,,natural ,,philosophy ,,by ,,wilhelm ,,o/wald ,,translat$ ,,by ,,?omas ,,seltz] ,) ! au?or's special revision = ! ,am]ican edition ,,new ,,york ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company #aiaj ,,copyright1 #aiaj1 ,,by ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company ,publi%$ ,novemb]1 #aiaj ,,! ,,qu9n ,,bod5 ,,co4 ,,press ,,rahway ,n4 ,j4 ,! orig9al ( ?is book 0 publi%$ z volume ,i 9 ,reclam's ,b,,*] ,,d] ,,naturwiss5s*aft4 ,,preface ,! beg9n+ ( ! tw5tie? c5tury is m>k$ by a sudd5 rise ( int]e/ 9 philosophy4 ,?is is especially manife/ 9 ! va/ gr[? ( philosophic lit]ature4 ,! pres5t movem5t1 x is notewor?y1 is by no means a revival proce$+ f ! academic philosophy traditionally repres5t$ at ! univ]sities1 b has r ! orig9al "* ( natural philosophy4 ,x owes its orig9 to ! fact t aft] ! specialization ( ! la/ half c5tury1 ! syn!tic factors ( sci5ce are aga9 vigor\sly ass]t+ !mselves4 ,! ne$ f9ally to consid] all ! num]\s sep>ate sci5ces f a g5]al po9t ( view & to f9d ! connection betwe5 "o's own activity & ! "w ( mank9d 9 its totality1 mu/ be reg>d$ z ! mo/ prolific s\rce ( ! pres5t philosophic movem5t1 j z x 0 ! s\rce ( ! natural philosophic endeavors a hundr$ ye>s ago4 ,b :ile t old natural philosophy soon end$ 9 a b\ndless sea ( speculation1 ! pres5t movem5t gives promise ( p]man5t results1 because x is built ^u an extremely broad basis ( exp]i5ce4 ,! laws ( en]gy 9 ! inorganic _w & ! laws ( evolution 9 ! organic _w furni% m5tal in/rum5ts = a conceptual elaboration ( ! mat]ial provid$ by sci5ce1 in/rum5ts capable n only ( unify+ pres5t k1 b also ( evok+ ! k ( ! future4 ,if x is n p]missible to reg>d ?is unification z exhau/ive & suffici5t = all "t1 yet !re is /ill s mu* left = u to d 9 work+ ov] ! mat]ial we h on h& f ! g5]al po9ts ( view j m5tion$1 t ! ne$ = sy/ematiz+ mu/ be satisfi$ be=e we c turn our gaze ^u ?+s m remote4 ,! pres5t "w is meant to s]ve z ! fir/ aid & guide 9 ! acquisition ( ^! compreh5sive notions ( ! ext]nal _w & ! inn] life4 ,x is n meant to develop or uphold a sy/em ( philosophy4 ,?r\gh long exp]i5ce z a tea*] ! writ] has le>n$ t ^? are ! be/ pupils :o soon g _! own way4 ,h[ev]1 x is meant to uphold a c]ta9 me?od1 t is1 ! sci5tific 7or1 if y w1 ! natural sci5tific71 :i* takes its problems1 & endeavors to solve its problems1 f exp]i5ce & = exp]i5ce4 ,if1 z a result1 sev]al po9ts ( view arise t diff] f ^? ( ! pres5t day1 & consequ5tly dem& a diff]5t attitude t[>d important matt]s 9 ! imm$iate future1 ?is v fact af=ds pro( t our pres5t natural philosophy does n lead away f life1 b aims to =m a "p ( our life1 & has a "r to4 ,,cont5ts ,,page ,,introduction #a ,,"p ,i ,,g5]al ,,!ory ,,( ,,k #aa #a4 ,! ,=mation ( ,concepts #aa #b4 ,sci5ce #ac #c4 ,! ,aim ( ,sci5ce #ac #d4 ,concrete & ,ab/ract #af #e4 ,! ,subjective ,"p #ag #f4 ,empirical ,concepts #ah #g4 ,simple & ,complex ,concepts #ai #h4 ,! ,conclusion #bd #i4 ,! ,natural ,laws #bh #aj4 ,! ,law ( ,causation #ca #aa4 ,! ,purification ( ! ,causal ,relation #cd #ab4 ,induction #ch #ac4 ,d$uction #dj #ad4 ,ideal ,cases #dd #ae4 ,! ,det]m9at5ess ( ,?+s #dg #af4 ,! ,fre$om ( ! ,w #ej #ag4 ,! ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces #ec #ah4 ,! ,appli$ ,sci5ces #eg ,,"p ,,ii ,,logic1 ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,manifold1 ,,& ,,ma!matics #fa #ai4 ,! ,mo/ ,g5]al ,concept #fa #bj4 ,association #fc #ba4 ,! ,gr\p #fe #bb4 ,negation #fh #bc4 ,artificial & ,natural ,gr\ps #fi #bd4 ,arrangem5t ( ! ,memb]s #ge #be4 ,numb]s #gh #bf4 ,ari?metic1 ,algebra1 & ! ,!ory ( ,numb]s #gi #bg4 ,co-ord9ation #hj #bh4 ,comp>ison #hb #bi4 ,numb]s #he #cj4 ,signs & ,names #hf #ca4 ,! ,writt5 ,language #hi #cb4 ,pasigraphy & ,s\nd ,writ+ #ib #cc4 ,s\nd ,writ+ #if #cd4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,language #ig #ce4 ,cont9uity #aja #cf4 ,measurem5t #ajg #cg4 ,! ,function #aji #ch4 ,! ,application ( ! ,functional ,relation #aab #ci4 ,! ,law ( ,cont9uity #aac #dj4 ,"t & ,space #aah #da4 ,recapitulation #abd ,,"p ,,iii ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces #abg #db4 ,g5]al #abg #dc4 ,me*anics #abh #dd4 ,k9etic ,en]gy #acb #de4 ,mass & ,matt] #acf #df4 ,en]getic ,me*anics #ach #dg4 ,! ,me*ani/ic ,!ories #adj #dh4 ,complem5t>y ,bran*es ( ,me*anics #add #di4 ,! ,!ory ( ,heat #adg #ej4 ,! ,second ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple #aej #ea4 ,electricity & ,magnetism #aed #eb4 ,light #aef #ec4 ,*emical ,en]gy #aei ,,"p ,,iv ,,! ,,biologic ,,sci5ces #afc #ed4 ,life #afc #ee4 ,! ,/oreh\se ( ,free ,en]gy #afh #ef4 ,! ,s\l #aga #eg4 ,feel+1 ,?9k+1 ,act+ #agd #eh4 ,society #agi #ei4 ,language & ,int]c\rse #ahb #fj4 ,civilization #ahd ,,index #ahg ,,introduction ,natural sci5ce & natural philosophy are n two prov9ces mutually exclusive ( ea* o!r4 ,!y belong toge!r4 ,!y are l two roads lead+ to ! same goal4 ,?is goal is ! dom9ation ( nature by man1 :i* ! v>i\s natural sci5ces rea* by collect+ all ! individual actual relations betwe5 ! natural ph5om5a1 plac+ !m 9 juxtaposition1 & seek+ to discov] _! int]dep5d5ce1 ^u ! basis ( :i* "o ph5om5on may be =etold f ano!r ) m or less c]ta9ty4 ,natural philosophy accompanies ^! specializ$ labors & g5]alizations ) simil> labors & g5]alizations1 only ( a m univ]sal nature4 ,= in/ance1 :ile ! sci5ce ( electricity1 z a bran* ( physics1 deals ) ! relation ( electrical ph5om5a to "o ano!r & to ph5om5a 9 o!r bran*es ( physics1 natural philosophy is n only conc]n$ ) ! "q ( ! mutual connection ( all physical relations1 b also endeavors to include 9 ! sph]e ( its /udy *emical1 biological1 a/ronomical1 9 %ort1 all ! kn[n ph5om5a4 ,9 o!r words1 natural philosophy is ! mo/ g5]al bran* ( natural sci5ce4 ,"h two que/ions are usually ask$4 ,fir/1 h[ c we def9e ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 natural philosophy & ! special sci5ces1 s9ce1 obvi\sly1 %>p l9es ( dem>cation are out ( ! "q8 ,secondly1 h[ c we inve/igate & tea* natural philosophy1 :5 x is impossible = any "o p]son to ma/] all ! sci5ces completely1 & s obta9 a bird's-eye view ( ! g5]al relations betwe5 all ! bran*es ( k8 ,to ! beg9n] especially1 :o mu/ fir/ le>n ! v>i\s sci5ces1 x seems q hopeless to devote himself to a /udy t presupposes a comm& ( !m4 ,s9ce a discussion ( ! two que/ions w af=d an excell5t prelim9>y survey ( ! "w 9 h&1 x w be well to consid] !m 9 detail4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ! lack ( complete & precise b\nd>y l9es is a g5]al *>act]i/ic ( all natural ?+s1 & sci5ce is a natural ?+4 ,if1 = in/ance1 we try to diff]5tiate %>ply betwe5 physics & *emi/ry1 we are met ) ! same difficulty4 ,s also 9 biology if we try to settle beyond ! %ad[ ( a d\bt ! l9e ( sep>ation betwe5 ! animal & ! vegetable k+doms4 ,if1 despite ?is well-kn[n impossibility1 we consid] ! division ( natural ?+s into classes & ord]s z by no means useless & d n disc>d x1 b reg>d x z an important sci5tific "w1 ?is is practical pro( t su* classification pres]ves its ess5tial usefulness1 ev5 if x does n atta9 ideal def9it5ess4 ,=1 ?is imp]fection not)/&+1 classification rea*es its end1 :i* is a compreh5sive view1 & ?us a ma/]y1 ( ! manifoldness ( ph5om5a4 ,= example1 ) ! ov]:elm+ majority ( organic be+s !re is no d\bt :e!r !y are animals or plants4 ,simil>ly1 mo/ ph5om5a ( inorganic nature c readily be designat$ z physical or *emical4 ,= all su* cases1 !re=e1 ! exi/+ classification is good & useful4 ,! few cases pres5t+ difficulty may v well be consid]$ by !mselves :]ev] !y occur1 & we ne$ m]ely take cognizance ( !m "h4 ,x foll[s f ?is1 to be sure1 t classification w be all ! bett] fitt$ to its purpose ! less frequ5tly su* d\btful cases arise1 & t we h an int]e/ 9 repeat$ly te/+ exi/+ classifications ) a view to f9d+ out if !y _c be supplant$ by m suitable ones4 ,9 ^! matt]s x is mu* ! same z :5 we look ^u ! waves on ! surface ( a l>ge body ( wat]4 ,our fir/ glance tells u t a numb] ( waves are roll+ !re2 & f a po9t giv+ u a suffici5tly wide outlook1 we c c\nt !m & gauge _! wid?4 ,b :]e is ! l9e ( division betwe5 "o wave & ! next8 ,we und\bt$ly see "o wave foll[+ ano!r1 yet x is impossible = u to indicate precisely ! end ( "o & ! beg9n+ ( ! next4 ,are we !n to d$uce t x is sup]flu\s or unfeasible to designate ! waves z diff]5t8 ,by no means4 ,on ! contr>y1 9 /rictly sci5tific "w we w endeavor to f9d "s suitable def9ition ( ! b\nd>y l9e betwe5 two consecutive waves4 ,x may !n be call$ an arbitr>y l9e1 & 9 a degree arbitr>y x w c]ta9ly be4 ,b to ! inve/igator ?is does n matt]4 ,:at conc]ns him is1 if1 ) ! help ( ?is def9ition1 wave l5g?s c be unequivocally det]m9$1 & if ?is is possible1 he w use ! def9ition z suitable to ! purposes ( sci5ce1 )\t dismiss+ f 8 m9d ! idea t possibly "s o!r def9ition may provide an ev5 easi] or %>p] det]m9ation4 ,su* an "o he w\ld in/antly pref] to ! old "o4 ,?us we see t ^! que/ions ( classification are n que/ions ( ! s-call$ ess5ce ( ! ?+1 b p]ta9 m]ely to purely practical arrangem5ts = an easi] & m successful ma/]y ( sci5tific problems4 ,?is is an extremely important po9t ( view1 mu* m f>-rea*+ ?an is app>5t "h at its fir/ application4 ,z to ! second objection1 ,i w admit its validity4 ,b "h1 too1 we h a ph5om5on appe>+ 9 all bran*es & =ms ( sci5ce4 ,!re=e we mu/ famili>ize ourselves ) x 9 advance4 ,sci5ce 0 creat$ by man = man's purposes1 &1 consequ5tly1 l all human a*ievem5ts1 possesses ! inde/ructible quality ( imp]fection4 ,b ! m]e fact t a successful work+ sci5ce exi/s1 ) ! help ( :i* human life has be5 fundam5tally modifi$1 signifies t ! quality ( incomplet5ess 9 human le>n+ is no h9drance to its effici5cy4 ,= :at sci5ce has once work$ out always conta9s a portion ( tru?1 h5ce a portion ( effici5cy4 ,! old corpuscul> !ory ( light1 :i* n[ seems s *ildi%ly incomplete to u1 0 adequate1 none ! less1 = satisfactorily expla9+ ! ph5om5a ( reflection & refraction1 & ! f9e/ telescopes h be5 built ) its help4 ,?is is due to ! true elem5ts 9 x1 :i* taught u correctly to calculate ! direction ( rays ( light 9 reflection & refraction4 ,! re/ 0 m]ely an arbitr>y accessory :i* _h to fall :5 new1 contradictory facts 7 discov]$4 ,^! facts c\ld n h be5 tak5 into consid]ation :5 ! !ory 0 prop\nd$1 because !y 7 n yet kn[n4 ,b :5 ! corpuscul> !ory ( light 0 replac$ by ! !ory ( waves ( an ela/ic e!r1 geometric optics at fir/ rema9$ q un*ang$1 because ! !ory ( /raight l9es ( rays c\ld be d$uc$ f ! new views also1 ?\gh n s easily & smoo?ly4 ,& geometric optics 0 !n conc]n$ ) no?+ b ^! /raight l9es1 9 no wise ) ! "q ( _! propagation4 ,x did n become cle> until rec5tly t ?is conception ( /raight l9es ( rays is incomplete1 ?\gh1 x is true1 x made a fir/ approa* t[>d ! pres5tation ( actual ph5om5a4 ,x fails :5 x comes to *>act]ize ! behavior ( a p5cil ( rays ( l>ge ap]ture4 ,! old idea ( a /raight l9e ( rays 0 to be replac$ by a m complex concept ) m v>i$ *>act]i/ics1 namely1 ! wave-surface4 ,! great] v>iety ( ?is concept r5d]s possible ! pres5tation ( ! great] v>iety ( ! optical ph5om5a j m5tion$4 ,& f x proce$ ! v consid]able advances t h be5 made1 s9ce ! new !ory 0 prop\nd$1 9 optical in/rum5ts1 especially ! microscope & ! photographic objective1 = ! purposes ( :i* p5cils ( rays ( l>ge ap]ture are requir$4 ,! a/ronomic objective ) its small angle ( ap]ture has n und]gone p>ticul>ly important improvem5ts4 ,exp]i5ce 9 e prov9ce ( sci5ce is ! same z 9 ?is4 ,sci5ce is n l a *a9 :i* snaps :5 only a s+le l9k proves to be weak4 ,x is l a tree1 or1 bett] /ill1 l a =e/1 9 :i* all sorts ( *anges or ravages g on )\t caus+ ! :ole to pass out ( exi/5ce or cease to be active4 ,! relations betwe5 ! v>i\s ph5om5a1 once !y become kn[n1 cont9ue to exi/ z inde/ructible compon5ts ( all future sci5ce4 ,x may come to pass1 9 fact1 does come to pass v frequ5tly1 t ! =m 9 :i* ^? relations 7 fir/ express$ prove to be imp]fect1 & t ! relations _c be ma9ta9$ q g5]ally4 ,x turns out t !y are subject$ to o!r influ5ces :i* *ange !m because !y _h be5 unkn[n1 & :i* c\ld n h be5 tak5 into consid]ation at ! discov]y & fir/ =mulation ( ^! relations4 ,b no matt] :at *anges sci5ce may und]go1 a c]ta9 residue ( t fir/ k w rema9 & nev] be lo/4 ,9 ?is s5se1 a tru? t sci5ce has once ga9$ has life et]nal1 t is1 x w exi/ z long z human sci5ce exi/s4 ,apply+ ?is g5]al notion to our case1 we h ! foll[+4 ,h[ f> & h[ g5]ally at any giv5 "t ! relations ( ! v>i\s ph5om5a are summ$ up 9 fix$ =ms1 t is1 9 natural laws1 w dep5d ^u ! /age atta9$ by ea* ( ! special sci5ces4 ,b s9ce sci5ce has be5 9 exi/5ce x has yield$ a c]ta9 numb] ( su* g5]al laws1 & ^!1 ?\gh !y h be5 fil$ d[n a good deal 9 =m & expression1 & h und]gone _m corrections z to ! limits ( _! application1 nev]!less h pres]v$ _! ess5ce1 s9ce !y began _! exi/5ce 9 ! bra9s ( human inve/igators4 ,! net ( ! relations ( ph5om5a gr[s ev] wid] & m div]sifi$1 b its *ief features p]si/4 ,! same is true ( an individual4 ,no matt] h[ limit$ ! circle ( 8 k1 x is a "p ( ! great net1 & !re=e possesses ! quality by virtue ( :i* ! o!r p>ts readily jo9 x z soon z !y rea* ! consci\sness & k ( ! individual4 ,! man :o ?us ent]s ! realm ( sci5ce acquires advantages :i* may be comp>$ to ^? ( a telephone 9 8 resid5ce4 ,if he wi%es to1 he may be connect$ ) ev]ybody else1 ?\gh he w make extremely limit$ use ( 8 privilege1 s9ce he w try to rea* only ^? ) :om he has p]sonal relations4 ,b once su* relations h be5 e/abli%$1 ! possibility ( telephone communication is simultane\sly & automatically e/abli%$4 ,simil>ly1 e bit ( k t ! individual appropriates w prove to be a regul> "p ( ! c5tral organization1 ! entire ext5t ( :i* he c nev] cov]1 ?\gh ea* individual "p has be5 made accessible to him1 provid$ he wants to take cognizance ( x4 ,! m]e beg9n] 9 le>n+1 !re=e1 :5 receiv+ ! mo/ elem5t>y in/ruction 9 s*ool1 or f 8 p>5ts1 or ev5 f 8 p]sonal exp]i5ces 9 8 surr\nd+s1 is grasp+ "o or m ?reads ( ! mighty net1 & c grope 8 way f>!r along x 9 ord] to draw an increas+ area ( x into 8 life & ! field ( 8 activity4 ,& ?is net has ! valuable1 ev5 preci\s quality ( be+ ! same t jo9s ! greate/ & mo/ compreh5sive intellects 9 mank9d to "o ano!r4 ,! tru?s a man has once grasp$ he ne$ nev] le>n afre% s f> z _! actual cont5t is conc]n$1 ?\gh n infrequ5tly--especially 9 new] sci5ces--he may h to see ! =m ( _! pres5tation & g5]alization *ange4 ,= ?is reason x is ( su* especial importance = ea* individual f ! fir/ to p]ceive ^! unalt]able facts & realize t !y are unalt]able & le>n to di/+ui% !m f ! alt]able =ms ( _! pres5tation4 ,x is 9 ?is v reg>d t ! incomplet5ess ( human k is mo/ cle>ly reveal$4 ,"t & aga9 9 ! hi/ory ( sci5ce =m has be5 tak5 = cont5t1 & necess>y *anges ( =m--a m]ely practical "q--h be5 confus$ ) revolution>y modifications ( ! cont5t4 ,?us1 ea* pres5tation ( a sci5ce has its natural philosophic portion4 ,9 text-books1 :e!r elem5t>y or advanc$1 ! *apt] on natural philosophy is f\nd usually at ! beg9n+ ( ! book1 sometimes at ! end1 9 ! =m ( a g5]al introduction1 or g5]al summ>y4 ,9 ! special works 9 :i* ! late/ advances ( sci5ce are made kn[n by ! inve/igators1 ! natural philosophic portions are usually to be f\nd 9 ! =m ( !ses1 ( pr9ciples1 :i* are n discuss$1 (t5 n ev5 explicitly /at$1 b ^u ! acceptance ( :i* dep5d all ! special conclusions t are drawn1 9 ! case 9 h&1 f ! new facts or ?\ghts imp>t$4 ,:e!r at ! beg9n+ or at ! end ( ! book1 ^! mo/ g5]al pr9ciples d n q occupy ! place t befits !m4 ,if at ! introduction ( ! text-book1 !y are practically devoid ( cont5t1 s9ce ! facts !y are meant to summ>ize are yet to be unfold$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! pres5tation4 ,if at ! end1 !y come too late1 s9ce !y h already be5 appli$ 9 num]\s in/ances1 ?\gh )\t ref]5ce to _! g5]al nature4 ,! be/ me?od is--& a good tea*] always employs ?is me?od1 :e!r 9 ! spok5 or ! writt5 ^w--to let ! g5]alizations come :5ev] ! individual facts imp>t$ require & ju/ify !m4 ,?us1 all in/ruction 9 natural sci5ces is necess>ily int]sp]s$ ) natural philosophy1 good or bad1 accord+ to ! cle>head$ness ( ! tea*]4 ,if we wi% to obta9 a p]fect survey ( a complex /ructure1 z1 = in/ance1 ! confusion ( /reets 9 a l>ge city1 we _h bett] n try to "k ea* /reet1 b /udy a g5]al plan1 f :i* we le>n ! comp>ative situation ( ! /reets4 ,s x is well = u 9 /udy+ a special sci5ce to look at our g5]al plan1 if = no o!r reason ?an to keep f los+ our way :5 x may *ance to lead ?r\gh a qu>t] hi!rto unkn[n4 ,?is is ! purpose ( ! pres5t "w4 ,,"p ,i ,,g5]al ,,!ory ,,( ,,k #a4 ,! ,=mation ( ,concepts4 ,to ! human m9d1 z x sl[ly awak5s 9 e *ild1 ! _w at fir/ seems a *aos consi/+ ( m]e individual exp]i5ces4 ,! only connection betwe5 !m is t !y foll[ ea* o!r consecutively4 ,( ^! exp]i5ces1 all ( :i* at fir/ are diff]5t f "o ano!r1 c]ta9 p>ts come to be di/+ui%$ by ! fact t !y are repeat$ m frequ5tly1 & !re=e receive a special "*1 t ( be+ famili>4 ,! famili>ity is due to our recall+ a =m] simil> exp]i5ce2 9 o!r words1 to our feel+ t !re is a relation betwe5 ! pres5t exp]i5ce & c]ta9 =m] exp]i5ces4 ,! cause ( ?is ph5om5on1 :i* is at ! basis ( all m5tal life1 is a quality common to all liv+ ?+s1 & manife/+ itself 9 all _! functions1 :ile appe>+ b r>ely or accid5tally 9 inorganic nature4 ,x is ! quality by virtue ( :i* ! (t5] any process has tak5 place 9 a liv+ organism ! m easily x is repeat$4 ,"h is n yet ! place to %[ h[ almo/ all ! *>act]i/ic qualities ( liv+ be+s1 f ! pres]vation ( ! species to ! highe/ intellectual accompli%m5ts1 are condition$ by ?is special peculi>ity4 ,suffice x to say t because ( ?is quality all ^? processes :i* are repeat$ frequ5tly 9 any giv5 liv+ organism1 assume spontane\sly1 t is1 f physiologic reasons1 a "* di/+ui%+ !m ess5tially f ^? :i* appe> only 9 isolat$ in/ances1 or sporadically4 ,if a liv+ be+ is equipp$ ) consci\sness & ?\ght1 l man1 !n ! consci\s recollections ( su* uni=m exp]i5ces =m ! endur+ or p]man5t "p 9 ! sum-total ( 8 exp]i5ces4 ,ea* "t a complex ev5t1 l ! *ange ( seasons1 = example1 :i* we "k f exp]i5ce repeats itself--ea* "t a "p ( su* an ev5t rea*es our consci\sness1 we are prep>$ also = ! o!r p>ts t exp]i5ce tea*es are connect$ ) x4 ,?is makes x possible = u to =esee future ev5ts4 ,:at significance ! =esee+ ( future ev5ts has = ! pres]vation & ! developm5t ( ! individual z well z ! species c only be indicat$ "h4 ,to give "o in/ance1 x is our ability to =etell ! com+ ( w9t] ) ! impossibility ( obta9+ food directly dur+ ! w9t] t causes u to refra9 f at once us+ up all ! food we h & to pres]ve x = ! day ( ne$4 ,! ability to =etell1 !re=e1 becomes ! f\ndation ( ! :ole /ructure ( economic life4 #b4 ,sci5ce4 ,! prophecy ( future ev5ts bas$ ^u ! k ( ! details ( recurr+ ev5ts is call$ sci5ce 9 its mo/ g5]al s5se4 ,"h1 z 9 mo/ cases 9 :i* language became fix$ long be=e m5 _h a cle> k ( ! ?+s designat$1 ! "n ( ! ?+ is easily associat$ ) false ideas aris+ ei!r f errors t _h be5 ov]come or f o!r1 /ill m accid5tal1 causes4 ,?us1 ! m]e k ( pa/ ev5ts is also call$ sci5ce )\t any ?\ght ( its use = prophesy+ future ev5ts4 ,yet a mom5t's reflection tea*es t m]e k ( ! pa/ :i* is n meant to1 or _c1 s]ve z a basis = %ap+ ! future is utt]ly aimless k1 & mu/ take its place ) o!r aimless activities call$ play4 ,!re are all sorts ( plays requir+ great acum5 & pati5t application1 z = example ! game ( *ess2 & no "o has ! "r to prev5t any individual f pursu+ su* games4 ,b ! play] = 8 "p mu/ n dem& special reg>d = 8 activity4 ,by us+ 8 en]gies = 8 p]sonal pleasure & n = a social purpose1 t is1 = a g5]al human purpose1 he loses e claim to ! social enc\ragem5t ( 8 activity1 & mu/ be cont5t if only 8 individual rights are respect$2 & t1 too1 only s long z ! social int]e/s d n suff] by x4 #c4 ,! ,aim ( ,sci5ce4,^! views are delib]ately oppos$ to a v widespread idea t sci5ce %\ld be cultivat$ = its own sake1 & n = ! sake ( ! b5efits x actually br+s or may be made to br+4 ,we reply t !re is no?+ at all :i* is done m]ely = its own sake4 ,ev]y?+1 )\t exception1 is done = human purposes4 ,^! purposes range f mom5t>y p]sonal satisfaction to ! mo/ compreh5sive social s]vices involv+ disreg>d ( "o's own p]son4 ,b 9 all our actions we nev] get beyond ! sph]e ( ! human4 ,if1 !re=e1 ! phrase = its own sake means any?+1 x means t sci5ce %\ld be foll[$ = ! sake ( ! imm$iate pleasure x af=ds1 t is to say1 z play 7z we h j *>act]iz$ x71 & 9 ! =-its-own-sake dem& !re is hidd5 a misund]/ood idealism1 :i*1 on clos] inspection1 resolves itself into its v opposite1 ! degradation ( sci5ce4 ,! elem5t ( tru? hidd5 9 t misund]/ood phrase is1 t 9 a high] /ate ( culture x is f\nd bett] to disreg>d ! imm$iate te*nical application 9 ! pursuit ( sci5ce1 & to aim only = ! greate/ possible p]fection & dep? 9 ! solution ( its individual problems4 ,:e!r ?is is ! correct me?od ( proc$ure & :5 x is s1 is solely a "q ( ! g5]al /ate ( culture4 ,9 ! e>ly /ages ( human civilization su* a dem& is utt]ly mean+less1 & all sci5ce is necess>ily & naturally conf9$ to imm$iate life4 ,b ! wid] & m complex human relations become1 ! wid] & sur] mu/ ! ability to pr$ict future ev5ts become4 ,!n x is ! function ( prophesy+ sci5ce to h answ]s ready = que/ions :i* z yet h n become press+1 b :i* ) fur!r developm5t may soon] or lat] become s4 ,9 ! net-l int]lac+ ( ! sci5ces1 t is1 ( ! v>i\s fields ( k1 describ$ 9 ! introduction1 we mu/ always reckon ) ! fact t our anticipation ( :at k9d ( k we %all next ne$ mu/ always rema9 v incomplete4 ,x is possible to =esee future ne$s 9 g5]al outl9e ) m or less c]ta9ty1 b x is impossible to be prep>$ = p>ticul> individual cases :i* lie on ! bord] l9e ( su* anticipation1 & :i* may sometimes become ( ! utmo/ importance & urg5cy4 ,!re=e x is "o ( ! mo/ important functions ( sci5ce to a*ieve z p]fect an elaboration z possible ( all ! relations conceivable1 & 9 ?is practical necessity lies ! f\ndation ( ! g5]al or !oretical elaboration ( sci5ce4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,concepts4 ,"h ! "q imm$iately arises3 h[ c we secure su* p]fection8 ,! answ] to ?is g5]al prelim9>y "q ( all ! sci5ces belongs to ! sph]e ( ! fir/ or ! mo/ g5]al ( all ! sci5ces1 a k ( :i* is presuppos$ = ! pursuit ( ! o!r sci5ces4 ,s9ce its f\ndation by ! ,greek philosoph] ,ari/otle x has borne ! "n ( logic1 :i* "n1 etymologically speak+1 h9ts suspici\sly at ! ^w1 & ! ^w1 z is kn[n1 /eps 9 :]e ideas are want+4 ,"h1 h[ev]1 we h to deal ) ! v sci5ce ( ideas1 to :i* language be>s ! relation only ( a means--& (t5 an inadequate means--to an end4 ,we h already se5 h[1 ?r\gh ! physiologic fact ( memory1 exp]i5ces are f\nd 9 our consci\sness :i* are simil>1 t is1 p>tially co9cid+ ) "o ano!r4 ,^! co9cid+ p>ts are ^? conc]n+ :i* we c make pr$ictions1 = ! v reason t !y co9cide 9 e s+le in/ance1 & !y alone1 !re=e1 con/itute t "p ( our exp]i5ce :i* be>s results & h5ce has significance4 #d4 ,concrete & ,ab/ract4 ,su* co9cid+ or repeat$ p>ts ( simil> exp]i5ces we call1 z already /at$1 concepts4 ,b "h1 too1 att5tion mu/ imm$iately be drawn to a l+ui/ic imp]fection1 :i* consi/s 9 ! fact t 9 su* a gr\p ( co9cid+ exp]i5ces we designate by ! same "n bo? ! isolat$ exp]i5ce or ! object ( a special exp]i5ce & ! totality ( all ! co9cid+ exp]i5ces2 9 o!r words1 all ! simil> exp]i5ces4 ,?us1 horse means1 on ! "o h&1 q a def9ite ?+ :i* = ! mom5t =ms an object ( our exp]i5ce1 &1 on ! o!r1 ! totality ( all possible simil> objects :i* h be5 pres5t 9 our =m] exp]i5ces1 & :i* we %all meet 9 our future exp]i5ces4 ,x is true t ^! two sorts ( cont5ts ( consci\sness be>+ ! same "n are di/+ui%$ also z concrete & ab/ract1 & !re is an incl9ation to attribute reality only to ! fir/1 :ile ! o!r1 z m]e entities 9 ?\ght1 are relegat$ to a less] degree ( reality4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! diff]5ce1 ?\gh important1 is ( q ano!r k9d4 ,x is ! diff]5ce betwe5 ! mom5t>y exp]i5ce1 z oppos$ to ! totality ( ! correspond+ memories & expectations4 ,h5ce n s mu* a diff]5ce 9 reality z 9 pres5ce4 ,h[ev]1 our obs]vations h already made x app>5t t pres5ce alone nev] yields k4 ,a necess>y "p ( k is ! memory ( =m] simil> exp]i5ces4 ,= )\t su* memory & ! correspond+ comp>ison1 x is q impossible = u to get at ^? ?+s :i* agree & :i*1 !re=e1 may be pr$ict$2 & we %\ld /& be=e e "o ( our exp]i5ces ) ! helplessness ( a new-born babe4,a ,a ,sometimes on sudd5ly awak+ f a pr(\nd sleep a p]son f9ds himself = ! mom5t depriv$ ( 8 p]sonal /ock ( memories1 unable to recall :]e & 9 :at circum/ances he is4 ,no "o :o has exp]i5c$ su* a condition c ev] =get ! t]rify+ s5se ( helplessness x br+s4 #e4 ,! ,subjective ,"p4 ,we %all !re=e h to recognize realities 9 ab/ract ideas 9 s f> z !y mu/ re/ ^u "s exp]i5ces to be at all intelligible to u4 ,s9ce ! =mation ( concepts dep5ds ^u memories1 & ^! may ref]1 accord+ to ! individual1 to v diff]5t p>ts ( ! same exp]i5ce ( diff]5t individuals1 concepts always possess an elem5t dep5d5t ^u ! individual1 or a subjective elem5t4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 does n consi/ 9 ! addition by ! individual ( new p>ts n f\nd 9 ! exp]i5ce1 b1 on ! contr>y1 9 ! diff]5t *oice out ( :at is f\nd 9 ! exp]i5ce4 ,if e individual absorb$ all p>ts ( ! exp]i5ce1 ! individual1 or subjective1 diff]5ces w\ld disappe>4 ,& s9ce sci5tific exp]i5ce endeavors to make ! absorption ( exp]i5ces z complete z possible1 x aims ne>] & ne>] to ?is ideal by seek+ to equalize ! subjective defici5cy ( ! individual memory ?r\gh ! collocation ( z _m & z v>i\s memories z possible1 ?us fill+ 9 ! subjective gaps 9 exp]i5ce z f> z possible & r5d]+ !m h>mless4 #f4 ,empirical ,concepts4 ,fir/ & unconditionally ^? concepts possess reality :i* always & )\t exception are bas$ on exp]i5c$ facts4 ,b we c easily make manifold arbitr>y comb9ations ( concepts f diff]5t exp]i5ces1 s9ce our memory freely places !m at our disposal1 & f su* a comb9ation we c =m a new concept4 ,( c\rse x is n necess>y t our arbitr>y comb9ation %\ld also be f\nd 9 our pa/ or future exp]i5ces4 ,on ! contr>y1 we may r expect t !re c\ld be _m m arbitr>y comb9ations n to be f\nd 9 exp]i5ce ?an comb9ations lat] confirm$ by exp]i5ce4 ,! =m] are purposeless because unreal1 ! latt]1 on ! contr>y1 are ( ! utmo/ consequ5ce because ^u !m is bas$ ! real aim ( k1 pr$iction4 ,! =m] are ^? :i* h br\ght ! v reality ( ! concepts into ill repute1 :ile ! latt] %[ t ! =mation & ! mutual reaction ( ! concepts practically con/itute ! entire cont5t ( all sci5ce4 ,x is ( ! greate/ importance1 !re=e1 to di/+ui% betwe5 ! two k9ds ( concept comb9ations1 & ! /udy ( ?is diff]5tiation =ms ! cont5t ( t mo/ g5]al ( all ! sci5ces :i* we h *>act]iz$ z logic1 or1 bett]1 ! sci5ce ( concepts4 #g4 ,simple & ,complex ,concepts4 ,! =mation ( concepts consi/s1 z we h se51 9 ! selection ( ^? p>ts ( diff]5t b simil> exp]i5ces :i* co9cide ) "o ano!r & 9 ! elim9ation ( ^? t are diff]5t 9 k9d4 ,! results ( su* a proc$ure may v>y greatly accord+ to ! numb] & ! diff]5ce ( ! exp]i5ces plac$ 9 relation ) "o ano!r4 ,if1 = example1 we comp>e only a few exp]i5ces1 & if1 moreov]1 ^! exp]i5ces are v simil> to "o ano!r1 !n ! result+ concepts w conta9 v _m p>ts t agree4 ,b at ! same "t !y w h ! peculi>ity ( n be+ applicable to o!r exp]i5ces1 s9ce ^! are )\t "s ( ! co9cid+ p>ts ( t n>r[] circle4 ,?us1 = example1 ! concept :i* a ru/ic *a9$ to ! soil all 8 life has ( human "w does n apply to ! "w ( ! city man4 ,a concept w embrace a l>g] numb] ( individual cases 9 proportion z x conta9s few] diff]5t p>ts4 ,& by sy/ematically foll[+ out ?is ?\ght we arrive at ! conclusion t ! concepts t are simple & h no diff]5t p>ts at all f9d ! wide/ application or are ! mo/ g5]al4 ,! elim9ation ( ! non-co9cid+ p>ts f ! concept-=m+ exp]i5ce is call$ ab/raction4 ,obvi\sly ab/raction mu/ be c>ri$ ! f>!r ! m num]\s & ! m v>i$ ! exp]i5ces f :i* ! concepts are ab/ract$1 & ! simple/ concepts are ! mo/ ab/ract4 ,by look+ back ov] ! gr\nd j trav]s$1 ! less ab/ract ideas may also be reg>d$ z ! m complex 9 contradi/9ction to ! simpl] ones4 ,only we mu/ gu>d aga9/ ! error ( lit]al int]pretation & n suppose t ! less simple concepts h really be5 comp\nd$ ( ! simpl] ones4 ,9 po9t ( orig9 !y actually exi/$ fir/1 s9ce ! exp]i5ce conta9s ! ensemble ( all ! p>ts1 ^? :i* h be5 reta9$ z well z ^? :i* h be5 elim9at$4 ,x is only lat]1 by a *>act]i/ic m5tal op]ation1 aft] we h analyz$ ! m complex concept1 t is1 aft] we h disclos$ ! simpl] concepts exi/+ 9 x1 t we c comp\nd x aga92 9 o!r words1 execute its syn!sis4 ,^! relations be> a /rik+ resemblance to ! relations kn[n f *emi/ry to exi/ betwe5 sub/ances1 namely1 betwe5 elem5ts & comp\nds4 ,f ! *aos ( all objects ( exp]im5tation 7*emi/ry purposely limits itself to pond]able bodies7 ! pure sub/ances are sift$ out--an op]ation correspond+ to ! =mation ( concepts4 ,! pure sub/ances prove to be ei!r simple or comp\nd1 & ! comp\nds are s con/itut$ t !y c ea* be r$uc$ to a limit$ numb] ( simple sub/ances4 ,! simple sub/ances1 or elem5ts1 reta9 ?is quality ( simplicity only until !y are recall$2 t is1 until x has be5 prov$ t !y1 too1 c be resolv$ into /ill simpl] elem5ts4 ,! same is true ( ! simple concepts4 ,!y c claim simplicity only until _! complex nature is demon/rat$4 ,) all ^! simil>ities we mu/ be extremely c>eful nev] to =get ! diff]5ces exi/+ alongside ! agreem5ts4 ,s h]eaft] we %all make no fur!r use ( ! *emical simile4 ,x 0 br\ght into requisition m]ely 9 ord] to acqua9t ! beg9n] ! m readily ) ! entire me?od ( inve/igation by means ( a m famili> field ( ?\ght & /udy4 ,x is q c]ta91 h[ev]1 t side by side ) ! giv5 simil>ities !re are also radical diff]5ces4 ,moreov]1 ! notion ( simple & complex concepts or ideas _h be5 elaborat$ by ,john ,locke long be=e *emi/ry rea*$ its pres5t /ate ( cle>ness conc]n+ ! concept ( ! elem5ts4 ,nev]!less s9ce !n ! relation has be5 completely rev]s$4 ,:ile ! /udy ( ! *emical elem5ts has 9 ! meantime und]gone great developm5t1 s t n only h ! elem5ts ( all ! sub/ances com+ "u ! obs]vation ( ! *emi/ be5 discov]$1 b1 inv]sely1 _m comp\nd sub/ances h be5 con/ruct$ f _! elem5ts1 n ev5 an approa* to su* a developm5t is app>5t 9 ! /udy ( concepts4 ,on ! contr>y1 ! :ole matt] has rema9$ at ab\t ! same po9t z t to :i* ,john ,locke _h br\ght x 9 ! second half ( ! sev5te5? c5tury4 ,?is is due above all to ! op9ion ( ! mo/ influ5tial philosoph]s1 t ,ari/otle's logic1 or sci5ce ( concepts1 is absolutely true z well z exhau/ive & complete1 s t1 at ! utmo/1 :at is left = lat] g5]ations to d is only to make a *ange 9 ! =m 9 :i* ! matt] is pres5t$4 ,x is true t 9 m rec5t times ! grave error ( ?is view is beg9n+ to be recogniz$4 ,we realize t ,ari/otle's logic embraces b a v small "p ( ! entire field1 ?\gh 9 ?is "p he displays ! greate/ g5ius4 ,b beyond ?is g5]al recognition no great /ep =w>d has be5 made4 ,n ev5 a provisional table ( ! elem5t>y concepts has be5 prop\nd$ & appli$ s9ce ,locke4 ,h5ce 9 ! foll[+ inve/igation we %all h to speak ( ! elem5ts or ! simpl] p>ts ( a complex concept only 9 ! s5se t ^! concept elem5ts are simpl] z comp>$ ) ! complex concepts1 b n 9 ! s5se t ! simple/ or truly elem5t>y concepts h already be5 work$ out4 ,x mu/ be left to lat] inve/igators to f9d ^!1 & x may be expect$ t ! r$uction ( "s concepts until !n consid]$ elem5t>y into /ill simpl] ones w take place *iefly 9 times ( great intellectual progress4 ,complex concepts c1 9 ! fir/ place1 be =m$ f exp]i5ce1 = 9 an empirical concept we meet ) sev]al conceptual compon5t p>ts :i* c be sep>at$ f "o ano!r by a process ( ab/raction1 b are always f\nd toge!r 9 ! giv5 exp]i5ces4 ,= example1 ! concept horse has orig9at$ f a v frequ5t1 simil>ly repeat$ exp]i5ce4 ,on analysis x is f\nd to conta9 a va/ numb] ( o!r concepts1 su* z quadrup$1 v]tebrate animal1 w>m-blood$1 hair9ess1 & s on4 ,horse1 !n1 is obvi\sly a complex empirical concept4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we c comb9e z _m simple concepts z we please1 ev5 if we did n f9d !m comb9$ 9 exp]i5ce1 = 9 reality !re is no?+ to h9d] u f unit+ all ! concepts provid$ by memory into any comb9ations we please4 ,9 ?is way we obta9 complex arbitr>y concepts4 ,! task ( sci5ce c n[ be ev5 m %>ply def9$ ?an be=e by ! fact t x p]mits ! con/ruction ( arbitr>y concepts :i* 9 circum/ances to be =ese5 become empirical concepts4 ,?is is ano!r expression = pr$iction1 :i* we recogniz$ z ! *>act]i/ic ( sci5ce4 ,x goes deep] ?an ! previ\s def9ition1 because "h ! means = its realization are giv54 #h4 ,! ,conclusion4 ,fir/ let u consid] ! sci5tific import ( ! complex empirical concepts4 ,x consi/s 9 ! fact t !y accu/om u to ! coexi/5ce ( ! correspond+ elem5ts ( a concept4 ,s t :51 9 a new exp]i5ce1 we meet ) "s ( ^! elem5ts toge!r1 we imm$iately suppose t we %all f9d 9 ! same exp]i5ce ! o!r elem5ts also :i* h n yet be5 asc]ta9$4 ,su* a supposition is call$ a conclusion4 ,a conclusion always exce$s ! pres5t exp]i5ce by pr$ict+ an expect$ exp]i5ce4 ,!re=e1 ! =m ( a conclusion is ! univ]sal =m ( sci5tific pr$ication4 ,a conclusion mu/ conta9 at lea/ two concepts1 ! "o :i* is exp]i5c$1 & ! "o :i*1 on ! basis ( ?is exp]i5ce1 is expect$4 ,e complex empirical concept makes su* a conclusion possible aft] x has be5 sep>at$ into simpl] concepts4 ,& ! simple/ case is naturally ! "o 9 :i* !re are only two p>ts1 or 9 :i* only two p>ts are tak5 into consid]ation4 ,to :at ext5t su* a conclusion is valid1 t is to say1 to :at ext5t ! exp]i5ce produces ! anticipat$ concept1 obvi\sly dep5ds ^u ! reply to a v def9ite fundam5tal "q4 ,if 9 exp]i5ce ! union ( ! two p>ts ( ! concept occurs inv>iably1 s t "o "p ( ! concept is nev] exp]i5c$ unless ! o!r "p is also exp]i5c$1 !n !re is ! greate/ probability t ! expect$ exp]i5ce w also h ! same "*1 & t ! conclusion w prove valid or true4 ,to be sure1 !re is no way ( mak+ c]ta9 t ! co9cid5t occurr5ce ( ! two concepts1 :i* exp]i5ce has %[n to be )\t exception hi!rto1 w cont9ue to be s also 9 ! future4 ,= our only means ( p5etrat+ into ! future consi/s 9 apply+ t conclusion f previ\s exp]i5ces to future exp]i5ces1 & x c !re=e by no means claim absolute validity4 ,!re are1 h[ev]1 diff]5t degrees ( c]ta9ty1 or1 r1 probability1 atta*+ to su* a conclusion4 ,9 exp]i5ces t occur b r>ely ! probability is t s f> we h exp]i5c$ only c]ta9 comb9ations ( simple concepts1 :ile o!rs1 ?\gh occurr+1 h n yet ent]$ )9 ! limit$ circle ( our exp]i5ce4 ,9 su* a case a conclusion ( ! k9d m5tion$ above may be "r1 b !re is also "s probability ( its be+ false4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 exp]i5ces :i* happ5 extremely frequ5tly & 9 ! mo/ div]se circum/ances1 & 9 :i* we always f9d ! con/ant & unexceptional comb9ation1 ! probability is v /rong t we %all f9d ! comb9ation 9 future exp]i5ces also1 & ! probability ( ! conclusion approa*es practical c]ta9ty4 ,( c\rse1 we c nev] q exclude ! possibility t new relations nev] z yet exp]i5c$ might ent]1 by :i* ! conclusion :i* hi!rto has always be5 true w\ld n[ become false1 :e!r because ! expectation ent]ta9$ prove invalid 9 s+le in/ances or 9 all cases4 ,x foll[s f ?is t 9 g5]al1 our conclusions w h ! great] probability ! m g5]ally & ! (t5] ! correspond+ exp]i5ces h occurr$ & are occurr+4 ,su* concepts z are f\nd consi/5tly 9 _m exp]i5ces o!rwise diff]5t are call$ g5]al concepts1 & !re=e ! probability ( ! conclusions describ$ w be ! great] ! m g5]al ! concepts to :i* !y ref]4 ,?is obta9s to su* a degree t we feel t c]ta9 v g5]al conclusions mu/ be true always & )\t exception1 & x is un?9kable to u t !y c ev] 9 any circum/ances prove n valid4 ,su* a /atem5t1 h[ev]1 is nev] any?+ else ?an a hidd5 appeal to exp]i5ce4 ,= ! m]e putt+ ( ! "q1 :e!r ! conclusion c also be false1 demon/rates t ! opposite ( :at has prov$ to be ! exp]i5ce s f> c be conceiv$1 & ! ass]tion ( its un?9kability only signifies t su* an exp]i5ce _c be evok$ 9 ! m9d by ! memory = ! v reason t1 z has be5 premis$1 !re are no su* memories because ! exp]i5ces did n exi/4 ,b s9ce1 on ! o!r h&1 !re is no h9drance to ?9k+ any comb9ations ( concepts at w1 we h n ! lea/ difficulty1 z ev]ybody kn[s1 9 ?9k+ any sort ( nons5se :atsoev]4 ,only x is impossible to reproduce su* comb9ations f memory4 ,! sci5tific conclusion1 !re=e1 fir/ takes ! =m3 if ,a is1 !n ,b is also4 ,"h ,a & ,b repres5t ! two simple concepts :i* are kn[n f exp]i5ce to be f\nd toge!r 9 ! m complex concept ,c4 ,! ^w is signifies "h "s empirical reality correspond+ to ! concepts4 ,! conclusion may !re=e also be express$1 some:at m circum/antially & m precisely1 9 ?is =m3 if ,a is exp]i5c$1 ! exp]i5ce ( ,b is also expect$4 ,! evok+ ( ?is expectation1 :i* implies its ju/ification1 is due to ! recollection ( ! co9cid5ce ( ! two concepts 9 =m] exp]i5ces1 & ! probability dep5ds1 9 ! mann] describ$ above1 ^u ! numb] ( valid cases4 ,"h x mu/ be obs]v$ t ev5 individual cases 9 :i* our expectations h be5 deceiv$ d n = ! mo/ "p lead u to reg>d ! conclusion z g5]ally untrue1 t is1 to ab&on ! expectation ( ,b f ,a4 ,= we "k t our exp]i5ce is always incomplete1 t 9 c]ta9 circum/ances we fail to notice exi/+ factors1 & t1 !re=e1 our failure to f9d t relation valid :i*1 on o!r occasions1 has be5 f\nd to be valid1 may be attribut$ to subjective causes4 ,9 case1 h[ev]1 ( ! repeat$ occurr5ce ( su* disappo9tm5ts1 we w look else:]e = relations betwe5 ^! & o!r elem5ts ( exp]i5ce1 9 ord] t !reaft] we may =esee su* cases also & include !m 9 our anticipations4 #i4 ,! ,natural ,laws4 ,! facts j describ$ h v frequ5tly f\nd expression 9 ! doctr9e ( ! laws ( nature1 9 connection ) :i* we h (t51 z 9 ! man-made social or political laws1 conceiv$ ( a lawmak]1 :o1 = "s reasons1 or p]haps arbitr>ily1 has orda9$ t ?+s %\ld be z !y are & n o!rwise4 ,b ! intellectual hi/ory ( ! orig9 ( ! laws ( nature %[s t "h ! process is q a diff]5t "o4 ,! laws ( nature d n decree :at %all happ51 b in=m u :at has happ5$ & :at is wont to happ54 ,! k ( ^! laws1 !re=e1 makes x possible = u1 z ,i h emphasiz$ aga9 & aga91 to =esee ! future 9 a c]ta9 degree &1 9 "s measure1 also to det]m9e x4 ,we det]m9e ! future by con/ruct+ ^? relations 9 :i* ! desir$ results appe>4 ,if we _c d s ei!r because ( ignorance or because ( inaccessibility to ! requir$ relations1 !n we h no prospect ( fa%ion+ ! future accord+ to our desires4 ,! wid] our k ( ! natural laws1 t is1 ( ! actual behavior ( ?+s1 ! m likely & m num]\s ! possibilities = fa%ion+ ! future accord+ to our desires4 ,9 ?is way sci5ce c be conceiv$ ( z ! /udy ( h[ to become happy4 ,= he is happy ^: desires are fulfill$4 ,9 ?is conception ! natural laws indicate :at simpl] concepts are f\nd 9 complex concepts4 ,! complex concept wat] conta9s ! simpl] ones liquid1 a c]ta9 d5sity1 transp>5cy1 colorlessness1,b & _m o!rs4 ,! s5t5ces1 wat] is a liquid1 wat] has a d5sity ( "o1 wat] is transp>5t1 wat] is colorless1 or1 pale blue1 etc41 are s _m natural laws4 ,b ,m precisely1 a v pale blue4 ,n[ :at pr$ictions d ^? natural laws enable u to make8 ,!y enable u to pr$ict t :5 we h recogniz$ a giv5 body z wat] by virtue ( ! above prop]ties1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 expect+ to f9d 9 ! same body all ! o!r kn[n prop]ties ( wat]4 ,& s f> exp]i5ce has inv>iably confirm$ su* expectations4 ,fur!rmore1 we may expect t if 9 a giv5 specim5 ( wat] we discov] a relation :i* up to t "t 0 unkn[n1 we %all f9d ?is relation also 9 all ! o!r specim5s ( wat] ev5 ?\gh !y 7 n te/$ = t p>ticul> relation4 ,x is obvi\s h[ enorm\sly ?is facilitates ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,= x is only necess>y to det]m9e ?is new relation 9 "s "o case accessible to ! inve/igator to enable u to pr$ict ! same relation 9 all ! o!r cases )\t subject+ !m to a new te/4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ?is is ! g5]al me?od t sci5ce pursues4 ,x is ?is t makes x possible = sci5ce to make regul> & g5]ally valid progress ?r\gh ! labors ( ! mo/ v>i\s inve/igators :o "w indep5d5tly ( "o ano!r1 & (t5 "k no?+ ( "o ano!r4 ,( c\rse1 x mu/ n be =gott5 t su* conclusions are always obta9$ 9 accordance ) ! foll[+ =mula3 ?+s h be5 s until n[1 !re=e we expect t !y w be s 9 ! future4 ,9 e su* case1 !re=e1 !re is ! possibility ( error4 ,?us f>1 :5ev] an expectation 0 n realiz$1 x 0 almo/ always possible to f9d an explanation = ! error4 ,ei!r ! inclusion ( ! special case 9 ! g5]al concept prov$ to be inadmissible because "s ( its o!r *>act]i/ics 7 abs5t1 or ! accept$ *>act]ization ( ! concept requir$ an improvem5t 7limitation or ext5sion74 ,9 o!r words1 "o way or ano!r1 !re 0 a discrepancy betwe5 ! concept & ! exp]i5ce1 &1 z a rule1 soon] or lat] x becomes possible = u to arrive at a bett] adju/m5t betwe5 !m4 ,?is g5]al tru? has (t5 be5 int]pret$ to mean t 9 ! end su* an adju/m5t mu/ ( necessity always be possible to rea*1 )\t exception2 9 o!r words1 t absolutely e "p ( an exp]i5ce c be demon/rat$ z condition$ by natural law4 ,evid5tly su* an ass]tion f> exce$s ! demon/rable4 ,& ev5 ! usual conclusion _c be appli$ "h1 t because x has happ5$ s 9 ! pa/ x w happ5 s 9 ! future also4 ,= ! "p ( our exp]i5ces t we c grasp by natural laws is inf9itesimally small 9 comp>ison ) t 9 :i* our k /ill fails u entirely4 ,i w m5tion only ! unc]ta9ty 9 pr$ict+ ! wea!r = only "o day ahead4 ,moreov]1 :5 we consid] t until n[ only ! easie/ problems _h be5 solv$1 & naturally s1 because !y 7 mo/ accessible to ! means at h&1 !n we c readily see t exp]i5ce (f]s no basis :atev] = su* a conclusion4 ,we mu/ n say1 !re=e1 t because we h be5 able s f> to expla9 all exp]i5ces by natural laws x w be s 9 ! future likewise4 ,= we are f> f be+ able to expla9 all exp]i5ces4 ,9 fact1 x is only a v small "p t we h begun to inve/igate4 ,we are z little ju/ifi$ 9 say+ t we h expla9$ all ! problems ( our exp]i5ce t h be5 subject$ to sci5tific inve/igation4 ,we h by no means expla9$ all ( !m4 ,e sci5ce1 ev5 ma!matics1 teems ) unsolv$ problems4 ,s we mu/ resign ourselves to ! pres5t /atus ( human k & ability1 & may at be/ express ! hope f\nd$ ^u previ\s exp]i5ce1 t we %all be able to solve m & m ( ! incalculable numb] ( problems ( our exp]i5ce )\t indulg+ 9 any illusions z to ! p]fection ( ?is "w4 #aj4 ,! ,law ( ,causation4 ,by reason ( its frequ5cy & importance ! m5tal process above describ$ has be5 subject$ to ! mo/ div]se inve/igations1 & t mo/ g5]al =m ( ! sci5tific conclusion 7:i* we apply 9 ord9>y life ev5 mu* m frequ5tly ?an 9 sci5ce7 has be5 rais$1 "u ! "n ( ! law ( causation1 to a pr9ciple antec$+ all exp]i5ce & to ! v condition mak+ exp]i5ce possible4 ,( ?is s mu* is true1 t ?r\gh ! peculi> physiological organization ( man1 memory 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se--! easi] execution ( su* processes z h already repeat$ly tak5 place 9 ! organism1 z aga9/ entirely new k9ds ( processes--! =mation ( concepts 7( ! recurr+ p>ts 9 ! con/antly *ang+ v>iety ( processes71 is especially /imulat$ & facilitat$4 ,by x ! recurr+ p>ts ( exp]i5ce /ep into ! =egr\nd1 & on acc\nt ( _! p>am\nt practical importance = ! security ( life1 x may well be said 9 ! s5se ( ! !ory ( evolution & adaptation1 t ! entire /ructure & mode ( life ( ! organism1 especially ( ! human organism1 nay1 p]haps life itself1 is indissolubly b\nd up ) t =esight &1 !re=e1 ) ! law ( causation also4 ,( c\rse1 !re is no?+ 9 ! way ( call+ su* a relation an a priori relation1 if x is s desir$4 ,z f> z ! individual is conc]n$ x no d\bt ant$ates all 8 exp]i5ce1 s9ce ! entire organization :i* he inh]its f 8 p>5ts _h already be5 =m$ "u su* an influ5ce4 ,b t !re c be =ms or exi/5ce )\t su* an attribute is %[n by ! :ole _w ( ! inorganic1 9 :i*1 z f> z our k goes1 !re is no evid5ce ( ei!r memory or =esight1 b only ( an imm$iate passive p>ticipation 9 ! processes ( ! _w ar\nd !m4,c ,c ,x _c be object$ t inorganic nature also is kn[n to be subject to ! law ( causation4 ,! causal mode ( reg>d+ inorganic ph5om5a is a di/9ctly human "o1 & no?+ ju/ifies ! ass]tion t ! same ph5om5a _c be view$ 9 an entirely diff]5t mann]4 ,fur!r1 ! circum/ance t ! causal relation is br\ght ab\t by ! peculi> mann] 9 :i* we react ^u our exp]i5ces1 has sometimes be5 express$ 9 ?is way--! relation ( cause & effect does n exi/ 9 nature at all1 b has be5 introduc$ by m54 ,! elem5t ( tru? 9 ?is is1 t a q diff]5tly organiz$ be+1 x is to be suppos$1 w\ld be able to1 or w\ld h to1 arrange its exp]i5ces accord+ to q diff]5t mutual relations4 ,b s9ce we h no exp]i5ce ( su* a be+1 we h no possibility ( =m+ a valid op9ion ( its behavior4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ recognize t x is possible1 at lea/ =mally1 to conceive also ( k9ds ( exp]i5ces ) no co9cid+ p>ts1 or a _w 9 :i* !re are no exp]i5ces at all ) co9cid+ p>ts4 ,9 su*1 !re=e1 pr$iction is impossible4 ,su* a _w w n call =?1 ev5 9 a be+ end[$ ) memory1 a conception & g5]alization ( ! v>i\s exp]i5ces 9 ! %ape ( natural laws4 ,consequ5tly we mu/ recognize t 9 addition to ! subjective factor 9 ! =mation ( our k ( ! _w1 or t factor :i* is dep5d5t ^u our physico-psy*ical /ructure1 !re is also ! objective "* ( ! _w ) :i* we mu/ decid$ly reckon1 or t "* :i* is indep5d5t ( u2 & t 9 s f> ! natural laws conta9 also objective p>ts4 ,to repres5t ! relation cle>ly to our m9ds by a figure1 we may comp>e ! _w to a heap ( gravel & man to a pair ( sieves1 "o co>s] ?an ! o!r4 ,z gravel passes ?r\gh ! d\ble sieve pebbles ( app>5tly equal size accumulate betwe5 ! sieves1 ! l>g] ones be+ exclud$ by ! fir/ sieve & ! small] ones all[$ to pass by ! second4 ,x w\ld be an error to ass]t t all ! gravel consi/$ ( su* pebbles ( equal size4 ,b x w\ld be equally false to ass]t t x 0 ! sieves t made ! pebbles equal4 #aa4 ,! ,purification ( ! ,causal ,relation4 ,if by exp]i5ce we h f\nd a proposition ( ! cont5t1 ,if ,a is1 !n ,b is also1 ! two concepts ,a & ,b g5]ally consi/ ( sev]al elem5ts :i* we w designate z a1 a1 a1 a1 etc41 & z b1 b1 b1 b4 ,n[ ! "q arises1 :e!r or n all ^! elem5ts are ess5tial = ! relation 9 "q4 ,x is q possible1 9 fact1 ev5 highly probable1 t at fir/ only a special in/ance ( ! exi/+ ph5om5a 0 f\nd1 t is1 t ! concept ,a1 :i* has be5 f\nd to be connect$ ) ! concept ,b1 conta9s o!r det]m9+ p>ts :i* are n at all requisite to ! appe>ance ( ,b4 ,! g5]al me?od ( conv9c+ oneself ( ?is is by elim9at+ "o by "o ! compon5t p>ts ( ! concept ,a1 namely1 a1 a1 a1 etc41 & !n see+ :e!r ,b /ill appe>s4 ,x is n always easy to c>ry out ?is process ( elim9ation4 ,our great] or less ability to conduct su* inve/igations dep5ds ^u :e!r we deal ) ?+s t are m]ely ! objects ( our obs]vation1 & :i* we ourselves h n ! p[] to *ange 7z1 = example1 a/ronomical ph5om5a71 or ) ?+s :i* are ! objects ( our exp]im5tation1 & :i* we c influ5ce4 ,9 ! latt] case "o or ano!r factor is usually f\nd :i* c be elim9at$ )\t ! disappe>ance ( ,b1 & !n we mu/ proce$ 9 su* a way z to =m a correspond+ new concept ,a f ! factors recogniz$ z necess>y 7:i* new concept w be m g5]al ?an ! =m] ,a71 & to express ! giv5 proposition 9 ! improv$ =m3 ,if ,a is1 !n ,b is also4 ,q simil> is ! case ) ! o!r memb] ( ?is relation4 ,x (t5 happ5s t :5 a1 or a1 a is f\nd1 some:at diff]5t ?+s appe>1 :i* d n fit ! concept z fir/ con/ruct$4 ,!n we mu/ multiply ! exp]i5ces z mu* z possible 9 ord] to det]m9e :at con/ant elem5ts are f\nd 9 ! concept ,b1 & to =m f ^! con/ant elem5ts ! correspond+ concept ,b4 ,! improv$ proposition w !n read3 if ,a is1 !n ,b is also4 ,?is entire process may be call$ ! purification ( ! causal relation4 ,by ?is t]m we express ! g5]al fact t 9 fir/ =m+ su* a regul> connection1 ! prop] concepts are v seldom br\ght into relation ) "o ano!r at once4 ,! cause ( x is t at fir/ we make use ( exi/+ concepts :i* _h be5 =m$ = q a diff]5t purpose4 ,x mu/ !re=e be reg>d$ z a special piece ( good =tune if ^! old concepts %\ld at once prove suit$ to ! new purpose4 ,fur!rmore1 ! exi/+ concepts are z a rule s vaguely *>act]iz$ by _! names1 :i* we mu/ employ to express ! new relation1 t = ?is reason also x is (t5 necess>y to det]m9e empirically 9 :at way ! concept is to be def9itely e/abli%$4 ,! v>i\s sci5ces are con/antly occupi$ ) ?is "w ( ! mutual adaptation ( ! concepts t ent] into a causal relation4 ,by way ( example1 we may take ! self-und]/ood proposition :i* we use :5 we call out to a c>eless *ild :5 x /icks its f+] into ! flame ( a c&le1 ,fire burns6 ,we discov] t !re are self-lum9\s bodies :i* produce no increase ( temp]ature1 & !re=e no s5sation ( pa94 ,we discov] t !re are processes ( combu/ion t develop no light1 b heat en\gh to burn "o's f+]s4 ,&1 f9ally1 ! sci5tific inve/igation ( ?is proposition arrives at ! g5]al expression t1 z a rule1 *emical processes are accompani$ by ! developm5t ( heat1 b t1 conv]sely1 su* processes may also be accompani$ by ! absorption ( heat4 ,9 ?is way t casual s5t5ce :i* we call out to ! *ild develops into ! ext5sive sci5ce ( !rmo-*emi/ry :5 x is subject$ to ! cont9u\s purification ( ! causal relation1 :i* is ! g5]al task ( sci5ce4 ,x rema9s to be add$ t 9 ?is process ( adapt+ concepts x is necess>y also sometimes to foll[ ! opposite c\rse4 ,?is is ! case :5 exceptions are notic$ 9 a relation z express$ = ! "t be+2 :51 !re=e1 ! proposition if ,a is pres5t1 !n ,b is pres5t also1 is 9 a great _m in/ances valid1 b occasionally fails4 ,?is is an indication t 9 ! concept ,a an elem5t is /ill lack+4 ,?is elem5t1 h[ev]1 is pres5t 9 ! in/ances t tally1 b abs5t 9 ! negative cases1 & its abs5ce is n notic$ because x is n conta9$ 9 ,a4 ,!n x is necess>y to seek ?is "p1 & aft] x has be5 f\nd1 to embody x 9 ! concept ,a1 :i* ?us passes into ! new concept ,a4 ,?is case is ! obv]se ( ! =m] "o4 ,"h ! m suitable concept proves to be less g5]al ?an ! concept accept$ tempor>ily1 :ile 9 ! fir/ case ! improv$ concept is m g5]al4 ,h5ce we =mulate ! rule3 exceptions to ! tempor>y rule require a limitation1 :ile an un=ese5 fre$om requires an ext5sion1 ( ! accept$ concept4 #ab4 ,induction4 ,! =m ( conclusion previ\sly discuss$1 because x has be5 s1 ,i expect x w cont9ue to be s 9 ! future1 is ! =m ?r\gh :i* ea* sci5ce has aris5 & has won its real cont5t1 t is1 its value = ! judgm5t ( ! future4 ,x is call$ inf]5ce by induction1 & ! sci5ces 9 :i* x is prepond]at+ly appli$ are call$ inductive sci5ces4 ,!y are also call$ exp]i5tial or empirical sci5ces4 ,at ! basis ( ?is nom5clature is ! notion t !re are o!r sci5ces1 ! d$uctive or rational sci5ces1 9 :i* a rev]se logical proc$ure is appli$1 :]eby f g5]al pr9ciples admitt$ to be valid 9 advance1 accord+ to an absolutely sure logical process1 conclusions ( l absolute validity are drawn4 ,at ! pres5t "t p are beg9n+ to recognize ! fact t ! d$uctive sci5ces mu/ give up ^! claims "o by "o1 & t !y already h giv5 !m up to a c]ta9 ext5t2 p>tly because on clos] /udy !y prove to be inductive sci5ces1 & p>tly because !y mu/ =ego ! title & rank ( a sci5ce altoge!r4 ,! latt] alt]native applies especially to ^? prov9ces ( k :i* h n be5 us$ 9 prophesy+ ! future or _c be s us$4 ,to return to ! inductive me?od--x is to be not$ t ,ari/otle1 :o 0 ! fir/ to describe x1 propos$ two k9ds ( induction1 ! complete & ! incomplete4 ,! fir/ has ?is =m3 s9ce all ?+s ( a c]ta9 k9d are s1 ea* individual ?+ is s4 ,:ile ! incomplete induction m]ely says3 s9ce _m ?+s ( a c]ta9 k9d are s1 presumably all ?+s ( ?is k9d are s4 ,"o in/antly p]ceives t ! two conclusions are ess5tially diff]5t4 ,! fir/ lays claim to af=d an absolutely c]ta9 result4 ,b x re/s ^u ! assumption t all ! ?+s ( ! k9d 9 "q are kn[n & h be5 te/$ z to _! behavior4 ,?is hypo!sis is g5]ally impossible ( fulfilm5t1 s9ce we c nev] prove t !re are n m ?+s ( ! same k9d o!r ?an ^? kn[n to u or te/$ by u4 ,moreov]1 ! conclusion is sup]flu\s1 z x m]ely repeats k t we h already directly acquir$1 s9ce we h te/$ all ! ?+s ( ! "o k9d1 h5ce ! special ?+ to :i* ! pr$ication ref]s4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! incomplete induction affirms some?+ t has n yet be5 te/$1 & !re=e involves z a condition an ext5sion ( our k1 sometimes an extremely important ext5sion4 ,to be sure1 x mu/ give up ! claim to unqualifi$ or absolute validity1 b1 to comp5sate1 x acquires ! irreplaceable advantage ( l5d+ itself to practical application4 ,inde$1 9 accordance ) ! sci5tific practice ju/ifi$ by exp]i5ce1 describ$ on p4 #bi1 ! sci5tific inductive conclusion assumes ! =m3 because x has once be5 f\nd to be s1 x w always be s4 ,f ?is appe>s ! significance ( ?is me?od = ! enl>gem5t ( sci5ce1 :i*1 )\t x1 w\ld h _h to proce$ at an incomp>ably sl[] pace4 #ac4 ,d$uction4 ,9 addition to ! inductive me?od1 sci5ce has 7p4 #ch7 ano!r me?od1 :i*1 9 a s5se1 %\ld be ! rev]se ( ! inductive & is claim$ to provide absolutely correct results4 ,x is call$ ! d$uctive me?od1 & x is describ$ z ! me?od t leads f premises ( g5]al validity by means ( logical me?ods ( g5]al validity to results ( g5]al validity4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 !re is no sci5ce t does or c\ld "w 9 su* a way4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 we ask 9 va91 h[ c we arrive at su* g5]al1 or absolutely valid1 premises1 s9ce all k is ( empiric orig9 & is !re=e equipp$ ) ! possibility ( error z in]adicable evid5ce ( ?is orig94 ,9 ! next place1 we _c see h[ f pr9ciples at h& conclusions c be drawn ! cont5t ( :i* exce$s t ( ^! pr9ciples 7& ( ! o!r means employ$74 ,9 ! ?ird place1 ! absolute correctness ( su* results is d\btful f ! fact t blund]s 9 ! process ( reason+ _c be exclud$ ev5 :]e ! premises & me?ods are absolutely correct4 ,9 practice x has actually come to pass t 9 ! s-call$ d$uctive sci5ces d\bts & contradictions on ! "p ( ! v>i\s inve/igators ( ! same "q are by no means exclud$4 ,to wit1 ! discussion t has be5 c>ri$ on = c5turies1 & is n yet end$1 ov] ,euclid's p>allel !orem 9 geometry4 ,if we ask :e!r1 9 ! s5se ( ! obs]vations we h j made ( ! =mation ( sci5tific pr9ciples1 !re is any?+ at all l d$uction1 we c f9d a proc$ure :i* be>s a c]ta9 resemblance ) t impossible proc$ure & :i*1 z a matt] ( fact1 is frequ5tly & to v good purpose appli$ 9 sci5ce4 ,x consi/s 9 ! fact t g5]al pr9ciples :i* h be5 acquir$ ?r\gh ! ord9>y incomplete induction are appli$ to special in/ances :i*1 at ! proposition ( ! pr9ciple1 _h n be5 tak5 into consid]ation1 & ^: connection ) ! g5]al concept _h n become directly evid5t4 ,?r\gh su* application ( g5]al pr9ciples to cases t h n be5 reg>d$ be=e1 specific natural laws are obta9$ :i* _h n be5 =ese5 ei!r1 b :i*1 accord+ to ! probability ( ! !sis & ! correctness ( ! application are also probably correct4 ,h[ev]1 ! inve/igator1 be>+ 9 m9d ! factor ( unc]ta9ty 9 ^! ratioc9ations feels 9 ea* su* in/ance ! ne$ = te/+ ! results by exp]i5ce1 & he does n consid] ! d$uction complete until he _h f\nd confirmation 9 exp]i5ce4 ,d$uction1 !re=e1 actually consi/s 9 ! se>*+ out ( p>ticul> in/ances ( a pr9ciple e/abli%$ by induction & 9 its confirmation by exp]i5ce4 ,?is conduces to ! gr[? ( sci5ce1 n 9 bread?1 b 9 pr(undity4 ,i aga9 resort to ! comp>ison ,i h frequ5tly made ( sci5ce ) a v complex network4 ,at fir/ glance we _c obta9 a complete picture ( all ! me%es4 ,s1 at ! fir/ proposition ( a natural law an imm$iate survey ( ! entire range ( ! possible exp]i5ces to :i* x may apply is ina*ievable4 ,x is a regul>1 important1 & necess>y "p ( all sci5tific "w to le>n ! ext5t ( ?is range & inve/igate ! specific =ms :i* ! law assumes 9 ! remot] in/ances4 ,n[1 if an especially gift$ & f>-see+ inve/igator has succe$$ 9 /at+ 9 advance an especially g5]al =mulation ( an inductive law1 x is ev]y:]e confirm$ 9 ! c\rse ( ! trial applications1 & ! impression easily arises t confirmation is sup]flu\s1 s9ce x results simply 9 :at _h already be5 d$uc$4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 h[ev]1 ! rev]se is n infrequ5tly ! case1 t ! pr9ciple is n confirm$1 & conditions q diff]5t f ^? anticipat$ are f\nd4 ,su* discov]ies1 !n1 z a rule1 con/itute ! />t+-po9t ( important & f>-rea*+ modifications ( ! orig9al =mulation ( ! law 9 "q4 ,z we see1 d$uction is a necess>y complem5t (1 9 fact1 a "p (1 ! inductive process4 ,! hi/ory ( ! orig9 ( a natural law is 9 g5]al z foll[s4 ,! inve/igator notices c]ta9 agreem5ts 9 individual in/ances "u 8 obs]vation4 ,he assumes t ^! agreem5ts are g5]al1 & prop\nds a tempor>y natural law correspond+ to !m4 ,!n he proce$s by fur!r exp]im5tation to te/ ! law 9 ord] to see :e!r he c f9d full confirmation ( x by a numb] ( o!r in/ances4 ,if n1 he tries o!r =mulations ( ! law applicable to ! contradictory in/ances1 or exclusive ( !m1 z n alli$4 ,?r\gh su* a process ( adju/m5t he f9ally arrives at a pr9ciple t possesses a c]ta9 range ( validity4 ,he in=ms o!r sci5ti/s ( ! pr9ciple4 ,^! 9 _! turn are impell$ to te/ o!r in/ances kn[n to !m to :i* ! pr9ciple c be appli$4 ,any d\bts or contradictions aris+ f ?is aga9 impel ! au?or ( ! pr9ciple to c>ry out :atev] readju/m5ts may h become necess>y4 ,^u ! sci5tific imag9ation ( ! discov]] dep5ds ! range ( in/ances suffic+ = ! =mulation ( ! g5]al inductive pr9ciple4 ,x also frequ5tly dep5ds ^u consci\s op]ations ( ! m9d dubb$ sci5tific in/9ct4 ,b z soon z ! pr9ciple has be5 prop\nd$1 ev5 if only 9 ! consci\sness ( ! discov]]1 ! d$uctive "p ( ! "w beg9s1 & ! consequ5t te/ ( ! proposition has ! mo/ ess5tial influ5ce on ! value ( ! result4 ,x is imm$iately evid5t t ?is d$uctive "p is ( all ! m weight1 ! m g5]al ! concepts 9 "q are4 ,if1 9 addition1 ! inductive laws posit$ soon prove to be ( a comp>atively high degree ( p]fection1 we obta9 ! impression describ$ above1 t an unlimit$ numb] ( indep5d5t results c be d$uc$ f a premise4 ,kant 0 ke5ly alive to ! peculi>ity ( su* a view1 :i* _h be5 widely spread pre-em95tly by ,euclid's pres5tation ( geometry1 & he gave expression to 8 op9ion ( x 9 ! fam\s "q3 ,h[ are a priori judgm5ts possible8 ,we h se5 t x is n always a "q ( a priori judgm5ts1 b also ( inductive conclusions appli$ & te/$ accord+ to d$uctive me?ods4 #ad4 ,ideal ,cases4 ,ea* exp]i5ce may g5]ally be consid]$ "u an indef9ite numb] ( v>i\s concepts1 all ( :i* may be ab/ract$ f t exp]i5ce by correspond+ obs]vations4 ,accord+ly an indef9ite numb] ( natural laws w\ld be requir$ = prophesy+ t exp]i5ce 9 all its p>ts4 ,likewise ! indef9ite numb] ( premises mu/ be kn[n ?r\gh ! application ( :i* ^? natural laws acquire a c]ta9 cont5t4 ,?us x seems z if x 7 altoge!r impossible to apply natural laws = ! det]m9ation ( a s+le exp]i5ce to come1 & 9 a c]ta9 s5se ?is is true 7p4 #cj74 ,= example1 :5 a *ild is born1 we are q incapable ( =etell+ ! peculi> ev5ts t w occur 9 its life4 ,beyond ! /atem5t t x w live a :ile & !n die1 we c make only ! broade/ ass]tions qualifi$ by num]\s ifs & buts4 ,if1 9 spite ( ?is1 we arrange a v great "p ( our life & activity accord+ to ! prophecies we make 9 reg>d to num]\s details 9 life1 bas+ !m ^u natural laws1 ! "q arises1 h[ we get ov] ! difficulty1 or1 r1 ! impossibility j ref]r$ to4 ,! answ] is1 t we repeat$ly s f9d or c =m our exp]i5ces t c]ta9 natural relations prepond]at+ly det]m9e ! exp]i5ce1 :ile ! o!r p>ts t rema9 undet]m9$ fall into ! backgr\nd4 ,! prophecy w cov] s consid]able a "p ( ! exp]i5ce t we c =ego previ\s k ( ! re/4 ,we c =etell en\gh to r5d] a practical con/ruction ( life possible1 & increas+ exp]i5ce1 :e!r ! p]sonal exp]i5ce ( ! individual or ! g5]al exp]i5ce ( sci5ce1 con/antly enl>ges ?is controllable "p ( future exp]i5ces4 ,! proc$ure ( sci5ce is simil> to t ( practical life1 ?\gh fre]4 ,:5ev] an inve/igator seeks to te/ a natural law ( ! =m3 if ,a is s1 !n ,b is s1 he endeavors to *oose or =mulate ! exp]i5ces 9 su* a way t ! fewe/ possible extrane\s elem5ts are pres5t1 & t ^? t are unavoidable %\ld ex]t ! lea/ possible influ5ce ^u ! relation 9 "q4 ,he nev] succe$s completely4 ,9 ord]1 nev]!less1 to rea* a conclusion z to ! =m ! relation w take )\t extrane\s influ5ces1 ! foll[+ g5]al me?od is appli$4 ,a s]ies ( in/ances are inve/igat$ :i* are s adju/$ t ! influ5ce ( ! extrane\s elem5ts gr[s less & less4 ,!n ! relation inve/igat$ approa*es a limit :i* is nev] q rea*$1 b to :i* x draws ne>] & ne>]1 ! less ! influ5ce ( ! extrane\s elem5ts4 ,& ! conclusion is drawn t if x 7 possible to exclude ! extrane\s elem5ts entirely1 ! limit ( ! relation w\ld be rea*$4 ,a case 9 :i* none ( ! extrane\s elem5ts ( exp]i5ce op]ate is call$ an ideal case1 & ! inf]5ce f a s]ies ( values lead+ to ! limit-value is an extrapolation4 ,su* extrapolations to ! ideal case are a q natural proc$ure 9 sci5ce1 & a v l>ge "p ( natural laws1 especially all quantitative laws1 t is1 su* z express a relation betwe5 measurable values1 h precise validity only 9 ideal cases4 ,we "h confront ! fact t _m natural laws1 & among !m ! mo/ important1 are express$ z1 & tak5 to be1 conditions :i* nev] occur 9 reality4 ,?is seem+ly absurd proc$ure is1 z a matt] ( fact1 ! be/ fitt$ = sci5tific purposes1 s9ce ideal cases are to be di/+ui%$ by ?is1 t ) !m ! natural laws take on ! simple/ =ms4 ,?is is ! result ( ! fact t 9 ideal cases we int5tionally & arbitr>ily ov]look e complication ( ! det]m9+ factors1 & 9 describ+ ideal cases we describe ! simple/ conceivable =m ( ! class ( exp]i5ces 9 "q4 ,! real cases are !n con/ruct$ f ! ideal cases by repres5t+ !m z ! sum ( all ! elem5ts t h an influ5ce on ! exp]i5ce or ! result4 ,j z we c repres5t ! unlimit$ multitude ( f9ite numb]s by ! figures up to t51 s we c repres5t an unlimit$ quantity ( complicat$ ev5ts by a f9ite numb] ( natural laws1 & s rea* a highly s]viceable approximation to reality4 ,?us geometry deals ) absolutely /raight l9es1 absolutely flat surfaces1 & p]fect sph]es1 ?\gh su* h nev] be5 obs]v$1 & ! results ( geometry come ! clos] to tru?1 ! m ne>ly ! real l9es1 surfaces1 & sph]es correspond to ! ideal dem&s4 ,simil>ly1 9 physics1 !re are no ideal gases or mirrors1 or 9 *emi/ry ideally pure sub/ances1 ?\gh ! express$ simple laws 9 ^! sci5ces are valid = only su* bodies4 ,! non-ideal bodies ( ^! sci5ces1 :i* reality pres5ts 9 v>i\s degrees ( approximation1 correspond ! m closely to ^! laws1 ! slight] ! deviation ( ! real f ! ideal4 ,& ! same me?od is appli$ 9 ! s-call$ m5tal sci5ces1 psy*ology & sociology1 9 :i* ! normal eye & a /ate ) an entirely clos$ door are examples ( su* idealiz$ limit-concepts4 #ae4 ,! ,det]m9at5ess ( ,?+s4 ,a v widespread view & a v grave "o1 because ( its errone\s results1 is t by ! natural laws ?+s are unequivocally & unalt]ably det]m9$ d[n to ! v m9ute/ detail4 ,?is is call$ det]m9ism1 & is reg>d$ z an inevitable consequ5ce ( e natural sci5tific g5]alization4 ,b an accurate inve/igation ( actual relations produces some?+ r diff]5t4 ,! mo/ g5]al =mulation ( ! natural law3 if ,a is exp]i5c$1 !n we expect ,b1 necess>ily ref]s 9 ! fir/ place only to c]ta9 p>ts ( ! ?+ exp]i5c$4 ,= p]fect simil>ity 9 two exp]i5ces is exclud$ by ! m]e fact t we ourselves *ange unceas+ly & "o-sid$ly4 ,consequ5tly1 no matt] h[ accurate ! repetition ( a =m] exp]i5ce may be1 our v p>ticipation 9 x1 an elem5t b\nd to ent]1 causes x to be diff]5t4 ,!re=e we deal ) only a p>tial repetition ( any exp]i5ce1 & ! common "p is all ! small] a fraction ( ! entire exp]i5ce1 ! m g5]al ! concept correspond+ to ?is "p4 ,b ! mo/ g5]al & mo/ important natural laws apply to su* v g5]al ideas1 & accord+ly !y det]m9e only a small "p ( ! :ole result4 ,o!r p>ts are det]m9$ by o!r laws1 b we c nev] po9t out an exp]i5ce t has be5 det]m9$ completely & unequivocally by natural laws kn[n to u4 ,= example1 we "k t :5 we ?r[ a /one1 x w describe an approximate p>abolic curve 9 fall+ to ! gr\nd4 ,b if we %\ld attempt to det]m9e its c\rse accurately1 we %\ld h to take into consid]ation ! resi/ance ( ! air1 ! rotatory motion ( ! /one ^u be+ ?r[n1 ! movem5t ( ! e>?1 & num]\s o!r circum/ances1 ! exact det]m9ation ( :i* is a matt] beyond ! p[] ( all sci5ces4 ,no?+ b an approximate det]m9ation ( ! /one's c\rse is possible1 & e /ep =w>d t[>d accuracy & absolut5ess w\ld require sci5tific advances :i* x w\ld probably take c5turies to accompli%4 ,sci5ce1 !re=e1 c by no means det]m9e ! exact l9e> c\rse t ! /one w take 9 its fall4 ,x c m]ely e/abli% a c]ta9 broad] pa? )9 :i* ! /one's movem5t w rema94 ,& ! pa? is ! wid] ! small] ! progress sci5ce has made 9 ! bran* 9 "q4 ,! same conditions prevail 9 ! case ( e o!r pr$iction bas$ ^u natural laws4 ,natural laws m]ely provide a c]ta9 frame )9 :i* ! ?+ w rema94 ,b :i* ( ! inf9itely num]\s possibilities )9 ?is frame w become reality c nev] be absolutely det]m9$ by human p[]s4 ,! belief t x is possible has be5 evok$ m]ely by a f>-rea*+ me?od ( ab/raction on ! "p ( sci5ce4 ,by assum+ 9 place ( ! /one a non-ext5d$ po9t ( mass & by disreg>d+ all ! o!r factors :i* 9 "s way 7:e!r kn[n or unkn[n7 ex]cise an influ5ce on ! /one's movem5t1 we c effect an app>5tly p]fect solution ( ! problem4 ,b ! solution is n valid = real exp]i5ce1 m]ely = an ideal case1 :i* be>s only a m or less pr(\nd simil>ity to ! real4 ,x is only su* an ideal _w1 t is1 a _w arbitr>ily remov$ f its actual complexity1 t has ! quality ( absolute det]m9at5ess :i* we are wont to ascribe to ! real _w4 ,we might po9t to ! me?od ( ab/raction g5]ally adopt$ 9 sci5ce & to ! extrapolation to ideal cases :i* has j be5 expla9$1 & reg>d ! ass]tion ( ! absolute det]m9at5ess ( ev5ts 9 ! _w z a ju/ifi$ extrapolation to ! ideal case4 ,9 o!r words1 we might say t we "k all ! natural laws & h[ to apply !m p]fectly to ! individual in/ances4 ,9 controv]sion ( ?is x mu/ be said t ! ult]ior ju/ification ( su* ideal extrapolation is n yet feasible4 ,! ju/ification lies 9 ! demon/ration t ! real cases approximate ! ideal ! m closely ! m we actualize our presumptions4 ,b 9 ?is case ?is is n feasible1 s9ce1 = ! great] "p ( our exp]i5ces1 we d n ev5 "k ! approximate or ideal natural laws by ! help ( :i* we c con/ruct su* ideal cases4 ,= in/ance1 ! :ole prov9ce ( organic life is at pres5t ess5tially l an unkn[n l&1 9 :i* !re are only a few widely sep>at$ pa?s end+ 9 culs-de-sac4 #af4 ,! ,fre$om ( ! ,w4 ,?is relation expla9s :y1 on ! "o h&1 we assume a f>-rea*+ det]m9at5ess = _m ?+s1 t is1 = all ^? accessible to sci5tific treatm5t & regulation1 & :y1 on ! o!r h&1 we h ! consci\sness ( act+ freely1 t is1 ( be+ able to control future ev5ts accord+ to ! relations !y be> to our wi%es4 ,ess5tially !re is no objection to be f\nd to a fundam5tal det]m9ism :i* expla9s t ?is feel+ ( fre$om is only a diff]5t way ( say+ t a "p ( ! causal *a9 lies )9 our consci\sness1 & t we feel ^! processes 79 !mselves det]m9$7 z if we ourselves det]m9$ _! c\rse4 ,nor c we prove ?is idea to be false1 t1 s9ce ! numb] ( factors :i* influ5ce ea* exp]i5ce is indef9itely great & _! nature indef9itely complex1 ea* ev5t w\ld appe> to be det]m9$ 9 ! eyes ( an all-compreh5sive intellect4 ,b to our f9ite m9ds an undet]m9$ residue necess>ily rema9s 9 ea* exp]i5ce1 & to t ext5t ! _w mu/ always rema9 9 "p practically undet]m9$ to human be+s4 ,?us1 bo? views1 t ! _w is n completely det]m9$1 & t x really is1 ?\gh we c nev] recognize t x is1 lead practically to ! same result3 t we c & mu/ assume 9 our practical attitude to ! _w t x is only p>tially det]m9$4 ,b if two diff]5t l9es ( ?\ght 9 ! :ole _w ( exp]i5ce ev]y:]e lead to ! same result1 !y _c be mat]ially1 b m]ely =mally or sup]ficially1 diff]5t4 ,= ^? ?+s are alike :i* _c be di/+ui%$4 ,!re is no o!r def9ition ( alik5ess4 ,?us1 if we see t ! age-long dispute betwe5 ^! two views always breaks out afre% )\t seem+ to be able to rea* an end1 ?is is readily und]/ood1 f :at has be5 said1 s9ce ! v same ess5tial argum5ts :i* c be adduc$ ( "o view c be us$ z a prop = ! o!r view1 because 9 _! ess5tial results ! two are ! same4 ,i h discuss$ ?is matt] because x pres5ts a v tell+ example ( a me?od to be appli$ 9 all ! sci5ces :5 deal+ ) ! solution ( old & ev] recurr5t moot que/ions4 ,ea* "t we enc\nt] su* problems1 we mu/ ask ourselves3 :at w\ld be ! diff]5ce empirically if ! "o or ! o!r view 7 correct8 ,9 o!r words1 we fir/ assume ! "o to be correct1 & develop ! consequ5ces accord+ly4 ,!n we assume ! second to be correct & develop ! consequ5ces accord+ly4 ,if 9 ! two cases ! consequ5ces diff] 9 a c]ta9 def9ite po9t1 we at lea/ h ! possibility ( asc]ta9+ ! false view by inve/igat+ 9 favor ( :i* case exp]i5ce decides on ?is po9t4 ,h[ev]1 we may n conclude t by ?is ! o!r view has be5 prov$ to be entirely correct4 ,x likewise may be false1 only ) ! peculi> quality t 9 ! case 9 "q x leads to ! correct conclusions4 ,t su* a ?+ is possible1 e "o kn[s :o has att5tively obs]v$ 8 own exp]i5ces4 ,h[ (t5 we act correctly 9 actual practice1 ?\gh we h />t$ out on false premises6 ,! explanation ( ?is possibility resides 9 ! highly composite nature ( ea* exp]i5ce & ea* assumption4 ,x is q possible--&1 9 fact1 x is ! g5]al rule--t a c]ta9 view conta9s true elem5ts1 b along ) !m false elem5ts also4 ,9 applications ( ! view :]e ! true elem5ts are ! decisive factors1 true results are obta9$1 despite ! errors pres5t4 ,likewise1 false results w be a*iev$ :]e ! false elem5ts are decisive1 despite ! true results t c be _h1 or h be5 _h1 else:]e1 by means ( ! true elem5ts4 ,h5ce1 9 case ( ! confirmation1 we c only conclude t t portion ( ! view ess5tial = ! in/ance 9 "q is correct4 ,"o readily p]ceives t ^! obs]vations f9d application 9 all prov9ces ( sci5ce & life4 ,!re are no absolutely correct ass]tions1 & ev5 ! false/ may 9 "s respect be true4 ,!re are only great] & less] probabilities1 & e advance made by ! human intellect t5ds to increase ! degree ( probability ( exp]i5tial relations1 or natural laws4 #ag4 ,! ,classification ( ! ,sci5ces4 ,f ! prec$+ obs]vations ! means may be drawn = outl9+ a complete table ( ! sci5ces4 ,h[ev]1 we mu/ n reg>d x complete 9 ! s5se t x gives e possible ramification & turn ( ea* sci5ce1 b t x sets up a frame inside ( :i* at giv5 po9ts ea* sci5ce f9ds its place1 s t1 9 ! c\rse ( progressive enl>gem5t1 ! frame ne$ n be exce$$4 ,! basic ?\ght ^u :i* ?is classification re/s is t ( grad$ ab/raction4 ,we h se5 7p4 #ai7 t a concept is all ! m g5]al1 t is1 is applicable to all ! m exp]i5ces1 ! few] p>ts or elem5t>y concepts x conta9s4 ,s we %all beg9 ! sy/em ( ! sci5ces ) ! mo/ g5]al concepts1 t is1 ! elem5t>y concepts 7or ) :at = ! "t be+ we %all h to consid] elem5t>y concepts71 &1 9 grad+ ! concept complexes accord+ to _! increas+ div]sity1 set up a correspond+ grad$ s]ies ( sci5ces4 ,"o ?+ m is to be not$ "h1 t ?is grad$ s]ies1 on acc\nt ( ! v l>ge numb] ( new concepts ent]+1 mu/ produce a correspond+ly great numb] ( div]se sci5ces4 ,= practical reasons gr\ps ( su* grades h be5 comb9$ tempor>ily4 ,!reby a r\gh] classification1 ?\gh "o easi] to obta9 a survey (1 has be5 made4 ,! mo/ suitable & la/+ s*eme ( ?is sort 0 orig9at$ by ! ,fr5* philosoph]1 ,augu/e ,comte1 s9ce :om x has und]gone a few *anges4 ,bel[ is ! table ( ! sci5ces1 :i* ,i %all !n proce$ to expla93 ,i4 ,=mal ,sci5ces4 ,ma9 concept3 ord] ,logic1 or ! sci5ce ( ! ,manifold ,ma!matics1 or ! sci5ce ( ,quantity ,geometry1 or ! sci5ce ( ,space ,phoronomy1 or ! sci5ce ( ,motion ,,ii4 ,physical ,sci5ces4 ,ma9 concept3 en]gy ,me*anics ,physics ,*emi/ry ,,iii4 ,biological ,sci5ces4 ,ma9 concept3 life ,physiology ,psy*ology ,sociology ,z is evid5t1 we fir/ h to deal ) ! ?ree great gr\ps ( ! =mal1 ! physical1 & ! biological sci5ces4 ,! =mal sci5ces treat ( *>act]i/ics belong+ to all exp]i5ces1 *>act]i/ics1 consequ5tly1 t ent] into e kn[n phase ( life1 & s affect sci5ce 9 ! broade/ s5se4 ,9 ord] imm$iately to ov]come a widespread error1 ,i emphasize ! fact t ^! sci5ces are to be consid]$ j z exp]i5tial or empirical z ! sci5ces ( ! o!r two gr\ps1 z to :i* !re is no d\bt t !y are empirical4 ,b because ! concepts dealt ) by ! fir/ gr\p are s extremely wide1 & ! exp]i5ces correspond+ to !m1 !re=e1 are ! mo/ g5]al ( all exp]i5ces1 we easily =get t we are deal+ ) exp]i5ces at all2 & our v firmly root$ consci\sness ( ! unqualifi$ simil>ity ( ^! exp]i5ces causes !m to seem native qualities ( ! m9d1 or a priori judgm5ts4 ,nev]!less1 ma!matics has be5 prov$ to be an empirical sci5ce by ! fact t 9 c]ta9 ( its bran*es 7! !ory ( numb]s7 laws are kn[n :i* h be5 f\nd empirically & ! d$uctive pro( ( :i* we h z yet n succe$$ 9 obta9+4 ,! mo/ g5]al concept express$ & op]ative 9 ^! sci5ces is ! concept ( ord]1 ( conjugacy or function1 ! cont5t & significance ( :i* w become cle> lat] 9 a m ?or\gh /udy ( ! special sci5ces4 ,9 ! second gr\p1 ! physical sci5ces1 ! arbitr>9ess ( ! classification becomes v app>5t1 s9ce ^! sci5ces are among ! be/ kn[n4 ,we are p]fectly ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ me*anics z a "p ( physics2 & 9 our day physical *emi/ry1 :i* 9 ! la/ tw5ty ye>s sudd5ly develop$ into an ext5d$ & important special sci5ce1 ?ru/ itself betwe5 physics & *emi/ry4 ,! mo/ g5]al concept ( ! physical sci5ces is t ( en]gy1 :i* does n appe> 9 ! =mal sci5ces4 ,to be sure x is n a fundam5tal concept4 ,on ! contr>y1 its *>act]i/ic is und\bt$ly t ( composit5ess1 or1 r1 complexity4 ,! ?ird gr\p compreh5ds all ! relations ( liv+ be+s4 ,_! mo/ g5]al concept1 accord+ly1 is t ( life4 ,by physiology is und]/ood ! entire sci5ce deal+ ) non-psy*ic life ph5om5a4 ,x !re=e embraces :at is call$1 9 ! pres5t (t5 *ance arrangem5t ( sci5tific activities1 botany1 zoology1 & physiology ( ! plants1 animals1 & man4 ,psy*ology is ! sci5ce ( m5tal ph5om5a4 ,z su*1 x is n limit$ to man1 ev5 ?\gh = _m reasons he claims by f> ! prepond]at+ "p ( x = himself4 ,sociology is ! sci5ce :i* deals ) ! peculi>ities ( ! human race4 ,x may !re=e be call$ an?ropology1 b 9 a f> wid] s5se ?an ! ^w is n[ appli$4 #ah4 ,! ,appli$ ,sci5ces4 ,x w be rem>k$ t ! gr\p+ ( ! table gives no place at all 9 its s*eme to c]ta9 bran*es ( le>n+ taught 9 ! univ]sities & equally good te*nical in/itutions4 ,we look 9 va9 n only = !ology & jurisprud5ce1 b also = a/ronomy1 m$ic9e1 etc4 ,! explanation & ju/ification ( ?is is1 t = purposes ( sy/ematization we mu/ di/+ui% betwe5 pure & appli$ sci5ces4 ,by virtue ( _! /rictly conceptual exclusiv5ess ! pure sci5ces con/itute a regul> hi]>*y or grad$ s]ies1 s t all ! concepts t h be5 us$ & dealt ) 9 ! prec$+ sci5ces are repeat$ 9 ! foll[+ sci5ces1 :ile c]ta9 *>act]i/ic new concepts ent] 9 addition4 ,?us logic1 ! sci5ce ( ! manifold1 ex]cises its dom9ion ov] all ! o!r sci5ces1 :ile ! specific concepts ( physics & *emi/ry h no?+ to d ) x1 ?\gh !y are ( importance to all ! biologic sci5ces4 ,?r\gh ?is grad$ addition ( new 7naturally empiric7 concepts1 ! con/ruction ( ! pure sci5ces proce$s 9 /rict regul>ity1 & _! problems arise exclusively f ! application ( new concepts to all ! e>li] ones4 ,9 o!r words1 _! problems d n rea* !m accid5tally f )\t1 b result f ! action & reaction ( _! concepts ^u "o ano!r4 ,at ! same "t !re are problems t ea* day sets be=e u )\t reg>d to sy/em4 ,^! come f our endeavor to improve life & av]t evil4 ,9 ! problems ( life we are confront$ by ! :ole v>iety ( possible concepts1 & "u ! day's imm$iate compulsion we _c wait1 if we are s[+ crops or help+ a sick man1 until physiology & all ! o!r appropriate sci5ces h solv$ all ! problems ( plant gr[? & ! *anges ( ! human body & human en]gy4 ,:5 o!r signs fail1 we use ! position ( ! />s = f9d+ our way on ! high seas4 ,9 ?is mann] we turn ! tea*+ ( ! />s1 or a/ronomy1 into an appli$ sci5ce1 9 :i* at fir/ me*anics alone seem$ to h a "p4 ,lat] physics took a %>e 9 x1 !n optics took a p>ticul>ly prom95t %>e1 & 9 rec5t times n only did *emi/ry f9d its way into a/ronomy1 b ! specifically biologic concept ( evolution 0 appli$ 9 a/ronomy ) success4 ,?us1 side by side ) ! pure sci5ces are ! appli$1 :i* are to be di/+ui%$ f ! pure sci5ces by ! fact t !y d n unfold _! problems sy/ematically1 b are assign$ !m by ! ext]nal circum/ances ( man's life4 ,! pure sci5ces1 !re=e1 almo/ always h a l>g] or small] %>e 9 ! tasks ( ! appli$ sci5ces4 ,= in/ance1 9 build+ a bridge or railroad1 physical problems h to be tak5 into consid]ation z well z sociologic problems 7problems ( trade71 & a good physician %\ld be a psy*ologi/ z well z a *emi/4 ,b s9ce all ! individual que/ions aris+ 9 ! appli$ sci5ces may be consid]$ ess5tially z problems ( "o or o!r pure sci5ce1 !y ne$ n be explicitly enum]at$ along ) ! pure sci5ces1 especially s9ce _! developm5t is greatly dep5d5t ^u tempor>y conditions & is !re=e incapable ( simple sy/ematization4 ,,"p ,,ii ,,logic1 ,,! ,,sci5ce ,,( ,,! ,,manifold1 ,,& ,,ma!matics #ai4 ,! ,mo/ ,g5]al ,concept4 ,if we try to conceive ! :ole /ructure ( sci5ce accord+ to ! pr9ciple ( ! increas+ complexity ( concepts1 ! fir/ "q :i* confronts u is1 ,:at concept is ! mo/ g5]al ( all possible concepts1 s g5]al t x ent]s into e concept =mation & acts z a decisive factor8 ,9 ord] to f9d ?is concept let u g back to ! psy*o-physical basis ( concept =mation1 namely1 memory1 & let u inve/igate :at is ! g5]al *>act]i/ic det]m9+ memory4 ,we soon p]ceive t if a be+ 7 to lead an absolutely uni=m exi/5ce1 no memories c\ld be evok$4 ,!re w\ld be no?+ by :i* ! pa/ c\ld be di/+ui%$ f ! pres5t1 h5ce no?+ by :i* to comp>e !m4 ,s ! primal ph5om5on ( consci\s ?\ght is ! realization ( a diff]5ce1 a diff]5ce betwe5 memory & ! pres5t1 or1 to put ! same idea /ill m g5]ally1 betwe5 two memories4 ,our exp]i5ces1 !re=e1 are divid$ into two p>ts1 di/+ui%$ f ea* o!r4 ,9 ord] to pr$icate some?+ ( a p]fectly g5]al nature conc]n+ ^? p>ts1 )\t reg>d to _! p>ticul> cont5t1 we mu/1 9 accordance ) ! means employ$ 9 human int]c\rse1 designate !m by a "n4 ,n[ 9 all human languages !re is a great deal ( arbitr>9ess & indef9it5ess 9 ! relations betwe5 ! concepts & ! names appli$ to !m1 :i* r5d] all accurate "w 9 ! /udy ( concepts extremely difficult4 ,x is necess>y1 !re=e1 to /ate def9itely 9 ea* p>ticul> in/ance ) :at conceptual cont5t a giv5 "n is to be connect$4 ,e exp]i5ce 9 s f> z x is diff]5tiat$ f o!r exp]i5ces we %all call simply an exp]i5ce )\t mak+ a di/9ction betwe5 a s-call$ inn] or out] exp]i5ce4 ,_m ( ! exp]i5ces rema9 isolat$1 because !y are n repeat$ 9 a simil> =m1 & s d n rema9 9 our memory4 ,!y dep>t f our psy*ic life once = all & leave no fur!r consequ5ces or associations4 ,b "s exp]i5ces recur ) great] or less uni=mity1 & become p]man5t p>ts ( psy*ic life4 ,_! duration is by no means unlimit$4 ,= ev5 memories fade & disappe>4 ,h[ev]1 !y ext5d ?r\gh a consid]able "p ( life1 & t suffices to give !m _! "*4 ,! aggregate ( simil> exp]i5ces1 h5ce ( exp]i5ces conceptually g5]aliz$1 we %all call ?+s4 ,a ?+1 !re=e1 is an exp]i5ce :i* has be5 repeat$1 & is recogniz$ by u4 ,t is1 x is felt z repeat$ & conceptually compreh5d$4 ,9 o!r words1 all exp]i5ces ( :i* we h =m$ concepts are ?+s1 & ! concept ( ?+ itself is ! mo/ g5]al concept1 s9ce1 accord+ to its def9ition1 x includes all possible concepts4 ,its ess5ce1 or det]m9+ *>act]i/ic1 lies 9 ! possibility ( diff]5tiat+ any "o ?+ f ano!r4 ,?+s we d n diff]5tiate we call ! same1 or id5tical4 ,"h we %all leave undecid$ ! "q :e!r ?is lack ( diff]5tiation occurs because we _c1 or because we w\ld n1 diff]5tiate4 ,all exp]i5ces g5]aliz$ into "o concept are !re=e felt or reg>d$ z ! same 9 ref]5ce to ?is concept4 ,n[1 s9ce concepts arise unconsci\sly z well z consci\sly1 ! fir/ is a case ( id5tities :i* _h be5 directly felt z su*4 ,on ! o!r h&1 9 ! second case1 ! process is t ( consci\sly disreg>d+ or ab/ract+ ! exi/+ diff]5ces 9 ord] to =m a concept into :i* ^! d n ent]4 ,?is la/ process is appli$ 9 ! highe/ degree possible 9 obta9+ ! concept ?+4 #bj4 ,association4 ,! exp]i5ce ( ! connection or relation betwe5 v>i\s ?+s is also d]iv$ f ! nature ( our exp]i5ces 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se4 ,:5 we recall a ?+ ,a1 ano!r ?+ ,b comes to our m9d1 ! memory ( :i* is call$ =? by ,a1 & vice v]sa4 ,! cause ( ?is inv>iably lies 9 "s exp]i5ces 9 :i* ,a & ,b occur toge!r4 ,9 fact1 ,a & ,b mu/ h occurr$ toge!r a numb] ( times4 ,o!rwise !y w\ld h disappe>$ f memory4 ,9 o!r words1 x is ! fact ( ! complex concept :i* appe>s 9 su* connections betwe5 v>i\s ?+s4 ,two ?+s1 ,a & ,b1 :i* are connect$ ) ea* o!r 9 su* a way1 are said to be associat$4 ,association 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se means no?+ m ?an t :5 we ?9k ( ,b we also h ,a 9 our consci\sness1 & vice v]sa4 ,h[ev]1 we c at w make ! association m def9ite1 s t q def9ite ?\ghts or actions w be connect$ ) ! association ( ,b4 ,^! ?\ghts & actions are !n ! same = all ! individual cases occurr+ "u ! concept ,a & ,b4 ,if we associate ) ! ?+ ,b ano!r ?+ ,c1 we obta9 a relation ( ! same nature z t obta9$ by ! association ( ,a & ,b4 ,b at ! same "t a new relation arises :i* 0 n directly s\ght1 namely1 ! association ( ,a to ,c4 ,if ,a recalls ,b1 & ,b recalls ,c1 ,a mu/ inevitably recall ,c also4 ,?is psy*ologic law ( nature is productive ( numb]less special results4 ,= we c apply x directly to /ill ano!r case1 ! association ( a f\r? ?+ ,d to ! ?+ ,c1 :]eby new relations are necess>ily e/abli%$ also betwe5 ,a & ,d z well z betwe5 ,b & ,d4 ,by posit+ ! "o relation ,c 3 ,d !re arise two new relations n imm$iately giv51 namely1 ,a 3 ,d & ,b 3 ,d4 ,! reason ! o!r relations arise is because ,c 0 n tak5 free f all relations1 b _h already atta*$ to x ! relations to ,a & ,b4 ,^! relations ( ,c1 !re=e1 br\ght ,a & ,b into ! new relation ) ,d4 ,by ?is simple/ & mo/ g5]al example we recognize ! type ( ! d$uctive process 7p4 #da71 namely1 ! discov]y ( relations :i*1 x is true1 h already be5 e/abli%$ by ! accept$ premises1 b :i* d n directly appe> 9 und]tak+ ! correspond+ op]ations4 ,9 ! pres5t case1 to be sure1 ! d$uction is s app>5t t ! recognition ( ! relations 9 "q (f]s n ! slighte/ difficulty4 ,b we c easily imag9e m complicat$ cases 9 :i* x is mu* m difficult to f9d ! actually exi/+ relations1 & s 9 c]ta9 circum/ances we may se>* = !m a long "t 9 va94 #ba4 ,! ,gr\p4 ,! aggregate ( all individual ?+s occurr+ 9 a def9ite concept1 or ! common *>act]i/ics ( :i* make up ?is concept1 is call$ a gr\p4 ,su* a gr\p may consi/ ( a limit$ or f9ite numb] ( memb]s1 or may be unlimit$1 accord+ to ! nature ( ! concepts t *>act]ize x4 ,?us1 all ! integ]s =m an unlimit$ or inf9ite gr\p1 :ile ! integ]s betwe5 t5 & "o hundr$ 7or ! two-digit numb]s7 =m a limit$ or f9ite gr\p4 ,f ! def9ition ( ! gr\p concept foll[s ! s-call$ classic process ( argum5tation ( ! syllogism4 ,its =m is3 ,gr\p ,a is di/+ui%$ by ! *>act]i/ic ( ,b4 ,! ?+ ,c belongs to gr\p ,a4 ,!re=e ,c has ! *>act]i/ic ( ,b4 ,! prom95t "p ascrib$ by ,ari/otle & 8 successors to ?is process is bas$ ^u ! c]ta9ty :i* its results possess4 ,nev]!less1 x has be5 po9t$ out1 especially by ,kant1 t judgm5ts or conclusions ( su* a nature 7:i* he call$ analytic7 h no significance at all = ! progress ( sci5ce1 s9ce !y express only :at is already kn[n4 ,= 9 ord] to enable u to say t ! ?+ ,c belongs to gr\p ,a1 we mu/ already h recogniz$ or prov$ ! pres5ce ( ! gr\p *>act]i/ic ,b 9 ,c1 & 9 t case ! conclusion only repeats :at is already conta9$ 9 ! second or m9or premise4 ,?is is evid5t 9 ! classic example3 ,all m5 are mortal4 ,caius is a man4 ,!re=e ,caius is mortal4 ,= if ,caius's mortality 7 n kn[n 7"h we are n conc]n$ h[ ?is k 0 obta9$71 we %\ld h no "r to call him a man4 ,at ! same "t ! "* ( ! really sci5tific conclusion bas$ ^u ! incomplete induction becomes cle>4 ,x proce$s accord+ to ! foll[+ =m4 ,! attributes ( ! gr\p ,a are ! *>act]i/ics ( a1 b1 c1 d4 ,we f9d 9 ! ?+ ,c ! *>act]i/ics a1 b1 c4 ,!re=e we presume t ! *>act]i/ic d w also be f\nd 9 ,c4 ,! gr\nd = ?is presumption is t we h le>n$ by exp]i5ce t ! *>act]i/ics m5tion$ h always be5 f\nd toge!r4 ,x is = ?is reason1 & = ?is reason only1 t we may assume f ! pres5ce ( a1 b1 c ! pres5ce ( d4 ,9 ! case ( an arbitr>y comb9ation1 9 :i* x is possible to comb9e o!r *>act]i/ics1 ! conclusion is unf\nd$4 ,b if1 on ! o!r h&1 ! =mation ( ! concept ,a ) ! *>act]i/ics ( a1 b1 c1 d has be5 caus$ by repeat$ & habitual exp]i5ce1 !n ! conclusion is well f\nd$2 t is1 x is probable4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 h[ev]1 t classic example :i* is suppos$ to prove ! absolute c]ta9ty ( ! regul> syllogism turns out to be a hidd5 inductive conclusion ( ! incomplete k9d4 ,! premise1 ,caius is a man1 is bas$ on ! attributes a1 b1 c 7= example1 erect be>+1 figure1 language71 :ile ! attribute d 7mortality7 _c be br\ght "u obs]vation s long z ,caius rema9s alive4 ,9 ! s5se ( ! classic logic1 !re=e1 we are n ju/ifi$ 9 ! m9or premise1 ,caius is a man1 :ile ,caius is alive4 ,! utt] futility ( ! syllogism is app>5t1 s9ce1 accord+ to x1 x is only ( dead m5 t we c ass]t t !y are mortal4 ,f ^! obs]vations x becomes fur!r app>5t t logic1 :e!r x is ! sup]flu\s classic logic or mod]n effective inductive logic1 is no?+ b a "p ( ! gr\p !ory1 or sci5ce ( manifoldness1 :i* appe>s z ! fir/1 because x is ! mo/ g5]al memb] ( ! ma!matical sci5ces 7?is ^w tak5 9 its wide/ significance74 ,b accord+ to ! hi]>*ic sy/em 9 h>mony ) :i* ! s*eme ( all ! sci5ces _h be5 consci\sly project$1 we _c expect any?+ else ?an t ^? sci5ces :i* are ne$ful = ! pursuit ( all o!r sci5ces 7& logic has always be5 reg>d$ z su* an indisp5sable sci5ce1 or1 at lea/1 art7 %\ld be f\nd collect$ & classifi$ 9 ! fir/ sci5ce4 #bb4 ,negation4 ,:5 ! *>act]i/ics a1 b1 c1 d ( a gr\p h be5 det]m9$1 !n ! aggregate ( all ?+s exi/+ c be divid$ into two p>ts1 namely1 ! ?+s :i* belong to ! gr\p ,a & ^? :i* d n belong to x4 ,?is second aggregate may !n be reg>d$ z a gr\p by itself4 ,if we call ?is gr\p n-,a1 x foll[s f ! def9ition ( ?is gr\p t ! two gr\ps1 ,a & n-,a1 toge!r =m ! aggregate ( all ?+s4 ,?is is ! mean+ & ! significance ( ! l+ui/ic =m ( negation4 ,x excludes ! ?+ negat$ f any gr\p giv5 9 a proposition1 & ?is relegates x to ! second or complem5t>y gr\p4 ,! *>act]i/ic ( su* a gr\p is ! common abs5ce ( ! *>act]i/ics ( ! positive gr\p4 ,we mu/ note "h t ! abs5ce ( ev5 "o ( ! *>act]i/ics a1 b1 c1 d excludes ! incorporation ( ! ?+ into ! gr\p ,a1 :ile ! m]e abs5ce ( ?is *>act]i/ic suffices to include x 9 ! gr\p n-,a4 ,we c !re=e by no means pr$icate ( gr\p n-,a t ea* "o ( its memb]s mu/ lack all ! *>act]i/ics a1 b1 c1 d4 ,we c only say t ea* ( its memb]s lacks at lea/ "o ( ! *>act]i/ics1 b t "o or "s may be pres5t1 & sev]al or all may be abs5t4 ,f ?is foll[s a c]ta9 asymmetry ( ! two gr\ps1 :i* we mu/ be> 9 m9d4 ,! consid]ation ( ?is subject is especially important 9 ! treatm5t ( negation 9 ! conclusions ( =mal logic4 ,z we %all make no special use ( =mal logic1 we ne$ n ent] into x 9 detail4 #bc4 ,artificial & ,natural ,gr\ps4 ,! comb9ation ( ! *>act]i/ics :i* are to s]ve = ! def9ition ( a gr\p is at fir/ purely arbitr>y4 ,?us1 :5 we h *os5 su* an arbitr>y comb9ation1 a1 b1 c1 d1 we c elim9ate "o ( ! *>act]i/ics1 z1 = example1 c1 & =m a gr\p ) ! *>act]i/ics a1 b1 d4 ,su* a gr\p1 :i* is poor] 9 *>act]i/ics1 w1 9 g5]al1 be ri*] 9 memb]s1 = to x belong1 9 ! fir/ place1 all ! ?+s ) ! *>act]i/ics a1 b1 c1 d1 ( :i* ! fir/ gr\p consi/$1 & 9 addition all ! ?+s :i*1 ?\gh n possess+ c1 possess a1 b1 & d4 ,if we call su* gr\ps relat$ z conta9 common *>act]i/ics1 ?\gh conta9+ !m 9 diff]5t memb]s & comb9ations1 s t ! def9ition ( ! "o gr\p c be d]iv$ f ! o!r by ! elim9ation or incorporation ( individual *>act]i/ics1 !n we c po/ulate ! g5]al !sis t 9 relat$ gr\ps ^? mu/ be ri*] 9 memb]s :i* are poor] 9 *>act]i/ics1 & inv]sely4 ,?is is ! precise /atem5t ( ! proposition ( ! less def9ite !sis /at$ above4 ,= ! purposes ( sy/ematization we h assum$ t we c arbitr>ily elim9ate "o or ano!r *>act]i/ic ( a gr\p4 ,9 exp]i5ce1 h[ev]1 ?is (t5 proves inadmissible4 ,z a rule we f9d t ! ?+s :i* lack "o ( ! *>act]i/ics ( a gr\p w also lack a numb] ( o!r *>act]i/ics2 9 o!r words1 t ! *>act]i/ics are n all indep5d5t ( "o ano!r1 b t a c]ta9 numb] ( !m g toge!r1 s t !y are pres5t 9 a ?+ ei!r 9 common or n at all4 ,?is case1 h[ev]1 c be ref]r$ to ! g5]al "o fir/ describ$1 by treat+ ! *>act]i/ics belong+ toge!r z be+ "o *>act]i/ic1 s t ! gr\p is def9$ solely by ! indep5d5t *>act]i/ics4 ,!n1 accord+ to ! def9ition1 we c1 )\t los+ our connection ) exp]i5ce1 c>ry out t =mal manifoldness ( all possible relat$ gr\ps :i* yields :at is call$ a classification ( ! correspond+ ?+s4 ,if = ! det]m9ation ( a gr\p a def9ite numb] ( indep5d5t *>act]i/ics is tak51 say1 a1 b1 c1 d1 & e1 !n we h at fir/ ! n>r[e/ or poore/ gr\p abcde4 ,by ! elim9ation ( "o *>act]i/ic we obta9 ! five gr\ps1 bcde1 acde1 abde1 abce1 & abcd4 ,if we omit "o o!r *>act]i/ic we get t5 diff]5t gr\ps abc1 abd1 abe1 acd1 ace1 ade1 bcd1 bce1 bde1 cde4 ,likewise1 !re are t5 gr\ps ) two *>act]i/ics ea*1 & f9ally five gr\ps ) "o *>act]i/ic ea*4 ,all ^! gr\ps are relat$4 ,!re is a sci5ce1 ! ,!ory ( ,comb9ations1 :i* gives ! rules by :i*1 9 giv5 elem5ts or *>act]i/ics1 ! k9d & numb] ( ! possible gr\ps c be f\nd4 ,! !ory ( comb9ations enables u to obta9 a complete table & survey ( all possible complex concepts :i* c be =m$ f giv5 simple ones 7:e!r !y be really elem5t>y concepts1 or only relatively s74 ,:5 9 any field ( sci5ce ! fundam5tal concepts h be5 comb9$ 9 ?is mann]1 a complete survey c be _h ( all ! possible p>ts ( ?is sci5ce by means ( ! !ory ( comb9ations4 ,9 ord] to pres5t ?is process vividly to our m9ds1 let u take z an example ! sci5ce ( ! *emical comb9ation ( sub/ances :i* =m an important "p ( *emi/ry4 ,!re are ab\t eighty elem5ts 9 *emi/ry1 & ?is sci5ce has to treat ( a7 ea* ( ! eighty elem5ts by itself b7 all sub/ances conta9+ two elem5ts & no m c7 all sub/ances conta9+ ?ree elem5ts d1 e1 f1 etc47 ! sub/ances conta9+ f\r1 five1 & six1 etc41 elem5ts1 until f9ally we rea* a gr\p 7n exi/+ 9 exp]i5ce7 embrac+ sub/ances =m$ ( all ! elem5ts4 ,t !re is no su* sub/ance 9 ! pres5t scope ( human k has1 ( c\rse1 no significance = ! /ructure ( ! s*eme4 ,:at is significant is ! fact t ! s*eme really embraces & arranges all possible sub/ances 9 su* a way t we _c conceive ( any case 9 :i* a newly discov]$ sub/ance _c aft] exam9ation imm$iately be class$ ) "o ( ! exi/+ gr\ps4 ,to cite an example f ano!r sci5ce4 ,physics1 x w be recall$1 may be consid]$ to be ! sci5ce ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( en]gy4 ,?is sci5ce1 accord+ly1 is divid$ fir/ into ! /udy ( ! prop]ties ( ea* en]gy1 & !n into ! /udy ( ! relations ( two en]gies1 ( ?ree en]gies1 ( f\r en]gies1 etc4 ,"h1 too1 we may say t 9 ! end !re c be no physical ph5om5on :i* _c be plac$ 9 "o ( ! gr\ps s obta9$4 ,( c\rse1 nei!r 9 *emi/ry nor 9 physics does ?is mean t ea* new case w fall )9 ! s*eme obta9$ by ! exhau/ive comb9ation ( elem5t>y concepts 7:e!r *emical elem5ts or k9ds ( en]gy7 kn[n at ! "t4 ,x is q possible t a new ?+ "u inve/igation conta9s a new elem5t>y concept1 s t on acc\nt ( x ! s*eme mu/ be enl>g$ ?r\gh ! embodim5t ( ?is new elem5t4 ,b simultane\sly a correspond+ numb] ( new gr\ps appe> 9 ! s*eme1 & ! inve/igator's att5tion is direct$ to ! fact t he /ill has a reasonable prospect1 9 favorable circum/ances1 ( discov]+ ^! new ?+s also4 ,?us comb9atory s*ematization s]ves n only to br+ ! exi/+ cont5t ( sci5ce into su* ord] t ea* s+le ?+ has its assign$ place1 b ! gr\ps :i* h !reby be5 f\nd to be vacant1 to :i* z yet no?+ ( exp]i5ce corresponds1 also po9t to ! places 9 :i* sci5ce c be complet$ by new discov]ies4 ,f ! above pres5tation x is app>5t h[ f ! two concepts ?+ & association alone a great manifoldness ( v>i\s & regul> =ms c be develop$4 ,!y are purely empirical relations1 = ! fact t sev]al ?+s c be comb9$ 9 ! grad$ s]ies describ$ above accord+ to a fix$ rule does n foll[ m]ely f ! two concepts1 b mu/ be exp]i5c$4 ,b1 on ! o!r h&1 bo? concepts are s g5]al t ! exp]i5ces obta9$ 9 "s cases c be appli$ to all possible exp]i5ces & may s]ve ! purpose ( classify+ & mak+ a g5]al survey ( !m4 ,! above /atem5ts1 h[ev]1 h by no means exhau/$ ! possibilities4 ,= x has be5 tacitly assum$ t 9 ! comb9ation ( sev]al ?+s ! sequ5ce accord+ to :i* ?is comb9ation takes place %\ld n condition a diff]5ce ( ! result4 ,?is is true ( a numb] ( ?+s1 b n ( all4 ,9 ord]1 !re=e1 to exhau/ ! possibilities ! !ory ( comb9ations mu/ be ext5d$ also to cases 9 :i* ! sequ5ce is to be tak5 acc\nt (1 s t ! =m ab is reg>d$ z diff]5t f ba4 ,we w n und]take to "w out ! results ( ?is assumption4 ,x is obvi\s t ! manifoldness ( ! v>i\s cases is mu* great] ?an if we neglect ! sequ5ce4 ,on ?is po9t we h "o m obs]vation to make1 t fur!r causes = div]sity exi/4 ,x is true t a *emical comb9ation is n influ5c$ by ! sequ5ce 9 :i* its elem5ts ent] ! comb9ation1 b !re d occur ) ! same elem5ts diff]5ces 9 _! quantitative relations1 & !reby a new complexity is introduc$ into ! sy/em1 s t two or m simil> elem5ts c =m diff]5t comb9ations accord+ to ! diff]5ce 9 ! quantitative relations4 ,/ill1 ev5 ) ?is1 ! actual manifoldness is n exhau/$1 = f ! same elem5ts & ) ! same quantitative relations !re c arise diff]5t sub/ances call$ isom]ic1 :i*1 = all _! simil>ity1 possess diff]5t en]gy cont5ts4 ,b ! fir/ s*eme is n demoli%$1 nor does x become impracticable because ( ?is increase ( manifoldness4 ,:at simply happ5s is t sev]al diff]5t ?+s in/ead ( "o appe> 9 ! same gr\p ( ! orig9al s*eme1 ! sy/ematic classification ( :i* necessitates a fur!r s*ematization by ! use ( o!r *>act]i/ics4 #bd4 ,arrangem5t ( ! ,memb]s4 ,s9ce we h />t$ f ! proposition t all memb]s ( a gr\p are diff]5t f "o ano!r1 we h p]fect lib]ty to arrange !m4 ,! mo/ obvi\s arrangem5t accord+ to :i* "s "o def9ite memb] is foll[$ by a s+le o!r memb] & s =? 7z1 = example1 ! arrangem5t ( ! lett]s ( ! alphabet7 is by no means ! only mode ( arrangem5t1 ?\gh x is ! simple/4 ,besides ?is l9e> arrangem5t1 !re is also1 = in/ance1 ! "o 9 :i* two new memb]s foll[ simultane\sly ^u ea* previ\s "o1 or ! memb]s may be dispos$ l a numb] ( balls heap$ up 9 a pyramid4 ,h[ev]1 we %all n h mu* occasion to occupy ourselves ) ^! complex types ( arrangem5t1 & c !re=e limit our consid]ations at fir/ to ! simple/1 t is1 to ! l9e> arrangem5t4 ,?is simple/ ( all possible =ms expresses itself 9 ! fact t ! imm$iately exp]i5c$ ?+s ( our consci\sness are arrang$ 9 ?is way4 ,9 po9t ( fact1 ! cont5ts ( our consci\sness proce$ 9 l9e> ord]1 "o s+le new memb] always atta*+ itself to an exi/+ memb]4 ,?is law1 h[ev]1 is n /rictly & inv>iably adh]$ to4 ,x sometimes happ5s t our consci\sness cont9ues = a :ile to pursue ! direction ( ?\ght x has once tak51 al?\gh a bran*+ (f _h already tak5 place at a =m] po9t1 at :i* a new *a9 ( ?\ght _h begun4 ,nev]!less1 "o ( ^! *a9s usually breaks (f v soon1 & ! l9e> "* ( ! inn] exp]i5ce is imm$iately re/or$4 ,( c]ta9 specially p[]ful intellects x is record$ t !y c\ld keep up sev]al l9es ( ?\ght = a consid]able l5g? ( "t--,julius ,cs>1 = in/ance4 ,! biologic peculi>ity "h m5tion$ ( ! l9e> juxtaposition ( ! cont5ts ( our consci\sness has l$ to ! concept ( "t1 :i* has be5 appropriately call$ a =m ( inn] life4 ,t all our exp]i5ces succe$ ea* o!r 9 "t is equival5t to say+ t our ?\ght processes repres5t a gr\p 9 l9e> arrangem5t4 ,z appe>s f ! above obs]vations1 ?is is by no means an absolute =m1 unalt]able = all times4 ,on ! contr>y1 a few highly develop$ individuals h already begun to emancipate !mselves f x4 ,b ! exi/+ =m is s firmly fix$ ?r\gh h]$ity & habit t x /ill seems impracticable = mo/ m5 to imag9e ! succession ( ! inn] exp]i5ces 9 a diff]5t way ?an by a l9e or by "o dim5sion4 ,s9ce1 on ! o!r h&1 we h all le>n$ to feel space z tri-dim5sional1 al?\gh optically x appe>s to possess only two dim5sions 7we see l5g? & bread?1 & only inf] ?ickness f second>y *>act]i/ics71 we come to recognize t ! l9e> =m by :i* we repres5t ! succession ( our exp]i5ces is a matt] ( adaptation1 & t because ! *ange has be5 extremely slight 9 ! c\rse ( c5turies x produces ! impression ( be+ unalt]able4,d ,d ,ma!maticians :o busy !mselves a great deal ) ! =mal !ory ( f\r-dim5sional space1 seem to acquire a capacity = imag9+ ?is =m z easily z ! ?ree-dim5sional =m ) :i* we are all famili>4 ,!re=e1 despite ! (t-repeat$ /atem5ts to ! contr>y1 x is n impossible to imag9e f\r-dim5sional space4 ,only1 we mu/ n attempt to repres5t to ourselves f\r-dim5sional space 9 ?ree-dim5sional space1 especially n )\t a k ( its prop]ties4 ,^! discussions lead to a fur!r diff]5ce t c exi/ 9 gr\ps ( l9e> arrangem5t4 ,:ile 9 ! fir/ example we *ose1 ! alphabet1 ! sequ5ce 0 q arbitr>y1 s9ce any o!r sequ5ce is j z possible1 ! same _c be said ( exp]i5ces into :i* ! elem5t ( "t ent]s4 ,^! are n arbitr>y1 b are arrang$ by special circum/ances dep5d+ ^u ! aggregate ( ?+s :i* co-op]ate 9 ! giv5 exp]i5ces4 ,:ile1 !re=e1 a gr\p ) free memb]s1 t is1 memb]s n det]m9$ 9 _! arrangem5t by special circum/ances1 c be br\ght into l9e> ord] 9 v diff]5t ways1 !re are gr\ps 9 :i* only "o ( ^? ord]s actually occurs4 ,we see at once t 9 free gr\ps ! numb] ( diff]5t ord]s possible is ! great]1 ! great] ! gr\p itself4 ,! !ory ( comb9ations tea*es h[ to calculate ^! numb]s :i* play a v important rle 9 ! v>i\s prov9ces ( ma!matics4 ,! naturally ord]$ gr\ps always repres5t a s+le in/ance out ( ^! possibilities1 ! s\rce ( :i* always lies outside ! gr\p concept1 t is1 x proce$s f ! ?+s !mselves :i* are unit$ into a gr\p4 #be4 ,numb]s4 ,an especially important gr\p 9 ! l9e> ord] is t ( ! integral numb]s4 ,its orig9 is z foll[s3 ,fir/ we ab/ract ! diff]5ce ( ! ?+s f\nd 9 ! gr\p1 t is1 we det]m9e1 al?\gh !y are diff]5t1 to disreg>d _! diff]5ces4 ,!n we beg9 ) "s memb] ( ! gr\p & =m x into a gr\p by itself4 ,x does n matt] :i* memb] is *os51 s9ce all are reg>d$ z equival5t4 ,!n ano!r memb] is add$1 & ! gr\p ?us obta9$ is aga9 *>act]iz$ z a special type4 ,!n "o m memb] is add$1 & ! correspond+ type =m$1 & s on4 ,exp]i5ce tea*es t nev] has a h9drance aris5 to ! =mation ( new types ( ?is k9d by ! addition ( a s+le memb] at a "t1 s t ! op]ation ( ?is peculi> gr\p =mation may be reg>d$ z unlimit$ or inf9ite4 ,! gr\ps or types ?us obta9$ are call$ ! integral numb]s4 ,f ! description ( ! process x foll[s t e numb] has two neighbors1 ! "o ! numb] f :i* x arose by ! addition ( a memb]1 & ! o!r ! numb] :i* arose f x by ! addition ( a memb]4 ,9 ! case ( ! numb] "o ) :i* ! s]ies beg9s1 ?is *>act]i/ic is pres5t 9 a peculi> =m1 ! prec$+ gr\p be+ gr\p z]o1 t is1 a gr\p )\t cont5t4 ,?is numb] 9 consequ5ce reveals c]ta9 peculi>ities into :i* we _c ent] "h4 ,n[1 accord+ to a previ\s obs]vation 7p4 #fd71 n only does ! ord] br+ e numb] into relation ) ! prec$+ "o1 b s9ce ?is la/ = its "p already possesses a great numb] ( relations to all prec$+1 ^! relations ex]t _! influ5ce also ^u ! new relation4 ,?is fact gives rise to extraord9>ily manifold relations betwe5 ! v>i\s numb]s & to manifold laws gov]n+ ^! relations4 ,! elucidation ( !m =ms ! subject ( an ext5sive sci5ce4 #bf4 ,ari?metic1 ,algebra1 & ! ,!ory ( ,numb]s4 ,f ?is regul> =m ( ! numb] s]ies num]\s special *>act]i/ics c be e/abli%$4 ,! inve/igations lead+ to ! discov]y ( ^! *>act]i/ics are purely sci5tific1 t is1 !y h no special te*nical aim4 ,b !y h ! uncommonly great practical significance t !y provide = all possible arrangem5ts & divisions ( numb]$ ?+s1 & s h in/rum5ts at h& ready = application to ea* special case z x arises4 ,i h already po9t$ out t 9 ?is lies ! positive importance ( ! !oretical sci5ces4 ,= practical reasons ! /udy ( !m mu/ be z g5]al z possible4 ,?is sci5ce is call$ ari?metic4 ,ari?metic und]goes an important g5]alization if ! individual numb]s 9 a calculation are disreg>d$ & ab/ract signs /&+ = any numb] at all are us$ 9 _! place4 ,at fir/ glance ?is seems sup]flu\s1 s9ce 9 e real num]ical calculation ! numb]s mu/ be re9troduc$4 ,! advantage lies 9 ?is1 t 9 calculations ( ! same =m1 ! requir$ /eps are =mally dispos$ ( once = all1 s t ! num]ical values ne$ be introduc$ only at ! conclusion & ne$ n be calculat$ at ea* /ep4 ,moreov]1 ! g5]al laws ( num]ical comb9ation appe> mu* m cle>ly if ! signs are kept1 s9ce ! result is imm$iately se5 to be compos$ ( ! p>ticipat+ memb]s4 ,?us1 algebra1 t is1 calculation ) ab/ract or g5]al quantities1 has develop$ z an ext5sive & important field ( g5]al ma!matics4 ,by ! !ory ( numb]s we und]/& ! mo/ g5]al "p ( ari?metic :i* treats ( ! prop]ties ( ! num]ical bodies =m$ 9 "s regul> way4 #bg4 ,co-ord9ation4 ,s f> our discussion has conf9$ itself to ! individual gr\ps & to ! prop]ties :i* ea* "o ( !m exhibits by itself4 ,we %all n[ inve/igate ! relations :i* exi/ betwe5 two or m gr\ps1 bo? ) reg>d to _! sev]al memb]s & to _! aggregate4 ,if at fir/ we h two gr\ps ! memb]s ( :i* are all diff]5tiat$ f "o ano!r1 !n any "o memb] ( ! "o gr\p c be co-ord9at$ ) any "o memb] ( ! o!r gr\p4 ,?is means t we det]m9e t ! same %\ld be done ) e memb] ( ! second gr\p z is done ) ! correspond+ memb] ( ! fir/ gr\p4 ,t su* a rule may be c>ri$ out we mu/ be able to d ) ! memb]s ( all ! gr\ps :atev] we d ) ! memb]s ( "o gr\p4 ,9 o!r words1 no prop]ties peculi> to individual memb]s may be utiliz$1 b only ! prop]ties t ea* memb] possesses z a memb] ( a gr\p4 ,z we h se51 ^! are ! prop]ties ( association4 ,fir/1 ! co-ord9ation is mutual1 t is1 x is immat]ial to :i* ( ! two gr\ps ! processes are appli$4 ,! relation ( ! two gr\ps is reciprocal or symmetrical4 ,fur!r1 ! process ( co-ord9ation c be ext5d$ to a ?ird & a f\r? gr\p & s on1 ) ! result t :at has be5 done 9 "o ( ! co-ord9at$ gr\ps mu/ happ5 9 all4 ,if h]eby ! ?ird gr\p is co-ord9at$ ) ! second1 ! effects are q ! same z if x 7 co-ord9at$ directly ) ! fir/ in/ead ( indirectly ?r\gh ! second4 ,& ! same is true = ! f\r? & ! fif? gr\ps1 etc4 ,?us1 co-ord9ation c be ext5d$ to any numb] ( gr\ps we please1 & ea* s+le gr\p proves to be co-ord9at$ ) e o!r4 ,f9ally1 a gr\p c be co-ord9at$ ) itself1 ea* ( its memb]s correspond+ to a c]ta9 def9ite o!r memb]4 ,x is n impossible t individual memb]s %\ld correspond to !mselves1 9 :i* case ! gr\p has d\ble memb]s1 or d\ble po9ts4 ,! limit-case is id5tity1 9 :i* e memb] corresponds to itself4 ,?is la/ case _c supply any special k 9 itself1 b may be appli$ pr(itably to ?r[ light on ^? obs]vations = :i* x repres5ts ! extreme possibility4 #bh4 ,comp>ison4 ,if we h two gr\ps ,a & ,b1 & if we co-ord9ate _! memb]s sev]ally1 ?ree cases may arise4 ,ei!r gr\p ,a is exhau/$ :ile !re are memb]s rema9+ 9 ,b1 or ,b is exhau/$ be=e ,a1 or1 f9ally1 bo? gr\ps all[ ( a mutual co-ord9ation ( all _! memb]s4 ,9 ! fir/ case ,a is call$1 9 ! broad] s5se ( ! ^w1 small] ?an ,b1 9 ! second ,b is call$ small] ?an ,a1 9 ! ?ird ! two gr\ps are said to be ( equal magnitude4 ,! expression1 ,b is great] ?an ,a1 is equival5t to ! expression1 ,a is small] ?an ,b1 & inv]sely4 ,x is to be not$ t ! relations m5tion$ above are true1 :e!r ! memb]s are consid]$ z individually diff]5t f "o ano!r or :e!r ! diff]5ce ( ! memb]s is disreg>d$1 & !y are treat$ z alike4 ,?is comes f ! fact t e def9ite co-ord9ation ( a gr\p c be translat$ into e o!r possible co-ord9ation by ex*ang+ two memb]s at a "t 9 pairs4 ,s9ce 9 ?is process "o memb] is ea* "t sub/itut$ = ano!r1 & a gap !re=e c nev] occur 9 its place1 ! gr\p 9 ! new arrangem5t c be co-ord9at$ ) ! o!r gr\p z successfully z 9 ! old arrangem5t4 ,at ! same "t we le>n f ?is t 9 e co-ord9ation ( a gr\p ) itself1 indep5d5tly ( ! arrangem5t ( its memb]s1 x mu/ prove equal to itself4 ,by c>ry+ out ! co-ord9ation pro( is fur!r suppli$ ( ! foll[+ propositions3 great] ?an ,if gr\p ,a is equal to gr\p ,b small] ?an great] ?an & gr\p ,b is equal to gr\p ,c small] ?an great] ?an !n gr\p ,a is equal to gr\p ,c small] ?an ,f ?is x foll[s t any collection ( f9ite gr\ps :atsoev]1 ( :i* no "o is equal to ! o!r1 c always be s arrang$ t ! s]ies %\ld beg9 ) ! smalle/ & end ) ! greate/1 & t a l>g] %\ld always foll[ a small]4 ,?is ord] w\ld be unequivocal1 t is1 !re is only "o s]ies ( ! giv5 gr\ps :i* has ?is peculi>ity4 ,z we %all soon see1 ! s]ies ( integ]s is ! pure/ type ( a s]ies s arrang$4 ,9 comp>+ two inf9itely l>ge gr\ps by co-ord9ation1 x may be said on ! "o h& t nev] w "o gr\p be exhau/$ :ile ! o!r /ill conta9s memb]s4 ,accord+ly1 x is possible to designate two unlimit$ or inf9ite gr\ps 7or z _m su* gr\ps z we please7 z equal to ea* o!r4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! /atem5t t 9 bo? gr\ps ea* memb] ( ! "o is co-ord9at$ ) a memb] ( ! o!r has no def9ite mean+ on acc\nt ( ! inf9itely l>ge numb] ( memb]s4 ,! def9ition ( equality is !re=e n completely fulfill$1 & we mu/ n loosely apply a pr9ciple valid = f9ite gr\ps to inf9ite gr\ps4 ,?is consid]ation1 :i* may assume v diff]5t =ms accord+ to circum/ances1 expla9s ! p>adoxes ( ! inf9ite1 t is1 ! contradictions :i* arise :5 concepts ( a def9ite cont5t are appli$ to cases possess+ 9 "p a diff]5t cont5t4 ,if we wi% to attempt su* an application1 we mu/ 9 ea* in/ance make a special inve/igation z to ! mann] 9 :i* ! relations on _! "p *ange by ! *ange ( ^? cont5ts 7or premises74 ,z a g5]al rule we mu/ expect t ! =m] relations w n rema9 valid 9 ^! circum/ances )\t any *ange at all4 ,9 ! c\rse ( ^! obs]vations we h le>n$ h[ co-ord9ation c be us$ = obta9+ a numb] ( fundam5tal & multif>i\sly appli$ pr9ciples4 ,f ?is alone ! great importance ( co-ord9ation is evid5t1 & lat] we %all see t its significance is ev5 m f>-rea*+4 ,! entire me?odology ( all ! sci5ces is bas$ ^u ! mo/ manifold & _m-sid$ application ( ! process ( co-ord9ation1 & we %all h occasion to make use ( x repeat$ly4 ,its significance may be briefly *>act]iz$ by /at+ t x is ! mo/ g5]al means ( br++ connection into ! aggregate ( our exp]i5ces4 #bi4 ,c\nt+4 ,! gr\p ( integral numb]s1 because ( its fundam5tal simplicity & regul>ity1 is by f> ! be/ basis ( co-ord9ation4 ,= :ile ari?metic & ! !ory ( numb]s give u a mo/ ?or\gh acqua9tance ) ! peculi>ities ( ?is gr\p1 we secure by ! process ( co-ord9ation ! "r to presuppose ^! peculi>ities & ! possibility ( f9d+ !m aga9 9 e o!r gr\p :i* we h co-ord9at$ ) ! num]ical gr\p4 ,! c>ry+ out ( su* co-ord9ation is call$ c\nt+1 & f ! premises made x foll[s t we c c\nt all ?+s 9 s f> z we disreg>d _! diff]5ces4 ,we c\nt :5 we co-ord9ate 9 turn "o memb] ( a gr\p aft] ano!r ) ! memb]s ( ! numb] s]ies t succe$ "o ano!r until ! gr\p to be c\nt$ is exhau/$4 ,! la/ numb] requir$ = ! co-ord9ation is call$ ! sum ( ! memb]s ( ! c\nt$ gr\p4 ,s9ce ! numb] s]ies cont9ues indef9itely1 e giv5 gr\p c be c\nt$4 ,num]als h be5 co-ord9at$ ) names z well z ) signs4 ,! =m] are diff]5t 9 ! diff]5t languages1 ! latt] are int]national1 t is1 !y h ! same =m 9 all languages4 ,f ?is proce$s ! rem>kable fact t ! writt5 numb]s are und]/ood by all educat$ m51 :ile ! spok5 numb]s are intelligible only )9 ! v>i\s languages4 ,! purpose ( c\nt+ is extremely manifold4 ,its mo/ frequ5t & mo/ important application lies 9 ! fact t ! am\nt af=ds a measure = ! effectiv5ess or ! value ( ! correspond+ gr\p1 bo? increas+ & decreas+ simultane\sly4 ,a fur!r numb] s]ves z a basis = divisions & arrangem5ts ( all k9ds to be c>ri$ out )9 ! gr\p1 :]eby lib]al use is made ( ! pr9ciple t ev]y?+ t c be effect$ 9 ! giv5 numb] gr\p c also be effect$ 9 ! co-ord9at$ c\nt$ gr\p4 #cj4 ,signs & ,names4 ,! co-ord9ation ( names & signs ) numb]s calls = a few g5]al rem>ks on co-ord9ation ( ?is nature4 ,! possibility ( c>ry+ out ! =mal op]ations effect$ 9 "o ( ! gr\ps ^u ! co-ord9at$ gr\p itself facilitates to an extraord9>y ext5t ! practical %ap+ ( ! reality = def9ite purposes4 ,if by c\nt+ we h asc]ta9$ t a gr\p ( p numb]s sixty1 we c inf] )\t actually execut+ ! /eps t x is possible to =m ^! m5 9 six r[s ( t51 or 9 five r[s ( twelve1 or 9 f\r r[s ( fifte51 b t we _c obta9 complete r[s if we try to arrange !m 9 sev5s or elev5s4 ,^! & numb]less o!r peculi>ities we c le>n ( ! gr\p ( m5 f its am\nt1 t is1 f its co-ord9ation ) ! num]ical gr\p ( sixty4 ,9 co-ord9ation1 !re=e1 we h a means ( acqua9t+ ourselves ) facts )\t hav+ to deal directly ) ! correspond+ realities4 ,x is cle> t m5 w v soon notice & avail !mselves ( s enorm\s an advantage = ! ma/]y & %ap+ ( life4 ,?us1 we see ! process ( co-ord9ation 9 g5]al use among ! mo/ primitive m54 ,ev5 ! high] animals "k h[ to utilize co-ord9ation consci\sly4 ,:5 ! dog le>ns to answ] to 8 "n1 :5 ! horse responds to ! ,:oa & ! ,gee ( 8 driv] !re is 9 ea* case a co-ord9ation ( a def9ite action or s]ies ( actions1 t is1 ( a concept ) a sign1 or1 9 o!r words1 ( a concept ) a memb] ( ano!r gr\p2 & 9 ?is !re ne$ n be ! lea/ simil>ity betwe5 ! ?+s co-ord9at$ ) ea* o!r4 ,! only requirem5t is t on ! "o h& ! co-ord9at$ sign %\ld be easily & def9itely express$ & be to ! po9t1 & t1 on ! o!r h&1 x %\ld be easily und]/ood1 t is1 compreh5d$ by ! s5ses & unmi/akably diff]5tiat$ f o!r signs co-ord9at$ ) o!r ?+s4 ,?us1 we f9d t ! mo/ frequ5t concepts ( co-ord9at$ s\nd signs =m ! beg9n+s ( language 9 ! n>r[] s5se4 ,x is v difficult to asc]ta9 = :at reasons ! p>ticul> =ms ( s\nd signs h be5 *os51 nor is x a matt] ( great importance4 ,9 ! c\rse ( "t ! orig9al causes h disappe>$ f our consci\sness & ! pres5t connection is purely ext]nal4 ,?is is evid5t f ! enorm\s diff]5ce ( languages 9 :i* hundr$s ( diff]5t signs are employ$ = ! same concept4 ,n[ x w\ld be q possible to solve ! problem ( co-ord9at+ ) ea* gr\p ( concepts a correspond+ gr\p ( s\nds1 s t ea* concept %\ld h its own s\nd1 or1 9 o!r words1 t ! co-ord9ation %\ld be unambigu\s4 ,x w\ld n by any means be beyond human p[] to accompli% ?is1 if x 7 n = ! fact t ! concepts !mselves are /ill 9 s *aotic a /ate z !y are at pres5t4 ,we h se5 t ! attempts ( ,leibnitz & ,locke to draw up a sy/em ( concepts1 if only 9 broad outl9e1 h und]gone no fur!r developm5t s9ce4 ,ev5 ! mo/ regulat$ concepts z well z ! famili> concepts ( daily life are 9 ceaseless flux1 :ile ! co-ord9at$ signs are comp>atively m /able4 ,b !y1 too1 und]go a sl[ *ange1 z ! hi/ory ( languages %[s1 & 9 accordance ) q diff]5t laws f ^? :i* gov]n ! *ange ( concepts4 ,! consequ5ce is t 9 language ! co-ord9ation ( concepts & words is f> f be+ unambigu\s4 ,! sci5ce ( language designates ! pres5ce ( sev]al names = ! same concept & ( sev]al concepts = ! same "n by ! words synonym & homonym4 ,^! =ms1 :i* h aris5 accid5tally1 signify s _m fundam5tal defects ( language1 s9ce !y de/roy ! pr9ciple ( unambiguity ^u :i* language is bas$4 ,9 consequ5ce ( ! false conception ( its nature we h until n[ positively %runk f consci\sly develop+ language 9 su* a way t x %\ld m & m approa* ! ideal ( unambiguity4 ,su* an ideal is 9 fact sc>cely kn[n1 mu* less recogniz$4 #ca4 ,! ,writt5 ,language4 ,s\nd signs1 to be sure1 possess ! advantage ( be+ produc$ easily & )\t any app>atus1 & ( be+ communicable ov] a n inconsid]able di/ance4 ,b !y suff] "u ! disadvantage ( transitor9ess4 ,!y suffice = ! purpose ( tempor>y und]/&+ & are con/antly be+ us$ = t4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 x is necess>y to make communications ov] great] di/ances or long] p]iods ( "t1 s\nd signs mu/ be replac$ by m p]man5t =ms4 ,= ?is we turn to ano!r s5se1 ! s5se ( sight4 ,s9ce optic signs c travel mu* great] di/ances ?an s\nd signs )\t becom+ indi/+ui%able1 we fir/ h ! optical telegraphs1 :i* f9d application1 ?\gh r limit$ application1 9 v v>y+ =ms1 ! mo/ effici5t be+ ! heliotrope4 ,! o!r sort ( optic signs is mu* m g5]ally us$4 ,^! are objectively put on appropriate solid bodies1 & la/ & are und]/ood z long z ! object 9 "q la/s4 ,su* signs =m ! writt5 language 9 ! wide/ s5se1 & "h1 too1 x is a "q ( co-ord9at+ signs & concepts4 ,:at ,i h said conc]n+ ! v imp]fect /ate ( our pres5t concept sy/em is true also ( ^! two gr\ps4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! writt5 signs are n subject to su* great *ange z ! s\nd signs1 because ! s\nd signs mu/ be produc$ anew ea* "t1 :]eas ! writt5 signs inscrib$ on ! "r mat]ial may survive hundr$s1 ev5 ?\s&s ( ye>s4 ,h5ce x is t ! writt5 languages are1 ^u ! :ole1 mu* bett] develop$ ?an ! spok5 languages4 ,9 fact1 !re are isolat$ in/ances 9 :i* x may be said t ! ideal has well-nigh be5 rea*$4 ,z we h already po9t$ out1 su* a case is furni%$ by ! writt5 signs ( numb]s4 ,by a sy/ematic manipulation ( ! t5 signs #j #a #b #c #d #e #f #g #h #i x is n only possible to co-ord9ate a writt5 sign ) any numb] :atsoev]1 b ?is co-ord9ation is /rictly unambigu\s1 t is1 ea* numb] c be writt5 9 only "o way1 & ea* num]ical sign has only "o num]ical significance4 ,?is has be5 obta9$ 9 ! foll[+ mann]3 ,fir/1 a special sign is co-ord9at$ to ea* ( ! gr\p ( numb]s f z]o to n9e4 ,! same signs are co-ord9at$ ) ! next gr\p1 t5 to n9ete51 conta9+ z _m numb]s z ! fir/4 ,to di/+ui% ! second f ! fir/ gr\p1 ! sign "o is us$ z a prefix4 ,! ?ird gr\p is m>k$ by ! prefix$ sign two1 & s on1 until we rea* gr\p n9e4 ,! foll[+ gr\p1 9 accordance ) ! pr9ciple adopt$1 has z its prefix ! sign t51 :i* conta9s two digits4 ,all ! succe$+ numb]s are indicat$ accord+ly4 ,f ?is ! foll[+ result is assur$3 ,fir/1 no numb] 9 its sequ5ce escapes designation2 second1 nev] is an aggregate sign us$ = two or m diff]5t numb]s4 ,bo? ^! circum/ances suffice to secure unambiguity ( co-ord9ation4 ,x is kn[n t ! sy/em ( rotation j describ$ is by no means ! only possible "o4 ,b ( all sy/ems hi!rto tri$ x is ! simple/ & mo/ logical1 s t x has nev] _h a s]i\s rival1 & ! clumsy notation ) :i* ! ,greeks & ,romans _h to plague !mselves 9 _! day 0 imm$iately cr[d$ out1 nev] to return aga9 ^u ! introduction ( ! ,indo-,arabic notation1 :i* has made its way 9 ! same =m among all ! civiliz$ nations & con/itutes a uni=m "p ( all _! writt5 languages4 ,! comp>ison ( ! spok5 & ! writt5 languages (f]s a v illum9at+ pro( ( ! mu* great] imp]fection ( ! language ( words4 ,! numb] #ahfed is express$ 9 ! ,engli% language by eighte5 ?\s& six hundr$ & fifty-f\r1 t is1 ! second figure is nam$ fir/1 !n ! fir/1 ! ?ird1 ! f\r?1 & ! fif?4 ,9 addition1 f\r diff]5t designations are us$ to indicate ! place ( ! figures1 -te51 -?\s&1 -hundr$1 & -ty4 ,a m aimless confusion c sc>cely be conceiv$4 ,x w\ld be mu* cle>] to "n ! figures simply 9 _! sequ5ce1 z "o-eight-six-five-f\r4 ,besides1 ?is w\ld be unambigu\s4 ,if we %\ld desire to indicate ! place value 9 advance1 we c\ld d s 9 "s conv5tional way1 = example1 by /at+ ! numb] ( digits 9 advance4 ,?is1 h[ev]1 w\ld be sup]flu\s1 & ord9>ily %\ld be omitt$4,e ,e ,! usual designation ( ! l>g] gr\ps1 t51 hundr$1 ?\s&1 million1 billion1 etc41 is also q irrational4 ,if x is our object to secure expressions = place values 9 z few words z possible1 we f9d t ! numb]s ( ! =m #ajbn1 9 :i* n is a :ole numb]1 mu/ receive _! own names1 t is1 #aj1 #ajj1 #aj1jjj1 #ajj1jjj1jjj etc4 ,9 ?is way ! problem ( designat+ z _m numb]s z possible by z few words z possible is solv$4 #cb4 ,pasigraphy & ,s\nd ,writ+4 ,!re are two possibilities = co-ord9ation betwe5 concepts & writt5 signs4 ,ei!r ! co-ord9ation is direct1 s t x is only a matt] ( provid+ e concept ) a correspond+ sign1 or x is indirect1 ! signs s]v+ only ! purpose ( express+ ! language s\nd4 ,9 ! latt] case ! writt5 language is bas$ entirely ^u ! s\nd language1 & ! only problem1 comp>atively easy to solve1 is to con/ruct an unambigu\s co-ord9ation betwe5 s\nd & sign4 ,! ,*9ese script foll[s ! direct process1 b all ! scripts ( ! ,european-,am]ican civiliz$ peoples are bas$ on ! indirect process4 ,?is1 x is true1 is ! case only 9 ord9>y1 non-sci5tific language1 :ile = sci5ce ! ,european nations also h to a l>ge ext5t built up a direct concept writ+4 ,"o example ( ?is we h se5 9 ! numb] signs4 ,musical notation furni%es ano!r in/ance1 ?\gh by f> n s p]fect4 ,! use ( ! diff]5t keys de/roys ! unambigu\s connection betwe5 ! pit* & ! note sign1 & ! signatures plac$ at ! beg9n+ ( a :ole /aff h ! defect ( remov+ ! sign f ! place :]e x is appli$4 ,despite ?is imp]fection musical notation is q int]national1 & e "o :o und]/&s ,european music also und]/&s its signs4,f ,f ,x is n difficult to p]fect musical notation ) a view to unambiguity1 a ?+ :i* w\ld greatly facilitate ! /udy ( music4 ,fundam5tally we ne$ n hesitate to recognize 9 concept writ+ or pasigraphy a m complete solution ( ! problem ( sign arrangem5t4 ,ev5 ! v incomplete ,*9ese pasigraphy r5d]s possible writt5 int]c\rse1 especially = m]cantile purposes1 betwe5 ! v>i\s ,ea/-,asiatic peoples :o speak "s doz5s ( diff]5t languages4 ,b ea* language community translates ! common signs into its own words1 j z we d 9 ! case ( ! numb] signs4 ,b 9 ord] t su* a sy/em ( repres5tation %\ld be complete x mu/ fulfil a :ole s]ies ( conditions = :i* sc>cely a remote possibility is to be disc]n$ at pres5t4 ,at fir/ ! concepts c\ld simply be tak5 z f\nd 9 ! words & grammatical =ms ( ! v>i\s languages1 & ea* "o provid$ ) an arbitr>y sign4 ,su* approximately is ! ,*9ese sy/em4 ,b a sy/em ( t sort entails an extreme burd5+ ( ! memory1 :i* results bo? f ! great numb] ( words & f ! necessity ( keep+ ! signs )9 c]ta9 b\nds ( simplicity4 ,if we consid] t ! complex concepts are =m$ accord+ to laws1 to a l>ge ext5t /ill unkn[n1 f a relatively small numb] ( elem5t>y concepts1 we may attempt to build up ! signs ( ! complex concepts by ! comb9ation ( ^? ( ! elem5t>y concepts accord+ to correspond+ rules4 ,!n x w\ld only be necess>y to le>n ! signs = ! elem5t>y concepts & ! rules ( comb9ation 9 ord] = u to be able to repres5t all ! possible concepts4 ,?is w\ld provide ev5 = ! natural enl>gem5t ( ! concept _w1 s9ce e new elem5t>y concept w\ld receive its sign & w\ld !n s]ve z ! basis f :i* to d$uce all ! complex concepts dep5d5t ^u x4 ,9 fact1 ev5 %\ld a concept hi!rto reg>d$ z elem5t>y prove to be complex1 x w\ld n be difficult to decl>e t its sign1 l ! "n ( an ext9ct race1 is dead1 & aft] ! lapse ( suffici5t "t to use x = o!r purposes4 ,! num]ical signs (f] an excell5t example = ! elucidation ( ?is subject1 & at ! same "t s]ve z a pro( t 9 limit$ prov9ces ! ideal has already be5 atta9$4 ,ano!r v in/ructive example is furni%$ by ! *emical =mulas1 :i*1 ?\gh !y use ! lett]s ( ! ,european languages1 d n associate ) !m s\nd concepts1 b *emical concepts4 ,s9ce ! *emical concepts are co-ord9at$ ) c]ta9 lett]s1 x is possible1 9 ! fir/ place1 to d5ote ! composition ( all comb9ations qualitatively by ! comb9ation ( ! correspond+ lett]s4 ,b s9ce quantitative composition proce$s accord+ to def9ite relations :i* are det]m9$ by a v>iety ( specific numb]s peculi> to ea* elem5t & call$ its comb9+ weight1 we ne$ only add to ! sign ( ! elem5t ! concept ( ! comb9+ weight 9 ord] to repres5t 9 ! second place ! quantitative composition4 ,fur!r1 ! multiples m5tion$ c also be giv54 ,s9ce1 moreov]1 !re are v>i\s sub/ances :i*1 despite equal composition1 possess diff]5t prop]ties1 ! attempt has be5 made to express ?is new manifoldness by ! position ( ! elem5t signs on ! pap]1 & 9 m rec5t times also by space repres5tation4 ,& "h1 too1 rules h be5 work$ out 9 :i* ! s*eme af=ds a close approa* to exp]i5ce4 ,?is example %[s h[1 by ! con/ant increase ( ! complexity ( a concept 7"h ! *emical composition71 ev] great] & m manifold dem&s are made ^u ! co-ord9at$ s*eme4 ,! =m ( expression fir/ *os5 is n always adequate to keep pace ) ! progress ( sci5ce4 ,9 ?is case x mu/ be radically *ang$ & =m$ anew to meet ! new dem&s4 #cc4 ,s\nd ,writ+4 ,9 po9t ( unambiguity ( co-ord9ation phonetic writ+ is f> m imp]fect ?an concept writ+4 ,x is obvi\s t 9 phonetic writ+ all ! faults already pres5t 9 ! co-ord9ation betwe5 concept & s\nd are transf]r$ to ! writt5 language4 ,to ^! are add$ ! defects z reg>ds unambiguity occurr+ 9 co-ord9ation betwe5 s\nd & sign f :i* no language is free4 ,9 "s languages1 9 fact1 notably 9 ,engli%1 ^! defects am\nt to a cry+ calamity4 ,! pr9ciple ( unambiguity w\ld require t !re %\ld nev] be a d\bt z to ! way 9 :i* a spok5 ^w is writt51 & z little d\bt z to ! way 9 :i* a writt5 ^w is spok54 ,x ne$s no pro( to %[ h[ (t5 ! pr9ciple is violat$ 9 e language4 ,9 ! ,g]man language ! same s\nd is repres5t$ by f1 v1 & ph2 9 ! ,engli% by f & ph4 ,& 9 bo? ,g]man & ,engli% q diff]5t s\nds are associat$ ) c1 g1 s1 & o!r lett]s4 ,! fact t or?ographic mi/akes c be made 9 ! writ+ ( any language is direct pro( ( its imp]fection1 & ! (t5] ?is possibility occurs ! m imp]fect is ! language 9 ?is respect4 ,we "k t ! spell+ re=ms begun 9 ,g]many m ?an t5 ye>s ago & rec5tly 9 ,am]ica & ,engl&1 h = _! object unambiguity 9 ! co-ord9ation betwe5 sign & s\nd4 ,/ill x mu/ be admitt$ t ?is t5d5cy has n always be5 pursu$ undeviat+ly4 ,a few innovations1 9 fact1 und\bt$ly repres5t a /ep backw>d4 #cd4 ,! ,sci5ce ( ,language4 ,a comp>ison ( our inve/igations--:i* we _c pres5t 9 detail b only indicate--) ! sci5ce ( language or philology z taught 9 ! univ]sities & 9 a great numb] ( books1 reveals a great diff]5ce betwe5 !m4 ,?is academic philology makes a mo/ exhau/ive /udy ( relations1 :i* f ! po9t ( view ( ! purpose ( language are ( no consequ5ce :atev]1 su* z mo/ ( ! rules & usages ( gramm>4 ,a /udy ( ?is sort mu/ naturally conf9e itself to a m]e det]m9ation ( :e!r c]ta9 individuals or gr\ps ( individuals h or h n con=m$ to ^! rules4 ,ev5 ! *ief subject ( mod]n comp>ative philology1 ! /udy ( ! relations ( ! ^w =ms to "o ano!r & _! *anges 9 ! c\rse ( hi/ory1 bo? )9 ! language communities & :5 transf]r$ to o!r localities1 appe> to be q useless f ! po9t ( view ( ! !ory ( co-ord9ation4 ,= x is inde$ ( little mom5t to u to le>n by :at process ( *ange1 z a rule utt]ly sup]ficial1 a c]ta9 ^w has come to be co-ord9at$ ) a concept entirely diff]5t f ! "o ) :i* x _h be5 previ\sly co-ord9at$4 ,( incomp>ably great] importance w\ld be inve/igations conc]n+ ! gradual *ange ( ! concepts !mselves1 al?\gh by no means z important z ! real /udy ( concepts4 ,to be sure1 su* inve/igations are mu* m difficult ?an ! /udy ( ^w =ms set d[n 9 writ+4 ,nev]!less1 on acc\nt ( a hi/orical process1 :i* x w\ld lead u too f> afield to discuss1 an idea ( su* ^w inve/igations has be5 =m$ :i* is :olly disproportionate to _! importance4 ,& if we ask ourselves :at "p su* labors h tak5 9 ! progress ( human civilization1 we are at a loss = an answ]4 ,/ud5ts ( ! sci5ce ( language make a %>p di/9ction betwe5 x & ! k ( language1 :i* is reg>d$ z incomp>ably l[]4 ,b :ile a k ( language is important 9 at lea/ "o respect1 9 t x pres5ts to u ! cultural mat]ial set d[n 9 o!r languages1 or makes !m accessible 9 translation to ^? :o d n "k =eign languages1 philology is ( no s]vice 9 ?is respect at all1 & ! pursuit ( x w seem z inconceivably futile to future sci5ce z ! s*ola/icism ( ! middle ages seems to u n[4 ,! unw>rant$ importance atta*$ to ! hi/orical /udy ( language =ms is p>allel$ by ! equally unw>rant$ importance ascrib$ to grammatical & or?ographic correctness 9 ! use ( language4 ,?is p]v]se p$antry has be5 c>ri$ to su* l5g?s t x is consid]$ almo/ di%onorable = any "o to violate ! usual =ms ( 8 "m tongue1 or ev5 ( a =eign language1 l ! ,fr5*4 ,we =get t nei!r ,%akespe>e nor ,lu!r nor ,goe! spoke or wrote a correct ,engli% or ,g]man1 & we =get t x _c be ! object ( a true cultivation ( language to pres]ve z accurately z possible exi/+ l+ui/ic usage1 ) its imp]fections1 am\nt+ at times to absurdities4 ,its real object lies r 9 ! appropriate developm5t & improvem5t ( ! language4 ,we h already m5tion$ ! fact t 9 "o dep>tm5t1 or?ography1 ! true conception ( ! nature ( language & ( its developm5t is gradually beg9n+ to ass]t itself4 ,among mo/ nations ef=ts are be+ made to improve or?ography ) a view to unambiguity1 & :5 once suffici5t cle>ness is _h z to ! object aim$ = 9 spell+1 !re w be no special difficulty 9 f9d+ ! requir$ means to atta9 x4 ,b 9 all ! o!r dep>tm5ts ( language we are /ill almo/ :olly )\t a conception ( ! g5u9e ne$s4 ,?\gh ! example ( ! ,engli% language proves t we c entirely disp5se ) ! manifold co-ord9ations 9 ! same s5t5ce z appe>+ 9 ! special plural =ms ( ! adjective1 v]b1 pron\n1 etc41 yet ! idea ( consci\sly apply+ to o!r languages ! natural process ( improvem5t unconsci\sly evolv$ 9 ! ,engli% language seems n to h occurr$ ev5 to ! bolde/ language re=m]s4 ,s /rongly are we all "u ! dom9ation ( ! s*oolma/] ideal1 t is to say1 ! ideal ( pres]v+ e l+ui/ic absurdity & impracticability simply because x is good usage4 ,a tw(old advantage w h be5 atta9$ by ! introduction ( a univ]sal auxili>y language 7p4 #ahc74 ,rec5tly ! ef=ts 9 t direction h made consid]able progress4 ,9 ! fir/ place x w provide a g5]al means ( communication 9 all matt]s ( common human int]e/1 especially ! sci5ces4 ,?is w mean a sav+ ( en]gy sc>cely to be e/imat$4 ,9 ! second place1 ! sup]/iti\s awe ( language & our treatm5t ( x w give way to a m appropriate evaluation ( its te*nical aim4 ,& :5 by ! help ( ! artificial auxili>y language1 we %all be able to conv9ce ourselves daily h[ mu* simpl] & complet] su* a language c be made ?an are ! natural languages1 !n ! ne$ w irresi/ibly ass]t itself to h ^! languages also p>ticipate 9 its advantages4 ,! consequ5ces ( su* progress to human intellectual "w 9 g5]al w\ld be extraord9>ily great4 ,= x may be ass]t$ t philosophy1 ! mo/ g5]al ( all ! sci5ces1 has hi!rto made su* extremely limit$ progress only because x 0 compell$ to make use ( ! m$ium ( g5]al language4 ,?is is made obvi\s by ! fact t ! sci5ce mo/ closely relat$ to x1 ma!matics1 has made ! greate/ progress ( all1 b t ?is progress began only aft] x _h procur$ bo? 9 ! ,indo-,arabic num]als & 9 ! algebraic signs a language :i* actually realizes v approximately ! ideal ( unambigu\s co-ord9ation betwe5 concept & sign4 #ce4 ,cont9uity4 ,up to ?is po9t our discussions h be5 bas$ on ! g5]al concept ( ! ?+1 t is1 ( ! individual exp]i5ce diff]5tiat$ f o!r exp]i5ces4 ,"h ! fact ( be+ diff]5t1 :i*1 z a g5]al exp]i5ce1 l$ to ! correspond+ elem5t>y concept1 appe>$ 9 ! =egr\nd 9 accordance ) its g5]ality4 ,b 9 addition to x !re is ano!r g5]al fact ( exp]i5ce1 :i* has l$ to j z g5]al a concept4 ,x is ! concept ( cont9uity4 ,:51 = example1 we wat* ! dim9ution ( light 9 our room z x gr[s d>k 9 ! ev5+1 we c by no means say t we f9d x d>k] at ! pres5t mom5t ?an a mom5t be=e4 ,we require a p]ceptibly long "t to be able to say ) c]ta9ty t x is n[ d>k] ?an be=e1 & ?r\gh\t ! :ole "t we h nev] felt ! increase ( d>kness f mom5t to mom5t1 al?\gh !oretically we are absolutely conv9c$ t ?is is ! correct conception ( ! process4 ,?is peculi> exp]i5ce1 our failure to p]ceive individual p>ts ( a *ange1 ! reality ( :i* we realize :5 ! diff]5ce rea*es a c]ta9 degree1 is v g5]al1 &1 l memory1 is bas$ ^u a fundam5tal physiological fact4 ,x has already be5 not$ by ,h]b>t1 b its significance 0 fir/ recogniz$ by ,fe*n]1 & has s9ce !n become g5]ally kn[n 9 physiology & psy*ology "u ! "n ( ?re%old4 ,next to memory ! ?re%old det]m9es ! fundam5tal l9es ( our psy*ic life4 ,! ?re%old !re=e means t :atev] /ate we are 9 a c]ta9 f9ite am\nt ( diff]5ce or *ange mu/ be /epp$ ov] be=e we c p]ceive ! diff]5ce or *ange4 ,?is peculi>ity appe>s 9 all our /ates or exp]i5ces4 ,we h already giv5 an example = ! ph5om5a ( light & d>kness4 ,! same is true ( diff]5ces 9 color & ( our judgm5ts z to tone pit* & tone /r5g?4 ,ev5 ! transition f feel+ well to feel+ ill is usually imp]ceptible1 & x is only :5 ! *ange occurs 9 a v brief "t t we become consci\s ( x4 ,! physical causes ( ^! psy*ic ph5om5a ne$ be indicat$ only 9 brief4 ,9 all our exp]i5ces an exi/+ *emico-physical /ate 9 our s5se organs & 9 ! c5tral organ und]goes a *ange4 ,n[ exp]im5ts ) physical app>atus h %[n t su* a process always requires a f9ite1 ?\gh sometimes a v small1 quantity ( "w1 or1 g5]ally speak+1 en]gy1 be=e x c be br\ght ab\t at all4 ,ev5 ! f9e/ scale1 s5sitive to a million? ( a gram1 rema9s /ation>y :5 only a t5? ( a million? is plac$ ^u x1 al?\gh we c see a body ( su* m9ute weight "u ! microscope4 ,9 ! same way x requires a def9ite exp5diture ( en]gy 9 ord] to br+ ! s5se organs1 or ! c5tral organ1 into action1 & all /imuli less ?an ?is limit or ?re%old produce no exp]i5ce ( _! pres5ce4 ,by ?is ! difficult concept ( cont9uity is evok$ 9 our exp]i5ce4 ,! transition f ! light ( day to ! d>kness ( ev5+ proce$s cont9u\sly1 t is1 at no po9t ( ! :ole transition d we notice t ! /ate j pass$ is diff]5t f ! pres5t "o1 :ile ! diff]5ce ov] a wid] ext5t ( ! exp]i5ce is unmi/akable4 ,if we wi% to br+ vividly to our m9ds ! contradiction to o!r habits ( ?\ght :i* ?is involves1 we ne$ only to repres5t to ourselves ! foll[+ in/ance4 ,i w comp>e ! ?+ ,a at a c]ta9 "t ) ! ?+ ,b1 :i* is s con/ruct$ t ?\gh objectively diff]5t f ,a1 ! diff]5ce has n yet rea*$ ! ?re%old4 ,f exp]i5ce1 !re=e1 ,i mu/ take ,a to be equal to ,b4 ,!n ,i comp>e ,b ) a ?+ ,c1 :i* is objectively diff]5t f ,b 9 ! same way z ,a is f ,b1 ?\gh "h1 too1 ! diff]5ce is /ill )9 ! ?re%old1 ?\gh v ne> x4 ,i %all also h to take ,b z equal to ,c4 ,b n[ if ,i comp>e ,a directly ) ,c1 ! sum ( ! two diff]5ces ov]/eps ! ?re%old value1 & ,i f9d t ,a is diff]5t f ,c4 ,?is1 !n1 is a contradiction ( ! fundam5tal pr9ciple t if ,a ,b & ,b ,c1 ,a ,c4 ,?is pr9ciple is valid = c\nt$ ?+s1 :i*1 9 consequ5ce1 are discont9u\s1 b n = cont9u\s ?+s susceptible by our s5ses4 ,if 9 spite ( ?is x is appli$ to cont9u\s ?+s or magnitudes 9 ! n>r[] s5se1 we mu/ be> 9 m9d t x is j z mu* a case ( an extrapolation to ! non-exi/+ ideal in/ance 7p4 #df7 z 9 ! case ( ! o!r g5]al pr9ciples1 :i*1 ?\gh !y are d]iv$ f exp]i5ce1 nev]!less1 = practical purposes1 transc5d exp]i5ce 9 _! use4 ,! examples cit$ above prove also t ^! relations are by no means conf9$ to ! judgm5ts we d]ive on ! basis ( imm$iate s5sations4 ,:5 by means ( ! scale we comp>e ?ree weights1 ! diff]5ces ( :i* lie )9 ! limit ( its s5sitiv5ess b approa* closely to x1 we c arrive 9 a purely empirical & objective way also at ! contradiction ,a ,b1 ,b ,c1 b ,a ,n ,c4 ,9 weight & measurem5t1 !re=e1 we hold fa/ to ! pr9ciple t ! relations cit$ h no claim to validity outside ! limit ( _! possible errors4 ,accord+ly1 ?\gh ! non-equation ( ,a ,n ,c c be obs]v$1 ! diff]5ce ( bo? values _c be great] ?an at utmo/ ! sum ( ! two ?re%old values4 ,^! consid]ations also give u a means ( apprais+ ! (t-repeat$ /atem5t t 9 contradi/9ction to ! physical laws ! ma!matical laws are absolutely accurate4 ,! ma!matical laws d n ref] to real ?+s1 b to imag9>y ideal limit cases4 ,consequ5tly !y _c be te/$ by exp]i5ce at all1 & ! dem&s sci5ce makes on !m lie 9 q a diff]5t sph]e4 ,_! nature mu/ be su* t exp]i5ce %\ld approximate !m inf9itely1 if c]ta9 def9ite well-kn[n po/ulates are to be m & m fulfill$1 & t ! v>i\s ab/ractions & idealizations %\ld be s *os5 z n to contradict "o ano!r4 ,su* contradictions h by no means always be5 avoid$4 ,b we mu/ n reg>d !m z inh]5t 9 ! inn] organization ( our m9d1 z ,kant did4 ,^! contradictions spr+ f c>eless h&l+ ( ! concept te*nique1 by :i* po/ulates else:]e reject$ are treat$ z valid4 ,we h already come across an in/ance ( su* relations 9 ! application ( ! concept ( equality to unlimit$ gr\ps 7p4 #hd74 ,we mu/ be guid$ by ! same rules ( precaution 9 answ]+ ! "q :e!r ! ?+s felt z cont9u\s--= example1 space & "t--are truly cont9u\s1 or :e!r 9 ! la/ analysis !y mu/ n be conceiv$ ( z discont9u\s4 ,! v>i\s s5se organs1 & /ill m1 ! v>i\s physical app>atus ) :i* we exam9e giv5 /ates1 are ( v v>y+ degrees ( s5sibility1 t is1 ! ?re%old = di/+ui%+ ! diff]5ces may be ( v diff]5t magnitudes4 ,!re=e1 a ?+ :i* is discont9u\s = a s5sitive app>atus w behave z if x 7 cont9u\s ) a less s5sitive app>atus4 ,accord+ly1 we %all f9d s _m ! m ?+s cont9u\s ! less %>ply develop$ our ability is to diff]5tiate4 ,:ile ?is circum/ance makes x possible t we %\ld reg>d discont9u\s ?+s z cont9u\s1 "t relations 9 c]ta9 circum/ances produce ! opposite effect4 ,ev5 if 9 a process ! *ange is cont9u\s b v rapid1 & ! new /ate rema9s un*ang$ = a c]ta9 "t1 we easily conceive ( ?is sequ5ce z discont9u\s4 ,we _c resi/ ?is view ( ! process :5 ! *ange occurs 9 a %ort] "t ?an ! ?re%old "t ( our m9d = ea* /ep 9 ! process4 ,b s9ce ?is ?re%old *anges ) our g5]al condition1 "o & ! same process c appe> to u bo? cont9u\s & discont9u\s accord+ to circum/ances4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we h a cause ?r\gh ! op]ation ( :i*1 ) advanc+ k1 m & m ?+s w become recogniz$ z cont9u\s4 ,n[ if we turn to exp]i5ce1 we f9d1 z ! sum total ( our k1 t = ! sake ( exp$i5cy we approa* ev]y?+ ) ! presumption t x is cont9u\s4 ,?is aggregate exp]i5ce f9ds its expression 9 su* say+s z ,nature makes no jumps1 & simil> prov]bial g5]alizations4 ,b we mu/ emphasize ! fact once m t 9 decid+ matt]s 9 ?is way we deal solely ) que/ions ( exp$i5cy1 n ) que/ions ( ! nature ( our m5tal capacity4 #cf4 ,measurem5t4 ,measur+ is 9 a c]ta9 way ! opposite ( c\nt+4 ,:ile1 9 c\nt+1 ! ?+s are reg>d$ 9 advance z individual1 & ! gr\p1 !re=e1 is a body comp\nd$ ( discont9u\s elem5ts1 measur+1 on ! o!r h&1 consi/s 9 co-ord9at+ numb]s ) cont9u\s ?+s1 t is1 9 apply+ to cont9u\s ?+s a concept =m$ ^u ! hypo!sis ( discont9uity4 ,x lies 9 ! nature ( su* a problem t ! difficulty ( adaptation mu/ crop out some:]e 9 ! c\rse ( its attempt$ solution4 ,?is is actually %[n by ! fact t measurem5t proves to be an unconclud$ & inconcludable op]ation4 ,if1 9 spite ( ?is1 measurem5t may & mu/ ju/ly be d5ot$ z "o ( ! mo/ important advances 9 human ?\ght1 x foll[s t ^? fundam5tal difficulties c practically be r5d]$ h>mless4 ,let u picture to ourselves "s process ( measurem5t--= example1 ! det]m9ation ( ! l5g? ( a /rip ( pap]4 ,we place a rule divid$ into millimet]s 7or "s o!r unit7 on ! /rip1 & !n we det]m9e ! unit-m>k at :i* ! /rip ends4 ,x turns out t ! /rip does n end exactly at a unit-m>k1 b betwe5 two unit-m>ks4 ,& ev5 if ! rule is provid$ ) divisions t5 or a hundr$ times f9]1 ! case rema9s ! same4 ,9 mo/ cases a microscopic exam9ation w %[ t ! end ( ! /rip does n co9cide ) a division4 ,all t c be said1 !re=e1 is t ! l5g? mu/ lie betwe5 n & n #a units1 & ev5 if a def9ite numb] is giv51 ! sci5tifically tra9$ p]son w supplem5t ?is numb] by ! sign f1 9 :i* f d5otes ! possible errors1 t is1 ! limit )9 :i* ! giv5 numb] may be false4 ,we see at once h[ ! *>act]i/ic concept ( ?re%old1 :i* has l$ to ! conception ( ! cont9u\s1 imm$iately ass]ts itself :5 9 connection ) discont9u\s numb]s4 ,! adaptation ( ! ?re%old to numb]s c be c>ri$ z f> z x is possible to r$uce ! ?re%old1 b ! latt] c nev] be made to disappe> entirely4 ,! significance ( measurem5t !re=e lies 9 ! fact t x applies ! op]ation ( c\nt+ ) all its advantages 7see p4 #he7 to cont9u\s ?+s1 :i* z su* d n at fir/ l5d !mselves to enum]ation4 ,by ! application ( ! unit measure a discont9uity is at fir/ artificially e/abli%$ ?r\gh divid+ ! ?+ into pieces1 ea* piece equal to ! unit1 or imag9+ x to be s divid$4 ,!n we c\nt ! pieces4 ,:5 a quantity ( liquid is measur$ ) a lit] ?is g5]al process is c>ri$ out physically4 ,9 all o!r less direct me?ods ( measurem5t ! physical process is sub/itut$ by an easi] process equally good4 ,?us1 9 ! example ( ! /rip ( pap] we ne$ n cut x up into pieces a millimet] 9 l5g?4 ,! divid$ rule is available = comp>+ ! l5g? ( any numb] ( millimet]s t happ5 to come "u consid]ation1 & we ne$ only read (f f ! figures on ! rule ! quantity ( millimet]s equal to ! l5g? ( ! /rip1 9 ord] to inf] t ! /rip c be cut up into an equal numb] ( pieces ea* a millimet] 9 l5g?4 ,aft] x has be5 made possible to c\nt cont9u\s ?+s 9 ?is way1 ! num]ation ( !m c !n be subject$ to all ! ma!matical op]ations fir/ develop$ only = discrete1 directly c\ntable ?+s4 ,:5 we reflect t our k ( ?+s has giv5 !m to u prepond]at+ly z cont9u\s1 we at once see :at an important /ep =w>d has be5 made ?r\gh ! inv5tion ( measurem5t 9 ! intellectual dom9ation ( our exp]i5ce4 #cg4 ,! ,function4 ,! concept ( cont9uity makes possible ! developm5t ( ano!r concept ( great] univ]sality1 :i* c be *>act]iz$ z an ext5sion ( ! concept ( causation 7p4 #ca74 ,! latt] is an expression ( ! exp]i5ce1 if ,a is1 ,b is also1 9 :i* ,a is und]/ood to be a def9ite ?+ at fir/ conceiv$ ( z immutable4 ,n[ x may happ5 t ,a is n immutable1 b repres5ts a concept ) cont9u\sly *ang+ *>act]i/ics4 ,!n1 z a rule1 ,b w also be ( t nature1 s t e special value or /ate ( ,b corresponds to e special value or /ate ( ,a4 ,"h1 9 place ( ! reciprocal relation ( two def9ite ?+s1 we h ! reciprocal relation ( two m or less ext5d$ gr\ps ( simil> ?+s4 ,if ^! ?+s are cont9u\s1 z is assum$ "h 7& :i* is extremely (t5 ! case71 bo? gr\ps or s]ies1 ev5 ?\gh !y are f9ite1 conta9 an endless quantity ( individual cases4 ,su* a relation betwe5 two v>iable ?+s is call$ a function4 ,al?\gh ?is concept is us$ *iefly = ! reciprocal relation ( cont9u\s ?+s1 !re is no?+ to h9d] its application to discrete ?+s1 & accord+ly we di/+ui% betwe5 cont9u\s & discont9u\s functions4 ,! intellectual progress involv$ 9 ! conception ( ! reciprocal relation ( entire s]ies or gr\ps to "o ano!r1 z di/+ui%$ f ! conception ( ! relations betwe5 individual ?+s1 is ( ! utmo/ importance & 9 ! mo/ expressive mann] *>act]izes ! diff]5ce betwe5 mod]n sci5tific ?\ght & anci5t ?\ght4 ,anci5t geometry1 = example1 knew only ! cases ( ! acute1 "r1 & obtuse angl$ triangle1 & treat$ !m sep>ately1 :ile ! mod]n geometrician repres5ts ! side ( ! triangle z />t+ f ! angle z]o & trav]s+ ! entire field ( possible angles4 ,accord+ly1 unlike 8 colleague ( old1 he does n ask = ! p>ticul> pr9ciples be>+ ^u ^! p>ticul> cases1 b he asks 9 :at cont9u\s relation d ! sides & angles /& to "o ano!r1 & he lets ! p>ticul> cases develop f out ( "o ano!r4 ,9 ?is way he atta9s a mu* pr(\nd] & m effectual insight into ! :ole ( ! exi/+ relations4 ,x is 9 ma!matics 9 especial t ! introduction ( ! concept ( cont9uity & ( ! function concept aris+ f x has ex]cis$ an extraord9>ily deep influ5ce4 ,! s-call$ ,high] ,analysis1 or ,inf9itesimal ,analysis1 0 ! fir/ result ( ?is radical advance1 & ! ,!ory ( ,functions1 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se1 0 ! lat] result4 ,?is progress re/s on ! fact t ! magnitudes appe>+ 9 ! ma!matical =mulas 7 no long] reg>d$ z c]ta9 def9ite values 7or values to be arbitr>ily det]m9$71 b z v>iable1 t is1 values :i* may range ?r\gh all possible quantities4 ,if we repres5t ! relation betwe5 two ?+s by ! =mula ,b f7,a71 express$ 9 spok5 language by ,b is a function ( ,a1 !n 9 ! old conception ,a & ,b are ea* individual ?+s1 :ile 9 ! mod]n conception ,a & ,b repres5t an inexhau/ible s]ies ( possibilities embrac+ e conceivable individual case t may be co-ord9at$ ) a correspond+ case4 ,h]e9 lies ! ess5tial advantage ( ! concept ( cont9uity4 ,x is true t x also introduces into calculation ! above-m5tion$ contradictions :i* crop up 9 ! ev]-recurr+ discussions conc]n+ ! inf9itely great & ! inf9itely small4 ,! sy/em introduc$ by ,leibnitz ( calculat+ ) diff]5tials1 t is1 ) inf9itely small quantities1 :i* 9 mo/ relations1 h[ev]1 /ill pres]ve ! "* ( f9ite quantities f :i* !y are consid]$ to h be5 d]iv$1 has prov$ to be z fruitful ( practical results z x is difficult ( intellectual ma/]y4 ,we c be/ conceive ( ^! diff]5tials z ! expression ( ! law ( ! ?re%old1 :i* law gave rise to1 or made possible1 ! relation betwe5 ! cont9u\s & ! discrete4 #ch4 ,! ,application ( ! ,functional ,relation4 ,i h already %[n 7p4 #cd7 h[ ! fir/ =mulation ( a causal relation :i* exp]i5ce yields c be purifi$ & elaborat$ by ! multiplication ( ! exp]i5ce4 ,! me?od describ$ 0 bas$ ^u ! fact t ! necess>y & adequate factors ( ! result 7 obta9$ by elim9at+ successively f ! cause ! v>i\s factors ( :i* its concept 0 or c\ld be comp\nd$1 & by conclud+ f ! result1 t is1 ! pres5ce or abs5ce ( ! effect1 z to ! necessity or sup]fluity ( ea* factor4 ,obvi\sly ! application ( ?is process presupposes ! possibility ( elim9at+ ea* factor 9 turn4 ,v (t5 x is n possible1 & !n 9 place ( ! inadequate me?od ( ! individual case ! me?od ( ! cont9u\s functional relation /eps 9 ) its inf9itely great] effectiv5ess4 ,if 9 mo/ cases we _c elim9ate ! factors "o by "o1 !re are v few in/ances 9 :i* x is n possible to *ange !m1 or to obs]ve ! result 9 ! automatically *ang$ values ( ! factors4 ,b !n we h ! pr9ciple t = ! causal relation all su* factors are ess5tial ! *ange ( :i* involves a *ange ( ! result4 ,x is cle> t ?is signifies a g5]alization ( ! =m] & m limit$ me?od4 ,= ! elim9ation ( ! factor means t its value is r$uc$ to z]o4 ,b n[ x is no long] necess>y to g to ?is extreme limit2 x suffices m]ely to influ5ce 9 "s way ! factor to be inve/igat$4 ,x is true t "h ! diff]5ce 9 ! result _c be express$ ) a yes or a no1 z be=e4 ,x c only be said t x has *ang$ p>tly1 m or less4 ,f ?is x c be se5 t ! application ( ?is process requires m ref9$ me?ods ( obs]vation1 especially = measur+1 t is1 = det]m9+ values or magnitudes4 ,on ! o!r h&1 we mu/ recognize h[ mu* deep] we c p5etrate into ! k ( ?+s by ! application ( ! measur+ process4 ,ea* advance 9 precision ( measurem5t signifies ! discov]y ( a new /ratum ( sci5tific tru? previ\sly inaccessible4 #ci4 ,! ,law ( ,cont9uity4 ,f ! fact t natural ph5om5a 9 g5]al proce$ cont9u\sly we c d$uce a numb] ( important & g5]ally applicable conclusions :i* are con/antly us$ = ! developm5t ( sci5ce4 ,:5 a relation ( two cont9u\sly v>y+ values ( ! =m ,a f7,b7 is conjectur$1 we conv9ce ourselves ( its tru? by obs]v+ = diff]5t values ( ,a ! correspond+ values ( ,b1 or rev]sely4 ,if we f9d t *anges 9 ! "o correspond to *anges 9 ! o!r1 ! exi/5ce ( su* a relation is prov$1 at fir/ only = ! obs]v$ values1 ?\gh we nev] hesitate to conclude t = ! values ( ,a ly+ betwe5 ! obs]v$ values1 b !mselves n yet obs]v$1 ! correspond+ values ( ,b w also lie betwe5 ! obs]v$ values4 ,= example1 if ! temp]ature at a giv5 place has be5 obs]v$ at int]vals ( two h\rs1 we assume )\t hesitancy t 9 ! h\rs betwe5 :5 no obs]vations 7 made1 ! values lie betwe5 ! obs]v$ values4 ,if we indicate ! "t 9 ! usual mann] by horizontal l9es & ! temp]ature = ! g5]al p]iods ( "t by longitud9al l9es1 ! law ( cont9uity ass]ts t all ^! temp]ature po9ts lie 9 a /eady l9e1 s t :5 a numb] ( po9ts ly+ suffici5tly ne> "o ano!r is kn[n1 ! po9ts betwe5 c be d]iv$ f ! /eady l9e :i* may be drawn ?r\gh ! kn[n po9ts4 ,?is v commonly appli$ process w yield ! m accurate results ! ne>] ! kn[n po9ts are to "o ano!r1 & ! simpl] ! l9e4 ,! application ( ! law ( cont9uity or /ead9ess1 !re=e1 means no less ?an t x is possible1 f a f9ite1 frequ5tly n ev5 a v l>ge1 numb] ( individual results1 to obta9 ! means ( pr$ict+ ! result = an inf9itely l>ge numb] ( unexam9$ cases4 ,! in/rum5t d]iv$ f ?is law1 !re=e1 is an em95tly sci5tific "o4 ,! value ( ?is in/rum5t is /ill great] if x succe$s 9 express+ ! relation ,a f7,b7 9 /rict ma!matical =m4 ,fir/1 ! result ( ! det]m9ation ( a numb] ( individual values ( t function is repres5t$ z a table ( co-ord9at$ values4 ,by ! graphic process above describ$1 or by its equival5t1 ! ma!matical process ( int]polation1 ?is table is s ext5d$ t x also supplies all ! int]m$iate values4 ,b ?is is /ill a case ( a me*anical co-ord9ation ( ! correspond+ values4 ,(t5 we succe$1 especially 9 ! relation ( simple or pure concepts1 9 f9d+ a g5]al ma!matical rule by :i* ! magnitude ,a c be d]iv$ f ! magnitude ,b1 & rev]sely4 ,?is is ! only in/ance 9 :i* we speak ( a natural law 9 ! quantitative s5se4 ,?us1 = example1 we c obs]ve :at volume a giv5 quantity ( air occupies :5 successively subject$ to diff]5t pressures4 ,if we arrange all ^! values toge!r 9 a table1 we c also calculate ! volume = all ! int]m$iate pressures4 ,b on close inspection ( ! correspond+ numb]s ( pressure & volume we notice t !y are 9 inv]se ratio1 or t :5 multipli$ by "o ano!r _! products w be ! same4 ,if we d5ote ! space by v & ! pressure by p1 ?is fact assumes ! ma!matical =m pv ,k1 9 :i* ,k is a def9ite numb] dep5d+ ^u ! quantity ( air1 ! unit ( pressure1 etc41 b rema9+ un*ang$ 9 an exp]im5tal s]ies 9 :i* ^! factors /ay ! same4 ,! g5]al functional equation ,a f7,b7 becomes ! def9ite p ,k_/v4 ,& ?is =mula enables u to det]m9e by a simple calculation ! volume = any degree ( pressure1 provid$ ! value ( ,k has be5 once asc]ta9$ by exp]im5t4 ,at fir/ we h a "r to su* a calculation only )9 ! prov9ce 9 :i* ! exp]im5ts h be5 made1 & ! simple ma!matical expression ( ! natural law has = ! "t be+ no fur!r significance ?an t ( a specially conv5i5t rule = int]polation4 ,b su* a =m imm$iately evokes a "q :i* dem&s an exp]im5tal answ]4 ,h[ f> c ! =m be ext5d$8 ,t !re mu/ be a limit is to be directly inf]r$ f ! consid]ation ( ! =mula itself4 ,= if we let p #j1 !n v inf9ity1 bo? ( :i* lie beyond ! field ( possible exp]i5ce4 ,simil> consid]ations obta9 9 all su* ma!matically =mulat$ natural laws1 & ea* "t1 !re=e1 we mu/ ask :at ! range ( validity ( su* an expression is1 & answ] ! "q by exp]im5t4 ,:ile 9 ?is discussion ! ma!matically =mulat$ natural law seems to h ! nature only ( a conv5i5t =mula ( int]polation1 we are nev]!less 9 ! habit ( reg>d+ ! discov]y ( su* a =mula z a great intellectual accompli%m5t1 :i* s impresses u t we frequ5tly call x by ! "n ( ! discov]]4 ,n[1 :]e9 lies ! m significant value ( su* =mulations8 ,x lies 9 ! fact t simple =mulas are discov]$ only :5 ! conceptual analysis ( ! ph5om5on has advanc$ f> en\gh4 ,! v simplicity ( ! =mula %[s t ! concept =mation :i* is at ! basis ( x is especially s]viceable4 ,9 ,ptolemy's !ory ( ! motion ( ! planets ! means = calculat+ _! positions 9 advance 0 giv5 j z 9 ! !ory ( ,cop]nicus4 ,b ,ptolemy's !ory 0 bas$ on ! assumption t ! e>? /&s /ill1 & t ! sun & ! o!r planets move4 ,! assumption t ! sun /&s /ill & t ! e>? & ! o!r planets move greatly facilitates ! calculation ( ! position ( ! planets4 ,9 ?is lay ! prim>y value ( ! advance made by ,cop]nicus4 ,x 0 n until mu* lat] t x 0 f\nd t a numb] ( o!r actual relations c\ld be repres5t$ mu* m fitt+ly by means ( ! same hypo!sis1 & ?us ! ,cop]nican !ory has come to be g5]ally recogniz$ & appli$4 ,! significance ( ! law ( cont9uity & its field ( application h by no means be5 exhau/$ by :at has be5 said above4 ,b lat] we %all h a numb] ( occasions to po9t out its application 9 special in/ances1 & s cause its use to become a /eady m5tal habit ) ! beg9n] 9 sci5tific rese>*4 #dj4 ,"t & ,space4 ,"t & space are two v g5]al concepts1 ?\gh )\t d\bt n elem5t>y concepts4 ,= besides ! elem5t>y concept ( cont9uity :i* bo? conta91 "t has ! fur!r "* ( be+ "o-s]i$ or "o-dim5sional1 ( n admitt+ ( ! possibility ( return to a pa/ po9t ( "t 7abs5ce ( d\ble po9ts7 & ( absolute onesid$ness1 t is1 ( ! fundam5tal diff]5ce betwe5 be=e & aft]4 ,?is la/ quality is ! v "o n f\nd 9 ! space concept1 :i* is 9 e s5se symmetrical4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ow+ to ! ?ree dim5sions x has a ?reefold manifoldness4 ,t despite ?is radical di/9ction 9 ! prop]ties ( space & "t all ( our exp]i5ces c be express$ or repres5t$ )9 ! concepts ( space & "t1 is v cle> pro( t exp]i5ce is mu* m limit$ ?an ! =mal manifoldness ( ! conceivable4 ,9 ?is s5se space & "t c be conceiv$ z natural laws :i* may be appli$ to all our exp]i5ces4 ,"h at ! same "t ! subjective-human elem5t ( ! natural law becomes v cle>4 ,! prop]ties ( "t are ( s simple & obvi\s a nature t !re is no special sci5ce ( "t4 ,:at we ne$ to "k ab\t x appe>s z "p ( physics1 especially ( me*anics4 ,nev]!less "t plays an ess5tial rle 9 phoronomy1 a subject :i* we %all consid] pres5tly4 ,9 phoronomy1 h[ev]1 "t appe>s only 9 its simple/ =m z a "o-s]i$ cont9u\s manifoldness4 ,z = space1 ! pres5ce ( ! ?ree dim5sions conditions a great manifoldness ( possible relations1 & h5ce ! exi/5ce ( a v ext5sive sci5ce ( bodies 9 space1 ( geometry4 ,geometry is divid$ into v>i\s p>ts dep5d+ ^u :e!r or n ! concept ( measurem5t ent]s4 ,:5 deal+ ) purely spacial relations ap>t f ! concept ( measurem5t x is call$ geometry ( position4 ,9 ord] to introduce ! elem5t ( measurem5t a c]ta9 hypo!sis is necess>y :i* is undemon/rable1 & !re=e appe>s to be arbitr>y & c be ju/ifi$ only because x is ! simple/ ( all possible hypo!ses4 ,?is hypo!sis takes = grant$ t a rigid body c be mov$ 9 all directions 9 space )\t *ang+ 9 measure4 ,or1 to /ate ! inv]se ( ?is hypo!sis1 9 space ^? p>ts are call$ equal :i* a rigid body occupies1 no matt] h[ x is mov$ ab\t4 ,we are n consci\s ( ! extreme arbitr>9ess ( ?is assumption simply because we h become accu/om$ to x 9 s*ool4 ,b if we reflect t 9 daily exp]i5ce ! space occupi$ by a rigid body1 say a /ick1 seems to ! eye to und]go radical *anges z x %ifts its position 9 space & t we c ma9ta9 t hypo!sis only by decl>+ ^! *anges to be app>5t1 we recognize ! arbitr>9ess :i* really resides 9 t assumption4 ,we c\ld repres5t all ! relations j z well if we 7 to assume t ^? *anges are real1 & t !y are successively undone :5 we re/ore ! /ick to its =m] relation to our eye4 ,b ?\gh su* a conception is fundam5tally practicable 9 s f> z x deals m]ely ) ! space picture ( ! /ick1 we nev]!less f9d t x w\ld lead to su* extreme complications ) reg>d to o!r relations 7= example1 ! fact t ! weight ( ! /ick is n affect$ by ! *ange ( ! optic picture7 t we d bett] if we adh]e to ! usual assumption t ! optical *anges are m]ely app>5t4 ,9 ?is connection we le>n :at an enorm\s influ5ce ! v>i\s p>ts ( exp]i5ce ex]t ^u "o ano!r 9 ! developm5t ( sci5ce4 ,9 e special g5]alization ( exp]i5ces1 t is1 9 e individual sci5tific !ory1 our aim is n only to g5]alize ?is special gr\p ( exp]i5ces 9 !mselves1 b at ! same "t to jo9 su* o!r exp]i5ces to !m z exp$i5ce dem&s4 ,if ! effect ( ?is necessity is on ! "o h& to r5d] ! elaboration ( an appropriate !ory m difficult1 x has on ! o!r h& ! great advantage ( af=d+ a *oice among sev]al !ories ( app>5tly l value1 & ?us mak+ possible a m precise notion ( ! reality4 ,= example1 = ! und]/&+ ( ! mutual movem5ts ( ! sun & ! e>? x is ! same :e!r we assume t ! sun moves ab\t ! e>? or ! e>? ab\t ! sun4 ,x is n until we try to repres5t !oretically ! position ( ! o!r planets t we see ! economic advantage ( ! second conception1 & facts l ,f\cault's exp]im5t ) a p5dulum c be repres5t$ only accord+ to ?is second conception 9 our pres5t /ate ( k4 ,likewise1 ! assumption on :i* sci5tific geometry goes1 t space has ! same prop]ties 9 all directions1 conflicts ) imm$iate exp]i5ce4 ,9 imm$iate exp]i5ce we make a %>p di/9ction betwe5 bel[ & above1 al?\gh we are prep>$ to admit ! homog5eity ( space 9 ! horizontal direction4 ,?is is due1 z physics tea*es1 to ! fact t we are plac$ 9 a field ( gravitation :i* acts only f above d[nw>d & :i* p]mits free horizontal turn+s1 al?\gh x imp>ts a *>act]i/ic diff]5ce to ! ?ird direction4 ,s9ce consid]ations ( ano!r k9d enable u to place ourselves 9 a position 9 :i* we ignore ?is field ( gravitation 9 ! inve/igation ( space1 geometry ab/racts ?is elem5t & disreg>ds ! correspond+ manifoldness4 ,9 ! !ory ( ! gravitation pot5tial1 on ! o!r h&1 ?is v manifoldness is made ! subject ( sci5tific inve/igation4 ,! common application ( ! concepts ( space & "t results 9 ! concept ( motion1 ! sci5ce ( :i* is call$ phoronomics4 ,9 ord] to make ?is new v>iable subject to measurem5t we mu/ arrive at an agreem5t or conv5tion z to ! way 9 :i* to measure "t4 ,= s9ce pa/ "t c nev] be reproduc$ we actually exp]i5ce only unext5d$ mom5ts1 & h no means ( recogniz+ or def9+ ! equality ( two p]iods ( "t by plac+ !m side by side1 z we c 9 ! case ( spacial magnitudes4 ,we help ourselves by say+ t 9 un9flu5c$ motions equal p]iods ( "t mu/ correspond to ! equal *anges 9 space4 ,we reg>d ! rotation ( ! e>? on its axis & its revolution ab\t ! sun z su* un9flu5c$ motions4 ,! two dep5d ^u dissimil> conditions1 & ! empirical fact t ! relation ( ! two motions1 or ! relation betwe5 ! day & ! ye>1 rema9s practically ! same1 su/a9s t assumption1 & at ! same "t %[s ! exp$i5cy ( ! giv5 def9ition ( "t4 ,analytic geometry1 ! application ( algebra to geometric relations1 occupies a notewor?y position1 f ! po9t ( view ( me?od1 9 ! sci5ce ( space4 ,x yields geometric results by means ( calculation1 t is1 by ! application ( ! algebraic mat]ial ( symbols we c obta9 data conc]n+ unkn[n spacial relations4 ,an explanation is necess>y ( h[ by a me?od app>5tly s extrane\s su* results z ^! c be atta9$4 ,! answ] lies aga9 9 ! g5]al pr9ciple ( co-ord9ation1 :i* 9 ?is v case receives a p>ticul>ly cog5t illu/ration4 ,?ree algebraic signs1 x1 y1 & z1 are co-ord9at$ ) ! ?ree v>iable dim5sions ( space4 ,fir/1 ! same indep5d5t & con/ant v>iability is ascrib$ to ^! signs1 &1 fur!r1 ! same mutual relations are assum$ to subsi/ betwe5 !m z actually exi/ betwe5 ! ?ree-spacial dim5sions4 ,9 o!r words1 precisely ! same k9d ( manifoldness is imp>t$ to ^! algebraic signs z ! spacial dim5sions possess to :i* !y are co-ord9at$1 & we may !re=e expect t all ! conclusions aris+ f ^! assumptions w f9d _! correspond+ p>ts 9 ! spacial manifoldness4 ,accord+ly1 a co-ord9at$ spacial relation corresponds to e *ange ( ^? algebraic =mulas result+ f calculation1 & if su* *anges lead to an algebraically simple =m1 !n ! spacial =m correspond+ to x mu/ %[ an analog\s simplicity4 ,"h1 !re=e1 we h a case su* z 0 describ$ "u simpl] conditions on p4 #hf ( op]ations und]tak5 ) "o gr\p & repeat$ correspond+ly 9 ! co-ord9at$ gr\p4 ,& x is only ! great diff]5ce 9 ! ?+s ( :i* 9 ?is case ! two gr\ps are compos$--spacial relations on ! "o side & algebraic signs on ! o!r--t creates ! impression ( a/oni%m5t :i* 0 felt v /rongly at ! inv5tion ( ?is me?od1 & :i* is /ill felt by /ud5ts ) tal5t = ma!matics :5 !y fir/ become acqua9t$ ) analytical geometry4 #da4 ,recapitulation4 ,be=e we proce$ to consid] ! fundam5tals ( o!r sci5ces1 x is well to make a g5]al rsum ( ! field s f> trav]s$4 ,s9ce ! lat] sci5ces1 z we h already obs]v$1 make use ( ! entire app>atus ( ! e>li] sci5ces1 ! ma/]y ( !m mu/ be assur$ 9 ord] to r5d] _! special application possible4 ,?is does n mean t "o mu/ h complete comm& ( ! entire range ( ^? e>li] sci5ces 9 ord] to pursue a lat] "o4 ,m]e human limitations w\ld prev5t ! fulfilm5t ( su* a dem&4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 successful "w c be done 9 "o ( ! lat] sci5ces ev5 if only ! mo/ g5]al features ( ! e>li] ones h be5 cle>ly grasp$4 ,nev]!less1 ! rapidity & c]ta9ty ( ! results are v consid]ably increas$ by a m ?or\gh k ( ! e>li] sci5ces1 & ! inve/igator1 accord+ly1 %\ld seek a middle road betwe5 ! dang] ( insuffici5t prep>ation = 8 special sci5ce & ! dang] ( nev] gett+ to x f %e] prep>ation4 ,9 any circum/ances he mu/ be prep>$ always1 ev5 ?\gh x be 9 lat] age1 to acquire ^? fundam5tal aids s soon z he feels ! ne$ ( !m = c>ry+ out any special "w4 ,x is g5]ally acc$$ t )\t logic ! adequate pursuit ( sci5ce is impossible4 ,nev]!less1 ! op9ion is widely curr5t1 ev5 among m5 ( sci5ce1 t ev]ybody has comm& ( ! ne$ful logic )\t hav+ /udi$ x4 ,no m ?an a man c le>n ( himself to use ! calculus1 ev5 if he may h discov]$ unaid$ "s ( its elem5t>y pr9ciples1 c he acquire c]ta9ty & read9ess 9 ! use ( ! logical rules g5]ally necess>y1 unless he has made ! necess>y /udies4 ,x is true t ! sci5tific works ( ! great pione]s & lead]s 9 ! special sci5ces furni% practical examples ( su* logical activity4 ,b complete fre$om & security are acquir$ only on ! basis ( consci\s k4 ,we h n[ se5 h[1 f ! physiological con/ruction ( our m5tal app>atus1 ! process ( concept =mation & ! exp]i5ce ( concept connections are ! basis ( ! :ole ( m5tal life4 ,! laws ( ! mutual int]action ( ! mo/ g5]al or elem5t>y concepts op]at$ 9 ! =mation ( ! concepts1 ?+1 gr\p1 co-ord9ation4 ,"h 7 f\nd ! fundam5tals ( logic or ! sci5ce ( concepts4 ,a special process ( ab/raction yield$ ! concept ( numb]1 & ) x ! correspond+ field ( ma!matics1 ari?metic1 algebra1 & ! !ory ( numb]s4 ,by means ( ! second fundam5tal fact ( physiology1 ! ?re%old1 ano!r elem5t>y fact 0 expla9$1 t ( cont9uity4 ,! co-ord9ation ( individual ?+s "u ! influ5ce ( ?is concept 0 exp&$ into ! co-ord9ation ( cont9u\s ph5om5a-s]ies1 & yield$ ! correspond+ly m g5]al concept ( ! function4 ,f ! application ( ! numb] concept to cont9u\s ?+s1 ! idea ( measurem5t result$4 ,9 ma!matics ! concept ( cont9uity l$ to high] analysis & ! !ory ( functions4 ,f9ally1 ! concept ( cont9uity prov$ to be an inexhau/ible aid = ! ext5sion ( sci5tific k & = ! =mulation ( natural laws 9 ma!matical =m4 ,,"p ,,iii ,,! ,,physical ,,sci5ces #db4 ,g5]al4 ,9 ! =mal sci5ces we began ! specialization ( ! object f ! mo/ g5]al concept ( ?+ conceivable1 possess+ no o!r *>act]i/ic attribute ?an its capability ( be+ di/+ui%$ f o!r ?+s2 & we c>ri$ ! specialization s f> t we c\ld foll[ 9 its movem5ts an object def9ite z to "t & space4 ,?is object1 to be sure1 0 def9$ only 9 t x occupi$ a def9ite space1 & accord+ly _h a def9ite =m4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! spacial ?+ ( geometry & phoronomy reveals no fur!r attributes4 ,x is "h t ! physical sci5ces ent] into _! dom9ion "o aft] ! o!r1 & fill ! empty space ( ! geometric ?+ ) def9ite attributes4 ,^! are ! second>y qualities ( ,locke1 ( :i* he assum$ t !y d n belong s mu* to ! bodies !mselves z t !y m]ely appe> to u s on acc\nt ( ! nature ( our human s5se organs4 ,n[ t our k conc]n+ ! nature ( ^? prop]ties z well z ! /ructure ( our s5se organs is mu* m ?or\gh1 we h m def9ite ideas also ( ! subjective "p ( ! correspond+ exp]i5ces1 & 9 a l>ge measure are able to sep>ate x f ! objective "p4 ,all prop]ties :i* physical bodies 9 contradi/9ction to geometric bodies possess c be trac$ back to a fundam5tal concept1 :i*1 9 conjunction ) ! concepts expla9$ 9 ! =m] *apt]1 s]ves to *>act]ize & di/+ui% ! physical /ructure4 ,= example1 ! fact t we c di/+ui% cubes ( equal size b ( diff]5t mat]ial1 diff]5t temp]ature1 & diff]5t lum9osity1 c be trac$ back always & entirely to ! diff]5t k9ds ( en]gy act+ 9 ! geometric space 9 "q4 ,! concept ( en]gy1 !re=e1 plays approximately ! same rle 9 ! physical sci5ces z ! concept ( ?+ 9 ! =mal sci5ces1 & ! ess5tials ( ?is new field ( sci5ce are ! compreh5sive k & developm5t ( ?is concept4 ,because ( its great importance x has long be5 kn[n & appli$ 9 individual =ms4 ,b ! sy/ematization ( ! physical sci5ces relative to en]gy is a matt] ( only rec5t date4 #dc4 ,me*anics4 ,rec5tly _m sci5ti/s h tak5 exception to ! traditional division ( me*anics into /atics1 or ! sci5ce ( equilibrium1 & dynamics1 or ! sci5ce ( motion1 because x does n correspond to ! ess5ce ( ! ?+1 equilibrium be+ only ! limit-case ( motion4 ,h[ev]1 ! classic pres5tations ( ?is sci5ce are bas$ on t division1 s t x mu/ express an ess5tial diff]5ce4 ,?is diff]5ce we c cle>ly recognize ?r\gh ! application ( ! concept ( en]gy to me*anics4 ,we !n le>n t /atics is ! sci5ce ( "w1 or ! en]gy ( position1 & t dynamics is ! sci5ce ( liv+ =ce1 or ( ! en]gy ( motion4 ,by "w 9 ! me*anical s5se we mean ! exp5diture ( =ce requir$ = ! locomotion ( physical bodies4 ,:ile a cube ( lead is geometrically equal to a cube ( glass1 we exp]i5ce a great diff]5ce betwe5 !m :5 we lift !m f ! floor to a table4 ,we call ! cube ( lead heavi] ?an ! glass cube1 & we f9d x requires m "w to raise ! =m] ?an ! latt]4 ,= psy*ologic reasons ?is judgm5t becomes especially cle> :5 ! "w requir$ to lift ! lead cube m>ks ! limit ( our physical capacity4 ,"w dep5ds n only ^u ! diff]5ce describ$ above1 b also ^u ! di/ance ?r\gh :i* x is ex]t$4 ,x increases 9 proportion z ! di/ance increases4 ,9 me*anics "w is proportional bo? to ! di/ance & to t peculi> prop]ty :i* 9 ! giv5 example we call weight4 ,b a m g5]al concept has be5 =m$ = t prop]ty 9 ! me*anical s5se1 call$ =ce1 ( :i* weight con/itutes b a special in/ance4 ,:5ev] !re is a resi/ance comb9$ ) a *ange ( place we speak ( a =ce1 & ! product ( ! =ce & ! di/ance we call "w4 ,! cause ( ?is k9d ( concept =mation is ! foll[+3 ,!re are a great numb] ( diff]5t ma*9es1 all ( !m possess+ ! peculi>ity t "w c be put into !m at a def9ite place & tak5 out at ano!r place4 ,n[1 c5turies ( exp]i5ce h %[n t x is impossible to obta9 m "w f su* me*anical ma*9es ?an has be5 put into !m4 ,z a matt] ( fact1 ! "w obta9$ is always less ?an ! "w put 91 & ! two approa* equality z ! ma*9e approa*es p]fection4 ,x is to su* ideal ma*9es1 !re=e1 t ! law ( ! cons]vation ( "w applies4 ,?is law /ates t1 ?\gh a giv5 quantity ( "w may be *ang$ 9 ! mo/ manifold ways z to direction1 =ce1 etc41 x is impossible to *ange its quantity4 ,! reason we c judge ( ?is fact ) su* c]ta9ty is because = _m c5turies a numb] ( ! able/ me*anicians h s\ght = a solution ( ! problem ( p]petual motion1 t is1 = ! con/ruction ( a ma*9e f :i* m "w c be gott5 ?an is put into x4 ,all su* attempts h fail$4 ,b ! positive result secur$ f ^! app>5tly futile ef=ts is ! law ( ! cons]vation ( "w4 ,! greatness & importance ( ?is result w become app>5t 9 ! fur!r c\rse ( our /udy4 ,"h = ! fir/ "t we meet ) a law express+ ! quantitative cons]vation ( a ?+1 :i* may none ! less und]go ! mo/ v>i$ qualitative *anges4 ,) ! k ( ?is fact we involunt>ily comb9e ! notion t x is ! same ?+ t passes ?r\gh all ^! trans=mations1 & t x only *anges its outw>d =m )\t be+ *ang$ 9 its ess5ce4 ,su* ideas1 x is true1 are widespread1 b !y h a v d\btful side to !m1 s9ce !y correspond to no di/9ct concept4 ,if we want to call ! quantitative magnitude ( ! product ( ! =ce & di/ance ! ess5ce ( "w1 & ! det]m9ation ( ! =ce & ! di/ance accord+ to magnitude & direction1 :i* come "u consid]ation = ea* special value1 z its =m1 !n1 ( c\rse1 !re is no objection to be made to m]e nom5clature4 ,b we mu/ be> 9 m9d t ! diff]5ce obta9+ "h lies exclusively 9 ! fact t ! am\nt ( "w measur$ quantitatively rema9s un*ang$1 :ile its factors und]go simultane\s & opposite *anges4 ,?is discov]y1 t !re is a magnitude :i* c be quantitatively det]m9$1 & :i*1 z exp]i5ce %[s1 rema9s un*ang$1 h[ev] mu* its factors may *ange1 inv>iably results n only 9 a v simple & cle> =mulation ( ! correspond+ natural law1 b also corresponds to ! g5]al t5d5cy ( ! human m9d to "w out conceptually ! p]man5t 9 *ange4 ,if1 9 accordance ) ! ^w-s5se1 we d5ote ev]y?+ :i* p]si/s "u *ang+ conditions by ! "n ( sub/ance1 we enc\nt] 9 "w ! fir/ sub/ance ( :i* we h atta9$ k 9 our sci5tific j\rneys4 ,9 ! hi/ory ( ! evolution ( human ?\ght ?is sub/ance has be5 prec$$ by o!rs1 especially by ! weight & mass ( pond]able bodies 7:i* are also subject to a law ( cons]vation71 s t at pres5t we are incl9$ to connect ) ! ^w sub/ance a tacit second>y s5se ( pond]ability4 ,b ?is is a remnant ( ! /ill v widely spread me*ani/ic !ory ( ! univ]se1 :i*1 ?\gh x has almo/ f9i%$ its rle 9 physics1 w presumably cont9ue to p]si/ = a long "t to come 9 ! popul>ly sci5tific consci\sness 9 accordance ) ! laws ( collective ?\ght4 #dd4 ,k9etic ,en]gy4 ,! law ( ! cons]vation ( "w is by no means true ( all cases 9 :i* "w is exp5d$ or conv]t$1 b1 z has be5 said1 only ( ideal ma*9es1 t is1 ( su* cases :i* d n exi/ 9 reality4 ,b :ile 9 imp]fect ma*9es !re is at lea/ an approximation to ?is law1 !re are besides c\ntless normal cases 9 :i* we _c ev5 speak ( an approximation4 ,:51 = example1 a /one falls to ! gr\nd f a c]ta9 height1 a c]ta9 quantity ( "w is exp5d$1 :i* is equal to t by means ( :i* ! /one c be rais$ aga9 to its orig9al height4 ,?is quantity ( "w app>5tly disappe>s entirely :5 ! /one rema9s ly+ on ! gr\nd4 ,we %all discuss ?is case lat]4 ,or ! fall+ ( ! /one c be s guid$ t x c lift itself aga94 ,?is happ5s1 = in/ance1 :51 by fa/5+ ! /one to a ?read1 x is =c$ to move 9 a curv$ pa?1 or to p]=m p5dul> oscillations4 ,9 t case1 x is true1 ! /one w fall to ! l[e/ po9t :i* ! ?read p]mits1 & s w !re h lo/ its "w )\t hav+ done any o!r "w 9 ! meantime4 ,b x has ent]$ a condition by virtue ( :i* x raises itself aga91 s t 7z be=e1 only 9 ! ideal limit-case7 x rea*es its =m] height1 & s has lo/ no "w4 ,= ?is mom5t1 too1 !n1 ! law ( ! cons]vation ( "w obta9s4 ,b 9 ! meantime new relations h aris54 ,:at di/+ui%es ! /one mov+ l a p5dulum f ! /one :i* simply falls is1 t at its l[e/ po9t x has n rema9$ ly+ /ill1 b possesses a c]ta9 velocity4 ,by means ( ?is x lifts itself aga91 & aft] x has rea*$ its =m] height1 x has lo/ its velocity4 ,!re=e1 !re is a reciprocal relation betwe5 ! "w :i* x loses & ! velocity :i* x ga9s1 & ! "q may !re=e be put1 ,h[ c ?is relation be repres5t$ ma!matically8 ,exp]i5ce tea*es t 9 e su* case a function ( ! velocity & ( ano!r prop]ty ( ! body1 call$ mass1 c be e/abli%$ 9 su* a way t ?is function1 call$ ! k9etic en]gy ( ! body1 increases precisely z mu* z ! am\nt ( "w ! body has exp5d$1 & vice v]sa4 ,! sum ( ! k9etic en]gy ( ! body & ( ! "w is !re=e con/ant1 & ! cle>e/ mode ( conceiv+ ( ?is relation is by assum+ t "w c be trans=m$ into k9etic en]gy & vice v]sa 9 su* a way t giv5 am\nts ( ! two magnitudes are equal or equival5t to "o ano!r4 ,naturally1 ?is is only an abbreviat$ way ( express+ ! actual relations1 = x might j z well be assum$ t ! "w really disappe>s & ! k9etic en]gy really orig9ates anew1 & t ! disappe>ance ( ! "o sub/ance only happ5s regul>ly to co9cide ) ! orig9 ( ! o!r4 ,b x is ?is regul> conjunction ( ph5om5a t con/itutes ! sole gr\nd ( e causal relation1 & 9 su* a s5se we are ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ ! disappe>+ "w z ! cause ( ! k9etic en]gy t arises1 & to designate ?is relation summ>ily z a trans=mation4 ,by ! inclusion ( cases 9 :i* "w is conv]t$ into k9etic en]gy ! law ( ! cons]vation ( "w !re=e becomes ! law ( ! cons]vation ( ! sum ( "w & k9etic en]gy4 ,we are !reby compell$ to ext5d ! concept ( sub/ance1 :i* at fir/ conta9s only "w1 to ! sum ( bo? magnitudes1 & to introduce a new "n = ?is enl>g$ concept4 ,x w soon appe> t all cases ( imp]fect ma*9es1 9 :i* "w disappe>s )\t giv+ rise to an equival5t am\nt ( k9etic en]gy1 c1 ) a correspond+ enl>gem5t ( ! concept1 be likewise includ$ 9 ! law ( cons]vation4 ,= exp]i5ce has %[n t 9 su* cases some?+ else arises1 heat1 light1 or electric =ce1 etc4 ,?is g5]aliz$ concept1 :i* embraces all natural processes & p]mits ! sum ( all correspond+ values to be express$ by a law ( cons]vation1 we call en]gy4 ,! law 9 "q1 !re=e1 is3 ,9 all processes ! sum ( ! exi/+ en]gies rema9s un*ang$4 ,! pr9ciple ( ! cons]vation ( "w 9 p]fect ma*9es proves to be an ideal special in/ance ( ?is g5]al law4 ,a p]fect ma*9e is "o 9 :i* "w *anges into no?+ b "w ( ano!r k9d1 & n into a diff]5t k9d ( en]gy4 ,!n ea* side ( ! equation :i* expresses ! g5]al law ( en]gy1 namely1 ,en]gy t has disappe>$ en]gy t has aris51 conta9s only ! magnitude ( ! "w1 & expresses ! law ( ! cons]vation ( "w4 ,if1 on ! o!r h&1 z 9 ! case ( ! p5dulum1 ! "w increas+ly *anges "p by "p into k9etic en]gy1 & vice v]sa1 ! equation dur+ ! fir/ p]iod is3 ,"w t has disappe>$ k9etic en]gy t has aris51 & dur+ ! second p]iod 9 :i* ! p5dulum rises aga91 ,k9etic en]gy t has disappe>$ "w t has aris54 ,?us1 :ile "w c be call$ a sub/ance only 9 a limit$ s5se1 s9ce its cons]vation is limit$ only to p]fect ma*9es1 we may call en]gy a sub/ance unqualifi$ly1 s9ce 9 e in/ance ( :i* we "k ! pr9ciple has be5 ma9ta9$ t a quantity ( any en]gy nev] disappe>s unless an equival5t quantity ( ano!r en]gy arises4 ,accord+ly1 ?is law ( ! cons]vation ( en]gy mu/ be tak5 z a fundam5tal law ( ! physical sci5ces4 ,b n only d all ! ph5om5a ( physics1 includ+ *emi/ry1 occur )9 ! limits ( ! law ( cons]vation1 b until ! contr>y is prov$ ! law ( cons]vation mu/ also be reg>d$ z op]ative 9 all ! lat] sci5ces1 t is1 9 all ! activities ( organisms1 s t all ! ph5om5a ( life mu/ also take place )9 ! limits ( ! law ( cons]vation4 ,?is corresponds to ! g5]al fact1 :i* ,i h emphasiz$ a numb] ( times1 t all ! laws ( a =m] sci5ce f9d application 9 all ! foll[+ sci5ces1 s9ce ! latt] c only conta9 concepts :i* by specialization1 t is1 by ! addition ( fur!r *>act]i/ics1 h sprung f ! concepts ( ! =m] or m g5]al sci5ces4 #de4 ,mass & ,matt]4 ,x has be5 not$ above t k9etic en]gy dep5ds ^u ano!r magnitude beside velocity4 ,a conception ( its nature c be obta9$ :5 we try to put diff]5t bodies 9 motion4 ,9 do+ s ! muscles ( ! arm p]=m c]ta9 quantities ( "w1 & we feel :e!r ! quantities are great] or small]4 ,9 ?is way we obta9 a cle> consci\sness ( ! fact t diff]5t bodies require q diff]5t quantities ( "w = ! same velocity4 ,! prop]ty :i* comes into play "h is call$ mass1 & mass is proportional to ! "w :i* ! v>i\s bodies require to atta9 ! same velocity4 ,s9ce ! "w & ! velocity c be measur$ v accurately by appropriate means1 mass also l5ds itself to a correspond+ly accurate measurem5t4 ,all kn[n pond]able bodies h mass4 ,t means !re is a regul> connection betwe5 ! prop]ty :i* makes a body t5d to ! e>? ) a c]ta9 def9ite =ce 7call$ weight7 & ! prop]ty by virtue ( :i* a body assumes c]ta9 velocities "u ! influ5ces ( motive causes4 ,we c readily conceive t x is possible = u to le>n only ( su* bodies z are heavy1 t is1 bodies :i* are held by ! e>?1 s9ce ! o!rs1 if !y exi/ at all1 w\ld naturally h left ! e>? long ago4 ,t all ^! bodies also h mass is to be expla9$ 9 a simil> way4 ,= a body ( mass z]o w\ld at ea* impulse assume inf9itely great velocity1 & c\ld !re=e nev] be ! object ( our obs]vation4 ,consequ5tly1 by reason ( ! physical conditions obta9+ on ! e>?'s surface1 ! bodies kn[n to u mu/ comb9e bo? prop]ties1 mass & weight4 ,! "n giv5 to ?is concept ( ! comb9$ pres5ce ( mass & weight 9 space is matt]4 ,exp]i5ce %[s t !re is a law ( cons]vation = ^! magnitudes also1 accord+ to :i* :atev] *anges we may produce 9 bodies possess+ weight & mass1 no *ange w occur 9 ! sum ( _! weight & mass4 ,accord+ to ! nom5clature previ\sly introduc$ we mu/ !re=e call weight & mass sub/ances1 s9ce !y rema9 ! same z to quantity1 no matt] :at *anges !y may und]go4 ,h[ev]1 x is usual to apply ! "n sub/ance to ! concept ( matt] compos$ ( mass & weight4 ,9 fact1 sci5ti/s (t5 g s f> z to limit ! "n to ?is s+le in/ance ( ! v>i\s laws ( cons]vation1 & to take sub/ance to mean exclusively ! comb9ation ( mass & weight4 ,?is is connect$ ) ! conception :i* we are ab\t to discuss1 t all natural ph5om5a c ultimately be conceiv$ z ! motion ( matt]4 ,?r\gh ! great] "p ( ! n9ete5? c5tury ?is conception1 call$ sci5tific mat]ialism1 0 accept$ almo/ )\t opposition4 ,at pres5t x is be+ m & m recogniz$ t x 0 only an unprov$ assumption1 :i* ! developm5t ( sci5ce daily proves to be m unt5able4 #df4 ,en]getic ,me*anics4 ,9 ! light ( our previ\s obs]vations ! bran* ( sci5ce traditionally kn[n z me*anics appe>s z ! sci5ce ( "w & ( k9etic en]gy4 ,fur!rmore1 /atics is %[n to be ! sci5ce ( "w1 :ile dynamics1 besides treat+ ( k9etic en]gy 9 itself1 also treats ( ! ph5om5a ( ! *ange ( "w into k9etic en]gy1 & vice v]sa4 ,we %all f9d ! same relation aga9 lat]1 only 9 m manifold =ms4 ,e bran* ( physics proves to be ! sci5ce ( a special k9d ( en]gy1 & to ! k ( ea* k9d ( en]gy mu/ be add$ ! k ( ! relations by :i* x *anges to ! o!r =ms ( en]gy & vice v]sa4 ,x is true t 9 ! traditional division ( physics ?is sy/em has n be5 /rictly c>ri$ out1 s9ce an additional & v influ5tial motive = classification has be5 ! reg>d paid to ! v>i\s human s5se organs4 ,nev]!less ?is gr\nd does n lie 9 ! field ( physics1 b 9 t ( physiology1 & mu/1 !re=e1 be ab&on$ 9 ! int]e/ ( /rict sy/ematization4 ,( ! physical sci5ces me*anics 0 ! fir/ to develop 9 ! c\rse ( hi/orical evolution4 ,a numb] ( factors contribut$ to ?is end--! wide di/ribution ( me*anical ph5om5a1 _! significance to human life1 & ! comp>ative simplicity ( ! pr9ciples ( me*anics1 :i* made x possible to discov] !m at an e>ly date4 ,mo/ to be not$ is1 t ( all dep>tm5ts ( physics me*anics is ! fir/ :i* l5t itself to compreh5sive ma!matical treatm5t4 ,x is true t ! ma!matical treatm5t ( me*anics 0 possible only aft] idealiz+ assumptions _h be5 made--p]fect ma*9es & ! l--s t ! results ( ?is ma!matical treatm5t n infrequ5tly _h v little to d ) reality4 ,! mi/ake ( los+ sight ( ! physical problem & ( mak+ me*anics a *apt] ( ma!matics has n always be5 avoid$1 & x is only 9 mo/ rec5t times t ! consci\sness has aga9 aris5 t ! classical me*anics1 9 arbitr>ily limit+ itself to extreme idealiz$ cases1 sometimes runs ! risk ( los+ sight ( ! aim ( sci5ce4 #dg4 ,! ,me*ani/ic ,!ories4 ,because ! evolution ( me*anics ant$ates t ( ! o!r bran*es ( physics1 me*anics has l>gely s]v$ z a model = ! =mal organization ( ! o!r physical sci5ces1 j z geometry1 :i* has be5 h&$ d[n to u f antiquity 9 ! v elaborate =m ( ,euclid1 has l>gely be5 us$ z a model = sci5tific "w 9 g5]al4 ,su* me?ods ( analogy prove to be extremely useful at fir/ because !y s]ve z a guide to indicate :5 & :]e new sci5ces1 9 :i* all possibilities are op51 c be got hold (4 ,b lat] on su* analogies are apt to be h>mful4 ,= ea* new sci5ce soon requires new me?ods1 by reason ( ! peculi> manifoldness :i* x has to deal )1 & ! f9d+ & ! introduction ( ^! new me?ods are easily delay$1 &1 z a matt] ( fact1 (t5 h be5 delay$1 because sci5ti/s c\ld n free !mselves soon en\gh f ! old analogy4 ,by its be+ bas$ ^u memory ! human m9d is s con/ruct$ t x _c assimilate some?+ entirely new4 ,! new mu/ 9 "s way be connect$ ) ! kn[n 9 ord] t x may be organically embodi$ 9 ! aggregate ( concepts4 ,!re=e1 x is ! fir/ involunt>y impulse ( our m9d1 9 ! pres5ce ( new exp]i5ces or ?\ghts1 to look ab\t = su* po9ts at :i* a l9k+ ( ! unkn[n to ! kn[n seems possible4 ,9 ! case ( me*anics ?is necessity = f9d+ connect+ l9ks has act$ 9 su* a way t ! attempt has be5 made1 & is /ill be+ made1 to conceive & repres5t all physical ph5om5a z me*anical4 ,! impulse to ?is 0 fir/ giv5 by ! extraord9>y successes :i* me*anics has atta9$ 9 ! g5]alization & pr$iction ( ! motions ( ! heav5ly bodies4 ,! names ( ,cop]nicus1 ,kepl]1 & ,newton m>k ! individual /eps 9 ! me*anization ( a/ronomy4 ,! cause ( ?is lies 9 ! fact t ! heav5ly bodies actually approximate v closely ! ideal ( ! purely me*anical =m ) :i* classical me*anics deals4 ,^! successes enc\rage ! attempt to apply ^! m5tal in/rum5ts t 7 productive ( su* ri* results to all o!r natural ph5om5a4 ,an old !ory1 accord+ to :i* all physical ?+s are compos$ ( ! mo/ m9ute solid p>ticles ( matt] call$ atoms1 support$ ^! t5d5cies & invit$ ! attempt to reg>d ! little _w ( atoms z subject to ! same laws z _h be5 f\nd to apply s successfully to ! great _w ( ! />s4 ,?us we see h[ ?is me*ani/ic hypo!sis1 ! assumption t all natural ph5om5a c be r$uc$ to me*anical ph5om5a1 comes z if x 7 a self-und]/ood matt]1 & ) its claim to be a pr(\nd int]pretation ( nature x sc>cely p]mits ! "q z to its ju/ification to be rais$ at all4 ,& ! effects "h h be5 ! same z ,i describ$ above 9 cases 9 :i* inf]5ces f analogy are accept$ too ext5sively or too cr$ul\sly4 ,:ile x is true1 no d\bt1 t ! me*anical hypo!sis at fir/ 0 fruitful ( results 9 special rese>*1 because x facilitat$ ! putt+ ( ! "q--= example1 we ne$ ?9k only ( ! atomic hypo!sis 9 *emi/ry--lat]1 ! ef=ts to f9d fur!r hypo!tic help = ! inadequacies ( ! hypo!sis t gradually came to light1 h n infrequ5tly l$ sci5tific rese>* to pseudo-problems1 t is1 to que/ions :i* are que/ions only 9 hypo!sis1 b to :i* no actual reality c be %[n to correspond4 ,su* problems1 !re=e1 are by _! v nature insoluble1 & con/itute an inexhau/ible s\rce ( diff]5ces ( sci5tific op9ion4 ,! mo/ flagrant ( ! injuri\s consequ5ces ( ! me*ani/ic hypo!sis appe> 9 ! sci5tific treatm5t ( ! m5tal ph5om5a4 ,ready z sci5ti/s 7 to repres5t all o!r life ph5om5a1 su* z dige/ion1 assimilation1 & ev5 g5]ation & propagation1 z ! consequ5ce ( an extremely complicat$ play ( c]ta9 atoms1 _! c\rage nev] w5t s f> z to apply ?is pr9ciple to m5tal life & to consid] t by me*anics ! la/ ^w _h be5 said on ! subject4 ,x is because ( ?is hesitancy to br+ m5tal ph5om5a "u ! same me*ani/ic pr9ciple z all ! o!r ph5om5a t ! philosophical sy/ems _h to se>* = "s o!r means to connect ! m5tal _w ) ! me*anical1 & ! ef=ts ( ! philosoph]s to br+ ab\t ?is end h be5 mo/ v>i$4 ,( ! v>i\s doctr9es t h come d[n to u1 t ( ! pre-e/abli%$ h>mony propos$ by ,leibnitz is 9 ! asc5dant 9 our day1 & is n[ call$ ! !ory ( ! psy*o-physical p>allelism4 ,accord+ to ?is !ory x is assum$ t ! m5tal _w exi/s alongside1 & q indep5d5t (1 ! me*anical1 b t ! ?+s h be5 s pre>rang$ t m5tal processes take place simultane\sly ) c]ta9 me*anical processes 7accord+ to "s1 ) all me*anical processes7 9 su* a way t1 al?\gh ! two s]ies d n influ5ce ea* o!r 9 ! lea/1 !y always correspond to ea* o!r precisely4 ,h[ su* a relation has come ab\t & h[ x is ma9ta9$ rema9s unsaid1 or is left to future explanation4 ,we ne$ only ?9k ( ! cont5t ( ?is hypo!sis ) an unbias$ m9d to lose all reli% = x at once4 ,9 fact1 x has no o!r raison d'tre ?an ! presumption t ! m5tal & ! me*anical _w are oppos$ to ea* o!r4 ,z soon z we ab&on ! !sis t ! non-m5tal _w is exclusively me*anical1 we acquire ! possibility aga9 ( f9d+ = ! !ory ( m5tal ph5om5a a con/ant & regul> connection ) ! !ories ( all o!r ph5om5a1 especially ) ! ph5om5a ( life4 ,!re=e x w be f\nd mo/ exp$i5t 9 e respect1 in/ead ( r5d]+ sci5tific rese>* "o-sid$ & almo/ bl9d to noncon=m+ facts by preconceiv$ hypo!ses1 su* z ! me*ani/ic hypo!sis1 to seek1 z hi!rto1 f /ep to /ep1 ! new elem5ts ( manifoldness :i* mu/ be tak5 acc\nt ( 9 ! progressive upbuild+ ( sci5ce & to limit ourselves fai?fully to !m 9 ! =mation ( g5]al ideas4 #dh4 ,complem5t>y ,bran*es ( ,me*anics4 ,! field ( pure or classical me*anics is limit$ to ! above two k9ds ( en]gy1 "w & k9etic en]gy1 ?\gh ^! d n exhau/ ! manifoldness ( ! me*anical en]gies4 ,accord+ly1 o!r bran*es ( me*anics deal+ ) ! correspond+ ph5om5a are add$ to ! classical me*anics describ$ above4 ,if by me*anical en]gies we und]/& all en]gies 9 :i* *anges ( space are connect$ ) *anges ( en]gy1 !re are z _m diff]5t =ms z !re are spacial concepts t seem applicable4 ,=m1 ,volume1 & ,surface ( bodies 9 space are especially recognizable z ! field ( action = en]gy1 :i* %[s diff]5t prop]ties or manifoldnesses accord+ to ea* ( ^! relations4 ,! en]gy ( =m is manife/$ 9 bodies 7solid or rigid bodies7 t ma9ta9 a def9ite %ape because e *ange ( %ape is connect$ ) "w or ) ! exp5diture ( "s o!r en]gy4 ,if ! *anges are small1 ! bodies are ( su* a nature t !y return to _! =m] condition ( _! own accord aft] ! =ce ex]t$ ^u !m has ceas$ to act4 ,?is prop]ty is call$ ela/icity4 ,h[ev]1 ! !ory ( ela/icity1 :i* has be5 ext5sively & rationally develop$1 is reg>d$ z belong+ r to ma!matical physics 9 g5]al ?an to me*anics 9 p>ticul>4 ,9 great] *anges ( %ape ! en]gy ( =m1 or ela/ic en]gy1 passes into o!r =ms1 & ! body does n return to its =m] %ape aft] ! =ce has be5 remov$4 ,o!r bodies h no en]gy ( =m 7or only 9 an inf9itesimally slight degree71 s t !y all[ ( *anges ( =m )\t ! exp5diture ( "w1 b _! volume c be *ang$ only by "w4 ,^! are divid$ into two classes4 ,fir/1 ! liquids1 :i* h a def9ite volume 7correspond+ to ! def9ite %ape ( solids71 ! *anges ( :i* 9 e s5se1 bo? compression & expansion1 require "w4 ,secondly1 ! gases ) volume en]gy 9 only "o s5se ( ! ^w1 9 :i* only ! compression ( volume requires "w1 :ile 9 expansion a c]ta9 am\nt ( "w is ?r[n (f4 ,su* bodies c exi/ only s long z ! exp5diture ( _! volume en]gy by spontane\s expansion is prev5t$ by ! pres5ce ( a c\nt] en]gy1 z1 = example1 ! ela/icity ( ! walls ( a vessel4 ,?is t5d5cy is call$ pressure4 ,f9ally1 !re are en]gy qualities at ! surfaces betwe5 v>i\s k9ds ( bodies :i* come into play at ! *ange ( ^! surfaces4 ,!y always lie 9 su* a direction t ! enl>gem5t ( ! surfaces requires "w1 & h5ce1 by reason ( ! law ( cons]vation ( en]gy1 _c proce$ by itself4 ,9 cases :]e !re has be5 an inv]se k9d ( en]gy pres5t1 t is1 "o :i* dim9i%es ) increas+ surface1 x also has be5 active z a rule1 ?us br++ ab\t ! disappe>ance ( ! exi/+ b\nd>ies4 ,s9ce ! seat ( ?is k9d ( en]gy is 9 ! surfaces 7or sup]ficies71 x is call$ surface-en]gy4 ,! ph5om5a dep5d+ ^u x manife/ !mselves mo/ cle>ly at ! surface b\nd>ies betwe5 liquids & gases4 ,!y are call$ capill>y ph5om5a4 ,?is /range "n1 d]iv$ f ! ^w capilla1 hair1 has its orig9 9 ! fact t because ( surface-en]gy liquids rise 9 tubes :i* !y wet1 & ! n>r[] ! tube ! high] !y rise4 ,if ! lum5 ( ! tube is z f9e z a hair1 a consid]able rise c be obs]v$4 ,?is is ! entire connection betwe5 ! "n & ! ?+4 ,! me*anics ( liquids is call$ hydrome*anics1 t ( gases1 a]ome*anics1 aft] ! mo/ famili> liquid1 wat]1 & ! mo/ famili> gas1 air4 ,! /udy ( surface-en]gy "u ! "n ( ! capill>y !ory =ms "p ( !oretical physics4 ,:ile =m]ly ?is bran*1 too1 0 reg>d$ z a work+ "p1 or1 r1 z a play+ "p1 ( ma!matical problems1 9 m rec5t times ext5sive exp]im5tal rese>* has made its entry 9 ?is prov9ce also1 & has demon/rat$ ! necessity ( pass+ f ! =m] ab/ractions or idealizations1 :i* 7 c>ri$ altoge!r too f>1 to a bett] & pr(\nd] reg>d = ! actually exi/+ complexities4 #di4 ,! ,!ory ( ,heat4 ,! v>i\s =ms ( en]gies ! aggregate ( :i* is compreh5d$ 9 physics1 h v diff]5t special *>act]s4 ,a sy/ematic inve/igation has n yet be5 made ( ! *>act]s ( manifoldness by :i*1 = example1 "w is di/+ui%$ f heat1 electrical en]gy f k9etic en]gy1 etc41 nor ( :at are ! ess5tial prop]ties peculi> to ea* individual en]gy4 ,we feel c]ta9 t diff]5ces d exi/1 = o!rwise ! en]gies c\ld n be di/+ui%$1 & we feel c]ta9 t ^! diff]5ces are v important1 = d\bt seldom arises z to ! k9d ( en]gy to :i* a c]ta9 ph5om5on is to be assign$4 ,b j z we h no sy/ematic table ( ! elem5t>y concepts1 s we are /ill )\t a sy/ematic natural hi/ory ( ! =ms ( en]gy 9 :i* ! peculi>ities ( e species are *>act]iz$1 & 9 :i* ! entire mat]ial is s arrang$ accord+ to ^! *>act]i/ics t we c take a g5]al survey ( x4 ,z reg>ds heat en]gy1 its =emo/ & mo/ /rik+ *>act]i/ic is its physiological effect4 ,9 our sk9 !re are organs = ! p]ception ( heat z well z ( cold1 t is1 = temp]atures above & bel[ ! temp]ature ( ! sk94 ,h[ev]1 ! temp]ature t ^! organs c be> )\t injury to !mselves is ( a v small range1 beyond :i* physical app>atuses ( all k9ds mu/ be us$1 su* z !rmomet]s4 ,heat is ! simple/ k9d ( en]gy f ! po9t ( view ( manifoldness4 ,e heat quantity is m>k$ by a temp]ature1 j z a k9etic en]gy is m>k$ by velocity4 ,b :ile a velocity is det]m9$ 9 space s t velocities ( equal magnitude h 9 addition a ?reefold inf9ite manifoldness 9 ref]5ce to direction1 a temp]ature is *>act]iz$ completely & unambigu\sly by a simple numb]1 ! degree ( temp]ature4 ,two temp]atures ( equal degree c 9 no wise be di/+ui%$1 s9ce temp]ature possesses no o!r possible manifoldness ?an degree4 ,! same prop]ty is f\nd 9 heat en]gy itself4 ,9 heat en]gy we measure ! quantity ( en]gy itself & call x ! heat quantity1 :ile 9 "s ( ! o!r k9ds ( en]gy1 only ! factors into :i* !y c be divid$ are measur$1 & no habitual conception ( ! en]gy itself is develop$4 ,a heat quantity is likewise fully indicat$ by its measure numb]4 ,t heat is an en]gy1 t is1 t x is develop$ 9 equal quantities f o!r k9ds ( en]gy1 & c *ange back aga9 into !m1 is a discov]y :i*1 despite its fundam5tal & g5]al "*1 0 n made be=e ! =ties ( ! n9ete5? c5tury4 ,z (t5 happ5s 9 cases ( important sci5tific advances1 ! same idea came simultane\sly to a numb] ( inve/igators4 ,! fir/ to grasp & fully compreh5d ?is idea 0 ,julius ,rob]t ,may] ( ,heilbronn1 :o publi%$ 8 results 9 #ahdb4 ,may] n only %[$ t ! imp]fect ma*9es 7p4 #acd71 :i* limit ! validity ( ! law ( ! cons]vation ( "w1 owe ?is peculi>ity to ! fact t !y trans=m a "p ( ! "w into heat1 & t :5 we take acc\nt ( ?is "p1 ! law ( cons]vation holds p]fectly good1 b he also calculat$1 ) extraord9>y acum51 ! me*anical equival5t ( heat f ! !n exi/+ data ( physics4 ,t is to say1 he det]m9$ h[ _m units ( heat 79 ! measure !n 9 use7 correspond to a unit ( "w 79 its specific measure7 9 ! *ange f "o to ! o!r1 & back4 ,& ?is fundam5tal k ( ! exi/5ce ( a quantitatively un*angeable sub/ance1 aris+ f "w1 & capable ( be+ trans=m$ into x1 ,may] did n limit 9 its application m]ely to heat4 ,he 0 ! fir/ to con/ruct a table1 :i* he made z complete z possible1 ( all ! =ms ( en]gy !n kn[n1 & to ass]t & prove ! possibility ( _! reciprocal *ange into ea* o!r4 ,9 view ( ?is relation ( ! quantitative equival5t ( ! v>i\s =ms ( en]gy :5 trans=m$ into "o ano!r1 an attempt is be+ made at pres5t to measure !m all ) ! same unit4 ,t is1 "s easily obta9$ quantity ( en]gy is arbitr>ily *os5 z a unit & x is det]m9$ t 9 e o!r =m ( en]gy ! unit %all be equal to ! quantity obta9$ f t unit on its trans=mation into ! en]gy 9 "q4 ,= =mal reasons ! k9etic en]gy ( a mass ( two grams :i* moves ) ! velocity ( "o c5timet] 9 a second has be5 *os5 z ! unit4 ,x is call$ erg1 an abbreviation ( en]gy4 ,! am\nt is v small1 & = te*nical reasons #ajaj times great] unit is us$4 ,to raise ! temp]ature ( a gram ( wat] "o degree a quantity ( en]gy equal to #da1hcj1jjj ergs is requir$4 #ej4 ,! ,second ,fundam5tal ,pr9ciple4 ,ano!r fundam5tal discov]y has be5 made 9 connection ) ! heat =m ( en]gy1 :i*1 l ! law ( cons]vation1 relates to all =ms ( en]gy1 b has f\nd its fir/ & mo/ important application 9 heat4 ,:ile ! law ( cons]vation answ]s ! "q1 h[ mu* ( ! new =m ( en]gy is develop$ if a giv5 quantity ( en]gy *anges1 b gives no clue z to :5 su* a *ange occurs1 ?is second law ass]ts ! condition "u :i* su* *anges arise1 & is !re=e call$ ! second fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,! discov]y ( ?is law ant$ates ,may]'s discov]y ( ! law ( cons]vation by ab\t tw5ty ye>s1 & 0 made by a ,fr5* milit>y eng9e]1 ,sadi ,c>not1 :o di$ soon aft]w>d )\t hav+ liv$ to see ! recognition 8 great "w obta9$4 ,c>not ask$ himself ! "q1 ,^u :at does ! action ( ! /eam eng9e1 :i* _h j !n come into use1 dep5d8 ,?is l$ him fir/ to ! m g5]al "q ( ! action ( heat eng9es 9 g5]al4 ,he f\nd t no heat eng9e c\ld "w unless ! heat dropp$ f a high] to a l[] temp]ature1 j z no wat] :eel c "w unless ! wat] fl[s f a high] to a l[] level1 & he det]m9$ ! conditions :i* an ideal heat eng9e mu/ fulfil1 t is1 a ma*9e 9 :i* ! greate/ possible value 9 "w is obta9$ f heat4 ,h[ev]1 an ideal ma*9e ( ?is nature c be con/ruct$ 9 v diff]5t ways1 & ,c>not's discov]y consi/s 9 ! recognition ( ! fact t ! quantity ( "w obta9$ f ! heat unit does n at all dep5d ^u ! peculi> con/ruction ( ! ideal ma*9e1 b is det]m9$ solely by ! temp]ature betwe5 :i* ! heat transition takes place4 ,?is foll[s f ! foll[+ consid]ations3 ,9 ! fir/ place an ideal eng9e mu/ be rev]sible1 t is1 x mu/ be capable ( work+ bo? ways1 *ang+ heat into "w & "w back into heat4 ,n[1 if we h two ideal eng9es betwe5 ! same temp]atures1 & if we assume t eng9e ,a produces m "w f ! same quantity ( heat ?an eng9e ,b1 !n let ,a move "o way & let ,b move ! o!r way ) ! "w obta9$ f ,a4 ,s9ce ,b produces less "w f a giv5 am\nt ( heat1 h5ce m heat f an equal am\nt ( "w1 !re w 9 ! end be m heat at ! high] temp]ature ?an 0 orig9ally !re4 ,b exp]i5ce tea*es t !re is no means 9 nature by :i* heat 9 ! abs5ce ( concomitant *ange c\ld be caus$ to rise to a high] temp]ature4 ,!re=e an eng9e s con/ruct$ z to produce ?is result is impossible1 ,& ,b _c be ( su* a nature z to produce less "w f ! same quantity ( heat ?an ,a4 ,! rev]se is also impossible4 ,= !n we ne$ m]ely c\ple ! eng9es 9 ! rev]se way 9 ord] to obta9 ! same effect4 ,!re=e1 s9ce ,b c d nei!r less nor m "w ?an ,a1 ! two mu/ d ! same am\nt ( "w--:i* 0 to be prov$4 ,x is obvi\s t ?is process ( pro( is simil> to t by :i* ! law ( cons]vation 0 e/abli%$4 ,because ! arbitr>y creation ( en]gy f no?+ is impossible !re mu/ be def9ite & immutable relations ( *ange betwe5 ! =ms ( en]gy4 ,because en]gy at re/ does n spontane\sly pass into conditions 9 :i* x c d "w1 ! effici5cies ( ! ma*9es mu/ h def9ite & un*angeable values4 ,if1 = example1 we c\ld cause heat ( its own accord to rise to a high] temp]ature1 we c\ld also con/ruct a p]petual motion ma*9e :i* w\ld always yield "w at no exp5se4 ,b ?is p]petual motion w\ld n be "o t creates "w out ( no?+1 b "o t extracts x f en]gy at re/4 ,a p]petual motion ma*9e ( ?is nature1 too1 is1 accord+ to our exp]i5ce1 impossible1 & ?is impossibility =ms ! cont5t ( ! second fundam5tal pr9ciple4 ,on ! face ( x ?is app>5tly self-evid5t proposition does n reveal h[ fruitful ( results x is :5 appli$ to ! discov]y ( simple b n obvi\s relations4 ,x c only be said "h t ! d$uctions f ?is pr9ciple =m ! *ief cont5t ( ! ext5sive sci5ce ( !rmodynamics1 :i* deals ) ! *anges ( heat into o!r =ms ( en]gy4 ,we mu/ only emphasize ! fact t ! application ( ?is law1 z 0 already obs]v$ 9 /at+ x1 is n conf9$ to ! *anges ( heat alone4 ,x is a law r :i* f9ds application 9 all ! =ms ( en]gy4 ,= 9 e =m ( en]gy !re is a prop]ty :i* corresponds to temp]ature 9 heat1 & ^u ! equality or ! inequality ( :i* dep5ds :e!r ! en]gy 9 "q is at re/ or ready = trans=mations4 ,?is prop]ty is call$ ! int5sity ( ! en]gy4 ,9 "w1 = in/ance1 x is =ce1 9 volume-en]gy x is pressure4 ,if once ! int5sity 9 a body is equal1 its en]gy is at re/1 & x nev] aga9 moves ( its own accord4 ,ano!r =m 9 :i* to pres5t ^! relations is to make a di/9ction betwe5 free en]gy & en]gy at re/4 ,if we h a heat quantity ! temp]ature ( :i* is high] ?an t ( ! surr\nd+ objects1 x c be us$ to d "w only until its temp]ature has dropp$ to t ( ! surr\nd+ objects4 ,al?\gh en]gy 9 abundance is /ill pres5t1 !re is no long] any en]gy capable ( *ange1 or free en]gy4 ,s9ce diff]5ces ( temp]ature1 l o!r diff]5ces ( int5sity1 h a con/ant t5d5cy to dim9i%1 ! am\nt ( free en]gy on e>? is con/antly decreas+1 & yet x is only ?is free en]gy t has value4 ,= s9ce all ph5om5a dep5d ^u *ange ( en]gy1 & *ange ( en]gy is possible only ?r\gh free en]gy1 free en]gy is ! condition ( all ph5om5a4 #ea4 ,electricity & ,magnetism4 ,:ile ! k ( heat en]gy goes back to ! mo/ anci5t p]iods ( civilization1 electrical & magnetic en]gies are relatively "y acquisitions4 ,! highly develop$ te*nical application ( bo? ) ! ri* h>ve/s !y h yield$ belongs exclusively to mo/ rec5t times4 ,bo? ^! =ms ( en]gy1 l ^? discuss$ above1 are connect$ 9 ! ma9 ) pond]able matt]1 b 9 a mu* slight] & less regul> measure4 ,:ile x is n possible z yet to r5d] any giv5 body free ( heat 7al?\gh lately ! absolute z]o po9t has be5 consid]ably approximat$71 fre$om f electrical & magnetic en]gy is ! normal condition ( mo/ bodies4 ,?is is connect$ ) ! peculi>ity t electrical & magnetic prop]ties are decid$ly bi-symmetrical or pol>4 ,?is prop]ty is n f\nd 9 any o!r =m ( en]gy1 & c s]ve z ! special sci5tific *>act]i/ic ( electricity & magnetism4 ,?is peculi>ity %[s itself 9 ! concepts ( positive & negative magnetism1 & positive & negative electricity1 & is due to ! fact t two equal opposite quantities ( electricity or magnetism1 :5 add$ toge!r1 d n produce d\ble _! value1 b nullify ea* o!r4,g ,g ,= ! sake ( ! layman x mu/ be obs]v$ t ^? quantities are n en]gy magnitudes b factors ( ! electrical & magnetic en]gies4 ,en]gy itself 9 its v>i\s =ms is an exclusively positive magnitude1 & ! result ( ! additions ( _! v>i\s am\nts is always ! sum1 nev] ! diff]5ce1 ( _! num]ical values4 ,by ! negative sign is und]/ood ! en]gy exp5d$ 9 contradi/9ction to ! en]gy receiv$4 ,x is !re=e no?+ m ?an ! indication ( a ma!matical op]ation4 ,! fact t electrical & magnetic en]gies g5]ally exi/ only 9 a transitory /ate 7) ! notable exception ( ! magnetic condition ( ! e>?7 is probably ! cause ( our n hav+ develop$ a s5se organ = !m1 especially s9ce _! ph5om5a z !y occur 9 nature h only occasionally & 9 v r>e in/ances 7?und]/orms7 an influ5ce ^u u4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! mod]n developm5t ( electrote*nics is bas$ ^u t prop]ty ( electrical en]gy by virtue ( :i* l>ge quantities ( x c be conduct$ along a ?9 wire ov] great di/ances )\t any consid]able loss1 & at ! po9t desir$ c be easily *ang$ into any o!r =ms ( en]gy4 ,b s9ce ! collection & cons]vation ( l>ge quantities ( electrical en]gy is h>dly possible te*nically1 ! electrical app>atus mu/ be s con/ruct$ t ! quantities ea* "t requir$ %\ld be produc$ at ! mom5t !y are us$4 ,! *ief s\rce ( electricity is ! *emical en]gy ( coal1 :i* is fir/ trans=m$ into heat1 !n into me*anical en]gy1 & f9ally into electrical en]gy4 ,?is extremely r\ndab\t process is necess>y because a me?od te*nically practicable ( trans=m+ ! *emical en]gy ( coal directly into electrical en]gy has n yet be5 inv5t$4 ,on ! o!r h&1 me*anical en]gy c be easily & completely *ang$ into electrical en]gy4 ,^u ?is is bas$ ! exploitation ( mu* wat] p[]1 ! en]gy ( :i* c\ld n be utiliz$ b = ! great capacity = *ange ( ! electrical =m4 #eb4 ,light4 ,! case ( light 9 our day seems to be simil> to t ( s\nd1 :i*1 al?\gh x has its special s5se organ 9 man1 is yet no p>ticul> =m ( en]gy1 b has be5 f\nd to be a comb9ation ( me*anical en]gies 9 an oscillatory or mutually *ang+ /ate4 ,x seems highly probable t light1 too1 is n a special =m ( en]gy1 b a peculi> oscillatory comb9ation ( electrical & magnetic en]gies4 ,x is true t ! circle ( pro( is n yet q clos$1 b ! gaps h become s small t ! above conclusion may at any rate be accept$ z highly probable4 ,h[ev] t may be1 light is an en]gy :i*1 accord+ to ! kn[n laws1 travels ?r\gh space ) trem5d\s rapidity4 ,we w call x radiant en]gy1 s9ce ! "p optically visible1 to :i* alone ! "n light 9 its orig9al s5se belongs1 repres5ts an extremely small portion ( a va/ field1 ! prop]ties ( :i* *ange q cont9u\sly f "o end to ! o!r4 ,radiant en]gy is *>act]iz$ z an oscillatory or wave-l process4 ,s long z ?is fact 0 unkn[n 7up to ! beg9n+ ( ! n9ete5? c5tury7 x 0 ?\ght t light consi/$ ( m9ute sph]ical p>ticles1 :i* %ot ?r\gh space 9 a /raight l9e ) ! trem5d\s velocity m5tion$ above4 ,lat]1 9 ord] to expla9 its wave nature1 :i* 9 ! meantime has come to be recogniz$1 x 0 assum$ to be due to ! ela/ic vibrations ( an all-p]vad+ ?+ call$ e!r1 ( :i* we "k no?+ else4 ,?is ela/ic undulatory !ory has be5 ab&on$ 9 our "t 9 favor ( an electromagnetic !ory support$ by q consid]able exp]i5tial gr\nds4 ,:e!r x w be sp>$ ! fate t has ov]tak5 ! old] !ories 7or r hypo!ses7 ( light _c z yet be pr$ict$ ) any degree ( c]ta9ty4 ,radiant en]gy is ( v m>k$ importance 9 human relations4 ,z light x s]ves1 ) ! aid ( ! correspond+ receiv+ organs1 ! eyes1 z a m manifold means ( int]communication betwe5 our bodies & ! out] _w ?an any o!r =m ( en]gy4 ,! en]gy quantities p5etrat+ to u f ! extreme limits ( ! _w space m>k ! out]mo/ limits ( :i* we h k 9 any way :atsoev]1 & f9ally ! en]gy quantities radiat+ to u f ! sun con/itute ! supply ( free en]gy at ! exp5se ( :i* all organic life on e>? is ma9ta9$4 ,ev5 ! *emical en]gy /or$ up 9 coal repres5ts no?+ else ?an accumulations ( =m] sun radiation1 :i* _h be5 trans=m$ by ! plants into ! p]man5t =m ( *emical en]gy4 ,v rec5tly o!r newly discov]$ =ms ( radiant en]gy h be5 add$ to light4 ,!y are produc$ 9 manifold circum/ances1 & "s bodies emit !m con/antly4 ,! sci5tific elaboration ( ^! extremely manifold & unusual ph5om5a has n yet be5 c>ri$ s f> t !y c be r$uc$ to a d\bt-free sy/em4 ,b s mu*1 x seems1 is already app>5t1 t !y are presumably n purely new =ms ( en]gy1 b r v composite ph5om5a :i* may yield "o or m new en]gies z compon5t p>ts4 ,b despite ! peculi>ity ( ^! new rays1 no?+ c]ta9 has z yet be5 prov$ aga9/ ! law ( cons]vation itself4 #ec4 ,*emical ,en]gy4 ,s9ce *emical en]gy is only "o ( sev]al =ms ( en]gy1 !re seems to be no ju/ification = allott+ x to a special sci5ce1 s9ce all ! o!r =ms ( en]gy mu/ be incorporat$ 9 physics4 ,b ! actual exi/5ce ( *emi/ry z a special sci5ce :i* has already _m subdivisions is ju/ifi$ 9 ! fir/ place by ! ext]nal fact t 9 practical life & 9 indu/ry *emi/ry occupies a v wide field comp>able1 if n sup]ior1 to t ( ! :ole ( physics4 ,9 ! next place1 f ! psy*ological po9t ( view1 x is f\nd t ! *emi/'s me?ods ( reason+ & work+ are s diff]5t f ^? ( ! physici/ t a division seems to be 9 ord] = t reason also4 ,f9ally1 !re is 9 ! nature ( *emical en]gy itself an important di/9ction :i* m>ks x (f f ! o!r =ms4 ,:ile1 = example1 !re is only "o =m ( heat or ( k9etic en]gy1 & 9 electricity !re are only ! two =ms ( pol> opposites1 *emi/ry1 ev5 aft] ! greate/ !oretical r$uction1 possesses at lea/ ab\t eighty =ms4 ,t is1 x possesses z _m =ms z !re are *emical elem5ts4 ,! exp]i5tial law1 t ! elem5ts _c be *ang$ into "o ano!r1,h also limits ! correspond+ *anges ( ! *emical en]gies into "o ano!r1 & ?us *>act]izes ! indep5d5ce ( ^! v>i\s =ms4 ,f ?is results a disproportionately great] manifoldness ( relations1 :i* f9d _! expression 9 ! _m ?\s&s ( ! individualiz$ *emical sub/ances or comb9ations4 ,h ,lately *anges ( elem5ts into "o ano!r h be5 obs]v$ 9 individual in/ances1 b 9 su* peculi> circum/ances t = ! pres5t we ne$ n consid] ^! discov]ies1 :i* h only j begun4 ,?is great manifoldness & ! slight regul>ity hi!rto f\nd 9 connection ) ! prop]ties & reciprocal relations ( ! num]\s *emical elem5ts r5d]s mod]n *emi/ry m a descriptive ?an a rational sci5ce4 ,x 0 no m ?an tw5ty ye>s ago t an e>ne/ & successful attempt 0 begun to apply ! /rict] me?ods ( physics to ! inve/igation ( *emical ph5om5a4 ,^! labors1 s f> z !y h gone1 h yield$ a great _m f>-rea*+ & compreh5sive pr9ciples4 ,! significance ( *emi/ry 9 human life is tw(old4 ,9 ! fir/ place ! en]gy ( ! human body1 j z t ( all o!r liv+ organisms1 dep5ds *iefly ^u ! action ( *emical en]gies 9 ! mo/ manifold =ms4 ,( all ! physical sci5ces1 !re=e1 *emi/ry is ! mo/ important = biology1 p>ticul>ly = physiology4 ,9 ! second place1 z ,i h emphasiz$ a numb] ( times1 x possesses ! peculi> prop]ty :i* enables x to be pres]v$ = a long "t )\t pass+ into o!r =ms & be+ dissipat$4 ,fur!rmore1 en]gy 9 ?is =m p]mits ( ! mo/ p[]ful conc5tration4 ,m ( *emical en]gy c be /or$ 9 a giv5 space ?an ( any o!r =m ( en]gy4 ,bo? ^! prop]ties1 !n1 may be consid]$ z ! reason :y organic be+s are con/itut$ *iefly by means ( *emical en]gy4 ,at any rate1 x is due to ^! two peculi>ities t *emical en]gy s]ves z ! prim>y s\rce = almo/ all ! en]gy us$ 9 indu/ry4 ,fur!r1 ! manifoldness ( *emical en]gy is ! cause ( ! peculi> mann] 9 :i* x is trans=m$ into o!r =ms4 ,9 ! o!r =ms ( en]gy ! trans=mation c be effect$ by ! body itself4 ,no?+ else is requir$4 ,if a /one is ?r[n & x hits aga9/ a wall1 x loses its k9etic en]gy1 ! great] "p ( :i* *anges into heat4 ,b 9 ord] to lib]ate ! *emical en]gy (1 say1 coal1 ! coal alone is n suffici5t2 ano!r *emical sub/ance is requir$1 ! oxyg5 ( ! air4 ,! int]action ( ! two sub/ances produces a new sub/ance1 & x is only dur+ ?is process t a correspond+ "p ( ! *emical en]gy is lib]at$4 ,!re are a few *emical processes also 7allotropic & isom]ic *anges7 9 :i* a s+le sub/ance )\t ! co-ag5cy ( ano!r sub/ance c give (f en]gy4 ,b ! quantity ( en]gy ?us obta9$ is inf9itely small z comp>$ to t lib]at$ by ! int]action ( two or m sub/ances4 ,because ( ! necessity ( two or m sub/ances to co-op]ate 9 giv+ (f *emical en]gy1 ! opportunity = ! trans=mation ( *emical en]gy is less ?an = ! trans=mation ( ! o!r =ms ( en]gy1 & ?is is ! ma9 reason :y x c be cons]v$ s long & s easily4 ,all t is necess>y is to prev5t contact ) ano!r sub/ance4 ,?is is a problem1 x is true1 :i* f ! po9t ( view ( /rict !oretical rigor x is almo/ impossible to solve4 ,9 practice1 h[ev]1 x c be easily solv$ = p]iods ( "t long en\gh at lea/ to require special means to enable u to recognize t x is only a tempor>y & n a fundam5tal solution4 ,sci5tifically express$1 ! cause ( ?is is t ! diffusion ( ! v>i\s sub/ances 9 "o ano!r c !oretically nev] be completely elim9at$1 :ile on ! o!r h& ! velocity ( ! diffusion ov] di/ances measur$ only by decimet]s is extremely l[4 ,,"p ,,iv ,,! ,,biologic ,,sci5ces #ed4 ,life4 ,among ! bodies 9 our environm5t t are pond]able & h mass ! animate be+s are s /rik+ly di/+ui%$ f ! inanimate t 9 mo/ cases we h n ! slighte/ d\bt :e!r a body belongs to ! "o k9d or to ! o!r1 ev5 if 9 "s cases we happ5 n to be famili> ) its peculi> =m4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 !re=e1 we mu/ answ] ! "q 9 a g5]al way & tell :at ! di/+ui%+ peculi>ities are t m>k !m (f "o f ! o!r4 ,! fir/ peculi>ity is ?is1 t liv+ organisms are n /able b /ation>y =ms4 ,?is di/9ction is bas$ ^u ! fact t a /able =m is at re/ or un*angeable 9 all its p>ts1 :ile a /ation>y body1 ?\gh x seems un*angeable 9 its =m1 int]nally und]goes a con/ant *ange ( its p>ts4 ,?us1 a brass faucet is a /able body1 s9ce x n only pres]ves its =m & function p]man5tly1 b consi/s at all times ( ! same mat]ial & %[s ! same peculi>ities1 su* z /a9s1 defects 9 =m1 etc4 ,x _c be said1 x is true1 t x w rema9 completely un*ang$ = all "t4 ,its metal suff]s a gradual *emical & me*anical det]ioration4 ,b ?is is n ess5tial to ! exi/5ce ( ! faucet1 s9ce ! det]ioration v>ies greatly ) circum/ances1 & if conditions are ideal x c be r$uc$ to z]o4 ,on ! o!r h&1 ! jet ( wat] fl[+ f ! faucet is a /ation>y body4 ,9 favorable circum/ances x c assume a con/ant =m1 s t at a ha/y glance x might be tak5 = a /able glass rod4 ,on clos] exam9ation x w be f\nd t ! p>ts ( wat] ( :i* x is =m$ are n ! same at any giv5 in/ant z ! in/ant be=e1 ea* "p t has fl[$ away be+ replac$ by ano!r j z l>ge foll[+ x4 ,f ?is diff]5ce 9 ! nature ( ! two bodies results a diff]5ce 9 _! behavior4 ,if ,i make a m>k on ! faucet ) a file1 ! m>k rema9s p]man5t4 ,b ev5 if ,i sev] ! entire wat] jet ) a knife1 ! cut is heal$ ! next mom5t1 because by reason ( ! cont9u\s fl[ ( ! wat]1 ! sev]$ place is in/antly elim9at$ f ! body4 ,ow+ to ?is nature peculi> to /ation>y bodies1 !y h ! capacity ( be+ heal$ or ( reg5]ation4 ,= a body to cont9ue p]man5tly 9 a /ation>y condition ! mat]ial ( :i* x is compos$ mu/ be p]man5tly suppli$4 ,if we turn (f ! faucet1 ! wat] jet imm$iately disappe>s or dies4 ,evid5tly1 !re=e1 a /ation>y body c subsi/ by its own means only if x has ! prop]ty or capacity to provide itself cont9ually ) ! necess>y mat]ial4 ,?is mat]ial consi/s 9 ! ma9 ( pond]able or *emical sub/ances ( def9ite physical & *emical prop]ties1 & ?us ! *ange ( sub/ance1 metabolism1 appe>s z a necess>y prop]ty ( ! /ation>y body4 ,9 ord]1 h[ev]1 t metabolism %\ld take place we mu/ h free en]gy1 or en]gy hav+ ! capacity to "w1 s9ce x is only free en]gy t c cause sub/ances to *ange1 j z e ph5om5on 9 ! _w implies ! equalization ( free en]gy4 ,= a /ation>y body to exi/ indep5d5tly1 !re=e1 x mu/ h ! prop]ty ( be+ able spontane\sly to possess itself ( ! necess>y sub/ances & ( free en]gy4 ,b s9ce1 z we h already said1 ! en]gy ( organisms is /or$ up & us$ 9 ! ma9 9 ! =m ( *emical en]gy1 ! two tasks :i* a /ation>y body has to p]=m1 t ( meet+ ! ne$ = sub/ances & = en]gy1 are z a rule ext]nally comb9$4 ,9 organisms ^! two necessities comb9$ are call$ nutrition1 & ?us we recognize 9 ! capacity = self-acquisition ( nutrition ano!r ess5tial prop]ty ( organisms4 ,a ?ird ess5tial prop]ty ( organisms is ! capacity = reproduction1 = ! br++ =? ( simil> be+s4 ,x is nev] impossible t ! balance betwe5 ! receipts & exp5ditures ( a /ation>y body %\ld1 9 consequ5ce ( "s ext]nal causes1 be di/urb$1 ev5 :5 "u normal conditions x possesses ! prop]ty ( self-nutrition4 ,if ! di/urbance rema9s bel[ a c]ta9 po9t1 !n1 z we h already /at$1 reg5]ation sets 94 ,b ! di/urbance may rise above t po9t1 9 :i* case ! body ceases to exi/1 or dies4 ,!n a simil> body w n arise unless ! manifold necessities t h l$ to ! orig9 ( ! fir/ w comb9e aga9 to produce ! second4 ,t su* a ?+ is possible1 t1 9 fact1 x (t5 happ5s1 is %[n1 = example1 by ! waves ( ! ocean1 :i* h a /ation>y "* s9ce1 :ile !y are compos$ ( con/antly *ang+ masses ( wat]1 _! =m rema9s un*ang$4 ,! waves are de/roy$ 9 ! break]s1 b arise aga9 & aga9 ?r\gh ! action ( ! w9d ^u ! surface ( ! wat]4 ,b ! m complex su* bodies are ! less easily !y are =m$1 :ile once !y h be5 =m$ & h f\nd ! conditions ( _! exi/5ce1 _! pres]vation is mu* easi]4 ,be+s1 !re=e1 :i* h ! capacity to =m simil> bodies out ( !mselves regul>ly & at ! "r "t c pres]ve _! species mu* m easily ?an ^? 9 :i* ?is prop]ty is abs5t4 ,dea? has to a great ext5t lo/ its p[] ov] be+s capable ( reproduction4 ,by way ( illu/ration let u take ano!r /ation>y ?+1 a flame4 ,a flame is n an organism because x is n self-su/a9+4 ,yet x multiplies itself4 ,& :ile a s+le little flame soon dies out1 ! sea ( flame ( a burn+ =e/1 :i* />t$ f a s+le small flame1 is well-nigh inext+ui%able1 & x _c be f\ght 9 any o!r way ?an by lett+ x die its natural dea? & burn to ! end4 ,?us1 :ile ! fulfilm5t ( ! fir/ two conditions1 ! /ation>y *ange & ! self-supply ( food1 c\ld produce bodies1 :i* w\ld be able to exi/ = a long] or %ort] p]iod1 b :i* at "s "t w\ld h to give way to o!r bodies ( diff]5t =m & nature1 ! capacity = reproduction creates ! condition t =ms ( ! same species cont9ue to exi/ ev5 aft] ! exi/5ce ( ! individual has ceas$4 ,^! ?ree prop]ties con/itute ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( animate ?+s or organisms4 ,t ! organisms are all con/ruct$ ^u ! basis ( *emical en]gy is a fact ( exp]i5ce :i* may be und]/ood to imply t ! o!r =ms ( en]gy are n capable ( produc+ ! above-m5tion$ conditions4 ,?is is due to ! prop]ties ( *emical en]gy to :i* ,i h already call$ att5tion3 its great conc5tration &1 at ! same "t1 its capacity = prolong$ pres]vation4 ,t *emical en]gy is ! only =m ( en]gy suitable to life is obvi\s f ! fact t 9 air%ip navigation1 = example1 ! k9etic en]gy requir$ = /e]+ c be suppli$ only 9 ! =m ( gasol9e or hydrog51 t is1 9 ! =m ( *emical en]gy1 because any ( ! o!r =ms w\ld be mu* too heavy4 ,! flight ( a bee or ! swimm+ ( a dolph9 _c be conceiv$ ( except z br\ght ab\t ?r\gh *emical en]gy4 ,t ?is *emical en]gy is ess5tially t ( c>bon has also be5 e/abli%$ by exp]i5ce1 al?\gh x is n q univ]sal1 = ! sulphur bact]ia f\nd _! h\sehold ^u ! en]gy ( sulphur4 ,! cause ( ! pref]5ce ( c>bon is aga9 to be s\ght 9 its special fitness = ! purpose1 due1 on ! "o h&1 to its wide di/ribution1 &1 on ! o!r h&1 to ! exce$+ manifoldness ( its comb9ations4 ,f9ally1 ! con/ruction ( ! organisms f a peculi> comb9ation ( solid & liquid sub/ances c be prov$ to be equally due to te*nical relations4 ,^! ?ree la/-nam$ peculi>ities are !re=e to be reg>d$ z ! special *>act]i/ics ( ! organisms ) :i* we are acqua9t$ on ! surface ( ! e>? 9 ! conditions !re prevail+4 ,we ne$ n reg>d !m conceptually z un*angeable or irreplaceable4 ,b ! fir/ ?ree *>act]i/ics1 namely1 ! /ation>y nature1 self-supply ( nutrition1 & reproduction1 we may reg>d z ! ess5tial *>act]i/ics ( organisms4 ,!y con/itute ! frame )9 :i* ev]y?+ mu/ be f\nd :i* we %\ld recognize z liv+ 9 ! wide/ s5se4 #ee4 ,! ,/oreh\se ( ,free ,en]gy4 ,if we ask :5ce ! organisms obta9 ! free en]gy :i* !y require = ! ma9t5ance ( _! /ation>y exi/5ce1 ! answ] is t sol> radiation alone furni%es ?is supply4 ,)\t ?is p]man5t supply ! free en]gies ^u ! e>?1 s f> z our k goes1 w\ld long ago h rea*$ a /ate ( equilibrium1 & ! e>?'s bodies w\ld be /able1 t is1 dead & n /ation>y & liv+4 ,x is compreh5sible1 !re=e1 t ma*9es %\ld h evolv$ 9 ! organism = trans=m+ ! radiant en]gy ( ! sun into a p]man5t =m1 &1 z we h already le>n$1 *emical en]gy is p]man5t1 :ile radiant en]gy is an extremely transitory =m ( en]gy1 t is1 x *anges v readily4 ,! v fact t1 ow+ to ! *ange f day to night1 ! supply ( radiant en]gy p]iodically ceases1 makes ! /or+-up ( en]gy = ! night necess>y to ! exi/5ce ( a =m dep5d5t ^u x4 ,?us1 we recognize 9 ! photo*emical processes1 t is1 9 ! trans=mation ( radiant en]gy into *emical en]gy1 ! f\ndation ( life on e>?4 ,?is "w is done by ! plants1 :i* ?us provide a /ore ( free en]gy n only = _! own ne$s b also = all ! o!r organisms :i* possess !mselves directly or indirectly ( ! plant-*emical supplies 9 ord] to utilize !m = _! individual purposes4 ,9 ?is mann] n\ri%m5t 9 ! wide/ s5se is secur$ = all organisms1 be+ bas$ ^u ! regul> supply ( free en]gy d]iv$ f ! sun4 ,?is also expla9s ! great *emical simil>ity ( all organisms1 :i* c\ld n subsi/ if !y 7 n s con/ruct$ z to be able to utilize ! *emical en]gy 9 ! =m 9 :i* x is provid$ by ! plants4 ,( ! great /ream ( free en]gy p\r$ out f ! sun into cosmic space ! e>? receives an extremely small portion 7correspond+ to ! bit ( space x occupies 9 ! heav5ly sph]e z se5 f ! sun71 & ! plants collect & /ore up only a v small fraction ( ?is portion receiv$ by ! e>?4 ,measurem5ts h %[n t 9 mo/ favorable circum/ances a plant leaf *anges only ab\t #a_/ej ( ! radiant en]gy x receives into *emical en]gy4 ,if we consid] t only a small "p ( ! surface ( ! e>? is cov]$ ) plants & t dur+ ! w9t] no en]gy f ! sun is /or$ up at all1 we p]ceive :at inf9ite possibilities = developm5t !re /ill are 9 arre/+ & /or+ up free en]gy4 ,! "p /or$ up by ! plants fl[s f ^! into ! c\ntless /reams1 brooks1 & ve9s ( ! o!r organisms1 to end f9ally z us$-up en]gy1 or en]gy at re/4 ,?is en]gy is at re/1 x is true1 only 9 relation to ! e>?'s surface4 ,we d n "k :e!r ! radiation f ! e>?1 :i* at pres5t am\nts to ab\t z mu* z ! radiation f ! sun to ! e>?1 is 9 its turn some:]e utiliz$4 ,:ile ! free en]gy is p\r$ out 9 su* a /ream 9 "o direction1 ! pond]able sub/ances ( :i* ! organisms are made up circulate ?r\gh plants & animals & back aga94 ,?is is especially true ( c>bon1 :i* is fre$ f its comb9ation ) oxyg51 t is1 f c>bonic acid1 by ! sun en]gy trans=m$ 9 ! plants4 ,:ile c>bon s]ves to build up ! plant body & repres5ts its supply ( *emical en]gy1 ! oxyg5 is return$ to ! air4 ,^! two sub/ances are aga9 *emically comb9$ 9 ! v>i\s organisms & ! quantities ( en]gy :i* 7 necess>y = _! decomposition are aga9 available = ! manifold functions ( life4 ,! product ( ! *emical comb9ation1 c>bonic acid1 returns to ! air & is ready = r5ew$ decomposition 9 ! plants4 ,?us1 ! entire me*anism ( life c be comp>$ to a wat]-:eel4 ,! free en]gy corresponds to ! wat]1 :i* mu/ fl[ 9 "o direction ?r\gh ! :eel 9 ord] to provide x ) ! necess>y am\nt ( "w4 ,! *emical elem5ts ( ! organisms correspond to ! :eel1 :i* con/antly turns 9 a circle z x transf]s ! en]gy ( ! fall+ wat] to ! individual p>ts ( ! ma*9e4 #ef4 ,! ,s\l4 ,our obs]vations s f> h %[n ! organisms to be extremely specializ$ individual in/ances ( physico-*emical ma*9es4 ,n[ we h to take into consid]ation a prop]ty :i* seems m>k$ly to di/+ui% !m f ! lifeless ma*9es1 & :i* we h already enc\nt]$ 9 ! v beg9n+ ( our treatise4 ,x is ! prop]ty :i* we !re call$ memory1 & :i* we w def9e 9 a v g5]al way z ! quality by virtue ( :i* ! repetition 9 organisms ( a process :i* has tak5 place a numb] ( times is pref]r$ to new processes1 because x orig9ates m easily & proce$s m smoo?ly4 ,x is readily app>5t t by ?is prop]ty ! organisms are enabl$ to travel on ! sea ( physical possibilities z if equipp$ ) a keel1 by :i* ! voyage is made /able & ! keep+ ( ! c\rse is assur$4 ,if we ask :e!r ?is is exclusively a quality ( organisms ! "q _c be answ]$ affirmatively4 ,inanimate bodies also h some?+ l ! quality ( adaptation4 ,an accurate clock atta9s its valuable qualities only aft] x has be5 go+ = "s "t1 & ! be/ viol9 is raw until x has be5 brok5 94 ,an accumulator mu/ be =m$ be=e x c d its normal am\nt ( "w4 ,all ^! processes are due to ! fact t ! repetition ( ! same process improves ! action1 t is1 x facilitates or increases x4 ,adaptation or memory1 !n1 is n limit$ to organisms4 ,9 inanimate ?+s1 h[ev]1 ?is prop]ty is comp>atively r>e4 ,memory1 !re=e1 is to be reg>d$ z ano!r prop]ty ( organisms repres5t+ an extreme specialization ( ! inorganic possibilities4 ,?is is an important po9t ( view = :at foll[s4 ,9 ! fir/ place1 ?is prop]ty ( adaptation facilitates & assures n\ri%m5t4 ,if we take ! fundam5tal idea develop$ by ,d>w91 t t pr$om9ates 9 ! _w :i* by virtue ( its prop]ties endures ! longe/ "t1 !n x is evid5t t a body :i* teleologically pres]ves & elaborates its n\ri%m5t w live long] ?an a simil> body )\t ?is prop]ty4 ,moreov]1 by ! g5]al process ( adaptation1 ^! teleological prop]ties come to be m greatly develop$ & m readily ex]cis$ 9 ! body t lives long]1 s t its long life gives x ano!r advantage ov] its rival4 ,?us we c und]/& h[ ?is prop]ty ( adaptation1 :i* at fir/ is to be conceiv$ ( z a purely physico-*emical quality is f\nd develop$ 9 all organisms4 ,9 its mo/ primitive =ms ! quality ( adaptation gives rise to ! ph5om5a ( reaction1 or to reflex actions1 t is1 to a s]ies ( processes 9 ! organism 9 response to ! /imulus ( an outw>d en]gy4 ,?is response is made 9 fur!rance ( ! life ( ! organism4 ,reactions t s]ve a c]ta9 end1 t is1 teleological reactions1 c naturally be develop$ to su* /imuli alone to :i* ! organism is frequ5tly & regul>ly subject$4 ,?is is :y adaptation to unusual ph5om5a is g5]ally lack+1 & 9 relation to !m ! organisms are (t5 extremely unfit4 ,! typical example ( ?is is ! mo?1 :i* flies into ! light & is burn$4 ,z ! reactions become m fix$ !y develop into long] & m complicat$ s]ies1 :i* !n appe> to u z in/9ctive actions4 ,b "h1 too1 we f9d ! *>act]i/ic unsuitability :5 unwont$ circum/ances arise1 ev5 if ! teleologic reactions to /imuli become m manifold4 ,f9ally1 !re are ! consci\s acts :i* appe> to u to be ! highe/ degree ( ! s]ies4 ,x is ) ! teleologic regulation ( ^! consci\s acts1 includ+ ! v highe/ activities ( mank9d1 t ?is book deals4 ,!y are di/+ui%$ f in/9ctive action by ! fact t !y no long] proce$ 9 a s+le & def9ite s]ies1 b are comb9$ at ne$ 9 ! mo/ manifold ways4 ,b ! fundam5tal fact1 namely1 t actions are bas$ ^u ! repetition ( co9cid+ exp]i5ces1 at once appe>s "h also1 s9ce ! basis ( ! entire consci\s life ( ! s\l1 ! =mation ( concepts1 is made possible only ?r\gh repetition4 ,?us1 we are ju/ifi$ 9 reg>d+ ! v>i\s degrees ( m5tal activity f ! simple/ reflex manife/ation to ! highe/ m5tal act z a connect$ s]ies ( increas+ly manifold & purposive actions proce$+ f ! same physico-*emical & physiological f\ndation4 #eg4 ,feel+1 ,?9k+1 ,act+4 ,= good reasons x is g5]ally assum$ t ! organisms h n always be5 :at !y are n[1 b h develop$ f previ\s simpl] =ms4 ,x is undecid$ :e!r orig9ally !re 7 "o or sev]al =ms f :i* ! pres5t =ms sprang1 nor is x kn[n h[ life fir/ made its appe>ance on e>?4 ,s long z ! v>i\s assumptions ) reg>d to ?is "q h n l$ to decisive1 actually demon/rable diff]5ces 9 ! results1 a discussion ( x is fruitless1 & !re=e unsci5tific4 ,! usual ^w evolution is non-purposive 9 s f> z x signifies ! appe>ance ( some?+ already exi/+4 ,ano!r conception is bett] accord+ to :i* ! influ5ce ( *ang$ conditions ( exi/5ce has yield$ ! mo/ important factor ( *ange4 ,! *ange t ! organisms und]go is always 9 a def9ite direction4 ,m & m complex & manifold =ms are evolv$1 & ! evolution ( ^! =ms is *>act]iz$ by an ev] great] specialization ( ! functions ( life1 s t e specially develop$ organ comes to p]=m b "o function4 ,x is true t by ?is means ! organism is bett] fitt$ to p]=m ^? functions1 b at ! same "t x gr[s m susceptible to injury1 s9ce its exi/5ce dep5ds ^u ! prop] simultane\s activity ( _m diff]5t organs4 ,su* an evolution1 !re=e1 c occur only :5 ! g5]al conditions ( life h gr[n /eadi]1 s t ! dang] ( di/urbance becomes less4 ,we are accu/om$ to reg>d *anges 9 ?is direction z high] developm5ts1 & ! progressive simplifications ( ! organization 7z = example 9 p>asites7 z backw>d /eps4 ,s9ce our op9ion z to :at con/itutes a high] & a l[] organism is d\btless arbitr>y1 let u ask :e!r x is n possible to f9d an objective /&>d by :i* to measure ! relative p]fection ( ! diff]5t organisms4 ,! "q mu/ be answ]$ 9 ! affirmative :5 we take into consid]ation ! foll[+4 ,s9ce ! quantity ( available free en]gy ^u ! e>? is limit$1 ! organism :i* trans=ms ! en]gy at its disposal m completely & ) ! lea/ loss into ! =ms ( en]gy necess>y = ! function ( life1 mu/ be reg>d$ z ! m p]fect organism4 ,9 fact1 we obs]ve t ) increas+ complexity ( ! organisms !re is = ! mo/ "p also an increas+ improvem5t 9 t direction1 & we c !re=e speak ( "s be+s z m p]fect ?an o!rs4 ,?is view-po9t is especially significant 9 ! evaluation ( human progress1 appe>+1 z x does1 z ! g5]al /&>d ( all civilization4 ,! p]fection ( ! organism %[s itself 9 relation to ! out] _w 9 ! developm5t ( ! s5se organs4 ,:ile a s+le-cell$ animal reacts almo/ exclusively to *emical1 sometimes also to optical1 /imuli1 & receives ^! ) ! entire surface ( its body1 special p>ts ( ! body develop m & m t[>d p]fection4 ,^! are ! p>ts t respond ) special ease to ! appropriate /imuli1 t is1 react to !m ) an increas+ly small] exp5diture ( en]gy4 ,!n ! po9ts at :i* ! /imuli are receiv$ are sep>at$ f ^? 9 :i* ! reaction occurs1 & ! two are connect$ by conduct+ pa?s1 ! n]ves1 9 :i* an en]gy process takes place4 ,our pres5t k ( ?is process /ill leaves mu* to be desir$4 ,x is a process :i* moves ) fairly great b by no means extraord9>y rapidity 7ab\t t5 to ?irty met]s p] second7 along ! conduct+ pa?s4 ,at ! "o end ( ?is pa? x is caus$ by actions ( v>i\s k9ds1 *iefly t ( ! specific en]gy1 = :i* ! s5se organ is develop$4 ,at ! o!r end x dis*>ges specific effects4 ,!re is no d\bt t "h we h 9 ea* in/ance a case ( en]gy trans=mation connect$ ) a dis*>ge1 t is1 ) ! action ( o!r en]gies :i* lie at ! ends ready = *ange4 ,h5ce !re is no equival5ce betwe5 ! diff]5t k9ds ( en]gy1 ! dis*>g+ & ! dis*>g$1 mo/ly n ev5 a proportional relation1 al?\gh bo? increase & decrease simultane\sly4 ,:at ! =m ( ! en]gy is t is propagat$ 9 ! n]ves is unkn[n4 ,x c be ei!r a special =m :i* arises only "u ! conditions "h pres5t 7j z1 = example1 a galvanic /ream develops only "u def9ite *emical & spacial conditions71 or a special comb9ation ( kn[n en]gies1 z 9 s\nd & probably 9 light4 ,"s day1 x is likely1 we %all h a m accurate k ( ! n]ve process :i* w solve ! "q4 ,:5 su* a process is caus$ by "s en]gy impulse f )\t1 x may produce v>i\s results4 ,9 ! simple/ case x dis*>ges ! correspond+ reaction1 j z ! leaves ( ! s5sitive plant close :5 !y are t\*$4 ,or x may give rise to a s]ies ( processes foll[+ "o ano!r l ! in/9ctive actions4 ,or1 f9ally1 x may br+ ab\t a s]ies ( inn] processes :i* lead to an extreme diff]5tiation ( slight diff]5ces ( ?is /imulus & to a correspond+ grad$ reaction ) ! anticipation ( success4 ,we call ?is consci\s ?9k+1 will+1 & act+4 ,?r\gh ! age-long effect ( ! blund] committ$ by ,plato 9 mak+ a fundam5tal di/9ction betwe5 m5tal life & physical life1 we exp]i5ce ! utmo/ difficulty 9 habituat+ ourselves to ! ?\ght ( ! regul> connection betwe5 ! simple/ physiological & ! highe/ intellectual acts4 ,moreov]1 ?is contra/ has be5 acc5tuat$ by ! me*anical hypo!sis4 ,if we ab&on ! me*anical hypo!sis & adh]e to ! summ>ization ( exp]i5ce free f all hypo!ses1 z repres5t$ 9 ! sci5ce ( en]gy1 ?is contra/ disappe>s4 ,= ev5 if we conc$e ! impossibility ( conceiv+ ?\ght z me*anical1 !re is no difficulty 9 conceiv+ ( x z en]getic1 especially s9ce we "k t m5tal "w is connect$ ) exp5diture ( en]gy & exhau/ion j z physical "w is4 ,h[ev]1 ! elucidation ( ?is subject lies almo/ entirely 9 ! future s9ce ! idea j develop$ has b only begun to influ5ce sci5tific "w 9 ?is field4 ,b judg+ f ! results t h already be5 obta9$ we may hope = a spe$y developm5t4 #eh4 ,society4 ,! ext]nal circum/ance t z an organism multiplies ! new be+ mu/ come to life 9 ! proximity ( ! old] "o1 is 9 itself cause = ! =mation ( clos$ gr\ps conf9$ to c]ta9 localities by animal organisms ( ! same species4 ,b !y become scatt]$ if ! advantage ( _! liv+ toge!r is n su* z to outweigh ! disadvantage ( hav+ a n>r[ field ( competition = ! means ( su/5ance4 ,?us we see diff]5t plants & animals behav+ diff]5tly 9 ?is respect4 ,:ile "s species live 9 z great isolation z possible1 o!rs =m communities1 ev5 if !re is no me*anical tie to hold !m toge!r by a common integum5t4 ,s9ce ! second case is true ( man 9 a highly m>k$ degree1 8 social *>act]i/ics & ne$s =m a l>ge & important "p ( 8 life4 ,& s9ce1 fur!r1 ! socialization ( man makes cont9u\s headway ) increas+ civilization--we ne$ b ?9k ( ! developm5t ( ! =m] little gr\ps & tribes into /ates & ! pres5t v active int]nationalization ( ! mo/ important affairs ( mank9d1 especially ( ! sci5ces--! social problems also occupy an ev] l>g] place 9 ! organization ( human life4 ,:at di/+ui%es man mo/ ess5tially f ! o!r animals1 ev5 ! mo/ advanc$1 is 8 capacity = p]fection1 :i* 9 ! l[] animal c be p>allel$ at be/ by its capacity = self-pres]vation4 ,:ile ! organization ( ! animals )9 ! %ort p]iod ( :i* we h any hi/orical k has to all appe>ances rema9$ ess5tially un*ang$1 ! _w ( mank9d has *ang$ 9 q a rem>kable way4 ,?is *ange consi/s 9 an increas+ subjection ( ! ext]nal _w to human purposes1 & re/s ^u ! increas+ socialization ( 8 capacities4 ,memory & h]$ity 7! latt] be+ b an ext5sion ( memory to ! (fspr+1 :i* is to be conceiv$ ( z a "p ( ! old] organism7 secures 9 ! fir/ place only ! pres]vation ( ! /ock & ! r5ew$ developm5t ( ! new individual 9 ! av]age type4 ,if a specially favor$ individual succe$s 9 accompli%+ great] a*ievem5ts1 he may 9 favorable circum/ances transmit ?is capacity = high] atta9m5ts to 8 (fspr+4 ,b su* individuals ga9 an advantage 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce only if ! o!r sides ( _! activity d n suff] curtailm5t z a result4 ,) ! limit$ am\nt ( en]gy at ! individual's disposal e extraord9>y accompli%m5t involves a correspond+ "o-sid$ness1 & z soon z a c]ta9 measure is slightly ov]/epp$1 x w cause a r$uction ( ! o!r functions :i* w r5d] ! individual less fit 9 ! /ruggle = exi/5ce4 ,b ?is is true only s long z an individual mu/ live by himself4 ,z soon z he =ms "p ( a social organization :i* b5efits by 8 p>ticul> activity1 ! organization comp5sates = ! p]sonal disadvantages by its collective activity1 & a social community n only f9ds room = su* special developm5ts1 b x ev5 enc\rages & promotes !m4 ,we h already se5 t su* manife/ations occur )9 ! organism itself4 ,high] functions1 dep5d+ ^u ! high] susceptibility ( ! s5se organs1 c only be atta9$ at ! exp5se ( ! g5]al functions by ! organ 9 "q4 ,we obs]ve ?is fact 9 all socially organiz$ be+s1 l bees & ants1 :i* display a high degree ( specialization 9 ! functions ( ! individual subord9ate gr\ps2 ! specialization (t5 be+ c>ri$ s f> t ! individual gr\ps c no long] subsi/ by !mselves alone4 ,x is only ! organization z a :ole t is capable ( p]man5t exi/5ce4 ,:ile ! evolution ( su* sup]ior functions involves a correspond+ diff]5tiation1 & !re=e a division & sep>ation ( ! sup]ior functions )9 ! social /ructure1 ! necessity = communication & = mutual support results 9 an approximation ( ! individuals & ! gr\ps4 ,9 e society1 !re=e1 ! c5trifugal & ! c5tripetal =ces "w simultane\sly 9 co-op]ation & 9 opposition to "o ano!r4 ,:ile ! extreme specialization on ! "o h& seems to make = ! be/ individual function+1 on ! o!r h& x r5d]s ! entire collective /ructure mu* m dep5d5t1 & !re=e mu* m subject to injury1 z is %[n by ! example ( ! que5 bee1 ^: dep>ture ?reat5s ! exi/5ce ( ! entire hive4 ,?us a m$ium degree ( diff]5tiation w z a g5]al rule produce ! mo/ p]man5t social /ructure4 #ei4 ,language & ,int]c\rse4 ,! ess5tial value ( ! social organization resides 9 ! fact t ! "w ( ! individual1 9 s f> z x is adapt$ to x1 accrues to ! b5efit ( ! collective :ole4 ,= ?is x is absolutely ess5tial t ! memb]s ( ! collectivity %\ld be able to h int]c\rse ) "o ano!r 9 ord] t e "p ( ! g5]al activity may be communicat$ to ! o!rs4 ,?is int]c\rse is obta9$ ?r\gh language 9 ! mo/ g5]al s5se4 ,we h already le>n$ t ! ess5ce ( language consi/s 9 ! co-ord9ation ( concept to sign4 ,! social application ( language dem&s t ! signs co-ord9at$ to ! concepts 9 use %\ld be ! same = all ! memb]s ( ! social organization4 ,only 9 ?is way c ! memb]s make !mselves mutually und]/ood4 ,b intelligible means ( communication & division ( labor imp>t to ! social k t is set d[n 9 writ+ a k9d ( indep5d5t exi/5ce4 ,_m c5turies ago ! possibility ceas$ = "o p]son to /ore 9 8 memory ! entire /ock ( human k4 ,n[adays we h m5 :o are v]s$ only 9 s+le p>ts ( sep>ate sci5ces1 & ! aggregate k appe>s at fir/ to be a unity exi/+ only 9 ?\ght4 ,b because ?is k is set d[n 9 signs :i* endure f> beyond ! life ( ! individual & at ! appropriate mom5t c unfold its entire p[] ev5 aft] a long p]iod ( inactivity1 x has acquir$ an exi/5ce ( a social "* indep5d5t ( ! individual4 ,= al?\gh x survives ! individual1 x _c survive ! dea? ( human society4 ,z ! socialization ( all mank9d advances to ev] great] unities1 ! l+ui/ic limitations sprung f =m] /ages ( evolution prove to be a h9drance4 ,! "m tongue1 ( c\rse1 =ms ! fir/ & mo/ important entry = ! individual to ! common /ore ( k4 ,b 9 view ( ! l+ui/ic limitation ( :i* ,i h j spok5 ! ef=ts 9 our day are c>ri$ on ) r5ew$ zeal to create a univ]sal auxili>y language 7p4 #ajj7 by means ( :i* int]c\rse %\ld be made possible beyond ! language b\nd>ies4 ,!re h already be5 gratify+ results4,i ,i ,at ! pres5t "t ,ido is ! be/4 ,x is a highly practicable artificial language1 & its advocates h succe$$ 9 organiz+ x to insure its normal developm5t4 ,an old] & /ill r widespread =m call$ ,esp]anto has fail$ to organize itself s z to insure its developm5t & x mu/ inevitably die out4 #fj4 ,civilization4 ,ev]y?+ :i* s]ves ! social progress ( mank9d is appropriately call$ civilization or culture1 & ! objective *>act]i/ic ( progress consi/s 9 improv$ me?ods = seiz+ & utiliz+ ! raw en]gies ( nature = human purposes4 ,?us x 0 a cultural act :5 a primitive man discov]$ t he c\ld ext5d ! radius ( 8 muscle en]gy by tak+ a pole 9 8 h&1 & x 0 ano!r cultural act :5 a primitive man discov]$ t by ?r[+ a /one he c\ld s5d 8 muscle en]gy a di/ance ( _m met]s to ! desir$ po9t4 ,! effect ( ! knife1 ! spe>1 ! arr[1 & ( all ! o!r primitive implem5ts c be call$ 9 ea* case a purposive trans=mation ( en]gy4 ,& at ! o!r end ( ! scale ( civilization ! mo/ ab/ract sci5tific discov]y1 by reason ( its g5]alization & simplification1 signifies a correspond+ economy ( en]gy = all ! com+ g5]ations t may h any?+ to d ) ! matt]4 ,?us1 9 fact1 ! concept ( progress z "h def9$ embraces ! entire sweep ( human endeavor = p]fection1 or ! entire field ( culture1 & at ! same "t x %[s ! great sci5tific value ( ! concept ( en]gy4 ,if we consid] fur!r t1 accord+ to ! second fundam5tal pr9ciple1 ! free en]gy accessible to u c only decrease1 b n increase1 :ile ! numb] ( m5 ^: exi/5ce dep5ds directly on ! consumption ( a due am\nt ( free en]gy is con/antly on ! increase1 !n we at once see ! objective necessity ( ! developm5t ( civilization 9 t s5se4 ,8 =esight puts man 9 a position to act culturally4 ,b if we exam9e our pres5t social ord] f ?is po9t ( view1 we realize ) horror h[ b>b>\s x /ill is4 ,n only d murd] & w> de/roy cultural values )\t sub/itut+ o!rs 9 _! place1 n only d ! c\ntless conflicts :i* take place betwe5 ! diff]5t nations & political organizations act anticulturally1 b s d also ! conflicts betwe5 ! v>i\s social classes ( "o nation1 = !y de/roy quantities ( free en]gy :i* are ?us )drawn f ! total ( real cultural values4 ,at pres5t mank9d is 9 a /ate ( developm5t 9 :i* progress dep5ds mu* less ^u ! lead]%ip ( a few di/+ui%$ individuals ?an ^u ! collective labor ( all work]s4 ,pro( ( ?is is t x is com+ to be m & m ! fact t ! great sci5tific discov]ies are made simultane\sly by a numb] ( indep5d5t inve/igators--an indication t society creates 9 sev]al places ! individual conditions requisite = su* discov]ies4 ,?us we are liv+ at a "t :5 m5 are gradually approximat+ "o ano!r v closely 9 _! natures1 & :5 ! social organization !re=e dem&s & /rives = z ?or\gh an equalization z possible 9 ! conditions ( exi/5ce ( all m54 ,,index ,above & bel[1 di/9ction betwe51 #aba ,ab/ract1 concrete &1 #af ff4 ,ab/raction1 #bj ,action1 consci\s1 #agd2 in/9ctive1 #agd ,adaptation1 #agb ff4 ,a]ome*anics1 #adg ,algebra1 #hj ,alik5ess1 def9ition (1 #ea ff4 ,allotropic *anges1 #afa ,analysis1 inf9itesimal1 #aaa ,analytic geometry1 #abb ff4 ,analytic judgm5ts1 #ff ,an?ropology1 #eg ,ants1 specialization (1 #aha ,appli$ sci5ces1 #eg ff4 ,a priori judgm5ts1 #dd ,ari/otle1 #ch1 #ff ,ari/otle's logic1 #bb ,ari?metic1 #gi ff4 ,ass]tions1 nev] absolutely correct1 #ec ,association1 #fc ff41 #ha ,a/ronomic objective1 #f ,a/ronomy z an appli$ sci5ce1 #eh ,atomic hypo!sis 9 *emi/ry1 #adb ,atoms1 #ada ,bees1 specialization (1 #aha ,biological sci5ces1 #ee2 life mo/ g5]al concept 91 #ef ,botany1 #ef ,cs>1 ,julius1 #gf ,capill>y ph5om5a1 #adf ,capill>y !ory1 #adg ,c>bon1 its circulation ?r\gh plants & animals1 #aga2 life bas$ on ! en]gy (1 #afh ,c>bonic acid1 #aga ,c>not1 ,sadi1 #aea ,causal relation1 purification (1 #cd ff4 ,causation1 ! law (1 #ca ff4 ,*emical comb9ations1 #ga ff42 quantitative relations 91 #gd ,*emical en]gy1 #aei ff42 capable ( p[]ful conc5tration1 #afa2 diff]5t =ms (1 #aei ,*emical =mulas repres5t concepts n s\nds1 #ie ,*emi/ry1 #bj1 #dg1 #ee2 significance (1 #afj ff4 ,*9ese script bas$ on direct co-ord9ation1 #ic ,civilization1 #ahd ff4 ,classification1 n def9ite1 #b2 purpose (1 #b-d ,classification ( ! sci5ces1 #ec ff4 ,collective activity1 #aha ,comb9ation1 sequ5ce 91 #gc ff4 ,comb9ations1 !ory (1 #ga ,comb9atory s*ematization1 #gc2 9 *emi/ry1 #ga ff42 9 physics1 #gb ,communication1 #aha ,community among plants & animals1 #agi ,comp>ison1 #hb ,comte1 ,augu/e1 #ed ,concept1 ! mo/ g5]al1 #fa ff4 ,concepts1 arbitr>y1 #bc2 complex1 #bc2 complex empirical1 #bc2 def9ition (1 #af2 empirical1 #ah2 =mation (1 #ai2 g5]al1 #bf2 9 ceaseless flux1 #hh2 sci5ce (1 #ae ff41 #abb2 simple1 #bj2 simple & complex1 #ai ff4 ,conclusion1 !1 #bd ff42 analytic1 #ff2 sci5tific1 #bg1 #cj1 #ff ff4 ,concrete & ab/ract1 #af ff4 ,conjugacy1 mo/ g5]al concept 9 =mal sci5ces1 #ef ,consci\s action1 #agd ,consci\s ?9k+1 will+1 & act+1 #agh ,cons]vation ( en]gy1 ! law ( !1 #ace ff4 ,cons]vation ( matt]1 #ach ,cons]vation ( ! sum ( "w & k9etic en]gy1 ! law ( !1 #acd ,cons]vation ( "w1 ! law ( !1 #acj ,cons]vation1 quantitative1 #aca ,cont9uity1 #aja ff42 ! law (1 #aac ff4 ,co-ord9at$ signs1 *ange 91 #hh ff4 ,co-ord9ation1 #hj ff42 a means ( obta9+ facts )\t deal+ directly ) ! correspond+ realities1 #hg2 betwe5 concept & ^w n unambigu\s1 #hi2 betwe5 concept & writt5 sign1 direct & indirect1 #ib ff42 id5tity ! limit case 91 #hb2 integral numb]s ! be/ basis (1 #he2 9 use among primitive m5 & high] animals1 #hg2 its importance1 #he2 me?odology ( ! sci5ces bas$ ^u1 #he2 ( numb]s ) signs1 #ij ff42 possibility ( unambigu\s1 #hh ,cop]nican !ory1 #aag ff4 ,cop]nicus1 #aag1 #ada ,corpuscul> !ory ( light1 #e1 #aeg ,c\nt+1 #he ff42 def9$1 #he2 purpose (1 #hf ,culture1 see ,civilization ,d>w91 8 fundam5tal !ory1 #agc ,d$uction1 #dj ff42 ! process (1 #da ff4 ,d$uctive sci5ces1 #ch ,det]m9at5ess1 absolute1 only 9 ideal _w1 #ej ,det]m9at5ess ( ?+s1 !1 #dg ff4 ,det]m9ism1 #dh1 #ea ,diff]5tial ,calculus1 see ,diff]5tials ,diff]5tials1 #aab ,d\ble numb]s or d\ble po9ts 9 a gr\p1 #hb ,dynamics1 #abh ff42 def9ition (1 #aci ,ela/icity1 #ade ,ela/ic undulatory !ory ( light1 see ,wave !ory ( light ,electricity1 pr9cipal s\rce (1 #aef ,electricity & magnetism1 #aed ff4 ,electromagnetic !ory ( light1 #aeg ff4 ,electrote*nics1 #aef ,empirical sci5ces1 #ch ,en]getic me*anics1 #ach ff4 ,en]gy1 a sub/ance1 #acf2 at re/1 #aed2 free1 #aed2 importance ( concept (1 #abh2 9 n]ves1 #agg2 ! mo/ g5]al concept 9 ! physical sci5ces1 #ef2 ( =m1 #ade2 ( volume1 #ade ,en]gy int5sity1 #aec ,erg1 def9ition (1 #aej ,esp]anto1 #ahc1 note ,euclid1 #dd1 #adj ,european-,am]ican scripts bas$ on indirect co-ord9ation1 #ic ,exp]i5ce1 incomplet5ess (1 #bg2 m limit$ ?an ! conceivable1 #aah ,exp]i5ces1 di/+ui%$ by be+ famili>1 #ca2 limit$ k (1 #ca ,exp]i5tial sci5ces1 see ,empirical sci5ces ,extrapolation1 #df1 #ej1 #ajd ,famili>ity due to recall+ =m] simil> exp]i5ces1 #aa ,fe*n]1 #ajb ,feel+1 ?9k+1 act+1 #agd ff4 ,=ce1 #abi ff41 #aec ,=mal sci5ces1 #ed2 are empirical sci5ces1 #ee2 ord] mo/ g5]al concept 91 #ef ,f\cault's p5dulum exp]im5t1 #aba ,fre$om ( ! w1 #ej ff4 ,frequ5cy ( process facilitates repetition1 #aa ff4 ,function1 #aji ff42 cont9u\s & discont9u\s1 #aaj2 mo/ g5]al concept 9 =mal sci5ces1 #ef ,functional relation1 ! application ( !1 #aab ff4 ,functions1 ! !ory (1 #aaa ,fundam5tal pr9ciple1 ! second1 #aej ff4 ,gases1 #ade ,g5]alization1 suitable place =1 9 text-books1 #i ff4 ,geometry1 #dg1 #ed1 #aai1 #abg2 anci5t & mod]n me?ods (1 #aaj ff4 ,goe!1 #ii ,good usage 9 language1 #ajj ,grammatical correctness1 importance atta*$ to1 #ii ,grammatical rules1 #ig ,gravitation pot5tial1 !1 #aab ,gr\p1 !1 #fe ff42 d\ble memb]s or d\ble po9ts 91 #hb2 l9e> arrangem5t ( memb]s (1 #ge ff4 ,gr\ps1 artificial & natural1 #fi ff42 clos$1 among animals1 #agi2 inf9ite1 equality (1 #hd2 relat$1 #fi ff42 unequivocal ord] (1 #hc ,heat1 me*anical equival5t (1 #adi2 !ory (1 #adg ff4 ,heat en]gy1 #adh ff4 ,heat eng9e1 #aea2 ideal1 #aea ff4 ,heat quantity1 #adh ff4 ,heliotrope1 #ij ,h]b>t1 #ajb ,h]$ity1 #ahj ,high] analysis1 #aaa ,homonym1 #hi ,hydrome*anics1 #adg ,ideal cases1 #dd ff4 ,ideal ma*9es1 #acb ,id5tity1 ! limit case 9 co-ord9ation1 #hb ,ido1 #ahc1 note ,imp]fection1 inde/ructible quality ( sci5ce1 #d ,incomplet5ess1 no h9drance to effici5cy ( sci5ce1 #e ,inde/ructibility ( matt]1 see ,cons]vation ( matt] ,indo-,arabic notation1 #ia ,induction1 #ch2 ! complete & ! incomplete1 #ci ,inductive sci5ces1 #ch ,inf]5ce1 by induction1 #ch2 f analogy1 #adj ,inf9itesimal analysis1 #aaa ,inorganic _w1 lack ( memory & =esight 91 #cc ,insoluble problems1 #adb ,in/9ctive action1 #agd ,int]c\rse1 language &1 #ahb ff4 ,isolation among plants & animals1 #agi ,isom]ic1 #gd ,isom]ic *anges1 #afa ,judgm5ts1 analytic1 #ff ,kant1 #dd1 #ff1 #aje ,kepl]1 #ada ,k9etic en]gy1 #acb2 & "w1 _! sum con/ant1 #acc ff42 trans=m$ into "w & vice v]sa1 #acd ,k1 aim (1 #ai2 individual1 comp>$ to telephone1 #g ff42 limit$1 #ca2 possibility ( error 91 in]adicable1 #dj2 social "* (1 #ahc ,language1 beg9n+s (1 #hh2 defective 9 co-ord9ation1 #if2 di/9ction betwe5 sci5ce & k (1 #ih2 good usage 91 #ajj2 & int]c\rse1 #ahb ff42 ne$less inflections 91 #ii ff42 ( words m imp]fect ?an writt5 language1 #ib2 purpose ( its cultivation1 #ii2 ! sci5ce (1 #ig ff42 unambiguity ! ideal (1 #hi2 a univ]sal auxili>y1 #ajj2 writt51 #hi ff4 ,leibnitz1 #hh2 8 doctr9e ( pre-e/abli%$ h>mony1 #adc2 inv5tor ( diff]5tials1 #aab ,life1 #afc ff42 ! mo/ g5]al concept 9 ! biological sci5ces1 #ef ,light1 #e1 #aef ff4 ,liquids1 #ade ,locke1 ,john1 #ba ff41 #hh2 8 elaboration ( ! notion ( simple & complex ideas1 #ba2 8 second>y qualities1 #abg ,logic1 #ed1 #fg ff42 cont5t (1 #ai2 def9ition (1 #ae ff4 ,lu!r1 #ii ,magnetism1 electricity &1 #aed ff4 ,man1 comp>$ to pair ( sieves1 #cd2 8 capacity = p]fection1 #ahj ,manifold1 ! sci5ce ( !1 #ed ,mass1 #acb ff41 #acf ff42 a sub/ance1 #ach ,ma!matical laws1 accuracy (1 #aje ,ma!matics1 #ed2 an empirical sci5ce1 #ee2 influ5ce on1 ( concept ( cont9uity1 #aaa2 its progress aft] introduction ( ,indo-,arabic num]als & algebraic signs1 #aja ,matt]1 def9ition (1 #ach ,may]1 ,julius ,rob]t1 #adi2 8 discov]y ( ! law ( cons]vation1 #aea ,measurem5t1 #ajg ,me*anical en]gies1 #add ,me*anics1 #ee1 #abh ff42 complem5t>y bran*es (1 #add ff42 def9ition (1 #ach2 e>ly developm5t (1 #aci2 en]getic1 #ach ff42 ! fir/ bran* ( physics treat$ ma!matically1 #aci2 pure or classical1 #add ,me*ani/ic hypo!sis1 !1 z an int]pretation ( all natural ph5om5a1 #adb2 especially injuri\s 9 /udy ( m5tal ph5om5a1 #adb ,me*ani/ic !ories1 #adj ff4 ,me*ani/ic !ory ( ! univ]se1 #acb ,me*anization ( a/ronomy1 #ada ,memory1 #af1 #cb1 #ahj2 def9ition (1 #agb2 g5]al *>act]i/ic (1 #fa2 lack (1 9 inorganic _w1 #ec ,metabolism1 #afe ,me?odology ( ! sci5ces bas$ ^u co-ord9ation1 #he ,microscope1 #f ,motion1 ! sci5ce (1 #ed1 #abb2 un9flu5c$1 #abb ,musical notation1 #ic ,names1 arbitr>9ess (1 #fb2 signs &1 #hf ff4 ,natural laws1 #bh ff42 def9ition (1 #bh2 _! ext5t dep5d5t ^u /age ( k 9 ea* sci5ce1 #g2 _! usual orig91 #db ff42 pr$iction f1 only approximate1 #dh ,natural philosophy1 def9ition (1 #a2 importance (1 9 /udy ( sci5ce1 #aj2 place (1 9 text-books1 #i ff4 ,negation1 #fh ff4 ,n]ves1 #agg ,n]v\s dis*>ge1 #agg ,newton1 ,sir ,isaac1 #ada ,numb] gr\ps1 unlimit$1 #gh ,numb]s1 #gh ff42 !ory (1 #hj ,num]als1 co-ord9ation (1 ) signs1 #hf ,num]ical names diff]5t 9 diff]5t languages1 #hf ,num]ical signs int]national1 #hf ,nutrition1 #afe ,objective1 a/ronomic1 #f2 photographic1 #f ,objective "* ( ! _w1 #cd ,optical telegraph1 #ij ,optics1 geometric1 #e ,optic signs1 #ij ,ord]1 mo/ g5]al concept 9 =mal sci5ces1 #ef ,organisms1 /&>d = measur+ relative p]fection (1 #agf2 /ation>y =ms1 #afc ,or?ography1 ef=ts to improve1 #ii2 ,engli%1 defective 9 co-ord9ation1 #if2 exagg]at$ importance ( correctness 91 #ii2 mi/akes 91 #ig2 re=m (1 #ig ,p>abolic curve1 #dh ,p>adoxes ( ! inf9ite1 #hd ,pasigraphy1 #ib ff42 ,*9ese sy/em (1 #id ,p]man5t 9 *ange1 !1 #aca ,p]petual motion1 #acj ,p]petual motion ma*9e1 #aec ,philology1 #ig ff4 ,philosophy1 limit$ progress 91 #aja ,phonetic writ+1 #cc ff4 ,phoronomy1 #ed1 #aai1 #abb1 #abg ,photo*emical processes1 f\ndation ( t]re/ial life1 #afi ,photographic objective1 #f ,physical sci5ces1 #ee ,physics1 #dg1 #ee2 ea* bran* (1 treats ( a special k9d ( en]gy1 #aci ! sci5ce ( ! diff]5t k9ds ( en]gy1 #gb2 ,physiology1 #ee ff4 ,plato1 8 di/9ction betwe5 m5tal & physical life1 #agh ,pol>ity ( electricity & magnetism1 #aee ,political organizations1 conflicts betwe51 #ahe ,pr$iction1 #ab ,pre-e/abli%$ h>mony1 #adc ,pressure1 #adf1 #aed ,progress1 dep5ds on collective labor1 #ahe2 economy ( en]gy1 #ahd2 evaluation (1 #agf ,pseudo-problems 9 sci5ce1 #adb ,psy*ology1 #dg1 #ee ff4 ,psy*o-physical p>allelism1 #adc ,ptolemy's sy/em1 #aag ,pure sci5ce1 #eg ,quantity1 ! sci5ce (1 see ,ma!matics1 #ed ,radiant en]gy1 #aeg2 its importance to man1 #aeh ,rational sci5ces1 see ,d$uctive sci5ces ,rays1 /raight l9es (1 #e ,reaction1 teleological1 #agc ,reality1 #af ff4 ,reflection1 #e ,reflex action1 #agc ,refraction1 #e ,repetition1 basis ( consci\s life1 #agd ,reproduction1 #afe ff4 ,roman notation1 #ia ,sci5ce1 aim (1 #ac ff42 comp>ison (1 to a network1 #db2 comp>ison (1 to a tree or =e/1 #f2 def9ition (1 #ac2 et]nal tru? (1 #f ff42 = its own sake1 #ac ff42 ! facts (1 unalt]able1 #h ff42 ! function (1 #bc1 #cg2 importance ( !oretical1 #ae2 its proc$ure1 #de2 ! /udy ( happ9ess1 #bh ,sci5ces1 ! table ( !1 #ed ff4 ,sci5tific discov]ies1 indep5d5t simultane\s1 #ahe ,sci5tific in/9ct1 #dc ,sci5tific mat]ialism1 #ach ,sci5tific writt5 language bas$ on direct co-ord9ation1 #ic ,self-pres]vation1 #ahj ,s5se organs1 #agf ff4 ,%akespe>e1 #ii ,signs & names1 #hf ff4 ,social *>act]i/ics1 importance (1 #agi ff4 ,social classes1 conflicts betwe51 #ahe ,socialization ( human capacities1 #ahj ,social ord] /ill b>b>\s1 #ahe ,social organization1 #ahj2 h[ be/ obta9$1 #ahb2 its t5d5cy to equalize conditions1 #ahe2 secures p]man5ce among specializ$ individuals1 #aha ,social problems1 #agi ff4 ,society1 #agi ff42 c5trifugal & c5tripetal =ces 91 #aha ff42 division ( functions 91 #aha ,sociology1 #dg1 #ee1 #eg ,sol> radiation1 #afi ,s\l1 !1 #aga ff4 ,s\nd signs1 advantage & disadvantage (1 #hi ff4 ,s\nd writ+1 #cc ff41 #ib ff4 ,space1 f\r-dim5sional1 #gg1 note2 homog5eity (1 9 horizontal direction1 #aba2 ! sci5ce (1 #ed2 symmetrical & tri-dim5sional1 #aah2 "t &1 #aah ff42 tri-dim5sional1 #gf ,specialization1 "o-sid$ness (1 #ahj ff4 ,spell+ re=m1 #ig ,/able =ms1 #afc ,/atics1 #abh ff42 def9ition (1 #ach ff4 ,/ation>y bodies1 capable ( reg5]ation1 #afd ,/ation>y =ms1 #afc ,sub/ance1 #acb ,surface-en]gy1 #adf ,syllogism1 !1 classic me?od ( argum5tation1 #fe ff4 ,synonym1 #hi ,table ( ! sci5ces1 #ed ff4 ,telegraph1 optical1 #ij ,teleological prop]ties ( organisms1 #agc ,teleological reaction1 #agc ,telescope1 #e ,temp]ature1 #adh ,!oretical sci5ce1 importance (1 #ae ,!ory ( functions1 #aaa ,!ory ( numb]s1 #hj ,!rmo-*emi/ry1 #cg ,!rmo-dynamics1 #aec ,?+1 def9ition (1 #fb ff4 ,?\ght conceiv$ ( z en]getic1 #agh ,?re%old1 #ajb ,"t1 a =m ( inn] life1 #gf2 measurem5t (1 #abb2 "o-s]i$1 or "o-dim5sional1 #aah2 & space1 #aah ff4 ,unambiguity1 9 language1 #hi2 ( co-ord9ation ( numb]s to signs1 #ij ,univ]sal auxili>y language1 #ajj1 #ahc ,velocity1 #acc ,volume en]gy1 #ade ,w>1 #ahe ,wave surface1 #f ,wave !ory ( light1 #e1 #aeg ,weight1 #acb1 #acg ff42 a sub/ance1 #ach ,"w1 me*anical1 #abi2 product ( ! =ce & ! di/ance1 #acj2 a sub/ance 9 a limit$ s5se1 #acf ,writt5 language1 #hi ff4 ,writt5 signs1 #ij ,zoology1 #ef 99 99 99 99 99 ,am]ican ,public ,problems ,,edit$ ,,by ,,ralph ,,curtis ,,r+walt ,,immigration3 ,& ,its ,effects ,^u ! ,unit$ ,/ates ,by ,,prescott ,f4 ,,hall1 ,a4,b41 ,,ll4,b41 ,secret>y ( ! ,immigration ,re/riction ,league4 #cic pp4 #a4ej net4 ,by mail1 #a4fe4 ,%\ld prove int]e/+ to ev]yone4 ,v readable1 =ceful & conv9c+4 ,mr4 ,hall consid]s e possible phase ( ?is great "q & does x 9 a ma/]ly way t %[s n only t he ?or\ghly und]/&s x1 b t he is deeply int]e/$ 9 x & has /udi$ ev]y?+ be>+ ^u x4--,bo/on ,transcript4 ,a readable "w conta9+ a va/ am\nt ( valuable in=mation4 ,especially to be comm5d$ is ! discussion ( ! racial effects4 ,z a tru/wor?y g5]al guide x %\ld prove a gods5d4--,n4 ,y4 ,ev5+ ,po/4 ,e>ne/ & unprejudic$4444 ,_c fail to be ( great assi/ance 9 cl>ify+ & sett+ on a solid f\ndation ! ideas ( p :o are n[ becom+ conv9c$ t ! problems ( immigration 9 ! nation & ! municipality w soon rea* a m acute /age ?an ev] be=e4--,philadelphia ,press4 ,an auspici\s om5 ( ! wor? ( ,messrs4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company's rec5tly ann\nc$ s]ies on ,am]ican ,public ,problems4444 ,mr4 ,hall has be5 9 close t\* ) ! immigration movem5t & he writes ) a grasp & a fullness ( in=mation :i* mu/ comm5d 8 "w to e read]4444 ,a h&book 444 to :i* "o may turn conv5i5tly = in=mation = :i* he w\ld o!rwise be oblig$ to se>* ?r\gh _m a du/y docum5t4--,! ,_w ,to-day4 ,,! ,,election ,,( ,,s5ators ,by ,pr(essor ,,george ,h4 ,,haynes1 ,au?or ( ,repres5tation 9 ,/ate ,legislatures4 #cjj pp4 #a4ej net4 ,by mail #a4fe4 ,%[s ! hi/orical reasons = ! pres5t me?od1 & its effect on ! s5ate & s5ators1 & on /ate & local gov]nm5t1 ) a detail$ review ( ! argum5ts = & aga9/ direct election4 ,a timely book4444 ,pr(4 ,haynes is qualifi$ = a hi/orical & analytical treatise on ! subject ( ! ,s5ate4 --,n4 ,y4 ,ev5+ ,sun4 ,well wor? read+1 & unique because x is devot$ :olly to ! election ( s5ators & to ! delib]ations ( ! ,s5ate4 --,bo/on ,transcript4 ,able & dispassionate1 & ought to be widely read4 --,new ,york ,comm]cial4 ,( consid]able popul> z well z hi/orical int]e/4--,dial4 ,h5ry ,holt & ,company #bi ,,we/ #bc;,d ,,/reet ,,new ,,york ,r4 ,m4 ,,john/on',s ,,lead+ ,,am]ican ,,soldi]s ,biographies ( ,wa%+ton1 ,gre5e1 ,taylor1 ,scott1 ,&rew ,jackson1 ,grant1 ,%]man1 ,%]idan1 ,mc,clellan1 ,meade1 ,lee1 ,/onewall ,jackson1 ,joseph ,e4 ,johnson4 ,) portraits4 #a vol4 #a4ge net2 by mail #a4hh4 ,! fir/ ( a new s]ies ( biographies ( lead+ ,am]icans4 ,p]=ms a real s]vice 9 pres]v+ ! ess5tials4--,review ( ,reviews4 ,v int]e/+4444 ,mu* s\nd orig9ality ( treatm5t1 & ! /yle is cle>4--,spr+field ,republican4 ,,eliza ,r4 ,,scidmore',s ,,z ,,! ,,hague ,,orda9s ,j\rnal ( a ,russian ,prison]'s ,wife 9 ,japan4 ,illu/rat$ f photographs4 #a4ej net1 by mail #a4fb4 ,holds a trem5d\s human int]e/4444 ,au?or writes ) wit & a delightfully fem99e ab&on4--,outlook4 ,?is surpris+ly outspok5 volume 444 c\ld h be5 writt5 only by an extraord9>ily able woman :o knew ! inside ( ,russian politics & also _h actual exp]i5ce 9 ,japanese w> hospitals4--,*icago ,record-,h]ald4 ,w4 ,f4 ,,johnson',s ,,f\r ,,c5turies ,,( ,,! ,,panama ,,canal ,) #af illu/rations & #f color$ maps4 #c4jj net2 by mail1 #c4bg4 ,! mo/ ?or\gh & compreh5sive book on ! ,panama ,canal4--,nation4 ,,john ,l4 ,,giv5s' ,,mak+ ,a ,,newspap] ,! au?or 0 rec5tly ) ! ,new ,york ,ev5+ ,sun4 #a4ej net2 by mail #a4fb4 ,"s sev5ty-five lead+ newspap]s praise ?is book z ! be/ detail$ acc\nt ( ! bus9ess1 editorial1 reportorial & manufactur+ organization ( a metropolitan j\rnal4 ,x %\ld be invaluable to ^? ent]+ ^u newspap] "w & a revelation to ! g5]al read]4 ,,! ,,op5 ,,road ,,! ,,fri5dly ,,t[n ,compil$ by ,e4 ,v4 ,lucas4 ,full gilt1 illu/rat$ cov] l9+s1 ea* 7clo?7 #a4ej2 7lea!r7 #b4ej4 ,pretty an?ologies ( prose & v]se f ,briti% & ,am]ican au?ors1 respectively = wayf>]s & ! urbane4 99 99 99 ,if ! read] w s5d 8 "n & address ! publi%]s w s5d1 f "t to "t1 in=mation reg>d+ _! new books4 ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company ,,publi%]s 7x-'#jg7 ,,new ,,york ,,rec5t ,,volumes ,,9 ,,! ,,am]ican ,,nature ,,s]ies 7,prospectus on reque/7 ,,%ell-,,fi% ,,indu/ries ,by ,,james ,l4 ,,kellogg ( ,williams ,college4 ,l>ge #abmo4 ,illu/rat$ by half-tones & orig9al draw+s4 ,j publi%$4 #a4ge net4 ,cov]s classification1 propagation & di/ribution4 ,= ! p]son :o eats oy/]s1 clams or scallops1 !re is in=mation on _! /ructure1 life-hi/ories & habits4 ,a *apt] is devot$ to %ell-fi% z collectors & c>ri]s ( disease organisms4 ,! oy/] culturi/ w f9d ! life hi/ory ( bivalves1 a comp>ison ( v>i\s culture me?ods1 & a description ( oy/] fields 9 v>i\s p>ts ( ! _w4 ,sev]al facts conc]n+ ! habits ( bivalves1 "h pres5t$ = ! fir/ "t1 w be ( int]e/ to naturali/s4 ,,fi% ,,/ories3 ,alleg$ & ,exp]i5c$1 ) a ,little ,hi/ory1 ,natural & ,unnatural ,by ,,*>les ,f4 ,,hold]1 ,au?or ( ,! ,log ( a ,sea ,angl]1 etc41 & ,,david ,,/>r ,,jordan1 ,au?or ( ,a ,guide to ! ,/udy ( ,fi%es1 etc4 ,) color$ plates & _m illu/rations f photographs4 #a4ge net4 ,a delightful miscellany1 tell+ ab\t fi% ( ! /range/ k9d1 ) sci5tific description melt+ into acc\nts ( p]sonal adv5ture4 ,ne>ly ev]y?+ t is ent]ta9+ 9 ! fi% _w is t\*$ ^u & sci5ce & fi%+ are made v readable4--,new ,york ,sun4 ,,insect ,,/ories ,by ,,v]non ,l4 ,,kellogg4 ,illu/rat$1 #a4ej net4 ,/range1 true /ories1 prim>ily = *ildr51 b c]ta9ly = ^? gr[n-ups :o l to read discrim9at+ly to _! *ildr54 ,! au?or is among a few sci5tific writ]s ( di/9ction :o c int]e/ ! popul> m9d4 ,no intellig5t y\? c fail to read x ) delight & pr(it4--,! ,nation4 ,,! ,,life ,,( ,a ,,fossil ,,hunt] ,by ,,*>les ,h4 ,,/]nb]g1 ,) introduction by ,pr(4 ,h4 ,f4 ,osborn1 #dh ,illu/rations1 #a4fj net4 ,! mo/ int]e/+ autobiography ( ! olde/ & be/ kn[n explor] 9 ?is field4 ,"o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ books to be f\nd any:]e4--,william ,all5 ,:ite4 ,,! ,,fre% ,,wat] ,,aqu>ium ,,& ,,its ,,inhabitants ,by ,,otto ,,eggel+ & ,,fr$]ick ,,ehr5b]g4 ,a ,guide = ! ,amateur ,aqu>i/4 ,) #ajj illu/rations1 l>ge #abmo1 #b4jj net4 ,! be/ guide to ! aqu>ium4--,! ,indep5d5t4 ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company ,,publi%]s ,,new ,,york ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,!atre ,& ,o!r ,pr9ciples ( ,dramatic ,criticism ,by ,,clayton ,,hamilton4 ,au?or ( ,mat]ials & ,me?ods ( ,fiction4 #a4ej net2 by mail1 #a4fj4 ,,cont5ts3 ,,! ,,!ory ,,( ,,! ,,!atre4--,:at is a ,play8--,! ,psy*ology ( ,!atre ,audi5ces4--,! ,actor & ! ,dramati/4--,/age ,conv5tions 9 ,mod]n ,times4--,economy ( ,att5tion 9 ,!atrical ,p]=mances4--,emphasis 9 ! ,drama4--,! ,f\r ,lead+ ,types ( ,drama3 ,trag$y & ,melodrama2 ,com$y & ,f>ce4--,! ,mod]n ,social ,drama4 ,,o!r ,,pr9ciples ,,( ,,dramatic ,,criticism4--,! ,public & ! ,dramati/4--,dramatic ,art & ! ,!atre ,bus9ess4--,! ,happy ,end+s 9 ! ,!atre4--,! ,b\nd>ies ( ,approbation4--,imitation & ,sugge/ion 9 ! ,drama4--,hold+ ! ,mirror up to ,nature4--,blank ,v]se on ! ,contempor>y ,/age4--,dramatic ,lit]ature & ,!atric ,j\rnalism4--,! ,int5tion ( ,p]=mance4--,! ,quality ( ,new ,endeavor4--,! ,effect ( ,plays ^u ! ,public4--,pleasant & ,unpleasant ,plays4--,!mes 9 ! ,!atre4--,! ,function ( ,imag9ation4 ,,dramati/s ,,( ,,to-,,day ,,ro/&1 ,,hauptmann1 ,,sud]mann1 ,,p9]o1 ,,%aw1 ,,phillips1 ,,maet]l9ck ,by ,,pr(4 ,,edw>d ,,ev]ett ,,hale1 ,,jr41 ( ,union ,college4 ,) gilt top1 #a4ej net4 7,by mail1 #a4fj47 ,an in=mal discussion ( _! pr9cipal plays & ( ! p]=mances ( "s ( !m4 ,! volume op5s ) a pap] ,on ,/&>ds ( ,criticism1 & concludes ) ,our ,idea ( ,trag$y1 & an app5dix ( all ! plays ( ea* au?or1 ) dates ( _! fir/ p]=mance or publication4 ,new ,york ,ev5+ ,po/3 ,x is n (t5 n[adays t a !atrical book c be met ) s free f gu% & m]e eulogy1 or s weight$ by common s5se 444 an excell5t *ronological app5dix & full index 444 uncommonly useful = ref]5ce4 ,dial3 ,notewor?y example ( lit]>y criticism 9 "o ( ! mo/ int]e/+ ( lit]>y fields4444 ,well wor? read+ a second "t4 ,,! ,,g]man ,,drama ,,( ,,! ,,n9ete5? ,,c5tury ,by ,,georg ,,witk[ski4 ,translat$ by ,,pr(4 ,l4 ,e4 ,,horn+4 #abmo4 #a4jj4 ,klei/1 ,grillp>z]1 ,hebbel1 ,ludwig1 ,wild5bru*1 ,sud]mann1 ,hauptmann1 & m9or dramati/s receive att5tion4 ,new ,york ,times ,review3 ,! translation ( ?is brief1 cle>1 & logical acc\nt 0 an extremely happy idea4 ,no?+ at ! same "t s compreh5sive & t]se has appe>$ on ! subject1 & x is a subject ( increas+ int]e/ to ! ,engli%-speak+ public4 ,,h5ry ,,holt ,,& ,,company ,,publi%]s ,,new ,,york 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcrib]'s ,notes3 ,bold text is d5ot$ by equal signs4 ,! c>et indicates t ! foll[+ "* or expression is sup]script$4 ,mid-s5t5ce capital lett]s are us$ by ! ,au?or to indicate ! beg9n+ ( a quote or "q1 :i* t]m9ates at ! end ( ! s5t5ce4 ,typographical errors correct$3 p4 #ajj3 approprate *ang$ to appropriate 7444 to a m appropriate evaluation 44474 p4 #ajh3 meassure *ang$ to measure 7,by ! application ( ! unit measure 44474 p4 #ahd3 correspondng *ang$ to correspond+ 7444 signifies a correspond+ economy 44474 p4 #aia3 ,a s+le p]iod delet$ f index4 ,p4 #ahh1 #ahi3 limit-case *ang$ to limit case 7#b occurr5ces71 to mirror text 7#c occurr5ces74 ,alphabetical sequ5c+ adju/$ 9 index3 ,p4 #ahi3 ,two ',en]gy' entries mov$ aft] ,en]getic me*anics4 ,p4 #aia3 ,photographic objective mov$ bel[ ,photo*emical processes4 ,p4 #aia3 ,physics3 ,! ord] ( ! sub-entries swapp$4 ,p4 #aib3 ,pure sci5ce mov$ d[n f\r places to end ( ,p entries4 ,p4 #aic3 ,two ',teleological' entries mov$ aft] ,telegraph1 optical4