holy ,ghost with more dignity8 ,he who paints ,him as a dove upon a sheaf of sunbeams1 or he who places before me a great and lofty man1 a ,luther or a ,huss in the flame of divine enthusiasm8 ,something of the sort had been in the mind of ,strauss when he advocated the worship of genius as a substitute for religion4 ,the infidel idealistic painting and satire had been followed by a religious art which evaporated in ,nazareanism2 pure history in boots and spurs was next preached as a religion4 ,we stand1 says ,hotho in his history of ,german and ,netherlandish painting1 with our knowledge1 culture1 and insight1 on a summit from which we overlook the whole past4 ,the ,orient1 ,greece and ,rome1 the ,middle ,ages1 the ,reformation1 and modern times1 with their religion1 literature1 and art1 their deeds and their life1 spread like a universal panorama before us2 and it is one that we must grasp with a universal feeling for the distinctiveness of every people1 of every epoch1 and of every character4 ,in this fashion to bury one's self in the past1 to get at the most essential meaning of its life by knowledge1 to awaken what is dead1 and by art to renew what is vanished1 and thus to elevate the present to the level of the still living1 kindred ,mnemosyne of the past1 such is the vivifying work of our time2 and to that work its best powers must be devoted4 ,illustration3 ,,carl ,,piloty4 ,the first who worked with these principles in ,germany was ,lessing4 ,he was a great landscape painter1 and a clever and amiable man1 whose house in ,karlsruhe was for many years a meeting-place for the polite world1 and every beginner1 every young man of talent1 visited it to seek protection4 ,during the winter of #ahcb-cc ,menzel's ,geschichte der ,deutschen fell into his hands4 ,in it he read the story of ,huss and the ,hussites1 and with ,the ,hussite ,sermon he soon afterwards began the sequence of pictures which had as their theme the battle between ,church and ,state1 the struggle of the ,popes with the ,emperors1 the conflict between binding tradition and free personal conviction--a sequence to be viewed in connection with the opposition between authority and freedom which had actually arisen through ,strauss' ,life of ,jesus4 ,huss before the ,council1 ,huss on his ,way to the ,stake1 ,the ,burning of the ,papal ,ban1 were found on their appearance exceedingly seasonable by the orthodox1 ,protestant side4 ,for people were determined to see in them1 at one time1 the protests of a ,protestant against the ,catholic art tendencies of the ,nazarenes1 at another1 biting epigrams on the ,catholic and pietistic bias1 ruling in ,prussia under ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,,iv4 ,they are of historical interest in so far as ,lessing1 before the period of ,french influence1 anticipated in them the path on which the ,german historical painting--whose centre through ,piloty came to be ,munich--moved in the following years4 ,illustration3 ,,piloty4 ,,girondists ,,on ,,the ,,road ,,to ,,the ,,guillotine4 7,by permission of the ,berlin ,photographic ,co41 owners of the copyright47 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,piloty4 ,,under ,,the ,,arena4 ,piloty's glory is to have planted the banner of colour on the citadel of the idealistic cartoon drawers4 ,true1 it was only the discarded fleshings of ,delaroche2 but since he possessed1 side by side with a solid ability1 pedagogic capacities of the first rank1 and thus brought to ,german art1 in his own person1 all the qualities which it had wanted during half a century1 his appearance was none the less most important in its consequences4 ,even to-day1 beside ,kaulbach's ,jerusalem and ,schnorr's ,deluge in the new ,pinakothek1 his ,seni is indicative of the beginning of a new period4 ,before him the most celebrated men of the ,munich school made a boast of not being able to paint1 and looked down upon the colourers with a contemptuous shrug2 so here everything was attained which the young generation had admired in ,gallait and ,bifve4 ,this astounding revelation of colour was in #ahee praised in ,germany as something unheard of and absolutely perfect4 ,there was no more of the petty1 motley1 bodyless painting which had hitherto been dominant4 ,the manner in which the grey of morning falls upon the murdered man in the eerie chamber1 the way the clothes and the silken curtains glimmer1 were things which enchanted artists1 whilst the lay public philosophised with the thoughtful ,seni over the greatness of heroes and the destiny of the world4 ,at one bound ,piloty took rank as the first ,german painter2 he was the future1 and he became the leader to whom young ,munich looked up with wonder4 ,before him no one had known how to paint a head1 a hand1 or a boot in such a way4 ,no one could do so much1 and by virtue of this technical strength he founded such a school as ,munich had never yet seen4 ,the consequence of his advent was that the town could soon boast of many painters who thoroughly understood their business4 ,what an academical professor can give his pupils 7thorough groundwork in drawing and colour71 that the young generation received from ,piloty1 who at his death might have said with more right than ,cornelius3 ,we have left a better art than we found4 ,he who discovered and guided so many men of talent1 left behind him when he died a well-drilled generation of painters2 and far beyond the boundaries of ,munich they assure him the honourable title of a preceptor of ,germany4 ,the ,munich movement does not offer the example of passionate and embittered battles1 like those which the ,parisian ,romanticists maintained against the ,classicists of the school of ,david4 ,the guard did not die1 but surrendered1 and retired into an otium cum dignitate4 ,without a contest the ground was left to the new generation1 which was united by no bond of tradition with that which had just been driven from the field2 it was left to an unphilosophic1 unpoetic generation1 whose only endeavour was to bind together the threads of technical art which had been torn by unalterable circumstances4 ,this revolution was accomplished with almost unnatural swiftness4 ,in the lifetime of ,cornelius himself the ,franco-,belgian dogma of colour reached its end and summit in ,makart1 with whom colour is an elementary power1 overflowing and levelling everything with the might of absolutism4 ,in the same year that ,cornelius died ,the ,pest in ,florence made its tour through the world4 ,already ,schwind and ,steinle1 those two children of ,vienna1 had separated themselves from the thoughtful stringency of form and plastic clearness of their ,german comrades1 by a certain coloured and lyrically musical element in their work4 ,and now also it was an ,austrian who again habituated the colour-blind eyes of the ,germans to the splendour of pigment4 ,michael ,angelo's expression of form1 as it had been imitated by ,cornelius1 was opposed by the colour-symphonies of the ,venetians3 drapery and jewels1 brocade and velvet1 and the voluptuous forms of women4 ,illustration3 ,,hans ,,makart4 ,hans ,makart was a genius most picturesque in his mode of life4 ,whether this life was enacted in his studio1 fitted up like a ballroom1 in the ,ring-,strasse1 converted into a stage1 or upon his canvas1 everything was transformed for him into decoration gleaming with colour4 ,and through this delight in colour the most important impulses were given in the most diverse provinces of life4 ,against the dowdy lack of taste and the harsh gaiety of ladies' fashions in that era he set his distinguished costume pictures1 carried out in iridescent satin tones2 and the enterprising modistes translated them into fact4 ,the ,makart hat1 the ,makart roses1 the ,makart bouquet--very old-fashioned1 no doubt1 at the present time--were disseminated over the world4 ,under the influence of ,makart the whole province of the more artistic trades was regarded from a pictorial point of view4 ,oriental carpets1 heavy silken stuffs1 ,japanese vases1 weapons and inlaid furniture1 became henceforth the principal elements of decoration4 ,the fashionable world surrounded itself with brilliant colours2 papers were supplemented by portires and ,gobelins1 ceilings were painted1 and gay umbrellas stood in the fireplace4 ,the bald1 honest city-alderman style gave way1 and a bright triumph of colour took its place4 ,in the studio of the master were the finest blossoms of all epochs of art2 richly ornamented ,german chests of the ,renaissance stood near ,chinese idols and ,greek terra-cotta1 ,smyrna carpets and ,gobelins1 and old ,italian and ,netherlandish pictures were mingled with antique and medival weapons4 ,and amid this rich still-life of splendid vessels1 weapons1 sculpture1 and costly stuffs and costumes1 which crowded all the walls and corners1 there rose to the surface as further pieces of decoration a velvet coat1 a pair of riding breeches1 and a smart pair of ,wallenstein boots4 ,their wearer was a little man with a black beard1 two piercing dark eyes1 and one of those splendid broad-browed heads which are universally accepted as the sign of genius4 ,makart's pictures are similar studies of still-life out of which human figures rise to the surface4 ,one hears the rustle of silk and satin1 and the crackle of costly robes of brocade2 one sees velvet door-hangings droop in heavy folds1 but the figures which have their being in the midst are merely bodies and not souls1 flesh and no bones1 colour and no drawing4 ,sometimes he draws better and sometimes worse1 but never well4 ,and therefore he seems unspeakably small by the side of the old ,venetians1 who in such representation combined a highly developed knowledge of form with luxuriant brilliancy of colour4 ,but even his colour1 that flaunting1 piquant1 bituminous painting derived from ,delaroche1 which once threw all ,germany into ecstasies1 no longer awakes any cordial enthusiasm2 and the fault is only partially due to the rapid decay1 the sadly dilapidated appearance of his pictures4 ,there is not much more remaining of them than of that shining festal procession which for a forenoon set the streets of ,vienna in uproar4 ,tone and colouring have not become finer and more mellow with the years1 as in old ,gobelins1 but ever more spotty and dead4 ,and even if they had remained fresh1 would they yet appeal to the present generation1 so much more discriminating in their appreciation of colour8 ,makart1 so much lauded as a painter of flesh1 was never really able to paint flesh at all4 ,his feminine flesh tints are often bloodlessly white1 and often tinged by an unpleasant1 sugary rose hue4 ,the fresh fragrance of life is not to be found in his figures1 for they have been begotten1 not by contact with nature1 but by commerce with old pictures4 ,he was often reproached with immorality by the prudish critics of earlier years2 ,heaven knows how stagnant and stereotyped this nudity seems in the present day1 and how tame this sensuousness1 even when one's thoughts do not happen to have been raised to the great1 carnal1 and divine sensuousness of ,rubens4 ,like ,robert ,hamerling1 allied to him by his intoxication in colour1 ,makart had a great momentary success2 but1 like the former1 the brilliancy of his work has swiftly paled1 and it is now seen how poor and sickly was the theme hidden behind the lavish instrumentation4 ,because a correct and solid anatomy was wanting to his creations from their birth upwards1 they can live no longer now that their blooming flesh is withered4 ,in fact1 ,makart's painting was a weakly and superficial art4 ,he had a sense for nothing but what was external4 ,it is said that in ,chile there are huge and splendid faades on which are written ,museo ,nacional1 ,theatro ,nacional1 and there is nothing behind4 ,and so for ,makart the world was a house with a splendid faade glowing with colour1 but without dwelling-rooms in which the sorrow and joy of humanity make their abode4 ,his men do not think and do not live2 they are only lay figures for splendid garments1 or materially circumscribed spaces of rosy flesh colour2 they make a stuffed1 brainless1 animal effect4 ,all his women heave up their eyes in the same meaningless fashion1 and have a vapid1 doll-like trait about their white teeth1 laid bare as if for the dentist4 ,it makes no difference whether they are meant to be portraits or merely embody a feminine plastic lyricism4 ,it was not wise of ,makart to paint a portrait4 ,he might drape his original after ,palma ,vecchio1 after ,rubens or ,rembrandt1 as ,semiramis or a ,japanese2 his intellectual incapacity remained always the same2 the poetry of the psychical nature evaporated from his art4 ,illustration3 ,,makart4 ,,the ,,espousals ,,of ,,catterina ,,cornaro4 ,but all that cannot alter the fact that ,makart takes a very high place amongst his contemporaries1 in that epoch dominated by the historical painting1 and not yet arrived at an original conception of nature4 ,poussin said of ,raphael3 if you compare him with the moderns he is an eagle1 but if you place him by the ,greeks he is a sparrow4 ,so when one thinks of ,veronese or ,rubens1 one finds on ,makart the feathers of a sparrow1 but amongst his contemporaries in ,germany he seems like an eagle4 ,while all those from whom he derived1 those ,pilotys1 ,gallaits1 and ,delaroches1 were no more than skilled historians in painting1 ,makart1 though much tamer and smaller1 has a relationship with ,delacroix in his sovereign artistry4 ,that joy in the purely pictorial which expressed itself in the festal procession in the ,ring-,strasse and in the furnishing of his studio was1 moreover1 the ground-principle of his art4 ,with the navet of the old masters he has boldly set himself above all historical truth2 with absolute want of respect for books of history he has committed anachronisms at which any critic would be irritated4 ,revelling in splendid revelations of colour1 all that he concerned himself about was that his costumed figures should render a fine harmony of hues4 ,so exclusively was his eye organised for colour that every picture was first conceived by him on the palette as a luxuriant mass of colour1 and he invented afterwards the theme which was proper for it4 ,if ,delaroche transformed painting into the flat1 sober1 and scientifically pedantic illustration of history1 ,makart gave it again a bright and splendid play of colour4 ,the ,nazarenes were philosophers and theosophers1 the ,romanticists revelled in lyrical sentiment4 ,kaulbach was a philosophic historical student of the ,hegelian school1 ,piloty a prosaic and declamatory professor of history1 ,makart was the first ,german painter of the century4 ,his personages weary themselves out in the enjoyment of their own dazzling outward personality4 ,free as the ancients with their gods and legends1 he pours forth his ,cupids1 beautiful women1 genii1 ,bacchantes1 and historical figures1 and at the same time draws into his kingdom of art all nature with its variety of plants1 flowers1 and fruits1 all civilisation with its fulness of splendid vessels and jewels1 of shining stuffs1 emblems1 weapons1 and masks4 ,all that he created breathes the nave1 sensuous satisfaction of the genuine painter4 ,the ,pest in ,florence undoubtedly had its origin in ,boccaccio's description of the great epidemic which visited the town on the ,arno2 but the picture is a free fantasy of sensuous enjoyment and naked flesh1 a colour symposium in which there really lives an atom of the flaming vital energy of ,rubens4 ,take ,the ,espousals of ,catterina ,cornaro1 that gay procession of representatives from ,cyprus and ,venice1 of dignified men1 of procurators of ,st4 ,mark1 of women in foreign garb1 of bright colour1 who crowd round their young mistress1 the queen of the feast1 rejoicing amid the splendid architecture of the piazza4 ,to the anger of the historian1 he removes the scene from the fifteenth century to the blossoming period of the sixteenth1 when the creations of ,sansovino1 ,titian1 and ,veronese adorned the ,queen of the ,adriatic4 ,the ,entry of ,charles ,v into ,antwerp derived only its external impulse from ,drer's ,diary4 ,the picture with the naked girls strewing flowers might almost as well represent the triumphal entry of ,alexander into ,babylon4 ,in the magic land by the ,nile it is not the history of civilisation and ethnography that attracts him1 nor the monumental world of the pyramids and the temples of the gods1 but the sensuous glow of southern nature and the still-life and artistic accessories out of which the beautiful serpent ,cleopatra is seen to rise4 ,female bodies1 animals1 and fruits1 set in the midst of rich1 luxuriant landscapes1 painted with oil and bitumen1 such are the elements of which his pictures of the old world of legend--the hunt of the ,amazons and of ,diana--are composed4 ,with these capacities ,makart was scenical painter par excellence4 ,his ,abundantia pictures in the ,munich ,pinakothek and the ceiling-pieces of the ,palais ,tumba in ,vienna are among his best creations4 ,there lives in them something of the ,olympian blitheness of the ancients1 of that easy joyousness which since ,tiepolo seemed to have been buried in melancholy reflection and constrained brooding4 ,they fulfil their purpose1 as an invitation to the enjoyment of life1 precisely because they carry no intrinsic thought to burden the sensuous display4 ,moreover1 the unctuous and gorgeous colouring1 with the animated contrasts of warm brown and light blue1 mediated by the deep1 glowing ,makart red1 corresponds to the mood they have been designed to awaken--one which called forth the joy of life1 luxuriant1 full-blooded1 and foaming over4 ,the great1 fiery red flower1 which sprouts out of the ground at the feet of the nymph in ,spring1 was the last thing touched by ,makart's brush1 the last flare of the marvellous colour-demon by which he was possessed4 ,illustration3 ,,makart4 ,,the ,,feast ,,of ,,bacchus4 ,was possessed6 ,for ,makart's whole artistic endeavour had something unconscious4 ,one might say in a variant reading from ,lessing3 ,if ,makart had been born without a brain he would nevertheless have been a great painter4 ,it is as if one who lies buried in ,antwerp had once more felt the instinct of production1 and let himself down into the great head of the little ,salzburger2 and the head1 being a somewhat imperfect medium1 only stammered out the intentions of the sublime master4 ,there is something remarkable in the career of this son of the poor servant1 on whom fortune showered with full hands all it had to offer a child of the nineteenth century1 and who in the midst of his splendour in ,vienna remained always the same harmless child of nature that he had been in ,munich1 when1 after receiving his first hundred florins1 he drove in a cab the two steps from ,oberpollinger to the ,academy4 ,one must take him as he is--a product of nature4 ,makart was a scene painter1 and that not in his scenical pictures only2 but he was an inspired scene painter1 of an enviable facility1 who poured forth in play what others fabricate with pains4 ,his merit it is to have announced to the ,germans afresh1 in an overwhelming style1 that revelation of colour which had been forgotten since the ,venetians and ,rubens4 ,he has not advanced the history of art1 as such4 ,what he gave had been given better before4 ,but the history of ,german art in the nineteenth century has to honour in him the most perfect representative of the period in which colour-blindness was succeeded by exuberance of colour1 and the cartoon style by the delight in painting4 ,illustration3 ,,gabriel ,,max4 ,graphische ,kunst4 ,beside ,makart1 the child of nature1 ,gabriel ,max's seems a calculating1 tormented1 unhealthy talent4 ,in the manner in which ,makart did his work there lay a certain elementary1 logical necessity2 in ,max there is a great deal of speculation and over-refinement4 ,makart's home was the town on the lagoons4 ,max is by education and temperament a disciple of ,piloty--that is to say1 a painter of disasters2 by birth he was a ,bohemian4 ,and that resulted in his case in a very interesting mixture4 ,when he exhibited his first pictures it was as if one heard a refined music after the tom-tom of ,piloty4 ,in his ,martyr on the ,cross1 which appeared in the spring of #ahfg in the ,munich ,kunstverein1 he first struck that bitter-sweet1 half-torturing1 half-ensnaring tone in which he afterwards continued to sound4 ,it is dawn2 a soft grey light rests1 beaming mildly1 over the lonely ,campagna4 ,here stands a cross on which a girl-martyr has ended her struggles4 ,a young ,roman coming home from a feast is so thrilled by the heavenly peace in the expression of the unhappy girl's face that he lays a crown of roses at the foot of the cross1 and becomes a convert to the faith for which she has suffered4 ,the mysterious mortuary sentiment in the subject is strengthened by the almost ghostly pallor of the colouring4 ,everything was harmonised in white1 except that one dark lock1 falling across the pale forehead with great boldness1 sounded like a shrill dissonance in the soft harmony1 like a wild scream2 it had come there apparently quite by chance1 but was nevertheless calculated to a hair's breadth4 ,the terribly touching vision of the martyr aroused in every visitor to the ,kunstverein a shudder of delight4 ,it was even a fine variation1 and one which invited pity1 that the victim should not have been a hero1 as in conventional catastrophes1 but a soft and sweet girl1 made for love and never for the cross4 ,and it was the more absorbing1 too1 because it was impossible to say whether the young ,roman was looking up to the beautiful woman with the desecrating sensuality of a dcadent or with the fervid ecstasy of a convert4 ,the same horrified fascination was wakened again and again in the presence of the later pictures of the painter4 ,almost every one contained a scene of martyrdom1 in which the tormented and sinking heroine was a helpless child or a weak and defenceless woman4 ,the passion for tragic subjects brought into full swing by the historical painters was directed in ,max against the purest and tenderest1 the most chaste and the most lovely4 ,the type was always the same1 with its ,bohemian nose and one eye larger than the other1 by which was attained a curiously visionary or hysterically enthusiastic expression4 ,and the pictorial treatment corresponded to it3 there was always a flesh-tint of poignant mortal pallor1 a white clinging drapery1 a black veil1 a light grey background1 all harmonised in one very delicate chord4 ,goethe's ,gretchen made the beginning4 ,in the ,zwinger she lifted up her eyes in frightened anguish to the countenance of the ,madonna4 ,she sat in her cell1 her face altered by madness and lit up with a wild laughter1 and in a reverie passed her hand through ,faust's locks4 ,or as a phantom she wandered in the ,walpurgis night1 in her long1 flowing shroud1 with a blood-red stripe round her throat4 ,this picture1 exhibited with electric light1 was especially effective4 ,max had brought into the earnest corpse-like eyes an expression that was terribly demoniacal1 and had been attained to the same degree by no earlier illustrator of ,faust4 ,a raven1 pecking at the lost ring1 was her ghostly escort4 ,max showed great invention in hitting upon such things4 ,brger's ,pfarrertochter von ,taubenhain gave him the material for his ,child-murderess--a young girl who1 by the bank of a lonely pool1 overgrown with reeds1 stabs her child to the heart with a needle1 and in a sudden rush of maternal love presses a kiss on the stiff little body before committing it to the water4 ,here the sombre1 disconsolate character of the landscape accorded finely with the action1 and the pale body of the child made an exceedingly bright1 pungent spot of colour on the dark-green rushes4 ,the ,lion's ,bride illustrated ,chamisso's ballad of the jealous lion who killed his mistress before her wedding1 because he would not give her over to another4 ,majestically he lies behind her1 with one paw on the arm of the slain1 and the other struck into her thigh4 ,the stones of the floor are reddened with her blood4 ,but far more frequently than blood ,max employed the tints of corruption1 the true nature morte4 ,in its colour-values and subtle shades the dead human body1 just at the point where corruption begins1 was better suited to the painter's pallid scale of colour than the light and brutally effective red of freshly poured-out blood4 ,among these paintings of mortification must be reckoned ,ahasuerus by the ,body of a ,child and ,the ,anatomist2 the latter meditatively regards at the dissecting-table the corpse1 covered with white linen1 of a young girl who has committed suicide4 ,in his ,raising of ,jairus's ,daughter the effect of mortification was most cleverly heightened by a small detail1 which made an extraordinary impression3 this was a fly on the naked arm of the girl1 put there to remind the spectator of the unconsciousness of the body4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,max4 ,a ,,nun ,,in ,,the ,,cloister ,,garden4 ,the secrets of death are always certain of their effect on the nerves2 but by means of the broken hearts of women1 with annihilated hopes and agonised hysterical sufferings1 he succeeded again in calling forth a bitter-sweet sympathy4 ,mary ,magdalene and ,the ,maid of ,orleans were the masterpieces of this group4 ,the underlying idea of the picture ,light is that a blind young ,christian girl1 at the portal of the ,roman catacombs1 offers lamps to the entering ,christians for the illumination of their dark way4 ,the blind woman as the giver of light6 ,even in his youth1 with cruel irony1 he had had sung by a blind quartet the song1 ,du hast die schnsten ,augen4 ,a touch of ,delaroche is in the other young martyr1 who1 between the bloodthirsty beasts of the ,roman circus1 looks up amazed to the rows of spectators1 from the midst of which a young ,roman has flung her a rose as a last greeting4 ,in the next moment she will be lying on the earth torn to shreds by the beasts4 ,as he succeeded here in giving a presentiment of the horrible1 so in another group of pictures ,max attained a yet more demoniacal charm by the ghostly4 ,he had early made himself familiar with ,schopenhauer and ,buddha and the ,indian fakirs2 the mystical and spiritualistic movement had just at that time been set going by the writings of ,carl ,du ,prels4 ,justinus ,kerner and the prophetess of ,prevorst were the order of the day4 ,max became the painter of hypnotism and spiritualism4 ,the ,spirit's ,greeting made a special sensation3 the young girl at the piano1 in this picture1 is interrupted in her playing by the touch of a materialised ghostly hand1 which stretches towards her from a soft cloudy mist4 ,the mixture of horror1 joy1 devotion1 and ecstasy in the face of the young player was very effective4 ,in order to render effects of the kind he made extensive studies from the hypnotised model1 and in this way he sometimes reached an extraordinary intensity of expression4 ,he took a decided position with regard to another question which at the time was very acute--vivisection4 ,this he did in the picture of the man of science from whom an allegorical female figure1 ,the ,genius of ,pity1 takes away a little dog doomed to be dissected1 showing by a pair of scales that the human heart has more weight than the human understanding4 ,all this goes to show that ,max is the opposite of artless4 ,he knows how to calculate an effect on the nerves with extreme subtlety1 and most skilfully at times to give his pictures the attraction of the freshly printed newspaper4 ,he appeals to compassion rather than imagination4 ,he would set the heart beating violently4 ,he triumphs generally by his subjects1 and his effects are much purer in those few works in which he renounces the piquant adjunct of the demoniacal1 the tragical1 and the mystical1 and becomes merely a painter4 ,amongst those works is to be reckoned that beautiful ,madonna on the altar1 painted in #ahhf1 and so tenderly illustrating the verses of ,heine-- ,und wer eine ,wachshand opfert1 ,dem heilt an der ,hand die ,wund1 ,und wer ein ,wachsherz opfert1 ,dem wird das ,herz gesund4 ,and so too does that charming ,spring ,tale of #ahgc1 which breathes only of gaiety1 happiness1 and peace2 a young girl sits under the blossoming bushes1 and listens enraptured to the warbling of a nightingale4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstngl4 ,,max4 ,,the ,,lion',s ,,bride4 ,those pictures1 the mood of which grows out of the landscape around--,the ,nun in the ,cloister ,garden1 ,adagio1 ,the ,spring ,tale1 and ,autumn ,dance--give ,max a very high and peculiar place in the work of his period4 ,he appears in them as a tender poet who expresses his emotions through a pictorial medium2 as an adorer of nature of a soft melancholy and subtle delicacy1 which are to be found in like manner only in the works of the ,englishmen ,frederick ,walker1 ,george ,mason1 and ,george ,h4 ,boughton4 ,nature sings a hymn to the soul of the painter1 and through his figures it is breathed forth in low1 vibrating cadences4 ,a tender landscape of earliest spring gave the ground-tone to his charming picture ,adagio4 ,young trees with trembling stems raise their slender crowns into the pale blue sky flecked with clouds4 ,as yet the branches are almost naked2 only here and there appears the embroidery of fresh yellowish green4 ,and in this soft1 tender nature which shyly reveals itself as with a slight shudder after its long winter sleep1 there are seated two beings3 a boy and his young mother--she looks almost a child--dreamily meditating4 ,their eyes look strangely into vacancy1 as though their thoughts are wandering4 ,nature works on them1 and a melancholy ,warte nur balde runs through their souls4 ,a spring landscape of blissful gaiety1 where nightingales warble1 butterflies sip at the flowers1 and sunbeams play coquettishly round the budding rosebushes1 is the ,setting of the ,spring ,tale4 ,everything laughs and rejoices1 shines and scents the air in the early sunlight4 ,pearls of dew sparkle on the meadows1 gnats hum and leaves murmur4 ,she thinks of him4 ,all the joy of a first love-dream sets her heart quivering with a delicious tremor4 ,in her heart as in nature it is spring4 ,yet even as a landscape painter ,max generally has that tender1 suffering trait which runs through his creative work elsewhere4 ,twilight1 autumn1 pale sky and dead leaves have made the deepest impression on his spirit4 ,thin1 half-stunted trees1 in the leaves of which the evening wind is playing1 grow upon an undulating1 poverty-stricken soil4 ,the landscape spreads around with a kind of lyrical melancholy3 a region which gives no exuberant assurance of being beautiful1 but which1 in its poverty1 attunes the mind to melancholy2 a region1 however1 which knows not of storms and loneliness1 but is the peaceful dwelling of quiet and resigned men4 ,these beings belong to no age2 their costume is not modern1 but neither is it taken from any earlier period4 ,they do not act and they tell no story2 they dream their time away meditatively and gravely4 ,max has divested them of everything fleshly and vulgar1 so that only a shadow of them remains1 a soul that vibrates in exquisite1 dying1 elusive chords4 ,the ,autumn ,dance is such an unearthly picture1 and one of indefinable magic4 ,children and women are dancing1 yet one feels them to be religious dreamers whom a melancholy world-weariness and a yearning after the mystical have drawn together to this secret and sequestered corner of the earth4 ,the pale1 transparent air1 the tender tints of the dresses1 delicate as fading flowers1 the flesh tint giving the figures something ghostly and ethereal--it all strikes a note at once blythe and sentimental1 happy and sad4 ,the ,nun in the ,cloister ,garden is in point of landscape one of his finest productions4 ,in the cloister garden1 despite the budding spring1 there reigns a disconsolate dreariness4 ,on the thin grass sits a young nun1 who follows dreamily the gay fluttering of two butterflies1 which flit around at her feet4 ,a black dress1 harshly and abruptly crossed by a white cape1 envelops the youthfully delicate form4 ,the dying sapling on which she is leaning bends helplessly against the stubborn paling to which it is fastened with iron clamps4 ,the weather-stained wall stretches along in a dreary monotonous grey4 ,an old sundial relentlessly indicates the slow dragging hours4 ,but the deep blue heaven1 in which a pair of larks poise exulting1 looks in across the wall1 from which a scrubby growth climbs shivering in the breeze4 ,illustration3 ,graphische ,kunst4 ,,max4 ,,light4 ,in such pictures1 too1 ,max has a morbid inclination to a mystical delicacy of sentiment4 ,he gives what is real an exquisite subtlety which transplants it into the world of dreams1 and his tender sense of pain perhaps appeals only to spirits of an sthetic temper4 ,he is the antithesis of robust health2 and yet there lies in the excess of nervous sensibility--in the pathological trait in his art--precisely the quality which inspires the characteristic delicacy of his earlier works4 ,here is no pupil of ,piloty1 but our contemporary4 ,in their anmic colour his pictures have the effect of a song of high1 fine-drawn1 and tremulous violin tones1 at once dulcet and painful4 ,with their refinement and polish1 their subtle taste and intimate emotion1 so wonderfully mingled1 they reach the music of painting4 ,they paint the invisible1 they revel in dreams4 ,in a period which played only fortissimo1 and was at pains to drum on all the senses at once with a distorting passion1 ,max was1 next to ,feuerbach1 the first who prescribed for his compositions dolce1 adagio1 and mezza voce2 who sought for the refined1 subdued emotions in place of the emotions fortes4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstngl4 ,,max4 ,,the ,,spirit',s ,,greeting4 ,illustration3 ,grphische ,kunst4 ,,max4 ,,adagio4 ,these pictures1 the more subdued the better1 make him the forerunner of the most modern artists1 and assure his name immortality much more certainly than the great figure resting on an historical or literary basis4 ,their delicate black1 green1 and white simplicity has a nobleness of colouring which stands quite alone in the ,german painting of the century1 and this1 together with their refined musical sentiment1 is probably to be set rather to the account of his ,bohemian blood than of his ,munich training4 ,and whilst in the heads of his figures elsewhere a certain monotonous vacuity disturbs one's pleasure1 he appears here as a psychic painter of the highest mark2 one who analysed with the most subtle delicacy all the fleeting nuances--so hard to catch--of melancholy1 silent resignation1 yearning1 and hopelessness4 ,only the figures of the ,english new pre-,raphaelites have the same sad-looking1 dove-like eyes1 the same spiritual lips1 tremulous as though from weeping4 ,there must have been a divine moment in his existence when he first filled the loveliest form with the expression of the holiest suffering1 the sweetest reverie1 the deepest devotion1 and the most rapt ecstasy4 ,and if later1 when people could not weary of this expression1 he took to producing it without real feeling and by purely stereotyped means1 that is1 at any rate1 a weakness of temperament which he shares with others4 ,gabriel ,max is an individuality1 not of the first rank indeed1 but he is one2 and there are not many painters of the nineteenth century of whom that can be said4 ,he has often underlined too heavily1 printed too much in italics1 and done more homage to crude than to fine taste4 ,but he has1 in advance of his contemporaries1 in whose works the good was so seldom new1 the priceless virtue that he always gave something new1 if not something good4 ,his art was without ancestry1 an entirely personal art2 something which no one had before ,max1 and which after him few will produce again4 ,a province which had not yet been trodden1 the province of the enigmatic and ghostly1 was opened up by him2 he set foot in it because he is a philosophic brooder1 fascinated by the magic of the uncanny4 ,his studio is like a chapel in which a mysterious service for the dead is being held1 or the chamber of an anatomist1 rather than the workroom of a painter4 ,the investigation of dead birds occupied him after his ,prague days just as much as the sounding of the life of the human spirit4 ,he lived at the time with his parents in an old1 ghostly house1 and roamed about a great deal in the picture gallery of the ,strahow foundation2 and here in lonely nights and mysterious picture-rooms there arose that grave and sombre spirit which runs through his work4 ,as a child at the death of his father he had his first vision4 ,his earliest picture1 which he finished while at the ,prague ,academy1 and sold afterwards to the ,art ,union there for ninety florins1 showed that he had begun to move on his later course3 ,richard the ,lion-heart steps to the ,corpse of his ,father and it bleeds4 ,he was thus inwardly ripe when1 in #ahfc1 he came to ,piloty in ,munich1 and1 equipped with the technique of the latter1 refined in so delicate a manner on the traditional painting of disasters4 ,and if a conscious design on the nerves of the multitude frequently entered into his work1 it was1 as a rule1 veiled by captivating beauty and excellence of painting4 ,his older good pictures fascinate the most jaded eye by their remarkably tender sentiment1 and the mystical spirituality of his soft and lovely girlish heads has been reached by few in his century4 ,he is at the same time a colourist of complete individuality1 who made pigments the subtilised and ductile means of expression for his visionary moods of soul4 ,he has brought into the world a numerous stock of works prepared for the market2 and he has not disdained to paint glorified wonders of the fair1 like the ,christ's head upon the handkerchief of ,veronica1 whose eyes seem to be closed by their lids and are looking out at the same time wide open4 ,but much as he sinned1 he always remained an artist4 ,a curious1 interesting1 characteristic mind1 one of the few who ventured even forty years ago to give themselves out as children of their time1 in the firmament of ,german1 and indeed of ,european art1 he appears as a star shining by its own and not by borrowed light1 as one whose incommensurable magnitude it is that his talent cannot be compared with any other4 ,that is what gives him his artistic importance4 ,illustration3 ,,max4 ,a ,,winter',s ,,tale4 ,all the less room can be claimed by the many who1 likewise following in their subject-matter the lines of ,piloty1 get no further than the traditional catastrophe4 ,not ,munich only1 but all ,germany1 lay for more than a decade after the middle of the century under the shadow of historical painting1 which here1 as in other countries1 came as the logical product of an unhappy time1 dissatisfied with its own existence when ,germany was merely a geographical expression1 and in the pitiable misery of that age of state-confederations1 dreamt of a better future at singing contests1 athletic tournaments1 and rifle meetings4 ,the more poverty-stricken the time was in real action1 the more vehement was the desire to read of action in books or to see it on canvas2 and in this respect historical painting rendered at that time important political services1 which are to be acknowledged with gratitude2 just as the historical drama1 the historical ballad and the historical novel were1 all and several1 means for the expression of the deep-seated longing of a backward people for political labours1 for deeds and for fame4 ,but the artistic yield was not greater than elsewhere4 ,when the learned in the thirties laid it down in doctrinaire fashion that1 with the destruction of religious fervour begun by science1 the old traditionary sacred painting would fall away of itself and the painting of profane history take its place1 they overlooked from the very beginning the fact that1 so long as the much discussed worship of genius had not actually become a reality the painting of history had to fight against insuperable obstacles4 ,what constitutes the prime condition of all art--that its contents must be some fact vivid in consciousness--should1 at any rate1 determine its limitations1 and ought to have confined the historical picture to the nearest universally known subjects4 ,and what happened was just the contrary4 ,when ,delaroche had skimmed the cream1 his successors were forced to search in the great martyr book of history for events which were more and more unknown and indifferent4 ,piloty took from ancient history ,the ,death of ,alexander the ,great1 ,the ,death of ,csar1 ,nero at the ,burning of ,rome1 and ,the ,triumphal ,progress of ,germanicus2 and from medival history1 ,galileo in his ,prison observing the ,periodic ,return of a ,solar ,ray1 and ,columbus sighting ,land2 from the history of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 ,the ,foundation of the ,catholic ,league by ,duke ,maximilian of ,bavaria1 ,seni before the ,body of ,wallenstein 7the morning before the battle at the ,white ,mountain1 ,seni has come to carry away ,wallenstein's body71 ,wallenstein on the way to ,eger1 and ,the ,news of the ,battle at the ,white ,mountain2 from ,english history1 ,the ,death ,sentence of ,mary ,stuart2 and from ,french history1 ,the ,girondists on their ,way to the ,scaffold4 ,after these pictures were painted and had had their success the turn came1 in the years immediately following1 for subjects growing steadily more and more dreary4 ,and as ,goethe held the historical to be the most ungrateful and dangerous field1 so it now appeared as though laurels were to be gathered there only4 ,from the political dismemberment of the present1 ,german artists were glad to seek refuge as far back as possible in the past1 and they flung themselves on the new province with such fiery zeal that1 after a few decades1 there was a really appalling number of historical pictures1 illustrating every page of ,schlosser's great history of the world4 ,max ,adamo painted ,the ,netherlandish ,nobles before the ,tribunal of ,alva1 ,the ,fall of ,robespierre in the ,national ,convention1 ,the ,prince of ,orange's ,last ,conversation with ,egmont1 ,charles ,i meeting ,cromwell at ,childerley1 ,the ,dissolution of the ,long ,parliament1 and ,charles ,i receiving the ,visit of his ,children at ,maidenhead2 ,julius ,benczur3 ,the ,departure of ,ladislaus ,hunyadi1 and ,the ,baptism of ,vajk1 afterwards ,king ,stephen the ,holy of ,hungary2 ,josef ,fluggen3 ,the ,flight of the ,landgravine ,elizabeth1 ,milton dictating ,paradise ,lost1 and ,the ,landgravine ,margarethe taking leave of her ,children2 by ,carl ,gustav ,hellquist there were ,the ,death of the wounded ,sten ,sture after the ,battle of ,bogesund in the ,mlarsee1 ,the ,embarkment of the ,body of ,gustavus ,adolphus1 and the forced contribution of ,wisby and ,huss going to the ,stake4 ,ernst ,hildebrand had the ,electress of ,brandenburg secretly taking the sacrament in both kinds1 and ,tullia driving over the corpse of her father2 ,frank ,kirchbach displayed ,duke ,christopher the ,warrior2 ,ludwig von ,langenmantel3 ,the ,arrest of the ,french ,chemist ,lavoisier under the ,reign of ,terror1 and ,savonarola's ,sermon against the ,luxury of the ,florentines2 ,emanuel ,leutze3 a ,columbus before the ,council of ,salamanca1 ,raleigh's ,departure1 ,cromwell's ,visit to ,milton1 ,the ,battle of ,monmouth1 and ,the ,last ,festival of ,charles ,i2 ,alexander ,liezenmayer3 ,the ,coronation of ,charles ,durazzo in ,stuhlweissenburg1 and ,the ,canonisation of the ,landgravine ,elizabeth of ,thringen2 ,wilhelm ,lindenschmit3 ,duke ,alva at the ,countess of ,rudolstadt's1 ,francis ,i at ,pavia1 ,the ,death of ,franz ,von ,sickingen1 ,knox and the ,scottish ,image-breakers1 ,the ,assassination of ,william of ,orange1 ,walter ,raleigh visited in his ,cell by his ,family1 ,luther before ,cardinal ,cajetan1 ,anne ,boleyn giving her ,child ,elizabeth to the care of ,matthew ,parker1 and ,the ,entrance of ,alaric into ,rome2 ,alexander ,wagner3 ,the ,departure of ,isabella ,zapolya from ,siebenbrgen1 ,the ,entry into ,aschaffenburg of ,gustavus ,adolphus1 ,the ,wedding of ,otto of ,bavaria1 ,the ,death of ,titus ,dugowich1 ,matthias ,corvinus with his ,hunting ,train1 and many more of the same description4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstngl4 ,,max4 ,,madonna4 ,was it at all possible to make works of art out of such material8 ,perhaps it was4 ,the real artist can do anything4 ,what he touches becomes gold1 for he has the hand of ,midas4 ,but just as certain it is that the historical painting1 carried on by a joint-stock company1 almost never got any further than stage pathos1 tailoring1 and glittering splendour of material4 ,like many another thing which the nineteenth century brought to birth1 it was an artistic error1 which countless persons paid for by the waste of their lives4 ,the older art knew nothing of such a reconstruction of the past4 ,if historical subjects were painted1 the artists were almost throughout contemporaries of the subject that was to be treated2 seldom did the materials belong to an epoch already past4 ,but in both cases the work was done by immediate intuition1 since even in the treatment of matters long gone by the painters never dreamed of painting them in the spirit of past times4 ,they might depict ,jews1 or ,greeks1 or ,romans1 but they always represented their own countrymen in the surroundings and costume of their own time4 ,the scientific nineteenth century made the first demand for historical accuracy4 ,in dress and furniture this could be attained with the assistance of a cabinet of engravings and a work on costume4 ,whoever went to work in a very scientific spirit could even borrow from a museum the genuine costumes of ,egmont and ,wallenstein4 ,but it was all the harder artistically to quicken into life the men themselves who had felt1 lived1 and suffered in the past4 ,the painter could not proceed otherwise than by draping a modern1 professional model1 having consulted portraits1 drawings1 or busts1 and having sought the aid of a peruke and false beard4 ,an entirely realistic reproduction of this masquerade1 however1 made only too evident the contrast between the splendid old garment and the member of the proletariat who was dressed up in it4 ,for1 granted that men of the present have much in common with those of the past1 every period has none the less its own type1 even its own gestures1 which no costume can make one forget4 ,and speaking merely of general humanity1 there is no question that a statesman at all times looked different from a professional model4 ,in a very bad suit of clothes1 but in one which1 at any rate1 fitted him1 and in which he was able to behave himself naturally1 the poor fellow came to the studio1 to feel1 for a few hours1 in satin hose and a velvet doublet1 like a carnival figure4 ,who was to give him the easy knightly bearing to play his part suitably to the occasion8 ,it was not possible in this way ever to attain the naturalness and fulness of life of the old painters4 ,in ,terborg's ,peace of ,westphalia everything is genuine and true and simple2 here wig and woollen beard have got the upper hand4 ,and if the painter proceeded not as a theatrical tailor1 but as an historian of civilisation1 the result was an archaic dryness4 ,for then he was merely thrown back on the great masters of those periods in which the action took place1 and1 while he enlarged and coloured old busts or engraved portraits1 his art was only second-hand4 ,and so the only way out of the difficulty was to use the model1 but to idealise him by generalising and sinking the individual in the universally human1 noble1 and heroic4 ,in this way the remarkable family likeness of all these heads becomes comprehensible1 and it is still further heightened by that preference for a monotonous type of beauty which1 from the period of ,classicism1 entered1 as it were1 into the blood of these painters4 ,the human physiognomy1 in reality so various1 had then only one mask for the many characters which life creates4 ,there was a fear of ugliness1 as if it were a spot of dirt1 and the personages portrayed received1 one and all1 an icy trait of the ,beautiful4 ,the various ,egmonts1 ,wallensteins1 and ,charles the ,firsts of ,gallait and ,bifve1 ,delaroche1 and ,piloty have not the blood of human beings1 they have not the scars which are made by fate1 but are all alike in their ,byronic turn of the head4 ,one knows the so-called character-heads--,luther gazing upwards with the look of one strong in faith1 ,columbus discovering ,america1 and ,milton in whose head are seething all the thoughts which dying men are wont to have in their last moments1--one knows them as thoroughly by heart as one knows all the opened folios and overturned settles1 the picturesquely draped tapestry reserved for tragic funereal service1 and that little box1 covered with brass and catching the flashing lights1 which constitutes in ,belgium1 ,france1 and ,germany the iron casket of all historical pieces4 ,in the place of the inward ,shakespearian truth of the figures1 peculiar to the old masters1 is the outward truth of costume2 and the historical property man1 whose highest aim is to dress the great moments of universal history in the prescribed manner1 has stepped into the place of the artist4 ,in the works of the old masters the historical figures stand out with sincerity as characters of flesh and blood1 despite the want of local colour1 whilst in the moderns the costumes certainly are correct1 but the figures are so much the less credible and vital4 ,beautiful may be the folds of the garment1 but more beautiful must be that which they contain4 ,clothes do not make people1 and costumes heighten no passions4 ,thus difficulties were heaped on difficulties1 when impassioned situations and moments of dramatic intensity were to be painted4 ,whoever has reached that height of artistic power where the artist may with impunity put his model out of his head--like ,delacroix1 grand1 volcanic1 stormy1 and excited to a fever heat by his inspiration1--that man will be capable of giving the effect of truth to such scenes1 and of running through the whole gamut of emotion with a crushing power of conviction4 ,but the joint-stock historical painter had to get his models to pull faces1 and then no less laboriously to render with his oils those grimaces so laboriously produced4 ,hence the monotonous and petrified histrionic ecstasy of these pictures1 the noble indignation put on for show1 and that distressing gesticulation4 ,as the actor gives emphasis to his words far more by gestures than is the case in ordinary life1 so here also the artificially impassioned air of the heads was conventionally interpreted by corresponding motions of the arms4 ,and thus the closing tableau was made ready3 the dancers lay their hands on their hearts with tender and deep feeling2 the tenor heroes sing that they are prepared to die2 the tyrants let their deep basses vibrate1 and the orchestra rages1 to close with a shattering chord at the moment when the hero sets his foot upon the chest of the traitor2 then come the ,bengal lights1 and then the curtain falls4 ,what a spectacle6--but1 alas1 a spectacle and nothing more4 ,all the emotions are artificial2 they are opera emotions3 the painters are only clever fellows1 manufacturers of librettos and gay canvas2 they show a great deal of knowledge and dexterity1 but they have only a head and no heart4 ,stage requisites and professional models can never take the place of the free1 creative force of imagination4 ,and if ,german pictures of this sort have an effect almost more insincere and theatrical than the ,french1 the reason probably is that gesture--that external aid to the expression of feeling--is always more natural to the ,latin than the ,teutonic races1 and has therefore1 of itself1 an effect of affectation in every ,german picture4 ,we know that ,bismarck1 the ,teuton incarnate1 even in the most excited of parliamentary speeches1 never made any other movement than to rap nervously with his pencil4 ,the ,german only becomes impassioned when he lies4 ,the most genuine masters of ,german blood have felt that right well1 and they have been honest enough to say it out4 ,a pervading trait of old ,german art is simplicity1 the avoidance of everything impassioned even in the grandest conception1 such as ,drer has4 ,if in ,leonardo's ,last ,supper terror1 indignation1 curiosity1 and sorrow are reflected by twelve heads and twenty-four hands in movements of agitation which are always new1 in ,drer's woodcut all the limbs and senses of the disciples are paralysed at the sorrowful revelation of the ,saviour2 it seemed to them desecration to break the solemn1 oppressive stillness by noisy utterances of opinion and hasty gestures4 ,and the same thing is to be remarked in every similar picture of ,rembrandt's2 here too are only quiet and subdued movements1 delicate suggestions and silence4 ,the effect is great and sublime1 the features of the ,saviour earnest and expressive1 but ,his mien is without any ecstatic emphasis such as a painter of ,romance blood would have given ,him4 ,only in the nineteenth century--partly through imitation of the ,italians in ,cornelius and ,kaulbach1 and then through imitation of the ,french in ,piloty and his disciples--has this impassionedness1 so opposed to ,german nature1 entered into ,german art2 and it has borrowed from the opera the distortions by which it has expressed the agitations of the spirit4 ,no one works with impunity against the grain of his temperament4 ,exaggerated and violent movements1 ostentatious gestures of false dignity1 have replaced the natural expressions of life4 ,less pose1 parade1 and theatricality1 more ease1 truth1 and quietude2 less insipid1 generalised beauty1 more forcible1 characteristic ugliness3 if art was not to be drowned in a surge of phrases1 this was the path to be taken2 and the transition was accomplished in the historical picture of manners4 ,,chapter ,,xv ,,the ,,victory ,,over ,,pseudo-,,idealism ,immediately upon the epoch-making labours of the historians followed the first romances that were archological and dealt with the history of civilisation2 and hand in hand with these literary productions there was developed--by the side of historical painting proper1 in ,france1 ,belgium1 and ,germany--a tendency to represent the life of the past1 not in its grand dramatic action1 but in its familiar concerns4 ,in the one case there was history in its state uniform1 in the other history in undress4 ,and while the former class of painters saw the past only in a condition of unrest and violent movement1 the latter began to enter into the details of daily life1 and to represent it as it flowed by in times of peace4 ,those who had the romantic bias turned to the old artistic crafts4 ,as yet that bias consisted only in an enthusiasm for the tasteful civilisation of a bygone age1 with its polished charm of luxurious household appointments and pleasing costume4 ,rooms were filled with ,gobelins and rich stuffs1 handsome furniture and old pictures4 ,by the rapid sale of their productions painters were placed in a position to acquire for themselves at the second-hand dealers all the beautiful things they painted4 ,they placed their dressed-up models in front of their tapestries1 and between their cabinets and tables4 ,stress was laid on historical accuracy in the representation of the usages and costumes of the past1 not on dramatic action1 and in this respect the historical picture of manners1 as opposed to historical painting1 marked an advance towards intimacy of feeling4 ,the latter still worked from the abstract4 ,the painter read a book and looked out for telling passages4 ,he idealised models1 to lend his picture the character of great art4 ,it was always the illustration of underlying ideas4 ,in this new kind of picture1 on the contrary1 the conception of a work of art was given1 by the perfected representation of any part of the visible world1 were it only the corner of a studio elaborately and artificially arranged4 ,the historical picture of manners no longer depicted the meeting of hostile forces1 but either the heroes of history or the nameless men of the past in their daily act and deed1 and so accustomed the public gradually to interest themselves in people who did not act with histrionic passion1 but conducted themselves quietly and soberly like men of the present time4 ,the place of the dramatic was taken by those phases of life which are pleasant and smooth4 ,at the same time there was no need to be thrown back on conventional idealisation1 and it was possible to bring people dressed up for the occasion directly into the picture1 just as they sat there1 since the contrast between the professional model and the old-fashioned dress made itself less felt on this smaller scale of art4 ,thus was achieved the transition from the heroic historical art of the first half of the nineteenth century to that familiar and more human art of the second half1 which no longer fled for help to the past1 but sought a simpler ideal in reality4 ,first of all in ,france1 from the side of the solemnly earnest group of ,academicians1 there stepped forward certain artists who moved in the old world quite at their ease1 and began to paint simple little pictures from the daily life of antiquity1 instead of the great ostentatious canvases of ,david and ,ingres4 ,in literature their parallels are ,ponsard and ,augier1 who in their comedies brought antique life upon the stage1 the one in ,horace et ,lydie1 the other in ,la ,cigu and ,le ,joueur de ,flte4 ,charles ,gleyre approached nearest to the strict academical style of ,ingres4 ,not even by a tour in the ,east did he allow himself to be led away from the ,classical manner1 and as head of a great and leading studio he recognised it as the task of his life to hand on to the present generation the traditions of the school of ,ingres4 ,gleyre was a man of sound culture1 who during a sojourn in ,italy which lasted for years1 had examined ,etruscan vases and ,greek statues with unintermittent zeal1 studied the ,italian classics1 and copied all ,raphael4 ,having come back to ,paris1 he never drew a line without having first assured himself how ,raphael would have proceeded in the given case4 ,and this striving after purity of form has robbed his works 7,nymph ,echo1 ,hercules at the ,feet of ,omphale1 and the like7 almost entirely of ease1 freshness1 and naturalness4 ,gleyre became1 like ,ary ,scheffer1 a victim to style4 ,he had in him--his ,evening of #ahdc is sufficient to show it--a tender1 dreamy1 and contemplative spirit4 ,the feelings to which he wished to give expression were his own1 and the more fragrant1 romantic1 and vaporously indistinct they were1 the more did they suffer from the stiff academical line in which he so mercilessly bound them4 ,only in his ,orpheus torn by the ,bacchantes has he raised himself to a certain neo-,greek elegance4 ,louis ,hamon stands at the end of this path1 which led gradually from the strictness of form characteristic of the idealism of ,ingres to incidents thought out in perfectly modern fashion and laid in a primitive era only because of the advantages of costume offered by the antique4 ,the grace of his pictures is modern2 their ,classicism is a disguise4 ,to robust natures his art can make but little appeal4 ,he has deprived nature of her strength and marrow1 and painting of its peculiar qualities1 transforming them into a coloured dream1 a tinted mist4 ,in ,hamon's modelling there is an uncertainty1 in his colour a sickly weakness and meagre effeminacy1 which give to his figures and landscapes the appearance of being dissolved in vapour4 ,everything firm is taken from them2 the stones look like wadding1 the plants like soap1 the figures like china dolls which would fly into the air at the least gust of wind4 ,nevertheless there are times when his confectionery has a sympathetic grace4 ,what distinguishes him is something simple1 pure1 youthful1 fresh1 and childlike4 ,his colour is lighter and more delicate than ,gleyre's4 ,none but blended colours such as light blue and light yellow mingle in the harmony of white tones4 ,the severe antique style has been given a pretty rococo turn3 his ,greek girls1 women1 and children are like figures of ,svres porcelain2 the scenes in which he groups them are pleasing1--sports of fancy brought forward in a ,grecian garb1 of an affected sensuousness and a coquettish grace4 ,his prettiest picture was probably ,my ,sister's not at ,home--,greece seen through a gauze transparency in the theatre4 ,illustration3 ,gaz des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,hamon4 ,,my ,,sister',s ,,not ,,at ,,home4 7,by permission of ,messrs4 ,boussod1 ,valadon ,co41 the owners of the copyright47 ,lon ,grme has also a taste for borrowing his subjects from the antique2 being a pupil of ,delaroche1 however1 he has treated not mythological but historical episodes of antiquity4 ,his ,cock-fight1 ,phryne before the ,areopagus1 ,the ,augurs1 ,the ,gladiators1 ,alcibiades at the ,house of ,aspasia1 and ,the ,death of ,csar1 together with pictures from ,egypt1 are his most characteristic works3 ,ingres and ,delaroche upon a smaller scale4 ,he shares with the one his learnedly pedantic composition1 and with the other his taste for anecdote4 ,it may be remarked that in these same years ,emile ,augier was active in literature1 but that ,augier1 living in the same epoch of modern life1 is far more powerful and animated in his ,classical pieces4 ,grme's art is an intelligent1 frigid1 calculating art4 ,in execution he does not rise above a petty study of form and an academic discipline4 ,his drawing is accurate1 and he has even succeeded in giving his figures a certain natural truth which is in advance of the generalisation of the classic ideal2 yet from first to last he is wanting in every quality as a painter4 ,his pictures of the ,east are hard landscapes1 in which men or animals1 harder still--unfortunate1 eternally petrified beings--stand out abruptly4 ,he draws and stipples1 he works like an engraver in line1 and goes over what he has painted again and again with a fine and feeble brush4 ,he has an eye for form1 but the effect of light upon the body escapes him4 ,his pictures therefore give the impression of china1 and his colour is hard and dead4 ,what distinguishes him is a watchful observation1 a chilling correctness1 enclosing everything in characterless outlines4 ,and this marble coldness remained with him later when1 moving with the development of historical painting1 he gradually took to working on more tragical subjects4 ,even the most violent subjects are depicted with a dainty grace1 and with a smile he serves up decapitated heads1 prepared with a painting la maitre d'htel1 upon a gold-rimmed porcelain plate as smooth as glass4 ,another painter of archological genre is ,gustave ,boulanger1 who after extensive studies in ,pompeii gave a vogue to those antique interiors and scenes of ,pompeian street life now associated with the name of ,alma-,tadema4 ,direct descendants of ,delaroche and ,robert ,fleury were those who threw themselves enthusiastically into treating the physiognomy of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries1 and devoted the most ardent study to the weapons1 costumes1 and furniture of those epochs4 ,they never wearied in representing ,franois ,i and ,henri ,,iv in the most varied situations of life1 nor in searching the biographies of great artists and scholars for episodes worth painting4 ,especially popular subjects were those of celebrated painters at their meeting with contemporaries of high station3 ,raphael and ,michael ,angelo coming across each other in the ,vatican1 ,murillo as a boy1 the young ,ribera found drawing in the street by a ,cardinal1 ,bellini in his studio amid all manner of precious objects1 ,charles ,v and ,titian1 ,michael ,angelo tending his servant1 and others of the same kind4 ,the number of painters who were active in this province is as great as the number of anecdotes which are told of distinguished men4 ,they spread themselves over various countries1 like the swarms of insects hatched on a summer's day amid luxuriant vegetation1 and thereby they render the task of selection more difficult to the historian4 ,in ,france there worked ,alexander ,hesse1 ,camille ,roqueplan1 and ,charles ,comte2 in ,belgium1 ,alexander ,markelbach and ,florent ,willems4 ,markelbach1 a pupil of ,wappers1 in addition to episodes from ,english history1 specially devoted himself to painting the shooting festivals of the old ,netherlandish city guards1 in which enterprise the ,doelen pieces of ,frans ,hals did him excellent service in the matter of costume4 ,florent ,willems1 who1 as a restorer1 saturated himself with the manner of the old masters1 was particularly popular on account of the smooth finish he gave to his modish ladies1 cavaliers1 soldiers1 painters1 soubrettes1 and patrician matrons of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries4 ,all the richly coloured satin1 brocade1 and velvet costumes of these personages1 together with the tapestry1 the curtains1 and the furniture of their dwellings1 he had the secret of reproducing in such a fashion that he was long esteemed a modern ,terborg4 ,amongst the ,germans1 ,l4 von ,hagn was the most delicate of these artists1 and the graceful comedies of real life which he painted1 transplanting them into the ,italian ,renaissance or the ,french rococo period1 have often great distinction of colouring4 ,gustav ,spangenberg1 after the lucky but isolated success he had made with ,the ,track of ,death1 devoted himself to the ,reformation period2 and ,carl ,becker to the ,venetian ,renaissance1 from which he occasionally made an excursion into the ,german4 ,these and many others could be discussed with more particularity if their pictures1 smooth as coloured prints1 and neatly finished in their own paltry way1 were not so much below the standard of galleries4 ,for them also the incident to be represented1 with the personages concerned in it1 was the principal matter1 and not pure painting4 ,these fetters upon true art were first shaken off by the hands of the following painters4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,g,r,,me4 ,,the ,,cock-,,fight4 ,of the generation of the eminent ,flemish artists of #ahcj ,hendrik ,leys is the one whose fame has been most enduring4 ,born in ,antwerp on #ahth ,february #ahae1 at first destined for the priesthood1 and then in #ahbi admitted to the studio of ,ferdinand de ,braekeleers1 he had made his dbut in the beginning of the thirties with a pair of historical pictures4 ,these indeed revealed little of the power which he evinced later1 but they furnished some indication of what he was aiming at4 ,here were none of the skirmishes--so popular at the time--in which blood flows as from the pipes of a fountain2 the combatants fought with decorum and moderation1 and less from conviction than to justify the helmets and cuirasses which had been fetched from the wardrobe4 ,in both of them1 on the other hand1 the background--a medival town with tortuous alleys1 lanterns1 and picturesque taverns--was most lovingly treated4 ,here was revealed a thoroughly ,german delight in minute detail4 ,instead of subordinating the accessories as others did1 with the object of throwing the principal personages into relief1 ,leys represented an entire corner of the world at once1 giving full distinctness to the smallest things1 down to the implements of daily life1 the grasses and flowers of the landscape1 and the variegated corner-stones of the old house-fronts1 whose picturesque porches and lattices bulge into the crooked lanes4 ,his next picture1 ,the ,massacre of the ,lwen ,magistrates1 was a still further departure from precedent1 since--quite in ,callot's manner--it mingled with the principal drama a mass of grotesque episodes4 ,the born genre painter was announced by these traits2 and not less striking was the form of the art1 which was a thorough departure from the manner of the painters of the grand style4 ,the resuscitation of a national art1 which had been the life-long aim of ,gustav ,wappers1 who was twelve years his senior1 was what ,leys also set up as the goal of his artistic endeavours4 ,but their ways divided4 ,wappers was principally inspired by ,rubens1 while ,leys attached himself at first to the ,dutch painters4 ,a visit made to ,amsterdam in #ahci had helped him to an understanding of ,rembrandt and ,pieter de ,hoogh4 ,he followed them when1 in #ahde1 he painted his ,wedding in the ,seventeenth ,century--a rich display of gleaming hangings1 golden plate1 and red-plush furniture1 amid which move handsomely dressed people1 wedding guests1 and violin players4 ,the effort to approach ,pieter de ,hoogh or ,jan van der ,meer is apparent in the management of light2 the treatment of drapery reminds one of ,mieris and ,metsu4 ,another pair of anecdotic pictures from the seventeenth century allow one to follow the progress by which ,leys1 under the influence of ,dutch models1 gradually developed that power and mastery of colouring1 that completeness of pictorial effect1 and that soft treatment of subdued light which were justly admired in his first works4 ,in particular1 certain works founded on the legends of painters and monarchs--,rubens1 ,rembrandt1 or ,frans ,floris visited in their studio by some personage of high station--made him the lion of the ,paris ,salon4 ,in #aheb he stood at the summit of his fame2 he was recognised as one of the first of painters1 both in ,belgium and in other countries1 and was everywhere loaded with honours4 ,then he cast his slough and entered on his second manner4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,hendrik ,,leys4 ,after he had followed ,rembrandt for more than a decade he turned from him to cast himself suddenly into the arms of the ,german masters of the sixteenth century1 and1 according to his own saying1 from that time forward to become an artist4 ,during a tour through ,germany1 in #aheb1 he had become familiar with ,drer and ,cranach2 in ,dresden1 ,wittenberg1 and ,eisenach there hovered round him the great figures of the ,reformation period4 ,half-effaced memories of his countrymen1 the brothers ,van ,eyck and ,quentin ,matsys1 became once more fresh1 and drove him decisively forward on his new course4 ,the ,festival at ,otto ,venius's and ,erasmus in his ,study were the first steps in this direction1 and when soon afterwards he came forward with his costume pictures1 ,luther as a ,chorister in ,eisenach and ,luther in his ,household at ,wittenberg1 every one was enraptured with the exquisite truthfulness of his portrayal of archaic life4 ,at the ,world's ,exhibition of #ahee he had another magnificent success with three pictures executed in old ,german style4 ,these were ,the ,mass in ,honour of the ,antwerp ,burgomaster ,barthel de ,haze1 ,the ,walk before the ,gate1 and ,new ,year's ,day in ,flanders4 ,his return from ,paris1 where he was the only foreigner except ,cornelius who had received the great gold medal1 took the form of a triumphal progress in ,antwerp1 where he was greeted with illuminations1 torchlight processions1 and laurel wreaths made in gold4 ,he was held to be the most eminent master since ,quentin ,matsys1 the ,jan van ,eyck of the nineteenth century4 ,in the ,brussels ,salon he appeared as a prince of art1 before whom criticism made obeisance1 and for whose pictures special shrines were erected4 ,he was striking1 not merely as an artist1 but as a man3 his stately figure was known to every one in ,antwerp1 and was pointed out to strangers as one of the sights of the place4 ,in #ahfg1 when he again received the medal in ,paris1 the ,antwerp ,cercle ,artistique had a medal struck to commemorate an event of such importance in ,belgian art4 ,his decease1 on #beth ,august #ahfi1 threw the whole town into mourning2 the windows in the town hall1 where he had painted his last pictures1 were hung with black1 and the announcement of his death pasted up on great placards at the street corners4 ,leys is ons ran the phrase in the speech made by the burgomaster over his open grave4 ,to-day his statue stands on the ,boulevard ,leys1 and his house is noted down in ,baedecker1 like those of ,matsys and ,floris1 ,rubens and ,jordaens4 ,leys was thus a favourite child of fortune4 ,enthusiastic applause showered him with fame and laurels4 ,but it is natural that posterity should find a good deal to cancel in these titles of honour4 ,illustration3 ,seemann1 ,leipzig4 ,,leys4 ,a ,,family ,,festival4 ,through ,leys the history of art was not enriched with anything new4 ,his delicate art--severe in outline--which goes back directly to the peculiar manner of the fifteenth century1 is in itself not without merit4 ,but how much of it belongs to the nineteenth century8 ,to what extent has the painter stood independent and on his own peculiar ground8 ,he could draw a ,van ,eyck which might be taken for an original4 ,he seems like an old master gone astray by chance amongst the moderns4 ,his knowledge of the sixteenth century is marvellous4 ,in fact1 he was a visionary who saw the past as clearly as though he had lived in the midst of it4 ,the men he paints are his contemporaries4 ,he has drawn them from life in the year of grace #adic1 and they make no gesture nor grimace which might not be four hundred years old4 ,yet that means that he was not an original genius1 but merely one who gave an adroit reproduction of a formula already in existence4 ,and much as he affected to be the contemporary of ,lucas ,cranach and ,quentin ,matsys1 he had not their simplicity3 where they painted life he painted the shadow of their realism4 ,surrounded by old pictures1 breviaries1 and missals1 he contented himself with copying the still forms of ,gothic miniatures instead of living nature4 ,he went so deeply into the pictures of the ,antwerp town hall that he followed the old masters in their very errors of perspective2 and though even the most childish confusion between foreground and background does not disturb one's pleasure in them1 because they knew no better1 it is an affectation in him1 with his modern knowledge1 intentionally to make the same mistakes4 ,instead of being an imitator of nature1 he is an imitator of their imitation--a gourmet in pictorial archaism4 ,illustration3 ,,leys4 ,,the ,,armourer4 ,yet it was exactly this uncompromising archaism which was of importance for his time1 and amongst his contemporaries it gives him significance as a reformer4 ,he is the only one amongst them who really represents the ,flemish race4 ,wappers was merely a ,fleming from ,paris1 who shook off the yoke of the ,greeks to bear that of the ,french4 ,delaroche lived again in ,louis ,gallait1 the pupil of ,david4 ,their works had the sentiment of ,french tragedies1 and an artificial neatness which completely departed from the truth of nature2 the figures were combed and washed and brushed and polished1 the gestures were histrionic1 the colours toned in a stereotyped fashion to effect a pleasing ensemble4 ,leys endeavoured to be true4 ,in his pictures he had no wish to express ideas1 but merely to bring back a fragment of the good old time in all its brightness of life and colour4 ,and whilst as a colourist he was bent upon avoiding uniformity of tone and giving everything its natural character1 as a draughtsman1 too1 he set up1 in opposition to the more patrician fluency of others1 the citizen-like angularity of an art uninfluenced by the ,cinquecento4 ,as in ,cranach1 ,drer1 and ,holbein1 one finds in his pictures profiles that are vividly true2 harsh and often unwieldy heads1 wrinkled faces1 and heavy1 massive shoulders resting on stunted bodies4 ,the human form1 with fat stomach and great horny hands1 seems almost deformed4 ,everything which the struggle for existence has made of the image of ,god is expressed in the works of ,leys for the first time since ,david4 ,even his ,massacre of the ,lwen ,magistrates showed sharp1 naturalistic physiognomies in the midst of its confused composition1 and his ,barthel de ,haze1 fifteen years after1 fully exemplified this striving after characteristic and truthful expression4 ,none of his contemporaries has shown himself more cool and indifferent to conventional and graceful profile and beauty in the drawing of heads4 ,hatred of the academic model made ,leys bring art back to its sources4 ,the hideousness1 so often childish1 in primitive pictures was dearer to him than all ,raphael4 ,by this emphasising of the characteristic in attitude and the expression of the face he shows himself1 although he painted historical subjects1 the very antipode of the painter of the historical school1 and1 at the same time1 one of those who effected the transition which led to the modern style4 ,in setting up quaintness and far-fetched archaism against the mannerism of the idealists1 ,leys accustomed the eye again to recognise that there was something truer than nobility of line and aristocratic pose2 and1 as he appealed to the old masters as accomplices1 it was impossible for sthetic criticism to be offended4 ,illustration3 ,,leys4 ,,mother ,,and ,,child4 ,in ,france the transition from the absolutely beautiful to the characteristic1 from types to individuals1 was brought about from various sides4 ,on the one side ,romanticism had opposed to the antique style that of the ,flemish painters4 ,on the other side1 within ,classicism itself1 there had been a change from the antique and the ,cinquecento to the early ,italian renaissance4 ,a new world was opened to sculpture by the ,florentine ,singer of ,paul ,dubois4 ,the more artists buried themselves in the study of those early pioneers of realism1 ,donatello1 ,verrochio1 della ,robbia1 and the other masters of the ,quatrocento1 the more they found themselves fascinated by the sparkling animation of these creations1 and sought to transfer it freely into their own work4 ,the fifteenth century1 with the energetic force of its figures1 its close grasp of nature1 and its pithy characterisation1 which did not even shrink from ugliness1 induced painters to go back more than they had formerly done to the sources of real life and to bring something of its directness into their creations4 lie ,delaunay began to look on nature with an eye less bent on making abstractions and regarding all things from the standpoint of style2 he began to apprehend more clearly her individual peculiarities and to reproduce them more truly than had been done by the frigid school which cast everything into the mould of ,classicism4 ,but ,ernest ,meissonier went a step further when by his rococo pictures he set the ,dutch tradition on a level with the ,flemish and ,early ,italian as a formative influence4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,meissonier4 ,,the ,,man ,,at ,,the ,,window4 ,a picture must either be very big or very small if it is to attract attention amid the bustle of exhibitions4 ,this was probably the consideration which led ,meissonier to his peculiar class of subjects1 and induced him to come forward with minute ,netherlandish cabinet-pieces at the time when the ,romanticists were issuing their huge manifestoes4 ,he came of a family of petty tradespeople1 and in his youth he is said to have taken over his father's business1 a trade in colonial produce4 ,every morning at eight o'clock punctual he was at the shop desk1 and kept the books and copied business letters1 and in this way accustomed himself to that painstaking and uniform carefulness which was characteristic of him to the end of his life4 ,his teacher1 ,cogniet1 was without influence on him4 ,even in his youth1 when there went forth the battle-cry of ,a ,guelf1 a ,ghibelline6 ,a ,delacroix1 an ,ingres6 ,meissonier sat quietly in the ,louvre and copied ,jan van ,eyck's ,madonna from ,autun4 ,and a ,netherlandish little master did he remain all his days4 ,he first earned his bread as an illustrator1 but after #ahcd he began to exhibit all manner of pieces from the time of ,louis ,,xiv and ,louis ,,xv--the ,bourgeois hollandais rendant ,visite au ,bourgmestre of #ahcd1 the ,chess ,players of ,holbein's ,time1 #ahce1 the ,monk at the ,sickbed1 #ahch1 the ,english ,doctor and the ,man ,reading1 #ahdj4 ,the ,salon of #ahda was for him what that of #ahbd had been for ,delacroix and ,ingres1 and that of #ahca for ,delaroche3 the cradle of his fame4 ,the ,chess ,party 7#ag cm4 high and #aa cm4 broad7 was the most celebrated picture of the exhibition4 ,the great ,netherlandish little masters of the seventeenth century1 till then scarcely known and little appreciated1 were brought out for comparison4 ,has ,terborg or ,mieris or ,meissonier done the greater work8 was the question4 ,people marvelled at the sharpness of this short-sighted eye which had a perception for the smallest details4 ,good heavens6 look at the way that's been done1 said the ,philistine1 taking a magnifying glass2 and felt himself a connoisseur if the curator at his elbow called out1 ,not too near6 ,even his first pictures had an accuracy and finish which defies description4 ,it seemed as if a most admirable ,netherlandish painter in miniature scale had arisen4 ,the execution of his design in colours was as slow1 careful1 and laborious as were his preparatory studies for costume3 every touch was altered and altered again2 many a picture which was almost ready was thrown aside1 scraped out1 and completely recast4 ,not hot-headed enthusiasts1 but connoisseurs1 has ,meissonier conquered in this fashion4 ,those readers1 philosophers1 card-players1 drinkers1 smokers1 flute-players and violin-players1 engravers1 painters and amateurs1 horsemen and farm-servants1 brawlers and bravoes1 from the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries1 which he painted year after year1 were soon the most coveted pictures in every superior private collection4 ,in #ahhd he was able to celebrate his jubilee as an artist with an exhibition of one hundred and fifty pictures of the kind4 ,and as they would have gone dirt cheap if they had been bought for their weight in gold1 the public accustomed itself to buy them for their weight in thousand-franc notes4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,meissonier4 ,a ,,man ,,reading4 ,the present age no longer looks up to these exercises of patience with the same vast admiration1 but it should not therefore be forgotten what ,meissonier was for his time4 ,to begin with1 though painted at a time when painting was regarded as an auxiliary1 and an invaluable one1 to history1 his pictures tell no story4 ,these personages of ,meissonier's take part in no comedy2 they occupy themselves1 some in smoking1 some in drinking1 others in playing cards1 and others again in doing nothing whatever4 ,whether they made their entry as musketeer or philosophers1 as lackeys or gallants1 as scholars or bonvivants1 they did not pose and had no ambition to seem men of wit and spirit1 they plunged into no adventurous deeds and related no anecdotes3 they were content to be well painted4 ,and so amongst all the ,french painters of the historical picture of manners ,meissonier was the one who had the secret of giving his works an entirely peculiar cachet of striking and realistic truth to nature4 ,his figures1 marvellously painted1 and at the same time animated and natural in expression1 wear the costume of our ancestors with the utmost self-possession1 and fit into their modish rococo surroundings as if they had been poured into a mould4 ,meissonier reached the truth of nature in the total effect of his pictures by first in reality arranging his interiors1 and the still-life they contained1 as a congruous whole4 ,the rooms1 window niches1 and firesides which he reproduced in his pictures were in his own house and his studios1 with every detail ready to hand4 ,he bought bronzes1 trinkets1 and ornaments1 genuine productions of the rococo period1 by the hundred thousand1 and kept them by him4 ,his models were obliged1 for weeks and often for months1 actually to wear the velvet and silken costumes in which he made use of them2 then he painted them with the greatest fidelity to nature1 and without troubling himself about anecdotic incident4 ,what he rendered was not a story invented and put together piecemeal1 but a wholesome piece of reality1 pictorially conceived4 ,and if this was primarily composed of costumes and furniture belonging to the eighteenth century1 the transition to the natural treatment of modern life was at the same time made possible1 and was accomplished by ,meissonier himself1 at a later period1 in his battle pieces4 ,illustration3 ,gaz4 des ,beaux-,arts4 ,,meissonier4 ,,reading ,,the ,,manuscript4 ,but he had only painted men3 the physiognomy of the feminine ,sphinx remained for him an eternal riddle4 ,a wide field was here offered to his followers4 ,fauvelet1 ,chavet1 and ,brillouin stepped into ,meissonier's shoes1 and gave his rococo fine gentlemen their better halves4 ,the first two made simple imitations4 ,brillouin devoted himself to the comic genre3 he arranged his pictures prettily1 was a good observer1 and painted tolerably well4 ,the last of these ,meissonierists is ,vibert1 chiefly known in the present day by his cardinals and other scarlet dignitaries1 whom he represents in water-colours and oils with a certain touch of malice4 ,he paints them gouty1 gluttonising1 or tipsy1 in one or more cases in every picture--which does not contribute to make his works interesting4 ,but originally he had a sympathetic superior talent1 and will always claim a modest place in the group of the modern little masters4 ,his ,gulliver ,bound1 and also the ,spanish and ,turkish scenes which occupied him after a tour in the ,east1 are extremely pleasing and delicately painted costume pieces1 gleaming in sunlight2 and in their sparkling1 capricious workmanship they sometimes almost verge on ,fortuny4 ,on the ,german side of the ,rhine ,adolf ,menzel was the great pioneer of truth4 ,the history of ,german art must do him honour as one who first had the genius and courage to break away from conventional forms of phrasing1 and bring the truth of nature into art3 at first1 as in the case of ,meissonier1 it was nature in masquerade2 but it was nature seen and rendered with all the sincerity of a man to whom the art of pose was wanting from the very first4 ,illustration3 ,cassell ,co4 ,,meissonier4 ,,polcinello4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,meissonier4 ,a ,,reading ,,at ,,diderot',s4 7,by permission of ,baron ,edmond de ,rothschild1 owner of the picture1 and of ,m4 ,georges ,petit1 owner of the copyright47 ,even in the thirties1 at a time when ,the ,sorrowing ,royal ,pair and the ,leonora by ,lessing1 ,the ,soldier and his ,child1 ,the ,sick ,councillor1 and ,the ,sons of ,edward by ,hildebrandt1 and ,the ,lament of the ,jews by ,bendemann1 together with the works of ,cornelius1 met with the enthusiastic applause of the million1 ,menzel looked into the world with a sharp glance1 undisturbed by idealism2 and what enabled him to do this was his unwavering and thoroughly ,prussian healthiness1 which knew no touch of sentimentalism--a certain coldness and hardness1 that sensible1 reflective ,north ,german trait1 which often expresses itself in these days 7when ,german art has become subtle and superior7 by a crude naturalism in the ,berlin painting4 ,in the beginning of the century1 however1 it set the ,berlin painting1 as art of the healthy human understanding1 in salutary contrast to the sickliness of ,munich and ,dsseldorf4 ,even eighty years ago the people of ,berlin were too acute and practical to be ,romanticists4 ,the artists whom ,menzel found active and honoured at his arrival were ,schadow and ,rauch1 and beside them1 as representatives of the grande peinture1 ,begas and ,wach4 ,but even these1 who were most under the influence of the sentimental tendency1 were justly recognised by the thorough-going ,romanticists on the ,rhine as never having given an unqualified homage to their flag4 ,a clear1 realistic method was dominant in the art of ,berlin4 ,and in this respect it was as much a corrective--and one by no means to be undervalued--against the inflated sentiment of ,munich as against the weak and sickly sentimentalism of ,dsseldorf1 with its knights and monks and noble maidens4 ,even ,cornelius1 who had been called to ,berlin by ,frederick ,william ,,iv--that ,king of the ,romanticists on the throne of the eminently unromantic ,hohenzollerns--found himself helpless against the ruling taste4 ,and here only1 in the stronghold of sharply accentuated common sense1 where the old ,prussian sobriety set bounds to the twilight kingdom of ,romanticism1 could ,adolf ,menzel attain to greatness4 ,his ,berlinism kept him from lingering in empty space4 ,to the taste of to-day1 formed from ,fontainebleau1 he will seem too much a creature of the understanding and too little a creature of feeling4 ,boecklin hit him off admirably when1 on being asked what he thought of ,menzel1 he answered3 ,he is a great scholar4 ,a comparison between him and ,mommsen especially suggests itself--a great scholar1 a mordant satirist1 and a brilliant journalist4 ,but this sober scepticism1 this cool spirit of investigation1 this heartlessness observing all things with the eye of a judge in a court of judicial inquiry1 were what cleared the ground for modern art4 ,no one has done more than ,menzel for those rulers in the kingdom of dreams who from pure dreaming have never been able to learn anything4 ,he has helped to set them steadily on their feet1 and to accustom their sight1 vitiated by idealism1 once more to truth and nature4 ,illustration3 ,l',art4 ,,meissonier4 ,a ,,halt4 ,illustration3 ,mansell4 ,,meissonier4 ,a ,,cavalier4 ,menzel was almost the only one in ,germany who could draw and paint in the time before the ,french influence had made itself felt4 ,the struggle for existence had forced him to learn4 ,in the year of ,bismarck's birth there was born in ,breslau the man destined to glorify1 first the greatness of the old kingdom of the ,fredericks1 and then that of new imperial ,prussia4 ,cast out at an early age on the inhospitable wilderness of life1 he came to ,berlin1 poor and lonely1 and not so much for the sake of art as for gain4 ,there he sat in his cheerless attic1 without a servant2 and wrapped up in his plaid1 with a coffee-pot on one side and a pencil on the other1 he looked out over the roofs of the vast town1 the most brilliant epoch of which he was predestined to depict and to conquer by his art4 ,since it brought in profit sooner than anything else1 he had made himself familiar with the technique of reproduction2 and having devoted himself in particular to the newly discovered art of lithography1 he turned out mnus1 ,new ,year cards1 vignettes for occasional poems1 etc41 and in things of this sort displayed a genuine affinity of spirit with ,chodowiecki and ,gottfried ,schadow4 ,from his twelfth year onwards he had not only assured his own existence1 but even supported his family by such work2 and in the hours he spent over it he laid the groundwork for becoming the master of masters amongst the moderns4 ,menzel is not merely a man who owed to himself everything which he afterwards became1 who learnt to draw by his own unassisted endeavours1 who mastered oil-painting without a teacher1 and went further in it than any one of his generation--a man who found out entirely by himself new methods and combinations in water-colours and gouache2 but if it is asked who was the greatest ,german illustrator1 the man who did most in ,germany to advance the art of woodcut engraving1 the one ,german historical painter of the century who was entirely original1 who really knew a bygone period so exactly that he could venture on painting it1 the name of ,menzel is invariably uttered4 ,illustration3 ,baschet4 ,,adolf ,,menzel1 #ahcg4 ,even in the twelve simple lithographs which appeared in #ahcg1 ,memorable ,events from ,prussian ,history in the ,brandenburg ,era1 the scholar ,menzel stands ready as the actual historian of the ,prussian kingdom4 ,in an age which took its pleasure in a vaporous1 sentimental enthusiasm for the medival splendour of the empire1 he was the one who as a youth of twenty pointed to the corner-stones of ,prussian history in the ,brandenburg times2 he was the only man of his age who refused to blow the horn of the mawkish ,romanticists1 and still less that of the impassioned historical painters who came after them4 ,for his were no theatrically tricked out scenes of tragedy1 no touching situations2 they had nothing poetical2 and just as little were they tedious pictures of ceremonies or spectacular pieces4 ,striking characterisation and sparkling vividness were united here to the most painstaking study of nature and history1 carried down to the peculiarities of costume and weapons4 ,history was not arranged in accordance with academic formul1 but delineated as if from life with absorbing truthfulness4 ,everything was expressed simply and sincerely1 without exciting passages1 and without conventional sentiment pumped out of models4 ,every epoch had its historical physiognomy1 and costume was reduced to its proper subordinate place4 ,franz ,kugler was the first who understood this sincere and pithy art4 ,the ,life of ,napoleon had appeared1 at that time1 in ,paris1 with illustrations by ,horace ,vernet1 and it had a considerable sale in ,germany also4 ,this gave a ,berlin publisher the idea of a similar ,german work1 and ,kugler commissioned ,menzel to illustrate his biography of ,frederick the ,great4 ,it is almost impossible to pay sufficient honour to the influence which this book on ,frederick has had on ,german art4 ,it made an epoch in the history of wood engraving4 ,the technique of this craft had been completely forgotten in ,germany ever since the beginning of the century1 or used only for the production of rough trade-marks for tobacco2 ,menzel had to invent it afresh and teach an engraving school of his own before the four hundred masterly plates of the book were made possible4 ,but it became more revolutionary still for the sthetic ideas of the time4 ,menzel had not set himself to produce a sequence of pictures1 displaying events and heroes in the most ideal situations possible1 but made it his business to sift the entire life of ,frederick the ,great to its minutest particulars4 ,and here began that philological study of records which ,menzel has carried on with the strenuous labour of an archivist down to the present day4 ,old ,fritz had been caught by ,chodowiecki in the way in which he has since lived in the popular imagination3 as the old man on horseback1 with his bent shoulders and his crutch-stick1 holding a review1 and as the philosopher1 the statesman1 the warrior and hero in the most manifold situations4 ,menzel1 in whom the spirit of ,chodowiecki lived again1 only needed to begin where the latter left off4 ,stepping on the antiquarian material of ,chodowiecki1 he worked his way into the great period on which ,frederick and ,voltaire have set the stamp of their spirit1 as ,mommsen worked his way into ,roman history4 ,he read through whole libraries2 he copied all attainable portraits4 ,with scientific pedantry he did not forget to study the buttons and the cut of the trousers in the uniforms1 and did not rest until he knew the old grenadiers as a corporal knows his men4 ,using these labours as preparation1 he proceeded to call up old ,fritz and his time with the objectivity of an historian1 just as they were1 and not as they had better have been4 ,sureness of treatment even in the finest details1 accurate mastery of the surroundings1 and everything which had made ,meissonier's appearance so important for ,france1 was attained at one stroke for ,germany4 ,but the very simplicity of what was offered--both in style and technique--prevented ,menzel from being at the beginning accepted in his own country as an historical painter4 ,he was blamed for disregarding beauty1 and it was said that a higher artistic perception was sealed from him4 ,on the other hand1 the book laid the foundation of ,menzel's position in ,france1 and was1 moreover1 the work on which1 for a long time1 the appreciation of modern ,german art in foreign countries was based4 ,illustration3 ,,menzel4 ,,frederick ,,the ,,great ,,and ,,his ,,tutor4 ,illustration3 ,,menzel4 ,,the ,,round ,,table ,,at ,,sans-,,souci4 ,thenceforth ,menzel had a kind of monopoly in this subject1 and when in #ahdj ,frederick ,william ,,iv had the works of the great king published in an dition de luxe1 ,menzel1 amongst others1 was entrusted with the illustration4 ,every one of the thirty volumes contains portraits of ,frederick's contemporaries which were engraved by ,mandel and others after original pictures of the period4 ,menzel had an apparently subordinate task4 ,he was commissioned to make two hundred drawings for wood engraving2 these1 however1 do not appear on separate pages1 but were destined to be incorporated in the text as tail-pieces1 vignettes1 and the like4 ,this was the great work which occupied him during the forties2 and in these headings and tail-pieces to the works of ,frederick the ,great he showed1 for the first time1 that he was not merely a learned investigator of sources1 but was full of brilliant aperus4 ,one has to read ,frederick the ,great before one can do full justice to the acuteness and ready resource1 the subtlety and pungency of the artist's pencil4 ,all sthetic categories of realistic and idealistic art are scattered like dust before these creations1 in which the most fantastic ideas are embodied with the whole force of the realistic power of our days4 ,when he had done honour to the military comrades of the great ruler in his work of wood engraving1 ,heroes of ,war and ,peace in the ,time of ,king ,frederick1 and thus made the epoch his own through a decade of busy labour1 ,menzel1 draughtsman though he was1 turned round and became the painter of ,frederick the ,great4 ,in the history of art there have never been two names more intimately connected with each other4 ,menzel was a strenuous worker1 who never knew the passion for woman1 either because he had no time for it1 or because he despised women after being despised by them as a poor1 hard-featured student of art2 a man whose great bald head appeared at ,berlin subscription-balls amid groups of brilliant cavaliers and queens of beauty1 fashion1 and grace1 surrounded by the rustle of their silks and in the whirlpool of a dancing throng1 gleaming with colour and sparkling with gold and jewels2 and appeared there simply because this world interested him as something to be painted4 ,he was a recluse who went into society solely to make observations for his art1 and when there was chary of speech and much feared4 ,he was always a busy experimentalist1 so that his two hands gradually became equally dexterous2 at the age of eighty he could still sketch with firm and accurate strokes while travelling in a railway carriage4 ,though he had hitherto devoted himself to drawing1 he had also by his own independent study made himself familiar with the technique of oils2 and he now became such a master of colour as few were at that time4 ,in the middle of the century were painted those two masterpieces which now hang in the ,berlin ,national ,gallery1 ,the ,round ,table at ,sans-,souci and ,the ,concert of ,frederick the ,great4 ,these are historical pictures1 the authority and importance of which cannot be shaken by even the most modern of critics4 ,if what is called the spirit of an age has ever been embodied in pictures1 it is embodied here1 where the master-minds of the eighteenth century are assembled at their genial round table4 ,the scene is the oval dining-room of the castle4 ,the meal is over1 and there reigns a genial after-dinner mood1 champagne sparkles in the glasses and a smart rivalry of wit is in progress4 ,afternoon has crept on1 and a cold1 subdued daylight floods the room1 in which every fragment of the architecture1 from the inlaid floor to the gilded capitals of the pillars and the stucco of the arched ceiling1 every piece of furniture and every chandelier1 bears the wayward grace of the high-rococo period2 all is comprehended with the most intimate knowledge4 ,in the second picture a fine candlelight is glimmering over the scene4 ,frederick is just beginning to play the flute1 and the musicians of the string quartet pause1 to strike in again after the solo4 ,the ,court is grouped to the left3 the ladies in gilded easy-chairs1 and their cavaliers behind them4 ,the tapers of the chandelier and the sconces branching from the wall shed over everything their prismatic1 broken light reflected by the mirrors1 and fill the fantastic1 capricious1 graceful1 comfortable apartment1 here with streaming brightness1 there with a finely modulated twilight4 ,only ,menzel could have conjured up in so convincing a manner the brilliancy of this ,court festival of the past4 ,illustration3 ,hanfstngl4 ,,menzel4 ,,frederick ,,the ,,great ,,on ,a ,,journey4 ,here is that exactness which an historical picture must have if it makes any claim to intrinsic worth4 ,whilst the ordinary historical painters were content to transmute dressed-up models into types of the universally human1 and to put historical labels on their frames1 ,menzel succeeded in really penetrating a bygone age in an artistic spirit1 and in making it live again for the present generation4 ,he did not burrow to discover another dim historical personage every year1 but confined himself to one hero--to the figure of the ,prussian hero-king1 familiar to every child1 and still living in the popular imagination2 and he learnt to master the time of this favourite hero as if he had been old ,fritz himself4 ,menzel had never heard him blowing on his flute1 and never sat at table with him in ,sans-,souci1 but the painting of these scenes comes out true and life-like in the artist's work1 because the past history of his country had become as vivid to him as his own age4 ,his ,battle of ,hochkirch rises to tragical grandeur1 precisely because everything that is outwardly impassioned is far from him4 ,his ,frederick the ,great on a ,journey1 where the king is inspecting territories alter the war and ordering the rebuilding of demolished houses1 his ,frederick's ,meeting with ,joseph ,,ii in ,niesse1 and all the other pictures of the sequence1 by their marvellous naturalness and intense vividness1 and by their freedom from pompous phrasing1 stand alone in an age dominated by empty sentiment4 ,menzel1 who never laid his sketch-book down from the time he was twelve years old1 found a subject of pictorial interest in everything that he saw around him1 until finally he acquired the power of moving with natural self-possession in a period that was not his own4 ,by the roundabout way through the rococo period he has taught us to understand ourselves4 ,in his pictures an apparently paradoxical problem has been solved4 ,an intense feeling for modern reality waked to new life the past1 that same past which no one had approached with success by the way of idealism4 ,illustration3 ,,menzel4 ,,illustration ,,to ,,kugler',s ,,history ,,of ,,frederick ,,the ,,great4 ,and if we look over the whole development of modern art it strikes us as a remarkable fact that the most concrete spirits1 the most thorough masters of technique1 like ,meissonier and ,menzel1 were precisely those who ventured to advance into the present4 ,when they had crossed the province of the rococo period1 avoided by all scholastic art1 they had arrived again at the epoch when ,mengs and ,david had interrupted the natural course of the history of art1 one hundred years before4 ,about #agej the fateful movement towards the antique had been accomplished2 in #ahbj the ,middle ,ages had the upper hand2 in #ahcj the ,cinquecento was in the ascendant with ,cornelius and ,ingres2 in #ahdj the seventeenth century was awakened through ,delacroix and ,wappers2 and in #ahej1 after the courses of the centuries were sphered--to use the phrase of ,cornelius--,meissonier and ,menzel painted things which had not appeared worth representing to the painters of #agej1 blinded1 as they were1 by the glory of the antique4 ,not less striking is it that the nearer the historical subject came to the present the truer to nature did the picture become1 and the more did it outwardly change in its features4 ,it has shrivelled from the huge scale of ,david and ,cornelius to the miniature scale of ,meissonier and ,menzel1 and to some extent it thus leaves its further development to be guessed4 ,at no distant time the historical picture will be overthrown1 and the picture from modern life1 hitherto but shyly handled and on the smallest scale1 will swell to life size4 ,history itself1 serious history1 clings merely to the rock-bed of old costume4 ,one generation had used it with an abstract purpose as a substratum for philosophical ideas2 others had made scenical pieces with its aid2 a third generation turned it over for piquant traits and anecdotes4 ,the last and greatest generation had finally come to handle it quite familiarly and humanly and without affected dignity4 ,their works protested against all idealism2 and this expressed itself1 in drawing1 by their making use of the true instead of the beautiful line2 in colour1 by a fresher tint corresponding with nature rather than with the conventional ideal of beauty4 ,illustration3 ,,menzel4 ,,portrait ,,of ,,frederick ,,the ,,great4 ,illustration3 ,,menzel4 ,,reifspiel4 ,nobility of line was paramount in ,gallait and ,piloty1 movement with grand1 kingly gestures1 lofty dignity1 aristocratic bearing1 knightliness1 and a conventional piling up of rich stuffs1 alluring to the eye4 ,leys1 ,menzel1 and ,meissonier were the first who sacrificed beauty to truth1 or1 more properly1 who perceived that a beauty without truth is not really beautiful4 ,they came gradually and by an indirect way to this knowledge as they studied ,german and ,netherlandish masters instead of the ,italians1 and set up the angular1 natural outlines of the ,germans against the grace of the ,latin masters1 which had become banal through a lengthy course of imitation4 ,and thus a return was made to the manner of our true ancestors1 which had been forgotten during half a century4 ,the place of the ,antinous heads of ,gallait was taken by physiognomies of vigorous characterisation2 gesticulating heroes made way for peaceful1 quiet persons1 who did not consider themselves under an obligation to acquire artistic citizenship by a parade of attitude1 but appeared in their picture as they were in reality4 ,impassioned movement yielded quietly to arms hanging downwards and natural postures4 ,even the traditional rules of concave and convex composition were broken so that the free play of life might more easily come to its rights4 ,not less did all three show themselves true painters by preferring rightness of observation and truth and delicacy of reproduction to anecdote and richness of invention1 and by feeling the need of painting figures in their real surroundings4 ,instead of the conventional velvet and brocade stuffs1 and the folios everywhere and nowhere in place1 the settles and the brass caskets1 there was a naturally painted fragment of reality1 authentically reflecting the whole atmosphere of the period4 ,the treatment of nature1 hitherto idealistic and arbitrary1 became synthetic and naturalistic4 ,there was no more abstraction1 but direct observation of the man and his milieu4 ,and if1 for the time being1 this milieu was a rococo milieu1 artificially reconstructed so that it could be realistically transferred to the picture1 ,menzel and ,meissonier1 even on account of this realism1 would have to be reckoned as outposts of the modern tendency1 and as having very decided points of contact with it2 and this1 even if they had not themselves actually become the pioneers of modernity1 forcing their way through against the literary and historical movement4 ,it is owing to their works in the past that the preference of the public turned less and less to compositions of fine sentiment1 even though grounded on more attentive observation1 and that artists began to regard reality as the most important element1 the point of departure for every picture4 ,thus life itself came to be painted1 and preparation was made for the coming demand of a new generation1 who wished no more to see old heroes1 but themselves1 in the mirror of art4 ,illustration3 ,,when ,,will ,,genius ,,awake8 ,,menzel4 ,,bibliography ,,bibliography ,,chapter ,i ,general3 ,rouquet3 ,l'tat des ,arts en ,angleterre ,paris1 #agee4 ,h4 ,walpole3 ,anecdotes of ,painting in ,england4 ,with ,illustrations4 #e vols4 ,london1 ,strawberry ,hill1 #agfb-ga4 ,new ,edition1 ,london1 ,ward1 ,lock ,co41 #ahgi4 ,james ,dalloway3 ,les ,beaux-,arts en ,angleterre4 ,paris1 #ahjg4 ,edward ,edwards3 ,anecdotes of ,painters who have resided or been born in ,england4 ,london1 #ahjh4 ,j4 ,d4 ,fiorillo1 ,geschichte der ,malerei in ,grossbritannien1 vol4 v4 ,gttingen1 #ahjh4 ,w4 ,carey3 ,progress of the ,fine ,arts in ,england and ,ireland during the ,reigns of ,george ,,ii1 ,,iii1 ,,iv4 ,london1 #ahbf4 ,william ,fletcher3 ,history of ,painting in ,england4 ,london1 #ahch4 ,g4 ,hamilton3 ,gallery of ,english ,artists4 ,london and ,paris1 #ahci4 ,edward ,edwards3 ,the ,fine ,arts in ,england4 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,w4 ,b4 ,taylor3 ,the ,origin1 ,progress1 and ,present ,condition of the ,fine ,arts in ,great ,britain and ,ireland4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahda4 ,g4 ,lombardi3 ,saggio dell' ,istoria ,pittorica d',inghilterra4 ,firenze1 #ahdc4 ,j4 ,dalloway3 ,anecdotes of ,painting in ,england1 with some ,account of the ,principal ,artists4 #c vols4 ,london1 #ahdi4 ,john ,ruskin3 ,modern ,painters4 #e vols4 ,london1 #ahea-fj4 ,g4 ,f4 ,waagen3 ,treasures of ,art in ,great ,britain4 ,london1 #ahed4 ,prosper ,mrime3 ,les ,beaux-,arts en ,angleterre1 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #aheg4 ,t4 ,silvestre3 ,l',art1 ,les ,artistes1 etc41 en ,angleterre4 ,london1 #aheg4 ,c4 de ,pesquidoux3 ,l'cole ,anglaise1 #afgb-ahea4 tudes biographiques et critiques4 ,paris1 #aheh4 ,our ,living ,painters3 their ,lives and ,works4 ,london1 #ahei4 ,t4 ,silvestre3 ,les ,artistes ,anglais1 ,l',artiste1 vol4 vi1 p4 #ha4 ,paris1 #ahei4 ,w4 ,thornbury3 ,british ,artists from ,hogarth to ,turner4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahfj-fa4 ,j4 ,milsand3 ,l'esthtique anglaise4 tude sur ,m4 ,john ,ruskin4 ,trad4 fran4 ,paris1 #ahfd4 ,r4 and ,s4 ,redgrave3 ,a ,century of ,painters of the ,english ,school4 #b vols4 ,london1 #ahff4 ,new ,edition1 #ahij4 ,w4 ,f4 ,rae3 ,the ,history of ,painting in ,england1 ,the ,fine ,arts ,quarterly ,review1 vol4 i1 p4 #bda2 vol4 ii1 p4 #fd4 #ahff-fg4 ,w4 ,c4 ,monkhouse3 ,masterpieces of ,english ,art1 with ,sketches of some ,deceased ,painters of the ,english ,school4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,f4 ,t4 ,palgrave3 ,gems of ,english ,art4 ,plates4 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,sarah ,tytler3 ,modern ,painters and their ,paintings4 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,frederick ,william ,fairholt3 ,homes1 ,works1 and ,shrines of ,english ,artists4 ,london1 ,virtue ,co41 #ahgc4 ,frederick ,wedmore3 ,the ,rise of ,naturalism in ,english ,art1 ,macmillan's ,magazine1 ,march and ,june #ahgf4 ,john ,ruskin3 ,lectures on ,art1 delivered before the ,university of ,oxford1 #ahgj4 ,london1 ,macmillan1 #ahgf4 ,english ,painters of the ,georgian ,era3 ,hogarth to ,turner4 ,biographical ,notices of the ,artists4 ,with #dh permanent photographs of their most celebrated pictures4 ,london1 ,low1 #ahgf4 ,frederick ,wedmore3 ,studies on ,english ,art4 ,london1 ,richard ,bentley ,son1 #ahgf4 ,english ,painters of the ,victorian ,era3 ,mulready to ,landseer4 ,illustrated with #dh photographs of their most popular works4 ,with biographical notices4 ,london1 ,low1 #ahgg4 ,james ,dafforne3 ,modern ,art4 ,a series of line engravings from the works of distinguished painters of the ,english and ,foreign ,schools1 selected from galleries and private collections in ,great ,britain4 #fj plates1 with descriptive text by ,j4 ,d4 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,samuel ,redgrave3 ,a ,dictionary of ,artists of the ,english ,school4 ,new ,edition4 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,the ,reflection of ,english ,character in ,english ,art1 ,the ,quarterly ,review1 ,january #ahgi4 ,allan ,cunningham3 ,the ,lives of the ,most ,eminent ,british ,painters4 ,revised edition1 annotated and continued to the ,present ,time by ,mrs4 ,charles ,heaton4 #c vols4 ,london1 ,bell1 #ahgi4 ,frederick ,wedmore3 ,studies on ,english ,art4 ,second ,series4 7,romney1 ,david ,cox1 ,g4 ,cruikshank1 ,w4 ,hunt1 ,prout1 ,b4 ,jones1 ,a4 ,moore47 ,london1 ,bentley1 #ahhj4 ,george ,h4 ,shepherd3 ,a ,short ,history of the ,british ,school of ,painting4 ,london1 ,sampson ,low1 #ahha4 ,living ,painters of ,france and ,england4 ,plates4 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,e4 ,chesneau3 ,la peinture anglaise4 ,paris1 #ahhb4 ,j4 ,faber3 ,la peinture anglaise4 ,fdration artistique1 #ahhc4 #aa-ae4 ,n4 ,d',anvers3 ,an ,elementary ,history of ,modern ,painting4 ,new ,edition4 ,london1 ,sampson ,low1 #ahhc4 ,wilfrid ,meynell3 ,some ,modern ,artists and their ,work4 7,leighton1 ,boughton1 ,tadema1 ,watts1 etc47 ,with portraits and illustrations4 ,london1 ,cassell ,co41 #ahhc4 ,modern ,artists4 ,illustrated ,biographies of ,modern ,artists1 published under the direction of ,f4 ,g4 ,dumas4 7,leighton1 ,millais1 ,herkomer1 ,hook1 etc47 #b vols4 ,london and ,paris1 #ahhb-hd4 ,feuillet de ,conches3 ,histoire de l'cole anglaise de peinture jusqu' ,sir ,thomas ,lawrence et ses mules4 ,paris1 ,leroux1 #ahhc4 ,h4 ,j4 ,wilmot-,buxton and ,s4 ,r4 ,khler3 ,english and ,american ,painters4 ,plates4 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,john ,ruskin3 ,the ,art of ,england4 ,lectures given in ,oxford4 ,orpington1 ,kent1 #ahhc-hd4 ,artists at ,home4 ,photographed by ,j4 ,r4 ,mayall4 ,with ,biographical ,notices by ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens4 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,lord ,ronald ,gower2 ,great ,historic ,galleries of ,england4 ,london1 ,sampson ,low4 ,j4 ,comyns ,carr3 ,papers on ,art4 ,london1 ,macmillan ,co41 #ahhe4 7,contains studies of ,reynolds1 ,gainsborough1 ,rossetti1 etc47 ,allan ,cunningham3 ,great ,english ,painters4 ,selected ,biographies from ,allan ,cunningham's ,lives of ,eminent ,british ,painters4 ,edited by ,william ,sharp4 ,london1 #ahhf4 ,j4 ,e4 ,hodgson3 ,fifty ,years of ,british ,art4 7,manchester ,exhibition1 #ahhg47 ,manchester and ,london1 ,john ,heywood1 #ahhg4 ,charles ,heaton3 ,a ,concise ,history of ,painting4 ,london1 ,bell ,daldy1 #ahgc4 ,second ,edition1 #ahhh4 ,the ,pictorial ,record of the ,royal ,jubilee ,exhibition at ,manchester1 #ahhg4 ,by ,walter ,tomlinson4 ,with special articles by ,thomas ,w4 ,harris1 ,charles ,estcourt1 and ,joseph ,nodal4 ,edited by ,john ,h4 ,nodal4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,manchester1 #ahhh4 ,walter ,armstrong3 ,the ,nineteenth ,century ,school in ,art1 ,nineteenth ,century1 ,april1 #ahhg4 ,walter ,armstrong3 ,fine ,art at the ,royal ,jubilee ,exhibition at ,manchester1 #ahhg4 #ahhh4 ,william ,hoe3 ,english ,artists of the ,day4 ,a ,technical ,directory4 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,william ,tirebuck3 ,great ,minds in ,art4 7,studies of ,wilson1 ,wilkie1 ,landseer1 and others47 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,harry ,quilter3 ,french and ,english ,art1 ,universal ,review1 #ahhh and #ahij4 ,w4 ,e4 ,henley3 ,a ,century of ,artists4 ,a ,memorial of the ,glasgow ,international ,exhibition1 #ahhh4 ,with ,illustrations4 ,glasgow1 #ahhi4 ,hermann ,helferich3 ,ueber die ,kunst in ,england1 ,kunst fr ,alle1 iv1 #ahhh1 pp4 #afa1 #agg4 ,paul ,meyerheim3 ,die englische ,malerie in den letzten #ej ,jahren1 ,nord und ,sd1 #ahhi1 p4 #ag4 ,j4 ,a4 ,crowe1 ,continental and ,english ,painting1 ,nineteenth ,century1 ,april #ahij4 ,t4 de ,wyzewa3 ,les grands peintres de l',espagne et de l',angleterre4 ,histoire sommaire de la peinture japonaise4 ,illustrations4 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,t4 ,h4 ,shepherd3 ,short ,history of the ,british ,school of ,painting4 ,london1 #ahia4 ,robert de la ,sizeranne3 ,la peinture anglaise contemporaine4 ,paris1 #ahie4 ,g4 ,temple3 ,the ,art of ,painting in the ,queen's ,reign4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,richard ,muther3 ,die englische ,malerei im #ai ,jahrhundert4 ,berlin1 #aijb4 ,see also ,h4 ,thomas ,buckle3 ,history of ,civilisation in ,england4 ,h4 ,taine3 ,notes sur l',angleterre4 ,paris1 #ahgb4 ,h4 ,taine3 ,histoire de la ,littrature ,anglaise4 ,periodicals3 ,art ,journal1 ,portfolio1 and ,magazine of ,art1 passim4 ,hogarth3 ,w4 ,hogarth3 ,analyse de la beaut4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahje4 ,john ,nichols3 ,biographical ,anecdotes of ,w4 ,hogarth4 ,london1 #agha4 ,second ,edition1 #aghe4 ,g4 ,c4 ,lichtenberg3 ,erklrung der ,hogarth'schen ,kupferstiche1 mit verkleinerten ,copien derselben v4 ,riepenhausen4 ,gttingen1 #agid-ahca4 ,w4 ,hogarth3 ,complete ,works1 ,including the ,analysis of ,beauty4 ,london1 #ahcg4 ,francis ,wey3 ,w4 ,hogarth4 ,londres il y a cent ans4 ,paris1 #ahei4 ,j4 ,hannay3 ,complete ,works of ,hogarth4 ,plates4 ,london1 #ahfj4 ,g4 ,a4 ,sala3 ,w4 ,hogarth1 ,painter1 ,engraver1 and ,philosopher4 ,illustrations4 ,london1 #ahff4 ,c4 ,justi3 ,w4 ,hogarth1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 vii1 #ahgb4 ,a4 ,dobson3 ,hogarth4 ,london1 ,low1 ,new and ,enlarged ,edition1 #aijc4 7,illustrated ,biographies of ,great ,artists47 ,th4 ,gautier3 ,guide de l'amateur1 #ahhb4 ,hogarth's ,shrimp ,girl1 ,portfolio1 #ahhf1 p4 #aje4 ,f4 ,rabbe in the compilation1 ,les artistes clbres4 ,reproductions3 ,the ,original and ,genuine ,works of ,w4 ,hogarth4 ,atlas fol4 ,london1 #agij4 ,graphic ,illustrations of ,hogarth3 from ,pictures1 ,drawings1 etc4 #b vols4 ,royal #hvo4 ,london1 #agid-ii4 ,the ,works of ,w4 ,hogarth3 from the original plates1 restored by ,james ,heath1 ,r4,a4 ,atlas fol4 ,london1 #ahbb4 ,the ,works of ,w4 ,hogarth3 reproduced from the original engravings in permanent photographs4 ,with an ,essay on ,hogarth by ,charles ,lamb4 #b vols4 ,royal #hvo4 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,j4 ,ireland and ,j4 ,nichols3 ,hogarth's ,works1 with ,life and ,anecdotal ,descriptions of his ,pictures4 #c vols4 ,london4 ,no date4 ,reynolds3 ,j4 ,northcote3 ,the ,life of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,london4 #ahah4 ,joseph ,farrington3 ,memoirs of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 with some ,observations on his ,talent and ,character4 ,london1 #ahci4 ,edm4 ,wheatley3 ,a ,descriptive ,catalogue of all the ,prints1 etc41 from ,original ,portraits and ,pictures by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,new ,edition1 #ahej4 ,th4 ,reynolds3 ,life of ,joshua ,reynolds1 by his ,son4 ,london1 #ahci4 ,joshua ,reynolds3 ,discourses on the ,fine ,arts4 ,edinburgh1 #ahdj4 ,joshua ,reynolds3 ,discourses1 illustrated by ,explanatory ,notes and ,plates by ,j4 ,burnet4 ,london1 #ahdb4 ,edm4 ,malone3 ,the ,literary ,works of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,seven ,editions4 ,london1 #agid-ahbd4 ,new ,editions by ,h4 ,w4 ,beechey4 ,london1 #ahdf and #ahea4 ,w4 ,cotton3 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds and his ,works1 edited by ,john ,burnet4 ,london1 #ahef4 ,new ,edition1 #ahei4 ,j4 ,timbs3 ,anecdotal ,biography4 7,hogarth1 ,reynolds1 etc47 #ahfj4 ,ch4 ,rob4 ,leslie and ,tom ,taylor3 ,life and ,times of ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,london1 #ahfe4 ,reynolds and the ,portrait ,painters of the ,last ,century3 ,blackwood's ,magazine1 ,november #ahfg4 ,sidney ,colvin3 ,joshua ,reynolds1 ,portfolio1 #ahgc1 pp4 #ff-hb4 ,j4 ,c4 ,collins3 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds as a ,portrait ,painter4 ,an ,essay1 with #bj ,portraits4 ,london1 #ahgd4 ,edw4 ,hamilton3 ,a ,catalogue ,raisonn of the ,engraved ,works of ,joshua ,reynolds1 #agee-ahbj4 ,london1 #ahgd4 ,frederick ,wedmore3 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 ,temple ,bar1 ,july #ahgf4 ,f4 ,s4 ,pulling2 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,london1 ,sampson ,low1 #ahhj4 ,th4 ,gautier2 ,guide de l'amateur1 #ahhb4 ,f4 ,g4 ,stephens3 ,english ,children as painted by ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,th4 ,duret3 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds et ,gainsborough aux expositions de la ,royal ,academy et de la ,grosvenor ,gallerie1 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahhd1 i #cbg4 7,the same reprinted and enlarged4 ,paris1 #ahhe47 ,various articles in the ,athenum1 #ahhc and #ahhd4 ,helen ,zimmern3 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds1 in ,westermanns ,monatsheften1 ,may #ahhd4 ,william ,martin ,conway3 ,the ,artistic ,development of ,reynolds and ,gainsborough4 ,london1 ,seeley ,co41 #ahhf4 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,with #ah ,illustrations4 ,paris1 #ahhg 7in the compilation ,les artistes clbres74 ,lady ,blennerhasset3 ,joshua ,reynolds' ,discourses1 ,allgemeine ,zeitung1 #ahhi4 ,ed4 ,leisching3 ,zur ,aesthetik u4 ,technik der bildenden ,knste4 ,akademische ,reden von ,sir ,j4 ,r41 ,uebersetzt u4 mit ,einleitung1 ,anmerkungen1 ,register u4 ,textvergleichung versehen von ,dr4 ,e4 ,l4 ,leipzig1 #ahic4 ,c4 ,phillips3 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,with #i ,illustrations from ,pictures by the ,master4 ,london1 #ahid4 ,w4 ,armstrong3 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,with #gh ,photogravures and #f ,lithographic ,facsimiles in colour1 #aijj2 ,popular edition1 with #eb ,plates4 ,london1 #aije4 ,lord ,ronald ,gower3 ,sir ,joshua ,reynolds4 ,his ,life and ,art 7with ,illustrations74 ,british ,artists' ,series1 #aijb4 ,j4 ,sime3 ,reynolds4 ,london1 #aijd4 ,f4 ,benoit3 ,reynolds4 ,paris1 #aijd4 ,gainsborough3 ,rob4 ,pratt3 ,sketch of the ,life and ,paintings of ,thomas ,gainsborough4 ,london1 #aghh4 ,george ,william ,fulcher3 ,life of ,thomas ,gainsborough4 ,london1 #ahef4 ,sidney ,colvin3 ,thomas ,gainsborough1 ,portfolio1 #ahgb1 pp4 #afi1 #agh4 ,j4 ,comyns ,carr3 ,thomas ,gainsborough1 ,the ,english ,illustrated ,magazine1 ,december #ahhd4 ,george ,m4 ,brock-,arnold3 ,gainsborough4 ,london1 ,sampson ,low1 #ahhi4 ,walter ,armstrong in the compilation1 ,les artistes clbres4 ,mrs4 ,bell3 ,thomas ,gainsborough3 a ,record of his ,life and ,works1 with ,illustrations1 etc4 ,london1 #ahig4 ,w4 ,armstrong3 ,gainsborough and his ,place in ,english ,art4 ,with #fb ,photogravures and #aj ,lithographic ,facsimiles in colour4 ,london1 #ahih4 ,popular edition 7with #dh ,plates71 #aijd4 ,lord ,ronald ,gower3 ,thomas ,gainsborough 7with ,illustrations74 ,british ,artists' ,series1 #aijc4 ,reproductions3 ,studies of ,landscapes by ,thomas ,gainsborough4 ,engraved from the ,originals by ,l4 ,francia4 ,london1 #ahaj4 ,studies of ,figures by ,gainsborough1 in exact imitation of the originals1 by ,richard ,lane4 ,london1 #ahbe4 ,selected ,works of ,thomas ,gainsborough4 ,one hundred engravings in mezzotint4 ,fol4 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,wilson3 ,the ,works of ,richard ,wilson1 ,r4,a41 ,landscape ,painter4 ,a volume of engravings4 ,fol4 ,no date4 ,t4 ,wright3 ,some ,account of the ,life of ,richard ,wilson4 ,london1 #ahbd4 ,,chapter ,,ii ,general3 ,georg ,brandes3 ,hauptstrmungen der ,literatur des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 ,bd4 i1 #b ,aufl4 ,leipzig1 #ahhg4 ,wilhelm ,weigand3 ,essays4 7,voltaire1 ,rousseau1 zur ,psychologie des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 etc47 ,mnchen1 #ahib4 ,goya3 ,thophile ,gautier3 ,cabinet de l'amateur1 #ahdb4 ,laurent ,matheron3 ,biographie de ,fr4 ,goya4 ,paris1 #aheh4 ,carderera3 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahfj and #ahfc4 ,p4 ,lefort3 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahfg4 ,charles ,yriarte3 ,goya1 sa biographie1 etc4 ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,d4 ,f4 ,zapater y ,gomez3 ,goya1 noticias biograficas4 ,zaragoza1 #ahfh4 ,paul ,lefort3 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahge1 ii #ejf2 #ahgf1 i #ccf2 ii #ejj4 ,reprinted and enlarged under the title of ,francisco ,goya1 tude biographique et critique1 suivie de l'essai d'un catalogue raisonn de son oeuvre grav et lithographi4 ,paris1 #ahgg4 ,charles ,yriarte3 ,goya1 ,aquafortiste1 ,l',art1 #ahgg1 ii #c1 #cc1 #ef1 #gh4 ,p4 ,g4 ,hamerton3 ,fr4 ,goya1 ,portfolio4 #ahgi1 #fg-ii4 ,muoz y ,manzano3 ,francesco de ,goya y ,lucientes1 ,revista contemporanea1 ,september #ahhc4 ,lucien ,solvay3 ,l',art ,espagnol4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 7,bibliothque internationale de l',art47 ,con4 de la ,viaza3 ,goya1 su tiempo1 su vida1 sus obras4 ,madrid1 #ahhg4 ,p4 ,lafond3 ,goya4 ,paris1 #aijb4 ,w4 ,rothenstein3 ,goya 7with ,illustrations74 ,london1 #aijj4 ,valerian von ,loga3 ,francisco de ,goya4 ,berlin1 #aijc4 ,richard ,muther in der ,sammlung der ,kunst1 #aijd1 ,berlin4 ,more ,recent ,reproductions3 ,los ,desastres de la ,guerra4 ,colleccion de #hj laminos4 ,madrid1 #ahfc4 ,los ,proverbios4 ,colleccion de #ah laminos4 ,madrid1 #ahfd4 ,los ,caprichos4 ,gravures fac-simil de ,m4 ,segui y ,riera4 ,notice biographique et tude critique par ,ant4 de ,nait4 ,barcelone1 #ahhg4 ,french ,art in the ,eighteenth ,century3 ,edmond et ,jules de ,goncourt3 ,l',art du ,,xviii sicle4 ,paris1 #ahej4 #crd ,edition1 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,edmond et ,jules de ,goncourt3 ,la femme au ,,xviii sicle4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,charles ,blanc3 ,les ,peintres des ,ftes galantes4 7,watteau1 ,lancret1 ,pater1 ,boucher47 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,arsne ,houssaye3 ,histoire de l',art ,franais du ,,xviii sicle4 ,portraits4 ,paris1 #ahfj4 ,e4 ,b4 de la ,chavignerie3 ,les ,artistes ,franais du ,,xviii sicle oublis ou ddaigns4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,a4 v4 ,wurzbach3 ,die franzsischen ,maler des #ah ,jahrh4 ,stuttgart1 #ahgi4 ,auguste ,nicaise3 ,l'cole franaise au ,,xviii sicle4 ,chalons-sur-,marne1 #ahhc4 ,paul ,seidel3 ,friedrich d4 ,gr4 u4 die franzsische ,kunst seiner ,zeit4 ,berlin1 #ahib4 ,watteau3 ,figures de diffrents caractres de paysage et d'tudes dessines d'aprs nature par ,a4 ,watteau4 #b vols41 #cej pl4 ,paris4 ,no date4 ,d',argenville3 ,abrg de la vie des plus fameux peintres4 ,paris1 #agfb4 ,mariette3 ,abecedario4 ,published in the archives of ,french ,art by ,chennevires4 #aheb1 etc4 ,caylus3 ,la vie d',antoine ,watteau4 ,read on #crd ,february #agdh before the ,paris ,academy4 ,cited by ,goncourt1 ,l',art du ,,xviii sicle1 #ahej4 ,julienne in the preface to his book of plates1 #agee4 ,cellier3 ,antoine ,watteau1 son enfance1 ses contemporains4 ,valenciennes1 #ahfg4 ,edmond de ,goncourt3 ,a4 ,watteau4 ,paris1 #ahfj4 ,by the same author1 ,catalogue raisonn de l'oeuvre peint1 dessin et grav d',a4 ,watteau4 ,paris1 #ahge4 ,theodor ,volbehr3 ,antoine ,watteau1 ein ,beitrag zur ,kunstgeschichte des #ah ,jahrh4 ,mnchen1 #ahhe4 ,emil ,hannover3 ,a4 ,watteau4 ,kopenhagen1 #ahhg4 ,deutsch von ,alice ,hannover4 ,berlin1 #ahhi4 ,g4 ,dargenty in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,paul ,mantz3 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahhi1 i #e1 #agg1 #dee2 ii #e1 #abi1 #bbb4 ,reprinted #ahib4 ,boucher3 ,p4 ,mantz3 ,franois ,boucher1 ,lemoyne et ,natoire 7with engravings from their works74 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,andr ,michel in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahhi4 ,lancret3 ,g4 ,dargenty in ,les artistes clbres4 ,pater3 ,g4 ,dargenty in ,les artistes clbres4 ,fragonard3 ,baron ,roger ,portalis3 ,honor ,fragonard1 sa vie et ses oeuvres4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,felix ,naquet in ,les artistes clbres4 #ahic4 ,c4 ,mauclair3 ,fragonard1 ,biographie critique illustre de vingt-quatre reproductions hors texte 7,les ,grands ,artistes1 etc471 #aijd4 ,baudouin3 ,ch4 ,normand in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,greuze3 ,edmond et ,jules de ,goncourt3 ,l',art du ,,xviii sicle4 ,charles ,blanc3 ,histoire de peintres des toutes les coles1 ii4 ,jules ,renouvier3 ,histoire de l',art pendant la ,rvolution1 p4 #eag4 ,charles ,normand in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,quentin ,la ,tour3 ,clement de ,ris3 ,l'oeuvre de ,maurice ,quentin de ,latour1 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahhb1 ii #bea4 ,champfleury in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,h4 ,lapauze4 ,with #hg ,plates4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,la ,tour et son oeuvre au ,muse de ,saint-,quentin1 #aije4 ,liotard3 ,f4 ,guye3 ,jean tienne ,liotard1 #agjb-ia4 ,zofingen1 #ahij4 ,chardin3 ,edmond et ,jules de ,goncourt3 ,l',art du ,,xviii sicle4 ,g4 ,dargenty3 ,l',art1 #ahhc1 ii #c4 ,h4 de ,chennevires3 ,chardin au ,muse du ,louvre1 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahhi1 i #aba4 ,charles ,normand in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahib4 ,g4 ,schfer3 ,chardin 444 ,biographie critique illustre de vingt-quatre reproductions hors texte 7,les ,grands ,artistes1 etc471 #aijd4 ,cornelis ,troost3 ,a ,ver ,huell3 ,cornelis ,troost en zn ,werken4 ,arnhem1 #ahgc4 ,changes of ,taste in ,germany3 ,hermann ,hettner3 ,literaturgeschichte des #ah ,jahrhunderts1 ,bd4 iii4 ,braunschweig1 #ahgi4 ,chodowiecki3 ,w4 ,engelmann3 ,daniel ,chodowieckis smmtliche ,kupferstiche4 ,leipzig1 #aheg4 ,alfred ,woltmann3 ,hogarth und ,chodowiecki4 ,from ,vier ,jahrhunderte niederlndisch-deutscher ,kunstgeschichte4 ,berlin1 #ahgh4 ,ferdinand ,meyer3 ,daniel ,chodowiecki der ,peintre-graveur4 ,berlin1 #ahhh4 ,w4 von ,oettingen4 ,berlin1 #ahie4 ,l ,kmmerer3 ,bd4 #ba der ,knstlermonographien von ,knackfuss4 ,bielefeld1 #ahig4 ,see ,selection from the artist's finest engravings1 in photography1 by ,a4 ,frisch4 ,berlin1 #ahhe4 ,d4 ,chodowiecki3 ,von ,berlin nach ,danzig1 eine ,knstlerfahrt im ,jahre #aghc4 #ajh ,facsimiledrucke nach ,ch4's ,zeichnungen4 ,berlin1 #ahhc4 ,tischbein3 ,aus meinem ,leben4 ,an ,autobiography1 published by ,g4 ,g4 ,w4 ,schiller4 ,leipzig1 #ahfa4 ,fr4 v4 ,alten3 ,ans ,tischbeins ,leben und ,briefwechsel4 ,leipzig1 #ahgb4 ,edmond ,michel3 tude biographique sur les ,tischbein4 ,lyon1 #ahha4 ,pesne3 ,paul ,seidel3 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahia4 ,paul ,seidel3 ,die ,berliner ,kunst unter ,friedrich ,wilhelm ,i4 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahhh1 p4 #ahe4 ,anton ,graft3 ,r4 ,muther3 ,anton ,graff1 ein ,beitrag zur ,kunstgeschichte des #ah ,jahrhunderts4 ,leipzig1 #ahha4 ,julius ,vogel3 ,a4 ,g41 mit #fj ,tafeln4 ,leipzig1 #ahih4 ,joseph ,vernet3 ,amede ,durande3 ,joseph1 ,carl1 et ,horace ,vernet1 ,correspondence et biographie4 ,paris1 #ahfc4 ,l4 ,lagrange3 ,j4 ,vernet et la peinture au ,,xviii sicle4 ,paris1 #ahfd4 ,a4 ,genevay3 ,l',art1 #ahgf1 iii #bed1 #cjg2 iv #fa4 ,albert ,maire3 ,les ,vernet in ,les artistes clbres4 ,hubert ,robert3 ,c4 ,gabillot in ,les artistes clbres4 ,canaletto3 ,rudolph ,meyer3 ,die beiden ,canaletti4 ,dresden1 #ahgh4 ,francesco ,guardi3 ,paul ,leroi3 ,l',art1 #ahgh1 i #ajc4 ,gessner3 ,heinrich ,wlfflin3 ,salomon ,gessner4 ,frauenfeld4 #ahhi4 ,oudry und ,desportes3 ,charles ,normand in ,les artistes clbres4 ,riedinger3 ,georg ,aug4 ,wilh4 ,thienemann3 ,leben und ,wirken ,j4 ,el4 ,riedingers4 ,leipzig1 #ahef4 ,,chapter ,,iii ,german ,art in ,general3 ,raczynski3 ,geschichte der neueren deutschen ,kunst1 bersetzt von ,k4 ,hagen4 #c ,bde4 ,text1 #a ,bd4 ,tafeln4 ,berlin1 #ahcf4 ,anton ,hallmann3 ,kunstbestrebungen der ,gegenwart4 ,berlin1 #ahdb4 ,thophile ,gautier3 ,les ,beaux ,arts en ,europe1 #ahee4 ,paris1 #ahee4 ,a4 ,hagen3 ,die deutsche ,kunst in unserm ,jahrhundert4 ,berlin1 #aheg4 ,e4 ,frster3 ,geschichte der neueren deutschen ,kunst4 ,leipzig1 #ahfc4 ,anton ,springer3 ,die bildende ,kunst des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,leipzig1 #aheh4 ,j4 ,grard3 ,considrations sur l'art allemand1 ses principes et tendances propos de l'exposition de ,munich4 ,bruxelles1 #ahei4 ,hermann ,riegel3 ,geschichte des ,wiederauflebens der deutschen ,kunst seit ,carstens4 ,hannover1 #ahgf4 ,friedr4 ,pecht3 ,deutsche ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 ,studien und ,erinnerungen4 ,nrdlingen1 ,beck1 #ahgg-ha4 ,j4 ,beavington-,atkinson3 ,the ,schools of ,modern ,art in ,germany4 ,with numerous ,illustrations4 ,london1 ,seeley1 #ahhj4 ,a4 ,f4 ,graf v4 ,schack3 ,meine ,gemldesammlung4 ,stuttgart1 ,cotta1 #ahha4 ,neue ,ausgabe als ,einleitung zu den ,albertschen ,heliogravuren der ,galerie ,schack4 ,mnchen1 #ahhi4 ,kunst und ,knstler des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 unter ,mitwirkung von ,fachgenossen1 herausgegeben von ,r4 ,dohme4 ,leipzig1 ,seemann1 #ahha ff4 ,d4 ,duncker1 ,moderne ,meister4 ,charakteristiken aus ,kunst und ,leben4 ,berlin1 #ahhc4 ,franz ,reber3 ,geschichte der neueren deutschen ,kunst1 mit ,excursen ber die parallele ,kunstentwicklung der brigen ,lnder4 #c ,bde4 #c ,aufl4 ,leipzig1 #ahhd4 ,anton ,springer3 ,die ,wege und ,ziele der gegenwrtigen ,kunst1 in seinen ,bildern aus der neueren ,kunstgeschichte4 #b ,aufl4 ,bonn1 #ahhf4 ,adolf ,rosenberg3 ,die ,mnchener ,malerschule seit #ahga4 ,leipzig1 #ahhg4 ,adolf ,rosenberg3 ,geschichte der modernen ,malerei4 ,bd4 #b und #c1 ,deutschland4 ,leipzig1 #ahhh ff4 ,hermann ,becker3 ,deutsche ,maler von ,carstens bis auf die neuere ,zeit4 ,leipzig1 #ahhh4 ,l4 ,pfau in ,kunst und ,kritik1 ,bd4 #a4 ,stuttgart1 #ahhh1 pp4 #dde-ece4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,geschichte der ,mnchener ,kunst4 ,mnchen1 #ahhi4 ,hubert ,janitscheks1 final chapter in his ,geschichte der ,deutschen ,malerei4 ,berlin1 ,grote1 #ahij4 ,m4 de la ,mazelire3 ,la peinture allemande au ,,xix sicle4 ,paris1 #aijj4 ,cornelius ,gurlitt3 ,die deutsche ,kunst des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,berlin1 #ahii4 ,max ,schmid3 ,kunstgeschichte des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,leipzig1 #aijd4 ,friedrich ,haack3 ,die ,kunst des #ai ,jahrhunderts4 ,stuttgart1 #aije4 ,periodicals chiefly3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 ,leipzig1 #ahff4 ,die ,kunst fr ,alle1 ,mnchen1 #ahhf4 ,die ,kunst unserer ,zeit 7specially the work of ,h4 ,e4 v4 ,berlepsch and ,corn4 ,gurlitt71 ,mnchen1 #ahij4 ,der ,kunstwart1 ,dresden1 #ahhg4 ,die ,gegenwart 7articles by ,floerke1 ,lichtwark1 ,gurlitt1 etc471 ,berlin1 #ahgb ff4 ,die ,nation 7articles by ,helferich1 ,elias1 etc471 ,berlin1 #ahhc ff4 ,die ,freie ,bhne 7articles by ,helferich1 ,b4 ,becker1 etc471 ,berlin1 #ahhh ff4 ,die preussischen ,jahrbcher 7articles by ,carl ,neumann1 etc474 ,all cited in particular in the appropriate place4 ,the ,classical ,reaction3 ,hermann ,helferich3 ,classicitt1 ,freie ,bhne1 #ahij4 ,carl ,neumann3 ,christian ,rauch1 ,betrachtungen ber ,ursprung und ,anfnge der modernen deutschen ,plastik1 ,preuss4 ,jahrbcher1 ,bd4 #fd1 #ahhi4 ,heinr4 v4 ,stein3 ,die ,entstehung der neueren ,aesthetik4 ,stuttgart1 #ahhf4 ,the ,theories of ,grard de ,lairesse3 ,carl ,lemcke in his ,study of ,adriean van der ,werff in ,kunst and ,knstler ,deutschlands und der ,niederlande1 vol4 ii4 ,leipzig1 #ahgh4 ,winckelmann3 ,carl ,justi3 ,winckelmann1 sein ,leben1 seine ,werke1 seine ,zeitgenossen4 ,bd4 #a1 ,leipzig1 #ahff2 ,bd4 #b1 ,leipzig1 #ahgb4 ,the ,influence of ,archological ,studies upon ,art3 ,k4 ,bernh4 ,stark3 ,handbuch der ,archaeologie1 ,bd4 #a4 ,leipzig1 #ahgi4 ,lessing3 ,danzel-,guhrauer3 ,lessings ,leben und ,werke4 ,leipzig4 ,no date4 ,heinr4 ,fischer3 ,lessings ,laokoon und die ,gesetze der bildenden ,kunst4 ,berlin1 #ahhg4 ,goethe's ,relations to the ,plastic ,arts3 ,h4 ,hettner3 ,goethes ,stellung zur bildenden ,kunst seiner ,zeit1 ,westermanns ,monatshefte1 #bj1 #hc4 ,h4 ,hettner in his ,deutsche ,literaturgeschichte1 ii #deg4 ,r4 v4 ,eithelberger3 ,goethe als ,kunstschriftsteller1 in seinen gesammelten kunsthistorischen ,schriften4 ,wien1 #ahhd4 ,bd4 #c1 pp4 #bba-bfa4 ,gustav ,ebe3 ,goethes ,beziehungen zur bildenden ,kunst1 ,gegenwart1 xxvii4 ,heft #af und #ah4 ,c4 ,urlichs3 ,ueber ,goethes ,verhltniss zur alten ,kunst4 ,goethe-,jahrbuch1 iii4 ,hermann ,uhde3 ,goethe1 ,j4 ,g4 ,quandt und der schsische ,kunstverein4 ,stuttgart1 ,cotta1 #ahgg4 ,a4 ,heusler3 ,goethe und die italienische ,kunst4 ,basel1 ,reich1 #ahia4 ,e4 ,dobbert3 ,goethe und die ,berliner ,kunst1 ,nationalzeitung1 #ahia1 #a und #c ,febr4 ,bode3 ,goethes ,asthetik4 ,berlin1 #aija4 ,julius ,vogel3 ,aus ,goethes rmischen ,tagen4 ,leipzig1 #aijf4 ,mengs3 ,bianconi3 ,elogio storico del ,cavaliere ,anton ,r4 ,mengs4 ,pavia1 #agei4 ,mengs3 ,gedanken ber die ,schnheit und ber den ,geschmack in der ,malerei4 ,zrich1 #agfe4 ,seine smmtlichen hinterlassenen ,schriften4 ,bonn1 #ahdc-dd4 ,franz ,reber in ,kunst und ,knstler ,deutschl4 u4 der ,niederlande1 #ahgh4 ,friedrich ,pecht3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 xiv1 #ahgi1 pp4 #cc u4 #gb4 ,woermann3 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 #ahid4 ,angelica ,kauffmann3 ,giov4 ,gher4 de ,rossi3 ,vita di ,angelica 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,nationallitteratur1 ,bd4 #ha4 ,mller's article against ,carstens is in ,schiller's ,horen1 #agig1 iii #ba1 iv #d4 ,luise ,seidler3 ,hermann ,uhde3 ,erinnerungen aus dem ,leben der ,malerin ,luise ,seidler1 aus handschriftliche ,nachlass zusammengestellt und bearbeitet1 #b ,auflage4 ,berlin1 ,hertz1 #ahgf4 ,wchter3 ,dav4 ,friedr4 ,strauss3 ,kleine ,schriften4 ,leipzig1 #ahfb1 pp4 #ccc-cfj4 ,a4 ,haakh3 ,beitrge aus ,wrttemberg zur neueren deutschen ,kunstgeschichte4 ,stuttgart1 #ahfc1 pp4 vii ff41 #aj ff41 #acc ff4 ,schick3 ,dav4 ,friedr4 ,strauss3 ,kleine ,schriften1 pp4 #cfa-cif4 ,fr4 ,eggers3 ,deutsches ,kunstblatt1 #aheh1 pp4 #abi-acg4 ,a4 ,haakh3 ,beitrge aus ,wrtternberg zur neueren deutschen ,kunstgeschichte1 pp4 xiv ff41 #bc-ca1 #ei-cab4 ,h4 ,kindt3 ,zu ,gottlieb ,schicks #ajj jhrigem ,geburtstag4 ,gegenwart1 #ahgi1 #ca4 ,winterlin3 ,wrttenbergische ,knstler4 ,stuttgart1 #ahie4 ,genelli3 ,h4 ,riegel3 ,deutsche ,kunststudien4 ,hannover1 #ahfh1 pp4 #bia ff4 ,m4 ,jordan3 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artistes au ,salon de #ahhj4 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,marquet de ,vasselot3 ,histoire du ,portrait en ,france4 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,george ,lafenestre3 ,l',art vivant1 la ,peinture et la ,sculpture aux ,salons de #ahfh #ahgg4 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,e4 ,leclerq3 ,caractres de l'cole franaise moderne de ,peinture4 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,f4 ,gosselin3 ,histoire anecdotique des ,salons de peinture depuis #afgc4 ,paris1 ,dentu1 #ahha4 ,l4 de ,pesquidoux3 ,l',art au ,,xix sicle4 ,l',art dans les deux mondes1 ,peinture et ,sculpture4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,eugne ,montrasier4 ,les artistes modernes3 #a4 ,les peintres de genre2 #b4 ,les peintres militaires et les peintres de nu4 #dj ,biogr41 #dj ,tables4 #b vols4 ,paris1 #ahha4 ,adolf ,rosenberg3 ,geschichte der modernen ,kunst4 #a ,abtheilung4 ,die franz4 ,kunst ,leipzig1 #ahhb4 ,h4 ,houssaye3 ,l',art franais depuis dix ans4 ,paris1 #ahhb4 ,henri de ,clenzion3 ,l',art national en ,france4 ,paris1 #ahhb-hc4 ,f4 ,henriet3 ,peintres contemporains4 ,paris1 ,a4 ,levy1 #ahhc4 ,raf4 ,sinset et ,jules d',auriac3 ,histoire du ,portrait en ,france4 ,paris1 #ahhd4 ,v4 ,fournal3 ,les artistes contemporains franais1 peintres1 sculpteurs4 ,with #agf ,illustrations4 ,tours1 ,mame et fils1 #ahhd4 ,jean ,gigoux3 ,causeries sur les artistes de mon temps4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,albert ,wolff3 ,la capitale de l',art4 ,second ,edition4 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,victor d',halle3 ,histoire de la peinture en ,france4 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,paul ,marmottan3 ,l'cole franaise de peinture 7#aghi-ahcj74 ,paris1 #ahhf4 ,j4 ,comyns ,carr3 ,art in ,provincial ,france4 #ahhc4 ,henri ,jouin3 ,matres contemporains4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,charles ,bigot3 ,peintres franais contemporains4 ,paris1 #ahhh4 ,c4 ,h4 ,stranahan3 ,a ,history of ,french ,painting4 ,new ,york1 #ahhh4 ,la peinture franaise l'exposition centennaire de #ahhi4 ,ouvrage publi sous la direction de ,antonin ,proust4 ,paris1 #ahij4 ,les ,chefs d'oeuvres de l',art au ,,xix sicle4 #e vols4 ,paris1 #ahij ff4 #a4 ,l'cole franaise de ,david ,delacroix1 par ,andr ,michel4 #b4 ,l'cole franaise de ,delacroix ,h4 ,regnault1 par ,alfred de ,lostalot4 #c4 ,la peinture franaise actuelle1 par ,paul ,lefort4 #d4 ,les coles trangres aux ,,xix sicle1 par ,th4 de ,wyzewa4 #e4 ,la ,sculpture et la ,gravure en ,france au ,,xix sicle1 par ,louis ,gonse4 ,richard ,muther1 ,ein ,jahrhundert franzsischer ,malerei4 ,berlin1 #aija4 ,a4 ,julius ,meier-,grfe3 ,der ,entwichlungsgeschichte der modernen ,kunst4 7,with ,illustrations and a volume of ,plates47 ,stuttgart1 #aijd4 ,periodicals specially to be noted3 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,l',art1 ,paris1 #ahge4 ,the ,art of the ,revolution ,period3 ,jules ,renouvier3 ,histoire de l'art pendant la revolution4 ,paris1 #ahfc4 ,edmond et ,jules de ,goncourt3 ,histoire de la socit franaise pendant la rvolution4 ,paris1 #ahed4 ,new ,edition1 #ahhi4 ,edmond et ,jules de ,goncourt3 ,histoire de la socit franaise pendant le ,directoire4 ,paris1 #ahee4 ,anton ,springer3 ,die ,kunst whrend 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#b ,octobre #ahbd4 ,eug4 ,delacroix3 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #aheg4 ,charles ,clement 7chief work73 ,prudhon1 sa vie1 ses oeuvres1 et sa correspondance1 first in #ahfg-fh1 then in ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahgb1 with #cj ,illustrations4 ,paris1 ,didier ,co41 #crd ,edition1 #ahhj4 ,edm4 et ,j4 de ,goncourt3 ,l',art au ,,xviii sicle4 ,paris1 #ahge4 ,new ,edition1 #ahhb1 vol4 ii1 p4 #che4 ,edm4 de ,goncourt3 ,catalogue raisonn de l'oeuvre peint1 dessin et grav de ,prudhon4 ,paris1 #ahgf4 ,ph4 ,burty3 ,l'oeuvre de ,p4 ,p4 ,prudhon1 ,l',art1 #ahgg1 i p4 #cc4 ,alfred ,sensier3 ,le ,roman de ,prudhon1 ,revue internationale de l',art et de la ,curiosit1 #ae ,dec4 #ahfi4 ,arsne ,houssaye3 ,artiste1 ,janvier-,juin #ahgg4 ,article in ,l',art1 #ahgg1 i p4 #cc4 ,charles ,gueullette3 ,mlle4 ,constance ,mayer et ,prudhon1 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahgh1 p4 #dgf4 #ahgi1 p4 #bfh4 ,charles ,blanc3 ,histoire des peintres1 vol4 iii4 ,aug4 ,schmarsow in ,kunst und ,knstler der ersten ,hlfte des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 published by ,robert ,dohme1 vol4 ii4 ,leipzig1 ,seemann1 #ahhf4 ,pierre ,gauthiez3 ,prudhon in ,les artistes clbres4 ,paris1 #ahia4 ,almost all the works of ,prudhon are photographed by ,braun of ,dornach4 ,gros 7besides ,charles ,blanc1 ,jul4 ,meyer1 and ,rosenberg73 ,jean ,baptiste ,delestre 7pupil of ,gros73 ,gros1 sa vie et ses ouvrages4 ,with ,illustrations4 #bnd ,edition4 ,paris1 #ahfg4 ,j4 ,tripier le ,franc3 ,histoire de la vie et de la mort du baron ,gros1 le grand peintre4 ,paris1 #ahhj4 ,eugne ,delacroix3 ,revue des ,deux ,mondes1 #ahdh4 ,also in a separate reprint4 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,les chefs d'cole4 #crd ,edition1 #ahhc1 pp4 #eh-abf4 ,on ,gros' paintings in the ,pantheon3 ,ph4 de ,chennevires in the ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 xxiii pp4 #afh-agd4 ,g4 ,dargenty3 ,les ,chefs-d'oeuvre de ,gros1 ,l',art1 #ahhf1 ii p4 #aba1 and #ahhi1 ii p4 #ajj4 ,richard ,graul in ,kunst und ,knstler der ersten ,hlfte des #ai ,jahrhunderts1 vol4 #b4 ,leipzig1 ,seemann1 #ahhf4 ,g4 ,dargenty3 ,le baron ,gros4 ,paris1 #ahhg1 in ,les artistes clbres4 ,the chief pictures of ,gros are photographed by ,braun of ,dornach4 ,,chapter ,x ,on the ,parallel ,movement in ,literature3 ,georg ,brandes3 ,die ,literatur des #ai ,jahrhunderts in ihren ,hauptstrmungen1 #b ,auflage ,bd4 #e4 ,leipzig1 #ahhc4 ,on the ,romantic ,movement in ,general3 ,e4 ,chesneau3 ,peintres et statuaires romantiques 7,huet1 ,boulanger1 ,prault1 ,delacroix1 ,th4 ,rousseau1 ,millet1 etc474 ,paris1 ,charavay frres1 #ahgi4 ,gricault3 ,charles ,blanc3 ,th4 ,gricault1 #ahde4 ,charles ,clement3 ,th4 ,gricault1 tude biographique et critique1 avec le catalogue raisonn4 ,paris1 #ahfh4 ,new ,edition1 #ahgi4 ,delacroix3 ,e4 ,galichon3 ,les ,peintures de ,m4 ,e4 ,delacroix ,saint-,sulpice1 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 xi1 #ahfa1 p4 #eaa4 ,amde ,cantaloube3 ,eugne ,delacroix1 l'homme et l'artiste4 ,paris1 #ahfd4 ,henri de ,cleurion3 ,l'oeuvre de ,delacroix4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,piron3 ,e4 ,delacroix1 sa vie et ses oeuvres4 ,paris1 #ahfe4 ,adolphe ,moreau3 ,e4 ,delacroix et son oeuvre4 ,paris1 #ahgc4 ,lettres de ,e4 ,delacroix 7#ahae-ahfc71 recueillies et publies par ,phil4 ,burty4 ,paris1 ,quantin1 #ahgi4 ,alfred ,robaut3 ,peintures dcoratives de ,e4 ,delacroix4 ,le ,salon du roi au ,palais legislatif4 ,paris1 ,a4 ,levy1 #ahgi4 ,alfred ,robaut3 ,peintures dcoratives de ,e4 ,delacroix1 ,l',art1 #ahhj1 #bgi4 ,m4 ,vachon3 ,e4 ,delacroix l'cole des ,beaux ,arts4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,ph4 ,burty3 ,eugne ,delacroix ,alger1 ,l',art1 #ahhj1 #dbb4 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,eugne ,delacroix1 ,l',art1 #ahhb1 #chb4 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,l'oeuvre complet de ,e4 ,delacroix1 comment par ,e4 ,chesneau4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,g4 ,dargenty3 ,eug4 ,delacroix par lui-mme4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,henri ,guet3 ,l'oeuvre de ,e4 ,delacroix1 ,le ,salon de #ahhe1 etc4 ,paris1 #ahhe4 ,maurice ,tourneux3 ,eug4 ,delacroix1 devant ses contemporains1 ses crits1 ses biographes1 ses critiques4 ,paris1 #ahhf4 7,bibliothque internationale de l',art1 ,sr4 ,,ii1 vol4 vi47 ,vron3 ,eugne ,delacroix4 ,paris1 #ahhg4 ,see ,eugne ,delacroix3 ,journal de ,e4 ,d4 7,with ,introductory ,study1 etc41 by ,m4 ,paul ,flat and ,ren ,piot1 etc47 #c vols41 #ahic-ahie4 ,berlin1 #aijc4 ,ingres3 ,a4 ,magimel3 ,oeuvres de ,j4 ,a4 ,i41 graves par ,a4 ,rveil4 #ajb ,copperplates4 ,paris1 #ahea4 ,charles ,lenormant3 ,beaux ,arts et ,voyages4 ,paris1 #ahfa4 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,les chefs d'cole4 ,paris1 #ahfh1 p4 #bec4 ,henri ,delaborde3 ,ingres1 sa vie et ses travaux4 ,paris1 #ahgj4 ,charles ,blanc3 ,ingres1 sa vie et ses ouvrages4 ,paris1 #ahgj4 ,amaury ,duval3 ,l'atelier d',ingres4 ,souvenirs4 ,paris1 #ahgh4 ,th4 ,silvestre3 ,les artistes franais4 ,paris1 #ahgh1 p4 #aci4 ,r4 ,balze3 ,ingres1 son cole1 son enseignement du dessin3 avec des notes recueillies par ,p4 et ,a4 ,flandrin1 ,lehman1 ,delaborde1 etc4 ,paris1 ,pillet et ,dumoulin1 #ahhj4 ,ernest ,chesneau3 ,peintres et statuaires romantiques4 ,paris1 #ahhj1 p4 #bei4 ,eugne ,montrosier2 ,peintres modernes3 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,meissonier1 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahia1 i #agg4 ,g4 ,larroumet3 ,meissonier4 7,study followed by a ,biography by ,philippe ,burty47 ,paris1 #ahic4 ,grard3 ,jean-,louis-,ernest ,meissonier1 ,ses souvenirs--,ses entretiens4 7,with a study of his life and work by ,m4 ,o4 ,grard2 with ,plates and a ,catalogue of the artist's work47 ,paris1 #ahig4 ,e4 ,hubbard3 ,meissonier4 ,new ,york1 #ahii4 ,formentin3 ,c4 ,meissonier3 sa vie1 son oeuvre4 ,paris1 #aija4 ,menzel3 ,bruno ,meyer3 ,adolf ,menzel1 ,zeitschrift fr bildende ,kunst1 xi1 #a1 #da4 #ahgf4 ,alfred ,woltmann3 ,das ,preussenthum in der neueren ,kunst1 ,nord und ,sd1 #ahgg1 p4 #aji4 ,ludwig ,pietsch3 ,a4 ,menzel1 ,nord und ,sd1 #ahgi1 p4 #dci4 ,duranty3 ,adolphe ,menzel1 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahhj1 ii #aje4 ,j4 ,beavington-,atkinson3 ,adolph ,menzel1 ,art ,journal1 ,may #ahhb1 ff4 ,j4 ,beavington-,atkinson3 ,menzel's ,illustrations to the ,works of ,frederick the ,great1 ,art ,journal1 ,november #ahhc4 ,l4 ,gonse3 ,illustrations d',adolphe ,menzel pour les oeuvres de ,frdric le ,grand1 ,gazette des ,beaux ,arts1 #ahhb1 i #eif4 ,das ,werk ,a4 ,menzels4 ,text by ,jordan and ,dohme4 ,mnchen1 #ahhe1 ff4 ,cornelius ,gurlitt3 ,a4 ,menzel1 ,die ,kunst unserer ,zeit1 #ahib4 ,sondermann3 ,adolph ,menzel1 ,monographie4 ,magdeburg1 #ahif4 ,knackfuss3 ,menzel4 7,with #ada ,illustrations71 ,knstler ,monographien1 vii4 ,bielefeld1 #ahie4 ,h4 von ,tschudi3 ,das ,werk ,adolf ,menzels4 ,berlin1 #aije4 ,julius ,meyer-,grfe3 ,der junge ,menzel4 ,stuttgart1 #aijf4 ,printed by ,,morrison ,,gibb ,,limited1 ,edinburgh