,,life',s ,,basis ,,and ,,life',s ,,ideal ,,by ,,the ,,same ,,author ,,the ,,meaning ,,and ,,value ,,of ,,life ,translated by ,w4 ,r4 ,,boyce ,,gibson ,crown #hvo1 cloth1 price #cs4 #f;d4 net4 99 99 99 99 99 ,and by ,w4 ,r4 ,,boyce ,,gibson ,,rudolf ,,eucken',s ,,philosophy ,,of ,,life ,second ,edition1 crown #hvo1 cloth1 price #cs4 #f;d4 net4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a4 ,,and ,c4 ,,black1 #d ,,soho ,,square1 ,,london1 ,w4 ,,agents3 ,,america ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company #fd #ff ,,fifth ,,avenue1 ,,new ,,york ,,australasia ,,oxford ,,university ,,press #bje ,,flinders ,,lane1 ,,melbourne ,,canada ,,the ,,macmillan ,,company ,,of ,,canada1 ,,ltd4 ,,st4 ,,martin',s ,,house1 #gj ,,bond ,,street1 ,,toronto ,,india ,,macmillan ,,company1 ,,ltd4 ,,macmillan ,,building1 ,,bombay #cji ,,bow ,,bazaar ,,street1 ,,calcutta ,,life',s ,,basis ,,and ,,life',s ,,ideal ,,the ,,fundamentals ,,of ,a ,,new ,,philosophy ,,of ,,life ,,by ,,rudolf ,,eucken ,,professor ,,of ,,philosophy ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,jena ,,translated1 ,,with ,,introductory ,,note ,,by ,,alban ,g4 ,,widgery ,,formerly ,,scholar ,,of ,,st4 ,,catharine',s ,,college1 ,,and ,,burney ,,student1 ,,cambridge1 ,,and ,,member ,,of ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,jena ,illustration ,,london ,,adam ,,and ,,charles ,,black #aiab ,first published ,december #aiaa ,second and ,revised ,edition1 ,february #aiab ,,contents ,,page ,,translator',s ,,introductory ,,note vii ,,author',s ,,preface xxi ,i4 ,,introductory3 ,,the ,,philosophies ,,of ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,present ,,day #a ,,preliminary ,,remarks #c ,i4 ,,statement ,,and ,,criticism ,,of ,,individual ,,systems ,,of ,,life #f 7a7 ,the ,older ,systems #f #a4 ,the ,religious ,system #f #b4 ,the ,system of ,immanent ,idealism #ae 7b7 ,the ,newer ,systems #bb #a4 ,the ,naturalistic ,system #bd #b4 ,the ,socialistic ,system #da #c4 ,the ,system of sthetic ,individualism #fa ,,ii4 ,consideration of the ,situation as a ,whole1 and ,preliminaries for ,further ,investigation #ha 7a7 ,the ,nature of the ,new as a ,whole and its ,relation to the ,old #ha 7b7 ,the ,condition of the ,present #hf 7c7 ,the ,form of the ,problem #ib ,,ii4 ,,the ,,outline ,,of ,a ,,new ,,philosophy ,,of ,,life #ii ,,introductory ,,remarks ,,and ,,considerations #aja ,i4 ,,the ,,main ,,thesis #aaj 7a7 ,the ,ascent to the ,main ,thesis #aaj #a4 ,man as a ,being of ,nature #aaj #b4 ,the ,growth of ,man beyond ,nature #aac #c4 ,the ,inner ,contradiction of the ,new ,life #acd 7b7 ,the ,development of the ,main ,thesis #add #a4 ,the ,main ,thesis and the ,possibility of a ,new ,system of ,life #add 7a7 ,the ,development of the ,spiritual ,life to ,independence #add 7b7 ,the ,demands of a ,new ,system of ,life #aej 7c7 ,the ,spiritual ,basis of the ,system of ,life #aeb 7d7 ,human ,existence #afa 7e7 ,results and ,prospects #aff #b4 ,the ,transformation and the ,elevation of ,human ,life #afh 7a7 ,aims and ,ways #afh 7b7 ,the ,nature of ,freedom #agd 7c7 ,the ,beginnings of the ,independent ,spiritual ,life #ahc 7d7 ,the ,transcending of ,division #ahg i4 ,the ,spiritual ,conception of ,history #ahh ii4 ,the ,spiritual ,conception of ,society #aif 7e7 ,the ,elevation of ,life above ,division #bja ,,ii4 ,,the ,,more ,,detailed ,,form ,,of ,,our ,,spiritual ,,life #baf 7a7 ,the ,problem of ,truth and ,reality #baf 7b7 ,man and the ,world #bbf 7c7 ,the ,movement of the ,spiritual ,life in ,man #bcc 7d7 ,the ,emergence of a ,new ,type of ,life #bdj #a4 ,life's ,attainment of ,greatness #bdj #b4 ,the ,increase of ,movement #bdg #c4 ,the ,gain of ,stability #bea 7e7 ,activism1 a ,profession of ,faith #bee ,,iii4 ,,the ,,spiritual ,,life ,,in ,,man ,,in ,,conflict ,,and ,,in ,,victory #bfb 7a7 ,doubt and ,prostration #bfb 7b7 ,consideration and ,demand #bfg 7c7 ,the ,victory #bgc ,,iii4 ,,application ,,to ,,the ,,present3 ,,consequences ,,and ,,requirements #bhg ,introductory ,considerations #bhi ,i4 ,,requirements ,,for ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,life ,,as ,a ,,whole #bih 7a7 ,the ,character of ,culture #bih 7b7 ,the ,organisation of the ,work of ,culture #cae ,,ii4 ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,individual ,,departments #cbb ,preliminary ,remarks #cbb 7a7 ,religion1 ,morality1 ,education #cbd #a4 ,religion #cbd #b4 ,morality #cce #c4 ,education and ,instruction #cdc 7b7 ,science and ,philosophy #cde 7c7 ,art and ,literature #ced 7d7 ,social and ,political ,life #ceh 7e7 ,the ,life of the ,individual #cfi ,,conclusion #cgc ,,index #cge ,,translator',s ,,introductory ,,note ,with the consent of the author the title ,life's ,basis and ,life's ,ideal has been adopted for this translation of ,die ,grundlinien einer neuen ,lebensanschauung1 with the hope that thereby the purpose of the work will be more directly indicated than by a literal translation of the ,german title4 ,it is hoped1 further1 that the title adopted will make an appeal to the general reading public4 ,to make such an appeal is not the desire of every writer on philosophical subjects3 but in the present instance it is the case4 ,the author feels that he has a message for the present time1 and one that is vital to the true interests of all4 ,it has been remarked1 and the present writer would be among the first to acknowledge the truth of the statement1 that the voice is that of a prophet in the sense of an ethical teacher1 rather than that of a philosopher in the more technical sense4 ,nevertheless1 the use of a philosophical terminology1 and the constant implicit reference to the results of philosophical endeavour in the past and present1 combined with the peculiarities of the author's own views1 make it difficult to understand his message4 ,to non-philosophical readers who are not already acquainted with the more popular works which have been translated under the titles of ,christianity and the ,new ,idealism1 ,the ,life of the ,spirit1 and ,the ,meaning and ,value of ,life1 the present work will appear of considerable difficulty4 ,difficulty in such a work is1 however1 by no means necessarily an evil1 for it may compel more careful reading and thought4 ,the present work is the latest and best general statement1 by the author1 of his philosophical position4 ,by some reference here to certain ideas1 principles1 and aims of the philosophy1 the attention of the reader may be drawn to those aspects which1 in personal contact with the author1 one comes to feel are regarded by him as of most importance4 ,it is not invariably so1 but in this case to know the man is to gain immensely in the power to understand and appreciate the message4 ,he inspires us with his confidence and enthusiasm1 even when we have doubts as to the adequacy of his philosophical creed4 ,his philosophy is1 indeed1 the outcome of an attitude of life4 ,to know the man is to understand more fully than from all his written works what he means when he speaks of the development of personality and spiritual individuality4 ,whatever may be the value of what is written about ,professor ,eucken's position1 no substitute can be found for reading his own words in as many of his different expositions as possible4 ,should anyone seek in this work for a systematic discussion of philosophical problems on the lines of traditional ,rationalism1 which1 though often assumed to be dead1 still asserts a strong influence upon us1 he will not only look in vain but will also lose much that is of value in that which is offered4 ,the aim of the philosophy is not to discuss the basis and ideal of thought1 but to probe to the depth of life in all its complexity1 and to advance to an all-inclusive ideal4 ,the starting-point for us all is life as we experience it1 not an apparent ultimate1 such as the cogito ergo sum of ,descartes1 the ,i ought of ,kant1 or the pure being of ,hegel4 ,at the outset1 therefore1 it is necessary to note the nature of the relation between philosophy and life4 ,philosophy arises within life as an expression of its nature and general import4 ,life may assume various forms1 may be1 that is1 of different types2 with different individuals and societies it is organised in divers ways4 ,life so organised1 having certain definite tendencies1 is called by ,professor ,eucken a system of life4 ,in the philosophies of life which arise in these types or systems of life1 life becomes more explicitly conscious of its own nature4 ,further1 a philosophy of life is also a means of justification and defence of one system of life in opposition to other systems4 ,life as experienced1 as organised in some way1 is prior to any definite intellectual or conceptual expression of it4 ,on the other hand a type of life may be influenced and modified by changes in the accepted philosophy of life1 or by the adoption of a new philosophy4 ,a philosophy1 therefore1 is to be judged by the system of life it represents and by its spiritual fruitfulness4 ,as the roots of the differences between philosophies are in the systems of life from which the philosophies arise1 the conflict is primarily not between theories1 but between systems of life4 ,the ground of the author's general appeal thus becomes apparent4 ,the problem is a vital one2 in one form or another1 at one time or another1 everyone is faced with it3 how shall ,i mould my life8 ,and it is here that we must insist upon the importance of ,professor ,eucken's contention that we have to make our decision for one system of life as a whole1 and thus for one philosophy of life as a whole1 as against other systems and other philosophies taken as wholes4 ,life as experienced is a process1 a growth2 and in this growth it oversteps the bounds of the philosophy in which at an earlier stage it expressed itself1 and according to which it strove to fashion itself4 ,the need for a new philosophy is then felt4 ,generally1 the need is for a philosophy more comprehensive and more clearly defined than any of the previous philosophies4 ,now1 ,professor ,eucken contends that none of the philosophies of life which are common among us in the present time are adequate to represent and guide our life at this stage of its development4 ,he calls us to turn for a few moments from the rush and turmoil of modern life to come and reason together as to life's basis and ideal4 ,in justification of his view1 and in accordance with his own principle that we must start with life as we experience it1 he considers in the first place the common philosophies of life of the present time in relation to the systems of life from which they spring4 ,few will disagree with his negative view that ,religion--at least as ecclesiastically presented--,immanent ,idealism1 ,naturalism1 ,socialism1 and ,individualism involve limitations1 and sometimes unjustifiable tendencies and claims1 and are inadequate to satisfy the age4 ,his next and chief endeavour is to indicate the direction in which a new philosophy is to be sought1 and also tentatively to sketch the outlines of such a philosophy4 ,in the nature of the case--as life is a process--no such philosophy can be regarded as complete4 ,it can and should strive to take up into itself all that is of value in the discarded philosophies4 ,any attempt to outline a new philosophy will be judged by how far1 with the incompleteness on all hands1 it takes the different threads of life1 and blending them into a unity aids their growth individually and as a whole4 ,brief reference maybe made here to an attitude1 common in the present time especially among ,english-speaking peoples1 which the author does not explicitly mention4 ,i mean the attitude of ,agnosticism4 ,this1 he would contend and it would seem rightly1 is in the main theoretical and does not1 as such1 correspond to or represent a system of life4 ,the agnostic's system of life is formed of aspects of the systems discussed1 with a strong tendency to ,naturalism4 ,the case of ,huxley1 who coined the term ,agnosticism1 is an excellent example3 notwithstanding his frequently insisting with considerable force upon truths essentially idealistic1 no one can doubt the predominant naturalistic tendency of his thought4 ,as a rule the adoption of the attitude of ,agnosticism is an attempt1 as ,dr4 ,ward has so clearly and forcibly argued in his ,naturalism and ,agnosticism1#a to escape from the difficulties of ,naturalism1 which in the end it betrays4 ,agnosticism is1 in fact1 only an assumed absence of a theory of life4 ,professor ,eucken would insist that the instability of the position is intolerable in actual life4 ,life's demand for unification1 for consciousness of a meaning and a value1 drives us beyond it4 ,mere research1 he writes1 p4 #bgb1 can tolerate a state of hesitation between affirmation and negation2 it must often refrain from a decision in the case of special problems4 ,life1 however1 cannot endure any such intermediary position2 for life1 such hesitation in arriving at a decision must result in complete stagnation1 and this would help the mere negation to victory4 ,the great objection to all the systems of life mentioned is that they are too narrow1 and in some aspects superficial4 ,the new system must unite comprehensiveness with depth4 ,the insufficiency of intellectualism is now generally recognised3 the desire of the age is to do justice to the content of experience4 ,though the new system of life is to include all that is of value of earlier systems1 it is by no means an eclecticism1 for it has its integrating principle4 ,this we shall best see by considering the method and the result of the philosophy4 ,life as experienced has already been referred to as the starting-point4 ,to whatever extent we may seem1 on the surface of experience1 to be under the antithesis of subject and object1 when we probe deeper we recognise that both are within life3 they are a duality in unity4 ,here again reference may be made to the above-mentioned work#b of ,dr4 ,ward1 in which probably the best exposition in ,english of this same truth is to be found4 ,life as experienced is not simply the empirical states of consciousness3 its basis lies deeper4 ,the method of the philosophy is in consequence described as nological in distinction from the psychological method1 which treats of man out of relation to a world1 and ends with the examination of psychical states2 and from the cosmological method1 which treats the world out of relation to man and aims chiefly at comprehension in universals of thought4 ,expressed in another way1 life is fundamentally spiritual4 ,self-consciousness is the unifying principle3 it is only by relation to life as self-conscious that we can predicate meaning or value4 ,all that is regarded as true and valuable in all the above-mentioned systems presupposes this relation4 ,the self-conscious life is not to be confused with the subjective life of the mere individual4 ,in fact1 there is no mere individual1 for in all there are tendencies which transcend the limits of individual experience4 ,for example1 life includes the relation of man and world2 and the life of society is more than a mere sum of the lives of the individuals4 ,perhaps a more correct way to state the author's position is to say that the individual shares the self-conscious1 or1 otherwise expressed1 the spiritual life which transcends nature1 the individual1 and society4 ,this world-pervading and world-transcending self-conscious life--the ,independent ,spiritual ,life--may be regarded as an absolute or universal life4 ,the pursuit of the ideals of truth1 goodness1 and beauty carries us far beyond considerations of the welfare of the individual1 or the society1 or even humanity as a whole4 ,in our activities we often attain something quite different from and far better than that at which we aim4 ,nevertheless1 unless truth1 goodness1 beauty1 and all tendencies leading to them are self-consciously experienced they have neither meaning nor value3 viewed universally1 they presuppose the ,independent ,spiritual ,life4 ,the highest development of the spiritual life known to us is personality1 our being-for-self1 which is not to be identified with subjective individuality4 ,we are not personalities to begin with1 but have the potentiality to become such through our own effort4 ,personality is our highest ideal3 in it1 as self-conscious experience all other values for us are included4 ,the author calls us1 therefore1 from that excessive occupation with the environment in which we forget ourselves1 to spiritual concentration and the pursuit of spiritual ideals4 ,the spirit of his message may be expressed in words familiar to all3 ,what shall it profit a man if he gain the whole world and lose his own soul4 ,remembering that life is fundamentally self-conscious or spiritual1 it may be said that life's basis and life's ideal is life itself--life completely self-conscious and following out its own necessities4 ,the basis of man's life is the ,independent ,spiritual ,life which is appropriated but not created by him in his striving for a comprehensive and harmonious personality4 ,the ideal of man's life is such a personality4 ,the more man loses his life in the pursuit of the ideals of truth1 goodness1 and beauty1 the more surely will he save it1 the more comprehensive1 harmonious1 and spiritual in nature will he become4 ,then he will realise himself as a personality1 and become conscious of his unity with the ,independent ,spiritual ,life4 ,the dominant ,idealism of this philosophy of life is evident3 but the meanings of truth1 goodness1 and beauty are different from what they appear to be in many of the older presentations of ,idealism4 ,truth1 goodness and beauty are not abstract ideals but concrete experiences4 ,the present writer has long been of the opinion that much of contemporary idealistic philosophy1 including that of ,professor ,eucken1 might be better termed ,spiritualism than ,idealism4 ,if life as experienced is a process1 it is not difficult to understand that importance should be attributed to history4 ,in the author's exposition not only is constant reference made to historical development1 but the nature of history is made a definite subject of discussion4 ,i would call attention to this aspect of the author's work3 it appears a means of doing more justice to the content of experience than is done in most forms of ,idealism4 ,on the one hand a ,rationalism which tends to shut out the historical as transient and merely appearance is avoided1 and on the other a ,historical ,relativism which denies all stability and permanence is strenuously opposed4 ,while the absolute and eternal--the ,independent ,spiritual ,life--is the presupposition of the temporal manifestation of the spiritual life in man1 for man the historical is real4 ,the form of our spiritual life is due to our own acts and decisions4 ,it is in this connection that the fundamental nature of our spiritual effort may best be seen4 ,the author's voice is that of a prophet in so far as his whole exposition is presented as an endeavour to arouse men from their apathy and from the pursuit of what they themselves know to be unsatisfying ideals4 ,the importance attached to spiritual effort in his philosophy leads ,professor ,eucken to adopt the term ,activism as a definite philosophical badge4 ,the activistic note is evident throughout1 much more so perhaps in the present volume than in those which have preceded it4 ,the significance of this emphasis is most clear in its bearing upon our relation to the past and the present4 ,the present is neither to be dominated by the past nor sacrificed to the future1 but the past is to be appropriated by our activity in the present1 and the present1 while possessing reality and value in itself1 looks forward to the future4 ,historical content1 spiritual endeavour in past1 present1 and future1 must be unified by a common task4 ,the past is ours only so far as we appropriate it4 ,spiritual inheritance is not the same as natural inheritance4 ,we may by our spiritual effort adopt or reject ideas or a system of life which have come to us from the past4 ,the character which the past will have for us will depend on our present spiritual condition4 ,all spiritual progress involves a break with the past4 ,in the same way we may take up an attitude of antagonism to the confusions which exist in modern life1 and we may follow a new course4 ,all this is not to deny the value of history in itself and for our present efforts3 the reverse of such a denial is nearer the truth4 ,for if we realise the depths and independence of our own life we are not only in a position to understand and appreciate the movement of history1 but1 by the nature of life1 we are then driven beyond the mere present4 ,the past relives with a new spiritual meaning in the consciousness that makes it its own4 ,history is more than a succession of facts2 it must be revalued as a present experience4 ,life is not subjectively individual1 and to realise it we must find our place in universal tendencies which are working themselves out in history4 ,the content of history cannot be pressed into the narrow scheme of moral effort and attainment1 as that is usually conceived1 but in it all spheres of life assert their independent right4 ,history is not an evolution of categories1 but a conflict of concrete realities1 of systems of life1 of personalities4 ,though the great man cannot be understood out of relation to his time1 he is not simply a product of the social environment4 ,the great man strives to raise the time to his own level4 ,it may be said that in order adequately to appreciate the author's position in regard to history the book translated into ,english under the title of ,the ,problem of ,human ,life as viewed by the ,great ,thinkers from ,plato to the ,present ,time should be read in the light of the general principles of his philosophy4 ,the reality of evil and of antitheses in life are fully acknowledged2 but by the spiritual life being thereby called to assert its independence and to strive to overcome them they may be a factor leading to good4 ,evil1 so regarded1 is not explained away1 but the solution is essentially a practical one4 ,the theoretical problem of evil remains an enigma to us4 ,the author's message is positive1 not negative3 it is a call to pursue definite positive aims rather than to eradicate painful experiences4 ,not suffering1 but spiritual destitution is man's worst enemy 7p4 #cad74 ,it has been said with1 it would seem1 a large amount of truth1 that the philosophy of ,hegel has been most fruitfully studied on ,english soil4 ,there is reason to believe that it will be somewhat the same in the case of ,professor ,eucken's philosophy4 ,his debts to ,kant and ,hegel are obvious1 but it is interesting to notice that the points in which he more especially diverges from ,hegelianism are largely the same as have been emphasised in ,england4 ,the importance he attaches to personality and ethical activity1 his insistence upon human endeavour as a determining factor in reality1 and his emphasis on the dialectic as being not one of categories but of concrete realities1 are in accord with much of the best of recent ,english philosophical thought4 ,in the present work there is much of value for those who--while dissenting from such perversions as ,pragmatism--hold what is commonly termed a ,personal ,idealism4 ,the position of our author is not the same as that of ,english ,personal ,idealism1 nevertheless his work aids it in many ways1 and especially in its insistence upon the distinction between personality and subjective individuality4 ,a comparison of some of the views of the three philosophical writers who have been most discussed in our time--the late ,professor ,james1 ,m4 ,bergson1 and our author--would be of interest4 ,to enter upon a systematic and exhaustive comparison here is far from my intention1 but a few points may be suggested4 ,the modes of exposition1 which in a greater or less degree indicate the respective methods1 manifest striking contrasts3 in many respects the positions of ,m4 ,bergson and ,professor ,eucken appear totally dissimilar4 ,the acquaintance with natural science1 and the constant reference to its data1 that we find in the works of ,m4 ,bergson1 are not found in those of our author4 ,their place is taken1 however1 by what some will regard as more interesting1 and even more important1 an acquaintance with the present condition of human life1 and also a constant reference to history4 ,common to these writers is a reaction against formalism and intellectualism1 and in one form or another there is in their writings a strong element of empiricism4 ,freedom in some sense is insisted upon by all2 though so far as we may judge from their published expositions there seem to be considerable differences of view in this matter4 ,together with this assertion of the reality of ,freedom1 both ,m4 ,bergson and our author definitely acknowledge the reality of ,necessity and recognise the importance of struggle in development4 ,neither writer claims that we can gain more than the knowledge of a direction in which the solution of the problem may be sought4 ,our author himself might quite well have said1 though with application in the main to different classes of facts1 what ,m4 ,bergson has said3 ,it seems to me that in a great number of different fields there is a great number of collections of facts1 each of which1 considered apart1 gives us a direction in which the answer to the problem may be sought--a direction only4 ,but it is a great thing to have even a direction1 and still more to have several directions1 for at the precise point where these directions converge might be found the solution we are seeking4 ,what we possess meanwhile are lines of facts4#c444 ,but what is this new reality1 writes ,professor ,eucken 7p4 #ace71 and this whole to which the course of the movement trends8 ,the more we reflect over the question the more strongly we feel that it is a direction rather than a conclusion that is offered to us in this matter4444 ,there is another passage from ,m4 ,bergson the quotation of which in the present context is justified by its harmony with so much that ,professor ,eucken himself says with regard to man's ideal of life3 ,if1 then1 in every province1 the triumph of life is expressed by creation1 ought we not to think that the ultimate reason of human life is a creation which1 in distinction from that of the artist or the man of science1 can be pursued at every moment and by all men alike2 ,i mean the creation of self by self1 the continual enrichment of personality by elements which it does not draw from outside1 but causes to spring forth from itself8#d ,whether in the works of the late ,professor ,james there is evidence of a lurking desire for an ,absolute may be left undiscussed4 ,m4 ,bergson certainly gives more than a hint of something like an ,absolute4 ,of the absolutist 7not rationalistic7 tendency in the philosophy of our author there can be no doubt4 ,notwithstanding the antagonism to intellectualism shown in this philosophy1 the influence of ,hegel seems evident in its absolutist tendency4 ,dr4 ,ward has justly said that1 with ,hegel1 the ,absolute seems at one time to be a perfect ,self with no hint of aught beside or beyond its own completed self-consciousness1 and at another not to be a self at all1 but only the absolutely spiritual--art1 religion1 and philosophy--the over-individual ends1 as they are sometimes called1 which become realised in subjective spirits3 not self-conscious ,spirit1 but simply the impersonal ,spirit in all spirits4#e ,how far a corresponding criticism is applicable to the ideas of the ,independent ,spiritual ,life1 and the spiritual life in humanity and the world1 in the present philosophy1 its readers must be left to decide4 ,the relation of philosophy to life as ,professor ,eucken conceives it may justify him in treating primarily of what may be called in a special sense the problems of life4 ,the difficulty of the problems of the theory of knowledge no one will deny1 though many are impatient of considerations of them4 ,in any general appeal such as we have to do with in this work it is almost impossible to deal seriously with them4 ,still the problems of the theory of knowledge force themselves upon us1 and will not be thrust on one side4 ,the late ,professor ,james did his best to leave us in no doubt as to his position in this matter3 we have more than a glimpse of the attitudes of ,m4 ,bergson and ,professor ,eucken4 ,we await1 however1 as likely to aid us in a fuller understanding and estimate of the philosophy1 the volume the author has promised us on the theory of knowledge4 ,whatever the points of similarity may be in the views of those mentioned1 we cannot fail to note the differences--to some of these in the case of ,pragmatism the author has himself called our attention2 further1 we cannot mistake the dominant ,idealism of the philosophy of life here presented to us4 ,one word must be said as to the author's attitude towards ,mysticism2 an attitude that has not always been understood4 ,the ,mysticism he opposes is of the type that is virtually the negation of the ,activism which is to him fundamental4 ,but when that is recognised1 the careful reader cannot fail to see that1 ultimately1 the philosophy is essentially mystical4 ,as ,i understand it1 the suggestion that our author's philosophy would form a rallying-point for ,idealists of various kinds is a tribute to its unity and comprehensiveness1 of which there can be no doubt4 ,roughly1 we may take up one of two attitudes to the work of a philosopher4 ,we may accept his general point of view1 his main principles1 in a word his system1 however tentative1 and modify it in detail4 ,on the other hand we may reject his main position1 and yet find much to accept in his working out of various aspects of detail1 and we may incorporate this in some other general system4 ,it is not for me to state here the attitude ,i take towards1 or the difficulties ,i feel in1 the philosophy2 ,i think that there will be few who will not gain much from the inspiration and originality which are shown by the author4 ,for his own philosophy of life he seeks no other treatment than that which he has meted to others3 a sincere endeavour to understand its basis and its ideal4 ,his hope is that however much its limitations may be pointed out1 the truth in it may be acknowledged and appropriated1 if possible in a higher view4 ,the acquisition of a higher view would cause no one more real joy than ,professor ,eucken4 ,i have to thank the author for his personal kindness in the discussion of some difficult points and in the revision of a portion of the proof sheets4 ,at his suggestion or with his consent a number of small alterations1 as1 for example1 in the titles of sections1 have been made from the present ,german text4 ,owing to an accident1 the time for the preparation of this translation was unfortunately curtailed3 ,i should be indebted for any suggestions for its improvement4 ,i am indebted to the ,rev4 ,felix ,holt1 ,b4,a41 for reading through the whole in manuscript and making many valuable suggestions4 ,for all defect and error ,i alone am responsible4 ,,alban ,g4 ,,widgery ,,cambridge1 ,october #aiaa ,,footnotes3 #a ,naturalism and ,agnosticism4 #crd ,edition1 #aijf4 ,vols4 ,i4 and ,,ii4 ,a4 ,c4 ,black4 #b ,ibid4 ,vol4 ,,ii4 ,lects4 xiv4-xx4 #c ,hibbert ,journal1 ,october #aiaa3 p4 #bf4 #d ,ibid4 p4 #db4 #e ,the ,realm of ,ends2 or1 ,pluralism and ,theism 7#aiaa71 p4 #df4 ,,note ,,to ,,second ,,edition ,i have taken the opportunity given by reprinting to revise the whole4 ,i have made a number of alterations rendering the author's meaning more clear4 ,my thanks are again due to ,mr4 ,holt for his help4 ,,alban ,g4 ,,widgery ,,caverswall1 ,,stoke-,,on-,,trent1 ,january #aiab ,,author',s ,,preface ,we may hope for a friendly reception of our investigation only by those who acknowledge that that which occupies us here is a real problem4 ,it is hardly open to dispute that life in the present time displays a serious incongruity between an incalculably rich and fruitful activity with regard to the material1 and complete uncertainty and destitution in respect of the spiritual1 side of life4 ,attempt after attempt is made to deliver us from this state of perplexity1 and to give more soul and unity to a culture which outwardly is so imposing4 ,but in the main these attempts are far too irresolute in their advance from superficiality to depth1 and from individual appearances to the whole3 in their innermost nature they are under the influence of the temporary conditions beyond which they wish to lead us4 ,in truth1 we cannot make an advance in relation to our life as a whole unless we win a new basis for it4 ,this1 however1 we cannot do without raising the problem of our relation to reality1 and1 if it is in any way possible1 moulding this relationship in a new way3 further1 we can be of service in the satisfaction of the needs of the time only when we gain an independence of it and a superiority to it4 ,here1 therefore1 so far as the realm of conviction is concerned1 we have a task for philosophy4 ,the confusion that reigns1 however1 makes the way difficult for philosophy also2 and sets insuperable limits to its power4 ,we do not meet in immediate experience with facts upon which a new type of life might be based3 much toil and trouble are necessary to arrive at that1 which1 when it is once attained1 may seem to be simple and easy4 ,he who finds the problem too complex1 and shirks to expend the necessary effort1 can do nothing else than resign himself submissively to the prevailing confusion4 ,to-day we are unable at first to sketch more than the outlines and to indicate fundamentals3 we must be quite sure of the basis and the main tendency of life if we would undertake the construction of systems2 and yet it is just these things which are to-day the subject of agitation and conflict4 ,not for a moment do we doubt the imperfection of our own attempt2 we can but hope that others will take up and pursue the matter further4 ,notwithstanding these limitations and this trouble1 an urgent inner necessity compels us to recognise that there can be no enduring life of genuine culture unless humanity is inwardly united by common aims4 ,more and more clearly this main question is seen to be involved in all the particular questions of the time2 more and more does it become evident to us that our achievement in individual matters can be but insignificant1 if life as a whole is in a state of stagnation and exhaustion4 ,though some who may already have taken up a definite course1 or who in their attention to work in some special sphere have lost all sense for the whole1 may refuse to consider the matter1 yet wherever life is still flowing1 and where fresh impulse resists the tendency to division which deprives it of all soul1 to deal with the problem will be felt to be a necessity4 ,above all1 therefore1 we trust in the young1 who1 among all cultured nations1 are striving for a deeper and nobler life4 ,the more successful this striving1 the sooner shall we advance from a state of confusion to one of order and clearness1 from a realm of illusions to the kingdom of truth1 and in face of the chaotic whirl of appearances we shall attain stability within ourselves4 ,,rudolf ,,eucken ,,jena1 ,christmas #aijf ,i ,,introductory ,,the ,,philosophies ,,of ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,present ,,day ,,preliminary ,,remarks ,he who strives after a new philosophy of life confesses himself thereby to be of the conviction that the philosophies of the present no longer satisfy mankind2 and so we must begin by giving reasons for sharing this conviction4 ,in doing this we hope to be able to take a positive survey of the present situation as a whole1 and also to gain a firm starting-point for the course in which the new is to be sought1 and not simply to remain fixed in a mere negative attitude4 ,a precise statement of the question is the first condition for a correct answer2 to satisfy this requirement is the chief concern of the first part of our treatise4 ,philosophies of life1 representations of human life as a whole1 surround us to-day in abundance and court our adherence4 ,the fusion of rich historical development with active reflection gives occasion to the most diverse combinations and makes it easy for the individual to project a representation corresponding to his circumstances and his mood4 ,thus1 to-day1 the philosophies of life of individuals whirl together in chaotic confusion1 gain and lose the passing favour1 displace one another1 and themselves change kaleidoscopically4 ,it is not the concern of philosophy to occupy itself more closely with opinions so accidental and so fleeting4 ,there are1 however1 philosophies of life of another kind1 conceptions of life1 which unite and dominate large numbers of people1 hold up a common ideal for their activity1 and constitute a power in the life of universal history4 ,these philosophies of life are rooted in particular concrete forms of life1 in actual combinations of working and striving1 which with dominating power surround the individual and point out his course4 ,with such ascendancy they may seem to him to be unassailable and a matter of natural necessity2 in reality they are a product of the industry of universal history1 and from this point of view appear merely as attempts to comprehend the boundless stream of life and to win a character for our otherwise indefinite existence4 ,for at first we stand defenceless and helpless in face of the wealth of impressions and suggestions which throng upon us and draw us in opposite directions4 ,only in one way are we able to prevail3 life must concentrate and acquire a controlling centre within itself1 and from that begin a process of counteraction4 ,we lack distinction of centre and environment2 we need an inner aspiration1 an aspiration which seeks to draw the whole of existence to itself and to mould it in its own particular way4 ,this1 however1 is impossible1 unless at the same time a philosophy of life1 a profession of faith as to the nature of the whole1 a justification of our undertaking1 is evolved4 ,a philosophy of life established in this manner will be incomparably more powerful1 and fuller in content1 than the mere foam on the surface of time4 ,nevertheless1 with all its advantages1 such a philosophy of life1 like the corresponding system of life itself1 is not ultimate truth3 it remains an attempt1 a problem which1 ever anew1 divides men into opposing camps4 ,for the experience of history teaches us that the effort after concentration and an inner synthesis of life does not follow one clear1 direct course throughout1 but that different possibilities offer themselves and1 in course of time1 struggle upwards to reality4 ,different systems thus advance by the side of and in opposition to one another1 each making the claim to undivided supremacy1 to a superiority over all others4 ,philosophies of life now become means and instruments to justify and to establish such claims4 ,they must enter into the severest conflict one with another1 and the strife keeps up a powerful tension and pressure because here1 by means of the ideas1 tendencies of life compete with one another2 because not mere representations of reality but realities themselves struggle together4 ,it is manifest from the existence of these last problems that we do not grow up in a finished world1 but have first to form and build up our world4 ,we are concerned not merely with interpreting a given reality1 but first of all with winning the true1 primary1 and all-comprehensive reality4 ,by this our life is made uncertain and laborious1 but it is raised at the same time to an inner freedom and a more genuine independence4 ,and now for the first time we see in its true light the fact that its own views of life can become inadequate to an age4 ,for the fact that an age lacks an inner unity1 that cogent reasons drive it beyond the extant syntheses1 is now a sign that it is not clear and certain as to its own life4 ,to open up a way for a new synthesis1 to organise life more adequately1 becomes the most pressing of all demands1 the question of questions4 ,even the most cautious and most subtle reflection will not lead us far in this matter2 all hope of success depends upon our life containing greater depths1 which hitherto have not been fully grasped1 and more especially upon a transcendent unity present in it1 which hitherto has not come to complete recognition4 ,all thought and reflection is thus called to direct itself to the comprehension of such depths and of such a unity4 ,everything here depends on facts2 on facts1 however1 which do not come to us opportunely from without1 but which reveal themselves only to the eye of the spirit and to aspiration4 ,i4 ,,statement ,,and ,,criticism ,,of ,,individual ,,systems ,,of ,,life ,it must be admitted that the first glance at the present conditions of life shows a chaotic confusion4 ,a more careful examination1 however1 soon discloses a limited number of schemes of life1 which1 although they are often combined by individuals1 are in their nature distinct and remain differentiated4 ,we recognise five such systems of life3 those of ,religion and of ,immanent ,idealism on the one hand1 and those of ,naturalism1 ,socialism1 and ,individualism on the other hand4 ,for1 two main groups may be clearly distinguished3 one1 older1 which gives to life an invisible world for its chief province2 and one1 newer1 which places man entirely in the realm of sense experience2 within these groups1 the ways again lead in diverse directions4 ,let us see what each of these organisations makes out of life2 on what each supports itself2 and what each accomplishes4 ,let us see also where each meets with opposition and in what it finds its limits2 and this not according to our individual opinion1 but according to the experiences of the age4 7a7 ,,the ,,older ,,systems #a4 ,,the ,,religious ,,system ,the religious organisation of life has influenced us in the past with especial power4 ,this has worked in the form of ,christianity1 which1 as an ethical religion of redemption1 occupies a thoroughly unique position among religions4 ,as a religion it unites life to a supernatural world1 and subjects our existence to its supremacy2 as a religion of redemption it heightens the contrast between the two worlds to such a degree of harshness that a complete revolution becomes a necessity2 as an ethical religion it regards the spiritual life as a power of positive creation and self-determination1 and insists upon a complete change of the heart4 ,arising in an age of decay1 an age weary of life1 it confidently took up the conflict against this faintness2 it did not carry on this conflict1 however1 by a further development of the natural world and of culture1 but through the revelation of a supernatural order1 of a new community of life1 which1 through the building up of an invisible ,kingdom of ,god--which wins a visible expression in the ,church--becomes to man in faith and hope the most certain presence4 ,christianity ratified an affirmation of life2 still1 it did not accomplish this immediately1 but by the most fundamental and definite negation2 and thus to a cursory consideration it might appear to be a flight from the world4 ,in reality1 it unites the negation and the affirmation1 flight from1 and renewal of1 the world2 the deepest feeling of1 and the happiest deliverance from1 guilt and suffering1 and thereby gives to life a greater breadth as well as a ceaseless activity in search of its true self4 ,religion does not mean a special domain by the side of others2 its intention is rather to be the innermost soul and the supreme power of the whole life4 ,through its ideals and its standards it lends to the whole sphere of life a distinctive character2 it leads to a definite organisation of mankind and offers powerful opposition to all dissipation1 all merely individual caprice4 ,it comes to the individual as a supreme power which brings to him salvation and truth1 shapes him for the highest ends1 and connects his thought and feeling with an invisible world4 ,with such an undertaking ,christianity has exercised most deep-reaching influences on the course of history2 in the first place it implanted a new vitality in an exhausted humanity2 then in the ,middle ,ages it worked to the education of a new race2 and now that it has become mature it has not ceased to exercise strong1 though quieter1 influences3 considering all the facts1 it appears to be the most powerful force in history4 ,but all the greatness of past achievement could not prevent a strong movement from arising in the ,modern ,age against ,christianity2 a movement which still continues to increase in power and which undermines the position of ,christianity1 where outwardly it still appears quite secure4 ,it is true that there never was a period when it was not opposed by individuals1 but through the lack of any spiritual import these isolated oppositions had never combined so as to produce a united effect4 ,an effect of this kind was first produced with the emergence of new systems of thought and new streams of life since the beginning of the seventeenth century2 as long1 however1 as this movement was limited to the cultured classes and left the masses untouched1 that which existed in it as a menace did not produce its full effect4 ,it was the conviction of ,bayle1 that the spirit of the ,enlightenment would never permeate the masses4 ,in the nineteenth century this unexpected happened1 and the nature of spiritual endeavour and the disposition of men join together in an assault upon ,christianity2 an assault which no one with insight will call anything but dangerous4 ,the thing most evident and most talked of is the subversion of the old conception of the world2 a conception which is usually associated with ,christianity4 ,this conception is less and less able to assert itself in face of the triumphant onward march of modern science4 ,the representation of nature1 like that of human history1 has been broadened immeasurably and at the same time has acquired inner unity1 law1 and order2 a direct intervention of a supernatural power is felt more and more to be an intolerable derangement4 ,the earth1 hitherto the centre of the whole and the chief platform upon which the destiny of the universe was decided1 sinks to a position of more correct proportion1 and man is much more closely linked to nature and fitted into a common order4 ,how then can that which takes place in him decide what shall be the destiny of the whole8 ,if we would withdraw from this shattered conception of the world1 as from a mere external matter1 to the substance of ,christianity1 this substance must be much more clearly and much more forcibly present to us than it really is4 ,for1 in this change we are concerned not simply with individual phrases1 but with the whole mode of thought4 ,we have learnt to think far more causally and critically2 we perceive the peculiarity of the historical circumstances in which ,christianity arose1 and1 along with this1 become aware of a wide disparity from the circumstances of the present4 ,we question all historical tradition as to its grounds1 and so overthrow the weight of authority2 our thought has become throughout less nave and we strive to transcend the form of the immediate impression4 ,from this point of view it comes about quite easily that the religious mode of thought appears to be a mere anthropomorphism1 a childlike1 imaginative interpretation of the world1 which1 to an intelligence equipped with the clearness of objective consideration1 can pass only for a stage in evolution1 which has once for all been overcome4 ,such is the teaching of ,positivism1 and it is just in this reference to religion that its influence extends far beyond the limits of the positivistic school4 ,the change of thought would not be so far-reaching and so dangerous if it did not give expression to a change of life as a whole2 but this is what it really does3 the ,modern ,age through the whole course of its development sets a universal--a system--over against the religious system of life4 ,that all departments of life should subordinate themselves to ,religion1 that every activity has value only so far as it either directly or indirectly furthers ,religion1 appears to the ,modern ,age a much too narrow conception1 and one which is a mischievous denial of the truth that these departments of life contain4 ,so the different branches of the spiritual life--for example1 science and art1 politics and economics--liberate themselves radically from the supremacy of ,religion1 and this is felt to be an incalculable gain in freedom and breadth4 ,since1 unimpeded1 the new life increases in comprehensiveness1 and draws the whole content of reality into itself1 it seems to rest firmly and securely in itself and to need no completion of any kind whatever4 ,religion1 however1 must first seek a place in this new life4 ,it finds this place with greater difficulty1 in that modern life1 as it works out its own peculiar characteristics1 ever more directly and ever more harshly opposes ,christianity4 ,the initial assumptions of the two are fundamentally different4 ,early ,christianity spoke to a generation which had become perplexed concerning the rationality of the universe and concerning its own capacity2 a generation which could attain to an affirmation of life only through the building up of a new world in contrast to that of sense impression4 ,the world1 then disdained1 has acquired in the ,modern ,age an ever-increasing power of attraction4 ,new peoples and epochs have grown up1 which have a feeling of power and wish to exert the force of their youth in work upon the surrounding world2 this world meets such a desire since it shows itself to be still in the midst of change and full of problems4 ,if formerly the world surrounded man as an unchangeable fate1 it now proves to be capable of change and of upward development2 man can work and strive to transform it into a kingdom of reason4 ,the more that power and object unite in this1 the more victorious is the advance of work2 the nearer the world is brought to man's inner life1 the more does it become to him his true and only home4 ,the idea of immanence comes to have a magical sound2 everything which oversteps the boundary marked out by the work of the world soon comes to be regarded as a flight into a realm of shadows1 into an other world4 ,satisfaction is obtained in life in grappling with realities2 in the display of masculine strength3 while the religious attitude to life1 with its waiting and hope1 and its expectation of supernatural aid1 seems lifeless1 feeble1 and altogether lacking in spirit4 ,at the same time1 all capacity for understanding the world in which ,christianity set the soul of man disappears4 ,that world was one of pure inwardness1 a world in which the fundamental relation of life was that of the spiritual life to its own ideal conception1 to absolute spirit2 a world in which the questions of character and of the determination of the will were the chief problems4 ,to earlier ,christianity that world was anything but a mere other world2 rather it constituted that which was nearest and most certain2 the chief basis of life1 from which the world of sense first received its truth and its value4 ,but the more significant the world of sense becomes to man1 and the more powerfully it draws his affections to itself1 the more does the relation to this world become the fundamental relation of life2 the more does that pure inner world fade1 and the more it appears to be something artificial1 shadowy1 something added as an afterthought2 and the turning to it comes to be regarded as a flight into an other world4 ,christianity must necessarily be alien and unintelligible to anyone who feels the world which was to ,christianity the chief world to be a mere other world2 for him all the contentions of ,christianity are inevitably distorted1 and every element of joyful affirmation and heroic victory which it contains obscured2 the whole must present a miserable and morbid picture4 ,now that the centre of life has changed its position in relation to the world1 is it possible to avoid the consequences of a growing tendency to displace and dissolve ,christianity8 ,the inner world was to ,christianity essentially a realm of conviction and decision1 a relation of will to will1 of personality to personality3 free action1 in power and love1 in guilt and reconciliation1 formed the essence of all events and gave to the world a soul4 ,only as ethical1 personal power did the spiritual life appear to find its own depth and to be able to govern the world4 ,here again the ,modern ,age takes a directly antagonistic course4 ,its work is considered most of all to lead beyond the subjectivity of man to the content and under the objective necessity of things4 ,for we seem first to attain genuine truth when we place ourselves in the world of fact1 reveal its relations1 and take part in its movements2 we have to follow the objective and immanent necessities of things2 to interpret every particular case from the standpoint of these necessities and to harmonise our own conduct with them4 ,life seems to acquire greatness and universal significance only insomuch as the process comes before the effect1 the law before freedom1 fixed relations before the resolution into individual occurrences4 ,to the ,modern ,age1 not only has nature been transformed into a continuous causal chain1 but in its spiritual activity also the age forms great complexes1 which1 through the force of logical necessity1 are placed beyond the influence of all caprice1 and of all the interests of the narrowly human4 ,from the point of view of such an evolution the realm of ethical life appears to be a mere subjective sphere2 a tissue of human opinion and striving2 something which falls outside of genuine reality and which can never be forced into its structure4 ,to continue in the position of early ,christianity is looked upon as a remaining at a lower level of life2 conceptions such as freedom of the will and moral judgment are regarded as childish delusions which are the more decidedly rejected the more the new life displays its fundamental character4 ,again1 with a transvaluation of all values1 that which to ,christianity was the highest in life and dominated the whole is regarded as a mere accompanying appearance2 indeed1 a danger to the energy and truth of life4 ,hence a mode of life has arisen which not only regards the answers of ,christianity with indifference1 but does not even recognise its problems2 and this mode of life is attracting to itself more and more the convictions and energies of mankind4 ,even now the antithesis which the centuries have prepared is being forced with unmistakable clearness into prominence4 ,it was possible for us to deceive ourselves with regard to its implacability so long as a rationalistic and pantheistic way of thinking presented ,christianity in the most general way1 and tried to comprehend its nature as something universal1 and at the same time placed nature and the universe in the transfiguring light of speculative consideration4 ,but1 in the course of further experience1 that mode of thought has been severely shaken and appears more and more to be a mere aggregate of phrases2 and so the antitheses face one another unreconciled and a decision is not to be evaded4 ,in this matter mankind is under the influence of a strong reaction against the religious1 and especially the ,christian1 mode of life4 ,throughout many centuries ,christianity has given life a unity and has thrown light upon reality from its standpoint3 further1 it has presented its way as the only possible one2 one to which everything which in any way strives spiritually upward has to adapt itself4 ,if the truth of the whole now falls into doubt1 everything which was intended to give to life stability and character is soon felt to be heavily oppressive and intolerably narrow2 and everything which in that mode of life was accidental1 temporal1 and human advances into the foreground4 ,we clearly perceive that much passed current as true only because we had become unaccustomed to ask questions concerning it1 and also that many things owed their acceptance not to their inner necessity1 but only to social sanction4 ,with such feelings it may come to be considered a great deliverance to shake off the whole1 and a necessary step towards truthfulness of life to eliminate every aspect of that mode of life which through custom or authority continues to exist4 ,these tendencies are tendencies of reaction with all their one-sidedness4 ,but can we deny that a great change of life has been accomplished1 a change which reaches far beyond these tendencies1 and which is still working itself out8 ,that which previously was most proximate to us is now made to recede2 what held currency as absolutely certain must now be laboriously proved1 and1 through continual reflection1 loses all freshness and power to convince2 immediate experience1 axiomatic certainty1 immovable conviction are lacking4 ,the self-evident certainties in the light of which earlier ages lived and worked are wanting1 and we are compelled to acknowledge that some things become uncertain1 even impossible1 when they cease to be self-evident4 ,again1 it cannot fail to be recognised that we are tired of a merely religious way of life2 we feel its limitations2 new needs are awakened and seek new forms of life and expression2 even the traditional terminology displeases us2 even the acutest dialectic cannot lend to the old the power of youth4 ,of course the matter is not finally settled by these judgments of the age4 ,for1 a later age is not the infallible judge of an earlier2 much which to us moderns seems certain may soon become problematic2 much which satisfies us may soon be shown to be inadequate4 ,it may be that the old is capable of asserting the ultimate depth of life in contrast to the new2 that the world of inner spiritual experience which it discloses may finally show itself superior to every assault4 ,but1 in any case1 the new contains a wealth of fact not only in individual results but in the whole of its being2 through its emergence it has transformed the whole condition of things2 it is impossible to decry it as a mere apostasy and to appeal to the consciences of individuals4 ,it may be that spiritual power here stands against spiritual power in a titanic struggle for the soul of man3 victory must fall to the power which penetrates to the primary depths of life and is capable of taking possession of what is true in the others4 ,but if in this the older view of life is inwardly superior1 it can develop such superiority only by its own complete renewal and energetic inward elevation1 through the most fundamental settlement with everything antagonistic in an all-comprehensive whole of life4 ,yet how deeply the age is still involved in its search6 ,how far it is from the conclusion6 ,for the present1 as far as the life of culture is concerned1 ,religion has fallen into complete uncertainty2 its chief support and realm lie not within but outside of that life4 ,it is this which makes all affirmation of ,religion weak and all negation strong2 it is this which threatens to stamp1 as something subjective and false1 every conception of a supernatural4 ,religion has become uncertain to us not merely in single doctrines and tendencies1 but in the whole of its being1 in its fundamental contention as to the nature of life2 and what it offers in the traditional form in which it has come to us no longer satisfies a life which has been aroused to greater breadth and freedom4 #b4 ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,immanent ,,idealism ,by the side of the religious system of life1 for thousands of years1 now as supplementary1 now as contradictory1 there has been another which may be designated as ,immanent ,idealism4 ,the latter system is not so fixed and overawing a structure as the former1 but with a quieter force it penetrates the whole of life4 ,it is not of a simple nature1 but is found in many different forms2 still1 there exists so much in common in these that they clearly exhibit and emphasise one common tendency4 ,like the religious system1 this ,idealism also places life primarily in a world of thought1 from which it organises sense experience2 it is distinguished from the former system1 however1 in that it never separates the two worlds one from the other1 but conceives them as related elements or aspects of a single whole4 ,they are related to one another as appearance and reality1 as cause and effect1 as animating and animated nature 7natura naturans and naturata74 ,the divine is not so much a power transcending the world as one permeating it and living in it2 not something specific outside of things1 but their connection in a living unity2 it does not make demands and present us with problems so much as give to the world its truth and depth4 ,thus1 reality appears as an inwardly co-ordinated whole3 the individual finds his genuine being only as a part of this whole4 ,and so1 here1 the fundamental relation of life is that to the invisible whole of reality2 with the development of this relation1 that which seems lifeless becomes animated2 the elements which seem isolated are brought together2 and the world discloses an infinite content and gives it to man for a joyous possession4 ,but it would be impossible for man to accomplish the transition from appearance to reality1 if he were not rooted in the fundamental permanencies and if1 in the comprehending of the world1 he did not find his own being4 ,if this is the case1 however1 and if1 through courageous turning from the superficiality to which he in the first place belongs1 he is able to set himself in the depth of reality1 then a magnificent life with the widest prospects opens out before him4 ,for1 now1 he may win the whole of infinity for his own and set himself free from the triviality of the merely human without losing himself in an alien world2 he may direct the movement of life to a positive gain1 since he guides it from within and from the whole4 ,this life will find its centre in the activities which bring man into relation with the whole and broaden him from within to the whole2 thus1 in science and art spiritual creation becomes the chief concern2 its forceful development allows us to hope for an ennobling of the whole of existence4 ,with this creative activity as centre1 the rest is regarded as its environment1 its means1 its presupposition2 but there remain a clear distinction and gradation between that which a creative life evolves immediately1 and that which forms a mere condition for this and may never become an aim in itself4 ,thus1 the beautiful is separated sharply from the merely useful2 the inner life from all preservation of physical existence2 a genuine spiritual culture1 as the revelation of the depth of things1 from all perfecting of natural and social conditions1 from mere civilisation4 ,here life finds an aim and a task in itself2 they are not presented to it from a transcendent world2 but it can evolve a morality in the sense of taking up the whole into one's own volition1 the subjection of caprice to the necessity of things4 ,a life thus full of content and joyous activity arose when ,greek culture was at its height1 and exercised its influence through the course of the centuries2 ,christianity also soon laid aside its original suspicion against this life and joined it to itself4 ,this life1 however1 first attained complete independence and self-consciousness in modern culture so far as this culture followed the way of ,idealism4 ,it is felt to be superior to ,religion and hopes to be able to shape the world of man more satisfactorily than ,religion can4 ,in this system formulated conceptions and perplexing doctrines of the divine are not necessary1 as they are in ,religion1 because the divine is present immediately in the process of life and surrounds man on all sides4 ,man's powers are not drawn in a particular direction and nothing is discarded1 but everything is to be uniformly developed and unified in an all-inclusive harmony2 natural instincts are restrained and ennobled through their relations in a larger whole4 ,a power of organisation is displayed which reaches the finest vein of the soul1 throws the genuinely human into relief in contrast with environment and tradition1 and makes it the matter of chief concern3 with all this it deepens life in itself and finds incalculable treasure in such depth4 ,everywhere there is powerful effort and creative activity on the part of man1 but at the same time the consciousness of an invisible order2 a joyful affirmation of life1 but at the same time a deliverance from unrestrained curiosity and coarse enjoyment2 a breadth and a freedom of life1 and with this a clear consciousness of the greatness but also of the limitations of man4 ,such was the state of conviction in the classical period of ,german literature4 ,this form of life has1 with remarkable quickness1 been relegated into the distance2 with all its external proximity it has become inwardly more alien to us than the world of ,religion4 ,all this has come to pass1 however1 not so much through direct conflict1 which its free and comprehensive nature could scarcely provoke1 as through inner changes of conditions and strivings1 which have now thrust other facts into prominence and driven men to other tasks4 ,the transformation could hardly have been effected so quickly and so fundamentally if this mode of life did not involve fixed limits and problematic presuppositions which we have now become fully conscious of for the first time4 ,it is the aristocratic nature of this ,immanent ,idealism which first awakens suspicion and opposition4 ,spiritual creation1 from which it expects complete salvation1 can take possession of and satisfy the whole soul only where it breaks forth spontaneously with great and powerful effect1 where1 with overwhelming power1 it raises man above himself4 ,an incontrovertible experience shows us that this takes place only in rare and exceptional cases2 there must be a union of many forces before man can rise to such a height and be swayed by the compulsion of this creation4 ,now1 it is true that the gain of such red-letter days carries its effect into ordinary days and that from the heights light pours down upon lower levels4 ,but in such transmission there is a serious and inevitable loss in power and purity2 indeed1 in veracity3 that which fills the life of those producing it and arouses it to its highest passion easily becomes to the receiver a subsidiary matter1 a pleasant accompanying experience4 ,thus we see epochs of organisation follow upon times of creation1 but we see that such organisation sinks more and more into a reflective and passive reproduction4 ,such organisation tends to become mere imagination2 the man imbued with the spirit of such organisation easily seems to himself more than he is2 with a false self-consciousness talks and feels as though he were at a supreme height2 lives less his own life than an alien one4 ,sooner or later opposition must necessarily arise against such a half-life1 such a life of pretence1 and this opposition will become especially strong if it is animated by the desire that all who bear human features should participate in the chief goods of our existence and freely co-operate in the highest tasks4 ,it must be observed that this longing is one which1 at the present time1 is found to be irresistible4 ,and so the aristocratic character of ,immanent ,idealism produces a type of life rigidly exclusive1 harsh and intolerable4 ,but not only does this type of life lack complete power and truthfulness in regard to mankind as a whole2 it is subject to similar limitations in relation to the world and to things4 ,all success in our relation to the world and to things depends on the spiritual constituting the thing's own depth1 on things finding their genuine being in it1 and where this depth is reached1 on the visible world uniting with it willingly1 indeed joyfully1 and moulding itself solely and completely for spiritual expression4 ,spirit and world must strive together in mutual trust and each must finally be completely involved one in the other2 reality must build itself up1 if not at one stroke1 at any rate in ceaseless advance as a kingdom of reason4 ,a solution at once so simple and so easy bluntly contradicts the experiences of the last century4 ,both without and within the soul of man an infinite concreteness makes itself evident1 which withstands all derivation from general principles1 all insertion into a comprehensive scheme1 obstinately asserts its particularity1 forms its own complexes1 and follows its own course4 ,the realistic mode of thought of the ,modern ,age has brought this aspect of reality to full recognition4 ,if the spiritual life cannot take complete possession of things1 if a realm of facts continues to exist over against it1 it may be doubted whether the spiritual is of the ultimate being of the world and reveals the reality of things1 or whether it merely comes to them from without and only touches their surface4 ,in the latter case external limitation becomes the cause of an inward convulsion4 ,this is a fact which we find corroborated when we come to reflect that ,immanent ,idealism treats the spiritual life in man much too hastily and boldly as absolute spiritual life2 that it attributes to human capacity1 without further consideration1 that which belongs to spiritual life in general4 ,the experiences of modern life place the particularity and insignificant of man more and more before our eyes2 they enable us to see with what difficulty and how slowly any kind of spiritual life whatever has emerged in the human sphere1 and with what toil it maintains itself there2 they insist that1 if the spiritual life is not to sink down to a mere appearance to man1 a sharp distinction must be made between the substance of the spiritual life and the form of its existence in man2 in every sphere modern life puts questions which lead beyond the position of ,immanent ,idealism4 ,immanent ,idealism seems to treat the problem of life much too summarily and not to penetrate sufficiently to ultimate depths4 ,the conflict between ,immanent ,idealism and modern life is still more keen in regard to the problem whether reality is rational4 ,it is essential to this ,idealism to affirm this rationality2 it need not conceive it as present in a complete state1 but it must be sure of an advance to it2 the movement of reality1 with its antitheses and conflicts1 must pass in elements of reason4 ,immanent ,idealism tolerates no inner division of the spiritual life2 wherever spiritual movement emerges1 there can be no doubt concerning the aim2 the development of power must bring the right disposition with it2 every limitation can come only from weakness or misunderstanding2 there can be no radical evil4 ,with an optimism of this kind the leading minds of ,german classical literature are imbued2 but how much1 in the midst of all the progress of civilisation1 in the nineteenth century the appearance of the world has been darkened6 ,we see now with complete clearness the indifference of the forces of nature towards the aims of the spirit2 we see the incessant crossing of the work of reason by blind necessity2 we see the spiritual life divided against itself1 eminent spiritual powers drawn into the service of lower interests1 and carried away by unrestrained passion4 ,in a time of extraordinary increase of technical and social culture1 we see the spiritual life win scarcely anything1 in fact1 seriously recede2 we see it become perplexed concerning its main direction1 and oscillate in uncertainty between different possibilities4 ,we experience in every sphere a violent convulsion of the spirit4 ,how can ,immanent ,idealism satisfy us under such circumstances2 how can it assure to our life a firm basis8 ,indeed1 we may now doubt whether ,immanent ,idealism signifies a type of life at all2 whether it is not simply a compromise between a religious shaping of life and a life turned towards sense experience2 a via media1 which as merely transitional is only able to maintain itself for a time4 ,the historical experience of the ,modern ,age seems to show that the latter hypothesis is the true one4 ,at the beginning of the epoch ,religion stood in secure supremacy and the divine acted on man from a sovereignty that was supreme over the world4 ,then the divine came ever closer to the world that it might spread itself over it and permeate it1 till finally there was no longer any separation1 and ,god and world blended together in a single whole4 ,at first this seemed a pure and a great gain3 the divine put off all rigid sovereignty and spoke to us immediately out of the whole extent of life2 the world was related1 through the power of the divine1 to an inner whole and1 illuminated by it1 received a transfigured appearance4 ,and yet this solution was only apparent2 it contained an inner contradiction1 which ultimately was bound to break forth with a power of destruction4 ,the divine had developed its power and its depth in opposition to the world2 will it retain that power and that depth if the opposition ceases2 will not the renunciation of supremacy1 the fusion with things1 rob it of all distinctive content8 ,as a matter of fact1 with this increase in proximity and extension1 the divine fades and dissolves more and more2 ever less power proceeds from it3 and so the world is ever less transformed and elevated by it2 its transfiguring light is dissipated and its inner relations are broken4 ,from being a life-penetrating power ,pantheism becomes more and more a vague disposition2 indeed1 an empty phrase4 ,the living whole1 which in the beginning raised things to itself1 has finally become a mere abstraction which cannot hold its ground before vigorous thought4 ,thus1 with an immanent dialectic1 such as historical life often enough shows1 the movement1 since it strove for breadth1 has been destroyed in its life-giving root2 it has abandoned the basis from which it derived its truth and power4 ,immanent ,idealism shows itself to be one great contradiction2 a fascinating illusion1 which1 instead of reality1 presents us with mere appearance4 ,of course1 ,immanent ,idealism is not finally refuted by such doubts and difficulties2 it puts forward demands which need to be satisfied in some way2 it contains truths which in some manner must be acknowledged4 ,what would become of human life if it should abandon its striving forwards to the whole2 its spiritual penetration of the world2 its advance in greatness and breadth2 its joyous and vigorous nature2 the excellence of its disposition8 ,but the indispensable truth that is involved in ,immanent ,idealism must be brought into wider relations1 and thus made clear and modified1 so that it may be more secure and more fruitful in its effect4 ,meanwhile1 we see that here also we are in complete uncertainty2 that which was intended to give a firm support1 and to point out a clear course to our life1 has itself become a difficult problem4 7b7 ,,the ,,newer ,,systems ,no attack from without and no relaxation from within could have brought the older systems of life into the state of chaos which we actually find them to be in1 if the experience of sense had not become far more to man and had not given him far more to do than in earlier times4 ,hitherto genuine spiritual life seemed to be able to unfold itself only in energetic detachment from the world of sense2 it reduced this world to a subordinate sphere which received its position and value only from a transcendent order2 thus1 all tarrying with the things of sense seemed to be a sign of a lower disposition1 a falling from the heights of human life4 ,this view has been radically altered by the course of the ,modern ,age4 ,when the invisible world became uncertain to man and the life directed towards it shadowy1 an intense thirst for reality1 for a life out of the abundance and truth of things1 arose1 and only the visible world seemed to promise satisfaction4 ,this world had been seen previously in a particular light which is now felt to be artificial and distorting2 if this light fails and the world can unfold itself unaffected1 it shows a far richer content1 far firmer relations1 far greater tasks4 ,all this is more especially because the world no longer appears to be something finished1 but as still in process and as capable of a thorough-going elevation2 because great possibilities which human power is able to awaken still lie dormant in it4 ,in diverse directions sense experience advances far beyond the older form2 ,natural ,science analyses the visible world into its single components and makes it penetrable to our thought1 and at the same time technical skill wins power over its forces4 ,in the political and social sphere men find new tasks not only in regard to isolated questions1 but throughout the whole of its organisation1 and great hopes of an essential elevation of life are raised4 ,the individual also appears more powerful and richer1 in that the decay of traditional ties gives him complete freedom for his development4 ,even if1 in the struggle for the control of life1 these movements in many ways fall into contradiction one with another1 still1 in the first place they unite in advancing the world of sense in man's estimation1 in fixing his love and his work there1 and in also making men more and more disinclined to consider the life-systems rooted in the invisible4 ,sense experience presents itself ever more decidedly as something which can tolerate neither partner nor rival2 the life directed towards it loses more and more the nature of being an opponent1 which it hitherto had1 and it undertakes to shape our whole existence characteristically in positive achievement and also to satisfy the spiritual needs of man completely4 ,all this signifies an entire reversal of the order of life2 for1 since the world which formerly had seemed secondary now becomes predominant1 indeed exclusive1 all standards and values are changed1 and the old possession appears also as a new gain4 ,it is true that the new mode of thought misses the advantages which a long tradition gave to the old3 but in place of this1 it has the charm of searching and finding for itself1 the joy of first discovery and successful exertion2 here an infinite horizon is disclosed2 before the research and effort of man lies an open way4 ,endeavour derives particular power and confidence from the conviction that the new is nothing else than the old and genuine1 but hitherto misunderstood1 nature3 it is a return of life to itself1 to its plain and pure truth1 which permits us to expect a new world epoch4 ,and so mankind1 exalted in mind and with cheerful courage1 enters upon the course which promises so much4 #a4 ,,the ,,naturalistic ,,system ,the movement towards giving sole attention to the world of sense cannot make sure progress without a more definite decision concerning the main agents and the main direction of work4 ,different possibilities here offer themselves2 three1 however1 in particular4 ,in reality1 these have all evolved1 sometimes blending together and strengthening one another1 at other times crossing and hindering one another4 ,none of these movements has displayed more energy and exercised more power than that which makes the sense experience of surrounding nature its basis1 and strives to include man's entire being within this experience4 ,this is ,naturalism1 which1 starting out from the mechanical conception of nature1 which has been developed in the ,modern ,age1 applies the ideas thus obtained to everything1 and subordinates even the life of the soul to them4 ,the movement originated at the dawn of the seventeenth century1 when an independence and autonomy of nature began to be acknowledged4 ,nature had been covered with a veil of explanation1 mainly sthetic or religious in character1 which gave it a colour corresponding to the prevailing disposition1 but at the same time excluded the possibility of a scientific comprehension4 ,a comprehension of this kind could only be attained by getting rid of all subjective addition which had been made by man1 and by investigating nature purely by itself4 ,since ,descartes and ,galileo that has been accomplished1 and nature now appears as an immense web of single threads1 as a complex of fundamentally mobile1 but soulless1 elements1 whose movements take simple basal forms1 while the combination of these elements produces all constructions1 even the most complicated4 ,this mighty machinery never points beyond1 and as it runs its course solely within itself1 so it requires to be understood solely from itself4 ,everything spiritual is thus eliminated2 this realm of fact has no implication of aims1 or of a meaning of events4 ,this new scientific conception of nature had first1 with much toil and difficulty1 to wrestle with the traditional1 navely human1 representation2 this was chiefly a matter of reducing first appearances to their simple elements1 and of constructing the world anew from these4 ,by this process1 nature at the same time became accessible to the operation of man4 ,for1 the technical control of nature presupposes the analytic character of research2 only such a research1 with its discovery of the single elements and tendencies1 places man in a relation of activity towards nature2 while in earlier times only an attitude of contemplation had been granted to him4 ,natural ,science thus created a new type of life1 a life energetic1 masculine1 pressing forward unceasingly4 ,this life1 like science itself1 in the first place forms a special part of a wider whole4 ,as the expulsion of the soul from nature at first brought about a strengthening of the soul in itself1 nature was the less immediately able to govern the whole4 ,the individual of modern times strengthened and asserted himself against nature1 and insisted upon a realm of independent inwardness4 ,the contest was a severe one2 yet the more nature was seen to extend1 on the one hand1 to the infinitely great1 and1 on the other1 to the infinitely small1 the more fixed relations it showed1 so much the more overwhelmingly did it draw man to itself1 the more did its conception tend to include the inner aspects of the soul also4 ,the final blow in the struggle was given by the modern theory of descent1 since this theory asserts man to be the product solely of natural forces1 and maintains that everything which man ascribes to himself as characteristic and distinctive is derived from a gradual development of natural factors4 ,and so nature is exalted as an all-comprehensive world--nature1 that is1 as represented in the modern mechanistic theory1 which is thus transformed into a final theory of the world1 a naturalistic metaphysic4 ,the human and spiritual world1 which hitherto had been felt to be an independent realm in contrast with nature1 appears henceforth as its mere continuation1 as something which fits completely into a wider conception of nature4 ,a conviction of this kind must fundamentally alter the position of the spiritual life1 as well as its magnitudes and values3 and this conviction is no mere theory1 but desires and strives to take possession of the whole of existence and to change its form completely4 ,indeed1 a particular naturalistic type of life arises and wins a powerful influence over the thought and activity of the time4 ,naturalism denies all independence of the spiritual life1 which it regards as nothing more than an adjunct to the realm of nature1 and one that can only exist along with sense existence1 as a part of or as a supplement to it4 ,spirituality has1 therefore1 to subordinate itself and conform entirely to the life of nature2 it can never produce and guide a movement from itself1 never evolve a basal and comprehensive activity1 never withdraw itself into its own sphere as into an independent realm4 ,all self-existent spirituality fades to a world of mere shadows2 whatever makes itself felt in us can only become a complete reality by winning flesh and blood through the appropriation of physical forces4 ,life1 thus understood1 possesses nothing in itself2 it receives everything from its relations to the environment with which it is bound up3 thought brings forth no new ideas2 all ideas are merely abbreviations of sense impressions4 ,effort can never realise purely spiritual values2 the essence of all happiness is sensuous enjoyment1 however refined that may in some cases be4 ,the naturalistic system of life receives a more definite delineation from the representation of nature1 which the mechanical theory1 together with a theory of descent adapted to it1 sketches and impressively holds up to the present age4 ,by this theory nature is completely resolved into a co-existence of individual forces1 which1 within the narrow bounds of existence1 must clash violently together1 and assert themselves one against the other in ceaseless conflict4 ,this conflict1 however1 is a source of progressive movement1 in that it brings together1 establishes1 and employs everything useful for self-preservation2 it keeps life in a state of youthful freshness1 in that new conditions continually arise and demand new accommodations with respect to the biologico-economic environment4 ,a biologico-economic mode of thought is evolved which revolutionises all previous estimations of values4 ,everything intrinsically valuable disappears from the world2 its expulsion seems a deliverance from a confused1 indeed a meaningless1 conception of things2 the useful1 that which promotes the interests of living beings1 each after its kind1 in the struggle for existence1 becomes the all-dominating value4 ,no mysterious being of things is apprehended in the ,true2 but those presentations and systems of thought are called true which ensure that the best accommodation to the conditions of life shall be attained1 and which just in this way hold the individuals together4 ,no longer does a ,good speak to man with austere demand from a transcendent sovereignty2 but that is good which1 within our experience1 is of service to the preservation of life4 ,the ,beautiful1 also1 is subordinated to the useful1 and it is solely by its value in relation to this that it asserts itself4 ,in everything1 it is only one's own welfare1 the interest of individual preservation1 that directly inspires conduct2 but real life shows man in so many relations1 so closely implicated with his environment1 that he can strive for nothing for himself without also striving for others4 ,this extension of interests has no limits2 there is nothing in the whole of infinity which could not in this way become to man1 indirectly1 a means of self-preservation and thus an object of desire4 ,the naturalistic type of life extends from the most general of impulses to every branch of activity1 and forms every department of life in a distinctive fashion4 ,knowledge depends entirely upon experience2 every speculative element must be excluded as a subjective delusion2 in all its branches knowledge is nothing else than a broadened ,natural ,science4 ,art may not pursue imaginary ideals2 it finds its single task in the faithful and simple reproduction of the natural environment4 ,social life and endeavour will develop1 above all1 natural powers1 and will seek to adapt itself to the conditions given by nature1 and1 rejecting all aims based upon mere imagination1 it will care chiefly for the physical welfare of the whole1 as the source of all power and of all success4 ,it is not difficult to understand how this form of life was able to win and carry away the minds of its contemporaries4 ,in the first place it has the character of simplicity and immediacy1 which1 in contrast with the complexity and the remoteness of the traditional position1 appears a great advantage4 ,for1 in this scheme1 life1 with all its multiplicity1 is dominated and unified by the idea of natural self-preservation2 and the things which immediately affect us1 which lie physically and psychically near to us1 come most directly into relation to this aim4 ,it is a further tendency of this scheme of life to bring the whole of existence into a state of activity and restless advance4 ,for the state of conflict which prevails under the naturalistic system allows nothing to persist merely because of its present existence or through the weight of tradition1 but everything must always be reasserting its right to existence2 it must stretch and extend itself in order to be useful in the life of the present4 ,that which cannot satisfy this test is unmercifully thrown over as a dead weight4 ,it is also of great importance to the theory in question that nature and the world are involved in ceaseless change1 and that1 along with the conditions of life1 the requirements also alter3 the matter is one of continually accommodating oneself anew2 and so life is placed entirely in the present1 and the fixity of an absolute conception and treatment of change yields to the instability of a relative one4 ,last of all1 and most especially1 life according to its own conviction bears the character of truth4 ,for human striving appears to attain the firm basis of reality1 and to become truthful in itself only when it is definitely related to the surrounding world2 while1 so long as it trusted to the capacity of the subject--which fondly imagined itself independent--it fell into unspeakable error4 ,only when delivered from subjectivity1 only when fixed within the web of the whole of nature1 does life seem to awaken out of a dream1 and to become fully real1 a genuine1 securely grounded life4 ,the energy of negation which this theory employs and with which it drives out everything which has become old adds strength to the elements of assertion and positive achievement in these changes4 ,in this theory there is nothing indefinite which could soften the opposition1 nothing mediatory which could overcome it1 but1 distinctly and harshly1 affirmation and negation stand face to face and call for a plain decision between them4 ,whatever remains in doubt and under suspicion is forced into the background1 indeed eliminated altogether1 through the victorious onward march of modern ,natural ,science and the increasing triumphs of technical skill1 which seem to demonstrate1 immediately1 the truth of the naturalistic type of life4 ,thus1 this movement spreads in a mighty flood through humanity1 and seizes with a particular power the classes which are struggling upward1 and which meet science and culture with a faith yet undisturbed4 ,in matters temporal there is hardly anything which seems able to withstand such an attack4 ,nevertheless1 that which gains the support of many contemporaries is not thereby proved to be the supreme power and the final truth4 ,in that movement there may be far more1 and something far more important than it itself admits4 ,it may be that it achieves that which it does achieve only with the help of elements of another kind2 perhaps1 indeed1 it is able to maintain its truth only in so far as it enters into broader relations in a wider whole and thereby changes its meaning essentially4 ,whether such is the case can be ascertained not by reference to subjective opinion1 but by an examination of the life of humanity4 ,now1 the first movement of opposition is produced in just that sphere which seemed ,naturalism's strongest bulwark1 that is1 ,natural ,science1 the ,natural ,science based on mathematics and physics4 ,only the most fleeting survey can lead to the confusion of ,natural ,science with ,naturalism2 in reality1 the naturalistic thinker cannot with justice acknowledge any exact ,natural ,science1 and a natural scientist cannot be naturalistic in thought in consequence of his science1 but only in spite of it4 ,for1 ,natural ,science is anything but a mere copy of the sense impressions which we experience2 its origin and progress are due to the fact that thought fundamentally acts upon and transforms those impressions4 ,if our intellect were no more than ,naturalism can logically make it out to be1 it could1 at most1 only refine the animal presentations a little2 it never could have advanced beyond the single presentations to a representative conception of the world as a whole4 ,such an advance can be achieved only by thought raising itself above the stream of appearances and placing itself over against it2 but how could a mere bundle of perceptions1 to which ,naturalism reduces the intellect1 achieve this8 ,incomparably more unity of being and freedom of operation are necessary for this achievement than such a bundle could produce4 ,in earlier times1 no doubt1 man went very much astray in the interpretation of his environment2 he transferred his immediate feelings into it2 he coloured the whole world in human colours1 and associated with its realities as with beings of the same nature as himself4 ,but even the error shows a seeking and an interpretation2 the simple putting of the question proclaims a being becoming superior to mere nature4 ,the most important thing1 however1 is that man has not regarded the matter as finally settled with this anthropomorphism2 he has come to regard it as inadequate and has pressed forward to a new way of thinking4 ,what could drive him to that change but a desire for truth1 and how is such a conception as truth attainable from nature8 ,and if thought has succeeded in breaking through the misty veil of anthropomorphism and seeks things in their own relations2 if an objective consciousness of the world has emerged1 a consciousness which is as different from the immediacy of sense impressions as the sky is distant from the earth1 has not man also grown in himself beyond mere sense impression2 is it not a work of thought which supports and governs the whole construction1 and differentiates genuine nature from appearance8 ,how much power of comprehension and of relating together is exhibited even by ,natural ,science1 in that it analyses the sense presentation of the environment into its single elements1 ascertains the laws of these1 and traces the movement from the simplest beginnings right up to its present stage of development4 ,all activity of thought is thus subject to a certain reproach in that it must continually bring itself into relation to perception3 nevertheless it will interweave all that is imparted to it by perception into a framework of thought--transform it1 in fact1 into a realm of thought4 ,spirituality is bound2 but how dull an individual must be to confuse such a bound spirituality with mere sensuousness6 ,the error of ,naturalism is obvious2 concerned solely with the object and its form1 it entirely leaves out of account the psychical activity which is involved in the perception of an object2 it overlooks the life-process within which alone we can have knowledge of an object and occupy ourselves with it4 ,as soon1 however1 as we regard the object from this point of view1 it will be transformed and will assume far more spiritual traits4 ,reality will then burst asunder the framework into which ,naturalism desires to press it4 ,the type of life which ,naturalism gives rise to also contains more than ,naturalism is able to explain4 ,at first sight it seems as though man is taken up completely into a wider conception of nature2 as though his life obeys its forces and impulses exclusively2 as though all his asserted superiority to nature is simply imaginary4 ,as a matter of fact1 in this turning to nature1 man1 with his spiritual activity1 stands not within1 but above1 nature4 ,for he does not appear as a mere piece of nature1 but experiences it and thinks over it3 its kingdom1 its organisation1 its stability become to him a joyful possession and a widening of his being4 ,the spiritual life has developed in relation to nature2 nature has not welded it together4 ,the same may be said of the idea of the increase of power1 which constitutes the main gain of life in the naturalistic system4 ,for1 in the naturalistic type of life power is not directed towards externals1 as in nature1 but is experienced and enjoyed1 and only thus does it constitute a source of happiness2 yet how could it be that1 without an organisation of life in an inner unity which transcends individual occurrences8 ,thus1 the intellectual and the technical control of nature which the ,modern ,age has acquired attracts men and prevails over them chiefly as a growth of life1 as an increase of self-reliance4 ,even material goods1 wealth and property1 do not determine the endeavour of the man of culture so much through sensuous enjoyment1 the limit of which is soon reached1 as through their possibilities as means to activity and creation1 to the advancement of human capacity4 ,it is this in particular which has filled the material civilisation of the present with the spirit of restlessness and extravagance1 and gives it its demoniacal power over men4 ,it is this relation alone which explains and justifies the present estimate of material goods1 so much higher as that is in modern culture than it was in the older systems of thought1 which branded as unworthy all endeavour directed to the acquirement of such things4 ,in short1 even ,naturalism in no way eliminates the subject with its inwardness2 rather in its own development it everywhere presupposes the subject4 ,it does not shape life out of mere and pure nature1 but out of a close union of a transcendent spiritual life with nature1 and out of an energetic insistence upon elements of nature within the soul4 ,however1 man experiences not so much the things themselves as himself in the things2 the relating together1 the surveying1 the experiencing of the whole is always a spiritual performance4 ,this performance makes something different out of nature1 just as the naturalistic culture that is striven for is different from the state of nature that is found at the beginning4 ,the misconception of the relation of nature to the mind2 the postulation of nature without mind1 in place of nature with mind1 makes ,naturalism self-contradictory and untenable4 ,naturalism therefore struggles vainly against the following dilemma3 if it is really in earnest in the elimination of spiritual realities1 it must inevitably destroy its own fundamental basis and1 as a system of life1 must break down2 while if it in any way acknowledges a transcendence of nature1 and a transcendence just in that which is fundamental to it1 then it is necessarily driven beyond itself4 ,but such contradiction in the basal position must be present through the whole development of ,naturalism and must make all its factors variating in colour and double in meaning1 since at one and the same time they involve the spiritual element and reject it1 eliminate it and bring it into the foreground1 the former openly and explicitly1 the latter concealedly and implicitly4 ,such is the case1 in particular1 with the fundamental conception of the struggle for existence4 ,in the context of ,naturalism1 this conception can signify nothing else than the preservation of natural existence1 of mere life2 such a conception1 however1 is as incapable of comprehending the whole wealth of the work of civilisation and culture as it is of developing within itself4 ,if the preservation of existence in this sense were really the highest aim1 then1 all the work of humanity1 incalculable and great as it is1 all the toil and creative activity of history1 would be without result2 in no way would it lead beyond the starting-point2 we should1 of course1 have life1 but nothing along with and in life4 ,indeed1 the movement would be a continual retrogression1 for the experience of the present shows us clearly enough that the conflict of life becomes ever more difficult1 toilsome1 and embittered4 ,if all this toil does not yield more than was possessed in the original condition1 that is1 physical existence1 then this implies that we have to make an ever greater detour to establish that which formerly devolved upon us immediately4 ,in such a case our life would be a continual sinking1 a toil continually increasing in difficulty1 in order that we might simply be something1 without being anything in particular4 ,or1 will anyone assert that there is no retrogression when the achievement of the same aim costs ever more effort1 ever more labour and turmoil of spirit8 ,the fact is that ,naturalism also gives to life1 which is seen to be thus immersed in conflict1 some kind of content1 which it conceives as increasing continually in the course of the movement1 and as attaining for us through the conflict an ever richer and more comprehensive existence4 ,but how can a conception such as that of the content of life originate in mere nature8 ,how can it be even conceived unless life possesses some consciousness of itself1 unless there is a transformation of what is external into something internal--a thing which nature can never accomplish8 ,with the conception of the struggle for existence1 the useful becomes the preponderant power of life2 it attempts a transvaluation of all values1 since it lays stress rather on the relation of things to us than on their own nature4 ,the conception won acceptance from and power over the minds of men because it was a complete change from the generally accepted explanation1 and at the same time seemed to simplify matters greatly4 ,unfortunately1 on further consideration this transformation proves to be a complete reversal of the general scheme of life1 indeed a destruction of it4 ,man1 it is true1 does not preserve his physical existence without toil2 he must continually win it anew1 and nothing can occupy him which does not acquire some relation to this necessity and make itself consistent with it4 ,but the further question arises1 whether anxiety for the useful is also able to crush out that which is distinctive and characteristic in the world of humanity4 ,if we recognise the limits of the endeavour after the useful1 we shall soon become doubtful concerning its claim to be the sole aim of conduct4 ,that endeavour is spent solely on the welfare of the individual2 it can never free itself from reference to the individual1 and never1 beyond that perceived1 can it take up anything as an aim in itself4 ,interest is centred solely upon the external products of the activity of men and of the process of nature1 and not at all upon what men and nature are in themselves4 ,we find here nothing but isolated spheres of existence which are devoid alike of inner relation to themselves and to one another4 ,now1 ,naturalism can appeal in its own defence to the fact that real life shows its individual departments to have thousands of inter-relationships1 so that the welfare of the individual is inseparably bound up with that of his environment1 his family1 his home1 his state2 and that therefore1 in order to prosper himself1 his endeavour must be for the good of these also4 ,it may even serve his own interest to give up a direct advantage in favour of a greater indirect one4 ,further1 ,naturalism is able to assert that1 however little the inner disposition of others may affect us directly1 this disposition can acquire a value for us in so far as its persistence alone assures to us a continuance of achievement4 ,as considerations of this kind may be extended without limit1 there is nothing in the whole breadth of existence which the utilitarian view of life need reject4 ,but1 in the midst of all this extension in breadth1 this development of life retains a fixed limitation in its inner nature1 which cannot be transcended3 we can never strive for the alien1 the other1 the whole1 for its own sake1 but only as a means for our own welfare2 everything inward becomes a matter of indifference if1 sooner or later1 it is not transformed into an external result4 ,human life1 however1 through its own development has grown beyond this limitation2 if not in the breadth of existence1 yet in its inner nature and at its highest1 it manifests something significantly more4 ,man is capable of a love which values another1 not because it hopes for this or that which is useful from him1 but because with the whole of his existence he is valuable to it4 ,man is capable of a love which can lead him to the willing subordination1 indeed the joyful sacrifice1 of his own existence2 of a love in which the first self dies and a new self is born4 ,love is the greatest of all contradictions1 and one which the understanding cannot solve1 since there is nothing more impenetrable than this individuality of self-consciousness1 which is negated1 and which yet ,i should retain as positive 7,hegel74 ,into what a state of poverty humanity would fall if a genuine love of this kind were struck out of the number of its possessions6 ,but can ,naturalism in any way understand and estimate such an inner expansion of the heart1 such a ,stirbe und ,werde a dying to live1 to use the words of ,goethe8 ,a deliverance of life from the mere ego is effected in another direction in work4 ,of course1 work also stands in close relation to the preservation of life2 it must demonstrate itself to be in some way useful4 ,but work would never fill the soul and attain to anything great if it did not also become an aim in itself2 if it were not carried on in complete submission to the object and according to its requirements4 ,how low all educational endeavour1 personal guardianship1 all work for humanity would sink2 how humanity would lack all self-forgetting devotion to it1 all bold pressing forward2 and how unintelligible the joy in a life's vocation would be1 if the idea of utility solely and entirely determined conduct1 if the chief concern were always how the work paid6 ,should we not sink1 in such a case1 into a slavery which would enthral man far more oppressively than any command which a tyrant could be capable of8 ,it is true that on the average level of existence much is turned to the service of the merely useful which was produced from love and work1 and this reversal of spiritual goods may be the first thing which comes definitely under our notice4 ,in order1 however1 even to be so applied and reversed1 they must originally have been generated in some manner1 and this original generation can never proceed from the useful1 but only out of the inner force and compulsion of the object1 as1 for example1 in the case of the great transitions of thought1 of artistic creation1 and of religious conviction4 ,and1 as these have proceeded from inner movements1 so they have also brought about powerful inner changes4 ,they have not altered this or that in a given world in order to make it more comfortable to man1 but with an energetic revolution have transformed our world from its very foundations1 and have constructed a new world in contrast to that which immediately surrounds us4 ,how much or how little individual men1 or indeed even mankind as a whole1 have appropriated of this2 how far man has corresponded and still corresponds to the necessities of his own nature1 is a matter and a question in itself3 in the spiritual life of humanity the new magnitudes are extant1 and they operate here as norms for testing all achievement4 ,at the same time1 they show that our life and our nature are of a kind different from what ,naturalism represents them to be4 ,however much ,naturalism may boast that it is possible for even the highest to be drawn into the service of the merely human1 with all its boasting it has not explained the origin of the highest3 can a thing proceed from its own shadow8 ,the naturalistic attempt to trace everything back to the useful really reverses the condition of affairs and results in inner destruction wherever disposition stands first4 ,for conduct changes its character completely according as it is regarded as a mere means1 or as an end in itself2 according as its aim is striven for directly or only indirectly4 ,do such things as love1 fidelity1 honour deserve these names if the thought of selfish advantage is their motive power8 ,it lies in the nature of certain things that they must be treated as ends in themselves and as matters of primary concern3 to degrade them to a subsidiary position is in their case only a finer kind of destruction2 to be opposed to utility is an attribute inseparable from their very being4 ,where disposition is valued only as a pre-condition of achievement1 as in ,naturalism1 at the highest only a tolerable appearance1 a substitute for a genuine disposition1 can be reached in the whole moral sphere4 ,naturalism affords us an example of such a substitution when it sets up an altruistic action1 that is1 an action which produces something useful to another1 in place of an inner expansion of life1 which takes the other up inwardly into our own volition and being1 and which alone leads beyond egoism4 ,naturalism is able to overlook all this2 is able to make what is the secondary view of things the primary one2 the derived1 the original2 is able to put the relation to human perception in place of the thing itself1 only because its interest is so completely occupied with external relations that it does not independently evaluate the inner2 and again1 because a reflection that appeals to the understanding hinders all immediate relation and spontaneous appropriation4 ,otherwise1 it also would feel how deep1 how intolerable1 a degradation of man ensues if his innermost experience1 his striving after truth1 his wrestling for unity within himself1 his love1 and his suffering are made a mere means to physical self-preservation1 and are thus regarded from the point of view of utility4 ,if we glance over the life of universal history1 we see that a history of a distinctively human character extricates itself from the machinery of nature only through man's acquiring an independence over against his environment1 evolving a life conscious of itself and from it exerting a transforming power upon all presented to it4 ,only thus does a civilisation grow up in contrast with the mere state of nature4 ,in civilisation and culture man enters into conflict with the infinity of the external world1 but he cannot carry on this conflict victoriously without setting an inner infinity in opposition to that external one4 ,in the struggle between these two worlds the life of man is transformed no less than the appearance of reality4 ,more and more the visible world becomes an expression of an invisible one2 more and more life draws the world into itself and finds the chief problems in its own sphere4 ,thus life becomes raised above simple physical preservation2 that which serves in this preservation is regarded as a condition only and as something preliminary4 ,among the peoples situated nearest to us1 this tendency has taken different forms2 but the separation of creative spiritual activity from all mere utility is common to all4 ,thus1 ,greek culture gave birth to a life resting in its own movement1 a life satisfied in itself4 ,in the sharpest manner it marked off the beautiful1 that which could produce pleasure immediately and of itself1 from the merely useful1 everything which served something else4 ,it lauded the life filled with the perception and appreciation of the beautiful as the only free life1 and pronounced every other way of life to be servile4 ,further1 if in ,christianity1 in the comprehensiveness of its relations1 the care for the welfare of the narrowly human takes up a great amount of attention1 and a utilitarianism of a religious kind is evolved1 the height of its creation and disposition is not affected3 in it the winning of a new life superior to all selfishness1 the becoming one with the divine1 is the one end in itself4 ,if ,clement of ,alexandria could say that1 if it was a matter of choosing between the knowledge of ,god and eternal bliss1 he would have1 without hesitation1 to renounce the latter1 or if ,thomas ,kempis said1 ,i would rather be poor for ,thy sake than rich without ,thee4 ,i choose rather to be a pilgrim with ,thee on the earth1 than without ,thee to possess heaven4 ,for where ,thou art1 there is heaven2 but where ,thou art not1 there is death and hell--then these are not merely the lofty sayings of individuals1 but a faithful expression of that which gave to the whole system its world-penetrating and world-reviving power4 ,the ,modern ,age1 too1 which has conceded so much to utilitarian striving1 is in the innermost essence of its effort far removed from the spirit of mere utility4 ,for1 from the two poles of its life1 from the subject as from the object1 it breaks through all that is simply given and forms a new1 self-existent world4 ,in modern times the subject frees itself from the environment1 places itself proudly over against it1 and finds its securest experience in the self-certainty of its own life4 ,at the same time it in no way renounces the surrounding world2 but through the activity of thought it reconstructs that world1 and in this conceptualises and idealises all its magnitudes4 ,the more the subject becomes assured of seeing all things spiritually and scientifically by means of its own organisation1 the more true is it that all sense experience is sustained and modified by spiritual power4 ,natural self-preservation cannot possibly satisfy the striving of the subject4 ,for this striving can never be reduced to a mere means1 but finds its power1 as its joy1 in becoming a world in itself2 in the proud maintenance and establishment of its own nature in face of every opposition2 in the impression of its particularity upon the infinity of things4 ,on the other hand1 over against the circumstantiality of man1 great systems of thought are formed2 evolve a characteristic content and independent powers2 and1 as forces in the life of universal history1 press forward their consequences with inevitable necessity4 ,these systems seek to bring reality under their sway1 and do not manifest the least concern with regard to the continuance and the interests of man4 ,science and art and the political and economical aspects of life afford examples of what we mean4 ,accordingly1 in the modern world and in the modern man1 two movements towards infinity clash together1 and from these there arise great commotion and violent unrest4 ,whatever may remain enigmatical in this1 the fact of the transformation of the first1 the sense experience of things1 is beyond doubt4 ,it is also beyond doubt that man1 regarded spiritually1 does not find himself a member of a given world1 but must first seek and make clear his fundamental relations to the world4 ,from this position ,naturalism1 with its nave assertion of the finality and permanence of the sense impression1 appears to be an intolerable dogmatism4 ,naturalism is seen to be far below the highest point of universal historical development2 it cannot appropriate the experiences and results of that development2 it consists of a confusion of nave and scientific modes of thought1 which win the adherence of many individuals1 but which1 through their contradictions1 can never guarantee to life genuine stability and a clear course4 ,only because it evolves in the atmosphere of a world of another kind1 and thereby imperceptibly enhances its own conceptions1 does it appear at all plausible4 ,nevertheless1 even so1 it is a mischievous confusion of thought which must act detrimentally upon conduct4 ,those especially will be opposed to it who recognise in human life great tasks and severe perplexities1 and desire that the highest powers and clearest thought shall be called forth for the accomplishment of those tasks and the solution of those perplexities4 ,but ,naturalism1 obscuring1 as it does1 the inner problems of life2 with its backwardness in the movement of universal history2 and with its attempt to take from human life all proud and free self-consciousness1 indeed all soul1 can tend only to reduce the energy of life4 ,the rejection of ,naturalism by no means signifies failure to appreciate the increased attention to nature1 out of the wrong interpretation of which ,naturalism has proceeded4 ,not only has visible nature become more to our knowledge2 it has also become incomparably more to our life4 ,the fact that we feel ourselves conditioned by it1 and have become more closely associated with it1 can be fully appreciated and must force us to a radical revision of the traditional form of life4 ,such a revision1 however1 can be successful in achieving its aim only if the new experiences are systematised to form a consistent whole with the remaining facts in a comprehensive1 universal life2 spiritual endeavour is solely and alone capable of offering this universality and of accomplishing this task4 #b4 ,,the ,,socialistic ,,system ,the socialistic system of life is often closely bound up with the naturalistic1 and blends with it so well as almost to form a single whole2 indeed1 there is so much affinity in their fundamental principles that the one may appear to be the completion of the other4 ,but when we come to details1 we find that a different character and a different emotional life are yielded according as the relation to nature or to human society governs life2 especially as we are parts in an infinite nature1 or as we place our own province in the foreground and seek a new form for it4 ,on the one hand knowledge takes the lead1 on the other activity4 ,while the former1 according to its nature1 is more concerned with reaching a consistent whole1 the latter feels the contradictions of experience most intensely4 ,with the one progress appears to be a gradual accumulation1 with the other it does not seem possible to dispense with a radical change2 while the former is broader in its outlook1 the latter has more warmth of enthusiasm4 ,through the domination of thought and life by the problems of society1 a distinctive form of culture may therefore be expected4 ,in modern life different motives have led to a closer unity of men on the basis of experience4 ,religion no longer accords to the individual firm support as in earlier times1 and with every advance of scientific research nature is removed inwardly further from us2 ceaseless criticism and reflection tend to prevent us more and more from comprehending the whole as a unity4 ,man1 thus isolated in the whole1 seems to himself to be lost1 unless he succeeds in discovering relations between himself and others of the same nature as himself1 and unless in co-operation with them he helps to build up an independent realm of their own1 which may lend support and value to the life of the individual4 ,in the ,modern ,age social life has tended to this end under the influence of fresh impressions and new prospects4 ,hitherto that life was under the influence of an invisible world of thought1 especially of one of a religious kind4 ,the union of men had particular presuppositions and was realised in a particular manner2 here1 the more closely a certain group held together1 the more sharply was it separated from others2 the calling forth of power in one particular direction meant diverting it from other tasks4 ,a changed mode of thought was also able to take exception to the view that the ties which bind men together came from a transcendent order1 which is now felt as an other world and is the subject of doubt4 ,at first1 therefore1 we are apt to think it a pure gain if modern society no longer concerns itself with these invisible bonds1 and regards the union as arising solely and entirely out of the immediate experience of life4 ,for then there is nothing to hinder the balanced development of all the relationships of men among themselves2 the social life serves no other end1 but finds its task and happiness in itself1 and in its actuality is disturbed by no kind of doubt4 ,with this deliverance from all external constraint1 a positive advance of the life of society on the basis of the ,modern ,age is associated4 ,a life more free in conduct1 and which through progress in the arts ceaselessly expands1 brings men nearer to one another1 and forces them into closer union2 action and reaction accelerate each other4 ,the opinions and strivings of the masses are determined more easily and exercise more influence2 the whole and its influence upon the individual become incomparably stronger4 ,at the same time1 the energetic attention that men bestow upon the surrounding reality throws into bold relief relations which have existed from the earliest times1 but which hitherto have not been prominent1 and enables them to acquire a greater value for life4 ,since the old appears in a new light1 and the new arises1 diverse streams of social life are formed1 and through their diversity operate to the strengthening of the main tendency4 ,modern ,sociology shows the individual to be far more dependent upon the social environment1 upon general conditions1 than we are wont to assume from the first impression1 which usually throws differences into relief and overlooks common traits1 generally fails to pay sufficient attention to the growth of the individuals1 and is too apt to take the positions which they possess as essentially the result of their own work4 ,in contrast to this1 the one thing which now has power to impress us is the fact that the dependence reaches back to the earliest beginnings2 that the individual has become what he has become through the overpowering influences of heredity1 education1 and environment4 ,further1 the conviction that the differences lie within ascertainable limits1 and that there is a certain average level throughout all the multiplicity of life1 is gaining a firmer hold4 ,to ascertain these average levels now becomes the chief problem of knowledge1 and to realise them the chief task of practical political provision4 ,inner changes are also brought about4 ,the fact that1 with these changes1 responsibility1 guilt1 and desert are transferred more and more from the individual to the society tends to call forth more humane sympathy and more mildness of judgment1 and tends to discredit the excessive self-esteem of a self-righteous ,pharisaism4 ,at the same time it constitutes a powerful motive to work for the whole2 to strive to raise the whole1 morally and physically2 to develop a social morality and a strong feeling of solidarity4 ,to the modern man1 therefore1 the life of the ,state advances through changes in content and form4 ,the ,state1 which in the ,middle ,ages had to leave all problems of inner training to the ,church1 in its new function of culture ,state now assumes all tasks1 influences the whole life of the individual1 and is confident in its power to transform our existence more and more into a realm of reason4 ,along with this there is a strong tendency to place the ,state increasingly on the power and insight of individuals2 all through the nineteenth century this tendency won an ever more overwhelming power4 ,the more activity we bestow upon a particular sphere of work1 the more valuable does it become to us1 the nearer does it stand to our inner nature4 ,thus1 the ancient mode of thought1 that the individual is a mere member of the political organism1 and that he receives his tasks and obtains his power from it1 was able to be revived4 ,with this the stronger emphasis laid upon national peculiarities1 and the more definite self-assertion and more vigorous development of nations are associated4 ,formerly national character had been veiled and1 as far as the spiritual ideals of humanity are concerned1 as though lost4 ,now nations appear as points where the spiritual life manifests itself and concentrates distinctively4 ,to work out their peculiarities clearly1 and manfully to assert them in the competition of peoples1 promises great gain for the organisation and energising of life2 for the first time1 the divine seems to pass into daily toil on earth4 ,most of all1 the modern organisation of labour1 with its enhancing of technique and its advance beyond the capacity of production of the mere individual1 heightens the power of impression of the picture as a whole4 ,work brings about a deliverance from the passivity of the subject2 it organises itself into independent complexes1 which develop into a state entirely foreign to our nature4 ,it produces its own motive powers and necessities1 and requires from the individual the strictest obedience4 ,the performance of the individual attains a value only in definitely ordered co-operation with others2 it loses all worth if he attempts to ignore this relation4 ,this is shown with particular clearness in the evolution of the factory with its production by machinery4 ,it is shown further in every specifically modern work in administrative government1 in military organisation1 in knowledge and education4 ,everywhere we find great organisations2 an enormous growth in the capacity of the whole1 but a sinking of the individual to a mere link of the great chain1 a proscribing of all individual will4 ,if all thus depends upon the whole1 the success of endeavour and the happiness of life will be decided chiefly by the organisation of the whole4 ,it is not to be wondered at1 then1 if the antitheses which arise in reference to this organisation agitate people in the strongest degree2 if a faith in the omnipotence of political and social forms grows up1 and if over these the keenest fight rages4 ,in this connection there is no problem which gives rise to greater complications and severer conflicts than that in regard to the preservation and raising of the standard of material existence4 ,if1 in general1 we attribute incomparably more value to the material in life than was done formerly1 so here also the problems of modern labour reach their climax4 ,the organisation and concentration of labour have made by far their greatest progress in this matter2 a gigantic accumulation of capital on the one side and of labour power on the other has intensified to the uttermost the opposition between man and man4 ,in this conflict more than in any other the whole being of man comes into play2 here1 therefore1 the most powerful passions flame up4 ,no wonder that1 if the thought of a fundamental re-organisation rises to the surface1 it wins an influence amounting to fascination1 arouses the hope of an essential advancement of the whole of human existence1 and impels men to vigorous activity4 ,thus1 then1 this sphere1 in which fact is regarded as principle1 and in which the problem of the development of society is elevated to a position of importance above all others1 and seeks to impress its stamp upon the whole of life1 is first and foremost4 ,from this point of view the organisation of society is the central problem of all culture1 and a distinctive social culture1 a social system of life1 is evolved4 ,but that which emerges at this point with especial power and clearness would not have been able to win men so quickly and influence them so strongly if it did not constitute a high-water mark of a wider movement1 of a general tendency of the modern man to regard the social relation as being of the essence of life1 and to shape life anew from this4 ,viewed historically1 this tendency arose as a reaction against the practice of placing the individual in the foreground1 a practice which since the beginning of the ,modern ,age had been resorted to in the most diverse departments of life4 ,what was felt to be unconditionally right in opposition to the bondage of the ,middle ,ages has1 in the course of time1 shown a reverse side4 ,many painful experiences have led us to favour a movement in the direction of the whole again2 and so it comes about that all hope of amelioration is able to be regarded as inevitably bound up with the complete victory of this movement4 ,a distinctive social type of life can be formed and can strive for supremacy only if great problems arise within society and if its position in the whole of our life is capable of and in need of change4 ,it will soon be seen that the case is so in respect of both these things2 and also that two movements1 one more general in kind1 and another more precise but also more uncertain as to its goal1 are connected4 ,the point at which the new development of life institutes a new demand is the relation of the individual to the means of existence and the goods of culture4 ,formerly an aristocratic order preponderated1 which allowed only a few to share in the abundance of these goods1 while it was only afterwards that the many were able to partake of the poor remains4 ,in material1 as in spiritual1 things man was concerned less with the equitable distribution of the possessions of humanity than with increasing them4 ,the matter of chief importance1 and this with regard to questions of inward culture also1 appeared to be in some way to incorporate the contents and goods within the sphere of human existence1 and to fix them there2 the extension of these goods among men was a matter of secondary consideration1 and often one that was only very lightly thought of4 ,the limitation to a small chosen class1 indeed1 seemed to be quite indispensable for a secure and worthy organisation of life4 ,thus1 this culture acquired its character at the highest levels of society1 and from there descended in diminishing degrees to lower levels3 it was regarded as inevitable that in this descent much should be lost1 and that the less privileged classes must perforce be satisfied with very little4 ,a movement in opposition to this state of things arose in the first place among the individuals who were placed in the background by such an organisation1 and who1 not convinced of the validity of the doctrine of the immutability of their fate1 began to make comparisons and to ask questions4 ,their desire was not merely for more happiness1 but for spiritual advance also4 ,in humanity there is an energetic striving and advance1 and in this a far greater spirituality and a far keener thirst for truth are often shown in the classes of the people who are struggling upward and pressing forward than in those classes which from early times have had possession of power and wealth and which are hampered by a feeling of self-satisfaction4 ,that which at first is striven for by merely a part of mankind acquires1 through its inner necessities1 a power over others also1 and becomes a requirement of the whole4 ,we experience here what earlier was called the power of ideas in history1 that is1 the fact that in certain periods certain thoughts and demands acquire an overwhelming power of penetration and impel men to a line of conduct which is even opposed to their special interests4 ,we may so far speak of the supremacy of the social idea in the present1 as not only in the disposition of individuals but also through organisation and legislation there is an endeavour to bring help to the poor and the weak1 to raise those who are struggling upward1 and to convey as directly as possible both material and spiritual goods to all who bear human features4 ,it is not only that this appears a matter of justice2 a rejuvenation and an energising of the whole of culture are also hoped for4 ,without a radical rejection of all that which in the traditional position has decayed1 become alien1 or is now artificial2 without a deep-reaching simplification and a greater proximity to the soul1 how could all partake of culture1 and how could it become a concern of all8 ,the old demand of leading educationalists1 of ,comenius and ,rousseau1 of ,pestalozzi and ,froebel1 the desire for a rejuvenation of our culture antiquated as it is in many respects1 seems to be approaching its fulfilment now that the matter is a concern of the whole of mankind4 ,however1 this striving1 which in itself cannot be rejected1 enters upon a narrow course and at the same time upon much that is problematical1 in that it unites with the positivistic tendencies of the age in the rejection of all invisible connections and in the restriction of life to the experience of sense4 ,instead of the whole1 we now have the average and the masses1 and instead of a creation from the whole1 a building up from below2 the needs of the masses are the main motive power of life4 ,but as with the masses the chief questions are those of the physical preservation of life1 and of economic existence1 it seems as if1 with their solution1 with the deliverance from oppressing cares and necessity through a radical revolution1 a complete state of happiness and a ceaseless spiritual advance of humanity are assured4 ,material welfare1 which in earlier organisations of life was so depreciated1 in the new system becomes the matter of chief concern2 it is regarded as that which more than anything else leads to the development of every power and makes culture the truth for the whole of humanity4 ,the life of society is thus seen to be full of problems4 ,nevertheless1 the position of society in our life as a whole has been changed and raised4 ,we have become far more uncertain concerning our relation to ultimate and universal reality2 we doubt the possibility and the validity of first winning1 through religion or speculation1 a world beyond human experience1 of the conveying it to that experience1 and from the point of view of such a world giving the human its light and setting it its task4 ,in short1 the centre of life has changed from the object to the subject2 we know that we cannot abstract from our own nature our spiritual organisation1 but that we carry it into every aspect of the whole2 that we see and form the world through man4 ,with such a transition1 the movement from man to world becomes the chief movement of life2 and the conception of man will decide the nature of the conceptions of life and of reality4 ,henceforth greatness may be attributed to these only if human nature is capable of an advance beyond what it appears to be in the first impression4 ,that1 however1 will scarcely be possible unless humanity is conceived as a whole and1 with such a unity1 has more power and depth than it has as it exists immediately before us4 ,this also will operate to the strengthening of the social order1 in which sense experience controls thought4 ,thus1 many different factors unite to make the condition of mankind as it is1 that is1 the state of society on the basis of experience1 the starting-point and final aim of all endeavour1 and the relation of man to surrounding men the fundamental relation of his life4 ,but1 as in the case of culture as a whole1 the individual departments of life must also win a distinctive character if the welfare of the social whole1 the achievement for man and the influence on man1 becomes the all-controlling task which sets the aim and points out the way for all activity4 ,in this context science does not reveal hidden depths of things1 but aids man in winning power over appearances2 it leads him to a more zealous and a more active life4 ,art does not lift him into an ideal world2 but1 within experience1 softens the pressure of existence and fills life with pure joys4 ,morality does not subject our conduct to an invisible order1 but directs man beyond himself to men around him2 it develops the feeling of solidarity and raises the standard of the inner relationships of society4 ,for religion as the revelation of an other world there is no room2 this world shows in humanity an object worthy of reverence2 so understood1 religion also must work to the inner elevation of society4 ,in everything that which distinguishes the individual is thrust into the background to make way for that which is common2 work has in the first place to concern itself with that which is common to all4 ,in that here science makes man the chief study of man1 it considers him especially as a social being and finds its chief theme in the knowledge of social conditions4 ,similarly1 the chief subject of art is not1 as was formerly the case1 the doings and experience of individuals1 but the forceful representation of these social conditions4 ,the raising of the general level becomes the chief care of all practical activity1 as also of education4 ,according to this scheme the individual is of consequence and of worth only through those elements of the common life which he brings to expression1 and through the way in which he reacts upon that life4 ,the industry of universal history is understood1 therefore1 not from that which relates primarily to individuals1 but from that relating to the movements and destinies of society4 ,such an estimate of the whole involves a conviction which seldom finds expression1 but which silently exerts its influence everywhere3 the belief in a summation of reason by the organisation of individuals into a whole4 ,only a belief of this kind is able to establish the supremacy of the mass over against the individuals1 also in spiritual things2 only such a belief is able to justify the hope of a victory of the good in the sphere of humanity4 ,the net result of all these ideas and tendencies is a co-ordinated system of thought1 a distinctive type of life4 ,in this system man is first and foremost a member of society2 he originates in it2 he remains in it2 and his activity carries implications far beyond his own life4 ,not community of labour only joins him with his fellows1 but also the general tone of thought and feeling4 ,this type of life is not one without sacrifice2 for it has to give up many things which in earlier times seemed a secure possession and were a source of joy4 ,yet these things were only illusions which vanished1 and mankind seems to find a compensation1 more than equivalent for all that has been lost1 in that it is more closely united and through this wins new powers2 and henceforth out of its own capacity can venture to take up the struggle against every irrationality of existence1 and to advance its own well-being without constraint4 ,a life is therefore evolved1 conscious of its limits1 but at the same time active and courageous4 ,in this manner1 then1 transcending all subjective opinions and wishes1 a distinctive social culture has arisen1 and its growth and results are clearly evident to us4 ,through combination of forces and through diligent activity on behalf of one another1 and this with the aid of a highly evolved technique1 we have brought about a magnificent elevation of our being2 necessity and disease have been successfully fought against2 the standard of education and the amount and kind of joy in life have been raised in many ways2 in life and suffering men have been drawn together inwardly and associated together with a greater degree of solidarity4 ,if one accepts the creed of the socialistic movement in the narrower sense3 that human society can be placed on a new basis and at the same time raised essentially in its achievement1 one can conceive that social culture may grow to the comprehensiveness of culture in general1 and arouse the hope of a kingdom of reason among men4 99 99 99 99 99 ,but here also there is a limit set to things1 not from without1 but from within2 not from a rationalising criticism1 but through the actual facts of the life of humanity4 ,this limit appears with especial clearness when we consider the relation of the individual1 together with his work1 to the society in which he stands4 ,if social culture should be regarded as absolute culture1 the individual must spend himself solely and entirely in relation to his environment2 all his activity and endeavour must be exerted in achievement for this culture--must1 indeed1 be regarded as a mere part of a common work4 ,in such a system man could never attain an independent position and a superior right in opposition to society4 ,let us examine whether the experience of history establishes the truth of this system or whether it does not much rather show the opposite to be more correct4 ,it was only in the earliest state of culture1 and under very simple conditions of life1 that the individual was solely and entirely bound up with the social organism1 simply a member of family1 of tribe1 and such like2 entirely swayed by custom1 authority1 and tradition4 ,all further evolution was a differentiation and led to the greater independence of the individual4 ,there came a time1 however1 when1 in contrast with his mere membership of the society1 the individual felt himself to have arrived at a state of maturity2 when he questioned the right of the traditional order1 and ultimately found himself coming into opposition with the whole of society2 his own thought thus became the chief basis of his life and the measure of all things4 ,at first that may have appeared an impious break and a destructive negation2 in reality1 the positive results which have been thus effected could never have been produced out of a mere revolt4 ,for1 a deepening of life in all its branches went hand in hand with the individual's attainment of independence2 now1 for the first time1 ,religion developed a personal religious experience1 and ,art filled man's whole soul2 now only did ,science set a distinctive world of thought in opposition to the traditional presentation2 and so the whole of life gained enormously in independence1 mobility1 and depth4 ,how could this point have been reached if an immediate relation to reality had not emerged in the soul of man2 if an inner world had not been formed from this reality1 as the representative of which the individual might feel superior to the society and1 from inner necessities1 criticise the prevailing condition of things8 ,the fact is that all deepening of culture1 all awakening of life to self-consciousness1 is a rising above the life of society1 a summoning of the individual to creative activity4 ,never have real advances in ,religion1 ,science1 and ,art1 or great transformations of life1 originated out of a combination of the activities of the majority4 ,only in isolated cases has an incomparable individuality1 supreme in the entire range of creative activity1 been reached1 and spiritual tasks been treated as ends in themselves1 without which there is nothing great4 ,only out of the necessity of spiritual self-preservation1 only as an overcoming of intolerable contradictions within our own being1 could creative activity find a sure direction and a lofty self-confidence in order to lead the whole of humanity along new paths4 ,the individuals in whom this was accomplished were1 to be sure1 under many influences from historico-social life2 but1 to overlook the essential elevation above the entire domain of merely human interests into a realm of self-conscious truth1 which was accomplished by these individuals1 one must confuse the conditions with spiritual activity itself4 ,as this spiritual life has transcended social life from the beginning1 in the same way its effects are by no means exhausted in that life4 ,it has1 it is true1 exerted its activity upon the social environment1 and1 after the initial opposition has been overcome1 has often been superabundantly honoured2 but even so1 it has been accepted in isolated and external relations rather than in the whole of its being1 and in its appropriation through society it is apt to lose what is best in it4 ,ever anew1 even after centuries and centuries1 it has attracted aspiring souls to itself1 and has always been able to offer something new to them2 in fact1 in its essence it stands not in time but above it4 ,the more such genuine creative activity and production in all its spheres become unified1 the more a kingdom of truth spreads like an arch over the whole machinery of human history1 and1 measured by the standards of that truth1 human standards are seen to be extremely low1 like the size of the earth when contrasted with the region of the fixed stars4 ,this realm of eternal truth1 however1 reveals itself immediately only to the soul of the individual1 who must convey it to society4 ,such an estimate of spiritual depth in the individual is quite compatible with the fact that in the course of history the individual has often fallen into utter uncertainty2 has felt destitute and lonely1 and has passionately sought a support in society4 ,for the individual may cut himself adrift from the invisible connections in which his greatness is rooted2 he may base himself on his own isolated power and groping intellect4 ,when he has indeed done this1 he has soon perceived and experienced his insufficiency2 after such experience he has longed for the building up of a new society by spiritual activity1 and when this has been attained he has fled to it as to a sure haven4 ,men strove for such a society in the later period of ,antiquity2 one such was founded by ,early ,christianity1 by which the centre of life was transferred from the individual to the society4 ,but in this transition the individual did not again become simply a member of society4 ,for the new union that was sought could not come to men from without1 but could proceed only as a result of spiritual endeavour2 for its origin and in the early stages of its life it required great creative personalities of the kind of ,augustine2 for its preservation it needed appropriation by individuals1 who unless they made an independent decision could not come to a complete knowledge of the truth4 ,wherever such individual activity languished1 the inwardness of life at once became weak2 the whole threatened to lose its spiritual nature and to be transformed into mere mechanism4 ,but after1 in the course of history1 the individual has developed so far as experience shows him to have done2 after that1 as microcosm1 he has found an immediate relation to reality and to himself1 his transcendence may for a time be obscured1 but he can never be deprived of it4 ,as the individual has grown strong only as the representative and champion of a culture that is spiritual1 as opposed to one that is merely human1 so at the same time that spiritual culture asserts itself and criticises all which limits man to his own sphere4 ,after having attained a greater comprehensiveness1 a pure self-existence1 and other standards toilsomely enough1 a narrowly social culture must be absolutely intolerable to us4 ,this assertion is valid especially in regard to the social culture of the present4 ,that culture1 as we saw1 makes significant and justifiable demands which have arisen from historical conditions2 but its right gives place to error1 if these demands are made the central point of life as a whole1 and everything else subordinated to them4 ,the unsatisfactoriness of this system of culture and the impossibility of achieving its aims would be still more manifest if it did not constantly supplement its own results out of the other organisations of life1 and did not boldly and unjustifiably idealise the man of experience4 ,this social culture may be shortly described in some of its tendencies3 7#a7 ,work for society was the compelling motive in the shaping of this life of social utility4 ,some such social principle may suffice for the distribution of goods2 it never suffices for their original production4 ,we saw how spiritual experience can arise only from the compulsion of an inner self-preservation1 in which man does not think in the least of the effects on others1 but of himself and the object4 ,only that effort which has sprung up without regard to its mere utility has been able to achieve great things4 ,if1 therefore1 merely social culture rigidly binds up vital energy with the direction of all thoughts on the effect1 in the long run it must seriously degrade life4 ,can we deny that in the chief departments of the spiritual life the present already clearly shows tendencies to such a degradation8 ,and can this be otherwise when we only more widely diffuse the inherited possession1 but are unable to increase it through our own activity8 7#b7 ,social culture makes the judgment of the society the test of all truth and requires from the individual a complete subordination4 ,it can do this1 as we saw1 only under the assumption that reason is summed in a judgment by the people as a whole2 but1 in face of the experiences of history and the impressions of the present time1 can this assumption be ratified8 ,upon its emergence1 truth has nearly always been championed by a minority so small as to be hardly discernible2 and what in its case is called victory is usually nothing else than the transforming of the struggle from an external into an internal one4 ,he who continues firm in his faith in the victory of truth does so because he trusts1 not so much in the wisdom of the majority as in a reason transcending all that is empirically human1 and which begets a truth with power to constrain4 ,the present gives us the opportunity of testing this assertion by an example4 ,we see movements of the masses in plenty1 but where do we see great spiritual creations arise from the resulting chaos8 ,even ,socialism in the narrower sense has to thank but a few men for its vital power and character1 as1 for example1 ,marx2 the masses are indeed a condition and an environment1 but never as such the bearers of creative activity4 7#c7 ,where man1 as he is1 governs all thought1 his well-being1 his complacency1 an existence as free from care as possible1 and as rich as possible in pleasure1 will become the highest of all aims4 ,but would not one find an inner emptiness1 a monotony1 even more intolerable than any suffering if this aim were reached and life were freed from all pain and necessity8 ,intelligible as it is that1 to the classes whose life is spent in hard struggle against necessity and care1 the deliverance from these appears the highest good and an assurance of complete happiness1 it is just as unintelligible that anyone who is conscious of the work of universal history and the inner movement of humanity can share such a belief4 ,for that movement has given rise to difficult problems and severe conflicts within the soul of man2 a wrestling for a truth and a content of life1 where we now drift hither and thither on the surface of appearance2 a longing for infinity and eternity1 where now a finitude and a past fascinate and charm us2 a clashing together of freedom and destiny1 of nature and spirit4 ,the tendencies and tasks which this movement produces may for a time be thrust into the background1 but they continually reappear and claim their right4 ,it is a foolish undertaking to try to make man happy by directing him to give up what is distinctive in him1 and to give his striving a less worthy character4 7#d7 ,from a radical improvement of the conditions of life1 the socialistic way of thinking expects a continuous advance of culture and an increasing ennoblement of man4 ,to some extent this expectation would be justified if a strong spiritual impulse and a sure tendency towards the good were found everywhere2 if it were only a matter of opening the door to an inner striving that was everywhere operative2 only a matter of removing restrictions4 ,the actual picture of human conditions corresponds but little to such an optimism4 ,how small a place spiritual impulse has in human conduct and effort6 ,how wearisome to the indifferent and reluctant average man any thought of spiritual goods becomes1 and what severe restrictions moral development meets with in selfishness1 avarice1 and jealousy6 ,the impressions which reality gives speak too plainly in regard to this for even the believers in socialistic culture to be able to hide the facts from themselves2 but it is noteworthy enough that not that which they see with their eyes and grasp with their hands determines their judgment1 but that which1 unconsciously1 they add to it3 an invisible humanity1 a greatness and a dignity of human nature1 a nobility in the depths of the soul2 conceptions for which1 in this context1 there is not the least justification4 ,all these considerations show clearly enough the limits of simply socialistic culture1 and the sharp contradictions of its adherents4 ,this culture only throws man back increasingly upon the merely human1 and unmercifully holds him firmly fixed in it4 ,it chains him to his own appearance and suppresses all tendencies towards depth4 ,it knows nothing of life's consciousness of itself2 it knows no inner problems1 no infinite development of the soul2 it cannot acknowledge a common life of an inner kind1 but must derive all from external relations4 ,at the same time it excludes all understanding of the movement of universal history2 for the chief content of this movement constitutes just those problems which ,socialism regards as foolish delusions4 ,to be sure1 the striving after an inner independence of life has brought much error with it1 and it may involve much that is problematical4 ,but that a longing after such independence should arise at all and prove itself able to call forth so much endeavour sufficiently demonstrates that man is more than a mere being of society2 more than a member of a social organism4 ,ultimately1 socialistic culture presupposes1 in its own development1 a greater depth of life than it is itself able to produce4 ,it can make so much out of its data only because it assumes in them a more comprehensive and a deeper world of thought4 ,like ,naturalism1 ,socialism reaches a tolerable conclusion only by much plagiarism from the old ,idealism1 before the principal conceptions of which it crosses itself as before something atrocious4 ,this inner inconsistency of socialistic culture1 its remaining bound up with something which inwardly it contradicts1 is most plainly shown by the historical experience of the ,modern ,age4 ,men were at first led to take up the movements towards the strengthening of society chiefly by the expectation that the invisible forces in human existence would be invigorated1 and by the hope that the inner life of men would be raised4 ,the more they have cut themselves adrift from these invisible connections and have placed themselves simply on the basis of experience the more have they lost in spiritual content4 ,the movement towards the modern free ,state arose in association with religious strivings2 the desire for political independence attached itself to and inwardly grew from the longing for more complete equality before ,god4 ,the more this relation to ,religion and1 further1 to an invisible realm receded into the background1 the more difficult did it become to guard the striving for freedom from being diverted in the interests of individuals1 classes1 and parties2 the more did the movement inwardly lose by external expansion4 ,we saw that the idea of nationality acquired power from the conviction that there results in an independent people an individualisation of the spiritual and divine which is the first thing to ensure to existence a definite character and a firm support4 ,so long as this conviction predominated1 each people had a great inner task in reaching the highest point of development of its nature1 and1 what is more important1 did not need to direct its energies upon externals4 ,with the obscuring or the complete surrender of this spiritual foundation1 a blind adoration of one's own country1 an increase of unfruitful pride of race1 a passionate struggle for external expansion and power1 inevitably accompanied by the surrender of humanity and justice1 threatens us4 ,when in the nineteenth century the modern idea of the ,state again came into currency1 the ,state came to be regarded--as1 for example1 in the system of ,hegel--as the realisation of an absolute reason1 and desired to be honoured as something earthly divine4 ,its leading administrators1 however1 men of the kind of ,altenstein1 were imbued with the philosophic spirit2 were men who could be regarded as philosophers in ,plato's sense4 ,to-day we still hear of such spiritual bases of the ,state1 in syllabuses of courses of study2 but we count so little on a philosophical training that when anyone gives any sign of such a training he is regarded with astonishment as a rare exception4 ,even the socialistic movement in the narrower sense1 the longing for an economic revolution1 at first stood in close connection with philosophical endeavours1 and the hope of an inner ennobling of humanity1 the hope of raising the whole of culture1 worked in it as a powerful motive force4 ,more and more1 out of this a mere desire for power and enjoyment has developed1 a passionate struggle of class against class1 of interest against interest1 and how this might lead to an inner elevation of humanity is not apparent4 ,the more socialistic culture1 in its pressing forward1 has cut itself loose from a richer and more inward culture and has trusted solely to its own resources1 the more distinct have its limitations become1 the more has its incapacity to include the whole of human existence been made evident4 ,to assert this does not mean to depreciate the significance of the facts which the social tendency has made us conscious of and the tasks which it has imposed upon us4 ,not only do the advance into prominence of the economic side of life1 and the desire for a more energetic realisation of a social organisation in this direction1 remain unimpeached1 but there are demands of an imperative kind which extend beyond the scope of this narrow conception4 ,the increasing isolation and separation of individuals make us feel the desire for reunion more and more strongly4 ,man1 with that which is near him and in him1 acquires an ever greater significance for the shaping of our life and our world2 from no other point of departure than from him can we attempt to reach the depths of reality and from these to build up a realm of reason4 ,socialistic culture1 however1 treats these problems1 to which it gives rise1 far too externally and too meanly to hold out any hope that its method can lead to their solution2 and so1 as we see it immediately before us1 it brings truth and error into a melancholy mixture4 ,only a broader conception of life could bring about a differentiation and give to each factor its right4 ,in this case also the promised solution of the problem is seen to be itself a problem4 #c4 ,,the ,,system ,,of ,,sthetic ,,individualism ,the naturalistic and socialistic tendencies unite in the modern life of culture for action in common4 ,how near they stand to each other1 notwithstanding all their differences1 our accounts of them will have shown4 ,not only do both make the world of sense the sole world of man1 but both also find life entirely in the relation to the environment1 be it nature or society4 ,again1 both maintain that all happiness arises from work upon this environment1 whether the work be in the main scientific and technical1 or practical and political4 ,thus the culture of both systems bears throughout the character of a culture of work2 in one as in the other great complexes of work arise1 and draw the individual to themselves2 all trouble and effort are for the sake of the result2 in both a restless progressive movement surrounds us and directs all reflection and thought to a better future4 ,with such a tendency we have grown closer to the environment and we have ascribed more value to the world and to life4 ,with an ever-increasing activity1 a proud self-consciousness has developed in humanity4 ,but the limitations and defects of such a culture1 centred as it is upon results1 could not remain concealed4 ,the age1 alert and fond of reflecting upon its own nature1 has been compelled more and more to perceive the negation that accompanied the assertion made in that system4 ,the striving for results alone made care for the soul impossible2 the being fitted into a complex whole impaired the development to complete individuality4 ,the more industrial and social activities have become specialised1 the less significant has that part of human existence become which is embodied in the individual as such1 the more have all aspects of his nature other than those involved in his work degenerated4 ,the continual thought of the future1 the impetuous movement ever onward and onward1 also threatens to destroy all appreciation of the present1 all self-consciousness and independence of life4 ,if we exist merely in order to serve as means and instruments to a soulless process of culture1 does not the whole enormous movement finally amount to nothing1 if it is not experienced and appropriated8 ,once such questions arise and make man concerned about the meaning and the happiness of his life1 a sudden change must soon take place4 ,man may at all times fall into error concerning the aims of the culture of work2 indeed1 concerning work itself4 ,it may appear to him as something which1 originally his own creation1 has broken loose from him1 placed itself in opposition to him1 enslaved him1 and finally1 like a gigantic spider1 threatens to suck his life's blood4 ,from this point of view it may be regarded as the most important of all tasks again to become master of work1 and to preserve a life inwardly conscious of itself1 in contrast with the tendency of work to occupy itself solely with externals2 to realise a true present in contrast with the restless hurry onward and onward2 a quietness and a depth of the soul in contrast with work's bustle and agitation4 ,to those with such a conviction the culture of work must seem sordid1 secular1 profane1 and in contrast a longing for more inspiration1 more soul1 more permanent splendour of life will arise4 ,many movements of this kind make themselves apparent in the present2 the longing for a return of life to itself1 for more joy and more depth in life1 grows ever stronger and stronger4 ,of all these movements1 however1 one stands out with definite achievement--one which1 upon the basis of the present and with the means of sense experience1 seeks a remedy which1 while in these two aspects it shares the general initial assumption of the culture of work1 within the limits of this assumption is entirely opposed to this culture of work4 ,we mean the system of ,subjectivism and ,individualism4 ,in that this system is blended with a kind of art of its own1 and gains strength from this1 it boldly undertakes to govern and shape our whole existence4 ,he who wishes to rise above the culture of work without transcending the region of experience will scarcely discover any other basis than the individual with his self-consciousness1 his being-for-self4 ,for1 however far work with its influences may penetrate into the innermost recesses of the soul1 there always remains something which is able to resist it4 ,something original seems to spring up here1 which fits into no scheme and bows down to no external power4 ,if1 therefore1 a newly aroused longing for greater immediacy and happiness in life drives man once more to the subjective and to the individual1 he can emphasise this factor conceptually in order to depreciate the other systems of life4 ,for1 whether the individual belongs to an invisible world of thought or to a visible structure1 his task and his worth is then assigned to him by the whole2 his activity will have a definite direction determined by the whole1 and his power will be called into play only so far as it fitted into the framework of the whole organisation4 ,if all such relation to the whole is discarded1 and the individual becomes bold enough to place himself simply upon his own capacity1 and to acknowledge no other standard than his own decision1 an infinite course seems to open up before him4 ,what lies in him is now able to develop with complete freedom1 and he need take neither a visible nor an invisible order into anxious consideration4 ,the individual1 raised to such sovereignty1 will make far more out of himself1 and will mean far more than the narrow and often over-awed individual of earlier ages4 ,true1 even in earlier times opposition from the individual was not lacking1 but the circumstances of the ,modern ,age are especially conducive to his development and recognition4 ,we know how the modern man extricated himself from the ties which bound him1 and how he boldly placed himself in opposition to the world4 ,we know how much more freely thought rules in modern life2 how much more deeply an over-subtle reflection penetrates everywhere and takes all stability from things4 ,we know1 too1 how the external form of civilisation1 with its acceleration of intercourse1 and its development in a thousand directions1 sets the individual more free4 ,is it to be wondered at if the modern individual regards himself as the centre and undertakes to shape the whole of life from himself8 ,the individual can attain complete independence only when he liberates his soul from all external connections1 from every objective relation1 and1 as a free subject1 simply lives his own states of consciousness4 ,this is achieved above all in the disposition--transcending all form and shape and bound to no particular object--which has obtained an independent position chiefly as a result of the ,romantic movement4 ,in this a complete detachment of life1 an inward infinity1 and a complete independence seem attained2 every individual has his own course and his own truth2 no limit is set to life1 no command given1 but he can with the utmost freedom develop every impulse and exhaust its possibilities according to its nature4 ,thus a life arises1 profuse and extremely active3 a life fine and delicate in nature2 a life which is in no way directed beyond itself4 ,but all agitation1 profuseness1 and refinement could hardly have prevented this emotional life from becoming hollow1 if1 when it turned to the individual1 it had not united to itself another movement1 which is flowing with a powerful current through the age4 ,we mean the movement towards art1 and beyond that towards an sthetic conception of life4 ,from ancient times there has always been an antithesis of an ethical and an sthetical fashioning of life3 of a preponderance on the one hand of the active1 on the other hand of the contemplative relation to reality4 ,emphasis on the activity of man has led to the formation in modern systems of life of a culture of work and utility4 ,an sthetical1 contemplative mode of thought can with good reason feel itself superior to that culture4 ,in contrast to utility1 it promises beauty2 over against the heaviness and weariness of the way of life of a culture of work1 it promises a joy and a lightness2 in opposition to effort1 hurriedly and continually striving further and further1 it promises an independent self-consciousness1 and an inward calm4 ,but1 as this movement towards art blends with that towards the subject it lapses into a narrow course and assumes a distinctive character4 ,here1 art has less to comprehend the object than to stimulate and please the subject2 it will strive less after content and a further construction than with lyrical cadences1 to give expression to changing moods4 ,it has a difficult task given to it which can only approximately be solved--the task of expressing something fundamentally inexpressible and resisting all attempts to give it form4 ,but in that art undertakes such an impossibility1 and exerts its power to the uttermost1 it brings about a refinement of the soul as well as an enrichment of expression4 ,it enables much to be grasped and comprehended which1 without it1 passes like a fleeting shadow4 ,it permits the observation of the most delicate vibrations of the soul1 and throws light into depths which would otherwise be inaccessible4 ,a distinctive type of life is thus formed from the side of literature and art1 and this feels securely supreme over all the embarrassments of the culture of work and of the masses4 ,the centre of life is transferred into the inner tissue of self-consciousness4 ,with the development of this self-consciousness1 life appears to be placed entirely on its own resources and directed simply towards itself4 ,through all change of circumstances and conditions it remains undisturbed2 in all the infinity of that which happens to it1 it feels that it is supreme4 ,all external manifestation is valuable to it as an unfolding of its own being2 it never experiences things1 but only itself--that is1 its own passive states of consciousness--in the things4 ,a life of such a kind gives rise1 in different directions1 to distinctive tendencies1 which1 through their antithesis to the traditional forms1 are sharply accentuated4 ,this system thinks especially to turn the whole of human existence into something positive1 to limit it on none of its sides1 to raise it everywhere to activity1 joy1 and pleasure4 ,in the older systems of life1 especially in the religious1 it finds far too much feeble renunciation1 far too much sad negation3 such a depreciation of life is henceforth to give way to a complete and joyful affirmation4 ,but an affirmation appears to be possible because in this system1 through that reference to and excitement of subjectivity1 all that in any way affects man is transformed in activity and advance2 because before all else the subject feels its own life in every experience and takes pleasure in this4 ,it must be added that the self-refinement of life1 its mobility and delicacy1 free it from all the heaviness of existence1 and that the free play of forces which exist here transforms the whole of existence into something lightly poised4 ,we find this to be especially the case when we turn to art1 which joins beauty to power1 or1 rather1 strengthens life in itself through its embodiment in the beautiful4 ,this free1 joyous1 and as it would seem purely self-conscious life is throughout of an aristocratic and individual character4 ,in that it is adapted to the old experience1 that to only a few is given the power and the disposition for independent creation and independent life1 it addresses itself to these few and summons them to the greatest possible development of the individuality of their nature1 to the most decisive detachment from the characterless average of the masses4 ,for1 without a completely developed consciousness of individuality1 without an energetic differentiation and isolation1 life does not seem to attain its greatest height4 ,thus the matter is one of making all the relations and all the externals of life as individual as possible4 ,everything which places the development of life under universal standards1 and1 through these1 limits that development1 is rejected as an unwarrantable limitation and an intolerable restriction4 ,this individualising of our existence extends also to the matter of our relation to time4 ,one moment may not be sacrificed to another2 the present may not be degraded to the status of being a mere preparation for the future1 but every moment should be an end in itself1 and1 with this1 life is considered as being solely in the present4 ,and so life is a ceaseless change1 a perpetual self-renewal1 a continuous transition2 but it is just this which preserves to life its youthful freshness and gives to it the capacity to attract through every new charm4 ,hence this system presents the most definite contrast to the interminable chain and the gigantic construction which the culture of work makes out of the activities of the individuals4 sthetic ,individualism appears most distinctive in the way it represents the relation between the spiritual and the sensuous4 ,it cannot take its attention from the external world1 in order to centre it upon human perception1 without strengthening the psychical4 ,but1 as its own system is based upon sense experience1 it is impossible for it to acknowledge an independent spirituality and to contrast it with the sensuous2 the spirituality which it recognises always remains bound and blended with the sensuous4 ,for it an entirely mutual interpenetration is the highest ideal1 a spiritualising of the sensuous1 and a sensualising of the spiritual to an exactly equivalent degree4 ,this high estimate of the sensuous1 and the endeavour to harmonise the spiritual with it1 put this new system of life in the sharpest opposition to the older systems1 especially to religious ,idealism1 in which the supremacy of the spiritual is essential4 ,from such a basal character this system evolves a distinctive relation to the individual values and spheres of life4 ,artistic literary creation becomes the soul of life2 the source of the influences for the fashioning of a new man4 ,the social1 political1 sphere is reduced to the level of a mere outside world1 which urges less to activity on our own part than provokes a sceptical and critical attitude4 ,the lack of attention to all that which fits man into a common order1 be it into the ,state with its laws1 or the civic community with its customs and arrangements1 permits the free relation of individual to individual in social contact1 friendship and love1 to develop so much more forcefully4 ,in particular1 it is the inter-relationship of the sexes1 with its many-sidedness and its inseparable interweaving of spirituality with sensuousness1 which occupies thought and dominates literary production4 ,strike out the erotic element from specifically modern literature1 and how insignificant the remainder would appear6 ,it is also in the relation of the sexes that this scheme of life insists on the fullest freedom4 ,there is a marked tendency to regard an acknowledgment of fixed standards and of traditional morals in this connection as a sign of weakness and of a narrow-minded way of thinking4 ,since this scheme seeks to realise an sthetic conception of life and an artistic culture in opposition to all the restraint of tradition and environment1 it will come into particularly severe conflict with traditional religion and morality4 ,it must reject religion1 or at least what hitherto has been called religion1 because1 with its blending together of the spiritual and the sensuous in a single world1 it can by no means acknowledge a world of independent spirituality2 its thought is much too monistic for that4 ,it must reject religion also for the reason that1 with its immediate affirmation of life1 it cannot in the least understand the starting-point of religion1 the experience and perception of harsh inner contradictions in our existence4 ,religion1 with all the heroism that it truly shows1 is here regarded as a mere lowering of vital energy2 a chimera which pleases the weak4 ,in relation to morality the matter is not much different4 ,a foundation of morality in the necessity of its own nature is lacking in this system4 ,what motive could move a man who whole-heartedly accepted sthetic ,individualism to acknowledge something external to the subject as a standard1 and in accordance with this standard to put a check upon his natural impulses8 ,indeed1 with the denial of spiritual activity and the division of the world into for and against1 the entire antithesis of good and evil loses its meaning and its justification4 ,reality appears from the point of view of this system to be rent in twain in an unwarrantable manner at the command of a human authority4 ,what is usually called morality is considered to be only a statute of the community1 a means by which it seeks to rob the individual of his independence and to subordinate him to itself4 ,all this reasoning presents itself as an offspring of our own time1 and wishes to establish the correctness of its claims on its own ground through its results4 ,yet it by no means lacks historical relations3 often in the course of the centuries the subject has shaken off every constraint and sought a solution to life's problems in its own realm4 ,this happened1 first among the ,sophists2 then in a form less marked and with more direct attention to happiness in ,epicureanism2 later1 in proud exaltation and in a titanic struggle with the world1 in the ,renaissance2 and again in a more delicate and more contemplative manner in the ,romantic period4 ,tendencies from all these operate in the sthetic ,individualism of the present time and enrich it in many ways1 though their contributions are not always free from contradiction4 ,but1 even with these historical elements1 sthetic ,individualism is essentially a modern product2 and it cannot be denied that it has won a great power in the present2 a movement of culture in this direction is unmistakeable4 ,it is the very nature of this scheme of life not to hasten to a definite form1 and for this reason it does not manifest itself with very definite features2 but1 with invisible power1 it is everywhere present and creates a spiritual atmosphere from which it is difficult to withdraw ourselves4 ,notwithstanding all the attacks it is subjected to and the doubts as to its validity1 it draws power continually from both the main tendencies which it unites2 from the evolution of the subject and from the growth of art4 ,thus1 here again we are concerned not with mere subjective willing and wishing1 but with an actual movement in universal history4 ,whether this movement be the primary and the all-dominant remains to be examined by consideration of the total possessions of humanity4 ,such an examination is in this case peculiarly difficult1 because in ,individualism and ,subjectivism diverse forms mingle together and give to the movement very different levels4 ,there is1 therefore1 an obvious danger that1 viewing these forms from the position of an average level1 at which we may attempt to arrive1 we may judge one too severely and another too leniently4 ,and yet we cannot dispense with the assumption of such an average level2 only1 it must not be applied mechanically to the individual forms which are so numerous4 ,in forming our judgment in this matter1 it is necessary in the first place to distinguish the aims and the methods of the scheme of life4 ,there can hardly be any doubt or dispute concerning the aims4 ,for1 if we are called to give to life an independence1 a content and a value2 to raise it to complete power2 to press forward from anxious negation to joyful affirmation2 to reduce the monotony of existence2 to organise the whole realm of individuality so that it shall be fully clear2 and if1 at the same time1 the fact of the degeneration of the inner life through a culture of work lends to such demands the impressiveness and the voice of a present need1 it is difficult to see how this system is to be effectively opposed4 sthetic ,individualism here appears as the champion of truths which may be obscured for a time1 but which1 nevertheless1 continually gain in significance in human evolution as a whole4 ,a further question is whether its aims1 which cannot be rejected1 are attainable along the ways which ,individualism follows and beyond which it is not able to go2 whether the means suffice for the attainment of the end4 ,if this should not be the case1 we are in presence of a great difficulty1 in that something1 in itself of the highest necessity1 is desired1 but is desired in a way which not only is inadequate to the aim1 but directly contradicts it4 ,and yet that is how the matter really stands4 ,it is essential to ,individualism--with this it stands or falls--that it lead to an independent life1 to a self-consciousness2 that it transform our whole condition into something of positive value on the basis of sense experience4 ,that the actual condition of human reality1 the nature of human experience1 inexorably resists such a transformation1 and that on this account the individualistic scheme of life is contradictory1 we intend to indicate more in detail4 ,man desires a self-conscious life1 a deliverance from all external ties1 a removal of all oppressions4 ,this desire is a lofty one1 but one which1 as things are1 is very difficult of attainment4 ,for not only in what happens to us1 but also in the innermost depths of the soul--in our spiritual constitution--we are bound up with an overwhelming and impenetrable world4 ,the mechanism of nature as well as the organisation of society surrounds and visibly and invisibly coerces us4 ,at first sight we are no more than parts of an immense whole1 and appear to be completely determined by that which happens in this whole2 we come from it and sink back into it1 and every moment we are dependent upon that which takes place around us4 ,what is ,individualism able to do against such forces1 and what does it succeed in achieving towards life's attainment of independence8 ,the means it employs are the arousing of an unrestrained mood1 and the withdrawal of life to the greatest possible concentration in its own passive states of consciousness4 ,because by these means man is in some measure relieved from the oppression of things1 he imagines himself to be fully free4 ,but is he free simply because he appears to himself to be so2 free1 to take the example of ,spinoza1 in the way in which the stone thrown up into the air might during its motion suppose itself to be free8 ,as a matter of fact1 as everyday experience shows us1 it is just in his moods that man is least stable and least lord of his own soul1 and that the most diverse circumstances1 physical and psychical1 visible and invisible1 great and small1 influence and compel him4 ,the transitoriness of appearances1 which form the matter of fact as far as moods are concerned1 is lacking in all firm relation1 all inner construction of life2 for nothing is more mobile1 nothing more subject to sudden changes1 than mood--nothing except the surface of the rolling sea1 or a reed shaking in the wind4 ,the life of mood is1 in reality1 a purely superficial life2 a projection of the psychical nature on to the surface of the immediate passive states of consciousness4 ,life in this case attains no depth1 content1 or independence1 but only subjective opinion1 the mere semblance of independence4 ,we shall see that ,individualism so persistently offers the semblance instead of the real thing that it has come to believe that with the production of the semblance it has acquired the reality4 ,life can only attain a real independence when it has been widened to a realm in itself1 when inner relations1 antitheses1 problems thus become evident2 and when1 through the exercise of activity upon these1 an inner world is raised up1 which confidently places itself in opposition to the endlessness of the soulless world and is able to take up the struggle with it4 ,we must show unrelenting hostility to any attempt to identify mood with inner spirituality1 with the soul's self-consciousness2 for1 really1 there is no greater contrast than that between simple disposition and spiritual depth1 between the man of mere sentiment1 with his dependence and vacillation1 and the personality rooted in an inner infinity4 ,and so the independence and the predominance of the individual over the social environment1 which ,individualism asserts1 are nothing more than an appearance4 ,for what is offered in this system is far less a self-conscious life and an undisturbed pursuance of our own course than the inclination to say and do the opposite of that which is said and done by the majority of those who surround us4 ,it is easy to see that life1 as a matter of fact1 always remains related to its environment and to the standard of that environment2 and that what is represented here as independence is nothing but a different kind of dependence1 an indirect dependence4 ,to the endeavour of ,individualism to provide a free course for the individual with his particularity it is scarcely possible to offer any opposition4 ,unfortunately1 however1 intention and realisation are different things1 and ,individualism is apt to assume as something simple and self-evident that which of all things is the most difficult1 that is1 individuality itself4 ,just as ,socialism promises a sure advance of life as a result of the removal of external hindrances1 so ,individualism expects a magnificent advance of an inexhaustible individualistic culture1 if only the statutes by which the community oppresses and limits the individual are annulled4 ,what1 then1 is the real state of the matter8 ,are men so full of spiritual impulse that it is only necessary to open up a course for it8 ,and further1 does that which is peculiar in a man signify1 as a matter of course1 that he is an individuality with some sort of value8--and is it at once capable of forming a centre of life8 ,how indefinite and how lacking in consistency the psychical nature of man usually is6 ,how much that is lofty and how much that is mean1 how much that is noble and how much that is vulgar1 is found here6 ,shall this chaos display itself and be extolled as an individuality8 ,in truth1 an inner unity appertains to a genuine individuality1 and the ascertaining and realisation of this are not simply a gift from nature1 but a result of spiritual endeavour4 ,to attain to a genuine individuality requires an energetic concentration of life2 an overcoming of the spirit of indifference2 a unifying of the multiplicity of experience2 often1 also1 a transcending of sharp contradictions4 ,how difficult it has been for even the most prominent individualities--men such as ,luther1 ,kant1 ,goethe--to find their true selves1 that is1 the essence of their being1 the aspect in which their strength lay6 ,how great a problem1 and what an object of the keenest conflict1 their genuine individuality formed to them6 ,how could a task of such difficulty find fulfilment1 and life a unification and elevation1 in superficial and fleeting mood8 ,if in order to make men independent individuals it sufficed to declare them so1 we should indeed be much further advanced than unfortunately is the case4 ,the new life ought not to be simply autonomous1 independent and individual1 it should also be powerful and great4 ,is the mere evolution and cultivation of sentiment able to give such power and greatness to an unrestrained passivity8 ,of course1 in its own estimation unrestrained mood can raise itself high above the whole world1 and so magnify the supposed independence as to give rise to a feeling of supreme power2 but again1 it is only a representation of power1 a semblance of power1 and not a real power1 that is reached4 ,mere mood and genuine power constitute an irreconcilable antithesis4 ,attention to and cultivation of sentiment may refine life2 it will at the same time weaken and dissipate it4 ,power develops and grows only in grappling with resistances1 whether they be outside or within one's own soul4 ,life will acquire a powerful character only where an active spirituality is acknowledged1 which1 drawing from its own nature1 holds up standards and aims to the actual condition of reality1 especially to its own soul1 and undertakes to change this condition in accordance with the requirements set by these standards and aims4 sthetic ,individualism1 however1 as we saw1 conceives of the spiritual life as chiefly receptive and contemplative2 as an appropriation1 a mirroring and an enjoyment of an existent reality4 ,thus for it the spiritual life might be closely connected with this existent reality1 indeed might be one with it2 but at the same time the view robs that life of the power of arousing and elevating1 of independent construction and secure advance4 ,an aristocratic character1 the separation of an exoteric and an esoteric sphere1 has been distinctive of an sthetic conception of life from ancient times even until now4 ,the fact appealed to in justification of its assumption of this character is beyond doubt3 it is that1 not only in art but in all spiritual creation1 only few among those creating or reproducing stand high2 that genuine creation always comes about in opposition to the mediocre2 that if it identified itself with the interests and conditions of the majority it would be deeply degraded1 indeed inwardly destroyed4 ,but this is a contrast between spiritual creation and human circumstances1 not a division of humanity according to two sets of circumstances2 in truth1 fewer of the really great than of those great in their own estimation have boasted of greatness4 ,for the genuinely great have been occupied far too much by the demands of their task1 and been too deeply conscious of the inadequacy of human capacity1 to have been able to indulge in a reflection upon and a vain enjoyment of themselves4 ,the infinity of the task by which1 rather than by other men1 they measured themselves made even the highest result appear inadequate to them4 ,it is necessary to ,individualism to represent the unmistakeable distinction between a culture that is genuinely spiritual and one that is merely human1 as a difference between two classes of men2 and it is only because it knows no objective restraint1 no inner necessities1 and can measure men only with men1 that it is able to believe itself justified in looking down upon other men from its standpoint--as though the mere profession of faith in its programme at once effected an elevation of nature4 ,the undertaking to transform life completely into something of positive value1 suddenly and directly to advance to complete affirmation of life1 is associated with the desire for power4 ,so far as this is simply a desire to abandon an irresolute and narrow mode of thought1 false humiliation and self-belittlement1 and mere accommodation to circumstances in tasks where the beginning is difficult and calls for great effort1 we may frankly admit its justification4 ,but the matter is not so simple as it is represented in this train of thought4 ,ultimately no spiritual movement which would win mankind can give up its claim to a final affirmation of life4 ,even the most completely pessimistic systems1 systems of absolute negation--as1 for example1 the original ,buddhism--could not conquer wider areas without making that negative milder and transforming it into an affirmative4 ,but the question is whether1 after all that humanity has experienced and suffered1 a quick and immediate affirmation is possible2 whether the way to a final affirmation does not lead rather through an energetic negation4 ,so long as the restriction which life felt seemed to come from outside only1 and not to reach the inner recesses of the soul1 as the prevailing mode of thought in ,antiquity represented the case to be1 the decisive rejection of all suffering1 the proud armouring of the soul against all pain1 could be accepted as the crown of all virtues4 ,in face1 however1 of actual experience1 ,antiquity could not continue to hold such a conviction4 ,for good or for evil1 it was compelled to regard suffering as something more important and to occupy itself more with it1 and1 until ,christianity opened up new paths1 it fell into the danger of losing all vital energy4 ,whatever position one may take up with regard to the dogma and the tendencies of ,christianity1 the fact cannot be struck out of history that it has laid bare infinite perplexities in the soul of man in regard to his relation to the world1 and at the same time has taken up suffering into the centre of life1 not to perpetuate it1 but to rise above it by the revealing of a world of spirit and of love4 ,this has not made life easier1 but more difficult2 yet at the same time it has made it greater1 deeper1 and more inwardly determined4 ,every scheme of life which light-heartedly professes to be able to lead us quickly over suffering and to cast it off proves itself to be intolerably superficial1 if not frivolous4 ,superficiality easily triumphs over men and becomes their first opinion2 men seem to welcome first every way of thinking which makes life comfortable and presents no demands of any sort4 ,but the problems of our existence1 and the longing for genuine and not merely illusory happiness1 remain1 and in face of the seriousness of these problems it soon proves to be fleeting and vain to try to find satisfaction in that which is simply comfortable4 ,the case is no different in regard to ,individualism and the problem of morality4 ,the value of an energetic opposition to laws of convention and external etiquette is beyond question2 but it should not be forgotten that such a conflict has been carried on within the sphere of morality and religion from ancient times2 that in every age that which was spiritually highest has forcibly withstood the efforts of men illegitimately to claim absolute validity for their statutes and tendencies4 ,but ,individualism commits the error of asserting that the mean morality which is reached at the average level of humanity constitutes the essence of morality1 and in so doing excludes from itself the feeling for everything great and deep which lies within morality4 ,with all its talk of greatness and breadth1 ,individualism makes life narrow1 since it leads man solely to the cultivation and unfolding of his own passive states of consciousness1 and permits the pleasure-seeking ego to draw everything to itself and hold it fast there4 ,everything1 however1 which exists beyond his sphere it interprets as a mere other world1 and thus declares all submission to the object for its own sake1 all forgetfulness of self1 all becoming more comprehensive1 and all renewal through genuine love1 to be only delusory4 ,further1 in this system1 in which natural impulse governs everything1 the conceptions of responsibility and guilt1 and with this the antithesis of good and evil1 must be held to be the result of a narrowly human way of thinking1 as something which1 though serving no real purpose1 still alarms men and overawes life4 ,yet through the development of a spiritual activity which places it in a more inward and free relation to reality1 humanity has really advanced beyond the position in which man acted as a part of mere nature4 ,in this1 too1 ,christianity also marks a great advance2 we have only to picture to ourselves the life-work of ,augustine in order to have a clear example of the separation of a genuine morality1 as the expression of a new world based upon freedom1 from the attention to and cultivation of natural instincts4 ,the greatest thinker of the ,modern ,age1 ,kant1 has only established this distinction in a newer form4 ,in this connection responsibility and guilt1 as transcending nature1 also become a witness of greatness2 they give expression to the fact that man is an independent co-operator in the universe1 and regards the world as in some sense his own2 to the fact that life does not simply happen to him1 but also through him4 ,for1 along with freedom and its world1 the old world of given existence remains and holds us fast1 not merely externally but inwardly also2 life is a severe conflict between higher and lower1 between freedom and destiny4 ,with so much that is complicated and perplex1 life must be regarded as in the highest degree unfinished4 ,but just because of this it involves an incalculable tension1 and even in its constraints and pains it leaves the self-preservation and the welfare of the mere subject at a level far beneath itself4 ,when1 therefore1 ,individualism1 neglecting the movement of universal history1 wishes to limit us to this mere subject1 and1 effacing all dividing lines1 calls upon us to submit to every force which plays upon us1 and to enter into the glad enjoyment of life1 there is really no difference between this and advising a man1 who has gone through the many and difficult experiences of life1 to throw to the winds all he has thus gained1 and to please himself again with the games of childhood4 ,the position is similar with regard to the relation of the spiritual and the sensuous1 as ,individualism represents it4 ,it is rightly opposed to both a monkish asceticism and a conventional1 feigned1 low estimate of the sensuous2 it is indeed with good reason that sthetic ,individualism defends the right of the sensuous4 ,but to give the sensuous its right does not mean to permit it to be joined together in an undifferentiated unity with the spiritual1 as though it were of equal value4 ,nave ages were able to strive for a perfect balance of spiritual and sensuous2 but1 with the increasing depth of the life of the soul1 a division has resulted which no toil and no art can simply remove again4 ,now1 therefore1 either the spiritual will be dominant over the sensuous or the sensuous over the spiritual4 ,in ,individualism1 with its amalgamation of the spiritual and the sensuous1 by which all claim to spiritual activity1 and therefore to all independence of spiritual life1 is given up1 the sensuous will inevitably dominate over the spiritual4 ,the result is simply a degeneration of the spiritual1 a refined sensuousness2 and it is defenceless against an intrusion of vulgar pleasure4 ,will any one seriously assert that we find ourselves to-day in a nave position in relation to sense8 ,in this respect1 as in all others1 the strength of ,individualism lies chiefly in criticism2 its refined perception makes it especially capable of apprehending clearly the errors of the traditional conceptions of life4 ,its influence1 however1 suffers from the contradiction which it involves1 in that it purposes to solve the problems1 to which only an independent and self-determining spiritual life is equal1 with the means of sense experience4 ,such a spiritual life is to be attained only by transcending this sense experience4 ,owing to the fact that ,individualism places its sole attention upon the surface of sense experience1 its aims1 in themselves of the highest necessity1 must be distorted and grossly misrepresented4 ,independence1 greatness1 and certainty--ever hovering before life--cannot be attained by ,individualism in reality1 but only in picture and semblance4 ,and it can lend to this appearance a moderate power of conviction only because1 just in the same way as the other modern organisations of life1 it enriches itself imperceptibly from the same traditional modes of thought and of culture1 in opposition to which it stands1 and of which the impelling motives are to it a sealed book4 ,thus1 in truth1 it does not offer mere and pure subjectivity1 but subjectivity on the basis of a rich life of culture1 which it is itself unable to produce1 but without which it would lapse at once into complete emptiness4 ,the sthetic-individualistic scheme of life proves to be a phenomenon1 accompanying a ripe1 indeed an over-ripe1 culture4 ,an independent culture1 with its labour and its sacrifice1 it is unable to produce4 ,to reject sthetic ,individualism means to attack modern art and its service to life just as little as to reject ,naturalism and ,socialism is to estimate meanly modern natural science and present social endeavour4 ,on the contrary1 it may be said that1 as ,naturalism has no keener antagonist than modern natural science1 so modern art1 with the energy which is bestowed upon it and with its many-sided expansion of the soul1 stands not in agreement with but in opposition to sthetic ,individualism4 ,for1 indeed1 a creative artist of the first rank has never subscribed to a merely sthetic conception of life4 ,still1 however much artistic endeavour and a merely sthetic conception of the world may be associated by the individual1 in their nature they remain differentiated1 and no appreciation of art is able to justify the sthetic conception of life1 which subjects all life to a contradiction2 works against life in striving to attain its own ends2 neglects the development through the centuries2 and1 instead of the substance hoped for1 offers only opinion and appearance4 ,how can life find a support in this8 ,,ii4 ,,consideration ,,of ,,the ,,situation ,,as ,a ,,whole ,,and ,,preliminaries ,,for ,,further ,,investigation 7a7 ,,the ,,nature ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,as ,a ,,whole ,,and ,,its ,,relation ,,to ,,the ,,old ,from the description that has been given of the modern systems of life1 we have seen that the ,modern ,age is by no means homogeneous1 and that the conception modern has more than one meaning4 ,culture1 in particular1 has a character fundamentally different according as life finds its basis on the one hand in something external to itself1 in nature1 or in society1 or on the other hand in the subjective states of consciousness4 ,but that a common striving is present in spite of every difference1 indeed of every antithesis1 is proved by the energy with which all deny and reject the older form of culture and its transcendence of sense experience2 by the vigour of the struggle against that which is regarded by the more modern systems as mere phantasy and deception1 but which nevertheless continues to dominate social life4 ,the kinship of these systems extends1 beyond a common acquiescence in a negation1 to a common affirmation4 ,on all sides a thirst after a more forceful reality1 and a more imposing immediacy of life1 is to be found4 ,sense experience manifests itself throughout as fuller in content and more plastic2 and so the chief point of support is found within it1 and1 though in different ways1 the whole of life is organised from it4 ,still1 granted that this could be effected only in opposition to the traditional conduct of life1 the new is by no means desirous of remaining in a state of mere opposition4 ,it seeks rather to unite the opposing elements to itself1 to adapt them to itself1 and to satisfy to the fullest extent the ideal demands of human nature4 ,it is an attempt entirely to renew and completely to revolutionise life--a vast undertaking6 ,whether it has succeeded1 or whether it is still engaged in bringing the attempt to a successful issue1 is the problem that we had to investigate4 ,as far as our chief question is concerned1 our result was a decided negative4 ,true1 much that is great and much that may not be lost again has been achieved4 ,the new systems of life have indeed appropriated whole groups of facts2 have invigorated whole groups with new powers2 have revealed new tasks of the most fruitful kind1 not only in the individual but also for the whole2 and have given to life dominating impulses and a powerful impetus4 ,but all this becomes a doubtful gain1 indeed it threatens to become a loss1 if particular experience and achievement desire to govern the whole of life1 and to impress upon it their own peculiar stamp4 ,not only does life become intolerably one-sided in such a case1 but its wealth of experience is cut down in order to fit it into the given framework4 ,we also saw that a serious inner inconsistency originates4 ,for a long period this inconsistency may be concealed1 but where any great energy is present in life1 it must break forth with a disturbing force and become intolerable4 ,since the modern systems regard the whole of life as arising from relation1 whether it be to the environment or to the subjective states of consciousness1 they must reduce everything inward and universal to the level of a derived and secondary product2 they must repudiate and oppose an original and independent spirituality1 a self-conscious inner world4 ,such an inner spiritual experience has evolved through the whole of history1 and transcends all forms of life-organisation3 it is impossible to explain it away4 ,the modern systems must themselves experience this4 ,for they could not possibly transform the abundance of diverse appearances into an organised whole2 they could not pass from universal to universal1 without presupposing and employing the same transcendent and encompassing inner world1 which directly they attack4 ,at the same time1 however1 they give to every factor of life a position and a depth wholly inconsistent with what they are justified in doing with their own mode of thought4 ,they cannot perform their own tasks without drawing incessantly upon another kind of reality1 one richer and more substantial4 ,in truth1 they are something other1 and something far more than they believe themselves to be4 ,does this not show1 beyond possibility of refutation1 that they do not fill the whole of life8 ,the contradiction immanent in the modern systems of life is especially apparent in the fact that they are unable to banish supersensual powers and to limit life to sense experience1 without attributing to sense experience more content and more value than that which experience itself justifies1 and which1 to be consistent1 they should not overstep4 ,the naturalistic thinker ascribes unperceived to nature1 which to him can be only a co-existence of soulless elements1 an inner connection and a living soul4 ,only thus can he revere it as a higher power1 as a kind of divinity2 only thus can he pass from the fact of dependence to a devotional surrender of his feelings4 ,the socialist bases human society1 with its motives mixed with triviality and passion1 on an invisible community1 an ideal humanity1 which he clothes with the splendour of a power and dignity that transfigures the immediate appearance of society4 ,it is only in this way that he is able to direct his whole effort upon the welfare of mankind1 and to expect a pure victory of reason within its sphere4 ,the individualist in his conception exalts the individual to a height far more lofty than is justified by the individual as he is found in experience2 for his thought1 the individual is far more powerful and far more prominent and noble than immediate impressions indicate4 ,only thus is he able1 from the freedom and the development of the individual1 to hope for the beginning of a new epoch4 ,in these newer systems of life the conception of reality as a whole is also subjected to the same groundless and1 likewise1 false idealisation4 ,as in these systems nothing may be acknowledged which transcends sense experience1 there can be no universal which pervades and holds together the manifold4 ,this being the case1 reality must be a co-existence of single pieces2 but no one will readily confess himself of this opinion4 ,a pantheism1 vague to the highest degree1 is therefore seized upon as a cure-all1 that man may have something which permeates and connects2 but of this something1 however1 all more detailed description is lacking1 and is carefully avoided4 ,a conception so vague allows us at the same time to think and not to think something2 at the same time to affirm and to deny4 ,it seems to accomplish so much and to demand so little2 it makes the impossible possible2 and offers the most convenient asylum to all indefiniteness and confusion4 ,it is a pity that in all this it is not a reality that surrounds us1 but a mere fata morgana which deceives4 ,and a conception so vague is to displace religion and accord support to the new life6 ,truly1 this requires a stronger faith than that with which the older religions were satisfied4 ,the modern systems of life desire a more forceful reality2 in this they set work an aim which cannot be rejected4 ,the course they have entered upon1 however1 does not bring them nearer to this aim1 but rather removes them further from it4 ,neither the self-evidence of the senses nor the oscillation of mood can ever represent genuine reality to a being who1 for good or for evil1 has once learned to think4 ,many and varied impressions may come and go in sense experience2 but their abundance cannot prevent the chief conceptions1 by which they are here accompanied1 from receiving a character abstract and vague in the highest degree4 ,we hear continually of the whole1 of reason1 of power1 of evolution2 but all these conceptions have no stability and little content2 they are like shadows and phantoms which vanish as soon as we wish to take hold of them4 ,so1 by an irony of fate1 just those modes of thought whose chief impulse was the desire for more reality dissipate1 dissolve reality4 ,we see that the spiritual life may be denied by the individual1 but not driven from the work of culture4 ,it is true that immediate experience1 outer and inner1 has become much more to the present age than it was to earlier ages2 but it has become so only through spiritual endeavour4 ,if1 therefore1 the ,modern ,age now turns definitely against this spiritual activity1 to rob it of all independence1 it destroys that which first gave it its own power4 ,the modern systems of life have raised the standard of human existence enormously in regard to power and content2 but they have done this at the cost of its spiritual concreteness4 ,they have suppressed the life of inner spiritual experience and denied the problems of man's inner nature4 ,they know of no grappling of man either with the infinite or with his own nature2 they recognise no conflict between freedom and fate1 and no inner development of the soul4 ,and all this because their view of life as a whole takes away all depth1 and transforms existence into a mere series of appearances4 ,thus1 for anyone who regards such depth as the basis of life1 and who1 therefore1 will not reject the experience and the result of the work of universal history1 it becomes a necessity to reject and oppose the modern systems as guides of life4 ,the more explicitly and exclusively they are presented1 the more decided must his opposition be4 ,for1 what shall all the gain on the circumference of life profit man if through attention to that the centre of his life becomes empty and weak1 if there emerges no content and no meaning in life itself8 ,what is the value of all the advancing and refining of human existence if it does not bring with it a genuine spiritual culture and an inward elevation of mankind8 ,the increasing experience and perception of such limitations in the new may lead men to give more attention again to the old4 ,the striving to transcend mere sense experience can no longer appear as a mere flight into an other world of dreams1 or as due to a feeble and cowardly disposition2 it may now be admitted rather as a deeply rooted endeavour to reach greater depths of life4 ,yet such a relaxation of the opposition to the old1 and such an inclination to estimate it more highly1 by no means justifies us in simply taking it up again in the form in which it lies before us4 ,for to this not merely the modern system of life1 but the whole development of life and work1 is opposed4 ,the contradictions and doubts which have grown up in the course of this development are not in the least overcome by the failure of the modern systems of life4 ,for we do not find ourselves confronted here with an either--or1 in which the invalidity of the one alternative immediately establishes the validity of the other2 but both may be inadequate4 ,so we remain surrounded by the old and the new1 under powerful influences from both1 but not in a position to accept either the one or the other exclusively4 7b7 ,,the ,,condition ,,of ,,the ,,present ,this situation1 with its juxtaposition of the new and the old1 is so full of confusion and perplexity that only a feeble disposition is capable of acquiescing in it4 ,in the old we respect or surmise a depth2 but this depth does not know how to give itself a form suitable to the present1 or to influence us with the means available in our own time4 ,the new directs all our attention to the immediate present and fills us with its intuitions2 but this present becomes superficial to us1 and with increasing power a desire for more substance and soul in life rises up in opposition to it4 ,the old lifted us to the proud height of a new world1 but this height showed signs of becoming severed from the rest of existence1 and lapsed therefore into a state of painful insecurity4 ,the new builds up from the experience of sense1 but it finds no conclusion without going beyond this experience and thus contradicting itself4 ,the old regarded the spiritual life of man1 if not man himself1 as occupying the centre of all and thereby fell into the danger of a hastened conclusion and of an anthropomorphic conception of reality4 ,the new takes from man every position by which he is especially distinguished1 and ignores all connection with ultimate depths1 but in so doing it overthrows more than it intends2 it undermines nothing less than the possibility of all spiritual work1 all science1 all culture4 ,and so we find ourselves in the midst of contradictions1 drawn first in one direction1 then in another3 that we are at a crisis in life as a whole and in culture1 that we are in state of spiritual need1 cannot fail to be recognised4 ,this crisis is made all the more acute through the peculiarity of the historical circumstances which have led up to it and the social conditions which surround us4 ,historically1 we are under the influences of two cultures3 one older1 which up to the seventeenth century was in undisputed supremacy and which has asserted its authority up to the present day1 especially in regard to the arrangements of social life2 and one newer1 which1 after the influence of many varied preliminary tendencies1 has arisen since that time with the energy of youth1 and which1 in the minds of individuals1 has easily become the dominant power4 ,the two cultures had different starting-points and followed different main courses4 ,the old culture carried within itself the experiences of ,greek life1 the inner progress of which may be seen especially in the development of its philosophy4 ,in the old culture endeavour was driven more and more beyond the world of sense to a world of thought1 in which it went on from a universal to an ethical and ultimately to a religious conviction4 ,to the thought of ,greece1 as she grew old1 the world of sense experience sank more and more in reality and value1 and life found its basis and chief realm of experience in a region transcending sense4 ,christianity definitely established this view of life1 and made the invisible ,kingdom of ,god the true home of man1 the most immediate and the most secure that this life knows4 ,new peoples then grew up in this way of thinking2 peoples who still had their work before them2 to these1 the break with the world of sense came more as the imposition of an overpowering authority than as due to their own experience4 ,this fact constituted a point of weakness in every way2 but no serious complication arose so long as these peoples were not yet ripe for spiritual independence4 ,as soon1 however1 as this was the case1 it was inevitable that contradictions should manifest themselves1 and that a newly awakened impulse should urge the movement into an entirely opposite direction4 ,that is what really happened2 the main tendency of life is now directed just as much upon the world as earlier it went beyond it2 it has been transferred from the invisible to the visible1 from the supernatural to the natural4 ,we see this most clearly in the case of religion1 which1 as though with immanent necessity1 runs through the sequence of a predominant transcendent ,theism1 a ,panentheism1 a ,pantheism--gradually becoming colourless--an ,agnosticism1 and a ,positivism4 ,everything supernatural disappears from thought1 and life is concerned solely with sense experience4 ,thus1 finally1 we appear to have arrived at the same point as that from which the ,greeks started out3 the ,monism of the most modern coining1 for example1 is hardly to be distinguished from the ,hylozoism of the ancient ,ionian thinkers4 ,but is the whole result of the movement of universal history really only a deception8 ,has it simply brought us back again1 from the false paths that we have tried1 without according us any kind of positive profit whatever8 ,we have become men of another kind2 we think and feel differently2 we have built up a rich culture1 have transformed the world1 have created a spiritual atmosphere2 and we are capable of striving after infinite life and ultimate truth4 ,could all of this spring out of mere error8 ,if that were so1 should we not be compelled to reject the whole of this as phantasy and deception8 ,but if the error was a means and an instrument in the attainment of truth1 and if mankind in its going out from itself and in its return to itself is inwardly developed1 where does the boundary between truth and error lie1 and what is the meaning of the whole8 ,so here again we lapse into uncertainty2 history1 to other ages a secure support1 leads us into still greater doubt4 ,finally1 we must add to this crisis of culture the onward march of the social movement1 which continually increases in power2 the passionate longing of ever-growing groups of men for immediate participation in culture and the joys of life4 ,such movements may accomplish themselves within a fixed and acknowledged sphere of culture and of life2 what changes they then bring lie within this sphere2 they do not place the whole in question4 ,thus1 the democratic movements of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries left certain principles of religious conviction untouched2 they left the conception of the world entirely unchanged4 ,but the matter is quite otherwise when a movement of this kind comes in contact with a culture which is inwardly unstable and which is growing uncertain concerning its final aims4 ,we cannot fail to recognise what a great danger of degeneration there is under such circumstances4 ,the masses1 thus struggling upward1 then seek their own way of life1 and in so doing they naturally concentrate their attention upon that which lies immediately before their eyes and affects their immediate well-being4 ,from this position they will advance all the more quickly to a certain conclusion1 in that they are unconcerned with the experiences and perplexities of the work of universal history1 and therefore1 with unclouded enthusiasm1 expect complete truth and pure happiness from freer exercise of their powers and the rejection of all authority4 ,if we wish to ignore the dangers to culture which thus grow up1 we must either estimate man as he is too highly1 or spiritual tasks too meanly4 ,until the present1 an independent spiritual life1 making man more comprehensive in being1 raising and freeing him1 has manifested itself only at individual points2 in the first place in chosen individuals1 from whom it has been conveyed to the common life4 ,the spiritual world made its appearance as a power superior to the interests and the opinions of individuals and of the masses4 ,only in such transcendence of the merely human did it develop any characteristic content1 find an inner unity1 arouse respect1 and lead man beyond mere nature4 ,if all this should now become different1 if man in the mass should come to feel himself to be the measure of all things1 and should relate all to his perception as the centre of infinity1 would not a severe contradiction arise between human enterprise and spiritual necessity1 and would not the full development of this opposition threaten the whole state of culture with a violent convulsion8 ,ultimately the inner necessities of our being would certainly win the day against all errors of superficiality1 but what severe conflicts and losses the division must cost6 ,the consideration of all these facts reveals us under the power of different1 indeed antagonistic1 movements1 and most especially in the midst of the great struggle for supremacy between the visible and invisible world1 as the conflict between ,positivism and ,idealism gives expression to it4 ,life for us contains two movements1 one of which starts from the centre and the other from the circumference2 the former cannot embrace the fullness of reality1 and its basis is also insecure2 the latter gives no inner unity to life and lowers the standard of the whole4 ,as each of these main tendencies again divides1 movements the most varied surround us1 tear us asunder1 and crush our souls under their oppositions4 ,god and reason have become uncertain to us1 and the substitutes that are offered--nature1 society1 the individual--fail to satisfy us4 ,the unrest and uncertainty that arise from this are not limited to a single sphere1 they extend to the ultimate basal principles of life4 ,the new mode of thought declares the chief world of the ancients to be a delusion2 but we saw its own world dissolved in shadows and schemes by spiritual activity4 ,since the one dissolves the reality of the other1 we are threatened with the loss of all definite results2 our own being becomes a dark problem to us2 we know neither what we are nor what we are not4 ,the impression that we get of the condition of the present as a whole may also be represented in the following manner3 the historical movement of humanity unfolds an incalculable wealth of life2 this life1 however1 cannot reach its own highest point and cannot win a character of a spiritual kind unless it organises itself into a whole1 unless it attains an inner synthesis transcending all isolated states4 ,such syntheses have been realised1 and have led to distinctive organisations of life2 but these organisations have all proved to be too insignificant and too narrow1 and none has been able to overcome the rest and to embrace the whole wealth of life4 ,so life as a whole has broken them down2 and since it has thus lost all inner structure1 it must inevitably fall into a state of rapid degeneration1 and must threaten to lose all content and meaning4 ,the evil effects on the development of life that are caused by this convulsion and division1 and by the lack of a dominant tendency2 how this condition leads to the destruction of everything simple and self-evident1 and lends to an unrestrained reflection an unwarrantable power2 how it robs endeavour of all its main tendencies1 and permits true and untrue1 good and evil1 to run confusedly together1 all this and much else is to-day so much and so widely discussed1 and presents itself with such overpowering clearness to our vision1 that its description need not detain us even for a moment4 ,ought we to submit to this disintegration and degradation of life as to an inevitable destiny1 or is it possible to work against it and to strive after a unity transcending the division8 ,the fact that the division makes so strong an impression on us and that we feel it to be so intolerable is at once in favour of the latter alternative4 ,how could this experience be possible if all multiplicity did not fall within a comprehensive whole of life--if our nature were not superior to the oppositions and did not drive us compulsorily to seek a unity8 ,the life which1 in distinct contrast to decaying ,antiquity1 flows through our age in a powerful1 ceaselessly swelling flood2 the unwearied activity of this age2 the excellence of its work2 its passionate longing for more happiness and fullness of life1 all forbids a hasty and light renunciation4 ,it is true that there are hard contradictions1 and that spiritual power is at present not equal to cope with them2 but this power is not a given and fixed magnitude3 it is capable of an incalculable increase4 ,thus we ought not to be too ready to assert that the limitations of the age are identical with the bounds of humanity1 and we ought not faint-heartedly to discontinue the struggle for a unity and a meaning in life4 ,this problem cannot be acknowledged without at the same time being admitted as the most important and the most urgent of all problems4 ,for1 on the decision concerning the whole1 that concerning the spiritual character of life depends1 and1 as this character extends through the whole of life1 every single matter will be differently decided according to the decision concerning the whole4 ,only purely technical and merely formal matters of work may remain unaffected by the problem1 but wherever a content comes into question it will at once arise and manifest its urgency4 ,this problem1 therefore1 will not suffer itself to be thrust into the background2 we can neither dally with it nor turn aside from it4 ,the individual1 indeed1 in his sphere of free decision and of independent action can withdraw himself from the question1 but he can do so only at the price of the debasement of the quality of his life1 only in that1 from an independent co-operator in the building up of the ages1 he becomes a dependent under-worker4 7c7 ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,problem ,only a few words are now necessary to come to a more definite understanding concerning the form of the problem1 which1 with compelling force1 rises into prominence out of all this complexity4 ,where the convulsion is such a fundamental and universal one as it shows itself to us to be1 it is of the first importance to rise above the existing chaos1 and to avoid all that which1 even indirectly1 would lead us back to it4 ,many of the aids which would-be healers of the time's evils recommend with vigour therefore need not be considered4 ,every attempt to make a direct compromise between the different forms of life1 to appropriate eclectically this aspect from one and that aspect from another1 is inadequate4 ,the view that none of the systems of life could have won so much power over mankind without containing some kind of truth1 which may not be lost1 has1 to be sure1 a good deal of truth in it4 ,it is first necessary1 however1 to attain a position from which this truth in each case may be ascertained and rightly appreciated2 and we can only reach such a position in opposition to the confusion which surrounds us4 ,a recourse to history and an adherence to a high achievement of the past promise just as little help4 ,one thing is certain3 history cannot be eliminated from our life2 its highest achievements invite us to consider them again and again4 ,but what is to be accepted by us as high1 indeed1 what as spiritual history1 is not at all definite without further consideration4 ,it is what is esteemed in our own conviction as true and great which decides in this matter4 ,we look at history from the position of the present and with the spirit of the present4 ,if1 therefore1 as we saw1 the present has fallen inwardly into a state of complete uncertainty and doubt1 our consideration of history must be affected in the same way2 and1 of course1 not its external data1 but its inner spiritual content and meaning must be made uncertain4 ,at the same time1 we cannot fail to recognise that in reference to the central problem with which we are concerned1 the present situation is quite peculiar1 and lacks historical parallel4 ,sharp contrasts have always been found in human experience2 and in transitional periods in history they have been felt with painful acuteness4 ,but never did they so extend over the whole of life and so deeply affect fundamentals2 never was there so much uncertainty with regard to what should be the main direction of endeavour1 and the meaning of all human existence and man's relation to the universe1 as in the present4 ,everything which to earlier ages appeared an inviolable possession has become to us a problem4 ,what gain1 therefore1 in respect of the chief matter could a return to the past bring8 ,in his investigation of the far-off ages the scholar may for a time forget the present3 the attitude of mind which may result in bringing him fame for his work would be dangerous and destructive as a disposition of the whole of mankind4 ,for we cannot treat that which is foreign to our nature as something of our own1 without losing our distinctive character and degrading our own life to one of mere imitation4 ,further1 it has become impossible to strive for the ideal by selecting from the realm of experience a single point and treating it as an archimedean point1 as absolutely fixed1 and shaping our life from it4 ,descartes attempted to do this with his ,i think1 and ,kant with his ,i ought4 ,but it is very doubtful whether there is an archimedean point in man2 whether to make such an assumption is not to over-estimate man4 ,the experience of history shows further that that which some have taken as absolutely primary and axiomatic has been regarded by others as derivative1 and has been explained in an entirely different manner4 ,the presentationalist does not deny the actuality of thought1 or the naturalistic thinker conscience2 but he understands it as a subsidiary phenomenon1 and therefore can find no support in it4 ,how then can that overcome all doubt which itself calls forth serious doubt8 ,a whole sphere can be withdrawn from the confusion and used to overcome it just as little as can a single leading point4 ,for the uncertainty with regard to the whole extends far into every individual sphere2 and such a sphere may appear1 to one in one way1 and to another in another4 ,science is not infrequently treated as though it were enthroned on high1 supreme above all the struggles and the doubts of existence1 and as though1 from its sovereign capacity1 it were able to give a secure content of truth to life4 ,it is true that science has much in its forms and in its work which is not the subject of dispute2 but that with which we are here concerned--its intrinsic value1 its spiritual character1 and its place in life as a whole--is by no means a matter beyond dispute4 ,as a matter of fact1 every system of life has its own assertion in reference to this problem3 to each to know signifies something different and is capable of something different4 ,whoever decides for one of these assertions concerning the nature of knowing has at the same time made a decision concerning the systems of life4 ,he stands not outside1 but in the midst1 of the struggle4 ,the same thing holds good with regard to morality1 which is often welcomed as a secure refuge from the doubts of science4 ,for1 however certain it may be that in this sphere also there is no difference of opinion in respect of many things1 as1 for example1 concerning the goodness or badness of certain types of conduct1 still1 the more we come to be concerned with principles the more do problems arise4 ,in the immediate present the fact is most unmistakably clear that in this field also the fight does not rage around the interpretation of a given and acknowledged fact1 but around the fact itself4 ,what a different purport and meaning morality has in the systems of ,religion1 ,immanent ,idealism1 ,naturalism1 ,socialism1 and ,individualism respectively6 ,finally1 the attempt to give to life stability and peace by turning to the subject1 to personality1 as to a point removed from all perplexity1 also fails4 ,we should be the last to place a low estimate upon personality1 but the conception receives its meaning and value only in its spiritual connections1 and without these it soon becomes nothing more than a mere term1 which blurs and blunts the great antithesis of existence4 ,if that which is called personality exists as a merely individual point by the side of things1 then we can never discover how occupation with things is capable of transforming life as a whole4 ,if1 however1 in this activity we should win an inward relation to infinity and a spontaneity of life1 then this admission involves a confession concerning reality as a whole which can never be justified by a theory which regards the mere individual as the starting-point4 ,that the idea of personality implies a problem rather than a fact is indicated by the different conceptions of it which we meet in the different systems of life4 ,in considering personality1 ,religion thinks of the immediate relation of the soul to ,god2 ,immanent ,idealism1 of the presence of the infinite at the individual point2 ,individualism1 of the supremacy of the free subject over against the social environment4 ,it is only by reason of the common terminology that we fail to recognise how great the differences are in the thought on the matter2 how that which one regards as of value in personality is severely attacked by another4 ,all these attempts therefore prove to be inadequate because they lead back to the state of uncertainty they were meant to overcome4 ,to reject them1 however1 involves us in a certain assertion1 which to some extent points out the main direction which further investigation must follow4 ,no external compromise can help us1 but only the winning of a transcendent position which is capable of giving to each factor its right without reduction2 no flight into history can lead us to the truth1 but only an activity of the present1 not1 however1 of the present of the mere moment1 but which embraces the work of universal history2 no placing a single point or sphere into a supreme and all-dominant position can help us to overcome division1 but only a conflict for a new whole2 no mere turning to personality is of value before a sure basis is given to it from the whole6 ,all leads us to this conclusion3 we must strive for a new system of life4 ,and to achieve this is not impossible1 for1 as we saw1 a system of life is not imposed upon us by fate1 but must arise from our own activity4 ,if the systems which have previously been formed no longer satisfy1 why cannot mankind evolve others8 ,or is it proved that the existent forms exhaust all possibilities8 ,a too narrow conception of life was seen to be a common defect of all these systems2 its richness broke through the attempted unifications1 and with this they fell into irreconcilable contradiction4 ,should not a synthesis be possible which would do more justice to the whole extent of life2 which need not deny and exclude so much2 and which might also unite what at first seems absolutely contradictory8 ,doubtless such a synthesis would not be achieved all at once2 it is inevitable that growing life should involve many discords and movements within itself4 ,yet this synthesis would present itself at least in a manner similar to that of the extant systems2 and1 since it strives after something human1 it must always be mindful of its limits4 ,should such a universal synthesis be at all possible1 it must certainly be something which is to be found and disclosed rather than something which simply is to be produced from ourselves4 ,how could we hope to advance to it if it were not somehow involved in the depth of our being1 and in our fundamental relation to the world1 and if it did not already exist here in some way8 ,it is a matter1 therefore1 of arousing to fuller independence and at the same time of raising inwardly something which exists within us2 of recognising something new and even astonishing in the old and the supposedly self-evident1 so that the truth of the universe may become our truth and give power to our life4 ,a task of this kind is a matter of the whole soul and not merely of the understanding2 it is a concern of humanity1 not of the individual alone4 ,of that which the single individual may contribute towards the attainment of the aim it is hardly possible to think humbly enough4 ,and yet each has to use his power to the best of his ability2 if in cases of great necessity and of ill-fortune in matters of an external kind the individual considers it only right to hasten to help1 how could he withdraw himself where the task is the satisfying of a spiritual need of mankind8 ,still less than in the former case is he able to disregard the matter as something alien and indifferent to himself4 ,for1 in the struggle for the whole1 he fights at the same time for the unity of his own being1 for a meaning for his own life4 ,,ii ,,the ,,outline ,,of ,a ,,new ,,philosophy ,,of ,,life ,,introductory ,,remarks ,,and ,,considerations ,our inquiry ended in a definite negation2 it showed the present condition of things to be marked by severe internal conflict and in danger of dissolution from within4 ,many movements of thought and life cross1 disturb1 limit1 and oppose one another4 ,since what to one seems a wholesome truth seems to another pernicious error1 all inner community of life disappears1 and with it all firmness of conviction and joy of creative activity4 ,the more these conflicting tendencies develop the more do they crush and destroy all the traditional elements of our life2 the more are the spiritual contents and goods1 which the necessities of life compel us to adhere to1 deprived of their basis in the depths of the soul4 ,the confusion which prevails in the present time1 with its continual change1 its rapid alteration of circumstances1 its power to convey the most diverse impressions1 its production of ever new combinations1 might even attract and entertain us if it were no more than a drama4 ,but if the confusion is more than this1 if it includes our destiny and is meant to signify the whole of our life1 then1 by reason of its detrimental effects upon the whole of life and upon man's inwardness1 and by reason of its lack of content and soul1 it must completely fail to satisfy us1 and must provoke an energetic resistance4 ,true1 a condition of things so full of contradictions has also its advantages2 it accords to the activity of the individual the greatest liberty and gives him a feeling of supremacy2 its dissolution of everything previously regarded as fixed enables uncontrolled feeling and unstable mood to acquire power1 and at one time to flatter man pleasantly1 and at another to carry him away impetuously4 ,the individual's attainment of freedom1 however1 gives as yet no content to life2 and the feeling of supremacy is as yet not a real supremacy4 ,these feelings and tendencies1 which1 within a wider whole of life1 certainly serve to add to its animation1 inevitably lead to a state of vagueness and emptiness when they put themselves forward as the whole4 ,the supposed aids which are offered us are no more than mere pretences2 and they become dangerous and harmful so far as they deceive us concerning the seriousness and tension of the situation4 ,the feeling of tension was increased through the historical treatment which accompanied our inquiry4 ,for1 from the point of view of history1 the present confusion shows itself to be not a temporary obscuring of an indisputable truth1 or a tendency on the part of man to become feeble and weary in the appropriation of such a truth1 but to involve in doubt the basal nature of truth itself3 the meaning of our life as a whole was seen to have fallen into uncertainty4 ,the systems of thought1 in the light of which we have hitherto regarded reality and steered the oncoming flood of appearances1 have broken up and dissolved4 ,we have become defenceless in face of the impressions of the environment which affect us with increasing force1 and impel us now in one direction1 now in another4 ,it is not simply this or that aspect in human existence1 but the whole of man's nature which has become problematical in this dissolution4 ,formerly1 the chief result of the effort of universal history had seemed to be that man rises more and more above nature and builds for himself a realm with new contents and new values4 ,now1 the desire to be something higher than nature appears to be a bold presumption2 the idea that man has a special position is ably contested1 and every distinctive task is denied him4 ,man appears to be far too insignificant and to possess far too little freedom to be able to take up arms against the world and to obtain the mastery of it4 ,doubts such as these are all the more painful because they are the result of our own work2 in that we toiled1 investigated1 and pressed forward1 we undermined the foundations of our own life2 our work has turned with destroying power against ourselves4 ,with the increase of external results1 life as a whole has become increasingly hollow2 it has no longer an organising and governing centre4 ,is it to be wondered at if the finer spirits of our age are weary1 disheartened1 and repelled by the feeling of the disharmony of the whole of present culture1 which calls for so much effort from man and yields him so little genuine happiness2 speaks of truth and lives from semblance and pretence2 assumes an imposing mien and utterly fails to satisfy when confronted with ultimate problems8 ,is not the power of attraction1 which the figure of ,st4 ,francis of ,assisi was recently able to acquire1 an eloquent witness to the reality of the longing for more plainness and simplicity in life8 ,and yet we cannot take up again the position occupied by an earlier age2 we cannot take up a past phase unchanged4 ,no return to the conditions of the past can bring satisfaction to the spiritual needs of the present1 for a device of this kind always leads by a detour back again to the starting-point4 ,ultimately1 it is from ourselves alone that help can come2 and we can have recourse to no means other than those of the living present4 ,first of all1 our state of necessity must be admitted to the full1 and the danger of a further degeneration of life in respect of its spiritual nature adequately estimated4 ,it is always a gain to obtain a clear idea of the condition of the matter in question and to grasp the problem as a whole4 ,for1 through this1 we are saved not only from illusions leading to error1 but also from the authority of the mere present and from a feeling of anxiety and fear in the presence of contemporary opinion4 ,if this age is in a state of such uncertainty2 if it achieves so little for that which concerns the foundations of our spiritual existence1 then neither its agreement can impress us1 nor its opposition appal us2 but the endeavour to make life firm again can seek confidently what is needful for it1 and1 with care in regard to what it shall affirm and deny1 can follow the way which its own necessities point out4 ,one fact in particular must tend to increase our confidence in this endeavour3 the fact1 namely1 that a negative result1 which proceeds from our own work1 cannot be a mere negation1 but must contain an affirmative element within it4 ,from what reason could the traditional systems of life have become inadequate to man other than that they do not satisfy a demand that we ourselves make upon them1 and must make upon them8 ,it is plain that we need and seek more than we possess1 and this seeking betrays that our being is wider or deeper than was assumed in those systems4 ,why did each of the different systems become inadequate1 unless it was that life itself rejected as too narrow the standard involved in them8 ,why was it impossible to regard the different systems as having a certain validity1 to allow them to continue side by side1 and divide our existence amongst them1 if not because we cannot possibly give up all claim to an inner unity8 ,if1 then1 the present confusion is rooted in a wrong relation between our desire and our achievement1 we need not faint-heartedly surrender ourselves to it4 ,it is plain that there is something higher in us1 which we have to arouse to life and realise to its fullest extent4 ,we may be confident that the necessity of our being1 which gave rise to the desire1 will also reveal some way by which it may be satisfied4 ,a closer consideration of the results of our inquiry leaves no doubt with regard to the direction which research has to take to accomplish its task4 ,diverse1 fundamentally different systems passed in review before us2 each came forward as the unadorned and true expression of a reality that seemed common to them all2 their struggle appeared to be a conflict concerning the interpretation of this reality4 ,it became evident1 however1 that the conflict is1 on the contrary1 in regard not to the interpretation but the fundamental nature of reality2 different realities arise which are irreconcilably opposed4 ,the systems do not originate in a common and secure basis3 the basis itself is sought1 and may assume various forms4 ,the conflict therefore is much more over ultimate problems than is usually supposed2 it arises primarily out of the nature of life itself1 out of the inner movement which advances against the illimitable world around us1 and seeks to gain the mastery over it4 ,our life and our world acquire a definite character only by our taking up such a movement of counteraction1 the particular nature of which decides over all further moulding of life4 ,we have seen that when we ourselves became active we took up and emphasised one of the possibilities which lie within the range of our life1 and held it as supreme over all the rest2 we took as the fundamental relation one of the relations of which our life is capable1 as1 for example1 the relation to ,god1 to the immanent reason of the universe1 to nature1 to society1 to one's own individuality4 ,a particular sphere of life was thus marked out2 a scheme of life was yielded which appeared capable of taking up all experience into itself3 according to the starting-point adopted1 we sketched a distinctive outline and sought to include the whole content of human industry1 man's universe of work--as we might call it--in order to lead to our own perfection4 ,this scheme1 assumed to be true1 then had to show what it was capable of2 a powerful effort was brought forth to overcome the resistance of a world which1 even when it was grasped from within1 still remained alien to our nature2 and1 ultimately1 to form the whole into a unity4 ,we were not1 as it were1 an empty vessel into which a content flows from outside1 but we generated from within a movement which went onward and onward1 and desired to take up everything in itself2 it was a matter of radically transforming the external into an inner life4 ,we could succeed in this only in that life self-consciously pressed forward to win new powers2 formed connections1 branches1 and graduations2 accomplished an inner construction2 and with progressive self-elevation became an all-inclusive whole1 which did not possess a reality by the side of itself1 but itself became complete reality4 ,thus1 life took possession of the world only in that it widened itself from within to the world1 and1 in the appropriation of everything alien to it1 advanced from the original outline to full concreteness4 ,according to the results of our inquiry1 the chief decision in the struggle with regard to the nature of the world also depends upon our type of life4 ,we convinced ourselves that there was no conception of life common to the different systems1 but that from its starting-point1 throughout its whole development1 each of them shaped life differently from the others2 and we saw that the differences even went as far as complete opposition4 ,each system of life had its own kind of experience2 each formed its own instruments for the appropriation of the world2 each saw of the infinite that in particular which corresponded to the main direction of its own movement4 ,a consideration of all the facts makes it quite clear that a decision depends neither upon externals nor upon the individual1 but upon the inner life and the whole2 and further1 that cognition does not give a solution to the problems of life1 but that life itself has to reach a solution through its own organisation and construction1 its own advance and creative activity4 ,however1 that which was the compelling and deciding power in the systems of the present day--the struggle for life itself--has not attained to complete recognition in them4 ,rather1 they were too quick to begin to occupy themselves with objects1 and sought to show themselves superior in this respect to their rivals2 the attention to results prevented the correct appreciation and estimation of experience itself4 ,the impossibility of coming to an agreement concerning the object then forced us back to the life-process2 and we were led to the view that the object appeared different because we ourselves placed something different into it1 and that we saw less the object itself than ourselves and our life in the object4 ,thus we were induced to place our attention chiefly on the subject2 but then there was a strong tendency to leave the world outside as a special realm2 and the division of work between subject and object drove us still further into uncertainty4 ,in the midst of such confusion1 we did not come to the point of making a decision2 we did not attain the position from which alone an agreement is possible2 at one time one system1 at another time another carried us away4 ,we failed to recognise that1 however much we come into contact externally1 we live spiritually in separate worlds2 that1 while using the same expressions1 we speak different languages1 and therefore cannot possibly understand one another4 ,the gain is by no means an insignificant one1 and a distinctive treatment arises1 if we become clearly conscious of the fact that the shaping of the process of life itself is the chief object of conflict2 that the movement is not one between world and life1 but lies entirely within life2 and that the essential matter is the perfecting of life itself4 ,the recognition of this fact leads us to an immanent mode of treatment that has many advantages4 ,the facts involved are now seen to lie deeper4 ,the source of experiences is not so much the relation to the environment as the movement and expansion of life itself4 ,striving and conduct may now involve a certain concreteness2 indeed1 the actual experiencing of limitations and negations may lead to an elevation above them4 ,the type of life does not seek to justify itself1 to show its truth1 through harmony with an external world2 it is justified by its own advance1 its increase in strength1 and its upward growth4 ,it is only a justification of this kind1 a justification within its own realm1 that can acquire a power to convince and to restore again to life that concreteness of which1 in opposition to the excess of unrestrained reflection and vague feeling1 it is to-day in the direst need4 ,if we desire to arise above this state of division1 and to attain a greater unity1 we can achieve our aim only by the power of an inner unification of our life4 ,instead1 therefore1 of considering the internal from the point of view of the external1 we must consider the external from the point of view of the internal2 our knowledge must be essentially a knowledge of self1 our experience an experience of self1 if we would come any nearer to the attainment of the aim4 ,our inner nature is not given to us as something complete2 it has first to be aroused to life and developed2 we need to attain to a state of self-determining activity if we would reach the highest that we are capable of4 ,from the recognition of the necessity of greater activity1 and of seeking the roots of the problem at greater depths1 we become aware of a new relation of thought to life4 ,although thought may involve certain fundamental forms1 and may adhere to them in all its activity1 it is life in its totality1 as we understand it1 which first gives to thought its more detailed form1 a characteristic nature1 clear aims and sure tendencies4 ,thought1 therefore1 is inseparable from the movement and the advance of life2 all hope of progress rests on the hope of a further deepening of life2 a revealing of new relations1 and a development of new powers4 ,it is not from mere knowledge1 but only from the movement of life as a whole that we can make any advance2 but the life here referred to is one that includes knowledge1 and not one that takes up a position independent of knowledge1 and1 in opposition to it1 bases itself on supposed practical needs4 ,a treatment such as the one we have indicated has to be followed in the investigation upon which we are about to enter4 ,the chief aim of this investigation is to reveal and to call forth life2 it is not its chief aim to interpret life in conceptual terms4 ,it is from this position1 therefore1 that we ask the question--which the conflict of the different systems of life forced upon us--whether a unity transcending the oppositions exists in us and can be aroused to life through our self-determining activity4 ,it is from this position also that we ask the further question--which springs out of the struggle between the older and the newer modes of thought--whether ultimately man must give up the superior position which from early times he has adjudged himself1 or whether an inner elevation is possible which gives him the power to cope with new tasks and new conditions4 ,whether such a treatment leads to a positive result is a question of fact2 and what the answer to this is cannot be decided by a preliminary consideration1 but only by the actual investigation4 ,i4 ,,the ,,main ,,thesis 7a7 ,,the ,,ascent ,,to ,,the ,,main ,,thesis ,the most expeditious way of arriving at a comprehensive conception of human life is to begin with the impression which we get of it as a whole2 ascertain what problems arise from this1 and seek to make what headway we can in solving them until we reach a stage where the necessity of a particular assertion becomes apparent4 ,from the outset1 however1 the attention will be centred chiefly upon that which differentiates human life from other forms of life existing within our knowledge2 it is from a consideration of this that we shall most readily see the whole in its proper light4 #a4 ,,man ,,as ,a ,,being ,,of ,,nature ,no one doubts that human life forms the highest point of development that comes within our experience2 that it is in some way more than mere animal life4 ,but what it is that is characteristic in human life as distinct from animal life1 and how it is to be interpreted1 is a matter of dispute4 ,from the earliest times there has been a great diversity of opinion and conviction concerning this matter1 and absolutely contradictory views have been maintained4 ,some thinkers have believed it possible to regard human life1 in spite of its uniqueness1 as essentially the same as that of the animal1 and to trace back all difference to a difference in the quantity of the fundamental nature which they all possess2 these thinkers did not concern themselves with presenting the higher as developed from the lower by a gradual growth4 ,others1 on the contrary1 regarded human life as something essentially new and in its very nature distinct--the beginning of another kind of world--and denied to the uttermost a derivation from lower forms2 these held it to be impossible to avoid the recognition of a break between animal and human life4 ,according to which of these positions was accepted1 life obtained a fundamentally different prospect and a fundamentally different task2 activity necessarily had different aims and sought different paths2 the conflict around this problem affected the whole sphere of existence4 ,as a result of the movements and experiences of the nineteenth century1 this conflict has entered upon a new stage4 ,in earlier times the decision had generally been made as a result of the immediate impression of the civilised man who was conscious of his superiority2 it did not seem possible for him to lift himself far enough above his environment2 the life of his soul1 through its distinctive spiritual character1 seemed to be as distinct from every impulse which nature exhibited as the sky is distant from the earth4 ,science and art1 morality and religion were accepted as an original possession of man and as the power which had dominated his life from the beginning4 ,he appeared to be a higher being2 and to direct all thought and endeavour towards the strengthening of the distinctively human was regarded as the chief requirement of life4 ,the movements which have arisen in the ,modern ,age have led to a radical change in our treatment of this question3 this change is chiefly due to science4 ,modern science breaks down the authority of the immediate impression1 and1 in contrast with it1 projects a new representation of the world4 ,man is no longer looked upon as occupying a position of lonely elevation1 but is seen to be in the closest concatenation with nature around him1 and is regarded1 finally1 as a mere part of its machinery4 ,many movements of thought tend toward this conclusion and support one another4 ,the physical relationship which exists between man and the animals could not have been so clearly perceived1 and traced with such exactitude of detail by modern science had not the fixed boundaries1 which in our representation had hitherto divided the life of the human soul from that of the animals1 been abolished4 ,the new view was further supported by the results of a keener investigation into the nature of psychical life1 since in this investigation the traditional conception was analysed into its individual constituents1 and it was sought to explain from their combinations even the highest spiritual achievements4 ,the result of this modification of ideas was that the inner life of man was assimilated much more closely to nature than before2 the juxtaposition and the succession of occurrences gained in significance2 it was recognised that relations did not hold from the beginning but are developed gradually4 ,the forces and impulses which were operative in this development seemed to have arisen from an actual process of nature1 without any co-operation of human caprice4 ,our psychical life appeared to be nothing more than a continuation of nature4 ,the great divergence between the heights attained in experience1 and the theories that were formulated to account for them1 caused no misgivings because the idea of a gradual evolution during an indefinite period of time was sufficient to bridge the widest gulf4 ,at the same time the conception of society allied itself with that of history and lent its support to the general tendency4 ,every higher aspect of life that was accepted formerly as a proof of a supernatural order now became a witness to historico-social relationship and1 with its new interpretation1 lost its old mysteriousness4 ,all this was1 of course1 only on the assumption that human life brings nothing essentially new with it4 ,not the least doubt as to the validity of this assumption came to those who entered upon this train of thought4 ,thought was able to follow this course with the greater confidence because it went hand in hand with a change in practical life4 ,by reason of the development of modern life1 man's relations to the environment have become increasingly significant to man4 ,modern industry and physical science have led him from a preponderatingly contemplative relation to his environment to an active one2 infinite prospects have been disclosed2 the forces of nature have been pressed more and more into the service of mankind4 ,but even in the service which they render man these forces have won a power over him1 since with a determining power they keep his activity and his thought bent upon themselves4 ,the material side of life has escaped from the mean estimation in which it had previously been held1 if not in the conduct of individuals1 yet at the height of spiritual culture3 to the present age it has become the indispensable basis of all development4 ,the social movement1 with its summoning of the masses to complete participation in happiness and culture1 supports the tendency to estimate material goods more highly4 ,with the cessation of oppression and necessity1 and with the increase of material well-being1 a general advance and an inner development of life seem assured4 ,the whole tendency which we have considered exhibits man as solely and entirely a part of nature1 even though nature may be conceived of more broadly than it was formerly2 and the life of the society and of the individual as being determined by natural forces and subject to natural laws4 ,how1 along with this tendency1 the traditional conception of the world has been completely transformed2 how biology1 in the sense of natural science1 has been taken as the leading point of view for the explanation of life1 it is unnecessary to follow further1 since our consideration of the naturalistic system of life has already given us an insight into this matter4 #b4 ,,the ,,growth ,,of ,,man ,,beyond ,,nature ,but even after we had seen an older type of life disappear and a new one with the power of youth rise up1 gain mastery over souls1 and transform conditions1 despite all its triumphs the new movement manifested limitations--limitations which did not arouse the criticism of the thinker1 but with the compulsion of an actual power the opposition of the developing life of mankind4 ,that which we became aware of in this connection will become even more clear to us1 and impel us to seek for new aims1 if we now concentrate our attention upon the process of life and follow it throughout its experiences4 ,there cannot be the least doubt that we belong to nature3 no one can fail to recognise that it penetrates deep into the life of the soul1 and to a marked extent impresses its own form upon that life3 the boundary therefore is not between man and nature1 but within the soul of man itself4 ,but whether nature is able to claim the whole life of the soul1 or whether at some point there does not arise an insuperable opposition to such a claim1 is another question4 ,even the most zealous champion of the claims of nature cannot deny that man achieves something distinctive3 we not only belong to nature1 we also have knowledge of the fact2 and this knowledge is in itself sufficient to show that we are more than nature4 ,for in knowledge1 be it in the first place however meanly conceived1 however much concerned with the simple representation of external occurrences1 there is a kind of life other than that which is shown in the simultaneity and succession of events at the level of nature4 ,for it is a characteristic of knowledge that in it we hold the single points present together and connect them into a chain2 but how could we do that without in some way rising above the mere succession and surveying it from a transcendent point8 ,in this survey we pass from earlier to later1 from later to earlier2 and at the same time we are able to hold the multiplicity together3 there must be a unity of some kind ruling within us2 but the mechanism of nature can never produce such a unity4 ,a transcendence of nature therefore is already accomplished in the process of thought1 even when it only represents nature1 only displays it to our consciousness4 ,intellectual achievement1 however1 is by no means exhausted in the representation of nature4 ,the development of a new scientific conception of nature sufficiently demonstrates1 as we saw reason to believe1 that thought has far more independence than such representation implies2 that in arranging and transforming phenomena it opposes itself to the environment4 ,for the scientific conception of nature is not offered to us immediately as something complete2 it has to be won from the nave view with toil and difficulty4 ,in order to arrive at this scientific conception1 thought must have a position antecedent to the impressions1 must become conscious of itself1 realise its own strength1 and in its activity lead from universal to universal4 ,the work of thought is not simply transitional3 without its continuance that which has been gained would be quickly lost4 ,mere existence gives to nature no present reality for our thought and life4 ,to follow the pathway to reality involves the overthrow of manifold delusions2 and this necessitates such a longing for truth1 and a power to gain truth1 as only a thought1 which transcends the sense impression1 can produce4 ,not only is transcendence of nature demonstrated through the fact of the existence of thought with such independence1 thought also carries within its being unique demands1 measures the life of nature by their standard1 and in that life recognises limitations not simply on this side and that1 but also in the inner being of the whole4 ,thought cannot possibly be satisfied with the state of things as they are presented2 it desires to illuminate1 penetrate1 and comprehend it2 it asks ,whence8 and ,why8--it insists that events must have a meaning and be rational4 ,and from this point of view it feels the mere actuality of nature--which excites no opposition within its own sphere--to be a painful limitation and constraint1 something dark and meaningless4 ,to thought1 a life which is swayed by blind natural impulse must be inadequate1 indeed intolerable4 ,similar conflicts arise in other directions4 ,thought embraces a whole and demands a whole2 it cannot refrain from passing a judgment upon the whole4 ,if this treatment is applied by thought to nature1 the predominant concentration of life in the single individuals and their juxtaposition will appear to be a serious defect2 all the passionate strivings of the individual beings cannot deceive us concerning the inner emptiness of the whole4 ,for in nature there is nothing that experiences the whole of this movement as a whole2 makes the experience self-conscious and something of value in itself4 ,in the movement of nature everything individual is sacrificed2 and there seems to be nothing to which this sacrifice brings results which are experienced as a good4 ,the same holds good of a culture that resolves human social relationship into a simple co-existence of individuals1 regards them as battling together in the struggle for existence1 and believes all progress of the whole to be dependent upon their ceaseless and pitiless conflict4 ,even if such a conflict leads to further external results1 there is no spiritual product3 the results are experienced by no one as an inner gain4 ,the indescribable meanness of this whole culture1 swayed as it is solely by the spirit of egoism2 the slavish dependence to which this culture condemns man2 the rigour of the individualism that rules in it1 cannot possibly escape from the criticism of thought4 ,thought1 in transforming this condition of things into an experience--that is1 in making us conscious of it--at the same time makes it impossible for man to accept it as final4 ,since it makes us more conscious of the limitations of this state of life1 thought demonstrates--and that through this very consciousness of its limitations itself--that our whole existence is not exhausted by that individualisation and detachment1 but that there is a tendency of some sort within us which strives towards the unity of the whole4 ,problems no less complex arise in relation to time4 ,looked at from the point of view of nature1 no inconsistency is felt in the fact that only a short span of time is granted to the life of individuals2 that they come and go in most rapid succession4 ,for here the individuals do not rise to the consideration of anything beyond their own time2 their presentation and desire are exhausted in the present2 they feel no longing for a continuation of life4 ,the position is radically changed with the entrance of thought4 ,thought does not drift along with time3 as certainly as it strives to attain truth1 it must rise above time and its treatment must be timeless3 a timeless validity appertains to truth1 a comprehension of things under the form of eternity 7sub specie aeternitatis74 ,to a being who1 in his thought1 rises to comprehension of experience from the point of view of the eternal1 all temporal limitation1 and especially the short duration of human life1 is a source of surprise and a contradiction4 ,the rapid sequence of generations1 the perpetual decay of all that impels us so forcibly to desire life and holds us so firmly to it1 seem to deprive our endeavour of all its value1 and give to the whole of existence a shadowy1 phantom-like character4 ,feelings of this kind have been aroused anew in our own time4 ,the restlessness of the activities of our civilisation and the lack of real meaning in this civilisation1 which to the present age seems to constitute the whole of life1 need only to be clearly and forcibly comprehended by thought1 and all its bustle and all its passion cannot prevent the emergence of an acute feeling of its dream-like nature4 ,the feeling of the lack of reality and depth in the life of nature will become the keener in proportion to the degree of independence thought evolves4 ,for the more thought finds its own basis in itself1 the more will it treat nature as an appearance1 the more clearly will it recognise that sense1 with all its obviousness and palpability1 does not guarantee the possession of truth2 for truth comes to us only through thought4 ,in thought1 therefore1 the world of nature loses its immediacy and becomes a realm of appearances and phantoms4 ,a consideration of all the facts leads us to the result that a life consisting solely of nature and intelligence involves an intolerable inconsistency3 form and content are sharply separated from each other2 thought is strong enough to disturb the sense of satisfaction with nature1 but is too weak to construct a new world in opposition to it4 ,life is in a state of painful uncertainty1 and man is a ,prometheus bound in that he must needs experience all the constraint and meaninglessness of the life of nature1 and must suffer therefrom an increasing pain without being able to change this state in any way4 ,the experience of our time confirms this conclusion in no indefinite manner4 ,since1 with regard to the material and the technical1 we have attained heights never before reached1 the bonds between us and our environment have increased a thousandfold1 and our work has united us more closely with the world1 we seem now for the first time to attain a sure hold of reality4 ,at the same time1 however1 the activity of thought1 and with it unrestrained reflection1 have also increased immeasurably in modern life4 ,this reflection forbids all nave submission to the immediacy of nature2 destroys all feeling of security2 and comes between us and our own soul1 our own volition4 ,we are thrown back once more on to the world of sense1 that we may seek in it a support and a scope for our life and effort2 and from the point of view of this world the work of thought appears to be a formation of clouds4 ,but this formation persists2 draws us back again to itself and1 with all its insubstantiality1 proves strong enough to make us regard the physical as appearance4 ,our life is divided into two parts which cannot and will not coalesce4 ,the emergence of a new life1 which can do nothing but comprehend the other in thought1 and which1 while it is indeed capable of depreciating the other1 cannot itself advance further1 is seen to involve a monstrous inconsistency4 ,if the union of nature and intelligence produces so much confusion1 we are inevitably led to ask whether man does not possess in himself more than thought2 whether thought is not rooted in a deeper and a more comprehensive life1 from which it derives its power4 ,it is not necessary that such a life should be manifest to us in all its completeness2 we shall also be compelled to acknowledge it as a fact even if in the first place it has to struggle up in face of opposition2 however1 in its development it must show distinctive contents and powers which could not be the work of a subjective reflection4 ,if there is a life and a development of this kind1 it will be necessary for us to comprehend it in its various aspects and tendencies1 and only when we have accomplished this may we endeavour to obtain a representation of the whole4 ,now1 developments of life which defy limitation by the mechanism of nature and set a new kind of being in opposition to it do1 in truth1 appear4 ,we recognise such developments in the processes by which life liberates itself from bondage to an individualism and its subjectivity1 and afterwards attains a self-conscious inwardness4 ,we may consider both these developments somewhat more in detail4 ,so far as man belongs to nature1 his conduct is determined solely by the impulse to self-preservation2 every movement must either directly or indirectly tend to the welfare of the individual2 everything may be traced back to what happens to the individuals4 ,this by no means indicates a distinct separation of man from his environment4 ,for even the mechanism of nature closely unites that which happens to the individual with that which happens around him2 the individual can progress only in so far as he is united with others3 he cannot advance his own well-being without advancing that of others4 ,even in a state of nature man takes his family1 his nation1 and the whole of humanity indeed1 up into his interests2 and as this tendency is not bounded from without1 but may be immeasurably refined and extended in an indefinite number of directions1 it easily comes to appear that this involves an inner deliverance from self1 and that another is of value to us for his own sake4 ,but it is no more than an appearance2 for with all the external agreement the inward separation is far greater1 and amounts to opposition4 ,within the limits of nature we can certainly concern ourselves with something which is only indirectly useful to us2 but we can never be concerned with anything which is devoid of all use to ourselves2 we cannot take such a direct interest in the welfare of others as will tend to our own disadvantage4 ,if experience gives evidence of such an activity and such an interest1 in so doing it demonstrates a transcendence of nature4 ,now1 experience does give such evidence1 and indeed with irresistible clearness4 ,a witness to this is seen in the zeal with which man habitually attempts to give to his struggles for mere self-preservation a better appearance1 a semblance of conduct performed out of genuine regard for the interests of others4 ,to what purpose all this trouble to acquire such an appearance2 for what reason this hypocrisy which permeates the whole of human life2 and whence this appearance itself if we belong solely and entirely to nature8 ,further1 whatever elements of semblance there may be in the general state of human life1 the development of that life is by no means nothing but semblance4 ,the social life of man is not explicable as a simple collection of individuals related to one another in different ways2 but in the family1 in the state1 in humanity as a whole there is evolved an inner unity1 a sphere of life with distinctive values and contents4 ,and as it is of the nature of these to transcend the ends and aims of the individuals1 to arouse other feelings and stimulate to other efforts1 so their demands may be directly opposed to those of individual self-preservation4 ,man sees himself compelled to decide whether he will pursue his own welfare or that of the whole3 from the necessity of a decision it is impossible to escape4 ,however much in the majority of cases self-interest may preponderate1 we cannot dispute the possibility of his acting in direct and conscious opposition to his own interest2 of his subordinating and sacrificing himself2 and of his doing this not grudgingly nor of necessity1 but willingly and gladly2 of his feeling this subordination to be not a negation and a limitation1 but an affirmation and an expansion of his life4 ,all who strive for some essential renewal and elevation of human life base their hope and trust upon such a disposition4 ,a renewal and an elevation of life involve far too much toil1 conflict1 and danger2 they demand a renunciation and a sacrifice far too great for them to be commended to us by consideration of our own welfare1 or for them to dispense with the necessity of counting upon an unselfish submission1 a sincere sympathy1 a genuine love4 ,that which was produced with glowing passion in heroic beginnings must with a quieter warmth pervade all progress also4 ,an inner community of minds is indispensable if the whole of culture is not to become a soulless mechanism and inwardly alien to us4 ,it is true that the external way of regarding the facts of life often fuses together as one1 lower and higher1 a continuation of nature and the beginning of a new life4 ,language also supports this tendency1 since it indicates fundamentally different psychical states with the same terms4 ,yet the love in which the union with others is sought only in order to advance one's own interests1 and the love which finds in this union a release from the limitations of the natural ego1 and gains a new life1 remain distinct4 ,the sympathy which feels the sufferings of others to be unpleasant because one's own complacency is disturbed by them1 and which in consequence fades away and disappears as soon as the sight of the suffering comes to an end1 is absolutely separated from a sympathy which extends to the soul of the other1 and possessing which1 in order to contribute to the relieving of the other's need1 one willingly sacrifices one's own complacency3 a sympathy1 therefore1 which extends its interest and help without limit beyond all that simply has to do with the relation to the environment4 ,how much real love and genuine sympathy the experience of humanity shows is a question in itself4 ,even as possibilities of our being1 as matters of thought which occupy our attention1 and as tasks and problems1 they give evidence of a development of our life beyond the limits of nature4 ,this forgetfulness of self is a kind of deliverance of life from the limitations and the interests of the individual3 a new relation of man to man1 of person to person1 thus arises and brings about an essential change1 indeed a complete transformation of aims and feelings4 ,the deliverance is effected in another direction with the emergence of a new relation to things1 to the object4 ,in the realm of nature everything that is external has a value for man only as a means and an instrument to the advancement of his own welfare2 from the point of view of nature1 it is impossible to understand how a thing could attract us on account of a content and a value of its own4 ,as a matter of fact1 the object does attract us and acquire a power over us in this manner1 and this not merely here and there but over a wide area in movements which affect and transform the whole of life4 ,nothing else differentiates work--viewed spiritually--from other activity1 and nothing else elevates work above other activity than this3 that in work the object is inwardly present2 and that man may make its moulding and extension a motive1 and find this a source of joy4 ,this seems to be something self-evident1 only because it happens daily to us and around us2 and we do not recognise a new type of life in it1 simply because in human life it is usual to find that work only gradually attains complete independence4 ,for it is the pressing necessity of life1 the impulse to self-preservation1 that first arouses us from our natural inactivity and compels us to occupy ourselves with things2 and in this change from inactivity to activity it is our own advantage that we first seek4 ,but that which to us1 to commence with1 was simply a means2 that which was perhaps most unwillingly done1 begins to attract and hold us more and more for its own sake2 becomes an end in itself1 and is able so to charm us that it forces the idea of utility completely into the background4 ,it is possible for work to become so attractive1 and of such a value in our estimation1 that to ensure its success we can make sacrifices1 and can pursue it in direct opposition to our own welfare4 ,only when the object is regarded and treated in this manner can it win an inner proximity to us2 reveal to us its relations2 develop characteristic laws2 make demands upon us and call forth our power to meet them4 ,in this way it constrains us1 but the constraint is not exerted upon us from without1 but proceeds from our own decision and activity4 ,we do not feel the relation to be an oppression1 but rather as a witness to our freedom2 in the subordination to the object we feel that we are caught up into a life more comprehensive1 clearer and richer than any we can develop from the subjective4 ,we reach a stability and a calm in ourselves1 and have within our own being a support against all vacillation and error4 ,work1 therefore1 produces relations which on the one hand unify the endeavour of the individual and fashion his life as a definite whole2 and on the other1 bind humanity into a creative community4 ,in the former case we have vocation1 with its demands and its limitations1 it is true1 but with them also its strengthening and its elevation of life2 in the latter complexes of work develop in whole departments of life1 in which the individuals find themselves side by side and are ultimately united into the community of an all-inclusive whole of culture4 ,from this something is evolved which is independent not only of the choice but also of the interests of mere man3 a kingdom of truth1 a world of thought transcending all human subjectivity is formed4 ,thus we see something grow up within the human sphere which leads man beyond himself1 and which is valid not simply for him but even in opposition to him4 ,the whole matter bristles with problems3 from the point of view of the life of nature this new life must appear to be an insoluble riddle2 and yet it has far too much value and certitude to be banished as imaginary4 ,along with this detachment of life from the mere individual and the mere subjectivity of man1 there is a liberation from external ties1 and the development of a self-conscious spirituality4 ,as at the level of nature life is spent in the development of relations with the environment1 in action and reaction1 so the form of life in man remains bound1 since the life of the soul cannot dissociate itself from the experience of sense4 ,the apparent inwardness that is evolved at this level is simply an after-effect of sensuous feelings and desires4 ,so far as the life of nature extends1 the forces and laws of the life of the soul will only refine what the external world exhibits in coarser features4 ,the mechanism of nature also extends into human life2 natural impulses of conduct1 as well as association of ideas1 reveal the fact that the life of the soul is in complete dependence upon natural conditions4 ,from this point of view it seems impossible that inwardness should ever become independent4 ,the actual experience of human life1 however1 shows that what is thus regarded as impossible is indisputably real4 ,the detachment from the mere subjectivity of the ego and the development of universal values1 which exist over against us1 can be effected only if the basis of life lies deeper than the contact with the environment4 ,it was a work of thought which brought about the transition and gave birth to the new life2 only with the help of thought did it ever become possible to form relations of a new kind and to rouse man's interest in them4 ,the realities which arose were not of sense but conceptual1 ideal4 ,the more this movement increased in extent1 the more human existence was transformed into realities of thought4 ,is not such a transformation evident when in ourselves we see before all else1 not the sensuous being of nature1 but a personality or an individuality2 when in relationship with one another we form the idea of the state1 and feel that we are ourselves members of the state2 when we regard and value the cognate beings around us from the conception of humanity8 ,as a matter of fact1 a strong tendency in this direction runs through the whole history of humanity3 sense does not disappear1 but is taken up more and more into something conceptual2 the world of thought gives us increasingly the point of view from which we fashion our lives4 ,we find a progressive spiritualisation of religion1 of morality1 of law1 of the whole life of culture4 ,in everything life seeks a deeper basis2 an inwardness wins an independence of the environment1 and exercises on the environment a transforming power4 ,the relations and the order of the realities of thought manifest a law different from that of sense presentations with their mere juxtaposition4 ,for in the former case an inner unity1 an objective relation is evolved1 and the significance of the individual member is estimated according to its position in the whole4 ,the distinctive attributes in a conception form no mere collection1 and the statement of a syllogism no mere sequence2 rather1 in both1 a comprehending act of thought grasps the manifold and arranges the separate elements according to their relationship within the whole4 ,the course of presentation with its mere succession is by no means simply suppressed through this development of thought2 it persists and governs consciousness on the surface4 ,but the surface is not the totality of the intellectual life2 through it and transcending it an activity of thought manifests itself1 forms new connections1 and maintains itself against all opposition4 ,accordingly1 the power that thought exercises is fundamentally different from the physical power of association1 or even of custom4 ,in the case of thought there is an insistence upon a consistent and related whole which1 even though externally insignificant1 produces most powerful effects4 ,if contradictions exist in our world of thought and condition of life1 they may become intolerable1 and the desire to remove them lead to the emergence of impetuous movements4 ,if1 on the other hand1 we recognise that certain things which formerly seemed to be unrelated1 even though they existed side by side1 are really inwardly related2 or if1 again1 an assertion involves a consequence that has not hitherto been deduced1 then the demand1 that these things shall be unified and this consequence developed1 is capable of breaking down even the strongest opposition4 ,in this matter an invisible is capable of more than a visible power4 ,of course1 thought in isolation has not such a power2 it acquires it only through its relation to a wider life and in championing the cause of that life4 ,for thought is wont to defend the life of the individual1 of a people1 a historical situation of humanity1 on the one hand from an abundance of inconsistencies1 and on the other from dissolution and incompleteness1 without any conflict growing out of it4 ,life as we experience it immediately is anything but a regular logic of the schools4 ,in itself simple perception of the fact that an inconsistency exists1 or that ideas which have been regarded as valid require further development1 need not arouse the feeling of man and lead him to assert his activity2 he can acquiesce1 and leave the condition of things unaltered2 he can voluntarily resign himself to the inconsistencies and incompleteness4 ,but1 nevertheless1 there is a point at which this condition of inconsistency can be endured no longer1 at which to transcend it becomes the dominant task of life4 ,this point is reached when the confusion is no longer something external to us which we contemplate1 but enters into the substance of our life1 so that the inconsistency becomes a division1 and an attitude of inconsequence towards it a limitation of our own being4 ,the solving of the problem then becomes an essential part of our spiritual preservation4 ,and in that it commands the whole energy and passion of such preservation it can do that of which thought1 with its necessity1 is not in itself capable1 it can rouse our whole life to activity and break down even the strongest opposition4 ,it is from the inner presence of a determining and moulding process of life that thought itself first obtains a characteristic form1 and is able to impress it upon things1 and so subject them to itself4 ,a spiritual self-preservation of this kind is fundamentally different from all physical self-preservation3 for the former1 it is not a matter of the self asserting its place in the co-existence of things1 but of becoming an independent inward nature1 and of establishing a distinctive whole of life4 ,the exact significance of spiritual self-preservation is for the present obscure enough2 but whatever it may be1 it derives its power from within and not from contact with the environment4 ,how deeply these inner movements are rooted in human life the so-called historical ideas show with particular clearness4 ,certain thought complexes1 or rather certain tendencies of life1 arise1 and win an overwhelming power in opposition to all narrowly human concerns4 ,they force the activity of mankind into particular channels2 they follow out their consequences with pitiless rigour2 they speak to us in a tone of command1 and require absolute obedience4 ,neither the interests of individuals nor those of whole classes prevail against them2 every consideration of utility vanishes before their inner necessity4 ,the history of religions1 for example1 has often shown such an astonishing consistency in the following of characteristic tendencies that their adherents could see in it the working of a divine spirit4 ,similarly1 the ,enlightenment1 in its time with overpowering might seized minds and penetrated deeply into every department of life2 to-day we have a similar experience in the case of the social movement4 ,on all sides something is acknowledged as an imperative requirement1 as indispensable for the spiritual persistence of man--something which cannot be brought in from outside1 and which may indeed be entirely inconsistent with external conditions4 ,has not the conflict of inner necessities with the external circumstances that were opposed to them been a leading motive power in history1 and is not all genuine progress achieved through such an opposition8 ,again1 the great force that has been exerted in the movement of history in the detection and the elimination of contradictions can be explained only in this context4 ,logic1 as we saw1 played an unassuming rle in this matter1 and the indolence of man always inclined to easy accommodation and compromise4 ,it was the increased vital energy1 the adoption of a particular issue as the main issue1 that made movements1 which had long existed in a state of harmony and peace1 irreconcilable enemies1 and drove them to a life-and-death struggle4 ,with a lower level of spiritual activity the ,middle ,ages unsuspiciously united a religion of ecclesiastical organisation with a religion of personal feeling and disposition2 and it did not feel that there was an inconsistency in their union so much as that one was the completion of the other4 ,as soon and so far1 however1 as in the ,modern ,age spirituality won more independence and more self-consciousness1 and felt itself to be the centre of the whole1 it was inevitable that a dependence upon an external order should be experienced only as an intolerable oppression2 and the division of life between the one and the other became an impossibility4 ,it was necessary only that a powerful and passionate personality1 like that of ,luther1 should take up the problem1 and make it the sole object of his effort1 and the hour of revolution had come4 ,how meanly they think of the controlling forces of history who would trace back such changes to the selfishness or the vanity of individuals6 ,looked at from our point of view1 the inner changes within the life of universal history often appear to be simplifications--cases of energetic concentration on the essential1 and of fundamental separation of the subsidiary4 ,the truly great carry on a ceaseless conflict against the chaotic confusion which the life of the majority is wont to produce ever anew--a condition in which matters of the first importance are confused with those that are subsidiary2 all inner gradation is lacking2 and the great is treated as something insignificant1 and the insignificant as something great4 ,there is a struggle to secure a clear differentiation and gradation2 to establish a centre1 and to transform life into a genuinely self-conscious life4 ,have not all the principal revivals of religion1 of morality1 of education1 been simplifications8 ,these movements show life in a particular form2 something emerges in it which1 unconcerned with the weal and the woe of man1 follows its own course and makes absolute demands2 and1 more than anything else1 disturbs and destroys his calmness and complacency4 ,how heavily ,germany has had to pay for the movement of the ,reformation by being thrown back politically1 nationally1 and economically6 ,it is inevitable that all movements of an ideal kind1 the social movement of the present included1 should appear from the point of view of natural well-being1 troublesome and pernicious disturbances4 ,they can be regarded as something higher only when we acknowledge that life does not consist entirely in external relations1 or in the endeavour to attain harmony with the environment1 but that an inner task grows out of life itself1 and first gives to human existence a value and a dignity4 ,in the development of a self-consciousness and of a movement of life itself1 we rise above the motive of utility1 by which nature is swayed4 ,it is a moral element in the widest sense2 it is the consciousness of something objectively necessary1 unconditionally transcending the ends of the narrowly human1 that first gives to convictions axiomatic certainty and to conduct the right energy4 ,this moral element attains to a more independent display in the moral self-judgment of man that is called conscience4 ,true1 this conception has been the subject of much error and has been much over-estimated4 ,not only has the moral judgment less power over man than is frequently assumed1 but that which is called conscience is often--generally1 in fact--nothing more than a by-product of custom and of accommodation in human social life4 ,in this case the inner life has still attained no independence1 but remains dependent upon the environment2 and the disposition thus produced is nothing more than a feeling of aversion to the results of conduct1 nothing more nor less than concealed fear of punishment--a state of the soul which the most prominent thinkers have1 with good reason1 stigmatised as a manifestation of weakness and cowardice4 ,but1 however much that is foreign to it and of an inferior order may have been associated with conscience1 nevertheless1 judging conduct1 as it does1 according to the inward disposition and not according to consequences1 conscience is a unique1 original phenomenon4 ,to whatever extent conscience1 as we know it1 may have had its source in something external1 and in however great a degree it may depend upon changing circumstances1 it is nevertheless impossible to explain the fundamental fact by reference to the environment4 ,for1 if our life depended solely and entirely upon the environment and no movement arose from within1 all influence from without could do nothing but subdue us by sheer force2 there could never be an independent recognition and acceptance of the command addressed to us2 never the feeling of an inner responsibility for conduct2 never an independent extension of the original precept2 and yet all these phenomena are in fact found in human experience4 ,true1 we are affected very greatly by external forces2 but that they may achieve what they do a movement from within must meet them1 take them up1 and carry them further4 ,the enormous amount of pretence which flourishes amongst us with regard to matters of morality1 and which so easily obscures our vision for the chief matter1 would be unintelligible if the spiritual did not manifest some kind of independence in the moral judgment4 ,unless there is such a development towards independence1 the moral judgment must also1 as far as its content is concerned1 be determined by the condition of the social environment3 it could never follow a course of its own2 never give rise to anything new2 never enter into inner conflict with the environment4 ,yet1 as a matter of fact1 we find these tendencies in abundance4 ,the individual is able1 in the light of his own moral conviction1 to approve and value something which all around him reject2 and conversely1 to condemn and reject something which all around him esteem and respect2 and this he is able to do under the compulsion of inner necessity1 and not simply out of a love of vain paradox4 ,this opposition of individuals to the condition of things in the social environment has been the main source of all inner progress in matters of morality4 ,for it is in matters of morality1 in particular1 that that which hitherto had given no offence has become intolerable to individuals2 and that new and imperative demands such as had never been made before have emerged with constraining power4 ,or did the idea of humanity1 the abolition of slavery1 and the commandment to love one's enemies1 for example1 arise in some other way8 ,if in respect of such matters as these that which on its first appearance was paradoxical quickly came to be regarded as self-evident1 what else was operative in bringing about this result than an inner necessity1 from which1 when once we become conscious of it1 we can never again escape8 ,suitable conditions in the social environment were1 of course1 also necessary for the fulfilment and the extension of those moral requirements2 but they could never have originated from the environment1 or have derived from it their unconditional nature1 their certainty of victory1 and their indifference to all external consequences3 qualities without which they could not have effected what they have4 ,in the life of the individual the moral judgment manifests its power in affirmation as well as in negation4 ,if it approves one's disposition and conduct1 it gives to life a greater stability and joyfulness2 if it condemns1 then existence is paralysed by division4 ,in this experience it is implicitly assumed that the distinction of good and evil has its source neither in the preferences of the human individual nor in those of the human society2 but that in this antithesis a new order that is present only to the inner nature is revealed4 ,we see1 therefore1 that in contrast with its attachment to the external1 life attains an independent inwardness which we are compelled to acknowledge1 however mysterious the inward may at present be to us1 and however little we may be able to define its nature more closely4 ,earlier in our investigation we were led to recognise a movement of life from the narrowness of the individual to the comprehensiveness of the whole4 ,it is obvious that our two results are closely connected with each other and refer to each other4 ,for we attain a unity1 as contrasted with the juxtaposition of the elements of the visible world1 only through a powerful activity from within2 but this activity cannot emerge unless life forms a whole in contrast with its dissipation into disconnected points4 ,these two developments are obviously sides of the same life--a life which bears a totally different character from that of the psychical life which forms a mere continuation of nature4 ,within the soul itself there is a distinction between two levels1 of which that other than nature may in agreement with established usage be called spiritual1 however little may be implied by this expression2 however mysterious1 indeed1 the conception may for the present be4 ,in contrast with the old1 this new level is unmistakably at a disadvantage4 ,the old seems to include the whole range of human existence2 the new1 on the other hand1 must toilsomely struggle for a place of some kind4 ,nevertheless1 in spite of its external insignificance1 the spiritual gives birth to a movement of no mean character2 in face of all opposition it seeks to form a centre of life of its own1 and to make this the chief basis of effort2 it is to be found thus in the life of mankind as revealed in history1 and also in that of the individual4 ,within the conception of culture we comprehend all achievements distinctive of man4 ,but what is culture if it does not assure to man a position independent of nature2 if it does not set up ideals which can arise only out of a new life8 ,ultimately the chief motive-power of culture is the longing of mankind for a new kind of being in contrast to that of nature4 ,culture necessarily becomes superficial and empty when it directs human striving to external objects and does not lead through all occupation with externals to its own development and to the advance of its own being4 ,the work of culture is genuine and powerful only when man seeks in it his own true and ultimate self4 ,how every development of the spiritual advances towards the attainment of a new unity of life may be more clearly seen in the case of the individual1 in relation to whom we meet with the conceptions of personality and of spiritual individuality4 ,however much confusion there may be in the ordinary use of these conceptions1 the conception of personality merits the estimation in which it is held only if it is regarded as the bearer of a new life in contrast to that of nature1 and not simply as something added to nature4 ,the development is more evident with the conception of spiritual individuality4 ,for such an individuality is by no means something given to a man in the natural characteristics which he brings with him into life4 ,within this particular nature1 as a rule1 many things1 significant and insignificant--things which are original in himself and things which are due to external influence--are chaotically confused2 and1 as it lacks an inner unity and an adjustment of the different aspects1 one aspect may directly contradict another4 ,if the individual is no more than these natural characteristics1 he can become active as a whole only through a summation of the multiplicity1 and not through a dominating and organising unity4 ,with the transition to the new kind of life a desire for such a unity awakens and gives rise to a definitely characteristic movement4 ,a unity must be found within us in some manner2 it must be included in the range of possibilities open to us4 ,but in order to obtain supremacy it must be grasped1 be appropriated and strengthened by our self-activity4 ,we ourselves therefore become a task in the treatment of which it is possible to fall into serious error4 ,looked at from this point of view our spiritual nature is seen to be the product of our own activity4 ,we cannot fail to recognise a peculiar interweaving of freedom and fate in our existence4 ,the inner history of all creative minds shows how great may be the inspiration and the tension which arise in this striving to realise a spiritual nature2 an inspiration and a tension which are evident even when the main direction for the realisation of this nature has been easily found and only the more detailed form has to be sought3 they are still more apparent when the main direction itself is in question4 ,how toilsome it has often been for a man to come to that in which his strength lay1 and with the aid of reflection to attain a state of secure creative activity2 to unite all forces to a common achievement2 and to make a distinct advance beyond the traditional position of the spiritual life6 ,life was by no means a completed gift and something to be easily enjoyed1 even in the case of natures lavishly equipped by destiny--as1 for example1 ,goethe3 it was in a struggle for itself that it won a complete independence and a proud superiority over everything external4 ,this struggle was being fought in all his cares1 in all thought for natural and social well-being1 all utilitarian considerations in regard to the externals of life4 ,it gave to the man amid all his doubts and agitations the certainty of being something unique1 something indispensable2 at the same time it lifted him into an invisible world1 and enabled him to understand his own life as an end complete in itself4 ,how different this is from the struggle for existence1 for the preservation of physical life2 and how clearly a new life1 another kind of reality1 arises in these movements6 ,the new life does not by any means appear only at the heights of spiritual creation2 rather it would be true to say that the life which is present in the whole of human existence becomes most easily discernible at these heights4 ,the movement towards a spiritual individuality may be begun in the most simple conditions2 and it is not to be estimated according to the degree of its achievement4 ,for1 where world stands against world1 everything depends upon the decision with regard to the fundamental principle1 and this may be made at any point4 ,the mere possibility of making such a decision testifies here irrefutably to a reality3 the reality of a new order of things4 #c4 ,,the ,,inner ,,contradiction ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,life ,the conclusion we are led to is that a new life distinct from that of nature arises in our soul4 ,with a great diversity of manifestations1 it surrounds us with an indisputable actuality2 no one can fail to recognise that something of importance1 something distinctive comes to pass in us4 ,but as soon as we try to comprehend these manifestations as a whole1 and to ascertain the meaning of the whole1 a difficult problem arises4 ,it is comparatively easy1 however1 to come to an understanding as to the negative aspect of the matter4 ,it is obvious that the new life is not an embellishment or a continuation of nature2 it would bring with it something essentially new4 ,again1 it is obvious that it is not a product of a single psychical function1 such as thought or feeling2 it would form a whole transcending the psychical functions1 and from this whole determine the form of each function distinctively4 ,but what is this new reality and this whole to which the course of the movement trends8 ,the more we reflect over the question the more strongly we feel that it is a direction rather than a conclusion that is offered to us in this matter2 something higher1 something inward and so on is to evolve1 but what is embedded in the inward and in what this supremacy is based is at present not apparent4 ,further1 every attempt at a more definite orientation at once reveals to us a wide gulf1 indeed a harsh contradiction1 between the content of that which is sought and the form of existence from which it is sought4 ,the chief impulse of the spiritual life is that it wills to liberate us from the merely human2 to give us a share in the life of the whole2 to remove us from a happening between things to their fundamental happening4 ,seen from within1 the history of humanity is primarily an increasing deliverance of life from bondage to the narrowly human1 an emergence of something more than human1 and an attempt to shape our life from the point of view of this3 it is an increasing conflict of man with himself4 ,at the same time1 however1 it is a taking up of the whole into himself2 since man in all his planning and striving is related to the whole1 it seems to him that his own nature must remain alien to himself if the whole does not disclose itself to him and allow him to participate in a life which has its source in ultimate depths2 if in the life of the whole he does not find a purer and a more genuine self4 ,the idea of truth impels us beyond all the limitations to which a particular being is subject1 beyond all communication of things from without4 ,there must be nothing between us and reality2 the inner life of reality must become ours1 and thus our life will emerge for the first time from a shadowy existence to full reality1 from the narrowness of the mere individual to the comprehensiveness of infinity4 ,the idea of the good makes similar demands4 ,to the spiritual movement1 the advancement of merely human well-being is far too mean an aim4 ,this movement makes us clearly conscious of the triviality of mere happiness2 of the oppressive and destructive effect of a continual reference to our own subjectivity2 and of the unworthiness of treating love and justice as only means to our welfare4 ,it becomes at the same time an urgent duty to break through the narrow limitations of the natural ego1 and to conduct our life from the point of view of objective truth and comprehensiveness1 and so for the first time to become capable of genuine love and justice4 ,it is true that these aims are lofty1 and1 we feel we have the right to say1 aims that may not be rejected4 ,but it is not at all evident how they are to be reached from the position of man2 it is not at all clear how man shall press forward from mere existence to the creative basis1 from the part to the whole3 for his particularity and his mere existence hold him fixed4 ,but in his existence nature preponderates by far3 individual tendencies of a new order do appear2 but how could they in their state of isolation and weakness bring about a revolution and place life on a new foundation8 ,as a matter of fact1 we usually find these impulses to a new life drawn into the service of natural and social self-preservation1 and1 over against the passionate struggle for existence1 condemned to complete impotence and shadowiness4 ,the whole life of culture makes us clearly conscious of this perplexity4 ,the essence of that life consists in this1 and by this alone can it be held as true--that it wills to build up a new1 spiritual reality within the sphere of humanity4 ,but to what extent is such a reality recognisable on the basis of experience8 ,in and with all civilisation man continues obstinately bent upon the attainment of his own ends3 the struggle for material goods exerts an immense influence upon and controls men2 an indescribable amount of pretence and hypocrisy accompanies and surrounds the spiritual movement4 ,between that which man really strives for1 and that which he asserts that he is striving for1 and which perhaps it is his intention to strive for1 there is great divergence4 ,falsehood like this is not limited to individuals2 our whole culture is one monstrous deception in so far as it promises to develop humanity to something new and higher1 while in reality the new is occupied mostly with polishing up the old1 the life of nature1 to give it a glittering appearance4 ,it is on this account that in times of criticism and introspection so much opposition has been offered to culture2 that such passionate scorn has been aroused against the hypocrisy and pretence which pervades its whole life4 ,but although we are fully aware of its deplorable state1 we do not break its power over us4 ,it is perhaps the most bitter of all our experiences that we are held fast under the spell of a condition of things concerning the vanity and futility of which no one with any insight has the slightest doubt4 ,however1 in moralising over this state of things we ought to guard ourselves from becoming too passionate4 ,for it is a question whether it could be otherwise2 whether the fault is in any way in our will1 and is not solely and entirely in the nature of our being itself4 ,for it is certainly a contradiction throughout that man1 who is an individual being existing by the side of others1 and whose life belongs to the domain of experience1 should set himself in a universal life transcending all particularity and live from the bases of reality4 ,how can that which is primarily a part of a given world build up a new world8 ,ideas like those of the true and the good are1 from this point of view1 simply delusions1 manifest impossibilities2 man may trouble and weary himself with them1 but all his endeavour only leads him into a state of greater confusion4 ,these ideas are to him for ever an other world2 he may expand himself and develop1 but he does not come a step nearer by doing so4 ,it is true that in striving for truth1 man advances beyond sense presentation to the activity of thought2 but the thoughts always remain his--thoughts of mere man4 ,however much he may widen his own sphere as a consequence of his reflection upon them1 he does not go beyond it4 ,in history also the striving for a scientific comprehension of truth appears to be a vain struggle2 the passing through different phases has not brought it nearer its aim so much as1 with ever-increasing clearness1 it has manifested the impossibility of attaining what is sought4 ,the ancient conception of truth1 with its belief in a relationship of the being of man with the whole2 with it assumption of an easy transference of life from one to the other2 with its view of truth as an agreement of thought with an external reality1 has through the course of life become untenable2 it has been rejected through the influence of the tendency of our being to become more inward4 ,for this tendency necessarily led to a detachment from the environment of the world1 and to a separation of the two sides of our experience4 ,we became clearly conscious of this separation at the beginning of the ,modern ,age4 ,we saw that1 if we were not to give up all claim to truth1 only one course remained possible3 to make a division within the human domain1 a division between a merely human and something else which might be regarded as the presence of universal and genuine life in man4 ,and so ,spinoza distinguished an objective thought from the springs of the emotions2 ,kant distinguished practical reason from the theoretical which is bound up with the limitations of human nature2 and ,hegel elevated the thought-process1 which manifests itself in the work of universal history1 far above the opinions and the wishes of individuals4 ,each of these championed a distinctive conception of truth and a characteristic form of the spiritual life2 but with regard to all attempts we come to doubt whether even that proclaimed as more than human is not still within the domain of man2 whether in every case we do not wrongly declare the last point which we reach to be the deepest basis of reality4 ,the position is somewhat similar with regard to the idea of the good4 ,in the attempts to which we have referred1 it passed current as a deliverance from all selfish happiness1 which was felt to be intolerably narrow4 ,a new1 purer1 and more comprehensive life is to proceed from the winning of a new position4 ,now1 there are many different conceptions of happiness1 and higher levels are distinguished plainly from lower4 ,but the highest level does not transcend human desire2 man must bring all into relation with his own well-being4 ,he cannot in opposition to his own well-being adopt something alien as an end in itself2 his activity can be aroused for nothing which has not some value for himself4 ,in this case also1 therefore1 the bounds of his life hold him fast1 and1 unless these bounds are transcended1 the good cannot be distinguished from the useful4 ,of this a clear confirmation is furnished by the experiences of religions4 ,in their origin they wished to free man from himself and to set him in a new life--whether they promised tranquillity in a surrender to the infinite whole or won a positive content by the revelation of a kingdom of divine love4 ,how soon the succession of events has led back to a quest of happiness6 ,how soon has it become evident that the religions have far less revealed a new world to the majority of mankind than chained them more firmly to the old2 and that they easily arouse to greater power the raw instinct of life1 which they desired to overcome6 ,we seem to be shut in on all sides3 it seems a monstrous inconsistency to wish to build up from man a world transcending man2 to remove him into a world other than that of a man4 ,a world of this kind is1 however1 essential to the spiritual life2 with its abandonment that life is only a delusion2 and the less intelligent people who reject as a meaningless folly all striving for the true and the good seem to be right4 99 99 99 99 99 ,why do we refuse to adopt this view1 and to discontinue an endeavour the aims of which appear to be unattainable8 ,in the first place1 because the movement cannot be given up so easily as those critics imagine who adopt this view2 for it does not consist simply of explanations and theories that might be completely refuted by rigorous argument1 but a certain reality has been evolved1 desires aroused1 forces called into life1 and movements inaugurated4 ,even if they halt in their course they were something2 they do not disappear therefore before the attacks of ,scepticism2 further1 however mean their results may be1 they prove to be strong enough to indicate the limitations in the life of nature1 and to make it inadequate for us4 ,the matter is the more mysterious in that the striving is anything but a product of the natural desire for happiness4 ,for the movement disturbs all our complacency2 it leads man to be discontented with that which hitherto had fully satisfied him2 it surrounds him with fixed organisations2 desires from him much labour and sacrifice1 and makes existence1 not easier1 but more difficult for him4 ,delusions are wont to deceive us by pleasing pictures2 to attract us with the promise of pleasure and enjoyment4 ,how does a delusion1 that imposes so much toil and trouble upon us1 win so much power over us8 ,there is another matter to be considered in this connection4 ,a complete renunciation can appear possible only because it is not clearly perceived how much which we cannot give up and which ultimately we have no desire to give up is involved in it4 ,only a want of clearness of thought1 and still more a weakness of character1 could wish to retain in the particular case what was given up as a whole2 could affirm as effect what it denied as cause4 ,as soon as this course is recognised to be impossible1 it becomes evident that with the rejection of the spiritual life everything is abandoned which gives to our life dignity1 greatness1 and inner unity1 and joins us to others with an inward bond4 ,realities such as love and honour1 truth and right1 must be regarded as empty forms2 and even science must come to an end1 because there is no longer any inner unity of work1 no objective necessity4 ,such considerations again show us that a complete negation is impossible2 and it seems that we must remain for ever in painful suspense between an unattainable affirmation and an impossible negation4 ,we might be able to endure this condition of affairs if it concerned a problem which arose in reference to something of little importance to our life1 something that we could relegate to the background1 and simply permit to lie there1 without compromising our life4 ,but our problem lies at the centre of life2 is1 in fact1 itself the centre4 ,to be left in suspense here means to condemn life as a whole to a state of paralysis1 to surrender it to complete dissolution4 ,against this everyone who has any vital energy in him will contend2 with his whole might he will seek to escape from a condition so intolerable2 he will not hold back from making a bold venture1 mindful of the words of ,goethe1 ,necessity is the best counsellor4 ,in seeking a way out of the contradiction1 it is essentially necessary not to forget the source of the contradiction4 ,we saw that source to be in the fact that the spiritual life would set up a new world1 and at the same time remains bound up with the merely human and presents itself as an endeavour of mere man4 ,to the spiritual life a universal character is indispensable2 of this claim nothing can be abated4 ,there must therefore be a change as regards man2 it must be that more comes to pass in him than the first impression makes evident4 ,it must be that the spiritual within him1 which seems at first to be his own product1 is a participation in wider connections2 the spiritual must be operative in man1 but not originate out of the merely human4 ,it is true that this makes a reversal of the traditional position necessary1 and not merely of its representations2 and such a reversal provokes serious doubt4 ,modern science1 however1 has taught us sufficiently often that the first appearance of anything need not be the ultimate one2 that there may be cogent reasons for regarding something that at first seems based in itself as the proof of something existing beyond4 ,thus1 modern natural science has transformed the world of sense into a world present only to the eyes of research4 ,certainly1 science accomplishes these changes within the bounds of experience3 on the contrary1 in regard to our problem1 in which the fundamental form of reality is in question1 it is indispensable that we should transcend these bounds2 without a change in respect of the whole1 and hence without a resort to metaphysics1 it is not possible to accomplish our purpose4 ,it is quite clear that the tendency of our time is opposed to appeals to metaphysics3 yet it is a question how far this attitude is justified4 ,so far as metaphysics assumes the same form as in the past--that of conceptual speculation of a thought hovering unrestrained over the existing world--then it is rightly opposed4 ,but the attitude is unjustifiable which assumes that with the overthrow of the older metaphysics all metaphysics may be ignored4 ,for a metaphysic can proceed also from the whole life1 and need not be a product of mere thought4 ,the implication therefore is this1 that the centre of life itself must be changed1 and thus a revolution of the previous condition accomplished2 that an actuality already operative in life is to be given its rightful place and brought to its full effect4 ,the business of metaphysics1 therefore1 is not to add something in thought to a reality which lies before us1 or to weave such a reality into a texture of conceptions2 but to seek to grasp reality in itself1 and to rouse it to life in its entire depth for ourselves4 ,every change of thought then rests on a change of life4 ,such a metaphysic may appeal to the saying of ,hebbel1 ,only fools will banish metaphysic from the drama2 it makes a great difference1 however1 whether life evolves out of metaphysic or metaphysic out of life4 ,even if our age rejects a metaphysic of this kind also1 if it surrenders itself without resistance to the inconsistencies of the world of sense1 this would be the last thing which could deter us from an appeal to metaphysic4 ,for the inner cleavages and the superficiality of the life of our time--and we saw reason to believe that these are facts--stand in the closest relation to the rejection of metaphysics3 this rejection has made the age inwardly insignificant4 ,if an indirect proof of the necessity of a revolutionary transformation of life1 and at the same time of a metaphysic may be offered1 our age furnishes one quite sufficient in its own experiences2 its opposition can be only a recommendation of an appeal to metaphysic4 ,the one main thesis which it is essentially necessary to establish is analysed in sufficient detail throughout the whole course of our investigation2 it simply sums up that which has already been advanced point by point4 ,the intolerable contradiction arises1 as we saw1 from this1 that the spiritual life with its new world should be a product of mere man1 and that that life should remain within man and at the same time lead in its essence beyond him4 ,this contradiction cannot be overcome otherwise than by our recognising and acknowledging in the spiritual life a universal life1 which transcends man1 is shared by him1 and raises him to itself4 ,that this transition brings with it a change in the appearance of life and of the world as a whole1 and that as a result our striving is brought under entirely different conditions1 needs more detailed presentation4 7b7 ,,the ,,development ,,of ,,the ,,main ,,thesis #a4 ,the ,main ,thesis and the ,possibility of a ,new ,system of ,life 7a7 ,the ,development of the ,spiritual ,life to ,independence ,our investigation reached its highest point in the demand that the spiritual life should become independent of man4 ,man cannot produce a spiritual life of his own capacity3 a spiritual world must impart itself to him and raise him to itself4 ,it must be shown that this does not by any means signify only a change of name1 a new labelling of an old possession1 but implies far-reaching changes1 and indeed involves a complete reversal of the first condition4 ,at the same time the course of the investigation must establish that this transition to the spiritual life is not something subsequently inferred or offered simply for the explanation of an otherwise unintelligible fact1 but that it would overcome a false appearance1 and help a misunderstood truth to its right4 ,the fact that is affirmed should become an immediate experience of one's own and should advance life rather than knowledge4 ,only the whole investigation and not an introductory consideration can furnish a proof of our contention4 ,there are within our own soul distinctive movements tending in directions different from those of nature4 ,we recognised that there is a life which proceeds from some kind of comprehensive whole2 a life which transcends the opposition of subject and object1 and evolves a self-consciousness in contrast with the relation to externals4 ,all these features present a quite different appearance1 form a more coherent whole1 and will occupy a more definite position in the representation of reality1 if in them an independent life superior to mere man is recognised and acknowledged4 ,the principal reason for this is that it is only by means of that deliverance from the simply human that the new life is able to express its own nature clearly and to realise as part of its own nature what otherwise seemed to have its source in something external4 ,the individual traits that we become aware of are the revelation of a universal life1 if they are no longer regarded as limited by the idiosyncrasies of the human4 ,with this acknowledgment they can gain ascendancy over man and prove their power upon him4 ,we saw that it is characteristic of the spiritual life that it is lived from the whole2 the elements are fashioned by a comprehensive unity2 the different complexes and tendencies which arise in this life strive ultimately towards a single aim4 ,we saw also that it was absolutely impossible that the tendency to universality should be originated by man1 whose chief movement is towards differentiation and division2 and1 further1 that it should be realised by him in face of the opposition of nature1 which extends to the immeasurable in matters great and small4 ,the unity that is necessary for this cannot arise out of the many as an ultimate result2 it must be original and be operative from the beginning4 ,we may postulate such a unity only if the spiritual life is itself a universal life transcending that of the isolated individuals2 if it bears in itself a unity which takes the multiplicity up into itself4 ,and so the whole from an abstract conception is for the first time raised to a living reality2 and only on thus becoming a reality can it exercise a distinctive power upon individuals and in contrast to individuals2 and inwardly unite and essentially raise them4 ,only in this way is it conceivable that another kind of activity having its source within the soul may exert itself in opposition to the mechanism of nature and transcend it2 and that selfishness and spiritual weakness may in some way be overcome4 ,man1 so far as he shares in the spiritual life1 is more than a mere individual2 a universal life becomes his own and works within him as a power of his life4 ,further1 the taking up of the object into the life-process1 the transcendence of the antithesis of subject and object1 is characteristic of the spiritual life4 ,but this remained an inner contradiction1 a complete impossibility so long as the spiritual life was regarded as an occurrence in a being who1 with a closed nature1 stands over against things as though they were alien2 and who can take up nothing into himself without accommodating it to his own particular nature4 ,the contradiction is removed only when the spiritual becomes independent2 for then both sides of the antithesis come to belong to each other and are related to each other in a single life2 and a life transcending the division may develop1 a life that produces the antithesis from within1 lives in the different sides and seeks in them its own perfection4 ,the life-process is now seen to be a movement that is neither from object to subject1 nor from subject to object2 neither the subject's attainment of content from the object1 nor the object's becoming controlled by the subject1 but an advance of a self-conscious life in and through the antithesis4 ,life1 by this movement1 ceases to be a single1 thin thread2 it wins breadth2 it expands to an inner universality4 ,at the same time a depth is manifested in that a persistent and comprehensive activity emerges which lives in the antithesis4 ,in this manner life first becomes a life in a spiritual sense1 a self-conscious and self-determining life1 a self-consciousness4 ,that this change is possible and brings with it a new type of life is shown with complete clearness by experience in the separate departments of the spiritual life4 ,thus1 artistic creation at its highest is neither the production of the truest possible copy of an external object1 the artist painfully abstaining from all subjective addition2 nor a presentation of subjective situations and moods1 the artist endeavouring to the utmost to avoid everything objective2 but a transcendence of the opposition of soulless objectivity and empty subjectivity by an art that is sovereign1 autonomous1 and with a character of its own2 the creative activity belonging to which gives life from the soul to the object1 and moulds the soul by means of the object4 ,this kind of artistic creation is directed primarily towards an inner truth1 not towards a truth that is produced by the object1 but one that arises only in the contact of the object with the soul4 ,it is manifest that creation is effected here not as an interaction between subject and object1 but above and through this antithesis2 it is only by transcending the antithesis that the artist can give himself in his work1 lend to it a soul1 place an infinity within it4 ,in this respect conduct manifests a character similar to that of creation4 ,conduct would never attain an inner stability and enter upon an independent course1 if it could not raise itself above the opposition of a submission to orders that are forced upon it from without1 and a mere play of subjective inclination2 if it were not able to become the self-assertion and self-development of a life transcending that opposition4 ,at this point also the acknowledgment of an independent spiritual life teaches us to comprehend as a whole that which1 in a many-sided development1 the different departments of life show to be real4 ,the obscurity in which the conception of inwardness was hitherto involved begins to disappear when the spiritual life is no longer regarded as supplementary but as an independent life4 ,it cannot be denied that1 within humanity1 there is an endeavour to develop the life of the soul to a state of self-determining activity and1 at the same time1 to free that life from the bondage to sense in which it remains at the level of nature4 ,yet1 definite affirmation that shall correspond to the negation of sense has been lacking2 it has not been clear how inwardness might find content and characteristic forms2 there has been no advance from the subjective to the substantial4 ,but since a universal activity is operative within the multiplicity and through the division1 and since it sets itself in the division and from this returns to itself1 a self-conscious inwardness becomes conceivable which has a life of its own with new experiences4 ,since within this life to receive presupposes the comprehending power and the self-determining activity of a vital whole1 something other than sense is able to evolve and through all the persistence of sense to become the chief matter4 ,the spiritual life is not directed to a reality adjacent to it1 but evolves a reality out of itself2 or rather1 it evolves as a reality1 a kingdom1 a world2 and so it advances from vague outline to more complete development2 it struggles for itself1 for its own perfection1 not for anything external4 ,it is directly implied in the above conception that the spiritual life is something different from single psychical functions1 such as cognition1 volition1 and the like2 and that man1 so far as he shares in it1 is more than one such function or a sum of such functions4 ,for these functions come under the antithesis of subject and object1 while the spiritual life transcends it4 ,it is also clear that the spiritual life does not change this or that in a life which already exists1 or add this or that to it1 but that it introduces a new kind of life--a life by which man is distinguished clearly from everything inferior to him4 ,if the spiritual life is an evolution of a reality in the life-process1 then the question arises as to how this reality is related to the world that immediate experience shows us to be surrounded by4 ,as surely as man in his subjective reflection is able to free himself from the world and to place himself in opposition to it1 so there can be no doubt that the spiritual life belongs to the permanent reality of the world and1 as we see it1 grows up out of its movement4 ,the transition to an independent inwardness is not something which happens externally to the world but within it3 no special sphere1 separate from all the rest1 is originated2 but reality itself evolves an inner life3 it is the world itself that reveals a spiritual depth1 or1 as we might say1 a soul4 ,we are not justified in doubting and attacking this view simply because the spiritual life meets us only in man1 and thus1 in contrast with the infinity of nature1 is in its external manifestation so insignificant4 ,for something essentially new appears in it1 something that involves another order of things3 the fact that little falls within our range of vision is in this connection not at all relevant4 ,if anyone is disturbed and driven to denial by the external insignificance of the manifestations of the spiritual life1 he shows only that he misunderstands what is distinctive and revolutionising in that life4 ,the spiritual life is not to be thought of merely in reference to the experiences of the individual1 but also to the work of humanity1 to history1 to the advance of culture4 ,all these show us a development of life that presents the world from a new side2 and this must be an important factor in the estimation of the world1 especially if the spiritual is recognised as having a life independent of man4 ,the inward must necessarily present itself as the fundamental and the comprehensive2 as that which in its invisibility sustains1 dominates1 and unifies the visible world4 ,nature1 which there was a tendency to regard as the whole1 is now of the essence of a wider reality and a stage in its development2 and it is impossible for the conception formed from it to be regulative of the whole4 ,ultimately1 therefore1 reality cannot be regarded as something dead1 detached1 and given3 it signifies to us something living1 something experienced in itself1 something sustained by incessant activity4 ,at the same time1 the lateness of the appearance of the spiritual life within our realm and the many ways in which this appearance is conditioned force us to acknowledge that the life of the world as a whole has a history4 ,the conception of history that we have become familiar with in its application to nature and to the spiritual life throughout is now extended to the relation between the two4 ,however many mysteries it yet involves1 definite progress in our conception of the world must be admitted4 ,most of all it is man with his life and endeavour that appears in a new light4 ,two worlds meet together in him1 and1 indeed1 not merely in such a manner that he provides the place in which they meet and enter into conflict1 but so that he acquires an independent participation in the new world1 and through his own decision co-operates in its development4 ,for spiritual life1 with its self-determining activity1 can never become itself as a mere effect2 to become this it must be apprehended and roused to activity as cause4 ,but it is cause and animating power only in its being as a whole2 so1 as a whole it must be present to man and become his own life4 ,thus1 in contrast to the particularity of his natural existence1 a life having its source in the infinite grows up within him3 in the former a mere part of a world2 in the latter he becomes a world in himself3 in the one1 bound up with the particular nature of man2 in the other1 he is elevated above all particularity to something more than human1 to something cosmic4 ,to such changes in the content of life there must be corresponding changes in its form4 ,empirical consciousness with its discreteness and succession of presentations and states cannot possibly comprehend the new life2 to do that the soul must acquire a greater depth4 ,it must be capable of an activity which1 with single phases1 extends into this consciousness1 but which as a whole and in its creative work must transcend it4 ,with the acknowledgment of an independent spiritual life in man two questions giving rise to different methods of treatment necessarily become distinguished3 the one as to the nature and extent of the spiritual that is revealed in him2 and the other1 how1 under the specific conditions of his nature1 it emerges and establishes itself4 ,it will become evident how important it is to distinguish these sufficiently1 and yet on the other hand to associate them closely4 7b7 ,the ,demands of a ,new ,system of ,life ,if the acknowledgment of an independent spirituality thus alters the view of reality as a whole1 and in particular of man1 we are faced with the question whether we may not attain a new synthesis through this spirituality1 and whether it does not begin a characteristic formation of our world4 ,our treatment of the philosophies of life of the present day makes it possible for us to approach this question with definite demands4 ,we saw life branch off in different movements1 each of which took up into itself a wealth of fact2 but we found none of them strong enough to absorb the others into itself1 or even able to estimate them4 ,if life is not finally to fall into dissolution1 it needs1 in contrast to these movements1 one more universal in character1 and this can be more than a weak compromise only when there is a still more fundamental relation of life than that which the developments that we have considered proffered4 ,in that case the more original basal relation ought to be able to manifest itself as a presupposition of those developments2 it should make intelligible how divisions can originate in the condition of man2 in particular it should illuminate the opposition between the idealistic and the naturalistic systems of life--an opposition which1 like a deep gulf1 divides the life of the present4 ,in short1 it should depend upon whether the change that results with the acknowledgment of the independence of the spiritual life makes it possible for us permanently to transcend those oppositions and to work towards their reconciliation4 ,but we ought then to see that1 with its universality1 the system of life striven for does not fall into a state vague and lacking in character4 ,through its whole being1 in affirmation and in negation1 the system of life must definitely express itself2 it must synthesise and differentiate1 elevate and exclude4 ,but it will be able to do this only if it produces a new kind of life-process and a new web of life3 only thus can essentially new evaluations and tasks1 new experiences and genuine developments1 originate2 only thus can life as a whole be definitely raised4 ,of course1 this new cannot signify something that has just been discovered and that has arisen suddenly4 ,how could it be a truth which gives to us security1 and how could it dominate our life1 if it is not rooted in our being1 and if it had not exerted an influence at all times8 ,but it makes a great difference whether the new has been concealed1 obscure and against the tendency of our own activity2 or whether it is taken up fully in our own self-determining activity and thereby essentially advanced4 ,if1 on the one hand1 the new must be something old1 on the other hand the old must become something new if it is to liberate1 strengthen1 and elevate our life where its needs are so urgent4 7c7 ,the ,spiritual ,basis of the ,system of ,life ,there can be no doubt that the acknowledgment of the independence of the spiritual life involves the recognition of a new fundamental relation of our life4 ,this relation is no other than that of man to the spiritual world1 which is immanent in him and at the same time transcends him4 ,it is more original than the relations implied in the systems of the present day2 for these1 even though contrary to their own knowledge and intention1 all presuppose this fundamental relation to the spiritual life4 ,religion could not be so violently attacked and so zealously denied by so many1 if the relation of life to ,god were the absolute relation and were present before all others4 ,the value of religion depends essentially upon the content of the spiritual life which it serves4 ,with the mere relation of life to a supernatural power1 the nature of which is not more closely defined--with mere blind devotion--nothing of value is attained4 ,an honest religious attitude of a formal kind can go together1 on the one hand1 with spiritual poverty and blindness1 and1 on the other1 with hatred and passion4 ,how sad the condition of things in general has often been even when religion has shown a strong development of power6 ,how often the help of divine power has been invoked even in the commission of crime6 ,if1 however1 the value of religion and its effect on the substance of life are measured according to its spiritual content1 then this content necessarily becomes the chief object of attention and conduct4 ,we can assure ourselves of the relation to a supernatural power only from the experiences of the spiritual life1 and not previously to this life and independently of it4 ,the relation of life to the spiritual life must therefore necessarily precede its relation to ,god2 life must be certain of a universal spiritual character before it can assume a truly religious one4 ,we find the case to be no different as regards the system of ,immanent ,idealism4 ,it is open to considerable doubt whether the world as it lies before us can be looked upon as a pure unfolding of the spiritual life1 as this ,idealism asserts4 ,in any case1 for the spiritual life to comprehend the world within itself it must itself be established as a universal power1 and clearly distinguished from mere man4 ,otherwise the way of ,immanent ,idealism leads to an anthropomorphism of a more refined kind2 and there is a danger that the whole world which this system champions may be criticised hostilely and rejected as simply human4 ,immanent ,idealism1 therefore1 also points to the problem of substantial spiritual life4 ,the naturalistic systems do the same thing in a different way1 and this1 indeed1 in contradiction to their main contention4 ,for1 when they attempted to produce a system from themselves1 they could achieve their object only in that they were implicitly based upon the spiritual life1 and introduced again indirectly that which they had previously rejected4 ,they are developments of the spiritual life in particular directions and under particular circumstances3 they think that they are able to accomplish out of their own resources something which they accomplish only with the help of a fundamental spiritual life2 and so the more consistent they are in their denial of an independent spirituality the more inevitably they lose all internal coherence4 ,thus from whatever point we start we come to the question of an independent spirituality2 an answer to this question is involved in every system of life4 ,but as its implications are not distinctly recognised1 it does not receive its proper due4 ,if we consider the question adequately1 it will be found that a universal life must precede all differentiation and division2 and that from this life each movement must receive a new elucidation4 ,a multiplicity within the whole is quite intelligible1 because it is a development of the spiritual life1 not absolutely1 that is in question1 but in relation to the position of man and under the conditions to which he is subject4 ,the desire to give greater stability to our life in opposition to the never-ceasing flow of appearances that constitutes our immediate existence1 also compels us strongly to emphasise the importance of the relation to the spiritual life1 which is acknowledged as independent4 ,without an elevation above this constant change all spiritual work must inevitably become disintegrated1 and no truth of any kind would be possible to us4 ,in the ,modern ,age especially there is a keen desire for a firm basis1 as a secure support of life as a whole4 ,but it is useless to seek this basis in life as we immediately experience it1 whether in thought1 in activity1 or in anything else2 for in the whole life of immediate experience there is nothing that is free from change4 ,to seek this basis in a particular point is also to no purpose1 even if one could be raised to a position above change2 for it could not operate beyond itself in such a way as to support the rest of life4 ,if1 therefore1 we would not submit to a dissolution of life1 we must seek a basis for it beyond its immediate state and in a whole of life4 ,such a whole of life is offered only by the spiritual life1 which1 transcending man1 is also immanent in him4 ,of course this cannot be taken possession of immediately at the beginning of the journey of life2 but it is held up to us as an aim1 and we can only gradually approach it4 ,but how could it operate within us thus1 if our life had not some kind of participation in it from the beginning2 if our life were not in some way based in the spiritual life1 and in progressive activity only developed the spiritual that is in it8 ,for unless we are based in the spiritual life we should drift helplessly to and fro in uncertainty1 and our endeavour would never be intelligible4 ,from this point of view also1 our relation to the spiritual life is seen to be the fundamental problem that must precede all others4 ,if there can be no doubt that the problem of life is comprehended most universally when we view it in relation to the spiritual life1 there may be all the more uncertainty whether all characteristic form and1 with it1 all deep-reaching effect are not lost by reason of this universality4 ,if the conception of the spiritual life involved its usual vagueness1 this would in reality be the case1 for recourse to it would not effect any fundamental transformation of the immediate condition of life2 and we should not rise above the mere combination of its various movements4 ,the case is quite otherwise if the spiritual life is distinguished clearly from the human and is acknowledged to be an independent world4 ,so understood1 it must show a particular content1 a new structure of life1 and must give a distinct form to everything that it takes up into itself4 ,it is necessary to consider1 also1 its relation to the world of sense1 and we may expect to be faced in this matter with complications and problems that will agitate our life in its whole extent1 and set it in a new light4 ,in the spiritual life we recognised a new world1 a realm of inwardness1 which has become independent4 ,within this realm life cannot be directed to something alien1 but can be occupied only with itself1 with its own development4 ,its experiences cannot be related to externals2 they must lie in itself4 ,now1 have we any knowledge of a movement that reaches back in this manner to the elements of life8 ,we perceive a movement of this kind clearly enough4 ,in the first place1 all development of the spiritual life shows1 even within the individual1 the attribute that a universal mode of thought1 conviction1 disposition1 sets itself in the single function and continues present within it4 ,the tendencies and manifestations of the spiritual are not all at the same level of development1 but since a universal activity1 a comprehensive and persistent deed1 is present in the particular manifestation1 the process acquires a depth1 and a single act is able to give expression to a tendency of the whole as well as to react upon it4 ,but this movement extends beyond the immediate state of the soul of the individual to spiritual work1 and gives it a particular form4 ,life as a whole1 as reality's consciousness of itself1 may be regarded as throughout capable of a multiplicity1 as containing within itself different sides and possibilities4 ,since its evolution produces this multiplicity1 life as a whole can express itself in the individual aspects and tendencies2 expand them till they become different departments2 experience itself in particular ways in these departments1 and in so doing achieve a development of its own2 it is able also to bring these departments and their developments into their relation to one another4 ,since thus1 within the world as a whole1 life concentrates in different ways1 and the particular tendencies which thus arise meet and enter into conflict with one another1 and since their conflict is in particular a contest to determine the form of the whole1 there is revealed the prospect of a wealth of experiences which come not from without but out of the movement of life itself1 and spring from its occupation with itself4 ,the conflict between the different movements of life must bring the whole into a state of tension and lead it to further development4 ,in the progressive formation of itself1 in the development of a reality conscious of itself1 life through its movement finds itself and develops a content4 ,this movement will summon all the psychical powers of man to activity2 it cannot possibly proceed from them4 ,if we are to take part in the building up of that inner world1 a spiritual creative activity from the basis of our being must be operative through these psychical functions1 uniting them1 and applying them as means and instruments4 ,if1 for us men1 life becomes conscious of its content only through movement and conflict1 nevertheless this content may not be regarded as ultimately proceeding from them4 ,if1 as a whole1 life did not transcend movement and conflict1 if the latter were not included within a self-conscious and self-determining life1 then they could yield no inner result1 and could not lead to the further development of the whole4 ,the attempts to derive this self-conscious and self-determining life from ontological conceptions such as being1 whole1 movement1 and so on1 as the older metaphysics often undertook to do2 or the tendency to treat it only as a supplement to them1 are to be dismissed most decisively4 ,the fundamental qualities that the spiritual life evolves always presuppose a self-conscious life and become intelligible only in relation to it4 ,without it1 the conceptions of the true and the good remain in complete obscurity1 as will be shown later in more detail4 ,if our human reflection often advances from the indefinite to the definite1 from the abstract to the concrete1 this does not involve that the latter is originated from the former3 the advance could not be achieved unless that which comes at the end was operative from the beginning as its basis and presupposition4 ,if a self-conscious life unfolds itself with an increasing content through all departments and activities of life1 then these departments will have their meaning and their value primarily in that which they accomplish for the further development of that life1 and in the particular tendencies that they add to it3 this yields a treatment and a standard of value different from those which we are led to if we make the psychical states of the individual our starting-point4 ,the treatment of religion1 for example1 as a mere occurrence of an unrestrained psychical life may understand by religion a particular agitation of this or that psychical function2 but with this we do not obtain a spiritual content4 ,again1 it is not evident how a world of thought formed from such an individual psychical life could acquire an independence of man1 and lift him above the position in which it finds him4 ,the problem of religion attains quite a different basis if the spiritual movements and contents which emerge with it are emphasised2 with this it develops and discloses the reality of the spiritual life more deeply4 ,then through it we may discover and win something that alters the condition of life1 transcends the immediate life of the soul1 and is able to exert an elevating influence upon man4 ,the value and the truth of a particular religion will be judged in the first place by the nature of the spiritual substance that it offers1 and the degree in which1 in its advance1 it is able to join itself to the movement of life as a whole and to guide it further4 ,a great divergence is possible between this spiritual substance and the movement and passion that call forth a religion on the basis of humanity3 the real is1 in human relations1 by no means without further consideration to be regarded as rational4 ,the case of the other departments of life is the same as that of religion3 the character and the value of all achievement depend entirely upon the range and the kind of substantial spirituality that they evolve4 ,the same is valid of whole epochs and cultures1 of peoples and individuals4 ,the exertion of the greatest energy upon externals and the most revolutionary transformation of human conditions cannot protect us from becoming inwardly destitute1 or lead us beyond mere appearance to genuine reality4 ,on the contrary1 the experience of history shows often enough that spiritual revivals have been accompanied in their origin and growth by manifestations externally insignificant2 and that something which struggles against the broad stream of human life fundamentally changes the standards and values of our existence4 ,our whole spiritual life1 therefore1 constitutes a problem2 it is an indefatigable seeking and pressing forward4 ,in self-consciousness the framework is given which has to be filled2 in it we have acquired only the basis upon which the superstructure has to be raised4 ,we have to find experiences in life itself1 to reveal something new1 to develop life1 to increase its range and its depth4 ,the endeavour to advance in spirituality1 to win itself through struggle1 is the soul of the life of the individual and of the work of universal history3 where there is no endeavour of this kind1 there is no true life and no genuine history2 our activity in relation to the world as a whole assumes a different form1 and the world is represented differently and presents to us different problems according to that which is attained here in the basal structure of life4 ,life's struggle for itself1 for its own content1 its own truth1 is the greatest and most intense of all struggles4 ,the passion which animates all the endeavour after a revelation of life and to win life itself is no other than the desire for a genuine reality3 for a being within the activity1 for a full as opposed to an empty life4 ,if the formation of reality from within once begins1 and the desire for a substantial inwardness gains the day over the merely subjective1 then the intolerable inadequacy of all that is usually called life is bound to be strongly felt4 ,the growth of intelligence has led man beyond the life of nature and its blind actuality4 ,in intelligence1 the inner life already proves far too independent to be satisfied with being a mere appearance accompanying nature4 ,with this evolution the psychical powers win a greater freedom1 and man is able to face his environment more boldly3 indeed1 in his thought he can grasp an infinity2 and in arousing and using all his powers he may hope from his own position1 in the interaction of subject and environment1 to give to life a content1 and thus to make it a genuine life4 ,but here the limitation of man and the contradictory character of life as it is immediately experienced soon come to be felt4 ,all the rousing of forces1 all the passing backwards and forwards between subject and object that we experience in the immediate condition of life1 does not lead beyond interaction1 and yields no content3 it does not raise life to a self-conscious and self-determining life2 so that1 in spite of all its activity1 our life in this condition remains inwardly alien4 ,there is thus an enormous disparity between the means that are offered and the aims that are reached2 an inward unrest2 an incessant conflict1 without any prospect of victory1 against the ever-recurring tendency to become spiritually destitute2 a state of dissatisfaction in the midst of all results of an external kind4 ,only the revelation of a self-conscious life1 a life which itself evolves as a reality1 can be the source of progress1 and lead from appearances and shadows to a genuine life4 ,it is apparent that with such an aim a task is presented that dominates and comprehends the whole extent of our existence4 ,we have to take up everything into that self-conscious and self-determining life and to transform the condition of life as it lies immediately before us4 ,a demand of this kind is not limited to a change of this or that2 it implies a complete transformation and renewal4 ,it not only involves the whole multiplicity of life1 but it must also itself tend to bring about an increase in the multiplicity2 indeed1 this task first gives the multiplicity a firm foundation and an inner value4 ,for the development and the formation of self-conscious life1 it is essential1 as we saw1 that life concentrate in particular tendencies and departments2 that the whole place itself in them1 and return to itself from them2 and that by this they develop a life of their own and give rise to their own experiences4 ,to act thus1 to advance the whole in its own development1 the individual concentrations of life must possess an inner spiritual unity which comprehends and dominates all multiplicity4 ,this is seen in the case of individuals1 peoples1 epochs1 and whole civilisations3 only by overcoming the state of confusion and division in which they at first find themselves do they come to wrestle with the spiritual life as a whole and win a spiritual character4 ,these unities of life1 however1 will enter into the most diverse relations with the whole and with one another2 and since in so doing they further self-conscious and self-determining life1 they develop reality without limit4 ,from all the facts we have considered we see that1 with the attainment of independence by the spiritual life1 there emerges a distinctive kind of being which everywhere exerts its activity1 holds up a new aim1 and desires a transformation3 life is for the first time placed on a firm foundation1 and taken possession of in the deepest source of its movement4 7d7 ,human ,existence ,for the construction of a new system of life1 this independent nature of the spiritual life is primary and most essential4 ,such construction is dependent in the second place upon the relation in which the development of the self-conscious and self-determining life of reality stands to the position and to the activity of man2 in particular whether it wins this position and activity for itself with ease or meets with definite opposition4 ,now1 there cannot be any doubt that the recognition of the fact of the development of the spiritual life to independence of man1 as we traced it1 must make us feel that the state of things at the usual level of human life is most unsatisfactory4 ,it is not that one or another aspect is inadequate1 but that as a whole it is definitely opposed to the requirements of an independent spiritual life4 ,for the spirituality that is evolved here is treated for the most part as a mere means in the pursuit of human welfare4 ,civilisation1 at the level at which we are most accustomed to it1 lifts man above mere nature1 but at the same time it forces him into rivalry and conflict with his equals1 and leads him to expect happiness from victory4 ,this is the case not only among individuals but also among nations4 ,since the desire and the conflict for more generate an indescribable amount of excitement and passion1 life seems to be full1 whereas in reality it is entirely lacking in content1 and behind the tumult is felt to be empty4 ,but man has no intention of giving up all claim to a share in genuine spirituality3 and so he gives a better outward appearance to his endeavour and his conduct1 and practises deceit upon himself as well as upon others4 ,genuine spiritual life cannot possibly proceed from circumstances so contradictory and so confused4 ,neither can such circumstances produce the concentration of life that is necessary for the strengthening and advancement of the spiritual life4 ,it is not the abuse of some one thing that provokes attack3 it is not a particular failing1 but the ordinary daily course which1 unresistingly1 man is accustomed to accept as his world1 that shows in its successes no less than in its failures the greatest divergence from genuine spirituality4 ,it is just at the point where man becomes proud of his own doings and makes much ostentatious display that he can least of all conceal the spiritual poverty and the foolishness of his way of thinking4 ,attempts to attribute the responsibility of all limitation to man and his will1 to find the root of all evil in the moral failings of humanity1 have not been wanting4 ,universal religions have given these attempts an embodiment4 ,it has seemed as though the harmony of reality is only disturbed by man1 and as though his moral restoration were the only thing necessary to lead to all good4 ,to be sure1 such a way of thinking manifests a disposition of great seriousness1 and it may appeal to the fact that the perplexity of our existence is nowhere more real than in reference to the ethical problem4 ,still1 there is no possibility of doubt for the man of the ,modern ,age that this conception is too narrow2 that it not only contradicts indisputable impressions and experiences1 but also takes the question much too subjectively and too anthropomorphically1 and thus falls into the danger of doing harm to the cause that it wishes to serve4 ,it is not simply our disposition1 it is our being as a whole and the circumstances that we are in1 which obstinately oppose the emergence and the development of an independent spiritual world4 ,it is the most elementary forms of life themselves that prevent the elevation of our existence to the level of a genuine spiritual life4 ,we cannot blind ourselves to the fact that the greater part of our life is bound up with a form of existence in which it is not able to embrace the spiritual life4 ,any kind of appropriation of the spiritual--if it is at all possible--can be effected therefore only in opposition to that form of existence4 ,in genuine spiritual life all movement should proceed from the whole and should be sustained by the whole1 even when it is concentrated in the individual departments and tendencies4 ,human existence presents the spectacle of individuals ranged side by side2 and if a movement to overcome the original inertia is to begin at all1 their impulses1 their desire for happiness1 and their conflicts are necessary4 ,the spiritual life knows no limits2 it works and creates from the infinite whole3 the individual is narrowly limited1 and with all his activity and work constitutes but a tiny point in the infinite whole4 ,the spiritual life presents its content as transcending time2 even if for us it is only gradually revealed1 time is in this a mere means to the presentation of an eternal and immutable truth3 man1 however1 drifts with time2 is dependent upon the momentary situation1 and experiences himself in an incessant change3 how can he comprehend the eternal8 ,spiritual creation is effected in the transcending of the antithesis of subject and object3 human endeavour is conditioned by this antithesis4 ,the former with its self-determining activity overcomes from within the attachment to sense3 man even in the highest flight of his endeavour cannot withdraw himself from it4 ,from the altitudes occupied by the spiritual life submission to the impulses and the goods of sense seems to be something mean and base3 and yet without these man cannot possibly preserve his life2 he has not conferred sensuous needs and desires upon himself by an act of will1 but finds himself endowed with them from the beginning4 ,spiritual life with its formation from within banishes from itself all mechanism2 all compulsion of blind actuality3 without a mechanism in thought and in conduct1 without habits and methods determined by custom1 human life cannot attain to an enduring stability either in the case of the individual or in that of society4 ,thus1 through the ever-present necessity of self-preservation and self-renewal1 human life is compulsorily related to something1 bound to something1 that not only is not adequate to fulfil the tasks of an independent spiritual life1 but is directly opposed to them4 ,there is something in our life which we cannot dispense with1 yet which1 from the spiritual point of view1 it is an imperative duty to shake off4 ,we see clearly enough that it is not merely our will that is in play1 but that two worlds conflict within us1 and that the world to which we primarily belong1 according to the testimony of experience1 holds us fixed with superior power1 and draws back to itself all movement which strives upward4 ,if1 in particular1 the dimness and the weakness of the spiritual life in man2 its severance from its source2 its disintegration into isolated powers2 and1 finally1 the moral perversity which human existence exhibits1 and the debasement of spiritual power to a mere means for natural or social self-preservation1 become clear to us1 then it is evident that a compromise between such a pitiable and shallow confusion and a genuine spiritual life is absolutely impossible4 ,the acknowledgment of an independent spiritual world tends only to increase the contradiction and make us more clearly conscious of it4 ,a clear consciousness of the inadequacy of the human is especially important and necessary in contrast to the utter confusion which reigns with regard to the spiritual life and vitiates the whole of the endeavour of the present4 ,the increasing transference of life to the world of sense has led the present age to abandon all inner bonds of mankind4 ,the endeavour of ,antiquity to lift our life above the insignificantly human by giving it a share in the greatness and magnificence of the whole1 and the attempt of ,christianity to give a new nature to life from the relation to ,god1 appear to the present age to be ,utopian4 ,since the faith of modern ,idealism in the immanent universal reason has become more and more dim1 man is thrown back more and more exclusively upon himself1 upon man as he is1 upon empirical society4 ,there has grown up a strong belief that this empirical existence is quite sufficient in itself1 and is able to satisfy our spiritual needs from itself4 ,the ennobling of man1 the improvement of his condition within this existence1 becomes the aim of aims4 ,now1 this presupposes that within the province of man1 the good1 even if it does not entirely preponderate1 is still confident of a triumphant advance4 ,it presupposes1 further1 that the establishment of a certain state of life will bring complete happiness with it4 ,at the same time1 all that is disagreeable in human experience--the power of selfishness and pride2 the weakness of love2 the feebleness of all spiritual impulse2 the incessant increase of the struggle for existence1 with the consequent degeneration of the inwardness of the whole--appears with dazzling clearness to the more refined perception of the modern man4 ,after even a little consideration he cannot doubt that1 if1 in spite of all limitations1 an unclouded state of human well-being could be established2 if all pain could be banished from our life1 life would fall into the power of the other and worse enemy--emptiness and monotony4 ,as a refuge from such perplexities there is a tendency to flee to society and history4 ,from the point of view of humanity as a whole and with the thought of a better future1 all defects and losses of individuals seem to vanish2 the hope of an unceasing progressive development rises above the feeling of the unsatisfactoriness of the condition of the moment4 ,but what are these relations of empirical humanity other than those of a mere collection of individuals who never become an inner community1 and what is empirical history other than a mere succession which never produces an inner unity of movement8 ,in the appeal to the former1 as in that to the latter1 it is only surreptitiously that something essential can appear to be acquired4 ,in reality1 conceptions are here made use of which in other relations have a meaning1 but which here signify nothing more than empty abstractions1 simply subjective constructions of thought4 ,however1 notwithstanding all the glossing over1 the real state of things must ultimately assert itself3 pessimism must then be the last word1 and the belief in a rationality in human existence must finally be given up4 ,the faith in the greatness of the empirical man is1 indeed1 of all faiths the boldest4 ,for1 if the other faiths proclaim a new reality in contrast with the world of sense1 they have the possibility of one in an invisible world4 ,in the case that we are considering1 however1 experience itself must offer more than mere experience2 we must not only be certain of a thing that we do not see1 but that which we do not see must coincide with that which exists immediately before us4 ,such a position is no longer a faith1 but a gross contradiction1 a complete absurdity4 7e7 ,results and ,prospects ,the immediate experience of man may by no means be rejected as a whole on this account2 if it were1 spiritual work itself would degenerate and lack content4 ,however1 we only need to take up into a whole the impressions and experiences which each in his sphere acknowledges to be indisputable1 and it will be clear that a movement toward spiritual independence can never proceed from such a pitiable state of confusion as that which is thereby seen to exist4 ,it is essential that the movement toward spiritual independence have an independent starting point1 and proceed on its own course4 ,only then is it able to select and appropriate the spirituality that exists in those confused experiences1 and at the same time purify and strengthen it4 ,we may most decisively reject all presumption to sovereignty on the part of the human realm2 nevertheless1 for the construction of a spiritual world that realm cannot be dispensed with4 ,for this construction is not peacefully and securely accomplished through the self-development of a spiritual power placed in us1 as was supposed by those who attempted to represent reality as a whole as a cosmic process of thought4 ,if through the joyfulness of its faith and the definiteness of its undertaking this attempt captivated the minds of men for a time1 at last it was frustrated by the fact that we men do not find ourselves immediately in the atmosphere of reason1 but have first through toil to raise ourselves into it2 that we have to do not with absolute spiritual life1 but with spiritual life under the conditions and limitations of human existence4 ,thus1 in the first place an independent spiritual life1 a universal self-consciousness1 must work in us and be changed in our activity2 and this can be accomplished only by a revolutionary transformation of life as we immediately experience it2 only by the attainment of a new point of view4 ,but if at this point of view certain fundamentals of a new world become evident1 they are as yet only fundamentals1 and1 without the help of a world of immediate existence1 without recourse to the movements and experiences of human life1 they cannot be completely developed and embodied4 ,the complete development of a self-conscious reality is by no means made possible by combining an original spiritual movement with the world of sense brought to meet it4 ,for the spiritual life can be furthered by coming into contact with that world only so far as the spiritual life takes it up and transforms it2 the situation is rather that the spiritual movement wrests a content from sense experience and at the same time is raised in itself2 it is a realisation of self through the other4 ,the further the movement advances the more one may win one's own in what is apparently alien2 the more that which is really alien may be separated and opposed4 ,thus we have a characteristic picture of the spiritual life in man2 only the more detailed treatment can confirm it4 ,the matter of greatest importance to the whole1 and the one upon which all hope of success rests1 is that the movement towards an independent spirituality1 to the building up of a new world1 should1 in spite of the opposition of immediate circumstances1 become manifest also in the human sphere in characteristic operation1 and that it should establish stable bases in this sphere and rise upon them to the highest by means of work4 ,we have now to investigate more closely1 to demonstrate more exactly1 and as far as possible to show that at all the chief points of life such movements begin2 that one such movement advances another2 and that all are associated in a community of striving1 and that from here the spiritual movement that we see in history is lit up1 strengthened1 and for the first time rendered practicable4 #b4 ,the ,transformation and the ,elevation of ,human ,life 7a7 ,aims and ,ways ,the question before us is whether any kind of transcendence of the gulf between the spiritual world and man is effected2 whether that world1 in spite of its antithesis to the world of sense1 manifests itself also with a characteristic effect in our sphere1 and thereby inaugurates a movement which takes possession of our whole life and advances it4 ,only on the result of such an inquiry can we judge whether man is able again to establish his position1 which has been so shaken in the course of modern culture2 and to save the courage and faith of life from violent changes and convulsions4 ,at the same time we must ascertain whether the representation of the spiritual life that we have sketched is true in reference to things as they are found in the human sphere4 ,to be sure1 proof or verification through experience is1 in the case of this problem1 in the highest degree peculiar4 ,no definite reality spreads itself before us by which we must test the validity of our representations of thought4 ,representation and object cannot be simply brought into coincidence1 but as life1 which we wish to comprehend1 is found in movement1 and as1 further1 in immediate experience genuine fact and the form assumed by it in the idea of man are confused1 so the revelation of the spiritual life does not come to us immediately1 but has first to be extricated and wrested from the most diverse errors and half-truths4 ,every attempt to obtain proof from experience rests on the conviction that a movement of the kind1 the recognition of which is being fought for by us1 is already in some way in process everywhere where human life goes beyond mere nature2 and that only the clear comprehension of the aim and the taking it up with complete self-conscious and self-determining activity are lacking4 ,if now the aim which is presented is the right one1 that is1 that which is implied in the spiritual movement of life itself1 then its acknowledgment and appropriation must tend to the elucidation1 the unification1 and the strengthening of all endeavour tending in the direction of this movement2 it must lead to a development and an elevation of life above the condition in which it is immediately experienced4 ,in the first place1 it must be shown that the connections1 preparations1 directions in life in its general condition1 tend towards the new according to its chief demands2 and1 further1 it must be shown that the existing condition is raised essentially through becoming comprehended by the revealed universal movement1 and is led to its own perfection4 ,again1 it has to be shown that thus life wins a more precise content and a greater power in its every aspect3 that which is present in all human endeavour as a necessary requirement must now become more intelligible1 and at the same time from something impossible of fulfilment to something possible1 and reveal new aspects and new tasks4 ,further1 those elements which at first sight exist unconnected side by side and tend to limit one another must unite1 and must strengthen one another4 ,on the other hand1 divisions must arise3 it is as necessary energetically to reject that which follows wrong aims as to come to a peaceful settlement with that which errs only in the means4 ,the antitheses which the work of humanity contains must also become intelligible1 and at the same time a way must be prepared by which these antitheses may be overcome1 not one by which merely a compromise between them may be arrived at4 ,the breaking forth of the new must tend always toward the self-elevation of life2 with arousing and strengthening power1 it must take up the whole of life into its movement3 it must demonstrate a transcendence of all the reflection and subjectivity of man1 and this can be accomplished only through the disclosure of new forms and contents of life4 ,accordingly attention must in the first place be centred upon the pointing out of such new forms and contents4 ,the union of the spiritual life with man1 its being firmly rooted in him1 is seen to be at the same time something old and something new--something old in so far as it must have been existent and in some way effective from the beginning1 something new in so far as its distinct emergence and its transition to a state of self-determining activity must alter the condition of things essentially2 in fact1 must turn life as a whole into a problem4 ,where the reality of man is reduced1 as by ,hegel1 solely to an unfolding of thought and cognition1 the present may find its most important task in the complete clarification and appropriation of the past2 life comes to complete satisfaction in the drawing of historical achievement to itself4 ,where it is a question of the building up of a reality based on self-conscious and self-determining activity1 when we ourselves share in such activity1 we must find ourselves in an essentially different relation to things2 and with all the connection with the past1 life will press forward1 changing and elevating in contrast with the whole past4 99 99 99 99 99 ,a contact1 indeed a union1 must therefore be established between the independent spiritual world--which in some way must be operative in us--and the activity of our own which struggles upward2 and1 through the gain of such a contact1 that world must be led to more complete organisation1 and that which strives upward made secure1 unified1 and advanced4 ,in this it is essential that the movements and the demands which the fundamental idea of the spiritual life contains be present to our minds4 ,the spiritual life appears1 so we saw reason to believe1 in the first place1 to be something essentially new in contrast to the life of nature4 ,the spiritual life is not the product of a gradual development from the life of nature1 but has an independent origin1 and evolves new powers and standards3 new beginnings must1 therefore1 be recognisable in us if the spiritual life is to become our life4 ,the new1 however1 manifested a development of the inner life to independence in opposition to its state of subjection at the level of nature1 and so thus in man also the inner life must in some way come to itself and attain to freedom4 ,we saw1 further1 that this development to independence cannot be brought about through new achievements in a given world1 but that it needs the building up of a new world--a new basis for life3 it extends even to the final basal forms2 not any kind of activity could suffice1 but a being within the activity1 or1 rather1 a division of activity into something sustaining and comprehending on the one hand1 and something demonstrating and producing on the other1 is necessary4 ,it is only thus that life becomes turned toward itself and elevated to a self-conscious life2 activity to self-determining activity2 experience to self-conscious experience4 ,man could not participate in such a self-conscious and self-determining life1 if in him also a new life1 a spiritual self1 had not begun to be in some way4 ,it is impossible for this self to be merely individual in nature3 it can change the form of things and convey a new world only if it encompasses the multiplicity and experiences it as its own4 ,an infinite self-conscious and self-determining life must not only include man within itself2 it must become his own life1 his true self4 ,to realise this life1 this self1 in more detail and to pass from mere impulse to fruitful work1 such as the building up of a new reality necessitates1 man must in some way transcend in his own sphere the mere juxtaposition of individual powers4 ,connections must be formed within the realm of man that somehow deal with that task and advance towards its accomplishment in a way that is beyond the capacity of individuals4 ,a transcendence of the antithesis of subject and object1 that dominates the greater part of life1 is also essential to the new life2 an energetic revolution must raise life to a state of resting upon itself1 to autonomy3 and so in man also movements must appear in opposition to this antithesis--condensations and concentrations1 in which life from being a movement hither and thither becomes a forming of reality from within4 ,in these connections only out of a self-development of life has a reality arisen at all2 and its content was not there complete at the outset1 but was yielded only through the continuance of that self-development3 it must be shown1 therefore1 that in man also life begins to turn toward itself1 and that this makes it possible to attempt tasks which to our capacity are otherwise inaccessible4 ,it is necessary to acknowledge that in all the spiritual movement which appears in the domain of man1 there is a revelation of the spiritual world3 as merely human power cannot lead the whole to new heights1 in all development of the spiritual life the communication of the new world must precede the activity of man4 ,at the same time1 where we are concerned with a life that is independent1 and of which the activity is conscious and self-determined1 the change cannot possibly simply happen to man3 it must be taken up by his own activity2 it needs his own decision and acceptance4 ,we shall consider the question of the possibility of this almost immediately3 so much1 however1 is certain--that this necessity of a decision by man himself makes the matter far more complex and of far greater risk4 ,the establishment of an independent spiritual life in man finds its chief enemy not in nature1 but in the limitation and perversion of spiritual impulse through man's subordinating it to his own ends4 ,the chief conflict is not between spirit and nature1 but between real and false spirituality4 ,thus thought emerges in man1 seeks a representation of the world and would in this attain to truth2 but when this striving first appears1 man is wont to treat himself as the central point of the whole1 to measure the whole of infinity according to what it achieves in relation to him1 and to see reflections of himself throughout its whole extent4 ,and so we have the anthropomorphic way of thinking1 the nature of which we have become aware of only through toil during the progress of the work of culture2 a way of thinking from which it has needed even more toil to protect ourselves1 and which1 in forms often hardly noticeable1 is ever ready to appear again and to draw the spiritual movement into its paths4 ,with the emergence of the spiritual life1 man becomes more free in relation to his environment2 more free also in relation to the necessities of mere nature3 his activity can exert itself more independently1 concern itself with lofty aims1 strive towards the infinite4 ,but all this capacity becomes drawn into the service of the human2 the wishes and the desires of the individual grow to an enormous extent4 ,since out of the struggle for existence1 with its natural limitation1 an interminable struggle for more existence arises1 nave self-preservation becomes transformed into an unrestricted egoism4 ,that the more-than-human which appears in the domain of man should be employed to the advancement of the merely human is a danger that is present even at the highest stages of development3 at one time man would prove his own power in the more-than-human2 at another1 and this more especially1 he treats it as a means to attain his material welfare4 ,religion1 for example1 would reveal to man a new depth of reality1 and so create a new life for him2 and yet1 how often even this new reality is degraded to a means for the preservation of his insignificant personality1 and regarded as something which on his behalf guides the whole world aright6 ,the development of the spiritual life in the human sphere can thus be seen to be anything but a sure and steady progress2 every step forward brings new dangers2 unutterable confusion arises through the use and the perversion of the new in the interests of man4 ,but1 if the development of the spiritual life within man is thus an unceasing conflict against human error1 this conflict1 despite its exhibition of the littleness of man1 is at the same time a witness to his greatness4 ,for it shows not only that the spiritual movement needs the active co-operation of man1 but also that there is a conflict within humanity itself against the perversion of the spiritual2 that there must be more within man and operative in him than the narrowly human4 ,indeed1 in nothing does man seem greater than in this development of a more-than-human within the domain of man1 in this severe and untiring conflict with himself4 ,how could this conflict arise and become the soul of universal history if man did not possess a life and being transcending his particularity1 and if he did not realise more in himself than we at the first glance see in him8 ,the error of ,positivism is that1 although it shows most clearly how this spiritual movement dissolves the forms of life as it is immediately experienced1 it does not perceive and value the fact that1 at the same time1 a new life1 an inner life emerges2 that1 indeed1 the negation itself is possible only through a more comprehensive spiritual revelation4 ,to consider the negative and the positive in their relation to each other1 and to weigh them one against the other1 is the indispensable condition for the adequate understanding of human life4 7b7 ,the ,nature of ,freedom ,the arousing of a new world to life within man is a problem and a task3 it cannot be effected unless the spontaneity and self-determining activity that are distinctive of this world also manifest themselves within him4 ,further1 it cannot be effected unless within man1 who with the greater part of his being belongs primarily to nature1 a deliverance from nature is accomplished and the centre of life is removed to its spiritual side2 and this cannot happen without the co-operation of man4 ,we need freedom1 therefore1 in two senses3 as the presence of an independent inner life1 and as man's capacity to change--and we cannot fail to recognise that these are closely related4 ,now1 the impressions and experiences of modern life are opposed to freedom in both of these senses2 indeed1 with apparently insuperable force they oppose freedom in every sense4 ,modern science most clearly shows that man belongs to a great world-whole and world-movement2 his life and work seem to be completely determined through his relations in this whole2 his whole life is subject to an irresistible destiny1 and in all his undertakings and conduct he can only follow the course directed by it4 ,this destiny assumes for us the most diverse forms2 and through this diversity surrounds us on all sides4 ,through the power of heredity we enter life with a definite nature3 in the family1 the state1 and the society a particular kind of environment surrounds us and gives to our nature its more detailed colouring3 the age meets us with particular tendencies1 takes us up into itself with a supreme power1 and just as decidedly directs us towards certain ends as it diverts us from others4 ,even in earlier times all this was not ignored1 so far as the individual aspects are concerned2 but the ,modern ,age was the first to conceive the problem as a whole1 and with this it has pursued the idea of determination even into the inner structure of the life of the soul1 with the demonstration that here also nothing is spontaneous1 nothing unmeditated1 but that even down to the most primary impulse everything depends upon something else1 and proceeds from definite relations4 ,from this point of view the idea of freedom1 and in particular that of a freedom of choice1 appears to be only a remnant of an unscientific way of thinking4 ,the fact that man feels--as an immediate impression--free in cases of hesitation between different possibilities has lost its power to convince the individual of the ,modern ,age4 ,for the new mode of thought has evolved point for point along with an increasing divergence from the nave manner of representation1 and it has won its greatest victories in opposition to this manner of representation4 ,the revolution that ,copernicus accomplished in the representation of the world has become typical of the whole of modern work2 and as regards our problem also1 dissent from ordinary opinion is less a cause for doubt than a recommendation4 ,however1 our attitude in regard to this problem has1 indeed1 been essentially changed by modern thought4 ,there can be no further talk of a vague freedom of the will1 of a capacity to act in one manner or another unaffected by anything that preceded and by the whole environment2 the fact of the subjection of man to a destiny1 both external and internal1 is forced upon us with overwhelming power4 ,whether the idea of freedom in every sense is shown to be invalid is another question2 perhaps the problem is not so much solved as put on one side4 ,in any case1 if a fundamental problem--one that has been discussed from the earliest times--is suddenly declared to be finally solved1 the suspicion must soon arise that the solution appears to be self-evident only because certain presuppositions which are in no way self-evident are implicitly assumed in it4 ,the surrender of every kind of freedom meets in the first place with the suspicion that thereby far more is lost than we think or intend2 that much is lost to which it is impossible to surrender all claim4 ,great trouble is taken to prove that the denial of freedom by no means does away with the possibility of an ethical moulding of life4 ,yet it might be shown without difficulty that1 in attempts of this kind1 either the freedom1 rejected in its ordinary sense1 finds entrance again altered and deepened--as1 for example1 in the philosophy of ,spinoza--or the ethic that remains after freedom has been denied retains only the name1 and in itself signifies something merely mechanical4 ,but why do we insist upon the ethical2 why does so much depend upon its continuance8 ,for this reason3 that upon it depends whether life merely happens to us or also from us2 whether we are simply parts of a rigid world-mechanism or self-determining co-operators in the building up of reality4 ,if the former hypothesis is true1 we are no more than the platform upon which events become connected2 and we can possess no other unity than a summation of the multiplicity4 ,a unity of this kind could not possibly attain to independence and transcendence2 could not make an inner judgment upon events2 could not take up a conflict in opposition to the condition of life as it is immediately experienced4 ,the conception of conduct would inevitably be degraded to that of mere occurrence4 ,we should cease to have inner unity and be comprehensive selves2 we should not be able to speak of disposition and conviction3 for it is of the essence of all these things that they cannot be imparted1 but must arise newly and spontaneously just in the individual1 and for this a concentration of life1 an elevation to self-conscious and self-determining activity1 is necessary4 ,where inner unity and such an activity are lacking1 a true present does not exist4 ,for if1 through the all-dominant relation of cause and effect1 that which comes later proceeds in certain sequence from that which came earlier1 our whole existence is only a stream of occurrences1 and that which is called present is nothing more than the point of transition from the past to the future4 ,now1 a real present can be reached from such an apparent present only if an independent task originates at this point1 and a decision has to be made3 the more our whole life and being here become a problem again1 the more securely might we trust to the possibility of advancing beyond all previous achievement1 and of a spontaneous breaking forth of new powers1 the more will our life be transformed into a genuine present4 ,a genuine present does not exist within the sequence1 but above it2 it cannot come to us opportunely1 but must be attained through our own activity3 it is our own work4 ,it is1 therefore1 not a common and equal possession1 but is differently constituted according to the individual4 ,the present is the more real and comprehensive for us the more spiritual power we evolve and the more spiritual content we give to life4 ,thus the present is not a mere point in the succession of times1 a mere ripple in the stream of appearances1 but involves a counteraction to this flow2 its formation is to be accomplished only by the placing of life in the region of the spontaneous1 the independent1 the time-transcendent4 ,all the losses in individual matters are1 however1 only appearances and parts of a universal loss that the surrender of freedom involves4 ,this loss is no other than that of an independent nature-transcending spiritual life in general4 ,spontaneity is no subsidiary quality1 the disappearance of which might only involve a modification2 with it1 the spiritual life as a whole stands or falls4 ,the experience of history also shows clearly enough that that which has in any way reached a spiritual height never persists by simply existing1 but that1 if it is not to degenerate rapidly1 it must proceed ever anew from spontaneous creative activity4 ,the law of nature1 that everything remains in its existent state of rest or motion until it is acted upon from without1 is not true of the spiritual3 of it nothing abides that is not continually brought forth anew4 ,the surrender of freedom1 therefore1 means no less than the inner destruction of the spiritual life4 ,and before we submit to this we shall feel compelled to make a more careful inquiry1 to see whether the arguments against freedom are really so cogent as they are represented4 ,they do exert a compelling force1 but only so long as their presuppositions are admitted and held to be unassailable4 ,that they are not unassailable will become evident as soon as we clearly recognise their nature and implications4 ,if the world forms a closed and given system1 in which every particular is determined completely by its position in the whole1 there is no place for spontaneity4 ,the question of freedom has no meaning for man if he belongs solely and entirely to such a world1 and within it has only to weigh aims one against another4 ,but in accordance with the results of our investigation we contest these two presuppositions most decidedly4 ,to an investigation that begins with the life-process as the basis of its treatment1 it is certain that a given world never can be primary1 but only secondary4 ,that it may attain to an inner present it needs a life that is not itself given1 but with its activity encompasses a multiplicity1 unifies1 and makes it definite2 for anything to be experienced as given a self-conscious and self-determining activity is necessary4 ,if this self-determining activity can struggle upwards to complete power and consciousness only slowly1 still it is the first and the sustaining world2 and at the same time it can never be asserted that the forms of its life are only ideas and appearances4 ,life is not formed from existing individual points1 and does not pass between such points1 but all multiplicity is sustained by an active whole1 and from this whole animated ever anew4 ,this active whole may not be conceived as dependent upon another1 and it is quite capable of advance4 ,we have endeavoured to show that the matter is not one of subtleties of thought1 but of different natures of the world and of activity2 and that with the attainment of independence a new world emerges4 ,we have also shown that in us the new world must first wrestle with another1 to which we primarily belong2 that inner changes must take place in us2 and that1 if all our toil is not to be in vain1 the relation of the two worlds must be changed4 ,man1 therefore1 has a special significance in that the two worlds meet together within him1 and in that there can be no change in their relation to each other at this point without his co-operation4 ,the problem of his life concerns more than his conduct1 it extends to his being2 the question is1 how far the different worlds may become his own world1 his life4 ,the matter is one of shifting the centre of life from the position in which it is in immediate experience4 ,thus1 the tension and the conflict involve the ultimate elements3 each of the worlds has its own tasks and evaluations2 things do not affect man with a given and fixed value1 but they receive their value first from their relation to the main course upon which his life enters2 and so all conflict concerning particular matters implies a decision concerning the whole4 ,of course1 such a decision is not being made from moment to moment2 and more especially1 it is not made simply by reflection1 but it is involved in the whole of life4 ,only that which in him1 in endeavour and work1 participates in such decision is true life2 individual acts of external conduct only bring to expression that which has happened and still continues to happen inwardly and in the whole4 ,in all this the possibility of an inner elevation is presupposed4 ,everyone who strives for an inner development of man2 everyone who1 with clear insight into the meanness of the general condition of human affairs1 unswervingly continues to strive for the advancement of humanity1 relies on this possibility3 without it there is no hope of a development and a growth of one's own life1 of an elevation of it above the condition in which it is first experienced4 ,and so without this possibility endeavour loses all its true tension1 and all that we are able to accomplish in ourselves and in others is no more than a dexterous use of existent forces4 ,but is this condition of the matter1 spiritually discerned1 more than a mere discipline8 ,it is true that the possibility of an elevation has its fixed conditions2 it necessitates particular convictions with regard to the world and to man4 ,we must view the world as being still in a state of flux and regard man as not being simply a closed and limited individual4 ,the infinite spiritual life must be present as a whole to him1 and arouse a new world to life in him2 his conduct must be rooted in the power and content of the infinite life3 only thus can we understand that in man also a movement begins and a change is brought about4 ,and so it remains ever an inderivable1 original phenomenon1 which we must acknowledge as a fact1 that a spontaneous life breaks forth in man1 a new and relatively independent life-centre originates4 ,we always come back in the long run to original phenomena2 the origin of living being in general is also an original phenomenon4 ,may we deny the fact of such original phenomena1 because they make our representation of the world less uniform and simple8 ,to do so would be nothing else than to make our previously formed conceptions the measure of reality2 it would be a new1 specifically modern anthropomorphism4 ,this freedom1 with its requirement of a world of inner life that introduces new contents1 and also that we belong in some way to this world1 is by no means a capacity to make a decision capriciously at any moment2 it is not a denial of the power of necessity4 ,of course1 it implies that there may be some kind of counteraction to this necessity2 and that if this counteraction can attain success only as a result of the activity of life as a whole1 even the individual moment need not be a matter of indifference4 ,for1 as the spiritual life has always to win its own height anew1 so the present in its relations is not a mere consequence of the past3 times of temptation can come repeatedly when all that which has been achieved becomes doubtful again2 but times of elevation also come when an advance is made beyond that previously achieved4 ,it is not possible for us simply to reject the present existence and all the conditions which constrain us1 and to choose for ourselves a new kind of existence1 instead of the one we have2 from that it is impossible to free ourselves3 in all further endeavour we have to take it into account1 to make our peace with it4 ,nevertheless1 life can attain to a transcendent point of view1 from which the world of sense becomes the object of judgment and of adaptation2 from which1 to be regarded as completely ours1 it needs acknowledgment and appropriation by us2 and from which it is seen not to constitute our whole life1 as that which is ultimate4 ,indeed1 the tendencies within us which are concerned with nature1 first reach their highest through such acknowledgment and appropriation by us3 placed on a spiritual basis they lose their rigid exclusiveness and become unified2 our particular nature no longer constitutes our whole being1 but becomes the central point of a more comprehensive life1 which extends further and further to infinity4 ,our life1 therefore1 is a conflict between fate and freedom1 between being given and spontaneity2 and this conflict may be followed through all life's divisions4 ,the conflict appears primarily in the individual in the development towards personality and spiritual individuality4 ,for1 as personality1 unless life has a spontaneous source1 is an empty word1 so also spiritual individuality does not come to anyone1 but has first to be won by the work of life essentially elevating that which destiny brings3 so far1 it is our own work2 but it is not entirely our own work1 because that which comes to us from nature1 and the condition of life gives us fixed points of support and points out a certain course4 ,similarly1 peoples have in their nature1 environment1 and history definite conditions of their being1 from which they cannot withdraw4 ,but spiritual creation and inward greatness do not grow simply out of these conditions1 however favourable they may be1 but out of a spontaneous activity which takes up that which has been presented to it1 gives it a central point1 and from this develops it4 ,the deciding question is always whether and how far individuals and peoples attain to and preserve such a self-determining activity4 ,this activity alone makes it possible for life to be unified inwardly2 for its elements to be distinguished and separated1 and for some to be brought into prominence and others relegated to the background2 for life to be made secure and elevated1 and as the result of all for a spiritual individuality to be formed4 ,the same thing holds good of the condition of a particular time1 and man's relation to it4 ,at first man appears to be a child of his age1 a slave of his age4 ,but by the spiritual life he is able to win an independence of the age1 and to make himself its lord4 ,again1 he cannot free himself from the problems of the age2 he cannot alter them just as he likes1 cannot divert into an opposite direction the power which they exert upon him4 ,but there is always an either--or1 either submission to the succession of experience1 or the beginning of an opposition from spiritual self-determining activity3 in this1 also1 the possibility of calling new powers to life presents itself4 ,from this spiritual point of view activity centred upon the concerns of the particular age is no longer regarded as the whole life2 the particular age with its work is comprehended in an infinite life4 ,as through all its different stages and constituents1 so ultimately humanity as a whole also carries on a struggle for a spiritual being1 an advance to a new level4 ,humanity may not be regarded as something finished2 it must evolve to a nature other than its present one1 bring about a transformation of its life1 and win a spiritual individuality3 the life of humanity is in a state of motion and it must become self-determined4 ,the idea of freedom thus reveals far-reaching prospects and the greatest tasks2 it manifests its truth and power in taking possession of common experiences and illuminating them1 and in the arousing and re-organisation of our life4 ,with the acknowledgment and the adequate appreciation of freedom1 with the revelation of its universal relations1 man is elevated in the most essential manner1 for it manifests the new world as active in the midst of his life and capable of appropriation by him3 it calls him to independent co-operation in the conflict of the worlds2 it gives to the simply human and the apparently commonplace an incomparable greatness4 ,however powerful destiny may be1 it does not determine man entirely2 for1 even in beginning opposition to it there is a liberation from it4 ,however mean man's activity1 it carries in it a decision between worlds2 however vanishing the moment1 it is not entirely lost4 ,true1 the idea of freedom involves definite presuppositions3 it involves1 indeed1 a profession of faith concerning life and reality as a whole1 a profession of faith that contradicts every form of ,naturalism and ,intellectualism1 and1 in opposition to their representations of the world1 champions another4 ,but this profession of faith does not concern this problem only2 it is involved in our work as a whole1 and so the whole may support and confirm it4 7c7 ,the ,beginnings of the ,independent ,spiritual ,life ,as the problem of freedom gains in clearness and depth in the relations which have been discussed1 so also the beginnings of independent spiritual life which are manifested in the domain of man become much clearer in them4 ,without such beginnings1 which represent a new order in contrast to nature1 and which oppose the degeneration of life to the narrowly human1 a movement towards independent spirituality could never emerge in us4 ,they are really intelligible and acquire power only when they are unified and acknowledged as the activity of a new life and being4 ,these beginnings appear in an elevation of life accessible to every individual1 an elevation above the forms as well as the content of mere nature4 ,we perceive this in the norms with which the research of the present is busily occupied4 ,our life does not consist entirely of simple matters of fact1 but in certain directions qualities and forms are presented to it which are able to contradict the immediate state of things and to exercise a certain power over it4 ,thus the norms of thought1 the norms of conduct and of artistic creation are evolved1 each making particular demands1 and being different in the manner of its operation4 ,however1 we are concerned here not with the aspects of difference1 but with that which is common to all2 and this consists in the working of an actuality in us that is something other than natural occurrence1 an actuality that needs our acknowledgment1 and through this acknowledgment first wins power over us4 ,the demands which these norms make upon us are in no way convenient to us2 they limit our caprice2 they often cost hard toil and heavy sacrifice2 our desire for natural happiness does not commend them to us4 ,how is it then that we do not simply reject them8 what is it that gives to them a constraining power over us8 ,if they remained isolated and impenetrable experiences1 if they adhered to us as something alien in nature1 were foreign elements in our being1 their power would be unintelligible4 ,it is to be explained only upon the hypothesis that they are unfoldings of our own life1 which by these unfoldings is proved to be something other than a life of nature4 ,unless they are rooted in our own life1 these norms are like misty forms in the air4 ,they obtain complete reality and motive power first as movements of our self1 which then is no mere point by the side of other points1 but an independent manifestation of life of the spiritual world4 ,this is in particular clearly the case in the idea of duty1 the elucidation of the inner meaning of which is ,kant's greatest and most enduring service4 ,a duty is always a command2 it presents itself as independent of all caprice4 ,at the same time1 however1 it can never be forced upon us by an external power2 it needs our own assent and acknowledgment4 ,our own volition and being must operate in it1 and1 in this1 being must present itself otherwise than it appears to be at the first glance4 ,we must bear and maintain within us a new world2 in submission to its orders we must assert and develop ourselves4 ,in this manner alone can we explain the joyfulness which accompanies all genuine performance of duty1 and without which duty is no more than a task forced upon us4 ,how much power duty1 and the norms in general1 may acquire in the greater part of human life is a question in itself2 but they could not exist for us even as ideas and possibilities if they were not in some way based in our own being4 ,however1 as they show this being in a new light1 it follows that they must themselves gain in clearness and in power and become more closely unified if they are understood and treated as developments and modes of self-preservation of our own life4 ,it is with regard to content as well as to form that beginnings of a new life appear4 ,at the level of nature only that which serves the self-preservation and the advancement of the life of the individual being is estimated as a good2 all that is involved in this may be comprehended under the conception of utility4 ,but notwithstanding its great power over man the consideration of utility does not form the only motive of his life4 ,for a detailed treatment of this matter we may refer to what was said in the discussion of ,the ,growth of ,man beyond ,nature4 ,at present we are concerned especially with the view that the new that appears in us should be acknowledged to be the manifestation of a new world and the expression of our real being4 ,in the growing of man beyond nature negation usually preponderates2 he must limit the impulses of his natural ego1 acknowledge and respect the rights of others1 be ready to subordinate and sacrifice himself4 ,it is for the most part not evident what can commend such a negation to him and give it power over him2 and an impulse aroused to clear consciousness and strong desire may1 therefore1 feel this entire connection with a new world to be an unwarrantable limitation1 and reject it as a violent intimidation and a degradation of life4 ,the matter is seen in its right light only when negation is regarded as the reverse side of affirmation1 and even then only if the winning of a new life and being is acknowledged in this affirmation4 ,the positive impulse of self-preservation is indispensable to complete vital-energy1 but mere self-assertion on the part of an individual in opposition to others does not constitute a genuine self2 a genuine self is constituted only by the coming to life of the infinite spiritual world in an independent concentration in the individual4 ,only thus does life1 which otherwise were empty1 acquire a content4 ,then the individual is no longer compelled to develop his powers in conflict with other individuals1 but in directing his life towards this infinite spiritual world1 in its complete appropriation and organisation4 ,hence1 only that which raises the spiritual content of life can be regarded as good1 and goods will be compared in value in accordance with this standard4 ,the more they lead beyond mere results to the development of a new being and self1 the more essential they are to spiritual self-preservation2 everything else becomes a means or a preliminary condition4 ,negation1 also1 has greater significance and importance from this point of view4 ,the new affirmation can acquire no complete truth and no real power in man without a fundamental deliverance of life from mere nature and its particularity4 ,without earnestness of renunciation the new life sinks back to the old or both are combined in an undifferentiated unity1 with the consequence that the new life loses its power to stimulate to new endeavour4 ,as human beings are1 this negation must always be a sharp one4 ,in this connection1 it may be said that life needs the stage of law which restricts natural impulse1 and constrains to the acknowledgment of superior organisations of life2 but from the stage of law there must be progress to the stage of love1 which for the first time reveals an inner relation to reality and reacts upon the stage of law1 giving it a soul4 ,on the other hand1 a love that would be genuine comes not to destroy the law1 but to fulfil1 to take it up into itself4 ,as love and law are indisputable powers in the life of humanity1 so they also proclaim the emergence of a new world and the development of a new being within the domain of humanity4 7d7 ,the ,transcending of ,division ,a particularly severe conflict with regard to the problem of the unity of life arises between the natural condition of man and the requirements of an independent spiritual life4 ,the spiritual life demands an enduring whole which includes all multiplicity within itself and of which the movement originates within3 human existence is primarily a juxtaposition of individuals and a succession of moments2 no union seems to be more than that which is constituted by a mere collection of the individuals4 ,if the division were not in some way transcended no spiritual life could grow up within humanity1 and man have no share in the building up of a spiritual world4 ,the nineteenth century gave a confident answer to the problem3 it contended that history and society of their own capacity bind the elements of life into stable forms which take up all multiplicity into themselves and raise our existence to spirituality4 ,we most emphatically deny the validity of this contention1 and hope to show that history and society themselves involve difficult problems2 further1 that only when we conceive them in a particular way are they able to help in the unification of life and then only in a limited manner2 and lastly1 that they do not so much produce a spiritual life as presuppose it1 as essential to their own existence4 ,naturalism and ,intellectualism have also confused the outlook2 if we free it from this confusion1 history and society will take a secondary place in our estimation2 they will themselves be seen to be deeper and more comprehensive and to involve movements which extend further than appears in immediate experience2 and they will become witnesses to the living presence of the spiritual life within humanity4 7i47 ,the ,spiritual ,conception of ,history ,the nineteenth century transmitted to us a conception of history that is far more peculiar in nature and far more open to attack than is usually recognised3 history is represented as a great stream which takes up all individual achievements into itself1 unites them1 and1 regardless of all human error and caprice1 leads surely to its end4 ,no genuine achievement is lost1 and all gain seems to be permanent2 beyond all the trouble and uncertainty of the moment appeal is made to the power which1 directing and elevating1 permeates the movement1 clarifies and refines it4 ,in this conception the necessity of a process that has the power of determining its own activity and making its own decision is primary4 ,the fact that the matter is not so simple as this conception of history represents is shown by the experience of the age itself1 which directly contradicts it4 ,for according to this conception the whole past should discharge itself into the present and so impart its whole result immediately to us1 and the direction that our activity ought to take should be pointed out to us with complete certainty by history4 ,but we are distinctly aware of the extent to which this direction is a matter of question and doubt1 and of the uncertainty into which we have fallen with regard to the relation of the present to the past3 in the process of our investigation we saw this in particular in the division and conflict between the different systems of life4 ,history is seen to be a difficult problem far more than a secure fact2 and we are compelled to take up a new consideration of the question4 ,in this consideration a distinct delimitation of the achievements characteristic of man is primarily necessary4 ,modern science already recognises a history of nature1 and much that was formerly regarded as complete is now seen to be in a state of flux and movement4 ,since every event leaves effects behind1 in the course of ages the results accumulate1 develop1 and act upon one another1 that which comes later is conditioned by the influence of the earlier and is intelligible only in relation to it1 a distinctive historical method gains currency4 ,geology presents to us with particular clearness a history of this type4 ,in so far as man belongs to nature and the spiritual life has not yet developed to any degree of independence in him1 he is also the subject of such a history4 ,that which happens within him leaves behind effects that become the conditions of later occurrence4 ,this conception of history1 as determined solely by mechanical causes1 is still maintained in some quarters in spite of further developments of thought4 ,but it is not apparent from this point of view how1 even with the greatest accumulation of effects1 history could yield anything of gain to an inner unity1 to a life from the whole3 for that1 man must bring with him something essentially new2 and as a matter of fact this is what he does4 ,not only do events happen to us and change our condition1 but with our own activity we are able to hold fast to these events1 to give to them an inner permanence1 to bring them ever anew from the dim distance into the living present4 ,we do not drift onward with the stream of time1 but withstand it2 seek to wrest something fixed from becoming and change1 and salvation in the eternal4 ,we cannot do this without altering the whole view of things and manifesting a new spiritual capacity4 ,the retention in mind of individual events by means of annals1 monuments and similar methods is the beginning of a history of a higher kind3 even so much shows a greater activity1 since it involves a judgment of the significance of events1 and on the basis of this judgment begins to wage war against the destroying power of cormorant devouring time4 ,the achievement is incomparably higher1 if certain spiritual unities and tendencies are adhered to and are given permanent currency3 thus religion in particular gave a stability to life and delivered men from the tyranny of the mere moment4 ,the matter remains simple so long as the movement is within a single people or a definite sphere of culture4 ,but in its progress it goes far beyond these limits4 ,new peoples arise2 the state of culture undergoes great changes1 indeed revolutions2 life is taken up from new starting points1 from which everything of importance to earlier ages loses its value4 ,but it is lost only for a time2 a desire to return to it and to bring it into complete harmony with the new is soon felt4 ,the circle of vision is thus increasingly widened1 and all multiplicity is finally united into a whole4 ,this retention of the past is primarily a matter of knowledge and of intellectual appropriation4 ,but it is not limited to this2 it would operate not only in the extension of knowledge but beyond this in the development of life4 ,whatever has been won by human power is to be preserved1 unified1 and used to advance the present4 ,thus1 there arises a historical culture2 an education on a historical basis2 religion and philosophy1 art and law derive power and content from the work of universal history1 and life as a whole seems to win a greater comprehensiveness and stability4 ,and so it has come to appear as though the past imparts its whole result to the present without any effort on the part of man and without incurring him in any risk4 ,in reality the case is entirely different4 ,the stream of the ages becomes spiritually significant to us only in so far as we develop an independence of it4 ,the stream does not itself1 automatically and independently of us1 select the elements of value which it contains or unite the ages to a harmonious result3 we ourselves must achieve this4 ,spiritually regarded1 we do not from the beginning stand upon a sure foundation1 on which we might peacefully build2 we must first acquire such a foundation through endeavour1 and in this matter we see doubt and violent change continually make that uncertain which is apparently most secure1 and make it necessary to seek greater depths4 ,for this treatment of history1 involving1 as it does1 self-determining activity1 an elevation above time is essential4 ,without in some way transcending time we could not survey individual events and unite them in one representation4 ,but we would do far more than that2 we would select and take up into our own life that which is valuable in the earlier1 in order thereby to enrich and strengthen our life1 and to lead it as far as possible from the present of the mere moment to a present encompassing the ages4 ,how could this come to pass unless we were able to secure an independent vantage ground transcending the stream of the ages2 a vantage ground from which we may survey and judge the ages1 appropriate some elements from them and reject others8 ,experience shows clearly enough that the tendency and the content of life with which we meet the past1 decide what shall be its spiritual representation1 and how we shall stand in relation to it4 ,for experience shows that each main tendency of life has its own view of history and its own treatment of history2 it shows further that every change in life which is in any way far-reaching involves an alteration in our relation to the past2 gives prominence to the new1 and relegates the old to the background4 ,there arises therefore a history of history2 a history1 for example1 of that which in the life of ,antiquity has seemed essential and valuable to the different later ages4 ,for us1 therefore1 history1 in regard to its spiritual nature1 is involved in constant change4 ,the past does not decide concerning the present so much as the present concerning the past2 the past is not something dead and fixed behind us2 ever anew it becomes the object of passionate conflict4 ,but does not this dependence of the past upon the present deprive history of all independence and of all value8 ,does it not surrender life completely to the contingency of the changing moments8 ,does it not destroy all inner unity of the ages8 ,this would1 in fact1 be the case if the matter remained on a simply human basis2 if a spiritual life transcending time were not manifested through all the changes of the ages2 if a spiritual history could not be distinguished from a narrowly human one4 ,spiritual history is concerned with that which through all human activity and endeavour reveals a self-conscious inner life and which1 as such a revelation1 is valid not only for a particular age but through all ages and independently of all ages4 ,spiritual history would be impossible unless there is active within us from the beginning an independent spiritual life which first realises its content through the historical process4 ,such a transcendent nature is most evident at those highest points of human development which we call classical1 not because they should dominate and bind all ages1 but because in them the spiritual life attained to a complete independence over against man1 lifted him above himself into the fire and flood of creative activity1 and made it possible for him to produce characteristic contents4 ,these classical achievements are especially important for the development of life if they not only bring something new in individual departments and in particular directions1 but also shape and present the whole to us in a distinctive manner1 and seek to appropriate to themselves1 and in the appropriation to elevate1 the spiritual impulse that exists in man2 if a new being1 in contrast to nature and society1 emerges and would become lord of the whole4 ,life as a whole is thus transformed into a problem and a conflict4 ,the question is whether this movement is able to take up everything into itself and to lead life to its highest level1 or whether it meets with an insuperable resistance4 ,in this matter life tests itself by itself1 by its own development--a thing which is possible only if its experiences arise out of its being as a whole4 ,if in a particular case it proves that essential requirements remain unsatisfied1 that the movement is not able to include the spiritual life within itself1 a severe convulsion is inevitable1 the spiritual life as a whole comes to a standstill1 and there can be no advance until life concentrates anew and the new concentration gains ground4 ,it is to be expected that a new concentration will bring forward and develop that1 in particular1 which formerly did not find complete satisfaction4 ,in the first place1 therefore1 there is an abrupt break and the emergence of an apparently irreconcilable opposition3 the old is relegated to the background2 tested by the new1 the old soon comes to be regarded as a complete mistake4 ,in reality it is not so4 ,for1 as certainly as spontaneous creative activity was operative in the old and produced characteristic contents1 it involves something which1 superior to all the change of time1 will survive convulsion and doubt1 and assert itself in some way in a more comprehensive life4 ,but the old will not survive and re-assert itself unless the timeless reality within it separates itself from all human and temporary addition2 unless it manifests what lies behind the historical form4 ,the same thing happens in the case of the new movement that arises4 ,with all its greatness of achievement1 limitations become manifest in it2 then1 more comprehensive forms arise2 and so in the historical movement as a whole the spiritual life is revealed in forms continually increasing in content4 ,in opposition to the tendency for one age to be separated from another1 however1 a desire for unity1 for a life which in some way embraces the multiplicity of movements and concentrations of life1 and binds them into a whole1 makes itself felt4 ,a unity can hardly be achieved by simply regarding the different concentrations and tendencies as on the same level and making a compromise between them2 rather it is necessary that the different concentrations and different movements contend with one another2 it is just their conflict which may elevate and deepen life4 ,the movement to secure this unity and to retain elements from the past is not an accumulation of elements and tendencies in time1 but an increasing deliverance from time1 the establishment of a timeless truth independent of the change of things4 ,experiences1 of which the external manifestations no longer exist1 are again called to life1 and preserved for all time by spiritual power2 indeed1 that which is lost in immediacy by the absence of the external manifestation is more than compensated for by an advance to the source of the power3 things which in their temporal form are a mere co-existence are transformed into an organised whole4 ,movements1 which in history have often been engaged in passionate conflict1 may enter into a relation of interaction1 and may be regarded as a sequence of stages1 in which the earlier prepares for the later1 and the later presupposes the earlier2 in which all give life to and further one another4 ,a universal life thus progressively arises within the domain of man2 the individual achievements unite more and more to the building up of a new1 enduring world2 the whole realises itself in the individual occurrence1 and through the development of a time-inclusive present transcends the mere moment4 ,this movement of life in history involves more unrest1 conflict and doubt1 than the nineteenth-century doctrine of evolution implied4 ,for this doctrine saw in the historical movement the unfolding of a spiritual life1 sure as regards its foundation and its main direction2 the antitheses within that movement seemed to be involved in a single process1 which determined the limits of each tendency in relation to the others2 a transcendent necessity was regarded as leading to the development of all in their relation to one another4 ,as a fact1 the conflict is also concerning the substance and the main direction of the whole2 the spiritual life must first realise itself within the region of mankind1 and it is realised through the toil and work of man himself4 ,it is just the fact that the problem is an ultimate one1 that even the fundamental forms of life develop only in conflict and experience1 and that we are concerned not with winning simply this or that in life1 but genuine life itself1 that makes history significant4 ,at the same time1 this brings man into a more inward relation to the spiritual life1 and this life is made more his own life and being than if he were surrounded by the power of physical or intellectual processes4 ,nothing makes humanity as a whole more significant than that in its province and through its work the new world begins to develop4 ,with such a conception of history1 the philosophical treatment of it must direct its attention chiefly to the independent spirituality which in the course of the centuries1 and especially in great changes1 is evolved in contrast with the narrowly human2 and to the main direction which is given to life by this spirituality4 ,the philosophical treatment of history ought first of all to trace the liberation of life from the simply human2 the inner elevation of our being to a more-than-human4 ,antiquity at the height of its spiritual development began to desire a universal truth independent of man2 a moulding of life in accordance with an inner right2 and an order of things beyond the power of human caprice1 as was shown by the giving symmetry and harmony precedence in art1 and justice in conduct4 ,christianity brought about a liberation of the innermost disposition1 the root of endeavour and of love1 from purely natural impulse1 however ennobled2 and in this way brought men into new relationships and set them before new tasks4 ,the ,modern ,age on the part of science began a relentless conflict against the anthropomorphism of the mode of life as immediately experienced2 thus it has made the spiritual life even in its form independent of man1 in that it has created spiritual complexes and has recognised in them movements and inner necessities of their own4 ,through the whole of this movement of universal history life frees itself more and more from its dependence upon mere man1 and from the bondage to given presuppositions and given natural impulses1 and from a given world in general4 ,life is based more and more upon its own independent nature1 and from its position of independence develops a new kind of being4 ,it is this gain of a new world through struggle that alone gives to history a meaning and an inner unity4 ,if history thus accomplishes the formation of great spiritual complexes1 and if there is an endeavour to fit these with all their antitheses into an all-comprehensive whole1 if it unites all ages and all powers with the bond of a universal task1 it is a clear witness to the living presence of the spiritual life within the human sphere4 ,apart from this presence all these achievements would be impossible1 and the whole movement must vanish into thin air4 ,the estimate of history here given is valid only when a spiritual history is clearly distinguished from merely human history4 ,only when history as a whole gains a soul and a support from this spiritual history are the non-spiritual factors able to attain to any rational significance2 only then can history have a meaning and transcend the relativity from which otherwise it cannot escape4 ,on the one hand1 history demands for its own existence the presence of a spiritual world within humanity2 on the other1 it testifies to this presence by that which is characteristic in its own content2 by that which can be understood only as a progressive disclosure of such a world4 7ii47 ,the ,spiritual ,conception of ,society ,the problem of society is closely akin to that of history4 ,in the life around us a certain union is attained in that men dwell together1 but this immediate union does not simply of itself produce a spiritual unity1 a spiritual whole3 if society manifests such a unity1 then in it1 also1 a distinctive revelation of the spiritual must be acknowledged4 ,modern science shows clearly and distinctly that the individual is not an isolated atom1 but exists in relation with a social environment2 and that1 even to the innermost recesses of his being1 he is determined by the constitution of this environment4 ,but science falls into serious error if it goes beyond the truth of this contention and attempts to represent spiritual creation as the result of the mere inter-relation and accumulation of individual powers4 ,for between spiritual creation and this inter-relation and accumulation of individual powers1 in spite of all their external proximity1 there is the widest divergence4 ,spiritual creation requires to be treated as an end complete in itself1 and must follow the laws of its own being2 it claims an inalienable supremacy above all trivial human interests1 which yet for a time dominate the common life4 ,further1 it cannot succeed without the development of an inner unity which maintains and characteristically forms a whole of life4 ,the existence of men side by side gives rise to a variety of opinions1 strivings1 dispositions1 which mingle confusedly together2 the usual condition of things that arises from this confusion has anything but a definite character4 ,the condition of our own time must convince everyone who is unprejudiced1 how little this pitiable confusion can of itself produce anything spiritual and associate men together in an inner unity4 ,for in the epoch of railways1 telegraphs and newspapers1 of large towns and of factories1 movements of the masses are certainly not lacking2 they surround the individual and influence him more strongly than ever before4 ,but where1 out of all the fluctuation of public opinion1 out of the confusion and bustle of life1 does creative spiritual activity arise1 give to life an inner content1 and unite humanity in an inner community8 ,rather1 we see humanity continually split up into opposing factions2 we see the strife tend more and more to affect the foundation of our existence4 ,however1 in spite of the spiritual impotency of the movements of the masses1 creative spiritual activity has emerged in humanity1 has overcome the separation of the individuals and inwardly unified the forces of life4 ,it must not only be possible to effect1 but we must actually effect a unity which transcends the individuals1 a union which has its source in the spiritual life itself4 ,in reality the experience of humanity shows such a union4 ,of primary importance in this connection is the fact of the power of so-called ideas in history--the fact that certain aims transcending natural welfare win power over the whole domain of culture1 bind men together and lift them above their selfish interests4 ,to be sure1 in the movements which arise to carry out these ideas much that is insignificantly human is introduced2 and the interests of individuals and of classes often largely preponderate1 but the origin and the progress of these movements cannot be accounted for by the merely human2 they are only to be explained as due to man feeling directly within himself the necessity of spiritual tasks4 ,if he feels this necessity only under particular conditions1 and if it is only for a short time that it asserts itself at its highest1 still it extends its influence over life as a whole1 and is everywhere a unique phenomenon1 even when limited and confused by much that is alien to it4 ,further1 the fact that whole peoples have developed distinctive national characters is of importance in this connection4 ,such a character is distinguished essentially from all mere participation of common conditions1 not only physical but also psychical1 that social life brings with it4 ,for the development of such a character life must rise to energetic activity and become unified2 there must be an advance towards a common goal2 an active relation must be taken up not only towards the environment but also towards itself4 ,a national character is not given1 but is attained through the work of history2 it develops only through common experiences1 sufferings1 and triumphs3 in its origin and its continuance it involves an elevation above the aims of physical and social preservation1 a development of pure inwardness4 ,finally1 no inner relation of humanity proceeds from the physical association of men1 from their meeting in a common world4 ,if a vital whole1 a common truth1 did not exist within us1 all our relations would be external3 we could not follow common aims in life and endeavour or have common experiences2 we could not think and live for one another1 or develop spiritual contents in different departments1 such as those of law and religion1 science and art1 and give to them a cognate spiritual character4 ,it is always the presence of a self-conscious reality that binds humanity together inwardly4 ,we can be as certain in our acknowledgment of this presence as we can that our experience shows such an inner unity in important achievements and in the formation of whole departments of work and other complexes4 ,with its acknowledgment we avoid the severe contradiction that is shown in the contemporary estimate and conception of humanity4 ,to our more dispassionate consideration of things the disagreeable aspect of the social machinery1 the growing sharpness of the conflict1 the passionate eagerness of the desire for more1 the inconsistency between the enormous amount of subjective excitement and the spiritual poverty1 are clear4 ,logically1 this confused and self-contradictory state of affairs ought to lead to a rejection of the whole1 and to a pronounced pessimism4 ,yet humanity is regarded as noble and worthy of respect2 it is made the value of all values2 the object of our faith and our hope2 all our efforts are directed towards its well-being4 ,and this is done without it being perceived that thus the basis of experience is forsaken and that the impression of humanity obtained from experience is bluntly contradicted3 the introduction of an abstract conception seems to alter everything and to lead to its being regarded as good4 ,in the shattering of beliefs at least this one has remained3 belief in the power of abstractions4 ,he who would abandon this belief and at the same time hold fast to the high estimate of humanity must admit that a spiritual world is active in man1 and in so doing acknowledge that man is more than he appears in immediate experience4 ,such a one will feel increasingly the necessity of actively comprehending and definitely distinguishing from the medley of trivial social concerns every manifestation of a spiritual world in man4 ,it is not out of society but in conflict with it that everything great has grown4 ,and yet that which is great is rooted in a whole of life4 ,spiritual work must have its basis in this invisible whole1 not in mere society2 and from this position it must protest against the presumptuous claim of society to evolve the spiritual life of its own power4 ,the community that proceeds from a spiritual union will be primarily an invisible one2 but whether this invisible unity could not realise itself better and be effective also in the visible world is a serious and difficult question that continually becomes more urgent4 ,if the conviction that we have here given an account of definitely contradicts the historico-social view of life which was so potent in the nineteenth century1 and which deeply degraded the spiritual life and its self-conscious and self-determining activity1 it by no means fails to recognise the significance of history and society2 and has no intention of taking up again the mode of thought common in the period of the ,enlightenment4 ,history and society are indispensable means for the development of the spiritual life in humanity3 from mere individuals and from individual moments it could attain neither content nor power4 ,but to declare for this reason that history and society are the generating basis of the spiritual life was a definite error2 though in the historical movement of the problem it certainly finds an explanation and an excuse4 ,the higher estimate of history and society has grown up on the basis of ,idealism2 to ,idealism the spiritual life seemed to live and first to attain to its complete truth in history and society4 ,later on1 attention and activity were diverted from a world of thought chiefly to the world of sense2 and with this change history and society lost their spiritual foundation and their animating soul4 ,nevertheless1 their claim to produce the spiritual life remained2 they were expected to achieve of their own power more than was possible even with the greatest exertion4 ,in truth they can bring forth spiritual contents1 and serve the development of the spiritual life within man1 only under the presupposition of the presence of a transcendent spiritual life4 ,at the same time their achievement in the combination of forces and in the production of spiritual results is a witness to the reality of the spiritual life4 7e7 ,the ,elevation of ,life above ,division ,we saw that the spiritual life attains an independence only if it does not simply bring about an effect upon a world independent of it1 but produces a reality from itself2 concentrates so as to become a reality itself4 ,at the first glance man seems by no means to satisfy this demand4 ,for his life1 after1 in its progress1 rising above its initial stages1 in which it was undifferentiated from the environment1 is subject to the antithesis of man and world1 of subject and object1 and the divergence seems to increase continually in the course of his development4 ,the more power the life of the soul wins1 the more it produces a characteristic content1 the freer and more active reflection becomes1 the more does the world recede before man1 the more definitely is immediate contact with the world prevented4 ,the gulf is not bridged by the epistemological consideration that that over against which we place ourselves must also1 fundamentally1 belong to our own life1 be in some way included within it3 this treatment signifies a removal of the antithesis to another region rather than an inner transcendence of it4 ,a genuine transcendence cannot be effected without an expansion and development of life1 evolving new connections which transcend the division1 and lifting us into a sphere above mere subjectivity4 ,connections such as these are1 as a fact1 brought about by an expansion and development of life2 but these connections which in their individual appearances are evident to all are seldom adequately estimated as a whole1 and in respect of the problems to which they give rise4 ,these connections are effected in work1 in work as a spiritual occurrence4 ,we have already seen how in work the object loses its alien nature and is taken up into our own life2 we must now follow more closely the process by which work is extended and deepened2 produces a characteristic sphere of life and establishes a spiritual reality in the domain of man4 ,at first we are occupied in work with an abundance of individual tasks that have no inner relation to one another4 ,but the more work advances from an external contact with objects to an inner change of them1 the more necessary is it that these tasks should be unified so as to form a whole2 and that each task should have its position in this whole1 and represent in itself a particular aspect of the whole4 ,the proof of greatness in a work is just that the nature of the individual aspects is determined fundamentally by their relation within the whole2 that what is characteristic in the work as a whole is manifested even in its simplest elements2 thus1 for example1 every independent thinker has particular views with regard to the nature of the fundamental forms of logical thought such as the concept and the judgment2 in the same way every independent artist creates his own language of forms4 ,work not only leads to a unity of life in the case of individuals2 but1 further1 without a union of individual forces for a common end1 without an organisation of all human work1 we should stand defenceless in face of the infinity of the world1 and we could never advance to a state of culture4 ,in such community of work man creates a new sphere of existence for himself2 he forms his world of work and sets it in contrast to everything which does not come within it4 ,this world of work transcends the individual2 and yet it is our world2 it is sustained by human power and1 directing and forming1 reacts upon man4 ,for1 the more unity this world of work acquires and the more control it wins over the object1 the more definite departments and relations it evolves in itself1 the more does it manifest characteristic laws and methods which1 with superior power1 prescribe to human activity its nature and direction1 but which can originate nowhere else than in the domain of man4 ,and so within the domain of man we rise above all caprice and subjectivity3 since the law of the object determines man's work1 his life is raised above the antithesis between soul and object4 ,work is not something that man1 essentially perfect1 undertakes incidentally and as something supplementary1 but it is that through which he first develops a spiritual life2 through which he acquires a spiritual existence2 and the character of the work determines at the same time the nature of this existence4 ,as the individual departments of work evolve characteristic modes of thought and conviction1 so out of work as a whole a particular spiritual nature arises which does not exist in relation to a world external to it1 but contains within itself a world formed by its own activity4 ,all this1 in conformity with our fundamental conviction1 involves the implication that man is not a spiritual being from the beginning1 but only has the potency to become one4 ,such a raising of the aim which is set to work involves an increase in the amount of toil that it necessitates1 and the dangers which are incurred3 the object and the encompassing life are subject to these dangers4 ,for the complete success of work and the formation of a genuine self1 it is as necessary that the object be taken up entirely into the process of work as that there should not be another vital unity more ultimate than the self which grows up in the work1 but that the self should form the final conclusion3 whatever is not taken up into the process of work lessens its content1 weakens its power1 endangers its truth1 and prevents just that from being achieved which is here in question4 ,if1 however1 we consider the opposition that arises at different points1 genuine work is seen to be a high ideal1 an infinite task which even in favourable cases is only approximately fulfilled4 ,at the same time it is a witness to the sway of elevating and modifying powers within the domain of man4 ,the object is concealed from man chiefly by his own inclination to treat himself as the centre of reality2 to transform the environment into a reflection of his own being2 and to measure the infinite by the standard of his own well-being4 ,along with this humanising of the environment1 man develops the most diverse forms of occupation with it1 but however far such occupation may be extended1 it does not lead man beyond his own domain2 it does not aid him in his spiritual progress4 ,it is possible for occupation upon the environment to aid spiritual progress only when things attain an independence1 and from this firmly resist the tendency of man to represent them in accordance with his subjective wishes4 ,only such independence of the objective makes it possible for it to arouse new powers in man and for his life to be based on something deeper than immediate feeling and desire1 and to begin an inner transformation4 ,but this movement has various levels which differ distinctly from one another2 and from the position of a higher level it is difficult to regard the achievement at a lower one as genuine and complete work4 ,the ,modern ,age with its exact research often cannot regard the work of early natural science as work of high value4 ,a similar gradation is evident in the striving for happiness2 for the raising of human well-being4 ,so long as endeavour is directed to attaining and preserving mere subjective states of feeling1 and so long as a movement beyond this subjectivity is not acknowledged to exist within man himself1 and the requirements of this movement are not satisfied--as is the case with ,epicureanism and ,utilitarianism--endeavour1 earnest as it may be1 does not acquire the character of spiritual work2 it does not essentially advance life1 and therefore in the long run does not satisfy human needs4 ,epicureanism and ,utilitarianism with all their results inevitably become insipid and empty to him4 ,if there are powerful hindrances to this endeavour for something more than the subjective1 there is at the same time a wealth of movement which bids defiance to them1 and the course of history shows continuous expansion and development of this movement2 it shows that man is able to take up a conflict against the trivially human1 and1 in the building up of a new world1 to raise himself essentially above his original condition4 ,exact science breaks away from the object of perception1 removes it to a distance1 analyses it there1 ascertains its laws1 and then restores it in changed form to men3 in this it also advances human life in itself1 in that thought rises more freely above perception1 and a system of pure thought sustains the whole world of sense4 ,a further divergence between the struggle for physical existence and the building up of a new world appears in history in the endeavour for happiness and a significant content of life4 ,in the experience of humanity1 morality and religion1 looked at inwardly1 assume two fundamentally different forms4 ,on the one hand they are looked upon as a mere means to support man in a given world2 to bring him into congenial relation with the world2 and so to organise this world that it may achieve as much as possible for human well-being4 ,this form governs human experience at its general level1 and easily comes to be regarded as the only form4 ,at higher levels of creative activity1 however1 a totally different form made its appearance3 there was a break with the whole world of sense and well-being as though with something intolerably narrow1 and in a self-conscious life a new world arose and brought forth characteristic contents2 the appropriation of this world raised life above all mere particularity and subjectivity2 at the same time this appropriation became an infinite task and work for man and for humanity as a whole4 ,if this form of religion and morality has been manifested with complete clearness only at high levels of life in history1 from these heights this form has also exerted an influence upon the rest of life1 animating and raising it2 indeed1 it is only this genuine conception of religion and morality which first gives to them an independence and a value in themselves4 ,thus1 notwithstanding the inadequacy of human achievement we cannot but recognise that life transcends mere subjectivity and the separation that it involves4 ,in another direction complexities arise in that something objective is evolved and established which1 however1 is not brought sufficiently into relation with life as a whole and united with it4 ,then1 work may progress within its own province constantly and vigorously1 but it loses touch with our soul2 we do not realise or develop ourselves in it4 ,with all the feverish tension of individual powers work is then inwardly alien to us1 and its power over us may become a heavy oppression4 ,through such a detachment from life as a whole work loses soul and is nothing more than mechanical2 in short1 we have all those results of division between work and soul which we may feel with particular acuteness in the contemporary state of culture4 ,experiences rising from this division lead us to demand that work shall be so organised as to be capable of taking up life as a whole into itself1 and with this of becoming our true self4 ,again1 life as a whole cannot enter upon work as complete1 for then it would force something alien upon work1 and by this pervert it2 life as a whole can be evolved only from the unification and elevation of work itself4 ,we do not begin and carry on work as a fixed individuality1 but we form individuality first through work by the continual overcoming of the opposition of subjective disposition and object4 ,spiritual contents are not produced by a communication of something that is in itself complete to something else that is in itself complete1 an interaction of disposition and object2 rather must we say that genuine work sets both sides in motion and with elevating power unites them in a single life4 ,so understood1 every movement which tends to the development of spirituality in individuals1 peoples1 ages1 and finally of humanity as a whole1 is a witness to the possibility of a transcendence of this opposition1 of the emergence of a reality within the life-process4 ,we cannot give work a spiritual nature in this way1 and make it the instrument of a new reality1 without being compelled to acknowledge that there is much less genuine work among men than we are accustomed to assume4 ,on the other hand1 we must also recognise that the little that there is signifies much more1 and indicates much greater advances of life than it is usual to admit4 ,nothing differentiates individuals and ages more from one another than the extent to which they take part in genuine work2 the degree to which they transform their life in such work4 ,mere reflection and good will can accomplish very little in this matter2 without an energetic nature1 a strong inner disposition with a definite tendency1 as well as the favour of destiny1 not much can be achieved4 ,what is usually called life is only a will to live1 a straining after life2 it yields but an outward appearance and a shadow of life3 genuine life is first brought forth by that transformation4 ,but the less human existence in general immediately includes genuine work1 the more indispensable is it that there should be firmly rooted tendencies to such work in the basis of our being1 and that these tendencies should be developed to greater clearness of form and to greater effect in the work of universal history4 ,so that our work may not be split up and destroyed1 we need definite syntheses that establish a structure of life4 ,on the one hand we must accomplish an analysis into individual tendencies and departments of life which1 operating independently1 generate life2 and on the other hand we must find a unity of endeavour among these tendencies and departments2 a movement from one to another2 a common activity directed towards the building up of a new world4 ,these syntheses must be an immediate experience at each point2 they must be involved in all division of work2 everywhere set distinctive tasks2 produce characteristic achievements2 and in energetic organisation of existence elevate it to the level of a characteristic system of life1 full of power1 which presses forward to further development4 ,only thus could a movement originate which might expand to a real whole and be capable of establishing this whole against the world as it is for immediate experience2 only thus could humanity defend itself against the power of the environment and of destiny4 ,experience alone can decide whether our life contains such syntheses1 and whether by means of them it forms a whole3 the movement of universal history shows that there are such syntheses4 ,the natures of these syntheses give to the chief epochs of culture their distinctive characters1 by which the natures of their elements and of the relations between them are determined2 and man acquires a definite relation to the world and can make a judgment upon it4 ,such a synthesis1 with its life-penetrating and life-forming power1 certainly contains some truth2 it is not a product of narrowly human reflection and imagination4 ,the course of time and the changes of history1 therefore1 cannot simply break it down completely2 rather with the truth that it contains such a synthesis elevates life above time into the eternal4 ,but it has not been demonstrated that life is capable of only one synthesis1 or that it may not produce a variety of such3 life does not necessarily realise its unity in simply establishing a single synthesis2 it can seek unity in the supremacy of a chief synthesis above others4 ,that experience in our own sphere of culture shows the latter to be the case we intend to indicate in a few lines4 ,a characteristic synthesis first made its appearance at the height of classical ,antiquity4 ,it was art1 chiefly plastic art1 that determined the nature of this synthesis4 ,form as a unifying and systematising power is at the centre of life1 takes possession of matter and organises it1 transforms chaos into a cosmos2 and in this exercise of power it realises itself1 even though its fundamental nature is regarded as transcending all change and variation4 ,spiritual work is formative and selective2 it is the triumphant realisation of form2 it is necessary that life in all its stages of development should be permeated by this formative spiritual activity4 ,there are numerous independent centres of life1 but the tendencies from each are towards the realisation of the whole1 and find their perfection in it alone4 ,thought1 independent of the world1 must extract from the medley of first impressions permanent forms1 and unite these into a consistent representation of the whole2 it finds the acme of its achievement in bringing this representation clearly to consciousness in a form that is complete and free from subjective addition4 ,in conduct1 an organisation and a unifying of the elements so as to produce a harmonious effect is the chief thing4 ,from the chaotic mass of individuals1 the state by constitution and law forms a living work of art1 a differentiated organism4 ,for the individual the chief matter in conduct is to bring the diverse forces in the soul into the right relation of order and gradation1 to reach the highest of all harmonies1 the harmonious life4 ,all this involves particular estimates of value1 a characteristic solution of the problems and a harmonising of the oppositions of our existence4 ,it is a matter of general knowledge how this synthesis has elevated and ennobled life1 and is still increasingly felt as an influence tending to further development and harmony4 ,but it is equally well known how the progress of life has rebuffed the claim of this system of life to be the only valid one4 ,we have become aware of contradictions which do not find sufficient acknowledgment in this system3 a gulf deeper than it is able to transcend has made its appearance between man and his environment3 in particular1 the supremacy of form1 which constitutes the basis of the system1 has been shaken4 ,antiquity1 at its highest development1 had1 without much consideration1 given to form a living soul2 its later course dissolved this union1 the soul degenerated more and more into an inwardness of feeling1 and gave up all claim1 if not to the world1 yet to its organisation and formation3 form1 deprived of soul1 threatened to become superficial1 and to change life into play and enjoyment4 ,it was at this point that ,christianity intervened with a powerful effect1 but it has not1 in the sense with which we are here concerned1 produced an organised system of life4 ,such a system was first produced in the ,modern ,age1 and more particularly in the period of the ,enlightenment4 ,this system makes force the centre of life2 to increase force without limit is the task of tasks4 ,the elements of reality are centres of force2 but these elements are not isolated1 because force is called forth only by force1 and the amount of life depends on the degree to which relations are developed4 ,since in this way one tends towards another1 they become interweaved and joined1 and the many are united4 ,for this system the world does not appear as a work of art which rests in itself1 but as a process that ceaselessly increases in volume3 the main achievement of spiritual work is1 with complete consciousness and self-determining activity1 to take possession of this process1 which actually surrounds us2 to change its infinite life as much as possible into our own life1 and to co-operate to the best of our capacity for its advancement4 ,since here spiritual work never tolerates a state of inactive peace1 never accepts the world as a rigid destiny1 but is concerned to develop the world1 to analyse the world as it first appears into its elements in order to reach the forces that move it1 life acquires a more active relation to the environment than it does in the earlier1 more contemplative system1 and feels itself to be more in the workshop of reality4 ,the relation of knowledge and life is changed from its traditional character4 ,research cannot transform the world from the apparent calm and completeness of the immediate impression into movement and development1 without analysing the representation offered into its ultimate elements2 ascertaining their laws1 and finally1 with the help of the idea of unlimited time1 reconstructing from the beginning the world1 which it had first of all destroyed4 ,with such destruction and reconstruction modern research brings the world much nearer to us1 and gives us more power over it than does the earlier type4 ,corresponding to the understanding of reality from its evolution1 man finds his own life in a progressive movement4 ,human society is regarded less as a well-arranged work of art than as a complex of forces1 which come to full development and make sure progress only in their relation4 ,the chief demand is for the greatest amount of freedom of movement2 the greatest number of relations between individuals1 and a ceaseless increase of the stream of life1 that should take up into itself all that bear human features4 ,the individual also must realise his existence as one of becoming and motion2 he is not bound by a closed standard of nature4 ,through the power of his spiritual nature he is able to assimilate ever new capacity1 and to grow without limit3 nothing gives more proud courage and joyous force to his life than this consciousness of an inner infinitude4 ,a characteristic ideal of culture and education is formed3 all individual departments of spiritual work are now regarded primarily as means to the increase of human power1 and must assume a form corresponding to this4 ,and so life everywhere becomes more active and more powerful3 it finds its aim within itself1 in its own elevation1 and has therefore no need to seek it in something external2 the whole existence of man becomes more his own work4 ,as work comes more deeply into touch with the nature of things the development of power becomes at the same time a controlling of the world4 ,it was not to be wondered at1 therefore1 when the modern man1 with the development of this system of life1 believed that for the first time he had left a childlike condition of constraint and limitation1 and entered a state of freedom and maturity4 ,but the further development of life shows clearly enough that this system1 which makes force and movement its leading principles1 is not the final stage of human endeavour3 the leading idea of our whole investigation is that human endeavour is more than this4 ,we have seen that a system of mere force and movement gives no soul to work and does not lead life to self-consciousness and self-determination4 ,a rushing stream seizes us and carries us along with it1 but we reach no position independent of it2 and so we cannot unify the multiplicity1 nor gain a content from its immeasurable achievement2 indeed1 the increasing extension of life divides us more and more into single forces1 and deprives us of a self that transcends the movement4 ,at first this was not fully perceived1 since the soul was implicitly assumed to be force and the extension of movement was regarded as a pure gain to the life of the soul4 ,but the further development and the keener emphasis on the new state attained could not but clearly indicate the contradiction here involved2 could not but lead to a separation between soul and work1 and force them into conflict4 ,hence there is a danger of work becoming mechanical1 and of the life of the soul1 which1 with this separation1 is thrown back entirely upon the subjective1 being lost in indefiniteness4 ,these experiences of mechanical work and indefinite subjectivity give birth to a new situation1 in which the problem of the soul1 a problem which in the earlier systems remained in the background1 is forced into prominence4 ,the task of life is seen to be a more fundamental one2 it is a matter not so much of altering a given reality in one way or another as of first discovering a genuine reality1 of advancing beyond all mere activity to a being which exists within the activity4 ,it has become evident to us in many ways that from the recognition of this a characteristic form of life proceeds4 ,the only question is whether the change is capable of bringing about a thorough organisation of life1 whether it can produce independent centres of life and unite them into a community of life1 and thus lead to the development of a system of life4 ,we ourselves most resolutely maintain the view that this is really possible2 that life is in process of forming itself into a new whole1 and that with the clearer establishment of this1 problems which have existed from early times receive full explanation1 and a definite advance is made in their solution4 ,we saw that1 in its highest stages of development1 life concentrates at particular points1 and that a characteristic sphere of life is in this way brought forth1 as1 for example1 in spiritual individualities1 national character1 and so on4 ,as soon as these developments are acknowledged to be spiritual and are sufficiently distinguished from simply natural existence1 as soon as the manifestation of a new world is recognised in them1 they become a great problem4 ,then they cannot be regarded as a mere product of a particular part of nature1 but must be accepted as primarily a creation from the spiritual life as a whole1 a creation which at the same time must maintain itself and transform in its own activity that which it receives4 ,the relation to the spiritual world as a whole is the fundamental relation of life1 and yet the further development of life does not follow immediately from the relation to the whole1 but from the relation to the innumerable other centres of life2 the infinitude that the individual being acquires from the relation to the whole receives that which is particular in its organisation and its content only from the experience of the relation to others4 ,the relation to others1 however1 is not produced by nature1 but as spiritual1 only from the spiritual world as a whole and must be continually sustained by the whole4 ,the relations of individual to individual will therefore be included within the whole1 and through the presence of the whole will be essentially advanced beyond the capacity of mere nature4 ,the love that arises here is fundamentally different from all the love which arises from natural impulse2 and1 understood in this manner1 notwithstanding all that may be doubtful in respect of its fulfilment in individual matters1 there is much point in the demand of ,augustine1 that1 in the relation of man to man1 not man but ,god should be set in the first place1 and that man is to be loved only through ,god4 ,however1 it is not an increase of activity alone that is sought in the multiplicity of relations1 but a growth of being--a being not beyond all activity1 but existent within it4 ,it is necessary not only that the life-process achieve more1 but also that it grow in itself1 change that which is alien to it into its own1 and display more reality within itself2 life must experience every single activity as the manifestation of the activity of the whole1 and thus1 along with unlimited extension1 preserve self-consciousness4 ,the demand for a self-conscious life1 the demand for an elevation of activity to the organisation and development of being1 by no means excludes other forms of activity1 if only for the reason that this demand presents a high ideal to which man can only very slowly approximate4 ,but this ideal constitutes an aim and a standard for all other activity2 the giving of form and the increasing of force must aid in the development towards this aim if they are not to become devoid of real worth4 ,the more necessary it is to insist upon an animation of reality through the development of self-conscious life1 the more must we guard against the danger of anthropomorphism1 which1 when we are hasty and impatient1 inevitably finds an entrance to and corrupts the whole of our thought and life4 ,only with much toil and with continual self-criticism can life be brought to the point where the transition to self-consciousness is possible2 and even then the whole cannot1 under human circumstances1 be attained at one stroke2 but at first life must endeavour to concentrate1 to form a nucleus so that in this way it may acquire a firm basis1 and from this take up a struggle for its further spiritualisation4 ,the same thing is to be seen in the differentiation and the gradation of life3 everywhere a movement towards self-consciousness begins1 but the emergence of this movement forces an antithesis into prominence1 and life is completely transformed into work and conflict4 ,thought cannot be satisfied with representing the world as a work of art or as a process2 thought must seek self-consciousness in the world4 ,this it finds in the emergence of an independent spiritual life and in reality's coming-to-itself2 at the same time the difference between spirit and nature becomes more pronounced1 and all the divergences in life increase4 ,men can find their highest unity neither in joining together so as to form a whole as a work of art1 nor in a system of progressive increase of force4 ,neither alone could prevent society from becoming spiritually destitute1 nor could both together4 ,society also needs a self-consciousness and acquires it only through the development of a spiritual content and spiritual character2 but this must be won by continual struggle from the medley which constitutes the general condition of social life4 ,again1 the individual does not attain a content for his life through an immediate combination of his powers so as to form a harmonious whole1 or through increasing them without limit2 the individual also must by activity concentrate his life and so gain the basis of a new world3 never is he in his life1 as a whole1 personality and spiritual individuality4 ,true1 there lies within him the potentiality to become such a spiritual individuality1 and this potentiality may be transformed in his own activity2 and the existence thus acquired can affect the rest of life1 arousing and elevating it4 ,thus the ideal is set completely in the distance2 it is seen that we do not live our life from a given basis1 but that1 on the contrary1 we have first to acquire the basis and to preserve it by continuous work2 it is not a particular direction of life1 but a genuine life itself and with this a spiritual being that is in question4 ,we appear1 therefore1 more imperfect than ever before4 ,but in this connection the imperfection itself is a witness that important tasks are set before us1 and that superior forces rule in us4 ,in the midst of all that is obscure it cannot fail to be recognised that there is a movement towards the development of a new self-conscious reality above the capacity and the interests of mere man4 ,this movement has been manifested in great historical achievements1 in the formation of fruitful systems of life which at the same time were developments of the life of the individual4 ,it has brought forth ever new creations2 now it sets before us the task of developing a new system of life which does complete justice to self-consciousness1 and in accordance with its main idea must also transform all individual aspects and departments4 ,where we recognise so much to do1 we are certainly far removed from opinion and pretence4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,more ,,detailed ,,form ,,of ,,our ,,spiritual ,,life 7a7 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,truth ,,and ,,reality ,whatever there is peculiar in our conception of the spiritual life must be manifested and proved in reference to the problem of truth and reality4 ,in the first place our conception decidedly rejects the widely held view of truth as a correspondence of our thought with an external reality4 ,for the attainment of independence by the inner life makes it impossible for something externally existing to be taken up into life without undergoing an essential change4 ,it is also inconceivable from this point of view how something beyond us could in any way attract and arouse us4 ,the problem of truth can do this only if it originates within our own life3 it can become a compelling power only if the attainment of truth aids us to transcend a division within ourselves which has become intolerable4 ,the representation of life1 that we have given1 makes it quite evident that such a division does spring up within us4 ,within our own life a certain activity begins1 which becomes wider and wider1 and which would signify our whole being4 ,but this activity finds limits and contradiction within ourselves3 much takes place in our experience independent of this activity and apparently without our co-operation2 a certain condition of things exists1 and asserts a rigid actuality2 and1 so far as this condition extends1 we are bound2 we bear something impenetrable within us4 ,so long as these two sides of our being remain separated life is not complete and genuine3 activity lacks a foundation1 a content1 and a direction that is sure of its aim2 and all the bustle of free movements1 all effort of reflection cannot conceal the state of spiritual poverty4 ,on the other hand1 the fact that we bear so much within us that only half belongs to us and that presses upon us like a fate must cramp and oppress us4 ,and so life does not experience itself as a unity2 it lacks an inner truth1 since activity presents itself as a whole and yet is not one4 ,life itself is therefore a problem4 ,the problem must be felt to be the more serious the stronger the desire for a self-consciousness becomes4 ,however1 self-consciousness cannot possibly be reached without a transcendence of the division between activity and the given condition of things4 ,life has first to seek itself1 its unity1 its perfection2 and it is just this that is the problem of truth3 and in this problem life is turned not towards externals1 but towards itself4 ,we understand now how the desire for truth can exert such an enormous power1 for1 in this struggle for truth1 we fight not for something alien1 but for our own being4 ,this conception of truth determines also the nature of the effort to attain truth4 ,the task cannot be to subordinate one side of life to the other1 and to derive one side as far as possible from the other2 that is1 to transform the given condition of life as far as possible into free activity1 or to adapt activity to the given condition in such a way that activity is merged into it2 but the task is one of pressing forward to a transcendent active whole which unites the two sides1 and develops them both2 and in mutual relation gives to activity a content and to the given condition a soul4 ,we have seen how a movement to attain such a unity runs through history and extends into the soul of the individual4 ,that life is in general able to unify and raise itself is the presupposition of all striving after truth3 the proof of this1 however1 is to be found in the actual furtherance of life1 in the new contents which are thus obtained4 ,such a way of regarding truth1 that is1 as an upward endeavour of life to its own unity1 a unity not forced upon it but immanent1 exhibits its unique nature especially in its opposition to the intellectualistic conception of truth1 which1 notwithstanding that it has been rejected and attacked so often1 still continues to assert a mighty power4 ,according to the intellectualist1 cognition should treat the problem and solve it of its own capacity2 it seems that the synthesis that is sought must be found in the first place in the realm of thought1 and thence imparted to the rest of life4 ,as a fact1 however1 knowledge itself is affected with particular severity by the division of free activity and fixed given condition2 and from its own capacity thought cannot attain to a state of full creative activity which alone is able to overcome the division1 but for the attainment of this is referred to an advance of life as a whole which alone can reach an essentially new position4 ,to be sure1 cognition has particular fundamental logical principles which regulate all its work4 ,but to regulate and to produce are two different things4 ,the most scrupulous adherence to these principles does not lead beyond reflection to an inner relation to the object1 to an inner transcendence1 a penetration1 and an appropriation of the object2 it leaves us still in the position of simply attempting to know1 in a state of mere reflection and search4 ,all real knowledge involves a spiritual creation1 an advance1 and a self-formation of life as a whole4 ,the chief epochs of culture have therefore given a distinctly unique character to the inner nature and the fundamental texture of knowledge2 the character given to it by one epoch being entirely different from that given to it by another4 ,modern knowledge does not differ from earlier knowledge only in a quantitative way3 as soon as its connection with the chief synthesis characteristic of modern life is revealed1 it can no longer be regarded as absolute knowledge1 but only as a particular kind of knowledge beyond which there are possibilities of further developments4 ,from life as a whole the conflict will extend into all its individual departments1 and give to the activity in them a greater intensity4 ,religion1 art1 and human society all have first to overcome the opposition of subjective power and alien given condition1 and thereby to win a truth4 ,in no case does truth mean a taking up of things which are presented to the activity of life--it means rather an advance of life to its own perfection4 ,in accordance with this conception of truth1 that which claims to be true will not be able to prove its right otherwise than through its power1 that is1 through its capacity to embrace life as a whole and to raise it above opposition into the state of complete activity4 ,every such attempt must prove its power and its right in opposition to rivals by being able to wrest from them the truth contained by them1 and in new relationships to lead beyond the state they reach1 and to change life more into a self-consciousness than they are able4 ,hence the endeavour after truth here shows more movement1 more freedom1 more multiplicity3 different starting points and different ways may be chosen1 and the correctness of the one need not involve the incorrectness of the other4 ,the only indispensable thing is that the movement pass beyond the state of division and reflection to one of complete activity2 only in that way can the content of life gain through the movement of life4 ,and so we see the great significance of progress in work1 in spiritual work2 according as it succeeds1 genuine life is distinguished from the mere will to live4 ,to be sure1 each piece of work that is here undertaken is a venture2 it is far easier and far more secure to continue in the state of mere reflection and reasoning4 ,but the latter does not lead us to an experience and a decision in a matter concerning the development of life1 and therefore does not bring us a step further in this chief matter4 ,work with its failures is better than all subtle contemplation which leads to no activity2 for failure can lead us beyond itself to truth1 while feebleness and inactivity keep us in the old position4 ,in our conception of it truth is anything but a system of universal propositions out of which1 by deduction1 all detail might be derived4 ,rather the organisation of life into an inner unity1 upon which in this view of truth everything depends1 will exclude all that is only general and turn towards the differentiation of the whole4 ,the more life progresses in this direction the less is it a mere application of general principles2 the less does it find its consummation after the manner of a conclusion from given premises2 the more does it become a progressive activity1 a new formation and an elevation4 ,in this conception1 there is also room for a truth peculiar to the single individuals4 ,as the comprehensive life-synthesis can permeate every individual detail of existence1 so it is necessary for every individual life-centre to realise its own particular synthesis1 and that every individual should fight for his inner unity and thus1 also1 for a truth of his own2 he must1 however1 realise this unity and truth in every particular activity4 ,a truth which is not my truth is1 for me1 not a complete truth4 ,only it is necessary that such individualisation be effected within the whole1 not independent of it2 it must result from the inner necessity of creative activity1 not out of a vain wish to excel4 ,in any case1 it follows here that1 as the immanent and universal form of truth requires more activity and power1 it is also able to grant more free movement and multiplicity4 ,truth and freedom have been thought opposed to one another in the course of history2 if the former seemed to require unconditional submission1 the latter had a strong tendency to shake off every tie as an oppressive yoke4 ,if we see that truth of life can be reached only through freedom1 and also that freedom acquires a content and a spiritual character only through its relation to truth1 the opposition by no means entirely disappears1 but a basis is won upon which we may strive to attain an agreement and a fruitful interaction between the two4 99 99 99 99 99 ,so understood1 the problem of truth has the closest connection with that of reality3 with regard to the one as to the other we are concerned in a conflict against the external conception common to a nave state of life1 which1 though far surpassed by the inner movement of the work of history1 obstinately asserts itself through the evidence of the senses in single individuals and hardly ceases to impress men with its apparent self-evidence4 ,the nave way of thinking understands reality as a space which encompasses men and things2 reality seems to be presented1 given1 to man through the senses2 only that which is exhibited to man in these sense-relations passes current as real4 ,in this ,ptolemaic form of life1 dominated by sense impression1 everything other than sense fades to a mere illusion1 and this includes the spiritual life itself1 although in it alone is reality known4 ,now1 however1 as science has with no mean power led beyond this ,ptolemaic representation of nature1 so the development of life has led beyond the ,ptolemaic reality4 ,life could not emancipate itself from its attachment to the environment and develop an inwardness without effecting a revolution in this problem4 ,the inward becomes the first and surest experience1 with which all that is to pass current as real must show itself to be in consistent relation3 everything external loses its proximity and becomes a problem2 it can be established as real only through that which it achieves for the inner nature and in accordance with the standards of that nature4 ,the power to convince possessed by sense impression is now based1 not on its obviousness1 but on the spiritual activity that it arouses4 ,here also1 only the experiences of the spiritual life itself can lead to the experience of something less than spiritual4 ,as such a revolution brings clearly to consciousness the spiritual achievement in the formation of reality1 so at the same time it gives the object more movement and transforms it in spiritual endeavour4 ,two things are necessary to the conception of reality3 an independence of man1 and a realisation of the many as a unity4 ,now1 since that which lies wholly beyond experience must for that reason be inaccessible to us1 this assertion of independence can have no other meaning than that1 within life itself1 something becomes detached from the stream of consciousness and fixes and asserts itself as independent of it4 ,the power thus to transcend the time-process is a characteristic mark of all spiritual activity2 this activity evolves within us something in opposition to us1 and in so doing accomplishes a marvellous expansion4 ,this is most clearly seen within the sphere of thought4 ,for all the functions peculiar to thought receive their differentiating characteristic only through such a detachment from the flow of sense-presentation and by establishing themselves as independent of it3 the concept presents its content as something fixed in contrast to the stream of presentations2 the judgment proclaims its connection of concepts to be something that does not pass away with the act of connecting them but persists in face of all the changes of the psychical life4 ,life accomplishes a gradation within itself and lifts itself above the mere stream of change4 ,only because life establishes within itself a fixed nucleus1 and in this manner wins an independence of its own momentary condition1 can it oppose a world to itself1 and set itself the task of appropriating this world--that1 further1 that independent nucleus should remain no mere collection1 but should be inwardly unified is again a requirement and an achievement of the spiritual life4 ,how far that requirement will be fulfilled depends upon the nature and the degree of the development of the spiritual life4 ,reality1 therefore1 is to be found chiefly in the self-consciousness of the spiritual life2 from this self-consciousness we build up our reality4 ,since spiritual requirement is from this point of view the measure of human undertaking1 our activity is judged by the degree to which the state of the world is changed in it and has thus become our reality4 ,how far our capacity reaches in this matter cannot be decided by preliminary consideration1 but only by the progress of life itself3 in particular it is not permissible to assume things-in-themselves independent of us and thus to reduce our world to a realm of mere appearances4 ,for1 so far as that independence reached1 things could never enter our life1 and never be inwardly appropriated2 at most they could concern us only in their effects4 ,as far as the conception of nature as a mechanism is concerned1 which regards all occurrence as a texture of related individual points which exist1 inaccessible1 behind it1 there is much to be said for the view that things are only known in their effects2 but this view is an intolerable limitation--dogmatic in the highest degree--if it is meant to represent our fundamental relation to reality and to ourselves4 ,for then we should be related to ourselves as to something alien2 all the self-consciousness of life would be destroyed2 there could be no development of being in contrast to single acts1 but we must be completely resolved in the stream of appearances2 there would be no advance in the striving after reality4 ,as a matter of fact1 we are concerned primarily with the content that life is able to give to itself2 how far it presses forward to reality4 ,our world is to be measured more especially by the degree in which life becomes deepened4 ,but from the beginning man1 so far as he shares in the spiritual life1 is not a being adjacent to reality1 but within it4 ,he would never be able to attain to a reality if he did not bear it within himself and needed only to develop it4 ,thus ultimately he does not look inwards from outside1 but outwards from within2 and his limitation is not the chief thing1 but the secondary4 ,the inner structure of our life corresponds with this conviction4 ,it is characteristic of all spiritual life that it does not pass hither and thither between individual points1 but includes and develops a multiplicity within a transcendent unity2 by this the spiritual life grows within itself1 and more and more acquires a self-consciousness4 ,and it is just in this way that it evolves to a reality4 ,reality1 therefore1 here is not a fixed and completed magnitude1 but is of different degrees4 ,in the first place there is a difference in the energy which maintains a union of the manifold and a transcendence of the division3 according to the nature of this energy the self appears1 sometimes stronger1 sometimes weaker2 its power of changing1 at one time greater1 at another smaller4 ,again1 the force of the resistance that the given condition to be appropriated offers1 differs according to the amount of its positive power2 and the clash of the given condition and free activity will be harder or more gentle according to this power4 ,one man finds intolerable contradictions where to another all is plain and smooth2 one believes that things are transformed in their own being where another holds that only their surface is affected3 and so1 that which one regards as reality may seem to another only a realm of shadows4 ,mere energy1 however1 is too subjective to be able to obtain a genuine reality from life3 for that1 a transformation of life in work1 an elevation to full activity1 is necessary2 but the preceding paragraph has shown that this transformation and elevation is of different kinds and of different degrees4 ,the system of the formation of being promises to give to life the most fundamental organisation and the most forceful reality4 ,for into the single elements embraced by the movement of life it is able to breathe a life of their own1 to confer upon them an incomparably greater independence than in those systems in which they are regarded as lifeless objects which are acted upon1 and which only set isolated forces in motion4 ,when within a comprehensive life different centres of life meet1 and in their interaction the activity of the whole wins an ever richer content and a more stable nature1 genuine reality must increasingly unfold itself4 ,looked at from this position1 reality is not a fact but a problem and an ideal2 it does not lie at the beginning but at the end of the course3 it is different with different individuals1 peoples1 and times2 each in its particular nature and work has its own reality4 ,thus we cannot comprehend the problem of reality from experience without conceiving reality as existing in flux3 the assertion of an independent spiritual life1 transcendent over all human undertaking1 is a sufficient safeguard against a destructive relativism4 ,it is one of the most troublesome appearances in the conflicts of minds that they fail to recognise the many-sidedness and fluidity of our conceptions of reality2 that each takes his conception as the self-evident one and urges it upon the others4 ,in this way originate the many unfruitful disputes concerning this world and the next1 immanence and transcendence1 in which the most external and superficial conception is usually presented as self-evident2 while yet1 according to the fundamental relation and the chief basis of life1 very different conceptions arise1 and as a fact1 systems of thought nowhere come into more severe conflict than with regard to their conceptions of reality4 ,only to a mode of thought which1 without further consideration1 accepts the world of sense as the genuine and only reality1 can philosophy and religion1 for example1 appear to be occupied with things implying an other world1 and which1 therefore1 are incomprehensible4 ,on the contrary1 ,augustine thought to attain to genuine reality and at the same time a true life only by elevation to a realm above sense1 so that to him the world of sense was secondary and derivative4 ,to-day we are again deeply concerned with the problem of reality4 ,notwithstanding all the passionate agitation of forces in the incalculable extension of and the breathless haste in work1 a genuine reality fails us2 our life lacks the proper character of being real2 and so1 in the midst of all the external results of our work1 our life1 spiritually discerned1 threatens to become destitute and unreal4 ,an eager desire for reality exists in our time2 it is often thought possible to satisfy it by the closest possible connection with sense impression and impulse1 and by expelling as far as possible all elements of thought4 ,but thought is there1 and cannot be expelled2 with its power to analyse1 it steps continually between us and things1 takes away from them the proximity they have for us1 and dissolves them into mere pictures and shadows4 ,as a fact1 the problem of reality lies primarily within the spiritual life2 and it cannot be solved otherwise than in that the spiritual life advances within itself from division to unity1 from the movement of forces to self-determining activity1 from all mere activity to a formation of being4 ,if thus our life becomes transformed into a self-preservation1 if in it we unfold and assert a spiritual being1 we become certain of a reality and feel a satisfaction4 ,never1 however1 can reality come to us from without4 7b7 ,,man ,,and ,,the ,,world ,through our whole investigation we have expressed the conviction that man acquires a secure relation to the world only through his belonging to a spiritual life acknowledged as independent2 otherwise1 all entrance to the world is shut off4 ,the growing independence of the inner life has broken down the immediate connection which dominates the nave way of thinking3 if1 however1 man once finds himself set in a position of independence of the world1 he can hardly draw it back to himself simply of his own capacity4 ,all appeal to subtlety and reflection seems only to widen the gulf still more4 ,only the acknowledgment of an independent spiritual life offers a way out of such a desperate situation3 if in the spiritual life the world attains to a self-consciousness1 and if1 on the other hand1 the spiritual life is present and active within man1 there is a possibility that man and the world are united2 and that1 at the same time1 human life also becomes cosmic4 ,but it is a question how far the possibility comes to be realised2 how far the union that exists in the innermost basis can be developed and transformed within us in the work of life4 ,only the actual experience of life can answer this question4 ,we must ascertain whether there are any particular developments of life which are not productions of the human1 but which manifest the operation of a transcendent world2 and1 further1 whether these developments are able to find a more detailed formation in their contact with the world around us1 and to adapt themselves to the multiplicity of this world4 ,such a turning to the individual thing would be impossible if a complete life-form ruled within us and impressed itself on things only from the outside4 ,for in this case this form must inevitably be uniformly effective in its whole extent2 in appropriating the multiplicity it could not itself advance to greater concreteness4 ,if such an advance is effected1 there is a contact within life between the one and the other2 and so the world acquires an inner connection with our activity1 and the spiritual movement can take possession of the breadth of our life and with its differentiation gain a greater intuitiveness4 ,an immediate union of man and world is indeed opposed to the fact that the spiritual life which should unite them always exists1 for us1 in its particular form in human existence and that this form cannot be projected beyond man into the whole4 ,the form of human existence constitutes an insuperable boundary2 if it governed our life as a whole1 then man could never overstep his narrow1 particular sphere4 ,but it is a conviction that is fundamental to our investigation that our whole life does not come under this form1 but that there are tendencies in life which are operative beyond this form of existence1 and attain to an independence of it4 ,so far as these life-tendencies may be detached and developed1 man may confidently take up the problem of the world1 and feel related to the world around him2 he can try to transform its life into his own4 ,the particularity of his manner of presentation and perception then simply sets the limitation1 that that which may be admitted to be certain and true in its fundamental content can be presented only through the medium of human peculiarity2 the more detailed amplification of the representation is always only of a symbolic character4 ,we see from this fact that there is a contradiction ever present within our life that prevents it from ever gaining an ultimate conclusion2 however1 it does not take from us the possibility of an inner union and a community with the whole4 ,indeed1 the contradiction itself1 and the powerful movement that it calls forth1 are to the train of thought here indicated a witness to a fundamental expansion of our life4 ,an attempt to unite our life with the whole appears in the first place in thought1 in its work of obtaining knowledge4 ,this emergence of thought involves a transformation of life that could never be occasioned by mere man1 but can be understood only as the revelation of a new stage of universal life4 ,in thought1 the intellect1 otherwise bound to the mechanism of the sequence of presentations1 attains an independence4 ,it places itself in a position independent of the world1 and seeks to comprehend it as a whole1 to appropriate it as a whole4 ,the primary connection with things is dissolved1 to become established anew upon a higher level and with an important transformation of its nature2 through the deviation a real appropriation is achieved4 ,all this is incomparably more than a merely becoming conscious of a given world1 which is an experience that could arise in some way at isolated points2 thought contains a development of the world which ultimately can proceed only from the power of the world itself4 ,how can the individual matter be elucidated if the whole remain obscure8 ,how can the desire for enlightenment obtain such a power over man1 and assert itself in him in opposition to the interests of his physical self-preservation1 if a universal movement were not operative in him8 ,man does not elucidate the world1 but the world elucidates itself within him4 ,what is thus reached is valid not for him alone1 but universally2 the development of this universal movement of thought enables him to win a closer relation to the world1 a life embracing the world4 ,our thought cannot advance in the definite work of building up science without producing and employing a definite logical structure with fixed principles3 these principles are immanent in the work of thought2 they are above all the caprice and all the differences of the individuals4 ,this logical structure cannot be carried over and applied to the world around us1 as all scientific research carries it over and applies it1 without implicitly presupposing an objective logic of things1 a conceivability of experience3 in this1 man does not simply project externally and apply mechanically forms already existing in a complete and final state within him4 ,for the multiplicity of things not only gives to those principles a particular form1 in the production of which they must themselves participate1 but through the relation to the world the fundamental forms are also further developed in their nature as a whole2 it is only with the co-operation of both sides that the thought-structure achieves what is ultimately reached4 ,the chief thing is that thought actually transcends the state of contemplative reflection1 and advances to fully active work2 that out of the movement of our thought proceed further developments1 which extend to the object also2 that1 moreover1 we come under the compulsion of inner necessities1 and1 possessing the highest freedom1 are raised securely above all caprice4 ,this creative thought in us1 which is at the same time our own thought1 constitutes a witness to a meeting of our thought with a thought that has its basis in things and in the whole4 ,inability to imagine such a thought should never lead to the denial of an absolute logic1 with which all scientific research stands or falls4 ,the disclosure of this relation1 however1 gives to our thought1 in the midst of all doubt1 a firm foundation1 a joyful certainty1 an infinite task4 ,artistic creation and appreciation brings another characteristic unfolding of life2 and this also demonstrates an inner relation of man to the world1 and can be developed only when this relation is acknowledged4 ,in the first place1 for this creation and appreciation a deliverance of life from the turmoil of ends and interests1 which at first sway our existence1 is essential2 artistic creation and appreciation involves a resting and a tarrying in itself4 ,if the world were no more than this turmoil1 if it did not in some way attain to self-consciousness1 how could such a deliverance be brought about8 ,if a self-conscious life were not present in man1 how could a longing for an artistic moulding of life arise in him8 ,but an arousing of an inner life in things1 the revelation of a soul1 is accomplished not through imparting something from without1 but through a meeting together of things and human endeavour4 ,on the other hand1 the spiritual expresses itself in a visible form and in doing so moulds itself4 ,the chief thing in this connection is not mere beauty1 a preparation for idle enjoyment1 but a truth1 a revelation of contents1 a further development of life through and above the antithesis4 ,how could something invisible and something visible1 to express the matter briefly1 find a common ground and combine together in a common action if nature were not more than the mere web of relations into which the mechanistic conception of it transforms it2 if spiritual life were not more than the subjective form of life that it is supposed to be1 according to general opinion2 if from that form of life an inner life did not arise1 and beyond all subjectivity attain to a full activity1 and thus to the building up of a reality within its own province8 ,that we do not simply become aware of a movement within ourselves1 and then read it into nature1 but only take up and lead to its own truth that which strives upward in nature1 is again testified by the inner advance of this striving through its contact with the world1 and by the infinite abundance of particular contents which are revealed to us in the world and which continually aid in our development4 ,again1 our life experiences the most important elevation in that it takes up and carries further a movement of the whole1 and is liberated from the narrowness of the particular sphere1 without merging into a vague infinity4 ,to realise clearly that we belong to the world1 and energetically to amplify this relation1 is of the greatest significance for artistic creation and appreciation4 ,for it is only by becoming firmly established in these relations that artistic endeavour is able to resist the tendency to degenerate into play and pleasure--a tendency which threatens it with inner destruction2 as in a similar manner the work of thought must guard itself from degenerating into mere reflection4 ,in the realms of thought and art there remains much that is alien1 ever surmise and symbol2 but even symbol is not to be disdained1 if it serves an important truth4 ,a universal character is shown most clearly by the movements that co-operate towards the ethical moulding of life4 ,without freedom there is no such moulding2 but we saw above that freedom requires a world of spontaneous life and its presence within man4 ,however1 when freedom is thought of in these relations1 it is elevated above the usual conception of it and also above the usual criticism4 ,all moral life is pretence and delusion without the arousing and fundamental idea of duty4 ,but where is the truth more clearly expressed than in duty1 that what man does by no means concerns himself alone2 and that nothing can constrain him but what he acknowledges as his own will1 his own being8 ,as duty is concerned ultimately not with something isolated but with a whole1 not with a performance within the old order but with the creation of a new order1 so in the moral life a whole new world appears to be taken up into man's own will and being4 ,duty exhibits the new world particularly in relation and in opposition to the old2 the new world appears in itself to be pre-eminently a kingdom of love4 ,love is primarily not a subjective emotion1 but an expansion and a deepening of life1 through life setting itself in the other1 taking the other up into itself2 and in this movement life itself becomes greater1 more comprehensive and noble4 ,love is not a mere relation of given individuals1 but a development and a growing in communion1 an elevation and an animation of the original condition4 ,and this movement of love has no limits2 it has all infinity for its development2 it extends beyond the relation to persons to the relation to things2 for things also reveal their innermost being only to a disposition of love4 ,again1 the striving after truth in science and art cannot succeed without love and an animation that proceeds from it1 without inwardly becoming one with the object4 ,how could this unity and activity in the whole be possible1 how could it even become an object of desire1 if the whole itself did not strive8 ,and how could such a wealth of cultures proceed out of this movement if that which was striven towards at one time was not taken up and carried further by other times2 how could the single movements tend together without the unifying and elevating power of a universal life8 ,as a phenomenon to the individual1 the movement involves a definite contradiction3 wherever it has been further and more freely developed it has been directed to a kingdom of love2 and this has necessarily been thought of as the soul of reality1 and a severe conflict has been taken up against the world of self-assertion4 ,thus in the realm of morality also we find ourselves in world-movements1 we create out of the whole1 work towards the whole1 and are borne on the flood of infinite life4 ,accordingly1 life-developments of various and related kinds arise3 with their manifold experiences they strive to attain to a harmony and a union with one another4 ,they can seek these only on the basis of a self-consciousness of reality2 find them only through their unification in a universal life1 to which each individual tendency leads4 ,representations of the whole are attempted at the highest points of creative activity by philosophy1 religion1 and art2 these representations accompany1 indeed govern1 the work in these spheres of life through history4 ,but the limitations of our capacity1 through which we are unable to give a suitable form to necessary contents1 and through which we attribute and must attribute human traits to that which should lead us beyond the human1 are of particular force in this matter of forming a representation of the whole2 and1 indeed1 this is the more so the further we remove ourselves from that which may be immediately transformed in work4 ,these representations of the whole are1 therefore1 inadequate2 their content of truth is clothed in a wrapping of myth1 and humanity lies under the danger of taking the myth for the chief thing and thus of obscuring the truth1 and this must produce an incalculable amount of error and strife4 ,still1 it is impossible to give up all claim to these representations of the whole2 for they alone make the fact of our belonging to the whole and of the presence of the whole in our life quite clear and enable it to exert a far-reaching influence4 ,only with their help can the degeneration of life to the intolerable insignificance of the narrowly human be resisted2 only with their help can a movement from whole to whole begin4 ,thus it is a matter not so much of abandoning these representations of the whole as of referring them continually to their essence2 to those unfoldings of life which are experienced by us2 to test them by these and to renew them from these4 ,it was the error of the earlier position--much too indulgent to ,intellectualism-that it did not sufficiently maintain the relation with these living sources1 and so fell into the danger of having no definite tendency1 or even of failing to recognise the relativity of the myth4 ,if a more energetic direction of life upon its own content and experiences teaches us to preserve these connections better and to develop them more forcefully1 a new type of representation of the whole is yielded in contrast to the old1 and far more different from it than may appear at the first glance4 ,we may hope that with its development the truth will be seen more clearly through the myth1 and that the striving1 which we cannot give up1 to win a universal life may not lead us astray into a world of dreams4 7c7 ,,the ,,movement ,,of ,,the ,,spiritual ,,life ,,in ,,man ,the question as to in which direction the spiritual life moves in man is implied through our whole investigation1 and in it receives an answer4 ,nevertheless1 it requires to be definitely stated and treated by itself1 so that the distinctive character of the movement and its influence in the moulding of life may be fully acknowledged4 ,it has become clearly evident to us that an independent and1 therefore1 genuine spiritual life cannot arise out of life in its usual condition1 but only in opposition to this condition4 ,for1 however little this condition of life may lack spiritual elements1 they are mixed and bound up with other elements far too much to be able to bind themselves immediately into a whole1 and to display an independent power4 ,that the spiritual life must and can gain a basis independent of this condition of life is the indispensable1 fundamental idea of ,idealism4 ,but such attainment of independence of the usual condition would help little if the spiritual life which is based upon itself had not a particular nature of its own1 and if from this it did not oppose everything alien and partly alien to itself4 ,the doctrines of innate ideas1 of an a priori1 and so on1 which have occupied humanity for thousands of years did not intend anything different from this4 ,the details of the conception of these were indeed often open to criticism3 it was sought to exhibit individual conceptions and propositions as existing complete at the beginning1 where rather movements or tendencies are in question1 which can find their realisation only within the work of life4 ,again1 the a priori was limited to the intellectual sphere1 whereas it is indispensable to all spiritual activity2 for example1 how can morality1 rising above merely natural preservation and rejecting all mere utility1 as it does1 be conceived without such an a priori8 ,to deny to spiritual life an original nature and power--an a priori in this more comprehensive sense--means nothing else than to eliminate that life as an independent factor1 and to reduce it to the position of a secondary product4 ,for without an original nature the spiritual life would be like soft wax that may be shaped in one form or another to suit our own pleasure3 then the spiritual life could not possibly follow its own aims1 could not possibly attain to an independence in the inner life1 in which we recognised the characteristic nature of the inner life4 ,as certain as it is that there is a spiritual life at all1 so certainly does it bring certain fundamental tendencies and movements with it2 as surely as it develops in particular directions--and that it does this we have seen--so surely is this a priori also differentiated4 ,to trace this fundamental state of spiritual activity in all its relations and multiplicity is an especially important task of philosophic research4 ,the revelation of such an original fundamental activity of the spirit must induce us to undertake to form our whole world from this activity1 and to produce from it or to transform into it that which exists over against activity as an independent realm of experience4 ,this has been attempted for thousands of years with the summoning of an enormous amount of spiritual power and the arousing of a proud self-consciousness4 ,but failure was inevitable because it was not recognised that the development of the spiritual life in man is conditioned4 ,however certain it may be that original spiritual movements must be active within us1 they are not so with organised content and overwhelming power from the beginning1 but they acquire content and power only through the process of life itself1 only in grappling with the oppositions of experience and in the appropriation of the tasks and stimuli which experience brings to them4 ,the incompleteness and the mutability of what was accepted earlier as a fixed and unchangeable racial possession of the spiritual life is to-day quite clearly perceived4 ,what great changes morality1 for example1 has undergone in the course of the ages2 how toilsomely has much been won which later ages have considered self-evident6 ,to be sure1 morality remains1 even through all such changes1 an original spiritual phenomenon1 which can never be derived from an external source1 but which could emerge and establish itself only as an inner necessity of the spiritual life in opposition to the realm of mere utility4 ,but the actuality of this original phenomenon gives rise to a difficult problem1 for the solution of which a closer contact with the environment1 a fundamental arrangement with experience1 is necessary4 ,and so the problem is traced to a more ultimate source1 and1 though this makes the matter less simple1 it gives a higher significance to our work and to the movement of history4 ,even the fundamental forms of thought which are often accepted as of everything the most fixed share in this gradual amplification4 ,man1 so far as he participates in spiritual impulse1 thinks1 of course1 in conceptions2 he gives to appearances fixed points of support by the establishing of things1 and relates events causally4 ,but all this is full of problems and is comprehended only in its upward endeavour2 it raises more problems than it solves2 and around the solution of these the whole work of science moves4 ,what different things the idea meant to ,plato and to ,kant1 and to ancient and to modern thought generally3 how every thinker of moment has given a particular conception of substance and of causality2 how whole epochs have exhibited their particular nature in the treatment of these problems6 ,for the sake of its own perfection1 therefore1 the spiritual life must continually turn back to the realm of experience1 from which1 at first1 it tore itself free4 ,attempts to evolve the whole life from that a priori have always given as a result something of a bloodless nature1 abstract in the highest degree1 a mere web of formul1 in so far as experience1 which had been relegated to the background1 has not indirectly asserted its right again1 and infused the formul with life4 ,accordingly1 our life does not spend itself in one direction1 but bears within it the counter-tendencies of a tearing oneself free from the world of sense and a returning back to it1 of a detachment from it and an appropriation of it to oneself4 ,but1 in this1 independent life and bound life do not become combined2 how could that be the case without the loss of all inner unity8 ,a basis is necessary2 and it is furnished only by self-determining activity4 ,experience acquires a spiritual content and value only so far as it is based upon this activity1 and is taken up into a spiritual movement4 ,experience does not share something with the spiritual life1 but1 through stimulation and opposition1 it forces that life to further development within itself4 ,the state in which the world of sense is first found undergoes an inner elevation in that appropriation3 sense presentation1 for example1 is to scientific work something quite different from what it is to nave perception2 even if it obstinately withstands a complete resolution into magnitudes of pure thought1 it takes up more and more thought elements2 it enters into conceptual relations2 it answers questions which the work of thought sets4 ,to the whole sphere of sense science gives the background of a world of thought1 and transforms mere sense into a spatially bound spirituality4 ,the same thing is valid with regard to the things of value in life2 in these1 also1 sense and spirit are not simply combined2 but something of sense becomes a spiritual good only so far as it serves the spiritual life in some way2 it cannot do this1 however1 without itself undergoing a transformation4 ,this is to be seen nowhere more clearly than in economics4 ,money and estate had at all times a value for self-preservation and enjoyment1 but in the doctrine of economics and political economy they could obtain acknowledgment only after a power to advance the spiritual life had been recognised in them4 ,as culture in the ancient world had not yet reached this point of view1 it branded all endeavour after material wealth as inferior1 and as far as possible checked such endeavour4 ,only since the ,modern ,age has recognised in money and estate an indispensable means of gaining control over the surrounding world and of increasing human power have they secured a place within the spiritual life1 and as a result of this have become more highly estimated4 ,at the same time1 however1 they have been changed inwardly in the process1 since that which they achieve1 not towards ostentatious display and enjoyment1 but towards the increase of human power over things has become the chief matter4 ,as in this way the content and the value of that which is offered by the world of sense shows its dependence upon the condition of the spiritual life1 so in science also a similar relation between experience and the spiritual life is found4 ,science appeals to experience with particular zeal1 more especially after it has first accomplished far-reaching changes in its own thought constructions2 only then does experience give anything new to knowledge and exhibit a greater depth4 ,experience can answer only in the measure in which it is questioned2 the question1 however1 varies according to the stage of development of the spiritual life4 ,such a view fully appreciates the significance of life-work1 and must strive energetically to gain its acknowledgment4 ,this work is not a carrying out of a complete scheme in a given condition of things1 an application of firmly rooted principles to particular cases1 but a self-realisation and self-perfecting of the spiritual life which builds up a self-conscious reality4 ,in this our life is not divided between two different realms1 but1 in a comprehensive spiritual world1 different stages of reality meet together1 which must be brought into relation and developed4 ,to be sure1 the world of sense retains a certain independence2 it resists a complete transformation into spiritual magnitudes1 and our life1 therefore1 retains a certain restriction and impenetrability4 ,but the self-consciousness of the spirit becomes more and more the chief basis and sphere of life3 this self-consciousness continually takes up more into itself2 it makes the world that was to us at first primary1 indeed the only world1 more and more secondary and subordinate4 ,this increasing spiritualisation of human life never becomes a sure possession that calls for no toil2 ever anew it demands our attention and activity2 it has continually to be won anew as a whole4 ,as soon as the tension slackens1 the world of experience with its appeal to sense preponderates1 and it soon appears to be man's sole world1 one which cannot tolerate anything beyond itself4 ,for the spiritualisation of human life1 a longing rooted in the whole being is primarily necessary2 for with the keen feeling of the vanity of the world of sense experience1 this leads to the removal of the centre of life into the invisible world of self-determining activity4 ,further1 a clear presentation of this invisible world is needed2 and in this the help of the visible is not to be dispensed with4 ,for its own establishment the realm of the invisible must borrow means of expression from the visible1 which now governs human presentation2 must transform and refine them for its aims2 prepare out of them an impressive presentation of the whole4 ,along with the energy of turning to the spiritual life a creative imagination is required1 through which the invisible may become equal to holding its own against the visible4 ,the help of such imagination is indispensable for religion1 in order that the supernatural world advocated by it may gain an effective presence in the province of humanity4 ,and so with bold upward flights of imagination the heroes of religion have projected a new condition of reality as a whole1 a kingdom of justice or of love1 and have judged human existence by the standard of this new condition4 ,similarly1 philosophy did not become an independent world of thought without the help of imagination2 and of how indispensable it is to art we need not speak at all4 ,again1 work in political1 social1 educational matters1 at least as far as radical renewals are concerned1 has really been taken up and carried on1 and has won a triumphant power1 only where the state striven for has been presented as something visible and clearly present2 this alone has united the multiplicity1 and has led with compelling force beyond the extant situation as though that were something intolerable4 ,humanity as a whole must be present in an ideal condition to our minds for us to be aroused sufficiently from our indolence4 ,our life1 therefore1 contains movements which tend in opposite directions3 there are a pressing forward and a turning backward1 a detachment from experience and a taking up again of experience2 and so we may well speak of an action and reaction within its movement4 ,but the antitheses that arise aid in advancement only so long as they are encompassed by a whole of activity4 ,in that the course of history increases far more than it diminishes the antitheses1 the dangers grow more and more1 the possibilities and the tasks of human existence1 however1 also grow4 7d7 ,,the ,,emergence ,,of ,a ,,new ,,type ,,of ,,life ,the conception of the spiritual life here developed gives rise to a particular type of life which can bring about a transformation and elevation of man from two main positions3 the union of man with the spiritual life is much closer1 and the spiritual life in itself is incomparably more1 than is represented by the customary conception of that life4 ,for in our conception man does not merely enter into some kind of relation with the spiritual life1 but finds his own being in it1 and becomes so completely united with it that it is able to determine him immediately as his own self4 ,the spiritual life is not a particular function among others1 not a part or an aspect of a more comprehensive world1 but is itself a world1 and1 indeed1 a world in which life first attains to self-consciousness and becomes a complete reality4 ,if this world becomes the immediate possession of man himself1 his life must experience a deep-reaching change1 indeed a revolution of its usual condition3 to trace the main tendencies of this revolution is our immediate task4 7#a7 ,life's ,attainment of ,greatness ,the placing of man in the spiritual life1 becoming aware of its own independence1 must make the forms of this life his own1 and in this way bring about a reversal of the commonplace of every day4 ,life is transposed from the narrowness of its merely particular nature to infinity2 what was hitherto alien and hostile to man is changed into his own possession1 and is able to arouse an animating and elevating love4 ,at the same time a deliverance from subjectivity and its web of interests and ideas is effected1 to the advantage of a life-process that takes up the object into itself1 and thus advances to independence and sovereign creation2 a life is attained that is not spent in movement to and fro between antitheses1 but unfolds a content through them4 ,as this life attains to complete independence only because it produces a universal activity in contrast to individual activities1 so participation in this life must lead man beyond division to a comprehensive unity4 ,it is this that is sought in the idea of personality--an idea which is often quite obscure and superficial1 but which can in this context be elucidated1 manifest its complete significance1 and prove its power of development4 ,as the spiritual life is a self-consciousness1 so man also wins from it a life that is not exhausted by activity directed upon anything external to this life1 and that does not expect its content from outside like an empty vessel1 but would be itself and realise the possibilities lying within itself4 ,so far as such a life extends man does not stand on the border of things but in the centre1 in the formation and creation of the whole2 he experiences the world not as something external but from within4 ,the question of the limits of this life is no longer primary but secondary1 and the answer to this question is to be expected from the experience of life1 not from preliminary reflections4 ,since1 in this1 life has a content in itself and develops this content through its movement1 it distinctly grows above all the play of forces with which it is often confused2 if such a play of forces suffices for a lower stage it cannot suffice for further development4 ,for the feeling of joyous excitement which accompanies the exertion of power is not sufficient in opposition to the serious perplexities that accompany all spiritual work2 indeed1 not even against the cares and needs that are involved in the mere preservation of existence in an advancing culture4 ,life then easily comes to be regarded as full of trouble and of work1 and becomes a burden from which one wishes to be delivered4 ,life is not from the beginning a good1 but it must prove itself to be such by its more detailed development4 ,in the spiritual life this comes to pass1 since it produces a reality out of itself2 it does not become valuable first in its relation to the external world1 but it carries a value in itself1 as is clearly shown by the joy that permeates all experience of the true1 the good1 and the beautiful4 ,this joy must be further increased if all the multiplicity of this experience is regarded as the unfolding of a comprehensive and persistent fundamental life4 ,a life of this kind is no indefinite impulse2 it cannot become an independent reality without penetrating into every aspect and making the ordinary state of things everywhere inadequate1 indeed intolerable4 ,since the independent spirituality and spiritual character that is acquired1 and that which the particular thing and activity signifies in the spiritual life as a whole1 everywhere constitutes the most important question1 the problem of truth will be raised at each point2 and in this way a sharp division will be made between the genuine and the spurious2 everything that strives within us in the direction of the spirit will unite and acquire a more stable basis2 everything that would satisfy man in other ways will be seen to be empty and vain4 ,life now acquires a deeper reality1 but this must first be reached and brought to complete effect4 ,new forms1 in contrast to the ordinary representations1 must also make their appearance if life is to be equal to the task of developing content and character4 ,life in the individual must have roots deeper than the immediate psychical life2 for psychical life cannot itself produce and make clear that which occurs in it1 for this reason at least1 that it involves the antithesis of individual and environment1 of subject and object1 beyond which spiritual creation results4 ,the spiritual impulse that the immediate life of the soul manifests can be based only upon deeper realities and more comprehensive relations4 ,and so a nological treatment is to be distinguished from the psychological1 not in order to displace or limit the latter1 but rather to complete it2 and it is a problem to show the point of transition in the immediate life of the soul4 ,the significance of the individual life1 as far as content is concerned1 will depend upon whether an independent spirituality arises within it1 and constitutes it a distinctive life-centre4 ,according to the new standards a free spiritual activity does not suffice1 however extended it may be1 and however sustained by subjective emotion4 ,for all such activity may be without spiritual substance1 and in spite of all external results the life that is nothing but this activity may remain spiritually destitute3 how shallow many individuals are whose achievements deserve and obtain the highest appreciation6 ,the inwardness that the spiritual life requires is not simply a reflex of work in the soul--from that little is gained--but the forming of a characteristic spiritual self-consciousness that lifts us above all mere achievement1 and also by giving to activity a soul first makes it complete4 ,we have often seen how the acknowledgment of an independent spiritual life forces us to make a sharper distinction between human history and human society and all merely natural history and merely natural co-existence of men4 ,at the same time1 in that which is called history and society1 a distinction between an esoteric and an exoteric kind is also required4 ,the value of individual epochs and of history as a whole depends upon the spiritual substance that grows up in them2 everything else1 to whatever extent it may1 with commotion and external result1 assume the air of being the chief thing1 is only environment or supplement4 ,similarly1 in the case of society1 the spiritual content1 if it has one at all1 and human fortune and conduct must become more distinctly separated4 ,there is far less genuine history and society than is usually assumed2 but this little signifies incomparably more than both would imply without the spiritual life4 ,similarly1 with the acknowledgment of an independent spiritual life in us1 a new light is shed upon the individual departments of life1 and new tasks are set them4 ,they have now1 primarily1 not to further human well-being1 to be of service in the attainment of narrowly human aims1 but they are characteristic unfoldings of the spiritual life4 ,the particular nature of these departments has its basis in that life1 and they must prove their capacity by advancing it4 ,they are concerned with man only so far as he participates in the spiritual life2 and so they will not so much strengthen him in his human nature as elevate him spiritually1 and remould him more and more to the form of the spiritual life4 ,a deliverance from the confusion of that which is narrowly human with the spiritual is also necessary1 and1 along with this1 life as a whole must be more energetically based upon the spiritual life1 and the spiritual life itself must be given a more distinct form4 ,from the position of this life1 that which has been handed down to us must be evaluated and new paths must be opened up for the future4 ,religion could obtain no content1 and all change in it would be only an advance from a more crude to a more refined anthropomorphism1 if it were based solely upon human needs and aided man to attain a supposed happiness4 ,religion rises above such a condition of doubt only if it exhibits its roots in an independent spiritual life and is able to show its actuality and its power by aiding the development of the spiritual life4 ,at its highest religion has always been concerned with winning a new world and a new humanity1 not with the achievement of something within the old world and for the old humanity4 ,and as we need a religion of the spiritual life1 we also need a morality1 an art1 and1 finally1 an all-comprehensive spiritual culture1 through which something really new may be produced and man be elevated in this being1 and not simply circle round and round continually in the old paths4 ,everywhere the matter is one of advance and revelation2 from this point of view the complexes of every day must also be seen in a new light1 and in what is apparently simple and self-evident great achievements and tasks become manifest4 ,we now1 for the first time and in another sense1 win again that which we thought we already possessed2 indeed1 by the revolution to the spiritual life1 life as a whole is transformed into a task4 ,every individual has such a life-embracing task in the cultivation of a genuine personality and a spiritual individuality4 ,humanity as a whole has such a task in the building up of a kingdom of reason within its domain1 in the furtherance of the movement which comes to it from the whole and summons it to co-operation4 ,human life by participation in the spiritual life finds its basis in the inward and spontaneous1 in the infinite and eternal4 ,the development and the experiences of the spiritual life and its conflict with a world1 which is only being won1 are here the chief content of human life and unite individuals inwardly2 the destinies of individuals receive their particular nature from such a common life4 ,as this life of independent spirituality is possible only by detachment from the chaotic condition of life as we find it at its general level1 the development of the spiritual life must make us clearly conscious of the spiritual destitution of the majority2 and especially must it oppose the attempt on the part of such a life as that of the majority to present itself as the whole1 and to make itself the standard of human endeavour4 ,in such an attempt the trivially human inevitably preponderates1 and this now1 at its highest points1 invests itself with ostentatious pomp and a feeling of power2 now1 almost as a whole1 relies on the reason of the masses1 which loudly and noisily proclaims that those things which according to human opinion are valuable are of all things the highest2 confidently makes its judgment and its task the standard of truth2 and1 with arrogant presumption1 demands a reverence towards itself that is due solely to the spiritual world4 ,from of old there have been many indictments of this1 but as long as a new life1 based in the spiritual world in contrast with merely human life1 was not attained to1 these indictments did not lead to a deliverance4 ,under the guidance of religion humanity has evolved such a life and for thousands of years has found support in it4 ,however1 humanity has lost this life and this support1 in its old form1 and the loss was inevitable4 ,if humanity will strive after a new form and at the same time transcend mere appearance1 it can attain to this only on the basis of the spiritual life1 that is acknowledged to be independent4 ,only on this basis can it enter into the conflict on the side of gods against idols1 for truth against appearance and emptiness4 ,the new life cannot develop without elevating the individual in his spiritual nature above all environment4 ,for1 as surely as the construction of a spiritual reality within humanity needs a union of all powers1 there is a spontaneous springing up of the independent spiritual life only within the soul of the individual4 ,all social and all historical life that does not unceasingly draw from this source falls irrecoverably into a state of stagnation and desolation4 ,the individual can never be reduced to the position of a mere member of society2 of a church1 of a state2 notwithstanding all external subordination he must assert an inner superiority2 each spiritual individual is more than the whole external world4 ,but as the individual does not derive this superiority from himself1 not from a natural particularity and peculiarity in distinction from others1 but only from the presence of a spiritual world1 so he is securely guarded from all vain self-assurance and the arrogance of the idea of the ,superman1 which grotesquely distorts the great fact of the revelation of a universal life at individual points4 ,the desire for the presence of the infinite at the individual point may be characterised as an approximation to mysticism4 ,indeed1 we need both a metaphysic and a mysticism2 but we want both in a new form1 not in the old4 ,it seems to us preposterous to declare that necessary demands of the spiritual life are finally disposed of1 because the older solution has become inadequate4 ,if man does not in some way succeed in appropriating the spiritual life1 if it is not actively present as a whole within him and animating him1 then his relation to the spiritual life remains for ever an external one2 and this life cannot acquire a complete spontaneity in him1 can never become a genuine life of his own4 ,but the older mysticism was the offspring of a worn-out age1 which primarily reflected upon quietness and peace1 and was under the influence of a philosophy that sought the truth in striving towards the most comprehensive universal1 and saw in all particularity a defect 7omnis determinatio negatio74 ,and so1 to be completely merged in the formless infinite could be regarded as the culmination of life4 ,as the spiritual life is to us1 on the contrary1 an increasing activity and creation1 a world of self-determining activity1 so its being called to life at individual points is a rousing of life to its highest energy2 in this also1 a continual appropriation is necessary4 ,further1 the movement of the spiritual life does not appear to us as an advance from particular to universal1 but as one from differentiation to the living whole2 from the indefiniteness of the beginnings to complete organisation and distinctive form4 ,the inwardness that we advocate is not a feeble echo and a yearning for dissolution1 but is of an active and masculine nature1 and rests on ceaseless self-determining activity4 ,one may or may not call this mysticism2 in any case mysticism of such a kind cannot be charged with that which now appears to us to be defect or error in the older form4 7#b7 ,the ,increase of ,movement ,as certainly as a universal life must surround us and1 with efficient power1 in some way be implanted within us1 yet only our own activity can appropriate and amplify that life for us4 ,as the transition to the independent spiritual life changes the problem so that no achievement in a given world will satisfy it1 but only the winning of a new world1 our existence must become much more active2 our life must be made not only much more comprehensive but also inwardly transformed and deepened4 ,nave opinion is accustomed to presuppose a fixed sphere for our activity2 it is possible for it to do this only because it confuses the spiritual and that which is less than the spiritual and leaves them undifferentiated4 ,since the attainment of independence by the spiritual life makes this confusion impossible1 it may at the same time be recognised that the fixed relations in which we seem to be are also in reality due to our own activity4 ,from this fact a method of treatment is justified1 the introduction of which constitutes one of the greatest services of ,kant4 ,this method in his own terminology is the transcendental method4 ,unlike ordinary opinion1 it does not regard the relation of the departments of life and all its activities as being self-evident1 but it enquires into the inner possibility of this relation1 that is1 it indicates the conditions without which the union of the manifold could not be accomplished2 it reveals the spiritual activity that exists in the whole4 ,it reveals a far finer texture of life2 it shows syntheses from the whole to the elements2 it indicates clearer limits and makes us more definitely recognise what differentiates the individual departments4 ,this is what ,kant did in the case of scientific knowledge1 of morality1 and of the realm of the beautiful4 ,the transcendental method itself is first indisputably justified and given a secure foundation with the acknowledgment that a world of independent spirituality emerges in man1 and this through his own activity1 not by a mere favour and gift of destiny4 ,for1 when this independent spiritual world is acknowledged it first becomes a matter beyond doubt that the basis1 and the bonds which unite the whole1 could not be given1 but must proceed from our own activity4 ,the transcendental method must therefore be applied not only to the individual branches but also to the whole1 and the possibility of a spiritual life in man in general made a problem4 ,then from the whole the method must also be extended to the departments that are not brought into prominence by ,kant2 it must discuss1 for example1 the possibility of history in a characteristically human sense4 ,since our reality is thus dependent in the first place upon our own activity1 life and movement acquire a wider scope and a greater value4 ,the movement of life also tends to be increased by the fact that in our conviction the more detailed form of the spiritual life itself must first be won by our activity1 and that this detail can be acquired only little by little through attempts1 experiences1 convulsions2 that for man the spiritual life with its actuality forms a difficult problem4 ,what more particularly separates us from the ,enlightenment is that while for it the ultimately valid form of the spiritual life appeared to be immediately present and to need only an energetic working out1 we extend the historical treatment not only to the representation1 but also to the nature1 of the spiritual life2 and so the ultimately valid form of the spiritual life appears to be a high ideal1 to which man can only gradually approximate4 ,the fact that endeavour is centred not upon externals but primarily upon our own being must make our activity far more significant and more intense2 and this leads to a higher estimate of history as well as of a historical treatment4 ,as hence epochs are no longer distinguished simply by their achievements1 but by the nature of their spiritual life1 so the life of the present must also be given its place in the moving stream1 and so our innermost nature also depends on spiritual work4 ,if with such an increase of movement much is mutable that otherwise seemed to be as firm as a rock2 and if1 in particular1 the foundations of life themselves also suffer change1 life seems to lose all support and to fall into an unlimited relativism4 ,indeed1 life must thus lose all stability if in the spiritual sphere movement does not involve something in opposition to change3 and this as a fact it does involve4 ,as the spiritual life cannot develop a content without presenting it as timeless1 there is no great achievement in history that does not include some kind of timeless truth1 and the movement of the spiritual life is not merely a flowing onward with time but also an elevation above time4 ,in spiritual work1 therefore1 the achievements of the ages can be surveyed and examined2 indeed1 in distinguishing between past and not past the sequence of times can be transformed into a timeless present4 ,of course this is valid only with the presupposition of an absolute spiritual life1 which is present in all the uncertainty and change of human undertaking1 and does not allow it to become fixed in error4 ,unless an immanence of the absolute spiritual life is acknowledged1 an essential characteristic of the spiritual work of the ,modern ,age remains absolutely unintelligible1 namely1 its critical character4 ,modern work is not completely objective1 and occupation with the object does not completely exhaust that work2 but activity realises its independence of the object1 investigates its relation to the object1 surveys that which has been achieved1 and tests it by transcendent standards4 ,such a critique belongs especially to the fundamental nature of the ,enlightenment1 to the proud self-confidence of which a conscientious self-examination forms a necessary antithesis4 ,the critical method reached its highest point in ,kant1 and we can never go back again upon the transformation of life that has been effected by it4 ,but how could the critique be justified and exercise such far-reaching influence as it has done1 if it were not more than a product of a subjective reflection that accompanies the object1 and that has to do with the object externally8 ,the critique could effect an inner transformation and elevation of work only because it set new forces in motion4 ,and it did this in that it measured all human achievement by the demands of a transcendent spiritual life and out of it developed inner necessities1 to which all achievement had to correspond4 ,so the movement was not lost through the lack of an aim2 and life did not flow onward with the stream of presentations1 but found a support in itself2 it was able to exert a powerful counteraction2 it did not need to acknowledge anything that had not proved its validity before the judgment-seat of immanent reason4 ,this emergence of the question of validity in contrast to that of actuality must inwardly raise and ennoble the movement of life2 it reveals to man an active relation not only to the environment but primarily to himself2 it leads to a ceaseless differentiation and examination of the quality of life4 ,it is true that the ,enlightenment1 which acknowledged that alone to be true which was clearly and distinctly cognised1 exercised this critique in a too narrow manner2 yet notwithstanding all that may be problematical in its application to details1 the right and the necessity of the fundamental idea are not thereby overthrown3 the question remains2 it can be fully justified only in the relations that we have indicated2 but at the same time it must be transferred from the merely intellectual to the spiritual as a whole1 and form in relation to the whole that which in the state of culture contains and develops an independent spirituality and a self-conscious life2 but by this it gains a content of truth4 ,this self-consciousness alone can be regarded as essence and genuine reality1 while everything else is reduced to mere environment and becomes matter of secondary importance1 if not of mere appearance4 ,task after task is revealed1 more especially for the present2 we see how1 with the attainment of independence by the spiritual life1 the movement is not only extended1 but also grows inwardly and tends towards the elevation of life4 7#c7 ,the ,gain of ,stability ,the movement of the spiritual life as not only directed towards the outside but also turned inwards towards itself gained for us a greater independence4 ,but even that which emerges from within exists only in the process of formation1 and in this that which satisfies us to-day may to-morrow be uncertain2 and so we cannot dismiss the question whether the spiritual life lacks the necessary stability2 whether1 in the midst of all becoming and change1 caprice and subjectivity are not without the necessary opposition4 ,in any case1 the question of fixation must have a different appearance within a system of life based upon activity from that it would have within a system which proceeded from a given world3 in the former1 that which is fixed cannot be introduced from outside1 but must exist within the movement itself2 it can manifest itself only through a movement of a kind and form which transcend the utmost capacity of the mere subject4 ,our investigation as a whole contends that the fixity is of this kind2 and at this point only a short revision and a summing up are required4 ,all spiritual activity is1 as we saw1 a transcendence of the antithesis of subject and object2 it is progressive and formative universal activity4 ,but this activity cannot be produced and formed according to desire or fancy2 we must be elevated into it2 and1 as a result of this1 we feel that we are under the compulsion of an inner necessity1 which distinctly counteracts the caprice of the mere subject4 ,we saw1 further1 that within the life-process spiritual contents are raised out of the stream of events1 and that they unite so as to form a world in contrast with that stream1 a world greater and more comprehensive1 which nevertheless continues within our life4 ,this applies to all the branches of our work2 everywhere the deciding step to joyful advance is when activity proceeds from mere search and contemplation under the necessity of the object4 ,no resolution1 however1 or even the most sincere volition1 can of itself force us to this decisive step4 ,man must be taken possession of by a spiritual activity and power1 and elevated above the state of groping and doubt4 ,this is shown in all scientific work and artistic creation2 everywhere success does not appear to be the work of the human1 but a gift and a grace from higher forces2 everywhere those who have created have felt guided and sustained by such forces4 ,beyond individuals humanity as a whole develops complexes in science1 in law1 and so on1 which evolve inner necessities and require their recognition and fulfilment by man1 and follow courses of their own regardless of the weal or the woe of individuals2 so far as life follows these tendencies1 it is elevated above doubt to a state of stability and joyfulness4 ,such movements appear at first as a multiplicity1 and are most directly effective through that which is distinctive in the particular departments of life4 ,but through all multiplicity and above it1 there is a striving towards a comprehensive unity2 every advance towards this unity is an immediate gain in stability and certainty4 ,nothing helps the individual to become inwardly firm more than the unification of his life in a whole of activity1 more than becoming certain of an inward all-comprehensive task in the development of a spiritual individuality4 ,the development of a spiritual individuality is a task that comes to him from within1 and which1 while it is more than anything else his own1 is yet above all caprice4 ,this task may tend little to promote that which is usually called happiness2 the striving to fulfil it may transform the whole of existence into a state of toil and trouble1 of conflict and care2 and yet it alone gives to life a meaning and a value1 a sure direction and a secure self-consciousness1 and by assuring man of a spiritual existence of his own makes him certain of the spiritual life as a whole4 ,such a unification of the manifold activities so as to form a life-work1 an incomparable kind of spiritual being1 is something entirely axiomatic1 which is in no way derived from outside4 ,again1 this unification does not depend upon particular representations of the world2 only the fanaticism of party can bind it to definite doctrines of the human and the divine4 ,it itself1 however1 is a secure starting-point for the development of convictions2 its acknowledgment involves the acknowledgment of a spiritual world independent of and operative within us1 and summoning us to co-operation1 even though this implication is often concealed from consciousness4 ,where our own life lacks such a fountain-head the conviction of a spiritual life never attains to axiomatic certainty1 but depends on the thin threads of reasons and proofs1 and therefore is most easy to overthrow4 ,and so1 for the overcoming of doubt and faintheartedness everything depends upon attaining to a unity of activity and creation which inwardly embraces life as a whole1 and with this1 upon being something1 not simply doing something4 ,what is valid of individuals is valid also of peoples and epochs1 of humanity as a whole4 ,whether a people feels certain of a spiritual life1 and is thereby elevated to a state of inward joyfulness1 depends primarily upon whether it recognises and acknowledges in itself a common spiritual task3 if this is not the case1 the acutest apologetic cannot prevent the increase of doubt and faintness of heart4 ,similarly1 the disposition and life-feeling of epochs is decided primarily by whether their endeavour unites them inwardly or whether it is divided1 and at the same time becomes inconsistent4 ,the endeavour of our own time does suffer from such division and inconsistency2 it is this in particular that gives the negative tendency so much power over us and in the midst of all greatness of achievement in external matters makes us inwardly despondent4 ,humanity as a whole can attain to a stable spiritual life which is more than that of the particular times and peoples only by the revelation and appropriation of an all-comprehensive task which governs it with inner necessities4 ,such a task alone makes life a preservation of spiritual character2 and gives conviction an unshakable firmness1 and a joyous confidence of victory4 ,and so everywhere only the formation of life itself is able to guarantee to it inner stability2 the movement itself by its elevation above all caprice and its inner unity is alone able to overcome the dangers which the transformation of life into activity brings with it4 7e7 ,,activism3 ,a ,,profession ,,of ,,faith ,the system of life here developed receives its distinctive colour and tone chiefly because it brings into prominence the fact that we do not belong to a world of reason1 which from the beginning had only to be perceived and enjoyed1 but that we have first to advance to such a world2 and for this we require a revolution of the first condition of things4 ,the basis of true life must continually be won anew2 and even the individual achievement always contains a decision between one and another type of life4 ,only through ceaseless activity can life remain at the height to which it has attained2 that which life experiences and receives is judged according to the more precise form of activity4 ,since it gives this precedence to activity1 to such activity1 this system may be called ,activism4 ,activism1 however1 demonstrates its unique character and develops its capacity only if it is definitely distinguished from all other apparently related tendencies4 ,neither a sudden resolution nor even a mere incitement of power brings us at once into the condition of activity4 ,for at first we are surrounded and embraced by a world of inflexible nature and of feeble spirituality1 which is at the same time mixed with human pretence3 this world binds us so strongly1 and suppresses all independence with such force1 that the mere individual remains entirely powerless in opposition to it1 and could soar to no higher wisdom than that of an involuntary submission to it4 ,activity without release from the given world is an absurdity2 but such release is attainable only through the living presence of a world of self-determining activity2 the power of such a world alone is able to arouse the individual to self-determining activity4 ,but how could man appropriate this world to himself without changing its life into his own2 without acknowledging its content as valid for himself also2 without making its laws norms of his conduct8 ,activity in this way acquires an ethical character2 it is this which draws the boundary line between spiritual activity and merely natural impulse1 and distinguishes genuine from imaginary self-determining activity4 ,ethical relation does not mean a submission to alien and unsympathetic regulations1 but a taking up of the infinite spiritual world into our own volition and being3 this relation brings things close to us and reveals them1 so that they are able to impart their life to us1 and we are able to grow with their growth4 ,so understood1 ethical relation is primarily not regulative but productive2 it is not merely being prepared to fulfil certain demands1 when they are made upon us1 to live in accordance with strict regulations1 but it involves the motive of aiding in the development of the world1 of advancing everything good and true3 it requires an untiring forward endeavour and advance to the building up of a kingdom of reason and love4 ,if in this way conduct is lifted above the pursuit of that which pleases and interests the mere subject1 this is not on behalf of something alien1 but for the elevation of our own being1 for the sake of this genuine being1 for the sake of our spiritual self4 ,it is this inner elevation and this demand for a new world that distinguishes ,activism from all mere ,voluntarism and ,pragmatism1 to which it appears to approximate1 and with which1 in its negative aspect1 it is1 indeed1 associated4 ,for it shares with them the rejection of an intellectualistic view of life1 in which cognition is regarded as finding truth of its own power and as conveying it to the rest of life4 ,further1 ,activism desires1 as do ,voluntarism and ,pragmatism also1 the basing of truth upon a more spontaneous and essential activity4 ,but the flight to the will is more a reaction against ,intellectualism than an overcoming of the difficulty4 ,as such the will does not yield a new world and a transcendent power2 it may1 therefore1 be that mere volition is implicitly transformed into a self-determining activity encompassing the whole extent of life4 ,pragmatism1 also1 which has recently made so much headway among ,english-speaking peoples and beyond them1 is more inclined to shape the world and life in accordance with human condition and needs than to invest spiritual activity with an independence in relation to these1 and apply its standards to the testing and sifting of the whole content of human life4 ,but after the experiences of history the claim to this latter can scarcely be given up4 ,after man has been seen to be particular and limited in nature1 as things first present themselves1 he no longer suffices for the starting-point of the endeavour for truth1 but to attain to this starting-point an elevation above the human into a universal spiritual life is necessary4 ,and that is the intention of ,activism4 ,the unique character of ,activism becomes clearer especially in comparison with organisations of life1 of which one indeed makes activity the chief thing1 but gives to it the character of a mere process2 while another thinks of the fundamental relation of man to reality in general not under the ideas of conduct and progress but under those of contemplation and enjoyment4 ,the idea that life constitutes a process transcending all human endeavour and decision has shown a strong power of attraction in the ,modern ,age2 and1 in the system of ,hegel especially1 has found an imposing embodiment4 ,this idea is asserted most definitely in the evolutionary conception of history1 since it regards the motive power of history as striving to its aim1 certain of accomplishing it1 and unaffected by human opinion and preference4 ,by this deliverance from the insignificance of human motives and the variations of human conditions the object seemed to gain incomparably in greatness2 but it was considered that this deliverance from man involved an elevation above the ethical conception1 which then appeared to be something subjectively human4 ,but not only does this conception of a process that ceaselessly advances with compelling necessity contradict the actual state of things as they are found in history1 which shows so much stagnation and retrogression1 and so many different spheres of culture existing side by side indifferent to one another1 but the transformation of life into a mere process1 if consistently carried out1 must also destroy or seriously debase its spiritual character4 ,if life were a mere process it would be nothing other than a soulless mechanism2 only in the case of such a mechanism can one phase proceed immediately from the others without at the same time a whole of life becoming active and exercising an animating power within the whole process4 ,as a fact1 the process is usually supplemented in thought by a universal life unifying1 sustaining1 and controlling the individual phases2 however1 so far as such a life does not simply come to us1 but needs our own activity1 the deed comes before the process2 and a new world reveals itself to us4 ,the disregard of the ethical element by the systems which make mere process their fundamental idea is explained by the fact that they understand the ethical only as a decision and turning of man1 accompanying the spiritual life1 not as the motive and progressive power of the spiritual life itself4 ,they know only a human ethic1 not an ethic of the spiritual life--as a self-assertion and a self-elevation1 through which it first attains its complete freedom and independence4 ,still1 to trace this further is the less necessary since this mode of thought lives rather from earlier achievements than works from fresh impulse springing up in the present4 ,the relation of ,activism to the sthetic mode of thought requires closer consideration2 we indicated at the beginning of our investigation that stheticism forms one of the chief streams of the life of the present day2 at this point1 only its relation to ,activism need be examined4 ,this stheticism has its definite conditions4 ,where the contemplation and enjoyment of the world and its beauty are to constitute the essence of life1 we must be assured that the world is a kingdom of reason and beauty1 so that the condition in which it is incites us to no far-reaching change4 ,further1 there must be no perplexities in our soul1 and no deep conflicts within our being1 so that this contemplation may occupy us completely1 and be a source of happiness4 ,lastly1 we must be closely and surely united with the world so that a change of life may be accomplished easily and smoothly4 ,if one of these requirements is not satisfied2 if1 instead of this harmony1 the world manifests severe conflicts and harsh contradictions2 if such exist also within our soul2 if1 lastly1 there appears to be a deep gulf between us and the whole1 then the sthetic solution of the problem of life is an impossibility4 ,if in spite of these contradictions we attempt to entertain this solution1 our life will become insincere1 and will lose all spiritual productivity1 and1 as a whole1 our life will be spent in subjective mood1 empty enjoyment1 and become feeble4 ,now1 however1 the ,modern ,age develops in a direction which is directly opposed to the requirements of the sthetic form of life4 ,the great world appears to us to be a meaningless machine2 and in the struggle for existence the earlier harmony is forgotten4 ,we perceive in man far too much that is insignificant and far too much selfishness1 emptiness1 and mere show for us to be able to regard him as being inwardly complete4 ,lastly1 the modern strengthening of the subject and the ceaseless growth of reflection have so fundamentally overthrown the immediate relation of man to the world that only a far-reaching transformation of life can prepare for a reunion4 ,if our life is so full of problems and tasks2 if we do not find ourselves in a completed world of reason2 but if we must1 with all our powers1 work toward such a world1 we shall turn to ,activism as the only help possible4 ,but we shall resolutely reject stheticism as a veiling of the real condition of things and a too facile solution of the great problems of life4 ,activism does not imply that immediately and at one stroke our life may be transformed into spiritual activity and may quickly establish a positive relation to reality3 that would be to fail to recognise the conditions under which man exists1 and the necessity of undergoing experiences and changes4 ,such an attitude might easily lead to the formation of syntheses of life that would be much too hasty and far too narrow2 and the necessary breaking up of these would arouse a keen distrust of the whole undertaking4 ,the power which the ,romantic movement from time to time wins over minds is based on the fact that it warns us against an over-estimation of our activity2 that it demands that the soul should be open to the influences of the world2 that its impressions should be appropriated without restriction and permitted to fade away completely2 that in opposition to all the limitation and organisation of life1 it still longs for the infinite2 and that it also to some extent satisfies by turning to unrestrained feeling4 ,at the same time1 the ,romantic movement makes us clearly conscious of the power of destiny1 the transcendence of external and internal necessities above all human intention and utilitarian conduct4 ,in this way life acquires a much greater comprehensiveness and freshness2 it seems to return to its source1 to retain far more immediacy4 ,but it is one thing to acknowledge the importance of this1 another to make it the essence of life4 ,when such precedence is given to this ,romantic tendency life threatens to become delicate1 feeble1 effeminate2 it knows no energetic opposition to the flow of presentations2 instead of a definite union it offers aphoristic thoughts and stimuli2 through the lack of logical acuteness it falls into the direst contradictions2 it sacrifices all distinct form and organisation to a revelling in vague moods4 ,as in such a state of weakness the spiritual life does not succeed in gaining complete independence in face of the natural conditions of our existence1 so it does not attain the necessary ascendancy over sense4 ,sense1 in its own province entirely incontestable1 raises doubts in us in that it flows together with the spiritual1 is undifferentiated from it1 brings it under itself1 and turns it from its course4 ,and1 in this1 sense does not possess the nave freshness and the natural limitation of its original state1 but it is over-refined and too full of excitement4 ,to recognise all this clearly is at the same time to acknowledge the superiority of ,activism over all mere ,romanticism4 ,however much may still be lacking in ,activism1 through the fact that man often regards the difficult and complicated task as easy and simple1 and thus sets too low an estimate upon the distance between himself and the spiritual world1 there is still the objective necessity of the requirement to transform our life as far as possible into a state of independence1 to achieve independence in opposition to a world confused and only half rational4 ,such a self-determining activity is by no means simply a matter of subjective disposition2 it requires a particular form of life4 ,in opposition to the desultoriness and change of the life of sense it needs a powerful unification and organisation4 ,it advances to methods and laws of the object in contrast to playful caprice2 to a logic of the object in opposition to a persistence in contradiction2 to a further construction of the first impression in contrast to comfortable complacency2 to a courageous continuation and building up of life in opposition to a complacent acceptance of destiny4 ,it gives to life a dramatic character in contrast to a lyrical1 sentimental one1 and along with this it can acknowledge fully that a genuine drama usually contains much that is lyrical4 ,it is detrimental to ,activism itself if it takes the problem of life lightly4 ,it is vital that it should not forget or underestimate the fact that the effort to solve the problems of life meets with great difficulties1 that the solution costs incalculable trouble and work1 and that even when the best is achieved it is only approximate4 ,when ,activism recognises this fact it may acknowledge a certain validity in the positions of its opponents and may learn from them4 ,but there is a harsh contradiction that extends to the innermost basis of life1 an implacable either--or1 whether man simply receives the world and accompanies it with his own mood1 or whether he finds courage and power to take up a conflict against confusion and irrationality1 to co-operate in the building up of a kingdom of reason4 ,for the latter1 the affirmation of reason in the innermost basis of reality as a whole and of his own being is necessary4 ,whether men and times find a way to such an inner establishment1 to such transcendence of all external and internal limitation1 is that which decides the main tendency of their life4 ,,iii4 ,,the ,,spiritual ,,life ,,in ,,man ,,in ,,conflict ,,and ,,in ,,victory ,we intend to make the following section as short as possible1 as we have treated this subject so much in detail in ,the ,truth of ,religion and also in ,the ,struggle for a ,concrete ,spiritual ,experience4 ,we must refer those who wish for a closer consideration of the subject to those works3 the subject will be treated of here only so far as is necessary for a representation of life as a whole2 a concise statement may have distinct advantages4 7a7 ,,doubt ,,and ,,prostration ,it is a leading idea of our whole investigation1 and one which has held good in every branch of it1 that for us men spiritual life is evolved only in opposition to a world other than spiritual2 that reality does not surround us from the beginning1 but forms a high ideal in contrast to the customary want of purpose and energy in life4 ,the existence of a world lower than the spiritual1 and the late appearance of that which arises from within as the primary and the all-dominant reality1 must give birth to many questions and much doubt2 from early times these facts have occupied and much disturbed reflective thought4 ,man might place the problem on one side without incurring any risk1 if the spiritual life when it comes to the fore assumes the guidance of life and manifests itself as world-transcendent power--externally1 in that it subordinates to itself and takes up into itself everything else2 internally1 in that with certain progress it presses forward in the human province1 wins the whole soul of man1 and becomes more and more his only world4 ,in particular1 where the spiritual life is regarded1 as we regard it1 as the self-consciousness of reality2 where1 therefore1 that which apparently stands in opposition to the spiritual life must ultimately have its basis within it1 the demands of the spiritual life have a coercive power4 ,and so when experiences a thousandfold1 new and old1 present a picture which contradicts these demands we must feel the state of things to be a particularly painful one4 ,that1 however1 is what really happens3 it is the case in the relation of the spiritual life to nature1 as well as in its relation to humanity2 it happens1 therefore1 in our whole experience4 ,if the spiritual life constitutes the fundamental nature of reality2 if1 in it1 reality first attains to self-consciousness1 it is to be expected that when the spiritual life appeared it would create for itself an independent form of existence in contrast to that of nature1 and would exercise a superior power in this form of existence1 to which nature must accommodate itself4 ,but1 as a fact1 this is so far from being the case that even the attempt to imagine the spiritual in any way leads immediately to the quixotic4 ,in the experience of humanity the spiritual life is related in its entirety to a natural basis2 in no way does it seem able to free itself from this1 but in all its activity it remains dependent upon nature4 ,if nature simply follows its own tendencies2 if1 indifferent to value and lack of value1 without aim and ideal1 nature lives its life of soulless movement1 union with an order so alien and impenetrable must most seriously affect the spiritual life4 ,the world goes on its course unconcerned with the weal or the woe1 the persistence or the disappearance of spiritual being1 of spiritual relations1 indeed of spiritual life in general4 ,not only do great catastrophes1 as in earthquakes1 storms1 and floods1 show how indifferent the existence or the non-existence of spiritual life is to the forces of nature1 but the commonplaces of everyday experience and of individual destiny also show the same indifference4 ,in nature we find no difference of treatment in accordance with any distinction of good and evil1 great and mean1 noble and vulgar4 ,even the most eminent personality1 who may be almost indispensable to our spiritual welfare1 is subject to the same contingency1 the same fate as all others4 ,regarded from the point of view of the world of sense1 all spiritual life is a chaotic confusion of fleeting appearances1 all of which are dependent2 it is not an independent world1 but a subsidiary addition to a world which is other than spiritual4 ,experience of the impotence of the spiritual life in relation to nature has been the cause of mental disquiet from early times4 ,but this experience was not necessarily oppressive so long as mankind was called upon to transform nature into a realm of reason1 and so long as there was hope of accomplishing this4 ,for the contrast with the cold and rigid external world has deepened the inwardness of human relationship and made us conscious of the dignity and greatness of spiritual creation4 ,in culture1 humanity has formed a characteristic sphere of life1 and in doing this has aided the spiritual life to attain a certain reality4 ,in culture1 spiritual factors and values win power2 and a new order of life in contrast to that of nature is evolved4 ,it cannot be doubted that a new reality makes its appearance2 but it is an open question whether this new reality fulfils the hopes which have been placed upon it2 and1 further1 whether perplexities and confusions1 which make it doubtful whether anything has been gained1 do not arise out of its further development4 ,this question is certainly not answered lightly in the affirmative by the conviction that regards the spiritual life as a turning of reality towards its own truth1 which therefore in its development must insist primarily on complete spontaneity and independence4 ,for1 if in culture the spiritual life attains an independence over against nature1 it is at the same time drawn so deeply into the particularity and limitation of human life1 and is associated so much with the merely human1 that culture as a whole is anything but the unfolding of a realm of pure1 or even of only preponderating1 spirituality4 ,in the first place1 the spiritual life does not introduce a definite and fixed content into our experience1 and it does not follow paths independent of human striving and error2 but arises through hard toil and only slowly finds any unity3 in its further endeavour it by no means follows the same tendency1 but effects great changes1 indeed revolutions1 into states the exact opposite of its previous states4 ,when it is so uncertain as to its own aim the spiritual life becomes seriously involved in the seeking and vacillation1 in the needs and passions1 of man3 instead of giving to man an immovable support and pointing out a definite aim for his activity1 it seems itself unable to pass beyond a state of uncertain groping and error4 ,corresponding to this uncertainty as to its content1 there is a want of power on the part of the spiritual life within man4 ,instead of controlling the conduct of man directly1 the spiritual life generally determines it through that which it contributes towards the attainment of his aims4 ,if this is so in the case of the individual1 it is even more so in the case of social life1 for in it spiritual activity is regarded chiefly as a means to obtain advantages over others1 and to advance socially4 ,and so that of which it is the nature to be an end complete in itself is treated as a means to other ends2 it is not itself active1 and its own power is not a motive force2 but even for its own maintenance it needs the help and support of things alien to itself3 the artificial mechanism of social organisation must bring forth toilsomely that which1 unless it flows immediately from its source1 cannot be fresh or genuine4 ,such a state of human affairs remains far below the aims of the spiritual life2 it produces insincerity1 a luxuriant growth of hypocrisy and pretence4 ,for all striving for the true and the good involves the assertion that the object is desired for its own sake3 if the object really serves the aims of mere man1 there inevitably originates a wide divergence between what is willed and what is alleged to be willed4 ,in respect of this1 one cannot1 with the moralists1 lay the blame simply on the will4 ,for1 in man1 spiritual impulse in general is insignificant2 without the compulsion of the social environment it would hardly prevail at all against nature4 ,this social compulsion1 therefore1 notwithstanding its defects1 cannot be dispensed with2 however clearly we may see its inadequacy1 we cannot renounce it altogether4 ,society cannot exert such coercive power without presenting itself as the champion of pure reason2 without desiring an infallibility for its decisions4 ,this attitude naturally arouses the opposition of individuals and a keen struggle ensues1 but as one side may be right the condition of the spiritual life is not much improved by the struggle4 ,the state of life1 uncertain of its aims and inadequate in its means1 is rather a paltry substitute for a realm of reason than such a realm itself4 ,a noisy and self-conscious agitation1 much unrest and excitement1 but little substance and soul2 a ceaseless anxiety concerning the means of life and hurried pursuit of them1 and in the occupation with the means forgetfulness and neglect of life itself2 much self-glorification and ostentation1 and little reverence for the spiritual life--such is social life in general4 ,where the vanity1 emptiness1 and falsehood of the social machinery have come to be clearly perceived1 man has become absolutely wearied and satiated1 and has often fled from society to nature1 to seek therein simple truth and enduring peace4 ,but he could believe it possible to find such in nature only because he read this truth and peace into it from himself2 as1 nevertheless1 he must ultimately return to those of the same nature as himself3 thus he remains in a state of vacillation between nature1 which is indifferent to the spiritual life1 and humanity1 which corrupts the spiritual life by drawing it down to the level of the narrowly human4 ,if the spiritual life nowhere attains to pure unfolding and certain effect within our experience1 how can the spiritual life be accepted by us in this experience as the essence of reality8 ,in the midst of such doubt1 the original suspicions1 which may have receded before the hope of the emergence of a new world1 also become felt again--the insignificance of the external manifestation of the spiritual life in contrast with the immeasurableness of nature2 the late appearance of the spiritual life in the world-process1 and its probable disappearance as a result of the expected changes in the conditions of nature4 ,does not everything tend to give us the impression that the spiritual life signifies no more than an episode in the world-process2 an episode which passes fleetingly1 and does not affect the fundamental nature of reality at all8 ,the necessity of such a conclusion remains concealed so long as man1 in an undeveloped state of life1 is able to fill the world with forms similar to himself1 and to understand the control of nature on an analogy with human conduct4 ,but the progress of culture and especially the growth of scientific knowledge have1 with irresistible power1 taken us beyond that state2 have led us from dream and illusion to a state of complete alertness4 ,has not all independence of the spiritual life become doubtful with this progress of culture and scientific knowledge1 and must we not give up all claim to subject our existence to its sovereignty1 and to determine our life and effort spiritually8 ,for there cannot be any doubt that1 with the spiritual life1 the characteristic organisation of our existence also falls4 ,it may be that we have thought superficially and confusedly enough to declare something to be in itself falsehood and deceit1 and at the same time to give to it the guidance of our life4 7b7 ,,consideration ,,and ,,demand ,the previous train of thought may appear to be a plain and straightforward negation1 a complete renunciation of the spiritual life as the most adequate solution of our problem4 ,but that train of thought is itself the result of a superficial treatment2 every deeper consideration inevitably contradicts such a summary procedure4 ,a contradiction of that train of thought is found especially in the fact which governs the whole course of our investigation1 that with the transition to the spiritual life there appear essentially new magnitudes and values1 new forms and contents of life1 which advance beyond not only the nature but also the capacity of mere man4 ,whence all these1 if spiritual life is only delusion8 ,the new in us may be never so powerless2 still1 the fact that it emerges in our world of thought and hovers before us as a possibility proves that it has a certain reality also within us4 ,further1 is the spiritual life1 ultimately1 in every sense so powerless as it at first appears8 ,that it does not pass by as a phantom among our presentations is shown by the fact that we do not simply receive the existing condition of things1 and its degrading oppression of the spiritual life1 but we feel it to be a cause of harm and of pain to us4 ,could we experience this if we belonged entirely to that condition of things2 and is not ,hegel right when he says that he who feels a limitation is already in some way above it8 ,we feel the insufficiency1 the feebleness1 the threadbareness of all human morality2 could we feel this if we did not experience a longing for a more genuine morality8 ,and whence arises this longing in opposition to an entirely different world1 if not from a spirituality implanted within our own being8 ,we perceive the limitations in our knowledge2 a growing insight into all its conditions and oppositions may lead us in this matter almost to complete scepticism3 but whence came the desire for an inner elucidation of reality2 and how did even the idea of it originate1 if we belong entirely to the darkness of a nature that is less than spiritual1 and if there is no fight at all within us8 ,we feel that the rapid flow of time1 its change and course1 its sudden revolutions sometimes even into the complete opposite of the previous state1 is a defect1 a source of serious danger to truth3 could we feel this to be so if our whole being were centred in the passing moment2 if we did not survey and compare the different times2 if our being did not participate in something super-temporal8 ,and lastly1 if the feeling that culture is inadequate and indeed nothing but a pretence is so strong and so painful1 then here again we set ourselves in a position independent of the condition of things1 and judge that condition by a transcendent standard which only our own being can supply4 ,if all these aims were only invented by man and applied to life in an external manner1 failure to realise them could not agitate us as it does4 ,besides1 the matter is not by any means at an end with the feeling of the inadequacy of our position2 a movement in opposition to this condition is also not lacking4 ,for1 as has been seen throughout our whole treatment1 spiritual operation1 creative activity is to be found within human experience4 ,it meets us with especial clearness at the heights of the work of history2 but these also belong to humanity as a whole1 and the light kindled there is not entirely lost in the mist of the commonplace circumstances of every day4 ,in relation with these heights of endeavour there is1 in humanity as a whole1 a movement in opposition to the tendency of mediocre culture to fill life entirely2 a longing for a more spontaneous1 a purer1 and a more genuine life4 ,our own power of creation may be dormant2 only the advent of a strong suggestion1 or a serious convulsion1 is necessary and it breaks forth forcefully1 and shows distinctly that there is more spirituality in man than the circumstances of every day allow us to perceive4 ,the spiritual movement manifests itself also in private life and in the relation of individual to individual4 ,he who does not measure spiritual greatness by physical standards will often find more genuine greatness in the simplicity of these relations than in the famous deeds of history2 and at the same time he will find that through these relations an effective presence of the spiritual life within human experience is strengthened4 ,if in its opposition to human perversion of it genuine spiritual life does not always reach a definite positive result1 the operation of that life as the law and the judge of human things is all the more distinct4 ,man may try to withdraw himself from the spiritual life2 he may reject and mock at that which the age presents to him as an aim2 he may seek to fill his life completely with human interests and inclinations3 but he cannot do this without degenerating into a state of destitution1 which even he himself soon finds to be intolerable1 and without being forced1 with the compulsion of necessity1 to surrender much which it is impossible for him to surrender4 ,the catastrophes of history in which that which has been found insignificant sinks1 and that which carries a spiritual necessity within it rises1 careless1 as it seems1 of the weal or the woe of man1 show in letters of brass that the spiritual life may not be modified by man at his pleasure1 in this way or that1 in accordance with his circumstances and his mood4 ,when we consider all the facts together1 we do not get the impression that the spiritual life is simply a fleeting illusion that may easily be banished2 but rather1 that there are serious complications1 out of which we cannot find our way2 and that something occurs within us1 something is begun within us1 that is unaffected by mood and caprice1 and that shows us to be in relations much more comprehensive1 though obscure in the highest degree4 ,in particular1 for a treatment that starts out from the life-process1 and sees the spiritual movement chiefly in strivings1 collisions1 and even in failures1 there can be no doubt concerning the actuality of this movement1 the emergence of a new life1 and thus of a new stage of reality in man4 ,when we recognise the actuality of the spiritual movement the relation of the spiritual life to nature and to the world is also to be regarded differently from the manner in which the negative mode of thought represents it4 ,it is now impossible1 as it often happens1 more particularly among philosophising natural scientists1 to consider the representation of nature as a complete representation of reality1 and to leave the spiritual life out of attention as something supplementary and subsidiary4 ,the spiritual life is now itself acknowledged to be a reality1 and must help to determine the representation of reality as a whole4 ,nature must be more than a soulless machine if its evolution is to lead1 as it does1 to the point where a self-conscious life emerges4 ,within our own experience points of transition are not lacking where nature produces something that becomes elevated to the spiritual1 and furthers the spiritual life4 ,the difference of the sexes1 for example1 is primarily a matter of natural organisation1 and what a rich source of spiritual animation it is6 ,nothing manifests the union between nature and the spiritual life more convincingly than the beautiful1 when1 in accordance with the result of our investigation1 it is regarded as a characteristic unfolding of the spiritual life1 and not as something which merely fascinates man and is a source of pleasure to him4 ,for how could the external receive a characteristic soul by being taken up into the inner life2 how could the inward need an external form for its perfection if the two realms were not united1 if a comprehensive reality did not transcend the antithesis8 ,lastly1 it should not be forgotten that it is modern science1 especially in its latest phases1 with its destruction of the supposed self-evidence of the sense impression of nature1 that has placed the relation of nature to the spiritual life in a more favourable light than it was placed by the dogmatic mechanistic theory1 which in earlier times seemed to be the ultimate solution of the problem of their relation4 ,nature has again become far more of a problem to us1 and we recognise that our conception of it is a work of the spirit4 ,the old facts of the connection and interaction of phenomena1 of the conformity to law on the part of occurrences1 of the developments of form1 and of a progress to even more artistic complexes and ever finer organisation1 once more make us feel1 and far more keenly than before1 that they involve difficult problems4 ,it is more clearly evident to us than it was formerly that every attempt to make these facts intelligible is made by the spiritual life and by analogy with the spiritual life4 ,if in such analogy we do not go beyond symbols1 yet the symbols themselves betray a depth and a secret of reality4 ,at the present time when scientific work is at its highest stage of development1 the shallowness and the rashness of a radical negation are distinctly recognised4 ,it is true that for the particular life-problem that we are considering we have not yet gained much from this recognition2 to perceive the impossibility of an absolute negation does not in itself imply the victory of a joyful affirmation4 ,for all the perplexities that previously occupied us still remain1 as do the limitation and the curtailment of the spiritual life which proceeded from these perplexities2 the whole movement also remains in its state of stagnation4 ,as certainly as on the one hand there is too much of the spiritual life presented to us to allow of negation1 so on the other it is by no means sufficient for the removal of all doubt4 ,mere research can tolerate a state of hesitation between affirmation and negation2 it must often refrain from a decision in the case of special problems4 ,life1 however1 cannot endure any such intermediary position2 for life1 such hesitation in arriving at a decision must result in complete stagnation1 and this would help the negation to victory4 ,if life is faced with an either--or the affirmation has a prospect of victory only if the situation previously described may be in some way transformed in its favour4 ,this cannot come to pass unless the spiritual movement can transcend the limitations which appear in human life1 and unless a further development can proceed out of the limitations themselves4 ,only such an advance can help the endangered affirmation to victory4 ,but whether the spiritual movement does transcend these limitations1 not a logical consideration of concepts but only the experience of life will decide2 let us enquire therefore whether life offers what we seek4 7c7 ,,the ,,victory ,the questions that are given rise to in the consideration of human life as it is are answered in the affirmative with joyful certainty by the religions4 ,the religions do this in that they announce to man the help of a transcendent order2 an appearance of divine power and goodness in the domain of man4 ,but after the far-reaching changes of life and of conviction that we have experienced1 can this confidence still be justified8 ,and have we a place for this assertion of help from a transcendent order when we acknowledge the reality of the independent spiritual life8 ,everything of a religious character and even that which is related to it meets1 at least upon the surface1 in the present the keenest opposition4 ,this opposition is aroused in the first place by anthropomorphism--the indulgence in merely human representations and desires--which is often found associated with religion4 ,if the essence of religion were inseparable from such anthropomorphism1 the dissolution and submergence of religion could hardly be prevented4 ,but according to the witness of history1 an energetic conflict against all such mere anthropomorphism has been carried on within religion itself and1 in its highest stages of development1 religion has demanded a complete surrender of everything narrowly human3 anthropomorphism and religion are1 therefore1 not absolutely identical4 ,our investigation1 emphasising as it does the radical distinction between the substance of the spiritual life and its appropriation by man1 counselled us to be cautious in reference to this matter1 and warned us against a hasty rejection of religion4 ,the essence of religion is still less affected by the charge that modern natural science in conceiving of the spatial world as infinite leaves no room for a visible heaven4 ,for1 to take such a criticism seriously1 we must not only think of religion as at a primitive stage which1 in the development of its spiritual content1 it has overstepped1 but we must also completely ignore the fundamental revolution that modern philosophy and the whole tendency of modern thought have accomplished in the representation of the visible world4 ,modern thought has destroyed the self-evidence that the nave man attributed to that representation1 by the experience and the proof that the visible world around us does not come to us completely as we represent it1 but that we form the representation from our point of view1 and under the conditions of our spiritual nature4 ,our own activity is embodied in the representation2 and it will depend upon the value of this activity how far the representation may be accepted as reality as a whole and the ultimate and absolute world4 ,now1 as in the visible world the spiritual life is always bound up with something alien and which cannot be completely transformed by the activity of that life1 so every assertion of an independent spiritual life is a protest against the view that the world of sense is the only world4 ,but in that1 unless the spiritual life is independent1 there is neither science nor culture1 the priority of a world other than that of sense cannot be in any way a matter of doubt to philosophy4 ,but a world other than the world of sense is by no means the transcendent world of religion2 such a world as the latter could be reached only by a continuation of the life-process beyond the position yet attained2 the course of our investigation1 however1 has left no uncertainty concerning the direction in which such a world is to be sought4 ,we saw that the spiritual life could not acquire an independence without becoming a universal life3 only the immediate presence of this universal life at the individual point arouses and preserves a spiritual life in it4 ,in spite of this immediate presence of the whole1 the life of man receives its more detailed organisation and development from his relation to the environment and in the building up of a world2 the unity that exists in the whole reveals itself at first only in relation to the multiplicity4 ,there is1 therefore1 still the possibility that a new and characteristic life should evolve out of an exclusive relation to the whole2 such a life1 in contrast to that building up of a world1 would bear a world-transcendent character4 ,this possibility constitutes the only way of advancing beyond the position hitherto reached4 ,now1 however much work in the world forms the main part of our life and asserts itself to be such1 yet1 as a fact1 our life is not taken up entirely by such work4 ,in the striving of humanity and in the soul of the individual there is a movement towards a world-transcendent life1 a life that first attains to a complete inwardness when it becomes world-transcendent4 ,only such an inwardness offers a firm support1 a spirituality unperverted by the perplexities of the world2 but this is not possible otherwise than by man's gaining participation in a world-transcendent spiritual life which is purely and absolutely self-conscious3 this life must become man's own life1 and spirituality in this way self-consciously advance towards divinity4 ,this makes it for the first time intelligible how life1 even when it suffers complete failure in its work in the world1 even when the activity exerted upon the world is completely frustrated1 by no means degenerates into a state of destitution and ruin4 ,for a new task is now revealed to man in his own attitude to the spiritual life as a whole1 a relation which may in different cases be very different in character1 and he may find in the solution of the task incalculable difficulties4 ,here activity also changes its character1 since without any external manifestation it can become complete and purely inward3 character can free itself of everything passive and become fully active2 from being a mere accompaniment it can become an active whole4 ,all this1 however1 is possible only if life is directed toward a world-transcendent spirituality and only by the power of such a spirituality4 ,as this new kind of life does not make its appearance suddenly1 but is prepared by the whole evolution of spiritual life1 which we have previously considered1 so its main individual tendencies are also related to this evolution4 ,essential qualities of the spiritual life are manifested in work in the world1 but in this they do not come to pure formation and victorious establishment3 only the elevation to the world-transcendent self-consciousness makes possible that with which the spiritual life as a whole cannot well dispense1 indeed in which it has its essential nature4 ,the striving itself1 and its arousing and motive power1 could not be explained if the end were not operative within our life3 ,thou wouldst not seek me1 if thou hadst not already found me 7,pascal74 ,the spiritual life in man could have no hope of acquiring truth if it were not rooted in a life which transcends all error and which in some way imparts to us this transcendence4 ,if the spiritual life in man did not know of certain truth sustained at one innermost point1 a truth that exerts a directing power on all human undertaking1 and prevents it from becoming fixed in error1 man would lose all confidence in truth in face of the obscurities and errors of life as they are shown by the work of culture4 ,further1 for the maintenance of the spiritual life1 the preservation of spontaneity1 a possibility of overcoming all restriction by nature and of defying destiny is absolutely necessary4 ,but in work in the world this spontaneity is subject to the most severe limitations2 the power of fate surrounds man on all sides3 in the natural course of things even his own work becomes a rigid destiny to him1 and chains him with inexorable necessity4 ,as in the case of the individual1 so also in that of humanity as a whole1 life is a gradual narrowing1 an ever further exclusion of original possibilities2 and this tendency is continually felt as an increasing oppression in its opposition to the freedom of the will and an independent present4 ,how may the spiritual life be prevented from growing feeble and senile1 if new pure beginnings cannot be produced from a fundamental relation transcending the relation with the world1 if from this fundamental relation a spontaneous life cannot spring up ever anew8 ,the fact that humanity is able not only to transform the nature of culture in its particular aspects1 but also to fall into error concerning culture as a whole1 without surrendering itself1 is an indication that the life of humanity is not exhausted in work in the world4 ,the spiritual life must unite in an inner community all who participate in it2 and this is impossible unless the spiritual life leads man to a point where all walls of partition and all differences fall away4 ,but spiritual work increases rather than diminishes these differences2 with culture the differentiation of men also grows4 ,we must sink ever deeper in such differentiation2 lose more and more the possibility of a mutual understanding1 of a life and feeling with one another and for one another1 if this movement toward differentiation does not come into contact with a transcendent power that counteracts it1 if some power does not unite us inwardly4 ,what other power could this be than the spiritual life itself1 and how could it effect this result otherwise than in the revelation of a world-transcendent self-conscious life which thus presents itself as an ,absolute8 ,for1 then a removal of differences in negative and in positive matters becomes possible3 in negative matters so far as all achievements in the human sphere1 however distant they may be from one another1 appear equally inadequate when they are judged by the standard of an absolute life3 in positive matters so far as the absolute life produces something at each point transcending all complexity1 by which the movement is freed from its restrictions and resumes its flow1 and by the imparting of which to man in the innermost depth of his being1 reveals a new life in which all may in like manner participate4 ,the possibility of a finally valid affirmation of life is first attained when this world-transcendent self-conscious life is acknowledged4 ,without turning to the absolute life1 life could not withdraw from its perplexities2 suffering and guilt would crush man4 ,with this turning1 however1 he acquires1 not in his merely human nature1 but so far as he is taken up into the absolute life1 part in the perfection1 infinity1 and eternity of that life3 in the midst of all change and becoming something immovable is disclosed to him2 in the midst of all dependence upon the world1 a sure world-transcendence2 in the midst of all darkness and suffering1 a state of incalculable bliss4 ,from the ultimate depths the ,yes triumphs over the ,no1 which1 at the first glance1 seems so easily its superior4 ,this transition derives a power to convince primarily from the union of the individual tendencies so as to form a vital whole of world-transcendent inwardness4 ,such a whole1 thoroughly characteristic in its nature1 is never a work of mere man1 a product of critical reflection2 it can proceed only from the spiritual life itself4 ,looked at from the point of view of that life this whole cannot be regarded as something later and as something supplementary2 but it will be seen that that which for us first attains complete clearness through suffering and convulsion must be effective from the beginning1 and already exist in the work upon the world4 ,if1 however1 it becomes our possession only when it takes precedence1 then the whole prospect of reality must be altered and deepened1 and for us life will be divided into the stages of the establishing1 struggling1 triumphing of spirituality4 ,it is this fact of transcendent spirituality that the religions take up and develop1 and seek to bring near to humanity4 ,the doctrines they contain are ultimately only the framework or the outward manifestation of that world-transcendent inwardness2 they desire to realise its power of deliverance and elevation completely4 ,they themselves have their support and justification in this transcendent spiritual life1 and the precedence of one to the others will be judged by the degree to which in affirmation and negation they develop this spiritual life in its world-transcending sovereignty and in its world-penetrating power4 ,from the point of view of that life1 religion as a whole must maintain its truth and its indispensable nature3 where that life is lacking1 religion is simply a delusion1 a folly the absurdity of which is hardly conceivable2 but where it is developed religion must pass current as that which1 of all things1 is the most certain1 as the fundamental axiom of the whole spiritual life4 ,between this either--or there is no middle course2 historical experience shows that religion has been to men and ages either the most certain of all things or the one about which there has been most dispute4 ,we can now return to the question that led us to this discussion1 to the question of the rationality of our reality4 ,to be sure1 even after the further revelation of the spiritual life1 the answer is not so easy as the adherents of religion often think4 ,for they often believe that with the acknowledgment of a world-transcendent spirituality1 its triumphant manifestation within our world is immediately assured2 and with this conviction they attempt to present this world as a kingdom of justice1 even if not of love4 ,but all endeavour1 however energetic1 and all recourse to subtlety of thought1 yield no satisfactory conclusion3 at most1 the possibility is reached that that which seems irrational may acquire some rationality in more comprehensive relations2 but even if that is so1 we are not free from irrationality2 and those mere possibilities are far from being equal to counteracting the strong impression of the reality of evil4 ,even religion1 which would bring about a transition to the better1 is itself deeply involved in this irrationality2 a painful martyrdom has often been imposed upon its heroes1 and its form has continually degenerated in the course of history through the influence of human error and passion4 ,since in the latter the restriction is presented as an opposition to the divine1 the view of the world as it immediately appears is darkened rather than illuminated4 ,nevertheless1 through the revelation that the world has a deeper basis1 the perplexity concerning life and reality is essentially changed4 ,evil is not removed2 the external view of things is not altered2 the good is perhaps strengthened1 and1 indeed1 life in its innermost depth withdrawn from all power of perplexity and led to a new stage4 ,so far1 the irrationality may appear in another light from this point of view1 as hence the conflicts and the convulsions may themselves be factors which help life to realise its own ideal and to establish it in the new world4 ,in history1 suffering has been regarded as absolutely irrational1 and has been unconditionally rejected only where man has been regarded as essentially complete4 ,but if an immense problem is recognised in suffering1 then suffering also1 by rousing us to activity and by making us less inflexible1 may acquire a positive value and be of service in the development of being4 ,this1 however1 does not give us a theodicy2 it justifies neither philosophy nor religion in trying to act as advocate for the ,deity4 ,to us evil is an insoluble riddle3 no formula can make it intelligible why a powerful and clear reason is implanted in our world and that at the same time the lower most obstinately asserts itself in opposition1 treats it as a matter of indifference1 offers an insurmountable resistance to it4 ,thus we can hardly reach a decision in regard to our last conviction by way of intellectual consideration2 rather1 in the decision concerning the either--or which is the question here1 our whole being is involved4 ,on the one side there is the external impression of the world1 the weakness of the good1 its perversion into evil1 the apparent indifference of the world-process towards the aims of the spirit1 the apparent futility of all that would advance beyond nature4 ,can anything that is aroused within our inner being1 and with so much toil finds any form1 arise in opposition to this immeasurable world8 ,this will be possible only when a movement of the world itself1 and not a mere product of man1 is recognised in that which is aroused within man3 for only then will its extension be a matter of complete indifference1 and1 however mean an extension it shows in the human sphere1 a turning of the whole would be proved1 a revolution of the whole accomplished4 ,then that which for us emerges on the edge of our life must nevertheless be regarded as the sustaining basis and the controlling power of reality as a whole4 ,our whole investigation has championed the view that the turning to the spiritual life implies a movement of the world3 wherever the independence of the spiritual life is acknowledged the supremacy of reason cannot be doubted4 ,but it is one thing to acknowledge such a thesis to be necessary1 another to give it the power to convince and impress1 without which it does not leave the realm of phantoms1 and does not become a living power4 ,this is possible only where the spiritual life is taken up as our own life1 and developed as our own life2 where1 therefore1 its vindication attains to the overwhelming power and the axiomatic certainty of self-preservation4 ,the centre of reality will be changed for us only if we change the centre of our own life1 and find true immediacy no longer in sense impression1 but in self-determining activity4 ,the acknowledgment of a self-conscious inwardness1 of a world-transcendent spirituality1 together with the recognition of another kind of world1 full of oppositions1 must give a characteristic form to our conception of our reality4 ,here1 a rational solution of the world-problem is for ever excluded1 and the world present to man must be accepted as a particular kind of reality1 which cannot be regarded as the only and ultimate one4 ,from this point of view the whole life of humanity must appear to be a mere link in a great chain2 an act of a drama1 the course of which we are unable to survey2 the fundamental idea of which1 however1 glimmers through sufficiently clearly to point out a direction to our life4 ,through the emergence of a world-transcendent inwardness there appear characteristic tasks and complications1 also for the more detailed development of our life4 ,unqualified esteem for that inwardness has often led religions to demand that life should be placed solely and entirely in that transcendent sphere1 in the realm of faith and of disposition1 and to free life as far as possible from the work of the world2 the former life seemed to excel the latter as the divine the human4 ,but this comparison does not hold good2 for the divine is to us not only a world-transcendent sovereignty but also a world-pervading power3 to honour the former preponderatingly may be the only salvation for times and individuals in a state of prostration and collapse1 and in this way life would be given a preponderatingly religious character2 but this form of life can never be accepted as the normal one and the one alone worth striving for4 ,for one thing1 that transcendent world1 as far as its contents and tasks are concerned1 is presented to us only in outline2 all its more detailed nature must result from the world of our activity1 and must retain a symbolic character4 ,if the connection of the spiritual world with the empirical world is broken it falls into the danger of becoming destitute2 so that religion may come to be simply a revelling in feeling2 or a devotion1 indifferent to all content and which1 therefore1 judged by spiritual standards1 is worthless4 ,it is by hard work alone1 in relation to men and things1 that our life acquires a spiritual character4 ,religion does1 indeed1 elevate life above work1 and give to life its full depth4 ,still1 movement and differentiation must be included within a vital whole2 and the relation to activity which is the chief factor in life cannot be given up even at its greatest depth4 ,the high estimate of spirituality may not rightly lead to a mean estimate of nature1 to a conflict with nature such as has been the case in the realm of religion in the tendency to asceticism4 ,for as certainly as our acknowledgment of an independent spirituality involves a subordination of nature1 this subordination does not imply a mean estimate1 still less a rejection4 ,asceticism which appears to be the attainment of a high level of spiritual life soon leads to an inward degeneration4 ,for in asceticism the chief task is not the powerful development and courageous advance of spirituality1 but simply a negation and suppression of sense4 ,reflection and thought will thus be centred upon just those things beyond which the spiritual movement wishes to lead4 ,particular temporary circumstances may make the tendency to asceticism comprehensible2 such times were over-refined and diseased1 and the diseased may not rightly give to life its rule4 ,but if1 in this way1 we oppose a specifically religious or ascetic form of life we are not prevented from acknowledging the strong and fruitful influence of a world of transcendent inwardness upon life as a whole4 ,for its perfect health and breadth1 our life needs two tendencies which1 though they directly contradict each other1 must1 nevertheless1 within us be complementary to each other3 it needs an energetic conflict against all that is irrational1 and at the same time to be elevated into a sphere in which everything is rational1 into a realm of peace and perfection4 ,within the spiritual life itself1 tasks are given their form and are estimated on the one hand from the human point of view1 and on the other from an ultimate1 one might say an absolute1 view of things4 ,the significance of this distinction is to be seen most clearly in history1 and1 perhaps1 in the contrast between the ,greek and the ,christian character4 ,the former places man in the midst of the world1 and requires him energetically to take up the struggle for the cause of rationality and decisively to reject the irrational4 ,suffering and pain were to be avoided2 man was never to submit to them4 ,courage appeared to be the chief quality of this form of life1 and in relation to others justice was its determining idea4 ,but if this idea demands that each should receive according to his achievement1 then the higher and the lower1 the noble and the common1 must be distinctly separated and never allowed to be confused4 ,that the noble form a small minority1 and that history hardly promises any change in this matter1 is a fact that has not escaped perception2 and the permanence of the antithesis of an esoteric and an exoteric form1 therefore1 appears to be inevitable4 ,the difference that exists is regarded as due primarily to nature1 not to free decision4 ,to make nature completely active1 and to unify that which it offers in a scattered and an unsystematic manner1 appears to be our whole life-work4 ,the result1 therefore1 is a powerful1 active1 self-conscious life1 which not only affects us by its results but to which we must assign a permanent significance4 ,but as the only and exclusive form of life1 it involves great restrictions and rigour2 its limitations may remain hidden in days of joyful creative activity and in the highest circles of society1 but they must be keenly felt if life falls into a condition of stagnation1 and man1 as man1 asks questions with regard to the happiness of life4 ,this destiny may then become an intolerable compulsion2 mere courage1 an over-exertion of human power2 mere justice1 severity and unmercifulness2 the sharp distinction between men1 an actual separation1 which tends on the one side to proud haughtiness and on the other to doubt and depression4 ,a keen perception of such limitations and dangers must necessarily force life into new paths4 ,the counter movement has won the victory in ,christianity1 which makes not work in the world but the relation to a world-transcendent spiritual life the chief thing4 ,man does not in the first place trust a nature that safely leads him but at the same time limits him2 but his nature seems full of problems1 and to need a complete transformation1 which only a miracle of grace can accomplish4 ,men are not regarded as being separated by fixed differences1 but in comparison with the divine perfection all differences vanish1 and from the relation to ,god the feeling of equality and brotherhood is evolved4 ,thought of in relation to the requirement of a pure inwardness of the whole being1 differences in achievement are totally insignificant3 justice gives place to an infinite love that dispels all harshness1 makes all differences consistent and harmonious1 and tolerates no feeling of hostility4 ,the antithesis of a nature which is operative within the world and which elevates above the world must permeate life as a whole and must give rise to opposite tendencies in every part of life4 ,on the one hand1 there is a distinct formation in finite relations1 an insistence upon plastic organisation and complete consciousness of life2 on the other1 an aspiration towards the infinite1 a more submissive faith1 a more unrestrained disposition1 a higher estimate of the nave and the childlike4 ,in the former1 man1 full of confidence in his own power1 himself produces a rationality of reality1 and disdains all aids alien to himself2 in the latter1 life is sustained by a trust in an infinite good and power which1 in a way transcending the capacity of man1 guides to the attainment of the best2 in short1 as a whole and in its individual aspects each is a fundamentally different type of life from the other4 ,the type of life advocated by ,christianity has resulted in a great deepening of life2 it cannot possibly be given up again in favour of an earlier type4 ,but this ,christian type also does not suffice for the moulding of life as a whole4 ,most severe complications would ensue if the position of ,christianity were taken up as an ultimate conclusion and an absolute evaluation in the conditions which at present exist1 and its principles without further consideration were applied to our life as a whole4 ,the annulling of all differences1 even of spiritual capacity2 the displacement of justice through pity2 the cessation of the conflict against evil2 the low estimate of man's own power1 would all endanger most severely the rational character of life2 an adoption of this type of life in its entirety would lead to the discontinuance of the work of culture2 in particular1 it is inconsistent with any kind of political organisation4 ,finite conditions are not to be judged by infinite standards2 and we men are1 after all1 in the finite and remain so4 ,and so1 from the earliest times since ,christianity1 from being merely one of opposing systems1 became the dominant power1 compromises have been sought4 ,the system of the development of power and of justice has nevertheless asserted its influence1 and though ,christianity has had an external supremacy1 this system has forced characteristically ,christian life to be regarded as a matter of mere subjective disposition and of private life4 ,but as such compromises do not fully and truly express spiritual necessity1 they easily lead to falsity4 ,to rise above this tendency to make such compromises1 the acknowledgment of the right and of the limits of each type1 the acknowledgment of the necessity of both within a comprehensive whole1 is necessary4 ,such a whole and along with it a common ground1 upon which the movements meet together1 and can strive to understand one another1 is given to us by the spiritual life1 acknowledged in its independence4 ,it is not for us to force our life into a finished scheme1 but to develop fully and to acknowledge the movements and oppositions which exist in our life4 ,true1 life will ever remain unfinished1 but can we wish to make it more complete than it can be1 and can the incompleteness cause us anxiety1 when we are sure of its main direction8 ,,iii ,,application ,,to ,,the ,,present ,,consequences ,,and ,,requirements ,introductory ,considerations ,with a consideration of the present we set out3 to the present we now return4 ,the convictions at which we have arrived1 and which have led us to a characteristic philosophy of life1 must now be considered in relation to the needs of the present2 we must see whether this philosophy proves to be true in this connection1 and this by its own development1 as well as by the simplification of the condition of a time1 which1 as it is immediately experienced1 is confused in the highest degree4 ,but1 at the outset of our treatment of this problem1 we perceive how difficult it is for the acknowledgment of an independent spirituality to determine our relation to the temporal environment2 we see how this acknowledgment transforms that relation into a problem4 ,the conception of the present is by no means simple and certain1 even as far as its external boundary is concerned4 ,the mere to-day is obviously too short a period to constitute the present2 but how much is to be added and where must it cease in order that we may have a genuine present8 ,true1 the present must involve a characteristic content that associates the moments and unites them so as to produce a common effect2 but does our time give us such a content8 ,the first glance at the state of life in our time reveals a chaotic confusion1 which includes the most diverse endeavours1 now in passionate union1 now in complete indifference to one another1 and yet again in harsh hostility2 further1 there is a constant displacement of the individual elements by a process of elevation and of degradation4 ,even if something common and permanent is operative in the present1 its close amalgamation with this change and movement prevents it from being purely developed3 the truth contained in the present state of life is inseparably mixed with human error and passion4 ,and yet this is not an experience simply of the present1 but one common to all ages4 ,for fundamental spiritual creation has always been effected in the direst contradiction to the social environment4 ,what harsh judgments1 and judgments that set its value at nil1 have been passed upon society with regard to its capacity not only in religion but also in philosophy and art6 ,how severe a conflict has been carried on in all departments of life against the presumption of society6 ,the present1 especially1 is troubled by these problems1 because1 as has become evident to us from the beginning of our investigation1 it carries within it movements of a diverse and contradictory nature1 so that it can hardly produce a consistent impression of the whole1 still less attain to a definite character4 ,human interests and parties seek with all their energy to impress upon the time their own character2 they call that modern which is useful to and in harmony with themselves4 ,the most diverse tendencies cross one another2 experiences in particular departments of life determine the conception of the whole2 the different classes of society follow different courses in accordance with their different interests2 much that is accidental is regarded as vital and is allowed to influence us3 the extreme has the advantage of being able to make an impression upon us2 and the superficial and the negative creep into favour through the easiness of the conclusion presented by them3 in short1 in this state of the time1 that which arises in human opinion is incapable of offering to spiritual endeavour a secure support and an orientation concerning its aims4 ,this uncertainty cannot be removed by turning our attention to history1 by taking an interest in past ages4 ,for1 with whatever clearness a highly developed science of history may present the whole course of the ages to us1 to believe that our own life is enriched and made more stable by this1 we must confuse knowledge and life1 the mere present representation of earlier times and the appropriation of them by our own activity--a danger into which the purely academic mode of thought easily falls4 ,the power and the tendency of life in the present determine the nature of our appropriation of the past and of its transformation in self-determining activity4 ,if this life stagnates1 then we are helpless in face of the stream of earlier systems of thought4 ,even if these systems attract us to themselves1 and carry us with them for a time1 finally they will manifest their antitheses and throw us back again upon ourselves3 we cannot escape from ourselves2 we can never find a substitute from outside for want of conviction and power of our own4 ,it is a fundamental error1 not1 indeed1 of historical research but of a feeble historical relativism1 to expect us to form a conviction of our own by concerning ourselves with the past2 and to think that the later stage in history proceeds from the earlier as a self-evident final result4 ,by taking such an attitude to the past we should only fall into the half-will and half-life common to an age of decadence4 ,if the present is thus uncertain in the heart of its spiritual nature1 and it is not possible to escape from this uncertainty by resorting to the past1 it may appear to be essential that we should be completely delivered from the tyranny of time1 and that we should take up an attitude of entire unconcern of its affirmation and its negation of spiritual endeavour4 ,but a rejection of the immediate relation to time by no means settles the matter4 ,if spiritual work were completely dissociated from the temporal environment and the historical movement1 it would be dependent solely upon the capacity of the mere individual and upon the passing moment2 all relation1 all community of work1 would thus be given up1 and the performance of others could not be anything to us1 nor our achievement anything to others2 there would be no inner building up of life1 and no hope of reaching greater depths4 ,not only is it impossible to abandon such aims1 but our experience of spiritual work itself contradicts the disintegration of life into nothing but isolated points4 ,if all spiritual creation is effected in contradiction to time1 what is denied in this contradiction is rather that which lies upon the surface of time than that which is deeper2 rather human accommodation to than the spiritual content of time4 ,all who believe that distinctive human history is sustained by the activity of a spiritual life will attribute to time such a spiritual content4 ,every age1 therefore1 in virtue of the presence of this spiritual life1 will contain characteristic spiritual motives1 movements1 and demands1 and will be especially qualified to convey certain contents to man1 to open up certain experiences to him1 and to point out certain directions4 ,all these must be appropriated by anyone who wishes to transcend the original state of emptiness1 and to advance to spiritual creation and to a spiritual fashioning of life4 ,in consequence of this a more friendly attitude may be taken up towards time2 and we shall be far more grateful to it--though perhaps not with explicit consciousness1 perhaps even in contradiction to definite purpose--than we could ever be with regard to the experiences on the surface of time4 ,however low1 for example1 the estimate ,plato may have formed of the many around him2 and though with the whole passion of his soul he may have insisted upon a transformation of the immediate condition of life1 what he offered of his own and the new that he required1 with all its originality and uniqueness1 contradicts neither the natural spirit of the ,greek nor the contemporary ,greek culture3 ,plato can be regarded only as a ,greek of a particular time4 ,his conflict with the time is not the conflict of an incomparable individuality with his environment1 but a selection and a unification of the possibilities existing in time2 it is an arousing to life of the deeper realities of time against its superficialities1 of spiritual necessities in opposition to the conduct and interests of men4 ,in this manner the great man also is a child of his age1 and is unintelligible out of relation to it4 ,could one think of ,goethe as living in the ,middle ,ages1 or of ,augustine as living in the age of the ,enlightenment8 ,indeed1 we may carry our contention further1 and say that the great has been just that which has had the closest relation with the time2 and that it has reached a permanent significance1 just because it expressed the unique nature and the inner longing of the time1 that which was incomparable and inderivable in it4 ,that which has been able to work permanently beyond the time in which it made its appearance was born not from a timeless consideration of things1 but from the deepest feeling of the needs of the time2 only thus can we escape from the feeling of unreality which otherwise accompanies the striving after spirituality4 ,this consideration must commend to spiritual work the closest possible relation with the time1 and the spiritual life may hope for an essential advance of its own striving as a result of this relation4 ,still1 the matter is not so simple as it is often thought to be4 ,the spiritual content of the ages is not a complete fact that permeates life with a sure and definite effect1 so that it could be taken up by activity4 ,rather1 that which is great and characteristic in the ages is found only in creative spiritual activity1 abstracted from which it is no more than a possibility2 a suggestion that is inevitably lost1 if an advancing spiritual activity is lacking4 ,spiritual creation is not a mere copy1 an employment of an existent time-character4 ,rather1 time first attains a spiritual character through spiritual activity1 and by spiritual creation possibility first becomes complete reality4 ,this spiritual creation is not simply a summation but a potentialisation1 an essential elevation of that which exists in time4 ,without this activity the spiritual elements in time remain merely coexistent1 and have no living unity2 they realise no life of the whole1 no being within the activity1 nothing that means to us development of being4 ,temporal life then remains only a half-life1 a life of pretence2 it lacks complete self-consciousness and true stability and joy1 and at the same time it lacks a genuine present4 ,to attain such a present thus appears to be a difficult task1 the performance of which is not so much presupposed by the different branches of spiritual life as is an object of their work4 ,art1 for example1 is rightly required to express the feeling of the life of the time2 yet it does not find such a feeling of life already existent1 but it must first wrest it from the chaos of the general condition of life4 ,art is great in giving to the time that which it did not already possess1 but which is1 nevertheless1 necessary to the complete reality of its life4 ,spiritual work1 therefore1 is not something just added in time1 but that which first gives to time a genuine life and a genuine present4 ,this task may be achieved with quite different degrees of success2 it is not all times that reach this elevation and attain to a genuine present2 those that do so we call great and classical times4 ,the general state of our life--which1 however1 does not imply time as a whole--appears from this point of view to be especially afflicted with the defect and fault of insincerity2 our age does not so much live a life of its own as a strange life2 and yet this life is represented as being a life of our own4 ,and it is especially so in our own time1 when along with a state of division in our own purposes we are inundated by systems of thought alien to us4 ,we are thus in danger of becoming half-hearted and living a life of pretence3 in religion we assert the profession of faith and the feelings of times long gone by to be our own conviction and feelings2 we build our cathedrals in styles that correspond to another spiritual condition and another tendency of life2 in philosophy we hang upon systems and problems of other times2 in everything we lack sincerity4 ,but why is this so1 and why do we renounce all claim to a life in accordance with our own nature8 ,certainly not because our time lacks problems and tasks of its own1 or because it is deficient in spiritual possibilities and necessities2 for1 of these there is an abundance2 in this matter our time is not behind any other4 ,but there predominates a wrong relation between these tasks and the central power of the spiritual life1 which is equal to cope with them and out of the possibilities create a reality4 ,in any case spiritual work has a great deal to do with the time2 and in regard to this it finds itself in no simple situation4 ,spiritual work must acknowledge a given condition1 which it cannot alter to suit its own preferences2 but it can make something else out of this condition and also see something else in it than immediately meets the eye4 ,the possibilities of a time are revealed only in spiritual work1 and through it alone are they separated from the human additions that usually overgrow them4 ,these possibilities cannot become clearly evident1 unless a close relation to history is won3 they are not suggestions simply of the moment1 for they have been prepared by the whole work of history4 ,history acquires quite a different--a far more positive--meaning when the spiritual life is acknowledged to be independent1 and when it is admitted that spiritual life is not just the embellishment of a reality other than spiritual1 but the formation of the only genuine and substantial reality1 the transition to a self-consciousness of life4 ,for1 as such a formation of reality1 this creative activity extends beyond the particular time in which it originates1 and becomes part of a time-transcending present4 ,true1 this activity always appears in a garment that seems simply temporary2 but this garment does not constitute its being3 the imperishable in it1 its fundamental life1 remains inwardly near and present even after great changes of temporal condition2 and within the sphere of spiritual work is always capable of new effect4 ,christianity1 for example1 in spite of the attacks that are and have been made upon it1 still asserts itself as a living power4 ,yet there cannot be the slightest doubt that in everything that lies on the surface of our life we are as far as possible removed from the centuries of its formation2 that not only the view of the world but also the tasks of life and the nature of feeling and disposition have become radically different4 ,but life is not exhausted in these activities on the surface1 which must be regarded as external manifestations that proceed from an inner unity4 ,that which these centuries have performed for the essence of life3 the realisation of a freedom of spiritual inwardness1 the acknowledgment of an independent spiritual world with great aims and tasks1 may1 indeed1 become obscured for the consciousness of individuals and of whole periods2 it remains1 however1 an essential part1 a presupposition of all further spiritual life4 ,as in this manner in the case of ,christianity1 spiritual reality has also been evolved otherwise in some creative epochs2 and in the movement of history they have all together produced a certain condition of spiritual evolution which constitutes the invisible basis of our own activity1 and from which it is first possible to elucidate the spiritual nature of a particular time4 ,this universal1 historical state of spiritual evolution indicates a level1 to which must correspond all work1 which desires not simply to attain the aim of the moment but also to serve in the building up of a spiritual reality within the domain of humanity4 ,this historical condition of the spiritual life is not conferred upon us by history2 rather history only mediates an incentive that must first be transformed by our own activity and conviction4 ,only a mode of thought which transcends the movement of history can recognise a spiritual content in history and in our own time1 and use this content for our own striving4 ,spiritual work1 therefore1 and philosophy as part of it1 has a twofold relation to time1 a negative and a positive3 it must possess an independence of time1 and it must seek an intimate relation with it4 ,the modern1 according to the sense in which it is taken1 will arouse us at one time to energetic opposition1 at another to the closest intimacy2 the former when it desires to subject us to the contemporary conditions with all their contingency1 the latter when it champions the spiritual possibilities of the time and the state of spiritual evolution in contrast with the human4 ,we are concerned in a conflict for genuine against false time2 we are to distinguish clearly between the merely human and the spiritual present2 the spiritual life must first give a genuine reality to time1 and in doing this must advance in itself4 ,every particular philosophic conviction must justify itself in its treatment of this problem2 it must be in a position to wrest the truth from the error in time2 to understand and to estimate the endeavour of the time without yielding to it2 to comprehend as a whole the manifold elements of truth in the life of the present1 and to elucidate them from a transcendent unity4 ,without doubt great problems and fruitful possibilities exist in the time1 but we often feel the most painful contrast between their demands and the achievements of man4 ,to diminish this divergence2 for the time to attain more to its own perfection and become a genuine present1 is an urgent task in the performance of which philosophy also must co-operate2 and by this endeavour philosophy can also gain much for itself4 ,i4 ,,requirements ,,for ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,life ,,as ,a ,,whole 7a7 ,,the ,,character ,,of ,,culture ,the term culture received its present meaning in the latter half of the eighteenth century2 culture itself reaches back to the beginning of the ,modern ,age4 ,the whole evolution of the ,modern ,age is a striving beyond the religious form of life which prevailed in the ,middle ,ages1 and which began to be felt to be narrow and one-sided4 ,in opposition to this type of life a new type arose1 increased in strength1 and finally we became fully conscious of it in the idea of culture4 ,the new type has been felt to be far superior to the old in many ways2 it is not limited to one side of human nature1 but desires to take it1 and to develop it as a whole2 it does not refer man to any kind of external aid1 but makes his life depend as much as possible upon his own power1 and finds an aim fully sufficient in the limitless extension of this power2 it directs man's perception and endeavour not so much beyond the world as to it1 and hopes by this means to give a stability to his striving1 and a close relation with the abundance of things4 ,the movement has brought about a far-reaching transformation of life3 that which was lying dormant has been aroused2 the rigid made plastic2 the manifold woven into a whole of life2 the whole range of life has acquired more spontaneous freshness and inner movement4 ,the result of the work of history now becomes for the first time a complete possession1 since above everything contingent and accidental it elevates an essential1 and above everything tending to separation and hostility1 a common humanity4 ,the animating and ennobling influence of modern culture is nowhere more manifest than in the life-work of ,goethe4 ,for we recognise the greatness of his nature primarily in that1 with the acutest vision and the greatest freedom1 he entered into the multiplicity of experience and events2 with placid yet powerful dominance stripped off all that was mere semblance and pretence1 all that was simply conventional and partial1 and fully realised the genuine1 the freshness of life1 and the purely human4 7,v4 ,the ,problem of ,human ,life47 ,his treatment of ,biblical narratives is a good example of this3 that a king reigned in ,egypt who knew not ,joseph suggests to him how quickly even the most magnificent human achievements are forgotten2 that ,saul went forth to find his father's she-asses1 and found a kingdom1 symbolises to him the truth that we men often reach something totally different from1 and also much better than1 that for which we strove and hoped2 the miracle of the walking on the water is to him a parable of unflinching faith--the holding fast to apparent impossibilities--without which there can be no great creation4 ,if1 with this achievement1 modern culture may have the feeling of being the fulfilment of the strivings of the ages1 yet its own course has produced oppositions1 and engendered perplexities that culminate in a dangerous crisis4 ,culture1 as it was represented at the height of ,german spiritual life1 was directed chiefly towards the inner development of man2 it was called with especial satisfaction spiritual culture4 ,its adherents were concerned not so much with finding a better relation to the environment as with growing in the realm of their own soul1 and with employing whatever the experience of life brought in the development of a self-conscious personality1 of pure inwardness4 ,only in this way did they seem to advance from the previous state of limitation to the complete breadth of existence1 and the exercise of all their powers4 ,a joy in life1 a firm confidence in the rationality of reality gave this inner culture a soul2 and a bold flight bore it far above the narrowness and heaviness of daily life2 sthetic literary creation became the chief sphere of its work1 and the chief means for the development and self-perfecting of personality4 ,inner culture has by no means vanished from our life2 effects of many kinds are felt from it in the present4 ,but it has been forced to resign its supremacy in favour of a realistic culture1 which makes the relation to the environment the chief matter1 and removes the centre of life to the intellectual and practical control of this environment4 ,in realistic culture the inner development of work1 of work in the direction of natural science and technical art1 as well as in politics and social endeavour1 is less occupied with the acquiring of a powerful individuality than with the establishment of an agreeable condition of society as a whole4 ,since activity is related more and more closely with things1 and receives laws and directions from them1 culture is freed from dependence upon man and his subjectivity4 ,culture is an impersonal power in contrast with man2 it does not lead ultimately to a good to him so much as make him simply a means and an instrument of its progressive movement4 ,an immeasurable structure of life1 a ceaseless self-assertion and self-advancement1 an arousing and an exertion of all powers that can bring man into relation with the environment1 are manifest in this culture3 but at the same time there is an increasing transformation of our life into a mere life of relation and mediation1 a deprivation and a vanishing of self-consciousness4 ,in the midst of the magnificent triumphs in external matters there is an increasingly perceptible contrast between an astonishing development of the technical1 and a pitiful neglect of the personal side of life3 in regard to the former we surpass all other times1 as much as we fall below most in regard to the latter4 ,along with a ceaseless increase of technical capacity1 there is a rapid degeneration of personal life1 a pauperising of the soul4 ,where the matter is one of a technical nature there is a magnificent condition1 definite progress in all departments1 work conscious of its aim2 but there is a painful groping and helpless hesitation1 a stagnation of production1 an emptiness that is only just hidden by a veneer of academic education1 where powerful personalities and impressive individualities are required4 ,for a time we were carried away entirely by the tendency to place our attention solely upon the environment1 and we seemed to be satisfied absolutely by it4 ,but the inner life that has been evolved within human experience by the work of thousands of years1 and through severe convulsions1 prevents this condition being accepted as a conclusion2 that which has once become an independent centre cannot possibly permit itself to be degraded to the position of a mere means and an instrument4 ,it is impossible to give up all claim to self-conscious and self-determining life and a satisfaction of this life4 ,our spiritual nature compels us to ask questions and to make claims2 if they are not satisfied1 then1 notwithstanding all the wealth of experiences1 the feeling of poverty spreads and we seek for aids1 and1 first1 we turn back to that inner culture from which we had turned away4 ,but we find the ways shut off2 a direct return is impossible4 ,this culture had characteristic principles and presuppositions2 and the course of modern life itself has1 if not overthrown them1 involved them in serious doubt4 ,we have become clearly conscious of the limitations which this inner culture had without itself feeling them2 movements which it united have now separated1 and have become hostile4 ,inner culture rested on a firm faith in the power of reason in reality1 and this faith begot a joyful confidence4 ,for it the world was sustained and determined by inner forces3 we feel the rigid actuality of occurrences1 the indifference of the machinery of the world towards the aims of the spirit1 and the contradictions of existence4 ,in the former case the greatness of man was the predominant faith2 and this greatness was sought in his freedom3 we1 however1 feel much more our bondage to obscure powers and at the same time our insignificance4 ,in the former again1 it aroused no opposition to call only a chosen part of humanity1 the creative1 to full and complete life1 and to assign a most meagre portion to the majority3 we cannot possibly renounce the concern for all mankind and for the welfare of every individual4 ,in the former1 morality and art were harmoniously united in the ideal of life2 in our time they have separated and are at deadly enmity with one another4 ,everywhere life has given rise to more problems1 more inconsistencies1 more obscurities2 thus1 with all its external proximity1 the joyfully secure ideal of life of our classical writers is inwardly removed far from us2 without insincerity we cannot proclaim it to be our profession of faith4 ,in particular the resort to ,goethe1 as to one with a secure standard of life1 is in general no more than an expression of perplexity1 no more than a flight from a clear decision of our own3 the universality and the flexibility of his spirit permit a point of contact with him to be found by those whose views directly contradict those of one another1 and allows each to abstract1 and make a profession of faith of that which is preferable and pleasing to himself4 ,thus to-day we are in a state of uncertainty and indefiniteness in reference to the problem of culture4 ,since the new does not suffice1 and the old cannot be taken up again1 we are in doubt with regard to the whole conception of culture2 we know neither what we have of it nor what it demands from us4 ,we cannot give up our claim to being something more than nature1 without sinking again to the level of the mere animal2 but in what this more consists and how it is at all possible to surpass nature is to us completely obscure4 ,a developed historical consciousness and the free unfolding of the powers of the present permit many things to rush in upon us2 and we are involved in much inconsistency4 ,we have seen diverse systems of life arise and attract man to themselves2 their conflict relegates to the background all that is common to them1 produces the greatest uncertainty1 and gives rise to the inclination1 in order to avoid all perplexities1 to regard life as being made up entirely of that which occurs within sense experience2 and to acquire aims from this experience1 as well as to derive powers from it4 ,but in this we fall into the danger of idealising sense experience falsely1 and of expecting achievements from movements within it which are possible only if these movements flow from deeper sources4 ,we flee to morality to become free from all religion and metaphysics2 as though morality1 elevating man1 as it does1 above simply physical preservation and the compulsion of mere instinct1 is not itself a metaphysic1 and as though it does not of necessity require the existence of an order superior to nature4 ,then we flee to the subject with its unrestrained inwardness and contrast this inwardness with all the restricting relations of life2 as though the subject had any content and any value without an independent inner world1 the recognition of which involves a complete revolution of the representation of reality2 as then according to the witness of history also humanity has reached such an inner world only through wearisome toil and forceful resolutions4 ,the whole course of ,antiquity had been leading up to this inner world1 but the collision of ,antiquity at the time of its decay1 with ,christianity which was then arising1 first developed it clearly4 ,such an inner world must ever be justified anew2 and for this our own activity and conviction are necessary4 ,if we surrender its basis1 it becomes dead capital which1 little by little1 is inevitably spent1 and then the appeal to the subject that has lost its spiritual content is but a mere semblance of help1 which deceives us concerning the seriousness of the situation with sweet-sounding words like personality1 individuality1 and so forth4 ,if the spiritual life is not strengthened and does not energetically counteract this tendency1 then1 notwithstanding all external progress1 we must inwardly sink lower and lower4 ,it is obvious that there is already such a counteraction in existence2 otherwise1 how could spiritual destitution and the insignificance of the merely human be so keenly felt in the present2 how could so ardent a desire for an inner elevation spread amongst men as we experience it around us8 ,there is no lack of attempts and endeavours after new aims and new ways4 ,but much is still lacking for these attempts to be equal to satisfy the requirements of the matter4 ,we place far too much hope in external reforms1 instead of primarily strengthening the inner basis of life2 we fix our attention far too much upon individual tasks instead of seizing the whole2 we have far too much faith that we can rise to a new life out of this chaotic condition1 instead of insisting upon an attainment of independence in relation to this condition4 ,how could independence be attained except by an energetic reflection of man upon himself1 upon his fundamental relation to reality1 upon the life dwelling in him1 in short1 except by self-consciousness8 ,it is not the first time that1 in the course of the ages1 to satisfy such a demand has become the most urgent of all tasks4 ,the work of history has not unshakable foundations from the beginning2 but the spiritual nature of epochs always involves the activity and the decisions of man2 it involves1 therefore1 presuppositions that for a long period may be accepted as established truths1 and which1 yet1 finally become problematic4 ,at the beginning of the ,modern ,age1 especially in the transition to the ,enlightenment1 apparently established truths became problematic in this way3 the present is in a similar situation4 ,the threads that we have hitherto followed break2 all external help is rejected1 as is also the authority of history2 nothing else remains to us than our own capacity1 and the hope to find in it a new support and the basis for a new construction4 ,only by our own power1 and after a break with the immediate present1 shall we be able to strive after a new idea of culture which corresponds to the historical position of spiritual evolution1 and which can take up into itself the experiences of humanity4 ,such times of error1 of vacillation1 of searching1 of necessary renewal1 are disagreeable and severe1 but it depends only on the summoning of spiritual power whether they become great and fruitful4 ,for1 with regard to these central questions the times do not make men1 but men make the times1 not1 of course1 in accordance with their own preferences1 but by seizing and realising the necessities that exist in the spiritual condition of the time4 ,now1 as scarcely anything else in life is more called upon to co-operate in the renewing of culture than philosophy1 so the system here concisely presented is placed in the service of this task2 it attempts a construction chiefly by the union of three demands and points of attack3 it requires a more energetic development and a complete unification of the life-process2 it requires the acknowledgment and development of a spiritual life of independent nature present to us2 and lastly1 it requires that this life shall be understood and treated as the world's consciousness of itself and thus as the only reality4 ,all these demands must tend towards an essential alteration of the existent state of culture2 they make much inadequate that previously sufficed2 but they also reveal an abundance of new prospects and the possibility of a thorough inner elevation4 ,it is a leading idea of our whole investigation that only from the life-process itself are we able to orientate ourselves in relation to ourselves and the world2 and this idea is in agreement with the present mode of thought in science4 ,but to apply to our own time that which is already acknowledged in general ideas is by no means simple4 ,to give the life-process such a position in our thought and to estimate it so highly is possible only when life is distinctly distinguished from the states of the mere subject1 from the mere reflex of the environment in the individual4 ,this detachment cannot be accomplished unless we comprehend as a whole that which exists in individual manifestations of life2 distinguish different levels in life1 indicate relations and movements within them1 and thus advance to new experiences of life2 reveal a union of fact1 a distinctive synthesis in life1 which from a transcendent unity shapes the multiplicity that it contains4 ,but if in general it is difficult to free ourselves so much from the condition of life in which we find ourselves1 to be able to illuminate this condition in this way1 and to throw its inner framework into relief2 for us there is also to be added the immeasurable expansion that directs the interests and the vision to the outside1 and is accustomed to treat1 as a mere supplement1 a mere means and instrument1 the life that in reality sustains all infinity4 ,a culture that has made the attainment of results the chief thing has been detrimental to the spiritual1 which no longer trusts itself to encompass these achievements and to change them in a development of life1 to take up the conflict for dominion over reality4 ,it willingly flees to the passivity of the subject1 where sooner or later it expires in complete destitution4 ,if inwardness is so feeble and external relations so overwhelm us1 life necessarily receives its content from outside1 and seems to be determined essentially by that which happens around us4 ,it is this that lends so much power to-day to a superficial enlightenment that centres in natural science1 and expects life to be advanced without limit1 and man to be revived and ennobled1 simply by reaching a more valid representation of the environment4 ,we do not ask here how far the representations proposed overcome the difficulties of the older representations1 or whether new and more difficult problems do not arise from the solutions offered2 but we do ask whether life can obtain its aim and content from outside1 and whether it can be treated simply as an addition to nature without degenerating inwardly1 and losing all inner motive4 ,we ask what the theories based chiefly on externals make of man1 and what they achieve for his soul4 ,we summon him to an examination1 to see whether the picture that is held up to him by these theories agrees with what he longs for1 and1 by a compelling necessity of his being1 must long for4 ,to-day it will also be evident that the final decision does not rest with the intellect1 but with life as a whole4 ,for1 little as intellectual achievement is absent from truth1 the masses--and to the masses belong those at the average level of all classes1 higher as well as lower--will always hold fast to the external impression4 ,the advance beyond this impression and the appreciation of the inner conditions of knowledge will always remain a concern of the minority4 ,there is1 however1 a point where the problem becomes real to each individual1 and where each can offer his opinion3 this is in reference to the question of the happiness and the content of life4 ,the more this question is felt1 the greater will be the thirst for a substantial truth in contrast with the shadows of the ,enlightenment2 the more will the question concerning the nature of life as a whole receive its due consideration1 and the perception of things externally will give place to a comprehension of their inner reality4 ,only with such a revolution can our life and we ourselves be transformed from a state of spiritual destitution to one of independent energy2 only thus can we discover the wealth that is within us2 only thus can culture1 from being an occupation with things1 become a preservation and an unfolding of our own selves2 only thus can we strive for more simplicity in contrast to the complexity that would otherwise be our condition2 and only thus can we wrest from what would otherwise be chaos1 fundamentals and tendencies4 ,our demand1 therefore1 that the starting-point should be the life-process itself is in harmony with the innermost longing of the time--even if this longing is often indefinite--after a deepening of life and an attainment of its independence4 ,if the turning to the life-process puts the question1 the assertion of an independent spiritual life gives the answer to it3 however strange this assertion may seem in relation to superficial temporal experience1 it meets a deep longing4 ,for we are completely satiated with narrowly human culture2 the movements and experiences of the ,modern ,age1 and in particular of the present1 make us so clearly conscious of all that is trivial1 simply apparent1 disagreeable1 feeble1 shallow1 empty1 and futile in human conduct1 that all hope of finding satisfaction in this conduct1 and of advancing life essentially by its means and powers1 must be abandoned4 ,we have1 therefore1 to face the following alternative3 either absolute doubt and the cessation of all effort1 or the acknowledgment of a more in man2 there is no third possibility4 ,but in the context of our investigation no discussion is required to show that this more cannot consist in an individual's elevation of himself above others2 that it cannot consist in a so-called ,superman--a view that only involves us more in the narrowly human4 ,either the more sought for is only imaginary1 a covering of tinsel with which we conceal our nakedness1 or a world transcending the merely human1 a new stage of reality1 reveals itself to man1 which can become his own life4 ,as it is this transcendent world alone that engenders a universal life within us and opposes the insignificantly human2 so also from this alone1 and as its manifestation1 can culture become independent in relation to man4 ,only when it is understood in this way can culture include aims and tasks that do not strengthen man in his narrowness1 but free him from it1 and make him spiritually greater4 ,not only the conception but the whole nature of that which is called culture is an unstable hybrid4 ,it should elevate man above nature1 and give to his life a characteristic spiritual content2 but at the same time we have a dread of a detachment from the experience of sense and of the construction of an independent world1 because these must lead to that which1 of all things1 is the cause of most alarm1 to a change of a metaphysical character1 to a transformation of existence4 ,in truth1 in the work of humanity two tendencies are usually undistinguished1 which1 if life is to continue to advance1 need to be distinctly separated3 a spiritual culture and a merely human culture4 ,the former reveals new contents and aims2 with it a new world emerges within man1 and transforms his life from its basis3 the latter uses that which a higher organisation has given us1 solely as a means for the advancement of our natural and social existence4 ,merely human culture turns the spiritual into a mere means to increase narrowly human happiness1 whereas the spiritual by its very nature makes us feel the whole of this happiness to be too insignificant1 indeed intolerable4 ,the difference of a merely human and a spiritual culture extends from the fundamental disposition to all the separate departments of life4 ,religion1 for example1 is to the former a means by which the individual may make himself as comfortable and as secure as possible in an existent world1 and conduct his own insignificant ego through all dangers2 to the latter1 it signifies a radical break with that world and the gain of a new life1 in which care for that ego1 or even the state of society1 is relegated completely into the background4 ,to the one1 morality is simply a means in the organisation of human social life1 in the accommodation of the individual to his environment2 to the other1 it discloses a new fundamental relation to reality1 and in the transformation of existence in self-determining activity allows life to win an inner union with the infinite and its self-consciousness4 ,on the one hand1 art1 science1 the life of the state1 education1 and so forth are the idols of utility1 of expediency1 the adornments of a given existence2 on the other1 they are the gods of truth1 of inner independence1 of world-renewing spontaneity4 ,that there should be an end to the confusion of the worship of idols and of gods2 that spiritual culture should be distinguished from merely human culture2 that the spiritual content of the individual departments of life should be energetically developed1 and the spiritual poverty of merely human culture made clear--all this is the urgent demand of the present1 without the fulfilment of which its state of confusion cannot be overcome4 ,yet spiritual culture can never become independent unless the spiritual world is independent4 ,only the presence of this spiritual world makes it possible for culture1 at the level at which it is generally found1 to be tested by a transcendent standard to see how much spiritual substance1 how much content and value1 it contains4 ,this test will prove that we possess far less spirituality than we think2 and that the most of what is called culture is no more than the semblance of culture1 no more than imagination and presumption4 ,but at the same time we recognise and gain in the little spirituality that remains to us incomparably more2 we win the presence of a new world1 and by this1 depth of life and the possibility of an inner renewal4 ,our life would be indescribably shallow if it were to pass on one level and were to be exhausted in the experiences at that level4 ,the acknowledgment of an independent spiritual life saves us from this shallowness1 in that it shows an inner gradation within our own province and sets life as a whole a task4 ,if the acknowledgment of a spiritual world1 inwardly present to us1 gives to culture a distinctive character1 this character receives a further modification from the particular manner in which the spiritual life makes its appearance and becomes established within our existence2 at the same time1 from this position there is also the possibility of different sides and tasks within an all-comprehensive work of culture4 ,of special significance in reference to this modification is the circumstance that the spiritual life does not possess man as a natural fact1 does not operate within him with complete power and sure direction from the beginning1 but is present to him at first only as a possibility1 and as a transcendence of the general condition of things4 ,in accordance with this1 although the spiritual belongs to our nature1 it is not so much given to us as set as a task2 for its realisation it needs our own attention and appropriation2 all development of the spiritual life within us1 therefore1 involves our own activity and so receives an ethical character4 ,the spiritual life also has such an ethical character because1 transcending our original condition1 it must be conveyed to us1 and must be maintained by an imparting and an activity4 ,in the spiritual life we find ourselves in a sphere of activity and of freedom in contrast with that of nature2 in this way our life becomes our work1 our own life in a much more real sense4 ,we see this in the case of the fundamental form of the spiritual life that is called personality4 ,we men are by no means personalities from the beginning2 but we bear within us simply the potentiality of becoming a personality4 ,whether we shall realise our personality is decided by our own work2 it depends primarily upon the extent to which we succeed in striving beyond the given existence to a state of self-determining activity4 ,the fact that we thus take part in the formation of our own being proves that we are citizens of a new world--a world other than nature--and shows that we are incomparably more than we could become simply as parts of nature4 ,neither philosophy nor religion will convince one who1 at this point1 does not recognise an elevation to a higher power1 indeed a transformation of existence4 ,but one who recognises this will desire such a transformation and such an elevation of culture also2 he will not come to an easy compromise with the given condition of things and draw the greatest possible amount of pleasure from this condition2 but he will set culture an objective ideal2 arouse it from the prevailing state of indolence2 fully acknowledge the antitheses of experience1 and will be provoked rather to make further exertions than disposed to abandon himself to these antitheses4 ,life finds its main problem in itself1 solely in the development of an ethical character1 and attains to complete independence and a transcendence of nature only when the spiritual takes precedence4 ,every culture that does not treat the ethical task1 in the widest sense1 as the most important of tasks and the one that decides all1 sinks inevitably to a semblance of culture1 a half-culture1 indeed a comedy4 ,the sthetic system1 with its transformation of life into play and pleasure1 with its beautiful language and its spiritual poverty1 is such a life4 ,to-day1 therefore1 we can revive and strengthen culture only by establishing such an ethical conviction4 ,only a culture of an ethical character can develop an independent and positive spirituality2 only such a culture can free the impulse of life from being directed simply to natural self-preservation1 and in doing this not make the impulse weaker1 but stronger4 ,in nothing have minds been more divided and in nothing will they become more divided than with regard to the question whether1 after the perception of the inadequacy of mere nature and society1 a new world reveals itself to them1 or whether this negation is the ultimate conclusion2 the former will be possible only through that which we call ethical4 ,the conception that we have here presented of the spiritual life and of its relation to man also makes it for the first time possible to understand and acknowledge the manifold and opposing elements in our time without falling into a shallow eclecticism4 ,realism advances in power1 and ,idealism seems to be endangered in respect not only of its form but also of its innermost nature4 ,idealism is indeed in danger so long as the spiritual life has not attained to independence in relation to man2 for1 so long as the spiritual life is regarded as a production of man the knowledge of man's relation to nature and his animal origin must lead to a serious prostration1 to a complete dissolution of ,idealism4 ,if1 on the other hand1 it is established that with the spiritual life a new order transcending the power of man makes its appearance within him1 then the recognition of human incapacity becomes a direct witness to the independence of the spiritual life4 ,we must1 therefore1 cease to treat spiritual developments1 such as religion1 art1 morality1 as the natural attributes of all called men4 ,man's natural character simply offers tendencies and relations which can find a spiritual character only by the revelation of a spiritual world4 ,the decisive point of transition is not between man and animal1 but between nature and spirit4 ,but even where culture is supposed to be at its highest1 human existence is for the most part at the level of nature--and is only embellished in some degree4 ,in ,idealism a religious shaping of life is to be distinguished from an immanent shaping of life by spiritual creation1 especially in art and science4 ,the demand for a universal spiritual system involves the rejection of the specific religious system as being in many ways too narrow and open to hostile criticism2 this universal system1 however1 as it is presented when the spiritual life is acknowledged to be independent1 is closely related to religion4 ,not only is all spirituality within us dependent upon a universal spiritual life1 but this spiritual life within us always presents itself as something transcendent and is not coincident with our life4 ,this religious character must be the more clearly emphasised the greater the toil with which the spiritual life must defend itself from a world apparently alien and hostile4 ,immanent ,idealism1 filling life as it does through art and science1 cannot possibly be the whole and conclusive--for this reason at least1 that it has too little with which to counteract the perplexities of spiritual and of material life1 and because it concentrates life too little within itself4 ,but a scientific character is indispensable to a universal spiritual culture1 in order that life may not pass in subjective feeling and presentation1 and that life may have an objective character1 and be led to the clearness of a universal consciousness4 ,an sthetic form and creative activity pertain also to this life2 for1 otherwise1 no representation of reality as a whole could be obtained from the confused impressions of immediate experience2 the spiritual could attain to no clear present1 and could not permeate reality with ennobling power1 and change all that is deformed and indifferent to it in the original condition of things4 ,from the point of view of spiritual culture the movements in the direction of ,realism also may be regarded as of value1 if only they do not desire to dominate life and to impress their form directly upon it4 ,the tendency to place a low estimate upon the natural and material conditions of life and of human social relationship has everywhere revenged itself upon the spiritual life1 since it has allowed that life to fall into a state of weakness and effeminacy1 and prevented it from realising its full power and strength4 ,the acknowledgment of the multiplicity of tasks that are involved in all the departments must be a source of great danger to life1 if every department of human experience does not serve the development of an independent spiritual life4 ,the more power the spiritual life acquires1 the more securely will it tend to prevent division4 ,nevertheless1 everything is in a state of movement2 man must first win a coherent character for his life4 ,but it is already a great gain that we are not defenceless in face of the antitheses within the human sphere1 that the presence of an independent spiritual life elevates us inwardly above them and only allows an inner unity to take up a conflict4 ,we may also briefly consider how the conception of the spiritual life as a coming of reality to itself1 as a formation and development of being1 must tend to deepen and strengthen the work of culture4 ,how much more this work must become to us1 how much more indispensable must it be1 if it is not simply a matter of giving an existent material a new form1 of arousing dormant powers1 but if in it we first advance from a life that is only a half-life and a life of pretence to a real and genuine life2 if we struggle not for one thing or another within existence1 but for our being as a whole6 ,if once life is awakened to reflect upon itself1 and if at the same time it makes a claim to self-consciousness and a content1 it cannot doubt the poverty of the life of mere nature and just as little that of the life of mere society2 in the former1 as in the latter1 there are only suggestions of a genuine life1 only possibilities1 most of which do not come to be realised4 ,not suffering1 but spiritual destitution is man's worst enemy4 ,from this position the outlook of the life of the majority can be only a cloudy one1 its value only mean4 ,if we abstract from the experience of man that which is due to the necessity of self-preservation and to social training1 how much inner movement1 how much life of his own1 how much that is spiritual remains in him6 ,how many dead souls there are in all classes of society2 how many who1 allowing their powers to lie dormant1 drift about aimlessly6 ,nevertheless other possibilities exist in man1 and even if they are not positively developed1 still they prevent him from feeling satisfied in that state of spiritual poverty1 and always keep him in an insecure state of suspension4 ,the less we think of the immediate welfare and capacity of man1 the more will the spiritual life transcend us and the more urgent will the task of the spiritual life become--to preserve to human existence in the midst of all externality and pretence some kind of substance and some kind of soul4 ,however1 we have already occupied ourselves with the question of the nature and significance of truth and reality in the spiritual life4 7b7 ,,the ,,organisation ,,of ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,culture ,a problem from which no system of life can escape is that of the organisation of culture1 the question how the work of culture can be divided into different departments and at the same time preserve a unity4 ,to-day we are in a state of great perplexity in this matter2 an old solution has become untenable1 and a new one has not yet been found4 ,the ,middle ,ages handed down to us a system of culture that may be described as a hierarchy1 in the widest sense of that term4 ,the multiplicity of life was united into a whole2 but this whole was dominated by distinctive religious and philosophic convictions1 which assigned to each individual department its place in the whole and set it its task2 these departments attained to a complete independence as little as that system had an independence for individual forms4 ,the ,modern ,age has evolved and has realised a system of freedom in increasing opposition to the earlier system4 ,how this everywhere effects an emancipation is demonstrated by our problem of the increasing development to independence by the individual departments of life4 ,the state and society1 science and art1 find their tasks more and more within themselves1 in their own development2 they engender distinctive laws and methods of their own2 they seem to be able to reach their aims of their own capacity4 ,effort is directed more and more into individual departments1 and there is a feeling of complete satisfaction in this tendency4 ,our life has gained immensely in comprehensiveness and breadth by the transition to this modern system3 it comes more closely into touch with the realm of fact2 it produces a greater diversity of movement1 since the different departments have their own starting-points1 enter upon distinctive paths1 and direct their powers into these paths4 ,the attainment of independence by the individual departments of life constitutes one of the chief gains of modern culture1 and it cannot again be given up4 ,but the attainment of independence by the individual departments brings great perplexities with it1 which make a definite counter-movement necessary4 ,at first the tendencies characteristic of the individual departments directly contradict one another2 indeed1 this is inevitable1 if they are not systematised in some way4 ,for1 particular experiences of human life are present in each department3 one feels our greatness more1 another our weakness2 one is moved more by the harmony of existence1 another more by the antitheses2 one tends rather to exert power upon the environment1 the other to concentration in itself2 from these experiences there must originate different modes of life and different representations of the world4 ,in this condition of life it is impossible for the different tendencies not to cross one another and to clash together2 and this threatens to divide our life1 and to rob it of all its inner unity4 ,a glance at the condition of life in the present is sufficient to convince us that such dangers are more than fancies4 ,to the difficulty in respect of the relations of the different departments among themselves1 we must add another1 if anything greater1 in respect of the relation of each department to life as a whole4 ,to be well organised each department needs a co-operation of form and content1 of the technical and the personal2 the former gives the department its particular nature2 for the latter a relation with life as a whole is necessary4 ,the work of science1 for example1 follows certain forms of thought1 which it evolves from itself1 and which are equally valid for all times and parties4 ,but even the most conscientious following of these laws does not give to science a content and a character2 science can acquire these only in relation with a movement of life as a whole1 which1 in its striving from whole to whole1 takes up the experiences of humanity and unites them into a whole4 ,only in this way does science1 from being simply an arrangement and accumulation1 become knowledge1 an inner appropriation of things4 ,if in accordance with this the individual departments are detached more and more from life as a whole1 and are made dependent solely upon their own capacity1 it can hardly be otherwise than that in the midst of all perfection in execution they lose more and more all spiritual content and all definite character4 ,at the same time1 it may soon follow that the effect upon humanity as a whole will become subsidiary and a matter of indifference2 the individual departments will become exclusively a matter of a circle of specialists1 and strive for an effect within this circle only4 ,in this way an art arises which1 in the artist1 forgets the man1 and which does not so much convey new content to human life1 or help the time to attain to a characteristic feeling of life1 and elevate it above the meaninglessness and the confusion of commonplace everyday experience1 but which is for the most part mindful of refinement in execution1 and so1 easily degenerates into the complicated and the virtuoso4 ,in the case of science we find the same thing4 ,it may1 through exaggerating the independence necessary to it1 assume an air of proud self-satisfaction1 and1 by detachment from the movement of life as a whole1 that which is its main concern1 namely1 knowledge1 may suffer4 ,for it soon tends to become mere erudition1 which treats problems as something half-alien1 gains no inner relation to things1 does not understand how to animate reality1 indeed even rejects1 as unscientific1 all striving after such animation4 ,this tendency produces1 to use an expression of ,hegel's1 excellent counter-servers1 who do not look after business of their own1 but only that of others4 ,no people are more threatened by the danger of this tendency than we ,germans2 more especially because the tendency is closely related with a most advantageous quality of our nature--willing subordination to the object1 fidelity to and conscientiousness in our work4 ,but since we follow this one tendency1 aspects and tendencies which are absolutely necessary to a complete life stagnate and decay4 ,we do not sufficiently develop a personal life independent of the object2 we do not encompass and transform it from its very base by a transcendent life-process2 and so we are occupied too much with the material1 and do not completely spiritualise it2 we do not bring into relief simple lines in the infinite abundance1 which we require and must maintain complete4 ,how many excellent scholars our time possesses1 who are equipped with an astonishing capacity for work1 who are masters of even the most complicated technical matters1 and yet how few spiritual types there are among them2 how few who have anything to say to humanity1 and who will exert their influence in this way beyond the present6 ,the history of ,german formative art also indicates a painful divergence between the amount of untiring work and the carefulness of execution1 and the creation of simple and pure forms that would increase the spiritual possessions of humanity1 and be permanent factors in its movement4 ,however1 the trait is rooted far too deeply in our being for even the most determined resolution to be able directly to achieve much to counteract it4 ,nevertheless1 it is not a matter of indifference whether we give ourselves complacently up to this one-sidedness1 and fortify ourselves proudly in it2 or whether we oppose it to the best of our ability4 ,we find ourselves therefore in the present in a difficult situation with regard to the organisation of culture4 ,to give up the independence of the individual departments1 or even only to limit it in any way1 would be an enormous and impossible retrogression2 on the other hand1 some kind of inner unity of life must be obtained4 ,a transcendence of the antithesis must1 therefore1 be sought2 and this needs a distinctive structure of life4 ,the spiritual life offers such a structure in so far as it constitutes the development of being4 ,for we saw how independent centres and characteristic movements arise in an all-comprehensive life4 ,between these movements there may be manifold relations and antitheses1 but they are within a vital whole and with their experiences can aid its further development4 ,viewing the departments of life from this position1 it will be necessary to show that each individual department has a root in life as a whole and a significance for this life2 only thus can the power of this whole life be exerted in the individual departments1 and penetrate them4 ,but the department does not receive its form simply from the whole by way of derivation2 but it can take up and treat the problem independently1 and with its own means2 that which exists in the whole as an affirmation may be only a question and a suggestion in the individual department4 ,yet this is in no way without value3 for1 nevertheless1 it leads us beyond the indefiniteness of the original condition1 and guides effort in circumscribed paths4 ,what gives work in the individual departments special significance and intensity is the fact that they take up the problem of the whole in a particular sphere1 and can treat that problem in a characteristic manner2 that they are not mere aids and assistants1 but independent co-operators4 ,in this connection it is of especial importance that the spiritual life is not conferred upon man in a finished form2 but that within him it must first be worked towards with great toil and through doubt and error1 from indefinite outlines to more detailed development4 ,it is obvious that the form of the whole will ever be questionable2 and that the individual departments must co-operate in the examination and justification of the forms proposed4 ,indeed1 it is just the mark of great achievements in the individual departments that1 while they transform their own sphere1 they at the same time develop the whole4 ,it is this that distinguishes ,leibniz from ,wolff1 and ,kant from ,herbart4 ,such an organisation gives to life a movement in two directions3 it must be conducted from whole to part1 and from part to whole4 ,the individual departments must be developed far enough to reveal their particularity and to produce a characteristic tendency of their own2 but they must remain within a whole1 to receive from it and to lead back to it4 ,the relations between the individual departments will be distinctive in such a system2 the influence of one upon another will be without suspicion1 and advantageous1 only when it is exerted through the mediation of the whole2 while disturbances are inevitable1 when one conveys immediate experiences to another and imposes its nature upon another4 ,it was necessary1 for example1 to reject the earlier encroachments of religion upon other departments of life2 art1 too1 often found it necessary to resist the tendency to subordinate it to morality2 and to-day there is a strong inclination to shape every department of life in accordance with the instructions of natural science4 ,yet although such encroachments must be rejected1 and the independence of each in relation to the others preserved1 the changes that are effected in one department are by no means indifferent and lost to the other departments4 ,for1 if through these changes life as a whole is developed1 then the effect of the change must extend to the other departments4 ,in this manner of mediation religion has exercised a strong influence upon the other departments of life2 and in this sense1 to-day1 an influence of natural science upon the whole circle of existence will be readily acknowledged4 ,but this does not involve a limitation or an enslaving of other departments1 because the change in life as a whole must now be ascertained first2 and1 besides1 each individual department must test by its own experiences the suggestion coming from the whole4 ,when we take all these facts into consideration we see that the organisation of culture is a difficult problem and that our organisation is unstable4 ,in culture1 different tendencies will cross one another2 antitheses cannot be avoided1 and collisions will not be lacking4 ,but that which life loses in completeness and exclusiveness1 it gains in wealth and movement2 and division need not be a cause of anxiety so long as a powerful spiritual life embraces and unifies the multiplicity4 ,without such a counteraction by the spiritual life we must drift towards ever greater specialisation2 and1 with this1 we should not only see life become more and more disintegrated1 but we should also become less and less spiritual1 and be transformed into a soulless mechanism4 ,,ii4 ,,the ,,form ,,of ,,the ,,individual ,,departments ,preliminary ,considerations ,before we proceed to discuss the individual departments of life we may briefly consider the common task that is imposed upon them all by the distinctive condition of the time3 they must become independent in relation to the earlier as well as to the more modern conceptions of them1 and1 if necessary1 take up a conflict against both4 ,the course of our investigation can have left no doubt with regard to the state of prostration of the older forms of life3 the uncertainty affects the whole and the fundamental principles much more than it has ever done before4 ,formerly the struggle was concerned rather with individual departments or individual tendencies of life2 it was carried on more in reference to the conception and meaning of fundamental truths than with regard to the validity of those truths themselves4 ,the passionate struggles of the period of the ,reformation left the fundamentals of ,christianity untouched2 in a similar manner the later attacks upon ecclesiastical religion usually had a basis of firm faith in morality1 and derived their power more especially from it4 ,to-day the authority of morality is just as seriously shaken as that of religion2 and the conception of truth is itself in the same condition of uncertainty4 ,in this condition of things an appeal to history cannot be employed as proof of any position2 a patchwork of our own and of something alien gives us still less a position above perplexity3 there is no other way than to take up the problem with the means of the present itself4 ,for this the acknowledgment of the independence of the spiritual life forms a fit foundation4 ,the spiritual life is not dependent upon and fixed to particular temporal conditions2 ever anew it can break forth spontaneously1 and from the particularity of the time advance to eternal truths4 ,it is to us a source of joy that a time has come again when we need not follow other paths1 but must go our own2 when nothing can bind us but that which has been approved by our own being and our own conviction4 ,it is not necessary for a time such as this to take up an attitude of hostility towards the whole past2 rather--and especially when it thinks worthily of itself--it will seek a friendly relationship with history4 ,but this is possible only when the present has attained complete independence1 and only from this independent position2 only when an eternal content is revealed in that which history conveys to us4 ,in opposition to submission to authority such a time makes a demand for unlimited freedom and complete spontaneity2 such freedom and spontaneity are essential if life is again to find the truthfulness and the inner power that we so painfully miss4 ,such a requirement of life and thought arising out of the immediate present may easily lead us to separate from those to whom the crisis does not seem so serious1 and who believe that it is possible to transform the old in a quiet and inhostile manner into the new4 ,the conflict will be far more acute with those who1 with us1 make the demand for an independent present2 but who1 by the conceptions of an independent present1 freedom and spontaneity1 understand something totally different from that which we ourselves understand by them from the point of view of an independent spiritual life4 ,in all times of spiritual revival the freedom and immediacy which the spiritual life needs for itself have been usurped by mere man as though they were a right pertaining to him3 and then it appears that only the complete emancipation of individuals1 a severance of all connections1 unconditional submission to the passing moment1 are necessary in order to lead life to truth and greatness1 and man to a glorious state of happiness4 ,such a movement cannot spread without making the antitheses of life appear less acute1 concealing its problems and its depths1 and falsely idealising man with all the contingency of his experience3 with all the bustle of its preparation and all its agitation the movement must terminate in a state of spiritual destitution2 it threatens life with inner destruction4 ,with a modernity of this kind we have nothing in common4 ,we must1 therefore1 with all our power1 wage war against the narrowly human and imaginary freedom on behalf of one that is genuine and spiritual3 this conflict is exceptionally complicated and difficult1 because real life does not make such a clear distinction between the genuine and the false as the conceptions do1 but rather allows them to be confused4 ,for this reason the conflict will be carried on not only on the right hand and on the left1 but also against the confusion that obscures the great either--or1 without the distinct presence of which a spontaneous life does not acquire power and consciousness4 ,a way must be found by which1 notwithstanding manifold dangers and complications1 we may advance to a life that combines depth with freedom1 stability with movement3 this is an inner necessity of the age1 and once it is recognised and taken up as such1 it will in some way be realised4 7a7 ,,religion1 ,,morality1 ,,education #a4 ,,religion ,in no sphere of life is there more inner division and uncertainty at the present time than in that of religion4 ,to one1 the rejection of all religion seems to be indispensable to the sincerity of life and to the attainment of healthy conditions1 because1 as a pernicious legacy from past ages1 it oppresses our life1 confuses our thought1 paralyses our power of activity1 and provokes men to the greatest hatred of one another4 ,to another1 on the contrary1 religion seems to be the only firm support in face of the needs and confusions of the age--the only thing that inwardly unites men and elevates each individual above himself1 the only thing that reveals a depth in life and allows life to share in the infinite and the eternal4 ,the adherents to each of these views show the greatest earnestness and zeal2 we cannot treat the negation lightly and dispose of it with the convenient catchword unbelief1 if only for the reason that on the part of many this negative attitude is due to a sincere anxiety for the truthfulness of life4 ,to rise above this conflict in regard to religion we must1 in the first place1 estimate the points at issue impartially2 and nothing else is more called upon to do this than philosophy4 ,philosophy will not make light of the prostration of religion2 for a survey of history shows that the state of life has undergone a complete change since the epoch when religion exercised an undisputed supremacy4 ,at that time the world and human life received all meaning and value from their relation to an invisible and supernatural order4 ,the course of the ,modern ,age has made the world that surrounds us ever more significant1 and since man has directed his activity upon this world1 the world of faith has been allowed to recede more and more4 ,the movement that led to our present position attained increasing power and consciousness through three stages3 at the height of the ,renaissance the divine was revered less in its world-transcendent sovereignty than in its world-pervading operation2 then1 the ,pantheism of a speculative and sthetic culture associated the world and ,god together in one reality2 finally1 in the investigation of inimitable nature and the formation of political and social relations the world of sense gives man so much to do1 fetters his power so much1 and gives him at the same time such a proud consciousness of this power1 that the conception of a transcendent world fades entirely2 and an ,agnosticism that rejects as superfluous and unfruitful all reflection upon and care concerning such a world gains ground4 ,this change in the direction and in the disposition of life must itself have forced religion more or less out of the field of our attention4 ,but it is fraught with far more dangers to religion that the work of the ,modern ,age in all its main tendencies is directed against the principles of the life upon which the development of religion rests4 ,modern natural science has dispossessed man of the central position that he formerly attributed to himself1 and has deprived nature of its soul4 ,the modern science of history1 with its demonstration of ceaseless change in all that is human1 has undermined the faith in an absolute truth4 ,at the same time1 with regard to the beginnings of ,christianity1 there is a wide divergence between the traditional conception of faith and the new conception obtained by historical research4 ,the tendency of modern culture has been to make the increasing of power1 in work upon things and in their control1 the highest ideal2 from the point of view of this ideal of impersonal power1 the world of pure inwardness1 the home of ,christianity1 has been able to appear to be simply a subjective and subsidiary accompaniment of the life-process4 ,he who estimates rightly the fact that all these tendencies of modern life work together and strengthen one another cannot fail to recognise that they force religion from the centre of life to its circumference1 and transform it from an impregnable fact into a difficult problem2 they destroy that self-evidence of religion which previously made life secure and calm4 ,if1 however1 religion no longer springs up in the consciousness of contemporaries from a necessity of their own life1 it is not difficult to understand that the complications of the problem are too great for many of them2 that the burden of obsolete forms over-balances the power of their own impulse1 and thus1 by a sudden revolution1 to reject it seems the only way to save truth4 ,then religion seems to be only a delusion that arose in a past age--a delusion similar to astrology and alchemy2 one which1 in face of growing enlightenment1 must ultimately be completely dispelled4 ,but if the philosophic treatment understands the negation rightly1 it can only warn us against being hasty in our acceptance of it4 ,to be sure1 quite apart from all the caprice and purpose of man1 the condition of life has become very much changed2 but it was less the state of affairs itself that permitted the changes to clash so irreconcilably with religion than the interpretation which it received and the exclusiveness which was attributed to it4 ,the decision in this matter has depended in particular upon what is called the spirit of the age1 which is often nothing more than the inclination and disposition of man2 such inclination1 as history shows1 may change into the direct opposite2 it does not form a sure touchstone of truth4 ,these considerations1 indeed1 do not make much headway in opposition to the storm and stress of the movements of the age3 that which operates far more strongly in favour of religion is the experience and the feeling that the attempted negation of religion by no means easily and directly solves the problem of life2 and1 further1 that along with religion much becomes untenable to which even the modern man cannot lightly renounce all claim4 ,whatever there may be in religion1 it has brought man into union with the deepest basis of reality1 and at the same time revealed to him a life of pure inwardness3 it has set a task for life as a whole and has given to life a meaning and a value2 it has counteracted the lower impulses and the egoism of mere self-preservation2 and has organised humanity spiritually4 ,these aims have hardly become superfluous and worthless3 even without religion1 and after abandoning its principles1 it would be necessary to accomplish these aims in other ways4 ,it is in the attempts at reconstruction that the futility of the negation of religion becomes painfully evident4 ,phrases concerning the greatness and noble-mindedness of all that bear human features2 a blind faith in the elevating power of intellectual enlightenment or even of external organisation2 a confusion of thought which1 unobserved1 rejects and elevates its own principles1 and so maintains in the conclusion that which it rejected in the premises2 all these things can deceive him alone concerning the spiritual poverty and the complete powerlessness of what is offered in them1 whose zeal in his antagonism to religion has deprived him of balance of feeling and impartiality of judgment4 ,if it is inquired what content and value human life still retains after the surrender of all relation to the whole and of all inner relation1 it will be recognised that the complete negation of religion consistently carried out must lead to an appalling convulsion of human existence as a whole4 ,but if such considerations counsel us to be cautious in regard to the negation of religion1 they do not justify an adherence to its traditional form4 ,the far-reaching changes of life that we are aware of cannot possibly be explained away or their significance lessened2 they must be estimated1 and brought into relation with religion4 ,the boundary between the eternal and the temporal1 the substance and the outward form in religion1 has been made uncertain by these changes2 in particular they forbid philosophy to treat the religious problem from the point of view of a dogmatic confession4 ,the antithesis between ,catholicism and ,protestantism is the offspring of an age that preceded the development of modern culture1 with all its deep-reaching revolutions4 ,the main problem of religion at the time when the antithesis made its appearance was differently stated from the way in which we now state it4 ,for then it was a question whether ,christianity was to be formed from society or from personality2 while to-day ,christianity fights for its existence as a whole1 and must defend its fundamental truths against a time in which activity is directed into other paths4 ,the present antithesis cannot possibly be regarded as ultimately identical with the former one2 and it is for this reason impossible to take up the present conflict concerning religion under the banner of a particular dogmatic confession4 ,such an ante-dating of the conflict also has the disadvantage that it prevents the great antitheses which are involved to-day both in ,catholicism and ,protestantism from being clearly displayed4 ,two different streams have been present in ,catholicism from its beginning3 to the one1 the power of the ecclesiastical system is the main thing2 while to the other1 on the contrary1 the religious disposition is of supreme importance4 ,the influences of modern culture have increased this difference1 both directly and indirectly1 and1 chiefly outside of ,germany1 there are signs of the beginning of a stronger movement towards a more inward ,catholicism4 ,protestantism carries within it an antithesis of the old ecclesiastical form of religion1 which adheres as much as possible to the state of things in the sixteenth century1 and a form transformed by the ,idealism in modern culture more into the universal1 the free1 the purely human1 but also not infrequently into vagueness and superficial optimism4 ,but so long as the bitterness of sectarian prejudice diverts the attention of men from the chief thing1 these antitheses are not clearly expressed and energetically developed4 ,there are serious contradictions involved in these views of religion1 and they cannot be developed without giving rise to parties4 ,philosophy must strive with all its energy to bring it about that these parties shall be formed in relation to the present situation1 and not from the point of view of a past age2 and that the conflict shall be raised to a higher level1 to truth and greatness1 by bringing itself into relation with the needs of the age4 ,the task of philosophy is not limited to estimating as impartially as possible the state of things as we immediately experience it2 that task also includes a positive treatment of the religious problem4 ,that which is characteristic in the philosophy of life advocated in this treatise1 ,notism1 as it might be called1 must also find a definite expression and show what capacity it has1 in the fulfilment of this task4 ,in accordance with its fundamental relation to history1 which has been much discussed1 ,notism cannot make history most important1 even in religion1 and cannot read into history as much as possible of what the present demands2 it must regard any such procedure as a weakness and a half-truth4 ,notism must insist upon religion's justifying itself and establishing its reality before the tribunal of the spiritual life3 only then can the truth that exists in history and that which1 through progressive differentiation1 promotes the cause of transcendent truth and brings it nearer to humanity as a whole1 be elucidated4 ,we have not for a moment lost sight of the fact that it is essential to religion to be related not to single individuals but to all2 and that religion can evolve no power without compelling men to some kind of unity4 ,now1 for the treatment of the religious problem1 ,notism offers first a position from which demands are made compatible which are otherwise directly opposed to one another4 ,religion is concerned with experiences which at one and the same time must possess a universal character1 belong to our own life1 and be immediately accessible to each4 ,the attempt of speculative philosophy to establish religion by deduction from the nature of the whole has the required universal character2 but it introduces religion to the soul from outside1 and remains a mere intellectual gain4 ,the contrary attempt to base religion in the individual soul developed an inwardness2 but this attempt shows that the soul does not know how to build up a world and to contrast it with the subject1 to present this world as something transcendent2 it makes no sure progress beyond the fluctuation and undulation of feeling4 ,only an independent spiritual life1 inwardly present to us1 elevates us above this division of subjective feeling and a transcendent world1 and inaugurates universal experiences in our own domain4 ,how with the spiritual life new realities are manifested2 how a world-whole which transcends human existence becomes evident1 has already been discussed1 and it is not necessary to make any repetition here4 ,every acknowledgment of an independent spiritual life is favourable to religion in so far as this acknowledgment makes us clearly perceive the inadequacy1 the illusoriness1 and the vanity of all narrowly human conduct and occupation1 its futility in matters both small and great4 ,so long as attention is fixed on individual matters1 and so long as we may expect some improvement in these in the present or in the future1 we may not be aware of the futility of this conduct2 but as soon as the situation is grasped as a whole and estimated as a whole1 such human conduct is found to be entirely inadequate1 these external aids are found wanting1 and there remains only the inexorable either--or3 either the power of a new world is operative in man1 and makes him strong outwardly and inwardly1 or the whole life of man is spiritually lost--one great delusion1 one great error4 ,if from the point of view of the spiritual life the contour of a new world is acquired1 we may turn back to history1 and ask how far it indicates a movement which tends in the direction of such a world4 ,the spiritual life itself brings a distinctive standard for this inquiry3 the fundamental fact is not a single factor within life1 but the existence of a self-conscious whole of life1 of a spiritual process itself4 ,from the point of view of the spiritual life1 the chief thing in religions will be the kind of life they reveal2 what they make of the life-process2 how through the relation to an absolute life they evolve the life-process to a higher stage4 ,only so far as they express this life-process1 and not in themselves1 are the doctrines and practices of religion of value4 ,if we apply this test to the individual religions1 ,christianity distinctly shows itself to be far superior to the others4 ,more than any of the other religions1 ,christianity fulfils the demands which are made by the nature of the spiritual life and its relation to the world2 and so far as ,christianity satisfies these demands1 but not in its historical form as a whole1 it may assert itself to be absolute4 ,if ,christianity as a religion of redemption requires that we should tear ourselves from the old world and aspire to a new one1 this demand receives a distinctive significance by the more detailed conception which ,christianity forms of it4 ,as evil and that which is to be overcome is regarded not1 as among the ,hindus1 as mere appearance1 but as moral guilt1 which disorganises the world1 it is not the fundamental reality of the world but a particular conception of it that is rejected2 and so there remains the possibility of life being given a positive character2 and in this the main thing is not intellectual enlightenment1 but radical moral renewal1 an elevation into a world of love1 grace1 and reverence4 ,this view of the world makes it impossible to base life simply upon affirmation or negation2 but affirmation and negation must be present within it1 and thus life is given an inner comprehensiveness and an inner movement which it would not otherwise possess4 ,christianity included the innermost basis of human life in this movement and transformation1 since it not only regarded the divine as influencing the human by individual manifestations of its power1 but proclaimed a complete union of both1 and maintained this through its whole development4 ,a wearied and exhausted age may have formulated this fundamental truth in the most unfortunate manner in the doctrine of the divine humanity of ,christ2 nevertheless1 the effectiveness of the truth involved was not prevented by this4 ,only from the power of a conception of a union of the divine and the human can religion acquire the character of pure and complete inwardness1 of a spiritual self-consciousness3 otherwise the relation of the divine and the human remains a more or less external one4 ,but this is not the place to trace how the ,christian type of life has been visibly embodied in the course of history in the personality and the life of its founder1 and in the common labours of centuries1 in which the ,semitic and ,germanic natures have been harmonised1 and great peoples and personalities have given their best to the world3 here we may only remark further that the whole is not a work completed at one particular point in time1 but a continuous task of all ages2 and that1 in the fundamental life transcending all mere time1 a fixed standard is offered by which to test the achievement of all particular ages1 and to differentiate the results of the work of history as far as they correspond with the fundamental character of religion4 ,religion must maintain the fundamental character of the life that it advocates1 in face of all change in the state of culture1 just as decidedly as for its development in detail it remains dependent upon the help of the work of culture4 ,religion in the present1 therefore1 has great and difficult tasks4 ,for one thing1 religion must energetically maintain the supremacy1 in opposition to modern culture1 of the type of life that it advocates4 ,the fact that there are points of direct antagonism between the religious type of life and modern culture ought neither to be denied nor in any way obscured4 ,on the one hand1 we have an ideal of a life of the pure inwardness of ethical disposition2 on the other1 the ideal of spiritual power3 in the former the tendency is to personal1 in the latter to impersonal life3 in the one case there is a positive development only by a complete transformation2 in the other the immediate impulse of life is the ruling motive power of the whole4 ,it shows only superficiality and confusion to seek an agreeable compromise between these antitheses2 for1 in truth1 either the one or the other must assume the guidance of the whole4 ,the whole course of our investigation permits of no doubt as to our own attitude in this matter4 ,but it is impossible to defend the supremacy of the type of life advocated by ,christianity without recognising the necessity that this type of life must be in a form which appropriates to itself the long experience of humanity and corresponds to the present stage of spiritual evolution4 ,the changes necessitated by this evolution are far too great for the traditional form of ,christianity to be able to express them2 in order to develop their own power1 and to establish themselves triumphantly in opposition to a hostile world1 they must acquire an independent form for themselves4 ,there are three kinds of changes that are especially necessary to the form of ,christianity in the present4 7#a7 ,the representation of the world found in the older form of ,christianity has become absolutely untenable3 in this matter we must not seek weak compromises between the old and the new1 but without fear we must fully acknowledge the elements of fact that exist in the new4 ,we cannot do this unless we make deep changes in the way we regard religion2 we must find the courage and the power for such a renewal4 7#b7 ,the whole movement of modern life has made us feel that the realities with which traditional religion has to do are far too insignificant and too narrow2 a rigid insistence upon them threatens to involve us in a degeneration to the narrowly human and subjective4 ,the conceptions of inwardness1 personality1 and morality1 in particular1 need to be interpreted more comprehensively and deeply2 the soul's being for self must be based upon a self-consciousness of the spiritual life4 ,religion must take up the conflict with the world spiritually1 and through this grow in greatness in its whole effect and government4 7#c7 ,the older form of ,christianity was the product of an exhausted and faint-spirited age2 hence its fundamental attitude is predominantly passive and negative4 ,it shows a strong tendency to depreciate human nature1 and to leave the salvation of man entirely to ,god's mercy3 in emphasising man's redemption from evil it is apt to forget the elevation of his nature toward the good4 ,the joyousness of the ,christian life is insufficiently dwelt upon2 and the raising of men from their prostration and perplexities falls short of a restoration to a free and self-determining activity4 ,what is needed is a thorough-going reconstruction which shall emphasise the importance of action and joyousness in ,christian morality1 without in any way weakening the opposition to all systems of natural morality based on the rights of force4 ,in a word1 with all respect to ,christianity1 we demand its expression in a new form4 ,we require that ,christianity shall identify itself more definitely with a religion of the spiritual life as opposed to a religion which merely ministers to human frailty1 and that it shall show greater decision in casting off the antiquated accessories that hamper its movement4 ,we ask that it shall make prominent those simple and fundamental features of its system which have value for all time1 and in this way restore sincerity and settled confidence to life4 ,we can hardly expect that the reunion of man on a religious basis will take place all at once1 but it would be a great gain if we could only clearly realise what the oppositions are which still keep us apart4 ,such insight would help to check that insincerity in religious matters which must first be got rid of1 if there is to be any source of spiritual health in us4 #b4 ,,morality4 ,from the perplexities of religion many flee to morality as to something secure and untouched by dissension4 ,the position of morality is1 indeed1 different from that of religion4 ,of atheists there are many2 but there are few1 if any1 who deny the validity of all moral values3 that fidelity is better than deceit1 love better than hate1 concerning this there is no dispute4 ,but it is a question how far this agreement extends and how much we may gain from it4 ,within the same sphere of culture at least it is with very little difficulty that we come to agreement in respect of individual matters of morality2 if ethical societies limited themselves to practical morality1 and did not at the same time wish to settle questions of principle1 they would find scarcely any opposition4 ,but1 as soon as we comprehend the individual matters as a whole and ask for a foundation for the whole1 problem after problem makes its appearance1 and it soon becomes clear that we can neither establish nor distinctively form morality without a conviction concerning life as a whole and our fundamental relation to reality4 ,if1 therefore1 there is so much uncertainty in the present concerning life as a whole and our fundamental relation to reality1 we must inevitably become doubtful and unclear with regard to morality4 ,in fact1 the position may be described in this way3 we lack a morality which has a secure basis and a definite character2 in morality1 also1 after-effects of the past mingle with the impulses of the present2 and we are accustomed to conceal the poverty of our own possessions by historical knowledge and mere learning--so much is this the case that we are able even in a state of disgraceful poverty to think ourselves rich4 ,there are no less than five types of morality which seek our adherence and the guidance of our soul3 we may suppose that in each of these there is some truth1 but no single one is able to win our acceptance entirely2 each leads to a certain point1 and then we recognise a limit4 ,we have a religious morality1 in which our volition is related to and our destiny is determined by a divine power2 but this endangers the spiritual independence of man1 and has a strong tendency to make his life too passive2 besides1 in this case1 the prostration of religion also weakens the power of morality and its power to direct life4 ,we have a morality of culture1 which directs all power towards increasing the progress of humanity1 and subordinates all subjective preference to the requirements of an objective operation and creation2 but the ceaselessly increasing differentiation of work makes this form of morality a danger to the soul as a whole2 man is in danger of being made a mere means and instrument of a soulless process of culture4 ,we have a social morality1 which makes the welfare of society the chief thing1 and which1 by strengthening the feeling of solidarity1 produces humane efforts in abundance1 but is unable to include life as a whole2 in this form of morality there is a great danger of overestimating external conditions of life1 and of levelling and weakening life4 ,certain great thinkers have advocated a morality of pure reason1 which elevates man above the sphere of the useful and the pleasant2 and gives to him an inner independence2 but with all its greatness this morality is too formal and too abstract for us2 and1 besides1 we lack to-day the certainty of an invisible world1 which alone can give a secure foundation to this type of morality4 ,lastly1 we have an individualistic morality1 a morality of beautiful souls1 which regards the complete development of one's own particular nature1 the harmonious cultivation of the whole range of one's powers1 as the aim of conduct1 but which not only necessitates individuals who are far greater and far more characteristic in nature than we find in experience in general1 but also has little power to arouse us to effort1 and1 if accepted exclusively1 soon tends to degenerate into a refined self-enjoyment and vain self-reflection4 ,the presence of all these tendencies and motives in morality subjects us to-day to an abundance of ethical stimuli2 but it does not give us an ethic4 ,at the most it conceals the fact that the multiplicity of activities do not form for us a universal task1 which could counteract the separation into individuals1 parties1 particular departments1 and give us the consciousness of serving in our work aims that transcend the well-being and preference of mere man4 ,we are in need of a morality that proceeds from our own life2 and in this we need much more than we are conscious of needing4 ,for we have no universal aim that we might take up in our disposition1 and by which we might test all individual activities2 and so life must become disunified and inwardly alien2 we lose all spiritual relation to the world4 ,the world surrounds us in the first place as a dark and immovable fate2 we do not make ourselves masters of this fate1 just because we give ourselves too much to do with things4 ,rather1 to accomplish this1 we must transform reality from its very foundation by our own activity and decision2 we must wage war against obscurity and irrationality1 and this conflict must tend to divide our whole existence into friend and enemy1 good and evil1 but along with this first give to life complete activity1 and lead it to world-embracing greatness4 ,only in this way does man1 from being simply a spectator1 become a co-operator in the building up of the world2 only thus does that which occurs within him become in the fullest sense his own4 ,everything which obscures the ethical character of human life involves1 therefore1 a loss in greatness and dignity2 a degeneration to a state of servitude1 to being a mere part of an alien whole4 ,particular parties may be in agreement with and find satisfaction in this condition2 humanity as a whole will not rest content with it4 ,as certainly as humanity confidently maintains that its life has meaning and value1 so certainly will it take up the problem of morality ever anew against all attempted intimidation4 ,if to-day we are again to take up this problem1 then in the first place the conditions and the requirements of the problem must be quite clear4 ,we can never acquire a morality from the troubled confusion of social life2 on the contrary1 morality involves a transcendence of this2 it necessitates distinctive convictions concerning the world as a whole and our position in it4 ,there is no independent morality1 no morality in itself2 morality involves a fundamental whole of life1 which is appropriated in it and by this appropriation first attains to perfection4 ,in contrast to the existing condition of things a new condition must first be raised in ideas that precede conduct4 ,the new condition acquires a moral character only through requiring on the one hand moral freedom as opposed to the mechanism of natural impulse1 on the other a transcendent ideal in opposition to mere self-preservation4 ,these two together reveal a new order of things distinct from nature2 they must seem impossible from the point of view of the world of sense1 not only freedom with its apparent annulling of all connections1 but also the freeing of conduct from bondage to mere nature4 ,for how would one conceive an activity that did not tend ultimately to the good of the agent1 and so aid in his self-preservation8 ,does it not involve a contradiction for him to exert his power for something alien to himself8 ,if in the present we feel such problems in the fullness of their force1 and if we must fight for morality as a whole1 we must go back to the foundations of our existence1 and seek primarily for a secure position in contrast with the instability of temporal experiences4 ,in accordance with the whole course of our investigation1 we can find such a position1 and by further development a distinctive morality also1 only in an independent spiritual life1 which first conducts the world to self-consciousness and so to genuine reality4 ,the two requirements discussed above cause no difficulty from the point of view of an independent spiritual life4 ,we convinced ourselves in a previous section of the reality of freedom in the spiritual life2 in morality also conduct can free itself from the natural ego without degenerating into a state of emptiness1 because the spiritual life reveals a new and the alone genuine self4 ,thus here activity is not spent upon something alien to us1 something presented to it from outside1 but is within our own being1 which here1 indeed1 includes the whole infinity within it4 ,activity in the spiritual life serves true self-preservation1 which has only the name in common with natural self-preservation4 ,wherever it is acknowledged that the spiritual life involves a turning of reality to complete independence and spontaneity1 morality must take a significant1 indeed the central1 position4 ,for it is clear that only the taking up in our own activity and conviction1 only complete appropriation1 can bring life to the highest degree of perfection4 ,morality does not find in existence a life-content which it must convey to the individual subject1 but is itself within the life-process2 a complete self-consciousness of the spiritual life is attained first in morality1 and morality must develop the content of that life4 ,it is not that man in morality turns toward the spiritual life1 but that the spiritual life elevates itself in the whole of its nature2 all human morality must have its basis in a morality of the spiritual life4 ,with such a basis in the innermost nature1 morality must concern the whole multiplicity of life2 it can include and estimate the most diverse relations and experiences of our existence4 ,but whatever is thus brought under the sway of the morality of the spiritual life must undergo an essential change1 and must be elevated above the nature of that which is not taken up in this manner4 ,by an ethical formation and development of art and science we do not mean that the individual should be loyal and straightforward in their pursuit1 and should follow honest aims2 this conception would be much too narrow4 ,but it is that we should take possession of and treat as our own life and being that which otherwise remains outside as something half alien to us2 that the work should acquire the power and fervour of self-preservation2 and that in this unification the necessity of the object becomes a definite demand of our life1 and the gain of the object an advance of our life4 ,only such a life which transcends the antithesis of subject and object gives to the object a soul1 and freedom a content4 ,the experience of history also makes it clearly evident to us that the spiritual life first acquires a secure position and an indisputable supremacy over nature by its acknowledgment and appropriation in self-determining activity4 ,for history shows that wherever morality is not central1 the spiritual life1 even in the midst of the most magnificent results in external matters1 languishes inwardly and loses its hold4 ,with individuals also the final decision concerning the problems of the world and of life always depends upon whether they do or do not recognise that man has an inner moral task in his nature as a whole4 ,if this is acknowledged1 then--and this just in oppositions and conflicts--a realm of inwardness is assured us which all apparently contrary experiences of the external world cannot expel from its central position2 but if there is no such acknowledgment1 the triumph of these experiences and the collapse of the spiritual life cannot be avoided4 ,the morality of the spiritual life1 as we advocate it1 will have distinctive features in comparison with other conceptions of morality2 of these we can mention but a few here4 ,the acknowledgment of an independent spiritual life makes life as a whole a task1 since it requires that as a whole it should be changed into a state of self-determining activity2 that everything must be aroused and set in motion4 ,thus the morality of the spiritual life is constructive and progressive1 and not simply regulative in character2 it is not its purpose simply to place life under regulations and to let activity wait until there is an opportunity to fulfil them2 but1 calling forth all our powers1 morality must work and create1 arouse and prepare the opportunities1 so that in everything the realm of the spirit may be increased within the province of humanity4 ,like the spiritual life itself1 the morality proceeding from it must be of a transcendent nature4 ,to-day or to-morrow may not be considered beyond good and evil2 morality may not sink to being a mere means of realising the wishes of the time4 ,if1 however1 morality transcends time1 and is able to separate the transitory and the eternal in time1 then1 within its task1 it may very well acknowledge distinctive situations and problems1 and present different sides2 indeed1 only by a close relation with the time and by penetrating deeply into the experiences of the time will morality acquire the necessary proximity and impressiveness4 ,to this extent1 therefore1 we also insist upon a modern morality1 however decidedly we reject that which to-day is called modern morality1 and which for the most part is no more than a surrender of morality to the wishes and moods of the individual4 ,if in these features the morality of the spiritual life already manifests a distinctive character1 this distinctiveness is further increased by the particular nature of the actual relation of man to the moral task1 as it appears here4 ,the highering of the ideal will necessarily increase its divergence from man1 as he is4 ,it will become quite evident that morality is not a continuation of nature1 a natural attribute of man1 or a product of social relationship1 but the most pronounced expression of a great change in the direction of life1 the institution of a new order of things4 ,if at the same time life is to be fashioned morally1 a conflict is inevitable2 and the general outlook of life and of conduct will depend upon where we find the centre of opposition and what is the main direction of the conflict4 ,in the first place1 morality must take up a definite attitude towards the sense-nature of man2 that nature must be subordinated to the aims of the spirit4 ,but we have already seen that there is a danger that the ethical task will lose its depth1 and that life as a whole will be perverted1 if the rights of nature are misunderstood and there arises the desire to suppress it completely1 and if1 in a tendency to asceticism1 this suppression is made the chief concern4 ,the chief moral task is the development and establishment of a genuine and real spiritual life1 as opposed to a false and merely apparent one1 which is found in human conditions1 not only in the state of society but also in the soul of the individual3 thus a mere transition from society to the individual can never give any aid4 ,the condition in which life is generally found evolves no independent spiritual life2 but it uses the spiritual impulse that is present within it simply as a means to other ends1 and thus the result is an inner perversion2 at the same time man is generally zealously occupied with giving himself the appearance of intending to follow the spiritual for its own sake1 and of sacrificing everything to it4 ,in opposition to such radical insincerity1 to acquire a sincere and genuine life is the chief task and the chief desire of morality2 for the establishment of sincerity and truth in face of an opposing world the soul needs before all else loyalty and courage4 ,and so morality involves life in a great division3 it cannot possibly take up a friendly attitude towards everything and readily admit everything3 its chief task must be to arouse life from its confusion and apathy4 ,but this does not prevent a morality of the spiritual life striving for universality in its inner nature4 ,the morality of the spiritual life must1 therefore1 establish a definite relationship on the basis of the present with the prevailing types of morality which were previously mentioned4 ,if the morality of the spiritual life is certain of its own nature1 it is quite possible for it to recognise a certain validity in every other kind of morality without degenerating into a feeble eclecticism4 ,the relation that we recognised between the spiritual life and religion also makes religion valuable to morality3 the moral significance of culture may be especially acknowledged where a universal character is desired for the spiritual life2 the relation of man to man may also become inwardly important where it is necessary to the inner construction of the life of society4 ,again the morality of the spiritual life fully agrees with the demand for an independence of morality and for an elevation above narrowly human aims1 in the manner that the morality of reason advocates2 finally1 individuality also can obtain its due in the spiritual life4 ,all this1 however1 is valid only with the presupposition that we acquire a position above the antitheses of experience and not between them1 and an inner independence in relation to the chaos of time4 ,only from this position and this independence can we advance in any way1 even within time4 #c4 ,,education ,,and ,,instruction ,education and instruction are especially affected by the difficulties that are engendered by the lack of a main tendency in life and of a transcendence of the superficiality of time4 ,for the lively interest which its questions provoke1 the incalculable amount of work and activity that is called forth in this department1 do not produce their full result1 because we do not possess enough life of our own of a definite character to be able to test and sort1 to clarify and deepen1 that which is presented to us4 ,and so in conflict with one another we use up much power without making much progress in the most important matter4 ,educational reform is the catchword1 but we have no philosophy of education that is based upon a securely established conviction concerning life as a whole1 and we trouble ourselves very little to obtain one4 ,we wish to improve education1 and yet we have not come to an understanding with regard to its ideals1 its possibility1 and its conditions4 ,education must be fundamentally different in character1 according as man is regarded as a particular and exclusively individual being1 or as a being in whom a new and universal life seems to emerge2 according as he is only an elevated being of nature or in the highest degree possible a spiritual being2 according as the higher proceeds from the lower gradually and surely after the manner of organic growth1 or we must find a new starting-point and accomplish a revolution4 ,further1 an individualistic training1 as it dominated the classical systems of pedagogy1 is no longer sufficient2 the relation to society must also be fully appreciated1 and be effective4 ,but attention to this requirement involves us in the danger of treating the problem of education too externally1 and of bringing all more or less to the same level2 and this danger must be overcome4 ,yet how can it be overcome1 unless we possess securely a depth1 unless we acknowledge the presence of the infinite within the human being1 as it is comprehended in our conviction of the spiritual life8 ,the form of instruction suffers from the ceaseless onflow of new material1 the constant increase in the number of claims4 ,in itself each single demand may be quite justifiable2 but whether it is better than the others can be decided only from an idea which governs the whole4 ,if no such idea exists1 a gain in the individual departments may be a loss to the whole2 and an enrichment in one department may lead to a decline of the whole4 ,in face of that which has been handed down from the past and that which arises in the present1 it is difficult to come to a balanced judgment2 the parties may be right in their attacks one upon another1 but this does not imply that they are right in their own assertions4 ,the immediate impression tends to give the balance in favour of the requirements of the present2 from the point of view of the immediate impression1 all occupation with the past may appear to be a flight from the living to the dead4 ,the advocate of the claims of history may reply to this that man as a spiritual being is not a child of the mere moment1 and that we concern ourselves with the past not on account of what is transitory in it1 but for its eternal content4 ,but he who thinks thus must throw the eternal content into relief and separate it sharply from that which is simply temporal2 he must establish a relation between this content and his own life1 and make that which is externally alien his inward possession4 ,this does indeed come to pass in a few cases2 but can we say that it comes to pass generally or predominantly8 ,we ,germans in particular have far too strong a tendency to substitute scholarly occupation for inner animation1 and instead of spiritual substance to offer academically correct knowledge4 ,it is therefore not without good reason if ,classical ,antiquity does not so much inspire as weary our youth2 yet the blame for this does not rest upon ,antiquity1 but on ourselves1 and upon the manner in which we treat it with calm scholarship1 without transforming it into our own possession4 ,for how could that influence the whole man which does not come from the whole man8 ,everything points again and again to the same thing--we lack spiritual independence1 inner transcendence of history and environment1 we lack a characteristic life as a whole4 ,the contact with the incalculable abundance of impressions that we experience must therefore remain an external one2 and with all our increasing wealth of knowledge we threaten to become spiritually poorer4 7b7 ,,science ,,and ,,philosophy ,science1 with its innumerable branches and its powerful penetration of life1 is indisputably a strong feature of the age4 ,its effect is not exhausted in the abundance of particular achievements2 by the objectivity of its work it has brought the world much nearer to us1 has led our life to greater clearness1 has made us more alert1 and given us a secure dominion over things4 ,science1 therefore1 must also be a factor in the determination of a philosophy of life1 and must raise the whole position of man4 ,of course1 as soon as we survey and estimate its work from the life-process we find that there is no lack of difficult problems in science4 ,since the magnificent results of the natural sciences often give rise to the tendency to force their particular bent and methods on the human sciences1 to which our conception of the spiritual life gives a characteristic sphere of their own1 there is a danger that the balanced development of the individual sciences and the complete organisation of what is distinctive in them will be prevented4 ,however1 we do not lack energetic resistance of this danger2 and ultimately it is less science itself than the movement to popularise it that falls into this danger4 ,further1 the results of science with regard to the object easily tend to obscure the subjective element1 the spiritual activity1 the characteristic synthesis1 which forms an organised collection of pieces of knowledge into the unity of a science4 ,it is apt to appear as though science needs only to construct further on a given basis and in a given direction2 while both of these are open to much dispute3 different possibilities1 prospects1 types may be revealed2 the work of history has run through different stages1 and has certainly not already exhausted its possibilities4 ,nevertheless1 the subjective element with its freedom1 mobility1 and many-sidedness is becoming more adequately appreciated1 and there is no reason to fear that science will become dogmatically pursued in paths that have become fixed4 ,finally1 the problem of the relation of thought to life is the source of much perplexity3 we ,germans1 for example1 have a strong tendency to take mere knowledge for inner appropriation of the object1 and instead of spiritual substance to offer an abundance of scholarship4 ,this1 however1 is not a defect in science itself1 but an error on the part of man1 who has no life of his own with which to meet the onflow of impressions from the environment2 and so our estimate of science and our acknowledgment of its magnificent achievement cannot be affected by this charge4 ,philosophy is in quite a different position3 its present state cannot satisfy anyone who seeks rather for a universal science than for an academic discipline4 ,for our philosophical efforts lack a common aim and close relation with the innermost need of the time2 they do not even show any definite and energetic attempt to overcome the confusion from which our world of thought suffers4 ,a great stream of philosophic effort came to an end with the speculative philosophy of the first decade of the nineteenth century4 ,after a temporary ebb of this philosophic effort1 we now wish to take up the work again with fresh power1 but we have not yet acquired inner independence2 and therefore1 in sifting and collecting1 we are unable to direct the age to definite aims1 or radically expel the inconsistencies into which an indefinite relation to the past has led the present4 ,there are three main streams of thought which come to us from the past1 and we can neither completely take them up nor withdraw ourselves from them3 the ,enlightenment1 with its philosophic summit in ,descartes2 the critical philosophy of ,kant2 and speculative philosophy1 with its consummation in ,hegel4 ,it has been thought that the ,enlightenment1 with its starting out from the subject1 its unadorned intellectualism1 its formal ratiocination1 its rejection of everything that is not comprehended in clear and distinct ideas1 was transcended at the height of ,german classical literature1 because at that time a life rich in content was set in contrast with it4 ,but1 as a fact1 no adequate settlement with the ,enlightenment has been arrived at2 the supposed transcendence is not final1 because the elements of truth in the ,enlightenment1 especially its turning from history to the immediacy and independence of spiritual life1 were not properly acknowledged4 ,but to-day it is less the elements of truth of the ,enlightenment that are a force than that which is trivial and narrowly human in it--the ratiocination of the subject which1 the more empty it is1 the more it feels itself to be the measure of all things1 and1 rejoicing in negation1 applies the results of the natural sciences in an attempt to bring about the greatest possible suppression of all spiritual relations4 ,in this form the ,enlightenment gains acceptance by the masses1 which formerly had seemed inaccessible to it2 and thus it becomes an instrument by which life is dissipated and made shallow4 ,from its position of research1 philosophy looks down upon this tendency with contempt2 but it produces no movement that is able to take up the struggle with this tendency to shallowness1 and pass through the struggle victoriously4 ,kant is often lauded as the spiritual guide of our time2 and it is overlooked how much that was certain for him has become doubtful2 how many new facts1 new problems1 new prospects1 which cannot be lost to the world of thought we have received from the nineteenth century with its historico-social culture and its overwhelming widening of the horizon4 ,kant's critique of the reason is based on a conception of science2 on a faith in the possibility of a knowledge of truth2 on a conviction of a spiritual organisation of man1 which are rather in contradiction than in harmony with the main tendencies of the present4 ,his absolute ethic1 the pillar of his constructive thought1 is incompatible with the empirical and social treatment of morality to which the present does homage4 ,but at the same time we cannot free ourselves from the influence of ,kant4 ,for we cannot refute his critique of the reason1 breaking up1 as it does1 the old representation and conception of truth2 and1 without his ethic1 our ethic would lose the appearance of truth and greatness4 ,in the judgment of the present1 ,hegel experiences a treatment that is just the opposite of that which ,kant receives3 if in reference to the latter we do not notice what divides us1 so in reference to the former we fail to recognise what joins us4 ,for if ,hegel's exaggeration of the power of the human spirit and his identification of spirit and thought appear alien to us1 yet his idea of evolution1 which embraces all multiplicity1 and represents all realities and conceptions as in a state of flux2 his elevation of spiritual factors to the form of independent powers which develop and establish their own necessities undeterred by the preference of man2 his emphasis on the fact of the power of contradiction and opposition in history--all this1 often in spite of our own conceptions1 exerts an enormous influence over us2 and we cannot shake it off without surrendering a considerable portion of our spiritual possession4 ,these tendencies all whirl confusedly together and draw us now in one direction1 now in another2 we can get beyond the state of decadence only when we have succeeded in giving to the world of thought an independent character1 which corresponds with the spiritual condition of the present1 and which can do justice to the old as well as the new experiences4 ,after the whole course of our investigation1 only a brief account is necessary to indicate the directions the system of life here advocated points out to reach this2 a fuller treatment would make a particular theory of knowledge necessary4 ,we must bring into prominence three of the chief points4 7#a7 ,only the life-process can be the starting-point of philosophy1 not some kind of being more ultimate than this process1 whether we conceive of such being as an external world or as a subject existing independent of the world3 the ideas of world and subject1 as also that of being1 can be evolved and made clear only within the life-process2 at the same time1 they remain in a state of flux1 and never are so directly opposed to one another as modern thought has represented them as being4 ,philosophy1 with this starting-point1 would1 however1 attain an independence in relation to the special sciences only if it were possible within the life-process to form a unity and a distinctive synthesis1 which should deepen our view of reality and set it as a whole in a new light4 7#b7 ,such a synthesis must transcend the state of change of all the relations and caprice of men2 this is possible only by the revelation and appropriation of an independent spiritual life withdrawn from the life of sense4 ,without such a spiritual life there is no release from the chaos of subjective experiences and opinions2 only from the position of the spiritual life is it possible for a spiritual occurrence to be revealed in the province of man1 so that we do not need to infer from man to the world1 but that within him a universal life can be immediately experienced4 7#c7 ,as1 on the one hand1 the spiritual life is an indispensable presupposition1 so on the other it is an infinite task2 the former as far as the fundamental fact is concerned1 the latter in reference to its detailed content4 ,this content can be acquired only through the movement of history as a whole2 thus a constructive philosophy--and not merely a critical one--could arise only where the spiritual life as a whole had acquired a characteristic form4 ,in this case1 philosophy was not simply an offspring of life1 not merely something for life to occupy itself with4 ,by its demand for a thorough clarification of our ideas and life1 and by its raising the question of absolute truth1 philosophy has exercised no little influence upon the progress of life4 ,but that which it achieved of a fruitful nature1 it achieved not in detachment from1 but only in relation to1 life1 and by interaction with it1 however much this relation may be concealed at the first glance4 ,such a connection of philosophy with life as a whole is by no means new2 it has existed in all times4 ,never has the world of thought acquired a distinctive character except in close relation with life as a whole3 it is only from life as a whole that thought has received its problems1 the nature of its procedure1 and the demarcation of its work4 ,a survey of the history of philosophy makes it evident that the leading thinkers differ mostly1 and differ from the beginning1 in that which they regard as the essence of life4 ,in what they regard as the essence of life they have found the firm point of support for their work2 from that the direction of their research has been determined2 and from that the questions arose to which they required an answer from the universe4 ,and we all know that in these matters the question often implies more than the answer1 that it often carries the answer within itself4 ,if1 therefore1 this connection of philosophy with the life-process signifies an old and indisputable truth1 this truth is not sufficiently acknowledged4 ,its adequate acknowledgment gives rise to a new situation2 indeed1 it tends to the development of a new type of philosophy4 ,with the critical tendency of the ,modern ,age1 this type shares the desire not to surrender thought to a state of defencelessness in face of the stream of appearances1 but would primarily concentrate it in itself1 and in an inner independence find a standard for all further undertaking4 ,but this attainment of independence in thought is not accomplished by turning to the mere subject1 but to a central occurrence1 transcending the antithesis of subject and object4 ,if thought cannot begin from such an occurrence1 and understand the movement of life as an unfolding and perfecting of this comprehensive occurrence1 then there is no truth for man4 ,truth1 as a relation of two series absolutely alien to each other1 is an absolutely nonsensical conception3 truth must be immanent1 in the sense that one life embraces both subject and object1 and that in the movement of life there is as much a coming together of subject and object as a coming together of activity from the centre and from the circumference4 ,that in this we have to do with a peculiar formation of knowledge and not with a merely formal modification is shown by the following considerations4 ,if thought1 in the manner previously supposed1 takes its starting-point in a world existing independently of the subject1 then in order to subordinate reality spiritually thought will comprehend it in the most general conceptions4 ,ultimately1 the being of things will be sought in formal ontological magnitudes1 as1 for example1 in pure being4 ,if the whole abundance of reality appears to be derived simply from these general conceptions1 it is in danger of being transformed into nothing but schemes and shadows1 and of losing all genuine life4 ,if1 as opposed to this1 the subject alone is taken as the starting-point1 then more life and more movement is indeed assured1 and a more varied prospect will be acquired1 but there is no possibility of distinguishing between that which is only contingent to the individual and that which forms a common inner world2 there is no possibility of a rejection of the narrowly human1 or even of extricating a realm of ideas from the abundance of impressions3 if in the former case knowledge lost all content1 in the present case it threatens to be completely dissolved4 ,if1 further1 on the one hand abstract universal conceptions1 and on the other the subjective states of individuals1 form the stem of knowledge1 then neither in one nor in the other does the fullness of spiritual reality attain its due--the reality that exists in the building up of a genuine spiritual culture4 ,but in the type of philosophy advocated by us this is the chief thing2 since in contrast to the psychological and the cosmological treatment this philosophy develops a nological treatment1 and sees the central domain of philosophical research in the elucidation and unification of facts which1 in the construction of a spiritual world in the province of man1 appear in the whole and in every branch4 ,in this connection the conception of fact is something more ultimate and universal in its relations2 but it is just that which makes it more valuable for the conviction as a whole4 ,this conception of its task will bring philosophy into a closer relation with personal life1 as well as with the work of history1 without making it the mere instrument either of the one or the other4 ,otherwise it would seem irrational1 and a tendency from which one must free oneself as much as possible1 that in philosophy1 personality1 not only in creative activity but also in appropriation1 signifies so much4 ,the object1 on the contrary1 acquires a positive value1 if we are certain that the standard of life is ultimately also the standard of knowledge2 if with this the degree of the development of life at a particular point necessarily decides the nature of the work of thought there achieved4 ,the near relation of the thinker to the proximate and the more distant culture environment is explained from this position in a manner no less satisfactory3 the relation can then remain close1 even if in the first place it appears to be one of conflict and opposition4 ,similarly1 the whole movement of history acquires a greater significance for knowledge2 far-reaching changes of life transform the temporal situation1 since they permit us to experience1 see1 and seek something else2 all these changes1 however1 demand from thought an attention to and an appreciation of the whole4 ,nothing other than this is involved in the requirement that thought must correspond with the historical state of spiritual evolution4 ,this acknowledgment of personal and of historical life by philosophy makes it intelligible why philosophy manifests so much diversity and opposition1 and why on the surface it shows so little unity4 ,where the conviction of an independent spiritual life rules1 the faith in a unity of truth can be shaken by this fact just as little as the courage to creative activity can be paralysed4 ,the basing of thought upon the spiritual life also has the advantage that the main types of thought can be derived from the different positions which may be taken up towards the spiritual life1 and thus a limit may be set to the otherwise indefinite abundance4 ,from this point of view there are for us five chief types of thought and world-conception4 ,minds first divide on the question whether we can unify life at all1 and at the same time whether we may venture to make an assertion concerning reality as a whole4 ,he who rejects this as impossible and readily surrenders himself to the conflict of immediate impressions might be called an indifferentist4 ,if1 however1 a striving towards unity is admitted1 then the question whether a spiritual life with a reality and values of its own in contrast with nature may be acknowledged or not becomes the point of decision1 and the basis of division into opposing camps4 ,he who gives a negative answer to the question1 and regards nature as the whole of reality1 becomes an advocate of ,naturalism4 ,he1 however1 who answers in the affirmative1 and may be called an idealist1 is immediately confronted with a new problem4 ,he cannot acknowledge the spiritual life without at the same time giving it the supremacy2 but now the doubt arises whether this supremacy may be easily and peacefully established1 or whether it meets with strong opposition4 ,when the existence of these oppositions is denied1 or they are regarded as being easy to overcome1 there grows up an optimistic1 contemplative form of ,idealism1 which to the holders of other forms inevitably seems abstract and shallow4 ,if1 on the contrary1 the oppositions are fully acknowledged1 the final division originates with the question whether finally we are to submit to the state of stagnation brought about by these oppositions1 or whether by some kind of reinforcement of the counteraction to this state of stagnation life may once more be set in progress3 the former gives rise to ,scepticism and ,pessimism1 the latter to ,activism1 as it has been discussed by us in an earlier section4 ,it is easy to see what distinctive lines of conflict and what kinds of conflict must arise between the indifferentist1 the naturalistic thinker1 the optimist1 the sceptic1 and the activist4 ,however1 we cannot allow this to detain us2 it must1 nevertheless1 be pointed out here1 that in philosophy the possibilities are not yet exhausted1 and that to avail ourselves of these possibilities nothing is more necessary than a close relation of its work with the life-process1 and a firmer grounding in the independent spiritual life4 7c7 ,,art ,,and ,,literature ,nowhere does modern life throb more violently and more strongly than in art and literature4 ,that which in this department has a claim to permanence acquires especial power from the fact that this department had to establish itself anew in opposition to an attempt to curtail it4 ,for who could deny that a culture of work and of utility had a tendency to reduce artistic literary creation to the position of an accompaniment and a fringe of another kind of life1 to a diversion for idle hours8 ,the more we feel the limitations of the life of work and utility the more do art and literature become independent tasks4 ,from art and literature we expect more lightness1 more agility1 and more joy in life2 they should conduct life from too great an attention to externals to self-consciousness1 and in this way give life a soul4 ,they should strengthen individuality in opposition to the levelling tendency of the culture of the masses1 wrest simple fundamentals from chaotic confusion of life1 and aid the time in reaching a comprehensive vital-feeling and a synthesis transcending its inconsistencies4 ,in opposition to that which oppresses us and degrades us to instruments of a meaningless machinery1 we desire some kind of province where life rests in itself and purposes nothing else but itself2 where it springs up with complete spontaneity2 and where it can express itself with complete freedom1 and in this expression find its highest joy4 ,from such a longing a new art that permeates our life has arisen4 ,art must seek new means of expression for the new situation2 it cannot serve the development of a new life-content without bringing about liberation from all conventional statutes2 it cannot prevent a threatened tendency of life to become stagnant without desiring a fully free place for the subject1 and for the development of his individuality4 ,he who sees chiefly the dangers in everything forgets that nothing new and great can arise without bringing dangers with it4 ,from the point of view of the system that we champion1 we can quite well understand the significance of the sthetic movement of the present1 acknowledge the deliverance of life which it has accomplished1 and in general we can go a good distance with it4 ,but there comes a point where the courses diverge2 not because we think less of the capacity of art1 but we believe that we think more highly of its task4 ,this deliverance from the culture of work1 this turning to individuality1 promises an essential elevation of life only if a new kind of being1 a new world1 is able to break forth in the soul that depends upon itself2 if the individual in his conflicts aids the development of the infinite life2 if1 through all transformations and prostrations1 man wins an inner relation to the whole and to things1 and by this grows beyond the narrowly human4 ,if this does not come to pass1 the movement remains on the surface of sense experience and related to the activity and occupation of mere man2 and so it cannot make anything higher or essentially new of us2 it remains subject to the oppositions of the age instead of becoming superior to them4 ,we are1 indeed1 enriched by the most diverse forms of expression3 even the most concealed circumstances1 the most delicate pulsations of the soul1 cannot withdraw themselves from being represented4 ,none the less1 the description of the world-environment acquires the most striking clearness and penetration1 and in the incalculable wealth of individual forms of art virtuosi are not lacking at whose capacity of execution we are astonished4 ,but all this gives to art no spiritual content and no real greatness4 ,it can1 indeed1 bring an inexhaustible abundance of stimuli to bear upon individuals and spread a shiny gloss over existence and life1 but it cannot raise life essentially4 ,the care of the mere individual1 with his changing circumstances1 prevents art from taking up sufficiently the problems of the present situation as a whole2 of the spiritual condition of humanity as a whole4 ,and so art in this form is not able to grasp the epoch with its spiritual movement as a whole1 and to further humanity in the struggle for spiritual existence1 in which to-day all individual problems are included4 ,humanity is in a serious crisis2 the old foundations of life are about to give way1 and the new are not yet secured4 ,the world has rejected the standards which man had imposed upon it2 it turns against him1 and leaves him nothing more in particular4 ,to be assured of a distinctive significance man needs a strengthening1 and at the same time an aroused reflection forbids him all help from outside4 ,the fact that that which is hostile and threatens to degrade and to annihilate man takes possession of his own province of life and penetrates into it gives a particular acuteness to these problems4 ,we are not only surrounded externally by a dark fate1 but our soul also degenerates in it1 and becomes more and more a soulless mechanism4 ,indeed1 our own activity becomes the most dangerous opponent of the soul1 since in forming and taking part in complexes of work which ever become greater it turns against us and takes the soul from the soul4 ,an art which has its basis in the individual and which does not advance to spiritual substance cannot possibly prevent the threatened dissolution of life4 ,even the most wonderful expression of disposition1 even the most delicate and most fluid representations of conditions1 do not free us from the chaos of the time3 they might easily bind us still more strongly to it1 since they weaken the power1 indeed the tendency to energetic concentration1 and increase the tendency to degenerate into a state of weakness and decay2 while to overcome these dangers it is necessary primarily to increase our activity1 to win again an active relation to reality4 ,art cannot free itself from that condition of feebleness without entering into a close relation with the central task of life and acknowledging a spirituality transcending the subjective circumstances and interests of mere man4 ,if these requirements are not satisfied1 no talent can prevent a decline of art into a more refined ,epicureanism4 ,but where such a spiritual life is acknowledged1 and at the same time there arises the task of winning for man a new life1 a new spiritual reality1 art inevitably acquires a great significance1 and becomes absolutely indispensable4 ,without the liberation which it brings1 and its presentation of things in a harmony1 how could a whole with definite character be raised8 ,how could the new that hovers before us acquire form and exert a penetrating power without the help of a constructive imagination which precedes its realisation8 ,how could the soul's innermost experience permeate life as a whole1 and ennoble its whole structure without the help of art8 ,the higher we place the ideal of life1 the more does the spiritual content which immediate existence manifests become a mere sense form1 the more is sthetic activity necessary to prevent disunion of life1 in the midst of all oppositions to give it some kind of unity1 and in the midst of the passion of conflict some rest within itself4 ,but1 to achieve this1 art may not purpose to form an oasis in a wilderness of life1 but1 hand-in-hand with other activities1 must fight for spiritual experience and a genuine meaning of life as a whole4 7d7 ,,political ,,and ,,social ,,life ,to treat of the complicated problems of the political and social life of the present does not come within our purpose2 we can consider them only so far as the task of the construction of an independent spiritual world is affected either for good or evil by the nature of their solution4 ,in contrast to the epoch of the ,enlightenment1 the nineteenth century brought about a transition from the individual to society3 social life has developed in numerous branches1 has disclosed a superabundance of new facts1 and has set us new tasks4 ,but this development has also brought much perplexity with it4 ,it becomes evident in this development also1 that each spiritual movement that attains power experiences in its further course limitations1 and is degraded by its contact with human conditions4 ,along with the social movement there has been the often-discussed change by which life from being centred in an invisible world becomes occupied with the visible one1 and by which all departments of life are given a naturalistic1 realistic character and tendency4 ,there has been no lack of opposition to the movement to make society the first consideration2 the opposition has gone even so far as to dispute the right of the whole4 ,further1 the earlier and the later conception of society1 the idealistic and the realistic1 are often confused2 and from this confusion contradictions arise that not only confuse our ideas but also degrade our life4 ,there is a danger that a zealous and excited occupation with nothing but individual tasks may take our attention from the whole1 and that the problems which the inner condition of man involves may not obtain due consideration4 ,this turning to society is most manifest in the powerful advance of the state4 ,in this1 an inner longing for a more social life1 as ,hegel especially philosophically advocated it2 and actual changes of conditions operated together1 and strengthened one another4 ,the more definite manifestation of individuality on the part of nations and the sharper division between them2 the active interest of wider circles in political problems2 the mechanical organisation of work1 with its more exact differentiation and its more rigid organisation of forces2 but primarily the longing1 which grows out of the ceaselessly increasing economical and social perplexities1 for a power superior to the parties in dispute and acting as arbitrator--all these have immeasurably increased the power of the state in different degrees among different peoples1 but in general through the whole civilised world4 ,the freedom of the individual1 therefore1 cannot but suffer from manifold limitations2 there arises a danger that the individual may gradually lose all initiative1 and expect all stimulation from the state4 ,the spontaneity and the wealth of life suffer from the tendency to increase the power of the state1 and a bureaucracy which delights in correct forms1 but which spiritually is entirely unproductive1 indeed even indifferent1 appropriates more and more to itself4 ,the substance of the spiritual life is also threatened by the fact that the omnipotent state is inclined to treat that life1 with all its branches1 as a mere means in the attainment of its own particular aims2 to look upon science and art1 and chiefly religion and education1 especially with regard to that which they achieve for the aims of the state1 and to shape them as much as possible in accordance with these aims4 ,there is also a strong tendency to follow the same course to accomplish the ends of the contemporary form of government4 ,an independent and genuine spiritual life can hardly offer too great an opposition to such a perversion1 with its deification of human forms4 ,but the matter is by no means simple2 for not the will of single individuals and parties1 but the whole tendency of modern life has given this power to the state2 indeed1 on the economic side the state will soon experience a further increase of power4 ,the more the guidance on this side belongs to the state1 the more necessary is a free movement of spiritual culture in opposition to it2 the more urgent is the demand that the amalgamation of church and state should be discontinued--an amalgamation which1 by the growing disputes that arise from it1 forces religion into an undignified position2 the more definitely is a greater independence to be desired for school organisation in all its branches4 ,the ,germans especially have much to do in this matter2 and there is much at stake4 ,for1 with the limitations of our spatial extension1 we can be a permanent determining factor in world-culture only by giving our culture the greatest intensity2 but this requires a calling forth of the complete power and of the spontaneity of individuals4 ,ultimately1 in this matter also1 the chief thing proves to be the taking up again of central problems and the realisation of human being in its innermost depths as an unconditional end in itself and the bearer of an infinite life4 ,no conception can guard us from sinking to the position of puppets of the soulless mechanism of the state1 if we do not find the power to give soul to our life and to maintain it against all attempted limitation4 ,the longing for more freedom and independence has therefore an indisputable validity4 ,but this acknowledgment may easily lead to new complications by freedom and independence being conceived in a manner much too external1 and also by a really questionable association of these ideas with the problem of equality4 ,the conviction of the modern man concerning the world on the one hand1 and the demands of life on the other1 are often in direct contradiction with regard to the conception of equality4 ,we become aware of our limitation on all sides3 we are represented simply as a product of heredity and environment3 all possibility of making a decision for ourselves is rejected as a delusion4 ,if thus we are deprived of all independence and all spontaneity of life1 then even in social life we shall become mere bearers of a rle imposed upon us by a dark fate4 ,one does not see how freedom could retain a value1 arouse enthusiasm1 and lead to sacrifice in such a case4 ,if the whole is a soulless mechanism1 in which only the excess of existent power is the cause of decisions1 then we ourselves cannot be exceptions4 ,other complications have their origin in the democratic tendency which permeates not only our political endeavour but also our whole life of culture4 ,how far-reaching a change1 indeed how complete a revolution1 has been accomplished by this tendency in opposition to a condition of things which has stood for hundreds or rather thousands of years1 is but seldom fully appreciated4 ,in the earlier form of social life spiritual work was the chief matter only of a limited and exclusive circle2 to the people as a whole it was only secondary1 and the benefit that they received from it was often of the most meagre character4 ,even the ,reformation left this aristocratic form of life as it was2 for as certainly as it made the care for every individual member of the church more urgent1 that care was bestowed from above in an authoritative manner4 ,the earlier ,enlightenment1 as it was represented1 for example1 by ,bayle1 was of the conviction that the deliverance from delusion and superstition would always be limited to a small circle of those standing spiritually high1 and would never reach the masses4 ,we know how this has changed2 how the masses are determined to form a mere dependent body of the so-called higher classes no longer1 but to take the problem of life independently into their own hands1 and how they obtain their representation of the world and the task of their life from that which is more immediately present to them and directly concerns their welfare2 and how in this way they are inclined to look upon themselves as the whole of humanity4 ,we have already referred to the danger that culture as a whole will thus be made shallow--a danger that arises from the fact that here the decision is made by those who scarcely participate in the work of history1 and who depend almost entirely upon the immediate impression4 ,further1 we have already contended that only a simplification and rejuvenation of culture are able to cope with this danger4 ,the fact is important that this democratic movement appeals to the equality of all who bear human features4 ,here again there appears to be a direct contradiction between theoretical conviction and actual conditions4 ,experience everywhere shows a pronounced inequality among men2 it shows this not only in the traditional social relationships but also in the organisation of modern industry4 ,more1 however1 than all social arrangements1 nature shows the greatest inequality amongst men2 and the actual relation of individuals in work and idleness1 in love and hate1 in independent thinking and blind subordination shows it none the less4 ,from the point of view of experience the idea of equality seems to be an empty phrase4 ,if it is more than this1 if we recognise in it a truth that we cannot afford to lose1 then it implies the conviction that humanity has spiritual relations2 that each has a significance in a spiritual nature1 and that there is a universal life present everywhere which opposes the guilt and folly of the individual and even in spite of himself gives him a value4 ,thus we have seen that in history1 religion and ideal culture were the first to bring the idea of equality into good repute4 ,but to-day the champions of equality turn with particular keenness against religion and ideal culture1 and are not aware that in so doing they are destroying the foundations of their own belief4 ,these inconsistencies are not felt1 chiefly because of the power which abstractions usually exercise over men in the present day4 ,a faith in abstractions reigns amongst us which is capable of far greater things than faith in religion or faith in reason4 ,we are surrounded by the bustle of a fierce and ceaselessly increasing struggle for existence3 ideas are overgrown by interests2 the motives of people in general are trivial1 and all spiritual aspiration is feeble1 and along with this there is an unutterable amount of pretence which permeates and distorts all conduct4 ,yet the disagreeable aspect of this condition seems to vanish as soon as the mere word humanity is mentioned4 ,but what is humanity from the point of view of ,naturalism other than a collection of beings of nature8 ,how can a power to elevate and to strengthen proceed from this conception1 which in the naturalistic context signifies no more than the subjective unification of the individuals8 ,or1 again1 the idea of a ceaseless progress of humanity is placed in opposition to the confusions which exist in the present4 ,but how can this idea be established if a compelling reason is not active within man8 ,how could the present be so incomplete and so full of perplexity as it seems1 especially to the advocates of the idea of progress1 if century after century had made progress upon progress8 ,rather1 if man has such a noble nature as he is assumed to have1 life should be full of reason and bliss4 ,the old faith saved man by resorting to an invisible world2 it required a firm confidence in that which one did not see4 ,the new faith1 which denies an invisible world1 desires more3 it desires that we should be convinced of the direct opposite of that which we see and comprehend4 ,these considerations in no way signify a depreciation on our part of the effort to attain freedom and equality--an effort that has an indisputable validity4 ,but this validity must be based upon a whole of life and be more definitely determined1 otherwise the effort is stifled by the inconsistencies in which the conceptions of freedom and equality are involved in the minds of their advocates4 ,the independence of the individual and the spontaneity of the spiritual life are endangered not only by the mechanism of a bureaucracy indifferent to spiritual values but also none the less by the movements of the masses1 which in modern life in particular surround and browbeat the individual4 ,the man of the present day often believes that he has gained freedom when in reality he has only changed the nature of his dependence4 ,what makes the movements of the masses1 with their so-called public opinion1 so irksome is the falsehood that is generally contained in this opinion1 which is presented as proceeding from the experience and decision of a great majority1 and therefore as having a definite presupposition of truth4 ,the fact1 as a rule1 is that a few venture an assertion and urge it upon the others with unobserved compulsion1 since they proclaim as already existent the agreement that they are only seeking4 ,of course sometimes there is much more in public opinion2 it may be the expression of a spiritual necessity which subjects to itself the dispositions of men4 ,whether public opinion is to be an interpreter of truth or a mere product of man remains to be decided2 and this decision can rest only with the individual4 ,he will be equal to making this decision if he possesses a spiritual experience1 and has in this a touchstone by which to distinguish the genuine from the false4 ,philosophy can maintain the rights of the individual only so far as he is rooted in spiritual relationships and derives power from them2 it must absolutely oppose all glorification of the natural1 spiritually destitute individual4 ,we find such a glorification to-day more especially in that which1 with particular emphasis1 is called modern morality1 but which in fact threatens rather to be a complete negation of morality2 even though this negation is against the intentions of its advocates1 mostly women1 who display great enthusiasm for this modern morality4 ,it seems as though life is limited and degraded because society1 particularly in the matter of the sexual life1 prescribes rigid statutes which1 if they were not irrational at the beginning1 have nevertheless become irrational1 and tend to brand the right as wrong and the wrong as right4 ,the shaking off of these restrictions and of the pressure of society in general seems to promise a form of life incomparably more powerful1 sincere1 and individual3 this life is also to offer more beauty1 for to-day generally the idea of beauty is emphasised with great partiality where life has no clear ideas and no significant content4 ,this criticism of the statutes of society is not entirely without reason4 ,such statutes do not in themselves constitute a morality1 as it is easy to imagine they do2 but they only advocate a morality2 as life undergoes such far-reaching changes1 these statutes must continually be examined anew as to their validity and value4 ,but this relativity does not make them worthless1 and does not justify their complete rejection in favour of an absolute freedom on the part of individuals4 ,we could expect an elevation of life by such an effort for freedom only if we might assume that the individuals are thoroughly noble1 energetic1 and spiritually rich1 and if in the relations between the sexes a state of paradisiacal innocence reigned which only the evil arrangements of society had disturbed4 ,but this is a way of thinking which does more honour to the hearts than to the heads of its advocates4 ,he who takes men as they really are and does not paint them in romantic colours1 and who at the same time recognises the dangers of a highly developed1 pleasure-seeking1 and over-refined state of culture1 will not despise those social arrangements1 notwithstanding their relativity1 but value them as an indispensable safeguard against the selfishness1 the greed for pleasure1 and the instability of the mere individual--a safeguard not only against the tyranny of externals but also for the individual against himself4 ,it is unfortunate enough that such safeguards are necessary2 but1 as they are necessary1 it is better to preserve and improve them as much as possible than to reject them1 and to expose humanity to dangers that might throw it back into the condition of the animals4 ,man is not better because he is painted more beautifully2 rather ,pascal is right when he says3 ,l'homme n'est ni ange ni bte1 et le malheur veut1 que qui veut faire l'ange fait la bte4 ,the tendency to think that man may be transformed inwardly and the whole condition of life raised by changes in external organisation is most definitely felt in the social movements of the age4 ,in this there is a clearly marked opposition to the earlier mode of thought1 which1 placing a low estimate upon everything external1 and finding greatness too easily in disposition1 overlooked how much the organisation of the conditions of life means for men in whom the spiritual is only in process of development2 and1 further1 failed to notice that there is also a strong movement from external to internal4 ,nevertheless1 the fact cannot be denied1 notwithstanding all this1 that the problems of the whole and of man's inner nature require to be treated as of chief importance4 ,otherwise1 as ,aristotle suggested1 notwithstanding all the alteration of conditions1 the old problems will continually make their appearance anew1 and the substance of life might easily suffer from that which was intended to improve its condition4 ,in conclusion1 we may briefly consider the problems that have been raised in the nineteenth century by the increased emphasis on the idea of nationality4 ,influences of an idealistic nature first raised the cultivation and establishment of a particular national character to the position of a matter of the greatest importance4 ,this character appeared to be an extremely valuable form of individualisation of the spiritual life1 a form in which that life attains to concreteness and greater definiteness and penetration4 ,the co-existence of these individual nationalities gave promise of an incomparably richer formation of the life of humanity as a whole3 the inner development of their peculiar natures1 and their lofty rivalry1 also promised to bring a wealth of arousing and elevating motives4 ,the nineteenth century has1 indeed1 won an incalculable amount through this movement2 to take up an abstract cosmopolitanism again would be decidedly retrograde4 ,but the more the idea of nationality has been brought from its high place in the realm of thought to the domain of human circumstance1 the more has it been debased and the more dangers has it produced4 ,if previously the cultivation of an ideal type of life was most prominent1 and if the nations could thus permit one another to follow their own courses peacefully1 this has become less and less the case in face of the desire and effort for power and expansion in the visible world2 and owing to the narrowness of physical space occupied by the nations1 the different strivings have clashed together more and more severely4 ,if this tendency continues without the counteraction of an inner task common to humanity as a whole1 and of unifying and elevating ideas1 it is hardly possible to avoid mutual hostility1 a degeneration into obstinacy and injustice4 ,the idea of nationality may therefore become a danger to the ethical character of life4 ,this is the case if1 by milder or by severer means1 one nation tries to force its own character and speech upon another4 ,the mode of thought based on the old cujus regio ejus natio is in no way better than that based on the old cujus regio ejus religio1 which we are now accustomed to regard with contempt as a piece of barbarism4 ,the desire for external power at the same time tends to lessen the attention to the inner development and unification of nationality1 without which ultimately little progress can be made in the development of power4 ,it is through a common national character1 with its unification of the feelings and efforts of the individuals1 that a people is first elevated into a genuine nation2 it is a character such as this that gives to a people a power of influencing humanity as a whole2 it is a character such as this that gives to the individuals the consciousness of being members one of another1 and with this a stability and a joy in life and activity4 ,such a national character necessitates certain natural conditions1 that are like the veins in marble which prescribe a certain direction to the work of the artist4 ,but these conditions must first be organised and by the complete elevation of their nature spiritually unified2 and this cannot be achieved otherwise than through our own work1 which through common events and experiences follows its ideal4 ,so far1 therefore1 national character is not a gift of nature but a task which presents itself distinctively to each people according to its nature and conditions4 ,in this matter a people must always in the first place realise a unity in its own nature4 ,in the fulfilment of this task hardly any other people has had to contend with keener opposition1 both external and internal1 than the ,germans4 ,our physical environment does not direct us so definitely into distinctive paths as is the case with other peoples4 ,but our inner nature contains1 before all else1 harsh antitheses4 ,our strength lies chiefly in arousing to life depths of the soul otherwise undreamt of4 ,thus in music and in poetry we have been able to surpass all other peoples2 again1 we have been able to give to religion a wonderful inwardness1 and in education to evolve the leading ideas4 ,at the same time1 however1 we are driven to the physical world to take possession of and to shape things2 we are not the ,hindus of ,europe1 as other people indeed previously called us4 ,we came into history by achievements in war1 and the desire for conflict and victory has been maintained through all the phases of our varied history4 ,by the continued diligence of our citizens in work we have subordinated the world around us to our aims2 our capacity for organisation has been most marked1 as the present state of industry and trade shows4 ,however1 not only have these movements towards inwardness1 and towards the world1 a strong tendency to oppose one another1 but also1 in contrast with these magnificent gifts1 there are many defects and tendencies that make the development of a powerful and unified life exceedingly difficult4 ,we show a want of form and taste1 a heaviness and formality1 a tendency to occupation with detail and1 in general1 with what is petty in life1 and1 as a result of this1 an uncultured ,philistinism in all spheres of society1 and along with this the inclination on the part of individuals to insist on the correctness of their positions1 and thus to cause division2 finally--and this is the worst of all--much envy and jealousy4 ,none of these features can be denied4 ,there is an infinite amount which must be altered and overcome amongst us if we are to become what we are capable of becoming1 and if we are to reach the highest in our nature4 ,the limitations that have been brought about by our history1 which on the whole has not been a happy one1 constitute an important determining factor in this matter4 ,the more problems we bear within us1 the more possibilities of genuine creation that exist within us1 and the more we may be to humanity in the future1 the more painful is it if attention and activity are diverted from the chief task1 and if an externalising of the idea of nationality allows us to consider ourselves great rather than lead us to strive for true greatness4 ,the people that has produced ,luther and ,bach1 ,kant and ,goethe1 cannot be devoid of true greatness1 if it only remains faithful to its own nature1 and if it concentrates its power and treats the chief thing really as such4 7e7 ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,individual ,the problems and antitheses that are to be found in the life of the present penetrate deeply into the life of the individual1 and often make their appearance within him with a particular power4 ,the antithesis that exists between the conceptions of the world and the demands of life is especially harsh4 ,the tendency of the age is to form a conception of the world which reduces the status of the individual in the greatest degree3 from the point of view of nature and of society1 he seems to be no more than a fleeting appearance1 a matter of indifference1 and to show no independence1 and never to be able to take part with spontaneous activity in the course of events4 ,on the other hand1 the contemporary form of life demands the greatest independence and freedom of the individual4 ,we see in him the chief bearer of life1 and we expect salvation from the severe perplexities of the time1 primarily from his strengthening4 ,this state of inconsistency cannot be tolerated for long2 either the degradation of the individual1 that is found in the conceptions of the world1 must be applied to life1 and lead it to a resigned submission to an impenetrable world-process1 or the positive estimate of the individual which governs conduct must be acknowledged in the conviction concerning reality as a whole3 only a weakness of disposition and a feebleness of thought can divide our existence between the one conviction and the other4 ,the course which our investigation has taken cannot leave any possible doubt as to the direction which our conviction points out to us in this matter3 however much we also demand an energetic development of the individual1 that the stagnation of the age may be overcome1 at the same time we insist upon a necessary condition of this1 on his inner strengthening by an inner world present to him1 on his elevation by a spirituality transcending nature4 ,only if he thus acquires an inner relation to infinity1 and becomes an independent centre of life1 can he satisfy the demands that are generally made upon him1 and1 remarkably enough1 especially by those who theoretically deny the inner world as a whole1 and hail a most shallow ,naturalism as a deliverance4 ,of course that inner elevation of the individual by no means lifts him gently and simply out of all the confusion that the experience of our existence shows2 at the first glance it may even seem to make the confusion greater4 ,for1 if each individual can become a co-operator in the building up of a new world1 and if his activity thereby acquires a value for the whole1 then the complete indifference with which1 according to our human impression1 the individual is treated by the course of the physical world1 the inflexibility and injustice that he often experiences in this world1 the defect of love and justice in this world1 in which the bad so often obtain the victory and the good are led to destruction1 are all the greater mystery4 ,the more the development of the spiritual life widens the field of vision2 the more it leads us beyond a lifeless resignation to the question of the rationality of events and compels us to compare the destiny of one man with that of another1 the deeper must that feeling of mystery become4 ,all attempts at a theodicy founder on this difficulty2 we must inevitably submit to the view that with regard to this problem all is obscure to the eyes of man4 ,there is1 however1 no need on this account to doubt and to regard our life as hopeless2 our investigation also has shown this4 ,for1 in contrast with the obscurity of the world around us1 we are able to set the fact of the emergence of a new world within us4 ,great things take place within us2 not only does a new world appear1 but we are called by an inner necessity of our own being to co-operate in its development1 and this co-operation is not limited to individual activities1 but involves our being as a whole4 ,for it was just in this that we were able to recognise the development of being as the essence of the spiritual life--that the chief movement of our life is to win a genuine being1 and that in the development of personality and spiritual individuality such a being is in question4 ,we saw clearly enough that we are not personalities and individuals from the beginning2 but that nature gives us only the possibility of becoming this4 ,to realise this possibility our own activity is necessary2 and this activity is not a sudden resolution1 but requires a revolution of our being and the development of a new nature2 and this can only be achieved by a faithful and zealous life-work1 and even then only approximately4 ,thus life as a whole is a task which includes all multiplicity within it1 the task of winning our own being completely1 and just in this way to increase the kingdom of the spirit at our point4 ,this task cannot be completely recognised and adopted without making a great divergence from the aim1 harsh oppositions and difficult conflicts1 manifest in the inner recesses of the soul4 ,if our life1 therefore1 appears to be in the highest degree incomplete1 a mere beginning1 then this increase of the task demonstrates more than anything else that1 in this matter1 we are concerned not with phantoms and imaginations1 but with realities3 so here1 notwithstanding all our incompleteness1 we can obtain the certainty of a spiritual existence1 and even become strengthened by the direct resistance of the external world1 because that world is henceforth reduced to the secondary position4 ,thus1 as we saw1 the question upon which minds separate into irreconcilable opposition is whether they acknowledge in the inwardness of being itself not merely individual problems but a universal task2 if this is the case1 the seriousness of the task will give to them an unshakable stability of possession and a security superior to all attacks2 if it is not the case1 the spiritual world is an unintelligible paradox1 because the want of an independent inner life means that there is no basis for the development of an organ for the comprehension of a world of inwardness4 ,in this matter there is no possibility of a direct agreement2 only the proof of the spirit and of power can decide4 ,but where the life of the individual acquires a genuine being and a connection with the realm of self-consciousness1 then1 notwithstanding all that is fleeting and insubstantial1 the individual cannot regard himself as a transitory appearance in the whole1 even in the ultimate basis of his being4 ,where1 in contrast with all the meaninglessness of mere nature and all the pretence of mere society1 a movement towards inner unity and substantial being emerges1 the individual will be elevated into a time-transcendent order1 and must necessarily acquire some position within it4 ,the whole movement towards spirituality in the human sphere would be vain1 and all distinctively human life would be a meaningless contradiction1 if the individuals in whom alone the spiritual life breaks forth spontaneously were included solely and entirely in the stream of the process of nature4 ,if the spiritual life has once revealed itself to us1 so far as to begin an independent and distinctive being within us1 then this being will assert itself in some way4 ,this does not imply agreement with the usual belief in immortality1 which would preserve man just as he is through all eternity1 and thus condemn him to the torture of rigid continuance in the same form2 a state that would1 indeed1 be as unbearable as the pain of the traditional hell4 ,as the world as a whole is in the highest degree mysterious to us1 so our future is veiled in the deepest obscurity4 ,but1 if with the essence of our being we are elevated into a universal spiritual life1 and if in the innermost basis of our life we participate in an eternal order1 then the time-transcendence of this life assures to us also some kind of time-transcendence in our being4 ,so lst sich jene grosse ,frage ,nach unserm zweiten ,vaterland1 ,denn das ,bestndige der ird'schen ,tage ,verbrgt uns ewigen ,bestand4 ,,goethe ,,conclusion ,in conclusion a few words will suffice4 ,the last section showed that the present sets great problems and reveals possibilities in every department of life2 but that we men are very far from being equal to cope with these problems4 ,we are limited especially by the fact that we are incapable of elevating ourselves inwardly above the present2 that we do not take possession of it sufficiently as a whole1 and find an inner independence in relation to it2 and that therefore we do not enter with the necessary vigour into the conflict against the trivial and the poor-spirited1 the decadent and the sceptical that the present contains4 ,to point out the way to attain such independence appeared to us to be the chief task of philosophy in the present4 ,in the service of this task1 which cannot be achieved without the manifestation of a new actuality1 without a fundamental deepening of our reality1 we have made our investigation1 which contains a distinctive conception of the spiritual life4 ,in that everywhere we have pressed back from the results to the experience1 and from the wealth of achievement to the generating basis1 we have seen nature1 history1 culture1 and human nature as a whole in a new light4 ,we have hoped1 by widening and strengthening life itself from within1 to supply a substitute for the external supports that life has lost4 ,how far we have succeeded in our endeavour is another question2 we shall be satisfied even if our work only contributes to bring the present to a clearer consciousness of the state of spiritual crisis in which it exists and concerning the seriousness of which it deceives itself in a thousand ways4 ,there is an enormous amount of vigorous activity and efficient work1 of honest endeavour and serious disposition1 in our time1 and the tendency to make life more spiritual is also evident4 ,but the movement is still far from attaining the depth which is necessary to the chief question of our spiritual existence2 thus the conflict1 instead of being between whole and whole1 is divided2 that which is significant and valuable in the endeavour of the time is in danger of becoming problematic1 and of producing the opposite of what it purposes1 because it does not fit itself into a universal life1 and in this realise its limitations and at the same time its right4 ,a more energetic concentration of life in itself is therefore the first condition of transcending the chaos of the life of the present and of preventing spiritual degeneration in the midst of too intense an occupation with externals4 ,as for the rest1 we may say with ,plotinus3 ,the doctrine serves to point the way and guide the traveller2 the vision1 however1 is for him who will see it4 ,,index ,abstractions2 their power in modern life1 #cfb ff4 ,activism2 profession of faith in1 #bee ff42 how it differs from a system of mere force1 #bee ff42 its ethical character1 #bef2 how it differs from ,voluntarism and ,pragmatism1 #bef ff4 sthetic ,individualism1 #fa ff4 stheticism2 its antithesis to ,activism1 #beh ff4 ,antiquity2 its distinctive synthesis of life1 #bjh ff4 ,a priori2 its validity and its limitations1 #bcd ,archimedean point in the spiritual life2 its impossibility1 #id ff41 #aed ,art and literature1 condition and tasks in the present1 #ced ff4 ,ascetic organisation of life2 rejected1 #bha ff4 ,being1 development of2 as a system of life1 #bab ff41 #cad ,catholicism2 different tendencies in1 #cbh ff4 ,christianity2 its unique character1 #f2 the opposition to1 #g ff42 its permanent truth1 #cca ff42 changes necessary to it1 #ccb ff42 ,christian and ,greek forms of life1 #bhc ff4 ,classical1 the2 its significance1 #aib ,concentration of life 7within the whole71 #aef ff41 #afj ,conscience2 its significance1 #abi ff4 ,critical character of modern work2 its presuppositions1 #bej ff4 ,culture1 #aaj ff42 genuine and apparent1 #bfi ff42 requirements of a new type1 #bih ff42 organisation of1 #cae ff4 ,democratic tendency of modern culture1 #cfa ff4 ,departments of life2 their relation to life as a whole1 #caf ff4 ,dogmatic sectarian point of view2 rejected1 #cbh ,duty2 significance of the idea1 #ahd ff41 #bca ,education2 problems in the present state of1 #cdc ff4 ,enlightenment1 the2 its synthesis of life1 #bji ff42 how far problematic1 #bdi2 relation of the present to it1 #cdg ff4 ,equality2 problems of the present conception of1 #cfb ,eternity2 how far implied in the life of the individual1 #cgb ,ethical character of life2 how to be understood1 #bef1 #beh2 of spiritual culture1 #cji ff42 its necessity1 #ccg ff4 ,ethics 7morality72 different types in the present time1 #ccf ff42 conditions of a morality1 #cch ff42 requirements of morality in a spiritual culture1 #cci ff4 ,evil2 the problem of1 #bfc ff42 the way in which it is solved1 #bgi ff4 ,evolution1 doctrine of2 spiritual1 its limitations1 #aid ff41 #beg ff4 ,experience2 its significance for the spiritual life in man1 #bce ff4 ,freedom2 its nature1 #agd ff42 its conflict with destiny1 #aha ff42 genuine and false1 #cbc ff42 inconsistency in contemporary treatment of the problem1 #cfj ff4 ,german character2 its greatness and its dangers1 #cag ff41 #cfh ff4 ,goethe2 characteristic influence1 #bii ,good1 the 7idea of the good72 how it differs from the ,useful1 #aai ff42 apparent inconsistency1 #ach ff42 more detailed determination1 #ahe ff4 ,great man1 the2 his relation to his time1 #bib ,greek and ,christian forms of life1 #bhc ff4 ,hegel2 relation of the present to him indefinite1 #cdh ,historical and social organisation of life2 its limitations1 #bjj ,historical ,relativism2 rejected1 #bij ff41 #cbc ff4 ,history2 the spiritual conception of1 its conditions1 #ahh ff42 esoteric and exoteric history1 #bdc ff4 ,human life2 how far it is from the spiritual life1 #afa ff4 ,idealisation1 false2 of immediate existence1 #hc ff41 #cfb ff4 ,idealism and ,realism2 their unification in a spiritual culture1 #cab ff4 ,ideas in history2 their unique character1 #abf ff41 #ahh ff4 ,imagination2 indispensable in all departments of life1 #bci ,immanent ,idealism1 its rise and fall1 #ae ff4 ,immanental treatment 7from the life-process71 #ajg ff4 ,individual1 the1 and the ,society2 problems of their relation1 #cfd ff4 ,individual1 the2 his significance in the new relations1 #bdf1 #cfi ff4 ,individual1 life of the2 its form in the new system1 #cfi ff4 ,individuality 7spiritual72 as a problem1 #acb ff41 #aha ff41 #cgj ,instruction2 problems in the present time with reference to1 #cdc ff4 ,inwardness2 its attainment of independence in man1 #abc ff41 #adf ff42 as the inner life of reality1 #adh ff42 inwardness and the inner world1 #cjc ,irrationality1 of existence2 in what manner overcome1 #bgi ,kant2 inconsistency in the relation to him in the present time1 #cdh ,knowledge2 its form in the new system1 #cea ,life2 its detachment from the mere individual1 #aai ff42 the two movements in it1 #bhb ff4 ,life-process2 as the fundamental principle of investigation1 #ajd ff41 #cje ff41 #cdi ff4 ,life's attainment of greatness1 #bdj ff4 ,life-work2 its significance in acquiring stability1 #bec ,love2 as a witness to the union with the whole1 #bca ,man2 as a being of nature1 #aaj ff42 growing beyond nature1 #aac ff42 his union with the whole1 #bbf ff4 ,masses1 the culture of the2 its problems1 #hi ff4 ,mass-movements2 their dangers and limitations1 #cfc ff4 ,metaphysic2 in what sense necessary1 #ada ff4 ,modern1 the2 double meaning1 #bif ,modern ,age1 the 7in a broad sense72 the characteristic in its nature1 #i ff4 ,modern ,morality2 discussed and rejected1 #cfd ff4 ,movement1 of the spiritual life in man2 its uniqueness1 #bcc ff42 its increase in the new system of life1 #bdg ff4 ,mysticism2 in what sense justifiable1 #bdf ,national ,character1 #aih1 #cfg ff4 ,nationality1 the idea of2 its problems1 #cff ff4 ,naturalism2 its significance and its limitations1 #bd ff4 ,nature and ,spirit1 #bgj ff4 ,negation2 impossibility of an absolute1 #bfg ff4 ,newer ,systems of ,life2 what they have in common1 #bb ff41 #ha ff4 ,nological ,method2 distinguished from the psychological and the cosmological1 #bdc1 #ceb ,norms2 their significance1 #ahd ,pantheism2 vague character of the general conception of it1 #hd ,past2 impossibility of flight to the1 #ic ff4 ,people and nation1 #cff ff4 ,personal conviction1 concerning reality as a whole2 where the decision is made1 #bec1 #bha1 #caa ff41 #cdj1 #cgb ,personality2 the difficulty of the conception1 #ie ff42 no mere gift of nature1 #caa1 #cgj ,philosophy2 its present position1 #cdf ff42 its three main tendencies in the present time1 #cdg ff42 chief demands1 #cdi ff4 ,philosophy of life2 the conception of a1 #c ff4 ,political and social life2 condition and tasks in the present time1 #ceh ff4 ,present1 the2 difficulties of determining its extent1 #bhi ff4 ,protestantism2 the different tendencies in it1 #cbi ,public opinion2 manner of its formation1 #cfd ,reality2 difficulty of the conception1 #hd ff42 longing for1 #aei ff42 new conception of1 #bbj ff4 ,relation 7fundamental71 of man to reality2 new1 from the point of view of the spiritual life1 #aeb ff4 ,religion2 the system of life of1 #f ff42 its form and its justification1 #bgc ff42 its necessity in a spiritual culture1 #cab ff42 its present condition1 #cbd2 its requirements in a spiritual culture1 #ccj ff42 specific religious system of life rejected1 #bha ff4 ,romanticism2 its significance and its limitations1 #beh ff4 ,science2 its present greatness and problems1 #cde ff4 ,self-preservation1 spiritual2 distinguished from natural self-preservation1 #abf ,sense2 its estimate1 #bfj ,simplification 7in revivals71 #abh ,socialistic system2 its significance and its limitations1 #da ff4 ,society2 the spiritual conception of1 #aif ff42 emphasis upon society in the nineteenth century1 #ceh ff4 ,spiritual culture1 and human culture1 #cjh ff4 ,spiritual life2 its independence a necessity1 #ada ff42 as the fundamental principle of a new organisation of the individual departments of life1 #aeg ff41 #bdd ff4 ,spiritual work2 its relation to time1 #bij ff4 ,stability in life2 how won1 #bea ff4 ,state1 the2 the greater emphasis upon it in the nineteenth century1 #cei ff4 ,suffering and spiritual destitution1 #cad ,syntheses of life2 in history1 #bjg ff4 ,theodicy2 rejected1 #bgi ff41 #cga ,thought2 its relation to life1 #ajh1 #abf ff41 #ada ff41 #cdi ff42 its unique operation 7in distinction from association71 #abe ff4 ,time2 fundamental relation of man to1 #aaf ff4 ,transcendent ,spirituality2 as the fundamental principle of religion1 #bgh ff4 ,transcendental method2 in what sense justifiable1 #bdh ,truth1 conception of2 its history1 #ach2 new conception1 #baf ff4 ,work2 its distinctive character1 #abb2 its power to develop1 #bja ff42 the world of work1 #bja ff4 ,world1 conceptions of the2 chief types1 #cec ff4 ,printed by ,,ballantyne ,,company ,,ltd ,tavistock ,street ,covent ,garden ,london ,,by ,,rudolf ,,eucken ,,the ,,meaning ,,and ,,value ,,of ,,life ,,translated ,,by ,,lucy ,,judge ,,gibson ,w4 ,r4 ,,boyce ,,gibson1 ,m4,a4 ,,second ,,edition ,crown #hvo1 ,by ,post ,cloth ,price #cs4 #f;d4 net #cs4 #i;d4 ,,from ,,the ,,translators' ,,preface ,eucken's influence as a thinker has for long been felt far beyond the borders of his native land4 ,translations of his books have appeared in many foreign languages1 including ,french1 ,italian1 ,swedish1 ,finnish and ,russian4 ,in our own country such articles on ,eucken's works as have appeared quite recently in the ,times1 the ,guardian1 and the ,inquirer are significantly sympathetic and appreciative4 ',it seems likely1' writes the reviewer in the ,guardian1 'that for the next decade ,eucken will be the leading guide for the pilgrims of thought who walk on the ,idealist ,road4' ,,press ,,opinion ,there are scores of passages throughout the volume one would like to quote--the thinking of a man of clearest vision and loftiest outlook on the fabric of life as men are fashioning it to-day4 ,it is a volume for ,churchmen and politicians of all shades and parties1 for the student and for the man of business1 for the workshop as well--a volume for every one who is seriously interested in the great business of life4--,aberdeen ,journal4 ,,published ,,by ,,adam ,,charles ,,black4 #d ,,soho ,,square4 ,,london1 ,w4 ,,rudolf ,,eucken',s ,,philosophy ,,of ,,life ,by ,w4 ,r4 ,,boyce ,,gibson ,,lecturer ,,in ,,philosophy ,,in ,,the ,,university ,,of ,,liverpool ,,third ,,edition ,with ,frontispiece ,portrait of ,rudolf ,eucken ,crown #hvo1 ,by ,post ,cloth ,price #cs4 #f;d4 net #cs4 #i;d4 ,,summary ,,of ,,contents ,the ,new ,idealism3 ,eucken's ,philosophy a ,rallying-point for ,idealistic ,effort ,his ,theory of ,knowledge ,his ,philosophy of ,history ,the ,meaning of a ,historical ,fact ,the ,break with ,aristotelianism and ,aquinism ,eucken's ,criticism of the ,naturalistic ,syntagma ,the ,great ,alternative3 ,individuality or ,personality ,the ,category of ,action ,eucken's ,view of ,revelation ,the ,problem of the ,union of ,human and ,divine ,the ,new ,spiritual ,immediacy ,the ,spiritual ,life as ,eucken conceives it3 its ,intrinsically ,oppositional ,character ,eucken's ,philosophy as a ,philosophy of ,freedom ,the ,new ,idealism as a ,religious ,idealism ,no reader should fail to find pleasure in a book so full of fresh and stimulating thought1 expressed with great felicity of language4 ,the ,scottish ,review ,it is done with just the proper combination of sympathy and criticism4--,the ,british ,weekly ,,published ,,by ,,adam ,,charles ,,black4 #d ,,soho ,,square4 ,,london1 ,w4