,established by ,edward ,l4 ,youmans ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans ,,vol4 ,,liv ,,november1 #ahih1 ,,to ,,april1 #ahii ,,new ,,york ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company #ahii ,,copyright1 #ahii1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,,vol4 ,,liv4 ,,established ,,by ,,edward ,l4 ,,youmans4 ,,no4 #d4 ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,february1 #ahii4 ,,edited ,,by ,,william ,,jay ,,youmans4 ,,contents4 ,,page ,i4 ,vegetation a ,remedy for the ,summer ,heat of ,cities4 ,by ,,stephen ,,smith1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d #dcc ,,ii4 ,mivart's ,groundwork of ,science4 ,by ,prof4 ,,wm4 ,,keith ,,brooks #dej ,,iii4 ,the ,science of ,observation4 ,by ,,charles ,,livy ,,whittle4 7,illustrated47 #def ,,iv4 ,death ,gulch1 a ,natural ,bear-,trap4 ,by ,t4,a4 ,,jaggar1 ,jr4 7,illustrated47 #dge ,v4 ,the ,labor ,problem in the ,tropics4 ,by ,w4 ,,alleyne ,,ireland #dha ,,vi4 ,principles of ,taxation4 ,,xx4 ,the ,law of the ,diffusion of ,taxes4 ,part ,,ii4 ,by the ,late ,hon4 ,,david ,a4 ,,wells #dij ,,vii4 ,the ,great ,bombardment4 ,by ,,charles ,f4 ,,holder4 7,illustrated47 #ejf ,,viii4 ,the ,spirit of ,conquest4 ,by ,j4 ,,novicow #eah ,,ix4 ,a ,short ,history of ,scientific ,instruction4 ,,ii4 ,by ,sir ,j4,n4 ,,lockyer #ebi ,x4 ,the ,series ,method3 a ,comparison4 ,by ,,charlotte ,,taylor #ecg ,,xi4 ,the ,earliest ,writing in ,france4 ,by ,m4 ,,gabriel ,,de ,,mortillet #edb ,,xii4 ,sketch of ,gabriel de ,mortillet4 7,with ,portrait47 #edf ,,xiii4 ,correspondence3 ,the ,foundation of ,sociology4--,evolution and ,education again4--,emerson and ,evolution #eec ,,xiv4 ,editor's ,table3 ,the ,new ,superstition4--,emerson #eeg ,,xv4 ,scientific ,literature #eei ,,xvi4 ,fragments of ,science #efi ,,new ,,york3 ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company1 #gb ,,fifth ,,avenue4 ,,single ,,number1 #ej ,,cents4 ,,yearly ,,subscription1 #e4jj4 ,,copyright1 #ahii1 ,,by ,d4 ,,appleton ,,and ,,company4 ,entered at the ,post ,office at ,new ,york1 and admitted for transmission through the mails at second-class rates4 ,illustration3 ,,gabriel ,,de ,,mortillet4 ,,appletons' ,,popular ,,science ,,monthly4 ,,february1 #ahii4 ,,vegetation ,a ,,remedy ,,for ,,the ,,summer ,,heat ,,of ,,cities4 ,a ,,plea ,,for ,,the ,,cultivation ,,of ,,trees1 ,,shrubs1 ,,plants1 ,,vines1 ,,and ,,grasses ,,in ,,the ,,streets ,,of ,,new ,,york ,,for ,,the ,,improvement ,,of ,,the ,,public ,,health1 ,,for ,,the ,,comfort ,,of ,,summer ,,residents1 ,,and ,,for ,,ornamentation4#a ,,by ,,stephen ,,smith1 ,m4,d41 ,,ll4,d4 ,one of the most prolific sources of a high sickness and death rate in the city of ,new ,york is developed during the summer quarter4 ,it has been estimated that from three to five thousand persons die and sixty to one hundred thousand cases of sickness occur annually in this city1 from causes which are engendered during the months of ,june1 ,july1 ,august1 and ,september4 ,an examination of the records of the ,health ,department for any year reveals the important fact that certain diseases are not only more frequent during the summer quarter than at any other time1 but that they are far more fatal1 especially in the months of ,july and ,august1 than during any other period of the year4 ,these are the zymotic diseases1 or those depending upon some form of germ life4 ,the following table illustrates the course of mortality from those diseases in one year3 ,month4 ,deaths4 ,january #eda ,february #dge ,march #dgf ,april #eed ,may #ehd ,june #gih ,july #a1dcc ,august #a1abf ,september #gia ,october #ebb ,november #dfj ,december #ejd ,it appears that during eight months of the year1 excluding ,june1 ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 the average monthly mortality from zymotic diseases was #deb4 ,had the same average continued during the remaining four months the total mortality from those diseases for that year would have been #d1dbd2 but the actual mortality was #g1gfd1 which proves that #c1cdj persons were sacrificed during those four fatal months to conditions which exist in the city only at that period of the year4 ,still more startling is the estimate of the sickness rate caused by the unhealthful conditions created in the summer months in ,new ,york city4 ,if we estimate that there are twenty cases of sickness for every death by a zymotic disease there were #ff1hjj more cases of sickness in the year above referred to than there would have been had the sickness rate been the same in the summer as in the other months of that year4 ,one of the saddest features of this high sickness and death rate appears when we notice the ages of those who are especially the victims of these fatal diseases4 ,during the week ending ,july #ith last there were #cii deaths from diarrhal diseases1 of which number #chb were children under five years of age4 ,the following table taken from the records of the ,health ,department show in a very striking manner how fatal to child life are the conditions peculiar to our summer season3 ---------------------------------------- ------------------ ,,deaths ,,from ,,diarrh,,al ,,diseases4 ---------------------------------------- ----- ,,month4 ,under one ,under two ,under five year4 years4 years4 ,all ages4 ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,january #ej #ee #eh #hb ,february #dg #ea #eh #ge ,march #ge #hj #hc #if ,april #hb #ia #ig #ajh ,may #aja #aag #aba #ajd ,june #chg #dcj #dcf #dfg ,july #hji #iij #a1jbj #a1ajj ,august #dfd #efe #fig #gfb ,september #bfg #cid #dji #dfb ,october #aad #adh #aed #aij ,november #ei #gj #gb #hi ,december #eg #fb #fd #hb ---------------------------------------- --------------- ,these statistics demonstrate the extreme unhealthfulness of ,new ,york during the summer1 and the vast proportion of children who perish from the fatal agencies which are then brought into activity4 ,it is a matter of great public concern to determine the nature of the unhygienic conditions on which this excessive mortality depends1 and thus discover the proper remedial measures4 ,as high temperature is the distinguishing feature of the summer months1 we very naturally conclude that excessive heat is a most important factor1 if not the sole cause1 of the diseases so fatal to human life at this period4 ,a close comparison of the temperature and mortality records of any summer in this city demonstrates the direct relation of the former to the latter4 ,for illustration1 we will take the records of the ,health ,department during the past summer1 selecting diarrhal diseases for comparison1 as they prevail and are most fatal at that season of the year4 ,the table gives the total mortality from these diseases and the mortality from those diseases of children under five years of age4 ,to the four months1 ,june1 ,july1 ,august1 and ,september1 are added ,may and ,october1 for the purpose of showing the gradual increase of the mortality from these diseases as the hot weather approaches and its decline as the hot weather abates4 ,key3 ,,tf4 ,temperature 7,fahrenheit7 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,total ,diarrhal ,,week ,,ending diarrhal diseases under ,mean ,maximum,minimum diseases4 five yrs4 ,,tf4 ,,tf4 ,,tf4 ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,may #gth #aj #h #eb4d #gb #dg ,may #adth #bj #ag #ee4e #ga #dj ,may #bast #ad #ab #fc4c #hf #eb ,may #bhth #bb #ai #fj4i #gj #ef ,june #dth #ah #af #fe4h #gf #ed ,june #aath #bf #bj #ga4f #hf #eh ,june #ahth #cf #cb #gc4j #hi #ei ,june #beth #gd #fi #fi4c #id #ed ,july #b;d #agj #afd #gh4f #id #fg ,july #ith #cii #chb #gg4d #ajj #fa ,july #afth #ccj #cba #ga4a #ia #eg ,july #bc;d #chh #cef #gg4d #ia #fg ,july #cjth #chj #cec #gh4e #ie #gj ,august #fth #chj #cec #gh4h #ib #fg ,august #acth #cdb #cjf #gc4i #ij #fe ,august #bjth #bij #bfa #gd4h #hi #fd ,august #bgth #bfh #bdf #gf4f #ic #fc ,september #c;d #bhi #bef #gi4j #ic #ei ,september #ajth #bhc #bee #gd4j #ib #eh ,september #agth #agi #aeh #fg4c #he #eb ,september #bdth #aic #afg #fh4g #ij #eb ,october #ast #acb #aag #ff4e #hj #ed ,october #hth #ij #gh #fi4f #ha #ec ,october #aeth #ga #eh #fj4a #gd #di ,october #bb;d #ed #db #ee4i #ga #dd ,october #bith #ci #cb #ec4i #fg #da ---------------------------------------- --------------------- ,again1 if we compare the temperature and mortality records for a series of days instead of months1 it will be noticed that the mortality record follows the fluctuations of the heat record with as much precision as effect follows cause4 ,the summer heat generally begins about the #bjth of ,june and continues with varying intensity until the #aeth of ,september4 ,within that period we can select many examples which strikingly illustrate the relations of temperature to mortality4 ,for example1 the first heated term of the year before us began on the #aith of ,june and lasted until the #bfth of that month4 ,the two records are as follows3 --------------------------- ,,day4 ,temperature4,mortality4 --------------------------- #aith #gh #hc --------------------------- #bjth #hj #ajj --------------------------- #bast #hb #abb --------------------------- #bb;d #hj #aaf --------------------------- #bc;d #gg #ajd --------------------------- #bdth #fh #aai --------------------------- #beth #fe #hh --------------------------- ,on the #bhth of ,june a second heated term began1 when the temperature rose to #hj1 and continued above that figure until ,july #eth1 a period of eight days4 ,the following is the record1 including the temperature in the sun3 ---------------------------------------- ,,temperature ,,day4 ---------------------------- ,in shade4 ,in sun4,mortality4 -------------------------------------- ,june #bhth #hj #aah #aah -------------------------------------- ,june #bith #hd #abj #afc -------------------------------------- ,june #cjth #he #abd #aia -------------------------------------- ,july #ast #hh #abe #bdg -------------------------------------- ,july #b;d #hg #abh #cea -------------------------------------- ,july #c;d #hb #abj #bch -------------------------------------- ,july #dth #hd #abb #bbg -------------------------------------- ,july #eth #hj #aba #ahd -------------------------------------- ,it will be noticed that during the last heated period there was a more prolonged high temperature than during the first1 and that the mortality of the second was higher for the same temperature than that of the first4 ,these facts are in accord with the history of our summer months4 ,the range of temperature increases as the season advances1 and the rate of mortality rises1 owing to the diminished resisting power to the effects of high heat on the part of the people1 especially of the children1 the aged1 and those already enfeebled by disease4 ,in order to fully understand the influence of heat and its effects upon the public health1 we must first notice the conditions regulating the temperature of the body in health and disease4 ,the temperature of animals in a state of health is not a fixed quantity1 but has a limited range which depends upon internal and external conditions not incompatible with health4 ,in man the range of temperature in health is fixed at #ig4be ,f4 to #ii4e ,f4 ,any temperature above or below these extremes1 unless explained by special circumstances not affecting the normal condition of the person1 is an indication of disease4 ,this comparatively fixed temperature in health is a remarkable feature of the living animal4 ,when subjected to a temperature above or below the extremes here given it will still maintain its equilibrium4 ,this fixed temperature under varying conditions of heat and cold is due to a heat-regulating power1 inherent in the constitution of every animal1 by which it imparts heat when the temperature of the air is high and conserves heat when the latter is low4 ,the heat escapes from the body--#a1 by radiation from the surface2 #b1 by transmission to other bodies2 #c1 by evaporation2 and #d1 by the conversion of heat into motion4 ,the surface of the body furnishes the principal medium for the loss of heat by the first three methods--viz41 radiation1 transmission1 and evaporation4 ,it is estimated that #ic4jg per cent of the heat produced escapes by the processes of radiation1 evaporation1 conduction1 and mechanical work4 ,the remaining heat units are lost by warming inspired air and the foods and drinks taken4 ,there are apparently other subtile influences1 so-called regulators of heat1 at work to preserve an equilibrium of temperature in the animal body1 but they are not well known4 ,the result of the operation of these forces is this--viz41 if1 by any means1 the heat of the body is increased1 compensative losses of heat quickly occur1 and the normal temperature is soon restored2 and if1 on the contrary1 the loss of heat is unusually increased1 the compensative production of heat of the body at once follows1 and the equilibrium is at once restored4 ,the important fact to remember is this--viz41 the production and loss of heat in the human organism when in health and not subjected to too violent disturbing causes are so nicely balanced that the temperature is always maintained at an average of #ih4f ,f41 the extremes being #ig4be ,f4 and #ii4e ,f4 ,so beautifully is this balance preserved1 ,parkes remarks1 that the stability of the animal temperature in all countries has always been a subject of marvel4 ,if1 however1 anything prevents the operation of the processes of cooling--viz41 radiation1 evaporation1 and conduction--the bodily temperature rises by the accumulation of heat1 and death is the result from combustion4 ,in experiments in ovens a man has been able to bear a temperature of #bfj ,f4 for a short period1 provided the air was dry so that evaporation could be carried on rapidly4 ,but if the air is very moist1 and perspiration is impeded1 the temperature of the body rises rapidly1 and the person soon succumbs to the excessive heat4 ,another important fact is this1 viz41 the normal temperature of the young and of the very old is higher than the middle-aged4 ,the infant at birth has a temperature of #ii ,f4 to #ajj ,f41 and it maintains a temperature of #ii ,f4 and upward for several days4 ,the variations of temperature from other causes are much greater in children than in adults1 as also the normal daily variations of temperature4 ,about the sixtieth year the average temperature of man begins to rise1 and approximates that of the infant4 ,in the young and old the heat-regulating power is more readily exhausted1 and hence continued high temperature is far more fatal to these classes4 ,the first noticeable fact in regard to bodily temperature in disease is that there are daily fluctuations as in health1 but much more extreme4 ,in general1 the remission of temperature in disease occurs in the morning1 and the exacerbation in the afternoon and evening2 the minimum is reached between six and nine o'clock in the morning1 and the maximum between three and six o'clock in the evening4 ,in many diseases the minimum temperature is not below #ajj ,f41 and usually it is one or two degrees above that point1 while the maximum has no definite limit and may reach the dangerous height of #ajg ,f4 ,it should be noticed that the highest daily temperature in disease1 as in health1 occurs in the afternoon1 when the temperature of the air in summer is the greatest4 ,the conditions affecting the temperature of the body other than those due to physiological conditions are very numerous4 ,first and most obvious is the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere4 ,it is a well-established fact that an average temperature of the air of #ed ,f4 is best adapted to the public health1 for at that temperature the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter is slight1 and normal temperature is most easily maintained4 ,every degree of temperature above or below that point requires a more or less effort of the heat-regulating power to maintain the proper equilibrium4 ,even more potent in elevating the bodily temperature is the introduction into the blood1 whether by respiration or by direct injection1 of putrid fluids and the gases of decomposing matters4 ,if this injection is repeated at short intervals1 death will occur with a high temperature4 ,the air of cities contains emanations1 in hot weather1 from a vast number of sources of animal and vegetable decomposition1 and the inhalation of air so vitiated brings in contact with the blood these deleterious products in a highly divided state which cause a fatal elevation of temperature in the young1 old1 and enfeebled4 ,the same effect is produced by the air in close and heated places1 as in tenement houses1 workshops1 schoolhouses1 hospital wards1 and other rooms where many persons congregate for hours4 ,air thus charged with poisonous gases becomes more dangerous if the temperature of the place is raised1 as happens almost daily in the summer months in cities4 ,from the preceding facts we may conclude that1 as long as the body continues in health1 the heat-regulating power1 which constantly tends to preserve an equilibrium of temperature1 is capable of resisting the ordinary agencies that1 operating externally or internally1 exaggerate the heat-producing conditions1 and thus destroy the individual4 ,but if the person is suffering from a disease which weakens the heat-regulating power these deleterious agencies1 which the healthy person may resist1 will readily overpower the already quite exhausted heat-regulating forces1 and he perishes by combustion4 ,it is very evident that in an organism having complicated functions1 like that of man1 and subject to such a multitude of adverse influences1 the balance between health and disease must be very nicely adjusted4 ,too great an elevation or too great a depression of temperature may destroy the heat-regulating power1 and disease or death will be the consequence4 ,or this heat-regulating power may be weakened or destroyed by causes generated within the body1 or received from without1 and the heat-producing agencies are then under influences which may prove to be powerfully destructive forces4 ,it will not now be difficult to understand in what manner high temperature affects the public health of large cities4 ,evidently in the direct action of heat upon the human body we have the most powerful agency in the production of our great summer mortality4 ,while sunstroke represents the maximum direct effect of solar heat upon the human subject1 the large increase of deaths from wasting chronic diseases and diarrhal affections1 of children under one year of age and persons upward of seventy years of age1 shows the terrible effects of the prevailing intense heat of summer upon all who are debilitated by disease or age and thereby have their heat-regulating power diminished4 ,the fact has been established by repeated experiment that when solar or artificial heat is continually applied to the animal the temperature of its body will gradually rise until all of the compensating or heat-regulating agencies fail to preserve the equilibrium1 and the temperature reaches a point at which death takes place from actual combustion4 ,in general1 a temperature of #ajg ,f4 in man would be regarded as indicating an unfavorable termination of any disease4 ,in persons suffering from sunstroke the temperature often ranges from #ajf ,f4 to #aaj ,f41 the higher temperature appearing just before a fatal termination4 ,the indirect effects of heat appear in the production of poisonous gases which vitiate the air and render it more or less prejudicial to health4 ,decomposition of all forms of refuse animal and vegetable matter proceeds with far greater rapidity during the summer quarter than during other months of the year4 ,among the early results of summer heat is the damage to food4 ,milk retailed through the city1 the sole or chief diet of thousands of hand-fed infants1 undergoes such changes as to render it not only less nutritious but also hurtful to the digestive organs4 ,the vegetables and fruits in the markets rapidly deteriorate and become unfit for food4 ,meats and fish quickly take on putrefactive changes which render them more or less indigestible4 ,the effect of this increase of temperature upon the refuse and filth of the streets1 courts1 and alleys1 upon the air in close places1 in the tenement houses1 and upon the tenants themselves is soon perceptible4 ,the foul gases of decomposition fill the atmosphere of the city and render the air of close and unventilated places stifling2 while languor1 depression1 and debility fall upon the population like a widespread epidemic4 ,the physician now recognizes the fact that a new element has entered into the medical constitution of the season4 ,the sickly young1 the enfeebled old1 those exhausted from wasting diseases1 whose native energies were just sufficient to maintain their tenure of life1 are the first to succumb to this pressure upon their vital resources4 ,diarrhal diseases of every form next appear and assume a fatal intensity1 and finally the occurrence of sunstroke 7or heat-stroke7 determines the maximum effects of heat upon the public health4 ,the sickness records of dispensaries and the mortality records of the ,health ,department show that a new and most destructive force is now operating1 not only in the diseases above mentioned1 but in nearly all of the diseases of the period4 ,fevers1 inflammatory diseases1 and others of a similar nature run a more rapid course1 and are far less amenable to treatment4 ,this is due1 in the opinion of eminent medical authority1 to the addition of the heat of the air to the heat of the body4 ,indeed1 the only safety is in flight from the city to the country and to cool localities1 as the seashore or the mountains4 ,the immediate improvement of those suffering from affections of the city when transferred to the country is often marvelous1 and shows conclusively how fatal is the element of heat in its direct and indirect effects upon the residents of the city4 ,let us next consider the causes of high temperature in the city of ,new ,york4 ,it is a well-established fact that the temperature of large and densely populated towns is far higher than the surrounding country4 ,this is due to a variety of causes1 the chief of which are the absence of vegetation2 the drainage and hence the dryness of the soil2 the covering of the earth with stone1 bricks1 and mortar2 the aggregation of population to surface area2 the massing together of buildings2 and the artificial heat of workshops and manufactories4 ,the difference between the mean temperature of the city at ,cooper ,institute and at the ,arsenal1 ,central ,park1 for a single month1 illustrates this fact4 ,another striking difference between the temperature of these two points of observation is that the range is much greater at ,central ,park than at ,cooper ,institute1 the temperature falling at night more at the former than at the latter place4 ,the effect of vegetation is to lower the temperature at night1 while brick and stone retain the heat and prevent any considerable fall of temperature during the twenty-four hours4 ,it may be said of ,new ,york that it has all the conditions of increased temperature above given in an intensified form4 ,it has a southern exposure2 all of its broad avenues run north and south2 the surface is covered with stone1 brick1 and asphalt2 it is destitute of vegetation except in its parks1 which have a very limited area compared with the needs of the city2 its buildings are irregularly arranged and crowded together so as to give the largest amount of elevation with the least superficial area2 ventilation of courts1 areas1 and living rooms is sacrificed2 its ill-constructed and overcrowded tenement houses1 especially of certain districts1 have the largest population to surface area of any city in the civilized world4 ,to these natural and structural unfavorable sanitary conditions must be added the enormous production of artificial heat in dwellings4 ,when the summer temperature begins to rise the solar heat is constantly added to the artificial heat already existing4 ,the temperature of the whole vast mass of stones1 bricks1 mortar1 and asphalt gradually increases1 with no other mitigation or modification than that caused by the inconstant winds and occasional rainstorms4 ,and the evils of high temperature are yearly increasing as the area of brick1 stone1 and asphalt extends4 ,the records of sunstroke during the past few years is appalling1 both on account of the number of cases and their comparative increase4 ,if no adequate remedy is discovered and applied1 the day would not seem to be distant when the resident1 especially if he is a laborer1 will remain in the city and pursue his work during the summer at the constant risk of his life4 ,turning now to consider the question of the measures which are best adapted to protect the present and future population of ,new ,york from the effects of high summer temperatures1 we are met by many suggestions of more or less value4 ,the more important methods proposed are3 a large supply of public baths2 the daily flushing of the streets with an immense volume of river water2 recreation piers2 excursions to the seashore2 temporary residence in the country1 etc4 ,but these are for the most part temporary expedients1 applicable to individuals1 and are but accessory to some more radical measure which aims to so change the atmospheric conditions that excessive heat can not occur4 ,the real problem to be solved may be thus stated3 ,how can the temperature of the city of ,new ,york be so modified during the summer months as to prevent that extreme degree of heat on which the enormous sickness and death rate of the people depend8 ,discussing the subject broadly from this standpoint1 it becomes at once evident that we must employ those agencies which in the wide field of ,nature are designed to mitigate heat and purify the air and thus create permanent climatic conditions favorable for the habitation of man4 ,it requires but little knowledge of the physical forces which modify the climate of large areas of the earth's surface to recognize the fact that vegetation plays a most important part4 ,and of the different forms of vegetation1 trees1 as compared with shrubs1 plants1 vines1 and grasses1 are undoubtedly the most efficient4 ,this is due to the vast area of surface which their leaves present to the air on a very limited ground space4 ,the sanitary value of trees has hitherto been practically unrecognized by man4 ,with the most ruthless hand he has everywhere and at all times sacrificed this most important factor in the conservation of a healthful and temperate climate4 ,he has found1 too late1 however1 that by this waste of the forests he has by no means improved his own condition4 ,the winters have become colder1 the summers hotter2 the living springs have ceased to flow perpetually2 the fertilizing streams have disappeared2 the earth is deeply frozen in winter and parched in summer2 and1 finally1 new and grave diseases have appeared where formerly they were unknown4 ,it is well understood that the temperature in a forest1 a grove1 or even a clump of trees1 is cooler in summer and warmer in winter than the surrounding country4 ,man and animals alike seek the shade of groves and trees during the heat of the day1 and are greatly refreshed and revived by the cool atmosphere4 ,the difference between the temperature of the air under and among the branches of a single tree1 densely leaved1 and the surrounding air1 on a hot day1 is instantly realized by the laborer or traveler who seeks the shade4 ,the thermometer in the sun and shade shows a difference of twenty1 thirty1 and forty degrees1 and in the soil a difference of ten to eleven degrees4 ,the reverse is true in winter4 ,the laborer and traveler exposed to the cold of the open country find in the forest a degree of warmth quite as great as in a building but imperfectly inclosed4 ,railroad engineers inform us that they have occasion to use far less fuel in passing through forests in winter than in traversing the same distance in the open country4 ,when the ground in the fields is frozen two or three feet deep1 its temperature in the forest is found above the freezing point4 ,forests and even single trees have1 therefore1 a marked influence upon the surrounding atmosphere1 especially during the summer1 and they evidently tend to equalize temperature1 preventing extremes both in summer and winter4 ,hence they become of immense value as sanitary agencies in preserving equality of climatic conditions4 ,it is believed by some vegetable physiologists that trees exert this power through their own inherent warmth1 which always remains at a fixed standard both in summer and winter4 ,observation shows1 says ,meguscher1#b that the wood of a living tree maintains a temperature of from #ed to #ef ,f41 when the temperature stands from #cg to #dg ,f4 above zero1 and that the internal warmth does not rise and fall in proportion to that of the atmosphere4 ,so long as the latter is below #fg ,f41 that of the tree is always highest2 but1 if the temperature of the air rises to #fg ,f41 that of the vegetable growth is the lowest4 ,since1 then1 trees maintain at all seasons a constant mean temperature of #ed ,f41 it is easy to see why the air in contact with the forest must be warmer in winter and cooler in summer than in situations where it is deprived of that influence4#c ,again1 the shade of trees protects the earth from the direct rays of the sun1 and prevents solar irradiation from the earth4 ,this effect is of immense importance in cities where the paved streets become excessively heated1 and radiation creates one of the most dangerous sources of heat4 ,whoever has walked in the streets of ,new ,york1 on a hot summer's day1 protected from the direct rays of a midday sun by his umbrella1 has found the reflected heat of the pavement intolerable4 ,if for a moment he passed into the dense shade of a tree1 he at once experienced a marked sense of relief4 ,this relief is not due so much to the shade as to the cooling effect of the vaporization from the leaves of the tree4 ,trees also have a cutaneous transpiration by their leaves4 ,and although they absorb largely the vapor of the surrounding air1 and also the water of the soil1 they nevertheless exhale constantly large volumes into the air4 ,this vaporization of liquids is a frigorific or cooling process1 and when most rapid the frigorific effect reaches its maximum4 ,the amount of fluid exhaled by vegetation has been1 at various times1 estimated with more or less accuracy4 ,hales#d states that a sunflower1 with a surface of #e4faf square inches1 throws off at the rate of twenty to twenty-four ounces avoirdupois every twelve hours2 a vine1 with twelve square feet of foliage1 exhales at the rate of five or six ounces daily4 ,bishop ,watson1 in his experiments on grasses1 estimated that an acre of grass emits into the atmosphere #f4djj quarts of water in twenty-four hours4 ,it is evident1 therefore1 that vegetation tends powerfully to cool the atmosphere during a summer day1 and this effect increases in proportion to the increase of the temperature4 ,the influence of trees heavily leaved1 in a district where there is no other vegetation1 in moderating and equalizing the temperature1 can not be overestimated4 ,the amount of superficial surface exposed by the foliage of a single tree is immense4 ,for example1 the ,washington elm1 of ,cambridge1 ,mass41 a tree of moderate size1 was estimated several years since to produce a crop of seven million leaves1 exposing a surface of two hundred thousand square feet1 or about five acres of foliage4 ,trees regulate the humidity of the air by the process of absorption and transpiration4 ,they absorb the moisture contained in the air1 and again return to the air1 in the form of vapor1 the water which they have absorbed from the earth and the air4 ,the flow of sap in trees for the most part ceases at night1 the stimulus of light and heat being necessary to the function of absorption and evaporation4 ,during the heated portions of the day1 therefore1 when there is the most need of agencies to equalize both temperature and humidity1 trees perform their peculiar functions most actively4 ,moisture is rapidly absorbed from the air by the leaves1 and from the earth by the roots1 and is again all returned to the air and earth by transpiration or exudation4 ,the effect of this process upon temperature and humidity is thus stated by ,marsh3 ,the evaporation of the juices of the plant by whatever process effected1 takes up atmospheric heat and produces refrigeration4 ,this effect is not less real1 though much less sensible in the forest than in meadow and pasture land1 and it can not be doubted that the local temperature is considerably affected by it4 ,but the evaporation that cools the air diffuses through it1 at the same time1 a medium which powerfully resists the escape of heat from the earth by radiation4 ,visible vapor or clouds1 it is well known1 prevent frosts by obstructing radiation1 or rather by reflecting back again the heat radiated by the earth1 just as any mechanical screen would do4 ,on the other hand1 clouds intercept the rays of the sun also1 and hinder its heat from reaching the earth4 ,again1 he says1 upon the whole1 their general effect seems to be to mitigate extremes of atmospheric heat and cold1 moisture and drought4 ,they serve as equalizers of temperature and humidity4 ,again1 let us notice the effects of trees upon malarial emanations4 ,the power of trees1 when in leaf1 to render harmless the poisonous emanations from the earth has long been an established fact4 ,man may live in close proximity to marshes from which arise the most dangerous malaria with the utmost impunity1 provided a grove intervene between his home and the marsh4 ,this function of trees was known to the ,romans1 who enacted laws requiring the planting of trees in places made uninhabitable by the diffusion of malaria1 and placed groves serving such purposes under the protection of some divinity to insure their protection4 ,it is a rule of the ,british army in ,india to select an encampment having a grove between the camp and any low1 wet soil4 ,finally1 trees purify the atmosphere4 ,the process of vegetable nutrition consists in the appropriation by the plant or tree of carbon4 ,this element it receives from the air in the form principally of carbonic acid1 and in the process of digestion the oxygen is liberated and again restored to the air1 while the carbon becomes fixed as an element of the woody fiber4 ,man and animals1 on the contrary1 require oxygen for their nutrition1 and the supply is in the air they breathe4 ,carbon is a waste product of the animal system1 and1 uniting with the oxygen1 is expired as carbonic acid1 a powerful animal poison4 ,a slight increase of the normal quantity of carbonic acid in the air renders it poisonous to man1 and continued respiration of such air1 or a considerable increase of the carbonic acid1 will prove fatal4 ,the animal and vegetable world1 therefore1 complement each other1 and the one furnishes the conditions and forces by which the other maintains life and health4 ,plants1 says ,schacht1 imbibe from the air carbonic acid and other gaseous or volatile products exhaled by animals1 developed by the natural phenomena of decomposition4 ,on the other hand1 the vegetable pours into the atmosphere oxygen1 which is taken up by animals and appropriated by them4 ,the tree1 by means of its leaves and its young herbaceous twigs1 presents a considerable surface for absorption and evaporation2 it abstracts the carbon of carbonic acid1 and solidifies it in wood fecula1 and a multitude of other compounds4 ,the result is that a forest withdraws from the air1 by its great absorbent surface1 much more gas than meadows or cultivated fields1 and exhales proportionally a considerably greater quantity of oxygen4 ,the influence of the forests on the chemical composition of the atmosphere is1 in a word1 of the highest importance4#e ,in large cities1 where animal and vegetable decomposition goes on rapidly during the summer1 the atmosphere is1 as already stated1 at times saturated with deleterious gases4 ,at the period of the day when malaria and mephitic gases are emitted in the greatest quantity and activity1 this function of absorption by vegetation is most active and powerful4 ,carbonic acid1 ammoniacal compounds1 and other gases1 products of putrefaction1 so actively poisonous to man1 are absorbed1 and in the process of vegetable digestion the deleterious portion is separated and appropriated by the plant1 while oxygen1 the element essential to animal life1 is returned to the air4 ,trees1 therefore1 in cities1 are of immense value1 owing to their power to destroy or neutralize malaria1 and to absorb the poisonous elements of gaseous compounds1 while they render the air more respirable by emitting oxygen4 ,the conclusion from the foregoing facts is inevitable that one of the great and pressing sanitary wants of ,new ,york city is an ample supply of trees4 ,it is1 in effect1 destitute of trees2 for the unsightly shrubs which are planted by citizens are1 in no proper sense1 adequate to the purpose which we contemplate4 ,its long avenues1 running north and south1 without a shade tree1 and exposed to the full effect of the sun1 are all but impassable at noonday in the summer months4 ,the pedestrian who ventures out at such an hour finds no protection from an umbrella1 on account of the radiation of the intense heat from the paved surface4 ,animals and man alike suffer from exposure in the glowing heat4 ,nothing mitigates its intensity but the winds or an occasional rainstorm4 ,and when evening comes on1 the cooling of the atmosphere produced by vegetation does not occur1 and unless partially relieved by favoring winds or a shower the heat continues1 but little abated1 and the atmosphere remains charged with noxious and irrespirable gases4 ,it is evident that shade trees1 of proper kinds1 and suitably arranged1 supply the conditions necessary to counteract the evils of excessive heat4 ,they protect the paved streets and the buildings largely from the direct rays of the sun2 they cool the lower stratum of air by evaporation from their immense surfaces of leaves2 they absorb at once the malarious emanations and gases of decomposition1 and abstract their poisonous properties for their own consumption2 they withdraw from the air the carbonic acid thrown off from the animal system as a poison1 and decomposing it1 appropriate the element dangerous to man1 and give back to the atmosphere the element essential to his health and even life4#f ,and we may add that cultivated shade trees in ,new ,york would be an artistic and attractive feature of the streets4 ,every citizen enjoys trees1 as is evident from the efforts made to cultivate them throughout the city4 ,it is frequently alleged that trees can not be successfully cultivated in cities on account of the gases in the soil4 ,there are ample proofs to the contrary4 ,the city of ,paris strikingly illustrates the possibility of cultivating a large variety of trees in the streets and public places of large cities when the planting and cultivation is placed under competent authority4 ,in our own country the cities of ,new ,haven and ,washington are examples of the successful cultivation of trees to an extent sufficient to greatly modify the summer temperature4 ,authorities on landscape gardening and forestry sustain the view that under proper supervision by competent and skilled persons a great variety of trees1 shrubs1 plants1 and vines can be cultivated in the streets and public places of this city4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,law ,olmstead1 to whom the city is so much indebted for his intelligent supervision of ,central ,park in its early period1 warmly supported a movement to cultivate trees1 shrubs1 plants1 and vines in the streets of ,new ,york4 ,dr4 ,j4,t4 ,rothrock1 the very able and experienced ,commissioner of ,forestry of ,pennsylvania1 under date of ,october #aj1 #ahih1 speaking of the proposed plan of securing the cultivating trees in the streets of this city1 remarks3 ,i think it an excellent measure1 and ,i am sure that during the torrid season the more tree shade you have the fewer will be your cases of heat exhaustion4 ,it is idle to say1 as is often said in this country1 that trees can not be made to grow in our cities4 ,under existing conditions the wonder is1 not that trees look unhealthy in most cities1 but that any of them manage to live at all4 ,it is perfectly well known that the city of ,paris has thousands of trees growing vigorously under such surroundings as the ,american gardener would think impossible4 ,two things are necessary to success--viz41 first1 the kinds of trees to endure city life must be found2 and1 second1 select from among them such as are adapted by their size and shape to each special place4 ,mr4 ,gifford ,pinchot1 of the ,division of ,forestry1 ,department of ,agriculture1 ,washington1 writes under date of ,december #b1 #ahih3 ,street trees are successfully planted in great numbers in all of the most beautiful cities of the world4 ,washington and ,paris are conspicuous examples4 ,that such trees succeed is largely due to the great care taken in setting them out4 ,the attractiveness of cities has come to be reckoned among their business advantages1 and nothing adds to it more than well-selected1 well-planted1 and well-cared-for trees4 ,on the score of public health trees in the streets of cities are equally desirable4 ,they become objectionable only when badly selected and badly maintained4 ,in a recent paper on ,tree ,planting in the ,streets of ,washington1 ,mr4 ,w4,p4 ,richards1 surveyor of the ,district of ,columbia1 remarks that1 under the plan adopted1 tree planting has never been at an experimental stage in that city4 ,washington was a city of young trees during the seventies1 and in the spring of #ahge more than six thousand trees were planted1 consisting of silver maples1 ,norway maples1 ,american elms1 ,american and ,european lindens1 sugar maples1 tulip trees1 ,american white ash1 scarlet maples1 various poplars1 and ash-leaved maples4444 ,a careful count was made of the trees in #ahhg1 and by comparing this with the number of trees since planted and those removed1 there is found to be more than seventy-eight thousand trees1 which if placed thirty feet apart would line both sides of a boulevard between ,washington and ,new ,york4 ,these consist of more than thirty varieties4 ,mr4 ,richards adds3 ,the planting and care of trees in ,washington grows from year to year1 and the future will probably demand more skill and judgment than in years past4 ,about twenty thousand dollars is spent annually1 most of it in the care of old trees4 ,from one to three thousand young trees are planted during the spring and fall of each year4 ,the nursery has several thousand of the best varieties ready for planting4 ,the opinions of these authorities and the success of the work in ,washington1 now extending over a quarter of a century1 determine beyond all question the feasibility and practicability of successfully cultivating trees in the streets of cities4 ,and if any one doubts the power of trees cultivated in the streets to change the temperature of a city let him calculate the amount of foliage which the seventy-eight thousand trees1 when full-grown1 will furnish the city of ,washington1 taking as his basis the fact that a single tree1 the ,washington elm1 at ,cambridge1 ,massachusetts1 when in full leafage1 equals five acres of foliage1 and that one acre of grass emits into the atmosphere #f4djj quarts of water in twenty-four hours1 a powerfully cooling process4 ,we have1 finally1 to consider through what agency the proposed cultivation of trees in the city of ,new ,york can be accomplished most rapidly and successfully4 ,three methods may be suggested1 viz43 #a4 ,encourage citizens each to plant and cultivate trees on his own premises4 #b4 ,organize voluntary tree-planting associations1 which shall aid citizens or undertake to do the work at a minimum cost4 #c4 ,place the work under the entire supervision and jurisdiction of public authority4 ,the first method has been on trial from the foundation of the city1 and its results are a few stunted apologies for trees which are useless for sanitary purposes and unsightly for ornamentation4 ,the average citizen is entirely incompetent either to select the proper tree or to cultivate it when planted4 ,tree-planting associations have proved useful agencies in exciting a popular interest in the subject1 and in aiding citizens in the selection of suitable trees and in cultivating them4 ,the ,tree-,planting and ,fountain ,society of ,brooklyn1 under the very able management of its accomplished secretary1 ,prof4 ,lewis ,collins1 is a model organization of the kind1 and has accomplished a vast amount of good in this field in that city4 ,but it may well be questioned if we have not reached a period of sanitary reform in cities when a work of the kind we contemplate in ,new ,york should not be undertaken by the strong arm of the city government1 as a matter of public policy1 and carried steadily forward to its completion4 ,the growth of the greater city is far too rapid in every direction to await the slow movements of the people under the pressure of voluntary organizations4 ,the best work can be done in those outlying districts where the streets are as yet but sparsely built upon1 and the soil has been undisturbed4 ,again1 it is of the utmost importance that a work of this kind1 which will largely prove one of city ornamentation1 should be under the exclusive direction of a skilled central authority having ample power and means to harmonize every feature of the work from the center of the city to its remotest limits4 ,finally1 the successful cultivation of trees and other vegetation in our streets can be successfully carried on only by experts in the art of tree culture1 who devote their entire time and energies to these duties1 and are sustained by the power of the city government4 ,mr4 ,frederick ,law ,olmstead remarks1 ,not one in a hundred of all that may have been planted in the streets of our ,american cities in the last fifty years has had such treatment that its species would come to be if properly planted and cared for4 ,mr4 ,richards1 in the paper referred to on ,tree ,planting in the ,streets of ,washington1 makes the following statement3 ,the selection1 planting1 and care of all trees in the streets of ,washington are under the direction of the ,district authorities2 individual preferences and private enterprises are not allowed to regulate this improvement1 as is generally done in other cities4 ,moreover1 the city has its own nursery1 where seeds planted from its own trees grow and supply all the needed varieties4 ,it is apparent that to accomplish such a work as we propose the undertaking must be placed under the jurisdiction of a department of the city government1 skilled in the performance of such duties1 fully equipped with all needful appliances1 and clothed with ample power and supplied with the financial resources necessary to overcome every obstacle4 ,fortunately1 we have in our ,department of ,parks an organized branch of the city administration endowed with every qualification for the performance of these duties4 ,the charter provides as follows3 ,it shall be the duty of each commissioner 444 to maintain the beauty and utility of all such parks1 squares1 and public places as are situated within his jurisdiction1 and to institute and execute all measures for the improvement thereof for ornamental purposes and for the beneficial uses of the people of the city1 444 and he shall have power to plant trees and to construct1 erect1 and establish seats1 drinking fountains1 statues1 and works of art1 when he may deem it tasteful or appropriate so to do4 ,at the head of this service is a landscape architect1 skilled and expert1 whose assent shall be requisite to all plans and works or changes thereof respecting the conformation1 development1 or ornamentation of any of the parks1 squares1 or public places of the city1 to the end that the same may be uniform and symmetrical at all times4 ,the conclusion seems inevitable that public policy requires that1 in the interests of the health of the people and the comfort and well-being of that large class of the poor who can not escape the summer heat by leaving the city1 the jurisdiction of the ,park ,department should be extended to all trees1 shrubs1 plants1 and vines now and hereafter planted and growing in the streets of ,new ,york1 and that said department should be required to plant such additional trees1 shrubs1 etc41 as it may from time to time deem necessary and expedient for the purpose of carrying out the intent and purpose of such act which should be declared to be to improve the public health1 to render the city comfortable to its summer residents1 and for ornamentation4 ,he who plants a tree1 he plants love2 ,tents of coolness1 spreading out above ,wayfarers1 he may not live to see4 ,gifts that grow are best1 ,hands that bless are blest4 ,plant4 ,life does the rest4 ,,footnotes3 #a ,in #ahgb1 while a ,commissioner of ,health1 ,i had occasion to examine and report on the causes of the high death rate during the summer months in the city of ,new ,york4 ,the chief cause was determined to be the excessive heat which characterizes those months4 ,it was recommended in the report to the ,board of ,health that legislation be secured empowering and requiring the ,department of ,parks to plant and cultivate trees1 shrubs1 plants1 and vines in all the streets1 avenues1 and public places in the city4 ,a bill was drafted and introduced into the ,legislature1 but it did not become a law1 and no further effort has been made to secure such legislation4 ,meantime1 two tree-planting societies have been established1 one in the ,borough of ,brooklyn and the other in the ,borough of ,manhattan1 which are endeavoring to awaken public interest to the importance of planting a suitable number and variety of trees in the streets for purposes of ornamentation4 ,the aim of this paper1 which is largely based on the report of #ahgb1 is to revive the project of giving the ,department of ,parks jurisdiction over the trees in the streets1 and require it to plant and cultivate additional trees1 shrubs1 plants1 and other forms of vegetation for the improvement of the public health and for the purpose of ornamentation4 #b ,man and ,nature4 ,g4,p4 ,marsh1 ,new ,york1 #ahgb4 #c ,it is interesting to notice1 in this connection1 the remark of ,angus ,smith1 that a temperature of #ed ,f4 is important in the decomposition of animal and vegetable matter4 #d ,public ,parks4 ,by ,john ,h4 ,rauch1 ,m4,d41 ,chicago1 #ahfi4 #e ,les ,arbres1 quoted by ,marsh4 #f ,the late ,dr4 ,francis remarked that he had noticed a marked increase in the fatality of diseases in sections of the city after the removal of trees and all vegetation4 ,,mivart',s ,,groundwork ,,of ,,science4#g ,,by ,,prof4 ,,william ,,keith ,,brooks4 ,if books like this by ,professor ,mivart1 who holds that the groundwork of science must be sought in the human mind1 help to teach that the greatest service of science to mankind is not practical1 but intellectual1 they are worthy the consideration of the thoughtful1 even if this consideration should lead some of the thoughtful to distrust ,mivart's groundwork1 or to doubt whether it is firm enough for any superstructure4 ,many1 no doubt1 think the desire to know a sufficient groundwork for science1 believing that they wish to know in order that they may rightly order their lives2 but the school to which ,mivart belongs tells them all this is mere vulgar ignorance1 since the groundwork of science is1 and must be1 something known1 rather than a humble wish to know4 ,according to ,mivart1 the groundwork of science consists of truths which can not be obtained by reasoning1 and can not depend for their certainty on any experiments or observations alone1 since whatever truths depend upon reasoning can not be ultimate1 but must be posterior to1 and depend upon1 the principles1 observations1 or experiments which show that it is indeed true1 and upon which its acceptance thus depends4 ,the groundwork of science must therefore be composed1 he says1 of truths which are self-evident2 and he assures us that1 if this were not the case1 natural knowledge would be mere mental paralysis and self-stultification4 ,he would tell the wayfarer who1 having been lost among the mountains1 comes at last upon a broad highway winding around the foothills and stretching down over the plain to the horizon1 that an attempt to go anywhere upon this road is mere paralysis1 unless he knows where it begins and where it ends4 ,he would have told the ancient dwellers upon the shores of the ,nile that their belief that they owed to the river their agriculture1 their commerce1 their art and science1 and all their civilization1 was mere self-stultification1 because they knew nothing of its sources in the central table-land4 ,may not one believe1 with ,mivart1 that the scientific knowledge which arises in the mind by means of the senses through contact with the world of ,nature1 thus arises by virtue of our innate reason1 and yet find good ground for asking whether physical science may not have something useful and important to tell us about the mechanism and history of this innate reason itself8 ,is proof that our reason is innate1 or born with us1 proof that it is ultimate or necessary or beyond the reach of improvement and development by the application of natural knowledge8 ,may not this reason itself prove1 perhaps1 to be a mechanical phenomenon of matter and motion1 and a part of the discoverable order of physical causation2 and may not science some time tell us how it became innate1 and what it is worth8 ,questions of this sort are easy to ask but hard to answer2 for many hold our only way to reach an answer to be to find out by scientific research and discovery4 ,while this method may be too slow for a priori philosophers1 may it not be wise for those who1 being no philosophers1 know of no short cut to natural knowledge1 to admit that1 while they would like to know more1 they have not yet learned all there is to learn8 ,if this suspension of judgment is indeed self-stultification1 the case of many students is hard1 though they may not really find themselves so helpless as they are told that they must be2 for he who is told by the learned faculty that he is paralyzed need not be greatly troubled if he finds his powers for work as much at his command as they were before4 ,the modern student has heard so many versions of the story of the two-faced shield that he is much disposed to suspect that many of the questions which have so long divided philosophers may be only new illustrations of the old fable1 and he asks whether there need be any real antagonism between those who attribute knowledge to experience and those who attribute it to our innate reason4 ,there are men of science who1 seeing no good reason to challenge ,plato's belief that experience1 creating nothing1 only calls forth the ideas which were already dormant or latent in the mind1 do nevertheless find reason to ask whether exhaustive knowledge of our physical history may not some time show how these dormant ideas came to be what they are4 ,they ask whether errors may not be judgments which lead us into danger and tend to our physical destruction1 and whether it may not be because a judgment has1 in the long run1 proved preservative in the struggle for existence that we call it true4 ,may not1 for example1 the difference between the error that the stick half in water is bent and the truth that the stick in air is straight1 some time prove to be that the savage who has rectified his judgment has speared his fish1 while he who has not has lost his dinner8 ,so long as we can ask such questions as this1 how can we be sure that because a judgment is no more than might have been expected from us1 as ,nature has made us1 at our present intellectual level1 it is either necessary or ultimate or universal8 ,things that are innate or natural are not always necessary or universal1 for while reason is natural to the mind of man1 some men are unreasonable1 and a few have been even known to be illogical4 ,it therefore seems clear that another view of the groundwork of science than that set forth by ,professor ,mivart is possible1 for many believe that this groundwork is to be found in our desire to know what we do not yet know1 rather than in things known2 and they believe they wish to know in order that they may learn to distinguish truth from error1 and walk with sure feet where the ignorant grope and stumble4 ,many books are profitable and instructive even if they fail to convince2 and the question which a prospective student of ,mivart's book is likely to ask is whether it is consistent with itself2 for if the author has not so far made himself master of his subject as to state his case without palpable contradiction1 no one will expect much help from him4 ,it is a remark of ,aristotle1 in the ,introduction to the ,parts of ,animals1 that while one may need special training to tell whether an author has proved his point1 all may judge whether he is consistent with himself1 and the attempt to learn whether ,mivart's book is consistent may not greatly tax our minds4 ,he tells us that many men of science are idealists2 and he says that idealism1 being mere self-stultifying skepticism1 must be refuted and demolished before we can begin our search for the groundwork of science or be sure that we know anything4 ,it would have surprised ,berkeley not a little to be told that his notions are the very essence of skepticism1 for the good bishop tells us again and again that his only motive in writing is to make an end of idle skepticism1 once for all1 that they who are no philosophers1 but simple1 honest folks1 may come by their own and live at ease4 ,there is little ease1 and less justice1 even at this late day1 for the man of science who insists that he is neither an idealist nor a materialist nor a monist1 but a naturalist2 and that it will be time enough to have an opinion as to the relation between mind and matter when we find out2 but many will1 no doubt1 be pleased to hear that the crime of which they are now suspected is no longer materialism1 but idealism1 for the public attaches no odium to the idealist1 whatever may be ,professor ,mivart's verdict4 ,still all must feel an interest in the exposure of the weakness of idealism1 since we have been told1 by many shrewd thinkers1 that ,berkeley's statement of the case1 while inconclusive1 is unanswerable2 although they hold that it is lack of experimental evidence which stands in the way of either its acceptance or its refutation4 ,mivart begins his treatment of idealism by a simple and satisfactory summary1 pages #cf-ch1 of ,berkeley's ,principles1 but he forgets it on the next page1 for it is no exaggeration to assert that the idealism which he refutes is a mere parody on that which he has just given his readers1 and something that no sane man would dream of holding4 ,for example1 he admits1 on page #ch1 that nothing can be more absurd than the criticism of those persons who say that idealists1 to be consistent1 ought to run up against lamp-posts1 fall into ditches1 and commit other like absurdities4 ,on page #dg he undertakes to show1 by the natural spontaneous judgment of mankind1 that external material bodies exist of themselves1 and have a substantial reality in addition to that of the qualities we perceive2 because the spontaneous judgment of mankind accords with what even animals learn through their senses4 ,a wide river is an objective obstacle to the progress of a man's dog1 as well as to that of the dog's owner4 ,one who compares the extract from page #ch with this from page #dg can1 so far as ,i can see1 reconcile them only by one of these hypotheses3 #a1 that ,mivart holds a wide river to afford proof of reality which is not afforded by a ditch2 or1 #b1 that the dog which does not run against lamp-posts affords evidence of the reality of ,nature which is not afforded by a man in the same circumstances2 or1 #c1 that nothing can be more absurd than the criticism of these persons who reason like ,professor ,mivart4 ,while sometimes right and sometimes wrong1 like the rest of us1 the apostle of tar water was no fool1 although the groundwork of ,mivart's science1 in the book before us1 is the assertion that idealists idiotically deny everything which they have not perceived1 and hold that the external world has no existence4 ,it is hard to see how words could be clearer than those in which ,berkeley repudiates all nonsense of this sort4 ,i do not argue1 says he1 against the existence of any one thing that we apprehend1 either by sense or by reflection4 ,that the things ,i see with my eyes and touch with my hands do exist1 really exist1 ,i make not the least question4 ,i am of a vulgar cast1 simple enough to believe my own senses1 and to take things as ,i find them4 ,to be plain1 it is my opinion that the real things are the very things that ,i see and feel1 and perceive by my senses4 ,i can not for my life help thinking that snow is white and fire hot4 ,and as ,i am no skeptic with regard to the nature of things1 so neither am ,i as to their existence4 ,that a thing should be really perceived by my senses1 and at the same time not really exist1 is to me a plain contradiction4 ,wood1 stone1 fire1 water1 flesh1 iron1 and the like things1 which ,i name and discourse of1 are things ,i know4 ,away1 then1 with all that skepticism1 all those ridiculous philosophical doubts6 ,i might as well doubt of my own being as of the being of those things ,i actually see and feel4 ,mivart lays great stress upon the opinion of men in general as a refutation of idealism2 and as ,berkeley also says he is content to appeal to the common sense of the world1 it may be well to ask what the verdict of plain1 untutored men is1 even if we doubt whether such a jury is the highest tribunal4 ,ask the gardener1 says ,berkeley1 why he thinks yonder cherry tree exists in the garden1 and he shall tell you1 because he sees it and feels it4 ,mivart holds it one thing to see1 and quite another matter to know that we see1 for he says that while we see and feel the qualities of things by those lower faculties which we share with the brutes1 we perceive the substance in which these qualities inhere1 by certain higher faculties1 which1 whether represented in the brutes by latent potencies or not1 have been given to man in their completeness1 and not slowly and gradually built up from low and simple beginnings in the brutes4 ,the question we are to ask the gardener is1 therefore1 something to this effect3 ,whether he thinks the cherry tree exists because he sees it and feels it1 or because1 when he sees it and feels it1 he knows that he does so8 ,if he weighs his words will he not ask how he can know that he does see it and feel it unless he knows that he does so8 ,i1 myself1 am no philosopher2 but1 to my untutored mind1 ,mivart's distinction between things perceived by sense1 and things perceived by sense1 seems a mere verbal difference of accent and emphasis1 rather than a fundamental distinction4 ,as most men use the word1 mind implies consciousness of that sort which ,mivart calls self-consciousness1 and while there is no reason why those who choose should not so use the word as to include unconscious or subconscious or conscientious cerebration1 most plain1 untutored men prefer to use words as their neighbors do4 ,if long waiting on ,nature has given to the old gardener more shrewdness than we commonly find in those whose pursuits are less leisurely1 he may say that1 while he knows the tree is there because he has planted it and tended it and watched it grow1 it now falls on his eyes day after day1 without attracting his notice1 unless something about it which calls for his skill catches his eye1 and commands his attention4 ,if we see reason to believe that this difference is a matter of words and definitions1 rather than a real difference in kind2 if we fail to find any sharp dividing line between unperceived cerebration and mind1 is not this1 in itself1 enough to lead even ,macaulay's schoolboy to ask whether mind may not be a slow and gradual growth from small beginnings1 and a co-ordinated whole1 to the common function of which all its parts contribute1 rather than a gift of lower faculties and higher faculties8 ,we must ask1 however1 whether mechanical explanations of mind are in any way antagonistic to the conviction that it is a gift4 ,may not one study the history of the mechanism of mind1 and the way this mechanism works1 in a spirit of profound and humble gratitude to the ,giver of all good gifts8 ,is the lamentable prevalence1 among plain untutored men1 of the notion that mechanical explanations of ,nature are inconsistent with belief that all ,nature is a gift1 to be laid to the charge of the men of science8 ,is it not rather the poisonous fruit of the ill-advised attempts of philosophers like ,professor ,mivart to teach that a gift can not be a gift at all unless it is an arbitrary interruption to the law and order of physical ,nature4 ,,footnote3 #g ,the ,groundwork of ,science4 ,a ,study of ,epistemology4 ,by ,st4 ,george ,mivart1 ,m4,d41 ,ph4,d41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,new ,york3 ,g4,p4 ,putnam's ,sons1 #ahih4 ,,the ,,science ,,of ,,observation4 ,,by ,,charles ,,livy ,,whittle4 ,this is an era of observation2 in many fields and in divers countries the study of ,nature from a strictly scientific standpoint is being prosecuted with results which are rapidly increasing our knowledge of the universe4 ,this modern growth has come about as the natural rebound of the suppressed energy that has been held forcibly under subjugation during the last two thousand years1 at a time when the closing echoes of the warfare between the literal interpretation of the ,scriptures and science have ceased4 ,a review of this long battle with the forces of the ,catholic and ,protestant churches on the one hand1 arrayed against a relatively few investigators1 scattered through the last ten centuries1 on the other hand1 shows a record on which none can look without regret4 ,as far as we are able to learn1 there was little opposition to the study of science before the collection and translation of the old manuscripts now constituting the ,alexandrian version of the ,bible and the consequent upbuilding of the ,jewish church4 ,the remains of ancient ,egyptian civilization show that science prior to that period1 as measured by the discoveries in physics and astronomy1 had attained no inconsiderable prominence2 and had this people endured until the present time1 uninfluenced by the strife that for many centuries racked the inhabitants of the eastern hemisphere1 we should to-day be far more advanced in our understanding of the universe4 ,in the more progressive countries1 at least1 the breaking of the shackles in which the investigating mind had been imprisoned for so long has led not only to a greater number of scientific workers1 but also to an increase in the fields of observation4 ,the methods of investigation have likewise undergone a transformation4 ,in place of deductive reasoning1 even as late as a few decades in the past1 conclusions and generalizations are now founded on lines of thought more largely inductive4 ,men of middle age are able to recall the time when even our leading institutions of learning required instruction in several branches of science to be given by one teacher4 ,it was possible twenty-five years ago for a man of great ability to master the essentials of the leading sciences and to teach them1 but under the present stimulus for investigation no one can hope to excel in more than one subject4 ,it has thus come about that in place of the many-sided teacher of science we now have in our larger universities specialists in every subject4 ,as the work of research progresses1 the specialist--for example1 in geology--is compelled by the increased scope of the information on his subject to select one branch of geology of which he shall be master4 ,the chair of geology is now split up into economic1 glacial1 and mining geology1 paleontology1 etc41 and specialists are required in each division4 ,this breaking up is true of most other sciences4 ,in this labyrinth of specialized subjects1 and the maze of technical terms rendered necessary thereby1 the people as a whole can only grope in darkness2 but out of this bewildering condition of affairs1 from the mass of facts collected1 and the resulting generalizations and theories1 there may be culled the kernel of one important principle by means of which these facts are ascertained and the generalizations made4 ,the growth of science and its ever-ramifying divisions1 and the gradual establishment of new methods of investigation1 have brought forth what may be termed the science of observation2 and it is through an application of the above principle that the people may be taught correctly to interpret ,nature1 and1 by their new habit of thought1 to free the brain from the tangle of superstition which is still present with most of us4 ,a knowledge of how to observe natural phenomena and to draw correct inferences therefrom has been the product of slow growth1 while through long custom1 in matters closely pertaining to our daily life1 there has been observation on strictly scientific principles for centuries4 ,stated succinctly1 natural phenomena are due to causes1 one or more1 simple or complex4 ,these causes are the laws of the universe1 and to arrive at an understanding of them we must free our minds of any bias and study phenomena experimentally in the laboratory1 or in our daily contact with ,nature4 ,in this way a mass of facts will be gathered by the systematic observer which will be found to fall into natural groups1 and by inductive reasoning the laws governing each group may be learned4 ,it is not possible for mankind as a whole to investigate in this exhaustive manner2 but it is important that the method of arriving at the laws of ,nature be understood4 ,many and1 in fact1 most phenomena met with in some of the sciences1 particularly those having to deal with the earth1 are susceptible of correct interpretation without attempting broad generalizations1 if the principles of scientific observation are brought to bear upon their solution1 and it is our purpose to show by practical examples drawn from ,nature how elementary students may attack and solve some of the simple problems met with on every side4 ,it is proposed to use for illustration simple phenomena pertaining to the earth1 drawn from geology and its newly constituted sister science1 physical geography4 ,these two sciences perhaps afford the greatest range of phenomena1 which are accessible to every one1 in whatsoever part of the earth he may reside4 ,no part of the land surface is wanting in problems which demand explanation1 and which may be attacked from the standpoint of the geologist or physical geographer1 or both4 ,one of the most pronounced departures taking place in preparatory-school education at the present time is to be found in the prominence given to these subjects1 not only in the schoolroom1 but by practical experience in the laboratory of ,nature1 among the hills and mountains1 as well4 ,the object of this departure is twofold3 the first and most important is to train the young early to observe phenomena and to interpret them2 the second1 in a narrower sense1 is purely educational4 ,the one inculcates a habit of thought that will be of inestimable advantage in pursuing future study2 the other1 without taking into consideration the element of mental training1 constitutes instruction in concrete things that are matters of general education4 ,before the student in the introductory schools is brought in contact with problems in the field1 it is essential that he receive text-book or oral instruction in some of the geological processes giving rise to the phenomena to be studied later out of doors4 ,in practical teaching the student is taken on excursions into the region not far removed from the school4 ,at first some simple geological facts are shown him1 often on a very small scale1 but embodying principles which1 when understood1 lead to a ready interpretation of larger problems4 ,step by step the first principles are amplified by a larger and more varied class of examples1 until the student is able logically to apply the reasoning in explanation of simple problems to the solution of the greater problems in physical geography and geology4 ,in the absence of such excursions1 ,i shall introduce a series of photographs carefully arranged to lead the reader along the same line of reasoning up to similar broad conclusions--a method which1 if not so satisfactory and instructive1 will at least have an educative value4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #a4--,,quarry ,,showing ,,fresh ,,and ,,weathered ,,rocks4 ,our first excursion will be to a locality where an open cut has been made for the purpose of carrying on quarrying operations4 ,the accompanying photograph has been so taken as to include both the top and the bottom of the quarry 7,fig4 #a74 ,let us first inspect the rock in the lower part of the quarry4 ,the existence of planes of fracture1 or joints1 crossing the rock in various directions1 dividing it into blocks1 early attracts our attention4 ,the stone appears dark-colored1 tough1 and is seen to be made up of two or three different minerals3 one is black1 cleaves readily into thin plates of a translucent nature1 and we easily recognize it as an iron-bearing mica1 or isinglass4 ,another is white1 and cleaves or breaks in two directions1 making angles of about ninety degrees2 this we know as common feldspar4 ,the third is less easily recognized as pyroxene1 another of the many minerals containing iron4 ,having tested our knowledge of mineralogy1 we will look about and see if all the rock exposed is like that at the bottom of the quarry4 ,as we ascend from the point indicated by the lower hammer1 we notice that the dark blue rock gradually takes on a rusty hue1 and its toughness has become less4 ,going still higher1 the rusty character increases1 and along joints the rock is so lacking in coherency as to fall to pieces when struck a light blow with a hammer4 ,the central portions of the blocks1 however1 after we have removed the outer shell of rusty material1 are seen to be like the lower rock4 ,in the middle foreground of the picture there are shown several bowlders derived from above1 which are merely these residual cores1 and are known as bowlders of disintegration4 ,these are also shown in place near the top of the picture at the extreme left4 ,near the top of the quarry1 at a point marked by the upper hammer1 the solid rock gives place to a rusty mass of loose material1 traversing which the cracks may still be seen1 and in which there are few indications of the solid rock#h 7see ,fig4 #b74 ,this loose material when carefully examined is found to be made up of exactly the same minerals as the dense rock below1 but we notice that the mica and pyroxene are rusty and that the feldspar is stained yellowish brown4 ,the pyroxene in particular is very much changed1 and quickly crumbles away in the hand4 ,it is clear that there is every stage between the solid rock and the incoherent powder at the surface of the ground4 ,the joint planes crossing the solid rock below may still be observed traversing the decayed portion1 and also many rounded areas of rock1 which are seen to be identical with the stone at the bottom of the quarry4#i ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #b4--;,,detailed ,,view ,,of ,a ,,portion ,,of ,,quarry ,,showing ,,weathered ,,rock4 ,how shall the facts before us be explained8 ,it has been shown that the dense rock and the loose material are the same mineralogically1 and grade from one into the other1 and it is certainly rational to suppose that the latter is merely a changed form of the first4 ,some force must have been at work on the solid rock1 destroying its coherency and converting it into loose sand4 ,if we inspect the powdered rock1 it will become apparent that this change has been brought about mainly by the process of weathering3 surface water1 with its ever-present acid impurities1 has brought about the partial decay of the pyroxene and mica and caused the disintegration of the upper part of the rock4 ,water has not only attacked the rock from the upper surface1 but has penetrated to considerable depths along the joint planes1 working inward toward the center of each block until the mass becomes completely disintegrated4 ,this process explains the concentric shells about cores of unaltered rock1 each representing original joint blocks1 which are seen in the second photograph4 ,all our excursions into the field will show that this is not an isolated case1 for wherever a ledge is exposed to our view there will be found a zone of weathered rock1 varying in thickness from mere films to many feet4 ,by this process the greatest part of the materials constituting soils is formed1 and the flora and fauna of the earth are rendered possible4 ,upon such products of decay the food supply of running water manifestly depends in a large measure1 as will be pointed out on our next excursion2 and were the scope of this article somewhat larger1 it would be easy to show that the rock decay seen in our photograph has taken place in a length of time measured by something like ten thousand years4 ,if all rock decayed as easily1 and if the rate of decomposition1 as determined here1 held good for great distances from the surface1 mountains two miles in height would become a prey to the force of chemical action in six and a half million years4 ,we can not1 however1 give a time equivalent for the destruction of a mountain range1 since decay1 and consequent disintegration1 is only one of the many forces acting to sap the strength of solid rocks and to tear them asunder4 ,the above figures are given merely to make plain that the time necessary to accomplish the leveling of a mountain chain is but a small part of the earth's existence as such1 great as this period may seem from the standpoint of human history4 ,we shall1 if possible1 time the second excursion immediately after a heavy rain1 and we shall select for our objective point a place where the rain water1 in its efforts to reach a stream1 is forced to run down some steep declivity4 ,under such circumstances1 the carrying power of the water will be very great1 and we shall hope to find evidence of its work in transporting the products of rock weathering and other material broken up by the action of frost4 ,a little diligence will soon reward us with the evidence which we seek4 ,a local inequality of the ground1 perhaps only a few feet across1 is found filled with water--a minute1 temporary lake caused by the recent heavy rainfall4 ,such little water bodies are extremely common1 but the accompanying geological phenomena are1 notwithstanding1 none the less interesting1 and the conclusions to be drawn from the evidence thus presented are none the less valuable4 ,if we examine the pool critically1 it will be noticed that its shore line is cut by a little channel along which the overflow makes its escape4 ,further investigation will show that at another point along the shore1 especially if we are fortunate enough to visit the locality very soon after a rain1 there is a small rivulet entering the pool2 and also that the entering stream is discolored with mud and carries more or less sand1 while the escaping stream is nearly clear1 and is free from all traces of coarse1 sandy material4 ,it is therefore evident that the sediment brought in by the stream has been left behind in the pool1 and of course will be found deposited at its bottom1 and it will appear that the only explanation of the inability of the water further to transport its burden is to be found in the fact that water loses nearly all its motion1 and therefore its transporting power1 on entering a stagnant pool4 ,these are elementary truths1 but an amplification of such simple phenomena is often fully capable of accounting for the most stupendous results4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #c4--,,temporary ,,wet-,,weather ,,delta4 ,having made these observations1 let us look at the form assumed by the sediment when it is forced to fall to the bottom4 ,at the point where the stream enters the pool there is seen an accumulation of material having a nearly level upper surface1 presenting a scalloped or lobe-shaped outer margin1 upon which the stream may be seen flowing and entering the water at one of the lobes4 ,other channels1 though unoccupied by water1 also lead to similar lobes4 ,if we watch closely1 we may be able to witness the growth of this body of sand1 called a delta1 as the falling sediment rapidly increases the size of the lobe2 and also to perceive that as soon as the lobe is built out considerably in advance of the main body of sand1 it will be easier for the stream to enter the water on one side of the scallop1 thus abandoning its old mouth4 ,in this manner the stream moves from one place to another1 successively building the little scallops and continually carving new channels for itself4 ,fig4 #c is a photograph of such a delta1 some three feet across1 taken after the water had been drained away1 and reveals its form in a characteristic manner4 ,as we watch its growth1 it will become evident that only the coarsest material transported by the stream goes to make up the delta1 and that the clay and finest sand are deposited farther away1 where the water is more quiet1 or else pass out in the stream draining the pool4 ,let us look about a little4 ,not far from our miniature lake there are several others4 ,in some the size of the delta is much larger in proportion to the area of the pool than is the case with the one first studied4 ,we find in some cases that the stream has progressively built its delta completely across the old water surface4 ,taking a thin piece of board or a large knife1 we can easily cut vertically through this sand deposit1 thus exposing what is called a geological section4 ,the sand grains of which the deposit is largely composed are seen to be arranged in layers nearly horizontal1 and these layers are found to be due to alternations of sediment varying in fineness4 ,this phenomenon is called stratification1 and is what we should expect of the action of gravity operating on material of different sizes and densities suspended in a body of water4 ,it has been found inexpedient to attempt to show a photograph of this section1 owing to the smallness of the subject1 but the same phenomena may be observed on a much larger scale in ,fig4 #e1 which will be described below4 ,a few rods away the stream that feeds the pool has its origin4 ,the sediment carried by the water and going to build up its delta has its source in part in a neighboring bank made up of material derived from solid rock by weathering1 similar to that shown on our first excursion1 and partly from older water deposits4 ,steep channels exist in the disintegrated rock1 which represent the material removed by the fast-flowing rain water4 ,now what geological phenomena have we observed at this locality8 ,in the first place1 it has become clear that running water possesses the power of transporting sediment4 ,in the second place1 this sediment has been deposited wherever the velocity of the water has been materially checked4 ,the sediment has been laid down in horizontal layers under the influence of gravity4 ,furthermore1 the material of which the delta is composed has been shown1 in part at least1 to have been derived from a solid rock such as forms our mountains4 ,in our first excursion we saw that chemical change promoted disintegration2 in our second1 running water is observed seizing upon these products of decay1 transporting them and building them into stratified deposits in the first convenient pool4 ,a level-topped delta is first formed1 which may or may not grow to fill the pool in which it is born4 ,some of the pools have become filled1 while the delta as such has disappeared2 it has grown into a tiny sand plain4 ,let us see if the work performed by these temporary rivulets is typical of running water in general4 ,for this purpose we shall visit a spot where a river enters some considerable body of water such as a lake4 ,let us inspect the river4 ,its water is sluggish1 discolored by organic matter derived from decaying vegetation1 and for some distance up stream from its mouth it meanders slowly across a flat1 marshy area or meadow4 ,if we also visit the spot at a time when the river is swollen by heavy rains or melting snows1 the presence of this organic matter will be masked by the turbidity of the water2 we shall learn that only in the freshet seasons does the water attain sufficient velocity to carry any visible load of sand and clay4 ,the upper end of the lake will be found to be shallow1 muddy1 and water lilies will have discovered congenial surroundings4 ,at another part of the lake the outflowing water appears clear as crystal2 the sediment brought in by the river has manifestly been deposited in the lake1 as was the case in our little pool4 ,the marsh at the upper end1 of course1 is merely another delta1 slow growing in this instance1 grass-covered1 but as surely encroaching on the water area as in the earlier examples4 ,when an entering stream is normally of great transporting power1 owing to steep slopes down which it rushes1 the form of its delta is not unlike the one first described4 ,with the data already gathered1 we can not escape from the conclusion that the growth going on at the head of the lake will in time1 if present conditions continue to exist1 push its way forward until it has occupied the whole water area4 ,the sediment which is now deposited therein will then be transported across the plain1 and will be carried along until another body of water is reached4 ,further search will bring to light the fact that there are plenty of examples showing all stages between the simple delta and the completely filled lake4 ,the innumerable marshes and meadows which characterize the northern part of the ,united ,states are fine examples of lakes which have perished in this manner4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #d4--;,a ,,common ,,form ,,of ,,large ,,delta4 ,our next excursion will be made to the locality shown in ,fig4 #d1 which is a sketch of a large delta occurring at a considerable height above the general level of the country1 although at the present time the delta is not in vicinity of water4#aj ,it will be evident to the reader that it differs in no important particular1 excepting size1 from our little type specimen formed in a pool4 ,its level top and frontal lobes are to-day nearly as strongly marked as at the time it was made4 ,the reader will have little difficulty in picturing the original conditions of its formation in some ancient lake4 ,this old lake did not endure until the inflowing streams had filled it to a level plain1 but for some reason1 which it is unnecessary for us to consider1 the water was permitted to escape1 leaving the delta perched on the valley side4 ,such deltas are very common1 and we find them in all stages1 from simple beginnings1 as above1 to the completed sand plain4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #e4--;,,geological ,,cross-,,section ,,of ,a ,,delta4 ,the sand of which our first delta was composed has already been referred to as arranged in horizontal layers4 ,in order to verify our conclusions regarding the origin of this delta1 let us seek for an opportunity to observe its internal structure1 and to compare it with that observed in the first example4 ,it may happen that the opportunity does not exist at this immediate locality1 but a little way off a similar deposit occurs1 and a beautiful section has been uncovered by the vigorous attacks of a steam shovel4 ,this section has already been referred to on page #dfd1 as illustrating the structure of the sand layers making up the tiny delta1 as well as water deposits in general1 and is reproduced here as ,fig4 #e4 ,the reader will observe in this picture many familiar features common to railroad excavations4 ,the upper part of the geological section thus exposed is somewhat masked by a downfall of sand and loam1 and the lower part is also hidden by the same materials4 ,along the central part1 however1 the sand and gravel may be seen arranged in horizontal layers of a varying thickness4 ,a close inspection of the uppermost layers will detect a variation in coarseness among the different strata4 ,such alternations of layers of coarse and fine material are due to differences in the transporting power of the running water that brought the sand and pebbles to their present resting place2 the coarse gravel and pebbles were carried by fast-flowing rivers1 and the fine sand by streams of less rapidity and consequently less transporting power4 ,beds of this character ordinarily correspond closely in time with alternating periods of great rainfall or snow melting and the summer seasons4 ,the pebbles of which the coarse layers are composed1 as we should expect1 are far from spherical1 and the operation of gravity on such bodies1 as they fall to the floor of a lake or ocean1 is to cause them to arrange themselves with their flat surfaces horizontal and parallel to one another4 ,in the example before us this fact is apparent1 and affords the basis for another line of reasoning by which all such stratified deposits1 however great their magnitude1 are to be referred to the same source--namely1 stream-transported materials derived from a decaying and wasting land surface1 laid down in water under the influence of gravity4 ,we have now arrived at a most important and far-reaching generalization so far as the work performed by running water is concerned1 and its action in filling our lakes and ponds2 and we have learned by observation on a small scale the means by which such deposits may be recognized4 ,let us apply these means of recognition to the phenomena shown by our large rivers and the more enduring oceans into which they drain4 ,in the same manner that we have studied the little pool and larger lake1 we will look into the work done by the great waterways of our continents1 selecting as a type of such streams the mighty ,mississippi4 ,careful measurement has shown that this river annually transports two hundred million tons of sediment mechanically suspended4 ,what becomes of this enormous quantity of sand and clay1 equal to a cubic mile in a little over a century1 as it is swept into the waters of the ,gulf of ,mexico8 ,for this purpose we have only to visit the region about its mouth to become acquainted with the almost impotent struggles that have been made by our ,government during the last fifty years in an effort to keep the river below ,new ,orleans1 in part at least1 confined to its present channels2 and to study the chart of that portion of the ,gulf coast prepared by the ,united ,states ,coast and ,geodetic ,survey 7see ,fig4 #f74 ,we have not forgotten the little lobes2 their method of growth1 and the general form of our first-seen delta1 shown in ,fig4 #c4 ,in viewing the phenomena at the mouth of the ,mississippi1 it is no longer necessary for our present purposes to make a detailed study1 since it will become apparent at once that the river is doing the work on a larger scale typified by the performance of the tiny stream flowing into its temporary pool4 ,in place of the little delta with its still smaller lobes1 the ,mississippi has deposited at its mouth an enormous delta1 thousands of square miles in area1 and its bifurcating arms may be seen building out several scallops for miles into the waters of the gulf4 ,for centuries these long lobes have been building in advance of the delta front4 ,the arms gradually become clogged with sediment1 a new passage to the ocean is opened on the sides1 where deposition will begin at a new point1 producing a lobe as before4 ,situated many miles up the river1 it is to-day the great fear of ,new ,orleans that its only navigable arm to the sea will thus be closed to that commerce upon which the life of the city depends4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #f4--,,the ,,delta ,,of ,,the ,,mississippi4 ,only a portion of the sediment brought in by the river goes to form its delta2 a large part of the finest material1 such as clay1 is transported by temporary and permanent currents thousands of miles away1 where it is deposited in the more quiet waters of the ocean4 ,in this manner the ,mississippi has been shown to deposit a cubic mile of mechanically transported material in a little over a century4 ,what shall we say of the effects produced on the continents and oceans by thousands of rivers1 each doing its proportionate share of work and acting through millions of years8 ,two main results must follow1 unless interruptions occur3 the lower elevations and the magnificent mountain ranges1 which rear their lofty heads above the permanent snow line1 will be divided into minor peaks2 valleys will be carved out2 the whole land surface will slowly waste away1 at first rapidly1 at last slowly1 and be transported to the oceans1 where it will form great horizontal beds differing in no essential particular1 excepting size1 from those shown in ,fig4 #e--;great deposits that are merely deltas on a large scale4 ,the geologist1 however1 finds no evidence to indicate that at any time in the earth's history have these theoretical results taken place4 ,land masses1 of continental dimensions1 have not been allowed thus to waste entirely away to a general flatness on account of the interruptions caused by elevation--the bodily lifting of great areas of rock1 even out of the ocean floor1 to become mountains or plateaus1 in some cases higher than any point in this country4 ,if our observations thus far and those yet to be made serve to make this clear1 one of the objects of this article will have been accomplished4 ,it is to be hoped that our observations have made plain the processes of rock disintegration and water transportation2 that in the oceans all these materials are eventually deposited in beds horizontally arranged1 composed of such products of decay in the condition of sand and mud4 ,we have only to point out the proof that great land masses1 composed of water-deposited materials1 have been lifted from the ocean to become continents and mountain ranges4 ,as the ocean deposits slowly accumulate in layers to beds of many thousands of feet in thickness1 the lower parts are gradually subjected to greatly increased pressure produced by the overlying beds4 ,during this time waters of a varying temperature1 carrying1 chemically dissolved1 great quantities of lime1 silica1 and iron oxide1 are allowed free circulation through them4 ,these conditions promote chemical change3 much silica 7the mineral quartz71 lesser amounts of carbonate of lime 7the mineral calcite71 and iron oxide are precipitated about the loose sand grains1 firmly cementing them together into a solid rock4 ,a cycle has thus been completed2 the dense rocks composing a continent have passed by the process of weathering into incoherent sand and clay1 which1 when transported to the ocean floor1 become again converted into solid rock4 ,historical records prove that during the last three thousand years there have taken place many changes in the ocean's level4 ,old islands have disappeared2 new ones have emerged above the surface of the water4 ,great stretches of seacoast exist at the present time which within the historical period have been covered by the ocean4 ,even at the present writing we are witnessing the gradual submergence of some parts of the earth and the rising of others2 terraces on the northern ,atlantic coast may be seen along the hillsides many feet above the present level of the ocean--all of which go to show that the relationship of the land to the water is an unstable one4 ,these are the evidences of continental growth and depressions from the historical standpoint1 and the validity of the data upon which the belief is founded can not be shaken4 ,the evidence from the geological side is overwhelming1 but before we speak of this it will be well once more to say a word as to the causes of continental uplift4 ,from an original fluid globe possessing a high temperature1 the earth has now cooled down to a degree sufficiently low to permit the formation of a thick rock crust4 ,underneath this crust an approach to the old surface temperatures is still maintained1 and the existence of a certain degree of fluidity is demonstrated to us from time to time by the phenomenon of volcanism4 ,successive zones of cooling took place4 ,the outer part could only conform to a shrinking interior by wrinkling1 folding1 or bodily lifting considerable areas above the general level4 ,an adjustment of strains thus set up would take place either with or without folding of the strata4 ,these initial wrinkles gave rise to our first mountains1 and the continuation of these conditions at the present time is as surely nourishing mountain growth as at any time in the past4 ,in this way the fluctuations of the ocean's level1 above referred to1 alone are to be explained1 and such form but temporary rises and falls in the history of a continent4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #g4--,,mountain ,,showing ,,rock ,,folding4 ,the rate at which an ocean bed is raised to form a mountain range is1 no doubt1 a variable one2 always slow1 often interrupted1 but seldom or never violent4 ,during this time the strata usually undergo crushing and folding2 stretching takes place1 and displacements of the rocks1 or faulting1 are not uncommon4 ,as an example of the wrinkling that the strata may suffer under these conditions1 the reader is referred to the beautiful symmetrical fold shown on the side of a mountain in the ,appalachians 7,fig4 #g74 ,similar folding is the rule1 but often immense areas are raised to great heights above the ocean without disturbing the horizontal position of the beds 7see ,fig4 #h74 ,coincident with the emergence of the rocks from beneath the water1 there begin the attacks of the forces operating to destroy them4 ,hand in hand there go on growth and destruction4 ,the two may keep an even pace2 either may obtain the mastery4 ,in the one case1 lack of considerable elevation and flatness result2 in the other1 great altitudes may be attained4 ,the rivers may cut their valleys downward as fast as the land rises1 or the down-cutting may be relatively slower4 ,in any case1 after a given land mass has attained its greatest height above the sea1 the larger rivers soon cut their channels down as far as river cutting is possible--namely1 to within a few feet of sea level4 ,with relatively rapid elevation1 soft rocks1 and large rivers1 the resultant valley takes the form of a caon1 examples of which are found along the courses of the ,colorado and the ,yellowstone ,rivers 7see ,fig4 #h74aa ,valleys of this nature soon lose their steep sides by the action of weathering and all that this implies1 and pass into a more open state1 like that shown in ,fig4 #i4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #h4--;,,horizontal ,,rocks1 ,,grand ,,ca,,on ,,of ,,the ,,colorado4 ,illustration3 ,,fig4 #i4--,,mount ,,stephen1 ,,showing ,,its ,,horizontal ,,rocks4 ,these views have been selected in order that a comparison of this type of mountain structure may be made with that shown in ,fig4 #f4 ,the points of resemblance between the two sections exposed1 one by a steam shovel1 the other by river action1 are the horizontal position of the strata and the alternations of beds of unlike character4 ,the differences are mainly that the beds making up the mountain show that they are built up of alternating layers of sand 7now converted into a sandstone7 and clay 7now in the condition of a slate74 ,are not these the products of a decayed continent8 ,is their position to be explained otherwise than along the lines already stated8 ,our only difficulty in readily accepting this conclusion is founded on a hereditary belief1 born in ignorance and nourished to maturity by superstition1 that the earth came into existence as we see it to-day1 the surface dissected by valleys in which the rivers find established courses to the sea2 possessing a multiplicity of highland and lowland1 granite mountains and marble hills1 as a result of some plan carried into effect as a creative act4 ,science has revealed the impossibility of this interpretation4 ,considered in the light of evolution1 acting through an immense period of time1 by means of the processes already enumerated1 the diversity of land form is made plain to us1 and the ever-varying characters of rock structure and composition are in the main made easy of comprehension4 ,viewed in the light of the foregoing pages1 and illustrating as they do land form and the greater part of the earth's crust1 the rock structures revealed on the sides of the mountains and caons1 as well as the broader valley itself1 take on a new and more intelligent interest4 ,high and enduring as the mountains may appear1 resistant as their solid rocks may seem1 they are doomed as mountains to the same fate that their own structure and composition prove to have overtaken earlier mountains before them4 ,the earth has known no cessation in this cycle of decay1 deposition1 and elevation2 again and again have continental masses been raised from the ocean floor only to become a prey to the forces that destroy them4 ,these cycles will continue--mountain ranges will fade away and new ones will be born4 ,a more permanent relationship between the lowland1 the upland1 and the ocean level will never be attained until the forces that warp and wrinkle the earth's crust shall have ceased forever4 ,,footnotes3 #h ,the position of the solid rock is shown by the hammer at the extreme right1 standing vertically4 #i ,this photograph represents a more detailed view of the quarry wall seen in ,fig4 #a4 ,the relation of the two views will be understood by observing the positions of the hammers1 which are in the same place in both photographs4 ,these photographs1 as well as some of the others that follow1 were taken by ,mr4 ,john ,l4 ,gardner1 #b;d1 for the purpose of illustrating these pages4 #aj ,in order to obtain this sketch1 a survey was made of the delta1 and from the information thus gathered a model was constructed out of clay4 ,the dimensions of the delta are about one thousand by seven hundred feet4 #aa ,the bottom of the caon at this point is between four and five thousand feet below the flat surfaces in the foreground--a sheer descent of nearly a mile4 99 99 99 99 99 ,m4 ,henri ,bourget1 of the ,toulouse 7,france7 ,observatory1 has called attention in ,nature to a common phenomenon which he believes has not been mentioned in any scientific book4 ,if one end of a bar of metal is heated1 but not enough to make the other end too hot to be held in the hand1 and then suddenly cooled1 the temperature of the other end will rise till the hand can not bear it4 ,all workmen who have occasion to handle and heat pieces of metal1 he says1 know this4 ,,death ,,gulch1 ,a ,,natural ,,bear-,,trap4 ,,by ,t4,a4 ,,jaggar1 ,,jr41 ,,ph4,d4 ,cases of asphyxiation by gas have been very frequently reported of late years1 and we commonly associate with such reports the idea of a second-rate hotel and an unsophisticated countryman who blows out the gas4 ,such incidents we connect with the supercivilization of the nineteenth century1 but it is none the less true that ,nature furnishes similar accidents1 and that in regions far remote from the haunts of men4 ,in the heart of the ,rocky ,mountains of ,wyoming1 unknown to either the tourist or the trapper1 there is a natural hostelry for the wild inhabitants of the forest1 where1 with food1 drink1 and shelter all in sight1 the poor creatures are tempted one after another into a bath of invisible poisonous vapor1 where they sink down to add their bones to the fossil records of an interminable list of similar tragedies1 dating back to a period long preceding the records of human history4 ,it was the writer's privilege1 as a member of the expedition of the ,united ,states ,geological ,survey of the ,yellowstone ,park1 under the direction of ,mr4 ,arnold ,hague1 to visit and for the first time to photograph this remarkable locality4 ,a similar visit was last made by members of the survey in the summer of #ahhh1 and an account of the discovery of ,death ,gulch was published in ,science 7,february #ae1 #ahhi7 under the title ,a ,deadly ,gas ,spring in the ,yellowstone ,park1 by ,mr4 ,walter ,harvey ,weed4 ,the following extracts from ,mr4 ,weed's paper indicate concisely the general character of the gulch1 and the description of the death-trap as it then appeared offers interesting material for comparison with its condition as observed in the summer of #ahig4 ,death ,gulch is a small and gloomy ravine in the northeast corner of the ,yellowstone ,national ,park4 ,in this region the lavas which fill the ancient basin of the park rest upon the flanks of mountains formed of fragmentary volcanic ejecta1 444 while the hydrothermal forces of the central portion of the park show but feeble manifestations of their energy in the almost extinct hot-spring areas of ,soda ,butte1 ,lamar ,river1 ,cache ,creek1 and ,miller ,creek4 ,although hot water no longer flows from these vents1 gaseous emanations are now given off in considerable volume4 ,on ,cache ,creek1 about two miles above its confluence with ,lamar ,river1 are deposits of altered and crystalline travertine1 with pools in the creek violently effervescing locally4 ,this is due to the copious emission of gas4 ,above these deposits the creek cuts into a bank of sulphur and gravel cemented by this material1 and a few yards beyond is the dbouchure of a small lateral gully coming down from the mountainside4 ,in its bottom is a small stream of clear and cold water1 sour with sulphuric acid1 and flowing down a narrow and steep channel cut in beds of dark-gray volcanic tuff4 ,ascending this gulch1 the sides1 closing together1 become very steep slopes of white1 decomposed rock4444 ,the only springs now flowing are small oozes of water issuing from the base of these slopes1 or from the channel bed1 forming a thick1 creamy1 white deposit about the vents1 and covering the stream bed4 ,this deposit consists largely of sulphate of alumina4444 ,about one hundred and fifty feet above the main stream these oozing springs of acid water cease1 but the character of the gulch remains the same4 ,the odor of sulphur now becomes stronger1 though producing no other effect than a slight irritation of the lungs4 ,the gulch ends1 or rather begins1 in a scoop or basin about two hundred and fifty feet above ,cache ,creek1 and just below this was found the fresh body of a large bear1 a silver-tip grizzly1 with the remains of a companion in an advanced stage of decomposition above him4 ,near by were the skeletons of four more bears1 with the bones of an elk a yard or two above1 while in the bottom of the pocket were the fresh remains of several squirrels1 rock hares1 and other small animals1 besides numerous dead butterflies and insects4 ,the body of the grizzly was carefully examined for bullet holes or other marks of injury1 but showed no traces of violence1 the only indication being a few drops of blood under the nose4 ,it was evident that he had met his death but a short time before1 as the carcass was still perfectly fresh1 though offensive enough at the time of a later visit4 ,the remains of a cinnamon bear just above and alongside of this were in an advanced state of decomposition1 while the other skeletons were almost denuded of flesh1 though the claws and much of the hair remained4 ,it was apparent that these animals1 as well as the squirrels and insects1 had not met their death by violence1 but had been asphyxiated by the irrespirable gas given off in the gulch4 ,the hollows were tested for carbonic-acid gas with lighted tapers without proving its presence1 but the strong smell of sulphur1 and a choking sensation of the lungs1 indicated the presence of noxious gases1 while the strong wind prevailing at the time1 together with the open nature of the ravine1 must have caused a rapid diffusion of the vapors4 ,this place differs1 therefore1 very materially from the famous ,death ,valley of ,java and similar places1 in being simply a ,v-shaped trench1 not over seventy-five feet deep1 cut in the mountain slope1 and not a hollow or cave4 ,that the gas at times accumulates in the pocket at the head of the gulch is1 however1 proved by the dead squirrels1 etc41 found on its bottom4 ,it is not probable1 however1 that the gas ever accumulates here to a considerable depth1 owing to the open nature of the place1 and the fact that the gulch draining it would carry off the gas1 which would1 from its density1 tend to flow down the ravine4 ,this offers an explanation of the death of the bears1 whose remains occur not in this basin1 but where it narrows to form the ravine1 for it is here that the layer of gas would be deepest1 and has proved sufficient to suffocate the first bear1 who was probably attracted by the remains of the elk1 or perhaps of the smaller victims of the invisible gas2 and he1 in turn1 has doubtless served as bait for others who have in turn succumbed4 ,though the gulch has doubtless served as a death-trap for a very long period of time1 these skeletons and bodies must be the remains of only the most recent victims1 for the ravine is so narrow and the fall so great that the channel must be cleared out every few years1 if not annually4 ,the change wrought by the water during a single rainstorm1 which occurred in the interval between ,mr4 ,weed's first and second visits1 was so considerable that it seems probable that the floods of early spring1 when the snows are melting under the hot sun of this region1 must be powerful enough to wash everything down to the cone of dbris at the mouth of the gulch4 ,mr4 ,arnold ,hague1 on the occasion of his visit1 was more successful in obtaining evidence of the presence of carbonic-dioxide gas4 ,he writes3 ,the day ,i went up the ravine ,i was able in two places to extinguish a long brown paper taper4 ,the day ,i was there it was very calm1 and where ,i made the test the water was trickling down a narrow gorge shut in by shelving rocks above4 ,it was at noon on the #bb;d of ,july in the summer of #ahig that we made camp near the mouth of ,cache ,creek1 about three miles southeast of the military post and mail station of ,soda ,butte4 ,in company with ,dr4 ,francis ,p4 ,king ,i at once started up the creek1 keeping the left bank1 that we might not miss the gulch1 which joins the valley of ,cache ,creek from the southern side4 ,we had a toilsome climb through timber and over steep embankments1 cut by the creek in a loose conglomerate1 and after going about a mile and a half we noticed that some of these banks were stained with whitish and yellow deposits of alum and sulphur1 indicating that we were nearing the old hot-spring district4 ,soon a caved-in cone of travertine was seen1 with crystalline calcite and sulphur in the cavities1 and the bed of the creek was more or less completely whitened by these deposits1 while here and there could be seen along the banks oozing paint-pots of calcareous mud1 in one case inky black1 with deposits of varicolored salts about its rim1 and a steady ebullition of gas bubbles rising from the bottom4 ,in other cases these pools were crystal clear1 and always cold4 ,the vegetation1 which below had been dense close to the creek's bank1 here became more scanty1 especially on the southern side1 where the bare rock was exposed and seen to be a volcanic breccia1 much decomposed and stained with solfataric deposits4 ,a mound of coarse dbris seen just above on this side indicated the presence of a lateral ravine1 which from its situation and character we decided was probably the gulch sought for4 ,a strong odor of sulphureted hydrogen had been perceptible for some time1 and when we entered the gully the fumes became oppressive1 causing a heavy burning sensation in the throat and lungs4 ,the ravine proved to be as described1 a ,v-shaped trench cut in the volcanic rock1 about fifty feet in depth1 with very steep bare whitish slopes1 narrowing to a stony rill bed that ascended steeply back into the mountain side4 ,illustration3 ,,general ,,view1 ,,looking ,,downstream1 ,,of ,,lower ,,part ,,of ,,death ,,gulch4 ,climbing through this trough1 a frightfully weird and dismal place1 utterly without life1 and occupied by only a tiny streamlet and an appalling odor1 we at length discovered some brown furry masses lying scattered about the floor of the ravine about a quarter of a mile from the point where we had left ,cache ,creek4 ,approaching cautiously1 it became quickly evident that we had before us a large group of huge recumbent bears2 the one nearest to us was lying with his nose between his paws1 facing us1 and so exactly like a huge dog asleep that it did not seem possible that it was the sleep of death4 ,to make sure1 ,i threw a pebble at the animal1 striking him on the flank2 the distended skin resounded like a drumhead1 and the only response was a belch of poisonous gas that almost overwhelmed us4 ,closer examination showed that the animal was a young silver-tip grizzly 7,ursus horribilis72 a few drops of thick1 dark-red blood stained his nostrils and the ground beneath4 ,there proved to be five other carcasses1 all bears1 in various stages of decay2 careful search revealed oval areas of hair and bones that represented two other bears1 making a total of eight carcasses in all4 ,seven were grizzlies1 one was a cinnamon bear 7,ursus americanus74 ,one huge grizzly was so recent a victim that his tracks were still visible in the white1 earthy slopes1 leading down to the spot where he had met his death4 ,in no case were any marks of violence seen1 and there can be no question that death was occasioned by the gas4 ,the wind was blowing directly up the ravine during our visit1 and we failed to get any test for carbonic acid1 though we exhausted all our matches in the effort1 plunging the flames into hollows of the rill bed in various parts of its course2 they invariably burned brightly1 and showed not the slightest tendency to extinguish4 ,the dilution of the gas in such a breeze would be inevitable1 however2 that the gas was present was attested by the peculiar oppression on the lungs that was felt during the entire period that we were in the gulch1 and which only wore off gradually on our return to camp4 ,i suffered from a slight headache in consequence for several hours4 ,illustration3 ,,looking ,,down ,,the ,,gulch--,,the ,,latest ,,victim1 ,a ,,large ,,silver-,,tip ,,grizzly4 ,there was no difference in the appearance of the portion of the gulch where the eight bears had met their end and the region above and below4 ,a hundred yards or more up stream the solfataric deposits become less abundant1 and the timber grows close to the brook2 a short distance beyond this the gulch ends4 ,no bodies were found above1 and only bears were found in the locality described4 ,it will be observed that ,weed's experience differs in this respect from ours1 and the appearance of the place was somewhat different3 he found elk and small animals in addition to the bears1 and describes the death-trap as occupying the mouth of the basin at the head of the gulch1 above the point where the last springs of acid water cease4 ,the rill observed by us has its source far above the animals2 indeed1 it trickles directly through the worm-eaten carcass of the cinnamon bear--a thought by no means comforting when we realized that the water supply for our camp was drawn from the creek only a short distance down the valley4 ,it is not impossible that there may be two or three of these gullies having similar properties4 ,that we should have found only bears may perhaps be accounted for on the ground that the first victim for this season was a bear1 and his carcass frightened away all animals except those of his own family4 ,for an illustration of a process of accumulation of the bones of large vertebrates1 with all the conditions present necessary for fossilization1 no finer example can be found in the world than ,death ,gulch2 year after year the snow slides and spring floods wash down this fresh supply of entrapped carcasses to be buried in the waste cones and alluvial bottoms of ,cache ,creek and ,lamar ,river4 ,probably the stream-formed conglomerate that we noted as we ascended the creek is locally filled with these remains4 ,the gas is probably generated by the action of the acid water on the ancient limestones that here underlie the lavas at no great depth2 outcrops of these limestones occur only a few miles away at the mouth of ,soda ,butte ,creek4 ,this gas must emanate from fissures in the rock just above the bears1 and on still nights it may accumulate to a depth of two or three feet in the ravine1 settling in a heavy1 wavy stratum1 and probably rolling slowly down the bed of the rill into the valley below4 ,the accompanying photographs were made during our visit4 ,,the ,,labor ,,problem ,,in ,,the ,,tropics4 ,,by ,w4 ,,alleyne ,,ireland4 ,a great deal of space has been devoted in ,american magazines and newspapers recently to the question of how this country has become a colonial power4 ,destiny and duty1 strength and weakness1 accident and design1 honesty and corruption have been called on by writers1 singly and in various combinations1 to bear the responsibility of the new departure in the national policy4 ,whatever interest such speculations may possess for the student who seeks to discover in the events of history some indication of the evolution of national character1 there can be little doubt that the eyes of the people at large are turned in another direction4 ,what are our new possessions worth8 is the question which intelligent men of all classes are beginning to ask2 and it is not surprising1 in view of the comparative isolation of this country in the past1 that there are few who have sufficient confidence in their own opinion to answer the query4 ,in ,england1 whose colonial and ,indian empire embraces nearly one fourth of the population of the globe1 there is an astounding lack of knowledge in relation to colonial affairs2 and those who follow the debates in the ,house of ,commons will have noticed that when the colonies are the subject under discussion the few members who remain in their seats seldom fail to exhibit a degree of ignorance which must be most disheartening to the able and learned ,colonial ,secretary4 ,it is not to be wondered at1 then1 that in the ,united ,states1 where the people have been too much occupied with the problems continually arising at home to pay any attention to affairs which1 until very recently1 have appeared entirely outside the range of practical politics1 there should be few men who have given their time to that careful study of tropical colonization which alone can impart any value to opinions in regard to the practical issues involved in the colonial expansion of this country4 ,discussion of the subject has been almost entirely along the line of the possible effects of the new policy on the political institutions and popular ideals of the ,united ,states1 and little has been written which may be said to throw any light on the problem of tropical colonization per se4 ,a residence of ten years in the tropical colonies of ,france1 ,spain1 ,holland1 and ,great ,britain--a period during which ,i devoted much time to the study of colonial affairs--leaves me of opinion that there are two points in regard to which discussion is peculiarly opportune3 #a4 ,the value of the ,philippines and ,puerto ,rico as a field for the cultivation of those tropical products which are consumed in the temperate zones4 #b4 ,the value of the islands as a market for products and manufactures of the temperate zones4 ,it will at once be seen that only in so far as the islands are valuable in the former respect can they be important in the latter1 for in the absence of production there can not be any considerable consumption of commodities4 ,the first point to be considered1 and it is the one to which ,i shall confine myself in the present article1 is by what means the productive possibilities of ,puerto ,rico and the ,philippines can be developed4 ,basing my calculation on official reports covering a number of years1 ,i find that the average value per capita of the annual exports of native products from a number of tropical colonies selected by me for the purpose of this inquiry is as follows3 ,trinidad #bf4dh ,british ,guiana #cd4bf ,martinique #bc4dh ,mauritius #bj4bh ,dominica #g4bh ,st4 ,vincent #g4fh ,ceylon #g4bd ,montserrat #g4hi ,an examination of these figures will serve to show that the value of the colonies in the first column1 measured by the standard of their productiveness1 is three times that of the colonies in the second column4 ,reference to the population returns of the colonies named discloses the fact that in the colonies in the first column the population contains a very large proportion of imported contract laborers and their descendants1 while in the other colonies practically the whole population is home-born for at least two generations4 ,a moment's reflection will show the importance of the comparison instituted above1 and if the space at my command permitted a more extensive analysis of the trade of tropical colonies1 it could be demonstrated that the theory holds good1 almost without exception1 that of tropical countries those only are commercially valuable in which a system of imported contract labor is in force4 ,there are one or two colonies 7,barbados is the most striking example7 in which the pressure of population is so great that the labor supply suffices for the utmost development of which the country is capable2 but such instances are rare4 ,the experience of ,england in governing tropical colonies is frequently cited by those who favor the so-called imperial policy for the ,united ,states as a proof that tropical colonization in itself presents no difficulties which can not be overcome by enlightened administration4 ,it would be difficult to point out in just what manner ,great ,britain derives any benefit from her tropical possessions1 but her experience confirms the theory ,i have stated above--that the commercial development of tropical colonies is possible only where there is an extraordinary density of population or where a system of imported contract labor is in force4 ,a glance through the list of ,great ,britain's tropical colonies will serve to prove the correctness of this theory4 ,imported contract labor is used in ,british ,guiana1 ,trinidad1 ,jamaica1 ,queensland1 the ,fiji ,islands1 the ,straits ,settlements1 and ,mauritius2 while the pressure of population is extreme in ,lagos and ,barbados1 which support respectively #a1ccc and #a1abj persons to the square mile4 ,the remaining tropical colonies of ,great ,britain--using the term tropical colony in its strictest sense--are the ,gold ,coast1 ,sierra ,leone1 ,gambia1 ,hongkong1 ,st4 ,helena1 ,british ,honduras1 ,grenada1 ,st4 ,vincent1 ,st4 ,lucia1 ,antigua1 ,st4 ,kitts-,nevis1 ,dominica1 ,montserrat1 and a few islands in the ,pacific which are insignificant commercially4 ,a careful examination of the ,british trade returns shows that the total export and import trade between the ,united ,kingdom and all the ,british tropical colonies in #ahif reached a value of #adf1jjj1jjj1 and that of this sum #aba1jjj1jjj represented trade with the tropical colonies which employ imported contract labor and with ,lagos and ,barbados4 ,in other words1 the trade between the ,united ,kingdom and those ,british tropical colonies where free labor is used and where there is no great pressure of population made up less than eighteen per cent of the total trade with the ,british tropical colonies4 ,it would appear from the facts ,i have given that the commercial development of those parts of the tropics where the population is sparse will be dependent on the importation of labor from more densely peopled areas4 ,if the question is approached from an entirely different standpoint the necessity of contract labor in the tropics becomes more strikingly apparent4 ,the development of the tropics will be in the direction of agriculture rather than manufacturing1 and the requirements of tropical agriculture in respect of labor are most arbitrary4 ,it is not sufficient that the labor supply is ample1 in the ordinary sense of the word2 it must be at all times immediately available4 ,thus1 a mine owner whose men go out on strike is1 briefly1 placed in this position3 ,he will lose a sum of money somewhat larger than the amount of profit he could have made during the period of the strike had it not occurred4 ,his coal1 however1 is still there1 and is not less valuable--indeed1 in the case of a prolonged strike1 may actually be more valuable--when the strike is over2 work can easily be resumed where it was dropped1 and during the idle days the ordinary running expenses of the mine cease4 ,the greater part of the loss sustained in the instance ,i have supposed is not out-of-pocket loss1 but merely the failure to realize prospective profits4 ,on the other hand1 a sugar estate in the tropics spends about eight months out of the twelve in cultivating the crop1 and the remaining four in reaping and boiling operations4 ,by the time the crop is ready to reap many thousands of dollars have been expended on it by way of planting1 weeding1 draining1 and the application of nitrogenous manures4 ,if from any cause the labor supply fails when the cutting of the canes is about to commence1 every cent expended on the crop is wasted2 and if for want of labor the canes which are cut are not transported within a few hours to the mills1 they turn sour and can not be made into sugar4 ,it will thus be seen that in the case of sugar-growing a perfectly reliable labor supply is the first requisite4 ,the same might be said of the cultivation of tea1 coffee1 cocoa1 spices1 and tropical fruits4 ,this problem--the securing of a reliable labor supply--has been solved in the case of several of the tropical possessions of ,england by the importation of ,east ,indian laborers under contract to serve for a fixed period on the plantations4 ,as1 in my opinion1 the ,east ,indian contract laborer will play an important part in the development of the tropics1 ,i describe in detail the most perfect system of contract labor with which ,i am acquainted1 that existing at the present time in the colony of ,british ,guiana4 ,the system of imported indentured labor which is in force in many of the ,british colonies has been referred to frequently1 both in this country and in ,england1 as slavery1 semislavery1 the new slavery4 ,the use of such terms to describe such a system indicates a complete ignorance of the facts4 ,as some of the best-informed journals in this country1 in noticing my writings on tropical subjects1 have fallen into this error1 ,i hope that the description ,i give here1 which is based on several years' experience of the actual working of the system1 will serve to convince the readers of this article that the indenture of the ,east ,indian coolie in the ,british colonies is no more a form of slavery than is any contract entered into between an employer and an employee in this country4 ,when the ,british ,guiana planter was informed by the home ,government in #ahcd that four years later slavery would be entirely abolished throughout the ,british ,empire1 he foresaw at once that unless a new source of labor was thrown open a very short time would elapse before the cane fields would fall out of cultivation4 ,he listened1 not without some irritation1 to the assurances of the agents of the ,antislavery ,society that as soon as the slaves were freed they would work with redoubled energy1 and that the labor supply1 instead of deteriorating1 would1 in fact1 improve4 ,the planters knew better1 and began at once to arrange for the importation of contract labor4 ,with the year #ahcd began the period of apprenticeship for the slaves1 prior to their complete emancipation four years later4 ,during this time1 and before the imported labor sufficed for the needs of the plantations1 several estates were ruined and fell out of cultivation because the apprenticed laborers would not work4 ,on ,october #aa1 #ahch1 the governor of the colony1 ,henry ,light1 ,esquire1 issued a proclamation to the freed slaves4 ,the proclamation stated that the governor had learned with regret that the labor of the freed slaves was irregular2 that their masters could not depend on them2 that they worked one day and idled the next2 that when they had earned enough to fill their bellies they lay down to sleep or idled away their time2 that they left their tasks unfinished1 and then expected to be paid in full for them4 ,in the meanwhile the planters imported labor from the ,west ,indian ,islands1 ,malta1 ,madeira1 ,china1 and ,germany2 and eventually the system of immigration from ,india was organized4 ,the system is under the control of the ,indian ,council in ,calcutta on the one hand and the ,british ,guiana ,government and the ,colonial ,office on the other4 ,in ,georgetown1 the capital of the colony1 is the immigration department1 under the management of the immigration agent general1 who has under him a staff of inspectors1 subagents1 clerks1 and interpreters1 all of whom must speak at least one ,indian dialect4 ,in ,calcutta resides the emigration agent general1 also an official of the ,british ,guiana ,government1 who has under him a staff of medical officers1 recruiting agents1 and clerks4 ,each year the planters of ,british ,guiana send in requisitions to the immigration department stating the number of immigrants required for the following year4 ,these requisitions are examined by the agent general1 and if1 in his opinion1 any estate demands more coolies than the extent of its cultivation justifies1 the number is reduced4 ,as soon as the full number is decided on1 the agent in ,calcutta is informed1 and the process of recruiting commences4 ,the laborers are secured entirely by voluntary enlistment4 ,the recruiting agents go about the country and explain the terms offered by the ,british ,guiana planters1 and those men and women who express their willingness to enter into a contract are sent down to ,calcutta at the expense of the colony4 ,on arrival in ,calcutta they are provided with free food and quarters at the emigration depot until such time as a sufficient number are assembled to form a full passenger list for a transport4 ,during the period of waiting1 which may extend to several weeks1 a careful medical inspection of the laborers is made1 and all those who may be deemed unfit for the work of the estates are sent back to their homes at the expense of the colony4 ,prior to embarkation the coolies are called up in batches of fifteen or twenty1 and the emigration agent or a local magistrate reads over to them in their own language the terms of the indenture4 ,each one is then given an indenture ticket on which the terms of indenture are printed in three dialects4 ,the agent general affixes his signature to each ticket2 and a special provision in the laws of ,british ,guiana makes his signature binding on the planters who employ the coolies4 ,the ticket thus constitutes a contract valid as against either party in the courts of the colony4 ,the coolies have the right to carry with them any children they may wish1 and those under twelve years of age are exempt from indenture4 ,the transportation is effected in sailing vessels1 which are for the time being ,government transports4 ,the reason why steamers are not employed is that sailing vessels are found to be much healthier1 and that the long sea voyage has an excellent effect on the immigrants4 ,the regulations governing the voyage are very strict4 ,as far as the coolies are concerned1 the ship is in charge of a medical officer4 ,the captain of the ship1 the officers1 and the crew are all under the command of the doctor1 except in so far as the actual sailing of the vessel is in question4 ,the vessel has ample hospital accommodation1 a complete dispensary in charge of a qualified dispenser1 and all the arrangements must be passed by a ,government inspector before the ship is given her clearance4 ,the food to be furnished during the voyage is specified by law4 ,the bill of fare consists chiefly of bread1 butter1 rice1 curry1 sago1 condensed milk1 and fresh mutton1 a number of sheep being carried on the ship4 ,every morning and evening the doctor makes an inspection of the vessel1 and enters in his log-book all essential details1 such as births1 deaths1 cases treated in the hospital1 and so forth4 ,on arrival in the colony the coolies are allotted to the different estates4 ,the coolie is bound to remain for five years on the plantation to which he is allotted1 and to work during that time five days a week1 the day's work being seven hours4 ,in return for this the planter must furnish him with a house free of rent1 and built in such a way as to meet the requirements of the inspector of immigrants' dwellings in regard to ventilation1 size1 and water supply2 and no immigrants are sent to any estate until these houses have been inspected and passed as satisfactory4 ,the planter must also furnish on the estate free hospital accommodation and medical attendance1 and in addition provide free education for the children of indentured immigrants4 ,the medical officers are ,government servants1 and the colony is divided into districts1 each of which has its own doctor1 who is compelled by law to visit each estate in his district at least once in forty-eight hours and examine and prescribe for all immigrants presenting themselves at the hospital4 ,the planter is further bound to pay a minimum daily wage of twenty-four cents to each man and sixteen cents to each woman4 ,this appears at first sight a very small sum1 but when it is taken into account that a coolie can live well on eight cents a day it will be seen that the wage is three times the living expense1 a rate very rarely paid to agricultural laborers in any part of the world4 ,that the coolies do1 in fact1 save considerable sums of money will be seen when the statistics of the immigration department are examined4 ,these records show that during the years #ahgj to #ahif #ch1gic immigrants returned to ,india after completing their terms of indenture1 and that they carried back with them to their native land over #b1hjj1jjj4 ,at the end of #ahif there were over five thousand ,east ,indian depositors in the ,british ,guiana ,government ,savings ,bank and the ,post-,office ,savings ,bank1 with a total sum of more than #dej1jjj to their credit4 ,at the end of five years the indentured coolie becomes absolutely free4 ,he may cease work1 or1 if he prefer it1 remain on the estates as a free laborer4 ,the whole colony is open to him1 and he may engage in any trade or profession for which he may be fitted4 ,if he remains for five years longer in the colony1 even though he be idle during the whole of that time1 he becomes entitled to a grant of land from the ,government4 ,the law in this respect has been recently changed4 ,all coolies who came to the colony prior to #ahih have the choice at the end of ten years of a free grant of land or an assisted passage back to their native place4 ,it may be objected by those persons who are unacquainted with the system that all this sounds very well on paper1 but that the opportunities for fraud and oppression must be very frequent1 and1 human nature being what it is1 very frequently taken advantage of1 to the injury of the coolies' interests4 ,such charges have1 in fact1 been made from time to time1 but they have1 on investigation1 proved to be unfounded1 or1 at the worst1 highly exaggerated4 ,the treatment of the indentured immigrants in ,british ,guiana was the subject of a ,royal commission of inquiry in #ahgj4 ,the appointment of the commission followed a series of charges made by a certain ,mr4 ,des ,voeux1 a magistrate in the colony1 in a letter to ,earl ,granville1 at that time ,secretary of ,state for the ,colonies4 ,the commission visited the colony and conducted a most searching inquiry4 ,hundreds of witnesses were examined1 and the commissioners visited several estates1 without giving any warning of their intentions1 and questioned many of the coolies as to their treatment4 ,mr4 ,des ,voeux entirely failed to substantiate his charges2 and ,sir ,clinton ,murdoch1 the chairman of the emigration board--a permanent department of the ,colonial ,office--in referring to the report of the commission in a blue book issued in #ahgb1 said3 ,it may1 ,i think1 be considered that the report of the commissioners is generally satisfactory1 both as regards the magistracy1 the planters1 and the immigrants4 ,many defects in the system and mode of working it are no doubt pointed out1 but they are defects caused by errors of judgment1 by insufficiency of the law1 or by want of foresight1 not by intentional neglect or indifference to the well-being of the people1 still less by oppression or cruelty4 ,the vindication of the magistracy and of the medical officers appears to be complete1 and the fair dealing and kindness of the managers toward the immigrants is acknowledged4 ,the laws have been amended1 the ,government inspection has been made more complete1 and to-day it is impossible that any abuse of power on the part of the planters can pass unnoticed4 ,to give an instance of the effectiveness of the ,government supervision--each estate is compelled by law to keep pay lists according to a form specified by the immigration department1 in which the name of each indentured immigrant must be entered with a record of each separate day's work during the five years of the indenture4 ,thus1 if the pay list shows that in a certain week a man worked only two days out of the legal five1 it must also show the reason why he did not work on the other three days4 ,it may have been that the man was in the hospital1 in which case the letter ,h must appear opposite his name for those days2 or he may have been granted leave of absence1 when the letter ,l would account for him4 ,these pay lists are inspected by a ,government officer twice a month1 and any faults disclosed by the examination become the subject of a severe reprimand from the agent general1 followed in the case of persistent neglect by the cutting off of the supply of coolies4 ,so minute are the records of the immigration department that were an application made to the agent general for information regarding some particular indentured coolie1 that official could without difficulty supply the name of the man's father and mother1 his caste1 age1 native place1 with the same information in regard to the man's wife4 ,he could also make out an account showing every day the man had worked during the term of his indenture1 and the reasons why he had not worked on the other days1 with the exact amount earned on each working day4 ,in addition to this he could state how many days the man had spent in the estate's hospital and what was the matter with him on those occasions1 besides furnishing a copy of every prescription made up for the man in the estate's dispensary4 ,a striking evidence of the desire of the ,government to protect the coolies from ill treatment of any kind is afforded by the rule of the immigration department that1 if any overseer on an estate is convicted of an offense against an indentured immigrant1 the dismissal of the offender is demanded1 and each estate in the colony is warned that if it employ the man the supply of immigrants will be cut off4 ,the coolies are given every facility to complain of ill-treatment or breach of contract on the part of the planters1 for1 in addition to the opportunity afforded by the regular visits of the subagents1 the right is secured to them by law of leaving any estate without permission in order to visit the agent general or the nearest magistrate2 and either of these officials has the power to issue all process of law free of cost to any coolie who satisfies him that there is a prima facie cause of complaint4 ,such1 in brief1 are the features of the ,east ,indian immigration system of ,british ,guiana4#ab ,those who approach the question of the labor supply for the ,american colonies with an unprejudiced mind will see that there is nothing in the system ,i have described which is at variance with the principles of the ,american people4 ,all that is required to make such a system a boon both to the employer and to the laborer is that the officials charged with the inspection of the system and the protection of the immigrants' interests should be intelligent1 honest1 and fearless in the discharge of their duties4 ,,footnote3 #ab ,to those who are interested in the subject of indentured labor in the tropics1 the following statistics1 compiled by me from official sources1 may be of interest4 ,the figures relate to ,british ,guiana3 ,year4 ,number of indentur'd laborers imported from ,india4 ,number of time-expired immigrants who returned to ,india4 ,value in dollars of money and ornaments carried back to ,india by returning immigrants4 ,number of ,east ,indian depositors in the ,gov't ,savings ,bank4 ,total amount of their deposits1 in dollars4 ,number of planters convicted of offenses against immigrants4 ,death rate per #a1jjj among indentured laborers4 ,general death rate of the colony4 ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- #ahhf #d1gif #a1hhi #aaa1gge #e1eeh #dbe1ief #i #bg4dj #be4ef #ahhg #c1ibh #a1dbj #ib1fac #e1hba #dch1fjj #d #bc4bj #cb4da #ahhh #b1gga #a1ich #ie1jgd #e1ijd #deg1hhf #a #ai4gc #bi4bg #ahhi #c1egc #b1jdb #aab1abd #f1hjb #eac1bbj #a #ab4eg #bh4ac #ahij #c1dcb #b1abe #adb1faa #g1bfi #eeh1gcd #c #bj4dj #ci4hj #ahia #e1bbi #b1aea #acd1bbe #f1cih #eae1bdf #b #bj4dj #cg4jj #ahib #e1bda #b1jad #ig1ebi #f1jhe #ebg1bjc #a #be4bj #ci4jj #ahic #d1adf #a1hdh #ajd1gfc #f1agi #edd1dbj #a #bd4ia #ce4jj #ahid #i1ehe #a1iih #aac1cjh #f1abh #ebi1afa #b #bd4bb #cc4ec #ahie #b1dbe #b1jga #aai1bhi #d1iej #dec1iej #a #bj4cf #bi4eh #ahif #b1djh #b1jei #gf1dgj #d1ebj #dcd1gei #a #af4ej #bd4aj ---------------------------------------- ------------------------- ,,principles ,,of ,,taxation4 ,,by ,,the ,,late ,,hon4 ,,david ,a4 ,,wells4 ,,xx4--,,the ,,law ,,of ,,the ,,diffusion ,,of ,,taxes4 ,,part ,,ii4 ,attention is next asked to an analysis of the incidence of taxation1 what is mainly direct1 on processes and products1 and on the machinery by which one is effected and the other distributed1 and at the outset the following propositions in the nature of economic axioms are submitted1 which it is believed will serve as stepping stones to the attainment of broad generalizations4 ,thus1 property is solely produced to supply human wants and desires2 and taxes form an important part of the cost of all production1 distribution1 and consumption1 and represent the labor performed in guarding and protecting property at the expense of the ,state1 in all the processes of development and transformation4 ,the ,state is thus an active and important partner in all production4 ,without its assistance and protection1 production would be impeded or wholly arrested4 ,the soldier or policeman guards1 while the citizen performs his labor in safety4 ,as a partner in all the forms of production and business1 the ,state must pay its expenses--i4e41 its agents1 for their services2 and its only means of paying are through its receipts from taxation4 ,taxes1 then1 are clearly items of expense in all business1 the same as rent1 fuel1 cost of material1 light1 labor1 waste1 insurance1 clerical service1 advertising1 expressage1 freight1 and the like1 and on business principles they find their place on the pages of profit and loss2 and1 like all other expenses which enter into the cost of production1 must finally be sustained by those who gratify their wants or desires by consumption4 ,production is only a means1 and consumption is the end1 and the consumer must pay in the end all the expenses of production4 ,every dealer in domestic or imported merchandise keeps on hand1 at all times1 upon his shelves1 a stock of different and accumulated taxes--customs1 internal revenue1 ,state1 school1 and municipal--with his goods2 and when we buy and carry away from any store or shop an article1 we buy and carry away with it the accompanying and inherential taxes4 ,any primary taxpayer1 who does not ultimately consume the thing taxed1 and who does not include the tax in the price of the taxed property or its products1 must literally throw away his money and must soon become bankrupt and disappear as a competitor2 and accordingly the tax advancer will add the tax in his prices if he understands simple addition4 ,how rapidly bankruptcy would befall dealers in imported goods1 wares1 and merchandise in the ,united ,states who did not strictly observe this rule will be realized when one remembers that the average tax imposed by its ,government 7in #ahif7 on all dutiable imports is in excess of fifty per cent4 ,when ,dr4 ,franklin was asked by a committee of the ,english ,house of ,commons1 prior to the ,american ,revolution1 if the province of ,pennsylvania did not practically relieve farmers and other landowners from taxation1 and at the same time impose a heavy tax on merchants1 to the injury of ,british trade1 he answered that if such special tax was imposed1 the merchants were experts with their pens1 and added the tax to the price of their goods1 and thus made the farmers and all landowners pay their part of the tax as consumers4 ,taxes uniformly levied on all the subjects of taxation1 and which are not so excessive as to become a prohibition on the use of the thing taxed1 become1 therefore1 a part of the cost of all production1 distribution1 and consumption1 and diffuse and equate themselves by natural laws in the same manner and in the same minute degree as all other elements that constitute the expenses of production4 ,we produce to consume and consume to produce1 and the cost of consumption1 including taxes1 enters into the cost of production1 and the cost of production1 including taxes1 enters into the cost of consumption1 and thus taxes levied uniformly on things of the same class1 by the laws of competition1 supply1 and demand1 and the all-pervading mediums of labor1 will be distributed1 percussed1 and repercussed to a remote degree1 until they finally fall upon every person1 not in proportion to his consumption of a given article1 but in the proportion his consumption bears to the aggregate consumption of the taxed community4 ,a great capitalist1 like ,mr4 ,astor1 bears no greater burden of taxation 7and can not be made to bear more by any laws that can be properly termed tax laws7 than the proportion which his aggregate individual consumption bears to the aggregate individual consumption of all others in his circuit of immediate competition2 and as to his other taxes1 he is a mere tax collector1 or conduit1 conducting taxes from his tenants or borrowers to the ,state or city treasury4 ,a whisky distiller is a tax conduit1 or tax collector1 and sells more taxes than the original cost of whisky1 as finds proof and illustration in the fact that the ,united ,states imposes a tax of one dollar and ten cents per gallon on proof whisky which its manufacturer would be very glad to sell free of tax for an average of thirteen cents per gallon4 ,the tax1 furthermore1 is required to be laid before the whisky can be removed from the distillery or bonded warehouse and allowed to become an article of merchandise4 ,tobacco in like manner can not go into consumption till the tax is paid4 ,in ,great ,britain1 where all tobacco consumed is imported1 for every #c;d4 paid by the consumer1 #b4e;d4 represents customs duties or taxes4 ,in ,russia it is estimated that the ,government annually requires of its peasant producers one third the market value of their entire crop of cereals in payment of their taxes1 and fixes the time of collecting the same in the autumn1 when the peasant sells sufficient of his grain 7mainly for exportation71 and with the purchase money meets the demands of the tax collector4 ,can it be doubted that the sums thus extorted enter into and form an essential part of the cost of the entire crop or product of the land8 ,it is1 therefore1 immaterial where the process of manufacture takes place2 the citizens of a ,state pay in proportion to the quantity which they consume4 ,the traveler who stops at one of the great city hotels can not avoid reimbursing the owner for the tax he primarily pays on the property2 and the owner1 in respect to the taxation of his hotel property1 is but a great and effective real-estate and diffused tax collector4 ,again1 the farmer charges taxes in the price of his products2 the laborer1 in his wages2 the clergyman1 in his salary2 the lender1 in the interest he receives2 the lawyer1 in his fees2 and the manufacturer1 in his goods4 ,the ,american ,bible ,society is always in part loaded with the whisky and tobacco taxes paid by the printers1 paper-makers1 and book-binders1 or by the producers of articles consumed by these mechanics1 and reflected and embodied in their wages and the products of their labor according to the degree of absence of competition from fellow-mechanics who abstain from the use of these and other taxed articles4 ,these conclusions respecting the diffusion of taxes may be said to be universally accepted by economists so far as they relate to the results of production before they reach the hands of the final consumers2 but they are not accepted by many1 as ,mr4 ,henry ,george has recently expressed it1 in respect to taxes on special profits or advantages on things of which the supply is strictly limited1 or of wealth in the hands of final consumers1 or in the course of distribution by gift1 and finally in respect to taxes on land4 ,but a little examination would seem to show that all of these exceptions are of the kind that are said to prove the rule4 ,special profits and advantages in this age of quick diffusion of knowledge and intense competition are exceedingly ephemeral1 and are mainly confined to results which the ,state with a view of encouraging removes for a limited time from the natural laws of competition by granting patents1 copyrights1 and franchises4 ,of things which are strictly limited in respect to supply1 what and where are they8 ,only a very few can be specified3 ivory1 ,peruvian guano1 whalebone1 ambergris1 and the pelts of the fur seal4 ,of wealth in the process of transmission1 or in the hands of final consumers1 it is not tangible wealth unless it is tangible property1 which conforms under any correct system of taxation to the principles of taxation2 and if any one advocates the taxation of the right to receive property which has already been taxed1 he in effect advocates a double exaction of one and the same thing4 ,if it be asked1 ,will an income tax on a person retired from business be diffused8 the answer1 beyond question1 must be in the affirmative1 if the tax is uniform on all persons and on all amounts1 and is absolutely collected in minute sums4 ,would any one pay the same price for a railroad bond which is subject to an income tax as he would for it if it was free from tax8 ,if one's land is taxed1 either in the form of rent or income1 will not the tenant have the burden primarily thrown upon him8 ,and1 finally1 will not the consumer of the tenant's goods pay through or by reason of such consumption8 ,respecting the incidence of the tax on mortgages1 it does not make any difference how mortgages are taxed--no earthly power can make the lender pay it4 ,if the borrower would not agree to pay the tax1 the lender would not loan him money1 and whenever possible loans would be foreclosed and payment insisted upon if the borrower should refuse to pay the tax4 ,let us next subject to analysis the incidence of the so-called taxation of land4 ,considered per se 7or in itself71 land1 in common with unappropriated air and water1 has no value2 and it can not in any strict sense be affirmed that we tax land2 and when such affirmation is made1 its only legitimate and justifiable meaning is that we tax the value of land2 which value is due entirely to the amount of personal property 7in the sense of embodied labor7 expended upon it1 and the pressure or demand of such property or labor to use1 possess1 and occupy it4 ,vattel1 in his ,law of ,nations1 enunciates as a self-evident and irrefutable proposition that ,nature has not herself established property1 and in particular with regard to lands4 ,she only approves this introduction for the advantage of the human race4 ,one of the most striking examples of evidence in illustration and proof of this proposition is to be found in an incident1 which has heretofore escaped attention1 which occurred during a debate in the ,senate of the ,united ,states in #ahij on a bill for revision of duties on imports1 in respect to the article borax 7borate of soda74 ,formerly the world's supply of this mineral substance1 which enters largely into industrial processes and medicine1 was limited1 and mainly derived from certain hot springs in ,tuscany1 ,italy2 but within a comparatively recent period it has been found that it exists in such abundance in certain of the desert regions of ,california1 ,nevada1 and ,arizona1 that it can be gathered with the minimum of labor from the very surface of the ground4 ,were a single acre of similar desert to be found in any section of a country enjoying the most ordinary privileges in respect to transportation and water supply1 it would be a source of wealth to its proprietor4 ,but under existing circumstances1 although thousands and thousands of acres of this land can be bought with certain title from its owner--the ,federal ,government--for two dollars and twenty-five cents an acre1 no one wants it at any price2 and the prospective demand for it has not yet been sufficient to warrant the ,government in instituting even a survey as a preliminary to effecting a sale4 ,in the ,senate debate above alluded to it was proposed to increase the duty on imported borax1 with the expectation that a consequent increase in its domestic price would afford sufficient profit to induce such construction of roads and such a supply of water and labor on the borax tracts of the deserts as to enable them to become property4#ac ,in the oases of the deserts of ,north ,africa and ,egypt the value of a tract of land depends very little upon its size or location1 but almost exclusively upon the number of the date-bearing palms1 the result of labor1 growing upon it1 and the quality of their fruit4 ,john ,bright on one occasion stated that if the land of ,ireland were stripped of the improvements made upon it by the labor of the occupier1 the face of the country would be as bare and naked as an ,american prairie4 ,an exact parallel to this state of things is afforded in the case of lands of no value reclaimed from the sea and made valuable1 as has been often done in ,england1 ,holland1 and other countries1 by embodying labor upon them in the shape of restraining embankments and the transportation and use of filling material4 ,again1 the value of springs or running streams of water is generally limited and of little account4 ,but when1 through direct labor1 or the results of labor1 the water is collected in reservoirs and made the instrumentality of imparting power to machinery1 or conducted through conduits to centers of population which otherwise could not obtain it1 it becomes extremely valuable1 and capable of being sold in large or small quantities4 ,another similar illustration is to be found in the case of atmospheric air1 which in its natural and ordinary state has no marketable value1 but when compressed by labor embodied in the form of machinery and made capable of transmitting force1 it at once becomes endowed with value and can be sold at a high price4 ,an opinion entertained and strongly advocated by not a few economic writers and teachers of repute 7more especially in ,europe1 but not in the ,united ,states7#ad is1 that taxes on land do not diffuse themselves1 but fall wholly on the landowner1 and that there is no way in which he can throw it off and cause any considerable part of them to be paid by anybody else4 ,the concrete argument in support of this opinion has been thus stated3 ,when land is taxed1 the owner can not1 as a general rule1 escape the tax1 for the reason that1 to get rid of the tax1 the price of the land or of the rent must be raised the full amount of the tax1 and the only way in which this can be done is by reducing the supply or quantity offered in market1 or else by increasing the demand4 ,the supply of land can not be reduced1 and the demand being created by capital and population1 both of which are beyond the control of the landowner1 he can do nothing to raise the price of land1 and hence can not get rid of the tax4 ,it may be stated1 then1 as a general rule1 that a tax on land1 or on any commodity the supply of which is limited absolutely1 must be paid by the owner4 ,it is possible to suggest cases in which1 through combination of owners and the necessities of consumers1 a demand may be created strong enough to raise the price to the full amount of such tax1 but it is doubted if such cases ever really occur4#ae ,the source of the contention on this important economic and social question1 and the difficulty in the way of the attainment of harmonious conclusions1 is due to a nonrecognition of the fact that land is taxed under two conditions1 and can not be taxed otherwise4 ,thus1 if a person holds land for his exclusive use or enjoyment1 and consumes all of its product1 a tax on such land1 which has been characterized by some economists as its pure rent1 will not diffuse itself1 because it is a tax on personal enjoyment or final consumption4 ,the same is the case when a portion of a river or lake or its shore is rented for fishing for the purposes of sport4 ,a like result will also follow1 in a greater or less degree1 from the inability or unwillingness of tenants1 as has been often the case in ,ireland1 to pay rent sufficient to reimburse the landowner for interest on his investment of capital and cost of repairs4 ,but if one employs land as an instrumentality for acquiring gain through its uses1 the taxation of land must include the taxation of its uses--its contents1 all that rests upon it1 all that is produced1 sold1 expended1 manufactured1 or transported on it--and all such taxes will diffuse themselves4 ,on the other hand1 if the taxation of land under such circumstances and conditions does not diffuse itself1 then the taking is simply a process of confiscation1 which if continued will ultimately rob the owner of his property1 and is not governed by any principle4 ,it is indeed difficult to see how a theory so wholly inapplicable to fact and experience as that of the nondiffusion of taxes on land--which makes property in land an exception to the rule acknowledged to be applicable to all other property--could originate and be strenuously maintained to the extent even of stigmatizing any opposite view as so very superficial as scarcely to deserve a refutation4#af ,no little of confusion and controversy on this subject has arisen from the assumption that land specifically1 and the rent of land1 constitute two distinct and legitimate subjects for taxation1 when the fact is just the contrary4 ,the rent of land is in the nature of an income to its owner2 and it is an economic axiom that when a government taxes the income of property it in reality taxes the property itself4 ,in ,england and on the continent of ,europe land is generally taxed on its yearly income or income value1 and these taxes are always considered as land taxes4 ,alexander ,hamilton1 in discussing the taxation of incomes derived directly from property1 used this language3 ,what1 in fact1 is property but a fiction1 without the beneficial use of it8 ,in many instances1 indeed1 the income is the property itself4 ,the ,united ,states ,supreme ,court1 in its recent decision of the income tax 7#ahie71 also practically indorsed this conclusion4 ,to levy taxes on the rent of land and also upon the land itself is1 therefore1 double taxation on one and the same property1 which in common with all other unequal and unjust taxes can not be diffused2 and for this reason should be regarded as in the nature of exactions or confiscation1 concerning the incidence of which nothing can be safely predicated4 ,in short1 this whole discussion1 and the unwarranted assumption involved in it and largely accepted1 is an illustration of what may be regarded as a maxim1 that the greatest errors in political economy have arisen from overlooking the most obvious facts or deductions from experience4 ,with a purpose of further elucidating this problem1 attention is asked first to its consideration from an abstract1 and next from a practical standpoint of view4 ,let us endeavor to clearly understand the common meaning of the word rent4 ,it is derived from the ,latin reddita1 things given back or paid1 and in plain ,english is a word for price or hire4 ,it may be the hire of anything4 ,it is the price we pay for the right of exclusive use over something which is not our own4 ,thus we speak of the rent of land1 of buildings and apartments1 of a fishery1 of boats1 of water1 of an opera box1 of a piano1 sewing machines1 furniture1 vehicles1 and the like4 ,in ,scotland at the present time farmers hire cows to dairymen1 who pay an agreed-upon price by the year or for a term of years for each cow1 and reimburse themselves for such payment and make a profit on the transaction by the sale of the products of the animal4 ,this hire is called a rent1 and is clearly the same in kind as the rent of land4 ,we do not apply the word hire to the employment of men1 because we have a separate word--wages--for that particular case of hire4 ,neither do we apply the word rent in ,english to the hire of money1 because we have another separate word--interest--which has come into special use for the price paid for the loan or hire of money4 ,but in the ,french language the word rent is habitually and specially used to signify the price of the hire money1 and that of rentes to investments of money paying interest2 the ,french national debt being always spoken of as les rentes2 while the men who live on the lending of money1 or capital in any form1 are called rentiers4 ,the question next naturally arises1 ,why is it necessary to set up any special theory at all about the natural disposition of the price which we pay for the hire of land1 any more than about the price we pay for the hire of a house1 of furniture1 of a boat1 of an opera box1 or of a cow8 ,the particular kind of use to which we put each of these various things is no doubt very different from the kind of use to which we put each or all the others4 ,but all of these uses resolve themselves into the desire we have to derive some pleasure or some profit by the possession for a time of the right of exclusive use of something which is not our own1 and for which we must pay the price1 not of purchase1 but of hire4 ,the explanation of this curious economic phenomenon is to be found in the assumption and positive assertion on the part of not a few distinguished economists that the truly scientific and only correct use of the term rent is its application to the income derived from things of all kinds of which the supply is limited1 and can not be increased by man's action4#ag ,as a rule1 economists who accept this definition confine its application to the hire of land alone1 although it professes to include other things1 of all kinds1 to which the same description applies--namely1 that they can not be increased in quantity by any human action4 ,there are1 however1 no such other things specified1 and in any literal sense there are no such other things existing1 unless water and the atmosphere be intended4 ,now1 although it is indisputably true that man by his action can not increase the absolute or total quantity of land1 any more than of water and air1 appertaining to the whole globe on which we live1 there is practically no limitation to the degree of value which man's action can impart to land1 and which is the only thing for which land is wanted1 bought1 or sold1 and which1 as already shown1 can be truly made the subject of taxation4 ,the tracts of land on the earth's surface which are of no present marketable value are its deserts1 its wildernesses1 the sides and summits of its mountains1 and its continually frozen zones1 where no results of labor are embodied in or reflected upon it2 while1 on the other hand1 its tracts of greatest value are in the large cities and marts of trade and commerce1 as in the vicinity of the ,bank of ,england1 or in ,wall ,street1 where the results of labor are so concentrated and reflected upon land that it is necessary to cover it with gold in order to acquire by purchase a title to it and a right to its exclusive use4 ,the difference between land at twenty-five dollars an acre and twenty-five dollars a square foot is simply that the latter is or may be in the near future covered or surrounded by capital and business1 while the former is remote from these sources of value4 ,one of the greatest possible1 perhaps probable1 outcomes of the modern progress of chemistry is that through the utilization of microbic organizations the value of land as an instrumentality for the production of food may be increased to an extent that at the present time is hardly possible of conception4 ,again1 in the case of air and water1 although their total absolute quantity can not be increased1 their available and useful quantity in any place1 as before shown1 can be by the agency of man1 and their use made subject to hire or rent4 ,consideration is next asked to the question at issue from what may be termed its practical standpoint4 ,we have first a proposition in the nature of an economic axiom1 that the price of everything necessary for production1 or the hire of anything--land1 money1 and the like--without which the product could not arise1 is1 and must be1 without exception1 a part of the cost of that product2 second1 that all levies of the ,state which are worthy of being designated as taxes constitute an essential element of the cost of all products4 ,the rent of an opera box1 given to obtain a mere pleasure1 constitutes a part of the fund out of which the musicians are paid1 and if they are not so paid they will not play or sing4 ,the rent given for the right to fish on a certain part of a river or its shores is a part of the cost of producing the fish as a marketable commodity4 ,if a house is hired for the purpose of conducting any business in it1 the price of that hire does most certainly enter into the cost of that business1 whatever it may be1 assuming that the use of the house is a necessity for carrying it on4 ,as no man will produce a commodity by which he is sure to lose money1 or fail to obtain the ordinary rate of profit1 the tax must be added to the price1 or the production will cease4 ,if a uniform tax is imposed on all land occupied1 it will be paid by the occupier1 because occupation 7house-building7 will cease until the rent rises sufficiently to cover the tax4 ,the landlord assesses upon his tenants the tax he has paid upon his real estate2 each tenant assesses his share upon each of his customers2 and so perfect is this diffusion of land taxation that every traveler from a distant part of the country who remains for even a single day at a hotel pays1 without stopping to think about it1 a portion of the taxes on the building1 first paid by the owner1 then assessed upon the lessees1 and next cut up by them minutely in the per diem charge4 ,but of course neither the owner nor lessee really escapes taxation1 because a portion of somebody else's tax is thrown back upon them4 ,is it possible to believe that in a city like ,new ,york1 where less than four per cent of its population pay any direct tax on real estate1 or in a city like ,montreal1 where the expenses of the city are mainly derived from taxes on land and the building occupancy of land1 the great majority of the inhabitants of those cities are exempt from all land taxation8 ,in ,china1 where1 as before shown1 the title or ownership of all land vests in the emperor1 and the revenue of the ,government is almost exclusively derived from taxation of land in the form of rent1 does the burden of tax remain upon the owner of the land8 ,if the tax in the form of rent is paid in the products of the land1 as undoubtedly it is in part1 will not the cost of the percentage of the whole product of the land that is thus taken increase to the renter the cost of the percentage that is left to him2 or1 if the product is sold for money with which to pay the tax rent1 will not its selling price embody the cost of the tax1 as it will the cost of every other thing necessary for production8 ,to affirm to the contrary is to say that the price which the ,chinese farmer pays for the right of the exclusive use of his land is no part of the crops he may raise upon it4 ,consider next the assertion of those who maintain the nondiffusion theory that taxes on land are paid by the owners because the supply of land can neither be increased nor diminished4 ,in answer to it we have the indisputable fact that the owners of land1 whenever taxes are increased1 attempt to obtain an increased rental for it if the circumstances will permit it4 ,and the very attempt tends to increase the rent4 ,nothing but adverse circumstances1 such as diminishing population or commercial and industrial distress1 can prevent a rise in the rental of land on which the taxes are increased2 and in the case of dwellings and warehouses the rise is almost always very prompt1 because no man will erect new dwellings or warehouses unless their rent compensate fully the increase of taxation4 ,and in any prosperous community1 in which population increases in the natural ratio1 there must be a constant increase of dwellings and warehouses to prevent a rise of rent1 independent of higher wages and higher taxation4 ,in no other occupation is capital surer of obtaining the average net remuneration than in the erection of dwellings and warehouses1 and nothing but lack of general prosperity and diminishing population can throw the burden of taxation on real estate or its owners1 without the slightest attempt at combination on their part4 ,if the owners of land are not reimbursed for its taxation by its occupants1 new houses would not be erected1 the old ones would wear out1 and after a time the supply would be so small that the demand would raise rents1 and house building begin again1 the tax having been transferred to the occupier4 ,it is pertinent at this point to notice the averment that is frequently made1 that cultivators of the soil can not incorporate taxes on the land in the price of their products1 because the price of their whole crop is fixed by the price at which any portion of it can be sold in foreign markets4 ,in answer to this we have first the fact that1 to give the population of the world an adequate supply of food and other agricultural products1 it is not only necessary that all the land at present under cultivation shall continue to be so employed1 but further that new lands shall each year be brought under cultivation1 or else the land already cultivated shall be made more productive4 ,the population of the world steadily increases1 notwithstanding wars1 epidemics1 and all the evils which are consequences of man's ignorance and of his improper use of things1 his own faculties included4 ,hence1 in case of increased taxation on land1 the cultivator of the soil is generally enabled to transfer easily and promptly the burden of the tax to the purchasers of the products he raises1 without abandoning the cultivation even of the least productive soil4 ,furthermore1 the exports of many agricultural products are due not to the cheapness of their cost of production1 but to the variations which occur in the productiveness of the crops of other countries4 ,m4 ,rouher1 a ,french economist1 and for a period a minister of commerce1 thoroughly investigated this matter1 and proved by incontestable data that almost invariably when the yield of breadstuffs in ,europe was large in the country drained by the ,black and ,baltic ,seas1 it was small in the countries drained by the ,atlantic4 ,this variation in the yield of agricultural crops forces the countries where crops are deficient to purchase from those where they are abundant1 or who have a surplus on hand from previous abundant harvests4 ,in the ,united ,states1 when the harvests are abundant1 the ,american farmers1 rather than sell below a certain price1 keep a portion of their crops on hand until bad crops in ,europe produce a foreign demand1 which has to be supplied at once4 ,under such circumstances those who hold the surplus stock of breadstuffs1 or any other product1 would control the price1 and not the foreigners who stand in need of it4 ,the only check1 then1 to the cupidity of the holders of breadstuffs is the competition between themselves1 which invariably suffices to prevent any undue advantage being taken of the necessities of the countries whose harvests are deficient4 ,these bad crops occur frequently enough to consume all the surplus of the countries that produce in excess of their own wants4 ,in fact1 this transient1 irregular demand is counted upon and provided for by producers just as much so as the regular home demand--hence is one of the elements that regulate production and control prices4 ,at this point of the discussion it is desirable to obtain a clear and true idea of the meaning or definition of the phrase diffusion of taxes4 ,as sometimes used in popular and superficial discussions1 it is held to imply that every tax imposed by law distributes itself equitably over the whole surface of society4 ,such implication would1 however1 be even more fallacious than an assumption that every expenditure made by an individual distributes itself in such a way that it becomes equally an expenditure by every other individual4 ,on the other hand1 a fair consideration of the foregoing summary of facts and deductions would seem to compel every mind not previously warped by prejudice to accept and indorse the following as great fundamental principles in taxation3 ,first1 that in order to burden equitably and uniformly all persons and property1 for the purpose of obtaining revenue for public purposes1 it is not necessary to tax primarily and uniformly all persons and property within the taxing district4 ,second1 equality of taxation consists in a uniform assessment of the same articles or class of property that is subject to taxation4 ,third1 taxes under such a system equate and diffuse themselves2 and if levied with certainty and uniformity upon tangible property and fixed signs of property1 they will1 by a diffusion and repercussion1 reach and burden all visible property1 and also all of the so-called invisible and intangible property1 with unerring certainty and equality4 ,all taxation ultimately and necessarily falls on consumption2 and the burden of every man1 under any equitable system of taxation1 and which no effort will enable him to avoid1 will be in the exact proportion or ratio which his aggregate consumption maintains to the aggregate consumption of the taxing district1 ,state1 or community of which he is a member4 ,it is not1 however1 contended that unequal taxation on competitors of the same class1 persons1 or things diffuses itself whether such inequality be the result of intention or of defective laws1 and their more defective administration4 ,and doubtless one prime reason why economists and others interested have not accepted the law of diffusion of taxes as here given is that they see1 as the practical workings of the tax systems they live under1 or have become practically familiar with1 that taxes in many instances do seem to remain on the person who immediately pays them2 and fail to see that such result is due--as in the case of the taxation of large classes of the so-called personal property--to the adoption of a system which does not permit of equality in assessment1 and therefore can not be followed by anything of equality in diffusion4 ,such persons may not unfairly be compared to physicists1 who1 constantly working with imperfect instruments1 and constantly obtaining1 in consequence1 defective results1 come at last to regard their errors as in the nature of established truths4#ah ,according to these conclusions1 the greatest consumers must be the greatest taxpayers4 ,the man also who evades a tax clearly robs his neighbors4 ,the thief also pays taxes indirectly1 for he is a consumer1 and must pay the advanced price caused by his own roguery for all he consumes1 although he does steal the money to pay with4 ,idlers and even tramps pay taxes1 but the amount that they indirectly pay into the fund is much less than they take out of it4 ,people are sometimes referred to or characterized as non-taxpayers1 and in political harangues and socialistic essays measures or policies are recommended by which certain persons or classes1 by reason of their extreme poverty1 shall be entirely exempt from all incidence or burden of taxation4 ,such a person does not1 however1 exist in any civilized community4 ,if one could be found he would be a greater curiosity than exists in any museum4 ,to avoid taxation a man must go into an unsettled wilderness where he has no neighbors1 for as soon as he has a companion1 if that companion be only a dog1 which he in part or all supports1 taxation begins1 and the more companions he has1 the greater improvements he makes1 and the higher civilization he enjoys1 the heavier will be the taxes he must pay4 ,taxes legitimately levied1 then1 are a part of the cost of all production1 and there can be no more tendency for taxes to remain upon the persons who immediately pay them than there is for rents1 the cost of insurance1 water supply1 and fuel to follow the same law4 ,the person who wishes to use or destroy the utility of property by consumption to gratify his desires1 or satisfy his wants1 can not obtain it from the owners or producers with their consent1 except by gift1 without giving pay or services for it2 and the average price of all property is coincident with the cost of production1 including the taxes advanced upon it1 which are a part of its cost in the hands of the seller4 ,again1 no person who produces any form of property or utility1 for the purpose of sale or rent1 sustains any burden of legitimate taxation1 although he may be a tax advancer2 for1 as a tax advancer1 he is the agent of the ,state1 and a tax collector from the consumer4 ,but he who produces or buys1 and does not sell or rent1 but consumes1 is the taxpayer1 and sustains a tax in his aggregate consumption1 where all taxation must ultimately rest4 ,in short1 no person bears the burden of taxation1 under an equitable1 legitimate system1 except upon the property which he applies to his own exclusive use in ultimate consumption4 ,the great consumer is the only great taxpayer4 ,finally1 a great economic law pointed out by ,adam ,smith1 which has an important and almost conclusive bearing upon this vexed problem of the diffusion of taxes1 should not be overlooked--namely1 his statement in ,the ,wealth of ,nations that no tax can ever reduce for any considerable time the rate of profit in any particular trade1 which must always keep its level with other trades in the neighborhood4 ,in other words1 taxes and profits1 by the operation of the laws of human nature1 constantly tend to equate themselves4 ,man is always prompted to engage in the most profitable occupation and to make the most profitable investment4 ,and since the emancipation from feudalism with its sumptuary laws1 legal regulations of the price of labor and merchandise1 and other arbitrary governmental invasions of private rights1 individual judgment and self-interest have been recognized as the best tests or arbiters of the profitableness of a given investment or occupation4 ,the average profits1 therefore1 of one form of investment1 or of one occupation 7as originally shown by ,adam ,smith71 must for any long period equal the average profits of other investments and occupations1 whether taxed or untaxed1 skill1 risk1 and agreeableness of occupation being taken into consideration4#ai ,natural laws will1 accordingly1 always produce an equilibrium of burden between taxed and untaxed things and persons4 ,there is a level of profit and a level of taxation by natural laws1 as there is a level of the ocean by natural laws4 ,in fact1 all proportional contributions to the ,state from direct competitors are diffused upon persons and things in the taxing jurisdiction by a uniformity as manifest as is the pressure upon water1 which is known to be equal in every direction4 ,a word here in reference to the popular idea that the exemption of any form of property is to grant a favor to those who possess such property4 ,this idea has1 however1 no warrant for its acceptance4 ,thus1 an exemption is freedom from a burden or service to which others are liable2 but in case of the exclusion of an entire class of property from primary taxation1 no person is liable1 and therefore there is no exemption4 ,an exclusion of all milk from taxation1 while whisky is taxed1 is not an exemption1 for the two are not competing articles1 or articles of the same class4 ,it is true that highly excessive taxation of a given article may cause another and similar article1 in some instances1 to become a substitute or competing article2 and hence the necessity of care and moderation in establishing the rate of taxation4 ,we do not consider that putting a given article into the free list1 under the tariff1 is an exemption to any particular individual2 but if we make the rate higher on one taxpayer or on one importer of the same article than on another taxpayer or importer1 we grant an exemption4 ,we use the word exemption1 therefore1 imperfectly1 when we speak of the exemption of an entire class of property1 as1 for example1 upon all personal property2 for if the removal of the burden operates uniformly on all interested1 or owning such property1 then there can be no primary exemption4 ,,footnotes3 #ac ,senator ,paddock3 ,i should like to ask the ,senator from ,nevada if1 in the region of country where borax is found1 by reason of finding it the land in the particular ,state or ,territory is appreciated in value on account of its existence4 ,senator ,stewart3 ,not at all4 ,senator ,paddock3 ,the value then given to it is all in labor4--,congressional ,record1 ,july1 #ahij4 #ad ,in ,america1 where there has been but little serious study of taxation1 the few writers of prominence are1 remarkable to relate1 almost all abject followers of ,thiers1 the ,french economist and statesman1 who claimed to have invented the term diffusion of taxes4 #ae ,our conclusion is1 that under actual conditions in ,america to-day the landowner may virtually be declared to pay in the last instance the taxes that are imposed on his land1 and that at all events it is absolutely erroneous to assume any general shifting to the consumer4 ,in so far as our land tax is a part of a general property tax1 it can not possibly be shifted2 in so far as it is more or less an exclusive tax1 it is even then apt to remain where it is first put--on the landowner4--,seligman3 ,incidence of ,taxation1 p4 #ii4 #af ,seligman4 ,shifting and ,incidence of ,taxation4 #ag ,professor ,marshall4 #ah ,in a like experience the ,duke of ,argyll1 in his work ,the ,unseen ,foundations of ,society1 finds an explanation of the so-called theory of ,ricardo1 that the rent which a farmer of agricultural land pays as the price of its hire--that is to say1 the price which he pays for the exclusive use of it--is no part of the cost of the crops he may raise upon it2 a conclusion that can not be possibly true1 unless it be also true that rent is paid for something that is not an indispensable condition of agricultural production4 ,thus rights are in their very nature impalpable and invisible4 ,they are not material things1 but relations between many material things and the human mind and will4 ,the right of exclusive use over land is a thing invisible and immaterial1 as other rights are1 and1 although it is1 and has been since the world began1 the basis of all agricultural industry1 it is a basis impalpable and invisible1 whereas the material visible implements and tools1 whose work depends upon it1 are all visible and palpable enough1 and all of which would never be were we to see them without the invisible rights upon which they depend4 ,all of the former1 in their place and order1 are instruments of production2 all of them catch the eye1 and may easily engross the attention4 ,on the other hand1 if we are induced to forget those other elements1 which are equally essential instruments of production1 merely because they are out of sight1 then our deception may be complete1 and fallacies which become glaring when memory and attention are awakened may find in our half-vacant minds an easy and even a cordial reception4 ,adam ,smith may be fairly considered as having fully committed himself beyond all controversy in his great work1 ,the ,wealth of ,nations1 to the principle that taxes1 with a degree of infallibility1 diffuse themselves when they are levied uniformly on the same article2 and he even goes so far as to admit that a tax upon labor1 if it could be uniformly levied and collected1 would be diffused1 and that the laborer would be the mere conduit through which the tax would pass to the public treasury4 ,thus he says1 ,while the demand for labor and the price of provisions1 therefore1 remain the same1 a direct tax upon wages can have no other effect than to raise them somewhat higher than the tax4 ,the ,german economist ,bluntschli1 who has carefully studied this question of the final incidence of all just and equitable taxes1 is in substantial agreement with the above conclusions1 but prefers to use a different term for characterizing such finality than consumption1 and expresses himself as follows3 ,in the end taxes fall on enjoyments4 ,hence the amount of each man's enjoyments and not his income is the justest measure of taxation4 7,bluntschli1 vol4 x1 p4 #adf47 ,m4 ,thiers1 the ,french statesman and economist1 was also a believer and earnest advocate of the theory of the diffusion of taxes1 and lays down his principles in the following words3 ,taxes are shifted indefinitely1 and tend to become a part of the price of commodities1 to such an extent that every one bears his share1 not in proportion to what he pays the state1 but in proportion to what he consumes4 ,and in his book ,rights to ,property he thus illustrates the method in which taxation diffuses itself3 ,in the same manner as our senses1 deceived by appearances1 tell us that it is the sun which moves and not the earth1 so a particular tax appears to fall upon one class1 and another tax upon another class1 when in reality it is not so4 ,the tax really best suited to the poorest member of society is that which is best suited to the general fortune of the state2 a fortune which is much more for the possession and enjoyment of the poor man than it is for the rich2 a fact of which we are never sufficiently convinced4 ,but of the manner1 nevertheless1 in which taxes are divided among the different classes of the state1 the most certain thing we can say is3 ,that they are divided in proportion to what each man consumes1 and for a reason not generally recognized or understood1 namely1 that taxes are reflected1 as it were1 to infinity1 and from reflection to reflection become eventually an integral part of the prices of things4 ,hence the greatest purchasers and consumers are everywhere the greatest taxpayers4 ,this is what ,i call 'diffusion of taxation1' to borrow a term from physical science1 which applies the expression 'diffusion of light' to those numberless reflections1 in consequence of which the light which has penetrated the slightest aperture spreads itself around in every direction1 and in such a manner as to reach all the objects which it renders visible4 ,so a tax which at first sight appears to be paid directly1 in reality is only advanced by the individual who is first called upon to pay it4 #ai ,as applied to the wages of labor1 the truth of this principle is equally incontestable4 ,the sewing girl performing her toilsome work by the needle at one dollar a day1 the street sweeper working the mud with his broom at a dollar and a half1 the skilled laborer at two and three dollars1 the professor at five1 the editor at five or ten1 the artist and the songstress at ten or five hundred dollars a day are all members of the working classes1 though working at different rates4 ,and it is only the difference in their effectiveness that causes the difference in their earnings4 ,bring them all to the same point of efficiency1 and their earnings also will be the same4--,w4 ,jungst1 ,cincinnati4 ,john ,locke1 in his treatise ,on the ,standard of ,value1 treats of taxation1 and shows conclusively that if all lands were nominally free from taxation1 the owners of lands would proportionally pay more taxes than now1 because the same amount of money must continue to be collected in some form1 and the average profits of lands would only be equal to the average profits of other investments2 and further1 that the expense and annoyance 7another form of expense7 would be increased if the tax were exclusively levied in the first instance upon personal property2 and hence the landowner would be burdened with his proportion of the unnecessary expense and annoyance4 ,he also shows that you may change the form of a uniform tax1 but that you can not change the burden2 and that the change will increase the burden1 if the new system is more expensive and annoying than the old4 ,locke wrote nearly a century before ,adam ,smith published his ,wealth of ,nations1 and it would seem probable that ,smith acquired his ideas relative to the average profits of investments from ,locke4 ,,the ,,great ,,bombardment4 ,,by ,,charles ,f4 ,,holder4 ,a thin stratum of air1 an invisible armor of great tenuity1 lies between man and the menace of possible annihilation4 ,the regions of space beyond our planet are filled with flying fragments4 ,some meet the earth in its onward rush2 others1 having attained inconceivable velocity1 overtake and crash into the whirling sphere with loud detonation and ominous glare1 finding destruction in its molecular armor1 or perhaps ricocheting from it again into the unknown4 ,some come singly1 vagrant fragments from the infinity of space2 others fall in showers like golden rain2 all constituting a bombardment appalling in its magnitude4 ,it has been estimated that every twenty-four hours the earth or its atmosphere is struck by four hundred million missiles of iron or stone1 ranging from an ounce up to tons in weight4 ,every month there rushes upon the flying globe at least twelve billion iron and stone fragments1 which1 with lurid accompaniment1 crash into the circumambient atmosphere4 ,owing to the resistance offered by the air1 few of these solid shots strike the earth4 ,they move out of space with a possible velocity of thirty or forty miles per second1 and1 like moths1 plunge into the revolving globe1 lured to their destruction by its fatal attraction4 ,the moment they enter our atmosphere they ignite2 the air is piled up and compressed ahead of them with inconceivable force1 the resultant friction producing an immediate rise in temperature1 and the shooting star1 the meteor of popular parlance1 is the result4 ,illustration3 ,,ideal ,,view ,,of ,,the ,,earth ,,as ,,it ,,is ,,bombarded ,,by ,,the ,,estimated ,,four ,,hundred ,,million ,,meteorites ,,every ,,twenty-,,four ,,hours4#bj ,a simple experiment1 made by ,joule and ,thomson1 well illustrates the possibility of this rise in temperature by atmospheric friction4 ,if a wire is whirled through the air at a rate of one hundred and seventy-five feet per second1 a rise of one degree1 centigrade1 will be noticed4 ,if the revolutions are increased to three hundred and seventy-two feet per second1 the elevation will be #e4c ,c4 ,if the temperature increases as the square of the velocity1 a rate of speed of twenty miles per second would develop a temperature not far from #cfj1jjj ,c41 which is probably far less than that at the surface of the ordinary meteor as it is seen blazing through our atmosphere4 ,if the meteor is small it is often consumed by the intense heat generated2 but larger fragments1 owing to their velocity and the fact that they are poor conductors of heat and burn slowly1 reach the surface and bury themselves in the sea or earth4 ,but few escape the inevitable consequences of the contact1 and of the untold millions which have struck the earth within the memory of man but five hundred and thirty have been seen to fall4 ,the phenomena associated with the plunging meteor is most interesting4 ,a blaze of light1 as the terrific heat ignites the iron1 announces its entrance into our atmosphere4 ,it may be red1 yellow1 white1 green1 or blue1 all these hues having been observed4 ,then follows the explosion1 caused by the contact with the air piled up ahead1 and in certain instances a loud detonation or a series of noises is heard1 which may be repeated indefinitely until the meteoric mass is completely destroyed1 and drops1 a shower of disintegrated particles1 which fall rattling to the ground4 ,the blaze of light does not continue to the earth1 nor does the meteor1 should it survive1 strike the ground with the velocity with which it entered the atmosphere1 as the latter often arrests its motion so completely that it drops upon the earth by its own weight1 well illustrated by the meteorites of the ,hesslefall1 which dropped upon ice but a few inches thick1 rebounding as they fell4 ,thus the atmosphere protects the inhabitants of the globe from a terrific bombardment by destroying many of the largest meteorites1 reducing the size of others before they reach the surface and arresting the velocity so that few bury themselves deeply in the soil4 ,the writer observed a remarkable meteor in #ahid4 ,it entered our atmosphere1 apparently1 over the ,mojave ,desert1 in ,california1 and exploded over the ,san ,gabriel ,valley1 though without any appreciable sound1 and after the first flash disappeared1 leaving in the air a large balloon-shaped object of yellow light which lasted some moments1 presenting a remarkable spectacle4 ,in this instance the meteor had probably exploded or been consumed1 leaving only the light to tell the story1 the atmospheric armor of the earth having successfully warded off the blow4 ,viewing the facts as they exist1 the earth1 a seeming fugitive mass flying through space1 vainly endeavoring to break the bonds which bind it to the sun1 hunted1 bombarded with strange missiles hurled from unseen hands or forces from the infinity of space1 it is little wonder that the ancients and some savage races of later times invested the phenomena with strange meanings4 ,it requires but little imagination to see in the flying earth a living monster followed by shadowy furies which hurl themselves upon it1 now vainly attempting to reach the air-protected body or again striking it with terrific force1 lodging deep in its sides amid loud reverberation and dazzling blaze of light4 ,meteorites have been known from the very earliest times1 and have often been regarded as miraculous creatures to be worshiped and handed down from family to family4 ,the famous meteorite which fell in ,phrygia1 centuries ago1 was worshiped as ,cybele1 the mother of the gods1 and about the year #bjd ,b4,c4 was carried to ,rome with much display and ceremony1 when people of all classes fell down before it1 deeming it a messenger from the gods4 ,diana of ,ephesus and the famous ,cyprian ,venus were1 in all probability1 meteoric stones which were seen to fall1 and were worshiped for the same reason as above4 ,livy describes a shower of meteorites which fell about the ,alban ,mount #feb ,b4,c4 ,the senate was demoralized1 and certain prophets announced it a warning from heaven1 so impressing the lawmakers that they declared a nine-days' festival with which to propitiate the gods4 ,the visitor to ,mecca will find enshrined in a place of honor a meteorite which can be traced back beyond #fjj ,a4,d41 and which is worshiped by pilgrims4 ,the ,tartars pointed out a meteorite to ,pallas1 in #aggb1 which had fallen at ,krasnojarsk1 and which they considered a holy messenger from heaven4 ,a large body of meteoric iron found in ,wichita ,county1 ,texas1 was regarded by the ,indians as a fetich4 ,they told strangers that it came from the sky as a messenger from the ,great ,spirit4 ,this meteorite was stationed at a point where two ,indian trails met1 and was observed and worshiped as a shrine4 ,the ,chinese have records of meteors which fell #fdd ,b4,c4 ,the oldest authentic fall in which the stone is preserved is that of ,ensisheim1 ,elsass1 ,germany1 in #adib4 ,the stone1 which weighed two hundred and sixty pounds1 fell with a loud roar1 much to the dismay of the peasantry1 penetrating the ground to a depth of five feet4 ,it was secured by ,king ,maximilian1 who1 after presenting the ,duke ,sigismund with a section1 hung the remainder in the parish church as a holy relic1 where1 it is said1 it may still be seen4 ,meteorites vary in size from minute objects not larger than a pea to masses of iron of enormous size4 ,the ,chupaderos meteorite1 which fell in ,chihuahua1 ,mexico1 weighs twenty-five tons4 ,another1 which fell in ,kansas1 broke into myriads of pieces1 the sections found weighing thirteen hundred pounds4 ,a meteorite in the ,vienna ,museum1 which fell in ,hungary1 weighs six hundred and forty-seven pounds1 while the ,cranbourne meteorite in the ,british ,museum weighs four tons4 ,the ,red ,river meteorite in the ,yale ,museum weighs sixteen hundred and thirty pounds4 ,the largest meteorite known was discovered within the ,arctic ,circle by ,lieutenant ,peary4 ,the ,eskimos had known of it for generations as a source of supply for iron4 ,it was found by ,lieutenant ,peary in ,may1 #ahid1 but1 owing to its enormous weight1 could not be removed until the summer of #ahig1 when1 after much labor1 it was excavated and hoisted into the hold of the steam whaling bark ,hope and carried to ,new ,york1 where it has found a resting place in the cabinet of the ,american ,museum of ,natural ,history4 ,it is believed to weigh one hundred tons4 ,up to #aggb the stories of bodies falling from space were not entertained seriously by scientific men4 ,so eminent a scientist as ,lavoisier1 after thoroughly investigating a case1 decided that it was merely a stone which had been struck by lightning4 ,falls finally occurred which demonstrated beyond dispute that the missiles came from space1 and science recognized the fact that the earth was literally being bombarded1 and that human safety was due to the atmospheric armor1 scarcely one hundred miles thick1 that enveloped the earth4 ,instances of the destruction of human life from this cause are very rare4 ,some years ago a meteorite crushed into the home of an ,italian peasant1 killing the occupant2 and cattle have been known to be destroyed by them2 but such instances are exceptional4 ,in #affj a meteorite fell at ,milan1 on the authority of the ,italian physicist ,paolo ,maria ,tezzayo1 killing a ,franciscan monk4 ,humboldt is authority for the statement that a monk was struck dead by a meteorite at ,crema1 ,september #d1 #aeaa2 and in #afgd1 on the same authority1 a meteorite struck a ship at sea and killed two ,swedish sailors4 ,in ,december1 #agie1 at ,wold ,cottage1 in ,yorkshire1 ,england1 a stone weighing fifty pounds dashed through the air with a loud roar1 alarming people in the vicinity1 and burying itself in the ground not thirty feet from a laborer4 ,this mass1 though undoubtedly traveling1 when it struck our atmosphere1 at a rate of at least thirty miles a second1 was checked so completely that it sank but twelve inches into the soft chalk4 ,great as is the heat generated during the passage of a meteorite through the air1 it does not always permeate the entire body4 ,this was well illustrated in the case of the meteorite which fell at ,dhurmsala1 ,kangra1 ,punjaub1 ,india1 in #ahfj1 fragments of which can be seen in the ,field ,museum in ,chicago4 ,of it ,dr4 ,oliver ,c4 ,farington says3 ,the fragments were so cold as to benumb the fingers of those who collected them4 ,this is perhaps the only instance known in which the cold of space has become perceptible to human senses4 ,some of the individual falls during recent years have attracted widespread attention4 ,one of the most remarkable is known as the ,great ,kansas ,meteor4 ,it was evidently of large size1 flashing into sight eighty or ninety miles from the earth1 on the #bjth of ,june1 #ahgf1 over the ,state of ,kansas4 ,to the first observers it appeared to come from the vicinity of the moon1 and resembled a small moon or a gigantic fire ball1 blazing brightly1 and creating terror and amazement among thousands of spectators who witnessed its flight4 ,it passed to the east1 disappearing near the horizon in a blaze of light4 ,the entire passage occupied nearly fifty seconds1 being visible to the inhabitants of ,iowa1 ,nebraska1 ,missouri1 ,indiana1 ,wisconsin1 ,illinois1 ,michigan1 ,kentucky1 ,ohio1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,west ,virginia4 ,this visitor created the greatest alarm and apprehension along its path1 the blaze of light being accompanied by repeated explosions and detonations which sounded like the rumble and roar of cannonading4 ,to some it appeared like the rattling of heavy teams over a rough1 rocky road2 others believed subterranean explosions accompanied the fall4 ,horses ran away1 stock hurried bellowing to cover1 and men1 women1 and children crouched in fear or fled before the fiery visitor whose roar was distinctly heard several minutes after it had disappeared4 ,as the meteor crossed the ,mississippi ,river the noise of the explosions increased in severity1 and were distinctly heard sixty or seventy miles from its path1 or a distance of one hundred and forty miles apart4 ,the great ball of flame remained intact as it crossed five or six ,states1 but as it passed over central ,illinois loud detonations were heard and the light spread out like an exploding rocket with flashing points4 ,this was the death and destruction of the monster1 and from here it dashed on1 a stream or shower of countless meteors instead of a solid body1 forming over ,indiana and ,ohio a cluster over forty miles long and five in breadth1 showing that while the meteor had broken up it was still moving with great velocity4 ,how far it traveled is not known1 as it was not seen to strike4 ,observers in ,pennsylvania saw it rushing in the direction of ,new ,york1 and people in that ,state1 where the day was cloudy1 heard strange rumblings and detonations4 ,houses rattled1 and the inhabitants along the line the meteor was supposed to have passed accredited the phenomena to an earthquake4 ,somewhere1 perhaps in the forest region of the ,adirondacks1 or in the ,atlantic1 lies the wreck of this meteor4 ,but one fragment was found4 ,a farmer in ,indiana1 while watching its passage heard the thud of a falling object1 and going to the spot the following morning found a small meteorite weighing two thirds of a pound4 ,this marvelous body was first observed in all probability in the northwestern corner of the ,indian ,territory1 possibly sixty or seventy miles above the earth1 and from here it dashed along with repeated explosions1 almost parallel to the earth's surface1 disappearing over ,new ,york4 ,another remarkable meteor fell into the ,atlantic ,ocean far out at sea1 ,july #bj1 #ahfj4 ,it resembled the one mentioned above in that it was accompanied by a marvelous pyrotechnic display4 ,it first appeared in the vicinity of ,michigan1 blazing out with a fiery glow that filled the heavens with light4 ,cocks crowed1 oxen lowed1 and people rushed from their homes along its course over the ,states of ,new ,york1 ,pennsylvania1 and ,new ,jersey4 ,when last seen1 over the ,atlantic1 it had separated into three parts1 which followed each other as separate fire bodies1 without the noise which was the accompanying feature of the ,kansas meteor4 ,doubtless the majority of meteors plunge into the ocean1 and in modern times several large meteoric bodies have narrowly escaped passing vessels4 ,on ,december #a1 #ahif1 the officers of the ship ,walkomming1 bound from ,new ,york to ,bremen1 noticed a large and brilliant meteor flashing down upon them4 ,its direction was from southeast to northwest1 and it plunged into the sea ahead of the vessel with a loud roar and hissing sound2 a few minutes later an immense tidal wave1 presumably caused by the fall1 struck the ship1 doing no little damage4 ,even more remarkable was the escape of the ,british ship ,cawdor1 which was given up by the underwriters1 but which reached ,san ,francisco ,november #bj1 #ahig4 ,during a heavy storm1 ,august #bjth1 a large meteor flashed from the sky and passed between the main and mizzen masts1 crashing into the sea with a blinding flash and deafening detonation4 ,for a moment it was thought the ship was on fire1 and the air was filled with sulphurous fumes4 ,in #ahhh a meteor dashed into the atmosphere of the earth and made a brilliant display over southern ,california4 ,it appeared between twelve and one o'clock in the morning1 and shot across the heavens1 a fiery red mass--not like the ordinary meteor1 but writhing and twisting in a manner peculiarly its own1 resembling a huge serpent4 ,when it had passed nearly across the sky it apparently stopped and doubled in the form of a horseshoe1 according to the informant of the writer1 as large as a half-mile race track4 ,the horseshoe remained visible several minutes1 gradually disappearing4 ,the brilliancy of this meteor can be imagined when it is known that the entire ,san ,gabriel ,valley was illumined as though an electric light of great power had suddenly been flashed upon it4 ,illustration3 ,,coon ,,butte1 ,,on ,,slope ,,of ,,which ,,ten ,,tons ,,of ,,meteoric ,,iron ,,has ,,been ,,found1 ,,and ,,which ,,was ,,supposed ,,to ,,have ,,been ,,made ,,by ,a ,,meteor4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,interior ,,of ,,coon ,,butte4 ,illustration3 ,,section ,,of ,,coon ,,butte4 ,some time in past ages a meteorite weighing at least ten tons shot into our atmosphere and struck the earth near the famous ,caon ,diablo in ,arizona1 the mysterious gulch crossed by the ,atchison1 ,topeka and ,santa ,f ,railroad4 ,the discovery was made several years ago by a sheep herder1 named ,armijo4 ,finding a piece of iron with a peculiar lustrous surface which he believed to be silver1 he carried it to one of the towns1 where it finally fell into the hands of a geologist1 who pronounced it a meteorite4 ,the discovery was followed up1 and on the crest and in the vicinity of a singular cone about four thousand feet in diameter pieces of a meteorite were found on the surface1 which gave a combined weight of ten tons1 in all probability but a fraction of the real monster4 ,the iron masses were widely scattered over the slope and the adjacent mesa1 and it was assumed that a gigantic meteorite or star had fallen and produced the cone1 another striking the earth and forming what is now known as the ,caon ,diablo4 ,a large piece of meteoric iron was found twenty miles from the cone2 another eight miles east of it2 two thousand pieces weighing not over a few pounds or ounces were taken from the slopes2 two exceeding a thousand pounds were found within a half mile1 while forty or fifty weighing about one hundred pounds were discovered within a radius of half a mile4 ,here not only a meteor1 but a large-sized meteoric shower1 had succeeded in penetrating the armor of the earth1 leaving many evidences of the extraordinary occurrence which may have been witnessed by the early man of what is now known as ,arizona4 ,from the peculiar and interesting evidence a geologist deduced the hypothesis that the crater known as ,coon ,butte could have been produced by a meteor with a diameter of fifteen hundred feet1 and a careful examination with a view of discovering it was made with nicely adjusted magnetic instruments2 but in no instance did they indicate the presence of a vast body of metal buried in the earth1 and it was assumed that the striking of the crater by the colossal meteorite was a chance blow4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,crater ,,of ,,coon ,,butte ,,near ,,ca,,on ,,diablo1 near which the fragments of a meteorite have been found1 and which was supposed at one time to have been made by the meteorite4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,sixty-,,one ,,pound ,,meteorite4 ,a part of the ten-ton meteorite which fell at ,coon ,butte1 near ,caon ,diablo4 ,illustration3 ,,one ,,hundred ,,and ,,sixty-,,one ,,and ,a ,,half ,,pound ,,meteorite ,,found ,,near ,,crater ,,of ,,coon ,,butte4 ,illustration3 ,,crosses ,,show ,,large ,,pieces ,,of ,,the ,,meteorite ,,found ,,at ,,coon ,,butte4 7,seven miles in diameter47 ,the meteorites or foreign bodies which bombard the earth may be included in three classes--meteoric irons or arosiderites1 meteoric iron stones or arosiderolites1 and meteoric stones1 arolites--all containing elements1 about twenty-five in number1 which have been found upon the earth4 ,the most conspicuous and important are silicon1 iron1 nickel1 magnesium1 sulphur1 carbon1 and phosphorus1 while the others are aluminum1 antimony1 arsenic1 calcium1 chlorine1 chromium1 cobalt1 copper1 hydrogen1 lithium1 manganese1 oxygen1 potassium1 sodium1 tin1 and titanium4 ,hydrogen and the diamond have also been observed4 ,a number of interesting chemical compounds are found in meteorites not known on the earth1 and a study of their character shows that the conditions under which the meteors were formed were entirely different from those which saw the beginning of things terrestrial4 ,in brief1 where meteors were born there was an absence of air and water4 ,on the other hand1 there was at some stage in the history of meteorites an abundance of hydrogen4 ,the meteoric irons are made up principally of iron with an alloy of nickel1 and show a rich crystalline structure1 the various angles producing a variety of forms known as ,widmanstatten figures which a few years ago formed the basis of a singular sensation4 ,the figures were supposed to be fossil shells and various animals of a diminutive size which once populated the wrecked world of which the meteor was assumed to be a part4 ,these meteoric animals from space were named and classified by several observers1 who were finally forced to acknowledge that their creations were the fanciful markings of crystallization4 ,another class of meteorites 7meteoric iron stones7 may be described as spongy masses of nickeliferous iron in whose pores are found grains of chryosite and other silicates4 ,a type of these bodies is the meteor of ,pallas1 which was discovered by him in #aggb4 ,the third class of meteoric stones are those in which the stony or silicous predominates4 ,as a rule they contain scattered metallic grains1 but certain ones1 as the arolite which fell at ,gara1 ,france1 in #ahjf1 contain metallic constituents4 ,the arolites present an attractive appearance when made into sections1 showing crystals and splinterlike fragments1 and under the glass seem to be made up of many minute spheres ranging from those the size of a cherry down to others invisible to the naked eye4 ,the minerals prominent in their composition are chrysolite1 bronzite1 augite1 enstatite1 feldspar1 chronite1 etc41 showing a marked similarity to the eruptive rocks so well known on the earth4 ,the collections of famous meteorites in the various museums of the world have constantly been examined and studied with a view to determine their origin1 the question being a fascinating one to layman and scientist4 ,astronomers in the past have variously answered the question4 ,the flying fragments were believed by some to be the wreckage of other worlds4 ,planets had perhaps collided and been rent asunder in former ages1 and space filled with the flying fragments4 ,others thought that meteors were molten matter thrown from the earth or moon4 ,all these theories have been relinquished in view of evidence of a more or less convincing character pointing to the conclusion that the bombardment of the earth is one of the results of the disintegration of comets4 ,in other words1 cometary matter flying not always blindly through space1 but in the orbit of the comet of which it originally formed a part1 constituting the missiles4 ,it is known that the meteors were formed in a region where air and water were absent4 ,it is equally evident that life was not a factor in the past history of the bodies1 though it must be acknowledged that the hydrocarbons resembling terrestrial bitumens which are found in some meteorites suggest the possibility of vegetable life4 ,these comets1 the mysterious bodies which seem to be roving through space1 misconceived planets1 as it were1 forced into the world half made up1 offer the best known solution1 as they are literally worlds without air or water1 enveloped in a strange and ever-changing substitute for atmosphere2 ghostly worlds1 which seem to be drawn to the sun1 then thrown out into space again to repeat the act until the mighty change from close contact with the fiery mass to the intense cold of distant realms wrecks them1 scatters their fragments through the infinity of space where they form gigantic rings or clusters of meteoric matter1 raining down upon the sun and planets and all heavenly bodies which meet them1 adding fuel to the former1 material substance to the latter1 and in the case of the moon pitilessly bombarding her crust--illustrating the effect of the bombardment of the earth were it deprived of its atmospheric armor4 ,the evidence which enabled astronomers to definitely associate comets with meteoric showers and falling stars leads one into a world of romance4 ,schiaparelli1 the distinguished ,italian astronomer1 made the discovery that meteors had a cometic origin4 ,he had been calculating the orbit and motion of the meteorites which produce the ,august showers1 when it occurred to him that they corresponded with those of a certain comet4 ,by following up this clew it was discovered that the orbit of ,tempel's comet corresponded with that of the meteors of the ,november star shower4 ,the most remarkable evidence was that produced by ,biela's comet1 discovered in #ahbf4 ,it had a revolution about the sun of six years and eight months4 ,it was seen in #aggb1 #ahje1 #ahcb1 #ahde1 and #aheb4 ,the vast mass1 which appeared to be rushing around the sun with remarkable velocity1 became separated in #ahdf1 dividing into two parts1 one hundred and fifty thousand or two hundred thousand miles from each other4 ,in six years the separation had increased to about one and a half million miles4 ,what mighty cataclysm in infinite space caused this rupture the mind of man can not conceive1 but something occurred which rent the arial giant asunder1 and so far as known completed its wreck1 as from that time ,biela's comet has not been seen4 ,in #ahgb the comet was looked for1 and astronomers predicted that if it did not appear a shower of stars or meteors would be visible--the remains of the lost traveler through space--and that they would diverge from a point in ,andromeda4 ,this remarkable prediction was verified in every particular4 ,when the moment for the appearance of the comet arrived1 ,november #bg1 #ahgb1 there burst upon the heavens1 not ,biela's comet1 but a marvelous shower of shooting stars1 which dashed down from the constellation of ,andromeda as predicted4 ,in #ahhe this was duplicated1 and the atmosphere was apparently filled with shooting stars4 ,biela's comet had met disaster in infinite space1 and the earth was being bombarded with the wreckage4 ,it is difficult to comprehend the vastness of these clusters of meteors which constitute the wreck of comets and the source of the principal bombardments4 ,thus the ,august stream1 which gives us the brilliant displays of summer nights1 is supposed to be ten million miles in thickness1 as the earth dashing through at a rate of two million miles a day is several days in passing it4 ,we cross the ,november stream of meteors in a few hours1 suggesting a width of forty thousand or fifty thousand miles4 ,this stream of metallic bodies is hundreds of millions of miles in length1 and contains myriads of projectiles which may yet be hurled upon the earth or some of the planets of the solar system4 ,illustration3 ,,the ,,november ,,shower ,,of ,,meteors ,,at ,,sea ,,from ,,sandy ,,hook4 ,but one piece of ,biela's comet1 so far as known1 was found--a fragment weighing eight pounds falling at ,mazapil1 ,mexico1 where it remains one of the most inspiring and interesting of inanimate objects4 ,for years the vast metallic mass1 of which this piece formed a part1 rushed through space1 covering millions of miles2 now near the burning surface of the sun1 now in regions of space where its heat was scarcely perceptible4 ,for over a century this monster was observed by the inhabitants of the earth1 and finally a portion fell and human beings handled and examined it4 ,the fiery messengers which dash down singly upon the earth1 the showers of meteoric stones which flash through our atmosphere with ephemeral gleams1 are1 then1 the remains of gigantic comets which have been seen rushing with apparent erratic course through space1 and which by unknown causes have been destroyed and now as meteoric clusters1 one of which is estimated to be one billion miles in length and one hundred thousand miles in thickness1 and to contain one hundred thousand million meteors1 are swinging through space1 with many erratic and wandering forms1 pouring upon the earth and all the planets of the solar system a mighty and continuous bombardment4 ,,footnote3 #bj ,the meteors shown in the two ideal pictures are1 of course1 entirely disproportionate in size to the earth and stars4 ,if seen by an observer above the earth1 we might imagine an envelope of light around the globe from the continuous ignition of the #aej1jjj1jjj1jjj or more meteors which it is estimated strike the earth every year2 in which case1 the striking meteors would be represented in the illustrations as a thin light line surrounding the atmospheric envelope of the earth4 ,,the ,,spirit ,,of ,,conquest4 ,,by ,j4 ,,novicow4 ,the spirit of conquest produces a gigantic aggregation of calamities and sufferings4 ,a large number of persons still regard conquests with a favoring eye4 ,now1 what does a conquest signify8 ,it is the arming of a band of soldiers and going and taking possession of a territory4 ,although such expeditions may appear useful1 lucrative1 legitimate1 and even glorious1 little regard is paid1 in conducting them1 to the good of societies2 for1 in spite of all euphemisms1 such military enterprises are robbery1 and nothing else1 all the time4 ,generous spirits who talk about suppressing war do great injury to mankind4 ,setting themselves in pursuit of a chimera1 they abandon the road that leads to concrete and positive results4 ,realists treat the partisans of perpetual peace as ,utopian dreamers1 and refuse to follow them4 ,the noblest and most generous efforts are thus wholly lost4 ,the direction of public opinion is left to empirics and retrogrades1 to narrow-minded people1 who are satisfied with living from day to day and have not the courage to look the social problems of the time in the face4 ,war will never be abolished any more than murder4 ,the propaganda should not be directed on that side4 ,the spirit of conquest is the thing to combat4 ,and this colossal error must be fought not in the name of a vague and intangible fraternity1 but by appealing to the egoistic interest of every one4 ,there will always be wars1 because man will never be absolutely sound-minded4 ,at times passion and folly will prevail over reason4 ,but the idea that conquest is the quickest means of increasing prosperity will not be everlasting1 because it is utterly false4 ,man acts conformably to what seems to be his interest4 ,the idea he has of this depends on his judgment1 which varies every day1 as do also his desires4 ,there is only one efficacious method of effecting social changes3 it is1 to modify the desires of men1 to bring them to seek new objects1 different from the old ones4 ,a great many ,germans are saying now1 ,we would give up the last drop of our blood rather than surrender ,alsace-,lorraine4 ,why do they say that8 ,because the possession of the provinces annexed in #ahga procures them some sort of real or imaginary satisfaction4 ,but if1 on the other hand1 this annexation caused them extreme sufferings1 the ,germans would say1 ,we would give up the last drop of our blood to get rid of ,alsace-,lorraine4 ,now1 if the ,germans 7or any other people7 could comprehend how largely the spirit of conquest diminishes the sum of their enjoyment1 they would certainly express themselves in language of the latter sort4 ,the apostles of perpetual peace have therefore taken the wrong road4 ,their efforts should bear upon the single object of showing that the appropriation of a neighbor's territories in no way increases the welfare of men4 ,the pessimists answer us that it will take many years for the uselessness of conquests to be accepted4 ,well1 then1 man shall have to continue many years in suffering2 that is all there is of it4 ,when will the day come that we shall find out that it is no longer advantageous to seize a neighbor's territory8 ,we do not know4 ,the only thing we can affirm with absolute certainty is1 that when it arrives our prosperity will be increased five or ten fold4#ba ,this ctesohedonic error 7lust for possession7 has produced consequences of which we proceed to speak4 ,just as individuals fancy that they will be better off with larger possessions1 so peoples imagine that their prosperity and happiness will be in direct proportion to the territorial extent of their country4 ,hence one of the silliest aberrations of the human mind--the fatuous idolatry of square miles4 ,a great many ,germans still figure it out that they will have a larger sum of happiness if their country contains #bjh1fgj square miles instead of #bjc1jgj4bb ,few errors are more evident4 ,there are thousands of examples to prove that the welfare of citizens is in no way a function of the extent of the state4 ,if it were so1 ,russia would be the richest country in ,europe1 while everybody knows it is exactly the contrary4 ,taxation in that country is pushed to limits that might almost be called absurd1 and for that reason the extent of the nation is one of the greatest obstacles to its prosperity4 ,as an example to illustrate the absurdity of the idolatry of square miles1 take ,california1 which now has #aeh1cfj square miles1#bc and #a1bjj1jjj inhabitants4 ,if in another century the population should rise to forty millions1 it might be expedient for the good government of these men to divide the ,state into several4 ,if the conservatives of that period should declare that they would give the last drop of their blood to preserve the unity of their ,commonwealth1 they would be afflicted with the square-mile craze1 and as foolish as the ,europeans4 ,territorial divisions are made for men1 not men for territorial divisions4 ,the object enlightened patriots should pursue is not that a certain geographical extent should be included under one name or many1 but that the divisions should conform to the aspirations and desires of the citizens4 ,they should impose as little restraint as possible upon the economical and intellectual progress of societies4 ,the inhabitants of the province of ,rio ,grande recently wanted to secede from ,brazil4 ,the ,government at ,rio ,janeiro1 afflicted like other governments by the square-mile craze1 would not consent to it1 and hostilities broke out4 ,suppose the ,rio ,grandians had been victorious in this war2 what would have been the result8 ,there would have been eleven states in ,south ,america instead of ten4 ,no modern political theorist would see the presage of an extraordinary calamity in such an event as that4 ,the new state would have been recognized by the other powers1 and things would have gone on as before4 ,but if the central ,government1 respecting the wishes of the ,rio ,grandians1 had consented to the secession1 the empirical politicians of our time would have affirmed that the world had been unbalanced4 ,yet the situation would have been exactly the same in point of territorial divisions--eleven independent states instead of ten4 ,we have then to think that1 in the eyes of modern politicians1 the avoidance of a war1 the fact of sparing hundreds of millions of money and thousands of human lives1 diminishes wealth1 while the waste of capital and massacres should increase it6 ,it would be hard to be less logical or more absurd4 ,the great ,north ,american federation is composed of forty-four ,states1 of from #a1bej square miles 7the size of ,rhode ,island7 to #bfe1ghj square miles 7the size of ,texas74 ,if one hundred ,states should be established to-morrow of about #cj1jjj square miles each1 there would not necessarily follow either an increase or a diminution of the welfare of the population4 ,the ,americans can make equally rapid progress whether divided into forty republics or one hundred1 and as slow under one division as under the other4 ,wealth is not a function of political divisions4 ,so ,europe is now divided into twenty-four independent states1 having from #h to #b1ajj1jjj square miles of territory4 ,if it were divided to-morrow into one hundred independent states of #ce1jjj square miles each1 it would as easily be poorer as richer4 ,all would depend upon the interior organization of each of these states1 and on the relations which they might establish with one another4 ,very few persons understand this truth4 ,when we see the most civilized nations of ,europe imagining that their welfare depends on #e1jjj or #f1jjj square miles more or less1 we stand really stupefied before the persistence of the ancient routines4 ,the simple disarmament of three military corps would procure ten times as many benefits for the ,german people as the possession of ,alsace-,lorraine4 ,in short1 as long as the false association between the territorial extent of a state and its wealth persists its progress in real wealth will be very slow4 ,to return to the spirit of conquest4 ,a great many things1 as we have shown in another place1 are not appropriable4 ,foreign territories are not so for entire nations4 ,a military chief with his staff may be better off through the conquest of a country1 but a nation never4 ,when ,william of ,normandy seized ,england he committed an act that was not according to his interest as properly understood4 ,he destroyed by war a considerable quantity of wealth1 and he and his barons in turn suffered by the general diminution of welfare4 ,these sufferings were1 however1 infinitesimal and very hard to appreciate4 ,true views of the nature of wealth were1 moreover1 not accessible to the brains of men of the eleventh century4 ,certainly1 when ,william and his army had possessed themselves of ,england they experienced an increase of wealth that was very evident to them4 ,the king had more revenue2 every ,norman soldier got land or a reward in money1 and he became richer after ,hastings than he had ever been before4 ,but what did the ,roman people1 for example1 gain by the conquest of the basin of the ,mediterranean8 ,four or five hundred grand personages divided the provincial lands alienated by the state among themselves1 but what benefit did the masses derive from the bloody campaigns of the republic8 ,the distribution of the annone1 #bhj grammes of bread each a day1 given to #bjj1jjj persons out of the #a1ejj1jjj inhabitants of the ,eternal ,city6 ,surely the ,romans would have gained a great deal more by working themselves than by pillaging other nations6 ,things are exactly the same now4 ,in #ahga twenty-eight persons received from the ,emperor ,william donations forming a total of #c1jjj1jjj4 ,but what benefit did the ,german people derive from the conquest of ,alsace-,lorraine8 ,none4 ,dividing the #c1fjj1jjj acres of that province among the #f1djj1jjj families that were living in ,germany at the time of the ,treaty of ,frankfort would make two and a half acres each4 ,this is not opulence4 ,of the #e1jjj1jjj1jjj of francs extorted from ,france as damage for the expenses of the war there remained #c1hif1bej1jjj francs1 which1 divided among #f1djj1jjj families1 represent a gain of #fji francs1 or about #aba4hj per family--hardly enough to live scantily upon for four months2 and this was the most lucrative war of which history makes mention6 ,consider1 further1 at what amount of sacrifice these #aba4hj have been gained4 ,in #ahgj the military expenses of the ,north ,german ,confederation and the four southern states amounted to #cdi1jjj1jjj francs a year4 ,they now exceed #gie1jjj1jjj1 and in another year 7from #ahid7 will exceed #hgj1jjj1jjj4 ,here1 then1 is an increase of #eba1jjj1jjj francs1 or a charge of #fj francs per family4 ,as #fji francs1 even at five per cent1 will only return #cj francs1 we have here a clear loss of #cj francs 7or #f7 a family per year4 ,it thus appears that the conquest of ,alsace-,lorraine would have been a bad speculation1 even if the ,french indemnity had been distributed in equal parts among all the ,german families4 ,but1 in fact1 it has not been so2 so that the #fj francs of supplementary expenditure are paid without any compensation4 ,it might be said that the conquest of ,alsace-,lorraine was not dictated solely by sordid economical considerations4 ,other interests1 purer and more elevated1 stir the hearts of modern nations4 ,but we ask1 ,is it grand1 noble1 and generous to hold unwilling populations under the yoke8 ,on the contrary1 it is most base1 vile1 and degrading4 ,it is difficult to comprehend how brutal conquest can still arouse enthusiasm4 ,ancient survivals and routines must for a time have suppressed all our reflective faculties4 ,suppose1 again1 #c1jjj1jjj ,german soldiers should penetrate into ,russia and should gain a complete victory3 how would they apportion the territory8 ,the parts here would indeed be larger--,russia contains #e1dga1ejj1jjj acres4 ,but a third of this territory1 at least1 is desert2 subtracting this1 there remain about #c1fjj1jjj1jjj acres1 which1 divided among the ,german families1 would give about #e-a_/b acres to each4 ,it may be asked1 ,how will the conquerors take possession of these lands8 ,if each family delegated only one of its members1 that would suppose an exodus of #f1djj1jjj men1 going to scatter themselves from the ,vistula to the ,amoor4 ,what a disturbance so great an emigration would make in the economical condition of ,germany6 ,moreover1 would every ,german colonist be willing to leave his home1 his family1 his business1 and all his cherished associations1 to install himself on the banks of the ,volga1 in ,siberia1 the ,caucasus1 or ,central ,asia8 ,he would acquire #e-a_/b acres1 more or less1 it is true1 but is it certain that that would bring him more than it would take from him8 ,on the other hand1 if the ,germans should have their shares administered by agents chosen from among the natives1 what complications1 what annoyances would arise6 ,the ,germans might perhaps get rid of these difficulties by selling their lands4 ,but what price could they command1 with #c1fjj1jjj1jjj acres all put into the market at once8 ,who would buy it8 ,it is only necessary to look at the facts at close range 7besides a mass of difficulties we have not spoken of7 to comprehend that the direct appropriation of the territory of one great modern nation by individuals of another does not enter into the domain of realizable things4 ,the appropriation of the landed properties is therefore chimerical4 ,the confiscation of personal goods to the profit of the conquerors also offers insurmountable difficulties4 ,there remain the public riches4 ,few countries could pay indemnities of #e1jjj1jjj1jjj francs4 ,but even that colossal sum becomes absurdly insufficient when it is equally divided among millions of takers4 ,all this is most plainly evident1 and yet the spirit of conquest and the fatuous idolatry of square miles are more active than ever in the old world of ,europe4 ,let us see now what this mad aberration costs4 ,we will begin with the direct losses4 ,a whole continent of our globe1 twice as large as the ,european continent1 having #h1jjj1jjj square miles and #hj1jjj1jjj inhabitants--,north ,america--is divided into three political dominions3 ,canada1 the ,united ,states1 and ,mexico4 ,as none of these countries covets the territory of the other1 there are on this vast continent only #aad1dec soldiers and marines1 one military man for #gjj inhabitants1 while in ,europe there is one for #ajh4 ,the ,american proportion would give #ead1bhf men for all the ,european armies4 ,as there are no savage elements in ,europe to be restrained by arms1 half of the ,north ,american contingent ought to be enough to maintain internal order there4 ,europe needs only #cjj1jjj soldiers at most2 all the others are supported in deference to the idolatry for square miles4 ,this additional military force exceeds #c1cjj1jjj men1 and costs #d1ejh1jjj1jjj francs 7#ija1fjj1jjj7 a year4 ,and this is the direct loss entailed by the spirit of conquest2 and yet it is trifling as compared with the indirect losses4 ,first1 there are #c1cjj1jjj men under the flags4 ,if they were not soldiers1 and were following lucrative occupations and earning only #a1jjj francs 7#bjj7 a head1 they might produce #gfj1jjj1jjj4 ,the #ijj1jjj1jjj absorbed now by military expenditures would bring five per cent if invested in agricultural and industrial enterprises4 ,this would make another #de1jjj1jjj4 ,the twenty-eight days of the reserves are worth at least #dj1jjj1jjj4 ,here1 then1 is an absolutely palpable sum of #hde1jjj1jjj4 ,but what a number of colossal losses escape all valuation6 ,capital produces capital4 ,if #a1hjj1jjj1jjj were saved every year from military expenses and poured into industrial enterprises1 they would produce benefits beyond our power to estimate4 ,to obtain a correct appreciation of the evils derived from the spirit of conquest1 we must take a glance at the past4 ,we need not go back of the middle ages1 from which we shall only take a few examples4 ,the destruction of wealth wrought by war has been nowhere so frightful as in ,spain4 ,in #ajgc the ,castilians tried to capture ,toledo from the ,moors4 ,with the military engines of the time it was impossible to accomplish the purpose by a direct attack on a place so admirably fortified by ,nature and man2 so the ,king of ,castile1 ,alfonso ,,vi1 ravaged the country for three successive years1 destroyed the crops1 harassed the people and the cattle1 and1 in short1 made a desert around the old capital of the ,visigoths4 ,from #aaaj till #ahae--seven hundred and five years--there were two hundred and seventy-two years of war between ,france and ,england4 ,now the two nations have lived in peace for eighty years1 and it has not prevented them from prospering4 ,what better proof could we have that all the previous wars were useless8 ,we need not speak of the massacres of the ,thirty ,years' ,war1 by which a third of the population of ,germany perished1 or of the frightful hecatombs of ,napoleon ,i1 for these facts are in everybody's memory4 ,we shall confine our attention to the losses caused by the spirit of conquest1 at least since the ,thirty ,years' ,war4 ,here1 again1 we shall proceed by analogies4 ,from #agjj to #ahae ,england expended #age1jjj1jjj francs 7#ce1jjj1jjj7 a year for war4 ,suppose that the expenditures of the other great powers--,germany 7including ,prussia71 ,austria1 ,spain1 ,france1 and ,russia--were similar4 ,this would make1 without counting the smaller states1 #a1jej1jjj1jjj francs 7#baj1jjj1jjj7 for all ,europe4 ,still1 as war was not so costly to ,russia or ,prussia as to ,england1 we will reduce this figure one fourth4 ,we shall then have1 between #agjj and #ahae1 an annual expenditure of #ghg1ejj1jjj francs 7#aeg1ejj1jjj74bd ,let us estimate the cost of the wars of the seventeenth century at a slightly lower sum1 putting it at only #ejj1jjj1jjj francs 7or #ajj1jjj1jjj7 a year for all ,europe4 ,that would make #da1jjj1jjj1jjj francs 7#h1bjj1jjj1jjj71 or for the entire period from #afah to #ahae1 #aca1efb1ejj1jjj francs 7#bf1cab1ejj1jjj74 ,we have more certain data for the nineteenth century4 ,the ,crimean1 ,italian1 ,schleswig-,holstein1 and ,american ,wars1 and the war of #ahff1 cost #df1hcj1jjj1jjj francs 7#i1cff1jjj1jjj74be ,the war of ,france cost #ae1jjj1jjj1jjj francs 7#c1jjj1jjj1jjj7 at the lowest2 that of #ahgg at least #d1jjj1jjj1jjj francs 7#hjj1jjj1jjj74 ,add for the war of ,greek independence1 the ,french and ,austrian expeditions to ,spain and ,naples1 the ,polish war of #ahcj1 the ,turco-,russian war of #ahbh-'bi1 and the wars of #ahdh1 #c1jjj1jjj1jjj francs 7#fjj1jjj1jjj7 more--a very moderate estimate2 we reach a total sum of #fh1hcj1jjj1jjj francs 7#ac1gff1jjj1jjj74 ,none of the extra-,european conflicts are comprised in this figure2 neither the war between ,russia and ,persia in #ahbg1 that of ,mehemet ,ali against the ,turks1 the struggle against the mountaineers of the ,caucasus and against the ,arabs in ,algeria1 or the ,english campaign in ,afghanistan--concerning all of which we have no figures4 ,counting only the figures we have been able to obtain1 we have for the period from #afah till our own days #bjj1cib1jjj1jjj francs 7#ej1jgh1ejj1jjj7 as the bare direct losses by war1 which have had to be defrayed by the budgets of the different ,european states4 ,how shall we calculate the indirect losses8 ,between #afah and #afdh ,germany lost #f1jjj1jjj inhabitants4 ,the destruction of property was prodigious1 the ravages were frightful4 ,how can we represent them in money8 ,it is absolutely impossible4 ,there are1 too1 some expenses arising from the spirit of conquest that almost wholly escape observation4 ,we shall give only two examples of them4 ,the ctesohedonic fallacy 7lust for possession7 raged in the middle ages between the nearest neighbors4 ,no city could offer any security unless it was surrounded by strong walls4 ,since these required great expenditures1 they could not be rebuilt every few days4 ,for this reason space was greatly economized in the cities1 and their streets were very narrow4 ,at a later period1 when security had become established1 the walls were demolished4 ,in our own time the needs of hygiene and luxury have urged the opening of broad ways in the ancient ,european cities4 ,it has been necessary to buy houses and demolish them in order to create the grand modern avenues4 ,there would have been no walls in the middle ages except for the spirit of conquest1 and the broad streets would have been established then1 as has been done in the new cities of ,russia and ,america4 ,to pierce these new avenues1 ,paris1 for example1 has had to contract debts1 the annual interest on which amounts to at least #ej1jjj1jjj or #fj1jjj1jjj francs 7#aj1jjj1jjj to #ab1jjj1jjj74 ,this expense should be charged to the account of the spirit of conquest4 ,but nobody has ever thought of attributing these #ej1jjj1jjj or #fj1jjj1jjj of the city budget to military waste4 ,and how many other cities are in the same situation8 ,another example3 during six centuries ,france and ,england were trying to take provinces from one another4 ,hence a permanent hostility existed between the two nations4 ,later on the circumstances changed1 but by virtue of the routine inherent in the human mind the old resentments remained1 though the motive for them had gone4 ,to thwart the progress of ,france was considered a patriotic duty by such ,english ministers as ,lord ,palmerston4 ,in #ahee ,m4 de ,lesseps formed a company to construct the ,suez ,canal4 ,as ,m4 de ,lesseps was a ,frenchman1 ,lord ,palmerston and the ,british ,cabinet thought themselves obligated to oppose his project1 and their opposition cost about #bjj1jjj1jjj francs 7#dj1jjj1jjj74 ,the canal might have been constructed then for that sum1 but in consequence of the machinations of the ,english it cost #djj1jjj1jjj francs 7#hj1jjj1jjj74 ,who has ever thought of charging that loss to the account of the spirit of conquest8 ,nevertheless1 that is where it belongs4#bf ,the indirect losses of war defy valuation4 ,but the matter may be looked at from another point of view3 that of the profits which they prevent being made4 ,the ,american war against secession cost the treasury of both combatants #g1jjj1jjj1jjj4 ,now1 if1 without speaking of the destruction of property1#bg we only consider the benefits nonrealized1 the most moderate estimates make them #ab1jjj1jjj1jjj for the year #ahij1bh and the figure goes on every year increasing in geometrical progression4 ,further1 the debts must be considered4 ,the largest proportion of them are consequences of the idolatry for square miles4 ,this entails an annual expenditure of #fdd1hjj1jjj which we should not have to bear were it not for the ctesohedonic fallacy4#bi ,yet another factor has so far not been mentioned3 men4 ,the wars of the last three centuries have cost1 at the lowest figure1 #cj1jjj1jjj or #dj1jjj1jjj victims4 ,some authors raise this very moderate estimate to #bj1jjj1jjj per century4 ,without speaking of the frightful sufferings of these unfortunates1 they represent an enormous capital4#cj ,let us add1 further1 that these men1 if they had not been killed1 might have had children that now have no existence4 ,without the wars of ,napoleon ,i and ,napoleon ,,iii ,europe would have had #de1jjj1jjj more inhabitants than it has1 and they might have been producing #b1gjj1jjj a year4#ca ,we hope the reader will admit1 after these considerations1 that the indirect losses of war certainly exceed the direct ones4 ,still1 adhering to our method of underrating rather than exaggerating1 we will regard them as equal4 ,we may therefore affirm that the spirit of conquest has cost1 since #afah1 in the group of ,european nations alone1 the trifle of #hj1aef1hjj1jjj4 ,suppose we should go farther back--into antiquity even8 ,imagination refuses to set down the gigantic sums4 ,this is not all2 the cost of civil wars has to be counted1 for the conquest of power within the state is attended by massacres which are often not inferior to those of foreign ones4 ,the chiefs of the ,roman legions contending for the empire carried on as bloody and costly campaigns against their rivals as against the ,parthians or the ,germans4 ,the war between ,paris and ,versailles in #ahga occasioned considerable expenditures1 not to speak of the indirect losses1 which were immense4 ,we are1 unfortunately1 absolutely without data concerning the cost of civil wars1 and shall have to satisfy ourselves with what we have been able to obtain concerning foreign wars4 #hj1aef1hjj1jjj used up in two centuries6 ,we need not go outside of this for a solution of the social question4 ,without this unrestricted waste the earth would now have ten times more wheat1 sugar1 linen1 cotton1 meat1 wool1 etc42 there would be ten times as many houses on the globe1 and they would be more spacious1 better warmed1 and better ventilated2 a network of roads1 with frequent mails1 would cover ,europe1 ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america4 ,in short1 if conquest had been considered an evil1 even during only two centuries1 our wealth would have been infinitely superior to what we now possess4 ,but if the ctesohedonic fallacy had been seen through by the civilized societies of the ,roman period1 the face of the earth would have been very different from what it is4 ,our planet would have been completely appropriated to the satisfaction of our wants4 ,waste lands would have been tilled and swamps dried2 everywhere that a drop of water could be made to serve for irrigation it would have been applied to that use4 ,magnificent cities1 inhabited by active and industrious populations1 would have arisen in numerous places where now are found only briers and stones4 ,in short1 we should have been able to see men now1 in the year of grace #ahid1 as we expect to see them in three or four thousand years4 ,the past can not be changed4 ,we have laid bare the unhappy consequences of our ancient errors simply in order to show how we can assure our welfare in the future4 ,as long as the spirit of conquest rages among men1 misery will be the lot of our species4 ,our savage and barbarous ancestors did not know what we know4 ,attila1 ,tamerlane1 and even ,matabele1 a chief of our own times1 might be excused for fancying that conquest increases the wealth of the conquerors2 but a ,moltke and a ,prince ,bismarck can not4 ,the masses are still too deeply imbued with military vainglory4 ,happily1 they are beginning to open their eyes4--,translated for the ,popular ,science ,monthly from the book ,les ,gaspillages des ,socits ,modernes 7,the ,wastes of ,modern ,societies71 ,paris1 #ahid4 ,,footnotes3 #ba ,the pessimists are further mistaken4 ,the idea that conquest is disastrous1 even to the conqueror1 is much more widespread in modern societies than is generally thought4 ,but social reflexes urge the masses to obey their chief blindly4 ,it requires only a ,gothic spirit--like ,bismarck1 for example--to set a whole army in motion1 and make it do things which every officer and every soldier would condemn as a personal act4 #bb ,the difference is the extent of ,alsace-,lorraine4 #bc ,about the extent of the ,british ,isles1 ,belgium1 ,holland1 and ,switzerland combined4 #bd ,see ,seeley's ,expansion of ,england1 p4 #ba4 ,this figure is very moderate4 ,between #ahjb and #ahac ,france alone spent #dih1jjj1jjj francs 7#ii1fjj1jjj7 a year4 ,see ,laroque1 ,la ,guerre et les ,armes permanentes1 ,paris1 #ahgj1 p4 #bjc4 #be ,see ,p4 ,leroy-,beaulieu1 ,recherches conomiques sur les ,guerres contemporaines1 ,paris1 p4 #aha4 #bf ,we may refer here to another loss which has never been thought of till now4 ,it was long fancied that wealth could be acquired more rapidly by war than by work2 consequently1 conquest seeming to be the most rapid and therefore most efficacious way1 was honored1 and labor1 appearing to be a slower process1 was despised4 ,in our days a large number of descendants of the knights of the middle ages retain the ideas of their ancestors and look upon labor as degrading4 ,hence thousands of aristocrats do nothing1 but remain social good-for-nothings1 retarding the increase of wealth by their inactivity4 #bg ,sherman1 in his march from ,atlanta to ,savannah alone1 destroyed more than #djj1jjj1jjj4 ,the cotton famine occasioned by this war cost ,great ,britain a loss of #dhj1jjj1jjj4 ,who has ever thought of charging this against militarism8 #bh ,see ,e4 ,reclus1 ,nouvelle geographie universelle 7,french edition71 vol4 xvi1 p4 #haj4 #bi ,a justification of this figure may be found in my ,luttes entre les socits humaines1 p4 #bbj4 #cj ,a half million negroes are massacred every year in ,africa in the tribal wars1 which also are caused by the ctesohedonic fallacy4 ,suppose each one of them might have earned #bj a year4 ,capitalized at four per cent1 this sum would have amounted to #djj1jjj1jjj4 #ca ,see my ,luttes1 p4 #bbh4 ,let us say1 in passing1 that we owe our existing savagery partly to the ctesohedonic fallacy4 ,when we think that the most rapid way of enriching ourselves is by seizing our neighbor's territories1 the fewer defenders that territory has1 the better4 ,so all pretended political geniuses glorify themselves on having killed the largest number of their fellow-men4 ,csar boasted of having killed a million and a half of ,gauls4 ,at the moment of writing these lines a terrible accident has occurred at ,santander4 ,hundreds of persons were killed by the explosion of a boat loaded with dynamite4 ,great pity was expressed for the victims4 ,collections for their benefit were taken in ,france4 ,suppose ,france and ,spain were now at war4 ,if somebody had blown up some thousand ,spaniards in a fortress1 we should have sung ,te ,deums4 ,oh1 man's logic6 99 99 99 99 99 ,until within a few years the field for the study of glaciers and their action has been the ,alps2 but now1 as ,prof4 ,h4,l4 ,fairchild said in his address as chairman of the ,geological ,section of the ,american ,association1 the ,north ,american continent is recognized as a field of the greatest activity1 both in the past and at the present time2 and1 moreover1 it presents types of glaciers not known in ,europe4 ,it must therefore become the ,mecca of foreign students of glaciers4 ,a ,,short ,,history ,,of ,,scientific ,,instruction4#cb ,,by ,j4 ,,norman ,,lockyer1 ,k4,c4,b41 ,f4,r4,s4 ,,ii4 ,i must come back from this excursion to call your attention to the year #ahde1 in which one of the germs of our college first saw the light4 ,what was the condition of ,england in #ahde8 ,her universities had degenerated into hauts lyces4 ,with regard to the university teaching1 ,i may state that even as late as the late fifties a senior wrangler--,i had the story from himself--came to ,london from ,cambridge expressly to walk about the streets to study crystals1 prisms1 and the like in the optician's windows4 ,of laboratories in the universities there were none2 of science teaching in the schools there was none2 there was no organization for training science teachers4 ,if an artisan wished to improve his knowledge he had only the moribund ,mechanics' ,institutes to fall back upon4 ,the nation which then was renowned for its utilization of waste material products allowed its mental products to remain undeveloped4 ,there was no minister of instruction1 no councilors with a knowledge of the national scientific needs1 no organized secondary or primary instruction4 ,we lacked then everything that ,germany had equipped herself with in the matter of scientific industries4 ,did this matter8 ,was it more than a mere abstract question of a want of perfection8 ,it mattered very much6 ,from all quarters came the cry that the national industries were being undermined in consequence of the more complete application of scientific methods to those of other countries4 ,the chemical industries were the first to feel this1 and because ,england was then the seat of most of the large chemical works4#cc ,very few chemists were employed in these chemical works4 ,there were in cases some so-called chemists at about bricklayer's wages--not much of an inducement to study chemistry2 even if there had been practical laboratories1 where it could have been properly learned4 ,hence1 when efficient men were wanted they were got from abroad--i4e41 from ,germany1 or the richer ,english had to go abroad themselves4 ,at this time we had1 fortunately for us1 in ,england1 in very high place1 a ,german fully educated by all that could be learned at one of the best-equipped modern ,german universities1 where he studied both science and the fine arts4 ,i refer to the ,prince ,consort4 ,from that year to his death he was the fountain of our ,english educational renaissance1 drawing to himself men like ,playfair1 ,clark1 and ,de la ,beche2 knowing what we lacked1 he threw himself into the breach4 ,this college is one of the many things the nation owes to him4 ,his service to his adopted country1 and the value of the institutions he helped to inaugurate1 are by no means even yet fully recognized1 because those from whom national recognition full and ample should have come1 were1 and to a great extent still are1 the products of the old system of middle-age scholasticism which his clear vision recognized was incapable by itself of coping with the conditions of modern civilized communities4 ,it was in the year #ahde that the influence of the ,prince ,consort began to be felt4 ,those who know most of the conditions of science and art then and now1 know best how beneficial that influence was in both directions2 my present purpose1 however1 has only reference to science4 ,the ,college of ,chemistry was founded in #ahde1 first as a private institution2 the ,school of ,mines was established by the ,government in #ahea4 ,in the next year1 in the speech from the throne at the opening of ,parliament1 her ,majesty spoke as follows3 ,the advancement of the fine arts and of practical science will be readily recognized by you as worthy the attention of a great and enlightened nation4 ,i have directed that a comprehensive scheme shall be laid before you having in view the promotion of these objects1 toward which ,i invite your aid and co-operation4 ,strange words these from the lips of an ,english sovereign6 ,the ,government of this country was made at last to recognize the great factors of a peaceful nation's prosperity1 and to reverse a policy which has been as disastrous to us as if they had insisted upon our naval needs being supplied by local effort as they were in ,queen ,elizabeth's time4 ,england has practically lost a century2 one need not be a prophet to foresee that in another century's time our education and our scientific establishments will be as strongly organized by the ,british ,government as the navy itself4 ,as a part of the comprehensive scheme referred to by her ,majesty1 the ,department of ,science and ,art was organized in #ahec1 and in the amalgamation of the ,college of ,chemistry and the ,school of ,mines we have the germ of our present institution4 ,but this was not the only science school founded by the ,government4 ,the ,royal ,school of ,naval ,architecture and ,marine ,engineering was established by the department at the request of the ,lords ,commissioners of the ,admiralty1 with a view of providing especially for the education of shipbuilding officers for her ,majesty's service1 and promoting the general study of the science of shipbuilding and naval engineering4 ,it was not limited to persons in the ,queen's service1 and it was opened on ,november #a1 #ahfd4 ,the present ,royal ,college of ,science was built for it and the ,college of ,chemistry4 ,in #ahgc the school was transferred to the ,royal ,naval ,college1 ,greenwich1 and this accident enabled the teaching from ,jermyn ,street to be transferred and proper practical instruction to be given at ,south ,kensington4 ,the ,lords of the ,admiralty expressed their entire satisfaction with the manner in which the instruction had been carried on at ,south ,kensington2 and well they might1 for in a memorandum submitted to the ,lord ,president in #ahhg1 the president and council of the ,institute of ,naval ,architects state3 ,when the department dealt with the highest class of education in naval architecture by assisting in founding and by carrying on the ,school of ,naval ,architecture at ,south ,kensington1 the success which attended their efforts was phenomenal1 the great majority of the rising men in the profession having been educated at that institution4 ,here ,i again point out1 both with regard to the ,school of ,mines1 the ,school of ,naval ,architecture1 and the later ,normal ,school1 that it was stern need that was in question1 as in ,egypt in old times4 ,of the early history of the college ,i need say nothing after the addresses of my colleagues1 ,professors ,judd and ,roberts-,austen1 but ,i am anxious to refer to some parts of its present organization and their effect on our national educational growth in some directions4 ,it was after #ahgj that our institution gradually began to take its place as a normal school--that is1 that the teaching of teachers formed an important part of its organization1 because in that year the newly established departments1 having found that the great national want then was teachers of science1 began to take steps to secure them4 ,examinations had been inaugurated in #ahei1 but they were for outsiders1 conferring certificates and a money reward on the most competent teachers tested in this way4 ,these examinations were really controlled by our school1 for ,tyndall1 ,hofmann1 ,ramsay1 ,huxley1 and ,warington ,smyth1 the first professors1 were also the first examiners4 ,very interesting is it to look back at that first year's work1 the first cast of the new educational net4 ,after what ,i have said about the condition of chemistry and the establishment of the ,college of ,chemistry in #ahde1 you will not be surprised to hear that ,dr4 ,hofmann was the most favored--he had forty-four students4 ,professor ,huxley found one student to tackle his questions1 and he failed4 ,professors ,ramsay and ,warington ,smyth had three each1 but the two threes only made five2 for both lists were headed by the name of ,judd1 ,john ,w41 ,wesleyan ,training ,college1 ,westminster4 ,our present dean was caught in the first haul4 ,these examinations were continued till #ahff1 and upward of six hundred teachers obtained certificates1 some of them in several subjects4 ,having secured the teachers1 the next thing the department did was to utilize them4 ,this was done in #ahei by the establishment of the science classes throughout the country1 which are1 ,i think1 the only part of our educational system which even the ,germans envy us4 ,the teaching might go on in schools1 attics or cellars1 there was neither age limit nor distinction of sex or creed4 ,let me insist upon the fact that from the outset practical work was encouraged by payments for apparatus1 and that latterly the examinations themselves1 in some of the subjects1 have been practical4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the number of students under instruction in science classes under examined in the first year in which local examinations were held was #ddb2 the number in #ahig was #bjb1dif4 ,the number of candidates examined in the first year in which local examinations were held was #fej1 who worked #a1jjj papers2 in #ahig the number was #ajf1ahe1 who worked #aei1gbd papers1 chemistry alone sending in #bh1hia papers1 mathematics #bd1gfd1 and physiography #af1hgi4 ,the total number of individual students under instruction in science classes under the department from #ahei to #ahig inclusive has been1 approximately1 #b1jjj1jjj4 ,of these about #ijj1jjj came forward for examination1 the total number of papers worked by them being #c1aie1agj4 ,now why have ,i brought these statistics before you8 ,because from #ahfa onward the chief rewards of the successful students have been scholarships and exhibitions held in this college2 a system adopted in the hope that in this way the numbers of perfectly trained science teachers might be increased1 so that the science classes throughout the country might go on from strength to strength4 ,the royal exhibitions date from #ahfc1 the national scholars from #ahhd4 ,the free studentships were added later4 ,the strict connection between the science classes throughout the country and our college will be gathered from the following statement1 which refers to the present time3 ,twenty-one royal exhibitions--seven open each year--four to the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,london1 and three to the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,dublin4 ,sixty-six national scholarships--twenty-two open each year--tenable1 at the option of the holder1 at either the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,london1 or the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,dublin4 ,eighteen free studentships--six open each year--to the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,london4 ,a royal exhibition entitles the holder to free admission to lectures and laboratories1 and to instruction during the course for the associateship--about three years--in the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,london1 or the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,dublin1 with maintenance and traveling allowances4 ,a national scholarship entitles the holder to free admission to lectures and laboratories and to instruction during the course of the associateship--about three years--at either the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,london1 or the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,dublin1 at the option of the holder1 with maintenance and traveling allowances4 ,a free studentship entitles the holder to free admission to the lectures and laboratories and to instruction during the course for the associateship--about three years--in the ,royal ,college of ,science1 ,london1 but not to any maintenance or traveling allowance4 ,besides the above students who have been successful in the examinations of the science classes1 a limited number 7usually about sixty7 of teachers1 and of students in science classes who intend to become science teachers1 are admitted free for a term or session to the courses of instruction4 ,they may be called upon to pass an entrance examination4 ,of these1 there are two categories--those who come to learn and those who remain to teach2 some of the latter may be associates4 ,besides all these1 those holding ,whitworth scholarships--the award of which is decided by the science examinations--can1 and some do1 spend the year covered by the exhibition at the college4 ,in this way1 then1 is the cole ,normale side of our institution built up4 ,the number of ,government students in the college in #ahgb was #be2 in #ahhf it was #aac2 and in #ahig it was #ahf4 ,the total number of students who passed through the college from #ahhb-'hc to #ahif-'ig1 inclusive1 was #d1ade4 ,of these1 #a1iff were ,government students4 ,the number who obtained the associateship of the ,royal ,school of ,mines from #ahea to #ahha was #aih1 of whom #ci were ,government students1 and of the ,royal ,college of ,science and ,royal ,school of ,mines from #ahhb to #ahig the number was #ebe1 of whom #cbc were ,government students4 ,of this total of #cfb ,government students #id were science teachers in training4 ,with regard to the ,whitworth scholarships1 which1 like the exhibitions1 depend upon success at the yearly examinations throughout the country1 ,i may state that six have held their scholarships at the college for at least a part of the scholarship period1 and three others were already associates4 ,so much for the prizemen we have with us4 ,i next come to the teachers in training who come to us4 ,the number of teachers in training who have passed through the college from #ahgb to #ahig1 inclusive1 is about six hundred2 on an average they attended about two years each4 ,the number in the session #ahgb-'gc1 when they were first admitted1 was sixteen1 the number in #ahhe-'hf was fifty1 and in #ahif-'ig sixty4 ,these have not as a rule taught science classes previously1 but before admission they give an undertaking that they intend to teach4 ,in the earlier years some did not carry out this undertaking1 doubtless because of the small demand for teachers of science at that time4 ,but we have changed all that4 ,with but very few exceptions1 all the teachers so trained now at once begin teaching1 and not necessarily in classes under the department4 ,it is worthy of note1 too1 that many royal exhibitioners and national scholars1 although under no obligation to do so1 also take up science teaching4 ,it is probable that of all the ,government students now who pass out of the college each year not less than three fourths become teachers4 ,the total number of teachers of science engaged in classes under the department alone at the present time is about six thousand4 ,i have not yet exhausted what our college does for the national efforts in aiding the teaching of science4 ,when you1 gentlemen1 leave us about the end of ,june for your well-earned holidays1 a new task falls upon your professors in the shape of summer courses to teachers of science classes brought up by the department from all parts of the four kingdoms to profit by the wealth of apparatus in the college and museum1 and the practical work which it alone renders possible4 ,the number of science teachers who have thus attended the summer courses reaches #f1bjj1 but as many of these have attended more than one course1 the number of separate persons is not so large4 ,,research4--,from time to time balances arise in the scholarship fund owing to some of the national scholarships or royal exhibitions being vacated before the full time for which they are tenable has expired4 ,scholarships are formed from these balances and awarded among those students who1 having completed the full course of training for the associateship1 desire to study for another year at the college4 ,it is understood that the fourth year is to be employed in research in the subject of the associateship4 ,the gaining of one of the ,remanet scholarships1 not more than two on the average annually1 referred to1 furnishes really the only means by which deserving students are enabled to pursue research in the college2 as1 although a professor has the power to nominate a student to a free place in his laboratory1 very few of the most deserving students are able to avail themselves of the privilege owing to want of means4 ,the department only very rarely sends students up as teachers in training for research work1 but only those who intend making teaching their profession are eligible for these studentships4 ,i trust that at some future day1 when we get our new buildings--it is impossible to do more than we do till we get them--more facilities for research may be provided1 and even an extension of time allowed for it if necessary4 ,i see no reason why some of the #ahea exhibition scholarships should not be awarded to students of this college1 but to be eligible they must have published a research4 ,research should naturally form part of the work of the teachers in training who are not brought up here merely to effect an economy in the teaching staff4 ,such1 then1 in brief1 are some of our normal-school attributes4 ,i think any one who knows the facts must acknowledge that the organization has justified itself not only by what it has done1 but also by the outside activities it has set in motion4 ,it is true that with regard to the system of examining school candidates by means of papers sent down from ,london1 the department was anticipated by the ,college of ,preceptors in #ahec1 and by ,oxford and ,cambridge in #aheh2 but the action of #ahfa1 when science classes open to everybody1 was copied by ,oxford and ,cambridge in #ahfi4 ,the department's teachers got to work in #ahfj1 but the so-called ,university ,extension ,movement dates only from #ahgc1 and only quite recently have summer courses been started at ,oxford and ,cambridge4 ,the chemical and physical laboratories1 small though they were in the department's schools1 were in operation long before any practical work in these subjects was done either at ,oxford or ,cambridge4 ,when the college laboratories began1 about #ahec1 they existed practically alone4 ,from one point of view we should rejoice that they are now third rate4 ,i think it would be wrong of me not to call your attention to the tenacity1 the foresight1 the skill1 the unswerving patience1 exhibited by those upon whom has fallen the duty of sailing the good ship ,scientific ,instruction1 launched1 as ,i have stated1 out upon a sea which was certain1 from the history ,i have brought before you1 to be full of opposing currents4 ,i have had a statement prepared showing what the most distinguished of our old students and of those who have succeeded in the department's examinations are now doing4 ,the statement shows that those who have been responsible for our share in the progress of scientific instruction have no cause to be ashamed4 ,,conclusion4--,i have referred previously to the questions of secondary education and of a true ,london ,university1 soon1 let us hope1 to be realized4 ,our college will be the first institution to gain from a proper system of secondary education1 for the reason that scientific studies gain enormously by the results of literary culture1 without which we can neither learn so thoroughly nor teach so effectively as one could wish4 ,to keep a proper mind-balance1 engaged as we are here continuously in scientific thought1 literature is essential1 as essential as bodily exercise1 and if ,i may be permitted to give you a little advice1 ,i should say organize your athletics as students of the college1 and organize your literature as individuals4 ,i do not think you will gain so much by studying scientific books when away from here as you will by reading ,english and foreign classics1 including a large number of works of imagination2 and study ,french and ,german also in your holidays by taking short trips abroad4 ,with regard to the university4 ,if it be properly organized1 in the light of the latest ,german experience1 with complete science and technical faculties of the highest order1 it should certainly insist upon annexing the ,school of ,mines portion of our institution2 the past history of the school is so creditable that the new university for its own sake should insist upon such a course4 ,it would be absurd1 in the case of a nation which depends so much on mining and metallurgy1 if these subjects were not taught in the chief national university1 as the ,university of ,london must become4 ,but the ,london ,university1 like the ,paris ,university1 if the little history of science teaching ,i have given you is of any value1 must leave our normal college alone1 at all events till we have more than trebled our present supply of science teachers4 ,but while it would be madness to abolish such an institution as our normal school1 and undesirable if not impossible to graft it on the new university1 our school1 like its elder sister in ,paris1 should be enabled to gain by each increase in the teaching power of the university4 ,the students on the scientific side of the ,paris school1 in spite of the fact that their studies and researches are looked after by fourteen professors entitled ,matres de ,confrences1 attend certain of the courses at the ,sorbonne and the ,collge de ,france1 and this is one of the reasons why many of the men and researches which have enriched ,french science hail from the cole ,normale4 ,one word more4 ,as ,i have pointed out1 the ,french cole ,normale was the result of a revolution2 ,i may now add that ,france since ,sedan has been doing1 and in a tremendous fashion1 what1 as ,i have told you1 ,prussia did after ,jena4 ,let us not wait for disastrous defeats1 either on the field of battle or of industry1 to develop to the utmost our scientific establishments and so take our proper and complete place among the nations4--,nature4 ,,footnotes3 #cb ,an address delivered at the ,royal ,college of ,science on ,october #f1 #ahih4 #cc ,perkin4 ,nature1 vol4 xxxii1 p4 #ccd4 ,,the ,,series ,,method3 ,a ,,comparison4 ,,by ,,charlotte ,,taylor4 ,broadly speaking1 there are two methods which are used for the teaching of a language3 that of the mother and that of the grammarian4 ,the child learns its own or mother tongue from the mother2 it learns a foreign tongue from a teacher1 whose highest ambition is to be a grammarian4 ,does the child learn better from the mother or from the grammarian8 ,without doubt1 from the mother1 according to the mother method4 ,if this is so1 must we use the example of the mother or of the grammarian when we are to begin the teaching of a foreign language8 ,is there any reason why a foreign tongue should be otherwise taught than the mother tongue8 ,is it not at least worth the trouble to try the method of the mother1 when it is every day demonstrated that pupils who have had five1 six1 seven years of teaching are unable1 on leaving school1 so much as to understand when the language they have been studying is used in conversation8 ,let us attempt to obtain light on the differences between these two principal methods that exist for teaching a language4 ,what is the mother's method8 ,how does she teach the child to speak8 ,first let us notice that the mother follows the child3 she allows him first to show interest in something and then helps him to express himself4 ,here we must pause to notice that what most interests the child is not a thing1 an object for itself1 but the capacity of the thing to do something1 the possibilities of the thing for the performance of an action4 ,a young child takes a thing in its hand and waves it1 or strikes it against something1 or passes it from one hand to the other2 when it is older1 it asks invariably1 ,what for8 ,the mother names the thing to the child1 and also the action that may be therewith performed4 ,the child begins to play4 ,here a specialty of the mother method comes into view4 ,the mother tells the child that she is pleased or displeased with him1 that it makes her happy or unhappy when the child does this or that1 that she thinks he is a good or a naughty boy1 etc4--all of which remarks express her feelings1 her thoughts1 in contradistinction to the actions which have occasioned these feelings and thoughts2 the realm of the mind as opposed to the world of activity4 ,let us here notice that the speech of every people contains these two classifications of words1 the objective and the subjective2 and indeed it must be so1 since we perform actions and we judge of our actions4 ,by this method the child learns in about a year from the time it begins to speak to express itself about what it does and what it thinks4 ,now what is the method of the grammarian8 ,the child learns first the names of things that do not appeal to his consciousness1 for they do not start from his point of view1 but from that of the maker of a book4 ,he learns lists of words--that is1 he learns to know the symbol1 and not the thing2 he translates4 ,he learns about ,csar's wars and the book of his father's uncle in what is called an exercise4 ,for both of these subjects he feels no interest1 which is to be expected1 as they are abstract4 ,he sees no action4 ,of the great part of language1 which may be called the speech of feeling1 he also learns only in the abstract4 ,he reads that ,csar was glad or that his father's uncle was angry1 but the happiness and the anger are outside of his consciousness2 they have been presented to him by symbols1 that is1 printed words4 ,by this method the child learns in about four years to read fairly well2 as a rule1 speaking the language is entirely out of the question4 ,the pupils can not talk of their actions and their feelings1 because these are represented to them by symbols1 for such are printed words2 they have not grasped them as actualities4 ,if on going into a foreign country they are able to understand what is being said1 the teacher may consider himself lucky4 ,he has done his utmost with the method he has chosen to employ4 ,he has attained something4 ,it remains true that the mother accomplishes more in a shorter time than the grammarian4 ,but is it perhaps possible to put the two methods together1 and thus to create a method which shall contain the good of both8 ,we must not continue always to act as the mother does1 to teach after her method1 or our pupils will continue to talk like a child of two years1 and be furthermore unable to write at all4 ,how shall we manage to melt the two into one compact1 inseparable whole8 ,let us imagine a class is to take its first lesson in the foreign tongue4 ,first1 what shall be the matter of the lesson2 then1 how shall it be presented8 ,we shall be careful to choose a subject that can be interesting to the pupil1 hence a subject containing activity4 ,it is not necessary that it should be anything astonishing or unusual4 ,let us consider with the pupils how one opens the classroom door4 ,let us ask the pupil in his mother tongue how he does it1 carefully drawing his attention to the number of actions necessary to the accomplishment of our aim1 such as walking1 standing still1 extending the arm1 grasping the knob1 etc41 together with the resulting actions on the part of the door1 opening1 swinging1 etc4 ,we will then draw his attention to the words of activity1 the verbs1 and tell him he is going to learn those words in the new language--say ,german4 ,we will now take the first verb necessary to the accomplishment of our aim1 that of walking4 ,we will say1 while we walk1 such sentences as ,this is gehe1 ,see how ,i gehe1 ,my feet move when ,i gehe1 etc4 ,we do the same with each verb1 always with its accompanying action4 ,we will take the first four verbs of our subject1 repeat them the first time with many explanatory phrases1 the second time with fewer1 the third and last time we shall simply repeat the verbs gehe1 stehe still1 strecke aus1 fasse an1 always with the actions4 ,by this time the pupils will know these1 they having heard each one at least seven times4 ,we can now allow them to recite1 we still giving the clew by the production of the appropriate action4 ,having taught these first four verbs1 we are now ready for the full sentence ,i walk toward the door1 ,i stand still by the door1 ,i reach out my arm1 ,i take hold of the knob4 ,we can teach the subject ich without difficulty1 as it remains the same in all the sentences4 ,let us take the nouns and teach in this manner3 ,ich gehe--pointing--,thr1 then a repetition of ,thr contained in sentences describing it1 with at least three repetitions of the word4 ,then come the words showing direction and relation4 ,if you say ,ich gehe--pointing--,thr1 the pupil will know that there is a word lacking1 and he will be unsatisfied till he knows it4 ,we now have a sentence1 ,ich gehe nach der ,thr4 ,we will teach the other sentences in the same way2 we will repeat each sentence at least three times in its entirety1 and we will allow the pupils to recite4 ,here it is of interest to show the pupil that the sentence has sprung from the verb1 that the verb is the germ of the sentence4 ,whether we do this with the words verb1 sentence1 germ1 must depend on the capacity of the class4 ,it is not a question of words1 but of ideas4 ,let us present our subject as a living thing4 ,to supply the pupil with an old-fashioned grammar exercise is like inviting him to make a dinner off papier-mach joints and steaks4 ,all this time we have been considering the part of language which deals with the outside world4 ,it is now time to consider how we shall present the part of language which deals with the inner life4 ,we must make the pupil capable of expressing his states of mind1 his thoughts1 because these thoughts are interesting to him4 ,there is1 broadly speaking1 only one situation in class about which his mind is working3 his own success or failure to recite4 ,hence1 before each recitation we shall speak a sentence of encouragement or command1 such as ,please begin1 ,i think you are going to do well4 ,after each recitation we shall speak a sentence of praise or blame1 such as ,very good1 ,it might have been better4 ,these1 as they can not be expressed by actions1 may be translated when necessary into equivalent phrases in the mother tongue4 ,we shall illustrate each phrase by stories1 riddles1 quotations1 whatever you like4 ,the pupil will be interested1 and hence will remember4 ,it is not necessary to the acquisition of knowledge that the pupil should be thoroughly bored while trying to learn4 ,after a sufficient number of repetitions of a phrase by the teacher1 it will be handed over to the pupils1 who will then address to each other phrases of encouragement1 command1 praise1 blame1 etc4 ,we have now enabled the pupil to express an action and his thought2 the outside and the inside world are his2 he needs only to advance as he began4 ,each lesson proceeds in this wise3 ,,example4 ,,part ,i4--,teacher3 ,we shall learn about opening the door4 ,general subjective phrase1 ,pay attention4 ,explanation of the phrase through stories4 ,teaching of verbs4 ,first subjective phrase before recitation1 ,please begin4 ,explanation through stories4 ,recitation4 ,first subjective phrase after recitation1 ,very good4 ,explanations through stories4 ,after the teaching of the sentences1 the subjective phrases are spoken by the pupils4 ,it lies in the intelligence of the teacher to recognize the moment for introducing phrases4 ,the lesson then proceeds to the movements of the door as ,part ,,ii1 and to our leaving the door as ,part ,,iii4 ,the scheme is the same4 ,all this is a copy 7systematized1 of course7 of the method employed by the mother4 ,now1 first1 can the grammarian be useful to us8 ,let us remember that to begin with his method is to put the cart before the horse4 ,he must play the second but also an important part4 ,the child learns to speak first1 but he also learns to read and to write4 ,we will give the same lesson to the pupil in printed form2 he will be asked to read it1 and then to copy it or write it from dictation4 ,he will receive the new speech through the sense of hearing2 it will then be communicated to the sight1 and then to the touch4 ,in this manner a class of twenty girls of about thirteen years had been taught ,english4 ,after about thirty printed lessons had been mastered with the anecdotes1 riddles1 etc41 which had occupied about half a ,german school year1 they were not only able to read and write without many mistakes1 but showed a strong desire to express themselves in the new tongue1 and were1 indeed1 able to do so very satisfactorily1 as compared with the results obtained by the grammarian after a seven years' course4 ,who first thought of combining the two original methods of language teaching in this way8 ,a ,frenchman1 named ,franois ,gouin4 ,he gave it the name of the ,series ,method1 because each lesson contains a series of actions4 ,after the pupil has learned to express himself in regard to his immediate surroundings he continues to learn in series in regard to the lives of animals and of plants1 the processes of housekeeping1 traveling1 trade1 etc4 ,it is all presented simply1 but each has its own appropriate words and expressions4 ,as soon as the pupil has mastered the rudiments he will also have the subjective matter presented in a series2 in one lesson the teacher will be inclined to mirth1 in another to 7mock7 anger1 in another to hope1 in another to 7mock7 despair4 ,the most important result of education being the evolution of the character already present in the child1 let us not consider him a little empty jug to be filled with knowledge2 rather let us seek to draw out the riches of his character4 ,when he is able to live in a new language1 he will be ever broadened1 refreshed1 and renewed4 ,this method1 resting on a psychological basis1 is1 with modifications of manner1 which it remains the duty of the teacher to recognize1 just as good for an adult as for a child4 ,rules of grammar will be earlier given to the adult1 because he will notice correspondences and differences sooner than the child4 ,but no rule will ever be given to a pupil of any age till he himself can appreciate its value1 till he is mentally beginning to ask why8 ,this questioning state of mind is one highly to be desired1 as it is a state of receptivity4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the highest point yet reached by a kite was attained by the leader of a tandem sent up from the ,blue ,hill ,observatory by ,messrs4 ,clayton and ,ferguson1 ,august #bfth1 #ab1abd feet above the sea1 #bgg feet higher than had previously been reached by any kite4 ,the five miles of line weighed seventy-five pounds1 and the weight of the whole was one hundred and twelve pounds4 ,with a temperature of #ge and wind velocity thirty-two miles an hour on the ground1 the temperature was #ch and the wind velocity thirty-two miles an hour at the highest point reached1 while the highest wind velocity recorded was forty miles an hour at #aa1jjj feet4 ,,the ,,earliest ,,writing ,,in ,,france4 ,,by ,m4 ,,gabriel ,,de ,,mortillet4 ,the ancient ,celts and ,gauls of ,france had no real letters4 ,a few ,celtiberian pieces of money bear characters belonging to the ,phnician and ,carthaginian alphabets4 ,in ,cisalpine ,gaul we find ,gallic written in ancient ,italian characters4 ,the ,greeks1 when they founded ,massilia and spread themselves along the ,mediterranean coast of ,france1 brought their language and writing into the country4 ,the ,gauls took advantage of this1 and many ,gallic inscriptions in ,greek characters occur scattered through the south of ,france1 among much more numerous inscriptions in the ,greek language and character4 ,when the ,romans came1 the ,latin alphabet rapidly took the place of the ,greek1 and the few ,gauls that continued faithful to the old tongue used ,latin characters in engraving the inscriptions they have left us4 ,similar changes took place in ,gallic pieces of money4 ,excepting the ,celtiberian coins with their ,semitic legends and characters1 which are found only in a very limited district in the southwest of ,france1 ,gallic coins1 when they have characters upon them1 may be classified as those with ,greek and those with ,latin legends4 ,the former are very abundant in the south of ,france1 and extend1 growing more rare1 as we go on into the center and north4 ,gallic coins with legends in ,roman characters gradually become more numerous1 and were general after the conquest of ,gaul by ,julius ,csar1 some of the ,gallic populations having only begun to coin money during the earlier period of the ,roman occupation4 ,there are some evidences of the use of a symbolical and hieroglyphical writing before alphabetical writing4 ,on some of the megalithic monuments1 principally in ,morbihan1 stones are found bearing incised engravings1 and sometimes sculptures in relief4 ,are the engravings simply ornamental motives1 have they a symbolical meaning1 or are they hieroglyphic emblems8 ,opinions are divided4 ,the supports of the large and handsome dolmen of the little island of ,gavrinis1 ,morbihan1 are filled with engraved lines running into one another and conforming to the shape of the stone or to its composition--all the siliceous and consequently very hard parts being free from them4 ,this indicates a simple ornamentation or decoration executed without any special plan made in advance1 according to the nature and form of the stone worked upon4 ,yet1 among the lines of the apparently fanciful ornament a number of polished stone hatchets are very distinctly represented4 ,in all the other dolmens the carvings are much less numerous and not so close4 ,sometimes they are distributed around1 and sometimes they are isolated4 ,among them we remark the frequent repetition of some forms in groups or singly1 which suggest the thought of signs with a determined sense4 ,upon a large support of the dolmen of the ,petit-,mont at ,arzan 7,morbihan7 there are at the lower left hand three crosses1 a sign of frequent occurrence on the megalithic carvings4 ,above these are two very wide open ,u's4 ,seidler sees in these signs letters of the ,libyan alphabet1 the cross corresponding to ,c1 and the other sign to ,m4 ,some persons have further thought they could distinguish an ,egyptian letter in the cross4 ,taking a more general view of the question1 ,letourneau#cd has tried to prove that the sculptures on the megaliths are inscriptions1 and the engraved signs correspond to letters of the ancient alphabets1 most probably ,semitic4 ,adrien de ,mortillet answered that the thought of writing involved arrangement1 and no arrangement could be predicated of the signs4 ,a short time afterward1 ,adrien de ,mortillet1 in a paper on the ,figures sculptured on the ,megalithic ,monuments of ,france1 proved that the figures are more or less rude designs representing a well-determined series of objects4 ,thus the ,u's1 with branches very widely separated1 represent boats1 and are emblems of migrations by sea2 the crosses are shipmasters' staffs1 or insignia of chiefs similar in character to bishops' crosses4 ,the polished hatchet is frequently figured1 and often with a handle1 and is the emblem of labor1 or1 more probably1 of combat4 ,the scutcheons1 which are also frequent1 are bucklers1 or military symbols4 ,they are usually adorned on the inner side with a variety of symbolical figures variously grouped1 which evidently served as the owner's coat of arms1 and are the most ancient known specimens of the kind1 going back to the stone age1 or at least to the transition age from stone to bronze4 ,after that time the custom of putting their owners' arms upon bucklers spread widely4 ,it lasted till the end of the middle ages4 ,the painted vases of classical antiquity furnish numerous and very curious examples of such marks4 ,the interpretation of the megalithic sculptures may furnish probable if not certain details concerning an epoch which is very little known to us4 ,thus1 the scutcheon of the dolmen des ,marchands1 containing four series of crosses1 one above the other1 and each series divided into two parts1 fifty-six crosses in all1 may have been the arms of a chief of a powerful confederation having fifty-six less important chiefs under his orders4 ,the supposition is confirmed by the dimensions of the monument and a large handled hatchet engraved under the tablet between two other crosses4 ,near the dolmen des ,marchands1 and not far from the sea1 is the large tumulus of ,marie-,hroeck1 which includes a small dolmen containing rich funerary furnishings4 ,in front of the entrance to the cavern is a rectangular slab that bears on its face a scutcheon containing two crosses1 symbolical of power1 and several very rudely drawn representations of boats4 ,the engravers of this period were not artists1 but stone-cutters1 working upon a very hard rock with very poor tools4 ,unable to figure distinctly what they wanted to1 they did the best they could4 ,handled hatchets were distributed irregularly all round the scutcheons4 ,does not this epitaph seem to mean that the tomb was erected in memory of a powerful maritime chief by soldiers1 his companions in arms8 ,from these bucklers we pass to generalized feminine representations characterized by concentric necklaces and pairs of prominent globular breasts4 ,such sculptures1 which are repeated in various dolmens and artificial mortuary caves in the valley of the ,seine1 may be of religious import4 ,they seem to be replaced in the south of ,france by attempts at statues4 ,of such character are the two sculptures of the dolmen of ,collorgues in ,gard1 which also have the symbolical cross on their breasts4 ,whatever they may be1 the megalithic engravings are the earliest graphic historical documents of the country4 ,it is therefore important to collect and preserve them4 ,they may be divided into simple ornamental motives1 which may further suggest interesting resemblances2 figurative engravings representing known and definite objects and forming commemorative pictures capable of affording important historical or legendary hints--the most ancient documents in our archives2 and symbolical engravings of more difficult determination1 and independent of any alphabet4 ,among the specimens of the last class1 one sort1 the cupule1 is extremely widespread4 ,it is a very regularly shaped hemispherical cup1 generally represented by itself1 but sometimes mingled with other figures1 most usually occurring in groups without arrangement1 but very rarely isolated4 ,entire surfaces are sometimes covered with this design4 ,it is a very ancient design1 as such cupules are found on the dolmens4 ,in the dolmen of ,kriaval1 at ,locmariquer1 the lower side of the horizontal slab is starred with numerous cupules1 which antedate the construction of the monument1 for they appear on the parts that rest on the supports4 ,there may also1 however1 be more recent cupules4 ,we are totally in the dark as to what they represent4 ,cupules are sometimes cut on the surface of rocks in place4 ,engravings similarly cut have been designated sculptures on rocks1 and are found almost everywhere4 ,those which have been most studied and afford the most features of interest for us are on the ,scandinavian coasts1 and these have been largely utilized by ,adrien de ,mortillet for the determination of the figures of megaliths4 ,we cite only one example from ,gaul1 the sculptures in the rocks of the ,lago dei ,maraviglie1 in a lateral valley on the left1 going from ,san ,dalmazo to ,tende1 in ,piedmont4 ,some of the walls of the rock there and large surfaces of detached blocks are covered with extremely rude figures formed by the accumulation of dints resulting from frequently repeated blows4 ,among these figures1 which are without order in the grouping1 and in which no regard is paid to proportions1 are stags1 rams1 human figurines1 hatchets1 pikes1 baskets1 and lance points4 ,these sculptures have been ascribed to the neolithic or the bronze age2 but the existence of figures of similar style on the walls of a lead mine near ,valauri has suggested that they may be more recent4 ,human figurines are numerous1 but heads of horned animals are more so4 ,some are perhaps stags and rams1 while bulls and cows are abundant4 ,the shepherds are accustomed to take their herds and keep them for two or three months every year in this valley1 which is so lonely and melancholy in aspect that it has been called ,valle d',enfer1 or ,hell ,valley4 ,it would not be strange if these herdsmen1 for want of something better to do1 should have amused themselves delineating the things that were before their eyes--the cattle1 the miners1 and things appertaining to the mine4 ,as to special traits1 the representations are so badly executed as to leave a wide range open for interpretation4--,translated for the ,popular ,science ,monthly from the ,book ,formation de la ,nation franaise 7,paris3 ,flix ,alcan74 ,,footnote3 #cd ,ch4 ,letourneau4 ,alphabet ,forms in ,megalithic ,inscriptions4 ,bulletin of the ,society of ,anthropology1 #ahic4 99 99 99 99 99 ,an old ,newcomen steam engine at ,north ,ashton1 near ,bristol1 ,england1 as described by ,mr4 ,w4,h4 ,pearson in the ,british ,association1 is still doing practical work after an active career of nearly one hundred and fifty years1 it having been erected in #agej at a cost of seventy pounds4 ,the piston is packed with rope1 and has a covering of water on the top to make it steam tight4 ,the working of the engine is aided by the vacuum formed by the injection of water into the cylinder4 ,the old man now engaged in working this engine has held his post since he was a lad1 and his father and grandfather occupied the same position4 99 99 99 99 99 ,the excavation of the ,roman town of ,calleva ,attrebatum at ,silchester1 near ,reading1 ,england1 has brought to light nearly forty complete houses1 a private bathing establishment1 two square temples1 the west gate1 a ,christian church possibly of the fourth century1 a basilica and forum1 an extensive system of dye works1 a series of drains1 other works1 and a multitude of ornaments and utensils--remains of ,roman civic life and institutions1 complementing previous discoveries of ,roman monuments in ,england1 which have been mostly military4 ,,sketch ,,of ,,gabriel ,,de ,,mortillet4 ,the cole d',anthropologie feels with a profound emotion the loss of the eminent master1 one of its glories1 whose labors have contributed in so large a measure to honor and magnify it1 and to extend and confirm its legitimate authority1 and who had the exceedingly rare merit of constituting a science which by means of him has become a ,french science--that of prehistoric archology4 ,such is the eminently fitting tribute spoken by the professors of the ,paris cole d',anthropologie through their ,revue ,mensuelle to the memory of ,gabriel de ,mortillet4 ,,louis ,,laurent ,,gabriel ,,de ,,mortillet was born at ,meylan1 ,isre1 ,france1 ,august #bi1 #ahba1 and died ,september #be1 #ahih4 ,he began his studies with the ,jesuits at ,chambry1 and continued them in ,paris at the ,museum of ,natural ,history and at the ,conservatoire des ,arts et ,mtiers4 ,he was interested in the revolutionary movements of #ahdh2 and in the insurrectionary demonstration of the #acth of ,june1 #ahdi1 which followed the presentation by ,ledru ,rollin1 on the #aath1 of a resolution of impeachment against ,president ,louis ,napoleon for repressing the republican movement in ,rome1 it was with his help that the eminent deputy was enabled to escape arrest4 ,in the same year he was condemned for a press offense and took refuge in ,savoy4 ,during his exile he classified the collections of the ,natural ,history ,museum in ,geneva2 had charge of the arrangement of the ,museum at ,annecy in #ahed2 directed an exploitation of hydraulic lime in ,italy2 and served as geological adviser in the construction of the northern railways of that country4 ,he was also associated with ,agassiz in his studies of the glaciers of ,switzerland4 ,he returned to ,paris in #ahfd1 and in #ahfg was charged with the organization of the first hall or prehistoric department of the ,history of ,labor at the ,universal ,exposition of #ahfg4 ,in #ahfh he was called to the ,museum of ,national ,antiquities at ,saint-,germain-en-,laye1 where he continued till #ahhe4 ,it is specially mentioned that he carried this institution safely through the perils of the war of #ahgj-'ga4 ,while engaged in these museum tasks he was struck with the insufficiency of the then universally accepted paleontological and prehistoric classifications1 and his attention became fully absorbed in the subject4 ,he held long consultations with ,edouard ,lartet1 the eminent paleontologist and his learned friends concerning it4 ,as a result of these deliberations1 after careful study of the formations and specimens1 he proposed a scheme of classification in #ahfi1 which was completed at the congress held in ,brussels in #ahgb1 and has become generally accepted in its fundamentals1 after having withstood the often-repeated attacks of persistent criticism1 and has received confirmation after confirmation from innumerable discoveries made throughout the world4 ,had his activity concerned only the classification of the different stone ages1 says ,dr4 ,capitan1 whose eulogy of ,m4 de ,mortillet we follow most largely in our sketch1 de ,mortillet would for that work alone have been by good right considered a great man of science4 ,actually to illuminate a number of dark points1 to group a thousand scattered facts in regular order1 to synthesize numerous isolated researches1 to constitute a cohesive theory of them--that is what de ,mortillet did4 ,thus he became long ago the uncontested master1 the leader of a school1 who was able to group and hold around him the scientific students and workers of the entire world4 ,m4 de ,mortillet was in #ahff one of the founders of the ,international ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology4 ,he was one of the first professors in the cole d',anthropologie founded by ,broca in #ahge1 the greatest achievement1 as he writes in the preface to his ,formation de la ,nation franaise1 of the ,association for the ,teaching of ,anthropological ,sciences4 ,the school was opened in ,november1 #ahge1 in a building gratuitously lent it by the cole de ,mdecine1 to give instruction free of tuition charges1 and was to be maintained by a fund subscribed by anthropological societies and private persons1 a gift of fifteen hundred dollars a year by ,m4 ,wallon for laboratory purposes1 and a grant of twenty-five hundred dollars from the ,municipal ,council of ,paris for the payment of professors' salaries4 ,five courses of lectures were to be delivered1 to be increased as the resources of the association multiplied4 ,the association and the school were recognized as of public utility by a law of #ahhi2 the school being the first establishment of private instruction1 ,dr4 ,capitan said in his memorial address1 and up to this time 7#ahig7 the only one that has had that honor1 an honor that creates duties for us4 ,we are under obligation to clarify and extend our teaching4 ,de ,mortillet's work was so true to the sentiment expressed in this sentence that one of the characteristics attributed to him in the short biography published in ,vaporeau's ,dictionnaire ,universel des ,contemporains is that he was one of the men who contributed most to the popularizing of prehistoric studies in ,france4 ,during the more than twenty years of his professorship of prehistoric anthropology in the cole1 de ,mortillet gave precious instruction to numerous students1 many of whom1 foreigners1 have in their turns become masters in their own countries4 ,he was also president of the ,society of ,anthropology1 subdirector of the cole d',anthropologie1 president of the ,association for ,teaching ,anthropological ,sciences1 and president of the ,commission on ,megalithic ,monuments--the various functions of which offices he filled with remarkable exactness and distinction4 ,in all these important positions1 says ,dr4 ,capitan in his eulogy1 de ,mortillet unfailingly brought a uniform ardor to his work1 a uniform activity1 a clear and acute wit1 and a remarkable precision4 ,he performed his numerous duties almost to the end of his life4 ,only last month 7,july1 #ahih7 he made another journey for the execution of a mission which the commission on megalithic monuments had intrusted to him4 ,in connection with these multifarious labors1 ,m4 de ,mortillet published a considerable number of memoirs and of books of the highest order4 ,he was a transformist from the very first1 and performed all his various researches in the spirit of an evolutionist4 ,his first publications were on conchology1 and numerous memoirs between #ahea and #ahfb related to subjects in that branch4 ,during the same period he contributed many important works on the geology and mineralogy of ,savoy4 ,among these were the ,history of the ,land and ,fresh-water ,mollusks of ,savoy and the ,basin of ,lake ,leman1 and a ,guide to the ,traveler in ,savoy4 ,his attention was afterward more entirely directed to prehistoric archology and anthropology1 and he published in #ahff a curious ,study on the ,sign of the ,cross previous to ,christianity4 ,of this period1 too1 are his ,promenades1 or ,walks1 in the ,universal ,exposition of #ahfg1 and his ,walks in the ,museum of ,saint-,germain1 #ahfi4 ,he founded1 in #ahfd1 the ,recueil1 or ,collection of ,materials for the ,positive ,history of ,man1 which was afterward continued at ,toulouse by ,m4,e4 ,cartailhac4 ,in #ahgi he published a work on pottery marks--,potirs allobroges1 ou les ,sigles figulins tudis par les ,mthodes de l',histoire naturelle4 ,in #ahha1 in co-operation with his son1 ,adrien de ,mortillet1 as artist1 he published a magnificent illustrated work or album1 ,le ,muse ,prhistorique 7,the ,prehistoric ,museum72 and in #ahhc1 the volume ,le ,prhistorique 7,prehistoric ,archology72 two books which have taken rank as master works4 ,a second edition of the ,prhistorique appeared in #ahhe1 and at the time of his death he was preparing a third1 in which he was taking great pains to bring the matter up to the present condition of the science4 ,another important work was the ,origines de la ,chasse et de la ,pche 7,origin of ,hunting and ,fishing74 ,a considerable number of memoirs by ,m4 de ,mortillet appeared in various scientific journals1 especially in the two founded by him--,les ,matriaux pour l',histoire primitive et naturelle de l',homme1 already mentioned1 and ,l',homme1 which was established in #ahhd4 ,an epoch in ,m4 de ,mortillet's life was marked in #ahgc1 when a discussion took place at the ,anthropological ,congress1 in ,lyons1 between him and ,m4 ,abel ,hovelacque concerning the precursors of man4 ,the researches of the two masters had already led them1 by a series of observations and deductions1 to regard as certain the geological existence of a being intermediate between man and the monkey1 which they called the ,anthropopithecus1 and they were trying to indicate1 hypothetically1 its leading characteristics4 ,m4 de ,mortillet's reasons for believing in the existence of this precursor of man as a definite being were presented in the ,revue d',anthropologie1 in an article which was translated and published in the ,popular ,science ,monthly for ,april1 #ahgi4 ,in this paper the author summarized the evidence1 already copious1 in favor of the existence of ,quaternary man1 and then took up the question1 ,did there exist in the ,tertiary age beings sufficiently intelligent to perform a part of the acts which are characteristic of man8 ,he then reviewed the researches of the ,abb ,bourgeois at ,thenay in the light of a collection of fire-marked flints which he had exhibited at the ,international ,congress of ,prehistoric ,archology and ,anthropology held in ,paris in #ahfg1 and deduced from the result that during the ,middle ,tertiary there existed a creature1 precursor of man1 an anthropopithecus1 which was acquainted with fire1 and could make use of it for splitting flints4 ,it also was able to trim the flint flakes thus produced1 and to convert them into tools4 ,this curious and interesting discovery for a long time stood alone1 and arguments were even drawn from its isolated position to favor the rejection of it4 ,fortunately1 another ,french observer1 ,m4,j4,b4 ,rames1 has found in the vicinity of ,aurillac 7,cantal71 in the strata of the upper part of the ,middle ,tertiary--here1 too1 in company with mastodons and dinotheriums1 though of more recent species than those of ,thenay--flints which also have been redressed intentionally4 ,in this case1 however1 the flints are no longer split by fire1 but by tapping4 ,it is something more than a continuation1 it is a development4 ,among the few specimens exhibited by ,m4 ,rames1 whose discoveries are quite recent1 is one which1 had it been found on the surface of the ground1 would never have been called in question4 ,the evidence afforded by these flints was confirmed by a collection of flints from the ,miocene and the ,pliocene of the valley of the ,tagus shown by ,seor ,ribeiro in the same exhibition1 a considerable proportion of which bore evidence of intentional chipping4 ,bearing upon this point was a chart of the ,palolithic ,age in ,gaul1 drawn up by ,m4 de ,mortillet in #ahga1 and published in the ,bulletin de la ,socit d',anthropologie de ,paris--the only work of the kind extant--in which were recorded five localities in which occurred supposed traces of man in the ,tertiary1 forty-one alluvial deposits in the ,quaternary yielding human bones and industrial remains1 and two hundred and seventy-eight caverns containing ,quaternary fauna with traces of prehistoric man4 ,m4 de ,mortillet gave in another form his view of the sort of creature the hypothetical anthropopithecus should be in a paper on ,tertiary ,man1 read before the ,anthropological ,section of the ,french ,association for the ,advancement of ,science in #ahhe1 when he said the question was not to find whether man already existed in the ,tertiary epoch as he exists at the present day4 ,animals varied from one geological epoch to another1 and the higher the animals the greater was the variation4 ,it was to be inferred1 therefore1 that man would vary more rapidly than the other mammals4 ,the problem was to discover in the ,tertiary period an ancestral form of man a predecessor of the man of historical times4 ,there were1 he affirmed1 unquestionably in the ,tertiary strata objects which implied the existence of an intelligent being--animals less intelligent than existing man1 but much more intelligent than existing apes4 ,while the skeleton of this ancestral form of man had not yet been discovered1 he had made himself known to us in the clearest manner by his works4 ,the general opinion of the meeting after hearing ,m4 de ,mortillet's paper is said to have been that there could be no longer any doubt of the existence of the supposed ancestral form of man in the ,tertiary period4 ,the discovery in ,java1 announced by ,dr4 ,dubois1 in #ahif1 of fossil remains presenting structural characteristics between those of man and those of the monkey1 to which the name ,pithecanthropus erectus was given1 were accepted with hardly a question by ,m4 de ,mortillet and his colleagues as confirming his views4 ,at a banquet given to ,m4 de ,mortillet1 ,may #a1 #ahhd1 by a number of anthropologists1 when his portrait was presented to him1 the hall was decorated for the occasion with a life-size picture of an ancient ,gaul1 executed according to his latest researches4 ,the man was represented as having no hair on his body2 with very long arms and very powerful muscles2 his feet capable of being used in climbing trees1 but with toes not opposable2 his jaw strongly prognathous1 but not at all equal to that of an anthropoid ape2 his breadth strongly compressed laterally and his abdomen prominent2 the skin not negroid1 but of our present color2 and the expression of his face was about as intelligent as that of an ,australian4 ,in his ,le ,prhistorique ,m4 de ,mortillet attempted to determine how far distant was the epoch when ,homo sapiens first appeared on the earth1 by estimating the rate of progression of blocks which were carried by former ice fields1 as he had observed them in ,switzerland with ,agassiz4 ,his conclusion was that more than two hundred thousand years had elapsed since that event4 ,in #ahid ,m4 de ,mortillet proposed in the ,socit d',anthropologie an important reform in chronology4 ,pointing out the inconvenience of using several different eras1 such as the ,foundation of ,rome1 the ,flight of ,mohammed1 and the ,proclamation of the ,french ,republic1 he suggested that ten thousand years before the ,christian era be adopted as a general starting point4 ,this would include all ,egyptian chronology as known at the present day1 and would leave five thousand years at the disposal of future discoverers4 ,a spirit always youthful1 a man of progress1 says ,dr4 ,capitan in his eulogy1 our dear master kept himself fully in the current with all work relating to prehistoric archology4 ,he knew how to profit by whatever would contribute to perfect his own work4 ,he therefore1 on different occasions1 modified his classification so as to keep it up to date1 realizing that a classification is an admirable instrument of study1 which ought to go through the same evolution as the science to which it is applied4 ,this high quality of his mind appears clearly in his last book1 published in #ahig--;,formation de la ,nation franaise 7,formation of the ,french ,nation74 ,this book comprised the substance of his lectures of the term #ahhi-'ij4 ,in publishing it he disavowed all intention of producing a new history of ,france4 ,there were enough of these in all shapes and sizes1 written in the most varied styles1 with diverse tendencies1 and from the most different points of view1 and there were some most excellent works among them1 particularly that of ,m4 ,henri ,martin1 which seemed to him to contain all the historical information known4 ,but all these histories1 even that of ,henri ,martin1 although he had been president of the ,anthropological ,society of ,paris1 appeared to ,m4 de ,mortillet to be at fault in their starting point4 ,they gave too much place in their beginnings to the legendary and the imaginary1 and not enough to natural history and palethnology4 ,it was ,m4 de ,mortillet's purpose to follow an inverse method--to regard direct observation alone2 and he would rest only on the impartial and precise discussion of texts and facts4 ,texts1 documents1 and facts1 he said1 become more and more rare as we go back in time4 ,i shall collect and examine them with the greatest care in order to make our origins as clear as possible1 and to enlarge the scale of our history4 ,i shall appeal in succession to all the sciences of observation1 and when ,i have recourse to the texts1 ,i shall subject them to the closest criticism and the most complete analysis4 ,the texts on which historians had so far relied did not go back far enough4 ,they told of events three thousand or1 including the ,egyptian hieroglyphic texts1 seven thousand years old1 but what was this compared with the immense lapse of time during which man has lived1 going back into the ,quaternary epoch8 ,on this vast period the texts furnish no information4 ,they were1 besides1 inaccurate1 tinged with fable and poetry1 with local and personal prejudice and ignorance1 even as to the times to which they relate after history is supposed to have come in4 ,if we want light upon this unrecorded past1 we must seek it by the aid of palethnological data2 and anthropology may be very advantageously united with palethnology to furnish valuable instruction concerning the autochthonic race of ,france1 its development1 transformations1 customs1 and migrations1 and the invasions it suffered in the most remote antiquity4 ,with the aid of these two sciences1 both of wholly new origin1 we are able to trace the earliest pages of the history of ,france4 ,the book begins with a review of what the texts afford regarding the earlier peoples of ,france2 then brings forward the evidence yielded by language and the study of the evolution of writing2 next presents the results of research respecting the precursors of man1 the rise and development of industries1 societies1 and civilization2 and studies the primitive races of perhaps two hundred and thirty thousand or two hundred and forty thousand years ago2 their mixture with the other races that came in from abroad and possessed the country2 and1 finally1 the formation of the ,french population as we now find it4 ,m4 de ,mortillet's relations with his pupils and with his country1 and his private character1 are spoken of in the highest terms4 ,for more than twenty years his lectures at the cole d',anthropologie1 treating the most various questions respecting prehistoric times1 attracted large and attentive audiences1 often including students from abroad1 who afterward became masters of the science in their own countries4 ,he was always ready to receive workers in the science1 even the least and humblest1 to bestow advice and encouragement upon them1 and to give them the benefit of his experience and extensive erudition1 and for this his pupils and friends lament him4 ,against his integrity no suspicion was ever breathed4 ,in political faith he was always advanced1 and ever true to his convictions4 ,he was maire of ,saint-,germain from #ahhb to #ahhh1 and deputy from the department of ,seine-et-,oise from #ahhe to #ahhi4 99 99 99 99 99 ,in the observations of the meteoric shower of ,november #ac1 #ahig1 at ,harvard ,college ,observatory1 one of the meteors appeared1 according to the calculations1 at the height of #djf miles1 and disappeared at the height of #dc miles1 and at a distance of #aif miles4 ,another appeared at a height of #ahb miles and disappeared at a height of #dh miles1 and a distance of #gd miles4 ,the first meteor was red or orange1 or1 to ,prof4 ,w4,h4 ,pickering1 the color of a sodium flame1 and the other white4 ,both penetrated the atmosphere to about the same depth1 and both were clearly ,leonids4 ,these facts go to show1 ,professor ,pickering thinks1 that the difference in color noted is not due to a mere grazing of our atmosphere in some cases1 and a correspondingly low temperature1 but to an actual difference in the chemical composition of the individual meteors4 ,correspondence4 ,,the ,,foundation ,,of ,,sociology4 ,editor ,popular ,science ,monthly3 ,,sir3 ,may ,i be permitted a word of comment upon your editorial entitled ,a ,borrowed ,foundation1 published in the ,december number of the ,popular ,science ,monthly8 ,whatever my readers and reviewers may have claimed for me1 ,i myself have never claimed to be the discoverer of the consciousness of kind4 ,not only ,mr4 ,spencer1 as he and you have shown2 not only ,hegel1 as ,professor ,caldwell has shown2 but also nearly every philosophical writer and psychologist from ,plato and ,aristotle down to the present time has more or less clearly recognized the phenomenon of the consciousness of kind1 although ,i do not know that any one but myself has called it by just this phrase4 ,the only claim1 then1 that ,i put forward for my own work is that1 in a somewhat systematic way1 ,i have attempted to use the consciousness of kind as the postulate of sociology and to interpret more special social phenomena by means of it4 ,in other words1 ,i have used it as a foundation2 and ,i am not aware that any other writer on sociology has ever done so4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 ,i feel quite sure1 makes no such claim for himself4 ,the passage which he and you have quoted is taken from the ,principles of ,psychology2 it is not repeated in the ,principles of ,sociology1 where1 if it had been regarded by ,mr4 ,spencer as a foundation1 it should have been put forward as the major premise of social theory4 ,passing over the consciousness of kind1 ,mr4 ,spencer has chosen to build his system of sociology in part upon other psychological inductions1 in part upon a biological analogy4 ,the tables of the ,descriptive ,sociology are arranged in accordance with the organic conception1 and nine and one half chapters of the ,inductions of ,sociology in the first volume of the ,principles of ,sociology are formulated in terms of it4 ,throughout the remaining parts of the ,principles1 however1 sociological phenomena are explained in terms of two closely correlated generalizations that are psychological in character--namely1 first1 the generalization that while the fear of the living becomes the root of the political control1 the fear of the dead becomes the root of religious control2 and second1 the generalization that militancy and industrialism produce opposite effects on mind and character1 and1 through them1 on every form of social organization4 ,the work that ,mr4 ,spencer has done in elaborating these explanations is of inestimable value1 but surely it is not an interpretation of society in terms of the consciousness of kind4 ,is it then quite fair to suggest that the use made of the consciousness of kind in my own work is a borrowed foundation8 ,however you and ,mr4 ,spencer and my own readers may answer this question1 ,i can sincerely subscribe to your affirmation that there is much more in ,mr4 ,spencer's writings than most even of his truest admirers and most diligent readers have ever explored2 and ,i should be sorry to be regarded as behind the foremost in appreciation of the great work which he has accomplished not only for philosophy in general1 but especially for that branch of knowledge which has engaged my own interest4 ,,franklin ,h4 ,,giddings4 ,,new ,,york1 ,december #ai1 #ahih4 ,professor ,giddings1 in his ,principles of ,sociology1 spoke of the consciousness of kind as the new datum which has been hitherto sought without success4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 on the other hand1 showed that this was not a new datum1 inasmuch as he had formulated it himself in a work published many years previously4 ,professor ,giddings says that the passage to which ,mr4 ,spencer referred occurred in his ,principles of ,psychology1 and not in his ,principles of ,sociology1 where1 if it had been regarded by ,mr4 ,spencer as a foundation1 it should have been put forward as the major premise of social theory4 ,but ,professor ,giddings surely does not forget that ,mr4 ,spencer1 in laying out his system of synthetic philosophy1 made the whole of psychology the basis of1 and immediate preparation for1 sociology4 ,quite naturally a writer who is dealing with sociology separately1 and not as part of a philosophical system1 will find it necessary in laying his foundations to fall back on data furnished by the immediately underlying science2 and this explains why ,professor ,giddings makes use in his ,principles of ,sociology of a datum which1 whether drawn from ,mr4 ,spencer's ,psychology or not1 was at least to be found there very distinctly expressed4 ,mr4 ,spencer himself says that he regarded it as a primary datum1 and calls attention to the fact that he devoted a dozen pages to tracing the development of sympathy as a result of gregariousness4 ,we are quite prepared to recognize the valuable use which ,professor ,giddings has made of the doctrine in question1 and to admit that1 by the extensive development he has given to it1 he has imparted a special character and a special interest both to his ,principles of ,sociology and to his ,elements of ,sociology noticed elsewhere4--,,ed4 ,p4,s4,m4 ,,evolution ,,and ,,education ,,again4 ,editor ,popular ,science ,monthly3 ,,sir3 ,i have not before this acknowledged your reference to me in a spirited and instructive editorial that appeared in the ,december number of your excellent magazine1 because an immediate reply might have been taken to indicate a desire1 on my part1 for a controversy1 which ,i expressly disclaim2 and besides1 ,i have desired that the public might read and consider your views dispassionately4 ,i care but little for the effect upon myself1 if the cause of truth shall be materially strengthened4 ,i am not surprised that you refer to me as ignorant1 negligible1 etc41 because it has for a long time been painfully clear that the scientific mind is exceedingly sensitive1 and while much given to praising forbearance and kindness1 still resorts to language reasonably regarded as abusive4 ,i have always found this to be true1 and the present controversy is no exception to the rule4 ,the broadly scientific mind is1 alas6 too often narrow and intolerant in treating opposing views4 ,i do not wish1 however1 to find fault with the abuse--it may prove to be good discipline1 and is1 therefore1 thankfully accepted2 but ,i do very much desire to correct a mistaken inference that you drew from my reference to ,herbert ,spencer4 ,there are some typographical errors in the quotations that you make1 which1 however1 do not change the meaning4 ,allow me then to say that ,i have a great regard for ,mr4 ,spencer2 that ,i have read his writings with much profit1 and that ,i have never failed to accord him full credit for the work he has accomplished4 ,that ,i can not understand and accept all his teachings does not lessen my respect for him4 ,at the time that ,i made my informal talk to the teachers of this city1 ,i had no thought that my remarks would be published or would excite public criticism1 or that ,i would be honored with so distinguished1 so critical an audience1 or ,i should have been more careful in the use of terms2 but it does seem to me that there is no excuse for the distorted meaning that you and others have given to the quotations4 ,i referred to ,mr4 ,spencer's age to show that we could hope for no change in his philosophy1 and the criticism that follows1 if it may be styled a criticism at all1 is that he has refused to recognize the ,deity1 and thereby fails to bless1 cheer1 and comfort suffering humanity4 ,you discuss it as if ,i had said that he had not bettered the condition of his fellows2 but that idea is not in the statement that you quote at all4 ,the word suffering was intended to apply to those who1 by reason of the misfortunes of this life1 are compelled to look beyond themselves and their surroundings for comfort1 and who in all ages and among all peoples have turned their thoughts toward a ,divine ,being for comfort4 ,i merely intended to say1 in a very mild and harmless way1 that the consolations of a religion based upon a belief in a ,divine ,providence are necessary for suffering humanity1 and my immediate reference to ,cardinal ,newman by way of contrast in almost the same language clearly shows this to be the true meaning of my remarks4 ,the emphasis was on the word suffering1 which was not intended to include more than a fraction of mankind4 ,i am obliged to you for your reference to ,mr4 ,gladstone1 who in his last illness illustrated most fully what ,i had in my mind4 ,however great his pain1 or cheerless the outlook1 he continually with serene cheerfulness murmured1 ,i know that my ,redeemer liveth1 and ,our ,father1 etc4 ,it is perhaps unnecessary to add that ,i am sorry that any one has been led to believe that ,i underrate the value of the life and work of ,herbert ,spencer4 ,please allow me to refer to the statement in your editorial1 ,again dealing with the modern scientific view1 that in the development of the human individual all antecedent stages of human development are in a manner passed through1 etc41 in order that ,i may express my regret that you seem to vitiate the force of the statement altogether by the use of the unscientific phrase in a manner4 ,the tremendous consequences growing out of the view make serious and exact definition and treatment imperative1 and ,i had hoped that ,i was entering upon a helpful discussion of it1 but was greatly disappointed4 ,i am also unwilling to believe that students of ,emerson will be easily convinced that he looked at life from a stationary point of view1 but ,i do not feel that ,i can claim your valuable time for a discussion of this point4 ,may ,i trust your forbearance in pointing out a manifest misconception in your statement1 ,we are not imposed upon by childish imitations of mature virtues8 ,the remark indicates that you have not been brought into immediate association with school children in a schoolroom1 at least in recent years4 ,i refer very reluctantly1 but ,i trust without seeming egotism1 to your remarks touching my election to the position which ,i hold4 ,i am innocent of all responsibility in the matter4 ,i had no pull 7is the term scientific874 ,i wrote to the board declining to be a candidate4 ,i refused to allow my friends to speak to the members of the board in my behalf2 ,i preferred the position 7,principal of the ,st4 ,paul ,high ,school7 which ,i had held for years1 and ,i accepted the office with much hesitation2 but the intimation that our ,board of ,school ,inspectors1 composed of business men in every way highly esteemed by the citizens of ,st4 ,paul1 and deemed worthy of all confidence1 had been actuated by unworthy motives1 is entirely gratuitous and out of place in a journal such as you would have us believe yours to be4 ,could there be offered better evidence of haste and unfairness than this uncalled-for assault upon those of whom you know absolutely nothing1 and does it not show the scientific inclination to have theory with or without facts1 but certainly theory8 ,yours very truly1 ,a4,j4 ,,smith1 ,superintendent of ,schools4 ,,st4 ,,paul1 ,,minn41 ,january #d1 #ahii4 ,we took the report of ,superintendent ,smith's address which appeared in the ,st4 ,paul papers4 ,if there were any typographical errors in our quotations1 they were not of our making2 and ,mr4 ,smith admits that1 such as they were1 they did not affect the sense4 ,well1 then1 we found ,mr4 ,smith using his position as ,superintendent of ,schools to disparage a man whom the scientific world holds in the highest honor1 and for whom he now tells us he himself has a great regard--whose writings he has read with much profit4 ,we judged the speaker by his own words1 and certainly drew an unfavorable inference as to his knowledge and mental breadth4 ,if ,mr4 ,smith did injustice to himself by speaking in an unguarded way1 or by not fully expressing his meaning1 that was not our fault2 and we do not think we can properly be accused of having lapsed into abuse4 ,the explanation he offers of his language regarding ,mr4 ,spencer is wholly unsatisfactory4 ,he gave his hearers to understand that there was an old man in ,london who had devoted all his energies to creating a system of thought which should entirely ignore the name of the ,deity1 and of whom1 after his death1 it would not be remembered that he had ever performed an act or said a word that blessed or comforted or relieved his suffering fellows4 ,the stress1 he now says1 should be laid on the word suffering4 ,he did not wish to imply that ,mr4 ,spencer had not bettered the condition of his fellows generally2 he only meant that he had done nothing for the suffering4 ,on this we have two remarks to make3 ,first1 it is not usual1 when a man is acknowledged to have given a long lifetime to useful work1 to hold him up to reprobation because he is not known to have had a special mission to the suffering2 and1 second1 that no man can be of service to mankind at large without being of benefit to the suffering4 ,it is mainly because ,mr4 ,spencer believes so strongly in the broad virtues of justice and humanity1 has so unbounded a faith in the efficacy of what may be called a sound social hygiene1 that he has had1 comparatively1 so little to say upon the topics which most interest those who apply themselves specifically1 but not always wisely1 to alleviating the miseries and distresses of humanity4 ,as to the means by which ,mr4 ,smith obtained his present position1 we know nothing beyond what he now tells us4 ,we saw his appointment criticised as an unsuitable one in the ,st4 ,paul papers2 and his published remarks seemed to justify the criticism4 ,there are pulls--the word is scientific enough for our purpose--even in school matters2 and it seemed that this was just such a case as a pull would most naturally explain4 ,we quite accept1 however1 ,superintendent ,smith's statement as to the facts2 and we sincerely trust that the next address he delivers to his teachers will better justify his appointment than did the one on which we felt it a duty to comment4 ,,emerson ,,and ,,evolution4 ,editor ,popular ,science ,monthly3 ,,sir3 ,the editorial in the ,december ,popular ,science ,monthly on the relations of ,emerson to evolution must have surprised many of the students of ,emerson4 ,a little over two years ago ,moncure ,d4 ,conway pointed out 7,open ,court1 #ahif7 that soon after his resignation from the pulpit of the ,unitarian ,church with which he was last connected1 ,emerson taught zology1 botany1 paleontology1 and geology1 and that he was a pronounced evolutionist who used in his lectures the argument in favor of evolution drawn from the practical identity of the extremities of the vertebrates4 ,that ,emerson was an evolutionist of the ,goethean type is clear from most of his essays4 ,in an essay appearing before the ,origin of ,species1 he wrote as follows3 ,the electric word pronounced by ,john ,hunter a hundred years ago1 arrested and progressive development1 indicating the way upward from the invisible protoplasm to the highest organisms1 gave the poetic key to ,natural ,science1 of which the theories of ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire1 of ,oken1 of ,goethe1 of ,agassiz and ,owen and ,darwin in zology and botany are the fruits--a hint whose power is not exhausted1 showing unity and perfect order in physics4 ,the hardest chemist1 the severest analyzer1 scornful of all but the driest fact1 is forced to keep the poetic curve of ,nature1 and his results are like a myth of ,theocritus4 ,all multiplicity rushes to be resolved into unity4 ,anatomy1 osteology1 exhibit arrested or progressive ascent in each kind2 the lower pointing to the higher forms1 the higher to the highest1 from the fluid in an elastic sac1 from radiate1 mollusk1 articulate1 vertebrate1 up to man2 as if the whole animal world were only a ,hunterian museum to exhibit the genesis of mankind4 ,the ,darwin to whom reference is made in this essay is not ,charles1 but his grandfather1 one of the poets of evolution1 ,erasmus4 ,the essay also shows the belief in evolution held by both ,owen and ,louis ,agassiz before theological timidity made them unprogressive4 ,the names quoted illustrate further the factors which influenced ,emerson's thought in regard to evolution4 ,saint-,hilaire gave the coup de grce to ,cuvier's fight against evolution4 ,oken is one of the great pioneers of evolution4 ,goethe shares with ,empedocles1 ,lucretius1 and ,erasmus ,darwin the great honor of being a poet of evolution4 ,of the four1 ,goethe was by all odds the greatest4 ,to him1 the doctrine of evolution was of more importance than the downfall of a despot4 ,the eve of the ,revolution of #ahcj found him watching over the dispute between ,cuvier and ,saint-,hilaire with an interest that obscured every other4 ',well1' remarked ,goethe to ,soret1 7,conversations with ,eckermann7 'what do you think of this great event8 ,the volcano has burst forth1 all in flames1 and there are no more negotiations behind closed doors4' ',a dreadful affair1' ,i answered1 'but what else could be expected under the circumstances1 and with such a ministry1 except that it would end in the expulsion of the present royal family8' ',we do not seem to understand each other1 my dear friend1' replied ,goethe4 ',i am not speaking of those people at all2 ,i am interested in something very different4 ,i mean the dispute between ,cuvier and ,geoffroy de ,saint-,hilaire1 which has broken out in the ,academy1 and which is of such great importance to science4' ,this remark of ,goethe's came upon me so unexpectedly that ,i did not know what to say1 and my thoughts for some minutes seemed to have come to a complete standstill4 ',the affair is of the utmost importance1' he continued1 'and you can not form any idea of what ,i felt on receiving the news of the meeting on the #aith4 ,in ,geoffroy de ,saint-,hilaire we have now a mighty ally for a long time to come4 ,but ,i see also how great the sympathy of the ,french scientific world must be in this affair1 for1 in spite of a terrible political excitement1 the meeting on the #aith was attended by a full house4 ,the best of it is1 however1 that the synthetic treatment of ,nature introduced into ,france by ,geoffroy ,saint-,hilaire can now no longer be stopped4 ,this matter has now become public through the discussion in the ,academy carried on in the presence of a large audience2 it can no longer be referred to secret committees or be settled or suppressed behind closed doors4' ,it is obvious to any reader of ,emerson's essays that ,goethe exercised an enormous influence over him1 and that ,emerson was much more in sympathy with ,goethe than was the fetichistic dualist ,carlyle4 ,this influence of ,goethe over ,emerson's views of evolution is clearly evident in the citation already made4 ,the evolutionary views of ,emerson appear so frequently in his essays that it is astonishing that he should have been misunderstood4 ,the citation by the ,minneapolis clergyman from the essay on ,nature that man is fallen does not refer to the ,adamic fall1 but the degenerating influence of cities4 ,at the slightest glance1 the evolutionary tendency of this essay on ,nature is evident4 ,in the paragraph immediately after that containing the reference to fallen man occurs the following3 ,but taking timely warning and leaving many things unsaid on this topic1 let us not longer omit our homage to the efficient ,nature1 natura naturans1 the quick cause before which all forms flee as the driven snows1 itself secret1 its works driven before it in flocks and multitudes 7as the ancient represented ,nature by ,proteus1 a shepherd71 and in indescribable variety4 ,it published itself in creatures reaching from particles and spicula through transformation on transformation to the highest symmetries1 arriving at consummate results without a shock or a leap4 ,a little heat1 that is a little motion1 is all that differences the bald dazzling white and deadly cold poles of the earth from the prolific tropical climates4 ,all changes pass without violence by reason of the two cardinal conditions of boundless space and boundless time4 ,geology has initiated us into the secularity of ,nature and taught us to disuse our school-dame measure and exchange our ,mosaic and ,ptolemaic scheme for her large style4 ,we knew nothing rightly for want of perspective4 ,now we learn what patient ages must round themselves before the rock is broken and the first lichen race has disintegrated the thinnest external plate into soil and opened the door for the remote flora1 fauna1 ,ceres and ,pomona to come in4 ,how far off yet is the trilobite1 how far the quadruped1 how inconceivably remote is man6 ,all duly arrive1 and then race after race of men4 ,it is a long way from granite to the oyster2 farther yet to ,plato and the preaching of the immortality of the soul4 ,yet all must come1 as surely as the first atom has two sides4 ,it would be useless to multiply citations along this line to demonstrate not only that ,emerson was an evolutionist1 but that his whole philosophy was pervaded by the doctrine4 ,it should be remembered that1 at the time ,emerson wrote1 evolution had won wide favor among thinkers and that the success of the ,origin of ,species was an evidence1 not of the creation of the evolution sentiment by that work1 but of a pre-existing mental current in favor of evolution4 ,very respectfully1 ,,harriet ,c4,b4 ,,alexander4 ,,chicago1 ,december #bj1 #ahih4 ,editor's ,table4 ,,the ,,new ,,superstition4 ,the death of a prominent man of letters in the hands of certain individuals of the ,christian ,science persuasion has given rise to a good deal of serious discussion as to the principles and practices of that extraordinary sect4 ,that a considerable number of persons should have banded themselves together to ignore medical science1 and apply thought as a remedy for all physical ills1 has excited no little alarm and indignation in various quarters4 ,some of the severest criticisms of this outbreak of irrationality have come from the religious press1 which takes the ground that1 while the ,bible doubtless contains numerous accounts of miraculous healing1 it nevertheless fully recognizes the efficacy of material remedies4 ,a beloved physician is credited with the authorship of one of the gospels and of the book of ,acts4 ,an apostle recommends a friend to take a little wine for his stomach's sake and his often infirmities4 ,the man who was attacked by robbers had his wounds treated in the usual way4 ,the soothing effect of ointments is recognized2 and the disturbing effects of undue indulgence in the wine cup are forcibly described4 ,the peculiar character of a miracle1 it is contended1 lies in the fact that it passes over natural agencies2 but1 because these may be dispensed with by ,divine ,power1 they are not the less specifically efficacious in their own place4 ,these1 and such as these1 are the arguments which are urged by the representatives of orthodox religion against the new heresy1 or1 as we have called it1 the new superstition4 ,to argue against it on scientific grounds would be almost too ridiculous4 ,when people make a denial of the laws of matter the basis of their creed1 we can only leave them to work it out with ,nature4 ,they will find that1 like all the world1 they are subject to the law of gravitation and to the laws of chemistry and physics4 ,if one of them happens to be run over by a railway train the usual results will follow2 and so of a multitude of conceivable accidents4 ,a ,christian ,scientist who blows out the gas will be asphyxiated just like anybody else2 and if he walks off the wharf into the water he will require rescue or resuscitation just as if he were a plain ,christian or a plain scientist4 ,like ,shylock1 he is fed with the same food1 hurt with the same weapons1 subject to the same diseases as the rest of the community2 and little by little the eternal course of things will chastise his extravagant fancies into reasonable accord with facts4 ,to tell the truth1 we have not much apprehension that the health of the community will suffer1 or the death rate go up1 as the result of this new craze4 ,on the contrary1 we rather expect that any influence it may have in these respects will1 on the whole1 be for the better2 and for a very simple reason3 ,the laws of health are not so difficult to master1 and1 as every adherent of ,christian ,science will be anxious to reflect credit on it by the satisfactory condition of his or her personal health1 we quite believe that in the new sect more diseases will be avoided than incurred4 ,moreover1 the elevated condition of mind of these enthusiasts makes in itself for health1 so long as it does not turn to hysteria4 ,we certainly can not refuse all sympathy to people who make it a principle to enjoy good health4 ,of course1 if they were thoroughly consistent1 they might do mischief in direct proportion to their numbers4 ,a ,christian-,science school board who did not believe in ventilating or adequately warming school rooms1 holding that it made no difference whether the children breathed pure air or air laden with carbon dioxide and ptomaines1 or whether or not they were exposed to chills and draughts1 would be about as mischievous a body of men as could well be imagined4 ,if ,christian ,science in the house means an indifference to the ordinary physical safeguards of health1 it will quickly make a very evil repute for itself4 ,but1 as we have already said1 we do not anticipate these results4 ,having undertaken to avoid and to cure diseases by thinking truth1 we believe our friends of the new persuasion will think enough truth to get what benefit is to be got from cleanliness1 fresh air1 and wholesome food1--and that will be quite a quantity4 ,,emerson4 ,we publish on another page a letter from a correspondent who thinks that much injustice is done to ,emerson in the remarks we quoted in our ,december number from ,mr4 ,j4,j4 ,chapman's recent volume of essays4 ,what ,mr4 ,chapman said was1 in effect1 that ,emerson had not placed himself in line with the modern doctrine of evolution--that he was probably the last great writer to look at life from a stationary standpoint4 ,mrs4 ,alexander says in reply that ,emerson was an evolutionist before ,darwin1 having learned the doctrine from ,goethe and made it a fundamental principle of his philosophy4 ,no one who has read ,mr4 ,chapman's essay could think for a moment that there was any intention on his part to deal ungenerously or unfairly with the great writer of whom ,america is so justly proud2 nor would many readers be disposed to question his competence to pronounce a sound judgment upon his subject4 ,there must1 therefore1 it seems to us1 be some way of reconciling the verdict of ,mr4 ,chapman with the claims set forth in our correspondent's letter4 ,the true statement of the case doubtless is that ,emerson received the doctrine of evolution--so far as he received it--as a poet4 ,he welcomed the conception of a gradual unfolding of the universe1 and a gradually higher development of life2 but it dwelt in his mind rather as a poetical imagination than as a scientific theory4 ,the consequence was that he was still able to speak in the old absolute manner of many things which the man of science can only discuss from a relative standpoint4 ,when1 for example1 ,emerson says1 ,all goes to show that the soul in man is not an organ1 but animates and exercises all the organs2 is not a function1 like the power of memory1 of calculation1 of comparison1 but uses these as hands and feet2 is not a faculty1 but a light2 is not the intellect or the will1 but the master of the intellect and the will2 is the background of our being in which they lie--an immensity not possessed and that can not be possessed--he may be uttering the sentence of a divine philosophy1 or the deep intuition of a poet2 but he is not speaking the language of science1 nor evincing any sense of the restrictions which science might place on such expressions of opinion4 ,certainly he is not at the standpoint of evolution2 and it is very hard to believe that the views he announces could in any way be harmonized with1 say1 ,mr4 ,spencer's ,principles of ,psychology4 ,or take such a passage as the following3 ,all the facts of the animal economy--sex1 nutriment1 gestation1 birth1 growth--are symbols of the passage of the world into the soul of man1 to suffer there a change and reappear a new and higher fact4 ,he uses forms according to the life1 and not according to the form4 ,this is true science4 ,the poet alone knows astronomy1 chemistry1 vegetation1 and animation1 for he does not stop at these facts1 but employs them as signs4 ,he knows why the plain or meadow of space was strewn with those flowers we call suns and moons and stars2 why the great deep is adorned with animals1 with men1 and gods2 for in every word he speaks he rides on them as the horses of thought4 ,now1 we should be sorry to crumple one leaf in the laurel wreath of the poet2 but is there much sense in saying that he is our only astronomer1 or that he could inform us why suns and planets were disposed through space so as to make the forms we see8 ,we do not think ,goethe held these ideas2 if he did1 they were certainly not part of his evolution philosophy4 ,the doctrine of evolution is not at war1 we trust1 with poetic inspiration2 but if it teaches anything1 it teaches that the world is full of infinite detail1 and that without a certain mastery of details general views are apt to be more showy than solid4 ,it also brings home to the mind very forcibly that one can only be sure of carefully verified facts1 and1 even of these1 ought not to be too sure4 ,it teaches that time and place and circumstance are1 for all practical purposes1 of the essence of the things we have to consider2 that nothing is just what it would be if differently conditioned4 ,there is nothing of which ,emerson discourses with so much positiveness as the soul1 an entity of which the serious evolutionist can only speak with all possible reserve4 ,the evolutionist labors to construct a psychology2 but ,emerson has a psychology ready-made1 and scatters its affirmations with a liberal hand through every chapter of his writings4 ,that these are stimulating in a high degree to well-disposed minds we should be sorry to deny4 ,they are a source1 which for many long years will not run dry1 of high thoughts and noble aspirations4 ,no one has more worthily or loftily discoursed of the value of life than has the ,new ,england philosopher2 and for this the world owes him a permanent debt of gratitude4 ,but he was not an evolutionist in the modern sense--that is1 in the scientific sense4 ,if1 as ,mr4 ,chapman says1 he was the last great writer to look at life from a stationary standpoint1 then we can only add that the old philosophy had a golden sunset in his pages4 ,scientific ,literature4 ,,special ,,books4 ,there are a great many different ways of conceiving the science of society1 and until the study of the subject is more advanced than it is as yet1 it would be rash to set up any one method as superior to all others4 ,all that can reasonably be asked is that the subject should be approached with a competent knowledge of what has previously been thought and written in regard to it1 that the aspects presented should possess intrinsic importance1 and that the treatment should be scientific4 ,the work which ,professor ,giddings has published under the title of ,elements of ,sociology#ce fulfills these conditions entirely1 and we consider it1 after careful examination1 as admirably adapted to the purpose it is meant to serve--namely1 as a text book for colleges and schools4 ,for use in schools--that is to say1 in secondary schools of the ordinary range--the treatment may be a little too elaborate1 but for college use we should say that it is1 so far as method is concerned1 precisely what is wanted4 ,we do not know any other work which gives in the same compass so interesting and satisfactory an analysis of the constitution and development of society1 or so many suggestive views as to the springs of social action and the conditions of social well-being4 ,professor ,giddings writes in a clear and vigorous style1 and the careful student will notice many passages marked by great felicity of expression4 ,in a text-book designed to attract the young to a subject calling for considerable concentration of attention1 this is an advantage that can hardly be overestimated4 ,in the first chapter the writer gives us his definition of society as any group or number of individuals who cultivate acquaintance and mental agreement--that is to say1 like-mindedness4 ,the unit of investigation in sociology is declared to be the individual member of society1 or1 as the writer calls him1 in relation to the investigation in hand1 the socius4 ,whether in strict logic the unit of investigation in sociology can be the individual1 even granting1 as must be done1 that he is born social1 is a point on which we are not fully satisfied4 ,we should be disposed to think that the study of the individual was rather what ,mr4 ,spencer would call a preparation for sociology than an integral part of the science itself4 ,from a practical point of view1 however1 it must be conceded that a treatise on sociology would begin somewhat abruptly if it did not present in the first place an adequate description of the socius1 especially setting forth those qualifications and tendencies which fit and impel him to enter into relations with other members of the human race4 ,chapter ,v of the present work deals with ,the ,practical ,activities of ,socii1 and shows in an interesting manner what may be called the lines of approach of individuals to one another in society4 ,sometimes the approach is by means of conflict1 and the writer shows how this may be a preparation for peaceful relations through the insight it gives into opposing points of view4 ,he distinguishes between primary and secondary conflict--the first being a struggle in which one individual violently strives to suppress or subdue an opposing personality1 the second a mere trial of differing opinions and tastes1 leading often to a profitable readjustment of individual standpoints4 ,chapter ,x1 entitled ,the ,classes of ,socii1 is an excellent one4 ,the author classifies socii with reference 7#a7 to vitality1 7#b7 to personality--i4e4 personal resource and capacity--and 7#c7 to social feeling4 ,under the third classification he distinguishes 7#a7 the social class1 7#b7 the non-social class1 7#c7 the pseudo-social class1 and 7#d7 the anti-social class4 ,the first of these1 the social class1 is well characterized as follows3 ,their distinguishing characteristic is a consciousness of kind that is wide in its scope and strong in its intensity4 ,they are sympathetic1 friendly1 helpful1 and always interested in endeavoring to perfect social relations1 to develop the methods of co-operation1 to add to the happiness of mankind by improving the forms of social pleasure1 to preserve the great social institutions of the family and the state4 ,to this class the entire population turns for help1 inspiration1 and leadership1 for unselfish loyalty and wise enterprise4 ,it includes all who in the true sense of the word are philanthropic1 all whose self-sacrifice is directed by sound judgment1 all true reformers whose zeal is tempered by common sense and sober patience1 and all those who give expression to the ideals and aspirations of the community for a larger and better life4 ,the ,pre-eminent ,social ,class is further discussed in ,chapter ,,xii2 and the subsequent chapters1 as far as1 and including1 ,,xix1 describe the processes by which social results in the balancing of interests1 establishment of rights1 assimilation of characters1 and general improvement of social conditions1 are realized4 ,the limits which expediency sets to the pursuit of like-mindedness are well shown1 and the advantage and necessity for social progress of free discussion and wide toleration of individual differences are strongly insisted on4 ,chapter ,,xx deals with ,the ,early ,history of ,society1 and contains the statement that from an apelike creature1 no longer perfectly represented in any existing species1 the human race is descended4 ,the subject of ,democracy is well treated in a special chapter 7,,xxiv74 ,the author is of opinion that1 if the natural leaders of society do their duty1 they will wield a moral influence that will give a right direction to public policy1 and secure the continuous advance of the community in prosperity and true civilization4 ,the if is an important one1 but the author has strong hope1 in which all his readers will certainly wish to share1 that in the main everything will turn out well4 ,the remarks on the ,state in ,chapter ,,xxiii are1 as far as they go1 judicious2 but we could have wished that the author1 who we are sure desires to make his treatise as practically useful as possible1 had dwelt somewhat on the dangers of over-legislation1 and had brought into fuller relief than he has done the difference between state action and voluntary enterprise1 arising from the fact that the former always involves the element of compulsion4 ,we pass a law when we can not get our neighbor to co-operate or agree with us in something1 and consequently resolve to compel him4 ,surely this consideration should suffice to make parsimony the first principle of legislation4 ,we agree with our author that it is not well to belittle the state 7page #bad71 but it is hardly belittling the state to wish to be very sparing in our appeals to it for the exercise of coercive power4 ,we miss also in the work before us such a treatment of the family as might have been introduced into it with advantage4 ,the family certainly has an important relation to the individual1 and in all civilized countries it is specially recognized by the state4 ,mr4 ,spencer1 in the chapter of his ,study of ,sociology entitled ,preparation in ,psychology1 has dwelt on the encroachments of the state on the family2 and ,mr4 ,pearson1 in his ,national ,life and ,character1 published half a dozen years ago1 sounded a note of alarm on the same subject4 ,what position ,professor ,giddings would have taken as to the importance of family life and the rights and duties of the family we do not1 of course1 know2 but we are disposed to think he could have increased the usefulness and interest of his book by some discussion of these points4 ,we would only further say that1 while the book is specially intended for scholastic use1 it is well adapted for general reading1 and that it could not be read carefully by any one without profit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,prof4 ,wesley ,mills holds the opinion that in the present stage of the study of animal life1#cf facts are much more desirable than theories4 ,experiment and observation must go on for many years before generalizations will be worth the making4 ,putting this belief into practice1 he has bred and reared a large number of animals1 making most careful notes on their physical and mental development1 and furnishes in his book1 resulting from these studies1 a contribution of unquestionable value to comparative psychology4 ,in his investigation of the habits of squirrels1 he finds the red squirrel1 or chickaree1 much more intelligent than the chipmunk4 ,the latter is easily trapped1 but the former profits by experience and is rarely secured a second time4 ,these little creatures are also adepts in feigning4 ,two examples are cited in which squirrels apparently ill recovered rapidly when left alone and made their escape in vigorous fashion4 ,many instances of animals shamming death are judged to be cases of catalepsy induced by excessive fear4 ,the chickaree is also credited with some musical capacity1 one being observed1 when excited1 to utter tones that were birdlike2 whence it is concluded likely that throughout the order ,rodentia a genuine musical appreciation exists1 and considerable ability in expressing states of emotion by vocal forms4 ,while experimenting with hibernating animals1 ,professor ,mills kept a woodchuck in confinement five years1 and noted that it had a drowsy or torpid period from ,november to ,april4 ,another specimen subjected to the same conditions did not hibernate for an hour during the entire season4 ,bats began to hibernate at #de to #dj ,f41 and were so affected by temperature that they could be worked like a machine by varying it4 ,the woodchuck1 however1 was comparatively independent of heat and cold1 but very sensitive to storms4 ,this is found to be true of many wild animals1 that they have a delicate perception of meteorological conditions1 making them wiser than they know1 for they act reflexly4 ,some records are given of cases of lethargy among human beings1 and in regard to these1 as well as normal sleep and hibernation1 it is suggested that their conditioning and variability throw great light upon the evolution of function4 ,in order to observe closely the psychic development of young animals1 ,professor ,mills raised families of dogs1 cats1 chickens1 rabbits1 guinea-pigs1 and pigeons4 ,the data obtained by him1 given in the form of diaries with comparisons and conclusions1 constitute ,part ,,iii1 the larger half of the book1 unquestionably first in importance and interest4 ,it is scarcely possible to overvalue careful studies like these1 undertaken not to justify theories1 but to bring to light whatever truths may be apprehended of the nature of growth and connection of mind and body4 ,the last division of the book contains the discussions on instinct by ,professors ,mills1 ,lloyd ,morgan1 ,baldwin1 and others1 first published in ,science4 ,the beginning of the volume1 devoted to a general consideration of the subject1 consists of papers on methods of study and comparative psychology which have appeared in various scientific periodicals1 including this magazine4 ,,general ,,notices4 ,in ,four-,footed ,americans and their ,kin#cg a similar method is applied by ,mabel ,osgood ,wright to the study of animals to that which was followed with reference to ornithology in ,citizen ,bird4 ,the subject is taught in the form of a story1 with dramatic incident and adventure1 and miniature exploration1 and the animals are allowed occasionally to converse and express their opinions and feelings4 ,the scene of the action is ,orchard ,farm and twenty miles around4 ,dr4 ,hunter and his daughter and colored mammy have returned there to their home after several years of travel1 with two city youths who have been invited to spend the summer at the place and are told the story of the birds4 ,another family have come to make an autumn visit1 but it is arranged that they should spend the winter at the farm4 ,what they did1 and how they became acquainted with the four-footed ,americans1 is told in this story4 ,most of the common animals of the ,united ,states are met or described in the course of the party's wandering1 as creatures of life rather than as in the cold and formal way of treating museum specimens1 and a great deal of the lore of other branches of natural history is introduced1 as it would naturally come in in such excursions as were taken4 ,the scientific accuracy of the book is assured by the participation of ,mr4 ,frank ,m4 ,chapman as editor4 ,at the end a ,ladder for climbing the ,family ,tree of the ,north ,american ,mammals is furnished in the shape of a table of classification2 and an index of ,english names is given4 ,the illustrations1 by ,ernest ,seton ,thompson1 give lifelike portraits and attitudes and are very attractive4 ,st4 ,george ,mivart1 whose enviable reputation as a specialist in natural history has perhaps given some justification for his attempts at philosophy1 has recently published a new philosophical work entitled ,the ,groundwork of ,science#ch4 ,it is an effort to work out the ultimate facts on which our knowledge1 and hence all science1 is based4 ,a short preface and introductory chapter are devoted to a statement of the aims of the work and some general remarks regarding the history of the scientific method4 ,an enumeration of the sciences and an indication of some of their logical relations are next given4 ,the third chapter1 entitled ,the ,objects of ,science1 is given up chiefly to a refutation of idealism4 ,the methods of science1 its physical1 psychical1 and intellectual antecedents1 language and science1 causes of scientific knowledge1 and the nature of the groundwork of science are the special topics of the remaining chapters4 ,the general scheme of the inquiry is based on the theory that the groundwork of science consists of three divisions4 ,the laborers who work1 the tools they must employ1 and that which constitutes the field of their labor4444 ,science is partly physical and partly psychical4444 ,the tools are those first principles and universal1 necessary1 self-evident truths which lie so frequently unnoticed in the human intellect1 and which are absolutely indispensable for valid reasoning4444 ,the nature of the workers must also be noticed as necessarily affecting the value of their work4444 ,and1 last of all1 a few words must be devoted to the question whether there is any and1 if any1 what foundation underlying the whole groundwork of science4 ,the result at which the author arrives is stated as follows3 ,the groundwork of science is the work of self-conscious material organisms making use of the marvelous first principles which they possess in exploring all the physical and psychical phenomena of the universe1 which sense1 intuition1 and ratiocination can anyhow reveal to them as real existences1 whether actual or only possible4444 ,the foundation of science can only be sought in that reason which evidently to us pervades the universe1 and is that by which our intellect has been both produced and illumined4 ,a large amount of information1 mainly of a practical character1 has been gathered by ,mr4 ,william ,j4 ,clark in his book on ,commercial ,cuba#ci--;information1 as ,mr4 ,gould well says in the introduction he has contributed to the work1 covering almost the entire field of inquiry regarding ,cuba and its resources4 ,the data have been partly gained from the author's personal observation and during his travels on the island1 and partly through laborious and painstaking classification of existing material1 collected from many and diverse sources4 ,the subject is systematically treated4 ,the first chapter--,how to ,meet the ,resident of ,cuba--relates to the behavior of visitors to the island1 really a considerably more important matter than it would be in this country1 for the ,spaniards are strict in their regard for correct etiquette4 ,it is natural that a chapter on the population and its characteristics and occupations should follow this4 ,even more important than correct behavior--to any one at least but a ,spaniard--is the subject of climate and the preservation of health2 and whatever is of moment in relation to these subjects is given in the chapter devoted to them4 ,next the geographical characteristics of ,cuba are described1 and the facilities and methods of transportation and communication2 also social and political matters1 including government1 banking1 and commercial finance1 and legal and administrative systems of the past and future4 ,a chapter is given to ,animal and ,vegetable ,life1 another to ,sugar and ,tobacco1 and a third to ,some ,general ,statistics1 after which the several provinces--,pinar del ,rio1 the city and province of ,havana 7including the ,isle of ,pines71 and the provinces of ,matanzas1 ,santa ,clara1 ,puerto ,principe1 and ,santiago--are described in detail1 with their physical characteristics1 their agricultural or mining resources1 their various towns1 and whatever else in them is of interest to the student of economics4 ,a ,cuban ,business ,directory is given in the appendix4 ,a ,collection of ,essays is the modest designation which ,professors ,j4,c4 ,arthur and ,d4,t4 ,mac,dougal give to the scientific papers included in their book on ,living ,plants and their ,properties4#dj ,the authors deserve all praise for having taken the pains without which no book composed of occasional pieces can be made complete and symmetrical1 to revise and rewrite the articles1 omitting parts less relevant in the present connection1 and amplifying others to meet the demands of continuity1 clearness1 and harmony with current botanical thought4 ,of the twelve papers1 those on the ,special ,senses of ,plants1 ,wild ,lettuce1 ,universality of ,consciousness and ,pain1 ,two ,opposing ,factors of ,increase1 ,the ,right to ,live1 and ,distinction between ,plants and ,animals1 are by ,professor ,arthur2 and those on ,the ,development of ,irritability1 ,mimosa--a ,typical ,sensitive ,plant1 ,the ,effect of ,cold1 ,chlorophyll and ,growth1 ,leaves in ,spring1 ,summer1 and ,autumn1 and the ,significance of ,color1 are by ,professor ,mac,dougal4 ,based to a large extent on original investigations or careful studies1 they present many novel thoughts and aspects1 and constitute an acceptable addition to popular botanical literature4 ,having described the great and growing interest taken in child study1 ,president ,a4,r4 ,taylor announces as the principal aim of his book1 ,the ,study of the ,child1#da to bring the subject within the average comprehension of the teacher and parent4 ,besides avoiding as much as possible technical terms and scientific formulas1 the author has made the desire to announce new principles subservient to that of assisting his fellow-workers to a closer relationship with the child4 ,as teachers and parents generally think it extremely difficult to pursue the study of the child without at least a fair understanding of the elements of psychology1 the author intimates that they often forget that the study will give them that very knowledge1 and that1 properly pursued1 it is the best possible introduction to psychology in general4 ,every chapter in the present book1 he says1 is an attempt to organize the knowledge already possessed by those who know little or nothing of scientific psychology1 and to assist them to inquiries which will give a clearer apprehension of the nature and possibilities of the child4 ,the treatise begins with the wakening of the child to conscious life through the senses1 the nature and workings of each of which are described4 ,the bridge over from the physical to the mental is found in consciousness1 which for the present purpose is defined as the self knowing its own states or activities4 ,the idea of identity and difference arises1 symbols are invented or suggested1 and language is made possible4 ,the features of language peculiar to children are considered4 ,muscular or motor control1 the feelings1 and the will are treated as phases or factors in development1 and their functions are defined4 ,the intellect and its various functions are discussed with considerable fullness2 and chapters on ,the ,self1 ,habit1 and ,character2 ,children's ,instincts and ,plays2 ,manners and ,morals2 ,normals and ,abnormals2 and ,stages of ,growth1 ,fatigue ,point1 etc41 follow4 ,a very satisfactory bibliography is appended4 ,the ,discharge of ,electricity through ,gases#db is an expansion of four lectures given by the author1 ,prof4 ,j4,j4 ,thomson1 of the ,university of ,cambridge1 at ,princeton ,university in ,october1 #ahif4 ,some results published between the delivery and printing of the lectures are added4 ,the author begins by noticing the contrast between the variety and complexity of electrical phenomena that occur when matter is present in the field with their simplicity when the ether alone is involved2 thus the idea of a charge of electricity1 which is probably in many classes of phenomena the most prominent idea of all1 need not arise1 and in fact does not arise1 so long as we deal with the ether alone4 ,the questions that occur when we consider the relation between matter and the electrical charge carried by it--such as the state of the matter when carrying the charge1 and the effect produced on this state when the sign of the charge is changed--are regarded as among the most important in the whole range of physics4 ,the close connection that exists between chemical and electrical phenomena indicates that a knowledge of the relation between matter and electricity would lead to an increase of our knowledge of electricity1 and further of that of chemical action1 and1 indeed1 to an extension of the domain of electricity over that of chemistry4 ,for the study of this relation the most promising course is to begin with that between electricity and matter in the gaseous or simpler state2 and that is what is undertaken in this book4 ,the subject is presented under the three general headings with numerous subheadings of ,the ,discharge of ,electricity through ,gases1 ,photo ,electric ,effects1 and ,cathode ,rays4 ,for a clear and concise presentation of the framework of psychology and its basal truths1 the ,story of the ,mind#dc may be commended4 ,although the space afforded is only that of a bird's-eye view1 no skeleton bristling with technical terms confronts us1 but an attractive and well-furnished structure with glimpses of various divisions that tempt us to further examination4 ,the text is simply and charmingly written1 and may induce many to search the recesses of psychology who1 under a less skillful guide1 would be frightened away4 ,a bibliography at the end of the volume supplies what other direction may be needed for more advanced study4 ,admirable in construction and treatment as the book is1 there are1 however1 paths in which we can not follow where ,professor ,baldwin would lead1 and in others that we undertake with him we do not recognize our surroundings as those he describes4 ,this is especially the case with the environment of the genius4 ,we do not find that he and society agree in regard to the fitness of his thoughts1 nor that for the most part his judgment is at once also the social judgment4 ,if such were the case1 how would he wait for recognition1 or be muzzled for expressing his thoughts8 ,in almost all cases it is the story of ,galileo over again4 ,in art1 science1 and social reform he sees far beyond his fellows4 ,society can not accept him because it has not the vision of a genius4 ,he contradicts its judgment and is fortunate when he escapes with the name of crank4 ,the military hero does not enter into this category3 he glorifies the past rather than the future2 he justifies the multitude in a good opinion of itself and1 is therefore always received4 ,the first edition of ,professor ,bolton's ,catalogue of ,scientific and ,technical ,periodicals#dd was issued in #ahhe1 and was intended to embrace the principal independent periodicals of every branch of pure and applied science1 published in all countries from the rise of this literature to the present time1 with full titles1 names of editors1 sequence of series1 and other bibliographical details1 arranged on a simple plan convenient for reference2 omitting1 with a few exceptions1 serials constituting transactions of learned societies4 ,in cases where the scientific character of the journal or its right to be classed as a periodical was doubtful1 and in other debatable cases1 the compiler followed ,zuchold's maxim1 that in a bibliography it is much better that a book should be found which is not sought1 than that one should be sought for and not found4 ,the new edition contains as ,part ,i a reprint from the plates of the first edition1 with such changes necessary to bring the titles down to date as could be made without overrunning the plates2 and in ,part ,,ii additions to the titles of ,part ,i that could not be inserted in the plates1 together with about #c1fjj new titles1 bringing the whole number of titles up to #h1dgg1 together with addenda1 raising this number to #h1fjc1 minus the numbers #d1iee to #e1jjj1 which are skipped between the first and second parts4 ,chronological tables give the dates of the publication of each volume of the periodicals entered4 ,a library check list shows in what ,american libraries the periodicals may be found4 ,cross-references are freely introduced4 ,the material for the work has been gathered from all available bibliographies1 and by personal examination of the shelves and catalogues of many libraries in the ,united ,states and ,europe1 and from responses to circulars sent out by the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,the whole work is a monument of prodigious labor industriously and faithfully performed4 ,in ,theories of the ,will in the ,history of ,philosophy#de a concise account is given by ,archibald ,alexander of the development of the theory of the will from the early days of ,greek thought down to about the middle of the present century2 including1 however1 only the theories of the more important philosophers4 ,in addition to contributing something to the history of philosophy1 it has been the author's purpose to introduce in this way a constructive explanation of voluntary action4 ,the account closes with the theory of ,lotze2 since the publication of which the methods of psychology have been greatly modified1 if not revolutionized1 by the development of the evolutional and physiological systems of study4 ,the particular subjects considered are the theories of the will in the ,socratic period1 the ,stoic and ,epicurean theories2 the theories in ,christian theology1 in ,british philosophy from ,bacon to ,reid1 ,continental theories from ,descartes to ,leibnitz1 and theories in ,german philosophy from ,kant to ,lotze4 ,the author has tried to avoid obtruding his own opinions1 expressing an individual judgment only on matters of doubtful interpretation2 and he recognizes that speculation and the introspective method of studying the will appear to have almost reached their limits4 ,dr4 ,frank ,overton's text-book of ,applied ,physiology#df makes a new departure from the old methods of teaching physiology1 in that it begins with the cells as the units of life and shows their relations to all the elements of the body and all the processes of human action4 ,the fact of their fundamental nature and importance is emphasized throughout4 ,the relation of oxidation--oxidation within the cells--as the essential act of respiration--to the disappearance of food1 the production of waste matters1 and the development of force1 is dwelt upon4 ,the influence of alcohol is discussed in all its aspects1 not in a separate chapter1 but whenever it comes in place in connection with the several topics and subjects treated4 ,other narcotics are dealt with4 ,a chapter on inflammation and taking cold is believed to be an entirely new feature in a school text book4 ,summaries and review topics are arranged at the end of each chapter2 subjects from original demonstrations and the use of the microscope are listed2 and many hygienic topics1 such as air1 ventilation1 drinking water1 clothing1 bathing1 bacteria1 etc41 are specially treated4 ,the prominent characteristic of ,professors ,f4,p4 ,venable and ,j4,l4 ,howe's text-book on ,inorganic ,chemistry according to the ,periodic ,law#dg is expressed in the title1 and is the adoption of the periodic law as the guiding principle of the treatment1 and the keeping of it in the foreground throughout4 ,so far as the authors have noticed1 the complete introduction of this system has not been attempted before in any text book4 ,they have made the experiment of following it closely in their classes1 and their success through several years has convinced them of its value4 ,in no other way have we been able to secure such thorough results1 both as to thorough1 systematic instruction and economy of time4 ,the task is rendered easier for both student and teacher4 ,after the setting forth of definitions and general principles in the introduction1 the elements are taken up and described according to their places and relations in the periodic groups1 and then their compounds are described successively1 with hydrogen1 the halogens1 oxygen1 sulphur1 and the nitrides1 phosphides1 carbides1 silicides1 and the alloys4 ,the treatment is systematic1 condensed1 and clear4 ,the purpose of ,mr4 ,john ,w4 ,troeger's series of ,nature-,study ,readers is declared by the editor to be to supply supplementary reading for pupils who have been two years or more at school4 ,they are composed1 moreover1 with a view to facilitating the recognition in the printed form of words already familiar to the ear1 and to making the child at home with them4 ,in carrying out this purpose the author takes advantage of the child's fondness for making observations1 especially when attended by his companions or elders4 ,in doing this the aim has been kept in view not to weary the child with details1 and yet to give sufficient information to lead to accurate and complete observations4 ,most of the chapters in the present volume1 ,harold's ,rambles1 the second of the series1 contain the information gleaned during walks and short excursions4 ,among the subjects concerned are birds1 mammals1 insects1 earthworms1 snails1 astronomy1 minerals1 plants1 grasses1 vegetables1 physics1 and features connected with the farm4 ,these ,nature-study readers are published as a branch of ,appletons' ,home-,reading series4 7,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,price1 #dj cents47 ,another of ,appletons' ,home-,reading ,books is ,news from the ,birds1 which the author1 ,leander ,s4 ,keyser1 explains has been written with two purposes in mind3 first1 to furnish actual instruction1 to tell some new facts about bird life that have not yet been recited2 and1 second1 to inspire in readers a taste for ,nature study4 ,it is by no means a key for the identification of the birds2 but1 instead of telling all that is or may be known respecting a particular bird1 the author has sought only to recite such incidents as will spur the reader to go out into the fields and woods and study the birds in their native haunts4 ,for the most part the author has given a record of his own observations1 and not a reiteration of what others have said4 ,he has gone to the birds themselves for his facts1 and has made very little use of books4 ,it has been ,mr4 ,ernest ,a4 ,congdon's aim1 in preparing his ,brief ,course in ,qualitative ,analysis 7,new ,york3 ,henry ,holt2 #fj cents71 to render it as concise as possible while making the least sacrifice of a study of reactions and solubilities of chemical importance4 ,the manual covers the points of preliminary reactions on bases and acids2 schemes of analysis for bases and acids2 explanatory notes on the analyses2 treatment of solid substances 7powders1 alloys1 or metals72 and tables of solubilities of salts of the bases studied4 ,a comprehensive list of questions1 stimulative of thought1 is appended4 ,the book is intended merely as a laboratory guide1 and should be supplemented by frequent quiz classes and by constant personal attention4 ,the course has been satisfactorily given in the ,drexel ,institute within the allotted time of one laboratory period of four hours1 and one hour for a lecture or quiz per week1 during the school year of thirty-two weeks4 ,lest we ,forget is the title which ,president ,david ,starr ,jordan has given to his address before the graduating class of ,leland ,stanford ,junior ,university1 ,may #be1 #ahih--lest we forget the dangers and duties and responsibilities laid upon us by the war with ,spain4 ,though delivered before the policy of expansion was fully developed1 the address describes with prophetic accuracy the dream of imperialism with which the minds even of men usually sane and honest have become infected1 and points out a few of the logical results to which they would lead1 and the dangers which will have to be incurred in gratifying them4 ,we cite a few of the strong points made by the author3 ,our question is not what we shall do with ,cuba1 ,porto ,rico1 and the ,philippines2 it is what these prizes will do to us4 ,shall the war for ,cuba ,libre come to an inglorious end8 ,if we make anything by it1 it will be most inglorious4 ,i believe that the movement toward broad dominion1 so eloquently outlined by ,mr4 ,olney1 would be a step downward4 ,,publications ,,received4 ,adams1 ,enos1 #bjgb ,second ,avenue1 ,new ,york4 ,what is ,science8 ,pp4 #ad4 ,agricultural ,experiment ,stations4 ,bulletins4 ,delaware ,college3 ,no4 #da4 ,pea ,canning in ,delaware4 ,by ,g4,h4 ,powell4 ,pp4 #af4--,new ,hampshire ,college3 ,no4 #ee4 ,the ,feeding ,habits of the ,chipping ,sparrow4 ,by ,c4,m4 ,weed4 ,pp4 #ab2 ,no4 #ef4 ,poisonous ,properties of ,wild ,cherry ,leaves4 ,by ,f4,w4 ,morse and ,c4,d4 ,howard4 ,pp4 #ab4--,new ,jersey3 ,no4 #acj4 ,forage ,crops4 ,by ,e4,b4 ,voorhees and ,c4,b4 ,lane4 ,pp4 #bb2 ,no4 #aca4 ,feeds ,rich in ,protein1 etc4 ,by ,e4,b4 ,voorhees4 ,pp4 #ad4--,new ,york3 ,no4 #ade4 ,analysis of ,commercial ,fertilizers4 ,by ,l4,l4 ,van ,syke4 ,pp4 #ajj4--,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,some ,books on ,agriculture and ,sciences related to ,agriculture published in #ahif-'ih4 ,pp4 #de42 ,list of ,publications relating to ,forestry in the ,department ,library4 ,pp4 #ic4 ,allen1 ,w4,d41 and ,carlton1 ,w4,n41 ,editors ,in ,lantern ,land1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #a1 ,december #c1 #ahih4 ,monthly4 ,hartford1 ,conn4 ,pp4 #af4 #aj cents4 ,amryc1 ,c4 ,pantheism1 the ,light and ,hope of ,modern ,reason4 ,pp4 #cjb4 ,anthropological ,institute of ,great ,britain and ,ireland1 ,the ,journal of4 ,new ,series1 ,vol4 ,i1 ,nos4 #a and #b1 ,august and ,november1 #ahih4 ,london3 ,kegan ,paul1 ,trench1 ,trbner ,co4 ,pp4 #bjj4 ,atkinson1 ,edward4 ,i4 ,the ,cost of a ,national ,crime4 ,,ii4 ,the ,hell of ,war and its ,penalties4 ,brookline1 ,mass4 ,pp4 #bf4 ,babcock ,printing ,press ,manufacturing ,company4 ,some ,facts about ,modern ,presses4 ,pp4 #h4 ,brinton1 ,daniel ,g4 ,a ,record of ,study on ,aboriginal ,american ,languages4 ,pp4 #bd4 ,bulletins1 ,proceedings1 and ,reports4 ,american ,society of ,naturalists3 ,records1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,part #c4 ,providence1 ,r4,i43 ,published by the ,society4 ,pp4 #eh4--;,argentine ,republic4 ,anales de la ,oficina ,meteorologica ,argentina1 ,vol4 ,,xii4 ,climate of ,asuncion1 ,paraguay1 and ,rosario de ,santa ,f4 ,walter ,g4 ,davis1 ,director4 ,buenos ,aires4 ,pp4 #fhd4--;,association of ,economic ,entomologists3 ,proceedings of the ,tenth ,annual ,meeting4 ,washington3 ,united ,states ,department of ,agriculture4 ,pp4 #ajd4--;,illinois ,state ,laboratory of ,natural ,history3 ,biennial ,report of the ,director for #ahig-'ih4 ,urbana1 ,ill4 ,pp4 #ca1 with plates4--,johns ,hopkins ,university ,circulars3 ,notes from the ,biological ,laboratory1 ,november1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #cd4 #aj cents4--,secretary of the ,interior3 ,report for the ,fiscal ,year ended ,june #cj1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #bdb4--,wagner ,free ,institute of ,science of ,philadelphia3 ,transactions1 ,vol4 ,,iii1 ,part ,,iv1 ,april1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #aej1 with plates4 ,de ,morgan1 ,augustus4 ,on the ,study and ,difficulties of ,mathematics4 ,new edition4 ,chicago3 ,the ,open ,court ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #bhh4 ,gowdy1 ,jean ,l4 ,ideals and ,programmes4 ,syracuse1 ,n4,y43 ,c4,w4 ,bardeen4 ,pp4 #ajb4 #ge cents4 ,grand ,view ,institute ,journal4 ,monthly4 ,grand ,view1 ,texas4 ,vol4 ,i1 ,no4 #a1 ,october1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #ah4 ,hinsdale1 ,guy1 ,m4,d4 ,acromegaly4 ,detroit1 ,mich43 ,w4,m4 ,warren4 ,pp4 #hh4 ,holland1 ,w4,j4 ,the ,butterfly ,book4 ,a ,popular ,guide to a ,knowledge of the ,butterflies of ,north ,america4 ,new ,york3 ,doubleday ,mc,clure ,company4 ,pp4 #chb1 with #dh colored plates4 #c4 ,james1 ,alice ,j4 ,catering for ,two4 ,new ,york3 ,g4,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,pp4 #bib4 #a4be4 ,lagrange1 ,joseph ,louis4 ,lectures on ,elementary ,mathematics4 ,translated by ,t4,j4 ,mc,cormick4 ,chicago3 ,open ,court ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #agb4 #a4 ,loomis1 ,ernest4 ,practical ,occultism4 ,chicago3 ,ernest ,loomis ,co41 #gj ,dearborn ,street4 ,pp4 #aee4 #a4be4 ,merrill1 ,g4,p4 ,the ,physical1 ,chemical1 and ,economic ,properties of ,building ,stones4 ,baltimore3 ,johns ,hopkins ,press4 ,pp4 #hj4 ,national ,pure ,food and ,drug ,congress3 ,memorial to ,congress against ,adulterations4 ,pp4 #ae4 ,owen1 ,luella ,a4 ,cave ,regions of the ,ozark and ,black ,hills4 ,cincinnati3 ,the ,editor ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #bbh4 ,payson1 ,e4,p4 ,suggestions toward an ,applied ,science of ,sociology4 ,new ,york3 ,g4,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,pp4 #bcg4 ,reprints4 ,baldwin1 ,j4 ,mark4 ,princeton ,contributions to ,psychology1 ,vol4 ,,ii1 ,no4 #d1 ,may1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #cb4--;,brinton1 ,daniel ,g4 ,the ,linguistic ,cartography of the ,chaco ,region4 ,pp4 #cj4--;,gerhard1 ,william ,paul4 ,theater ,sanitation4 ,pp4 #ae4--,kuh1 ,sydney1 ,m4,d4 ,the ,medico-,legal ,aspects of ,hypnotism4 ,pp4 #ab4--,mc,bride1 ,t4,h4 ,public ,parks for ,iowa ,towns4 ,pp4 #h4--,macmillan1 ,conway4 ,on the ,formation of ,circular ,muskeag in ,tamarack ,swamps4 ,pp4 #h1 with #c plates4--,smith1 ,j4,p4 ,the ,development of ,lytoceras and ,phylloceras4 ,san ,francisco4 ,pp4 #bd1 with plates4--,stuver1 ,e41 ,m4,d4 ,what ,influence do ,stimulants and ,narcotics exert on the ,development of the ,child8 ,chicago4 ,pp4 #bj4--,turner1 ,h4,w4 ,notes on ,some ,igneous1 ,metamorphic1 and ,sedimentary ,rocks of the ,coast ,ranges of ,california4 ,chicago4 ,pp4 #af4--,washburn1 ,f4,l41 ,eugene1 ,ore4 ,continuation of ,experiment in ,propagating ,oysters on the ,oregon ,coast1 ,summer of #ahih4 ,pp4 #e4 ,spencer1 ,herbert1 ,the ,principles of ,biology4 ,revised and enlarged edition1 #ahih4 ,vol4 ,i4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #gjf4 #b4 ,winthrop1 ,alice ,worthington4 ,diet in ,illness and ,convalescence4 ,new ,york3 ,harper ,brothers4 ,pp4 #bhg4 ,united ,states ,geological ,survey4 ,the ,kaolins and ,fire ,clays of ,europe1 and the ,clay-working ,industry of the ,united ,states in #ahig4 ,by ,heinrich ,ries4 ,pp4 #aad2 ,bulletin ,no4 #aej4 ,the ,educational ,series of ,rock ,specimens collected and distributed by the ,survey4 ,by ,j4,s4 ,diller4 ,pp4 #djj2 ,no4 #aea4 ,the ,lower ,cretaceous ,gryphas of the ,texas ,region4 ,by ,r4,t4 ,hill and ,t4,w4 ,vaughan4 ,pp4 #aci1 with plates2 ,no4 #aeb4 ,catalogue of the ,cretaceous and ,tertiary ,plants of ,north ,america4 ,by ,f4,h4 ,knowlton4 ,pp4 #bdg2 ,no4 #aec4 ,a ,bibliographical ,index of ,north ,american ,carboniferous ,invertebrates4 ,by ,stuart ,weller4 ,pp4 #fec2 ,no4 #aed4 ,a ,gazetteer of ,kansas4 ,by ,henry ,gannett4 ,pp4 #bdf2 ,no4 #aee4 ,earthquakes in ,california in #ahif and #ahig4 ,by ,c4,d4 ,perrine ,pp4 #ah2 ,no4 #aef4 ,bibliography and ,index of ,north ,american ,geology1 ,paleontology1 ,petrology1 and ,mineralogy for #ahig4 ,by ,f4,b4 ,weeks4 ,pp4 #acj4 ,united ,states ,national ,museum4 ,bean1 ,barton ,a4 ,notes on the ,capture of ,rare ,fishes4 ,pp4 #b4--;,bean1 ,tarleton ,h4 and ,barton ,a4 ,notes on ,oxycoltus ,acuticeps 7,gilbert7 from ,sitka and ,kadiak1 ,alaska4 ,pp #b4--,lucas1 ,f4,a4 ,a ,new ,snake from the ,eocene of ,alabama4 ,pp4 #b1 with #b plates4 ,,footnotes3 #ce ,the ,elements of ,sociology4 ,by ,franklin ,henry ,giddings4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company1 #ahih4 ,pp4 #cec4 ,price1 #a4aj4 #cf ,the ,nature and ,development of ,animal ,intelligence4 ,by ,wesley ,mills1 ,f4,r4,s4,c4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #cjg4 ,price1 #b4 #cg ,four-,footed ,americans and their ,kin4 ,by ,mabel ,osgood ,wright4 ,edited by ,frank ,m4 ,chapman4 ,new ,york3 ,the ,macmillan ,company4 ,pp4 #dcb1 with plates4 ,price1 #a4ej4 #ch ,the ,groundwork of ,science4 ,a ,study of ,epistemology4 ,by ,st4 ,george ,mivart4 ,pp4 #cbh4 ,price1 #a4ge4 ,new ,york3 ,g4,p4 ,putnam's ,sons4 ,london2 ,bliss1 ,sands ,co4 #ci ,commercial ,cuba4 ,a ,book for ,business ,men4 ,by ,william ,j4 ,clark4 ,illustrated4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #ead1 with maps4 #dj ,living ,plants and their ,properties4 ,a ,collection of ,essays4 ,by ,joseph ,charles ,arthur 7,purdue ,university7 and ,daniel ,trembly ,mac,dougal 7,university of ,minnesota74 ,new ,york3 ,baker ,taylor4 ,minneapolis3 ,morris ,wilson4 ,pp4 #bcd4 #da ,the ,study of the ,child4 ,a ,brief ,treatise on the ,psychology of the ,child1 with ,suggestions for ,teachers1 ,students1 and ,parents4 ,by ,a4,r4 ,taylor4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 7,international ,education ,series47 ,pp4 #bae4 ,price1 #a4ej4 #db ,the ,discharge of ,electricity through ,gases4 ,lectures delivered on the occasion of the ,sesquicentennial ,celebration of ,princeton ,university4 ,by ,j4,j4 ,thomson4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #bjc4 ,price1 #a4 #dc ,the ,story of the ,mind4 ,by ,james ,mark ,baldwin4 ,new ,york3 ,d4 ,appleton and ,company4 ,pp4 #bcb4 ,price1 #dj cents4 #dd ,a ,catalogue of ,scientific and ,technical ,periodicals #affe-ahie1 together with ,chronological ,tables and a ,library ,check ,list4 ,by ,henry ,carrington ,bolton4 ,second edition4 ,city of ,washington3 ,published by the ,smithsonian ,institution4 ,pp4 #abdg4 #de ,theories of the ,will in the ,history of ,philosophy4 ,by ,archibald ,alexander4 ,new ,york3 ,charles ,scribner's ,sons4 ,pp4 #ceg4 ,price1 #a4ej4 #df ,applied ,physiology for ,advanced ,grades4 ,including the ,effects of ,alcohol and ,narcotics4 ,american ,book ,company4 ,pp4 #dcb4 ,price1 #hj cents4 #dg ,inorganic ,chemistry according to the ,periodic ,law4 ,by ,f4,p4 ,venable and ,james ,lewis ,howe4 ,easton1 ,pa3 ,the ,chemical ,publishing ,company4 ,pp4 #bff4 ,price1 #a4ej4 ,fragments of ,science4 ,early ,submarine ,telegraphy4--,the actual date of the beginning of subaqueous telegraphy was admitted by ,professor ,ayrtoun1 in a lecture delivered before the ,imperial ,institute in #ahig1 to be uncertain4 ,baron ,schilling is said to have exploded mines under the ,neva by means of the electric current as early as #ahab2 and this method was used by ,colonel ,pasley to blow up the wreck of the ,royal ,george at ,spithead in #ahch2 but our ,morse has the credit of having first used a wire insulated with ,india rubber under water4 ,in #ahcg1 ,wheatstone and ,cooke were experimenting with land telegraphy1 and were considering the possibility of laying an insulated wire under water4 ,morse's successful experiments date from #ahdb1 when he personally laid a cable between ,castle ,garden and ,governor's ,island and sent messages over it2 the next morning it was broken4 ,with the introduction of gutta percha as an insulator in #ahdg1 submarine telegraphy became practicable4 ,the ,central ,oceanic ,telegraph ,company had been registered by ,jacob ,brett in #ahde1 and a cable was laid under the ,english ,channel by ,brett and his brother in #ahej4 ,messages were sent through it1 but1 like ,morse's earlier effort1 it immediately became silent4 ,better success attended the cable of the next year1 which was sheathed with iron2 and the first public submarine message was sent over it ,november #ac1 #ahea4 ,morse wrote of the possibility of establishing electro-magnetic communication across the ocean as early as #ahdd4 ,a syndicate was formed for this purpose in #ahee1 ,cyrus ,w4 ,field being the most conspicuous figure in it4 ,an understanding was reached with the ,brett company1 and the ,atlantic ,telegraph ,company was formed4 ,the first effort to lay the cable was made in #aheg by the ,united ,states frigate ,niagara and ,h4,m4,s4 ,agamemnon1 but the wires broke in deep water when about a third of the work was done4 ,a cable was successfully laid the next year1 but it died out in a month4 ,finally1 electric communication was permanently established across the ,atlantic by the ,telegraph ,construction and ,maintenance ,company1 which1 capturing a cable that had been lost1 soon had two4 ,transatlantic cables have now become so numerous and so regular in their working that the danger of even a temporary failure has become very remote4 ,the ,white ,lady ,mountain4--,iztaccihuatl 7pronounced ,is-tak-see-watl7 is about ten miles1 measuring to its principal peak1 north of ,popocatepetl4 ,in shape it consists of a long1 narrow ridge cut into three well-defined peaks about equally distant from one another1 of which the central is the highest2 and the snow-covered peak resembles the figure of a woman lying on her back2 whence the name of the mountain1 which means white woman4 ,according to the ,aztecs1 ,dr4 ,o4,c4 ,farrington1 of the ,field ,columbian ,museum1 tells us1 this woman was a goddess who for some crime had been struck dead and doomed to lie forever on this spot4 ,popocatepetl was her lover1 and had stood by her4 ,tastes differ as to whether it or ,popocatepetl presents a more striking view1 but either is a beautiful enough object to look upon4 ,the first authenticated record of an ascent to the summit of the mountain is that of ,mr4 ,h4 ,reniere ,whitehouse1 who reached the top ,november #i1 #ahhi1 and found there undoubted evidence that an ascent had been made five days previously by ,mr4 ,james de ,salis4 ,prof4 ,angelo ,heilprin and ,mr4 ,f4 ,c4 ,baker attempted an ascent in the following ,april1 but were turned back when about seventy-five yards below the summit1 at a height of #af1gcj feet1 by two impassable crevasses4 ,the ascent of ,iztaccihuatl seems1 therefore1 pretty generally to have foiled those who have attempted it4 ,dr4 ,farrington1 who ascended to the ,porfirio ,diaz ,glacier in ,february1 #ahif1 describes the route as steeper than that which leads up to ,popocatepetl4 ,the brilliant and varied flora1 picturesque barrenness1 and beautiful cascades lend everywhere a charm to the scene which contrasts favorably with the somber monotony which characterizes the route by which ,popocatepetl is ascended4 ,the slopes of the mountain are cultivated to a considerable height--#aj1hfj feet4 ,the lower slopes are largely covered with soil1 and the andesite rock1 of gray and red colors1 differs completely in character from that of ,popocatepetl4 ,the aiguillelike character of many of the spurs extending at right angles to the course of the mountain is a prominent feature4 ,many caves in the rock furnish shelter to cattle and persons attempting the ascent4 ,dr4 ,farrington examined the ,porfirio ,diaz ,glacier1 and concluded that it formerly had a much greater extent than now4 ,the ,adulteration of ,butter with ,glucose4--,the following is from an article by ,c4,a4 ,crampton in the ,journal of the ,american ,chemical ,society3 ,in domestic practice the addition of sugar to butter for purposes of preservation is doubtless almost as old as the art of butter-making itself2 salt1 however1 is the usually preferred preservative4 ,sugar appears in several of the various ,united ,states patents for so-called improving or renovating processes for butter1 being added to it along with salt1 saltpeter1 and in some cases sodium carbonate4 ,within the past few years glucose has been used in butter specially prepared for export to tropical countries1 as the ,west ,indies or ,south ,america4 ,it is usually put up in tins1 and various means are resorted to for preventing the decomposition of their goods before they reach the consumer4 ,very large quantities of salt are used by the ,french exporters1 as the following two analyses show3 ,butter for ,export4 ,to ,brazil4 ,to ,antilles4 ,water #aj4bi #aj4ai ,curd #a4bd #a4ca ,ash #aj4bi #aj4jf ,fat #gh4ah #gh4dd ------ ------ #ajj4jj #ajj4jj ,chemical antiseptics1 borax1 salicylic acid1 etc41 are sometimes used1 but the method found most efficacious by exporters in this country seems to be the use of glucose in conjunction with moderately heavy salting4 ,the glucose used is a heavy1 low-converted sirup1 known as confectioners' glucose4 ,the detection of glucose in butter presents no difficulty4 ,the butter is thoroughly washed with hot water1 which will readily take up whatever glucose is present4 ,this solution is then tested by means of ,fehling's solution4 ,the following is an analysis of the so-called beurre rouge1 or red butter1 which is exported to ,guadeloupe4 ,it is a peculiar highly colored compound1 containing large quantities of salt and glucose3 ,water #ba4fj ,curd #j4ha ,ash #af4db ,fat #ea4ae ,glucose #aj4jb ------ #ajj4jj ,decorated ,skulls and the ,power ascribed to them4--,a collection of sixteen skulls--eight of men1 seven of women1 and one of a child--from ,new ,guinea1 is described by ,george ,a4 ,dorsey in the publications of the ,field ,columbian ,museum1 ,chicago4 ,they were received from a native chief1 who used them for the adornment of his house1 and is said to have prized them as trophies of war4 ,they are decorated in the frontal region by engraved designs1 and the parts are attached to one another by very skillfully adjusted cords4 ,the ornamentation and the bindings are the subject of a special comment by ,william ,h4 ,holmes4 ,importance is attached by natives of ,new ,guinea to the preservation of the skulls of friends as mementoes and of foes as trophies1 and of both categories on account of the virtue--the best qualities of the individuals whose skulls they are--which they are supposed to impart in some mysterious way to their possessor4 ,hence special care is taken to have them preserved in detail1 and that no part be lost4 ,in the present specimens the jaws were secured by fastenings at right and left and in front4 ,the teeth were carefully tied in1 and when lost were replaced by artificial teeth4 ,a cord was fastened around the back molar on one side1 and carried along1 inclosing each tooth in turn1 in a loop1 so as to make a very effective fastening when the cord was tightly drawn and attached to the back molar on the other side4 ,the lower jaw was very firmly fastened to the skull by closely wrapped cords tightened by binding the strands around the middle portion4 ,in some cases these fastenings are very elaborate and neat2 in others1 imperfect and slovenly4 ,all the skulls in the collection are decorated with designs engraved on the frontal bone1 and in some cases the figures run back4 ,the execution of the work is not of a very high order1 but is rather irregular and scratchy4 ,nearly all embody easily distinguished animal forms1 and the more formal or nearly geometric ones are probably animal derivatives or representations of land1 water1 or natural phenomena4 ,they are possibly totemic or mythological4 ,galax and its ,affinities4--,one of the most interesting plants of the ,southern mountain region is the galax 7,galax aphylla71 which grows in the highlands more or less abundantly from ,virginia southward4 ,the slopes of ,grandfather ,mountain1 ,north ,carolina1 are carpeted with it for many square miles of almost uninterrupted extent4 ,besides being an attractive plant at home1 its thick1 leathery1 rounded cordate leaves1 deep green or crimson or mixed1 according to the season1 make it much in demand for decoration1 and tons of it in the aggregate are shipped1 from places where it grows abundantly1 for that purpose4 ,its affiliations with certain other ,alpine and arctic plants are described in a carefully studied paper on the ,order ,diapensisce1 published by ,margaret ,farsman ,boynton in the ,journal of the ,national ,science ,club1 ,washington4 ,linnus found in ,lapland a creeping evergreen herb1 matting the surface with its stiff1 spatulate leaves1 and described it in #agcg as ,diapensia lapponica4 ,then galax was discovered by ,gronovius and given a place by ,linnus--because of its stamens rather than of its natural affinities--along with ,diapensia4 ,michaux1 in the last decade of the eighteenth century1 found ,pyxidanthera barbulata1 resembling diapensia1 in the pine barrens of ,new ,jersey and ,north ,carolina4 ,more recently other species of diapensia and ,berneuxia have been found among the ,himalayas1 and ,schizocodon of several species in ,japan4 ,one of the most remarkable discoveries in the list was that by ,michaux in the mountains of ,north ,carolina of a plant which was afterward called ,shortia galacifolia1 from the resemblance of its leaves to those of galax4 ,this plant in a living state was then lost1 and when ,gray and ,torrey looked for it in #ahca in vain1 only one preserved specimen of it was known to be extant and that in fruit2 and it was not till #ahgg that it was collected1 rediscovered1 in fact1 in flower1 as ,gray has said1 by an herbalist almost absolutely ignorant of botany1 who was only informed of his good fortune on sending to a botanist one of the two specimens collected by him4 ,the ,shortia1 so far as is known1 grows only in a very narrow district1 and those who know the place are careful not to direct the public to it4 ,specimens have been collected by a few nurserymen1 who cultivate it and have it for sale4 ,the plants of this list are variously classified as among one another by botanists1 but are regarded as belonging to a common group4 ,the real story of their development1 says the author of the paper1 can be gathered only in hints from their present distribution1 for unfortunately they have neither gallery of ancestral portraits nor recorded geological tree4 ,but their ancestors are supposed to have been pushed down by the glaciers and left where the modern forms are found4 ,almost anywhere in the boreal flora ,diapensia lapponica may be found1 whether in northern ,asia1 or ,europe1 or ,america1 or even on the mountains of ,labrador and in the ,pyrenees1 the ,scotch mountains1 and our own ,white ,mountains4 ,the ,academy della ,crusca4--,for three hundred years1 says a correspondent of the ,london ,athenum1 the learned body1 the ,academy of la ,crusca 7the bran71 ,florence1 has been scrupulously sifting the ,italian tongue and producing successive editions of its monumental dictionary4 ,its present seat is in the monastery of ,st4 ,mark--,savonarola's cloister--where it occupies the hall behind the great library4 ,when an associate is promoted to full membership1 his official reception is still accompanied by the traditional rite4 ,first1 he is solemnly conducted to the ,cruscan museum1 and left to solitary meditation among shovel-backed chairs surmounted by the symbolical sieve and bookcases ingeniously fashioned in the likeness of corn sacks4 ,the walls are covered with the names1 crests1 and mottoes of former members1 who in past times usually assumed fantastic titles descriptive of the academy's labors4 ,some of these printed inscriptions and comical devices are more or less quaint4 ,thus1 ,dr4 ,giulio ,maxi in #aeij took the name of ,il ,fiorito1 or the flowery one1 with the device of a basket of wheat in bloom and the motto from ,petrarch 7translation73 ,i enjoy the present and hope for better4 ,in #afda the ,senator ,vieri appeared as ,le ,svanito1 the evaporated1 with an uncorked wine flask1 the stopper beside it1 and the motto3 ,oh1 how ,i long for the medicine6 ,in #affj the ,marquis ,malaskini adopted the title of ,il ,preservato1 the preserved1 the device of olives packed in straw1 and the motto from ,petrarch3 ,keep the prize green4 ,in #agfd1 the ,abbot ,giuseppe ,pelli1 surnamed ,il ,megliorato1 the improved1 took the device of a newly invented sieve for the better sifting of grain1 with the ,petrarchian motto3 ,follow the few1 and not the throng4 ,in #aggj1 ,signor ,domenico ,manni assumed the title of ,il ,sofferente1 the sufferer1 with a straw chair as his device1 and a motto from ,dante3 ,the master said that lying in a feather bed ,one would not come to fame--nor under the plowshare4 ,in due time the new member is escorted to the hall where the academy is assembled1 and the chief consul1 head of the academy1 greets him with a speech1 to which he has to make a fitting reply4 ,historical ,italian families are numerously represented on the academy's rolls1 and among the foreign members are the names of ,william ,roscoe and ,mr4 ,gladstone4 ,aboriginal ,superstitions about ,bones4--,a very interesting archaeological site in ,mexico1 visited by ,carl ,lumholtz and ,ale ,hedlika in the fall of #ahif1 is near ,zacpu1 in the ,state of ,michoacan4 ,the region is marked by many stone mounds on or near the edge of the old flow of lava1 extending for several miles2 and directly above the village stands a large stone fortress1 called ,el ,palacio4 ,excavating near this fortress1 ,mr4 ,lumholtz unearthed several skeletons1 which had been buried without any order1 and accompanied by remarkably few objects1 but some of these were well worthy of study4 ,the most curious things found were some bones1 strangely marked with grooves across them1 exhibiting a little variety in arrangement1 but all similarly executed1 and evidently after a carefully devised system4 ,this feature is so far unique in archology1 and its purpose can as yet be only a matter of conjecture4 ,two ways are proposed by the author of explaining it4 ,the marking may have been an operation undertaken for the purpose of dispatching the dead4 ,mr4 ,lumholtz is knowing to a belief among the tribes of ,mexico that the dead are troublesome to the survivors for at least one year1 and certain ceremonies and feasts in regard to them have to be observed in order to prevent them from doing harm1 and to drive them away4 ,the ,tarahumares guard their beer against them1 and others provide a special altar with food for the dead on it at their rain-making feasts1 else the spirits would work some mischief4 ,among many tribes an offering is made to the dead1 before drinking brandy1 of a few drops of the liquor4 ,a relation is also supposed to exist between disease and pain and the bones of the deceased person4 ,a whole class of diseases are supposed to have their seat in the bones or the marrow of them4 ,if the disease does not yield to the shaman's efforts1 and causes death1 the ,indians think that the pain will continue after death and vex the ghost1 making him malignant and troublesome4 ,therefore the pain must be conquered1 and driven away from the bones and the marrow4 ,hence the markings may have been made in order to sever all connection between the spirit and his former life1 and from the disease that caused his death4 ,the other explanation is that the bones were taken from slain enemies for other purposes than as mere trophies4 ,personal or bodily relics are supposed to possess some of the qualities of the deceased1 and to give power4 ,this view is supported by some observations of ,mr4 ,cushing relative to ,zui customs2 and the author is inclined to favor it rather than the other4 ,estrays from ,civilization4--,a curious study of a community of estrays from civilization who are leading the life of savages is published by ,m4 ,zaborowski in the ,revue de l'cole d',anthropologie and ,la ,nature4 ,the settlement is about a mile from ,ezy1 on the eastern edge of the plateau of ,normandy1 in a group of caves that were excavated and used as wine cellars when1 several hundred years ago1 wine culture flourished in the now uncongenial region4 ,later the spot was a resort for picnics till the old buildings fell into decay1 and about fifty years ago it was given up to wanderers4 ,about eighty men1 women1 and children live there1 the adults1 though not perhaps really criminals1 having been lost to society on account of some offense committed against it4 ,they have no regular means of subsistence1 are beneath the tramps in grade1 and possess1 with one or two exceptions1 no articles of property other than what they pick up4 ,their beds are wooden bunks set upon stones1 filled with leaves1 and the coverings are wrapping canvas4 ,a family of seven persons lived in one of the cellars with only a single bed of this kind4 ,their kitchen utensils are old tin cans picked out of rubbish heaps1 and their stoves are obtained in the same way1 or often consist of plates and pieces of iron adjusted so as to make a sort of fireplace4 ,they have a well from which they draw water with some old kettle suspended on a hooked stick1 each family having its own hook4 ,their clothes are rags1 partly covering portions of the body1 and it is not considered necessary that the younger ones should have even these4 ,their housekeeping and their ideas of neatness are such as might correspond with these conditions4 ,one woman1 mother of four children1 and the only one that was adequately dressed1 was a native of a neighboring village1 and had been brought to the cave by her mother when she was eight years old4 ,an old man had been a charge upon the town and was sent to the cave by the maire to get rid of him4 ,he had found a woman there and had several children4 ,a woman1 still active1 who had lived in the caves three years1 had children living in ,ezy4 ,the complaint1 so common in other parts of ,france1 that the natural increase of population has failed1 does not apply to the caves4 ,five or six of the families have four or five children4 ,on these children1 of whom only the most vigorous survive1 the influence of their debasing misery and of the vices of their parents impresses a common aspect4 ,their mental condition has fallen shockingly low1 and1 their physical needs satisfied1 they seem to want nothing further4 ,no attraction will induce them to attend school1 which is like imprisonment to them4 ,their mode of life and the marks of degradation in their faces separate them from others4 ,earnest attempts to develop their intelligence and moral consciousness have been without result4 ,german ,school ,journeys4--,it is very common in ,germany1 says ,miss ,dodd1 of ,owens ,college1 in one of the ,english educational reports1 to find definite teaching taking place outside the school walls--in the gardens attached to the schools1 and in the neighboring forests1 where the children are instructed in observation of the local forms of plant and animal life4 ,further1 they are often taken on longer expeditions to spend the whole day in the forest or on the mountain with their teachers1 who direct them what to see1 and how to see it4 ,more definite and more ambitious than these minor excursions is the school journey1 which may last from three days to three weeks4 ,it is usually taken on foot1 and is as inexpensive as possible1 with plain food and simple accommodation4 ,each boy carries his own knapsack charged with a change of underclothing1 towels1 soap1 etc41 and overcoat or umbrella2 while for the common use of the party are distributed clothes brushes and shoe brushes1 needles1 thread1 string1 and pins1 ointment for rubbing on the feet1 a small medicine chest1 a compass1 a field glass1 a pocket microscope1 a barometer1 and a tape measure4 ,the district visited is chosen on account of its historical associations or the geographical illustrations it furnishes1 or the richness and variety of plant life to be studied4 ,constant pauses are made to afford opportunities for the examination of features inviting study2 and the scenes visited are often closely connected with the subjects included in the year's work of the school4 ,in a journey1 of which ,miss ,dodd was a member1 preparations were begun three months beforehand1 with the collection of subscriptions1 drawing of road maps1 and special lessons4 ,the fifty boys from ten to fifteen years old1 marched off in groups of four1 assorting themselves according to their affinities for companionship1 with advance and rear guards2 the regions passed through were explored for what might be found in them2 the roads were marked and identified1 mountains and rivers were named1 and the courses of streams determined2 and at each place of considerable interest its characteristic features and associations of ,nature1 art1 and history were discussed and studied4 ,the ,huichol ,indians of ,jalisco4--,the ,huichol ,indians of ,mexico1 the subject of a study by ,carl ,lumholtz1 four thousand people living in the mountains of northern ,jalisco1 have a tradition that they originated in the south1 got lost underneath the earth1 and came forward again in the east1 in the country of the ,kikuli1 near ,san ,luis ,potosi4 ,franciscan missionaries converted them nominally to ,christianity1 but there are now no priests in their country1 and there is probably no tribe in ,mexico where the ancient beliefs have been so well maintained as with them4 ,their exterior conditions have been somewhat altered by the introduction of cattle and sheep1 and cattle are now the favorite animals for sacrifice at the feasts for making rain during the dry season4 ,the people are healthy1 very emotional1 easily moved to laughter or tears1 imaginative and excitable4 ,young people show affection in public1 kissing or caressing one another4 ,they are kind-hearted and not inhospitable to those who can gain their confidence1 but have the reputation of being wanting in regard for truth4 ,they live mostly in circular houses made from loose stones1 or stones and mud1 and covered with thatched roofs4 ,their temples1 devoted to various gods1 are of similar shape1 but much larger1 with the entrances toward sunrise4 ,outside of the door is an open space surrounded by small rectangular god-houses1 with gabled and thatched roofs4 ,the god-houses are also frequently found in the forests1 and are sometimes circular4 ,there are nineteen temples in the country which are frequented at the times of the feasts1 when the officials and their families camp in the small god-houses4 ,idols are not kept in the temples1 but are hidden in caves or in special buildings4 ,there are a great many sacred caves devoted to various gods1 and generally containing some pool or spring that gives them sanctity1 and the water of which is supposed to have salutary virtues4 ,much religious importance is attached to the ,kikuli cactus1 which produces an exhilarating effect on the system4 ,ceremonial arrows are inseparably connected with their life1 the arrow representing the ,indian himself in his prayers to the gods4 ,they have other interesting ceremonies and ceremonial objects1 and a curious system of distilling1 which ,mr4 ,lumholtz describes at length4 ,herrings at ,dinner4--,the food of the herring consists of small organisms1 often of microscopic dimensions4 ,it is entirely animal1 and in ,europe1 according to those who have investigated the matter1 it consists of copepods1 schizopods 7shrimplike forms71 amphipods 7sand fleas and their allies71 the embryos of gasteropods and lamellibranchia1 and young fishes1 often of its own kind4 ,in the examination of about fifteen hundred specimens of herring at ,eastport1 ,maine1 and vicinity1 in the summer and fall of #ahic1 ,mr4 ,h4,f4 ,moore1 of the ,fish ,commission1 found only two kinds of food--copepods or red seed1 which appeared to constitute the sole food of the small herrings1 and shrimps the principal food of the larger ones4 ,in many cases the stomachs of the fish were densely gorged with these shrimps1 which are extremely abundant in the waters of the vicinity4 ,excepting the eyes and phosphorescent spots beneath1 which are bright red1 the bodies of the crustaceans are almost transparent1 yet such is the density of the schools in which they congregate that a distinctly reddish tinge is often imparted to the water4 ,they are very active1 and frequently avoid the rush of the fish by vigorous strokes of their powerful caudal paddles1 which throw them several inches above the surface4 ,to capture them requires some address on the part of the herring1 and the fish likewise frequently throw themselves almost clear of the surface4 ,when feeding upon copepods the movements of the herrings are less impetuous4 ,they swim open-mouthed1 often with their snouts at the surface1 crossing and recrossing on their tracks1 and evidently straining out the minute crustaceans by means of their branchial sieves4 ,after they have passed the stage known as brit1 the herrings appear to feed principally at night1 or if they do so to any considerable extent during bright daylight it is at such a depth that they escape observation4 ,at night it is often possible to note the movements of the fish at a depth of several fathoms1 and at such times ,mr4 ,moore has seen them swimming back and forth1 apparently screening the water1 their every movement traced by a phosphorescent gleam1 evoked perhaps from the very organisms which they were consuming4 ,the herrings evidently follow their prey by night1 and the fact that the shrimps possess phosphorescent spots may explain the apparent ability of the fish to catch them then4 ,,minor ,,paragraphs4 ,the phosphorescence1 which is so beautiful a characteristic of certain forms of animal life in the sea1 has been the cause of much speculation among the fishermen and scientists2 none of the proposed theories have been entirely satisfactory4 ,it is now stated1 however1 that an adequate and provable cause has been discovered in a so-called species of photo-bacteria2 by means of this germ it is stated that sea water1 containing nutrient media1 can be inoculated and rendered phosphorescent2 that newly caught herrings with the sea water still fresh can be rendered phosphorescent by a treatment which favors the growth of the photo-bacteria4 ,oxygen is an essential to their growth4 ,personal equation was defined by ,prof4 ,t4,h4 ,safford1 in a paper read at the ,american ,association1 as in reality the time it takes to think2 and as that time is different in different persons1 observations are liable to be affected by it unless correct allowance is made for it in the case of each one4 ,it has been a subject of discussion since the end of the last century4 ,the ,astronomer ,royal of ,england discharged a good assistant in #agie1 because he was liable to observe stars more than half a second too late4 ,bond1 several years afterward1 took the subject up and found that astronomers were liable to vary a little in their observations2 some to anticipate the time by a trifle1 and others falling a little behind4 ,the subject has since been studied by ,professor ,wundt4 ,in the days when the eye-and-ear method of observation prevailed1 the astronomer had both to watch his object and to keep note of the time2 with the introduction of the chronograph1 the errors resulting from this necessity are in part obviated4 ,but error enough still exists to be troublesome4 ,the ,educational ,extension ,work in ,agriculture of ,cornell ,university ,experiment ,station is carried on by the publication and distribution of leaflets1 visitation of teachers' institutes1 and other means that may bring the station in contact with the people4 ,the results of the work have been generally satisfactory4 ,eight leaflets1 on such subjects as ,how a ,squash ,plant gets out of the ,seed1 ,a ,children's ,garden1 etc41 were published last year in from two to six editions1 and still meet a lively demand4 ,thirty thousand teachers were enrolled on the lists as receiving leaflets1 or as students of methods of presenting ,nature study to their pupils1 sixteen thousand school children were receiving leaflets suitable to them1 and twenty-five hundred young farmers were enrolled in the ,agricultural ,reading ,course4 ,much interest seems to have been shown by farmers in sugar-beet culture1 in investigations of which more than three hundred of them are cooperating with the station1 and two hundred in experiments with fertilizers4 ,,notes4 ,an important feature in the evolution of trade journalism is pointed out in the presidential address of ,e4,c4 ,brown1 of the ,american ,trade ,press ,association1 in the establishment of small trade journals1 covering limited fields4 ,such industries as brickmaking1 stenography1 advertising1 acetylene1 hospital practice1 etc41 are ably represented by their respective trade journals2 and this tendency is promoted by the complementary one of the trades1 in their centralization and concentration1 compelling even journals in the same business to make their field distinct and restricted4 ,the public demands specific information1 not for the purpose of catering to a passing interest1 but for its application directly in the conduct of business or the formation of a policy2 and those trade journals succeed best which supply accurate information of value to their readers4 ,the ascent of ,mont ,blanc was accomplished between ,june #bast and ,september #afth by one hundred and nineteen persons1 eleven of whom were women4 ,by nationality the climbers included forty-four ,frenchmen and eleven ,frenchwomen1 fifteen ,englishmen and one ,englishwoman1 and fifteen ,swiss1 with ,germans1 ,americans1 ,belgians1 ,hollanders1 ,irish1 and ,russians4 ,a ,belgian lady and a ,dutch lady were of this company4 ,a ,frenchwoman1 seventy-five years old1 was one of the party that reached the summit on one of the last days in ,september4 ,mr4 ,horace ,brown1 whose interesting researches on the enzymes have attracted much attention during the past few years1 has recently announced the results of some important experiments on the vitality of seeds4 ,he found that certain seeds subjected to the very low temperature of evaporating liquid air1 about -#aib ,c41 for one hundred and ten consecutive hours1 retained perfectly their power of germinating4 ,the report made by ,prof4 ,w4,a4 ,herdman to the ,british ,association concerning the liability to disease through oysters recognizes the possibility of contamination through the proximity of the beds to sewage water1 and recommends steps to be taken1 through either legislative control or association1 to induce the oyster trade to remove any possible suspicion of contamination of the beds2 provision for the inspection of foreign oysters or their subjection to a quarantine by deposition for a stated period in ,british waters1 as already takes place in many instances2 and the periodical inspection of the grounds from which mussels1 cockles1 and periwinkles are gathered4 ,as the result of long-continued observations of annual temperatures the appearance of the earliest leaves1 and the return of birds of passage1 ,m4 ,camille ,flammarion has published the conclusions that the maximum temperatures correspond with abundant sun spots and the least humidity1 and the minimum temperatures with scarcity of sun spots and great humidity2 and that sparrows begin to sit when horse-chestnuts1 lilacs1 and peonies begin to bloom1 and the young are hatched about two days after these plants are in full inflorescence4 ,m4 ,flammarion also believes that the temperatures of ,march and ,april indicate those of the entire year4 ,little steel capsules containing a small quantity of liquefied carbonic acid are made1 ,la ,nature says1 at ,zurich1 ,switzerland4 ,one of them is placed in the neck of a bottle of water which is provided with a faucet and the capsule is pricked4 ,the carbonic acid escapes and charges the water1 and a bottle of soda water is the result4 ,the capsules are cheap and convenient1 and are very popular in ,switzerland and ,germany4 ,it is proposed to erect a memorial to ,james ,clerk ,maxwell in the parish church of ,corsock1 of which he was a trustee and elder4 ,subscriptions may be sent to the ,rev4 ,george ,stimock1 ,the ,manse1 ,corsock by ,dalbeattie1 ,n4,b4 ,our obituary list includes among men well known in science the names of ,edward ,dunkin1 an ,english practical astronomer1 for fifty years an assistant and part of the time chief assistant at the ,royal ,observatory1 ,greenwich1 a contributor of many paper on practical astronomy1 aged seventy-seven years2 ,h4 ,vogel1 professor of photography1 photo-chemistry1 and spectroscopy in the ,technical ,high ,school1 ,berlin1 author of ,the ,chemistry of ,light and ,photography1 in the ,international ,scientific ,series1 in his sixty-fifth year2 ,alexandre ,pillet1 curator of the ,muse ,dupuytre1 ,paris1 and well known for his contributions on morbid anatomy1 at ,paris1 ,november #b;d1 aged eighty-eight years2 ,george ,t4 ,allmann1 formerly professor of botany in ,dublin and of natural history in ,edinburgh1 who described the hydroids collected by the ,challenger ,expedition1 and was author of a number of monographs on the invertebrates1 aged eighty-six2 ,thomas ,sanderson ,bulmer1 investigator in ,american archology and ethnography1 and contributor to ,filling's ,bibliographies of ,american ,languages1 at ,sierra ,blanca1 ,texas1 ,october #eth2 and ,dr4 ,ewald ,geissler1 professor of chemistry at the veterinary school of ,dresden1 aged fifty years4 ,transcriber's ,notes3 ,words surrounded by are italicized4 ,words surrounded by are bold4 ,obvious printer's errors have been repaired1 other inconsistent spellings have been kept1 including inconsistent use of hyphen 7e4g4 text book and text-book74 ,illustrations were relocated to correspond to their references in the text4 ,pg #efh1 year assumed in sentence 444,report for the ,fiscal ,year ended ,june #cj1 #ahih444 as the original is unclear4