,transcriber's note3 ,text enclosed by underscores is in italics 7italics74 ,text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face 7bold74 ,,the ,,literature ,,and ,,history ,,of ,,new ,,testament ,,times ,,part ,i3 ,the ,historical ,background of ,christianity ,the ,early ,history of ,christianity by ,,john ,,gresham ,,machen ,philadelphia1 ,pa4 ,the ,presbyterian ,board ,of ,publication and ,sabbath ,school ,work ,,contents ,,page ,introduction #c ,,lesson #a4 ,the ,new ,testament #e #b4 ,the ,roman ,background of ,christianity #aj #c4 ,the ,greek ,background of ,christianity #ae #d4 ,the ,jewish ,background of ,christianity3 ,i4 ,palestinian ,judaism #ba #e4 ,the ,jewish ,background of ,christianity3 ,,ii4 ,the ,judaism of the ,dispersion #bf #f4 ,the ,messiah #ca #g4 ,the ,book of ,the ,acts #cf #h4 ,the ,cross and the ,resurrection the ,foundation of ,apostolic ,preaching #da #i4 ,the ,beginnings of the ,christian ,church #df #aj4 ,the ,first ,persecution #ea #aa4 ,the ,first ,gentile ,converts #ef #ab4 ,the ,conversion of ,paul #fj #ac4 ,the ,church at ,antioch #fg #ad4 ,the ,gospel to the ,gentiles #ge #ae4 ,the ,council at ,jerusalem #ha #af4 ,the ,gospel ,carried ,into ,europe #hf #ag4 ,encouragement for ,recent ,converts #ib #ah4 ,the ,conflict with the ,judaizers #ig #ai4 ,problems of a ,gentile ,church #ajc #bj4 ,the ,apostle and ,his ,ministry #aji #ba4 ,the ,gospel of ,salvation #aae #bb4 ,paul's ,journey to ,rome #abj #bc4 ,the ,supremacy of ,christ #abd #bd4 ,the ,church of ,christ #abi #be4 ,christ and ,his ,followers #acc #bf4 ,training ,new ,leaders #ach #bg4 ,a ,presentation of ,jesus to ,jewish ,christians #adg #bh4 ,a ,graphic ,sketch of the ,life of ,jesus #aed #bi4 ,a ,greek ,historian's ,account of ,jesus #aeh #cj4 ,the ,testimony of the ,beloved ,disciple #afe #ca4 ,the ,jesus of the ,gospels #agd #cb4 ,a ,document of the ,jerusalem ,church #agh #cc4 ,jesus the ,fulfillment of the ,old ,testament #ahd #cd4 ,christian ,fortitude #ahi #ce4 ,the ,christian's ,attitude ,toward ,error and ,immorality #aid #cf4 ,the ,life of the ,children of ,god #aih #cg4 ,the ,messages of the ,living ,christ #bjc #ch4 ,a ,vision of the ,final ,triumph #bji #ci4 ,review #bac #dj4 ,the ,church and the ,world #bai #da4 ,the ,christian ,message #bbe #db4 ,the ,word and the ,sacraments #bca #dc4 ,prayer #bch #dd4 ,the ,congregation #bdd #de4 ,the ,relief of the ,needy #bdi #df4 ,organizing for ,service #bee #dg4 ,a ,mission for the ,world #bfa #dh4 ,the ,christian ,ideal of ,personal ,morality #bff #di4 ,christianity and ,human ,relationships #bga #ej4 ,the ,christian ,use of the ,intellect #bgg #ea4 ,the ,christian ,hope and the ,present ,possession #bhb #eb4 ,retrospect3 the ,first ,christian ,century #bhg ,copyright1 #aiae1 by ,john ,gresham ,machen ,,introduction ,the general purpose of this course of lessons has been set forth in the introduction to the ,student's ,text ,book4 ,there is a tendency in the modern ,church to neglect the study of ,bible history4 ,such neglect will inevitably result in a loss of power4 ,the gospel is a record of something that has happened1 and uncertainty about the gospel is fatal weakness4 ,furthermore the historical study of the apostolic age--that age when divine revelation established the great principles of the ,church's life--is the best corrective for a thousand vagaries4 ,much can be learned from modern pedagogy2 but after all what is absolutely fundamental1 both for teacher and for student1 is an orderly acquaintance with the ,bible facts4 ,the ,teacher's ,manual1 therefore1 is intended not merely to offer suggestions as to methods of teaching1 but primarily to supplement the teacher's knowledge4 ,a teacher who knows only what he actually imparts to the class is inevitably dull4 ,the true teacher brings forth out of his treasure things new and old4 ,the sections in the ,teacher's ,manual1 since they are intended to be supplementary1 should not be read until after careful attention has been paid to the corresponding sections in the ,student's ,text ,book4 ,moreover1 both sections together are of course in themselves insufficient4 ,they should be supplemented by other reading4 ,suggestions about reading have been put at the end of every lesson4 ,here1 however1 a few general remarks may be made4 ,davis' ,dictionary of the ,bible and ,purves' ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 which have been recommended even to the student1 will be to the teacher almost invaluable4 ,the earnest teacher will also desire to refer to good commentaries on ,the ,acts4 ,the commentaries which have been mentioned in connection with the individual lessons are based upon the ,english ,bible2 but every teacher who has any knowledge of ,greek1 however slight1 should use1 instead1 the commentary of ,knowling1 in ,the ,expositor's ,greek ,testament4 ,for the life of ,paul1 ,lewin's ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul and the similar book of ,conybeare and ,howson are still very valuable for their vivid and extended descriptions of the scenes of the missionary journeys4 ,a similar service is rendered1 in more up-to-date form1 by the various works of ,ramsay4 ,stalker's ,life of ,st4 ,paul is a good handbook4 ,m',clymont's ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers contains instructive1 though very brief1 introductions to all of the ,new ,testament books4 ,hastings' ,dictionary of the ,bible and ,dictionary of ,christ and the ,gospels number among their contributors many writers of many opinions4 ,they are rich in references to the vast literature of modern ,biblical discussion4 ,the writer of this course has derived information from many quarters4 ,definite acknowledgment of indebtedness1 since no originality is claimed1 may be regarded as unnecessary4 ,it is a pleasure1 however1 to render special thanks to ,rev4 ,professor ,william ,park ,armstrong1 ,d4 ,d41 of ,princeton ,theological ,seminary1 whose wise counsel has been of incalculable assistance at many points4 ,the actual presentation of the lessons will1 of course1 vary according to the needs of the classes and the preferences of the teachers4 ,the ,student's ,text ,book may often provide a convenient order of presentation4 ,that book is intended not merely to be read1 but also to be studied4 ,it is to be regarded as a sort of outline of the course4 ,the topics for study are intended to serve a double purpose4 ,in the first place1 they will test the student's knowledge of the lesson material2 in the second place1 they will afford encouragement to special investigation4 ,individual topics may often be assigned for thorough treatment to individual students1 while the class as a whole may use all the topics as guides to a general knowledge4 ,personal interest in the individual students is of the utmost importance4 ,instruction has a tenfold value when it is backed by friendship4 ,the relation of the students to the ,church should be a matter of especial concern4 ,if any member of the class has not confessed his faith in ,christ1 the study of this year offers abundant opportunity for a word in season4 ,our study reveals the ,church as a divine institution4 ,shall we then stand aloof8 ,in this course the teacher has the opportunity of introducing young people of maturing minds to the historical study of the ,new ,testament4 ,there could be no more inspiring task4 ,carried about with every wind of doctrine1 the ,church is sadly in need of an assured anchorage4 ,that anchorage should be sought in history4 ,ignorance is weak2 sound knowledge1 sought with prayer1 and blessed by the ,spirit of ,god1 will lead to a more stalwart and more intelligent faith4 ,,lesson ,i ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,this is an introductory lesson4 ,it should be used1 first of all1 to answer intelligent general questions about the ,new ,testament4 ,some of these questions will be discussed briefly under ,sections #a to #c1 below4 ,the historical study of the ,new ,testament1 based upon a study of the circumstances under which the individual books were written1 will probably be new to many of the students4 ,the new point of view should be used to awaken interest4 ,the climax of the lesson should1 however1 be a presentation of the unity of the ,new ,testament as the very ,word of ,god to us4 ,historical study should be made--and can be made--subservient to reverent and thankful obedience4 #a4 ,,the ,,origin ,,and ,,meaning ,,of ,,the ,,name ,the ,english word testament comes from a ,latin word4 ,the equivalent ,greek word is hard to translate4 ,as used in the ,greek ,bible it may mean either covenant or testament4 ,usually it should probably be translated covenant4 ,the phrase new covenant occurs about five times in the ,new ,testament4 ,in none of these passages does the phrase refer to the ,new ,testament in our sense4 ,it designates a new relationship into which men have been received with ,god4 ,the old covenant was made1 through the mediatorship of ,moses1 with the ,hebrew nation2 the new covenant1 hinted at in prophecy1 ,jer4 #ca3ca1 and instituted by the ,lord ,jesus1 ,i ,cor4 #aa3be1 was made with all those1 of every tribe and tongue and people and nation1 who should through faith accept the salvation offered by ,christ4 ,those who believe become1 like ,israel of old1 ,god's chosen people1 and enter into the warmth and joy of the divine communion4 ,the names old and new covenants1 then1 were applied first to these two special relationships into which ,god entered with men4 ,afterwards the names were applied to the books in which the conditions of those relationships were set forth4 ,perhaps it would have been better if we had started to say ,new ,covenant where we now say ,new ,testament4 ,at any rate the idea alluded to in the name is the inspiring idea1 realized in ,christ1 of an alliance with ,god4 ,the ,new ,testament is the divine treaty by the terms of which ,god has received us rebels and enemies into peace with himself4 #b4 ,,one ,,book1 ,,or ,a ,,collection ,,of ,,books8 ,in the first place1 the ,new ,testament may be treated in every respect as a single book4 ,that course is adopted by many of the most devoted lovers of the ,bible4 ,by them the ,bible is treated simply as a textbook of religion4 ,passages are quoted indiscriminately from all parts of it1 without much regard to the context4 ,the wide differences of form and of spirit among the various books are ignored4 ,the historical implications of the books are of course accepted as true1 but practically they are left quite unassimilated4 ,now let us be quite plain about one thing4 ,the men who use the ,bible in this way are right in the main point4 ,they treat the ,bible as the guide of life for time and for eternity4 ,and if by the use of the ,bible we can come into communion with ,god1 we can afford to miss a good many other things4 ,nevertheless1 the ,bible is as a matter of fact not a mere textbook of religion1 and if we treat it as such we miss much of its richness4 ,if the ,bible were merely a systematic treatise1 it would be far easier to interpret4 ,the interpreter would be spared a great deal of trouble1 but the burden would be heaped upon the preacher4 ,as it is1 the ,bible is itself a preacher1 because it is in such close contact with the actual experience of men of flesh and blood4 ,its general teachings are given us in large measure only through the medium of history1 through the medium of example4 ,in order to arrive at the general truths1 therefore1 intellectual labor is often necessary4 ,god has made things harder for the intellect that he may strike home the more surely to the heart4 ,if ,paul had written a systematic theology1 the ,new ,testament way of salvation might in some ways have been plainer than it is4 ,it would have been plain to the intellect1 but it would have needed interpretation to the heart4 ,conviction can be wrought only by the immediate impact of personal life4 ,the theology of ,paul1 of itself1 might be a dead thing2 the religious experience of ,paul1 interwoven with his theology1 and bared before us in the epistles1 is irresistible4 ,in the second place1 the historical form of the ,bible may be considered at the expense of its spiritual content4 ,the ,bible may be treated simply as a storybook4 ,such a method of treatment is exceedingly common to-day4 ,the ,bible as literature is its slogan4 ,this treatment has simply missed the main point altogether4 ,it is incomparably inferior to that treatment which takes the ,bible as a mere textbook of religion4 ,the ,bible as an addition to the world's history or the world's literature has1 indeed1 considerable educational value4 ,but it does not give eternal life4 ,a third method is possible1 and that third method is right4 ,the historical and literary form of the ,bible is recognized to the full4 ,but it is regarded not as an end in itself1 but as a means to an end4 ,historical study is necessary not only to establish to the modern man the saving facts of the gospel1 but also to do justice to the dramatic narrative form in which ,god has revealed to us his eternal will4 ,it is nearer the truth1 then1 to say that the ,new ,testament is a single book than to say that it is a collection of books4 ,its parts differ widely among themselves1 in authorship1 in date1 in circumstances1 in aim4 ,those differences must be studied carefully1 if the full meaning is to be obtained4 ,but widely as the ,new ,testament writings differ among themselves1 they differ yet far more widely from all other books4 ,they presented themselves originally to the ,church with a divine authority1 which is foreign to the ordinary writings of men4 ,that authority has been confirmed through the ,christian centuries4 ,those who have submitted their lives to the ,new ,testament have never been confounded4 ,the ,new ,testament has been to them the voice of ,god4 #c4 ,,the ,,four ,,divisions ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament 7#a7 ,,the ,,gospels4--,christianity is based upon historical facts4 ,attempts1 it is true1 are often made to separate it from history4 ,but they are bound to result in failure4 ,give up history1 and you can retain some things4 ,but you can never retain a gospel4 ,for gospel means good news1 and good news means tidings1 information derived from the witness of others4 ,in other words1 it means history4 ,the question whether religion can be independent of history is really just the old question whether we need a gospel4 ,the gospel is news that something has happened--something that puts a different face upon life4 ,what that something is is told us in ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke and ,john4 ,it is the life and death and resurrection of ,jesus ,christ4 7#b7 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,acts4--,the ,book of ,the ,acts is a history of the extension of ,christianity from ,jerusalem out into the ,gentile world4 ,it represents that extension as guided by the ,spirit of ,god1 and thus exhibits the divine warrant for the acceptance of us ,gentiles1 and for the development of the ,christian ,church4 ,it provides the outline of apostolic history without which we could not understand the other ,new ,testament books1 especially the epistles of ,paul4 ,it illustrates to the full what has been said above about the value of the historical form in which the ,bible teaching is presented4 ,by reading this vivid narrative we obtain an impression of the power of the ,holy ,spirit which no systematic treatise could give4 7#c7 ,,the ,,epistles4--,the ,epistles of the ,new ,testament are not just literature put in an epistolary form1 but real letters4 ,it is true that the addresses of some of them are very broad1 for example1 those of ,james and of ,i ,peter2 and that some of them contain no specific address at all1 for example1 ,hebrews and ,i ,john4 ,but the great majority of them1 at least1 were written under very special circumstances and intended to be read first by very definite people4 ,the chief letter-writer of the ,new ,testament was the apostle ,paul4 ,to a certain extent he used the forms of letter-writing of his time1 just as everyone to-day begins a letter with ,dear ,sir4 ,within the last twenty years a great number of ,greek private letters1 dating from about the time of ,paul1 have been discovered in ,egypt1 where they have been preserved by the dry climate4 ,it is interesting to compare them with the letters of ,paul4 ,there are some striking similarities in language2 for both these letter-writers and ,paul used the natural language of daily life rather than the extremely artificial language of the literature of that period4 ,to a certain extent1 also1 ,paul used the same epistolary forms4 ,the differences1 however1 are even more instructive than the resemblances4 ,it is true1 the ,pauline epistles are not literary treatises1 but real letters4 ,but on the other hand they are not ordinary private letters intended to be read and thrown away1 like the letters that have been discovered in ,egypt4 ,most of them were intended to be read originally in churches4 ,it is natural1 then1 that they should have been written in a loftier style than is to be found in mere business communications and the like4 ,and if ,paul uses the epistolary forms of his time he uses them in an entirely new way4 ,even the mere openings of the epistles are made the vehicle of ,christian truth4 ,grace to you and peace from ,god our ,father and the ,lord ,jesus ,christ--there is nothing like that in contemporary letter-writing4 ,the openings of the ,pauline epistles form an interesting study4 ,they are varied with wonderful skill to suit the varied character and subject matter of the letters that follow4 ,paul is never merely formal4 ,the letters of ,paul differ widely among themselves4 ,the ,epistle to the ,romans is almost a systematic exposition of the plan of salvation4 ,philemon is concerned with a little personal matter between ,paul and one of his converts4 ,but even where ,paul is most theological he is personal1 and even where he is most personal1 he is faithful to his theology4 ,theology in him is never separate from experience1 and experience never separate from theology4 ,even petty problems he settles always in the light of eternal principles4 ,hence his letters1 though the specific circumstances that gave rise to them are past and gone1 will never be antiquated4 7#d7 ,,the ,,apocalypse4--,the ,christian life is a life of hope4 ,inwardly we are free1 but our freedom is not yet fully realized4 ,we are in danger of losing our hope in the trials or in the mere humdrum of life4 ,to keep it alive1 the ,apocalypse opens a glorious vision of the future4 ,the vision is presented in symbolical language4 ,it is not intended to help in any calculation of the times and seasons4 ,but it shows us the ,lamb upon the throne--and that is enough4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,bible1 ,canon of the ,new ,testament1 ,covenant1 ,new ,testament1 and ,testament4 ,,lesson ,,ii ,,the ,,roman ,,background ,,of ,,christianity ,christianity is not a human product4 ,it is not to be explained by what preceded it on the earth4 ,it is a new beginning in history1 an immediate exercise of the divine power4 ,but though ,christianity was not produced by men1 it operates upon men1 and upon men subject to all the ordinary conditions of earthly life4 ,primitive ,christianity1 then1 which we shall study this year1 cannot be understood fully without an examination of the historical conditions under which it arose4 ,in the class1 the lesson should probably be approached through the ,new ,testament examples of the general principles which are outlined in the lesson helps4 ,examples will be found in the passages assigned in the ,student's ,text ,book1 and others should be sought for elsewhere4 #a4 ,,the ,,establishment ,,of ,,the ,,empire ,by the middle of the first century before ,christ the power of the ,roman republic extended around the ,mediterranean ,sea4 ,victories abroad1 however1 were accompanied by serious troubles at home4 ,the increase of wealth and the importation of slave labor had produced unfortunate social conditions4 ,the realm had become too large to be administered adequately by the old republican government4 ,individuals sometimes obtained practical control of affairs1 and the state was torn by civil wars4 ,finally1 in #di ,b4 ,c41 ,julius ,csar entered ,rome at the head of an army1 and ,roman liberty was at an end4 ,after the assassination of ,csar in #dd ,b4 ,c41 there was a succession of civil wars1 and then1 by the victory of ,actium in #ca ,b4 ,c41 ,octavius1 who later assumed the name of ,augustus1 became sole ruler4 ,augustus died in ,a4 ,d4 #ad4 ,subsequent emperors during the first century were3 ,tiberius 7,a4 ,d4 #ad-cg71 ,caligula 7,a4 ,d4 #cg-da71 ,claudius 7,a4 ,d4 #da-ed71 ,nero 7,a4 ,d4 #ed-fh71 ,galba1 ,otho and ,vitellius 7,a4 ,d4 #fi71 ,vespasian 7,a4 ,d4 #fi-gi71 ,titus 7,a4 ,d4 #gi-ha71 ,domitian 7,a4 ,d4 #ha-if71 ,nerva 7,a4 ,d4 #if-ih71 ,trajan 7,a4 ,d4 #ih-aag74 #b4 ,,roman ,,administration ,,under ,,the ,,empire ,the general advantages of the ,roman imperial government have been considered in the ,student's ,text ,book4 ,it will here be advisable to consider one or two features a little more in detail4 ,much of what follows can be illustrated from the ,new ,testament2 for the acquaintance of ,new ,testament writers1 especially of ,luke1 with ,roman administration is not only accurate but also minute4 ,the students should be encouraged to seek ,new ,testament illustrations for themselves4 7#a7 ,,the ,,provinces4--,the provinces of the empire are to be distinguished from the territories of subject kings or princes4 ,the latter were quite subservient to ,rome1 but were given more independence of administration4 ,a good example of such a subject king1 theoretically an ally1 but in reality a vassal1 was ,herod the ,great1 who ruled over all ,palestine till #d ,b4 ,c4 ,the provinces themselves were divided into two great classes--imperial provinces and senatorial provinces4 ,the imperial provinces were under the immediate control of the emperor4 ,they were governed by legates1 who had no regular term of office1 but served at the emperor's pleasure4 ,the imperial provinces were those in which1 on account of unsettled conditions1 or for the defense of the empire1 large bodies of troops had to be maintained4 ,thus1 by keeping the appointment of the legates exclusively in his own hands1 the emperor retained the direct control of the all-important power of the army4 ,a good example of an imperial province is the great province of ,syria1 with capital at ,antioch4 ,palestine was more or less under the supervision of the ,syrian legate4 ,districts different from the great imperial provinces1 but1 like them1 under the immediate control of the emperor1 were governed by procurators4 ,judea1 from ,a4 ,d4 #f to ,a4 ,d4 #da1 and from ,a4 ,d4 #dd on1 is an example4 ,the senatorial provinces were governed by proconsuls1 chosen by lot from among the members of the ,senate4 ,the proconsuls served for only one year4 ,even over these provinces and their governors the emperor retained the fullest supervisory authority4 ,the senatorial provinces composed the central and more settled portions of the empire1 where large standing armies would not be needed4 ,examples are ,achaia1 with capital at ,corinth1 and ,cyprus with capital at ,paphos4 ,proconsuls of both of these provinces are mentioned in the ,new ,testament by name4 7#b7 ,,local ,,government4--,the ,romans did not attempt to introduce perfect uniformity throughout the empire4 ,the original ,greek unit of political life was the city1 and ,greek cities were scattered over the east before the ,roman conquest4 ,with regard to local affairs1 many of the cities retained a certain amount of independence4 ,it is interesting to observe the local peculiarities of the cities described in ,the ,acts4 ,in addition to the ,greek cities1 many of which were more or less free in local affairs1 many ,roman colonies had been established here and there throughout the empire4 ,the original colonists were often veterans of the ,roman armies4 ,of course the populations soon came to be mixed1 but ,roman traditions were cultivated in the colonies more than elsewhere4 ,a number of the cities of ,the ,acts were colonies1 and one1 ,philippi1 is expressly declared to be such4 ,acts #af3ab4 ,in that city the ,roman character of the magistrates appears clearly from the ,lucan narrative4 ,there were prtors and lictors4 7#c7 ,,roman ,,citizenship4--,before ,new ,testament times ,roman citizenship had been extended to all ,italy4 ,italy1 therefore1 was not a province or group of provinces1 but was regarded as a part of ,rome4 ,outside of ,italy ,roman citizenship was a valuable special privilege4 ,it raised a man above the mass of the provincial population4 ,some of the advantages of it appear clearly in the ,new ,testament narrative4 ,because ,paul was a ,roman citizen he was legally exempt from the most degrading forms of punishment1 and had a right to appeal to the court of the emperor4 ,roman citizenship was sometimes acquired by money1 but ,paul inherited it from his father4 #c4 ,,roman ,,religion ,under the empire1 ,rome was possessed of a state religion4 ,the ancient gods of the republic were retained4 ,there were great divinities like ,jupiter and ,mars1 and there were numberless private divinities of individual households4 ,the ancient religion had1 indeed1 undergone modifications4 ,new divinities in plenty had been received4 ,but the reception of the new did not involve abolition of the old4 ,on the contrary1 the gods of other peoples could be accepted just because they were regarded as nothing but the ,roman gods under different names4 ,thus1 long before the ,christian era1 there had been a thoroughgoing identification of the gods of ,greece with the gods of ,rome4 ,the ,greek ,zeus1 for example1 was identified with the ,roman ,jupiter2 the ,greek ,ares with the ,roman ,mars4 ,the gods of countries other than ,greece were also received1 though1 as far as the city of ,rome was concerned1 with some conservatism4 ,in the ,roman world1 religion was a national affair4 ,worship of the national gods was not only piety1 but also patriotism4 ,patriotism and religion were inseparably connected4 ,support of the gods of ,rome1 even where personal faith in them had been undermined1 was considered to be the duty of every loyal citizen4 ,the political aspect of ,roman religion appears most clearly in the worship of the ,roman emperors4 ,this remarkable development appears from the beginning of the empire4 ,augustus1 indeed1 refused to receive divine honors1 at least in the west4 ,but in the east even he was worshiped1 and as time went on the reluctance of the emperors disappeared4 ,some of the worst of the emperors were most insistent upon their own divinity4 ,perhaps the first impulse of the modern man is to regard the ,csar cult simply as a particularly despicable form of flattery4 ,in reality it was more than that4 ,it was not established by imperial edict4 ,it was not dictated primarily by servile fear4 ,the ,greek inhabitants of the empire really regarded ,augustus as their saviour4 ,and so he was1 as far as any man could be4 ,he saved them from the miseries of civil war1 and from the rapacity of the degenerate republic2 he gave them peace and happiness4 ,and they responded by regarding him as a god4 ,to them it was natural4 ,to them it was nothing new4 ,alexander the ,great had been regarded as a god long before the ,christian era4 ,his successors in ,syria and in ,egypt had also received divine honors4 ,to the genuine ,romans1 the thing did not come so easy4 ,the ,csar cult1 at least at first1 was not developed in the west4 ,but even the ,romans could worship the emperor's genius or spirit1 and from that to the actual worship of the emperor was but a step4 ,essential to the whole process of deification1 both in ,rome and in the east1 was the close connection in ancient thinking between deity and humanity1 and between religion and the state4 ,if patriotism is religion1 then the king is a god4 ,the ,csar cult was the most palpable incorporation of the state religion4 ,worship of the emperor1 therefore1 might well be the test of loyalty to ,rome4 ,it could be practiced by skeptics and philosophers4 ,it could be practiced by the devotees of all religions--save two4 ,jews and ,christians alone could not bow at the emperor's shrine1 for their ,god was a ,god who could brook no rival4 ,he was not merely the greatest among many4 ,he was the only ,lord1 ,maker of heaven and earth4 #d4 ,,the ,,roman ,,empire ,,and ,,subsequent ,,history ,between ,christianity and the ,roman state1 with its official religion1 a life-and-death struggle was inevitable4 ,but in the providence of ,god it was delayed4 ,the empire was used not to crush ,christianity but to open the world before it4 ,but was the empire really identical with the world8 ,it seemed so to the ,romans and to the ,greeks4 ,to them the empire was the world4 ,and they were right4 ,not1 of course1 in a literal sense4 ,in the first century after ,christ1 vast civilizations--for example the civilization of ,china--were already in existence4 ,there were great peoples of whom the ,romans had never heard4 ,but ,roman arrogance has at last been vindicated4 ,for ,rome was in reality the key to subsequent history4 ,rome was the parent of ,europe1 and ,europe is moving the world4 ,even ,china is at last being opened to the civilization of ,rome4 ,the ,romans were right4 ,he who could master ,rome would be master1 one day1 of the world4 ,it has been a long process4 ,but ,god's plans are sure4 ,christianity appeared at the one time when the world was open before it4 ,by the power of the divine ,spirit it conquered the empire4 ,the empire dominated its barbarian conquerors4 ,the barbarians are the parents of modern civilization4 ,modern civilization is invading the earth's remotest bounds4 ,china1 at last1 is within our ken4 ,realms long closed have at last been opened4 ,another great opportunity6 ,an opportunity for greed and selfishness6 ,an opportunity for a dismal skepticism6 ,and an opportunity for the ,church of ,god6 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,adeney1 article on ,csar2 ,gwatkin1 articles on ,roman ,empire1 and ,rome4 ,hastings1 ,encyclopdia of ,religion and ,ethics3 ,iverach1 article on ,csarism4 ,westcott1 ,the ,two ,empires1 in ,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,john1 pp4 #bej-bhb4 ,ramsay1 ,the ,cities of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #dh-ha4 ,,lesson ,,iii ,,the ,,greek ,,background ,,of ,,christianity ,the purpose of the present lesson is to make the student feel that the gospel was from the beginning a real gospel in a real world4 ,if we isolate the early preaching from its environment1 we make it seem like an unreal thing4 ,study of ,new ,testament times makes the ,new ,testament itself become a more living1 a more interesting book4 ,in the ,student's ,text ,book an outline of the ,hellenistic age has been provided4 ,it has been supplemented below by illustrative material4 ,but in the class the lesson can probably be best approached from the side of the ,new ,testament itself4 ,in what languages is the ,bible written8 ,how did the ,new ,testament come to be written in ,greek8 ,what other languages are mentioned in the ,new ,testament8 ,what light do these passages shed upon the linguistic conditions of the time8 ,what is the attitude of the apostles toward ,greek thought8 ,is that attitude altogether unfavorable1 or did the early missionaries ever lay hold upon the higher aspirations of their ,gentile hearers 7,athens78 ,where did the missionaries come into contact with heathen superstition8 7,several fine examples in ,the ,acts74 ,what was the moral condition of the ,greco-,roman world8 ,how was the ,hellenistic age like our own8 ,why did ,god send our ,lord just in the first century8 ,what was the social condition of the early ,christians8 ,do you think that was an advantage or a disadvantage8 ,what men of higher position are mentioned in the ,new ,testament8 ,questions like these will serve to relate the general expositions in the lesson helps to the ,new ,testament itself4 ,the lesson helps are intended to provide merely the presuppositions necessary for intelligent study4 ,god working for real men in a real world--that is the subject of the lesson4 #a4 ,,the ,,hellenistic ,,age ,the ,greek world culture which prevailed after the conquest of ,alexander was widely different from the ,greek life of the classical period4 ,the earlier period is called the ,hellenic period1 the later period is designated as ,hellenistic4 ,when ,greek thought made itself master of the world1 it became mingled with numberless foreign elements4 ,the mixture appears most clearly1 perhaps1 in the sphere of religion4 ,polytheism was capable of indefinite expansion4 ,new gods could easily be identified with the old1 or else be received along with them without a conflict4 ,the religion of the ,greco-,roman world is therefore different from that of ancient ,greece4 ,it is a curious mixture of the most diverse beliefs4 ,nevertheless1 the whole deserves to be called ,hellenistic1 because even the most strikingly non-,grecian elements were usually subjected more or less to the subtle molding of the ,greek spirit4 ,the ,hellenistic age used to be despised1 but among modern scholars it is coming into its own4 ,its literary products are admittedly inferior to the glories of the earlier age1 but even in literature its achievements are not to be despised1 and in other spheres it is supreme4 ,notably in mathematics and in natural science it was the golden age4 ,euclid1 the geometrician1 lived three centuries before ,christ4 ,the learning of the ,hellenistic age was centered in ,alexandria in ,egypt1 a city which had been founded by ,alexander the ,great4 ,athens had1 perhaps1 ceased to possess the primacy4 ,that fact is typical of the time4 ,greek culture had ceased to belong to ,greece in the narrower sense4 ,it had become a possession of the world4 ,the great library of ,alexandria was a sign of the times4 ,the ,hellenistic age was an age of widespread learning4 ,when ,rome became master of the eastern world1 conditions were not fundamentally changed4 ,rome merely hastened a process that was already at work4 ,already the nations had been brought together by the spread of ,greek culture2 ,roman law merely added the additional bond of political unity4 ,the ,roman legions were missionaries of an all-pervading ,hellenism4 ,the ,greco-,roman world was astonishingly modern4 ,it was modern in its cosmopolitanism4 ,in our own time the nations have again been brought together4 ,the external agencies for their welding are far more perfect to-day than they were under the empire4 ,even the ,roman roads would be but a poor substitute for the railroad and the telegraph and the steamship4 ,but on the other hand we lack the bond of a common language4 ,in some ways the civilized world was even more of a unit in the first century than it is to-day4 ,the cosmopolitanism of the ,roman ,empire was a ,god-given opportunity for the ,church4 ,in a cosmopolitan age1 if a man has something to say1 he will not lack for an audience4 ,his message will be understood in one place as well as in another4 ,the lesson is obvious for the ,church of to-day4 ,again ,god has opened the world before us4 ,if we have a message1 in ,god's name let us proclaim it while yet there is time4 #b4 ,,the ,,greek ,,bible ,the ,church originated in ,palestine4 ,the first missionaries were native ,jews4 ,yet even they had been affected by the cosmopolitanism of the time4 ,even they could use ,greek1 in addition to their native language4 ,and ,paul1 the greatest of the missionaries1 though a ,jew1 was a citizen of a ,greek city4 ,the ,church from the beginning was able to speak to the larger world4 ,one difficulty might possibly have arisen4 ,the ,christian mission was not carried on merely by the oral word4 ,from the beginning ,christianity was a religion with a ,book4 ,and that ,book was not ,greek4 ,on the contrary it was intensely un-,grecian4 ,the ,old ,testament is intolerant of heathen ideas4 ,it is deeply rooted in the life of the chosen people4 ,how could a ,hebrew book be used in the ,greek world8 ,the difficulty might have been serious4 ,but in the providence of ,god it had been overcome4 ,the ,old ,testament was a ,hebrew book1 but before the ,christian era it had been translated into ,greek4 ,from the beginning ,christianity was provided with a ,greek ,bible4 ,it is always difficult to make a new translation of the ,bible4 ,every missionary knows that4 ,the introduction of a new translation takes time4 ,it was fortunate1 then1 that a ,greek-speaking ,church had a ,greek ,bible ready to hand4 ,everything was prepared for the gospel4 ,god's time had come4 ,roman rule had brought peace4 ,greek culture had produced unity of speech4 ,there was a ,greek world1 there were ,greek-speaking missionaries1 and there was a ,greek ,bible4 ,in the first century1 the salvation that was of the ,jews could become a salvation for the whole world4 #c4 ,,the ,,papyri ,the world in which the gospel was proclaimed is deserving of careful study4 ,how shall it be investigated8 ,the most obvious way is to study the literature of the period4 ,until recent years that was almost the only way4 ,but that method is partial at best4 ,for literature is after all but an imperfect measure of any age4 ,the society that is found in books is an idealized society1 or at any rate it is the society of the great4 ,the plain man is unrecorded4 ,his deeds are not deemed worthy of a place in history4 ,within the last thirty years1 however1 the plain people of the ancient world have come remarkably into view4 ,they are revealed to us in the non-literary papyri4 ,papyri are pieces of papyrus4 ,papyrus was the common writing material of antiquity up to about ,a4 ,d4 #cjj1 when vellum1 or parchment1 came into general use4 ,unfortunately papyrus1 which was made from the pith of the papyrus plant1 is not a very durable substance1 so that ancient papyri have been preserved until modern times only under exceptionally favorable conditions4 ,these conditions are found in ,egypt1 where the dry climate has kept the papyrus from disintegration4 ,in ,egypt1 within the last thirty years1 have been discovered large numbers of papyrus sheets with ,greek writing4 ,of these the literary papyri contain simply parts of books4 ,they differ from other copies of the works in question only in that they are usually older than the vellum manuscripts4 ,the non-literary papyri1 on the other hand1 are unique4 ,they are private documents of all sorts--receipts1 petitions1 wills1 contracts1 census returns1 and most interesting of all1 private letters4 ,it was usually not intended that these documents should be preserved4 ,they were simply thrown away upon rubbish heaps or used as wrappings of mummies4 ,they have been preserved only by chance4 ,the non-literary papyri are important first of all in the study of language4 ,they exhibit the language of everyday life1 as distinguished from the language of literature4 ,the language of literature always differs more or less from the language used on the street1 and the difference was particularly wide in the ,greek of the ,hellenistic period4 ,the books of the time were modeled to a considerable extent upon the ancient classics1 but the actual spoken language had been changing4 ,hence the literary language had become exceedingly artificial4 ,up to within the last few years1 the literary language alone could be studied4 ,the books of the period were preserved1 but the language of daily life was gone4 ,now1 however1 the papyri supply what was lacking4 ,in them there is no attempt at style4 ,they are composed in the language which was employed in the ordinary affairs of life and preserve the actual spoken language of every day4 ,at this point a remarkable fact must be noticed4 ,the language of the ,new ,testament is more like the language of the non-literary papyri than it is like the language of contemporary literature4 ,the papyri indicate1 therefore1 that the ,new ,testament is composed in the natural living language of the time rather than according to the canons of an artificial rhetoric4 ,the artlessness of the ,new ,testament has sometimes been regarded as a reproach4 ,instead1 it is a cause for rejoicing4 ,the simplicity of the gospel would only be concealed by niceties of style4 ,the greatness of the ,new ,testament is independent of literary art4 ,it would be a mistake1 however1 to suppose that the ,new ,testament1 because it is composed in the language of the people1 is characterized by anything like cheapness or vulgarity4 ,on the contrary its simplicity is the noble simplicity of truth4 ,in the ,new ,testament the spoken language of the ,greco-,roman world1 in all its living freshness1 becomes a worthy vehicle for the sublimest thoughts4 ,the non-literary papyri1 then1 reproduce for us the spoken language of the time as distinguished from the artificial language of literature4 ,but that does not exhaust their importance4 ,they afford a knowledge not only of language1 but also of life4 ,through them ordinary people are revealed in the ordinary relations of every day4 ,in them1 the ancient world has been made to live again4 ,a few examples 7see the book of ,professor ,milligan mentioned at the end of the lesson7 will serve to indicate the character of the papyrus letters4 ,the following boy's letter 7of the second or the third century after ,christ7 is written in very bad grammar1 but is for that reason all the more lifelike4 7,the translation is taken from ,grenfell and ,hunt1 ,oxyrhynchus ,papyri1 ,part i41 p4 #ahf47 ,theon to his father ,theon1 greeting4 ,it was a fine thing of you not to take me with you to the city6 ,if you won't take me with you to ,alexandria ,i won't write you a letter or speak to you or say good-by to you2 and if you go to ,alexandria ,i won't take your hand nor ever greet you again4 ,that is what will happen if you won't take me4 ,mother said to ,archalaus1 ',it quite upsets him to be left behind 7874' ,it was good of you to send me presents 444 on the #abth1 the day you sailed4 ,send me a lyre1 ,i implore you4 ,if you don't1 ,i won't eat1 ,i won't drink2 there now6 ,the following invitation to dinner1 of the second century after ,christ1 throws light upon ,i ,corinthians 7the translation taken from ,professor ,milligan73 ,antonius1 son of ,ptolemus1 invites you to dine with him at the table of the lord ,serapis in the house of ,claudius ,serapion on the #afth at #i o'clock4 ,the lord ,serapis is a god4 ,even an ordinary dinner party seems thus to be regarded as the table of ,serapis4 ,under such conditions the ,christian life must have been hard to lead4 ,no wonder the ,corinthian ,christians had to ask ,paul questions4 ,even the ordinary affairs of life were intimately connected with a false religion4 ,what should the attitude of the ,christians be8 ,where should they draw the line in associating with their heathen friends8 #d4 ,a ,,real ,,gospel ,,in ,a ,,real ,,world ,the people that are introduced to us so intimately in the papyri are probably very fair representatives of the people among whom the gospel was first proclaimed4 ,in that cosmopolitan age the society of ,egyptian towns was probably not so very different from that of ,corinth4 ,the people of the papyri are not the great men of the time2 they are just plain folk4 ,but the early ,christians were also usually not of exalted social position1 though there were exceptions4 ,not many wise after the flesh1 not many mighty1 not many noble were called4 ,i ,cor4 #a3bf4 ,many of the early ,christians were slaves1 many were humble tradesmen4 ,the same classes appear in the papyri4 ,in the papyri we are introduced into the private lives of the men to whom the gospel was proclaimed4 ,seeing1 but unseen1 hidden as by a magic cap1 we watch them in their most intimate affairs4 ,and we come away with a new feeling of the reality of early ,christian history4 ,these men were not so very different from ourselves4 ,they were real men and women1 living in a real world4 ,and they needed a real gospel4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible1 extra volume3 ,ramsay1 article on ,religion of ,greece1 pp4 #aji-aef1 especially pp4 #ace-aef4 ,milligan1 ,selections from the ,greek ,papyri1 7with translations74 ,deissmann1 ,the ,philology of the ,greek ,bible1 pp4 #a-fc1 #add-adg4 ,ramsay1 ,the ,cities of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #a-dg4 ,browning1 ,cleon1 7vol4 iv1 pp4 #aae-abb of the ,riverside ,edition47 ,,lesson ,,iv ,,the ,,jewish ,,background ,,of ,,christianity ,i4 ,,palestinian ,,judaism #a4 ,,sources ,the ,new ,testament is one of the chief sources of information about the ,palestinian ,judaism of the first century4 ,other important sources are the works of ,josephus1 a first-century ,jewish historian1 and the ,mishna4 ,the ,mishna is a collection of ,jewish interpretations of the ,mosaic law4 ,in its written form it is thought to have been produced at the end of the second century1 but it contains a mass of earlier material which had been preserved by oral tradition4 #b4 ,,outline ,,of ,,jewish ,,history ,after the conclusion of the ,old ,testament period the ,jewish nation had undergone important changes4 ,if1 therefore1 the ,judaism of the first century is to be understood1 the student must have in mind at least a bare outline of the history between the ,testaments4 ,old ,testament history closes with the rebuilding of the walls of ,jerusalem and the reorganization of the national life which took place under ,ezra and ,nehemiah in the fifth century before ,christ4 ,at that time ,judah1 or ,judea1 was the only part of ,palestine which was occupied by the ,jews1 and they occupied it only as vassals--though with independence in internal affairs--of the kings of ,persia4 ,the ,persian dominion continued for over a century4 ,then1 in the latter part of the fourth century before ,christ1 ,judea was conquered by ,alexander the ,great4 ,for some hundred years after the death of ,alexander1 the country was a bone of contention between the kings of ,egypt and the kings of ,syria--that is1 between the ,ptolemies and the ,seleucids4 ,at the beginning of the second century before ,christ the king of ,syria won a permanent victory4 ,under the ,ptolemies and at first under the ,seleucids1 as well as under the ,persians1 the ,jews enjoyed a considerable measure of independence in the management of their own affairs4 ,their religion1 in particular1 was left quite unmolested4 ,but the assimilation which was not being accomplished by force was being accomplished by peaceful influences4 ,the all-pervasive ,greek culture of the period was making itself felt in ,palestine as well as elsewhere4 ,judea seemed to be in danger of being ,hellenized4 ,under the reign of ,antiochus ,epiphanes of ,syria 7#age-afd ,b4 ,c471 however1 the policy of toleration was suddenly interrupted4 ,antiochus tried to stamp out the ,jewish religion by force4 ,the result was a heroic uprising led by ,mattathias and his sons1 who are called the ,maccabees4 ,the tyranny of ,antiochus had caused a mighty popular reaction against the ,hellenizing party among the ,jews4 ,devotion to the religion of ,israel with exclusion of foreign influences was ever afterwards the dominant tendency in ,jewish history4 ,the ,maccabees were at first wonderfully successful against overwhelming odds2 and when the opposing forces seemed at last to have become too powerful1 internal conflicts at the ,syrian court gave the ,jewish patriots that independence which they could probably not otherwise have maintained4 ,rulers belonging to the ,maccabean dynasty governed the ,jewish nation for about a hundred years1 during most of which period they were independent4 ,their territory at first embraced only ,judea1 but was gradually enlarged over the other parts of ,palestine4 ,galilee1 which--since the destruction of the northern ,israelitish kingdom centuries before--had become predominantly ,gentile1 was ,judaized under ,aristobulus ,i in #ajd-ajc ,b4 ,c4 ,before the time of ,christ it had become thoroughly ,jewish4 ,unfortunately the worldly power of the ,maccabees had brought worldliness of spirit4 ,the first revolt had been undertaken from a lofty religious motive1 in order to maintain the worship of ,jehovah4 ,as the years went on1 the ,maccabean rulers became increasingly engrossed in the extension of political power4 ,allying themselves with the aristocratic party among the ,jews1 they came to favor the extension of those ,greek influences--though not in the sphere of religion--which at first they had opposed4 ,under ,queen ,alexandra 7#gf-fg ,b4 ,c47 it is true1 there was a reaction4 ,the strictly ,jewish1 anti-,hellenistic party again became dominant4 ,but under ,alexandra's successors there was civil strife1 and the all-conquering ,romans found the country an easy prey4 ,pompey took possession of ,jerusalem in #fc ,b4 ,c4 ,the years that followed saw the gradual rise of the family of ,herod the ,great1 who1 as vassal of the ,romans1 became king of all ,palestine in #cg ,b4 ,c4 and ruled until #d ,b4 ,c4 ,herod was an ,iduman1 not a genuine ,jew4 ,iduma1 however1 the country to the south of ,judah1 had been ,judaized some time before4 ,herod was at heart a ,hellenist4 ,he built ,greek theaters and amphitheaters not only in the numerous ,greek cities in or near ,palestine1 but also in ,jerusalem itself4 ,nevertheless he was wise enough to support the ,jewish religion and generally to respect the customs of the people4 ,his magnificent rebuilding of the temple was probably intended chiefly to win popular favor4 ,at ,herod's death1 his territory was divided among his sons4 ,archelaus was given ,judea1 ,antipas--the ,herod of ,jesus' public ministry--received ,galilee and ,perea1 with the title of ,tetrarch1 and ,philip received certain territories to the east of ,galilee4 ,archelaus was banished in ,a4 ,d4 #f1 ,antipas was banished in ,a4 ,d4 #ci1 and ,philip died in ,a4 ,d4 #cc4 ,after the banishment of ,archelaus1 ,judea was administered by ,roman procurators till ,a4 ,d4 #da1 when all ,palestine was given to ,herod ,agrippa ,i4 ,acts #ab3a-d1ah-bc4 ,after ,a4 ,d4 #dd1 procurators were again in control4 ,the misgovernment of the procurators led to the great revolt in ,a4 ,d4 #ff4 ,after four years of war1 ,jerusalem was taken by the ,roman army in ,a4 ,d4 #gj4 ,the temple was destroyed1 and the offering of sacrifices ceased4 ,the destruction of the temple marks an epoch in ,jewish history4 ,henceforth the national center was gone4 ,there was another uprising in ,a4 ,d4 #acb-ace1 but that was the last4 ,a ,gentile city was erected on the ruins of ,jerusalem1 and for a considerable time at least the ,jews were forbidden even to enter its precincts4 #c4 ,,administration ,,and ,,parties ,after the return from the ,exile1 the priests occupied a position of leadership4 ,the high priest1 whose office was hereditary1 was practically head of the ,jewish state4 ,with him was associated a council1 composed of members of the priestly aristocracy4 ,this state of affairs prevailed during the ,persian and ,greek periods4 ,under the ,maccabees the power of the high priest reached its highest point4 ,for after a time the ,maccabean rulers themselves assumed the title of high priest1 and still later the title of king4 ,the high priest1 then1 under the ,maccabees1 was also king4 ,under ,herod the ,great1 on the contrary1 the high priesthood sank to its lowest ebb4 ,herod made and unmade high priests at pleasure4 ,the council associated with the high priest was1 under ,alexandra1 opened to the members of the strict anti-,hellenistic party4 ,at the time of ,christ it included both ,pharisees and ,sadducees4 ,these parties became distinct at the time of the ,maccabees4 ,the ,sadducees--the origin of the name is not altogether clear--were the aristocratic party1 hospitable to ,greek culture4 ,the ,pharisees were the strict ,jewish party1 devoted to the law1 and opposed to foreign influences4 ,the name ,pharisee means separated4 ,the ,pharisees were separated from the mass of the people by a stricter observance of the ,mosaic law4 ,at first the ,pharisees supported the ,maccabean leaders2 for the ,maccabean revolt was in the interests of the ,jewish religion4 ,but when the ,maccabees became engrossed in worldly politics and susceptible to ,greek influences the ,pharisees opposed them4 ,at the time of ,christ the essential characteristics of the parties remained unchanged4 #d4 ,,language ,some centuries before ,christ1 ,hebrew had ceased to be the ordinary language of ,palestine4 ,as the language of the ,old ,testament it continued to be studied4 ,old ,testament passages in ,hebrew were read in the synagogue4 ,hebrew was used also to some extent as the language of learned discussion4 ,but for all ordinary purposes its place had been taken by ,aramaic1 a language of the ,semitic family closely related to ,hebrew4 ,at the time of ,christ ,aramaic was the spoken language of the ,palestinian ,jews4 ,even in the synagogues1 the ,old ,testament passages1 after having been read in ,hebrew1 were translated orally into the language which the people could understand4 ,but1 since the time of ,alexander the ,great1 another language had made its way into ,palestine along with ,aramaic4 ,this was the ,greek4 ,the kingdoms into which ,alexander's empire was divided were ,greek kingdoms4 ,two of them1 ,syria and ,egypt1 bore rule alternately over ,palestine4 ,with the ,greek government came ,greek culture and the ,greek language4 ,then1 under ,antiochus ,epiphanes1 there was a mighty reaction4 ,thereafter religion1 at least1 was kept altogether free from ,greek influences4 ,in other spheres1 however1 under the ,maccabean kings and still more under the ,romans1 ,greek culture effected an entrance4 ,at the time of ,christ there were typical ,greek cities not only to the east of the ,jordan in ,decapolis1 where magnificent ruins even to-day attest the ancient ,greco-,roman civilization1 and not only along the coast of the ,mediterranean1 but even within the confines of ,palestine proper4 ,with some truth ,palestine in the first century may be called a bilingual country4 ,greek and ,aramaic were both in use4 ,aramaic was the language of the mass of the people4 ,many1 no doubt1 could speak no other language4 ,but if a man desired to make his way in the world in any public capacity or in trade he would be obliged to learn the cosmopolitan language of the time4 ,no doubt very many could speak both languages4 ,jesus and his apostles belonged to those circles which were least affected by the encroachments of ,greek civilization4 ,the whole atmosphere of the ,gospels is as un-,greek as could be imagined4 ,as is proved by the presence of ,aramaic words even in our ,greek ,gospels1 ,aramaic was undoubtedly the language in which the gospel was originally proclaimed4 ,aramaic was the language of ,jesus' boyhood home1 and ,aramaic was the language of his intercourse with the disciples and of his public preaching4 ,it is perfectly possible1 however1 that even ,jesus may have used ,greek upon rare occasions1 for example in conversation with ,pilate1 the ,roman procurator4 ,his disciples1 after the resurrection1 found themselves at the head of a ,greek-speaking community4 ,the early ,church in ,jerusalem was composed not only of ,hebrews1 but also of ,grecians1 or ,hellenists4 ,acts #f3a4 ,the ,hellenists were ,greek-speaking ,jews of the dispersion who were sojourning more or less permanently in the holy city4 ,the apostles seem to have entered upon their new functions without difficulty4 ,some knowledge of ,greek1 no doubt1 all of them brought with them from their ,galilean homes1 and their knowledge would be increased through practice4 ,it is not surprising then that several of the original apostles and two of the brothers of ,jesus were the authors of ,greek books of the ,new ,testament4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,riggs1 ,a ,history of the ,jewish ,people1 especially pp4 #aje-aaf1 #adc-aec1 #bae-bca4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,council1 ,pharisees1 ,sadducees1 ,synagogue1 ,school1 ,scribe1 ,aramaic1 and ,hebrew4 ,the outline of ,jewish history and institutions which is provided in the lesson helps for this lesson and the following is dependent especially upon the large ,german work of ,schrer4 ,,lesson ,v ,,the ,,jewish ,,background ,,of ,,christianity ,,ii4 ,,the ,,judaism ,,of ,,the ,,dispersion ,the presentation of the lesson in class may be begun somewhat in the manner suggested in the ,student's ,text ,book4 ,the student should be made to appreciate the practical problem of a missionary in a new city4 ,various solutions of the problem may be adopted4 ,the missionary may simply engage in conversation with individuals in the street1 or he may hire a room and advertise his preaching4 ,in any case the securing of an audience is usually no easy matter4 ,it is difficult to know how to begin4 ,the case might naturally have been the same with ,paul and his companions when1 for example1 after the journey up from ,perga they arrived at ,pisidian ,antioch4 ,complete strangers were perhaps not much better received in those days than they are now4 ,how could the missionaries get a hearing for their message8 ,in some cases1 they might simply take their stand in the market place and talk to the passers-by4 ,paul tried that method in ,athens4 ,it might do when nothing better offered4 ,but fortunately there was usually a far better opportunity4 ,the synagogue offered an audience4 ,what is more1 it offered just exactly the most promising audience that could possibly have been secured4 ,the scene in the synagogue at ,pisidian ,antioch is typical of what happened again and again4 ,the student should be made to appreciate the remarkable liberality and informality of the synagogue customs4 ,there seem to have been no set preachers4 ,any ,jew who really had a message could be heard4 ,he needed only to go in and sit down4 ,acts #ac3ad4 ,paul and ,barnabas had no difficulty in making their fitness known4 ,brethren1 said the rulers of the synagogue1 if ye have any word of exhortation for the people1 say on4 ,acts #ac3ae4 ,they had a word of exhortation indeed4 ,jesus is the ,messiah for whom you are waiting4 ,he has died for your sins4 ,he has risen from the dead1 and is now alive to save you4 ,it was a powerful word1 and it bore fruit4 ,the native ,jews1 it is true1 soon came out in opposition4 ,the reasons for their opposition are not far to seek4 ,jealousy was an important factor4 ,christianity was evidently too radical a thing to be simply a sect of ,judaism4 ,if allowed to continue1 it would destroy the prerogatives of ,israel4 ,it could not be controlled4 ,its success was too great4 ,on that next ,sabbath in ,pisidian ,antioch1 almost the whole city was gathered together to hear the word of ,god4 ,the ,jewish mission had never had a success like that4 ,when the ,jews saw the multitudes1 they were filled with jealousy4 ,christianity had taken away the heritage of ,israel4 ,in one way the ,jewish opposition displayed genuine insight into the situation4 ,christianity was really destined to be a fatal rival to the older ,judaism4 ,what took place on a small scale at ,antioch was repeated on the larger stage of history4 ,when the ,christian mission began1 ,judaism was a successful missionary religion4 ,soon afterwards it had withdrawn hopelessly into its age-long isolation4 ,various causes contributed to this result4 ,the destruction of the national life in ,palestine and the increasing influence of the strict rabbinical schools both had an important part4 ,but at least one factor in the process was the competition of the ,christian ,church4 ,christianity offered the world everything that ,judaism could offer1 and more4 ,it offered the knowledge of the one ,god1 and the lofty morality1 and the authoritative ,book4 ,in addition1 it offered a way of redemption--and the men of that time were preminently seekers after redemption--through the sacrifice of ,christ4 ,it offered all these things1 moreover1 without requiring any relinquishment of purely national characteristics4 ,christianity did not demand union with any one race4 ,it had a gospel for the world4 ,no wonder1 then1 that those who had been attracted by ,judaism now became adherents of ,christianity4 ,the ,jews were filled with envy4 ,it was natural from their point of view1 but it was a sad mistake4 ,had they themselves accepted the gospel1 the gospel would have been to their glory4 ,how glorious was the mission of ,israel6 ,a blessing to the whole world6 ,far better than any narrow particularism6 ,but they were not willing to accept the message4 ,nevertheless1 despite their opposition1 the ,church should not forget the debt which she owes to ,israel4 ,the dispersion was like the ,judaism of ,palestine4 ,in both cases the men themselves were opposed to the gospel4 ,but in both cases they had preserved the deposit of divine truth4 ,judaism1 despite itself1 opened the way for the ,christian ,church4 ,one service which the dispersion rendered to ,christianity has been illustrated by the scene at ,pisidian ,antioch4 ,that service was the providing of an audience4 ,another service was the assurance of legal protection4 ,this may be illustrated by another incident in ,the ,acts--the appeal to ,gallio4 ,acts #ah3ab-ag4 ,there the opposition of the ,jews appears in all its bitterness4 ,no doubt that opposition was a serious hindrance to the work of the ,church4 ,just because ,christianity was regarded as a ,jewish sect1 the ,christians were subject to persecution by the ,jewish authorities4 ,but persecutions by the ,jews1 annoying though they were1 were far less serious than opposition on the part of the ,roman authorities4 ,and the latter was1 at first1 conspicuously absent4 ,gallio's decision is a fair example of the general attitude of the ,roman magistrates4 ,christianity1 as a ,jewish sect1 was allowed to go its way4 ,judaism1 despite itself1 afforded the ,church legal protection4 ,beginning with these two striking scenes1 the teacher may proceed to the more general presentation of the lesson4 ,in what follows1 the outline of the ,student's ,text ,book will be supplemented at one or two points4 #a4 ,,the ,,causes ,,and ,,extent ,,of ,,the ,,dispersion ,deportations of ,jews to foreign countries took place at various times4 ,the most famous of those deportations was carried out by ,nebuchadnezzar after his conquest of ,judah1 about #fjj ,b4 ,c4 ,many of ,nebuchadnezzar's captives did not join in the return under the ,persian monarchy1 but remained permanently in the east and formed the nucleus of the large ,jewish population of ,mesopotamia4 ,when ,pompey conquered ,palestine in the first century before ,christ1 he carried many ,jews as slaves to ,rome4 ,afterwards they were liberated1 and formed a large ,jewish colony at the capital of the empire4 ,these are merely examples4 ,part of the dispersion was due to forcible exile4 ,other causes have been mentioned in the ,student's ,text ,book4 ,it is a question1 however1 whether all of these causes combined are sufficient to account for the extraordinary growth of the dispersion4 ,schrer believes that the vastness of the ,jewish population presupposes the merging of large bodies of proselytes into the ,jewish people4 ,he also believes1 however1 that these thoroughgoing conversions were less numerous in ,new ,testament times than they had been before4 ,harnack calculates that at the time of the death of ,augustus there were from four million to four and a half million ,jews in the ,roman ,empire1 including about seven hundred thousand in ,palestine1 and that1 if that estimate be correct1 then the ,jews formed perhaps some seven per cent of the total population4 ,of course1 ,harnack is himself the first to admit that such calculations are exceedingly uncertain4 ,but so much at least is clear--the ,jews in the first century were surprisingly numerous4 #b4 ,,the ,,septuagint ,,translation ,,and ,,the ,,language ,,of ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,the name ,septuagint1 derived from the ,latin word for seventy1 has been applied to the ,alexandrian translation of the ,old ,testament in reference to an ancient story about its origin4 ,according to this story1 the translation was made by seventy-two men summoned from ,jerusalem by ,ptolemy ,philadelphus1 king of ,egypt1 in order to add the ,jewish law to the royal library at ,alexandria4 ,the story is certainly not true in details1 and is probably not even correct in representing the translation as destined primarily for the royal library4 ,more probably the translation was intended for the ,greek-speaking ,jews of ,egypt4 ,the ,septuagint is a translation of the ,hebrew ,old ,testament into the ,greek world language of the period1 and into the popular1 spoken form of that language1 not into the literary form4 ,the translation differs widely in character in the different books1 for many different translators had a part in it4 ,some of the books are translated with such slavish literalness as to be almost unintelligible to a ,greek4 ,everywhere1 indeed1 the influence of the ,hebrew original makes itself felt to some degree4 ,hebrew idioms are often copied in the translation instead of being remolded according to the peculiarities of the ,greek language4 ,the ,septuagint exerted an important influence upon the language of the ,new ,testament4 ,the ,septuagint was the ,greek ,bible of the ,new ,testament writers1 and the influence of a ,bible upon language is very strong4 ,a good example is afforded by the influence of the ,king ,james ,version upon the whole development of modern ,english4 ,it is not surprising1 therefore1 that as the ,septuagint was influenced by ,hebrew1 so the language of the ,new ,testament also displays a ,semitic coloring4 ,that coloring was induced partly by the ,septuagint1 but it was also induced in other ways4 ,part of the ,new ,testament1 for example the words of ,jesus1 goes back ultimately to an ,aramaic original4 ,all the ,new ,testament writers except one were ,jews1 and had spoken ,aramaic as well as ,greek4 ,no wonder1 then1 that their ,greek was influenced by the ,semitic languages4 ,this ,semitic influence upon the language of the ,new ,testament is not so great as was formerly supposed1 but it cannot be ignored4 ,the ,new ,testament is written in the natural1 non-literary form of the ,greek world language4 ,that is the main thing to be said4 ,but upon this base is superposed an appreciable influence of ,hebrew and ,aramaic4 ,the importance of the ,septuagint for the early ,christian mission was inestimable4 ,every pioneer missionary knows how difficult it is to create the vocabulary necessary to express new religious ideas4 ,in the case of the earliest ,christian mission1 that labor had already been done4 ,it had been done by the ,jews of ,alexandria4 ,by the ,septuagint1 the great ideas of the ,old ,testament--and upon these ideas ,christianity was based--had already been put into a ,greek form4 ,the ,christian ,church needed only to develop what had been begun4 ,the ,church made good use of her opportunity4 ,the influence of the ,septuagint upon the religious vocabulary of the ,new ,testament writers was profound4 ,the ,septuagint had provided a vocabulary which was understood already by great masses of people--by the ,jews of the dispersion and by the hosts of the ,god-worshipers who attended the synagogues4 ,naturally the ,christian missionaries used the words which people could understand4 #c4 ,,conclusion ,the ,judaism of the dispersion was a wonderful preparation for the gospel4 ,israel ought to be regarded with gratitude and sympathy4 ,but the ultimate object of gratitude is ,god4 ,the ,church was founded in a time of opportunity4 ,the ,roman ,government had brought peace4 ,the ,greek language had welded the nations together4 ,the dispersion of the ,jews had prepared the way4 ,these things did not come by chance4 ,the nations were instruments in the hand of ,god4 ,but instruments for what8 ,a mighty1 age-long plan6 ,centuries of preparation6 ,at last the ,saviour came4 ,but did he come for naught8 ,or is he ,saviour of you and me8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,edersheim 7revised by ,white71 ,history of the ,jewish ,nation1 pp4 #de-gi4 ,the ,jewish ,encyclopedia3 ,reinach1 article on ,diaspora4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,schrer1 article on ,diaspora1 extra volume1 pp4 #ia-aji4 ,,lesson ,,vi ,,the ,,messiah ,the teaching of this lesson may be begun with ,acts #b3ag-ba4 ,surely the outpouring of the ,spirit on the day of ,pentecost was something new4 ,yet even that was explained by a reference to prophecy4 ,and the reference is of remarkable aptness and beauty4 ,the ,pentecostal speech of ,peter is full of the appeal to prophecy4 ,primarily1 indeed1 the claims of ,jesus are supported by the direct testimony to his resurrection4 ,without the facts1 of course appeal to prophecy would have been useless2 for it was just the wonderful correspondence of the facts with the prophecies that could induce belief4 ,along with the direct testimony to the facts went the appeal to prophecy4 ,the promised king of ,david's line at last has come4 ,acts #b3cj2 ,,ii ,sam4 #g3ab1ac2 ,ps4 #hi3c1d2 #acb3aa4 ,and ,david's son is ,david's ,lord--,david's ,lord and ours4 ,acts #b3cd1ce2 ,ps4 #aaj3a2 compare ,matt4 #bb3da-df4 #a4 ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,,appeal ,,to ,,prophecy ,this speech of ,peter is typical of the preaching of the early ,church4 ,the appeal to prophecy was absolutely central in the presentation of the gospel4 ,proof of that fact does not need to be sought4 ,it is written plain on the pages of the ,new ,testament4 ,old ,testament prophecy was found to apply not merely to one side of the work of ,christ1 but to all sides4 ,israel had looked not merely for a king1 but also for a prophet and a priest4 ,peter1 after his first arrest1 for example1 could appeal to the notable prophecy of ,deuteronomy3 ,a prophet shall the ,lord ,god raise up unto you from among your brethren1 like unto me4 ,acts #c3bb2 ,deut4 #ah3ae1ai4 ,the author of ,hebrews could appeal to the priest after the order of ,melchizedek1 ,heb4 #e3f2 ,ps4 #aaj3d1 and to the symbolic sacrifices of the temple which found their fulfillment on ,calvary4 ,the appeal to prophecy extended even to those things which were most distinctive of the ,christian message4 ,i delivered unto you first of all1 says ,paul1 that which also ,i received3 that ,christ died for our sins according to the scriptures2 and that he was buried2 and that he hath been raised on the third day according to the scriptures4 ,i ,cor4 #ae3c1d4 ,here the death and the resurrection of ,christ are both declared to be according to the ,scriptures4 ,that means that they were the subject of prophecy4 ,but the death and the resurrection of ,christ were the fundamental elements of the gospel4 ,the gospel1 then1 in the form of prophecy1 is to be found in the ,old ,testament4 ,what ,old ,testament passages has ,paul here in mind8 ,with regard to the death for our sins1 the fifty-third chapter of ,isaiah was probably in his mind4 ,that passage was being read by the ,ethiopian when ,philip met him1 and ,philip made the passage a basis for preaching about ,jesus4 ,acts #h3bg-ce4 ,with regard to the resurrection1 it is natural to think of ,ps4 #af3aj4 ,paul himself quoted that passage in his speech at ,pisidian ,antioch4 ,acts #ac3cd-cg4 ,the appeal to prophecy did not begin with the apostles4 ,it was initiated by ,jesus himself4 ,to-day1 said ,jesus at ,nazareth after the reading of ,isa4 #fa3a1b1 hath this scripture been fulfilled in your ears4 ,a large claim6 ,no wonder they found it difficult to accept4 ,when ,john the ,baptist asked1 ,art thou he that cometh1 or look we for another8 it was to the works of the ,christ that ,jesus appealed4 ,matt4 #aa3b-f2 ,isa4 #ce3e1f2 #fa3a4 ,these are merely examples4 ,throughout1 ,jesus represented himself and his kingdom as the fulfillment of the ancient promise4 ,o foolish men1 he said to the disciples on the way to ,emmaus1 and slow of heart to believe in all that the prophets have spoken6 ,behooved it not the ,christ to suffer these things1 and to enter into his glory8 ,and beginning from ,moses and from all the prophets1 he interpreted to them in all the scriptures the things concerning himself4 ,luke #bd3be-bg4 #b4 ,,the ,,messianic ,,hope ,a ,,preparation ,,for ,,the ,,gospel ,when the gospel was preached to pure ,gentiles1 a great deal of preliminary labor had to be done4 ,under what title should the claims of the ,saviour be presented8 ,christ to the ,gentiles was almost meaningless1 till explained4 ,son of ,god was open to sad misconception4 ,there were sons of ,god in ,greek mythology1 but they were not what the early ,christians meant to show that ,jesus was4 ,these difficulties were overcome1 and speedily4 ,gentile ,christians were imbued with a lofty and adequate conception of the ,lord4 ,the labor was great1 but it was gloriously accomplished4 ,in this labor1 however1 the missionaries were assisted by the synagogues of the ,jews4 ,in the synagogues1 ,christ was no new term1 and no new conception4 ,in the synagogues1 one proposition needed first to be proved1 ,this ,jesus 444 is the ,christ4 ,acts #ag3c4 ,if that were proved1 then the rest would follow4 ,the ,jews knew that the ,messiah was ,lord and ,master4 ,identify ,jesus with him1 and all the lofty claims of ,jesus would be substantiated4 ,how the identity was established may be observed in the speech of ,peter on the day of ,pentecost1 or in the speech of ,paul at ,pisidian ,antioch4 ,acts #ac3af-dc4 ,it will be remembered that the synagogues attracted not merely ,jews but also ,gentiles4 ,the ,gentile ,god-fearers1 as well as the ,jews1 were acquainted with the ,messianic hope4 ,even the ,gentile mission1 therefore1 was prepared for by the prophets of ,israel4 #c4 ,,the ,,permanent ,,value ,,of ,,prophecy ,the appeal to prophecy1 however1 was not merely valuable to the early ,church4 ,it is of abiding worth4 ,it represents ,jesus as the culmination of a divine purpose4 ,the hope of ,israel was in itself a proof of revelation1 because it was so unlike the religious conceptions of other nations4 ,the covenant people1 the righteous king1 the living ,god1 the world-wide mission--that is the glory of ,israel4 ,the promise is itself a proof4 ,but still more the fulfillment4 ,the fulfillment was an unfolding4 ,wonderful correspondence in detail--and far more wonderful the correspondence of the whole6 ,the promise was manifold4 ,sometimes the ,messiah is in the foreground4 ,sometimes he is out of sight4 ,sometimes there is a human king1 sometimes ,jehovah himself coming to judgment2 sometimes a kingdom1 sometimes a new covenant in the heart2 sometimes a fruitful ,canaan1 sometimes a new heaven and a new earth4 ,but manifold though the promise1 ,christ is the fulfillment of it all4 ,how many soever be the promises of ,god1 in ,christ is the yea4 ,,ii ,cor4 #a3bj4 ,there is the wonder4 ,in ,christ the apparent contradictions of the promise become glorious unity1 in ,christ the deeper mysteries of the promise are revealed4 ,christ the keystone of the arch6 ,christ the culmination of a divine plan6 ,that is the witness of the prophets4 ,it is a witness worth having4 #d4 ,,the ,,messianic ,,hope ,,of ,,later ,,judaism ,after the close of the ,old ,testament1 the promise did not die4 ,it was preserved in the ,scriptures4 ,it continued to be the life of the ,jewish nation4 ,but it was not only preserved4 ,it was also interpreted4 ,some of the interpretation was false1 but much of it was true4 ,the ,jewish interpretation of the ,old ,testament promise is worthy of attention4 ,what did the ,jews of the first century mean by the ,messiah1 and what did they mean by the ,messianic age8 ,in the first place1 they retained the hope of a king of ,david's line--a human king who should conquer the enemies of ,israel4 ,when it was held in a one-sided form this was a dangerous hope4 ,it led logically to materialistic conceptions of the kingdom of ,god and to political unrest4 ,it led to the effort of the ,jews to take ,jesus by force and make him a king4 ,john #f3ae4 ,it led to the quarrel of the disciples about the chief places in the kingdom4 ,matt4 #ah3a-d2 ,mark #i3cc-ce2 ,luke #i3df1dg4 ,this conception of the ,messiah had to be corrected by ,jesus4 ,my kingdom is not of this world4 ,john #ah3cf4 ,yet even where the ,messiah was conceived of as an earthly ruler1 the spiritual hope was by no means always and altogether lost4 ,the ,psalms of ,solomon1 for example1 ,pharisaic psalms of the first century before ,christ1 though they look for an earthly ruler1 picture him as one who shall rule in righteousness4 ,and a righteous king and taught of ,god is he that reigneth over them2 ,and there shall be no iniquity in his days in their midst1 for all shall be holy and their king is the ,lord ,messiah 7,ps4 ,sol4 xvii1 #ce1 #cf4 ,see ,ryle and ,james1 ,psalms of the ,pharisees1 especially pp4 #acg-adg74 ,no iniquity in the days of the ,messiah6 ,that is true understanding of the ,old ,testament1 even joined with the political ideal4 ,in the second place1 however1 the ,messianic age is sometimes in later ,judaism conceived of as purely supernatural4 ,the ,messiah is not an earthly ruler1 merely helped by ,god1 but himself a heavenly being1 a prexistent ,son of ,man1 judge of all the earth4 ,the ,messianic age is ushered in not by human warfare1 but by a mighty catastrophic act of ,god4 ,not a liberated ,canaan is here the ideal1 but a new heaven and a new earth4 ,this transcendental1 supernaturalistic form of the ,messianic hope appears in the ,book of ,enoch and other apocalypses4 ,its details are fantastic1 but it was by no means altogether wrong4 ,in many respects it was a correct interpretation of the divine promise4 ,the new heavens and the new earth are derived from ,isa4 #fe3ag4 ,the doctrine of the two ages was accepted by ,jesus and by ,paul--for example ,matt4 #ab3cb2 ,gal4 #a3d2 ,eph4 #a3ba4 ,the heavenly ,son of ,man goes back to ,dan4 #g3ac1ad4 ,the ,book of ,enoch was not altogether wrong4 ,its use of the title ,son of ,man prepared for the title which ,jesus used4 ,finally1 the ,messianic hope was held in a pure and lofty form by the poor of the land--simple folk like those who appear in the first two chapters of ,luke4 ,in the hymns of ,mary and ,zacharias and ,simeon1 purely political and materialistic conceptions are in the background1 and the speculations of the apocalypses do not appear4 ,the highest elements of prophecy are made prominent4 ,for mine eyes have seen thy salvation1 which thou hast prepared before the face of all peoples2 a light for revelation to the ,gentiles1 and the glory of thy people ,israel4 ,luke #b3cj-cb4 ,in those circles1 the hope of ,israel burned still and pure4 ,later ,judaism thus preserved the manifoldness of prophecy4 ,there was exaggeration and there was one-sidedness2 but in ,judaism as a whole the promise was preserved4 ,one element at most was forgotten--the suffering servant and his sacrificial death4 ,the death of the ,messiah was no easy conception4 ,the disciples had difficulty with it4 ,when ,peter heard of it1 he took ,jesus1 and began to rebuke him4 ,matt4 #af3bb4 ,the lesson was not easy1 but it had to be learned4 ,and it was worth learning4 ,the cross is the heart of the gospel4 ,thus in ,jesus nothing was left out1 except what was false4 ,the whole promise was preserved4 ,the revealer of ,god1 the ruler of the kingdom1 the great high priest1 the human deliverer1 the divine ,lord--these are the elements of the promise4 ,they find their union in ,christ4 ,leave one out1 and the promise is mutilated4 ,such mutilation is popular to-day4 ,the whole ,christ seems too wonderful4 ,but the ,church can be satisfied with nothing less4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,beecher1 ,the ,prophets and the ,promise1 pp4 #agc-dbj4 ,,lesson ,,vii ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,acts ,the teaching of the lesson may be begun with some very simple questions4 ,if rightly put1 they will open up a fresh way of looking at a ,new ,testament book4 ,the way will thus be prepared for considering the deeper elements of the lesson4 ,if interest can be aroused in the book itself1 the contents of the book1 in the lessons which follow1 will be studied with much livelier attention4 #a4 ,,authorship ,who wrote the book of ,the ,acts8 ,how do you know8 ,the former question will probably be answered without difficulty1 but the latter may reveal difference of opinion4 ,many of the students will know that ,the ,acts was written by the same man as the ,gospel of ,luke4 ,but that does not settle the question4 ,how do you know that ,luke was written by ,luke8 ,the name does not occur in the ,gospel itself4 ,the title1 ,according to ,luke1 was probably added later4 ,so1 in order to determine the authorship both of ,luke and of ,the ,acts1 recourse must be had to ,christian tradition4 ,fortunately1 however1 tradition in this case is quite unimpeachable4 ,in the first place1 although the author of ,the ,acts is not named in the book1 yet the book is not an anonymous work4 ,undoubtedly the name of the author was known from the beginning4 ,for the book is dedicated to an individual1 ,theophilus4 ,evidently ,theophilus knew who the author was4 ,information about the author could thus be had from the start4 ,if1 therefore1 ,luke did not really write ,the ,acts1 some one has removed the name of the true author and substituted ,luke in place of it4 ,that is an exceedingly unlikely supposition4 ,in the second place1 it is evident quite independently of any tradition that the book was written by an eyewitness of part of ,paul's missionary journeys4 ,this fact appears from the so-called we-sections of the book4 ,in certain portions of the narrative the author uses the first person instead of the third4 ,of this peculiarity there is only one satisfactory explanation4 ,the author uses the first person when he is describing the experiences in which he himself had a part4 ,when1 for example1 the author says1 not1 ,they made a straight course to ,samothrace1 but ,we made a straight course1 ,acts #af3aa1 he means that he was present on that voyage4 ,this natural supposition is confirmed by the character of the we-sections4 ,these sections are full of such a wealth of artless detail that no one but an eyewitness could possibly have written them4 ,the only possible way of avoiding the conclusion that a companion of ,paul wrote the book of ,the ,acts is to maintain that although such a man wrote the we-sections some one else wrote the rest of the book4 ,but that is unlikely in the extreme4 ,if a later author had been simply using as a source a diary of a companion of ,paul1 he would surely either have told us he was quoting1 or else have changed the first person to the third4 ,by leaving the third person in he would simply have been producing nonsense4 ,everyone knew who the author of the book was4 ,the book is dedicated to a definite man4 ,the author evidently could not have palmed himself off as a companion of ,paul even if he would4 ,and if he desired to do it1 he would not have chosen this remarkable way of doing it4 ,of course if he had been a mere thoughtless compiler he might have copied his source with such slavish exactness as to leave the we in without noticing that in the completed work it would produce nonsense4 ,but he was most assuredly not a mere compiler4 ,if he used sources1 he did not use them that way4 ,the book shows a remarkable unity of style4 ,modern research has demonstrated that fact beyond peradventure4 ,there is a remarkable similarity of style between the we-sections and the rest of the book4 ,only one hypothesis1 then1 does justice to the facts4 ,the author of the we-sections was also the author of the whole book4 ,when he comes to those parts of the narrative in which he himself had a part1 he says very naturally we1 instead of they4 ,the book of ,the ,acts1 then1 was written by a companion of ,paul4 ,that fact stands firm1 even apart from any tradition4 ,and that is the really important fact4 ,if the book was written by an eyewitness1 the particular name of the eyewitness is comparatively unimportant4 ,but the tradition as to the name is without doubt correct4 ,there is not the slightest reason for calling it in question4 ,what the book of ,the ,acts itself says about its author fits exactly what ,paul says about ,luke4 #b4 ,,date ,the authorship of ,the ,acts is certain4 ,the date1 however1 is not so clear4 ,the book was written by ,luke4 ,but when was it written8 ,the latter question cannot be answered with perfect precision4 ,at least1 however1 since the book was written by ,luke1 it must have been written during the lifetime of a companion of ,paul4 ,a4 ,d4 #ajj1 for example1 would be too late1 and ,a4 ,d4 #ij would be unlikely4 ,a good deal can be said for putting the date at about ,a4 ,d4 #fc4 ,this early date would explain the abrupt ending of the book4 ,one of the most curious things about ,the ,acts is that the narrative is suddenly broken off just at the most interesting point4 ,the trial of ,paul is narrated at very great length1 but we are not told how it came out4 ,the final decision1 the climax of the whole long narrative1 is just at hand2 but with regard to it we are left altogether in suspense4 ,was ,paul released8 ,was he condemned and executed8 ,the author does not say4 ,his silence requires an explanation4 ,the simplest explanation would be that ,luke wrote his book at the very point of time where the narrative is broken off4 ,of course he could not tell us any more if nothing more had happened4 ,he brought his narrative right up to date4 ,nothing more was possible4 ,it is true1 other explanations may be proposed4 7a7 ,it has been suggested1 for example1 that ,the ,acts closes so abruptly because the author was saving something for another work4 ,as ,the ,acts is the continuation of the ,gospel of ,luke1 so a third work1 it is said1 was planned as the continuation of ,the ,acts4 ,but even so1 it seems rather strange that the author should not have given at least a hint of the outcome of that trial in order to take the edge off our curiosity4 ,he has done something like that at the conclusion of his ,gospel2 why not also at the conclusion of ,the ,acts8 7b7 ,but perhaps the ending is not so abrupt as it looks4 ,the author's purpose1 it is said1 was not to write a biography of ,paul1 but to show how the gospel spread from ,jerusalem to ,rome4 ,when ,rome was reached1 then the narrative was broken off4 ,biographical details--even the most interesting details about the most interesting character--were ruthlessly excluded4 ,the plan of the book had been accomplished4 ,for this explanation there is much to be said4 ,but the trouble with it is that especially in the latter part of the book the author as a matter of fact does show considerable interest in biographical details4 ,the trial and shipwreck of ,paul are narrated with a fullness which is quite out of proportion to the rest of the history4 ,after such a full account of the trial1 it remains rather strange that the author has said not a word about the outcome4 ,either of these last two explanations is perfectly possible4 ,possibly ,the ,acts was written as late as ,a4 ,d4 #hj4 ,but the early date at least explains the peculiar ending best of all4 #c4 ,,sources ,where did ,luke get the materials for his work8 ,did he use written sources as well as oral information8 ,the question has been discussed at very great length1 but without much uniformity in the results4 ,if he used written sources1 at least he used them skillfully1 placing upon them the imprint of his own style4 ,the book possesses genuine unity4 ,the really important fact about the sources of the book of ,the ,acts is a negative fact4 ,whatever the sources were1 the ,pauline epistles were not among them4 ,compare the passages where ,paul and ,luke narrate the same events--for example ,gal41 chs4 #a1 #b1 with the corresponding passages in ,the ,acts--and it becomes evident that the two narratives are entirely independent4 ,luke did not use the ,pauline epistles in writing his book4 ,that is an exceedingly significant fact4 ,it shows that ,the ,acts is an independent witness4 ,what is more1 it strengthens materially the argument for the early date of ,the ,acts4 ,the ,pauline epistles at a very early time began to be collected and used generally in the ,church4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #ajj1 for example1 they would certainly have been used by anyone who was writing an account of ,paul's life4 ,since1 therefore1 the book of ,the ,acts does not use them1 that book must have been written earlier1 and probably very much earlier4 ,even in ,a4 ,d4 #hj1 it would perhaps have been strange that the epistles should not have been used4 #d4 ,,purpose ,the proper purpose of a historian is to tell the truth4 ,and ,luke was a genuine historian4 ,his own account of his method1 ,luke #a3a-d1 shows that he knew the meaning of historical research1 and the character of his books bears this out4 ,luke did not permit any desire of putting ,christianity in a good light1 or of defending one kind of ,christianity against another1 to interfere with the primary duty of truthfulness4 ,that does not mean1 however1 that the book of ,the ,acts is like some modern university dissertations--written simply and solely in order to say some new thing1 whether interesting or no4 ,no great historian goes to work that way4 ,of course ,luke had an interest in his subject matter4 ,of course he was convinced that ,christianity was a great thing1 and was full of enthusiasm in narrating its history4 ,in that he was perfectly right4 ,christianity really was a great thing4 ,the best celebration of its greatness was a narration of the facts4 ,christian faith is based on fact4 ,luke wrote1 not only in the ,gospel but also in ,the ,acts1 in order that his readers might know the certainty concerning the things wherein they were instructed4 ,luke #a3d4 #e4 ,,literary ,,characteristics ,the author of ,the ,acts was well acquainted with the ,old ,testament4 ,he was able to catch the spirit of the primitive ,palestinian church4 ,his books exhibit the influence of the ,semitic languages4 ,but he was also capable of a ,greek style which would have passed muster in the schools of rhetoric4 ,luke #a3a-d1 for example1 is a typical ,greek sentence4 ,evidently ,luke could move with ease in the larger ,greek world of his time4 ,his references to political and social conditions are extraordinarily exact4 ,his narrative is never lacking in local color4 ,he knows the proper titles of the local officials1 and the peculiar quality of the local superstitions4 ,his account of the shipwreck is a mine of information about the seafaring of antiquity4 ,evidently he was a keen observer1 and a true traveler of a cosmopolitan age4 ,his narrative is characterized by a certain delightful urbanity--an urbanity1 however1 which is deepened and ennobled by profound convictions4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,warfield1 ,acts1 ,timothy1 ,titus and ,philemon1 in ,the ,temple ,bible1 pp4 i-xxvii4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves1 article on ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #a-h4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 in ,the ,guild ,text ,books1 pp4 #da-df4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,headlam1 article on ,acts of the ,apostles4 ,,lesson ,,viii ,,the ,,cross ,,and ,,the ,,resurrection ,,the ,,foundation ,,of ,,apostolic ,,preaching #a4 ,,the ,,resurrection ,a ,,fact ,,of ,,history ,which of the books of the ,new ,testament contain the evidence for the resurrection of ,jesus8 ,that question will serve to begin the teaching of the lesson4 ,in answer to it1 the students will probably mention the four ,gospels4 ,to the ,gospels1 however1 should be added especially the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,the passage in ,first ,corinthians is deserving of very careful attention4 ,for1 unlike the ,gospels1 that epistle can be dated to within a year or so4 ,it was written only about twenty-five years after the crucifixion4 ,even though possibly some of the ,gospels were written still earlier1 the precision with which the epistle can be dated makes its witness particularly valuable4 ,furthermore1 the author of the epistle is well known4 ,no one doubts that ,first ,corinthians was written by ,paul1 and ,paul is the best-known man of apostolic times4 ,evidently his witness to the facts is of the utmost value4 ,paul himself was a direct witness of the resurrection4 ,he saw the risen ,lord4 ,i ,cor4 #i3a2 #ae3h4 ,in ,i ,cor4 #ae3a-h1 however1 he does not content himself with his own witness1 but reproduces the testimony of others in an extended list4 ,that testimony had come to ,paul by ordinary word of mouth4 ,i delivered unto you first of all1 says ,paul1 that which also ,i received4 ,in what follows there is a list of the appearances of the risen ,christ4 ,he appeared to ,cephas2 then to the twelve2 then he appeared to above five hundred brethren at once1 of whom the greater part remain until now1 but some are fallen asleep2 then he appeared to ,james2 then to all the apostles2 and last of all1 as to the child untimely born1 he appeared to me also4 ,evidently these appearances are not conceived of merely as visions1 but as events in the external world4 ,the mention of the burial1 v4 #d1 is a plain hint that what ,peter and the rest saw was the body of ,jesus raised from the tomb4 ,that view of the matter is amply confirmed in the ,gospels and in the book of ,the ,acts4 ,in the ,gospels1 we are told that the tomb was found empty on the morning of the third day after the crucifixion4 ,it was found empty by some women and by ,peter and ,john4 ,since the tomb was empty1 the body which appeared to the disciples had some connection with the body which had been taken down from the cross4 ,furthermore1 the ,gospels and ,the ,acts make the bodily character of the appearances abundantly plain4 ,jesus did not merely appear to the disciples at a distance4 ,he walked with them on the road to ,emmaus4 ,he broke bread with them4 ,he came into the very midst of them when they were assembled in a room4 ,thomas could even touch his hands and his side4 ,these are merely examples4 ,clearly the testimony of the disciples is testimony not to mere spiritual experiences1 but to the bodily presence of the ,lord4 ,it may be admitted that the body was a glorified body4 ,after his resurrection ,jesus was freed from the limitations of his earthly life4 ,nevertheless1 he was not merely a spirit4 ,luke #bd3ci4 ,there was some real1 though mysterious1 connection between the glorified body and the body that had been laid in the tomb4 ,the ,new ,testament attests not merely the immortality of ,jesus1 but his resurrection4 ,the resurrection1 in these days1 is hard to accept4 ,for it is a miracle4 ,against any miracle there is a tremendous presumption4 ,in this case1 however1 the presumption has been overcome4 ,it has been overcome by the character of ,jesus4 ,it is in the highest degree unlikely that an ordinary man should rise from the dead2 but it is not unlikely that ,jesus should have risen4 ,the resurrection is unique4 ,but so is the life of ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,the two wonders support one another4 ,explain away the testimony to the resurrection1 and your task is not done4 ,you must also explain away that sinless life4 ,if ,jesus rose from the dead he had a unique experience4 ,but that is to be expected4 ,for ,jesus himself was unlike any other of the children of men4 ,there are mysteries in his life that have never been explained4 ,the resurrection of ,jesus is a well-attested fact of history4 ,the proof of it is cumulative4 ,any one of the proofs might be regarded as insufficient when taken alone1 but when taken together they are overpowering4 ,the sinless1 unearthly character of ,jesus separates him from the rest of men1 so that probabilities which apply to others do not apply to him4 ,his mysterious self-consciousness involves so lofty a claim1 that if he was not divine he was a megalomaniac--he whose calmness and strength have left an impression which the centuries have done nothing to efface6 ,the specific testimonies to the empty tomb and to the plain bodily appearances of the risen ,lord are independent and varied4 ,finally1 unless the resurrection be a fact1 the very origin of the ,christian ,church becomes an insoluble mystery4 ,the resurrection alone can explain the sudden transformation of a company of weak1 discouraged men into the conquerors of the world4 ,the resurrection of ,jesus is a fact of history4 ,it is not an aspiration of the heart4 ,it comes ultimately through the testimony of the senses4 ,the apostles came forward with a piece of plain information4 ,they were witnesses to a fact in the external world4 ,that fact has put a new face upon life4 ,it is good news of salvation4 #b4 ,,the ,,resurrection ,,confirmed ,,by ,,experience ,the resurrection is a fact of history4 ,accept it as true1 and you can have hope for time and for eternity4 ,at this point1 however1 some men experience a difficulty4 ,how can the acceptance of a historical fact satisfy the longing of our souls8 ,must we stake our salvation upon the intricacies of historical research8 ,surely some more immediate certitude is required4 ,the objection would be valid if history stood alone4 ,but history does not stand alone4 ,it has suffered from a false isolation4 ,a ,christian certitude that is founded solely upon history is insufficient4 ,history is necessary1 but not sufficient4 ,we need history1 but we need something else as well4 ,a historical conviction of the resurrection of ,jesus is not the end of faith1 but only the beginning4 ,if faith stops there1 it will never stand the fires of criticism4 ,we are told that ,jesus lives4 ,so much is a matter of testimony1 a matter of history4 ,if we believe the witness1 then we can have hope4 ,but the religious problem of our lives has not yet been solved4 ,jesus lives4 ,but what good is it to us8 ,if he lives1 we need to find him4 ,we need to find him1 and we can find him4 ,we accept the message of the resurrection enough to make trial of it4 ,and making trial of it1 we find that it is true4 ,jesus is found to be alive1 for he makes answer to our prayer1 and heals us4 ,we never could have come to him unless we had accepted the historical evidence for the resurrection4 ,but starting with that historical belief we went on to the blessed experience of salvation4 ,christian experience cannot do without history4 ,but it adds to history that directness1 that immediateness1 that simplicity of conviction1 which delivers us from fear4 ,we began with history4 ,but we went on to experience4 ,now we believe1 not because of thy speaking3 for we have heard for ourselves1 and know that this is indeed the ,saviour of the world4 #c4 ,,the ,,death ,jesus is alive4 ,if we find him1 he will heal us4 ,but how shall we find him8 ,in the ,new ,testament we receive instruction4 ,in the ,new ,testament a strange fact stares us in the face4 ,the ,new ,testament seems far more concerned with the death of ,jesus than with the details of his life4 ,learned men have tried in vain to explain that curious fact4 ,in elaborate treatises they have sought the explanation4 ,but it is really very simple4 ,the ,new ,testament emphasizes the death of ,jesus because that is what ,jesus did for us--or rather1 coming after his perfect obedience to the law1 it is the culmination of what he did for us4 ,in the account of ,jesus' life we are told what ,jesus did for others4 ,that account is absolutely necessary4 ,without it we should never have been interested in ,jesus at all4 ,but it is to us a means to an end1 not an end in itself4 ,we read in the ,gospel what ,jesus did for others4 ,for one he placed his fingers in the ears and said1 ,be opened2 to another he said1 ,arise1 take up thy bed1 and walk2 to another1 ,thy sins are forgiven4 ,these things are what ,jesus did for others4 ,but what has he done for us8 ,the answer of the ,new ,testament is plain4 ,for us he does not say1 ,arise and walk4 ,for us--he died4 ,that mysterious thing which was wrought on ,calvary--that was his work for us4 ,the cross of ,christ is a mystery4 ,in the presence of it theology walks after all with but trembling1 halting footsteps4 ,learning will never unlock its meaning4 ,but to the penitent sinner1 though mysterious1 though full of baffling riddles1 it is plain enough4 ,on the cross ,jesus dealt with our sin4 ,our dreadful guilt1 the condemnation of ,god's law--it is wiped out by an act of grace4 ,it seemed inseparable from us4 ,it was a burden no earthly friend could bear4 ,but ,christ is ,master of the innermost secrets of the moral world4 ,he has accomplished the impossible1 he has borne our sins4 ,by the cross he has healed us4 ,but through whom does he apply the healing touch8 ,through no one1 save his ,spirit4 ,for he is here himself4 ,if we are seekers for him1 then this day our search is over4 ,the death of ,christ1 in the modern ,church1 is often subordinated4 ,exclusive emphasis is laid upon the holy example and teaching of the ,galilean prophet4 ,the modern theologians would be right if there were no such thing as sin4 ,if there were no such thing as guilt1 and if there were no such thing as a dreadful enslaving power of evil1 then a noble ideal might be sufficient4 ,but to talk about an ideal to a man under the thralldom of sin is a cruel mockery4 ,sin may indeed be glossed over4 ,let us make the best of our condition1 we are told1 let us do the best we can1 let us simply trust in the all-conquering love of ,god4 ,dangerous advice6 ,by it a certain superficial joy of life may be induced4 ,but the joy rests upon an insecure foundation4 ,it is dangerous to be happy on the brink of the abyss4 ,permanent joy can come only when sin has been faced honestly1 and destroyed4 ,it has been destroyed by the death and resurrection of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,it is true that ,god is loving4 ,he has manifested his love1 however1 better than by complacency toward sin4 ,he has manifested it by the gracious gift of a ,saviour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,denney1 ,the ,death of ,christ4 ,orr1 ,the ,resurrection of ,jesus4 ,crawford1 ,the ,doctrine of ,holy ,scripture ,respecting the ,atonement4 ,,lesson ,,ix ,,the ,,beginnings ,,of ,,the ,,christian ,,church ,the author of ,the ,acts has given a wonderful picture of the early days of the ,christian ,church4 ,the teacher should endeavor to present the picture before the mental vision of the class4 ,history should not be studied merely as a dry record of events4 ,the events should be seen as well as understood4 ,they can be seen by what is called the historical imagination4 ,the term imagination often contains a suggestion of unreality4 ,but that is a secondary use of the word4 ,imagination means picturing4 ,you can make a picture of what really happened as well as of what happened only in fiction4 ,the historical imagination is a very important faculty in the student of the ,new ,testament4 ,in many persons it is almost wholly lacking4 ,but fortunately it may be acquired4 ,in the lessons that follow1 great stress should be laid upon the simple memorizing of the course of events4 ,advanced study1 or topical study1 is useless unless it is based upon an orderly acquaintance with the contents of ,the ,acts4 ,history comes first--then the interpretation of the history4 ,the dominant note in the early chapters of ,the ,acts is the note of joy4 ,after the three dark days of discouragement1 after the quiet period of waiting1 the life of the ,church suddenly bursts forth with power4 ,everything is fresh and new4 ,difficulties and dangers have not yet emerged4 ,even persecution is lacking4 ,the ,church enjoys favor with the people4 ,thousands are converted in a day4 #a4 ,,the ,,gift ,,of ,,tongues ,the gift of tongues1 as it was exercised on the day of ,pentecost1 is not altogether an isolated phenomenon4 ,it appears also elsewhere in ,the ,acts1 ,acts #aj3df2 #ai3f1 though it may be doubted whether in all three cases it assumed exactly the same form4 ,in the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 ,paul discusses the gift at considerable length4 ,i ,cor41 ch4 #ad4 ,it is interesting to compare that passage with the passage in the second chapter of ,the ,acts4 ,there are a number of resemblances between the two4 ,both ,paul and ,luke represent the gift of tongues as a supernatural thing1 a special endowment from the ,spirit of ,god4 ,both ,paul and ,luke1 furthermore1 represent the gift as an ecstatic1 temporary expression of spiritual exultation rather than as a faculty intended to be practically useful in the work of the ,church4 ,on the other hand1 there are such marked differences between the two accounts as to make it evident that the gift as it was manifested at ,pentecost was very considerably different from that which was exercised in the church at ,corinth4 ,the speaking with tongues as ,paul describes it was a kind of ejaculation1 expressive of the religious life of the speaker1 but incomprehensible to others4 ,in order1 therefore1 to make the gift edifying to the congregation at large there had to be some one else present who was in possession of another gift1 the gift of interpretation4 ,the speaking with tongues at ,pentecost1 however1 was a miraculous use of various languages4 ,some have supposed that ,luke is describing rather a new language1 which possessed the supernatural quality of being understood by men of various nationalities4 ,the most natural interpretation of the passage1 however1 is that which has just been suggested4 ,the disciples1 filled with the ,spirit1 spoke some in one language and some in another1 or perhaps the same individuals used different languages at successive moments4 ,the outsiders received various impressions of the strange phenomenon4 ,some1 mocking1 declared that the disciples were drunk4 ,these1 we may suppose1 were men who came into contact with those disciples who were speaking some language known only to another group among the hearers4 ,the general impression seems to have been wonder at the miraculous gift4 ,the gift of tongues provided an opportunity for the first ,christian preaching4 ,in just this form it was perhaps never repeated4 ,it was a unique gift provided for an absolutely unique occasion4 #b4 ,,the ,,speeches ,ancient historians often put imaginary speeches into the mouths of their characters4 ,the speeches were intended to represent not what was actually said but what might have been said under the circumstances4 ,this procedure of the historians was not intended to deceive the readers4 ,it was merely a literary form1 a method of vivid description4 ,luke1 however1 seems not to have allowed himself even the license which was regarded as allowable by the best historians of antiquity4 ,the speeches in ,the ,acts are apparently either verbatim reports of what was actually said1 or else summaries based upon trustworthy tradition4 ,if they had been composed freely by the historian himself their characteristic differences and their perfect adaptation to different occasions would be difficult to explain4 ,the speeches of ,peter and of the earliest disciples1 in particular1 are very different from those of ,paul4 ,they contain a number of features which occur either not at all or only rarely in the rest of the ,new ,testament4 ,the designation of ,jesus as the ,servant1 for example1 a designation taken from the latter part of ,isaiah1 is characteristic of these speeches4 ,another characteristic designation of ,jesus is ,prince or ,prince of life4 ,acts #c3ae2 #e3ca4 ,in general1 the representation of ,jesus in the early chapters of ,the ,acts is just what might have been expected under the circumstances4 ,at the beginning of the ,church's life1 everything is simple and easy of comprehension even by outsiders4 ,the apostles represented ,jesus first as a man approved of ,god by the miracles which he had wrought4 ,to have delivered up such a man to death was itself a grievous sin4 ,but that was not all4 ,this ,jesus who was crucified had been raised from the dead2 and both in his death and in his resurrection he had fulfilled the ,messianic predictions of the ancient prophets4 ,he was then nothing less than the ,christ4 ,now1 too1 his period of humiliation was over4 ,he had been given the full powers of ,lordship4 ,from him had come the wonder-working ,spirit4 ,it will be observed that these speeches1 though they begin with what is simplest and easiest of acceptance by an outsider1 really contain1 at least in germ1 the full doctrine of the divine ,christ4 #c4 ,,the ,,converts ,the body of disciples who were assembled before the day of ,pentecost consisted of only about one hundred and twenty persons4 ,acts #a3ae4 ,after the notable sermon of ,peter1 which was spoken in explanation of the gift of tongues1 three thousand were converted4 ,a little later the ,church possessed five thousand men4 ,acts #d3d4 ,the outward sign of conversion was baptism4 ,repent ye1 said ,peter1 and be baptized every one of you in the name of ,jesus ,christ unto the remission of your sins2 and ye shall receive the gift of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,baptism was not altogether new4 ,it had been practiced not only among converts to ,judaism1 but especially by ,john the ,baptist4 ,christian baptism1 however1 is sharply distinguished from the baptism of ,john4 ,mark #a3g1h2 ,acts #ah3be2 #ai3a-f4 ,both were expressive of repentance4 ,but ,christian baptism was connected specifically with ,jesus1 and also with the bestowal of the ,spirit4 ,baptism was in the name of ,jesus ,christ1 or into the name of the ,lord ,jesus4 ,it was the sacrament by which the convert signified his cleansing from sin and his entrance into that peculiarly close relation to ,christ which is of the essence of ,christian experience4 ,in itself1 of course1 the rite of baptism is useless4 ,but when accompanied by faith it is a means of real blessing4 ,baptism1 like the other ,christian sacrament1 the ,lord's ,supper1 was instituted by ,christ himself4 ,matt4 #bh3ai4 ,in ,the ,acts the full trinitarian formula of baptism is not given4 ,in the name of ,jesus ,christ is sufficient to designate the sacrament4 #d4 ,,joy ,,and ,,fear ,the mysterious power that was working among the disciples was beneficent4 ,it accomplished miracles of healing4 ,as in the case of ,jesus himself so now among his disciples the ,spirit of ,god was manifested in the expulsion of demons4 ,matt4 #ab3bh2 ,acts #e3af4 ,the ,spirit was manifested also in the healing of disease4 ,one cure1 in particular1 is narrated with a wealth of vivid detail4 ,the healing of the lame man led to the opposition of the ,sanhedrin4 ,it led also to favor among the people4 ,all the people ran together in ,solomon's porch greatly wondering4 ,acts #c3aa4 ,peter and ,john took no credit for what they had done4 ,they attributed the miracle solely to the power of ,jesus4 ,it was the same ,jesus against whom the crowd had shouted1 ,crucify him1 crucify him1 only a few weeks before4 ,surely a reason for remorse rather than joy6 ,but ,god is gracious4 ,through ,jesus1 the crucified ,one1 salvation was offered even to the murderers4 ,repentance was followed by rejoicing4 ,the envy of the ,sanhedrin was held in check4 ,a notable miracle had been wrought4 ,that miracle was not isolated4 ,many signs and wonders were wrought by the hands of the apostles4 ,the people even carried out the sick into the streets1 and laid them on beds and couches1 that1 as ,peter came by1 at the least his shadow might overshadow some one of them4 ,acts #e3ab-ae4 ,perhaps we are to understand that that method of seeking cure was actually successful4 ,certainly it was an unusual method4 ,but ,god adopts unusual methods at unusual times4 ,he adapts his mercy to the needs of men4 ,the general impression left by the early chapters of ,the ,acts is an impression of light and gladness4 ,there is opposition1 but it is powerless against triumphant joy4 ,one incident1 however1 introduces a discordant note4 ,it is the incident of ,ananias and ,sapphira4 ,the early ,church was animated by a spirit of self-sacrifice4 ,many of the disciples sold their possessions and devoted the price to the common good4 ,one of those who did so was ,joseph ,barnabas1 who was to be prominent in the subsequent history4 ,a certain man1 ,ananias1 however1 and ,sapphira his wife1 after they had sold their possession kept back part of the price4 ,in itself that was not necessarily wrong4 ,their sin was the sin of deception4 ,they pretended to have given all1 though they had really given only a part4 ,a more destructive sin could scarcely have been imagined4 ,they had lied unto the ,holy ,spirit4 ,such conduct would bring contempt upon the ,church4 ,ananias and ,sapphira discovered that ,god cannot be trifled with4 ,and the judgment wrought upon them inspired fear in all who heard4 ,it is well that this incident has been recorded4 ,it prevents a one-sided impression of the ,church's life4 ,the power that animated the ,church was beneficent4 ,but it was also terrible and mysterious and holy4 ,in the presence of it there was joy4 ,but that joy was akin to fear4 ,it is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living ,god4 ,the lesson is of permanent value4 ,the ,spirit of ,god must be received with joy4 ,but not with a common joy4 ,not with the joy of familiarity4 ,but rather with the wondering1 trembling joy of adoration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #ba-df4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,weeks1 ,feast of and ,temple4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools3 ,lumby1 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles1 #ahhj1 pp4 #a-fa4 ,the ,bible ,commentary1 vol4 ii3 ,cook1 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles1 pp4 #cea-chf4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 ii3 ,plumptre1 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles1 pp4 #a-bh4 ,rackham1 ,the ,acts of the ,apostles1 pp4 #a-fi4 ,these commentaries will be designated hereafter by the names of the authors only4 ,,lesson ,x ,,the ,,first ,,persecution ,the persecution which arose in connection with ,stephen marks a turning point in the history of the ,church4 ,up to that time1 the disciples had been content1 for the most part1 with laboring in ,jerusalem4 ,now they were forced out into a broader field4 ,one result of the persecution was the geographical extension of the ,church4 ,another result was perhaps even more important4 ,the extension caused by persecution was not merely geographical2 it was also1 perhaps1 intellectual and spiritual4 ,the ,church was really from the beginning in possession of a new religious principle1 but at first that principle was not fully understood4 ,persecution probably helped to reveal the hidden riches4 ,the ,pharisees were keener than the disciples themselves4 ,hostility sharpened the vision4 ,the disciples themselves were still content to share in the established forms of ,jewish worship2 but the ,pharisees saw that they were really advocates of a new principle4 ,christianity1 unless it were checked1 would supersede ,judaism4 ,the ,pharisees were right4 ,jealous fear detected what ancestral piety had concealed4 ,the hostility of the ,jews perhaps helped to open the eyes of the ,church4 ,no doubt1 a development was already at work4 ,persecution was the result as well as the cause of the new freedom4 ,stephen was persecuted possibly just because his preaching went beyond that of ,peter4 ,with or without persecution1 the ,church would have transcended the bounds of the older ,judaism4 ,it contained a germ of new life which was certain to bear fruit4 ,but persecution hastened the process4 ,it scattered the ,church abroad1 and it revealed the revolutionary character of the ,church's life4 ,with the coming of ,jesus a new era had begun4 ,judaism had before been separate from the ,gentile world4 ,that separation had been due not to racial prejudice1 but to a divine ordinance4 ,it had served a useful purpose4 ,jewish particularism should never be despised2 it should be treated with piety and gratitude4 ,it had preserved the precious deposit of truth in the midst of heathenism4 ,but its function1 though useful1 was temporary4 ,it was a preparation for ,christ4 ,before ,christ it was a help2 after ,christ it became a hindrance4 ,persecution was not the beginning of the new freedom4 ,freedom was based upon the words of ,jesus4 ,it had become plainer again1 perhaps1 in the teaching of ,stephen4 ,furthermore1 if freedom was not begun by the persecution1 it was also not completed by it4 ,the emancipation of the ,church from ,judaism was a slow process4 ,the unfolding of that process is narrated in ,the ,acts4 ,even after the ,church was scattered abroad through ,judea and ,samaria1 much remained to be done4 ,cornelius1 ,antioch1 ,paul were still in the future4 ,nevertheless1 the death of ,stephen was an important event4 ,it was by no means the whole of the process2 but it marks an epoch4 ,the gradual rise of persecution should be traced in class--first the fruitless arrest of ,peter and ,john and their bold defiance2 then the arrest of the apostles1 the miraculous escape1 the preaching in the temple1 the re-arrest1 the counsel of ,gamaliel1 the scourging2 then the preaching of ,stephen and the hostility of the ,pharisees4 ,the opposition of the ,sadducees was comparatively without significance4 ,the ,sadducees were not ,jews at heart4 ,they might persecute the ,church just because the ,church was patriotically ,jewish4 ,but the ,pharisees were really representative of the existing ,judaism4 ,pharisaic persecution meant the hostility of the nation4 ,and it implied the independence of the ,church4 ,if the disciples were nothing but ,jews1 why did the ,jews persecute them8 ,in what follows1 a few details will be discussed4 #a4 ,,theudas ,,and ,,judas ,judas the ,galilean1 mentioned by ,gamaliel1 ,acts #e3cg1 appears also in ,josephus4 ,his insurrection occurred at the time of the great enrollment under ,quirinius1 the ,syrian legate4 ,this enrollment was different from that which brought ,joseph and ,mary to ,bethlehem at the time of the birth of ,jesus4 ,luke #b3b-e4 ,that former enrollment occurred before the death of ,herod the ,great in #d ,b4 ,c4 ,luke #a3e2 ,matt4 #b3a4 ,the enrollment to which ,gamaliel referred was carried out after the deposition of ,archelaus in ,a4 ,d4 #f4 ,with regard to ,judas all is clear4 ,but ,theudas is known only from ,acts #e3cf4 ,the ,theudas who is mentioned in ,josephus is different1 for his insurrection did not occur till about ,a4 ,d4 #dd1 after the time of ,gamaliel's speech4 ,gamaliel was referring to some insurrection of an earlier period4 ,the name ,theudas was common1 and so were tumults and insurrections4 #b4 ,,the ,,seven ,it has been questioned whether the seven men who were appointed to assist the apostles were deacons4 ,the title is not applied to them4 ,the narrative does1 indeed1 imply that they were to serve tables1 ,acts #f3b1 and the ,greek word here translated serve is the verb from which the ,greek noun meaning deacon is derived2 but the same word is also used for the ministry or service of the word in which the apostles were to continue4 ,v4 #d4 ,the special technical use of the word deacon appears in the ,new ,testament only in ,phil4 #a3a2 ,i ,tim4 #c3h1ab4 ,compare ,rom4 #af3a4 ,nevertheless1 though the word itself does not occur in our passage1 it is perhaps not incorrect to say that the seven were deacons4 ,their functions were practically those of the diaconate2 their appointment1 at any rate1 shows that the apostles recognized the need of some such office in the ,church4 ,it is not quite clear what is meant by the expression1 to serve tables4 ,the reference is either to tables for food1 or else to the money tables of a banker4 ,if the former interpretation be correct1 then the deacons were to attend especially to the management of the common meals4 ,even then1 however1 the expression probably refers indirectly to the general administration of charity1 a prominent part of the service being mentioned simply as typical of the whole4 #c4 ,,the ,,synagogues ,the ,greek word translated ,libertines in ,acts #f3i comes from the ,latin word for freedmen4 ,the freedmen here mentioned were probably descendants of ,jews taken by ,pompey as slaves to ,rome4 ,the ,jewish opponents of ,stephen therefore included ,romans1 men of eastern and middle north ,africa1 and men of eastern and western ,asia ,minor4 ,these foreign ,jews1 when they settled in ,jerusalem1 had their own synagogues4 ,it is doubtful how many synagogues are mentioned in our passage4 ,luke may mean that each of the five groups had a separate synagogue1 or he may be grouping the men of ,cilicia and ,asia in one synagogue4 ,the wording of the ,greek perhaps rather favors the view that only two synagogues are mentioned--one consisting of ,libertines and men of ,cyrene and ,alexandria1 and the other consisting of ,cilicians and ,asians4 #d4 ,,the ,,speech ,,of ,,stephen ,in defending himself1 ,stephen gave a summary of ,hebrew history4 ,at first sight1 that summary might seem to have little bearing upon the specific charges that had been made4 ,but the history which ,stephen recited was a history of ,israel4 ,you are destroying the divine privileges of ,israel--that was the charge4 ,no1 said ,stephen1 history shows that the true privileges of ,israel are the promises of divine deliverance4 ,to them law and temple are subordinate4 ,from ,abraham on there was a promise of deliverance from ,egypt4 ,after that deliverance another deliverance was promised4 ,it is the one which was wrought by ,jesus4 ,moses1 ,god's instrument in the first deliverance1 was rejected by his contemporaries4 ,jesus1 the greater ,deliverer1 was rejected by you4 ,we disciples of ,jesus are the true ,israelites1 for we1 unlike you1 honor the promises of ,god4 ,other interpretations of the speech have been proposed4 ,for example1 some find the main thought of the speech to be this3 ,the wanderings of the patriarchs and the long period of time which elapsed before the building of the temple show that true and acceptable worship of ,god is not limited to any particular place4 ,at any rate1 the speech requires study--and repays it4 ,what was said in the last lesson about the speeches of ,the ,acts in general applies fully to the speech of ,stephen4 ,the very difficulties of the speech1 as well as its other peculiarities1 help to show that it represents a genuine tradition of what1 in a unique situation1 was actually said4 #e4 ,,martyrdom ,the word martyr is simply the ,greek word for witness4 ,that is the word which is translated witness in ,acts #a3h4 ,ye shall receive power1 when the ,holy ,spirit is come upon you3 and ye shall be my witnesses both in ,jerusalem1 and in all ,juda and ,samaria1 and unto the uttermost part of the earth4 ,there1 of course1 there is no special reference to dying for the sake of ,christ4 ,it is primarily the ordinary verbal testimony which is meant4 ,the special meaning martyr is not often attached to the ,greek word in the ,new ,testament4 ,probably even in ,acts #bb3bj1 where the word is applied to ,stephen1 it is to be translated witness rather than martyr4 ,martyrdom1 then1 is only one kind of witnessing4 ,but it is a very important kind4 ,men will not die for what they do not believe4 ,when ,stephen sank beneath the stones of his enemies he was preaching a powerful sermon4 ,the very fact of his death was a witness to ,christ4 ,the manner of it was still more significant4 ,stephen1 crying in the hour of death1 ,lord ,jesus1 receive my spirit1 ,stephen dying with words of forgiveness on his lips1 ,lord1 lay not this sin to their charge1 was a witness indeed4 ,the ,church can never do without that kind of witnessing4 ,true1 it may not now often appear as actual martyrdom4 ,but bravery is needed as much as ever--bravery in business1 men who will not say1 ,business is business1 but will do what is right even in the face of failure2 bravery in politics1 men to whom righteousness is more than a pose2 bravery in social life1 men and women who will sacrifice convention every time to principle1 who1 for example1 will maintain the ,christian ,sabbath in the face of ridicule4 ,modern life affords plenty of opportunities for cowardice1 plenty of opportunities for denying the faith through fear of men4 ,it also affords opportunities for bravery4 ,you can still show whether you are of the stuff that ,stephen was made of--above all1 you can show whether you are possessed by the same ,spirit and are a servant of the same ,lord4 #f4 ,,the ,,result ,,of ,,the ,,persecution ,the persecution resulted only in the spread of the gospel4 ,gamaliel was right4 ,it was useless to fight against ,god4 ,the disciples were in possession of an invincible power1 and they knew it from the very beginning4 ,when ,peter and ,john returned from their first arrest1 the disciples responded in a noble prayer4 ,acts #d3bd-cj4 ,herod and ,pontius ,pilate1 with the ,gentiles and the peoples of ,israel1 gathered together against ,jesus1 had accomplished only what ,god's hand and ,god's counsel foreordained to come to pass4 ,so it would be also with the enemies of the ,church4 ,when the disciples had prayed1 the place was shaken wherein they were gathered together2 and they were all filled with the ,holy ,spirit1 and they spake the word of ,god with boldness4 ,the answer to that prayer was prophetic of the whole history of the ,church4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #dj-db1 #dg-ee4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,gamaliel1 ,theudas1 ,judas 7#f71 ,deacon2 ,purves1 article on ,stephen4 ,ramsay1 ,pictures of the ,apostolic ,church1 pp4 #dd-fe4 ,rackham1 pp4 #fi-aaa4 ,lumby1 pp4 #fa-ig4 ,plumptre1 pp4 #bh-dg4 ,cook1 pp4 #chf-djf4 ,,lesson ,,xi ,,the ,,first ,,gentile ,,converts ,this lesson treats of a number of steps in the extension of the gospel4 ,the beginning is the purely ,jewish ,church that is described in the first chapters of ,the ,acts2 the goal is the ,gentile ,christianity of ,paul4 ,gentile ,christianity was not produced all at once4 ,the extension of the gospel to ,gentiles was a gradual process4 ,the present lesson is concerned only with the early stages4 ,the teacher should present the lesson in such a way as to emphasize the main feature of the narrative4 ,the main feature is the central place assigned to the ,holy ,spirit4 ,though the extension of the gospel to the ,gentiles was a process1 that process was due not to mere natural development1 but to the gracious leading of ,god4 ,as was observed in ,lesson ,x1 ,stephen perhaps introduced into the ,church a more independent attitude toward the existing ,judaism4 ,there is no reason1 indeed1 to suppose that he thought either of preaching to ,gentiles or of forsaking the ceremonial law4 ,but possibly he did venture to exhibit the temporary and provisional character of the temple worship as compared with the promises of ,god4 ,indirectly1 therefore1 though certainly not directly1 ,stephen opened the way for the ,gentile mission4 ,the persecution was another step in the process4 ,it scattered the ,jews abroad into regions where ,gentiles were more numerous than in ,jerusalem1 and served perhaps also to reveal to the ,church itself its incompatibility with ,pharisaic ,judaism4 ,the evangelization of ,samaria was another important step4 ,though the ,samaritans were only half ,gentiles1 they were particularly detested by the ,jews4 ,in preaching to them1 the disciples were overcoming ,jewish scruples1 and thus were moving in the direction of a real ,gentile mission4 ,the baptizing of the ,ethiopian may have been another step in the process4 ,the most important event1 however1 was the conversion of ,cornelius and his household4 ,here the issue was clearly raised4 ,cornelius did not1 like the ,ethiopian1 depart at once after baptism to a distant home4 ,his reception into the ,church was a matter of public knowledge4 ,luke was well aware of the importance of the story about ,cornelius4 ,that appears from the minuteness with which the story is narrated4 ,after it has been completed once1 it is repeated1 at very considerable length1 as a part of ,peter's defense at ,jerusalem4 ,the effect is as though this incident were heavily underscored4 ,the importance of the ,cornelius incident appears also in the fact that it gave rise to criticism4 ,apparently this was the first serious criticism which the gradually widening mission had encountered within the ,church4 ,there is no suggestion of such criticism in the case of the preaching in ,samaria4 ,but now a much more radical step had been taken4 ,peter had eaten with uncircumcised men4 ,acts #aa3c4 ,a more serious violation of ,jewish particularism could hardly have been imagined4 ,in defense1 ,peter appealed simply to the manifest authorization which he had received from ,god4 ,that authorization had appeared first of all in the visions which ,peter and ,cornelius had received1 with other direct manifestations of the divine will1 and also more particularly in the bestowal of the ,spirit4 ,if the ,spirit was given to uncircumcised ,gentiles1 then circumcision was no longer necessary to membership in the ,church4 ,in the narrative about ,cornelius1 there is a remarkable heaping up of supernatural guidance4 ,vision is added to vision1 revelation to revelation4 ,the reason is plain4 ,a decisive step was being taken4 ,if taken by human initiative1 it was open to criticism4 ,the separateness of ,israel from other nations was a divine ordinance4 ,since it had been instituted by ,god1 it could be abrogated only by him4 ,true1 ,jesus had said1 ,make disciples of all the nations4 ,matt4 #bh3ai4 ,but the how and the when had been left undecided4 ,were the ,gentiles to become ,jews in order to become ,christians1 and was the ,gentile mission to begin at once8 ,those were grave questions4 ,they could not be decided without divine guidance4 ,that guidance was given in the case of ,cornelius4 ,peter's defense was readily accepted4 ,and when they heard these things1 they held their peace1 and glorified ,god1 saying1 ,then to the ,gentiles also hath ,god granted repentance unto life4 ,the active opposition to the ,gentile mission did not arise until later4 ,but how could that opposition arise at all8 ,since ,god had spoken so clearly1 who could deny to the ,gentiles a free entrance into the ,church8 ,after the case of ,cornelius1 how could any possible question arise8 ,as a matter of fact--though it may seem strange--the acceptance of ,cornelius did not at first determine the policy of the ,church4 ,that incident remained1 indeed1 stored up in memory4 ,it was appealed to years afterwards by ,peter himself1 in order to support the ,gentile ,christianity of ,paul4 ,acts #ae3g-i1ad4 ,but so far as the practice of the ,jewish ,church was concerned1 the ,cornelius incident seems to have remained for a time without effect4 ,the bestowal of the ,spirit upon ,cornelius and his friends was regarded1 apparently1 as a special dispensation which fixed no precedent4 ,before engaging in further preaching to ,gentiles1 the ,church was waiting1 perhaps1 for manifestations of the divine will as palpable as those which had been given to ,peter and to ,cornelius4 ,this attitude is rather surprising4 ,it must be remembered1 however1 that for the present the ,church was fully engrossed in work for ,jews4 ,undoubtedly1 a ,gentile work was to come1 and the ,cornelius incident1 as well as what ,jesus had said1 was regarded as prophetic of it1 ,acts #aa3ah2 but the time and the manner of its institution were still undetermined4 ,were the ,gentile converts generally--whatever might be the special dispensation for ,cornelius--to be required to submit to circumcision and become members of the chosen people8 ,this and other questions had not yet even been faced4 ,engrossed for the present in the ,jewish mission1 the ,church could leave these questions to the future guidance of ,god4 ,in what follows1 a number of special points will be briefly discussed4 #a4 ,,philip ,after the baptism of the ,ethiopian1 the ,spirit of the ,lord caught away ,philip2 and the eunuch saw him no more1 for he went on his way rejoicing4 ,but ,philip was found at ,azotus3 and passing through he preached the gospel to all the cities1 till he came to ,csarea4 ,the meaning of these words is not perfectly plain4 ,are we to understand that ,philip was carried away to ,azotus by a miracle1 or is nothing more intended than a sudden departure under the impulsion of the ,spirit8 ,the latter interpretation is not at all impossible4 ,what has been emphasised in the whole narrative is the strangeness1 the unaccountableness of ,philip's movements4 ,this appears particularly in the sudden separation from the eunuch4 ,the eunuch expected further conference with ,philip but suddenly ,philip rushed off1 as though snatched away by a higher power4 ,all through this incident1 there is something strangely sudden and unexpected about ,philip's movements4 ,human deliberation evidently had no part in his actions4 ,he was under the immediate impulsion of the ,spirit4 ,the narrative leaves ,philip at ,csarea1 and there he appears years afterwards1 at the time of ,paul's last journey to ,jerusalem4 ,acts #ba3h1i4 ,luke was at that time one of the company1 and may have received directly from ,philip the materials for the narrative in the eighth chapter of ,the ,acts4 ,philip appears in ,christian tradition1 but there is some confusion between ,philip the evangelist and ,philip the apostle4 #b4 ,,simon ,,magus ,simon the sorcerer1 or ,simon ,magus1 is an interesting figure4 ,he has laid hold of the fancy of ,christendom4 ,from his name--with reference to ,acts #h3ah1ai--the word simony has been coined to designate the sin of buying or selling any sort of spiritual advantage4 ,simon is very prominent in ,christian tradition1 where he is regarded as the fountainhead of all heresy4 #c4 ,,cornelius ,cornelius was a centurion1 or captain of a company in the ,roman army consisting of about one hundred men4 ,the ,italian band to which he belonged was apparently a cohort1 composed of soldiers from ,italy4 ,cornelius was stationed at ,csarea1 the residence of the procurators of ,judea4 ,with the favorable description of his attitude to the ,jews and to the ,jewish religion1 ,acts #aj3b1 should be compared what ,luke1 in his ,gospel1 records about another centurion4 ,luke #g3d1e4 ,these are sympathetic pictures of the ,god-fearing adherents of ,judaism1 who formed so important a class at the time of the first ,christian preaching4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #ei-fg1 #ia-ih4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,samaria1 ,samaritan1 ,philip 7#g71 ,simon 7#i71 ,csarea1 ,cornelius4 ,ramsay1 ,pictures of the ,apostolic ,church1 pp4 #ff-ajd4 ,rackham1 pp4 #aaa-abd1 #ada-afc4 ,lumby1 pp4 #ig-ajh1 #abb-adb4 ,plumptre1 pp4 #dg-ee1 #fc-gc4 ,cook1 pp4 #djg-dac1 #dai-dcj4 ,,lesson ,,xii ,,the ,,conversion ,,of ,,paul ,christianity a supernatural thing and a gift of ,god's grace--that is the real theme of the lesson4 ,the theme is brought home by means of an example1 the example of the apostle ,paul4 ,the religious experience of ,paul is the most striking phenomenon in the history of the human spirit4 ,it really requires no defense4 ,give it sympathetic attention1 and it is irresistible4 ,how was it produced8 ,the answer of ,paul himself1 at least1 is plain4 ,according to ,paul1 his whole religious life was due1 not to any natural development1 but to an act of the risen ,christ4 ,that is the argument of the first chapter of ,galatians4 ,he was advancing in ,judaism1 he says1 beyond his contemporaries4 ,he was laying waste the ,church4 ,and then suddenly1 when it was least to be expected1 without the influence of men1 simply by ,god's good pleasure1 ,christ was revealed to him1 and all was changed4 ,the suddenness1 the miraculousness of the change is the very point of the passage4 ,upon that marvelous act of ,god ,paul bases the whole of his life work4 ,shall ,paul's explanation of his life be accepted8 ,it can be accepted only by the recognition of ,jesus ,christ1 who was crucified1 as a living person4 ,in an age of doubt1 that recognition is not always easy4 ,but if it be refused1 then the whole of ,pauline ,christianity is based upon an illusion4 ,that alternative may well seem to be monstrous4 ,the eighth chapter of ,romans has a self-evidencing power4 ,it has transformed the world4 ,it has entered into the very fiber of the human spirit4 ,but it crumbles to pieces if the appearance on the road to ,damascus was nothing but a delusive vision4 ,let us not deceive ourselves4 ,the religious experience of ,paul and the whole of our evangelical piety are based upon the historical fact of the resurrection4 ,but if so1 then the resurrection stands firm4 ,for the full glory of ,pauline ,christianity becomes a witness to it4 ,the writer of the epistle to the ,romans must be believed4 ,but it is that writer who says1 ,last of all 444 he appeared to me also4 ,the wonder of the conversion can be felt only through an exercise of the historical imagination4 ,imagine the surroundings of ,paul's early life in ,tarsus1 live over again with him the years in ,jerusalem1 enter with him into his prospects of a conventional ,jewish career and into his schemes for the destruction of the ,church--and then only can you appreciate with him the catastrophic wonder of ,christ's grace4 ,there was no reason for the conversion of ,paul4 ,everything pointed the other way4 ,but ,christ chose to make of the persecutor an apostle1 and the life of ,paul was the result4 ,it was a divine1 inexplicable act of grace--grace to ,paul and grace to us who are ,paul's debtors4 ,god's mercies are often thus4 ,they are not of human devising4 ,they enter into human life when they are least expected1 with a sudden blaze of heavenly glory4 ,in the review of ,paul's early life various questions emerge4 ,they must at least be faced1 if not answered1 if the lesson is to be vividly presented4 #a4 ,,paul ,,at ,,tarsus ,in the first place1 what was the extent of the ,greek influence which was exerted upon ,paul at ,tarsus8 ,the question cannot be answered with certainty1 and widely differing views are held4 ,it is altogether unlikely1 however1 that the boy attended anything like an ordinary ,gentile school4 ,the ,jewish strictness of the family precludes that supposition1 and it is not required by the character of ,paul's preaching and writing4 ,it is true that he occasionally quotes a ,greek poet4 ,i ,cor4 #ae3cc2 ,titus #a3ab2 ,acts #ag3bh4 ,it is true again that some passages in ,paul's letters are rhetorical--for example1 ,i ,cor4 #a3ah-be2 ch4 #ac--;and that rhetoric formed an important part of ,greek training in the first century4 ,but ,paul's rhetoric is the rhetoric of nature rather than of art4 ,exalted by his theme he falls unconsciously into a splendid rhythm of utterance4 ,such rhetoric could not be learned in school4 ,finally1 it is true that ,paul's vocabulary is thought to exhibit some striking similarities to that of ,stoic writers4 ,but even if that similarity indicates acquaintance on the part of ,paul with the ,stoic teaching1 such acquaintance need not have been attained through a study of books4 ,however1 the importance of ,paul's ,greek environment1 if it must not be exaggerated1 must on the other hand not be ignored4 ,in the first place1 ,paul is a consummate master of the ,greek language4 ,he must have acquired it in childhood1 and indeed in ,tarsus could hardly have failed to do so4 ,in the second place1 he was acquainted with the religious beliefs and practices of the ,greco-,roman world4 ,the speech at ,athens1 ,acts #ag3bb-ca1 shows how he made use of such knowledge for his preaching4 ,in all probability the first impressions were made upon him at ,tarsus4 ,finally1 from his home in ,tarsus ,paul derived that intimate knowledge of the political and social relationships of the men of his day which1 coupled with a native delicacy of perception and fineness of feeling1 resulted in the exquisite tact which he exhibited in his missionary and pastoral labors4 ,the ,tarsian ,jew of the dispersion was a gentleman of the ,roman ,empire4 ,that ,aramaic1 as well as ,greek1 was spoken by the family of ,paul is made probable by ,phil4 #c3e and ,,ii ,cor4 #aa3bb4 ,the word ,hebrew in these passages probably refers especially to the use of the ,aramaic 7,hebrew7 language1 as in ,acts #f3a1 where the ,hebrews in the ,jerusalem church are contrasted with the ,grecian ,jews4 ,a ,hebrew of ,hebrews1 therefore1 probably means an ,aramaic-speaking ,jew and descended from ,aramaic-speaking ,jews4 ,in ,acts #ba3dj2 #bb3b it is expressly recorded that ,paul made a speech in ,aramaic 7,hebrew71 and in ,acts #bf3ad it is said that ,christ spoke to him in the same language4 ,conceivably1 of course1 he might have learned that language during his student days in ,jerusalem4 ,but the passages just referred to make it probable that it was rather the language of his earliest home4 ,from childhood ,paul knew both ,aramaic and ,greek4 #b4 ,,the ,,inner ,,life ,,of ,,paul ,,the ,,rabbi ,the most interesting question about ,paul's life at ,jerusalem concerns the condition of his inner life before the conversion4 ,paul the ,pharisee is an interesting study4 ,what were this man's thoughts and feelings and desires before the grace of ,christ made him the greatest of ,christian missionaries8 ,the best way to answer this question would be to ask ,paul himself4 ,one passage in the ,pauline epistles has been regarded as an answer to the question4 ,that passage is ,rom4 #g3ad-be4 ,there ,paul describes the struggle of the man who knows the law of ,god and desires to accomplish it1 but finds the flesh too strong for him4 ,if ,paul is there referring to his pre-,christian life1 then the passage gives a vivid picture of his fruitless struggle as a ,pharisee to fulfill the law4 ,many interpreters1 however1 refer the passage not to the pre-,christian life but to the ,christian life4 ,even in the ,christian life the struggle goes on against sin4 ,and even if ,paul is referring to the pre-,christian life1 he is perhaps depicting it rather as it really was than as he then thought it was4 ,the passage probably does not mean that before he became a ,christian ,paul was fully conscious of the fruitlessness of his endeavor to attain righteousness by the law4 ,afterwards he saw that his endeavor was fruitless1 but it is doubtful how clearly he saw it at the time4 ,it would1 indeed1 be a mistake to suppose that ,paul as a ,pharisee was perfectly happy4 ,no man is happy who is trying to earn salvation by his works4 ,in his heart of hearts ,paul must have known that his fulfillment of the law was woefully defective4 ,but such discontentment would naturally lead him only farther on in the same old path4 ,if his obedience was defective1 let it be mended by increasing zeal6 ,the more earnest ,paul was about his law righteousness1 the more discontented he became with his attainments1 so much the more zealous did he become as a persecutor4 ,some have supposed that ,paul was gradually getting nearer to ,christianity before ,christ appeared to him--that the ,damascus experience only completed a process that had already begun4 ,there were various things1 it is said1 which might lead the earnest ,pharisee to consider ,christianity favorably4 ,in the first place1 there was the manifest impossibility of law righteousness4 ,paul had tried to keep the law and had failed4 ,what if the ,christians were right about salvation by faith8 ,in the second place1 there were the ,old ,testament prophecies about a suffering servant of ,jehovah4 ,isa41 ch4 #ec4 ,if they referred to the ,messiah1 then the cross might be explained1 as the ,christians explained it1 as a sacrifice for others4 ,the stumblingblock of a crucified ,messiah would thus be removed4 ,in the third place1 there was the noble life and death of the ,christian martyrs4 ,these arguments are not so weighty as they seem4 ,paul's dissatisfaction with his fulfillment of the law1 as has already been observed1 might lead to a more zealous effort to fulfill the law as well as to a relinquishment of the law4 ,there seems to be no clear evidence that the pre-,christian ,jews ever contemplated a death of the ,messiah like the death of ,jesus4 ,on the contrary the current expectation of the ,messiah was diametrically opposed to any such thing4 ,and admiration of the ,christian martyrs is perhaps too modern and too ,christian to be attributed to the ,pharisee4 ,the fundamental trouble with this whole argument is that it proves merely that the ,pharisee ,paul ought to have been favorably impressed with ,christianity4 ,so he ought1 but as a matter of fact he was not so impressed1 and we have the strongest kind of evidence to prove that he was not4 ,the book of ,the ,acts says so1 and ,paul says so just as clearly in his letters4 ,the very fact that when he was converted he was on a persecuting expedition1 more ambitious than any that had been attempted before1 shows that he was certainly not thinking favorably of ,christianity4 ,was he considering the possibility that ,christianity might be true8 ,was he trying to stifle his own inward uncertainty by the very madness of his zeal8 ,then1 in persecuting the ,church1 he was going against his conscience4 ,but in ,i ,tim4 #a3ac he distinctly says that his persecuting was done ignorantly in unbelief1 and his attitude is the same in his other epistles4 ,if in persecuting the ,church he was acting contrary to better conviction1 then that fact would have constituted the chief element in his guilt2 yet in the passages where he speaks with the deepest contrition of his persecution1 that particularly heinous sin is never mentioned4 ,evidently1 whatever was his guilt1 at least he did not have to reproach himself with the black sin of persecuting ,christ's followers in the face of even a half conviction4 ,accordingly1 the words of ,christ to ,paul at the time of the conversion1 ,it is hard for thee to kick against the goad1 ,acts #bf3ad1 do not mean that ,paul had been resisting an inward voice of conscience in not accepting ,christ before1 but rather that ,christ's will for ,paul was really resistless even though ,paul had not known it at all4 ,christ's loving plan would be carried out in the end4 ,paul was destined to be the apostle to the ,gentiles4 ,for him to try to be anything else was as useless and as painful as it is for the ox to kick against the goad4 ,christ will have his way4 ,thus before his conversion ,paul was moving away from ,christianity rather than toward it4 ,of course1 in emphasizing the suddenness of the conversion1 exaggerations must be avoided4 ,it is absurd1 for example1 to suppose that ,paul knew nothing at all about ,jesus before the ,damascus event4 ,of course he knew about him4 ,even if he had been indifferent1 he could hardly have failed to hear the story of the ,galilean prophet2 and as a matter of fact he was not indifferent but intensely interested1 though by way of opposition4 ,these things were not done in a corner4 ,paul was in ,jerusalem before and after the crucifixion1 if not at the very time itself4 ,the main facts in the life of ,jesus were known to friend and foe alike4 ,thus when in the first chapter of ,galatians ,paul declares that he received his gospel not through any human agency but directly from ,christ1 he cannot mean that the risen ,christ imparted to him the facts in the earthly life of ,jesus4 ,it never occurred to ,paul to regard the bare facts as a gospel4 ,he had the facts by ordinary word of mouth from the eyewitnesses4 ,what he received from the risen ,christ was a new interpretation of the facts4 ,he had known the facts before4 ,but they had filled him with hatred4 ,he had known about ,jesus4 ,but the more he had known about him1 the more he had hated him4 ,and then ,christ himself appeared to him6 ,it might naturally have been an appearance in wrath1 a thunderstroke of the just vengeance of the ,messiah4 ,probably that was ,paul's first thought when he heard the words1 ,i am ,jesus whom thou persecutest4 ,but such was not the ,lord's will4 ,the purpose of the ,damascus wonder was not destruction but divine fellowship and world-wide service4 #c4 ,,paul',s ,,experience ,,and ,,ours ,in one sense1 the experience of ,paul is the experience of every ,christian4 ,not1 of course1 in form4 ,it is a great mistake to demand of every man that he shall be able1 like ,paul1 to give day and hour of his conversion4 ,many men1 it is true1 still have such a definite experience4 ,it is not pathological4 ,it may result in glorious ,christian lives4 ,but it is not universal1 and it should not be induced by tactless methods4 ,the children of ,christian homes often seem to grow up into the love of ,christ4 ,when they decide to unite themselves definitely with the ,church1 the decision need not necessarily come with anguish of soul4 ,it may be simply the culmination of a ,god-encircled childhood1 a recognition of what ,god has already done rather than the acquisition of something new4 ,but after all1 these differences are merely in the manner of ,god's working4 ,in essence1 true ,christian experience is always the same1 and in essence it is always like the experience of ,paul4 ,it is no mere means of making better citizens1 but an end in itself4 ,it is no product of man's effort1 but a divine gift4 ,whatever be the manner of its coming1 it is a heavenly vision4 ,christ still lives in the midst of glory4 ,and still he appears to sinful men--though not now to the bodily eye--drawing them out of sin and misery and bondage to a transitory world into communion with the holy and eternal ,god4 ,the result of ,paul's vision was service4 ,how far his destination as apostle to the ,gentiles was made known to him at once is perhaps uncertain4 ,it depends partly upon the interpretation of ,acts #bf3ad-ah4 ,are those words intended to be part of what was spoken at the very time of the conversion8 ,there is no insuperable objection to that view4 ,at any rate1 no matter how much or how little was revealed at once1 the real purpose of ,christ in calling him was clearly that he should be the leader of the ,gentile mission4 ,gal4 #a3af4 ,he was saved in order that he might save others4 ,it is so normally with every ,christian4 ,every one of us is given not only salvation1 but also labor4 ,in that labor we can use every bit of preparation that is ours1 even if it was acquired before we became ,christians4 ,paul1 the apostle1 used his ,greek training as well as his knowledge of the ,old ,testament4 ,we can use whatever talents we possess4 ,the ,christian life is not a life of idleness4 ,it is like the life of the world in being full of labor4 ,but it differs from that life in that its labor is always worth while4 ,connection with heaven does not mean idle contemplation1 but a vantage ground of power4 ,you cannot move the world without a place to stand4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #fh-he4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 article on ,damascus4 ,ramsay1 ,pictures of the ,apostolic ,church1 pp4 #aac-abj2 ,st4 ,paul the ,traveller and the ,roman ,citizen1 pp4 #bi-ci2 ,the ,cities of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #he-bdd 7on ,tarsus74 ,conybeare and ,howson1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chs4 ii and iii4 ,lewin1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chs4 i and iv4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #a-db4 ,rackham1 pp4 #abd-ace1 #dba-dbd1 #dfb-dgj4 ,lumby1 pp4 #ajh-aaf1 #cjb-cjg1 #cdd-cdi4 ,plumptre1 pp4 #ee-fa1 #aej-aeb1 #afe-afg4 ,cook1 pp4 #dac-dag1 #dih-ejj1 #eaf-eai4 ,,lesson ,,xiii ,,the ,,church ,,at ,,antioch ,christianity originated in an obscure corner of the ,roman ,empire1 in the midst of a very peculiar people4 ,at first1 it was entirely out of relation to the larger life of the time4 ,the atmosphere of the ,gospels is as un-,greek as could be imagined2 the very conception of ,messiahship is distinctively ,jewish4 ,yet this ,jewish sect soon entered upon the conquest of the empire1 and the ,jewish ,messiah became the ,saviour of the world4 ,starting from ,jerusalem1 the new sect spread within a few decades almost to the remotest corners of the civilized world4 ,this remarkable extension was not the work of any one man or group of men4 ,it seemed rather to be due to some mysterious power of growth1 operating in many directions and in many ways4 ,in this manifold extension of the gospel1 however1 the central event of to-day's lesson stands out with special clearness4 ,christianity began as a ,jewish movement1 quite incongruous with the larger life of the empire4 ,what would be the result of its first real contact with the culture of the time8 ,this question was answered at ,antioch4 ,at ,antioch1 the principles of the ,gentile mission had to be established once for all--those principles which have governed the entire subsequent history of the ,church4 ,the extension of the gospel to the ,gentiles was not a mere overcoming of racial prejudice1 for the separateness of ,israel had been of divine appointment2 it involved rather the recognition that a new dispensation had begun4 ,primitive ,christianity was not governed merely by considerations of practical expediency2 it sought justification for every new step in the guidance of the ,spirit and in the fundamental principles of the gospel4 ,the development of those fundamental principles was necessary in order to show that ,christianity was really more than a ,jewish sect4 ,then as always1 religion without theology would have been a weak and flabby thing4 ,christianity is not merely an instrument for the improving of social conditions1 but rather an answer to the fundamental questions of the soul4 ,it can never do without thinking1 and ,christian thinking is theology4 ,fortunately the church at ,antioch did not long remain without a theologian4 ,its theologian was ,paul4 ,paul was not the founder of the church at ,antioch2 but the theology of ,paul was what gave to that church its really fundamental importance in the history of the world4 ,the lesson for to-day is of extraordinary richness and variety4 ,much can be learned1 for example1 from the characters of the story4 ,barnabas1 with his generous recognition of the great man who was soon to overshadow him2 those obscure men of ,cyprus and ,cyrene1 not even mentioned by name1 whose work at ,antioch was one of the great turning points of history2 ,agabus1 the prophet1 and the charitable brethren of ,antioch2 ,rhoda1 the serving girl1 and the prayerful assembly in the house of the mother of ,mark--every one of these teaches some special lesson4 ,one lesson1 moreover1 may be learned from them all--,god is the real leader of the ,church1 and true disciples1 though different in character and in attainments1 are all sharers in a mighty work4 ,in what follows1 an attempt will be made to throw light upon a few of the historical questions which are suggested by the narrative in ,the ,acts1 and to picture as vividly as possible the scene of these stirring events4 #a4 ,,the ,,acts ,,and ,,the ,,pauline ,,epistles ,the differences between the narrative in ,the ,acts and the account which ,paul gives of the same events have caused considerable difficulty4 ,this very difficulty1 however1 is by no means an unmixed evil2 for it shows at least that ,luke was entirely independent of the ,epistles4 ,if he had employed the ,epistles in the composition of his book he would surely have avoided even the appearance of contradicting them4 ,the divergences between ,the ,acts and the ,pauline ,epistles1 therefore1 can only mean that ,luke did not use the ,epistles when he wrote2 and since the ,epistles came to be generally used at a very early time1 ,the ,acts cannot have been written at so late a date as is often supposed4 ,but if the book was written at an early time1 then there is every probability that the information which it contains is derived from trustworthy sources4 ,thus the very divergences between ,the ,acts and the ,pauline ,epistles1 unless indeed they should amount to positive contradictions1 strengthen the argument for the early date and high historical value of the ,lucan work4 ,the independence of ,the ,acts is supported also by the complete absence of striking verbal similarity between the narrative in ,the ,acts and the corresponding passages in the ,epistles4 ,even where the details of the two accounts are similar1 the words are different4 ,the few unimportant coincidences in language are altogether insufficient to overthrow this general impression of independence4 ,the most natural supposition1 therefore1 is that in ,the ,acts and in the ,epistles we have two independent and trustworthy accounts of the same events4 ,this supposition is really borne out by the details of the two narratives4 ,there are differences1 but the differences are only what is to be expected in two narratives which were written from entirely different points of view and in complete independence of one another4 ,contradictions have been detected only by pressing unduly the language of one source or the other4 ,thus1 in reading ,the ,acts alone1 one might suppose that ,paul spent the whole time between his conversion and his first visit to ,jerusalem in ,damascus1 and that this period was less than three years2 but these suppositions are only inferences4 ,apparently ,luke was not aware of the journey to ,arabia2 but an incomplete narrative is not necessarily inaccurate4 ,again1 in the account of that first visit to ,jerusalem1 the reader of ,the ,acts might naturally suppose that more than one of the ,twelve was present1 that the main purpose of the journey was rather to engage in preaching than to make the acquaintance of ,peter1 and that the visit lasted longer than fifteen days2 and on the other hand1 the reader of ,galatians might perhaps suppose that instead of preaching in ,jerusalem ,paul remained1 while there1 in strict retirement4 ,again1 however1 these suppositions would be inferences2 and the falsity of them simply shows how cautious the historian should be in reading between the lines of a narrative4 ,finally1 the differences between ,paul and ,luke are overbalanced by the striking and undesigned agreements4 ,in ,galatians1 ,paul does not mention the visit which he and ,barnabas made in ,jerusalem at the time of the famine4 ,this conclusion has been avoided by those scholars who with ,ramsay identify the famine visit with the visit mentioned in ,gal4 #b3a-aj4 ,the more usual view1 however1 is that ,gal4 #b3a-aj is to be regarded as parallel1 not with ,acts #aa3cj2 #ab3be1 but with ,acts #ae3a-cj4 ,the second visit mentioned by ,paul is thus identified with the third visit mentioned by ,luke4 ,paul did not mention the famine visit because1 as was probably admitted even by his opponents in ,galatia1 the apostles at the time of that visit were all out of the city1 so that there was no chance of a meeting with them4 ,the subject under discussion in ,galatians was not ,paul's life in general1 but the relation between ,paul and the original apostles4 #b4 ,,the ,,preaching ,,to ,,greeks ,in ,acts #aa3bj1 the best manuscripts read spake unto the ,hellenists instead of spake unto the ,greeks4 ,the word ,hellenist usually means ,grecian ,jew4 ,here1 however1 if this word is to be read1 it must refer not to ,jews1 but to ,gentiles2 for the contrast with the preaching to ,jews that is mentioned just before1 is the very point of the verse4 ,perhaps at this point the manuscripts which read ,greeks 7that is1 ,gentiles7 are correct4 ,in either case1 the meaning is fixed by the context4 ,these ,jews of ,cyprus and ,cyrene1 when they arrived at ,antioch certainly began to preach regularly to ,gentiles4 #c4 ,,peter',s ,,escape ,,from ,,prison ,in ,acts #ab3a-bd1 ,luke brings the account of affairs in ,jerusalem up to the time which has already been reached in the narrative about ,antioch4 ,the journey of ,barnabas and ,paul to ,jerusalem1 ,acts #aa3cj2 #ab3be1 supplied the connecting link4 ,while the church at ,antioch was progressing in the manner described in ,acts #aa3ai-cj1 a persecution had been carried on in ,jerusalem by ,herod ,agrippa ,i4 ,the escape of ,peter is narrated in an extraordinarily lifelike way4 ,evidently ,luke was in possession of first-hand information4 ,the vividness of the narrative is very significant4 ,it shows that the unmistakable trustworthiness of ,the ,acts extends even to those happenings which were most clearly miraculous4 ,the supernatural cannot be eliminated from apostolic history4 #d4 ,,antioch ,antioch on the ,orontes was founded by ,seleucus ,nicator1 the first monarch of the ,seleucid dynasty1 and under his successors it remained the capital of the ,syrian kingdom4 ,when that kingdom was conquered by the ,romans1 the political importance of ,antioch did not suffer4 ,antioch became under the ,romans not only the capital of the province ,syria but also the residence of the emperors and high officials when they were in the east4 ,it may be regarded as a sort of eastern capital of the empire4 ,the political importance of ,antioch was no greater than its commercial importance4 ,situated near the northeastern corner of the ,mediterranean ,sea1 where the ,mediterranean coast is nearer to the ,euphrates than at any other point1 where the ,orontes valley provided easy communication with the east and the ,syrian gates with the west1 with a magnificent artificial harbor at ,seleucia1 about twenty miles distant1 ,antioch naturally became the great meeting point for the trade of east and west4 ,it is not surprising that ,antioch was the third city of the empire--after ,rome and ,alexandria4 ,the city was built on a plain between the ,orontes on the north and the precipitous slopes of ,mount ,silpius on the south4 ,a great wall extended over the rugged heights of the mountain and around the city4 ,a magnificent street led through the city from east to west4 ,the buildings were of extraordinary magnificence4 ,perhaps as magnificent as the city itself was the famous ,daphne1 a neighboring shrine and pleasure resort1 well-known for its gilded vice4 ,the dominant language of ,antioch1 from the beginning1 had been ,greek4 ,the ,seleucids prided themselves on the ,greek culture of their court1 and ,roman rule introduced no essential change4 ,of course1 along with the ,greek language and ,greek culture went a large admixture of eastern blood and eastern custom4 ,like the other great cities of the empire1 ,antioch was a meeting place of various peoples1 a typical cosmopolitan center of a world-wide empire4 ,the ,jewish population1 of course1 was numerous4 ,such was the seat of the apostolic missionary church4 ,almost lost at first in the seething life of the great city1 that church was destined to outlive all the magnificence that surrounded it4 ,a new seed had been implanted in the ancient world1 and ,god would give the increase4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #he-ij1 #ih-aaj4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,agabus1 ,antioch1 ,arabia1 ,aretas1 ,barnabas1 ,herod 7#c74 ,ramsay1 ,st4 ,paul the ,traveller and the ,roman ,citizen1 pp4 #dj-fi2 ,pictures of the ,apostolic ,church1 pp4 #aba-abh4 ,lewin1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chs4 v1 vi and vii4 ,conybeare and ,howson1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 ch4 iv4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #dd-fc4 ,lumby1 pp4 #aaf-abb1 #adb-aee1 #cjg-cji4 ,cook1 pp4 #daf-dah1 #dcj-dcc1 #ejj1 #eja4 ,plumptre1 pp4 #fj-fb1 #gc-gi1 #aeb4 ,rackham1 pp4 #acf-ada1 #afc-ahd4 ,part ,,ii3 ,christianity ,established ,among the ,gentiles ,the ,principles and ,practice of the ,gospel ,,lesson ,,xiv ,,the ,,gospel ,,to ,,the ,,gentiles ,it was a dramatic moment when ,paul and ,barnabas1 with their helper1 set sail from ,seleucia1 on the waters of the ,mediterranean4 ,behind them lay ,syria and ,palestine and the history of the chosen people2 in front of them was the west4 ,the religion of ,israel had emerged from its age-long seclusion2 it had entered at last upon the conquest of the world4 ,the message that crossed the strait to ,cyprus was destined to be carried over broader seas4 ,a mighty enterprise was begun4 ,it was an audacious thought6 ,the missionaries might well have been overpowered by what lay before them--by the power of a world empire1 by the prestige of a brilliant civilization4 ,how insignificant were their own weapons6 ,would they ever even gain a hearing8 ,but though the enterprise was begun in weakness it was begun in faith4 ,at their departure from ,antioch the missionaries were committed to the grace of ,god4 ,the account of this first missionary journey is one of the most fascinating passages in ,the ,acts4 ,the interest never flags2 incident follows incident in wonderful variety4 ,in reading this narrative1 we are transplanted into the midst of the ancient world1 we come to breathe the very atmosphere of that cosmopolitan age4 ,in the lesson of to-day the teacher has an unusual opportunity4 ,if he uses it well1 he may cause the ,bible story to live again4 ,absolutely essential to that end is the judicious use of a map--preferably something larger than the small sketch map of the ,text ,book4 ,a travel narrative without a map is a hopeless jumble4 ,the map is an aid both to memory and to imagination4 ,tracing the route of the missionaries on the map1 the teacher should endeavor to call up the scenes through which they passed4 ,the student should be made to see the waters of the ,mediterranean1 with the hills of ,cyprus beyond1 the interminable stretches of the ,roman roads1 the lofty mountains of the ,taurus1 the perils of rivers and the perils of robbers1 the teeming population of the countless cities--and through it all the simple missionaries of the cross1 almost unnoticed amid the turmoil of the busy world1 but rich in the possession of a world-conquering gospel and resistless through the power of the living ,god4 #a4 ,,the ,,prophets ,,and ,,teachers ,both prophecy and teaching were gifts of the ,spirit4 ,i ,cor4 #ab3bh-ca4 ,prophecy was immediate revelation of the divine plan or of the divine will2 teaching1 apparently1 was logical development of the truth already given4 ,which of the men who are mentioned in ,acts #ac3a were prophets and which were teachers is not clear4 ,if any division is intended it is probably between the first three and the last two4 ,for this grouping there is perhaps some slight indication in the connectives that are used in the ,greek1 but the matter is not certain4 ,perhaps all five of the men were possessed of both gifts4 ,lucius was perhaps one of the founders of the church1 for he came from ,cyrene4 ,compare ,acts #aa3bj4 ,manaen is an interesting figure4 ,he is called foster-brother of ,herod the tetrarch4 ,the word translated foster-brother is apparently sometimes used in a derived sense1 to designate simply an intimate associate of a prince4 ,if that be the meaning here1 then at least one member of the church at ,antioch was a man of some social standing4 ,in ,antioch1 as in ,corinth1 probably not many wise after the flesh1 not many mighty1 not many noble were called1 ,i ,cor4 #a3bf2 but in ,antioch as in ,corinth there were exceptions4 ,the ,herod who is here meant is ,herod ,antipas1 the ,herod of the ,gospels4 #b4 ,,elymas ,when the ,jewish sorcerer is first mentioned he is called ,bar-,jesus--that is1 son of ,jesus1 ,jesus being a common ,jewish name4 ,then1 a little below1 the same man is called ,elymas the sorcerer1 and the explanation is added1 for so is his name by interpretation4 ,apparently the new name ,elymas is introduced without explanation1 and then the ,greek word for sorcerer is introduced as a translation of that4 ,the word ,elymas is variously derived from an ,arabic word meaning wise1 or an ,aramaic word meaning strong4 ,in either case the ,greek word1 magos1 for which our ,english ,bible has sorcerer1 is a fair equivalent4 ,that ,greek word is the word that appears also in ,matt4 #b3a1g1af1 where the ,english ,bible has ,wise-men2 and words derived from the same root are used to describe ,simon of ,samaria in ,acts #h3i1aa4 ,the word could designate men of different character4 ,some magi might be regarded as students of natural science2 in others1 superstition and charlatanism were dominant4 #c4 ,,saul ,,and ,,paul ,at ,acts #ac3i ,luke introduces the name ,paul--,saul1 who is also called ,paul4 ,previously the narrative always uses the ,jewish name ,saul2 after this ,paul appears with equal regularity1 except in the accounts of the conversion1 where in three verses a special1 entirely un-,greek form of ,saul is used4 ,acts #bb3g1ac2 #bf3ad4 ,since in our passage in the original the name of the proconsul1 ,paulus1 is exactly like the name of the apostle1 some have supposed that ,paul assumed a new name in honor of his distinguished convert4 ,that is altogether unlikely4 ,more probable is the suggestion that although ,paul had both names from the beginning1 ,luke is led to introduce the name ,paul at just this point because of the coincidence with the name of the proconsul4 ,even this supposition1 however1 is extremely doubtful4 ,probably the ,roman name1 which ,paul uses invariably in his letters1 is introduced at this point simply because here for the first time ,paul comes prominently forward in a distinctly ,roman environment4 #d4 ,,paul ,,and ,,barnabas ,connected with this variation in name is the reversal in the relation between ,paul and ,barnabas4 ,previously ,barnabas has been given the priority2 but immediately after the incident at ,paphos the missionaries are designated as ,paul and his company1 ,acts #ac3ac1 and thereafter when the two are mentioned together1 ,paul1 except at ,acts #ad3ab1ad2 #ae3ab1be1 appears first4 ,in the presence of the ,roman proconsul1 ,paul's ,roman citizenship perhaps caused him to take the lead2 and then inherent superiority made his leadership permanent4 #e4 ,,the ,,return ,,of ,,john ,,mark ,the reasons for ,john ,mark's return from ,perga to ,jerusalem can only be surmised4 ,perhaps he was simply unwilling1 for some reason sufficient to him but insufficient to ,paul1 to undertake the hardships of the journey into the interior4 ,certainly it was an adventurous journey4 ,paul was not always an easy man to follow4 ,the severity of ,paul's judgment of ,mark was not necessarily so great as has sometimes been supposed4 ,one purpose of the second journey was to revisit the churches of the first journey4 ,acts #ae3cf4 ,whether for good or for bad reasons1 ,mark1 as a matter of fact1 had not been with the missionaries on a large part of that first journey1 and was1 therefore1 unknown to many of the churches4 ,for this reason1 perhaps as much as on account of moral objections1 ,paul considered ,mark an unsuitable helper4 ,in his later epistles ,paul speaks of ,mark in the most cordial way4 ,col4 #d3aj2 ,philem4 #bd2 ,,ii ,tim4 #d3aa4 ,in the last passage1 he even says that ,mark was useful to him for ministering--exactly what he had not been at the beginning of the second missionary journey4 #f4 ,,hardships ,,and ,,persecutions ,it is evident from ,,ii ,cor4 #aa3bc-bg that ,luke has recorded only a small fraction of the hardships which ,paul endured as a missionary of the cross4 ,the tendency to lay exaggerated stress upon martyrdom and suffering1 which runs riot in the later legends of the saints1 is in ,the ,acts conspicuous by its absence4 ,of the trials which are vouched for by the unimpeachable testimony of ,paul himself1 only a few may be identified in the ,lucan narrative4 ,it is natural1 however1 to suppose that some of the perils of rivers and perils of robbers were encountered on the journey through the defiles of the ,taurus mountains from ,perga to ,pisidian ,antioch1 and the one stoning which ,paul mentions is clearly to be identified with the adventure at ,lystra4 ,in ,,ii ,tim4 #c3aa ,paul mentions the persecutions at ,antioch1 ,iconium and ,lystra4 #g4 ,,geography ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,journey ,the first missionary journey led the missionaries into three ,roman provinces3 ,cyprus1 ,pamphylia and ,galatia4 ,the name ,galatia had originally designated a district in the north central part of ,asia ,minor1 which had been colonized by certain ,celtic tribes several centuries before ,christ4 ,by the ,romans1 however1 other districts were added to this original ,galatia1 and in #be ,b4 ,c4 the whole complex was organized into an imperial province under the name ,galatia4 ,in the first century after ,christ1 therefore1 the name ,galatia could be used in two distinct senses4 ,in the first place1 in the earlier1 popular sense1 it could designate ,galatia proper4 ,in the second place1 in the later1 official sense1 it could designate the whole ,roman province1 which included not only ,galatia proper1 but also parts of a number of other districts1 including ,phrygia and ,lycaonia4 ,of the cities visited on the first missionary journey1 ,pisidian ,antioch--which was called ,pisidian because it was near ,pisidia--and ,iconium were in ,phrygia1 and ,lystra and ,derbe in ,lycaonia2 but all four were included in the province of ,galatia4 ,many scholars suppose that the churches in these cities were the churches which ,paul addresses in the ,epistle to the ,galatians4 ,that view is called the ,south ,galatian theory4 ,others--adherents of the ,north ,galatian theory--suppose that the epistle is addressed to churches in ,galatia proper1 in the northern part of the ,roman province1 which were founded on the second missionary journey4 ,this question will be noticed again in connection with the epistle4 #h4 ,,time ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,journey ,luke gives very little indication of the amount of time which was consumed on this first journey4 ,the hasty reader probably estimates the time too low1 since only a few incidents are narrated4 ,the rapidity of the narrative should not be misinterpreted as indicating cursoriness of the labor4 ,the passage through ,cyprus1 ,acts #ac3f1 was probably accompanied by evangelizing2 the extension of the gospel through the whole region of ,antioch1 v4 #di1 must have occupied more than a few days2 the stay at ,iconium is designated as long time1 ,acts #ad3c2 the change of attitude on the part of the ,lystran populace1 v4 #ai1 was probably not absolutely sudden2 not only ,lystra and ,derbe but also the surrounding country were evangelized1 v4 #f2 and finally the missionaries could hardly have returned to the cities from which they had been driven out1 v4 #ba1 unless the heat of persecution had been allowed to cool4 ,perhaps a full year would not be too high an estimate of the time that was occupied by the journey1 and still higher estimates are by no means excluded4 #i4 ,,the ,,scene ,,at ,,lystra ,the account of the incident at ,lystra is one of those inimitable bits of narrative which imprint upon ,the ,acts the indisputable stamp of historicity4 ,lystra1 though a ,roman colony1 lay somewhat off the beaten track of culture and of trade2 hence the extreme superstition of the populace is what might be expected4 ,it may seem rather strange that ,paul and ,barnabas should have been identified with great gods of ,olympus rather than with lesser divinities or spirits1 but who can place a limit upon the superstition of an uncultured people of the ancient world8 ,the identification may have been rendered easier by the legend of ,philemon and ,baucis1 which has been preserved for us by ,ovid1 the ,latin poet4 ,according to that legend1 ,zeus and ,hermes appeared1 once upon a time1 in human form in ,phrygia1 the same general region in which ,lystra was situated4 ,zeus and ,hermes are the gods with whom ,barnabas and ,paul were identified2 the ,english ,bible simply substitutes for these ,greek names the names of the corresponding ,roman deities4 ,the temple of ,zeus-before-the-city and the preparations for sacrifices are described in a most lifelike way1 in full accord with what is known of ancient religion4 ,we find ourselves here in a somewhat different atmosphere from that which prevails in most of the scenes described in ,the ,acts4 ,it is a pagan atmosphere1 and an atmosphere of ruder superstition than that which prevailed in the great cities4 ,the speech of ,lycaonia1 v4 #aa1 is an especially characteristic touch4 ,apparently the all-pervading ,greek was understood at ,lystra even by the populace2 but in the excitement of their superstition they fell very naturally into their native language4 ,as in the case of ,peter's release from prison1 so in this incident1 wonderful lifelikeness of description is coupled with a miracle4 ,the scene at ,lystra is unintelligible without the miraculous healing of the lame man1 with which it begins4 ,it is impossible1 in ,the ,acts as well as in the ,gospels1 to separate the miraculous from the rest of the narrative4 ,the evident truthfulness of the story applies to the supernatural elements as well as to the rest4 ,the early ,christian mission is evidently real2 but it is just as evidently supernatural4 ,it moved through the varied scenes of the real world1 but it was not limited by the world4 ,it was animated by a mysterious1 superhuman power4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #aaa-abb4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,cyprus1 ,antioch 7#b71 ,iconium1 ,lystra1 ,derbe1 ,galatia4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,muir1 article on ,cyprus2 ,massie1 article on ,bar-,jesus2 ,headlam1 article on ,paulus1 ,sergius2 ,ramsay1 articles on ,antioch in ,pisidia1 ,iconium1 ,lystra1 ,derbe1 ,galatia4 ,ramsay1 ,st4 ,paul the ,traveller and the ,roman ,citizen1 pp4 #fd-abi2 ,the ,cities of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #bdg-dai2 ,pictures of the ,apostolic ,church1 pp4 #abi-aec4 ,lewin1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chapter viii4 ,conybeare and ,howson1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chapters v and vi4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #fe-ga4 ,lumby1 pp4 #aee-ahc4 ,cook1 pp4 #dcg-dea4 ,plumptre1 pp4 #gi-ic4 ,rackham1 pp4 #aid-bch4 ,,lesson ,,xv ,,the ,,council ,,at ,,jerusalem ,the lesson for to-day deals with one of the most important events in apostolic history4 ,at the ,jerusalem council the principles of the ,gentile mission and of the entire life of the ,church were brought to clear expression4 ,if the original apostles had agreed with the ,judaizers against ,paul1 the whole history of the ,church would have been different4 ,there would even have been room to doubt whether ,paul was really a disciple of ,jesus2 for if he was1 how could he come to differ so radically from those whom ,jesus had taught8 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 these dire consequences were avoided4 ,when the issue was made between ,paul and the ,judaizers1 the original apostles decided whole-heartedly for ,paul4 ,the unity of the ,church was preserved4 ,god was guiding the deliberations of the council4 #a4 ,,the ,,acts ,,and ,,galatians ,the treatment of to-day's lesson in the ,student's ,text ,book is based upon the assumption that ,gal4 #b3a-aj is an account of the same visit of ,paul to ,jerusalem as the visit which is described in ,acts #ae3a-bi4 ,that assumption is not universally accepted4 ,some scholars identify the event of ,gal4 #b3a-aj1 not with the ,apostolic ,council of ,acts #ae3a-bi1 but with the famine visit of ,acts #aa3cj2 #ab3be4 ,indeed1 some maintain that the ,epistle to the ,galatians not only contains no account of the ,apostolic ,council1 but was actually written before the council was held--say at ,antioch1 soon after the first missionary journey4 ,of course this early dating of ,galatians can be adopted only in connection with the ,south ,galatian theory2 for according to the ,north ,galatian theory the churches addressed in the epistle were not founded until after the council1 namely at the time of ,acts #af3f4 ,undoubtedly the identification of ,gal4 #b3a-aj with ,acts #aa3cj2 #ab3be1 avoids some difficulties4 ,if ,gal4 #b3a-aj be identified with ,acts #ae3a-bi1 then ,paul in ,galatians has passed over the famine visit without mention4 ,furthermore there are considerable differences between ,gal4 #b3a-aj and ,acts #ae3a-bi4 ,for example1 if ,paul is referring to the ,apostolic ,council1 why has he not mentioned the apostolic decree of ,acts #ae3bc-bi8 ,these difficulties1 however1 are not insuperable1 and there are counter difficulties against the identification of ,gal4 #b3a-aj with the famine visit4 ,one such difficulty is connected with chronology4 ,paul says that his first visit to ,jerusalem took place three years after his conversion1 ,gal4 #a3ah1 and--according to the most natural interpretation of ,gal4 #b3a--that the visit of ,gal4 #b3a-aj took place fourteen years after the first visit4 ,the conversion then occurred seventeen years before the time of ,gal4 #b3a-aj4 ,but if ,gal4 #b3a-aj describes the famine visit1 then the time of ,gal4 #b3a-aj could not have been after about ,a4 ,d4 #df4 ,counting back seventeen years from ,a4 ,d4 #df we should get ,a4 ,d4 #bi as the date of the conversion1 which is1 of course1 too early4 ,this reasoning1 it must be admitted1 is not quite conclusive4 ,the ancients had an inclusive method of reckoning time4 ,according to this method three years after #aiad would be #aiaf4 ,hence1 fourteen plus three might be only what we should call about fifteen years1 instead of seventeen4 ,furthermore1 ,paul may mean in ,gal4 #b3a that his conference with the apostles took place fourteen years after the conversion rather than fourteen years after the first visit4 ,the identification of ,gal4 #b3a-aj with the famine visit is not impossible4 ,but on the whole the usual view1 which identifies the event of ,gal4 #b3a-aj with the meeting at the time of the ,apostolic ,council of ,acts #ae3a-bi1 must be regarded as more probable4 ,the ,apostolic ,council probably took place roughly at about ,a4 ,d4 #di4 ,the conversion of ,paul then should probably be put at about ,a4 ,d4 #cb-cd4 #b4 ,,the ,,judaizers ,conceivably the question about the freedom of the ,gentiles from the law might have arisen at an earlier time2 for ,gentiles had already been received into the ,church before the first missionary journey4 ,as a matter of fact1 indeed1 some objection had been raised to the reception of ,cornelius4 ,but that objection had easily been silenced by an appeal to the immediate guidance of ,god4 ,perhaps the case of ,cornelius could be regarded as exceptional2 and a similar reflection might possibly have been applied to the ,gentile ,christians at ,antioch4 ,there seemed to be no danger1 at any rate1 that the predominantly ,jewish character of the ,church would be lost4 ,now1 however1 after a regular ,gentile mission had been carried on with signal success1 the situation was materially altered4 ,evidently the influx of ,gentile converts1 if allowed to go on unhindered1 would change the whole character of the ,church4 ,christianity would appear altogether as a new dispensation3 the prerogatives of ,israel would be gone4 ,the question of ,gentile ,christianity had existed before1 but after the first missionary journey it became acute4 ,perhaps1 however1 there was also another reason why the battle had not been fought out at an earlier time4 ,it looks very much as though this bitter opposition to the ,gentile mission had arisen only through the appearance of a new element in the ,jerusalem church4 ,were these extreme legalists1 who objected to the work of ,paul and ,barnabas--were these men present in the ,church from the beginning8 ,the question is more than doubtful4 ,it is more probable that these legalists came into the ,church during the period of prosperity which followed upon the persecution of ,stephen and was only briefly interrupted by the persecution under ,herod ,agrippa ,i4 ,these ,jewish ,christian opponents of the ,gentile mission--these ,judaizers--must be examined with some care4 ,they are described not only by ,luke in ,the ,acts but by ,paul himself in ,galatians4 ,according to ,the ,acts1 some of them at least had belonged to the sect of the ,pharisees before they had become ,christians4 ,acts #ae3e4 ,the activity of the ,judaizers is described by ,luke in complete independence of the account given by ,paul4 ,as usual1 ,luke contents himself with a record of external fact1 while ,paul uncovers the deeper motives of the ,judaizers' actions4 ,yet the facts as reported by ,luke fully justify the harsh words which ,paul employs4 ,according to ,paul1 these ,judaizers were false brethren privily brought in1 who came in privily to spy out our liberty which we have in ,christ ,jesus1 that they might bring us into bondage4 ,gal4 #b3d4 ,by calling them false brethren ,paul means simply that they had not really grasped the fundamental principle of the gospel--the principle of justification by faith4 ,they were still trying to earn their salvation by their works instead of receiving it as a gift of ,god4 ,at heart they were still ,jews rather than ,christians4 ,they came in privily into places where they did not belong--perhaps ,paul means especially into the church at ,antioch--in order to spy out ,christian liberty4 ,gal4 #b3d4 ,compare ,acts #ae3a4 ,the rise of this ,judaizing party is easy to understand4 ,in some respects the ,judaizers were simply following the line of least resistance4 ,by upholding the ,mosaic law they would escape persecution and even obtain honor4 ,we have seen that it was the ,jews who instigated the early persecutions of the ,church4 ,such persecutions would be avoided by the ,judaizers1 for they could say to their non-,christian countrymen3 ,we are engaged simply in one form of the world-wide ,jewish mission4 ,we are requiring our converts to keep the ,mosaic law and unite themselves definitely with the people of ,israel4 ,every convert that we gain is a convert to ,judaism4 ,the cross of ,christ that we proclaim is supplementary to the law1 not subversive of it4 ,we deserve therefore from the ,jews not persecution but honor4 ,compare what ,paul says about the ,judaizers in ,galatia4 ,gal4 #f3ab1ac4 #c4 ,,the ,,apostolic ,,decree ,at first sight it seems rather strange that ,paul in ,galatians does not mention the apostolic decree4 ,some have supposed that his words even exclude any decree of that sort4 ,in ,gal4 #b3f ,paul says that the pillars of the ,jerusalem church imparted nothing to him4 ,yet according to ,the ,acts they imparted to him this decree4 ,the decree1 moreover1 seems to have a direct bearing upon the question that ,paul was discussing in ,galatians2 for it involved the imposition of a part of the ceremonial law upon ,gentile ,christians4 ,how then1 if the decree really was passed as ,luke says it was1 could it have been left unmentioned by ,paul8 ,there are various ways of overcoming the difficulty4 ,in the first place it is not perfectly certain that any of the prohibitions contained in the decree are ceremonial in character4 ,three of them are probably ceremonial if the text of most manuscripts of ,the ,acts is correct4 ,most manuscripts read1 at ,acts #ae3bi3 ,that ye abstain from things sacrificed to idols1 and from blood1 and from things strangled1 and from fornication2 from which if ye keep yourselves1 it shall be well with you4 ,here things offered to idols apparently describes not idolatrous worship1 but food which had been dedicated to idols2 and blood describes meat used for food without previous removal of the blood4 ,this meaning of blood is apparently fixed by the addition of things strangled4 ,since things strangled evidently refers to food1 probably the two preceding expressions refer to food also4 ,according to the great mass of our witnesses to the text1 therefore1 the apostolic decree contains a food law4 ,a few witnesses1 however1 omit all reference to things strangled1 not only at ,acts #ae3bi but also at v4 #bj and at ch4 #ba3be4 ,if this text be original1 then it is possible to interpret the prohibitions as simply moral and not at all ceremonial in character4 ,things offered to idols may be interpreted simply of idolatry1 and blood of murder4 ,but if the prohibitions are prohibitions of immorality1 then they cannot be said to have imparted anything to ,paul2 for of course he was as much opposed to immorality as anyone4 ,however1 the more familiar form of the text is probably correct4 ,the witnesses that omit the word strangled are those that attest the so-called ,western ,text of ,the ,acts4 ,this ,western ,text differs rather strikingly from the more familiar text in many places4 ,the question as to how far the ,western ,text of ,the ,acts is correct is a hotly debated question4 ,on the whole1 however1 the ,western readings are usually at any rate to be discredited4 ,in the second place1 the difficulty about the decree may be overcome by regarding ,gal4 #b3a-aj as parallel not with ,acts #ae3a-bi but with ,acts #aa3cj2 #ab3be4 ,this solution has already been discussed4 ,in the third place1 the difficulty may be overcome by that interpretation of the decree which is proposed in the ,student's ,text ,book4 ,the decree was not an addition to ,paul's gospel4 ,it was not imposed upon the ,gentile ,christians as though a part of the law were necessary to salvation4 ,on the contrary it was simply an attempt to solve the practical problems of certain mixed churches--not the ,pauline churches in general1 but churches which stood in an especially close relation to ,jerusalem4 ,this interpretation of the decree is favored by the difficult verse1 ,acts #ae3ba4 ,what ,james there means is probably that the ,gentile ,christians should avoid those things which would give the most serious offense to hearers of the law4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #abe-aff4 ,lightfoot1 ,saint ,paul's ,epistle to the ,galatians1 pp4 #abc-abh 7,the later visit of ,st4 ,paul to ,jerusalem71 #bib-cgd 7,st4 ,paul and the ,three74 ,ramsay1 ,st4 ,paul the ,traveller and the ,roman ,citizen1 pp4 #dh-fj1 #aeb-age4 ,lewin1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 ch4 ix4 ,conybeare and ,howson1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 ch4 vii4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #ajh-aah4 ,lumby1 pp4 #ahe-bjj4 ,cook1 pp4 #dea-deh4 ,plumptre1 pp4 #ic-aja4 ,rackham1 pp4 #bch-bei1 #bfc-bgj4 ,,lesson ,,xvi ,,the ,,gospel ,,carried ,,into ,,europe ,from the rich store of to-day's lesson only a few points can be selected for special comment4 #a4 ,,titus ,,and ,,timothy ,at ,lystra1 ,paul had ,timothy circumcised4 ,acts #af3c4 ,this action has been considered strange in view of the attitude which ,paul had previously assumed4 ,at ,jerusalem1 only a short time before1 he had absolutely refused to permit the circumcision of ,titus4 ,evidently1 too1 he had regarded the matter as of fundamental importance4 ,had ,titus been circumcised1 the freedom of the ,gentile ,christians would have been seriously endangered4 ,the presence of ,titus at the ,apostolic ,council is mentioned only by ,paul in ,galatians4 ,it is not mentioned in ,the ,acts4 ,indeed1 ,titus does not appear in ,the ,acts at all1 though in the epistles he is rather prominent4 ,this fact1 however1 really requires no further explanation than that the history of ,luke is not intended to be exhaustive4 ,the restraint exercised by the author of ,the ,acts has already been observed1 for example1 in a comparison of the long list of hardships in ,,ii ,cor4 #aa3bc-bg with what ,luke actually narrates4 ,the helpers of ,paul whom ,luke mentions are usually those who traveled with him4 ,titus was sent by ,paul on at least one important mission1 ,,ii ,cor4 #g3ac1ad1 but was apparently not his companion on the missionary journeys4 ,luke does not concern himself very much with the internal affairs of the churches1 and it is in this field that ,titus is especially prominent in the epistles4 ,with regard to the presence of ,titus in ,jerusalem1 the different purposes of the narratives in ,galatians and in ,the ,acts must be borne in mind4 ,the non-circumcision of ,titus1 so strongly emphasized by ,paul1 was merely preliminary to the public action of the church in which ,luke was interested4 ,luke has thought it sufficient to include ,titus under the certain other of the ,antioch ,christians who went up with ,paul and ,barnabas to ,jerusalem4 ,the different policy which ,paul adopted in the case of ,timothy1 as compared with his policy about ,titus1 is amply explained by the wide differences in the situation4 ,in the first place1 when ,titus was at ,jerusalem1 the matter of ,gentile freedom was in dispute1 whereas when ,timothy was circumcised the question had already been settled by a formal pronouncement of the ,jerusalem church4 ,after ,paul had won the victory of principle1 he could afford to make concessions where no principle was involved4 ,timothy was recognized as a full member of the ,church even before his circumcision4 ,circumcision was merely intended to make him a more efficient helper in work among the ,jews4 ,in the second place--and this is even more important--,timothy was a half-,jew4 ,it is perhaps doubtful whether ,paul under any circumstances would have authorized the circumcision of a pure ,gentile like ,titus4 ,but ,timothy's mother was ,jewish4 ,it must always be borne in mind that ,paul did not demand the relinquishment of the law on the part of ,jews2 and ,timothy's parentage gave him at least the right of regarding himself as a ,jew4 ,if he had chosen to follow his ,gentile father1 the ,jews could have regarded him as a renegade4 ,his usefulness in the synagogues would have been lost4 ,obviously the circumcision of such a man involved nothing more than the maintenance of ancestral custom on the part of ,jews4 ,where no principle was involved1 ,paul was the most concessive of men4 ,see especially ,i ,cor4 #i3ai-bc4 ,the final relinquishment of the law on the part of ,jews was rightly left to the future guidance of ,god4 #b4 ,,the ,,route ,,through ,,asia ,,minor ,the difficulty of tracing the route of the missionaries beyond ,lystra is due largely to the difficulty of ,acts #af3f4 ,a literal translation of the decisive words in that verse would be either the ,phrygian and ,galatian country or ,phrygia and the ,galatian country4 ,according to the advocates of the ,south ,galatian theory1 the ,galatian country here refers not to ,galatia proper but to the southern part of the ,roman province ,galatia4 ,the ,phrygian and ,galatian country then perhaps means ,the ,phrygo-,galatic country1 or that part of ,phrygia which is in the ,roman province ,galatia4 ,the reference then is to ,iconium1 ,pisidian ,antioch and the surrounding country--after the missionaries had passed through the ,lycaonian part of the province ,galatia 7,derbe and ,lystra7 they traversed the ,phrygian part of the province4 ,the chief objection to all such interpretations is found in the latter part of the verse3 having been forbidden of the ,holy ,spirit to speak the word in ,asia4 ,it looks as though the reason why they passed through the ,phrygian and ,galatian country was that they were forbidden to preach in ,asia4 ,but ,south ,galatia was directly on the way to ,asia4 ,the impossibility of preaching in ,asia could therefore hardly have been the reason for passing through south ,galatia4 ,apparently1 therefore1 the disputed phrase refers rather to some region which is not on the way to ,asia4 ,this requirement is satisfied if ,galatia proper is meant--the country in the northern part of the ,roman province ,galatia4 ,when they got to ,pisidian ,antioch1 it would have been natural for them to proceed into the western part of ,asia ,minor1 into ,asia4 ,that they were forbidden to do4 ,hence they turned north1 and went through ,phrygia into ,galatia proper4 ,when they got to the border country between ,mysia and ,galatia proper1 they tried to continue their journey north into ,bithynia1 but were prevented by the ,spirit4 ,then they turned west1 and passing through ,mysia without preaching arrived at last at the coast1 at ,troas4 ,nothing is said here about preaching in ,galatia proper4 ,but in ,acts #ah3bc1 in connection with the third missionary journey1 it is said that when ,paul passed through the ,galatian country and ,phrygia he established the disciples4 ,there could not have been disciples in the ,galatian country1 unless there had been preaching there on the previous journey4 ,on the ,north ,galatian theory1 therefore1 the founding of the ,galatian churches to which the epistle is directed is to be placed at ,acts #af3f1 and the second visit to them1 which seems to be presupposed by the epistle1 is to be put at ,acts #ah3bc4 ,if it seems strange that ,luke does not mention the founding of these churches1 the hurried character of this section of the narrative must be borne in mind4 ,furthermore1 the epistle seems to imply that the founding of the churches was rather incidental than an original purpose of the journey2 for in ,gal4 #d3ac ,paul says that it was because of an infirmity of the flesh that he preached the gospel in ,galatia the former time4 ,apparently he had been hurrying through the country without stopping1 but being detained by illness used his enforced leisure to preach to the inhabitants4 ,it is not impossible to understand how ,luke came to omit mention of such incidental preaching4 ,on the second missionary journey attention is concentrated on ,macedonia and ,greece4 #c4 ,,the ,,movements ,,of ,,silas ,,and ,,timothy ,when ,paul went to ,athens1 ,silas and ,timothy remained behind in ,macedonia4 ,acts #ag3ad4 ,they were directed to join ,paul again as soon as possible4 ,v4 #ae4 ,in ,acts #ah3a1e they are said to have joined him at ,corinth4 ,the narrative in ,the ,acts must here be supplemented by the ,first ,epistle to the ,thessalonians4 ,what ,luke says is perfectly true1 but his narrative is not complete4 ,according to the most natural interpretation of ,i ,thess4 #c3a-e1 ,timothy was with ,paul in ,athens1 and from there was sent to ,thessalonica4 ,the entire course of events was perhaps as follows3 ,silas and ,timothy both joined ,paul quickly at ,athens according to directions4 ,they were then sent away again--,timothy to ,thessalonica1 and ,silas to some other place in ,macedonia4 ,then1 after the execution of their commissions1 they finally joined ,paul again at ,corinth4 ,acts #ah3e2 ,i ,thess4 #c3f4 ,soon afterwards1 all three missionaries were associated in the address of ,first ,thessalonians4 #d4 ,,paul ,,at ,,athens ,in ,athens ,paul preached as usual in the synagogue to ,jews and ,god-fearers2 but he also adopted another and more unusual method--he simply took his stand without introduction in the market place1 and spoke to those who chanced by4 ,this method was characteristically ,greek2 it reminds us of the days of ,socrates4 ,in the market place1 ,paul encountered certain of the ,epicurean and ,stoic philosophers4 ,both of these schools of philosophy had originated almost three hundred years before ,christ1 and both were prominent in the ,new ,testament period4 ,in their tenets they were very different4 ,the ,stoics were pantheists4 ,they conceived of the world as a sort of great living being of which ,god is the soul4 ,the world does not exist apart from ,god and ,god does not exist apart from the world4 ,such pantheism is far removed from the ,christian belief in the living ,god1 ,maker of heaven and earth2 but as against polytheism1 pantheism and theism have something in common4 ,paul in his speech was able to start from this common ground4 ,in ethics1 the ,stoics were perhaps nearer to ,christianity than in metaphysics4 ,the highest good they conceived to be a life that is led in accordance with reason--that reason which is the determining principle of the world4 ,the passions must be conquered1 pleasure is worthless1 the wise man is independent of external conditions4 ,such an ethic worked itself out in practice in many admirable virtues--in some conception of the universal brotherhood of mankind1 in charity1 in heroic self-denial4 ,but it lacked the warmth and glow of ,christian love1 and it lacked the living ,god4 ,the ,epicureans were materialists4 ,the world1 for them1 was a vast mechanism4 ,they believed in the gods1 but conceived of them as altogether without influence upon human affairs4 ,indeed1 the deliverance of man from the fear of the gods was one of the purposes of the ,epicurean philosophy4 ,the ,epicureans were interested chiefly in ethics4 ,pleasure1 according to them1 is the highest good4 ,it need not be the pleasure of the senses2 indeed ,epicurus1 at least1 the founder of the school1 insisted upon a calm life undisturbed by violent passions4 ,nevertheless it will readily be seen how little such a philosophy had in common with ,christianity4 ,the conditions under which ,paul made his speech cannot be determined with certainty4 ,the difficulty arises from the ambiguity of ,areopagus4 ,areopagus means ,mars' hill4 ,but the term was also applied to the court which held at least some of its meetings on the hill4 ,which meaning is intended here8 ,did ,paul speak before the court1 or did he speak on ,mars' hill merely to those who were interested8 ,on the whole1 it is improbable at any rate that he was subjected to a formal trial4 ,the speech of ,paul at ,athens is one of the three important speeches of ,paul1 exclusive of his speeches in defense of himself at ,jerusalem and at ,csarea1 which have been recorded in ,the ,acts4 ,these speeches are well chosen4 ,one of them is a speech to ,jews1 ,acts #ac3af-da2 one a speech to ,gentiles1 ,acts #ag3bb-ca2 and the third a speech to ,christians1 ,acts #bj3ah-ce4 ,together they afford a very good idea of ,paul's method as a missionary and as a pastor4 ,as is to be expected1 they differ strikingly from one another4 ,paul was large enough to comprehend the wonderful richness of ,christian truth4 ,his gospel was always the same1 but he was able to adapt the presentation of it to the character of his hearers4 ,at ,athens1 an altar inscribed ,,to ,,an ,,unknown ,,god provided a starting point4 ,the existence of such an altar is not at all surprising1 although only altars to unknown gods 7plural instead of singular7 are attested elsewhere4 ,perhaps the inscription on this altar indicated simply that the builder of the altar did not know to which of the numberless gods he should offer thanks for a benefit that he had received1 or to which he should address a prayer to ward off calamity4 ,under a polytheistic religion1 where every department of life had its own god1 it was sometimes difficult to pick out the right god to pray to for any particular purpose4 ,such an altar was at any rate an expression of ignorance1 and that ignorance served as a starting point for ,paul4 ,you are afraid that you have neglected the proper god in this case1 says ,paul in effect4 ,yes1 indeed1 you have4 ,you have neglected a very important god indeed1 you have neglected the one true ,god1 who made the world and all things therein4 ,in what follows1 ,paul appeals to the truth contained in ,stoic pantheism4 ,his words are of peculiar interest at the present day1 when pantheism is rampant even within the ,church4 ,there is a great truth in pantheism4 ,it emphasizes the immanence of ,god4 ,but the truth of pantheism is contained also in theism4 ,the theist1 as well as the pantheist1 believes that ,god is not far from every one of us1 and that in him we live and move and have our being4 ,the theist1 as well as the pantheist1 can say1 ,closer is he than breathing1 and nearer than hands and feet4 ,the theist accepts all the truth of pantheism1 but avoids the error4 ,god is present in the world--not one sparrow shall fall on the ground without your ,father--but he is not limited to the world4 ,he is not just another name for the totality of things1 but an awful1 mysterious1 holy1 free and sovereign ,person4 ,he is present in the world1 but also ,master of the world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #agg-aig4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,troas1 ,philippi1 ,thessalonica1 ,athens1 ,areopagus1 ,stoics1 ,epicureans1 ,corinth1 ,gallio1 ,silas4 ,ramsay1 ,st4 ,paul the ,traveller and the ,roman ,citizen1 pp4 #age-bfa2 ,pictures of the ,apostolic ,church1 pp4 #aig-bci4 ,lewin1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chs4 x1 xi1 and xii4 ,conybeare and ,howson1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chs4 viii1 ix1 x1 xi1 and xii4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #ga-ha4 ,lumby1 pp4 #bjj-bci4 ,cook1 pp4 #deh-dgf4 ,plumptre1 pp4 #aja-abd4 ,rackham1 pp4 #bfj-bfc1 #bga-cca4 ,for information about the recently discovered ,gallio inscription1 see ,the ,princeton ,theological ,review1 vol4 ix1 #aiaa1 pp4 #bij-bih3 ,armstrong1 ,epigraphical ,note4 ,,lesson ,,xvii ,,encouragement ,,for ,,recent ,,converts ,the ,pauline ,epistles fall naturally into four groups3 7#a7 the epistles of the second missionary journey 7,first and ,second ,thessalonians72 7#b7 the epistles of the third missionary journey 7,galatians1 ,first and ,second ,corinthians and ,romans72 7#c7 the epistles of the first imprisonment 7,colossians and ,philemon1 ,ephesians and ,philippians72 7#d7 the epistles written after the period covered by ,the ,acts 7,first ,timothy1 ,titus and ,second ,timothy74 ,each of these groups has its own characteristics4 ,the first group is characterized by simplicity of subject matter1 and by a special interest in the second coming of ,christ4 ,the second group is concerned especially with the doctrines of sin and grace4 ,the third group displays a special interest in the person of ,christ and in the ,church4 ,the fourth group deals with organization1 and with the maintenance of sound instruction4 #a4 ,,simplicity ,,of ,,the ,,thessalonian ,,epistles ,the reason for the peculiarities of ,first and ,second ,thessalonians has often been sought in the early date of these epistles4 ,on the second missionary journey1 it is said1 ,paul had not yet developed the great doctrines which appear at later periods of his life4 ,this explanation may perhaps contain an element of truth4 ,undoubtedly there was some progress in ,paul's thinking4 ,not everything was revealed to him at once4 ,the chief cause1 however1 for the simplicity of the ,thessalonian epistles is not the early date but the peculiar occasion of these epistles4 ,paul is here imparting his first written instruction to an infant church4 ,naturally he must feed these recent converts with milk4 ,the simplicity of the letters is due not to immaturity in ,paul but to immaturity in the ,thessalonian church4 ,after all1 at the time when the ,thessalonian epistles were written1 the major part of ,paul's ,christian life--including the decisive conflict with the ,judaizers at ,antioch and ,jerusalem--lay already in the past4 ,at any rate the simplicity of the ,thessalonian epistles must not be exaggerated4 ,in these letters the great ,pauline doctrines1 though not discussed at length1 are everywhere presupposed4 ,there is the same lofty conception of ,christ as in the other epistles1 the same emphasis upon his resurrection1 the same doctrine of salvation through his death4 ,i ,thess4 #a3aj2 #e3i1aj4 #b4 ,,the ,,second ,,coming ,,of ,,christ ,undoubtedly the second advent1 with the events which are immediately to precede it1 occupies a central position in the ,thessalonian epistles4 ,a few words of explanation1 therefore1 may here be in order4 ,evidently the expectation of ,christ's coming was a fundamental part of ,paul's belief1 and had a fundamental place in his preaching4 ,ye turned unto ,god from idols1 to serve a living and true ,god1 and to wait for his ,son from heaven--these words show clearly how the hope of ,christ's appearing was instilled in the converts from the very beginning4 ,i ,thess4 #a3i1aj4 ,to serve the living ,god and to wait for his ,son--that is the sum and substance of the ,christian life4 ,all through the epistles the thought of the ,parousia--the presence or coming--of ,christ appears as a master motive4 ,i ,thess4 #b3ai2 #c3ac2 #d3ac to #e3aa1bc1bd2 ,,ii ,thess4 #a3e to #b3ab4 ,this emphasis upon the second coming of ,christ is explained if ,paul expected ,christ to come in the near future4 ,the imminence of the ,parousia for ,paul appears to be indicated by ,i ,thess4 #d3ae3 ,for this we say unto you by the word of the ,lord1 that we that are alive1 that are left unto the coming of the ,lord1 shall in no wise precede them that are fallen asleep4 ,this verse is often thought to indicate that ,paul confidently expected before his death to witness the coming of the ,lord4 ,apparently he classes himself with those who are left unto the coming of the ,lord as over against those who will suffer death4 ,in the later epistles1 it is further said1 ,paul held a very different view4 ,from ,second ,corinthians on1 he faced ever more definitely the thought of death4 ,,ii ,cor4 #e3a1h2 ,phil4 #a3bj-bf4 ,a comparison of ,i ,cor4 #ae3ea with ,,ii ,cor4 #e3a1h is thought to indicate that the deadly peril which ,paul incurred between the writing of the two ,corinthian epistles1 ,,ii ,cor4 #a3h1i1 had weakened his expectation of living until ,christ should come4 ,after he had once despaired of life1 he could hardly expect with such perfect confidence to escape the experience of death4 ,the possibility of death was too strong to be left completely out of sight4 ,plausible as such a view is1 it can be held only with certain reservations4 ,in the first place1 we must not exaggerate the nearness of the ,parousia according to ,paul1 even in the earliest period2 for in ,,ii ,thess4 #b3a-ab the ,thessalonians are reminded of certain events that must occur before ,christ would come4 ,the expression of the former epistle1 ,i ,thess4 #e3b1 that the day of the ,lord would come as a thief in the night1 was to be taken as a warning to unbelievers to repent while there was yet time1 not as a ground for neglecting ordinary provision for the future4 ,in ,second ,thessalonians ,paul finds it necessary to calm the overstrained expectations of the ,thessalonian ,christians4 ,furthermore1 it is not only in the earlier epistles that expressions occur which seem to suggest that the ,parousia is near4 ,rom4 #ac3aa2 ,phil4 #d3e4 ,and then it is evident from ,,ii ,cor4 #aa3bc-bi and from ,i ,cor4 #ae3cj-cb that ,paul had undergone dangers before the one mentioned in ,,ii ,cor4 #a3h1i1 so that there is no reason to suppose that that one event caused any sudden change in his expectations4 ,lastly1 in ,i ,cor4 #f3ad ,paul says that ,god both raised the ,lord1 and will raise up us through his power4 ,if that refers to the literal resurrection1 then here ,paul classes himself among those who are to die2 for if he lived to the ,parousia1 then there would be no need for him to be raised up4 ,it is therefore very doubtful whether we can put any very definite change in the apostle's expectations as to his living or dying between ,first ,corinthians and ,second ,corinthians4 ,a gradual development in his feeling about the matter there no doubt was4 ,during the early part of his life his mind dwelt less upon the prospect of death than it did after perils of all kinds had made that prospect more and more imminent4 ,but at no time did the apostle regard the privilege of living until the ,parousia as a certainty to be put at all in the same category with the ,christian hope itself4 ,especially the passage in ,first ,thessalonians can be rightly interpreted only in the light of the historical occasion for it4 ,until certain members of the church had died1 the ,thessalonian ,christians had never faced the possibility of dying before the second coming of ,christ4 ,hence they were troubled4 ,would the brethren who had fallen asleep miss the benefits of ,christ's kingdom8 ,paul writes to reassure them4 ,he does not contradict their hope of living till the coming of ,christ1 for ,god had not revealed to him that that hope would not be realized4 ,but he tells them that1 supposing that hope to be justified1 even then they will have no advantage over their dead brethren4 ,he classes himself with those who were still alive and might therefore live till ,christ should come1 as over against those who were already dead and could not therefore live till ,christ should come4 ,certain passages in the epistles of ,paul1 which are not confined to any one period of his life1 seem to show that at any rate he did not exclude the very real possibility that ,christ might come in the near future4 ,at any rate1 however1 such an expectation of the early coming of ,christ was just as far removed as possible from the expectations of fanatical chiliasts4 ,it did not lead ,paul to forget that the times and the seasons are entirely in the hand of ,god4 ,it had no appreciable effect upon his ethics1 except to make it more intense1 more fully governed by the thought of the judgment seat of ,christ4 ,it did not prevent him from laying far-reaching plans1 it did not prevent his developing a great philosophy of future history in ,rom41 chs4 #i to #aa4 ,how far he was from falling into the error he combated in ,second ,thessalonians6 ,despite his view of the temporary character of the things that are seen1 how sane and healthy was his way of dealing with practical problems6 ,he did his duty1 and left the details of the future to ,god4 ,hence it is hard to discover what ,paul thought as to how soon ,christ would come--naturally so1 for ,paul did not try to discover it himself4 #c4 ,,the ,,persons ,,associated ,,in ,,the ,,address ,almost always other persons are associated with ,paul in the addresses of the epistles4 ,with regard to the meaning of this custom1 extreme views should be avoided4 ,on the one hand1 these persons--usually1 at any rate--had no share in the actual composition of the epistles4 ,the epistles bear the imprint of one striking personality4 ,on the other hand1 association in the address means something more than that the persons so named sent greetings2 for mere greetings are placed at the end4 ,the truth lies between the two extremes4 ,probably the persons associated with ,paul in the address were made acquainted at least in general with the contents of the epistles1 and desired to express their agreement with what was said4 ,in the ,thessalonian epistles ,silas and ,timothy1 who had had a part in the founding of the ,thessalonian church1 appear very appropriately in the address4 ,a question related to that of the persons associated in the addresses is the question of the so-called epistolary plural4 ,the epistolary plural was analogous to our editorial we it was a usage by which the writer of a letter could substitute we for ,i in referring to himself alone4 ,in many passages in the letters of ,paul it is exceedingly difficult to tell whether a plural is merely epistolary1 or whether it has some special significance4 ,for example1 whom1 if anyone1 is ,paul including with himself in the we of ,i ,thess4 #c3a8 ,in particular1 the question often is whether1 when ,paul says we1 he is thinking of the persons who were associated with him in the address of the epistle4 ,on the whole it seems impossible to deny that ,paul sometimes uses the epistolary plural1 though his use of it is probably not so extensive as has often been supposed4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #aig-bjc4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves 7supplemented71 article on ,thessalonians1 ,epistles to the4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,lock1 articles on ,thessalonians1 ,first ,epistle to the and ,thessalonians1 ,second ,epistle to the4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #dg-eg4 ,ramsay1 ,pictures of the ,apostolic ,church1 pp4 #bdj-bdf4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #he-ajg4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #abe-agj3 ,mason1 ,the ,epistles of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,thessalonians4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools and ,colleges3 ,findlay1 ,the ,epistles to the ,thessalonians4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i1 pp4 #aeb-afd1 #bjc-bee4 ,milligan1 ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles to the ,thessalonians4 ,the two last-named works are intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xviii ,,the ,,conflict ,,with ,,the ,,judaizers #a4 ,,apollos ,before the arrival of ,paul at ,ephesus an important event had taken place in that city--the meeting of ,aquila and ,priscilla with ,apollos4 ,apollos was a ,jew of ,alexandrian descent4 ,he had already received instruction about ,jesus--perhaps in his native city4 ,of all the great cities of the ,roman ,empire ,alexandria alone was approximately as near to ,jerusalem as was ,syrian ,antioch4 ,the founding of the church at ,alexandria is obscure1 but undoubtedly it took place at a very early time4 ,at a later period ,alexandria was of the utmost importance as the center of ,christian learning1 as it had been already the center of the learning of the pagan world4 ,until instructed by ,aquila and ,priscilla1 ,apollos had known only the baptism of ,john the ,baptist4 ,apparently one important thing that he had lacked was an acquaintance with the peculiar ,christian manifestation of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,he seems to have been trained in ,greek rhetoric1 whether the word translated eloquent in ,acts #ah3bd means eloquent or learned4 ,apollos did not remain long in ,ephesus1 but went to ,corinth1 where1 as can be learned from ,first ,corinthians as well as from ,the ,acts1 his work was of great importance4 #b4 ,,galatians ,a ,,polemic ,after studying first the ,thessalonian epistles and then ,galatians in succession the student should be able to form some conception of the variety among the epistles of ,paul4 ,certainly there could be no sharper contrast4 ,first and ,second ,thessalonians are simple1 affectionate letters written to a youthful church2 ,galatians is one of the most passionate bits of polemic in the whole ,bible4 ,we ought to honor ,paul for his anger4 ,a lesser man might have taken a calmer view of the situation4 ,after all1 it might have been said1 the observance of ,jewish fasts and feasts was not a serious matter2 even circumcision1 though useless1 could do no great harm4 ,but ,paul penetrated below the surface4 ,he detected the great principles that were at stake4 ,the ,judaizers were disannulling the grace of ,god4 #c4 ,,the ,,address4 ,,gal4 #a3a-e ,the addresses of the ,pauline epistles are never merely formal4 ,paul does not wait for the beginning of the letter proper in order to say what he has in mind4 ,even the epistolary forms are suffused with the deepest religious feeling4 ,the opening of the present letter is anticipatory of what is to follow4 ,dividing the opening into three parts--the nominative 7name and title of the writer71 the dative 7name of those to whom the letter is addressed71 and the greeting--it will be observed that every one of these parts has its peculiarity as compared with the other ,pauline epistles4 ,the peculiarity of the nominative is the remarkable addition beginning with not from men1 which is a summary of the first great division of the epistle1 ,paul's defense against the personal attack of his opponents4 ,since the ,epistle to the ,galatians is polemic from beginning to end1 it is not surprising that the very first word after the bare name and title of the author is not4 ,paul cannot mention his title apostle--in the addresses of ,first and ,second ,thessalonians he had not thought it necessary to mention it at all--without thinking of the way in which in ,galatia it was misrepresented4 ,my apostleship1 he says1 came not only from ,christ1 but directly from ,christ4 ,the peculiarity of the dative is its brevity--not beloved of ,god1 called to be saints1 or the like1 but just the bare and formal to the churches of ,galatia4 ,the situation was not one which called for pleasant words6 ,the greeting is the least varied part in the addresses of the ,pauline epistles4 ,the long addition to the greeting in ,galatians is absolutely unique4 ,it is a summary of the second and central main division of the epistle1 ,paul's defense of his gospel4 ,christ has died to free you4 ,the ,judaizers in bringing you into bondage are making of none effect the grace of ,christ1 manifested on the cross4 ,that is the very core of the letter4 ,in all of the ,pauline epistles there is scarcely a passage more characteristic of the man than the first five verses of ,galatians4 ,an ordinary writer would have been merely formal in the address4 ,not so ,paul6 ,the exultant supernaturalism of the address should be noticed4 ,this supernaturalism appears1 in the first place1 in the sphere of external history--,god the ,father1 who raised him from the dead4 ,pauline ,christianity is based upon the miracle of the resurrection4 ,supernaturalism appears also1 however1 in the sphere of ,christian experience--who gave himself for our sins1 that he might deliver us out of this present evil world4 ,christianity is no mere easy development of the old life1 no mere improvement of the life1 but a new life in a new world4 ,in both spheres1 supernaturalism is being denied in the modern ,church4 ,pauline ,christianity is very different from much that is called ,christianity to-day4 ,finally1 this passage will serve to exhibit ,paul's lofty view of the person of ,christ4 ,neither through man1 says ,paul1 but through ,jesus ,christ4 ,jesus ,christ is here distinguished sharply from men and placed clearly on the side of ,god4 ,what is more1 even the ,judaizers evidently accepted fundamentally the same view4 ,paul said1 ,not by man1 but by ,jesus ,christ2 the ,judaizers said1 ,not by ,jesus ,christ1 but by man4 ,but if so1 then the ,judaizers1 no less than ,paul1 distinguished ,jesus sharply from ordinary humanity4 ,about other things there was debate1 but about the person of ,christ ,paul appears in harmony even with his opponents4 ,evidently the original apostles had given the ,judaizers on this point no slightest excuse for differing from ,paul4 ,the heavenly ,christ of ,paul was also the ,christ of those who had walked and talked with ,jesus of ,nazareth4 ,they had seen ,jesus subject to all the petty limitations of human life4 ,yet they thought him divine6 ,could they have been deceived8 #d4 ,,the ,,purpose ,,of ,,the ,,epistle4 ,,gal4 #a3f-aj ,the thanksgiving for the ,christian state of the readers1 which appears in practically every other of the ,pauline epistles1 is here conspicuous by its absence4 ,here it would have been a mockery4 ,the ,galatians were on the point of giving up the gospel4 ,there was just a chance of saving them4 ,the letter was written in a desperate crisis4 ,pray ,god it might not be too late6 ,no time here for words of thanks6 ,in vs4 #f-aj1 ,paul simply states the purpose of the letter in a few uncompromising words3 ,you are falling away from the gospel and ,i am writing to stop you4 #e4 ,,paul',s ,,defense ,,of ,,his ,,apostolic ,,authority4 ,,gal4 #a3aa to #b3ba ,after stating1 ,gal4 #a3aa1ab1 the thesis that is to be proved in this section1 ,paul defends his independent apostolic authority by three main arguments4 ,in the first place1 vs4 #ac-bd1 he was already launched upon his work as apostle to the ,gentiles before he had even come into any effective contact with the original apostles4 ,before his conversion1 he had been an active persecutor4 ,his conversion was wrought1 not1 like an ordinary conversion1 through human agency1 but by an immediate act of ,christ4 ,after his conversion it was three years before he saw any of the apostles4 ,then he saw only ,peter 7and ,james7 and that not long enough to become1 as his opponents said1 a disciple of these leaders4 ,in the second place1 ,gal4 #b3a-aj1 when he finally did hold a conference with the original apostles1 they themselves1 the very authorities to whom the ,judaizers appealed1 recognized that his authority was quite independent of theirs1 and1 like theirs1 of directly divine origin4 ,in the third place1 ,gal4 #b3aa-ba1 so independent was his authority that on one occasion he could even rebuke the chief of the original apostles himself4 ,what ,paul said at that time to ,peter happened to be exactly what he wanted to say1 in the epistle1 to the ,galatians4 ,this section1 therefore1 forms a transition to the second main division of the epistle4 ,it has sometimes been thought surprising that ,paul does not say how ,peter took his rebuke4 ,the conclusion has even been drawn that if ,peter had acknowledged his error ,paul would have been sure to say so4 ,such reasoning ignores the character of this section4 ,in reporting the substance of what he said to ,peter1 ,paul has laid bare the very depths of his own life4 ,to return1 after such a passage1 to the incident at ,antioch would have been pedantic and unnecessary4 ,long before the end of the second chapter ,paul has forgotten all about ,peter1 all about ,antioch1 and all about the whole of his past history4 ,he is thinking only of the grace of ,christ1 and how some men are trampling it under foot4 ,o foolish ,galatians1 to desert so great a salvation6 #f4 ,,paul',s ,,defense ,,of ,,his ,,gospel4 ,,gal4 #c3a to #e3ab ,salvation cannot be earned by human effort1 but must be received simply as a free gift3 ,christ has died to save us from the curse of the law3 to submit again to the yoke of bondage is disloyalty to him--that is the great thesis that ,paul sets out to prove4 ,he proves it first by an argument from experience4 ,gal4 #c3a-e4 ,you received the ,holy ,spirit1 in palpable manifestation1 before you ever saw the ,judaizers1 before you ever thought of keeping the ,mosaic law4 ,you received the ,spirit by faith alone4 ,how then can you now think that the law is necessary8 ,surely there can be nothing higher than the ,spirit4 ,in the second place1 there is an argument from ,scripture4 ,not those who depend upon the works of the law1 but those who believe1 have the benefit of the covenant made with ,abraham4 ,vs4 #f-bb4 ,in the third place1 by the use of various figures1 ,paul contrasts the former bondage with the present freedom4 ,gal4 #c3bc to #d3g4 ,the life under the law was a period of restraint like that of childhood1 preliminary to faith in ,christ4 ,the law was intended to produce the consciousness of sin1 in order that the resultant hopelessness might lead men to accept the ,saviour4 ,vs4 #bc-be4 ,but now all ,christians alike1 both ,jews and ,gentiles1 are sons of ,god in ,christ1 and therefore heirs of the promise made to ,abraham4 ,vs4 #bf-bi4 ,being sons of ,god1 with all the glorious freedom of sonship1 with the ,spirit crying1 ,abba1 ,father1 in the heart1 how can we think of returning to the miserable bondage of an external and legalistic religion8 ,gal4 #d3a-aa4 ,in the fourth place1 ,paul turns away from argument to make a personal appeal4 ,vs4 #ab-bj4 ,what has become of your devotion to me8 ,surely ,i have not become your enemy just because ,i tell you the truth4 ,the ,judaizers are estranging you from me4 ,listen to me1 my spiritual children1 even though ,i can speak to you only through the cold medium of a letter6 ,in the fifth place1 ,paul1 in his perplexity1 bethinks himself of one more argument4 ,it is an argument that would appeal especially to those who were impressed by the ,judaizers' method of using the ,old ,testament1 but it also has permanent validity4 ,the fundamental principle1 says ,paul1 for which ,i am arguing1 the principle of grace1 can be illustrated from the story of ,ishmael and ,isaac4 ,ishmael had every prospect of being the heir of ,abraham4 ,it seemed impossible for the aged ,abraham to have another son4 ,nature was on ,ishmael's side4 ,but nature was overruled4 ,so it is to-day4 ,as far as nature is concerned1 the ,jews are the heirs of ,abraham--they have all the outward marks of sonship4 ,but ,god has willed otherwise4 ,he has chosen to give the inheritance to the heirs according to promise4 ,the principle of the divine choice1 operative on a small scale in the acceptance of ,isaac1 is operative now on a large scale in the acceptance of the ,gentile church4 ,finally1 ,paul concludes the central section of the epistle by emphasizing the gravity of the crisis4 ,gal4 #e3a-ab4 ,do not be deceived4 ,circumcision as the ,judaizers advocate it is no innocent thing2 it means the acceptance of a law religion4 ,you must choose either the law or grace2 you cannot have both4 #g4 ,,the ,,results ,,of ,,paul',s ,,gospel4 ,,gal4 #e3ac to #f3aj ,in this third main division of the epistle ,paul exhibits the practical working of faith4 ,paul's gospel is more powerful than the teaching of the ,judaizers4 ,try to keep the law in your own strength and you will fail1 for the flesh is too strong4 ,but the ,spirit is stronger than the flesh1 and the ,spirit is received by faith4 #h4 ,,conclusion4 ,,gal4 #f3aa-ah ,this concluding section1 if not the whole epistle1 was written with ,paul's own hand4 ,v4 #aa4 ,in his other letters ,paul dictated everything but a brief closing salutation4 ,in the closing section1 ,paul lays the alternative once more before his readers4 ,the ,judaizers have worldly aims1 they boast of worldly advantages2 but the true ,christian boasts of nothing but the cross4 ,christianity1 as here portrayed1 is not the gentle1 easy-going doctrine that is being mistaken for it to-day4 ,it is no light thing to say1 ,the world hath been crucified unto me1 and ,i unto the world4 ,but the result is a new creature6 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bjc-bac4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 article on ,ephesus2 ,purves1 articles on ,galatia and ,galatians1 ,epistle to the 7supplemented74 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,ramsay1 article on ,ephesus2 ,dods1 article on ,galatians1 ,epistle to the4 ,ramsay1 ,st4 ,paul the ,traveller and the ,roman ,citizen1 pp4 #bfb-bhb2 ,pictures of the ,apostolic ,church1 pp4 #bdg-bfi1 #bic-cjj4 ,lewin1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chs4 xii1 xiii4 ,conybeare and ,howson1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chs4 xii1 xiii1 xiv1 xv and xvi4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #hb-hd1 #ajh-aah4 ,lumby1 pp4 #bci-bff4 ,cook1 pp4 #dgf-dhe4 ,plumptre1 pp4 #abd-acf4 ,rackham1 pp4 #cca-cgj4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #gj-gf4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #dai-dfh3 ,sanday1 ,the ,epistle of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,galatians4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools and ,colleges3 ,perowne1 ,the ,epistle to the ,galatians4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i1 pp4 #afd-bjb4 ,lightfoot1 ,saint ,paul's ,epistle to the ,galatians4 ,the two last-named works are intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xix ,,problems ,,of ,a ,,gentile ,,church ,christianity1 according to ,paul1 is an escape from the world4 ,gal4 #a3d4 ,all human distinctions are comparatively unimportant4 ,there can be neither ,jew nor ,greek1 there can be neither bond nor free1 there can be no male and female4 ,gal4 #c3bh4 ,such a doctrine might seem logically to lead to fanaticism4 ,if the ,christian is already a citizen of heaven1 may he not be indifferent to the conditions of life upon this earth8 ,such a conclusion was altogether avoided by ,paul4 ,in ,first ,corinthians ,paul is revealed as the most practical of men4 ,all human distinctions are subordinate and secondary--and yet these distinctions are carefully observed4 ,paul was a man of heroic faith1 but he was also possessed of admirable tact4 ,it is not that the one side of ,paul's nature limited the other2 it is not that common sense acted as a check to transcendental religion4 ,on the contrary1 the two things seemed to be in perfect harmony4 ,just because ,paul was inwardly so entirely free from the world1 he was also so wise in dealing with worldly affairs4 ,the secret of this harmony was consecration4 ,human relationships1 when consecrated to ,god1 are not destroyed1 but ennobled4 ,they cease1 indeed1 to be an end in themselves1 but they become a means to ,christian service4 ,the ,christian man has no right to be indifferent to the world4 ,if he is1 he is no true son of the ,god who made the world1 and sent the ,lord to save it4 ,the ,christian1 like the man of the world1 is profoundly interested in the conditions of life on this earth4 ,only1 unlike the man of the world1 he is not helpless and perplexed in the presence of those conditions2 but from his vantage ground of heavenly power1 he shapes them to the divine will4 ,he is interested in the world1 but he is interested in it1 not as its servant1 but as its master4 ,so in ,first ,corinthians ,paul lays hold of certain perplexing practical problems with the sure grasp of one who is called to rule and not to serve4 ,everything that he touches he lifts to a higher plane4 ,in his hands even the simplest things of life receive a heavenly significance4 ,the problems that are discussed in ,first ,corinthians stood in a special relation to the environment of the ,corinthian church4 ,most of them were due to the threatened intrusions of ,greek paganism4 ,they are closely analogous1 however1 to the problems which we have to solve to-day4 ,paganism and worldliness are not dead4 ,the ,church still stands in the midst of a hostile environment4 ,we can still use the teaching of ,paul4 ,that teaching will now be examined in a few of its important details4 #a4 ,,the ,,parties ,paul mentions four parties that had been formed in the ,corinthian church--a ,paul-party1 an ,apollos-party1 a ,cephas-party and a ,christ-party4 ,these parties do not seem to have been separated from one another by any serious doctrinal differences1 and it is impossible to determine their characteristics in detail4 ,in the section where the party spirit is discussed1 ,paul blames the ,corinthians for intellectual pride4 ,this fault has often been connected with the ,apollos-party4 ,apollos was an ,alexandrian1 and probably had an ,alexandrian ,greek training4 ,he might therefore have unconsciously evoked among some members of the ,corinthian church an excessive admiration for his more pretentious style of preaching1 which might have caused them to despise the simpler manner of ,paul4 ,even this much1 however1 is little more than surmise4 ,at any rate1 ,apollos should not be blamed for the faults of those who misused his name4 ,he is praised unstintedly by ,paul1 who was even desirous that he should return at once to ,corinth4 ,i ,cor4 #af3ab4 ,paul blames the ,paul-party just as much as any of the other three4 ,the ,peter-party was composed of admirers of ,peter1 who had either come to ,corinth from the scene of ,peter's labors elsewhere1 or simply had known of ,peter by hearsay4 ,it is unlikely that ,peter himself had been in ,corinth1 for if he had ,paul would probably have let the fact appear in ,first or ,second ,corinthians4 ,the ,christ-party is rather puzzling4 ,a comparison with the false teachers who are combated in ,second ,corinthians has led some scholars to suppose that it was a ,judaizing party1 which emphasized a personal acquaintance with the earthly ,jesus as a necessary qualification of apostleship4 ,in that case1 however1 ,paul would probably have singled out the ,christ-party for special attack4 ,more probably these were simply men who1 in proud opposition to the adherents of ,paul1 of ,apollos and of ,cephas1 emphasized their own independence of any leader other than ,christ4 ,of course1 the watchword1 ,i am of ,christ1 if used in a better spirit1 would have been altogether praiseworthy1 and indeed ,paul desires all the parties to unite in it4 ,i ,cor4 #c3ba-bc4 ,perhaps it is a mistake to attribute to these parties anything like stability4 ,on the whole1 the passage gives the impression that it is not the individual parties that ,paul is condemning1 but the party spirit4 ,that party spirit was manifested by watchwords like those which are enumerated in ,i ,cor4 #a3ab1 but that that enumeration was meant to be complete1 does not appear4 ,the whole effort to determine the characteristics of the individual parties--an effort which has absorbed the attention of many scholars--should perhaps be abandoned4 ,paul's treatment of the party spirit exhibits his greatness not only as an administrator1 but also as a writer4 ,the subject was certainly not inspiring2 yet under ,paul's touch it becomes luminous with heavenly glory4 ,the contrast of human wisdom with the message of the cross1 ,i ,cor4 #a3ah-ca1 where a splendid rhythm of language matches the sublimity of the thought1 the wonderful description of the freedom and power of the man who possesses the ,spirit of ,god1 the grand climax of the third chapter1 ,for all things are yours2 whether ,paul1 or ,apollos1 or ,cephas1 or the world1 or life1 or death1 or things present1 or things to come2 all are yours2 and ye are ,christ's2 and ,christ is ,god's--these are among the passages that can never be forgotten4 #b4 ,,things ,,sacrificed ,,to ,,idols ,the question of meats offered to idols1 which ,paul discusses in ,i ,cor4 #h3a to #aa3a1 was exceedingly intricate4 ,to it ,paul applies several great principles4 ,in the first place1 there is the principle of ,christian freedom4 ,the ,christian has been delivered from enslaving superstitions4 ,idols have no power2 they cannot impart any harmful character to the good things which ,god has provided for the sustenance of man4 ,in the second place1 however1 there is the principle of loyalty4 ,the fact that idols are nothing does not render idol-worship morally indifferent4 ,on the contrary1 idolatry is always sinful4 ,if the eating of certain kinds of food under certain conditions involves participation in idolatry then it is disloyalty to the one true ,god4 ,the joint operation of the two principles of freedom and of loyalty seems to lead in ,paul's mind to the following practical conclusion3--,the ,christian may eat the meat that has been offered to idols if it is simply put on sale in the market place or set before him at an ordinary meal2 but he must not take part with the heathen in specifically religious feasts4 ,the whole question1 however1 is further viewed in the light of a third principle--the principle of ,christian love4 ,even things that are in themselves innocent must be given up if a brother by them is led into conduct which for him is sin4 ,christ has died for that weaker brother2 surely the ,christian1 then1 may not destroy him4 ,thus love1 even more than loyalty1 limits freedom--but it is a blessed limitation4 ,the principles here applied by ,paul to the question of the ,corinthian ,christians will solve many a problem of the modern ,church4 #c4 ,,spiritual ,,gifts ,the principle of ,christian love1 with the related principle of toleration1 is applied also to another set of problems1 the problems with regard to the exercise of spiritual gifts4 ,the passage in which ,paul discusses these problems1 aside from its spiritual and moral teaching1 is of singular historical interest4 ,it affords a unique picture of the devotional meetings of an apostolic church4 ,the characteristic of these meetings was the enthusiasm which prevailed in them4 ,paul is not at all desirous of dampening that enthusiasm4 ,on the contrary the gifts in question were in his judgment really bestowed by the ,holy ,spirit4 ,even the gift of tongues1 which ,paul limits in its operation1 is in his judgment of genuine value4 ,indeed1 he himself had exercised it even more than the other ,christians4 ,i ,cor4 #ad3ah4 ,this last fact should correct any unworthy impression which we might have formed with regard to the gift4 ,if speaking with tongues was practiced by ,paul1 then it was no mere unhealthy emotionalism4 ,we are to-day unable to understand it fully1 but in the apostolic ,church it was a real expression of ,christian experience4 ,paul desires1 not to dampen the enthusiasm of the ,corinthian church1 but merely to eliminate certain harmful by-products of that which was in itself altogether excellent4 ,the first principle which he applies is the principle of toleration4 ,there is room in the ,church for many different kinds of workers4 ,there are diversities of gifts1 but the same ,spirit4 ,the principle is often neglected in the modern ,church4 ,toleration1 indeed1 is on everyone's lips2 but it is not the kind of toleration that ,paul means4 ,it is often nothing more than indifference to the great verities of the faith4 ,such toleration would have met with nothing but an anathema from ,paul4 ,the toleration that ,paul is commending is a toleration1 not with regard to matters of doctrine1 but with regard to methods of work4 ,such toleration is often sadly lacking4 ,some advocates of missions think that almost every ,christian who stays at home is a coward2 some good1 conservative elders1 on the other hand1 have little interest in what passes the bounds of their own congregation4 ,some ,christians of reserved habits are shocked at the popular methods of the evangelists2 some evangelists are loud in their ignorant denunciation of the ,christian scholar4 ,in other words1 many very devout ,christians of the present day act as though they had never read the twelfth chapter of ,first ,corinthians4 ,the principle of toleration1 however1 culminates in the principle of love4 ,if there must be a choice between the exercise of different gifts1 then the choice should be in favor of those gifts which are most profitable to other men4 ,finally1 even the highest spiritual gifts are not independent of reason4 ,i ,cor4 #ad3cb1cc4 ,that is a far-reaching principle4 ,some modern ,christians seem to think that an appeal to the inward voice of the ,spirit excuses them from listening to reasonable counsel4 ,such is not the teaching of ,paul4 #d4 ,,the ,,resurrection ,the error which is combated in the fifteenth chapter of the epistle could hardly have been a denial1 in general1 of continued existence after death1 but was rather a denial of the resurrection of the body as over against the ,greek doctrine of the immortality of the soul4 ,in reply1 ,paul appeals to the resurrection of ,jesus4 ,the appeal would seem to be futile unless ,paul means that the resurrection of ,jesus was a bodily resurrection4 ,if the appearances of ,jesus were no more than incorporeal manifestations of his spirit1 then obviously the believer in a mere immortality of the soul remained unrefuted4 ,in this chapter there is an advance over the simple teaching of ,first ,thessalonians4 ,here the character of the resurrection body comes into view4 ,the resurrection body will have a real connection with the old body--otherwise there would be no resurrection--but the weakness of the old body will be done away4 ,there is continuity1 but also transformation4 #e4 ,,incidental ,,information ,,about ,,jesus ,certain passages in ,first ,corinthians1 which are introduced only in an incidental way1 as illustrations of the principles which are being applied1 are of inestimable historical value4 ,these passages include not only the great autobiographical passage in the ninth chapter1 where ,paul illustrates from his own life the limitation of the principle of freedom by the principle of love1 but also two all-important passages which refer to the life of ,christ4 ,it is generally admitted that ,first ,corinthians was written at about ,a4 ,d4 #ee4 ,the eleventh chapter of the epistle gives an account of the institution of the ,lord's ,supper1 in which ,jesus teaches the sacrificial significance of his death2 and the fifteenth chapter gives a list of the appearances of ,jesus after his resurrection4 ,the information contained in these passages was not invented by ,paul2 indeed he distinctly says that it was received4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #ee1 then1 not only ,paul1 but also the ,church generally believed that ,jesus' death1 according to his own teaching1 was sacrificial1 and appealed in support of his resurrection to a wealth of competent testimony4 ,but from whom had ,paul received these things8 ,hardly from anyone except those who had been ,christians before him--in other words1 from the ,palestinian church4 ,we have here an irremovable confirmation of the ,gospel view of ,jesus4 ,first ,corinthians is a historical document of absolutely priceless value4 ,the incidental character of these historical passages is especially noteworthy4 ,it shows that ,paul knew far more about ,jesus than he found occasion in the epistles to tell4 ,if he had told more1 no doubt the ,gospel picture of ,jesus would have received confirmation throughout4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bac-bba4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 article on ,apollos2 ,purves and ,davis1 article on ,corinthians1 ,epistles to the4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,robertson1 article on ,corinthians1 ,first ,epistle to the4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #eh-fd4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #bha-cef3 ,shore1 ,the ,first ,epistle of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,corinthians4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools3 ,lias1 ,the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i1 pp4 #bef-cjf4 ,the ,international ,critical ,commentary3 ,robertson and ,plummer1 ,a ,critical and ,exegetical ,commentary on the ,first ,epistle of ,st4 ,paul to the ,corinthians4 ,the two last-named works presuppose a knowledge of ,greek4 ,,lesson ,,xx ,,the ,,apostle ,,and ,,his ,,ministry #a4 ,,address ,,and ,,thanksgiving4 ,,ii ,cor4 #a3a-aa ,in ,first ,corinthians the obscure ,sosthenes is found to be associated with ,paul in the address of the epistle2 in ,second ,corinthians it is ,timothy1 one of the best-known of the helpers of ,paul4 ,even if that mission of ,timothy to ,corinth which is mentioned in ,first ,corinthians had resulted in failure1 ,timothy's usefulness in the church was not permanently affected4 ,after the address1 comes1 as is usual in the ,pauline ,epistles1 an expression of thanksgiving to ,god4 ,this time1 however1 it is not thanksgiving for the ,christian state of the readers1 but thanksgiving for ,paul's own escape from danger4 ,the absence of thanksgiving for the readers does not mean here1 as in the case of ,galatians1 that there was nothing to be thankful for in the church that is being addressed1 for the whole first section of the letter is suffused with a spirit of thankfulness for the ,corinthians' return to their true allegiance2 it means rather simply that the thought of the deadly personal danger1 and of the remarkable escape1 were for the moment in the forefront of ,paul's thought4 ,even that personal matter1 however1 was used by ,paul to fortify his readers against similar trials1 and especially to strengthen still further the bonds of sympathy which had at last been restored between him and them4 ,what this danger was from which ,paul had just escaped cannot be determined4 ,it is as much a puzzle as the fighting with beasts at ,ephesus1 which ,paul mentions in ,i ,cor4 #ae3cb4 ,neither one nor the other can very well be identified with the trouble caused by ,demetrius the silversmith1 ,acts #ai3bc-da1 for there ,paul does not seem to have been in deadly danger4 ,some suppose that the fighting with beasts is literally meant2 that ,paul was actually exposed to the wild beasts in the arena and escaped only in some remarkable way4 ,it should be observed that ,paul does not say1 with regard to the danger mentioned in ,second ,corinthians1 that it occurred in ,ephesus1 but only that it occurred in ,asia4 ,the expression1 weighed down1 in ,,ii ,cor4 #a3h perhaps points to some form of illness rather than to persecution4 #b4 ,,the ,,apostle ,,and ,,the ,,ministry ,,of ,,reconciliation4 ,,ii ,cor4 #a3ab to #g3af ,immediately after the thanksgiving for his escape from death1 ,paul begins the defense of his ministry4 ,after the suspense of the previous days1 he feels the need of reviewing the methods and motives of his labor among the ,corinthians1 in order that the last vestige of suspicion may be removed4 ,this he does in an unrestrained1 cordial sort of way1 which reveals the deepest secrets of his heart1 and culminates here and there in grand expositions of the very essence of the gospel4 ,first1 in just a passing word1 ch4 #a3ac1ad1 he defends his letters against that charge of obscurity or concealment which is hinted at elsewhere in the epistle4 ,compare ch4 #d3a-d2 #aa3f4 ,next1 he defends himself against the charge of fickleness in his journey plans4 ,at some time1 probably during or after the unsuccessful visit alluded to in ch4 #b3a1 ,paul had formed the plan of returning to ,corinth by the direct route4 ,this plan he had not carried out1 and his abandonment of it apparently confirmed the impression of weakness which had been left by the unsuccessful visit4 ,he is very bold in letters1 said his opponents1 but when he is here he is weak1 and now he is afraid to return4 ,it was a petty criticism1 and a lesser man might have answered it in a petty way4 ,but ,paul was able to lift the whole discussion to a loftier plane4 ,his answer to the criticism was very simple--the reason why he had not returned to ,corinth at once was that he did not want to return again in grief and in severity2 for the sake of the ,corinthians themselves he wanted to give them time to repent1 before the final and fatal issue should be raised4 ,characteristically1 however1 ,paul does not content himself with this simple answer2 indeed he does not even begin with it4 ,a specific explanation of the change in his plans would have refuted the criticism immediately under consideration1 but ,paul felt the need of doing far more than that4 ,what he desired to do was to make not only this criticism1 but all similar criticisms1 impossible4 ,this he does by the fine reference to the positive character of his gospel4 ,you say that ,i am uncertain in my plans1 that ,i say yes and no in one breath4 ,well1 the gospel that ,i preached1 at any rate1 was no such uncertain thing as that4 ,my gospel was a great ',yes' to all the promises of ,god4 ,such a method of refutation lifts the reader far above all petty criticisms to the great things of ,paul's gospel4 ,yet this reference to great principles is no mere excuse to avoid the simple question at issue4 ,on the contrary1 ,paul is perfectly frank about the reason why he had not gone to ,corinth as he had intended4 ,it was out of love to the ,corinthian church1 and this had also prompted the writing of a severe letter4 ,here1 ch4 #b3e-aa1 ,paul refers to the offender whose case had been made a test at the time of the recent painful visit4 ,this offender was probably different from the incestuous person who is so sternly dealt with in ,i ,cor4 #e3a-e4 ,his offense is thought by many to have been some personal insult to ,paul1 ,,ii ,cor4 #b3e1 but this is not quite certain4 ,at any rate1 whatever his original offence1 ,paul's demand for his punishment had become a test of the loyalty of the church4 ,at first the demand had been refused1 but now the majority of the congregation has agreed and the man himself is deeply repentant1 so that ,paul is only afraid lest severity may go too far4 ,it is hardly worth while saying that the character of ,paul was entirely free from vindictiveness4 ,when the discipline of the ,church would permit it1 ,paul was the first to propose counsels of mercy4 ,the reference to the epistles of commendation which had been used by ,paul's opponents in ,corinth1 ch4 #c3a1 has been made the basis of far-reaching conclusions about the whole history of the apostolic age4 ,from whom could the opponents have received their letters of introduction8 ,only1 it is said1 from ,palestine1 and probably from the original apostles4 ,this conclusion is hasty1 to say the least4 ,it should be noticed that not only letters to the ,corinthian church but also letters from the church are apparently in mind4 ,v4 #a4 ,if1 then1 the ,corinthian church had been asked to supply these false teachers with letters of commendation1 perhaps the other churches that had supplied them with letters were no nearer to ,jerusalem than ,corinth was4 ,the mention of these letters of commendation introduces one of the grandest passages in the ,new ,testament4 ,i1 says ,paul1 by way of transition1 do not need any letters of commendation4 ,my work is sufficient commendation4 ,what ,i have accomplished in the hearts of men is an epistle written by the ,spirit of ,god4 ,then follows the magnificent exposition of the ministry of the new covenant4 ,that ministry is first contrasted with the old dispensation1 perhaps with reference to an excessive valuation1 by the opponents1 of a continued ,judaism in the ,church4 ,the old covenant was glorious1 but how much more glorious is the new6 ,the old was a ministry of condemnation1 but the new is a ministry of justification4 ,the old was a ministry of an external law1 the new is a ministry of the life-giving power of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,there is no reason any longer for concealment4 ,the ,spirit brings freedom and openness and light4 ,this treasure is held indeed in earthen vessels4 ,the recent danger that ,paul has passed through1 as well as the overpowering hardships of his life1 make him painfully conscious of human weakness4 ,but that weakness is blessed which in all the fuller glory reveals the all-conquering power of ,god4 ,the ,christian need never despair1 for by the eye of faith he can detect those unseen things which are eternal4 ,the present body may be dissolved1 but the resurrection body will be ready4 ,indeed1 even if the ,christian by death is separated for a time altogether from the body1 he need not fear4 ,to be absent from the body is to be present with the ,lord4 ,the climax of the whole glorious passage is the brief exposition of the ministry of reconciliation which begins with ch4 #e3aa4 ,here we are introduced to the secret of the remarkable life which is revealed in ,second ,corinthians and in the other epistles of ,paul4 ,reconciliation with ,god through the death of ,christ in our behalf and in our stead1 consequent freedom from sin and from the world1 a new and glorious life under the favor of ,god--these are the things that ,paul experienced in his own life1 these are the things that he preached to others1 regardless of all hardship and criticism1 and these are the things1 now and always1 which contain the real springs of the ,church's power4 ,after an uncompromising warning against impurity and worldliness1 delivered from the lofty vantage ground that has just been reached1 the apostle gives expression once more to the joy that he has received from the good news which ,titus brought him2 and then proceeds to an entirely different matter4 #c4 ,,the ,,collection4 ,,ii ,cor41 chs4 #h1 #i ,two whole chapters of the epistle are devoted to the collection for the ,jerusalem church4 ,the history of this matter1 so far as it can be traced1 is briefly as follows3 ,at the time of the ,jerusalem council1 the pillars of the ,jerusalem church had requested ,paul to remember the ,jerusalem poor4 ,at the time when ,first ,corinthians was written1 ,paul had already started a collection for this purpose in the churches of ,galatia1 and in ,first ,corinthians he asks the ,corinthians to take part4 ,i ,cor4 #af3a-d4 ,in ,second ,corinthians he announces that the churches of ,macedonia have contributed bountifully1 ,,ii ,cor4 #h3a-e1 and urges the continuance of the collection in ,corinth4 ,finally1 in the ,epistle to the ,romans1 which was written from ,corinth only a short time after ,second ,corinthians1 he mentions the collection in ,macedonia and ,achaia1 announces his intention of journeying to ,jerusalem with the gifts1 and asks the ,roman ,christians to pray that the ministration may be acceptable to the ,jerusalem church4 ,rom4 #ae3be-bg1ca1cb4 ,with his customary foresight1 ,paul made careful provision for the administration of the gifts1 in order to avoid all possible misunderstanding or suspicion4 ,for example1 the churches are to choose delegates to carry their bounty to ,jerusalem4 ,i ,cor4 #af3c4 ,possibly the delegates are to be identified with the persons who are named in ,acts #bj3d4 ,luke does not mention the collection1 but it is alluded to in ,acts #bd3ag4 ,paul's treatment of the collection in ,,ii ,cor41 chs4 #h1 #i1 was not only adapted to accomplish its immediate purpose1 but also has been of high value to the ,christian ,church4 ,these chapters have assured to the right use of wealth a place of real dignity among the forms of ,christian service4 #d4 ,,the ,,opponents4 ,,ii ,cor41 chs4 #aj to #ac ,the striking change of tone at ch4 #aj3a is amply explained by the change of subject4 ,in the first part of the epistle1 ,paul has been thinking of the return of the majority of the congregation to their allegiance2 now he turns to deal with the false teachers who have been causing all the trouble4 ,it is still necessary to meet their attacks and remove every vestige of influence which they may still have retained over the church4 ,their attack upon ,paul was of a peculiarly mean and unworthy character2 the indignation which ,paul displays in these chapters was fully justified4 ,the opponents were certainly ,jews1 and prided themselves on the fact4 ,ch4 #aa3bb4 ,but it does not appear with certainty that they were ,judaizers4 ,if they were intending to come forward with any demand of circumcision or of observance of the ,mosaic law1 such demand was still kept in the background4 ,indeed1 there is no indication that the doctrine that they preached was different in important respects from that of ,paul4 ,in particular1 there is no indication that they advocated a different view about ,jesus4 ,one verse1 ch4 #aa3d1 has1 indeed1 been regarded as such an indication1 but only by an exceedingly doubtful interpretation4 ,probably the other ,jesus whom the opponents preached existed only in their own claim4 ,they said merely1 ,paul has kept something back1 v4 #f1 margin2 ch4 #d3c2 we alone can give you adequate information2 we alone can proclaim the true ,jesus1 the true ,spirit and the true gospel4 ,in reality1 however1 they had nothing new to offer4 ,paul had made the whole gospel known4 ,it is further not even quite clear that the opponents laid stress upon a personal acquaintance with the earthly ,jesus1 and so played the original apostles off against ,paul4 ,the expression chiefest apostles1 ch4 #aa3e1 is clearly nothing more than an ironical designation of the false teachers themselves4 ,it is true1 the false teachers claimed to belong in a special sense to ,christ1 ch #aj3g1 and to be in a special sense ministers of ,christ4 ,ch4 #aa3bc4 ,but it is not at all clear--despite ch4 #e3af--that the connection which they claimed to have with ,christ was that of personal acquaintance1 either directly or through their authorities1 with the earthly ,jesus4 ,finally1 these false teachers cannot with any certainty be connected with the ,christ-party of ,first ,corinthians4 ,the chief value of the last four chapters of the epistle is the wealth of autobiographical material which they contain4 ,against the insidious personal attacks of the opponents1 ,paul was obliged to speak of certain personal matters about which he might otherwise have been silent4 ,had he been silent1 the ,church would have been the loser4 ,to know the inner life of the apostle ,paul is to know ,christ2 for ,paul was in ,christ and ,christ was in ,paul4 ,what could compensate us for the loss of ,,ii ,cor4 #ab3g-aj8 ,through these words the bodily weakness of ,paul has forever been made profitable for the strength of the ,church4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bba-bbe4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves and ,davis1 article on ,corinthians1 ,epistles to the4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,robertson1 article on ,corinthians1 ,second ,epistle to the4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #fe-fi4 ,beet1 ,a ,commentary on ,st4 ,paul's ,epistles to the ,corinthians1 seventh edition1 pp4 #a-bj1 #cag-edb4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #ceg-dag3 ,plumptre1 ,the ,second ,epistle of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,corinthians4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools3 ,lias1 ,the ,second ,epistle to the ,corinthians4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i1 pp4 #cjg-cea4 ,the last-named work presupposes a knowledge of ,greek4 ,,lesson ,,xxi ,,the ,,gospel ,,of ,,salvation ,the ,epistle to the ,romans1 though it is not merely a systematic treatise1 is more systematic than any other of the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,unlike the epistles that preceded it1 it was written in a period of comparative quiet between two great stages in the apostle's work4 ,not unnaturally1 therefore1 it contains something like a summary of ,paul's teaching4 ,the summary1 however1 does not embrace the whole of the ,pauline theology1 but only one important department of it4 ,the nature of ,god1 for example1 and the person of ,christ1 are not discussed in the ,epistle to the ,romans4 ,of course ,paul held very definite views upon these subjects1 and these views are presupposed on every page of the epistle--especially the loftiest possible conception of the person of ,christ lies at the background of this entire account of ,christ's work--but such presuppositions do not in this epistle receive an elaborate exposition4 ,the real subject of the first eight chapters of ,romans is not theology in general1 but simply the way of salvation4 ,how can man be saved--that is the question which ,paul answers in this epistle4 ,obviously the question is of the utmost practical importance4 ,the ,epistle to the ,romans is absolutely fundamental for the establishment of ,christian faith4 ,this estimate1 which was formerly a matter of course1 has in recent years unfortunately fallen into disrepute4 ,the ,epistle to the ,romans1 after all1 it is said1 is concerned with theology1 whereas what we need is simple faith4 ,we must return from ,romans to the ,gospels1 from ,paul to ,christ4 ,the words of ,jesus1 recorded in the ,gospels1 are thus emphasized to the prejudice of the teaching of the apostle4 ,this tendency should be resisted with the utmost firmness4 ,it is striking at the very vitals of the ,church's life4 ,after all1 ,jesus came1 as has been well said1 not to say something1 but to do something4 ,his words are very precious1 we could never do without them2 but after all they are subsidiary to his deeds4 ,his life and death and resurrection--these are the things that wrought salvation for men4 ,and these great saving acts could not be fully explained till after they had been done4 ,for an explanation of them1 therefore1 we must turn not only to the ,gospels but also to the epistles1 not only to ,jesus but also to ,paul4 ,paul was in a special sense our apostle2 like us1 he had never known the earthly ,jesus4 ,just for that reason1 through the divine revelation that was granted him1 he could guide all subsequent generations to the risen ,christ4 ,the ,epistle to the ,romans1 more fully perhaps than any other book1 points out the meaning of the death and resurrection of ,christ4 ,it does not1 indeed1 solve all mysteries2 but it reveals enough to enable us to believe4 #a4 ,,the ,,edict ,,of ,,claudius ,the edict of ,claudius which expelled the ,jews from ,rome was certainly not permanently effective2 indeed there are some indications that it was modified almost as soon as it was issued4 ,but although it did not keep the ,jews out of ,rome1 it may at least have hastened the separation between ,judaism and ,christianity4 ,if the conflict between the two1 as a conflict within ,judaism1 had given rise to the hostile edict1 then1 as has plausibly been suggested1 the separation might be in the interests of both parties4 ,if the church were kept separate from the synagogue1 the ,jews would be protected from dangerous disorders and from the opposition which would be encountered by a new and illegal religion1 and the ,christians1 on the other hand1 would be protected from the ,claudian edict against the ,jews4 #b4 ,,address1 ,,thanksgiving ,,and ,,subject4 ,rom4 #a3a-ag ,the address of the ,epistle to the ,romans is remarkable for the long addition which is made to the name of the author4 ,paul was writing to a church which he had never seen4 ,his excuse for writing was to be found only in the gospel with which he had been intrusted4 ,at the very start1 therefore1 he places his gospel in the foreground4 ,here1 however1 it is rather the great presupposition of the gospel which is in mind--,jesus ,christ in his double nature4 ,one who has been commissioned to preach to the ,gentiles the gospel of such a ,christ may certainly address a letter to ,rome4 ,in connection with the customary thanksgiving1 ,paul mentions his long-cherished desire of visiting the ,roman ,christians4 ,he desires to impart unto them some spiritual gift--no1 he says1 rather he desires to receive from them as well as to give4 ,the correction is characteristic of ,paul4 ,some men would have felt no need of making it4 ,as a matter of fact1 ,paul was fully in a position to impart spiritual gifts4 ,but he was afraid his readers might feel hurt--as though the apostle thought they could make no return for the benefit which the visit would bring them4 ,it is an exquisite bit of fine discernment and delicate courtesy4 ,but like all true courtesy1 it was based on fact4 ,paul was really not a man to decline help and comfort from even the humblest of the brethren4 ,in vs4 #af1 #ag1 the theme of the epistle is announced--the gospel the power of ,god unto salvation1 the gospel which reveals a righteousness of ,god that is received by faith4 ,the meaning of a righteousness of ,god has been much disputed4 ,some think that it refers to the righteousness which is an attribute of ,god4 ,more probably1 however1 it is to be interpreted in the light of ch4 #aj3c2 ,phil4 #c3i4 ,it then refers to that right relation of man to ,god which ,god himself produces4 ,there are two ways of receiving a sentence of acquittal from ,god the ,judge4 ,one is by keeping the law of ,god perfectly4 ,the other is by receiving through faith the righteousness of ,christ4 ,the former is impossible because of sin4 ,the latter has been made possible by the gift of ,christ4 ,as sinners1 we are subject to the punishment of death4 ,but that punishment has been paid for us by ,christ4 ,we therefore go free2 we can start fresh1 with the consciousness of ,god's favor4 ,we are justified--that is1 pronounced righteous--not because we are free from sin1 but because by his grace ,god looks not upon us but upon ,christ4 ,we have been pronounced righteous1 but not on account of our own works4 ,we possess not our own righteousness but a righteousness of ,god4 ,this righteousness of ,god is received by faith4 ,faith is not a work1 it is simply the willingness to receive4 ,christ has promised by his death to bring us to ,god4 ,we may not understand it all1 but is ,christ to be believed8 ,study the ,gospel picture of him1 and you will be convinced that he is4 ,justification by faith1 then1 means being pronounced righteous by ,god1 although we are sinners4 ,it might seem to be a very dangerous doctrine4 ,if we are pronounced righteous whether we are really righteous or not1 then may we not go on with impunity in sin8 ,such reasoning ignores the results of justification4 ,faith brings more than forgiveness4 ,it brings a new life4 ,in the new life sin has no place4 ,the ,christian has broken forever with his old slavery4 ,though perfection has not yet been attained in practice1 it has been attained in principle1 and by the power of the ,spirit all sin will finally be removed4 ,the ,christian cannot compromise with sin4 ,salvation is not only from the guilt of sin1 but also from the power of it4 ,the sixth chapter of ,romans leaves no room for moral laxness4 #c4 ,,romans ,,and ,,galatians ,it is interesting to compare ,romans with ,galatians4 ,the subject of the two epistles is the same4 ,both are concerned with salvation by faith alone1 apart from the works of the law4 ,in many passages the two are parallel4 ,the fuller exposition in ,romans is often the best commentary upon the briefer statements of ,galatians4 ,for example1 the words3 ,what then is the law8 ,it was added because of transgressions--very obscure as they stand in ,galatians--are explained by ,rom4 #e3bj2 ch4 #g4 ,in tone1 however1 the two epistles are widely different4 ,galatians is written in view of one definite attack upon the gospel2 ,romans is a general exposition summing up the results of the conflict4 ,when ,paul wrote ,galatians he was in the thick of the battle2 at the time of ,romans he had fought his way through to the heights4 ,the ,epistle to the ,romans1 however1 is no cold1 purely logical treatise4 ,theology here is interwoven with experience4 ,no exposition can do justice to this wonderful letter4 ,to read about it is sometimes dull2 but to read it is life4 #d4 ,,the ,,pauline ,,philosophy ,,of ,,history4 ,rom41 chs4 #i to #aa ,chapters #i to #aa of this epistle are interesting in a great many ways4 ,they are interesting1 for example1 in their tremendous conception of the mystery of the divine will4 ,the ninth chapter of ,romans is a good corrective for any carelessness in our attitude toward ,god4 ,after all1 ,god is a mystery4 ,how little we know of his eternal plan6 ,we must ever tremble before him4 ,yet it is such a ,god who has invited us1 through ,christ1 to hold communion with himself4 ,there is the true wonder of the gospel--that it brings us into fellowship1 not with a ,god of our own devising1 not with one who is a ,father and nothing else1 but with the awful1 holy1 mysterious ,maker and ,ruler of all things4 ,the joy of the believer is the deepest of all joys4 ,it is a joy that is akin to holy fear4 ,these chapters are also interesting because they attest the attachment of ,paul to the ,jewish people4 ,where is there a nobler expression of patriotism than ,rom4 #i3a-e8 ,exclusive attention to the polemic passages where ,paul is defending the ,gentile mission and denying the efficacy of the ,mosaic law1 have produced in the minds of some scholars a one-sided view of ,paul's attitude toward ,israel4 ,paul did not advocate the destruction of the identity of his people4 ,he believed that even the natural ,israel had a part to play on the stage of history4 ,these chapters of ,romans1 together with some other passages in the epistles1 such as ,i ,cor4 #i3bj1 confirm what the ,book of ,the ,acts tells us about ,paul's willingness1 when no principle was involved1 to conform to ,jewish custom4 #e4 ,,integrity ,,of ,,the ,,epistle ,the genuineness of the ,epistle to the ,romans is undoubted1 but its integrity has been questioned4 ,the epistle was certainly written by ,paul1 but was it all1 as we now have it1 originally part of one letter8 ,by many scholars the greater part of the sixteenth chapter is supposed to have originally formed part of an epistle of ,paul written not to ,rome but to ,ephesus4 ,the chief argument for this hypothesis is derived from the long list of names in ch4 #af3c-ae4 ,could ,paul have had so many personal acquaintances in a church which he had never visited8 ,the argument is not conclusive4 ,just because ,paul could not appeal in his letter to any personal acquaintance with the ,roman church as a whole1 it would be natural for him to mention at least all the individuals in the church with whom he stood in any sort of special relation4 ,furthermore1 the frequency of travel in the ,roman ,empire must be borne in mind4 ,many persons whom ,paul had met on his travels would naturally find their way to the capital4 ,finally1 ,aquila and ,priscilla1 though they had recently lived in ,ephesus1 ,i ,cor4 #af3ai1 may easily have resumed their former residence in ,rome4 ,acts #ah3b2 ,rom4 #af3c-e4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bbf-bca4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves1 7supplemented7 article on ,romans1 ,epistle to the4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,robertson1 article on ,romans1 ,epistle to the4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #gg-hb4 ,gifford1 ,the ,epistle of ,st4 ,paul to the ,romans4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #aic-bhj3 ,sanday1 ,the ,epistle of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,romans4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools3 ,moule1 ,the ,epistle of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,romans4 ,the ,international ,critical ,commentary3 ,sanday and ,headlam1 ,a ,critical and ,exegetical ,commentary on the ,epistle to the ,romans4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i1 pp4 #ceb-dch4 ,the two last-named works presuppose a knowledge of ,greek4 ,,lesson ,,xxii ,,paul',s ,,journey ,,to ,,rome ,the material of this lesson is so extensive that only the barest summary can be attempted in the class4 ,the great features of the narrative should be made to stand out clear--the bitter opposition of the ,jews1 the favorable attitude of the ,roman authorities1 the journey to ,rome4 ,before the lesson is over the student should have a deeper impression of the character of ,paul--his perfect ease and tactfulness in the various relations of life1 his unswerving boldness where the gospel was concerned1 his inexplicable power4 ,finally1 the peculiar quality of the narrative should be appreciated4 ,these chapters contain the two longer we-sections of ,the ,acts4 #a4 ,,the ,,journey ,,to ,,troas ,at first ,paul had intended to sail direct from ,corinth to ,syria1 but a plot of the ,jews caused him to change his plan4 ,acts #bj3c4 ,it has been suggested that the ship upon which he was intending to sail may have carried non-,christian ,jews1 going to the approaching feast in ,jerusalem1 v4 #af1 who could have done him harm upon the voyage4 ,by choosing the route through ,macedonia he averted the immediate danger4 ,the use of the first person plural begins again at ,acts #bj3e4 ,it was broken off at ch4 #af3ag4 ,luke had parted from ,paul at ,philippi on the second missionary journey2 and it is at ,philippi that he now appears again4 ,the following journeys1 in which ,luke himself took part1 are narrated with the utmost vividness and minuteness4 ,the narrative amounts practically to a diary--in some sections every day is accounted for4 ,the departure from ,philippi took place after the days of unleavened bread1 that is1 after the passover week4 ,acts #bj3f4 ,from the account of the subsequent journey it is not quite possible to tell whether ,paul actually succeeded in carrying out his plan of being in ,jerusalem at ,pentecost4 ,pentecost1 it will be remembered1 came fifty days after the beginning of the passover week4 #b4 ,,troas ,the description of the last evening at ,troas1 when ,paul prolonged his discourse in the lighted room1 is one of the inimitably vivid scenes of ,the ,acts4 ,probably we are to understand that ,eutychus1 who fell down from a window in the third story1 was really killed and not merely stunned4 ,verse #aj might seem to indicate that he was only stunned1 but the last words of v4 #i point rather to actual1 and not merely apparent1 death4 ,the miracle is paralleled by the raising of ,dorcas by ,peter4 ,acts #i3cf-db4 #c4 ,,the ,,elders ,,of ,,ephesus ,when ,paul told the elders that they would see his face no more1 or perhaps rather no longer1 ,acts #bj3be1ch1 he did not necessarily mean that he would certainly never return to ,ephesus4 ,for a period of years1 at any rate1 he was intending to transfer his labors to the west2 his return to ,ephesus1 therefore1 was at all events uncertain4 ,his long activity at ,ephesus1 which had occupied the better part of the past three years1 was for the present at an end4 ,from the ,pastoral ,epistles it appears that as a matter of fact ,paul did visit ,ephesus again after his release from the first ,roman imprisonment4 #d4 ,,arrival ,,in ,,palestine ,at ,tyre and at ,csarea1 ,paul received warnings against visiting ,jerusalem4 ,these warnings came through the ,spirit1 ,acts #ba3d1aa1 but not in the sense that the ,holy ,spirit commanded ,paul not to go4 ,the meaning is that the ,spirit warned him of the dangers that were to befall him4 ,in meeting these dangers bravely he was acting in full accordance with the divine will4 ,at ,acts #ba3ah the use of the first person plural ceases1 because ,luke had no immediate part in the events that followed4 ,it is natural to suppose1 however1 that he remained in ,palestine1 for he joined ,paul again in ,csarea1 at the beginning of the journey to ,rome4 ,for the events of ,paul's imprisonment in ,jerusalem and in ,csarea he had first-hand information4 ,the vow in which ,paul took part at the request of ,james was at least similar to the ,nazirite vow described in ,num4 #f3a-ba4 ,not all the details of such vows are perfectly clear4 ,paul himself1 on his own account1 had assumed a similar vow on his second missionary journey1 ,acts #ah3ah--unless indeed1 as is grammatically possible1 the words in that passage refer to ,aquila rather than to ,paul4 ,it was not true1 as the ,christians of ,judea had been led to think1 that ,paul taught the ,jewish ,christians of the dispersion to forsake the law of ,moses1 though he was insistent that the ,gentile ,christians must not adopt that law4 ,it was not even true that he himself had altogether given up keeping the law1 though the exigencies of his ,gentile work required him to give it up very often1 and though he regarded himself as inwardly free from the law4 ,his willingness to take part in a ,jewish vow in ,jerusalem is therefore not surprising4 ,his action on this occasion was fully justified by the principles of his conduct as described in ,i ,cor4 #i3bj1ba4 ,the keeping of the law was not for ,paul a means of obtaining salvation4 ,salvation was a free gift of ,god1 through the death of ,christ4 ,but for the present the general relinquishment of the law and abandonment of the distinctive customs of ,judaism on the part of ,jewish ,christians was not required4 ,paul was willing to leave that question to the future guidance of ,god4 ,it is somewhat surprising that the ,book of ,the ,acts mentions the great collection for the ,jerusalem church only incidentally1 in the report of a speech of ,paul4 ,acts #bd3ag4 ,the interest of ,luke in this part of the narrative is absorbed in the relations between ,paul and the non-,christian ,jews and the ,roman authorities4 ,the internal affairs of the ,church are left for the most part out of account4 ,the ,acts and the ,pauline ,epistles1 here as so often1 must be allowed to supplement each other4 ,luke gives a vivid picture of the external events1 and a clear view of the relations of ,christianity to the outside world2 while ,paul affords us a deeper insight1 in some respects at least1 into the inward development of the ,church's life4 #e4 ,,paul ,,before ,,agrippa ,the famous reply of ,agrippa to ,paul1 ,acts #bf3bh1 is exceedingly difficult to translate and to interpret4 ,the translation in the ,revised ,version is by no means certainly correct4 ,the words may mean1 ,a little more of this persuasion will make me a ,christian6 or else1 ,you seem to think that the little persuasion you have used is sufficient to make me a ,christian4 ,in any case1 the sentence displays a certain perplexity on the part of the king4 ,he certainly does not mean that he is on the point of accepting ,christianity--his words have a half-ironical tone--but on the other hand his interest is aroused4 ,the same thing is probably to be said for ,festus4 ,he said1 ,paul1 thou art mad2 thy much learning is turning thee mad1 but he said it with a loud voice as though he were agitated4 ,there was something uncanny about this prisoner6 #f4 ,,the ,,accession ,,of ,,festus ,the dates of many events in the apostolic age have usually been fixed by counting from the accession of ,festus4 ,unfortunately1 however1 that event itself cannot be dated with certainty4 ,some put it as late as ,a4 ,d4 #fa1 others as early as ,a4 ,d4 #ee4 ,if the date ,a4 ,d4 #fj be provisionally adopted1 then ,paul's arrest in ,jerusalem occurred in ,a4 ,d4 #eh1 and his arrival in ,rome in ,a4 ,d4 #fa4 ,the conclusion of the narrative in ,the ,acts would then fall in the year ,a4 ,d4 #fc4 ,it will be remembered that the proconsulship of ,gallio now affords an additional starting point for a chronology of the apostolic age4 #g4 ,,later ,,history ,,of ,,the ,,jerusalem ,,church ,after the meeting between ,paul and ,james1 which is narrated in ,acts #ba3ag-bf1 the ,jerusalem church1 at least so far as any direct narrative is concerned1 disappears from the pages of the ,new ,testament4 ,it will be observed that in the account of ,paul's last visit1 only ,james1 the brother of the ,lord1 and the elders are mentioned as representatives of the church4 ,possibly some of the twelve apostles may be included under the term elders1 but it is also perfectly possible that the apostles were all out of the city4 ,james1 the brother of the ,lord1 continued to be the head of the ,jerusalem church until he was martyred--in ,a4 ,d4 #fb1 or1 as others suppose1 in ,a4 ,d4 #ff4 ,before the war which culminated in the capture of ,jerusalem in ,a4 ,d4 #gj1 the ,christians of the city fled to ,pella beyond the ,jordan4 ,from that time1 on1 though the ,christians returned after the war1 ,jewish ,christianity was quite uninfluential4 ,the supremacy of the ,jerusalem church was gone4 ,but that church had already rendered a priceless service4 ,it had laid the foundations of ,christendom4 ,it had sent forth the first missionaries4 ,and it had preserved the record of ,jesus' life4 ,the ,synoptic ,gospels1 in substance at least1 are a product of the ,jerusalem church4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #afj-aff1 #bca-bci4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on the many persons and places mentioned in the narrative1 especially ,felix1 ,festus1 and ,herod 7#d74 ,ramsay1 ,st4 ,paul the ,traveller and the ,roman ,citizen1 pp4 #bhc-cfb2 ,pictures of the ,apostolic ,church1 pp4 #bgj-bhe1 #caj-cfd4 ,lewin1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 vol4 ii1 chs4 ii1 iii1 iv1 v1 and vi4 ,conybeare and ,howson1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 chs4 xx1 xxi1 xxii1 xxiii1 xxiv and xxv4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #aba-acc4 ,lumby1 pp4 #bff-chj4 ,cook1 pp4 #dhe-ecd4 ,plumptre1 pp4 #acf-ahd4 ,rackham1 pp4 #cgj-eac4 ,,lesson ,,xxiii ,,the ,,supremacy ,,of ,,christ #a4 ,,the ,,epistles ,,of ,,the ,,third ,,group ,with the lesson for to-day1 we are introduced to the third group among the epistles of ,paul4 ,the epistles of the second group1 which were written during the third missionary journey1 are concerned with the problem of sin and salvation2 the epistles of the third group are interesting especially for their teaching about the person of ,christ and about the ,church4 ,a period of about three or four years separates the last epistle of the second group from the first epistle of the third4 ,most of this interval had been spent by ,paul in captivity4 ,undoubtedly1 during this period of enforced leisure1 there had been development in ,paul's thinking1 but it is very difficult to determine exactly wherein that development consisted4 ,the differences of the third group of epistles from the second are due to the difference in the readers at least as much as to a difference in ,paul himself4 ,it is hard to say just how much of ,colossians and ,ephesians ,paul would have been incapable of writing during the third missionary journey4 ,at any rate1 the epistles of the captivity differ from those of the former group in being for the most part quieter in tone4 ,during the third journey ,paul had had to continue the great battles of his career against various forms of ,judaizing error4 ,christianity at one time seemed to be in danger of being reduced to a mere form of ,judaism2 the free grace of ,god was being deserted for a law religion2 faith was being deserted for works4 ,in ,galatia1 the question of principle had been uppermost2 in ,corinth1 the personal attack upon ,paul4 ,everywhere1 moreover1 the gospel of salvation by faith was exposed to misconception4 ,pagan license was threatening to creep into the ,church4 ,unless it could be kept out1 the legalists would have some apparent show of reason on their side4 ,taking it all in all1 it had been a hard battle4 ,but it had been gloriously fought1 and it had been won4 ,now ,paul was able to turn his attention to new fields of labor and to new problems4 #b4 ,,the ,,christology ,,of ,,colossians ,the ,epistle to the ,colossians is peculiarly ,christological4 ,more fully and more expressly than in any other of his letters ,paul here develops his view about the person of ,christ4 ,even here1 however1 this teaching is incidental2 it was simply ,paul's way of refuting certain errors that had crept into the ,colossian church4 ,except for those errors ,paul would perhaps never have written at length1 as he does in ,col4 #a3ad-bc1 about the relation of ,christ to ,god and to the world4 ,yet in that case his own views would have been the same1 and they would have been just as fundamental to his whole religious life4 ,in the epistles1 which are written to ,christians1 ,paul takes many things for granted4 ,some of the things which are most fundamental appear only incidentally4 ,just because they were fundamental1 just because they were accepted by everyone1 they did not need to be discussed at length4 ,so it is especially with the person of ,christ4 ,from the first epistle to the last1 ,paul presupposes essentially the same view of that great subject4 ,practically everything that he says in ,colossians could have been inferred from scattered hints in the earlier epistles4 ,from the beginning ,paul regarded ,jesus ,christ as a man1 who had a real human life and died a real death on the cross4 ,from the beginning1 on the other hand1 he separated ,christ sharply from men and placed him clearly on the side of ,god4 ,from the beginning1 in other words1 he attributed to him a double nature--,jesus ,christ was always in ,paul's thinking both ,god and man4 ,finally1 the prexistence of ,christ1 which is so strongly emphasized in ,colossians1 is clearly implied in such passages as ,gal4 #d3d2 and his activity in creation appears1 according to the best-attested text1 in ,i ,cor4 #h3f4 ,nevertheless1 the more systematic exposition in ,colossians is of the utmost value4 ,it serves to summarize and explain the scattered implications of the earlier epistles4 ,christ according to ,paul is1 in the first place1 the image of the invisible ,god4 ,col4 #a3ae4 ,he is the supreme ,revealer of ,god1 a ,revealer1 however1 not merely by words but by his own nature4 ,if you want to know what ,god is1 look upon ,christ6 ,in the second place1 he is the firstborn of all creation4 ,of itself that phrase might be misconstrued4 ,it might be thought to mean that ,christ was the first being that ,god created4 ,any such interpretation1 however1 is clearly excluded by the three following verses4 ,there ,paul has himself provided an explanation of his puzzling phrase4 ,the firstborn of all creation means that ,christ1 himself uncreated1 existed before all created things2 he was prior to all things1 and1 as befits an only son1 he possesses all things4 ,indeed he himself was active in the creation of all things1 not only the world1 and men1 but also those angelic powers--thrones or dominions or principalities or powers--upon whom the errorists in ,coloss were inclined to lay too much emphasis4 ,he was the instrument of ,god the ,father in creation4 ,and he was also the end of creation4 ,the world exists not for its own sake1 but for the sake of ,christ4 ,especially is he the ,head of the ,church4 ,his headship is declared by his being the first to rise from the dead into that glorious life into which he will finally bring all his disciples4 ,in a word1 the entire fulness of the divine nature dwells in ,christ4 ,that word fulness was much misused in the ,gnostic speculations of the second century4 ,it is barely possible that the word had already been employed in the incipient ,gnosticism of the ,colossian errorists4 ,if so1 ,paul by his repeated use of the word in ,colossians and ,ephesians1 is bringing his readers back to a healthier and simpler and grander conception4 #c4 ,,the ,,person ,,of ,,christ ,,and ,,the ,,work ,,of ,,christ ,in ,col4 #a3bj-bc1 ,paul bases upon the preceding exposition of the nature of ,christ a noble description of ,christ's work4 ,the work which has been intrusted to ,christ is nothing less than that of reconciling the creation unto ,god4 ,through sin1 an enmity had been set up between ,god and the work of his hands4 ,that enmity applies primarily of course to the sinful persons themselves4 ,they are under ,god's wrath and curse4 ,sin is not a trifle4 ,it cannot simply be treated as though it had never been4 ,if ,god be righteous1 then there is such a thing as a moral order4 ,the wrath of ,god rests upon the sinner4 ,but by the sacrifice of ,christ1 that enmity has been wiped out4 ,christ has paid the awful penalty of sin4 ,christ has brought the sinner again near to ,god4 ,the enmity and the following reconciliation concern primarily the men who have sinned4 ,but they also apply to the whole world4 ,the ground has been cursed for man's sake4 ,the end of the reconciliation will be a new heaven and a new earth4 ,the groaning and travailing of the creation will one day have an end4 ,compare ,rom4 #h3ah-be4 ,this brief description of the work of ,christ in ,col4 #a3bj-bb2 #b3aj-ae1 can be richly paralleled in the earlier epistles4 ,what now needs to be emphasized is that the ,pauline view of ,christ's work depends absolutely upon the ,pauline view of ,christ's person4 ,all through the epistles of ,paul the life and death and resurrection are represented as events of a cosmic significance4 ,but they can have such significance only if ,christ is the kind of being that is described in the ,epistle to the ,colossians4 ,the glorious account of salvation1 which runs all through the epistles and forms the especial subject of the second group1 is unintelligible if ,christ were merely an inspired prophet or merely the greatest of created things4 ,it becomes intelligible only if ,christ is the image of the invisible ,god1 the firstborn of all creation4 ,the mysterious ,christology of ,colossians lies at the very heart of ,christian faith4 #d4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,to ,,philemon ,the ,epistle to the ,colossians1 though addressed to a church that ,paul had never visited1 is full of warm-hearted affection4 ,paul could hardly have been cold and formal if he had tried4 ,he was a man of great breadth of sympathy4 ,hence he was able to enter with the deepest interest into the problems of the ,colossian ,christians--to rejoice at their faith and love1 to lament their faults1 and to labor with whole-souled devotion for their spiritual profit4 ,the simple1 unconstrained affection of ,paul's nature1 however1 had freer scope in the delightful little letter to ,philemon4 ,philemon apparently was a convert of ,paul himself4 ,philem4 #ai4 ,he was not a man with whom ,paul had to be on his guard4 ,paul is perfectly confident that ,philemon will fully understand the motives of his action and of his letter4 ,the letter is addressed to ,philemon primarily1 but also to ,apphia and to ,archippus and to the church in ,philemon's house4 ,we are here introduced into a ,christian household of the apostolic age4 ,apphia was probably ,philemon's wife and ,archippus perhaps his son4 ,evidently ,archippus held some sort of office in the ,colossian church4 ,say to ,archippus1 says ,paul in a strangely emphatic way1 at the very end of the ,epistle to the ,colossians1 ,take heed to the ministry which thou hast received in the ,lord1 that thou fulfill it4 ,we should like to know what the ministry was which ,archippus had received4 ,at any rate1 we hope that he fulfilled it4 ,it was a solemn warning which he received--a warning which might well have made him tremble4 ,we also may well take the warning to heart4 ,our task of imparting ,bible truth is no light responsibility4 ,to us also the warning comes1 ,take heed to the ministry which thou hast received in the ,lord1 that thou fulfill it4 ,the letter is addressed not only to ,philemon and his family1 but also to the church which met in his house4 ,this church was a part of the ,colossian congregation4 ,in the early days1 when it was difficult to secure meeting places1 well-to-do ,christians frequently offered the hospitality of their own homes4 ,a certain ,nympha or ,nymphas--the name varies in the manuscripts--performed this service in ,laodicea1 ,col4 #d3ae1 ,aquila and ,priscilla in ,corinth1 ,i ,cor4 #af3ai1 and also ,gaius in the same city4 ,rom4 #af3bc4 ,the ,epistle to ,philemon exhibits that perfection of courtesy and delicacy of feeling which has been observed again and again in ,paul4 ,a man of coarser feeling might have kept ,onesimus with him until receiving the response of ,philemon4 ,in that case no doubt ,philemon would have replied not only that ,onesimus was forgiven1 but that ,paul might retain the benefit of his services4 ,but ,paul saw clearly that that would have made ,philemon's goodness seem to be of necessity and not of free will4 ,philem4 #ad4 ,there was only one really fine1 honorable1 high-toned way of dealing with the situation1 and that was the way which ,paul adopted4 ,the letter is informal and affectionate4 ,there is even apparently a little delicate play on the name ,onesimus1 which means helpful4 ,once ,onesimus belied his name1 but now he has become helpful again4 ,philem4 #aa4 ,in v4 #bj1 also1 where ,paul says1 ,let me have joy of thee1 he uses a word which comes from the same root as that which appears in the name of the slave4 ,nevertheless1 despite all informality1 ,paul has succeeded1 here as always1 in lifting the matter to a lofty plane4 ,paul was a man who ennobled everything that he touched4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bda-bdf4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible1 articles on ,coloss1 ,hierapolis and ,laodicea3 ,purves1 articles on ,colossians1 ,epistle to the and ,philemon 7supplemented74 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,ramsay1 articles on ,coloss1 ,hierapolis1 and ,laodicea2 ,murray1 article on ,colossians1 ,epistle to the2 ,bernard1 articles on ,philemon1 and ,philemon1 ,epistle to4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #ia-ih4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii3 ,barry1 ,the ,epistles of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,ephesians1 ,philippians1 and ,colossians1 pp4 #a-h1 #if-abd2 ,the ,epistle of ,paul to ,philemon1 pp4 #bfe-bgd4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools and ,colleges3 ,moule1 ,the ,epistles to the ,colossians and to ,philemon4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i1 pp4 #dci-dgi4 ,lightfoot1 ,saint ,paul's ,epistles to the ,colossians and to ,philemon4 ,the two last-named works are intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxiv ,,the ,,church ,,of ,,christ ,the special effort in the lessons of the second quarter has been to produce some lively impression of the wonderful variety among the letters of ,paul4 ,that variety is due largely to the variety in the occasions of the letters4 ,just because ,paul entered with such sympathy into the varying circumstances of his many churches1 the letters of ,paul reflect the wonderful manifoldness of life4 ,nevertheless1 it is also an advantage that at least one letter is largely independent of any special circumstances whatever4 ,this is the case with the epistle which is to be studied to-day4 ,the ,epistle to the ,ephesians is addressed to a definite group of churches1 but that group is addressed not with regard to its own special problems1 but simply as representative of ,gentile ,christianity in general4 ,for once ,paul allows his thoughts to flow unchecked by the particular needs of his readers4 #a4 ,,style ,,of ,,ephesians ,the purpose of ,ephesians1 therefore1 is quite different from the purpose of any other of the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,to the difference in purpose corresponds a difference in style4 ,the style of ,ephesians is characterized especially by long sentences1 heaped full of an almost bewildering wealth of thought4 ,this characteristic had appeared to some extent even in the earliest epistles--compare ,,ii ,thess4 #a3c-aj--;but in ,ephesians it becomes more pronounced4 ,ephesians #a3c-ad1 for example1 is only one sentence1 but it is a world in itself4 ,apparently in this epistle ,paul has allowed his mind and heart to roam unchecked over the whole realm of the divine economy4 ,this freedom might conceivably be thought to involve a sacrifice of logical symmetry and of euphonic grace1 but at any rate it possesses a certain beauty and value of its own4 ,ephesians may lack the splendid rhythm of the first chapter of ,first ,corinthians or the eighth chapter of ,romans1 but on the other hand these tremendous periods1 with their heaping-up of majestic phrases1 serve admirably to express the bewilderment of the soul in the presence of divine wonders4 ,human language is inadequate to do full justice to the grace of ,god4 ,in ,ephesians1 we see an inspired apostle striving to give utterance in human language to things which in their full reality are unspeakable4 #b4 ,,colossians ,,and ,,ephesians ,the ,epistle to the ,ephesians is strikingly similar to the ,epistle to the ,colossians1 not only in thought1 but also in many details of language4 ,another case of striking similarity between two epistles of ,paul was encountered in ,first and ,second ,thessalonians4 ,there the two similar letters were written both to the same church1 though at no very great interval of time4 ,the similarity was due to the desire which ,paul felt of reiterating1 with some additions and explanations1 the teaching of his former letter4 ,in the case of ,ephesians and ,colossians the similarity is even more easily explained4 ,these two epistles were written to different churches at the same time4 ,what more natural than that the same thoughts and to some extent the same words should appear in both8 ,only1 the teaching which in ,colossians is directed against a definite form of error is in ,ephesians reproduced in freer1 more general form4 ,the relation between the two epistles is somewhat like that which exists between ,galatians and ,romans4 ,in ,galatians1 the doctrine of salvation by faith appears in conflict with the opposing error2 in ,romans1 the same doctrine finds expression1 but this time in quieter1 more systematic development1 after the conflict is over4 ,the similarity between ,galatians and ,romans is1 however1 not so close as that between ,colossians and ,ephesians--partly because the contrast of spirit is not so striking in the latter case1 ,colossians being far less bitterly polemic than ,galatians2 and more particularly because a considerable interval separates ,romans from ,galatians1 whereas ,colossians and ,ephesians were dispatched by the same messenger4 #c4 ,,the ,,address ,,of ,,ephesians4 ,,eph4 #a3a1b ,in the ,student's ,text ,book1 it has been shown that the words at ,ephesus in the first verse may perhaps be no part of what ,paul wrote1 but a later addition4 ,it cannot be claimed1 however1 that the problem of the address has been completely solved4 ,without the words at ,ephesus1 the address becomes very difficult4 ,to the saints that are and the faithful in ,christ ,jesus hardly seems to make sense4 ,the ,greek words might be construed perfectly well to mean1 ,to the saints who are also faithful in ,christ ,jesus1 but that is a rather unusual expression4 ,the suggestion has been made that in the first copies of the epistle a blank space was left after the saints that are1 to be filled in with the names of the particular churches of the group which is addressed4 ,every church among the group would thus receive a copy with its own name inserted4 ,the hypothesis is not altogether satisfactory4 ,probably we shall simply have to admit that there is an unsolved problem here4 #d4 ,,thanksgiving ,,for ,,the ,,plan ,,of ,,salvation4 ,,eph4 #a3c-ad ,before the customary thanksgiving for the ,christian state of the readers1 ,paul inserts here1 in accordance with the nature of this epistle1 a general thanksgiving for the whole ,church1 which is applied especially to the readers only at the very end4 ,the passage contains a wonderful summary of the whole of salvation1 but it begins with the plan of ,god and it closes with the glory of ,god4 ,god is the beginning and end of all things4 ,his mysterious decree is the cause of our being chosen for salvation1 and his own glory is the ultimate object in view4 ,men are often rebellious against such a ,god-centered view of things4 ,predestination is an unpopular doctrine4 ,but it was at any rate the doctrine of ,paul1 and it lay at the roots of his experience4 ,it is sometimes hard for us to write ,god so large in our thoughts4 ,because we think of him merely as a somewhat greater man1 we are inclined to reject the doctrine which attributes all things to the workings of his will and to the furtherance of his glory4 ,if1 however1 we could think of him1 not only as a person1 but also as an infinite1 eternal and holy person1 then we should murmur no longer1 but should1 with ,paul1 burst forth in praise of the inscrutable wonder of his grace4 ,the glory of a merciful ,god has involved for its full unfolding the salvation of guilty sinners4 ,god's glory finds its full expression only when he is revealed as the ,god and ,father of our ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 #e4 ,,thanksgiving ,,and ,,prayer ,,for ,,the ,,readers4 ,,eph4 #a3ae to #b3aj ,beginning with thanksgiving for the present faith and love of the readers1 ,paul passes at once to a prayer that they may be given understanding to appreciate the wonderful salvation which has been celebrated in the preceding section1 especially the mighty ,saviour who has been bestowed upon the ,church4 ,then the greatness of the present salvation1 not only of ,gentiles1 but also of ,jews1 is celebrated by a contrast with the previous condition of sin and misery4 ,the blessed change has been due1 not to anything in man1 but simply and solely to the grace of ,god1 received by faith4 #f4 ,,reception ,,of ,,the ,,gentiles4 ,,eph4 #b3aa-bb ,here the contrast between past and present is applied especially to the ,gentiles4 ,formerly they were excluded from the people of ,god4 ,but now by the death of ,christ the middle wall of partition has been broken down4 ,gentiles and ,jews have now a common access to the ,father4 #g4 ,,the ,,ministry ,,of ,,paul4 ,,eph41 ch4 #c ,this reception of the ,gentiles is the work that has been intrusted especially to ,paul4 ,it is a glorious ministry1 far too great for human strength4 ,it can be fulfilled only through the grace of ,god4 ,the full mystery of ,god's grace1 concealed for many generations1 has at last been revealed4 ,the first half of the epistle is fittingly closed by a doxology4 #h4 ,,life ,,in ,,the ,,church4 ,,eph41 chs4 #d to #f ,this section may be called the practical part of the epistle4 ,it exhibits the results in holy living which proceed from the glorious gospel which has just been proclaimed4 ,even in the practical part1 however1 the great doctrines of ,god's grace are so constantly finding renewed expression that it is difficult to separate one part from the other4 ,paul never separated moral precepts from the great truths which give them force4 ,let the readers live like citizens of the commonwealth of ,god1 and members of the body of ,christ6 ,naturally1 in this part of the epistle the unity of the ,church--which is perhaps the central theme of the whole--is especially emphasized4 ,the first half of the fourth chapter1 for example1 is a magnificent hymn to ,christian unity4 ,even in the midst of the directions for the various relationships of life the great theme of ,christ and the ,church1 under the figure of husband and wife1 is brought again into view4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bdf-bdi4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves and ,davis1 article on ,ephesians1 ,epistle to the4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,lock1 article on ,ephesians1 ,epistle to4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #ii-ajc4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii3 ,barry1 ,the ,epistles of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,ephesians1 ,philippians1 and ,colossians1 pp4 #i-fj4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools and ,colleges3 ,moule1 ,the ,epistle to the ,ephesians4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i1 pp4 #dgi-ebb4 ,robinson1 ,st4 ,paul's ,epistle to the ,ephesians4 ,the two last-named works are intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxv ,,christ ,,and ,,his ,,followers ,the ,epistle to the ,philippians is the only one of the letters of ,paul which is addressed to an approved church with whom he stood on terms of untroubled intimacy and affection4 ,in ,galatians and both the ,corinthian epistles1 serious errors in the churches addressed1 as well as unscrupulous personal criticism1 lend a tone of bitterness to the apostle's words2 ,romans1 ,colossians and perhaps ,ephesians are addressed to churches which he had never seen4 ,in some ways the little letter to ,philemon is very similar to ,philippians4 ,both ,philippians and ,philemon display the same perfect confidence in the readers1 the same perfection of courtesy1 the same tone of untroubled cordiality4 ,but ,philemon is addressed primarily to an individual1 and ,philippians to a church2 ,philemon confines itself almost exclusively to one little personal matter1 while ,philippians discusses a variety of topics4 ,among the letters addressed to churches1 perhaps the ,first ,epistle to the ,thessalonians is more similar to ,philippians1 at least in tone1 than is any of the others4 ,like ,philippians it is animated by a deep satisfaction with the readers1 and a certain pleasing simplicity of manner4 ,but here again of course there are wide differences4 ,first ,thessalonians is addressed to an infant church1 which has just passed through its first trial1 and needs the most elementary instruction2 in ,philippians ,paul is writing to old friends1 to a church which for ten years has endured bravely the hardships incident to the ,christian profession1 and has shared in fullest sympathy the joys and sorrows of the apostle's life4 ,during the ten years1 moreover1 which have elapsed between ,first ,thessalonians and ,philippians1 there has been a change in the apostle himself1 as well as in his readers4 ,those years of conflict and labor and meditation and suffering have borne fruit in the apostle's own thinking4 ,his gospel was the same from the beginning1 but the expression of it has become richer and maturer and nobler with the advancing years4 ,philippians is a wonderful letter4 ,simplicity and profundity are here combined4 ,this simple letter of thanks1 with its delicate courtesy and tactful admonition1 has engaged the profoundest study of the theologians1 and touched the grandest chords of the ,christian heart4 #a4 ,,the ,,address4 ,phil4 #a3a1b ,the address of ,philippians is remarkable because of the mention of bishops and deacons1 which occurs in this way in no other of the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,possibly1 as has been suggested1 these officers are here mentioned because they had had a special part in sending the gifts of the church4 ,it is important to observe that there was a plurality of bishops in the ,philippian church4 ,at a later time1 when the bishops were exalted above the other presbyters1 there was only one bishop in every church4 ,in ,the ,acts and in the ,pauline ,epistles1 bishop and presbyter appear plainly as nothing more than two names for exactly the same office4 ,it should be noticed that the title apostle1 which appears at the beginning of all the other ,pauline ,epistles addressed to churches1 except ,first and ,second ,thessalonians1 the two earliest1 is lacking in the address of ,philippians4 ,perhaps in writing to such a devoted church ,paul considered it unnecessary to mention his apostleship as he had regularly done in his epistles since the denial of it in ,galatia4 ,on account of the peculiar nature of the ,philippian church1 the ,epistle to the ,philippians partakes somewhat of the informality and intimacy of such a letter as that to ,philemon1 where the title is also lacking in the address4 ,very naturally ,timothy is associated with ,paul in the address of the epistle1 for he had been one of ,paul's companions in founding the ,philippian church4 ,at what time ,timothy had come to ,rome we do not know4 ,his name appears also in the address of ,colossians and of ,philemon4 ,luke1 although he had journeyed with ,paul to ,rome1 and was in ,rome at the time when ,colossians and ,philemon were written1 ,col4 #d3ad2 ,philem4 #bd1 was apparently absent at the time of ,philippians2 for since he1 like ,timothy1 had assisted in founding the ,philippian church1 and perhaps had even remained in ,philippi for years after the departure of the others1 he would probably have been associated in the address1 or at least would have sent greetings1 if he had been at hand4 #b4 ,,the ,,thanksgiving4 ,phil4 #a3c-aa ,as might have been expected1 the thanksgiving for the ,christian state of the readers is in this epistle of unusual cordiality4 ,in the mention of their fellowship in furtherance of the gospel from the first day until now1 there is perhaps a delicate allusion to the material assistance which they had sent him from time to time and especially a little while before the writing of the letter2 but such material assistance was for ,paul of course not the only1 or even the principal1 manifestation of their fellowship4 ,here as often1 the thanksgiving runs over into a prayer--and this time it is a prayer of singular beauty and depth4 #c4 ,,progress ,,of ,,affairs ,,in ,,rome4 ,phil4 #a3ab-cj ,in this section1 ,paul hastens to relieve the minds of his readers about the course of events in ,rome4 ,even his bonds1 and the jealousy of certain preachers1 have resulted only in the furtherance of the gospel4 ,with regard to the outcome of his trial1 there is every reason to be hopeful4 ,for his part he would prefer to depart and to be with ,christ1 but there is still work for him to do4 ,and whether he is present or absent1 let the ,philippians give him joy by living in a manner worthy of the gospel1 and by being steadfast in the persecutions which are bound to come to them as well as to him4 ,it is a high privilege not only to believe in ,christ1 but also to suffer for him4 #d4 ,,exhortation ,,to ,,unity4 ,phil4 #b3a-ah ,with the utmost earnestness1 ,paul here appeals to his readers to keep their ,christian life free from selfishness and quarreling4 ,the stupendous ,christological passage of the epistle1 vs4 #e-aa1 which has given rise to endless discussion1 is introduced merely in an incidental way1 in order to strengthen the apostle's exhortation4 ,so it is frequently in the letters of ,paul4 ,the apostle was always able to make the profoundest verities of the faith immediately effective in conduct4 ,theology in ,paul was never divorced from practice4 ,the converse of the proposition1 however1 is also true4 ,if ,paul's theology did not exist apart from practice1 neither did his practice exist apart from theology4 ,it is the latter proposition which needs to be emphasized to-day4 ,modern liberalism has sometimes endeavored to reproduce ,paul's religion apart from his theology2 but the effort has resulted in failure4 ,the example of ,christ which ,paul holds up before his readers is briefly as follows3 ,originally ,christ not only existed in the form of ,god--that is1 was in full possession of the divine attributes--but also lived in glory1 in a way befitting deity4 ,instead1 however1 of keeping hold of this heavenly glory1 he humbled himself by becoming man4 ,he laid aside1 not indeed his divine attributes1 but the enjoyment of his divine glory4 ,he who was ,lord of all took the form of a servant like other men4 ,and even more4 ,his obedience extended even to death1 and to the shameful death of the cross4 ,but after humiliation came exaltation4 ,god gave to him a name that is above every name4 ,at the name of ,jesus every knee shall bow1 in earth and in heaven1 to the glory of ,god the ,father4 #e4 ,,the ,,mission ,,of ,,timothy ,,and ,,of ,,epaphroditus4 ,phil4 #b3ai-cj ,the personal appeal with which the preceding section closed leads ,paul to speak of the plans which he has for the comfort and help of the readers4 ,timothy will be sent as soon as the issue of ,paul's trial is definitely in view2 ,epaphroditus will return to ,philippi at once4 #f4 ,,warning ,,against ,,opponents4 ,phil41 ch4 #c ,the men who are rebuked in very vigorous language in the former part of this section evidently placed an excessive emphasis upon circumcision and connection with the people of ,israel4 ,perhaps also they were advocates of a law righteousness4 ,v4 #i4 ,the most obvious suggestion is that they were ,judaizers like those in ,galatia1 or at least like the opponents of ,paul in ,corinth4 ,paul's account in vs4 #d-f of the ,jewish advantages1 fully equal to those of his opponents1 which he counts as nothing in view of the superior advantages of faith in ,christ1 is strikingly similar to ,,ii ,cor4 #aa3ba1bb4 ,if1 however1 ,paul is here referring to ,judaizers1 it looks as though they were at least as cautious as the opponents in ,corinth about presenting the claims of the law4 ,at any rate1 the danger of a legalistic propaganda either in ,philippi or in ,rome does not seem to be very seriously in view4 ,apparently the acute stage of the ,judaistic controversy is over4 ,it is possible that ,paul is referring to ,jews rather than ,jewish ,christians4 ,we must remember that ,judaism in the first century was still an active missionary religion4 ,a ,jewish propaganda1 with stress upon circumcision and law righteousness1 might conceivably become1 even in ,philippi1 where the ,jews seem not to have been numerous1 a serious danger1 if not to the stability1 at least to the rapid extension1 of the ,christian ,church4 ,finally1 it is uncertain whether the enemies of the cross of ,christ1 ,phil4 #c3ah1 are the same as those who are combated in the former part of the section4 ,fortunately these various uncertainties do not affect the lofty teaching of this part of the epistle4 ,whoever the opponents were1 what ,paul says in opposition to them is the thing of real value4 ,in the wonderfully terse1 complete1 vigorous description of the ,christian salvation and of the ,christian life which ,paul gives in ch4 #c3g-ad1bj1ba1 the long years of the ,judaistic controversy have borne glorious fruit4 ,the final1 eternal truth of ,god1 in classic statement1 has at last emerged triumphant from the conflict4 #g4 ,,exhortation1 ,,acknowledgment1 ,,greetings ,,and ,,benediction4 ,phil41 ch4 #d ,the principal contents of this section have been discussed in the ,student's ,text ,book4 ,first ,paul applies the general exhortation to unity1 ,phil4 #b3a-aa1 to the case of ,euodia and ,syntyche1 and adds certain other brief exhortations4 ,the true yokefellow of ch4 #d3c probably refers to ,epaphroditus1 the bearer of the epistle4 ,then1 in a characteristically delicate and worthy manner1 he acknowledges the gift of the ,philippians4 ,next1 in just a word1 he transmits1 along with his own1 the greetings of his immediate companions1 and of the ,roman church in general1 especially of those members who were connected1 as slaves or officials1 with the immediate service of the emperor4 ,finally1 with a brief benediction1 the epistle closes4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bdi-bea4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves 7edited7 article on ,philippians4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,gibb1 article on ,philippians1 ,epistle to the4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #hc-ij4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii3 ,barry1 ,the ,epistles of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,ephesians1 ,philippians1 and ,colossians1 pp4 #fa-ij4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools and ,colleges3 ,moule1 ,the ,epistle to the ,philippians4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i1 pp4 #ebb-efd4 ,lightfoot1 ,saint ,paul's ,epistle to the ,philippians4 ,the two last-named works are intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxvi ,,training ,,new ,,leaders ,the emphasis which the ,pastoral ,epistles lay upon sound instruction and upon orderly government is sometimes looked upon with distaste4 ,orthodoxy and organization are thought to be destructive of religious fervor4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 however1 the two aspects of the ,church's life appear side by side4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 enthusiasm and sanity are united4 ,and the ,new ,testament is right4 ,religion is a concern of every individual soul--the final decision must be made by every man in the immediate presence of his ,god--but normally no man can do without association with his fellows4 ,the ,church is a great permanent community4 ,it is not merely an aggregation1 but an institution4 ,to break away from its restraints may be attractive1 it may produce a certain temporary impression of zeal and new life2 but in the long run the old way is usually best4 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles1 however1 are sometimes thought to indicate an unfortunate change in ,paul himself as well as in the ,church4 ,some students would prefer to know only the ,paul of ,galatians and ,corinthians and ,romans4 ,this judgment is one-sided4 ,the ,pastorals do not contradict1 but supplement1 the earlier letters4 ,the earlier period1 no doubt1 is the more inspiring2 there is nothing in the ,pastoral ,epistles like the first few chapters of ,first ,corinthians1 or the fifth chapter of ,second ,corinthians1 or the eighth chapter of ,romans4 ,these passages are overpowering in the intensity of their eloquence2 the later letters are soberer1 graver1 more matter-of-fact4 ,these latter qualities1 however1 are much needed in the ,church4 ,the ,church needs enthusiasm2 but she also needs gravity and sanity4 ,her function is not merely evangelistic2 it is also conservative and educational4 ,in both functions ,paul was a leader4 ,the quiet gravity of the ,pastoral ,epistles supplements the glories of ,galatians and ,romans4 ,only when these last epistles are added to the others can the many-sided greatness of ,paul be fully appreciated4 ,exaggerations1 moreover1 should be avoided4 ,the soberness of the ,pastorals is not commonplace4 ,back of the details of organization1 back of the concern for sound instruction1 there can be detected throughout the glow of the ,pauline gospel4 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles1 like the other letters of ,paul1 are a perennial fountain of ,christian life4 ,the ,second ,epistle to ,timothy was clearly the last of the extant epistles of ,paul2 but the order of ,first ,timothy and ,titus cannot be certainly determined4 ,the difficulty of reconstructing the history implied by the ,pastoral ,epistles reveals anew the supreme value of ,the ,acts4 ,after the conclusion of the ,lucan narrative the historian is almost helpless4 ,from about ,a4 ,d4 #fc on into the second century1 the history of the ,church is shrouded in profound darkness1 with gleams of light only here and there4 #a4 ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,,to ,,timothy ,at the time when ,first ,timothy was written1 ,paul had recently made a journey to ,macedonia4 ,i ,tim4 #a3c4 ,perhaps he had gone thither from ,ephesus1 though the words do not make that perfectly clear4 ,at any rate1 he had directed ,timothy to remain in ,ephesus1 where he hoped to join him before long4 ,in case of delay1 however1 he writes the epistle4 ,chs4 #c3ad1ae2 #d3ac4 ,on a previous occasion1 perhaps by word of mouth when he had been in ,ephesus1 he had warned ,timothy to put a stop to certain false teaching in the ,church1 and the warning is now reiterated in the epistle4 ,the exact nature of this teaching is somewhat difficult to determine4 ,apparently it had been concerned with the ,jewish law4 ,ch4 #a3g-aa4 ,compare ,titus #a3aj1ad4 ,like the false teaching at ,coloss1 it seems not to have been directly subversive of the truth of the gospel4 ,at least1 however1 it diverted attention from the great things of the faith to useless questionings4 ,i ,tim4 #f3d4 ,the myths and endless genealogies1 ch4 #a3d1 compare #d3g1 were perhaps elaborations of the ,old ,testament history4 ,whether the ascetic tendency which is combated in ch4 #d3c1h1 is connected with this same teaching1 is not certain1 but is on the whole perhaps probable4 ,the first reference to the false teaching1 ch4 #a3c-aj1 leads ,paul to speak of the norm by which it could be combated4 ,vs4 #aa-bj4 ,that norm was the gospel with which he had been intrusted4 ,the bestowal of the gospel had changed him from a blasphemer and persecutor into an apostle4 ,the gospel had been bestowed purely by the free grace of ,christ1 and its content was the salvation which ,christ offers4 ,a doxology to ,god1 v4 #ag1 is natural whenever that gospel is mentioned4 ,that gospel will overcome all error1 and if attended to diligently will prevent disasters like that which has befallen ,hymenus and ,alexander4 ,in the second chapter1 ,paul insists upon gravity and order in the public worship of the ,church4 ,in the prayers which are to be offered1 the civil authority is not to be forgotten1 even though it be non-,christian4 ,the sympathies of the ,christian must be broad4 ,god desires all men to come to a knowledge of the truth4 ,the highest regular officers of the ,church are in the third chapter called bishops4 ,it is abundantly evident1 however--especially from ,titus #a3e1g--that bishop is only another name for presbyter or elder4 ,at a later time the term bishop was applied to an officer who had the supreme oversight over a church and to whom the elders were subject4 ,these conditions did not prevail at the time of the ,pastoral ,epistles4 ,at first sight1 indeed1 it might seem as though ,timothy and ,titus themselves were bishops in the later sense of the word4 ,but this also is false4 ,timothy and ,titus do not appear at all as officers of individual congregations4 ,they had oversight over a plurality of churches1 and evidently their authority was special and temporary4 ,they did not fill an office which was intended to become permanent in the ,church1 but were simply special representatives of the apostle4 ,as the apostles had no successors1 so no man after the apostolic age had a right to assume the functions of ,timothy and ,titus4 ,the fourth chapter calls attention to the revelation of the ,holy ,spirit1 probably through the lips of ,christian prophets1 that in the future there would appear apostates from the faith4 ,the errorists who are combated in vs4 #g-aj are apparently to be regarded as forerunners1 still within the ,church1 of the more open apostasy which is one day to follow4 ,the institution of the widows1 which is discussed in the fifth chapter1 is to us somewhat obscure4 ,evidently those who were accounted widows1 being helpless1 were entitled to support by the church4 ,the necessity of sound teaching1 with emphasis upon the really fundamental things of the faith1 is again insisted upon2 and certain false teachers are accused of practicing or inculcating piety as a means of worldly gain4 ,ch4 #f3c-aj4 ,the last warning of the epistle characteristically concerns vain babblings and oppositions of a so-called knowledge4 ,probably these errors are connected in some way with those which are combated in the first section of the epistle4 ,in the final words1 ,grace be with you1 the you in the ,greek1 according to the best attestation1 is plural2 and in the corresponding passages at the end of ,titus and of ,second ,timothy1 it is certainly plural4 ,this may furnish an indication--to be added to more general considerations--that the ,pastoral ,epistles were intended not merely for those to whom they are formally addressed1 but also to the churches under their care4 #b4 ,,the ,,epistle ,,to ,,titus ,the address of the ,epistle to ,titus is noteworthy for the long addition to the title of the author1 which is to be compared with the similar addition in ,romans4 ,at the time when the epistle was written1 ,paul had recently been with ,titus in ,crete4 ,paul had not labored on that island before the first ,roman imprisonment4 ,his journeys in the east between the two imprisonments therefore involved something more than the revisitation of former fields4 ,the reason why ,titus was left behind in ,crete was somewhat similar to the reason why ,timothy1 according to ,first ,timothy1 was told to remain in ,ephesus4 ,titus was to give attention to organization1 and to the maintenance of sound instruction4 ,like ,timothy1 ,titus is given the power of establishing presbyters1 and of establishing them not merely in one church but in various churches4 ,the function of the presbyter was that of bishop or overseer4 ,titus #a3e-g4 ,in vs4 #i-af1 the close connection of organization with sound doctrine becomes particularly apparent4 ,one important function of the presbyters was to counteract the errors which were springing up4 ,the account of the errorists in ,crete is perhaps in some respects clearer than that which is given of the related phenomenon in ,ephesus4 ,the false teachers were animated by a love of gain4 ,v4 #aa4 ,some of them were ,jews or proselytes4 ,v4 #aj4 ,they had a fondness for ,jewish fables4 ,apparently1 also1 they tried to atone for a lack of real inward purity by an outward asceticism4 ,vs4 #ae1 #af4 ,they were concerned with vain questionings and genealogies and legal disputes4 ,these last are perhaps to be regarded as casuistic discussions like those which play such a large part in ,jewish tradition4 ,the ,epistle to ,titus is somewhat richer than ,first ,timothy in personal details4 ,after ,titus has been relieved in ,crete by ,artemas or ,tychicus1 who may soon be sent1 he is to join ,paul in ,nicopolis4 ,tychicus1 it will be remembered1 had served as ,paul's messenger during the first imprisonment4 ,he was the bearer of ,colossians and ,ephesians4 ,the ,nicopolis where ,paul is intending to pass the approaching winter1 is probably the chief of the many cities of that name1 the ,nicopolis in ,epirus4 ,zenas1 a lawyer otherwise unknown1 and the well-known ,apollos1 who appears so prominently in ,the ,acts and in ,first ,corinthians1 are to be furnished in ,crete with everything that they need for their further journey4 #c4 ,,the ,,second ,,epistle ,,to ,,timothy ,the ,first ,epistle to ,timothy and the ,epistle to ,titus are in many respects strikingly similar4 ,a certain strong family resemblance extends also to ,second ,timothy4 ,evidently all three of the ,pastoral ,epistles belong to the same general period of ,paul's life1 and were intended to subserve similar purposes4 ,second ,timothy1 however1 as compared with the other two1 exhibits some marked peculiarities4 ,the personal element1 in particular1 is in this letter much more prominent4 ,second ,timothy contains a wealth of interesting biographical details about ,timothy1 about ,paul1 and about a very considerable number of other persons4 ,some of these last are known only from this epistle2 others have been brought to our attention again and again4 ,in ,second ,timothy ,paul appears as a prisoner1 no doubt at ,rome4 ,this time there seems to be little hope of his release4 ,apparently his imprisonment is not of long standing4 ,only recently he has been at ,corinth and at ,miletus4 ,,ii ,tim4 #d3bj4 ,he speaks in one place of his first defense4 ,v4 #af4 ,some suppose that this is a reminiscence of the trial which had taken place years before1 during the first imprisonment4 ,more probably it refers to some preliminary hearing which had only recently been held4 ,paul is oppressed with a sense of loneliness1 even more than during the first imprisonment4 ,there was no one to stand by him at his first hearing4 ,for one reason or another1 his intimate associates have been scattered--some of them1 no doubt1 for good and sufficient reasons1 but ,demas1 at any rate1 out of an unworthy love of the world4 ,luke1 fortunately1 is still with him2 and ,timothy1 with ,mark1 is urged to come before the winter4 ,vs4 #aa1 #ba4 ,mark seems to have changed since he turned back from the work at ,perga4 ,at the beginning he was rebuked for desertion2 but now at the end he is one of the few faithful ones4 ,it is not quite clear where ,timothy was when the letter was addressed to him4 ,the greeting to ,priscilla and ,aquila might seem to point to ,ephesus4 ,they had lived there before2 perhaps they returned thither after a residence in ,rome4 ,rom4 #af3c4 ,if ,timothy was in ,ephesus1 then ,tychicus1 who was sent thither1 ,,ii ,tim4 #d3ab1 was probably expected to linger by the way2 otherwise his sending would be no news to the reader of the letter4 ,something is to be said1 perhaps1 for the view that ,timothy was not at ,ephesus1 but perhaps at ,lystra1 his original home4 ,the ,second ,epistle to ,timothy contains warnings against false teaching similar to those which appear in ,first ,timothy and ,titus4 ,but the characteristic feature of the letter is to be found in the references to the apostle's own life4 ,even the warnings and admonitions are brought into relation to these4 ,paul does not hesitate to point to himself as an example for his beloved followers4 ,he does so1 without a touch of vain glory1 in the simple consciousness of a divine commission4 ,second ,timothy is a letter of farewell1 in which reminiscence and exhortation are characteristically blended4 ,it is a farewell from the apostle1 primarily for ,timothy1 though he is expecting to see ,timothy again1 but also for all of the ,pauline churches4 ,the letter has taken deep hold of every generation in the history of the ,church4 ,the fitting end of a life of true service1 the calm facing of death1 the certainty of heavenly communion with the ,lord--these are the things above all others that have been learned from the last of the epistles of ,paul4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #beb-bfa4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves1 articles on ,timothy and ,titus4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #ajd-aae4 ,lewin1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 vol4 ii1 chs4 vii1 viii1 ix1 x and xi4 ,conybeare and ,howson1 ,the ,life and ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul1 ch4 xxvii4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,st4 ,paul1 pp4 #acc-acf4 ,warfield1 ,acts1 ,timothy1 ,titus and ,philemon1 in ,the ,temple ,bible1 pp4 xxvii-xliii4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #aga-bfd3 ,spence1 ,the ,pastoral ,epistles of ,st4 ,paul4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools and ,colleges3 ,humphreys1 ,the ,epistles to ,timothy and ,titus4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #a-acc4 ,the last named work is intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,part ,,iii3 ,the ,presentation and ,defense of ,christianity ,,lesson ,,xxvii ,a ,,presentation ,,of ,,jesus ,,to ,,jewish ,,christians ,the ,gospel ,according to ,matthew ,the ,gospel of ,matthew is probably1 as has been said1 the most important book that was ever written4 ,its importance is due to the information which it contains about ,jesus ,christ4 ,more fully perhaps than any other one book1 the ,gospel of ,matthew has preserved the knowledge of ,jesus4 ,whatever be the future of the ,church1 the life of ,jesus will now always remain the central fact of history4 ,even the secondary influence of ,jesus is incalculable2 even if none were left to own him as ,lord and ,master1 still he would remain incomparably the most influential man that has ever lived4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 such a condition has never existed and never will exist4 ,from the very beginning the life of ,jesus made itself felt through those who accepted him1 to the exclusion of all others1 as the supreme ,lord of their lives4 ,if ,jesus had been regarded merely as a quiet teacher of ethics1 the ,gospel of ,matthew never would have been written1 and probably the very name of ,jesus would have perished4 ,the wonderful influence of ,jesus1 which has transformed the world from darkness to light1 which alone gives promise of a final reign of righteousness1 has been exerted through the instrumentality1 not of admirers1 but of disciples4 ,jesus has been a ,teacher only because he has been a ,master4 ,to make ,jesus ,master in the lives of men was the purpose of the ,gospel of ,matthew1 and it is the purpose of our study of the book4 ,the ,gospel was not written with merely scientific interest2 it was not written merely to preserve certain gems from the lips of an inspired teacher4 ,the ultimate purpose of the book was to make men fall at ,jesus' feet with the words1 ,my ,lord and my ,god4 ,such a purpose is not inconsistent with the most scrupulous truthfulness4 ,adoration of ,jesus can be induced best of all1 not by fanciful elaboration1 but by sober fact4 ,in the case of ,jesus1 truth was more glorious by far than the boldest fiction4 ,to make ,jesus ,lord and ,saviour is the purpose of our work as teachers4 ,that purpose cannot be attained by exhortation or by threatening1 but only by impartation of knowledge4 ,to know ,jesus is to trust him and adore him4 ,many readers of the ,gospels never attain to the true knowledge4 ,their failure is due to various causes--to moral laxness1 to preconceived opinions1 to spiritual dullness4 ,one obstacle1 however1 is of a simpler kind4 ,one thing that stands in the way of a real understanding of the ,gospels is the habit of piecemeal reading4 ,we read the ,gospels bit by bit instead of allowing the whole to make its impression4 ,we do not see the wood for the trees4 ,jesus is concealed from us by his individual acts4 ,the ,gospels should be read as well as studied--read rapidly1 like an ordinary book1 preferably in some rational form of printing where verse numbers and all editorial matters are relegated to the margin and the lines stretch across the page4 ,these things may seem to be trivialities1 and certainly they are not essential4 ,what is essential--not in place of detailed study1 but in addition to it--is a rapid reading of the ,gospels1 by which1 through the exclusion of all non-essentials1 the mysterious1 holy person of ,jesus is brought simply and freshly before the wondering soul4 ,not to know about ,jesus1 but to know him1 is the prime object of our study4 ,to know about him is a valuable part of education2 but to know him is life eternal4 #a4 ,,meaning ,,of ,,gospel ,the ,greek word for gospel means good news4 ,nowhere in the ,new ,testament1 however1 is that word applied to a book4 ,there is no reference in the ,new ,testament to a ,gospel of ,matthew or of ,mark or of ,luke or of ,john4 ,in the ,new ,testament the word gospel has a more general reference4 ,it designates the good news which lies at the basis of ,christian preaching1 however that news may be known4 ,christianity is based upon a piece of information4 ,the subject of that information is the life and death and resurrection of ,jesus ,christ4 ,without ,christ we should have been hopeless1 but ,christ has saved us4 ,information about what he has done for us1 however that information be conveyed1 is the gospel4 ,this broad use of the word gospel appears even in the titles ,gospel according to ,matthew1 ,gospel according to ,mark1 ,gospel according to ,luke1 and ,gospel according to ,john1 which are not due to the original authors of the books4 ,gospel according to ,matthew did not originally mean the same thing as ,gospel of ,matthew4 ,it did not mean the ,gospel which ,matthew produced1 but the one ,gospel of ,jesus ,christ as ,matthew narrated it4 ,matthew1 ,mark1 ,luke and ,john produced simply four accounts of the same thing4 ,that common subject of the four accounts is the gospel1 the good news1 of what ,jesus ,christ has done for his followers4 ,at a very early time1 however1 books which had the gospel as their subject came themselves to be designated as ,gospels4 ,the usage is convenient1 and will be freely adopted in these textbooks4 ,we may speak indiscriminately of the ,gospel according to ,matthew and of the ,gospel of ,matthew4 #b4 ,,authorship ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,gospel 7#a7 ,not ,indicated in the ,gospel ,itself4--,the ,gospel of ,matthew should be sharply distinguished from those books which themselves make definite claims as to their authorship4 ,the ,epistle to the ,romans1 for example1 claims to have been written by the apostle ,paul4 ,if it was not written by ,paul1 it is a forgery4 ,the book of ,the ,acts1 also1 though it does not mention the name of the author1 claims at least--through the use of the first person plural--to have been written by some companion of the apostle ,paul4 ,even the ,gospel of ,john1 as we shall see1 really affords clear indications about its own authorship4 ,the ,gospel of ,matthew1 on the other hand1 lays no claim to any particular authorship4 ,we might believe that it was written by some other person than ,matthew and yet be perfectly loyal to the book itself4 ,the self-witness of the book is confined merely to a claim of truthfulness4 ,if we believe that the record which the book contains is true1 then we might1 in perfect loyalty to the ,gospel1 believe that it was written by some one like ,luke or ,mark1 outside of the company of the apostles4 ,such a view1 however1 would display an unreasonable distrust of ,christian tradition4 7#b7 ,papias on the ,first ,gospel4--,the earliest extant information about the authorship of the ,first ,gospel is to be found in a fragment which ,eusebius1 the church historian of the fourth century1 has preserved from a lost work of ,papias4 ,papias was bishop of ,hierapolis in ,asia ,minor in the former half of the second century4 ,the fragment from ,papias1 which is found in ,eusebius1 ,church ,history1 iii1 #ci1 #af1 may be translated as follows3 ,matthew accordingly wrote or compiled the oracles in the ,hebrew dialect1 and everyone translated them as he was able4 ,it seems pretty evident that ,papias is here referring to the ,first ,gospel4 ,some1 indeed1 have supposed that he means by the oracles a writing composed almost exclusively of sayings of ,jesus1 which formed merely one of the sources of our ,first ,gospel4 ,this view is probably incorrect4 ,papias could designate the ,gospel of ,matthew as the oracles either because of the large place which sayings of ,jesus have in this ,gospel1 as compared1 for example1 with the ,gospel of ,mark1 or else because the whole ,gospel1 both speeches and narrative1 was of divine1 oracular authority4 ,the view that according to ,matthew in the ancient title and in ,christian tradition means not that ,matthew wrote the book1 but that it is based in some way ultimately on his authority1 is opposed by the analogy of ,mark4 ,as we shall see1 the ,gospel of ,mark1 in early tradition1 was referred ultimately to the authority of ,peter2 if1 therefore1 according to was used in the sense indicated above1 the ,second ,gospel would have been called the ,gospel according to ,peter instead of the ,gospel according to ,mark4 ,the testimony of ,papias involves two principal assertions3 in the first place1 that ,matthew wrote the ,first ,gospel2 and in the second place1 that he wrote it in the ,hebrew language4 ,the former assertion1 which is supported by a striking consensus of early writers1 has already been considered4 ,the latter is much more puzzling4 #c4 ,,was ,,the ,,first ,,gospel ,,originally ,,aramaic8 7#a7 ,meaning of ,hebrew4--,by the ,hebrew dialect1 ,papias no doubt means ,aramaic rather than what we call ,hebrew4 ,the term ,hebrew was applied to both of the two closely related languages4 ,compare ,acts #ba3dj4 ,it is exceedingly unlikely that a ,gospel would have been written in ,hebrew2 for before the time of ,christ that had ceased to be the living language of ,palestine4 ,what ,papias asserts1 then1 is that ,matthew wrote in ,aramaic4 7#b7 ,everyone ,translated ,them as ,he ,was ,able4--,papias asserts further that everyone translated the oracles as he was able4 ,these words may be interpreted in various ways4 ,perhaps they mean that every man who used the original of ,matthew had to translate it for himself2 or perhaps that the ,gospel was translated orally in the churches1 as the ,jews translated the ,hebrew ,old ,testament into ,aramaic in the synagogues2 or perhaps that a number of written translations of the ,gospel were made4 ,at any rate ,papias seems to imply that the condition which he here describes had come to an end when he wrote4 ,some one ,greek form of the ,gospel had gained general acceptance2 the time when everyone translated as he was able was at an end4 7#c7 ,value of the ,tradition4--,the tradition of an ,aramaic original of ,matthew is not preserved merely by ,papias1 but appears in a considerable number of early writers4 ,how far the other writers are independent of ,papias is a disputed question4 ,the tradition may be variously estimated4 ,some have supposed that it is entirely correct--that our ,greek ,gospel of ,matthew is a translation1 by ,matthew himself or by some one else1 of an ,aramaic work3 others have supposed that the tradition is altogether false--for example1 that an ,aramaic translation of the ,greek ,gospel was mistaken for an original from which the ,greek ,gospel had been translated3 others hold intermediate views--for example1 that one of the sources of our ,greek ,gospel was written in ,aramaic4 ,an important objection to the view that there was an ,aramaic original of ,matthew is that the ,greek ,gospel looks more like an original ,greek work than like a translation4 ,the tradition of the ,aramaic ,matthew places before us one of the unsolved problems of ,new ,testament criticism4 ,one thing is certain--the language of the ,gospel of ,matthew1 like that of the other ,gospels1 has a strong ,aramaic coloring4 ,this1 however1 does not require the hypothesis that our ,matthew was translated from an ,aramaic original4 ,undoubtedly1 however our ,greek ,matthew was written1 there was a time in the early days of the ,church when the tradition of the life of ,christ was carried on chiefly or wholly in the ,aramaic language4 ,the words of ,jesus1 at any rate1 as they appear in our ,gospels1 have at some time or other undergone translation2 for ,jesus taught in ,aramaic4 ,the ,aramaic coloring of the ,gospels is one of the evidences of their trustworthiness4 ,though written in ,greek1 they are evidently rooted deep in the original ,palestinian soil4 #d4 ,,date ,the date of the ,gospel cannot be determined with accuracy4 ,some indication1 however1 is afforded by the assertion of ,irenus1 of the latter part of the second century1 that ,matthew published his ,gospel while ,peter and ,paul were preaching at ,rome4 ,even if this assertion should prove not to be absolutely correct1 it would exhibit an early tradition for the years between about ,a4 ,d4 #fj and #gj as the date of the ,gospel4 ,this tradition is confirmed by the widespread view among early writers that ,matthew was written before ,mark2 for ,mark is now generally admitted to have been written before the destruction of ,jerusalem in ,a4 ,d4 #gj4 ,there is really no serious objection to the traditional dating of ,matthew4 ,it was probably written in the sixties of the first century1 and probably1 as tradition says1 in ,palestine4 ,there are traces of the use of the ,gospel in writers of the early half of the second century4 ,on the other hand1 there is no clear indication that it was used by any ,new ,testament writer4 ,the absence of citations from our ,gospels in the epistles of ,paul would tend to indicate that in the very earliest period the gospel tradition was carried on by word of mouth rather than by books4 #e4 ,,the ,,apostle ,,matthew ,in the four lists of the apostles1 ,matt4 #aj3b-d2 ,mark #c3af-ai2 ,luke #f3ac-af2 ,acts #a3ac1 ,matthew is designated by the bare name1 except in his own ,gospel1 where he appears as ,matthew the publican4 ,in ,matt4 #i3i1 his call is narrated4 ,in the parallel passages in ,mark and ,luke1 ,mark #b3ad2 ,luke #e3bg1bh1 the name of the publican who was called is given only as ,levi4 ,without the ,gospel of ,matthew we should not have been able to identify ,levi and ,matthew4 ,evidently the apostle had two names1 as was the case with so many others of the persons mentioned in the ,new ,testament4 ,after his call1 ,matthew made a great feast for ,jesus4 ,luke #e3bi2 compare ,mark #b3ae4 ,matthew himself1 alone among the ,synoptists1 does not even make it perfectly clear that it was he in whose house ,jesus sat at meat4 ,the peculiarities of the ,first ,gospel in what is said about ,matthew become significant when the authorship is known4 ,of course of themselves they would be quite insufficient to indicate who the author was4 ,the assertion by early writers that ,matthew wrote the ,gospel1 was based not upon indications in the ,gospel itself1 but upon independent tradition4 #f4 ,,the ,,book ,,of ,,the ,,generation ,,of ,,jesus ,,christ ,the first verse of the ,gospel is evidently based upon the formula1 occurring for the first time at ,gen4 #e3a1 which marks off the divisions of the book of ,genesis4 ,it is most naturally regarded as a heading for the genealogy that follows in ,matt4 #a3b-ag4 ,there is only one objection to that view4 ,in ,genesis the book of the generations of ,adam1 or the generations of ,shem or the like1 introduces an account1 not of ancestors of the persons in question1 but of their descendants4 ,in ,matt4 #a3b-ag1 on the contrary1 we have an account not of descendants of ,jesus1 but of ancestors4 ,this objection has led some scholars to regard ,matt4 #a3a as the title not of the genealogy but of the whole ,gospel4 ,the title would then represent ,jesus as the beginning of a new race1 or of a new period in the history of humanity4 ,this interpretation is unnecessarily subtle4 ,it should rather be admitted that there is a difference between the phrase in ,genesis and that in ,matthew4 ,the difference is very natural4 ,in the case of ,abraham the descendants were in view2 in the case of the ,messiah1 the ancestors4 ,adam and ,noah and ,abraham were bearers of a promise2 ,christ was the culmination4 ,genesis looks forward2 ,matthew looks back4 ,the difference in the use of the phrase is natural and significant4 ,the title1 with the whole genealogy1 is significant of what is to follow4 ,at the very start1 the ruling thought of ,matthew's ,gospel finds expression4 ,jesus is son of ,david1 and son of ,abraham2 he is the culmination of the divine promise4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bgj-bgb1 #bij-bic4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves 7supplemented71 articles on ,gospel and ,matthew4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #a-bj4 ,stevens and ,burton1 ,a ,harmony of the ,gospels4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 i3 ,plumptre1 ,the ,gospel ,according to ,st4 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,mark1 and ,st4 ,luke1 pp4 xli-xliii1 #a-ahf4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #cfg-dbg1 #ejf-fja4 ,the last-named work is intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxviii ,a ,,graphic ,,sketch ,,of ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,jesus ,the ,gospel ,according to ,mark ,the ,gospel of ,mark contains scarcely any material which is not also contained in one or both of the other two ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,the loss of ,mark would not diminish appreciably the number of facts that we know about ,jesus4 ,nevertheless1 the ,second ,gospel is of the utmost importance2 for although it narrates for the most part only the same facts as are also narrated elsewhere1 it narrates them in a different way4 ,indeed the very brevity of the ,gospel adds to its special value4 ,a picture is sometimes the more impressive by being limited in extent4 ,read the ,gospel of ,mark1 not piecemeal but as a whole1 and you obtain an impression of ,jesus which can be obtained from no other book4 #a4 ,,the ,,tradition 7#a7 ,papias on ,mark4--,as in the case of ,matthew1 so in that of ,mark it is ,papias of ,hierapolis who provides the earliest information about the production of the ,gospel4 ,again also the words of ,papias are quoted by ,eusebius 7,church ,history1 iii1 #ci1 #ae74 ,the passage from ,papias is as follows3 ,this also the presbyter said3 ',mark1 on the one hand1 being an interpreter of ,peter1 wrote accurately as many things as he remembered1 yet not in order1 the things which were either said or done by the ,lord4' ,for neither did he hear the ,lord nor did he follow him1 but afterwards1 as ,i said1 he followed ,peter1 who carried on his teaching as need required but not as though he were making an ordered account of the oracles of the ,lord2 so that ,mark committed no fault when he wrote some things as he had remembered them4 ,for he had one care--that he should not leave out anything of the things that he had heard1 or represent anything among them falsely4 7#b7 ,antiquity of the ,papian ,tradition4--,it will be observed that ,papias is here represented as quoting from the presbyter4 ,probably1 however1 it is only the first sentence that is quoted2 the rest seems to be an explanation by ,papias himself4 ,by presbyter1 or elder1 ,papias means not an officer in the ,church1 but a man of an older generation4 ,the tradition is therefore very ancient4 ,papias himself lived in the former half of the second century2 a man of a still older generation would probably have acquired his information about ,mark well before ,a4 ,d4 #ajj4 ,such information is not to be lightly rejected4 7#c7 ,mark an ,interpreter of ,peter4--,according to the presbyter1 ,mark was an interpreter of ,peter4 ,if the word be taken strictly it means that ,mark translated the words of ,peter from one language into another--probably from ,aramaic into ,greek4 ,on the whole1 however1 it is not probable1 in view of linguistic conditions in ,palestine and in the ,church1 that ,peter would be unable to speak ,greek4 ,perhaps1 then1 the sentence means that ,mark was merely the mediator1 in a general sense1 of ,peter's preaching4 ,he presented the teaching of ,peter to those who had not had the opportunity of hearing it themselves4 ,perhaps the meaning is that he had done so formerly by word of mouth4 ,perhaps1 however1 it is rather the ,gospel itself that is referred to4 ,by writing the ,gospel ,mark became an interpreter or mediator of the preaching of ,peter4 ,at any rate1 whatever meaning be given to the word interpreter1 the general sense of the sentence--especially when taken in connection with the following explanation by ,papias is fairly clear4 ,mark derived the information for his ,gospel not from personal acquaintance with the earthly ,jesus1 but from association with ,peter4 7#d7 ,mark ,not ,written ,in ,order4--,the presbyter said further that although ,mark wrote accurately what he heard from ,peter1 he did not succeed in giving in order an account of the things that ,jesus did and said4 ,evidently the historical incompleteness1 the lack of uninterrupted sequence1 of the ,gospel of ,mark is here in view4 ,but by what standard is the ,gospel judged8 ,it can hardly be by the standard of ,matthew1 for ,matthew pays even less attention to temporal sequence than ,mark does4 ,the order in ,luke also is by no means in all respects more strictly chronological than that in ,mark4 ,only one standard satisfies the requirements of the presbyter's words--the standard provided by the teaching of ,john4 ,john was the great leader of the ,church of ,asia ,minor4 ,his teaching naturally formed the standard of authority in that region4 ,perhaps at the time when the presbyter expressed his judgment on ,mark the ,gospel of ,john had already been written1 so that one ,gospel could be compared with the other2 perhaps1 however1 it was merely the oral teaching of ,john1 afterwards embodied in the ,gospel1 which afforded the basis of comparison4 ,the ,gospel of ,john alone provides something like a chronological framework of the public ministry of ,jesus3 ,john alone mentions the early ,judean ministry2 ,john alone narrates the successive visits of ,jesus to the feasts in ,jerusalem4 ,if1 as is possible1 the presbyter of ,papias was none other than ,john himself1 then of course the whole matter becomes especially plain4 ,john knew that there were important omissions in the ,gospel of ,mark2 he probably observed1 for example1 that that ,gospel if taken alone might readily create the impression that the ministry of ,jesus lasted only one year instead of three or four4 ,no doubt he corrected this impression in his oral teaching2 certainly he corrects it in his ,gospel4 ,in commending the ,gospel of ,mark1 ,john would naturally call attention to its chronological incompleteness4 #b4 ,,the ,,heading ,like the ,gospel of ,matthew1 the ,gospel of ,mark opens not with a sentence1 but with a heading4 ,as in the former case1 however1 the exact reference of the heading is uncertain4 ,the beginning of the gospel of ,jesus ,christ may1 in the first place1 mean merely1 ,here begins the gospel of ,jesus ,christ4 ,the gospel of ,jesus ,christ would then be simply the story about ,christ that is narrated in the book that follows4 ,in the second place1 the phrase may be taken as a description of the contents of the book4 ,the whole of ,jesus' life would then be described as the beginning of that proclamation of the gospel which was afterwards continued by the apostles and by the ,church4 ,in the third place1 the phrase may be merely a heading for the section that immediately follows1 for ,mark #a3b-h1 or for vs4 #b-ac4 ,in this case the preaching of ,john the ,baptist1 with or without the baptism of ,jesus1 the descent of the ,spirit1 and the temptation1 would be described as the beginning of1 as preliminary to1 the proclamation of the gospel1 which is mentioned in vs4 #ad1 #ae4 ,perhaps the first interpretation is to be preferred as being the simplest1 though it must be admitted that the phrase is a little puzzling4 #c4 ,,mark ,,the ,,missionary ,,gospel ,it is significant that the ,gospel of ,mark begins not with the birth and infancy of ,jesus1 but with the ministry of ,john the ,baptist and the subsequent preaching of ,jesus in ,galilee4 ,mark seems to be following with great exactness the scheme of early apostolic preaching as it is laid down in ,acts #aj3cg-dc4 ,apparently ,mark is preminently the missionary ,gospel2 it contains only those things which had a place in the first preaching to unbelievers4 ,that does not mean that the things which ,mark omits are necessarily less important than the things which it contains4 ,mark gives a summary1 not exactly of the most important things about ,jesus1 but rather of the things which unbelievers or recent converts could most easily understand4 ,hence the omission of the mystery of the birth1 of the profound teaching of the early ,judean ministry1 of the intimate instructions to the disciples4 ,these things are of fundamental importance4 ,but they can best be understood only after one has first acquired a thorough grasp of the public ministry1 and of the death and resurrection4 ,the ,second ,gospel1 judged by purely formal standards1 cannot be called exactly a beautiful book4 ,it lacks the rhythm of ,old ,testament poetry1 and the grace of the ,gospel of ,luke4 ,but its rough1 vigorous naturalness conveys a message of compelling power4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves 7edited7 article on ,mark4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #ba-bf4 ,stevens and ,burton1 ,a ,harmony of the ,gospels4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 i3 ,plumptre1 ,the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,mark1 and ,st4 ,luke1 pp4 #ahg-bcd4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools3 ,maclear1 ,the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,mark4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #dbg-ejf1 #fja-fag4 ,the last-named work is intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxix ,a ,,greek ,,historian',s ,,account ,,of ,,jesus ,the ,gospel ,according to ,luke ,the purpose of the ,gospel of ,luke was1 the author says in his prologue1 that ,theophilus might know the certainty concerning the things wherein he had been instructed4 ,these words involve recognition of a fundamental need of the ,church1 which is to-day often ignored4 ,after interest in ,christianity has been aroused1 after faith has been awakened1 the ,christian feels the need of a deeper intellectual grounding of the faith that is in him4 ,this feeling is perfectly legitimate2 it should not be stifled2 the expression of it should not be treated necessarily as sinful doubt4 ,the treatment of these natural questionings is one of the most important problems that faces the teachers of the present course4 ,we are dealing with young men and women of maturing minds1 many of whom can no longer be satisfied with the unthinking faith of childhood4 ,if ,christianity is to remain permanently a force in their lives it must be related to their entire intellectual equipment2 it must be exhibited as a reasonable thing1 which is consistent with a sane and healthy view of the world4 ,in other words1 we are dealing with the problem of religious doubt1 which is almost an inevitable stage in the development of intelligent ,christians of the present day4 ,undoubtedly the problem is often very unwisely handled4 ,by hearing every natural expression of their doubt unmercifully decried as rebellion against the ,word of ,god1 many intelligent young people are being driven into hopeless estrangement from the ,church4 ,it is useless to try to bully people into faith4 ,instead1 we ought to learn the method of the ,third ,gospel4 ,very possibly ,luke was facing the very same problem that is before us teachers to-day--very possibly ,theophilus1 to whom the ,gospel and ,the ,acts were dedicated1 was a young man who had grown up in the ,church and could now no longer be satisfied with the vague and unsystematic instruction that had been given him in childhood4 ,at any rate1 whether he was a young man grown up in the ,church1 or a recent convert1 or merely a ,gentile interested in ,christianity1 he was a person of intellectual interests1 and those interests are treated by the evangelist not with contempt but with the utmost sympathy4 ,the ,gospel was written in order that ,theophilus might know the certainty of those things wherein he had been instructed4 ,that might be regarded as the motto for the entire course of study which we have undertaken this year4 ,it should be our aim to lay before young people of the ,church the certainty of the things wherein they have been instructed--to enable them to substitute for the unreasoning faith of childhood the profound convictions of full-grown men and women4 ,moreover1 exactly like the author of the ,third ,gospel1 we are endeavoring to accomplish this aim1 not by argument1 but by an orderly presentation of those matters which have been fulfilled among us4 ,a simple historical presentation of the facts upon which ,christianity is founded is the surest safeguard of ,christian faith4 #a4 ,,the ,,prologue ,alone among the ,synoptists ,luke gives his readers some direct information about the methods of his work4 ,luke #a3a-d2 ,acts #a3a1b4 ,this information1 which was barely touched upon in the ,student's ,text ,book1 must here be considered somewhat more in detail4 7#a7 ,luke ,not an ,eyewitness from the ,beginning4--,from the prologue to the ,gospel1 ,luke #a3a-d1 it appears1 in the first place1 that ,luke was not an eyewitness of the events that he narrates--at least he was not an eyewitness from the beginning4 7#b7 ,his ,predecessors4--,in the second place1 it appears that he had had predecessors in his task of writing an account of early ,christian history4 ,apparently1 however1 none of these previous works were produced by an apostle or by an eyewitness of the earthly ministry of ,jesus4 ,the previous writers1 like ,luke himself1 were dependent upon the testimony of the eyewitnesses4 ,the ,gospel of ,matthew1 therefore1 since it was written by an apostle1 was not one of the works to which reference is made4 ,this conclusion is amply confirmed by a comparison of ,matthew with ,luke4 ,evidently1 at least1 the two are entirely independent4 ,if ,luke refers to the ,first ,gospel in the prologue1 at any rate he made no use of it4 7#c7 ,was ,mark ,one of the ,predecessors8--,the ,gospel of ,mark1 on the contrary1 answers to the description of the previous works4 ,it was written not by an eyewitness1 but by one who listened to eyewitnesses4 ,perhaps1 therefore1 it was one of the many works to which ,luke refers4 ,if so1 it may well have been used by ,luke in the preparation of his own ,gospel4 ,this supposition is by no means excluded by a comparison of the two books4 ,as a matter of fact1 the great majority of modern scholars suppose that the writer of the ,third ,gospel made use of the ,gospel of ,mark4 ,all that can here be asserted is that this view1 though not required by what ,luke says in his prologue1 is perfectly consistent with it4 7#d7 ,luke's ,attitude ,toward the ,predecessors4--,it should be observed that ,luke attaches no blame whatever to the efforts of his forerunners4 ,when he says that they had taken in hand or attempted to write accounts of certain things1 he does not imply in the slightest that their attempts had been unsuccessful4 ,he means simply to justify his own procedure by a reference to what had already been done4 ,my effort at writing an account of the origin of ,christianity1 he says in effect1 is no strange1 unheard-of thing4 ,i have had many predecessors4 ,such a reference to the work of predecessors was in antiquity a common literary form4 ,at the very beginning of his work1 ,luke displays the effects of his ,greek literary training4 ,of course1 however1 although ,luke attaches no blame to his predecessors1 he would not have undertaken a new work if he had thought that the old satisfied all needs4 ,evidently he hoped to accomplish by his own book something that his predecessors had not accomplished or had accomplished only in part4 7#e7 ,the ,subject of the ,gospel4--,finally1 therefore1 ,luke informs his readers what his own peculiar methods and purposes were4 ,the main subject of the ,gospel is not described with any definiteness in ,luke #a3a-d1 but it appears in the retrospect at the beginning of the second work4 ,there the subject of the ,gospel is designated as all that ,jesus began both to do and to teach1 until the day in which he was received up1 after that he had given commandment through the ,holy ,spirit unto the apostles whom he had chosen4 ,acts #a3a1b4 ,the subject of the ,gospel1 in other words1 was the earthly life of ,jesus4 7#f7 ,completeness of the ,narrative4--,in treating this subject1 ,luke had striven1 he says1 ,luke #a3c1 first of all for completeness4 ,in his investigations he had followed all things from the beginning4 ,this feature appears plainly in the ,gospel4 ,instead of beginning as ,mark does1 with the public ministry of ,jesus1 ,luke first gives an account of the birth and infancy1 and not content with that1 he goes back even to events preceding the birth not only of ,jesus1 but also of his forerunner4 7#g7 ,accuracy4--,in the second place1 ,luke says that he had striven after accuracy4 ,here again the ,gospel justifies the claim of its author4 ,the effort after precision may be seen perhaps especially in such a passage as ,luke #c3a1b1 where there is an elaborate dating of the beginning of ,john the ,baptist's ministry4 7#h7 ,orderly ,arrangement4--,the effort at orderly arrangement1 which forms a third part of the claim which the author makes1 was1 especially in the ,gospel1 limited by the material that was at hand4 ,evidently in ,palestine in the early period1 the memory of the earthly ministry of ,jesus was preserved not in a connected narrative1 but in isolated anecdotes4 ,it was impossible1 therefore1 even for a historian like ,luke to maintain a chronological arrangement throughout2 where chronological arrangement was impossible he was obliged to be satisfied with an arrangement according to logical affinities4 ,this logical method of arrangement1 however1 is not resorted to by ,luke so much as by ,matthew2 and for considerable sections of his narrative he was able to gratify his historian's desire for recounting events in the order in which they happened4 7#i7 ,luke a ,historian4--,detailed examination of the prologue should not be allowed to obscure the outstanding fact that the sum of what ,luke here attests is a genuine historical aim and method in the composition of his work4 ,of course1 history in ,luke's mind did not exist for its own sake4 ,the ,gospel of ,luke is not a mere scientific dissertation4 ,on the contrary1 the history which is narrated was to the author a thing of supreme value4 ,but it was valuable only because it was true4 ,there is not the slightest evidence that ,luke was a bad historian because he was a good ,christian4 ,on the contrary1 he was a ,christian just because he was a historian4 ,in the case of ,jesus1 knowledge of the real facts is the surest way to adoration4 7#aj7 ,is ,luke #a3a-d a ,prologue to both the ,gospel and ,the ,acts8--,the first four verses of the ,gospel of ,luke may be taken as a prologue either to the ,gospel alone or else to the entire work1 including both the ,gospel and ,the ,acts4 ,the latter view1 since the subject is described in v4 #a only in very broad terms1 is not to be rashly rejected4 ,no doubt1 however1 in the prologue ,luke was thinking especially of the former part of the work--the part for which he was dependent altogether upon the testimony of others4 ,the first verses of ,the ,acts link the two parts close together4 ,their connection has been obscured by the traditional arrangement of our ,new ,testament books4 ,but that arrangement is altogether advisable4 ,the former part of the ,lucan work certainly belongs among the ,gospels2 and of the ,gospels the ,gospel of ,john must certainly be placed last1 as being supplementary to the others4 #b4 ,,typical ,,passages ,the characteristics of the ,gospel of ,luke may perhaps be presented more vividly than by the general description in the ,student's ,text ,book1 by an examination of a few typical passages4 ,the two such passages which we shall choose somewhat at random1 are the narrative of the birth and infancy in ,luke #a3e to #b3eb1 and the parable of the ,prodigal ,son4 ,ch4 #ae3aa-cb4 ,both of these are without any parallel in the other ,gospels4 ,matthew provides an infancy narrative1 but it is concerned for the most part with events different from those that appear in ,luke4 7#a7 ,the ,narrative of the ,birth and ,infancy4--,it has often been observed that the characteristic ,greek sentence of the prologue1 ,luke #a3a-d1 is immediately followed by the most strongly ,hebraistic passage in the ,new ,testament4 ,the ,semitic style of ,luke #a3e to #b3eb becomes explicable only if ,luke was here making use of ,palestinian sources1 either oral or written4 ,this conclusion is confirmed by the whole spirit and substance of the narrative4 ,in this narrative as clearly as anywhere else in the ,new ,testament we find ourselves transplanted to ,palestinian soil4 ,the early date of the narrative is as evident as its ,jewish ,christian and ,palestinian character4 ,there is here no reference to concrete events in the later history of the ,church4 ,messianic prophecy appears in its ,old ,testament form uncolored by the details of the fulfillment4 ,evidently this narrative is no product of the ,church's fancy1 but genuine history told in the very forms of speech which were natural to those who participated in it4 ,the first two chapters of ,luke are in spirit really a bit of the ,old ,testament continued to the very threshold of the ,new4 ,these chapters contain the poetry of the ,new ,testament1 which has taken deep hold of the heart and fancy of the ,church4 ,in this section of his ,gospel1 ,luke shows himself to be a genuine historian4 ,a biographer is not satisfied with narrating the public life of his hero1 but prefaces to his work some account of the family1 and of the birth and childhood4 ,so our understanding of the ministry of ,jesus becomes far deeper when we know that he grew up among the simple1 devout folk who are described in the first two chapters of ,luke4 ,the picture of ,mary in these chapters1 painted with an exquisite delicacy of touch1 throws a flood of light upon the earthly life of the ,son of ,man4 ,beauty of detail1 however1 must not be allowed to obscure the central fact4 ,the culmination of the narrative1 undoubtedly1 is to be found in the stupendous mystery of ,luke #a3cd1ce4 ,far from being an excrescence in the narrative1 as it has sometimes been represented in an age of rampant naturalism1 the supernatural conception of ,jesus is the very keystone of the arch4 ,in this central fact1 ,matthew and ,luke1 totally independent as they are1 are perfectly agreed4 ,by this fact ,jesus is represented1 more clearly perhaps than by anything else1 as not a product of the world but a ,saviour come from without4 7#b7 ,the ,prodigal ,son4--,the parable of the ,prodigal ,son1 simple though it is1 has often been sadly misinterpreted4 ,it has been thought to mean1 for example1 that ,god pardons sin on the basis simply of human repentance without the necessity of the divine sacrifice4 ,all such interpretations are wide of the mark4 ,the parable is not meant to teach how ,god pardons sin1 but only the fact that he does pardon it with joy1 and that we ought to share in his joy4 ,misinterpretation of the parable has come from the ignoring of its occasion4 ,the key to the interpretation is given in ,luke #ae3a1b4 ,jesus was receiving publicans and sinners4 ,instead of rejoicing at the salvation of these poor1 degraded sons of ,abraham1 the ,pharisees murmured4 ,in rebuke1 ,jesus spoke three parables4 ,one of them1 the parable of the ,lost ,sheep1 is reported also by ,matthew1 ch4 #ah3ab-ad2 but the last two1 the parables of the ,lost ,coin and of the ,prodigal ,son1 appear only in ,luke4 ,the teaching of all three of these parables is exactly the same4 ,the imagery varies1 but the application is constant4 ,that application may be expressed very simply3 ,god rejoices at the salvation of a sinner2 if1 therefore1 you are really sons of ,god1 you will rejoice too4 ,in the parable of the ,prodigal ,son1 however1 the application is forced home more poignantly than in either of the other two4 ,in that parable alone among the three1 the ,pharisees could see--in the elder brother--a direct representation of themselves4 ,the incident of the elder brother1 sometimes regarded as a mere detail1 really introduces the main point of the parable4 ,everything else leads up to that4 ,the wonderful description of the joy of the father at the prodigal's home-coming is all intended as a contrast to the churlish jealousy of the brother4 ,the elder brother was as far as possible from sharing in the father's joy4 ,that showed that he was no true son4 ,though he lived under the father's roof1 he had no real inward share in the father's life4 ,so it was with the ,pharisees4 ,they lived in the ,father's house2 they were1 as we should say1 members of the ,church4 ,but when salvation1 in the person of ,jesus1 had at last come to the poor1 sinful outcasts of the people1 the ,pharisees drew aside4 ,god rejoiced when the publicans crowded in to ,jesus2 but the ,pharisees held back4 ,that showed that after all they were not1 as they thought1 true sons of ,god4 ,if they had been1 they would have shared ,god's feeling4 ,it should be noticed that the parable ends with an invitation4 ,the elder brother is not harshly rebuked by the father1 but tenderly urged to come in still4 ,will the invitation be accepted8 ,the question is not answered2 and there lies the crowning beauty of the parable4 ,the ,pharisees are still given a chance4 ,will they still share the joy of ,god at the return of his lost children8 ,they must answer the question for themselves4 ,and we1 too1 have the same question to answer4 ,if we are really children of ,god1 then we shall not despise the outcasts and the sinners1 but shall rejoice with him at their salvation4 ,the parable is characteristic of the ,gospel of ,luke4 ,of course1 ,luke did not compose it4 ,nothing in the ,gospels bears more indisputably the marks of ,jesus' teaching4 ,but from the rich store of ,palestinian tradition ,luke sought out those things which displayed sympathy for the downtrodden and the sick and the sinful4 ,it was an inestimable service to the ,church4 ,shall we heed the message8 ,god rejoices at the salvation of a sinner4 ,shall we be sharers in his holy joy8 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves 7edited71 article on ,luke4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #bg-cb4 ,stevens and ,burton1 ,a ,harmony of the ,gospels4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 i3 ,plumptre1 ,the ,gospel ,according to ,st4 ,matthew1 ,st4 ,mark1 and ,st4 ,luke1 pp4 #bce-cfe4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #a-agc4 ,the last-named work is intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxx ,,the ,,testimony ,,of ,,the ,,beloved ,,disciple ,the ,gospel ,according to ,john #a4 ,,the ,,evangelist ,a ,,witness ,the author of the ,fourth ,gospel was a great man4 ,he was great1 however1 not as a philosopher or as a religious genius1 but as an apostle2 not as the originator of great ideas1 but as one who received the teaching of another4 ,he was great1 not as one who created a profound theology1 but as one who could understand the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,the ,johannine theology is the theology not of ,john but of ,jesus4 ,so at least ,john himself represents it4 ,he claims to be not a theologian1 but a witness4 ,the value of his book depends upon the truth of his witnessing4 ,if the ,johannine picture of ,christ is the creation of the author's genius1 it commands admiration2 but only if it is a true picture of the historic ,jesus can it offer eternal life4 ,is the ,jesus of the ,fourth ,gospel fiction or fact1 a splendid product of religious genius or a living ,saviour8 ,few questions have caused profounder agitation in the modern ,church4 ,the question cannot be separated from the question of authorship4 ,clearly if the book was written by an intimate friend of ,jesus1 its witness must be true4 ,who wrote the ,fourth ,gospel8 ,this question is of vital importance4 #b4 ,,the ,,tradition ,at the close of the second century--the earliest period from which any really abundant ,christian literature outside of the ,new ,testament has been preserved--the tradition about the authorship of the ,gospel was practically unanimous4 ,even the one small and uninfluential sect that disagreed practically supports the common view1 for its denial was evidently based upon objections to the contents of the ,gospel and not at all upon any independent information4 7#a7 ,irenus and ,polycarp4--,of the three important writers of the close of the second century1 all of whom attest the ,johannine authorship of the ,gospel1 ,irenus deserves special mention4 ,irenus spent his early life in ,asia ,minor1 but afterwards became the leader of the ,church in ,gaul4 ,before he left ,asia ,minor he had some very interesting associations4 ,one of them was with ,polycarp1 bishop of ,smyrna1 who was martyred in ,a4 ,d4 #aee4 ,polycarp would be an important figure merely on account of the early period in which he lived2 but what makes his testimony supremely valuable is his personal association with ,john4 ,irenus himself in his early youth1 before he had left ,asia ,minor1 had heard ,polycarp discoursing about the things he had heard ,john say4 ,polycarp1 then1 was a personal disciple of ,john1 and ,irenus was a personal disciple of ,polycarp4 ,only one link1 therefore1 separated ,irenus from ,john4 ,moreover1 since ,irenus in his youth had lived in ,asia ,minor1 the very place of ,john's residence1 it is natural to believe that what he heard ,polycarp say about ,john could be supplemented in other ways4 ,now beyond any reasonable doubt whatever1 ,irenus supposed that the ,john of whom he had heard ,polycarp speak was none other than ,john the apostle1 the son of ,zebedee4 ,if that supposition was correct1 then the connection between ,irenus and the apostle ,john was exceedingly close2 and when ,irenus exhibits an absolutely unwavering belief that the ,fourth ,gospel was written by the apostle1 it is very unlikely that he was mistaken4 ,he had known one of the personal disciples of ,john2 he himself had lived in ,asia ,minor where ,john had been the well-known leader of the ,church1 and where the ,fourth ,gospel1 no matter who wrote it1 was almost certainly produced4 ,when1 therefore1 he asserts1 not as something new1 but as a thing which he had known from the beginning1 that the ,fourth ,gospel was written by the apostle ,john1 surely he must be believed4 ,this conclusion has been avoided by the hypothesis that the ,john about whom ,polycarp spoke was not really1 as ,irenus supposed1 ,john the son of ,zebedee1 but another ,john1 a certain ,john the presbyter1 who was not one of the twelve apostles at all4 ,the unnaturalness of such an hypothesis appears on the surface4 ,could a native of ,asia ,minor who had repeatedly heard ,polycarp speak about the ,john in question1 and who had many other opportunities for acquainting himself with the traditions of the church in ,asia ,minor--could such a man1 together with all his contemporaries1 have come to labor under so egregious a misapprehension8 7#b7 ,other ,attestation4--,the testimony of ,irenus to the ,fourth ,gospel is of particular importance1 on account of ,irenus' connection with ,polycarp4 ,but it is only one detail in a remarkable consensus4 ,when the most widely separated portions of the ,church before the close of the second century all agreed that the ,fourth ,gospel was written by ,john the son of ,zebedee1 their common belief could not have been of recent origin4 ,earlier writers1 moreover1 by their use of the ,gospel attest at least its early date4 #c4 ,,the ,,testimony ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,,itself ,the tradition which attributes the ,fourth ,gospel to ,john the son of ,zebedee is confirmed by the testimony of the ,gospel itself4 ,although the book does not mention the name of its author it clearly implies who he was4 7#a7 ,indirectness of the ,testimony4--,this testimony of the ,gospel itself is all the more valuable because it is indirect4 ,if the name ,john had been mentioned at the beginning1 then it might conceivably be supposed that an unknown author had desired to gain a hearing for his work by putting it falsely under the name of a great apostle4 ,as it is1 the inference that the author claims to be ,john the son of ,zebedee1 though certain1 does not force itself upon the careless reader4 ,a forger would not thus1 by the indirectness of his claim1 have deprived himself of the benefits of his forgery4 ,the testimony of the ,gospel to its author must now be considered4 7#b7 ,the ,author an ,eyewitness4--,in the first place1 almost at the very beginning1 we observe that the author claims to be an eyewitness of the life of ,jesus4 ,we beheld his glory1 he says in ,john #a3ad4 ,by beholding the glory of ,christ he evidently does not mean merely that experience of ,christ's power which is possessed by every ,christian4 ,on the contrary1 the glory of ,christ1 as it is intended by the evangelist1 is fully explained by such passages as ch4 #b3aa4 ,the miracles of ,jesus--palpable1 visible events in the external world--are clearly included in what is meant4 ,it will be observed that in ch4 #a3ad it is very specifically the incarnate ,christ that is spoken of4 ,the evangelist is describing the condition of things after the ,word became flesh4 ,evidently1 therefore1 it was the earthly life of ,jesus which the evangelist claims to have beheld4 ,this conclusion is confirmed by ,i ,john #a3a-d4 ,scarcely anyone doubts that the ,first ,epistle of ,john was written by the man who wrote the ,gospel4 ,when1 therefore1 the author of the epistle speaks of that which we have heard1 that which we have seen with our eyes1 that which we beheld1 and our hands handled1 concerning the ,word of life1 evidently these words have significance for the ,gospel also4 ,the author fairly heaps up expressions to show1 beyond all possibility of misunderstanding1 that he had come into actual physical contact with the earthly ,jesus4 7#c7 ,the ,unnamed ,disciple of ,john #a3ce-db4--,the author of the ,fourth ,gospel1 then1 clearly claims to be an eyewitness of the earthly life of ,christ4 ,further indications identify him with a particular one among the eyewitnesses4 ,in ,john #a3ce-db1 an unnamed disciple of ,jesus is mentioned4 ,one of the two1 it is said in v4 #dj1 that heard ,john speak1 and followed him1 was ,andrew1 ,simon ,peter's brother4 ,who was the other8 ,there is some reason for thinking that he was one of the two sons of ,zebedee4 ,but the matter will become clearer as we proceed4 ,another question is why this disciple is not mentioned by name4 ,the ,fourth ,gospel is not chary of names4 ,why1 then1 is the disciple who appears so prominently along with ,andrew and ,simon not mentioned by name8 ,only one plausible explanation suggests itself--the explanation that the unnamed disciple was the author of the ,gospel1 who1 through a feeling common in the literature of antiquity1 as well as of our own time1 did not like to mention his own name in the course of his narrative4 ,we have already observed that the author claims to be an eyewitness of the life of ,christ4 ,john #a3ad4 ,when1 therefore1 near the beginning of the narrative a disciple of ,jesus is introduced1 rather mysteriously1 without a name1 when1 furthermore1 events in which this disciple was immediately concerned are narrated with unusual vividness and wealth of detail1 vs4 #ce-db1 the conclusion becomes very natural that this unnamed disciple is none other than the author himself4 7#d7 ,the ,beloved ,disciple4--,this conclusion1 it must be admitted1 so far as this first passage is concerned1 is nothing more than a likely guess4 ,but by other passages it is rendered almost certain4 ,in ,john #ac3ba-be1 a disciple is mentioned as leaning on ,jesus' breast and as being one whom ,jesus loved4 ,this disciple is not named4 ,but who was he8 ,evidently he was one of the twelve apostles1 for only the apostles were present at the ,supper which is described in chs4 #ac to #ag4 ,the disciple whom ,jesus loved1 however1 was not only among the ,twelve2 he was evidently among the innermost circle of the ,twelve4 ,such an innermost circle appears clearly in the ,synoptic ,gospels4 ,it was composed of ,peter and ,james and ,john4 ,the beloved disciple was probably one of these three2 and since he is clearly distinguished from ,peter1 ch4 #ac3bd1 he was either ,james or ,john4 ,the introduction of an unnamed disciple1 which seemed significant even in ,john #a3ce-db1 becomes yet far more significant in the present passage4 ,in the account of the ,last ,supper1 a considerable number of the disciples are named--,peter1 ,judas ,iscariot1 ,thomas1 ,philip1 ,judas not ,iscariot--yet the disciple who is introduced with especial emphasis1 whose very position at table is described with a wealth of detail far greater than is displayed in the case of any of the others1 is designated merely as one of his disciples1 whom ,jesus loved4 ,the strange omission of this disciple's name can be explained only if he was the author of the book4 ,clearly the painter has here introduced a modest portrait of himself in the midst of his great picture4 ,passing by ,john #ah3ae1af1 where the other disciple is probably the author1 and ch4 #ai3bf1bg1 where the repetition of the strange designation1 the disciple 444 whom he ,jesus loved1 confirms the impressions derived from ch4 #ac3ba-be1 we discover another important indication in ch4 #ai3ce4 ,and he that hath seen hath borne witness1 and his witness is true3 and he knoweth that he saith true1 that ye also may believe4 ,he that hath seen can scarcely refer to anyone other than the beloved disciple who was mentioned just before as standing by the cross4 ,in the present verse1 this beloved disciple is represented as the one who is now speaking4 ,the identification of the beloved disciple with the author of the ,gospel1 which was implied before1 here becomes explicit4 ,in ,john #bj3a-aj1 the other disciple whom ,jesus loved is of course the same as the one who appears in ch4 #ac3ba-be2 #ai3bf1bg1ce4 7#e7 ,testimony of the ,appendix4--,in ,john #ba3g1bj-bc1 the beloved disciple appears again1 and in v4 #bd he is identified1 in so many words1 with the writer of the ,gospel4 ,in this verse the first person plural is used2 other persons seem to be associated with the author in commending the ,gospel to the attention of the ,church4 ,this phenomenon is explained if the twenty-first chapter be regarded as a sort of appendix1 perhaps added at the request of a circle of friends4 ,it will be observed that ch4 #bj3cj1ca forms a fit ending to the book2 what follows therefore appears the more like an appendix1 though it was certainly written by the author's own hand and published before his death along with the rest of the book4 7#f7 ,why ,are ,john and ,james ,not ,mentioned by ,name8--,the conclusion of our investigation is that the author of the ,fourth ,gospel indicates clearly that he was either one or the other of the two sons of ,zebedee4 ,this conclusion is confirmed by the curious circumstance that neither one of these men is mentioned in the ,gospel by name4 ,how did they come to be omitted8 ,they were in the very innermost circle of ,jesus' disciples2 many apostles far less prominent than they are named frequently on the pages of the ,gospel4 ,there can be only one solution of the problem3 one at least of these men is1 as a matter of fact1 introduced in the ,gospel as the beloved disciple1 and the reason why he is introduced in such a curiously anonymous way and why his brother also is not named1 is that the author felt a natural delicacy about introducing his own and his brother's name into a narrative of the ,lord's life4 ,one statement that has just been made requires qualification3 it is not quite true that the sons of ,zebedee are not designated by name in the ,gospel4 ,they are not indeed called by their individual names1 but in ch4 #ba3b1 they are designated by the name of their father4 ,possibly this slight difference of usage between chapter #ba and the rest of the ,gospel has something to do with the fact that chapter #ba seems to be an appendix4 7#g7 ,the ,author ,was ,not ,james1 but ,john4--,the author of the ,fourth ,gospel1 then1 identifies himself with one or the other of the sons of ,zebedee4 ,as to which one of the two is meant there cannot be the slightest doubt4 ,james the son of ,zebedee was martyred in ,a4 ,d4 #dd4 ,acts #ab3b4 ,there is abundant evidence that the ,fourth ,gospel was not written so early as that2 and ,john #ba3bj-bc apparently implies that the author lived to a considerable age4 ,evidently1 therefore1 it is ,john and not ,james with whom the author identifies himself4 7#h7 ,is the ,gospel's ,own ,testimony ,true8--,thus the singularly strong tradition which attributes the ,fourth ,gospel to ,john the son of ,zebedee is supported by the independent testimony of the book itself4 ,conceivably1 of course1 that testimony might be false4 ,but it is very hard to believe that it is4 ,it is very hard to believe that the author of this wonderful book1 who despite all the profundity of his ideas exalts in a very special manner the importance of simple testimony based upon the senses1 ,john #ai3ce2 ,i ,john #a3a-d1 has in a manner far subtler and more heinous than if he had simply put a false name at the beginning palmed himself off as an eyewitness of the ,saviour's life4 ,many learned men have found it possible to accept such a view2 but the simple reader of the ,gospel will always be inclined to dissent4 ,the author of this book has narrated many things hard to be believed4 ,but there are still found those who accept his solemn testimony2 there are still found those in whom the purpose of the book is achieved1 who through this ,gospel believe that ,jesus is the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god1 and believing have life in his name4 ,john #bj3ca4 #d4 ,,traditional ,,time ,,and ,,place ,,and ,,plan ,the tradition about the ,fourth ,gospel is not confined to the bare fact of ,johannine authorship2 it has preserved certain other very interesting information4 7#a7 ,the ,ephesian ,residence4--,for example1 tradition represents the ,fourth ,gospel as written after the other three ,gospels and at ,ephesus4 ,the evidence for the ,ephesian residence of the apostle ,john is singularly abundant and weighty2 and the contrary evidence which has been thought to attest an early death of ,john is exceedingly weak4 ,at first1 ,john1 like the others of the original apostles1 remained in ,palestine4 ,he appears in ,jerusalem a little before ,a4 ,d4 #ej at the ,apostolic ,council4 ,gal4 #b3i4 ,at some subsequent time1 perhaps at the outbreak of the ,jewish war in ,a4 ,d4 #ff1 he journeyed to ,asia ,minor and there for many years was the revered head of the ,church4 ,he lived indeed until the reign of ,trajan1 which began in ,a4 ,d4 #ih4 7#b7 ,the ,gospel of ,john ,supplementary to the ,synoptic ,gospels4--,according to tradition1 the ,gospel of ,john was not only written after the ,synoptic ,gospels1 but was intended to be supplementary to them4 ,this information is amply confirmed by the ,gospel itself4 ,evidently ,john presupposes on the part of his readers a knowledge of the ,synoptic account4 ,this explains his peculiar choice of material--for example1 his omission of most of the ,galilean ministry1 and of such events as the baptism and the institution of the ,lord's ,supper4 ,it explains also1 for example1 a verse like ,john #c3bd3 ,for ,john was not yet cast into prison4 ,the ,synoptic ,gospels begin their account of the ministry of ,jesus with what happened after the imprisonment of ,john the ,baptist4 ,mark #a3ad4 ,readers of ,mark might even receive the impression that ,jesus had not begun his teaching till after that time4 ,john corrects any such impression in ch4 #c3bd4 ,if1 then1 the ,gospel of ,john is intended not to compete with the ,synoptic ,gospels1 but to supplement them1 in what direction does the supplementing move8 ,what is it that ,john adds to what had already been told8 ,here1 again1 tradition affords us useful hints4 ,eusebius1 in the early part of the fourth century1 writes as follows 7,church ,history1 iii1 #bd1 #g-ac1 translated by ,mc,giffert1 in ,nicene and ,post-,nicene ,fathers1 second series1 vol4 i1 p4 #aec73 ,and when ,mark and ,luke had already published their ,gospels1 they say that ,john1 who had employed all his time in proclaiming the ,gospel orally1 finally proceeded to write for the following reason4 ,the three ,gospels already mentioned ,matthew1 ,mark and ,luke having come into the hands of all and into his own too1 they say that he accepted them and bore witness to their truthfulness2 but that there was lacking in them an account of the deeds done by ,christ at the beginning of his ministry4 ,and this indeed is true4 ,for it is evident that the three evangelists recorded only the deeds done by the ,saviour for one year after the imprisonment of ,john the ,baptist1 and indicated this in the beginning of their account4 ,for ,matthew1 after the forty days' fast and the temptation which followed it1 indicates the chronology of his work when he says3 ',now when he heard that ,john was delivered up he withdrew from ,judea into ,galilee4' ,mark likewise says3 ',now after that ,john was delivered up ,jesus came into ,galilee4' ,and ,luke1 before commencing his account of the deeds of ,jesus1 similarly marks the time1 when he says that ,herod1 'adding to all the evil deeds which he had done1 shut up ,john in prison4' ,they say1 therefore1 that the apostle ,john1 being asked to do it for this reason1 gave in his ,gospel an account of the period which had been omitted by the earlier evangelists1 and of the deeds done by the ,saviour during that period2 that is1 of those which were done before the imprisonment of the ,baptist4 ,and this is indicated by him1 they say1 in the following words3 ',this beginning of miracles did ,jesus'2 and again when he refers to the ,baptist1 in the midst of the deeds of ,jesus1 as still baptizing in non near ,salim2 where he states the matter clearly in the words3 ',for ,john was not yet cast into prison4' ,john accordingly1 in his ,gospel1 records the deeds of ,christ which were performed before the ,baptist was cast into prison1 but the other three evangelists mention the events which happened after that time4 ,one who understands this can no longer think that the ,gospels are at variance with one another1 inasmuch as the ,gospel according to ,john contains the first acts of ,christ1 while the others give an account of the latter part of his life4 ,and the genealogy of our ,saviour according to the flesh ,john quite naturally omitted1 because it had been already given by ,matthew and ,luke1 and began with the doctrine of his divinity1 which had1 as it were1 been reserved for him1 as their superior1 by the divine ,spirit4 ,according to ,eusebius1 then1 ,john intended to treat the time before the imprisonment of the ,baptist as the ,synoptists treated the time after that event4 ,we have already noted the element of truth in this observation4 ,of course it is not the only observation that needs to be made4 ,much of what ,john narrates occurred after the imprisonment of the ,baptist4 ,according to ,clement of ,alexandria1 of the close of the second century1 who here reports what had been said by his predecessors in ,alexandria1 ,john1 seeing that bodily matters had been treated by the ,synoptists1 supplemented their work by writing a spiritual ,gospel4 ,in this testimony also there is no doubt an element of truth4 ,it is true that the ,fourth ,gospel reproduces certain profound elements in the teaching of ,jesus which in the earlier ,gospels appear only incidentally4 ,the oral tradition which forms the chief basis of the ,synoptic ,gospels was rooted deep in the earliest missionary activity of the ,church4 ,especially1 perhaps1 in the ,gospel of ,mark1 but also in ,matthew and ,luke1 we have for the most part those facts about ,jesus and those elements of his teaching which could appeal at once to simple-minded believers or to outsiders4 ,the ,gospel of ,john1 on the other hand1 drawing1 like the others1 from the rich store of ,jesus' teaching and ,jesus' person1 has revealed yet deeper mysteries4 ,in this profound book1 we have the recollections of a beloved disciple1 at first understood only imperfectly by the apostle himself1 but rendered ever clearer by advancing experience1 and firmly fixed by being often repeated in the author's oral instruction of the ,church4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible1 article on ,john 7#g73 ,purves1 article on ,john1 ,gospel according to ,st4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #cc-dj4 ,stevens and ,burton1 ,a ,harmony of the ,gospels4 ,westcott1 ,the ,gospel according to ,st4 ,john3 ,the ,authorized ,version with ,introduction and ,notes4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools3 ,plummer1 ,the ,gospel ,according to ,st4 ,john4 ,browning1 ,a ,death in the ,desert 7vol4 iv1 pp4 #aia-bjf of the ,riverside ,edition74 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #agd-cee4 ,the last-named work is intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxxi ,,the ,,jesus ,,of ,,the ,,gospels ,it is possible to speak of the ,jesus of the ,gospels only if the ,gospels are in essential agreement4 ,if the features of the four portraits are so different that they never could have been united really in the same person1 then there is no such thing as a ,jesus of the ,gospels1 but only a ,jesus of ,matthew and a ,jesus of ,mark and a ,jesus of ,luke and a ,jesus of ,john4 #a4 ,,agreement ,,among ,,the ,,synoptists ,among the ,synoptic ,gospels1 at any rate1 no such difference exists4 ,though every one of these ,gospels possesses its own characteristics1 the peculiarities are almost negligible in comparison with the underlying unity4 ,there is certainly such a thing as the ,synoptic ,jesus4 ,his words and deeds are narrated in each of the ,gospels in a different selection and in a different style1 but the characteristic features are everywhere the same4 #b4 ,,the ,,synoptists ,,and ,,john ,with regard to the ,fourth ,gospel1 the matter is not quite so plain4 ,the contrast between the ,synoptists and ,john has already been noticed4 ,it forces itself upon even the most casual reader4 ,difference1 however1 is not necessarily contradiction4 ,it may be due to a difference in the point of view4 ,both the ,synoptists and ,john give a true picture of ,jesus2 the same features appear very different when viewed from different angles4 #c4 ,,divinity ,,and ,,humanity ,at any rate1 if there is a contradiction between the first three ,gospels and the ,gospel of ,john1 the contradiction is by no means easy to formulate4 ,it cannot be said1 for example1 simply that the ,synoptists present a human ,jesus and ,john a divine ,jesus4 ,whatever the differences among the four ,gospels1 all four agree at least in two essential features4 ,all four present ,jesus1 in the first place as a man1 and in the second place as something more than a man4 7#a7 ,humanity in the ,synoptists4--,the former feature is perhaps especially clear in the ,synoptists4 ,according to the first three ,gospels1 ,jesus led a genuine human life from birth to death4 ,as a child he grew not only in stature1 but also in wisdom4 ,he was subject to human parents and to the requirements of the ,jewish law4 ,even after the inauguration of his ministry the human conditions of his life were not superseded4 ,he was even tempted like other men4 ,he grew weary and slept4 ,he suffered hunger and thirst4 ,he could rejoice and he could suffer sorrow4 ,he prayed1 like other men1 and worshiped ,god4 ,he needed strengthening both for body and for mind4 ,no mere semblance of a human life is here presented1 but a genuine man of flesh and blood4 7#b7 ,humanity in ,john4--,but if the ,jesus of the ,synoptists is a true man1 how is it with the ,jesus of ,john8 ,does the ,fourth ,gospel present merely a heavenly being who walked through the world untouched and unruffled by the sin and misery and weakness that surrounded him8 ,only a very superficial reading can produce such an impression4 ,the ,fourth ,gospel indeed lays a supreme emphasis upon the majesty of ,jesus1 upon his glory as it was manifested in works of power and attested by ,god himself4 ,but side by side with these features of the narrative1 as though to prevent a possible misunderstanding1 the author presents the humanity of ,jesus with drastic touches that can scarcely be paralleled in the ,synoptists themselves4 ,it is ,john who speaks of the weariness of ,jesus at the well of ,samaria1 ch4 #d3f2 of the human affection which he felt for ,lazarus and ,martha and ,mary1 ch4 #aa3c1e1cf1 and for an individual among the disciples1 ch4 #ac3bc2 of his weeping1 ch4 #aa3ce2 and indignant groaning1 v4 #ch2 and of his deadly thirst4 ,ch4 #ai3bh4 ,as clearly as the other evangelists ,john presents ,jesus as a man4 7#c7 ,divinity in ,john4--,in the second place1 all four ,gospels1 if they present ,jesus as a man1 also present him as something far more than a man4 ,with regard to the ,gospel of ,john1 of course the matter is unmistakable4 ,the very first verse reads3 ,in the beginning was the ,word1 and the ,word was with ,god1 and the ,word was ,god4 ,jesus according to ,john was plainly no product of the world1 but ,god come in the flesh4 ,john #a3ad4 ,the teaching of ,jesus himself1 as it is reported in the ,fourth ,gospel1 is concerned with the relation of perfect unity that exists between the ,father and the ,son4 7#d7 ,divinity in the ,synoptists4--,in the ,synoptists the supernatural character of ,jesus is somewhat less on the surface4 ,his teaching1 as the ,synoptists report it1 is largely concerned not directly with his own person1 but with the kingdom that he came to found4 ,even his ,messiahship is often kept in the background2 the demons are often commanded not to reveal it4 ,a closer examination1 however1 reveals the essential unity between the ,synoptists and ,john4 ,if the supernatural character of ,jesus appears in the ,synoptists less plainly on the surface1 it is really no less pervasive at the center4 ,it does not so often form the subject of direct exposition1 but it is everywhere presupposed4 ,the doing by ,jesus of what only ,god can do1 ,mark #b3e1g2 the sovereign way in which he legislates for the kingdom of ,god1 ,matt4 #e3ag-dh2 his unearthly holiness and complete lack of any consciousness of sin2 the boundlessness of his demand for obedience1 ,luke #i3eg-fb2 his expected freedom from limitations of time and place1 ,matt4 #bh3bj2 the absolutely central place which he claims for himself as ruler and judge2 the substantiation of all his lofty claims by wonderful power over the forces of nature--these are only indications chosen almost at random of what is really plain upon every page of the ,synoptic ,gospels1 that the ,jesus who is there described is no mere human figure but a divine ,saviour of the world4 ,the invitation of ,matt4 #aa3bh-cj1 which is typical of the ,synoptic teaching1 would have been absurd on the lips of anyone but the ,son of ,god4 ,moreover1 the divine nature of ,jesus is not merely implied in the ,synoptic ,gospels2 there are times when it even becomes explicit4 ,the relation of perfect mutual knowledge that exists between ,jesus and the ,father1 ,matt4 #aa3bg1 reveals a perfect unity of nature4 ,the ,jesus of the ,synoptists1 as well as the ,jesus of ,john1 might say1 ,i and the ,father are one4 #d4 ,,the ,,manner ,,of ,,jesus' ,,teaching ,the ,synoptic ,gospels1 therefore1 imply everywhere exactly the same ,jesus who is more expressly presented in the ,gospel of ,john4 ,if1 then1 there is a contradiction between the ,synoptists and ,john1 it can be concerned only with the manner of ,jesus' teaching4 ,the ,synoptists as well as ,john present ,jesus as a supernatural person1 it is said1 but unlike ,john they represent him as keeping his own person in the background4 ,even here1 however1 maturer consideration shows that the difference does not amount to anything like contradiction4 ,may not the same person have spoken the discourses of the ,fourth ,gospel and also those of the ,synoptists8 ,it must be remembered that the ministry of ,jesus was varied1 and that the first three evangelists confine themselves almost exclusively to one phase of it4 ,in the public ,galilean ministry1 which the ,synoptists describe1 it was necessary for ,jesus to keep even his ,messiahship for a time in the background4 ,publication of it1 owing to the false political conception which the ,jews had of the ,messiah's work1 would have been fatal to ,jesus' plan4 ,here1 as so often1 the ,fourth ,gospel explains the other three4 ,after the feeding of the five thousand1 ,john tells us1 the crowd wanted to take ,jesus by force and make him a king4 ,john #f3ae4 ,popularity was dangerous4 ,jesus could not proclaim himself publicly as the ,messiah1 until by explaining the spiritual nature of the kingdom he had prepared the people for the kind of ,messiah which it was his mission to be4 ,of course1 it is difficult for us to understand at every point just why ,jesus acted as he did4 ,all that we are now maintaining is that the considerations just adduced1 and others like them1 show that it is perfectly conceivable that ,jesus1 before his intimate disciples and in ,jerusalem and at a special crisis1 ,john1 ch4 #f1 adopted a method of teaching which in the greater part of the ,galilean ministry he considered out of place4 ,there is room in a true narrative of ,jesus' life both for the ,synoptists and for ,john4 #e4 ,,the ,,comprehensiveness ,,of ,,jesus ,jesus was many-sided4 ,he was ,lawgiver1 he was ,teacher1 he was ,healer1 he was ,ruler1 he was ,saviour4 ,he was man and he was ,god4 ,the ,gospels have presented him in the richness of his mysterious person4 ,modern historians are less comprehensive4 ,they have been offended at the manifoldness of the ,gospel picture4 ,they have endeavored to reduce ,jesus to the level of what they can comprehend4 ,but their effort has been a failure4 ,after the supposed contradictions have been removed1 greater contradictions remain2 and the resulting figure is at any rate too small to account for the origin of ,christianity4 ,the partial ,jesus of modern criticism1 despite his comparative littleness1 is a monstrosity2 the comprehensive ,jesus of the ,gospels1 though mysterious1 is a self-evidencing and life-giving fact4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves1 article on ,jesus ,christ4 ,warfield1 ,the ,lord of ,glory1 pp4 #abe-agc4 ,robertson1 ,epochs in the ,life of ,jesus4 ,stalker1 ,the ,life of ,jesus ,christ4 ,denney1 ,jesus and the ,gospel4 ,andrews1 ,the ,life of ,our ,lord4 ,,lesson ,,xxxii ,a ,,document ,,of ,,the ,,jerusalem ,,church ,the ,epistle of ,james #a4 ,,the ,,christianity ,,of ,,james ,the ,epistle of ,james has been called the least ,christian book in the ,new ,testament4 ,superficially this judgment is true4 ,the name of ,jesus occurs only twice in the epistle1 ,james #a3a2 #b3a1 and there is no specific reference to his life and death and resurrection4 ,a close examination1 however1 reverses the first impression4 7#a7 ,james and the ,synoptic ,discourses4--,in the first place1 the ethical teaching of ,james is permeated by the spirit of ,jesus4 ,even the form of the epistle displays a marked affinity for the discourses of the ,synoptic ,gospels1 and the affinity in content is even more apparent4 ,many striking parallels could be cited2 but what is more convincing than such details is the indefinable spirit of the whole4 ,the way in which ,james treats the covetousness1 the pride1 the heartlessness1 the formalism1 the pettiness and the meanness of his readers1 is strikingly similar to the way in which his ,master dealt with the ,pharisees4 ,james does not indeed actually cite the words of ,jesus2 but the absence of citations makes the underlying similarity all the more significant4 ,the writer of this epistle did not live at a time when the knowledge of the words of ,jesus was derived from books2 rather he had himself listened to the ,master--even though he was not at first a disciple--and was living in a community where the impression of ,jesus' teaching and ,jesus' person was still fresh in the memory of those who had known him on earth4 7#b7 ,james and ,christian ,doctrine4--,in the second place1 moreover1 the ,christianity of ,james is religious as well as ethical4 ,of course it could not be like the teaching of ,jesus if it were merely ethical2 for everything that ,jesus taught even about the simplest matters of human conduct was determined by the thought of the heavenly ,father and by the significance of his own person4 ,but by the religious character of the ,epistle of ,james even more than this is meant4 ,like all the writers of the ,new ,testament ,james was well aware of the saving significance of ,jesus' death and resurrection4 ,for him as well as for the others1 ,jesus was ,lord1 ch4 #a3a1 and a ,lord who was possessed of a heavenly glory4 ,ch4 #b3a4 ,james1 as well as the others1 was waiting for the second coming of ,christ4 ,ch4 #e3h4 ,he does not directly refer to the saving events that form the substance of ,christian faith2 but he takes them everywhere for granted4 ,the word of truth through which the disciples have been formed by ,god1 ch4 #a3ah1 the implanted word1 v4 #ba1 that needs ever to be received anew1 can hardly be anything else than the apostolic gospel as it was proclaimed in the earliest speeches of ,peter which are recorded in ,the ,acts1 and as it found its rich unfolding in the teaching of ,paul4 ,just because that gospel in our epistle is presupposed1 it does not need to be expounded in detail4 ,the men to whom ,james was writing were not lacking in orthodoxy4 ,if they had been1 he would have set them right1 and we should have had another exposition of the gospel4 ,as a matter of fact their fault was in practice1 not in theory2 and it is in the sphere of practice that they are met by ,james4 ,the epistle would be insufficient if it stood alone4 ,it does not lay the foundation of ,christian faith4 ,but it shows how1 upon that foundation1 may be built not the wood1 hay and stubble of a wordy orthodoxy1 but the gold and silver and precious stones of an honest ,christian life4 ,this epistle1 then1 might be misleading if taken by itself2 but it becomes salutary if it is understood in its historical connections4 ,far from disparaging ,christian doctrine--as the modern ,church is tempted to suppose--it builds upon doctrine4 ,in that it agrees with the whole of the ,bible4 ,christianity1 as has been finely said1 is a life only because it is a doctrine4 ,only the great saving events of the gospel have rendered possible a life like that which is described in the ,epistle of ,james4 ,and where the gospel is really accepted with heart as well as mind1 that life of love will always follow4 #b4 ,,date ,,and ,,authenticity ,,of ,,the ,,epistle ,the view which will be held about the date of the ,epistle of ,james will depend very largely upon the interpretation of the passage about faith and works4 ,james #b3ad-bf4 ,in that passage1 some of the same terms appear as are prominent in connection with the great ,judaistic controversy in which ,paul was engaged from the time of the ,apostolic ,council to the time of the third missionary journey4 ,three views have been held with regard to the date of the ,epistle of ,james4 ,the epistle may be regarded as written 7#a7 before the ,judaistic controversy arose1 7#b7 during that controversy or while it was still fresh in men's minds1 or 7#c7 long after the controversy had been settled4 7#a7 ,the ,intermediate ,date4--,the second of these three views may be eliminated first4 ,this intermediate view has the advantage of placing the epistle within the lifetime of ,james4 ,it can treat the epistle as authentic4 ,it has furthermore the advantage of explaining the coincidences between ,james #b3ad-bf and ,rom41 ch4 #d4 ,for if the epistle was written at the very close of the lifetime of ,james--say about ,a4 ,d4 #fb1 or1 following ,hegesippus1 ,a4 ,d4 #ff--the author may have become acquainted with the ,epistle to the ,romans4 ,but the difficulties of this view far overbalance the advantages4 ,if ,james was writing with ,galatians and ,romans before him1 then apparently in ch4 #b3bd he intends to contradict those epistles4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 as is shown in the ,student's ,text ,book1 he does not really contradict them1 but is in perfect harmony with them4 ,he has therefore gone out of his way in order to introduce a formal contradiction of the great apostle to the ,gentiles although there is no real contradiction of meaning at all6 ,what could he possibly gain by such useless trouble-making8 ,if ,james really wanted to combat ,paul's doctrine of justification by faith1 he would have done so very differently2 and if he did not want to combat it1 he would certainly not have uselessly created the appearance of doing so4 ,perhaps1 however1 ,james #b3ad-bf is a refutation not of ,paul but of a misunderstanding of ,paul4 ,this also is very improbable4 ,if the passage was a refutation not of ,paul but of a misunderstanding of ,paul1 why did ,james not say so8 ,why did he not distinguish ,paul clearly from his misinterpreters8 ,instead he has indulged uselessly in a formal contradiction of ,paul1 and has in refutation of a misunderstanding of ,paul not even used the abundant materials which ,paul himself could offer6 ,and where was such a misunderstanding of ,paul possible in ,jewish ,christian circles of ,a4 ,d4 #fb8 ,what makes every form of this intermediate dating impossible is the total absence from the epistle of any reference to the question of the conditions upon which ,gentiles were to be received into the ,church4 ,in ,a4 ,d4 #fb this question had recently been the subject of bitter controversy4 ,at that time no one could have touched upon the closely related topic of faith and works as ,james does and yet have ignored so completely the controversial question4 ,evidently1 therefore1 the epistle was written either before the ,judaistic controversy arose or else long after it was over4 7#b7 ,the ,late ,date4--,the latter view makes the epistle a pseudonymous work--it assumes that an unknown author has here tried to enhance the influence of his work by putting it under the name of the first head of the ,jerusalem church4 ,this is of itself sufficient to refute the late dating4 ,for the procedure of the supposed falsifier is quite incomprehensible4 ,he has chosen ,james as the alleged author only because of the lofty position which ,james held1 and yet he has designated him in the first verse merely as a simple ,christian6 ,the procedure of real forgers is very different4 ,there are also1 however1 other objections to the late dating4 ,would any writer in the second century1 when the authority of ,paul was well established1 have ventured to introduce such an apparent contradiction of ,paul as appears in ,james #b3bd8 ,in a writer of ,a4 ,d4 #aej we should have had formal agreement with ,paul and material disagreement2 in the ,epistle of ,james we have formal disagreement and material harmony4 ,apparent contradiction of expression combined with perfect unity of thought is a sure sign of independence4 ,the ,epistle of ,james has made no use of the epistles of ,paul4 ,against this conclusion may be urged only the coincidence that ,james and ,paul both use the example of ,abraham1 and cite the same verse1 ,gen4 #ae3f1 with regard to him4 ,but it must be remembered that to every ,jew ,abraham offered the most obvious example in all the ,scriptures4 ,it is possible1 too1 that the faith and works of ,abraham had in pre-,christian ,jewish circles already been the subject of controversy4 ,furthermore1 ,james does not confine himself to ,abraham1 but introduces ,rahab also1 who is not mentioned by ,paul4 ,the coincidence between ,paul and ,james is quite insufficient to overbalance the clear evidence of independence4 7#c7 ,the ,early ,date4--,only one hypothesis1 then1 suits the facts4 ,the ,epistle of ,james was clearly written before the ,judaistic controversy became acute at the time of the ,apostolic ,council4 ,in the second chapter of the epistle1 ,james has used the same terms that became prominent in that controversy1 but he has used them in refuting a practical1 not a theoretical1 error--an error that is related only indirectly to the great subject of ,galatians and ,romans4 #c4 ,,underlying ,,unity ,,of ,,the ,,epistle ,at first sight the ,epistle of ,james seems to possess very little unity4 ,topic follows topic often with little apparent connection4 ,but the connection between the individual sections is closer than appears at first2 and the epistle as a whole possesses at least a perfect unity of spirit4 7#a7 ,reality in ,religion4--,the ruling tone of the epistle1 which may be detected beneath all the varying exhortations1 is a certain manly honesty1 a certain fierce hatred of all sham and cant and humbug and meanness4 ,james is a stern advocate of a practical religion4 7#b7 ,supremacy of ,religion4--,it must be noticed1 however1 that the religion of this writer is none the less religious because it is practical4 ,james is no advocate of a gospel of street-cleaning4 ,on the contrary he insists with characteristic vehemence upon personal piety4 ,the same writer who has been regarded as emphasizing works at the expense of faith1 who might be hailed as a leader of those who would make religion terminate upon man rather than ,god1 who might be thought to disparage everything but social service--this same writer is one of the most earnest advocates of prayer4 ,james #a3e-h2 #d3b1c2 #e3ad-ah4 ,this apostle of works1 this supposed disparager of faith1 is almost bitter in his denunciation of unbelief6 ,ch4 #a3f-h4 ,god1 not man1 according to ,james1 is the author of every perfect gift4 ,v4 #ag4 ,prayer is the remedy both for bodily and for spiritual ills4 ,ch4 #e3ad-ah4 ,james lends no countenance to the modern disparagement of religious devotion4 ,the same uncompromising severity with which he lashes an inactive religion is also applied just as mercilessly to an irreligious activity4 ,ch4 #d3ac-ae4 ,james does not attack religion in the interests of reality2 he attacks unreality in the interests of religion4 #d4 ,,contents ,,of ,,the ,,epistle ,the opening of the epistle1 like that of the letters contained in ,acts #ae3bc-bi2 #bc3bf-cj1 is constructed according to the regular ,greek form4 ,after the opening1 ,james speaks first of trials or temptations4 ,rightly used they will lead to perfection4 ,if1 however1 there is still imperfection1 it can be removed by prayer to ,god4 ,the imperfection which is here especially in view is an imperfection in wisdom4 ,apparently the readers1 like the ,pharisees1 had laid an excessive stress upon knowledge4 ,the true wisdom1 says ,james1 can be obtained not by human pride1 as the readers seem to think1 but only by prayer4 ,prayer1 however1 must be in faith--there must be no wavering in it4 ,pride1 indeed1 is altogether blameworthy4 ,if there is to be boasting1 it should certainly be not in earthly wealth but in those spiritual blessings which often reverse earthly distinctions4 ,returning to the subject of temptations1 ,james insists that in their evil they do not come from ,god1 but from the depths of man's own desires4 ,from ,god comes no evil thing1 but every perfect gift2 and in the gospel ,god has bestowed upon us his richest blessing4 ,that gospel must be received with all diligence4 ,it will exclude wrath and insincerity4 ,true religion consists not merely in hearing but in doing2 good examples of the exercise of it are the visitation of the fatherless and widows and the preservation of one's own personal purity of life4 ,faith in ,christ1 ,james continues in similar vein1 excludes all undue respect of persons4 ,indeed ,god in his choice of those who should be saved has especially favored the poor4 ,the rich as a class are rather the oppressors of the ,christians4 ,surely then the ,christians should not favor rich men for selfish reasons4 ,the law of love will exclude all such unworthy conduct4 ,that law of love requires an active life4 ,faith1 if it be true faith1 leads to works4 ,away with a miserable faith that is expressed only in words6 ,words1 indeed1 are dangerous4 ,the tongue is a prolific source of harm4 ,evil speech reveals the deep-seated corruption of the heart4 ,the readers must be careful1 therefore1 about seeking the work of a teacher4 ,the true wisdom1 which fits a man to teach1 is not of man's acquiring1 but comes from ,god4 ,quarreling--which was produced especially by the inordinate ambition among the readers to pose as teachers--must be counteracted by submission to ,god4 ,the constant thought of ,god excludes all pride in human planning4 ,especially the rich must reflect upon the transitoriness of earthly possessions and above all must be sure that their wealth is honestly gained4 ,finally1 patient waiting for the ,lord1 the example of the ,old ,testament saints1 and the earnest practice of prayer will make effective all the exhortations of the epistle4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #abc-ach4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,warfield1 articles on ,james and ,james1 ,epistle of4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #abc-abi4 ,knowling1 ,the ,epistle of ,st4 ,james4 ,the ,cambridge ,bible for ,schools3 ,plumptre1 ,the ,general ,epistle of ,st4 ,james4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 i1 pp4 #gc-aea4 ,the last-named work is intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiii ,,jesus ,,the ,,fulfillment ,,of ,,the ,,old ,,testament ,the ,epistle to the ,hebrews #a4 ,,paul ,,not ,,the ,,author 7#a7 ,the ,tradition4--,at ,alexandria in the latter part of the second century ,paul was thought to be the author of the ,epistle to the ,hebrews2 but in ,north ,africa a little later ,tertullian attributed the epistle to ,barnabas1 and in other portions of the ,church the ,pauline authorship was certainly not accepted4 ,in the west1 the ,pauline authorship was long denied and the inclusion of the epistle in the ,new ,testament resisted4 ,at last the ,alexandrian view won universal acceptance4 ,the ,epistle to the ,hebrews became an accepted part of the ,new ,testament1 and was attributed to ,paul4 ,clement of ,alexandria1 who had apparently received the tradition of ,pauline authorship from ,pantnus1 his predecessor1 himself declares that ,hebrews was written by ,paul in the ,hebrew 7,aramaic7 language1 and was translated by ,luke into ,greek4 ,the notion of a translation by ,luke was based upon no genuine historical tradition--,hebrews is certainly an original ,greek work--but was simply an hypothesis constructed to explain the peculiarities of the epistle on the supposition that it was a work of ,paul4 7#b7 ,the ,value of the ,tradition4--,the tradition of ,pauline authorship is clearly very weak4 ,if ,paul had been the author1 it is hard to see why the memory of the fact should have been lost so generally in the ,church4 ,no one in the early period had any objection to the epistle2 on the contrary it was very highly regarded4 ,if1 then1 it had really been written by ,paul1 the ,pauline authorship would have been accepted everywhere with avidity4 ,the negative testimony of the ,roman church is particularly significant4 ,the epistle was quoted by ,clement of ,rome at about ,a4 ,d4 #ie2 yet at ,rome as elsewhere in the ,west the epistle seems never in the early period to have been regarded as ,pauline4 ,in other words1 just where acquaintance with the epistle can be traced farthest back1 the denial of ,pauline authorship seems to have been most insistent4 ,if ,clement of ,rome had regarded ,paul as the author1 the history of ,roman opinion about the epistle would have been very different4 ,on the other hand1 on the supposition that there was originally no tradition of ,pauline authorship1 the subsequent prevalence of such a tradition is easily explained4 ,it was due simply to the evident apostolic authority of the epistle itself4 ,from the start1 ,hebrews was felt to be an authoritative work4 ,being authoritative1 it would be collected along with other authoritative works4 ,since it was an epistle1 and exhibited a certain ,pauline quality of spirit and subject1 it would naturally be associated with the other works of the greatest letter writer of the apostolic age4 ,being thus included in a collection of the ,pauline ,epistles1 and being regarded as of apostolic authority1 what was more natural than to attribute it to the apostle ,paul8 ,such1 very possibly1 was the origin of the ,alexandrian tradition4 ,this tradition did not win immediate acceptance1 because the rest of the ,church was still aware that the epistle was not written by ,paul4 ,what led to the final conquest of the ,pauline tradition was simply the character of the book itself4 ,the question of ,pauline authorship1 in the case of this book1 became connected with the question of apostolic authority4 ,the ,church had to choose between rejecting the book altogether1 and accepting it as ,pauline4 ,when she finally adopted the latter alternative1 undoubtedly she chose the lesser error4 ,it was an error to regard the epistle as the work of ,paul2 but it would have been a far greater error to exclude it from the ,new ,testament4 ,as a matter of fact1 though the book was not written by ,paul1 it was written1 if not by one of the other apostles1 at least by an apostolic man like ,mark or ,luke4 ,scarcely any book of the ,new ,testament bears clearer marks of true apostolicity4 7#c7 ,internal ,evidence4--,the argument against ,pauline authorship which is derived from tradition is strongly supported by the contents of the epistle itself4 ,in the first place1 it is exceedingly doubtful whether ,paul could have spoken of himself as having had the ,christian salvation confirmed to him by those who had heard the ,lord4 ,heb4 #b3c4 ,knowledge of the earthly life of ,jesus was indeed conveyed to ,paul by ordinary word of mouth from the eyewitnesses2 but the gospel itself1 as he insists with vehemence in ,galatians1 was revealed to him directly by ,christ4 ,in the second place1 the style of the epistle is very different from that of ,paul1 being1 as we shall see1 far more carefully wrought4 ,in the third place1 the thoughts developed in ,hebrews1 though undoubtedly they are in perfect harmony with the ,pauline ,epistles1 are by no means characteristically ,pauline4 ,it is a little hard to understand1 for example1 how ,paul could have written at such length about the law without speaking of justification by faith or the reception of ,gentiles into the ,church4 ,this last argument1 however1 must not be exaggerated4 ,undoubtedly ,paul would have agreed heartily to everything that ,hebrews contains4 ,paul and the author of this epistle have developed merely somewhat different sides of the same great truth4 #b4 ,,who ,,was ,,the ,,author8 ,if ,paul did not write the ,epistle to the ,hebrews1 who did write it8 ,prodigious labor has been expended upon this question1 but with very little result4 ,in ancient times1 ,barnabas1 ,luke and ,clement of ,rome1 were each regarded as the author4 ,of these three views the first is most probable2 the second is exceedingly unlikely2 and the last is clearly impossible4 ,whoever wrote the epistle1 ,clement certainly did not4 ,the letter which we possess from his pen is immeasurably inferior to the apostolic writings to which ,hebrews certainly belongs4 ,clement was a humble reader of ,hebrews1 not the author of it4 ,luther was inclined to regard ,apollos as the possible author of ,hebrews2 and of all the many suggestions that have been made1 this is perhaps the best4 ,undoubtedly the circumstances and training of ,apollos were in a number of respects like those which might naturally be attributed to the author of the epistle4 ,apollos was closely associated with ,paul1 and perhaps at a later time with others of the apostles1 just as might be expected of the author of an apostolic work such as ,hebrews4 ,on the other hand1 like the author of the epistle1 he was not an eyewitness of the life of ,jesus4 ,compare ,heb4 #b3d4 ,like the author of the epistle he was no doubt acquainted with ,timothy4 ,compare ch4 #ac3bc4 ,he was an eloquent or learned man1 ,acts #ah3bd1 who might well have produced the splendid rhetoric of the epistle4 ,he was a ,jew and mighty in the ,scriptures1 as was also the author of ,hebrews4 ,he was a native of ,alexandria1 the university city of the period1 and the seat of a large ,jewish community1 where just that combination of ,greek rhetorical training with ,scriptural knowledge which is exhibited in the epistle is most naturally to be sought4 ,these indications1 however1 can merely show that ,apollos might conceivably have written the epistle2 they do not show that he did write it4 ,the authorship of this powerful work will always remain uncertain4 ,how little we know1 after all1 of the abounding life of the apostolic ,church6 #c4 ,,where ,,were ,,the ,,readers8 ,in the ,student's ,text ,book1 it has been shown that the readers of the epistle were probably members of some rather narrowly circumscribed community4 ,where this community was is by no means clear4 ,the one indication of place which the epistle contains is ambiguous4 ,in ch4 #ac3bd it is said1 ,they of ,italy salute you4 ,these words may mean that the author is in ,italy and sends greetings from the ,christians of that country1 or they may mean that the author is outside of ,italy and sends greetings from ,italian ,christians who happened to be with him4 ,in the latter case1 probably the readers were in ,italy2 for otherwise they would have no special interest in the ,italian ,christians4 ,all that we can say is then that the epistle was probably written either from ,italy or to ,italy4 ,if it was written from ,italy1 then since the readers were ,jews1 it is natural to seek them in ,palestine4 ,the ,palestinian ,christians were ,hebrews in the narrower1 linguistic sense of the word1 as well as in the broader1 national sense4 ,the ancient heading of the epistle thus comes to its full rights4 ,on the other hand the ,palestinian hypothesis faces some rather grave difficulties4 ,if the readers are to be sought in ,italy1 then perhaps they formed a ,jewish ,christian community in ,rome or in some other ,italian city4 ,the question cannot be settled with any certainty4 ,the destination of the epistle is an even greater riddle than the authorship4 #d4 ,,when ,,was ,,the ,,epistle ,,written8 ,the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was certainly written before ,a4 ,d4 #ie1 for at about that time it was quoted by ,clement of ,rome4 ,the mention of ,timothy in ch4 #ac3bc perhaps does not carry us much farther1 for ,timothy1 who was a grown man at about ,a4 ,d4 #ej1 ,acts #af3a-c1 may have lived till the end of the first century4 ,the epistle1 however1 does not bear any of the marks of late origin4 ,the question of date is closely connected with the question whether in the epistle the temple at ,jerusalem is regarded as still standing4 ,this question cannot be settled with certainty4 ,but on the whole the continuance of the ,levitical ceremonies seems to be assumed in the epistle1 and at any rate there is no clear reference to their cessation4 ,probably therefore the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was written before the destruction of ,jerusalem in ,a4 ,d4 #gj4 #e4 ,,hebrews ,a ,,literary ,,work ,the ,epistle to the ,hebrews is a product of conscious literary art4 ,the rhetoric of ,paul is unconscious2 even such passages as the first few chapters of ,first ,corinthians or the eighth chapter of ,romans may have been composed with the utmost rapidity4 ,the author of ,hebrews probably went differently to work4 ,such sentences as ,heb4 #a3a-d1 even in an inspired writer1 can only be the result of diligent labor4 ,by long practice the writer of ,hebrews had acquired that feeling for rhythm and balance of phrase1 that facility in the construction of smooth-flowing periods1 which give to his epistle its distinctive quality among the ,new ,testament books4 ,greek rhetoric of the ,hellenistic age1 freed from its hollow artificiality1 is here laid under contribution for the ,saviour's praise4 ,the presence of such a book in the ,new ,testament is highly salutary4 ,devout ,christians in their enthusiasm for the simplicity of the gospel are sometimes in danger of becoming one-sided4 ,they are sometimes inclined to confuse simplicity with ugliness1 and then to prize ugliness for its own sake4 ,it is perfectly true that the value of the gospel is quite independent of sthetic niceties1 and that the language of the ,new ,testament is for the most part very simple4 ,but it is not true that the simplicity of the ,new ,testament has anything in common with the bad taste of some modern phraseology1 or that eloquence is of itself evil4 ,the ,epistle to the ,hebrews shows by a noble example that there is such a thing as ,christian art4 ,the majestic sentences of this ancient masterpiece1 with their exquisite clearness and liturgic rhythm and uplifting power1 have contributed inestimably to the ,christian conception of the ,saviour4 ,the art of ,hebrews is not art for art's sake1 but art for the sake of ,christ4 ,literary perfection is here combined with profound genuineness and apostolic fervor2 art is here ennobled by consecration4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #afd1 #afe1 #bfe-bfg1 #bhf-bhi4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves1 article on ,hebrews1 ,epistle to the4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #aaf-abb4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #bge-cdh3 ,moulton1 ,the ,epistle of ,paul the ,apostle to the ,hebrews4 ,westcott1 ,the ,epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #bic-cff4 ,the two last-named works are intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxxiv ,,christian ,,fortitude ,the ,first ,epistle of ,peter #a4 ,,separation ,,from ,,the ,,world ,the ,first ,epistle of ,peter is the epistle of separateness4 ,the modern ,church is in grave danger of forgetting the distinctiveness of her gospel and the glorious isolation of her position4 ,she is too often content to be merely one factor in civilization1 a means of improving the world instead of the instrument in creating a new world4 ,the first readers of the epistle were subject to a similar danger1 though it arose from a somewhat different cause4 ,to-day we are no longer subject to persecution2 but the danger is fundamentally the same4 ,the world's friendship may be even more disastrous than the world's hatred4 ,the readers of ,first ,peter were tempted to relinquish what was distinctive in their faith in order to avoid the hostility of their heathen neighbors2 we are tempted to do the same thing because the superficial respectability of modern life has put a gloss of polite convention over the profound differences that divide the inner lives of men4 ,we1 as well as the first readers of the epistle1 need to be told that this world is lost in sin1 that the blood of ,christ has ransomed an elect race from the city of destruction1 that the high privileges of the ,christian calling demand spotless purity and unswerving courage4 7#a7 ,the ,character of the ,persecution4--,the character of the persecution to which the readers of the epistle were subjected cannot be determined with perfect clearness4 ,it is not even certain that the ,christian profession in itself was regarded officially as a crime4 ,apparently charges of positive misconduct were needed to give countenance to the persecutors4 ,i ,peter #b3ab4 ,the ,christians needed to be warned that there is no heroism in suffering if the suffering is the just punishment of misdeeds4 ,chs4 #b3bj2 #d3ae4 ,what particular charges were brought against the ,christians it is of course difficult to determine4 ,perhaps they were sometimes charged with gross crimes such as murder or theft4 ,but a more frequent accusation was probably hatred of the human race1 or the like4 ,the ,christians were thought to be busybodies4 ,in setting the world to rights they seemed to meddle in other people's affairs4 ,in claiming to be citizens of a heavenly kingdom1 they seemed indifferent or hostile to earthly relationships4 ,as subjects of the emperor and of his representatives1 the ,christians were thought to be disloyal2 as slaves1 they seemed disobedient4 7#b7 ,duties of ,earthly ,life4--,in view of these accusations1 ,peter urges his readers to avoid all improper employment of their ,christian freedom4 ,christian freedom does not mean license2 ,christian independence does not mean indifference4 ,there is no reason why a good ,christian should be a bad citizen1 even of a heathen state1 ch4 #b3ac-ag1 or an unprofitable servant1 even of a harsh master1 vs4 #ah-be1 or a quarrelsome wife1 even of an unconverted husband4 ,ch4 #c3a-f4 ,on the contrary1 ,christians must approve themselves not only in the spiritual realm1 but also in the ordinary relationships of this life4 7#c7 ,application to ,modern ,conditions4--,here again the lesson is important for the present day4 ,now as always fervent realization of the transcendent glory of ,christianity tends sometimes to result in depreciation of ordinary duties4 ,men of exceptional piety sometimes seem to feel that civilization is unworthy of their attention1 even if it is not actually a work of ,satan4 ,of all such vagaries the ,first ,epistle of ,peter is the best corrective4 ,truth is here admirably guarded against the error that lurks at its root4 ,the very epistle that emphasizes the separateness of the ,church from the world1 that teaches ,christian people to look down upon earthly affairs from the vantage ground of heaven1 is just the epistle that inculcates sober and diligent conduct in the various relationships of earthly life4 ,in the effort at a higher morality1 the simple1 humble virtues that even the world appreciates should not be neglected2 piety should involve no loss of common sense4 ,now as always the ,christian should be ready to give a reason for the faith that is in him2 now as always he should be able to refute the slanders of the world2 now as always he should commend his ,christianity by his good citizenship4 ,only so will the example of ,christ be fully followed4 ,jesus was in possession of a transcendent message2 but he lived the life of a normal man4 ,the ,christian1 too1 is a man with a divine mission2 but like his ,master he must exercise his mission in the turmoil of life4 ,he must not be a spoilsport at feasts2 his is no desert rle like ,john the ,baptist's4 ,christianity has a mission from without2 but its mission is fulfilled in loving contact with the world of men4 7#d7 ,the ,christian's ,defense4--,the ,christians who suffered persecution should first of all1 according to ,peter1 defend themselves to the very best of their ability4 ,they should do their best to remove dishonor from the name of ,christ4 ,they should show the baselessness of the accusations which are brought against them4 ,then1 if they still suffer1 it will be clearly suffering for ,christ's sake4 ,such suffering is glorious4 ,it is a test from which faith emerges strong and sure1 ch4 #a3g2 it is true conformity to the example of ,christ4 ,chs4 #b3ba-bd2 #c3ah2 #d3a1ac4 #b4 ,,the ,,date ,,of ,,the ,,persecutions ,from the persecutions presupposed in ,first ,peter no very certain conclusion can be drawn with regard to the date of the epistle4 ,a late date has sometimes been inferred from such passages as ,i ,peter #d3af4 ,christians were not punished as ,christians1 it is said1 until the beginning of the second century1 and especially no such persecution was carried out in the early period throughout the whole empire4 ,ch4 #e3i4 ,this argument breaks down at a number of points4 ,in the first place1 as has already been observed1 it is by no means clear that ,first ,peter presupposes a persecution of the ,christians simply as ,christians4 ,apparently special charges of immorality were still in the foreground1 though these charges were often mere pretexts in order to secure the punishment of members of the hated sect4 ,in the second place1 it is not clear exactly when ,christians first began to be punished as ,christians by the ,roman authorities4 ,undoubtedly the legal basis for such persecution was present as soon as ,christianity began to be regarded as separate from ,judaism4 ,judaism had a legal status2 ,christianity1 strictly speaking1 had none4 #c4 ,,dependence ,,and ,,originality ,first ,peter is clearly dependent upon a number of the ,pauline ,epistles1 and apparently also upon the ,epistle of ,james4 ,the dependence1 however1 is by no means slavish2 the epistle possesses marked characteristics of its own4 ,as compared with ,paul1 for example1 ,first ,peter is somewhat simpler both in thought and in expression4 ,no mere imitator1 but a genuine personality1 speaks to us from the noble simplicity of these pages4 #d4 ,,comparison ,,with ,,the ,,speeches ,,of ,,peter ,it is interesting to compare this epistle with the early speeches of ,peter that are recorded in ,the ,acts4 ,part of the difference--similarities also have been pointed out--no doubt1 was due to the difference in the persons addressed4 ,in those early speeches1 ,peter was preaching to unconverted ,jews1 and had to content himself with a few outstanding facts4 ,in the epistle1 he was addressing ,christians1 before whom he could lay bare the deep things of the faith4 ,nevertheless1 the passing years had brought a change in ,peter himself4 ,upon him as upon everyone else the mighty influence of ,paul made itself felt2 and even the revelation which came directly to him was progressive4 ,the essence of the gospel was present from the beginning2 but the rich unfolding of it which appears in ,first ,peter was the product of long years spent in an ever-widening service4 #e4 ,,the ,,style ,,of ,,the ,,epistle ,the style of ,first ,peter1 though not at all rhetorical1 like that of ,hebrews1 is smooth and graceful4 ,it has often been considered strange that a fisherman of ,galilee should have been so proficient in ,greek4 ,but probably we have an exaggerated notion of the poverty and roughness of the first disciples of ,jesus4 ,undoubtedly they had not enjoyed a rabbinical education2 in the technical ,jewish sense they were unlearned and ignorant men4 ,acts #d3ac4 ,nevertheless1 they clearly did not belong at all to the lowest of the population2 ,peter in particular seems to have been possessed of considerable property4 ,furthermore1 it must be remembered that ,greek culture in the first century was making itself felt very extensively in ,galilee4 ,no doubt ,peter could use ,greek even before he left ,galilee1 and in the course of his later life his linguistic attainments must have been very greatly improved4 ,it is by no means impossible that he wrote ,first ,peter entirely without assistance4 #f4 ,,silvanus ,in order1 however1 to account for the linguistic excellence of this epistle1 and in particular for the striking difference between it and ,second ,peter1 a rather attractive hypothesis has been proposed4 ,in ,i ,peter #e3ab1 ,peter says3 ,by ,silvanus1 our faithful brother1 as ,i account him1 ,i have written unto you briefly4 ,undoubtedly these words may designate ,silvanus merely as the messenger who carried the letter to its destination4 ,compare ,acts #ae3bc4 ,it is also possible1 however1 that ,peter meant to say that ,silvanus had written the letter under his direction4 ,in that case the thought would be due altogether to ,peter2 but the form1 to some extent at least1 would be the work of ,silvanus4 ,the hypothesis1 of course1 is only plausible1 not necessary4 ,there are other ways of accounting for the peculiarities of the epistle4 ,in all probability1 the ,silvanus of ,first ,peter is the same as the ,silvanus of the ,pauline ,epistles and the ,silas of ,the ,acts4 ,if so1 his association with ,peter is altogether natural2 he was originally a member of the ,jerusalem church4 ,if1 in accordance with the hypothesis which has just been mentioned1 ,silvanus was really concerned in the composition of the epistle1 the choice of such a man for the task was1 as has been pointed out by the chief advocate of the hypothesis1 exceedingly wise4 ,silvanus1 who had been a companion of ,paul and his associate in founding many of the churches of ,asia ,minor1 would be just the man who could find the right tone in writing to the churches to which the epistle is addressed4 #g4 ,,mark ,the appearance of ,mark in ,i ,peter #e3ac confirms the strong tradition which makes ,mark a disciple of ,peter and associates him with ,peter in the production of the ,second ,gospel4 ,the only two individuals whom ,peter mentions in his ,first ,epistle were both natives of ,jerusalem1 and both1 during part of their lives1 companions of ,paul4 ,the unity of the apostolic ,church was preserved not only by a unity of spirit1 but also by the changing associations of ,christian workers4 #h4 ,,fortitude ,,in ,,the ,,modern ,,church ,the ,first ,epistle of ,peter has a varied message to the ,church of to-day4 ,even in its exhortations to bravery and steadfastness it is very much needed4 ,we are not subject to persecution by the state1 but still there are a thousand circumstances of life in which we need to humble ourselves under the mighty hand of ,god1 casting all our anxiety upon him1 because he careth for us4 ,ch4 #e3f1g4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bfg1 #bge-bhb4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,warfield 7supplemented71 article on ,peter4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #acj-acf4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #che-dcf3 ,mason1 ,the ,first ,epistle of ,st4 ,peter4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #acd-aid4 ,the last-named work is intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxxv ,,the ,,christian',s ,,attitude ,,toward ,,error ,,and ,,immorality ,the ,second ,epistle of ,peter and the ,epistle of ,jude #a4 ,,authenticity ,the ,second ,epistle of ,peter and the ,epistle of ,jude are among the least known and most seriously questioned parts of the ,new ,testament4 ,even in ancient times their authenticity was disputed2 in the third and fourth centuries there were some at least who desired to exclude them from the ,new ,testament4 ,these ancient doubts have been continued in the modern ,church4 ,by very many scholars of the present day1 ,second ,peter and ,jude are assigned to second-century writers who falsely assumed the names of an apostle and of a brother of the ,lord4 ,against such views as these1 a number of arguments might be employed4 ,but the strongest argument of all is provided by the self-witness of the epistles themselves4 ,second ,peter1 in particular1 not only lays claim to apostolic authorship in the address1 but is written throughout in the name of an apostle4 ,either it was really written by an apostle or else it was a deliberate fraud4 ,the latter alternative is excluded by the epistle itself4 ,second ,peter does not look at all like a pseudonymous work1 but is a weighty bit of writing1 full of the sincerest moral earnestness4 ,both ,second ,peter and ,jude ring true1 with the genuine apostolic note4 #b4 ,,second ,,peter ,,and ,,first ,,peter ,resemblances have often been pointed out among all three divisions of the ,new ,testament material attributed to ,peter4 ,second ,peter has been shown to resemble not only ,first ,peter1 but also the speeches of ,peter as they are reported in ,the ,acts4 ,such similarities of course point to a common authorship4 ,it cannot be denied1 however1 that differences stand side by side with the similarities4 ,in the comparison of the epistles with the speeches1 such differences are of course not surprising4 ,the total difference of subject and the wide interval of time provide an amply sufficient explanation4 ,but how is it with the difference between ,second ,peter and ,first ,peter8 7#a7 ,difference of ,purpose and ,subject4--,in the first place1 the difference may be partly explained by the difference of purpose and subject4 ,first ,peter is a presentation of the glories of the faith in order to encourage ,christians under trial and make them feel their separateness from the world2 ,second ,peter is a solemn warning against dangerous perverters of the life of the ,church4 7#b7 ,difference of ,time4--,in the second place1 a considerable interval of time may separate the two epistles4 ,here we find ourselves on uncertain ground4 ,on the whole it is perhaps better to put the epistles near together at the close of ,peter's life4 7#c7 ,work of ,silvanus4--,in the third place1 recourse may be had to the hypothesis1 mentioned in the last lesson1 which attributes a considerable share in the composition of ,first ,peter to ,silvanus4 7#d7 ,conclusion4--,finally1 there may be still further possibilities of explanation which cannot now be detected4 ,the differences of style and of thought between the two epistles of ,peter are far from sufficient to show diversity of authorship1 and it must be remembered that similarities are to be balanced against the differences4 #c4 ,,value ,,of ,,second ,,peter ,,and ,,jude ,although ,second ,peter and ,jude are not so familiar as most of the ,new ,testament1 yet even these two brief epistles have entered deep into the mind and heart of the ,church4 7#a7 ,expressive ,phrases4--,even the inimitably expressive phrases and sentences that have been derived from the epistles have produced no small enrichment of ,christian life4 ,the exceeding great and precious promises1 and the partakers of the divine nature of ,,ii ,peter #a3d1 the chain of virtues in vs4 #e-g1 the make your calling and election sure of v4 #aj1 the sure word of prophecy of v4 #ai1 the description of inspired prophecy in vs4 #bj1 #ba--no prophecy of the scripture is of any private interpretation4 ,for the prophecy came not in old time by the will of man3 but holy men of ,god spake as they were moved by the ,holy ,ghost--the vexed his righteous soul of ch4 #b3h1 the railing accusation of v4 #aa2 ,jude #i1 the stir up your pure minds by way of remembrance of ,,ii ,peter #c3a1 the not willing that any should perish1 but that all should come to repentance of v4 #i1 the faith which was once delivered unto the saints of ,jude #c1 the magnificent doxology of vs4 #bd1 #be--;a review of these passages as they appear in the ,king ,james ,version will bring some realization of the profound influence which even the most obscure books of the ,new ,testament have exerted both upon the ,english language and upon the character of ,christian men4 ,the influence of ,second ,peter and ,jude1 however1 is not merely the influence of isolated phrases4 ,the epistles as a whole have a distinctive message for the ,church4 ,that message is twofold4 ,it embraces in the first place an emphasis upon authority1 and in the second place an insistence upon holiness4 7#b 7,the ,emphasis ,upon ,authority4--,the adversaries who are combated in ,second ,peter and ,jude were impatient of restraint4 ,apparently they distinguished themselves1 as possessing the ,spirit1 from the ordinary ,christians1 as being merely natural4 ,jude #e1 #ai2 ,,ii ,peter #b3ab4 ,they appealed to their own deeper insight1 instead of listening to what apostles and prophets had to say4 ,in reply1 ,peter and ,jude insisted upon the authority of the ,old ,testament prophets1 and upon the authority of the apostles1 which was ultimately the authority of ,christ4 ,see especially ,,ii ,peter #c3b4 ,a similar insistence upon authority is greatly needed to-day4 ,again men are inclined to appeal to an inward light as justifying freedom from ancient restraints2 the ,christian consciousness is being exalted above the ,bible4 ,at such a time1 renewed attention to ,second ,peter and ,jude would be salutary4 ,false notions are rife to-day with regard to apostolic authority4 ,they can be corrected by our epistles4 ,peter as well as ,paul exerts his authority not in an official or coldly ecclesiastical way1 but with an inimitable brotherliness4 ,the authority of the apostles is the authority of good news4 ,subjection to such authority is perfect freedom4 ,the authority which ,peter and ,jude urge upon their readers is a double authority--in the first place the authority of the ,old ,testament1 and in the second place the authority of ,christ exerted through the apostles4 ,for us1 however1 the two become one4 ,the apostles1 like the ,old ,testament prophets1 speak to us only through the ,bible4 ,we need to learn the lesson4 ,a return to the ,bible is the deepest need of the modern ,church4 ,it would mean a return to ,god4 7#c7 ,insistence ,upon ,holiness4--,the second characteristic of ,second ,peter and ,jude is the insistence upon holiness4 ,religion is by no means always connected with goodness4 ,in the ,greco-,roman world1 the two were often entirely separate4 ,many pagan cults contained no ethical element whatever4 ,the danger was therefore very great that ,christianity might be treated in the same way4 ,the early ,christians needed to be admonished ever and again that their ,god was a ,god of righteousness1 that no unclean thing could stand in his presence4 ,insistence upon holiness is in itself no peculiarity of ,second ,peter and ,jude4 ,it runs all through the ,new ,testament4 ,but in these epistles it is directed more definitely perhaps than anywhere else against the opposite error4 ,the opponents of ,peter and ,jude did not merely drift into immorality2 they defended it on theoretical grounds4 ,they were making a deliberate effort to reduce ,christianity to the level of a non-ethical religion4 ,such theoretical defense of immorality appears1 indeed1 in a number of places in the apostolic ,church4 ,a certain party in ,corinth1 for example1 made a wrong use of ,christian freedom4 ,but what is more or less incidental in ,first ,corinthians forms the main subject of ,second ,peter and ,jude4 ,christianity is here insisting upon its thoroughly ethical character4 ,at first sight the message might seem obsolete to-day4 ,we always associate religion with morality2 we can hardly understand how the two ever could have been separated4 ,it is to be feared1 however1 that the danger is not altogether past4 ,in our thoughts we preserve the ethical character of ,christianity4 ,but how is it with our lives8 ,how is it with our religious observances8 ,are we not constantly in danger of making religion a mere cult1 a mere emotional excitement1 a mere means of gaining earthly or heavenly advantages1 a mere effort to bribe ,god by our worship8 ,the danger is always with us4 ,we need always to remind ourselves that ,christian faith must work itself out in holy living4 ,peter in his second epistle has provided us with one important means to that end4 ,it is the thought of ,christ's coming4 ,there can be no laxness in moral effort if we remember the judgment seat of ,christ4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bfg-bgj1 #bhb-bhe4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,warfield 7supplemented71 article on ,jude4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #acg-adc4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #dcg-dfc1 #eje-eai3 ,plummer1 ,the ,second ,epistle of ,st4 ,peter and ,the ,epistle of ,st4 ,jude4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 ii1 pp4 #aid-bic4 ,the last-named work is intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxxvi ,,the ,,life ,,of ,,the ,,children ,,of ,,god ,the ,epistles of ,john #a4 ,,authorship ,,of ,,the ,,first ,,epistle ,the ,first ,epistle of ,john does not contain the name of its author4 ,according to tradition1 however1 it was written by the apostle ,john1 and tradition is here supported by the characteristics of the epistle itself4 ,the author of the epistle was evidently the same as the author of the ,fourth ,gospel4 ,the marked similarity in style can be explained in no other way4 ,even the careless reader observes that the style of the ,fourth ,gospel is very peculiar4 ,short sentences are joined to one another with the utmost simplicity2 the vocabulary is limited1 but contains expressions of extraordinary richness2 the total effect is singularly powerful4 ,these same characteristics1 though they are so peculiar1 appear also in the epistle4 ,there is the same simplicity of sentence structure1 the same use of such terms as life and light and love1 the same indescribable spirit and tone4 ,yet the epistle is no slavish imitation of the ,gospel--differences stand side by side with the similarities4 ,these two works are evidently related1 not as model and copy1 but as living productions of the same remarkable personality4 #b4 ,,testimony ,,of ,,an ,,eyewitness ,as in the ,gospel1 so also in the epistle the author presents himself clearly as an eyewitness of the life of ,jesus1 ,i ,john #a3a-c2 #d3ad2 as in the ,gospel he lays stress upon simple testimony4 ,even those things which have just been noticed as characteristic of his style are connected ultimately with the teaching of ,jesus4 ,in both ,gospel and epistle1 the beloved disciple has reproduced what he heard in ,galilee and in ,judea1 though in both he has made the memory a living1 spiritual fact4 #c4 ,,destination ,,and ,,date ,the ,first ,epistle of ,john is perhaps scarcely to be called an epistle at all4 ,practically all the characteristics of a letter are missing4 ,there is no address2 there is no greeting at the close2 there are no personal details4 ,the readers are indeed referred to in the second person2 but preachers as well as letter-writers say1 you4 ,first ,john is a sort of general address written probably to some extended group of churches4 ,these churches are probably to be sought in ,asia ,minor4 ,throughout the epistle the readers are addressed in a fatherly tone4 ,see1 for example1 ch4 #b3a4 ,evidently the writer was well known as a sort of patriarch throughout an extended region4 ,such conditions prevailed in ,asia ,minor after the apostle ,john had begun to reside at ,ephesus4 ,trustworthy tradition as well as the ,new ,testament informs us of a period in the apostle's life when he had outlived all or most of the other apostles and was revered as the head of the ,asian church4 ,at some time within this period--probably nearer the end than the beginning--the ,first ,epistle of ,john was written4 #d4 ,,the ,,false ,,teachers ,the form of error against which the epistle is directed becomes clearest1 perhaps in ch4 #d3b1c4 ,the false teachers had denied that ,jesus ,christ was come in the flesh4 ,this may be interpreted in several different ways4 7#a7 ,docetism4--,in the first place1 ,john may mean that the opponents simply denied the reality of the earthly life of ,jesus4 ,such a form of error is by no means unknown in the history of the ,church4 ,it is called ,docetism4 ,according to ,docetism the ,son of ,god did not really live a human life--with human sufferings and a human death--but only appeared to do so4 7#b7 ,cerinthus4--,in the second place1 the meaning of the passage may be that the opponents denied the unity of the person of ,jesus ,christ4 ,compare ch4 #b3bb4 ,some persons in the early ,church supposed that there were two separate persons in the figure that is described in the ,gospels4 ,a heavenly being1 the ,christ1 it was thought1 united himself with the man ,jesus at the time when the dove descended after the baptism4 ,matt4 #c3af1ag4 ,such was the view of ,cerinthus1 who is declared by tradition to have been an opponent of the apostle ,john at ,ephesus4 ,it has been suggested1 therefore1 that it was actually ,cerinthus1 with his disciples1 who is combated in the ,first ,epistle of ,john4 7#c7 ,denial of the ,incarnation4--,both ,cerinthus and the ,docetists denied the reality of the incarnation--both denied that the ,son of ,god actually assumed a human nature and lived a complete human life4 ,according to ,cerinthus and others like him1 the ,christ stood only in somewhat loose relation to the man ,jesus4 ,he was united with him only late in life1 he left him before the crucifixion4 ,on this view1 it was not the ,christ who lay in the manger at ,bethlehem1 it was not the ,christ who suffered on the cross4 ,cerinthus1 like the ,docetists1 kept the ,son of ,god out of any close relation to the world and to us4 7#d7 ,john's ,reply4--,against some such view as one of these1 ,john was concerned to establish the reality of the incarnation--the truth that the ,word became flesh4 ,in the ,gospel1 that truth underlies the whole of the narrative2 in the ,first ,epistle it is directly defended against the opposing error4 ,it is defended first of all by an appeal to what the writer had seen and heard4 ,we knew ,jesus in ,palestine1 says ,john in effect1 and we can testify that ,jesus himself was none other than the ,christ1 the ,son of ,god4 ,i ,john1 #a3a-d4 7#e7 ,john1 the ,opponents1 and ,cerinthus4--,the false teachers who are combated in the epistle had apparently withdrawn from the ,church and formed a separate sect4 ,i ,john #b3ai4 ,their separateness of mind and heart and life had found expression in open schism4 ,whether they are to be identified with disciples of ,cerinthus is at least doubtful4 ,false speculation about the person of ,christ no doubt assumed many forms in the closing years of the first century4 #e4 ,,connection ,,between ,,the ,,second ,,and ,,the ,,third ,,epistle ,in ,,iii ,john #i1 the apostle tells ,gaius that he had written somewhat unto the church4 ,this letter to the church may have been written at some previous time4 ,it is also possible1 however1 that it was written together with the letter to ,gaius4 ,the ,greek word for ,i wrote admits of that interpretation4 ,if that interpretation be correct1 then ,john perhaps means to say that although he has written a letter to the church he could not in that letter urge the hospitable reception of the missionaries4 ,for the present1 the influence of ,diotrephes was too strong4 ,the letter to the church had to be concerned with other matters4 ,if this view of the letter mentioned in ,,iii ,john #i be adopted1 then the ,second ,epistle of ,john corresponds to the description4 ,the ,second ,epistle is addressed to a church1 and it is written with some reserve4 ,if certain of the children of the elect lady were walking in truth1 ,,ii ,john #d1 the inference is that others were conducting themselves very differently4 ,evidently there was danger of false teaching among the readers4 ,hospitality to men like ,demetrius and his companions could hardly be expected of such a church4 ,if hospitality should be practiced1 it was only too likely to be hospitality to men of a very different stamp4 ,vs4 #aj1 #aa4 ,possibly1 therefore1 the ,second ,epistle of ,john is actually the letter that is referred to in ,,iii ,john #i1 a letter to the church of which ,gaius was a member4 ,this hypothesis is supported by the striking formal similarity of the two letters4 ,they are of almost exactly the same length2 the openings and especially the conclusions1 ,,ii ,john #ab1 #ac2 ,,iii ,john #ac1 #ad1 are couched in almost exactly the same terms4 ,they look very much like twin epistles1 written on two sheets of papyrus of the same size4 ,of course the hypothesis is by no means certain4 ,perhaps the letter referred to in ,,iii ,john #i was a previous letter bespeaking hospitality1 which had failed of its effect4 ,when the apostle saw1 from the answer or lack of answer to the previous letter1 that the church was ill disposed1 he had recourse to an individual member of it4 ,even in this case1 however1 it remains probable that our two epistles were written at about the same time4 #f4 ,,value ,,of ,,the ,,shorter ,,epistles ,these last two epistles of ,john do not deserve the neglect which they have sometimes suffered4 ,despite their brevity--they are the shortest books of the ,new ,testament--they are instructive in a number of ways4 7#a7 ,historical4--,it is exceedingly interesting1 for example1 to compare them with the private letters of the same period which have recently been discovered in ,egypt--see ,lesson ,,iii1 ,teacher's ,manual1 in this course4 ,in form1 the opening of the ,third ,epistle is very much in the manner of the papyrus letters4 ,compare1 for example1 with ,,iii ,john #a-d the following opening of a letter of the second century after ,christ3 ,apion to ,epimachus his father and lord heartiest greetings4 ,first of all ,i pray that you are in health and continually prosper and fare well with my sister and daughter and my brother4 ,i thank the lord ,serapis4444 7,the translation is that of ,professor ,milligan4 ,see p4 #bj of ,teacher's ,manual1 ,part ,i1 of this course47 ,the differences1 however1 are even more instructive than the resemblances4 ,what was said in ,lesson ,i about the epistles of ,paul applies in full measure to the epistles of ,john4 ,even the epistolary forms are here modified so as to be the vehicle of a new message and a new spirit4 ,furthermore1 the two epistles1 especially ,third ,john1 cast a flood of light upon the internal development of the ,church4 ,in one respect indeed the historical significance of the ,third ,epistle has sometimes been exaggerated4 ,it is not true that we have here the emergence of the monarchical episcopate--that is1 the preminence of one presbyter1 called a bishop1 over his brother presbyters4 ,diotrephes does not appear clearly as a bishop4 ,at about ,a4 ,d4 #aaj in the epistles of ,ignatius the episcopate is very prominent2 but ,third ,john belongs to an earlier period4 ,nevertheless1 this concrete picture of the internal affairs of a late first-century church is absolutely unique4 ,the period is very obscure2 these few brief lines illumine it more than pages of narrative4 ,the traveling preachers of ,third ,john are particularly interesting4 ,similar missionaries appear also in the ,didache1 a sort of church manual which may probably be dated in the early part of the second century4 ,in that later period1 however1 care had to be taken lest the hospitality of the churches should be abused4 ,but let every apostle1 says the writer--the word apostle is used in a very broad sense to designate wandering preachers--who comes to you be received as the ,lord4 ,he shall remain1 however1 no more than one day1 or if necessary two4 ,if he remains three days he is a false prophet4 ,such precautions1 we may be sure1 were not needed in the case of ,demetrius and his companions4 7#b7 ,practical4--,despite its individual address and private character1 the ,third ,epistle of ,john is not an ordinary private letter4 ,like all the books of the ,new ,testament1 it has a message for the entire ,church4 ,the devout reader rises from the perusal of it with a more steadfast devotion to the truth and a warmer glow of ,christian love4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bgb-bgd1 #bid-cjh4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves 7supplemented71 article on ,john1 ,epistles of4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #add-adi4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #dfg-ejb3 ,sinclair1 ,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,john4 ,westcott1 ,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,john4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #cee-chd4 ,the two last-named works are intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxxvii ,,the ,,messages ,,of ,,the ,,living ,,christ ,the ,book of ,revelation 7,first ,lesson7 #a4 ,,the ,,apocalypse ,,and ,,the ,,gospel ,,of ,,john ,in the ,student's ,text ,book it was maintained that the ,apocalypse was written by ,john the son of ,zebedee4 ,the strongest objection to this view is to be found in the striking difference of language and style which exists between the ,apocalypse on the one side and the ,gospel and ,epistles of ,john on the other4 ,the style of the ,apocalypse is extraordinarily rough2 in it the most elementary laws of ,greek grammar are sometimes disregarded4 ,such peculiarities appear scarcely at all in the ,gospel2 the language of the ,gospel1 though simple1 is perfectly grammatical4 ,this observation has led many scholars to decide that the ,gospel and the ,apocalypse never could have been written by the same person2 the argument1 indeed1 was advanced as early as the third century by ,dionysius of ,alexandria4 ,those who thus deny the unity of authorship do not all reject either one book or the other as authoritative2 some suppose that the ,john whose name appears in the ,apocalypse1 though not the same as ,john the son of ,zebedee1 was a genuine prophet4 ,the evidence1 however1 for attributing all the ,johannine books to the son of ,zebedee is exceedingly strong4 ,if the ,apocalypse is to be attributed to some one else1 tradition is very seriously at fault1 and it is also very difficult to see how another ,john could have introduced himself to the churches of ,asia ,minor in the way that the author does at the beginning and end of the book without distinguishing himself from the greater man of the same name who was residing at ,ephesus at the very same time4 ,the ,apocalypse must therefore be assigned to the son of ,zebedee unless there is absolutely unimpeachable evidence to the contrary4 ,such evidence is not really forthcoming4 ,the difference of style between the ,apocalypse and the ,fourth ,gospel is capable of explanation4 7#a7 ,possible ,difference of ,date4--,in the first place1 it might be explained by a wide difference of date4 ,if the ,apocalypse was written at about ,a4 ,d4 #fh1 then an interval of some twenty-five years or more separates it from the ,gospel4 ,such an interval would allow plenty of time for the style of the author to change4 ,when the ,galilean fisherman first left his home in ,palestine1 his command of the ,greek language might conceivably be slight2 whereas after a long residence in ,asia ,minor1 as leader of a group of ,greek-speaking churches1 the roughness of his style would be removed4 ,hence the un-,greek1 strongly ,hebraistic usages of the ,apocalypse would in the ,gospel naturally give place to a correct1 though simple style4 ,this hypothesis1 however1 is beset with serious difficulties4 ,it is difficult to suppose that the ,apocalypse was written before the closing decade of the first century4 ,some passages1 it is true1 have been strongly urged in favor of the early date4 ,particularly the reference to the seven kings in ,rev4 #ag3aj has been thought by many excellent scholars to be decisive4 ,the reference to the seven hills in the preceding verse seems to show that the beast represents ,rome2 the seven kings therefore naturally represent ,roman emperors4 ,the fifth emperor1 beginning with ,augustus1 was ,nero4 ,if at the time when the book was written five were fallen1 one was and the other was not yet come1 v4 #aj1 the book must apparently have been written under ,nero's successor4 ,his successor1 ,galba1 reigned only a few months3 the book was therefore written in ,a4 ,d4 #fh or #fi4 ,or if the very brief reigns of ,galba1 ,otho and ,vitellius be not counted1 then the book was written between ,a4 ,d4 #fi and #gi1 during the reign of ,vespasian4 ,the passage remains1 however1 so obscure that it is very doubtful whether any one interpretation of it should be allowed to overbalance the evidence for the later date4 ,such evidence is abundant4 ,most weighty of all1 perhaps1 is the strong tradition which places the ,apocalypse in the closing years of ,domitian4 ,it is hard to believe that that tradition is seriously at fault4 ,the condition of the ,church1 moreover1 as it is presupposed in the book1 is more naturally to be sought at ,a4 ,d4 #ie than twenty-five years earlier4 ,the persecution1 for example1 which the writer describes1 seems far more like the persecution under ,domitian than it is like the outbreak which was occasioned by the cruelty of ,nero4 7#b7 ,the ,difference of ,subject4--,if the later date be accepted1 then the ,gospel and the ,apocalypse were written in the same period of the apostle's life1 and the difference of style cannot be explained by a difference of date4 ,another explanation1 however1 is sufficient4 ,the difference between the two books may be explained by the total difference of subject4 ,the ,gospel is a narrative of ,jesus' life1 written with abundant opportunity for reflection2 the ,apocalypse is a record of wonderful visions1 where stylistic nicety would have marred the immediateness of the revelation4 ,the very roughness of the ,apocalypse is valuable as expressing the character of the book4 ,in the ,gospel1 ,john brought to bear all his power of reflection and of expression2 in the ,apocalypse1 he wrote in haste under the overpowering influence of a transcendent experience4 ,the grammatical irregularities of the ,apocalypse1 moreover1 often create the impression that they are intentional4 ,they belonged1 apparently1 to an apocalyptic style which to a certain extent had already been formed2 they were felt to be suited to the peculiar character of the work4 ,finally1 it must not be forgotten that side by side with the differences of style there are some remarkable similarities4 ,the underlying unity of thought and expression points to unity of authorship4 #b4 ,,characteristics ,,of ,,the ,,apocalypse 7#a7 ,a ,record of ,visions4--,in what has just been said1 the dominant peculiarity of the ,apocalypse has already been indicated4 ,the ,apocalypse is no careful literary composition1 pieced together from previous works of a similar character4 ,on the contrary1 it is a record of genuine revelations4 ,before writing1 the seer was in the ,spirit4 7#b7 ,influence of the ,old ,testament4--,nevertheless1 although the ,apocalypse is a record of visions1 and was written consciously under the impulsion of the ,spirit1 it is by no means uninfluenced by previous works4 ,to a degree that is perhaps not paralleled by any other ,new ,testament book1 the ,apocalypse is suffused with the language and with the imagery of the ,old ,testament4 ,though there is not a single formal quotation1 the ,old ,testament ,scriptures have influenced almost every sentence of the book4 ,particularly the books of ,ezekiel and ,daniel1 which1 like the ,apocalypse1 are composed largely of the records of visions1 have supplied much of the imagery of the ,new ,testament work4 ,this wide-spread influence of the ,old ,testament upon the ,apocalypse is by no means surprising4 ,the ,apocalypse is based upon direct revelation1 but direct revelation is not necessarily out of relation to everything else4 ,on the contrary1 it uses the language which its recipients can understand2 and part of the language of the apostle ,john was the phraseology and imagery of the ,old ,testament4 ,it has already been hinted that works very similar in form to the ,apocalypse are to be found in the ,old ,testament4 ,this apocalyptic form was continued in a number of ,jewish works written after the conclusion of the ,old ,testament canon4 ,superficially these works bear considerable resemblance to the ,new ,testament ,apocalypse2 but closer examination reveals profound differences4 ,the ,jewish apocalypses appeared under assumed names--the most important of them under the name of ,enoch--while ,john is so firmly convinced of having received genuine revelation that he requires no such spurious authority for his work4 ,the similarity between our ,apocalypse and its extra-canonical ,jewish predecessors and contemporaries is a similarity at most of form2 in spirit and content the difference is incalculable4 ,unlike these other works1 the ,apocalypse is a genuine prophecy4 #c4 ,,the ,,messages ,,to ,,the ,,seven ,,churches ,the so-called letters to the seven churches were never intended to be circulated separately4 ,from the beginning the letters formed part of the ,apocalypse1 which was addressed to all seven of the churches4 ,from the beginning1 therefore1 each of the letters was intended to be read not only by the church whose name it bears1 but also by all the others4 ,the seven churches1 moreover1 are representative of the ,church at large4 ,nevertheless1 despite the universal purpose of the letters1 they are very concrete in the information that they provide about the churches in ,asia ,minor4 ,like the ,second and ,third ,epistles of ,john they illumine an exceedingly obscure period in the history of ,christianity4 7#a7 ,the ,angels of the ,churches4--,some details in the letters1 it is true1 are to us obscure4 ,what1 for example1 is meant by the angels of the churches to which the several letters are addressed8 ,the ,greek word translated angel may also mean simply messenger4 ,conceivably1 it might designate merely a congregational officer4 ,many have supposed that it designates a bishop4 ,in the epistles of ,ignatius1 which were written not very many years after the ,apocalypse1 the term bishop is applied to an officer who had supreme authority over a congregation including the presbyters4 ,the appearance of these angels or messengers in the ,apocalypse has been urged as proof that ,john as well as ,ignatius recognized the institution of the episcopacy4 ,surely1 however1 the matter is more than doubtful4 ,the ,greek word used1 whether it be translated angel or messenger1 is a very strange designation of a bishop4 ,moreover1 in the rest of the ,johannine literature there is no recognition of the episcopacy4 ,in the ,third ,epistle of ,john1 for example1 even if ,diotrephes had set himself up as a bishop--which is itself exceedingly doubtful--his claim is certainly not accepted by the apostle4 ,on the whole1 it seems better to regard the angels to which the seven letters of the ,apocalypse are addressed merely as ideal representatives of the churches--representatives conceived of perhaps as guardian angels4 ,compare ,matt4 #ah3aj4 7#b7 ,the ,nicolaitans4--,another puzzling question concerns the ,nicolaitans who appear in several of the letters4 ,the name itself is obscure4 ,by tradition it is connected with that ,nicolas of ,antioch who was one of the seven men appointed in the early days of the ,jerusalem church to attend to the administration of charity4 ,acts #f3e4 ,the tradition may possibly be correct4 ,if it is correct1 then ,nicolas1 in his later life1 had not justified the confidence originally reposed in him4 ,at the first mention of the ,nicolaitans1 in the letter to ,ephesus1 ,rev4 #b3f1 nothing whatever is said about their tenets4 ,their error1 however1 was not merely theoretical1 but practical1 for it was their works that the ,lord is represented as hating4 ,in the letter to ,pergamum1 the ,nicolaitans are probably meant in v4 #ad4 ,like ,balaam1 they enticed the people of ,god to idolatry and impurity4 ,the form which their idolatry took was the eating of meats offered to idols4 ,the question of meats offered to idols was no simple matter4 ,in the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians ,paul had permitted the eating of such meats under certain circumstances1 but had sternly forbidden it wherever it involved real or supposed participation in idolatrous worship4 ,the form in which it was favored by the ,nicolaitans evidently fell under the latter category4 ,in a time of persecution1 the temptation to guilty compromise with heathenism must have been insidious2 and also the low morality of the ,asian cities threatened ever and again to drag ,christian people back into the impure life of the world4 ,in the letter to ,thyatira1 also1 the woman ,jezebel is apparently to be connected with the same sect1 for the practical faults in ,thyatira and in ,pergamum were identical4 ,jezebel1 the ,phoenician wife of ,ahab1 was1 like ,balaam1 a striking ,old ,testament example of one who led ,israel into sin4 ,it is significant that the woman ,jezebel in ,thyatira called herself a prophetess4 ,rev4 #b3bj4 ,this circumstance seems to indicate that the ,nicolaitans had excused their moral laxness by an appeal to special revelations4 ,the impression is confirmed by v4 #bd4 ,apparently the ,nicolaitans had boasted of their knowledge of the deep things1 and had despised the simple ,christians who contented themselves with a holy life4 ,at any rate1 whatever particular justification the ,nicolaitans advanced for their immoral life1 they could not deceive the all-searching eye of ,christ4 ,their deep things were deep things1 not of ,god1 but of ,satan6 ,who is meant by the woman ,jezebel8 ,some interpreters1 who suppose that the angel of the church was the bishop1 regard ,jezebel as a designation of the bishop's wife4 ,this whole interpretation is1 however1 beset with serious difficulty4 ,perhaps the woman ,jezebel does not refer to an individual at all1 but is simply a figurative designation of the ,nicolaitan sect4 ,the description of the coming retribution in vs4 #ba-bc seems to be highly figurative4 ,it will be observed that the sin of the churches at ,pergamum and ,thyatira was not limited to those who actually accepted the ,nicolaitan teaching4 ,even to endure the presence of the guilty sect was the object of the ,lord's rebuke4 ,toward the works of the ,nicolaitans only hatred was in place4 ,rev4 #b3f4 ,that is a solemn lesson for modern indifferentism4 ,tolerance is good2 but there are times when it is a deadly sin4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,purves1 ,christianity in the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #bgd1 #cjh-cab4 ,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,purves 7supplemented71 article on ,revelation4 ,m',clymont1 ,the ,new ,testament and ,its ,writers1 pp4 #aej-aee4 ,milligan1 ,lectures on the ,apocalypse and ,discussions on the ,apocalypse4 ,ellicott1 ,a ,new ,testament ,commentary for ,english ,readers1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #ebc-fda3 ,carpenter1 ,the ,revelation of ,st4 ,john4 ,ramsay1 ,the ,letters to the ,seven ,churches of ,asia4 ,plumptre1 ,a ,popular ,exposition of the ,epistles to the ,seven ,churches of ,asia4 ,swete1 ,the ,apocalypse of ,st4 ,john4 ,zahn1 ,introduction to the ,new ,testament1 vol4 iii1 pp4 #chd-ddi4 ,the two last-named works are intended primarily for those who have some knowledge of ,greek1 but can also be used by others4 ,,lesson ,,xxxviii ,a ,,vision ,,of ,,the ,,final ,,triumph ,the ,book of ,revelation 7,second ,lesson7 #a4 ,,the ,,interpretations ,,of ,,the ,,apocalypse ,the interpretations of the ,apocalypse may be divided into four classes4 7#a7 ,unfulfilled ,prophecies4--,according to one method of interpretation1 the prophecies of the book are all unfulfilled4 ,in the last days there will be a mighty revival of evil like that which is symbolized by the dragon and the beast and the false prophet1 there will be plagues and woes like those which are described in connection with the seals and the trumpets and the bowls1 and there will be a triumph of ,god's people and an eternal blessedness of the new ,jerusalem4 ,this interpretation would place the ,apocalypse out of analogy with the other prophecies of the ,bible4 ,prophecy is seldom out of all connection with the immediate present4 ,even where the prophetic vision reaches to the very end of time1 the fulfillment or the preparation for the fulfillment is usually represented as beginning at once4 ,in the ,apocalypse1 as in other prophecy1 there is evident reference to the circumstances of the original readers4 7#b7 ,contemporary ,events4--,a second method of interpretation goes to an opposite extreme4 ,by this method the prophecies of the book are thought to be concerned merely with events of the writer's own age4 ,the beast is the ,roman ,empire2 ,babylon is the city of ,rome2 the author expected the destruction of both to take place within a few years' time4 ,in its thoroughgoing form this interpretation also is to be rejected4 ,it degrades the ,apocalypse to the level of a mistaken prediction1 and reduces the self-evidencing glories of the book to trivialities4 ,evidently the outlook of the seer was far broader and far more spiritual than it is represented by the advocates of this interpretation4 7#c7 ,the ,whole ,history of the ,church4--,by a third method of interpretation1 the first two methods are combined4 ,the book is written distinctly in view of conditions of the first century1 its predictions concern partly the immediate future2 but there is also an outlook upon remoter ages4 ,by this interpretation the prophecies are held to provide an epitome of the whole of history from the first coming of ,christ to his second coming4 7#d7 ,mixture of ,discordant ,traditions4--,a fourth method of interpretation1 which has become influential in very recent years1 abandons all hope of discovering a unitary message in the book1 and proceeds to divide it into its component parts4 ,the analysis was carried on first by literary criticism4 ,an older work of the time of ,nero was supposed to have been revised at a later period2 or non-,christian ,jewish works were supposed to have been incorporated in the present work by a ,christian compiler4 ,this sort of literary criticism has in the last few years given place sometimes to a subtler method4 ,investigation is now directed to the materials of which the book is composed1 whether those materials were embodied in previous literary works or only in previous traditions4 ,the ultimate source of much of the material is found in ,babylonia or other eastern countries2 this material is thought to be not always in accord with the context into which in our ,apocalypse it has been introduced4 ,this method must emphatically be rejected4 ,it contains1 indeed1 an element of truth4 ,undoubtedly the ,apocalypse makes use of already-existing materials4 ,but these materials are1 for the most part at least1 of genuinely ,hebrew origin2 and they have been thoroughly assimilated for the purposes of the present prophecy4 ,the ,apocalypse is not a compilation full of contradictions1 but a unitary work1 with one great message for the ,church4 7#e7 ,wrong ,use of the ,third ,method4--,of these four methods of interpretation the third has been adopted in the ,student's ,text ,book4 ,the prophecies of the ,apocalypse concern the entire history of the ,church4 ,undoubtedly this interpretation is subject to abuse4 ,it has been employed in the interests of special controversy1 as when the ,protestants saw in the scarlet woman a representation of papal ,rome4 7#f7 ,principles1 ,not ,individual ,facts4--,all such abuses may be avoided1 however1 if the interpreter will remember that the book deals with great principles1 rather than with individual facts4 ,the beast is neither the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 nor the religion of ,mohammed1 nor the ,turkish ,empire4 ,undoubtedly it expressed itself in some phases of each of those institutions4 ,but no one of them can be identified with it outright4 ,the beast of the ,apocalypse is nothing less than the blatant1 godless power of worldly empire1 however that power may be manifested4 ,at the time of ,john it was manifested especially in the empire of ,rome4 ,even ,rome1 however1 cannot be identified with the beast entirely without qualification4 ,even ,rome had its beneficent side4 ,john as well as ,paul1 even in the fire of persecution1 might have expressed the thought of ,rom4 #ac3a-g4 ,peter also wrote in the midst of persecution2 yet ,peter could say1 ,be subject to every ordinance of man for the ,lord's sake3 whether to the king1 as supreme2 or unto governors1 as sent by him for vengeance on evil-doers and for praise to them that do well4 ,i ,peter #b3ac1ad4 ,the other side of ,rome's power1 it is true1 was prominent at the close of the first century4 ,more systematically than before1 ,rome had begun to persecute the ,church of ,god4 ,by the demand of emperor-worship she had tried to put her stamp upon the followers of ,jesus4 ,through her priesthood she had endeavored to lead men astray4 ,in these things she was a manifestation of the beast4 ,as such she was execrated and resisted to the death by every loyal ,christian4 ,there could be no hope of compromise4 ,hope lay rather in the power of ,god4 ,god would give the just reward2 ,god would give the final victory4 ,such was the message of the ,apocalypse4 ,the message is of perennial value4 ,the beast is not yet dead4 ,his methods are different1 but still he oppresses the ,church4 ,wherever his power is felt--whether in ruthless oppression or impious warfare or degrading superstition--there the prophecy of ,john is a comfort and an inspiration to the people of ,god4 ,undoubtedly this method of interpretation1 which detects in the book principles rather than individual facts1 involves a reduction in the amount of direct information which the ,apocalypse may be thought to give4 ,a detailed account1 whether of the progress of the ,church1 or of the final catastrophe1 is by this interpretation no longer found in the book4 #b4 ,,the ,,thousand ,,years ,at one point at least1 this conclusion has been regarded by many devout ,christians as involving a serious loss4 ,that point is concerned with the thousand years of ,rev4 #bj3a-h4 ,according to the interpretation that has just been advocated1 the thousand years are merely a symbol for the time of the present ,christian dispensation1 and the rule which the saints are represented as bearing with ,christ probably refers to the condition of the blessed dead up to the final resurrection4 ,to many devout readers of the ,bible this interpretation seems to be an impoverishment of the prophet's words4 ,in reality1 they maintain1 the passage predicts a return of ,jesus to earth before the final judgment1 and a long period of his blessed sway4 ,undoubtedly this more literal interpretation of the millennium seems at first sight to be required by certain phrases of the passage4 ,but the highly figurative character of apocalyptic language must always be borne in mind4 ,numbers1 in the ,apocalypse1 are usually symbolic2 so it may be with the thousand years4 ,during the present dispensation ,satan is in one sense bound1 and in another sense he is free4 ,in principle he has been conquered2 but in the sphere of worldly power he continues to work his wrathful will4 #c4 ,,the ,,christian ,,hope ,one thing at least is clear4 ,no interpretation of the ,apocalypse is correct if it fails to do justice to the hope of ,christ's return4 ,if the figurative interpretation weakens our expectation of that dread meeting with the ,lord1 then it is untrue to the mind of the ,spirit4 ,there are difficulties connected with the idea of a literal millennium2 but such difficulties are inconsiderable in comparison with those that result from any rationalizing1 any explaining away1 of the universal ,christian hope4 ,the ,apocalypse1 according to any right interpretation1 is a vision of final triumph4 ,that triumph is a triumph of ,christ4 ,back of all the lurid imagery of the book1 back of the battles and the woes1 and back of the glories of ,god's people1 stands the figure of the ,saviour4 ,with him the book began1 and with him1 too1 it ends4 ,he is the same who lived the life of mercy and of glory on earth1 the same who died for our sins on the cross4 ,to the ,lamb all power is given--all power in heaven and on earth4 ,by him all enemies are conquered2 by him the whole earth will be judged4 ,to those who bear the mark of the beast he is an ,avenger2 to his ,church he is an ever-living ,saviour4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,the reading suggested under ,lesson ,,xxxvii is intended for both of the lessons on the ,apocalypse4 ,,lesson ,,xxxix ,,review ,this review lesson is fully as important as any other lesson of the first three quarters4 ,without reviewing1 the study of history is unproductive2 only a review can make of the facts a permanent possession4 ,the story of the apostolic age1 as it is narrated in the work of ,luke1 is really very simple2 it becomes confusing only when it is imperfectly mastered4 ,a little time spent in turning over the pages of the ,lucan narrative1 or even of the ,student's ,text ,book1 will accomplish wonders4 #a4 ,,unanswered ,,questions ,the ,new ,testament account of the apostolic age is indeed only fragmentary4 ,many questions must be left unanswered4 ,of the original twelve apostles only ,peter and the sons of ,zebedee and ,judas ,iscariot receive in ,the ,acts anything more than a bare mention2 and even the most prominent of these disappears after the fifteenth chapter4 ,what did ,paul do in ,arabia and in ,tarsus8 ,what was the origin of the great church at ,alexandria8 ,who founded the church at ,rome8 ,these questions1 and many like them1 must forever remain unanswered4 ,if1 moreover1 even the period covered by ,the ,acts is obscure1 far deeper is the darkness after the guiding hand of ,luke has been withdrawn4 ,for the death of the apostle ,paul1 there is only a meager tradition2 the latter years of ,peter are even more obscure4 ,for the important period between the release of ,paul after his first ,roman imprisonment and the death of the apostle ,john at about the end of the first century1 anything like a connected narrative is quite impossible4 #b4 ,,the ,,neronian ,,persecution ,a few facts1 however1 may still be established4 ,the ,roman historian ,tacitus tells of a persecution of the ,christians at ,rome at the time of the burning of the city in ,a4 ,d4 #fd4 ,the emperor ,nero1 suspected of starting the fire1 sought to remove suspicion from himself by accusing the ,christians4 ,the latter had already become unpopular because of their peculiar ways1 and were thought to be guilty of abominable crimes2 but the cruelty of ,nero almost exceeded the wishes of the populace4 ,the ,christians were put to death under horrible tortures4 ,many were burned1 and their burning bodies served as torches to illumine the emperor's gardens4 ,the beheading of ,paul has often been brought into connection with this persecution1 but more probably it occurred a few years later4 ,paul had been released from his first imprisonment1 and his second imprisonment1 at the time of the ,neronian outbreak1 had not yet begun4 ,the extent of the ,neronian persecution cannot be determined with certainty4 ,probably1 however1 although there was no systematic persecution throughout the empire1 the provinces would not be altogether unaffected by what was happening at ,rome4 ,the causes of popular and official disfavor were always present2 it required only a slight occasion to bring them actively into play4 #c4 ,,the ,,destruction ,,of ,,jerusalem ,even more important than the ,roman persecution of ,a4 ,d4 #fd was the destruction of ,jerusalem in ,a4 ,d4 #gj4 ,at the outbreak of the war which culminated in that catastrophe1 the ,jerusalem ,christians took refuge in ,pella1 east of the ,jordan2 ,jerusalem ceased to be the center of the ,christian ,church4 ,after the war1 the ,jerusalem church never regained its old position of leadership2 and specifically ,jewish ,christianity1 suffering by the destruction of the national ,jewish life1 ceased to be influential in ,christian history4 #d4 ,,the ,,progress ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,from the years between the destruction of ,jerusalem and the closing years of the century1 scarcely any definite incidents can be enumerated4 ,undoubtedly the missionary activity of the ,church was continuing2 the gospel was making rapid progress in its conquest of the empire4 ,in this missionary activity probably many of the twelve apostles were engaged2 but details of their work are narrated for the most part only in late tradition4 #e4 ,,john ,,at ,,ephesus ,at some time--whether before or after ,a4 ,d4 #gj is uncertain--the apostle ,john went to ,ephesus1 and there became the leader of the ,asian church4 ,detailed information about his position and the churches under his care is provided not only in trustworthy tradition--especially that which comes through ,irenus from ,polycarp1 the hearer of ,john--but also in the writings of ,john himself4 ,the two shorter epistles of ,john1 though each embraces only a small page1 are extraordinarily rich in information about congregational matters1 and even more instructive are the seven messages of the ,apocalypse4 ,by means of the latter the moral condition of the church in ,asia ,minor is characterized with a vividness that is scarcely to be paralleled for any other period of the apostolic age4 #f4 ,,the ,,persecution ,,under ,,domitian ,during the latter part of the residence of ,john in ,asia ,minor there was an important event in the history of the ,church4 ,this was the outbreak of the persecution under ,domitian--a persecution which apparently exceeded in extent1 if not in severity1 every persecution that had preceded it4 ,under ,domitian the ,roman authorities became definitely hostile2 apostasy from ,christ was apparently demanded systematically of the ,christians--apostasy from ,christ and adhesion to the imperial cult4 ,the latter1 in the ,apocalypse1 is represented as an example of the mark of the beast2 the ,roman ,empire1 as would have been unnatural in the days of ,paul1 appears in that book as an incorporation of ,satanic power4 ,the long conflict between the ,church and the empire had at last begun4 ,which side would be victorious8 ,in the ,apocalypse the answer is plain4 ,the ,lord himself was fighting for his ,church6 #g4 ,,the ,,new ,,testament ,,gospel ,our knowledge of the apostolic age1 though fragmentary1 is sufficient--sufficient not indeed for a complete history1 but for the requirements of ,christian faith4 ,the information provided in the ,new ,testament makes up in quality for what it lacks in quantity4 ,its extraordinary vividness and concreteness possesses a self-evidencing value4 ,the life of the apostle ,paul--revealed with unmistakable fidelity--is itself a sufficient bulwark against historical skepticism2 it involves inevitably the supernatural ,christ4 ,the gospel is no aspiration in the hearts of dreamers2 it is a real entrance of divine power into the troubled battle field of human history4 ,god was working in the apostolic ,church1 ,god is speaking in the ,new ,testament--there is the summation of our study4 ,,part ,,iv3 ,the ,apostolic ,church and the ,church of ,to-,day ,,lesson ,,xl ,,the ,,church ,,and ,,the ,,world ,the apostolic ,church1 as was observed in the ,student's ,text ,book1 found itself from the beginning in the midst of an environment more or less actively hostile4 ,if we had been in ,jerusalem at about the year #cj1 we should have observed a small group of disciples of ,jesus1 outwardly conforming to ,jewish customs1 but inwardly quite different from their countrymen4 ,in ,corinth and in other pagan cities of the ,greco-,roman world1 the contrast between the ,church and its environment was even more striking2 these cities were sunk in superstition and vice2 the ,church was leading1 in the eyes of the world1 a very peculiar life4 ,the presence of a common enemy led in the apostolic age to a closer union among the ,christians themselves1 and so it will always be4 ,when ,christian people realize the power of the enemy against whom they are all fighting1 then they will have no time to fight among themselves4 ,the ,christian life is a warfare against sin--sin in a thousand deadly forms4 ,in such a warfare1 if we are to be good soldiers1 we must all stand shoulder to shoulder4 ,the apostolic ,church was waging an audacious warfare against the intrenched forces of heathenism and sin4 ,fortunately it had a ,leader2 and by that ,leader alone it won the victory4 ,the ,leader was ,christ4 ,the primary relation of the soldier is the relation to the commander2 the relation of the individual soldiers to one another is dependent upon that4 ,so we shall study to-day the lordship of ,christ2 by that study1 the work of the whole quarter will be introduced4 #a4 ,,terms ,,descriptive ,,of ,,discipleship ,the lordship of ,christ may profitably be studied by an examination of some of the various names which in the ,new ,testament are applied to the ,church and its individual members4 ,the individual titles should be studied first4 ,after all1 the ,church exists for the individual believer rather than the individual believer for the ,church4 ,the primary relation is the relation between ,christ and the individual soul4 ,brotherhood comes only through the union of individuals with a common ,lord4 7#a7 ,christians4--,probably the first title that occurs to us to-day to designate the individual members of the ,church is the title ,christian2 yet as a matter of fact that title appears only three times in the ,new ,testament1 and then only as it was taken from the lips of unbelievers4 ,in accordance with the explicit testimony of ,acts #aa3bf1 the name was given for the first time at ,antioch2 it had no place1 therefore1 in the early ,jerusalem church4 ,a moment's thought will reveal the reason4 ,the name ,christians would have meant to a ,jew adherents of the ,christ1 or the ,messiah4 ,obviously no ,jew would have applied such a name specifically to the disciples of ,jesus2 for all the ,jews1 in one sense or another1 were adherents of the ,messiah4 ,the ,jews were adherents of him by way of anticipation2 the disciples thought he had already appeared2 but all earnest ,jews alike would have rejoiced to be called by his name4 ,evidently the name was applied in ,antioch by the pagan population4 ,the ,church had become so clearly separate from ,judaism that a separate name for it was required4 ,the name ,christian suggested itself very naturally4 ,jesus ,christ was forever on the lips of these strange enthusiasts6 ,the ,christ was indeed also spoken of by the ,jews1 but only careful observers would necessarily be aware of the fact4 ,the ,messianic hope was an internal concern of the synagogues1 with which outsiders would usually have little to do4 ,the new sect1 on the other hand1 brought the title ,christ out from its seclusion2 ,christ to these enthusiasts was something more than a title1 it was becoming almost a proper name2 like ,jesus1 it was a designation of the ,founder of the sect1 and accordingly the adjective derived from it could be used to designate the sect itself4 ,in ,acts #bf3bh1 the name appears as used by ,agrippa2 in ,i ,peter #d3af1 also1 it is evidently taken from the lips of the opponents of the faith4 ,the ,christians1 however1 ,peter implies1 need not be ashamed of the name which has been fastened upon them4 ,rather let them strive to be worthy of it6 ,it is the highest honor to be called by the name of ,christ2 and if they are true ,christians1 their confession will redound to the glory of ,god4 ,in modern times1 the name is often misapplied2 the use of it is broadened and weakened4 ,nations are declared to be ,christian although only a very small percentage of their citizens really deserve the name2 teaching is called ,christian though it is only similar in some respects to the teaching of ,christ4 ,such a use of terms should be avoided wherever possible2 the original poignancy of the designation should be restored4 ,properly speaking1 ,christian means not like ,christ but subject to ,christ4 ,a ,christian is not one who admires ,christ or is impressed with ,christ's teaching or tries to imitate ,christ1 but one to whom ,christ is ,saviour and ,lord4 ,are we willing to be known as ,christians in that sense8 ,at the time of ,first ,peter1 it would have been a serious question2 an affirmative answer would have meant persecution and perhaps death4 ,but it is also a serious question to-day4 ,confession of ,christ involves solemn responsibilities2 dishonor to the ,christian means dishonor to ,christ2 the unworthy servant is a dishonor to his ,master4 ,but let us not fear2 ,christ is ,helper as well as ,lord4 7#b7 ,disciples4--,the earliest designation of the followers of ,jesus was disciples or learners2 during the earthly ministry perhaps scarcely any other designation was commonly used4 ,jesus appeared at first as a teacher2 the form of his work was somewhat like that of other teachers of the ,jews4 ,nevertheless1 although he was a teacher from the beginning1 he was also from the beginning something more4 ,he had not only authority1 but also power2 he was not only ,teacher1 but also ,saviour4 ,his followers were not merely instructed1 but were received into fellowship2 and that fellowship made of them new men4 ,disciples in the ,gospels is more than learners or students2 it is a fine1 warm1 rich word2 the ,teacher was also ,friend and ,lord4 ,the same term was continued in the early ,palestinian ,church1 and the resurrection had brought an incalculable enrichment of its meaning4 ,the disciples were not merely those who remembered the words of ,jesus1 but those who had been redeemed by his blood and were living now in the power of his ,holy ,spirit4 ,if we use the term1 let it be in the same lofty sense4 ,let us be learners1 indeed2 let us hear the words of ,jesus1 as they are recorded in the ,gospels2 but let us hear them not from a dead teacher1 but ever anew from the living ,lord4 7#c7 ,saints4--,a third designation is saints4 ,this term is used as a title of the ,christians in ,acts #i3ac1cb1da2 #bf3aj1 and frequently in the epistles of ,paul and in the ,apocalypse4 ,its use in the ,new ,testament is very different from some uses of it that appeared at a later time4 ,the ,roman ,catholics1 for example1 employ the term as a title of honor for a number of persons carefully limited by the ,church2 ,protestants often designate by it persons of exceptional purity or goodness4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 on the contrary1 the title saints is clearly applied to all ,christians4 ,in the original ,greek the word is exactly the same as a word meaning holy2 it is simply the adjective holy used as a noun4 ,saints1 therefore1 really means holy persons4 ,unfortunately1 however1 the word holy1 as well as the word saint has undergone modifications of usage4 ,holy1 in the ,bible1 is not simply another word for good or righteous1 but expresses a somewhat different idea4 ,it has the idea of sacred or separate--separate from the world4 ,god is holy not merely because he is good1 but because he is separate4 ,undoubtedly his goodness is one attribute--perhaps the chief attribute--that constitutes the separateness2 but other attributes also have their place4 ,his omnipotence and his infinitude1 as well as his goodness1 make him holy4 ,the word holy or saint as applied to ,christians has fundamentally the same meaning4 ,believers are holy because they are in communion with the holy ,god and therefore separate from the world4 ,undoubtedly the most obvious element in their separateness is their goodness2 the moral implications of the term holy are sometimes so prominent that the specific meaning of the word seems obscured4 ,but that specific meaning is probably never altogether lost4 ,christians are called saints because they are citizens1 not of the present evil world1 but of a heavenly kingdom4 ,the familiar word1 thus interpreted1 has a startling lesson for the modern ,church4 ,can modern ,christians be called saints1 in the ,new ,testament sense8 ,are we really separate from the world8 ,are we really a chosen generation1 a royal priesthood1 an holy nation1 a peculiar people 7,a4 ,v478 ,do we really feel ourselves to be strangers and pilgrims in the earth8 ,or are we rather salt that has lost its savor8 ,have we become merged in the life of the world8 7#d7 ,brethren4--,a fourth designation is concerned1 not with the relation of the believer to ,christ or to the world1 but with the relation of believers among themselves4 ,that designation is brethren4 ,it is a very simple word2 it requires little explanation2 the rich meaning of it will be unfolded in the whole of this quarter's study4 7#e7 ,church4--,after studying the ,new ,testament terms that denote the disciples of ,jesus individually1 it will now be well to turn for a moment to the chief designation of the body of disciples considered as a unit4 ,that designation is church1 or in the ,greek form1 ecclesia4 ,the word ecclesia is in itself a very simple term indeed4 ,it is derived from the verb call and the preposition out4 ,an ecclesia is a body of persons called out from their houses to a common meeting place1 in short it is simply an assembly1 and an assembly of any kind4 ,this simple use of the word is found in ,acts #ai3cb1ci1da2 the ,greek word which is there translated assembly is exactly the same word as that which is elsewhere translated church4 ,even before ,new ,testament times1 however1 the word had begun to be used in a special1 religious sense4 ,here1 as so often1 the ,septuagint translation of the ,old ,testament prepared the way for ,new ,testament usage4 ,in the ,septuagint the word ecclesia was used to denote the solemn assembly of the people of ,israel4 ,that assembly was of course religious as well as political2 for ,israel was a theocratic nation4 ,hence it was no abrupt transition from previous usage when the ,new ,testament writers selected the word ecclesia to denote the ,christian congregation4 ,in the ,new ,testament1 the word is used in various ways4 ,in the first place1 it designates the body of ,christians who lived in any particular place4 ,so1 for example1 the epistles of ,paul are addressed to individual churches4 ,in the second place1 however1 the word designates the whole body of ,christians throughout the world4 ,this usage is prominent in the ,epistle to the ,ephesians1 but it also appears even in the ,gospels1 in the memorable words of ,jesus at ,csarea ,philippi4 ,matt4 #af3ah4 ,it is a wonderfully grand conception which is thus disclosed by the familiar word4 ,the ,church is a chosen people1 ruled by the ,lord himself1 a mighty army1 engaged1 not in earthly warfare1 but in a spiritual campaign of salvation and love4 7#f7 ,the ,kingdom of ,god4--,one further conception requires at least a word4 ,what is meant by the kingdom of ,god8 ,this conception is evidently related to the conception of the ,church1 but the two are not identical4 ,the kingdom of ,god is simply that place or that condition where ,god rules4 ,as the kingdom of ,csar was the territory over which ,csar held sway1 so the kingdom of ,god is the realm where ,god's will is done4 ,in one sense1 of course1 the kingdom of ,god embraces the whole universe1 for nothing is beyond the reach of ,god's power4 ,but in the ,new ,testament the term is used in a far deeper sense2 it is used to denote the realm where ,god's will is done1 not of necessity1 but by willing submission4 ,wherever human hearts and wills are in true accord with the will of ,god1 there the kingdom has come4 ,in one sense the kingdom of ,god belongs to the future age4 ,it is never realized fully upon earth2 there is here always some lurking trace of sinful resistance4 ,nevertheless1 in the ,new ,testament the kingdom is by no means always represented as future4 ,though it has not yet been fully realized1 it is already present in principle2 it is present especially in the ,church4 ,the ,church gives clear1 though imperfect1 expression to the idea of the kingdom2 the ,church is a people whose ruler is ,god4 ,entrance into the ,church is not to be obtained by human effort2 it is the free gift of ,god through the ,lord ,jesus ,christ4 ,no other gift is so glorious4 ,if we are members of that chosen people1 we need fear nothing in heaven or on earth4 #b4 ,,practical ,,conclusions ,two lessons should be conveyed by our study of to-day3 in the first place the lesson of separateness1 and in the second place the lesson of unity4 ,neither can be truly learned without the other4 ,there can be no true ,christian unity if individual members of the ,christian body make common cause with the unbelieving world4 ,a knowledge of the common enemy will draw us all into closer fellowship4 ,that fellowship need not necessarily be expressed in a common organization2 but it will be expressed at least in a common service4 ,separateness from the world will not mean leaving the world to its fate2 the ,christian salvation will be offered freely to all4 ,but the gravity of the choice should never1 by any false urbanity1 be disguised4 ,it is no light difference whether a man is within the people of ,god or without2 there is a definite line of demarcation1 and the passing of it means the transition from death into life4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,church1 ,disciple1 ,christian4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,gayford1 article on ,church4 ,hort1 ,the ,christian ,ecclesia4 ,charteris1 ,the ,church of ,christ4 ,westcott1 ,the ,two ,empires3 ,the ,church and the ,world1 in ,the ,epistles of ,st4 ,john1 pp4 #bej-bhb4 ,the ,epistle to ,diognetus1 introduction and translation in ,lightfoot1 ,the ,apostolic ,fathers1 pp4 #dhg-dhi1 #eja-eaa4 ,erdman1 ,coming to the ,communion4 ,,lesson ,,xli ,,the ,,christian ,,message #a4 ,a ,,philosophy1 ,,or ,a ,,testimony8 ,in the ,student's ,text ,book the ,christian message has been represented as primarily a piece of good news1 a story of something that happened4 ,that representation does not pass unchallenged to-day4 ,many suppose that the message of the apostles was concerned simply with reflection upon eternal truths4 ,for centuries1 it is said in effect1 men had been reflecting upon the problems of ,god and the world and sin2 what the apostles did in ,jerusalem and elsewhere was simply to provide better instruction on these great themes2 ,jesus had taught men that ,god is a ,father1 the apostles simply continued his teaching4 ,such a view1 of course1 can be held only by rejecting or distorting the testimony of the ,new ,testament4 ,if the book of ,the ,acts is correct1 if ,paul is correct1 then the preaching that founded the apostolic ,church was not better instruction about old facts1 but information about a new fact4 ,before ,jesus came1 the world was lost under sin2 but ,jesus lived and died and rose again1 and gave salvation to all who would receive4 ,according to the ,new ,testament1 ,jesus did not come to tell men that they were ,god's children2 he came to make them ,god's children4 ,john #a3ab2 ,gal4 #d3c-e4 ,without him they were under ,god's wrath and curse2 but by faith in him1 by acceptance of his sacrifice of himself for them1 by receiving from his ,spirit the power to believe1 they could call ,god ,father4 ,on the day of ,pentecost ,jesus was presented as more than a ,teacher2 he was presented as a ,saviour4 #b4 ,,the ,,effects ,,of ,,the ,,message 7#a7 ,in the ,apostolic ,age4--,the effects of that presentation have been considered briefly in the ,student's ,text ,book1 and what was said there might easily be supplemented4 ,the conversion of the three thousand was only a beginning4 ,the new spirit of the ,christian community1 the brotherly love and holy joy of the disciples1 indeed everything that will be treated in the lessons of the quarter1 were the result of a simple piece of news4 ,by the wise men of the world--then as now--the message was despised1 but the foolishness of ,god is wiser than men2 and the weakness of ,god is stronger than men4 ,i ,cor4 #a3be4 ,this lesson offers a singular opportunity to the teacher4 ,the ,christian message in the apostolic ,church was a message of power4 ,the story of its progress is full of dramatic vigor2 it appeals even to the non-,christian historian4 ,the story of the apostolic age is full of surprises--the sudden transformation of bitter ,jewish enemies into humble disciples2 the triumphant spread of the faith when everything seemed opposed2 the establishment of ,christian churches in the very centers of pagan vice2 the astonishingly rapid preparation for the conquest of the empire2 and all this accomplished not by worldly wisdom1 but by simple men who only had a bit of news--a bit of news1 and ,god6 7#b7 ,in the ,history of the ,church4--,the triumphs of the gospel1 however1 were not confined to the age of the apostles4 ,the apostolic age was prophetic of the ,christian centuries4 ,there were many days of darkness2 but the ,church always emerged again triumphant4 ,so it will be to-day4 ,god has not deserted his people2 he will attest his truth with the power of his ,spirit2 there is no room for discouragement4 ,one thing1 however1 should be remembered2 the victories of the ,church are victories1 not of brilliant preachers1 not of human wisdom or human goodness1 but of the cross of ,christ4 ,under that banner all true conquests move4 #c4 ,,the ,,presentation ,,of ,,the ,,message ,the ,christian message was presented in the apostolic ,church in many different ways4 ,the gospel was everywhere essentially the same1 but the presentation of it was adapted to the needs of particular hearers1 and the understanding of it became ever more complete under the illumination of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,it is interesting to collect the various types of missionary speeches that are found in the ,new ,testament4 7#a7 ,the ,missionary ,preaching of the ,jerusalem ,church4--,the early chapters of ,the ,acts preserve a number of speeches that were addressed to ,jews4 ,as might have been expected1 these speeches are intended primarily to prove the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,if that could be proved1 then--among the ,jews--the rest would follow4 ,the ,messiahship was proved first by an appeal to the ,scriptures1 and second by the fact of the resurrection4 ,even the death of ,jesus on the cross1 which was to the ,jews a stumblingblock1 was predicted by the prophets1 and so served to prove that ,jesus was the promised ,one4 ,the resurrection was also predicted2 and the resurrection was established first by the simple testimony of eyewitnesses and second by the wonderful works of the living ,christ4 ,these early speeches contain only a little of the full truth of the gospel4 ,in them1 for example1 the significance of the death of ,christ as an atonement for sin is not fully explained4 ,such omissions were due no doubt to two causes4 7a7 ,limitations ,due to the ,hearers4--,in the first place1 the peculiar needs of the hearers had to be considered4 ,the hearers were ,jews2 to them the death of the ,messiah was an unheard-of paradox2 to them the cross was a stumblingblock4 ,before the inner meaning of the crucifixion could be explained1 obviously the objections derived from it needed to be overcome4 ,the first task of the missionaries was to show that ,jesus1 although he had been crucified1 was the ,messiah4 ,that was done by an appeal to prophecy and to the plain fact of the resurrection4 ,after conviction had thus been produced1 it would be time enough to show that what was at first regarded as a stumblingblock was really the supreme act of divine grace4 7b7 ,limitations ,due to an ,early ,stage of ,revelation4--,the omissions in the early speeches were due1 however1 not merely to the peculiar needs of the hearers1 but also to limitations in the knowledge of the apostles4 ,christian truth was not all revealed at once2 undoubtedly the full explanation of the cross1 the full exposition of the atonement1 was revealed only when the disciples could bear it4 ,such is the divine method1 even in revelation4 ,the disciples were brought gradually1 by the gracious leading of the ,holy ,spirit1 into ever richer knowledge of the truth4 7c7 ,the ,significance of the ,cross4--,nevertheless1 the meagerness of the early teaching must not be exaggerated4 ,in the very first missionary speech of ,peter1 ,jesus was represented as delivered up by the determinate counsel and foreknowledge of ,god4 ,acts #b3bc4 ,what happened by the determinate counsel 444 of ,god was no meaningless chance2 the crucifixion was not a victory of evil over ,god1 it must have had some beneficent purpose4 ,furthermore1 ,jesus himself had explained what that purpose was4 ,he had spoken of giving his life a ransom for many1 ,mark #aj3de2 still more plainly1 on the last solemn passover evening1 he had represented his death as sacrificial4 ,these words were certainly not forgotten in the ,jerusalem church2 they were called to mind in the repeated celebration of the ,lord's ,supper1 and must have formed the subject of meditation4 ,the ,jerusalem ,christians knew that ,jesus' death was a death on their behalf4 7d7 ,the ,lordship of ,jesus4--,the lordship of ,jesus1 moreover1 was fully recognized from the very beginning4 ,the risen ,christ had ascended into glory1 and had poured forth his mighty ,spirit4 ,the believer was no mere learner of the words of a dead teacher2 he was called into communion with a ,lord and ,saviour4 ,such communion meant nothing less than an entirely new life1 in which sin could have no rightful place4 ,it was a life of conflict1 but also a life of hope4 ,the ,saviour would come again in like manner as he had gone4 ,the spiritual victory1 already won1 would be perfected by a final victory in every realm4 7#b7 ,the ,missionary ,preaching of ,paul4--,the gospel of the early preachers was a glorious message4 ,it was a piece of glad tidings1 such as the world had never known4 ,yet even greater things were in store2 even more wondrous mysteries were to be revealed4 ,they were revealed especially through the instrumentality of the apostle ,paul4 ,the gospel had been preached from the beginning1 but much of its deeper meaning was reserved for ,paul4 7a7 ,truth and ,error4--,in the teaching of ,paul1 truth became plainer by being contrasted with error4 ,the original apostles had really been trusting in the atonement of ,christ for salvation2 but now that trust became plainer and more explicit by being contrasted with works of the law4 ,the original apostles had really grasped the inner significance of ,jesus as the fulfillment of the ,old ,testament2 but now that significance became still plainer by the contrast with ,pharisaic legality4 ,now at length the death and resurrection were represented sharply and clearly as great representative acts in which the believer shares through faith4 ,the original apostles were not overwhelmed and confused by the new revelation2 they recognized the grace of ,god4 ,their perfect agreement with ,paul exhibited the unity of the apostolic gospel4 ,scarcely anything would be more interesting than a full collection of the missionary speeches of ,paul4 ,such a collection1 however1 has not been preserved4 ,the writings that we possess from the hand of ,paul are not missionary addresses1 but letters written to those who were already ,christians4 ,we should not1 however1 complain of the providence of ,god4 ,god has not thought good to give us everything1 but what he has given us is enough4 7b7 ,information ,provided by ,the ,acts4--,the book of ,the ,acts1 in the first place1 affords valuable information4 ,the author was interested1 indeed1 chiefly in beginnings4 ,the examples of ,paul's missionary preaching which ,luke has preserved1 are perhaps preliminary to evangelism1 rather than evangelism itself4 ,the speech at ,pisidian ,antioch shows how ,paul proved the ,messiahship of ,jesus4 ,in winning the ,jews1 that proof was the first step4 ,the ,pauline gospel indeed appears1 but it appears only at the very end of the speech4 ,the speech at ,athens is still more clearly of preliminary character4 ,monotheism needed to be established before the gospel of ,christ could be understood4 ,despite their necessary limitations however1 these speeches are instructive4 ,they show1 in the first place1 that ,paul adapted his preaching to the needs of his hearers4 ,he did not preach the same sermon mechanically to all4 ,he sought really to win men over1 he began with what his hearers could understand4 ,they show1 in the second place1 that all preliminary matters were kept strictly subordinate4 ,these matters were not made an end in themselves1 as is often the case in the modern ,church1 but were merely a means to an end4 ,no matter where he began1 ,paul always proceeded quickly to the center of the gospel4 ,both at ,pisidian ,antioch and at ,athens1 he hastened on to the resurrection4 7c7 ,information ,provided by the ,epistles4--,the ,pauline ,epistles1 in the second place1 though they are addressed to ,christians1 really afford sufficient information1 at least in outline1 about the missionary preaching of ,paul4 ,incidental references are sufficient to show at least that the cross and the resurrection were the center and core of it4 ,the ,thessalonians1 for example1 under the preaching of ,paul1 turned unto ,god from idols1 to serve a living and true ,god1 and to wait for his ,son from heaven1 whom he raised from the dead1 even ,jesus1 who delivereth us from the wrath to come4 ,this little passage is worth pages of exposition4 ,preaching to ,gentiles is here reviewed in epitome1 though of course not with studied symmetry and completeness4 ,the knowledge of the one true ,god formed of course1 for ,gentiles1 the starting point for all the rest1 but from that starting point the preacher at once proceeded to tell of the work of ,christ4 ,just as illuminating are passages like ,i ,cor4 #b3b2 ,gal4 #c3a4 ,in ,corinth ,paul knew nothing save ,jesus ,christ1 and him crucified2 in ,galatia the story of the cross was made so plain that it was as though ,jesus ,christ crucified were held up before the eyes of the ,galatians on a great picture or placard4 ,the famous passage in ,first ,corinthians1 ch4 #ae3a-h1 is1 however1 perhaps clearest of all4 ,at the very beginning ,paul had spoken of the death of ,christ and the resurrection4 ,the death1 moreover1 was not presented as a mere inspiring story of a holy martyrdom1 but as a death for our sins2 and the resurrection was supported not primarily by an inward experience1 but by simple testimony4 ,apostolic preaching was everywhere essentially the same4 ,the apostles never began1 like many modern preachers1 with exhortation2 though they proceeded to exhortation1 they always began with facts4 ,what was always fundamental was the simple story of the life and death and resurrection of ,jesus ,christ4 ,jesus ,christ crucified and risen was the subject of the good news that conquered the world4 ,when will the modern ,church take up the message with new power8 ,we do not know4 ,the times are in ,god's hand4 ,but when the blessed day comes1 it will be a day of victory4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,bunyan1 ,the ,pilgrim's ,progress4 ,warfield1 ,the ,saviour of the ,world1 and ,the ,power of ,god ,unto ,salvation 7the latter in ,the ,presbyterian ,pulpit74 ,hodge1 ,the ,way of ,life4 ,,lesson ,,xlii ,,the ,,word ,,and ,,the ,,sacraments ,this lesson and the two following are intended primarily to encourage in the student the diligent use of the means of grace4 ,the wise teacher will keep the practical purpose steadily in view4 ,that practical purpose may now be examined a little more in detail4 ,why should the example of the apostolic ,church be followed in the matter of ,bible-reading1 of the sacraments1 of prayer1 of ,christian meetings8 ,what was ,god's purpose in providing these simple exercises of the ,christian life--what benefit do we receive from them8 ,perhaps the briefest and simplest answer is that we receive from them what is often known as reality in religion4 #a4 ,,reality ,,in ,,religion ,many ,christians are puzzled by the lack of the sense of reality in their ,christian life4 ,they have believed in ,christ1 but often he seems far from them4 ,it is not so much that positive doubts have arisen1 though certainly the lack of fervency gives doubt its opportunity4 ,rather is it an inexplicable dulling of the spiritual eye4 ,the gospel still seems wonderful to the intellect1 but to the heart it has somehow lost its power4 7#a7 ,the ,need of ,diligence4--,this condition is due very often to a neglect of the means of grace1 which we shall study in this lesson and the two lessons following4 ,it is a great mistake to suppose that the spiritual life is altogether beyond our control4 ,undoubtedly it is instituted only by an immediate exercise of the divine power1 independent of the human will2 undoubtedly the maintenance of it would be impossible without the assistance of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,nevertheless1 in that work of maintenance1 we have a very definite part4 ,many ,christians suppose that any performance of religious exercises merely for duty's sake1 without immediate spiritual profit1 is a mere form4 ,this supposition is erroneous4 ,not performance of religious exercises without spiritual profit1 but performance of them without the desire of spiritual profit1 is formalism4 ,the appointed means of grace must continue to be used even when no immediate benefit can be discerned4 ,in the reading of the ,bible1 in prayer1 in public worship1 the ,christian should first of all do his duty4 ,the result may safely be left to ,god4 7#b7 ,the ,danger of ,neglect4--,without such attention to duty1 the ,christian life becomes merely a matter of inclination4 ,in times of great spiritual distress we call upon ,god for comfort and help2 but in the long1 level weeks of comparative prosperity we think we can do without him4 ,such thoughts are the height of folly4 ,god is not our servant1 he is not one who can safely be left out of our thoughts except when we think we especially need him4 ,if we neglect ,god in time of prosperity1 we may call in vain when adversity comes4 7#c7 ,the ,reward of ,duty4--,the religious life is not merely a matter of inclination2 it must be diligently fostered4 ,such attention to duty1 however1 will never be merely drudgery4 ,it may begin with drudgery1 and it may become drudgery again at times1 but if persisted in1 it will be an ever-widening avenue of joy and power4 #b4 ,,the ,,study ,,of ,,the ,,bible ,the reading of the ,bible is such a simple thing1 and so obviously necessary to the ,christian life1 that it requires comparatively little discussion4 ,despite its indispensableness1 however1 it is being sadly neglected to-day4 ,our fathers learned the ,bible with a thoroughness which to-day is almost unknown4 ,the change is full of danger4 ,a ,bible-reading ,church is possessed of power2 without the ,bible the ,church loses its identity altogether and sinks back into the life of the world4 ,the process1 unfortunately1 has gone to considerable lengths4 ,how may it now be checked8 7#a7 ,the ,study ,should ,be ,made ,interesting4--,something1 no doubt1 may be done by making the study of the ,bible more interesting4 ,certainly the ,bible does not yield in interest to any other branch of knowledge4 ,the ,bible does not merely present spiritual truth2 it presents it in a wonderfully rich and varied way4 ,if the study of the ,bible is stupid1 the fault lies not in the subject matter1 but in the student or in the teacher4 7#b7 ,the ,motive of ,duty4--,nevertheless1 a mere appeal to the interest of the students is entirely insufficient4 ,after all1 there is no royal road to learning--not to ,biblical learning any more than to the learning of the world4 ,solid education can never be attained without hard work2 education that is easy is pretty sure to be worthless4 ,especially at the beginning the chief appeal in education must be to a sense of duty4 ,so it is in the case of the ,bible4 ,the ,bible is the word of ,god2 obviously it may not be neglected4 ,let us study it1 then1 primarily because the study of it is an obvious duty4 ,as a matter of fact the duty will soon become a pleasure1 but let not that be the motive4 ,let us read the ,bible regularly and persistently1 in entire independence of changing impulse4 ,that is the kind of study that is blessed of ,god4 ,superficial study1 determined by mere inclination1 may at first sight seem just as good4 ,but when adversity or temptation comes1 then the difference appears4 ,it is the difference between a house built upon the sand and a house built upon the rock4 ,the two houses look alike1 but when the rains descend and the floods come1 one falls and the other stands4 ,the ,christian whose knowledge of the ,bible is obtained by old-fashioned1 patient study1 never interrupted by changing inclination1 has dug deep and founded his house upon the rock4 7#c7 ,the ,example of the ,apostolic ,church4--,the example of the apostolic ,church in the matter of the means of grace is especially significant4 ,in the apostolic age1 it might have seemed as though these simple exercises might be dispensed with4 ,what need of regularly appointed forms when the ,holy ,spirit was so immediately manifested8 ,yet as a matter of fact all of the essential forms of ,christian custom were present from the beginning4 ,regularity and diligence were cherished even in the first exuberance of the ,jerusalem church4 ,enthusiasm of spiritual life did not lead to the despising of ordinary helps2 the early disciples continued stedfastly1 day by day1 with one accord in the temple1 and breaking bread at home1 they took their food with gladness and singleness of heart4 ,acts #b3df4 ,the use which the apostolic ,church made of the ,bible might seem to some modern men particularly surprising4 ,a book religion1 men say1 is a stagnant religion2 living faith is independent of dead documents2 it is only when the early enthusiasm is lost that belief becomes crystallized in submission to venerable authority4 ,this sort of religious philosophy shatters on the plain facts of the apostolic age4 ,admittedly that was an age of freshness and independence4 ,there never has been such an outburst of religious enthusiasm as that which planted the faith in ,jerusalem and carried it like wildfire throughout the civilized world4 ,yet another fact is equally plain--this wonderful enthusiasm was coupled with the utmost reverence for a book4 ,nothing could exceed the unquestioning submission which the early ,christians paid to the ,old ,testament ,scriptures4 ,the exuberance of apostolic ,christianity was intertwined with a book religion6 ,the explanation1 of course1 is simple4 ,submission to a human book means stagnation2 but genuine submission to the ,word of ,god means always what it meant in the apostolic age--heroism and victory and life4 #c4 ,,baptism 7#a7 ,baptism and ,circumcision4--,the sacrament of baptism had its truest predecessor in circumcision1 the ,old ,testament sign of union with the covenant people4 ,baptism as well as circumcision is a sign of the covenant1 though the varied symbolism marks the advance of the new covenant over the old4 7#b7 ,christian ,baptism and the ,baptism of ,john4--,in form1 moreover1 and to a considerable extent also in meaning1 ,christian baptism in the early ,church was prepared for by the baptism of ,john the ,baptist1 which had even been continued by the disciples of ,jesus during ,jesus' earthly ministry4 ,john #d3a1b4 ,both the baptism of ,john and ,christian baptism symbolized cleansing from sin4 ,compare ,acts #b3ch with ,matt4 #c3f1aa4 ,christian baptism1 however1 differed from every rite that had preceded it by its definite reference to ,christ1 and by its definite connection with a new manifestation of the ,holy ,spirit4 7#c7 ,baptism ,into ,christ4--,in the apostolic writings1 baptism is sometimes spoken of as a baptism into ,christ4 ,gal4 #c3bg2 ,rom4 #f3c4 ,the meaning of this phrase has often been obscured both in translation and in interpretation4 ,the phrase into ,christ in this connection means something more than with reference to ,christ2 it means rather into a position within ,christ4 ,the ,christian1 according to a common ,pauline expression1 is in ,christ2 he is in such close union with ,christ that the life of ,christ might almost be described as the atmosphere which he breathes4 ,to be baptized into ,christ means to come by baptism into this state of blessed union with the ,saviour4 7#d7 ,baptism and ,faith4--,at this point1 however1 a serious question arises4 ,how can baptism be described as the means by which the ,christian comes into union with ,christ1 when at other times salvation is declared to be by faith8 ,one solution of the difficulty would be simply to say that baptism and faith are both necessary--a man must believe if he is to be saved1 but he must also be baptized4 ,clearly1 however1 this view does not represent the meaning of the ,new ,testament4 ,the passages where faith alone is represented as the condition of salvation are too strong2 especially the vigorous contrast which ,paul sets up between faith and works prevents any inclusion of such a work as baptism along with faith as an additional condition of acceptance with ,god4 ,the true solution is that baptism is related to faith1 or rather to the regenerative work of the ,holy ,spirit1 as the sign is related to the thing signified4 ,baptism represents the work of the ,spirit2 it is a means which the ,spirit uses4 ,if it stood alone1 it would be a meaningless form1 but when it is representative of spiritual facts it becomes a channel of divine grace4 #d4 ,,the ,,lord',s ,,supper ,the celebration of the ,lord's ,supper in the ,jerusalem church was probably connected in some way with the breaking of bread1 which is mentioned in ,acts #b3db4 ,every common meal was an expression of ,christian communion1 but the solemn words of ,christ at the ,last ,supper could not have been forgotten4 ,here1 as so often1 the book of ,the ,acts affords little information about the internal affairs of the ,church4 ,fortunately1 ,paul1 in the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 is far more explicit1 and inferences can be drawn from him with regard even to ,jerusalem4 ,paul represents the ,lord's ,supper1 not as an innovation1 but as something that had been given to the ,corinthians as a matter of course1 at the very beginning of their ,christian lives2 evidently the sacrament was celebrated universally in the churches2 ,paul had received the account of the institution of the ,supper from the ,lord through the first ,christians4 ,in ,corinth1 as was also probably the case in the early days in ,jerusalem1 the ,supper was celebrated in connection with the common meals of the ,christian community4 ,certain abuses had arisen2 the rich brought food and drink with them and feasted luxuriously in the presence of their poorer brethren2 the spiritual significance of the ,supper was profaned4 ,against such abuses ,paul enunciates the great principle that the ,supper does not work a magical benefit2 if partaken of irreverently it brings condemnation rather than blessing4 ,in ,i ,cor4 #aj3ad-bb1 the ,lord's ,supper appears as a warning against participation in heathen feasts4 ,the pagan fellow citizens of the ,corinthian ,christians1 by their religious feasts1 held communion with idols2 the ,christians cannot remain with them and at the same time commune with ,christ4 ,a man must take his choice--either ,christ or idols2 he must choose either the ,lord's ,supper or heathen feasts4 ,here the ,lord's ,supper appears especially as a sign of communion with ,christ1 as in ch4 #aa3bf it appears especially as a commemoration of his death4 ,these two aspects of the ,supper1 and their intimate connection with each other1 should now be explained a little more in detail4 7#a7 ,a ,representation of the ,death of ,christ4--,the ,lord's ,supper1 as is observed in the ,student's ,text ,book1 is representative of the death of ,christ on our behalf4 ,in many passages of the ,new ,testament1 the significance of that death is explained in words2 in the ,lord's ,supper it is represented in visible form4 ,the ,lord's ,supper is related to the story of the gospel1 as the picture or the acted representation is related to ordinary discourse4 ,in the broken bread and poured-out wine we not only apprehend with the mind1 but actually see the broken body and shed blood of the ,lord4 ,of course that does not mean1 as the ,roman ,catholic ,church teaches1 that the bread and wine are actually by a miracle1 at every celebration of the ,supper1 changed into the body and blood of ,christ1 but only that they represent them4 ,the very simplicity of the sacrament should have guarded against misinterpretation4 ,an actual image of the dying ,saviour might lead to idolatry1 or to an overemphasis upon the details of the scene on ,calvary2 the simple representation that ,christ ordained is enough to be vivid1 without being enough to become misleading4 7#b7 ,a ,representation of ,our ,union with ,christ4--,the ,supper represents the death of ,christ not as a mere drama1 remote from us1 but as a death on our behalf4 ,in the ,supper we do not merely witness the breaking of the bread and the pouring out of the wine2 we partake of the bread and wine ourselves4 ,plainly the symbolism means that we who are disciples of ,christ do not merely admire the holy self-sacrifice of ,christ1 but rather receive the benefits of it4 ,we feed upon the body and blood of ,christ in the high spiritual sense that by faith we obtain from ,christ's death pardon for our sins and a fresh start in the full favor of ,god4 ,these benefits we obtain not by our own efforts1 but by a free gift4 ,it was ,christ himself who broke the bread and poured out the wine on the last evening before the crucifixion2 it is also ,christ who1 through his minister1 at every celebration of the sacrament1 is represented as offering to us his body and blood4 ,the ,lord's ,supper1 therefore1 is not merely a commemoration of an event in the past2 it is also the symbol of a present fact4 ,it symbolizes the blessed communion of believers with one another and with ,christ4 #e4 ,,the ,,sacraments ,,more ,,than ,a ,,proclamation ,,of ,,the ,,gospel ,so far we have considered the sacraments merely as one means of proclaiming the gospel4 ,the ,bible proclaims the gospel in words2 the sacraments proclaim it in pictures4 ,even if that were all1 the sacraments would be of great value4 ,by these symbolic actions the gospel message attains a new vividness and definiteness4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 baptism and the ,lord's ,supper are more than peculiar ways of making a vivid presentation of the gospel4 ,they were instituted especially by ,christ1 and the ,holy ,spirit has connected with them a special blessing4 ,the ,spirit can use what means he will1 and he has chosen to use these4 ,in the ,lord's ,supper1 for example1 the ,lord is really present in the midst of his people4 ,he is not present1 indeed1 in a corporal and carnal manner2 but his spiritual presence is a blessed fact4 ,the sacraments1 therefore1 should not be neglected4 ,in themselves1 when unaccompanied by faith1 they are valueless2 and they are not necessary for salvation4 ,ordinarily1 however1 they are a chosen means of blessing4 ,when ,god wills1 other means can take their place1 but under all ordinary circumstances they are used4 ,certainly they should not be neglected without adequate cause4 ,they have been provided by ,god1 and ,god is wiser than men4 ,the ,lord's ,supper should be received with solemnity2 but sometimes young ,christians have perhaps an exaggerated dread of it4 ,the error of the ,corinthian ,christians should indeed be carefully avoided2 wanton carelessness in the solemn act will of course bring the condemnation of ,god4 ,but the ,supper does not demand perfection1 even in faith2 on the contrary it is intended to help to remove imperfection4 ,the ,lord's ,supper is not a dangerous bit of magic1 where any little mistake might break the charm4 ,let us partake of it with a simple prayer1 and leave the results to the goodness of ,god4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 article on ,lord's ,supper2 ,purves1 article on ,baptism4 ,w4 ,w4 ,moore1 ,the ,indispensable ,book4 ,candlish1 ,the ,christian ,sacraments 7,in ,handbooks for ,bible ,classes1 edited by ,dods and ,whyte74 ,lilley1 ,the ,lord's ,supper4 ,,lesson ,,xliii ,,prayer #a4 ,,the ,,answerer ,,of ,,prayer ,the prayers of the apostolic age reveal with startling clearness the apostolic conception of ,god2 and one chief reason why our prayers fall short of the apostolic standard is that our idea of ,god is different4 7#a7 ,god ,is a ,person4--,in the first place1 true prayer always conceives of ,god as a ,person2 whereas much of modern religious thinking conceives of him as only another name for the world4 ,human life1 it is said1 is a part of the life of ,god2 every man1 to some degree1 is divine4 ,such a philosophy makes prayer logically impossible4 ,it is impossible for us to speak to an impersonal world-force of which we ourselves are merely an expression2 the personal distinction between man and ,god is absolutely essential to prayer4 ,the transcendence of ,god as over against the world is grandly expressed in the prayer of the ,jerusalem church1 which was studied in the ,student's ,text ,book2 the ,jerusalem ,christians addressed ,god as the ,lord who made the heaven and the earth and the sea1 and all that in them is4 ,acts #d3bd4 ,god1 in other words1 is not another name for the world1 but ,creator of the world4 ,he is indeed present in the world2 not a single thing that happens is independent of him2 the world would not continue for a moment without ,god's sustaining hand4 ,but that means1 not that ,god is identical with the world1 but that he is ,master of it4 ,god pervades all things2 he is present everywhere2 but he is also free4 ,that conception pervades all the prayers of the apostolic ,church2 in all of them man comes to ,god as one person to another4 ,god is free2 ,god can do what he will2 through ,christ he is our ,father4 ,he is not bound by his own works2 he is independent of nature2 he will overrule all things for the good of his children4 ,such is the ,god that can answer prayer4 7#b7 ,god ,is an ,infinite and ,holy ,person4--,if1 however1 the prayers of the apostolic age conceive of ,god as a ,person1 they also conceive of him as very different from men4 ,here1 also1 they provide a salutary example for the modern ,church4 ,many devout ,christians of to-day1 in avoiding the error which has just been described1 in thinking of ,god plainly as a person1 are inclined to fall into the opposite mistake4 ,in their clear realization of ,god as a person they think of him as a person exactly like ourselves4 ,they regard the difference between ,god and man as a difference of degree rather than a difference of kind2 they think of ,god as merely a greater man in the sky4 ,the result of such thinking is disastrous for prayer4 ,prayer1 to be sure1 is here not absolutely destroyed2 communion with ,god remains possible2 but such communion is degraded4 ,communion loses that sense of mystery and awe which properly belongs to it4 ,man becomes too familiar with ,god2 ,god takes merely the leading place in a circle of friends2 religion descends to the plane of other relationships4 ,prayer to such a ,god is apt to become irreverent4 ,if our prayers are to lift us fully into the presence of ,god they must never lie on the same plane with the communion that we enjoy with our fellow men1 but must be filled with a profound sense of ,god's majesty and power4 ,the danger of permitting prayer1 on account of its very privilege1 to become a commonplace thing is one that threatens us all4 ,it may be overcome1 however1 in the first place1 by the contemplation of nature4 ,the heavens declare the glory of ,god2 and the firmament showeth his handiwork--and it is a terrible1 mysterious ,god that they reveal4 ,the stupendous vastness of the universe and the baffling mystery of the surrounding infinity oppress the thoughtful mind with a profound sense of insignificance4 ,and ,god is the ,maker and ,ruler of it all1 the ,one in whom all the mystery finds its explanation6 ,such is the employment of nature in the prayer of the ,jerusalem church4 ,acts #d3bd4 ,all the prayers of the apostolic ,church illustrate the principle which is now being emphasized4 ,there is never anything trite or vulgar about the prayers that are contained in the ,new ,testament2 they are all characterized by a wonderful dignity and reverence4 ,if the infinity and omnipotence of ,god should prevent any irreverence in our prayers1 the thought of his holiness is perhaps even more overwhelming4 ,we are full of impurity4 ,who can stand before the white light of ,god's awful judgment throne8 7#c7 ,god ,is a ,gracious ,person4--,nevertheless1 despite the majesty and holiness of ,god1 he invites us into his presence4 ,it is a stupendous wonder4 ,no reasoning could have shown it to be probable2 only ignorance can regard it as a matter of course4 ,if ,god were only a somewhat greater man1 there would have been comparatively little mystery in prayer2 but communion with the infinite and eternal and holy ,one1 the unfathomed cause of all things1 is the wonder of wonders4 ,it is a wonder of ,god's grace4 ,it is too wonderful to be true2 yet it has become true in ,christ4 ,true prayer brings us not before some ,god of our own devising1 before whom we could stand in our own merit without fear1 but into the dread presence of ,jehovah4 ,let us not hesitate to go2 ,god has called us2 he loves us as a ,father1 far more than we can ever love him4 ,prayer is full of joy2 the joy is so great that it is akin to fear4 #b4 ,,the ,,influence ,,of ,,jesus' ,,teaching ,,upon ,,the ,,prayers ,,of ,,the ,,apostolic ,,church ,in studying the prayers of the apostolic age1 it must always be remembered that they stood upon the foundation of ,jesus' example and precept4 7#a7 ,the ,example of ,jesus4--,with all his power and holiness ,jesus was not above asking for strength to perform his gracious work2 after that long1 wearying day in ,capernaum he departed into a desert place1 and there prayed4 ,mark #a3ce4 ,in the hour of agony in ,gethsemane1 he prayed a truly human1 though holy1 prayer3 ,abba1 ,father1 all things are possible unto thee2 remove this cup from me3 howbeit not what ,i will1 but what thou wilt4 ,ch4 #ad3cf4 ,prayer1 moreover1 was not something which ,jesus reserved for himself2 clearly it was a privilege which he extended to all his disciples4 ,in the prayer that he taught his disciples1 he summed up all that our prayer should be4 ,matt4 #f3i-ae4 7#b7 ,god as ,father4--,one thing in particular was derived by the apostolic ,church from ,jesus--the conception of ,god as ,father4 ,this conception appears in the epistles of ,paul as a matter of course2 evidently it was firmly established among the readers2 it no longer required defense or explanation4 ,yet it had not lost1 through long repetition1 one whit of its freshness2 in ,paul it is never a mere phrase1 but always a profound spiritual fact4 ,obviously this idea of the fatherhood of ,god was of particular importance for prayer4 ,it taught the disciples to draw near to ,god with all holy reverence and confidence1 as children to a father1 able and ready to help them4 ,a characteristic way of addressing ,god even in the ,gentile churches of ,paul was ,abba1 ,father4 ,gal4 #d3f2 ,rom4 #h3ae4 ,the ,aramaic word ,abba is sufficient to show that this hallowed usage was based ultimately upon the teaching and example of ,jesus2 the word was the very one that ,jesus had used both in his own prayers1 for example in ,gethsemane1 ,mark #ad3cf1 and in the ,lord's ,prayer which he taught to his disciples4 7#c7 ,the ,right of ,sonship4--,what needs to be observed especially1 however1 is that the right of addressing ,god as our ,father was not in the apostolic ,church extended to all men4 ,certainly no justification for such an extension could have been found in the teaching of ,jesus2 it was not the unbelieving multitude1 but his own disciples1 to whom ,jesus taught the ,lord's ,prayer4 ,matt4 #e3a2 #f3i2 ,luke #aa3a1 #b4 ,paul is even more explicit2 the cry ,abba1 ,father was to him a proof that a great change had taken place1 that those who had been formerly under bondage to the world had now become sons of ,god4 ,this change ,paul represents especially under the figure of adoption1 ,gal4 #d3e2 men have to be adopted by ,god before they can call ,god ,father2 and adoption is accomplished only by the work of ,christ4 ,vs4 #d1e4 7#d7 ,the ,intercession of the ,spirit4--,the cry1 ,abba1 ,father can never be uttered by sinful man alone1 but only by the power of ,christ's ,spirit4 ,the prayers even of the redeemed are faulty4 ,but the ,holy ,spirit takes up their cry4 ,and in like manner the ,spirit also helpeth our infirmity3 for we know not how to pray as we ought2 but the ,spirit himself maketh intercession for us with groanings which cannot be uttered2 and he that searcheth the hearts knoweth what is the mind of the ,spirit1 because he maketh intercession for the saints according to the will of ,god4 ,rom4 #h3bf1 #bg4 ,there lies the true ground of confidence in prayer4 ,prayer does not derive its efficacy from any merit of its own1 but only from the goodness of ,god4 ,let us not worry too much as to whether our prayers are good or bad2 let them only be simple and sincere2 ,god knows our weakness2 his ,spirit will make intercession for us far better than we can intercede for ourselves4 #c4 ,,public ,,prayers ,,of ,,the ,,apostolic ,,church ,the few individual prayers that have been preserved from the apostolic age are for the most part prayers of a more or less public character4 ,the spontaneous outpourings of the hearts of individual saints before ,god would usually not be put into writing2 the full secrets of the prayer closet are known to ,god alone4 7#a7 ,spontaneity and ,sincerity4--,nevertheless1 the public character of the prayers of the ,new ,testament does not mean that they are cold and formal4 ,on the contrary1 at a time when set liturgies had not yet been formed1 public prayer possessed all the spontaneity of more private devotions2 the thought of the listening congregation or of a circle of readers did not bring any hampering restraint4 ,there is a sterling sincerity about all the prayers or fragments of prayers in the ,new ,testament4 7#b7 ,dignity4--,the spontaneity and sincerity of the prayers1 however1 did not involve any sacrifice of dignity4 ,the prayer of the ,jerusalem congregation1 ,acts #d3bd-cj1 is a marvel of exalted speech2 its employment of ,scripture phrase is an admirable example for public prayers of all ages4 ,that prayer received a glorious answer2 indeed the true prayer of the congregation never remains unheard4 ,christ's promise is always fulfilled2 where two or three are gathered together in his name there is he in the midst of them4 ,in the epistles1 there is to be found here and there what may be called1 if not the beginning of liturgy1 at any rate material of which a magnificent liturgy can be formed4 ,the benediction of ,heb4 #ac3bj1ba1 for example1 is characterized by a splendid rhythm as well as by true evangelical fervor4 ,such a prayer lifts the hearts of the congregation up into the presence of ,god4 ,there is use for beauty1 even in prayer2 and the truest beauty is to be found in the prayers of the ,bible4 #d4 ,,private ,,prayers ,,of ,,the ,,apostolic ,,church ,the apostolic guidance in prayer extends even to those private prayers which no one hears except ,god4 ,in this field1 the epistles of ,paul are of special value4 ,more fully than any other one man of the apostolic age1 ,paul has revealed the very secrets of ,christian experience2 and that experience is rooted in prayer4 ,a glance at the beginnings and endings of the epistles will be sufficient to show how fundamental prayer was in ,paul's life2 news of the churches was never received without issuing at once in thanksgiving or in intercession1 and ,paul desires1 not merely the good wishes1 but the prayers1 of his beloved converts4 ,paul practiced what he preached when he urged the ,thessalonian ,christians to pray without ceasing4 ,i ,thess4 #e3ag4 ,compare chs4 #a3c2 #b3ac2 ,rom4 #a3i2 ,,ii ,tim4 #a3c4 ,evidently1 moreover1 he regarded prayer as something far more than an incidental expression of the ,christian life2 he believed in its real efficacy with the ,ruler of the world4 #e4 ,,my ,,power ,,is ,,made ,,perfect ,,in ,,weakness ,one passage1 particularly1 will repay special study4 ,in ,,ii ,cor4 #ab3h1i1 we have information about the most intimate1 the most personal of the prayers of ,paul4 ,the apostle had been afflicted with a persistent illness2 it had apparently hampered him in his work1 and caused him acute distress4 ,in his trouble he called upon the ,lord2 and by that prayer ,paul's affliction has been made to redound to the lasting instruction and encouragement of the ,church4 7#a7 ,prayer ,concerning ,physical ,ills4--,in the first place1 the prayer concerns not spiritual matters1 or the needs of the ,church at large1 but a simple affair of the physical life4 ,as life is constituted here on earth1 we are intimately connected with the physical world2 the body is necessary to the soul4 ,but ,god is ,master of earth as well as of heaven2 even the simplest needs of life may be laid before him in prayer4 ,to teach us that1 we have here the example of ,paul1 as well as the precept of the ,saviour himself4 7#b7 ,the ,answer4--,in the second place1 the prayer was answered1 and answered in a very instructive way4 ,the illness was not removed2 but it was made an instrument of blessing4 ,the purpose of it was revealed3 ,my power1 said ,christ1 is made perfect in weakness4 ,physical suffering is worth while if it leads to heroism and faith4 ,such is often the ,lord's will4 ,he himself trod the path of suffering before us1 and in his case as in ours1 the path led to glory4 7#c7 ,the ,prayer ,addressed to ,christ4--,in the third place1 this prayer was addressed1 not to ,god the ,father1 but to ,christ4 ,compare ,acts #g3ei1fj4 ,without doubt the ,lord in ,,ii ,cor4 #ab3h1 as practically always in the ,pauline ,epistles1 refers to ,christ4 ,usually1 in the ,new ,testament1 prayer is addressed1 through ,christ1 to ,god the ,father2 but there is no reason why it should not be addressed to the ,son4 ,the ,son as well as the ,father is a living ,person2 and the ,son as well as the ,father is ,god4 ,it is well that we have apostolic examples for prayer addressed directly to the ,saviour4 ,christ1 to ,paul1 was no mere instrument in salvation1 that had served its purpose and was then removed2 he was alive and sovereign1 and the relation to him was a relation of love4 ,in a time of acute physical distress1 ,paul turned to the ,saviour4 ,three times he called1 and then the answer came4 ,the answer will always come in the ,lord's way1 not in ours2 but the ,lord's way is always best4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,bernard1 article on ,prayer 7,,iii74 ,thomas1 ,the ,prayers of ,st4 ,paul4 ,,lesson ,,xliv ,,the ,,congregation #a4 ,,congregational ,,meetings ,,in ,,palestine ,in studying the congregational meetings of the apostolic churches it must be remembered that the ,christian community in ,jerusalem continued for many years its participation in the worship of temple and synagogue4 ,specially ,christian meetings1 therefore1 were at first not the sole expression of the collective worship of the ,jerusalem ,christians4 ,nevertheless1 such meetings were undoubtedly held1 even from the beginning4 ,from the days when the one hundred and twenty brethren were gathered together before ,pentecost1 the ,church was not without some outward expression of its distinctive life4 7#a7 ,as ,indicated in ,the ,acts4--,the circumstances of such early meetings of the congregation are1 however1 obscure4 ,the very considerable numbers of the converts1 ,acts #b3da1dg2 #d3d2 #e3ad1 would perhaps sometimes make it difficult to gather the whole congregation together in one place2 if1 however1 that were done1 it would perhaps be usually in some part of the temple area4 ,there seem to have been general meetings--for example1 ,acts #ae3a-bi--;but it is perhaps not necessary to suppose that they included every individual member of the ,jerusalem church4 ,certainly1 however1 no members of that first ,christian community neglected the assembling of themselves together4 ,evidently the sense of brotherhood was strongly developed1 and evidently it expressed itself not only in the regular relief of the needy1 ,acts #f3a1 but also in meetings for instruction and worship and prayer4 ,ch4 #b3db2 #d3bc-ca4 ,these meetings were only outward indications of a wonderful unity of mind and heart4 ,ch4 #d3cb4 ,the cause of that unity was the common possession of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,as might have been expected in a book which is interested chiefly in the outward extension of the kingdom1 the book of ,the ,acts gives us little detailed information about the conduct of these earliest ,christian meetings4 ,probably1 however1 the example of the ,jewish synagogue made itself strongly felt4 ,there was no violent break with ,judaism2 a new spirit was infused into ancient forms4 ,the resemblance between the synagogue service and even the fully developed ,christian meetings of to-day was noted in connection with ,lesson ,,iv4 7#b7 ,as ,indicated in the ,epistle of ,james4--,the ,epistle of ,james perhaps helps somewhat to supply the need of detailed information4 ,that epistle1 as was observed in ,lesson ,,xxxii1 was written by the head of the ,jerusalem ,church1 and probably to ,jewish ,christians before ,a4,d4 #di4 ,apparently1 therefore1 we have in ,james #b3a-f some welcome information about ,christian assemblies1 if not in ,jerusalem1 at least in other ,jewish ,christian churches4 ,in v4 #b1 the word synagogue is applied to the meeting which is described1 but that word in ,greek means simply gathering together--almost the same word is used in ,heb4 #aj3be4 ,the use of the word by ,james shows simply that at that early time synagogue had not become purely a technical designation of a non-,christian ,jewish assembly4 ,so interpreted1 the passage in ,james indicates--what might indeed have been expected--that the early ,christian meetings were not always perfect4 ,a ,pharisaical habit of respect of persons and desire for the chief seats had crept even into the ,church4 ,if similar faults appear in modern times1 we should not despair1 but should fight against them in the spirit of ,james4 #b4 ,,congregational ,,meetings ,,in ,,the ,,pauline ,,churches ,with regard to the ,pauline churches information about the conduct of religious services is far more abundant than it is with regard to the churches of ,palestine2 for we have here the inestimable assistance of the ,pauline ,epistles4 ,the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 especially1 is a mine of information2 but much can also be learned elsewhere4 7#a7 ,the ,place of ,meeting4--,from ,the ,acts it appears that ,paul regularly began his work in any city by preaching in the ,jewish synagogue1 but that the opposition of the ,jews soon made it necessary to find another meeting place4 ,often1 a private house1 belonging to one of the converts1 served the purpose4 ,rom4 #af3bc2 ,i ,cor4 #af3ai2 ,col4 #d3ae2 ,philem4 #b4 ,sometimes there seem to have been a number of such house-churches in the same city2 yet common meetings of all the ,christians of the city seem also to be presupposed4 ,in ,ephesus ,paul used for his evangelistic work a building or a room belonging to a certain ,tyrannus1 who was probably a rhetorician4 ,the erection of buildings especially for ,christian use belongs of course to a considerably later time4 7#b7 ,the ,time of ,meeting4--,the frequency of the meetings does not appear1 and may well have varied according to circumstances4 ,there is some indication1 however1 that the first day of the week1 the present ,sunday1 was especially singled out for religious services4 ,i ,cor4 #af3b2 ,acts #bj3g4 ,the same day is apparently called the ,lord's day in ,rev4 #a3aj4 7#c7 ,temporary ,gifts of the ,spirit4--,in the actual conduct of the meetings1 some features appear which are not to be observed in the modern ,church4 ,a number of the gifts discussed in ,i ,cor41 chs4 #ab to #ad--;for example1 miracles1 speaking with tongues1 the interpretation of tongues1 and prophecy in the strict sense--have become extinct4 ,the cessation of them need cause no wonder2 the apostolic age was a time of beginnings1 when the ,church was being established by the immediate exercise of the power of ,god2 it is no wonder that at such a time the ,spirit manifested himself as he did not in later generations4 ,there is a fundamental difference between the apostolic age and all subsequent periods in the history of the ,church4 ,nevertheless1 all the essential features of our modern church services were present from the earliest time about which we have detailed information4 ,the example of the apostles is here very explicit4 7#d7 ,scripture-,reading4--,in the first place1 the ,pauline churches certainly practiced the reading of the ,bible4 ,that would be proved sufficiently by the evident familiarity of the ,christians with the ,old ,testament ,scriptures2 for in those days such familiarity would undoubtedly be received in large measure by having the ,bible read aloud4 ,the example of the synagogue would also have its influence4 ,it must be remembered that some even of the ,gentile converts were familiar with the synagogue service before they became ,christians4 ,but there is also the explicit testimony of ,i ,thess4 #e3bg1 ,col4 #d3af4 ,there the reading of ,pauline ,epistles is specifically enjoined4 ,the ,apocalypse also was clearly intended to be read aloud4 ,rev4 #a3c2 #bb3ah4 7#e7 ,preaching4--,in the second place1 there was preaching4 ,no doubt this part of the service often took a somewhat different form from that which it assumes to-day4 ,prophecy1 for example1 was a kind of preaching which has been discontinued4 ,the exercise of the gift of teaching perhaps corresponded more closely to the sermons of the present day2 certainly an exposition of the ,scripture passages read would have been according to the analogy of the ,jewish synagogue4 ,at any rate1 in some form or other1 there was certainly instruction in the ,scriptures and in the gospel1 and exhortation based upon that instruction4 7#f7 ,prayer4--,in the third place1 there was prayer2 directions for public prayer are given at some length in ,i ,tim41 ch4 #b2 and there are indications that prayer was practiced also in the meetings of the ,corinthian church4 ,see for example1 ,i ,cor4 #aa3d1e4 7#g7 ,singing4--,in the fourth place1 there was probably singing1 though the direct information about this part of the service is slight4 ,see1 for example1 ,i ,cor4 #ad3bf4 ,certainly no elaborate argument is necessary in order to exhibit the ,scripture warrant for singing in the worship of ,god4 ,psalms were sung in ,old ,testament times to an instrumental accompaniment1 and there is no evidence that the customs of the ,church were changed in this respect under the new dispensation4 ,indeed1 if singing is an expression of joy1 it would seem to be especially in place after the fulfillment of the promises has come4 #c4 ,,paul',s ,,directions ,,for ,,congregational ,,meetings ,two features balance each other in ,paul's directions for the public worship of the ,corinthian church4 7#a7 ,the ,principle of ,freedom4--,in the first place he is in full sympathy with the freedom and informality that prevailed4 ,there seem to have been no set speakers in ,corinth2 every man spoke as the spirit gave him utterance2 the service must have been characterized by great variety4 ,this variety1 ,paul says1 is not disturbing1 because it finds its higher unity in the ,holy ,spirit4 ,there are diversities of gifts1 but the same ,spirit4 ,i ,cor4 #ab3d4 7#b7 ,the ,principle of ,dignity4--,in the second place1 however1 ,paul has a strong sense of dignity4 ,the enthusiastic expression of religious feeling must not degenerate into anything like a senseless orgy2 spiritual gifts1 however exalted1 are not independent of reason4 ,the spirits of the prophets are subject to the prophets2 for ,god is not a ,god of confusion1 but of peace4 ,i ,cor4 #ad3cb1cc4 ,let all things be done decently and in order4 ,v4 #dj4 ,dignity was to be preserved1 moreover1 not merely in the ordering of the service itself1 but also in the dress and behavior of those who took part4 ,so much at least is clear in the difficult passage1 ch4 #aa3b-af4 ,apparently the full equality which was granted to women in the ,christian life led the women of the ,corinthian congregation to give a kind of expression to their freedom which at least at that time was not seemly4 ,paul detected the danger and guarded against it4 ,the lesson always needs to be learned4 ,however dignity may be preserved in detail1 in any particular country and at any particular time1 the principle itself should always be borne in mind exactly as ,paul enunciated it4 ,at a later period in the apostolic age1 the sense of dignity seems to have found expression in a quieter sort of religious service than that which prevailed at the time of ,first ,corinthians4 ,the ,first ,epistle to ,timothy lays great stress upon sobriety and gravity in various departments of the life of the ,church4 7#c7 ,the ,principle of ,love4--,these two principles--the principle of freedom and the principle of dignity--are kept each in its own proper place only when they are submitted to the governance of a higher principle4 ,that higher principle is love4 ,the ultimate aim of congregational meetings1 according to ,paul1 is not the benefit of the individual1 but the edification of the whole body1 and of the stranger who may come in4 ,the man who has the principle of ,christian love in his heart1 as it is grandly described in ,i ,cor41 ch4 #ac1 will never push himself forward in the congregation in such a way as to display his own spiritual gifts at the expense of others4 ,on the other hand1 he will not be inclined to check the operations of the ,spirit2 it is the ,spirit alone who can convert the stranger1 it is the ,spirit alone who can build up ,christian people in the life of faith and hope and love4 ,the principle of love is often neglected in the modern ,church4 ,people say they will not go to church because they get nothing out of it4 ,no doubt they are mistaken2 no doubt if they did go1 the benefit would appear clearly in the long run in their own lives4 ,but at any rate they have ignored the highest motive altogether4 ,we should go to church not only to obtain benefit for ourselves1 but also1 and especially1 to benefit our brethren by joining with them in worship1 in prayer and in instruction4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible2 ,gayford1 article on ,church2 ,adeney1 article on ,worship 7in ,n4,t474 ,charteris1 ,the ,church of ,christ1 pp4 #dd-ij4 ,,lesson ,,xlv ,,the ,,relief ,,of ,,the ,,needy ,in the ,student's ,text ,book1 special emphasis was laid upon the relief of the needy as it was practiced in the ,jerusalem church4 ,here it may be well to supplement what was there said by a somewhat more detailed treatment of the great collection that was undertaken by ,paul4 ,the exposition will serve to illustrate the apostolic principles of ,christian giving4 #a4 ,,the ,,pauline ,,collection ,,according ,,to ,,first ,,corinthians 7#a7 ,the ,beginning in ,galatia and in ,corinth4--,writing from ,ephesus during his long stay in that city1 ,acts #ai3a to #bj3a1 ,paul tells the ,corinthians that he had already given directions about the collection to the churches of ,galatia1 ,i ,cor4 #af3a2 he had probably done so either during the second visit to ,galatia1 ,acts #ah3bc1 or by letter after his arrival at ,ephesus4 ,now1 at any rate1 he asks the ,corinthians--very simply and briefly1 and evidently presupposing previous information on the part of his readers--to prosecute the collection during his absence in order that when he should arrive at ,corinth everything might be ready4 7#b7 ,laying in ,store on the ,first ,day of the ,week4--,the manner in which the collection was to be managed is exceedingly interesting4 ,upon the first day of the week1 ,paul says1 let each one of you lay by him in store1 as he may prosper4 ,i ,cor4 #af3b4 ,apparently no permanent church treasury was used for the reception of the gifts1 every man was to save his own money at home1 very much as private collection barrels are used to-day4 ,the laying up of the money1 however1 was to take place on the first day of the week2 we have here probably an early trace of the ,christian ,sabbath4 ,perhaps we may conclude that the act of giving was regarded as a part of religious worship4 ,such a conclusion is at any rate in thorough harmony with all that ,paul says about the collection4 ,some people seem to feel that the taking of an offering rather mars the dignity of a church service4 ,in reality it has that effect only if it is executed in the wrong spirit4 ,christian giving is treated by ,paul as a legitimate part of the worship of ,god4 7#c7 ,the ,delegates of the ,corinthian ,church4--,when ,paul should arrive at ,corinth1 he was to receive the collection and either send or take it to ,jerusalem by the help of delegates whom the ,corinthians themselves should choose4 ,the purpose of choosing these delegates appears more plainly in ,second ,corinthians4 #b4 ,,the ,,pauline ,,collection ,,according ,,to ,,second ,,corinthians 7#a7 ,the ,situation4--,after the writing of the ,first ,epistle to the ,corinthians1 there had followed a period of serious estrangement between ,paul and the ,corinthian church4 ,naturally enough the collection suffered during this period1 as did other ,christian activities4 ,at the time of ,second ,corinthians1 perhaps about a year after the first letter had been written1 ,paul was obliged to remind his readers that although they had begun the work the year before1 much remained still to be done4 ,,ii ,cor4 #h3aj2 #i3b4 ,nevertheless1 ,titus1 during his recent visit to ,corinth1 when the repentance of the church had become manifest1 had apparently been able to take the matter again in hand4 ,such seems to be the most probable interpretation of ch4 #h3f2 #ab3ah4 ,if ,titus did take up the matter on the very visit when the rebellion against ,paul had been only with difficulty quelled1 that is a striking indication of the importance which ,paul and his associates attributed to the collection4 ,it was not a matter that could wait until some convenient season2 it had to be taken in hand vigorously1 even perhaps at the risk of misunderstanding and suspicion1 the very moment when ,paul's relation to the church became again tolerably good4 7#b7 ,courtesy of ,paul4--,like all of ,paul's management of money matters1 his treatment of the collection is characterized by admirable delicacy and tact4 ,instead of berating the ,corinthians roundly for their delinquency1 as so many modern organizers would have done1 he seeks to win them over by worthier methods4 ,he points1 indeed1 to the example of the ,macedonian ,christians1 in order to fire the zeal of the ,corinthians2 the poverty of the ,macedonian churches had not stood in the way of their liberality2 they had given up to their power and indeed beyond their power2 they had given1 not of compulsion1 but willingly1 dedicating themselves as well as their goods to the ,lord4 ,,ii ,cor4 #h3a-e4 ,but the ,corinthians are allowed to draw their own conclusion2 ,paul does not force it upon them4 ,he does not press the matter home brutally2 he does not put the ,corinthians to shame by expressly pointing out how much more generously the poorer ,macedonian ,christians had contributed than they4 ,indeed he gives his readers full credit2 he courteously calls their attention to the fact that it was they who had made the beginning1 v4 #aj1 and that he had been able to boast of them to the ,macedonians1 so that their zeal had stirred up their ,macedonian brethren4 ,ch4 #i3a1b4 ,he appeals especially to the pride that they ought to feel in the boasting which ,paul had ventured upon in their behalf2 ,paul had boasted to the ,macedonians that ,achaia had been prepared for a year2 how sad an end it would be to such boasting if ,macedonians should go to ,corinth with ,paul and should find that the collection was not ready after all6 ,paul urges the ,corinthians not to leave any part of the work until after his arrival2 if they do1 they will put both him and themselves to shame4 ,vs4 #a-e4 ,with equal delicacy ,paul hints that the achievements of the ,corinthians in other directions ought to be supplemented by this grace of giving4 ,the ,corinthians1 according to the first epistle1 had been very proud of their power of utterance and their knowledge2 to these ,paul can now add--after the loyalty of the church has finally been established--earnestness and love1 ,,ii ,cor4 #h3f-h2 but all these excellences will be incomplete unless there is also liberality4 ,the ,christian life must express itself in the simpler graces1 if the more conspicuous activities are to be of genuine value4 7#c7 ,no ,unfair ,burdens to ,be ,borne4--,the delicacy of ,paul's treatment of the matter is observed also in ,,ii ,cor4 #h3aj-ae2 he is careful to explain that the ,corinthians are not asked to lay unfair burdens upon themselves4 ,there should be an equality among ,christians2 it is now time for the ,corinthians to give rather than to receive1 but if circumstances should change they might count on the aid of their brethren4 ,furthermore1 no one should be discouraged if he can give only a little2 if the readiness is there1 it is acceptable according as a man hath1 not according as he hath not4 7#d7 ,cheerful ,giving4--,paul urges his readers1 indeed1 to be bountiful4 ,he that soweth sparingly shall reap also sparingly2 and he that soweth bountifully shall reap also bountifully4 ,,ii ,cor4 #i3f4 ,but this bountifulness was to be secured1 not by pressing out the last cent1 but by promoting real cheerfulness in giving4 ,let each man do according as he hath purposed in his heart3 not grudgingly1 or of necessity3 for ,god loveth a cheerful giver4 ,the ,pauline method is wisest in the end4 ,men can seldom be bullied into liberality2 they will give liberally only when giving becomes1 not a mere duty1 but a joy4 ,cheerfulness in giving1 moreover1 possesses a value of its own1 quite aside from the amount of the gift2 it is a true expression of ,christian communion4 7#e7 ,the ,unity of the ,church4--,probably ,paul desired to accomplish by the collection something even more important than the relief of the ,jerusalem poor4 ,many ,palestinian ,christians--not only extreme ,judaizers1 but also apparently considerable numbers among the rank and file--had been suspicious of the ,gentile mission4 ,acts #ba3bj1ba4 ,such suspicions would be allayed by deeds more effectively than by words2 a generous offering for the poor of the ,jerusalem church would show that ,jews and ,gentiles were really united in the bonds of ,christian love4 ,,ii ,cor4 #i3ab-ad4 7#f7 ,the ,glory of ,god4--,ultimately1 however1 the purpose of the collection1 as of all other ,christian activities1 is to be found1 according to ,paul1 in ,god4 ,for the ministration of this service not only filleth up the measure of the wants of the saints1 but aboundeth also through many thanksgivings unto ,god4 ,the unity of the ,church1 inspiring though it is1 is desired1 not for its own sake1 but for the sake of the glory of ,god4 ,by the simple means of the collection1 ,paul hopes to present a united ,church--united in thanksgiving and in love--as some poor1 human return to him who has granted us all the unspeakable gift of salvation through his ,son4 7#g7 ,sound ,business ,methods4--,the arrangements which ,paul made for the administration of the gifts are as instructive in their way as are the lofty principles that he applied4 ,in order to avoid base suspicions1 ,,ii ,cor4 #h3bj2 #ab3af-ah1 he determined that delegates approved by the ,corinthians themselves should carry the gifts to ,jerusalem1 ,i ,cor4 #af3c1d1 and secured for the prosecution of the work in ,corinth men who had the full indorsement of the churches4 ,,ii ,cor4 #h3af-bd4 ,the lesson is worth learning4 ,it will not do to be careless about the money matters of the ,church2 it will not do to say that the ,church is above suspicion4 ,like ,paul1 we take thought for things honorable1 not only in the sight of the ,lord1 but also in the sight of men4 ,in other words1 we must be not only honorable in managing the money affairs of the ,church1 but also demonstrably honorable4 ,to that end sound business methods should always be used4 ,the accounts of the ,church should be audited1 not with less care1 but if anything with more care1 than those of ordinary business enterprises4 #c4 ,,the ,,pauline ,,collection ,,according ,,to ,,romans ,in the ,epistle to the ,romans1 written from ,corinth a little after the time of ,second ,corinthians1 ,paul speaks of the collection again4 ,rom4 #ae3bb-bi1ca4 ,he is on the point of going with the gifts to ,jerusalem1 and asks the ,roman ,christians to pray that the ministration of the ,gentiles may be acceptable to the saints4 ,there is no reason to suppose that such prayers were unanswered2 ,paul was cordially received by the ,jerusalem ,christians1 ,acts #ba3ag-bf2 the trouble which caused his arrest came from non-,christian ,jews4 #d4 ,,to ,,whom ,,was ,,relief ,,extended8 7#a7 ,breadth of ,christian ,sympathy4--,the relief of the needy in the apostolic ,church1 as it has been studied in the present lesson1 concerned1 not outsiders1 but ,christian brethren4 ,this fact certainly does not mean that the early ,christians were narrow in their sympathies2 they had received from ,jesus the command to love their enemies1 and the command was reiterated by the apostles4 ,rom4 #ab3bj4 ,they were commanded1 furthermore1 to work that which is good toward all men4 ,gal4 #f3aj4 7#b7 ,special ,attention to ,christian ,brethren4--,there were reasons1 however1 why such good works should be directed especially toward them that are of the household of the faith4 7a7 ,the ,special ,rights of ,brethren4--,in the first place1 there was a general reason1 which applies to all ages4 ,though the ,church has a duty to all men1 it has a special duty to its own members2 for ,christian people to allow their brethren to starve is as unnatural as for a father to neglect a son1 or a husband a wife4 ,community in the faith does create a special bond1 which should make itself felt in all departments of life4 ,it should be observed that in the matter of the collection ,paul takes altogether for granted the right of the poor saints to the support of the ,church4 ,he does not think it worth while to go into details about the suffering of the ,jerusalem poor2 he does not attempt to play upon the sympathies of his readers2 he does not patronizingly represent the recipients of the bounty as paupers4 ,indeed1 the ,jerusalem ,christians1 he tells the ,romans1 though they are receiving material aid1 are not really debtors1 but rather creditors4 ,if the ,gentiles have been made partakers of their spiritual things1 they owe it to them also to minister unto them in carnal things4 ,rom4 #ae3bg4 ,this attitude toward poorer ,christians is worthy of all emulation4 ,aid to the brethren is not charity1 in the degraded sense which that fine word has unfortunately assumed1 but a solemn and yet joyful duty4 ,it should never be undertaken in a patronizing spirit1 but in a spirit of love that multiplies the value of the gift4 7b7 ,avoidance of ,idleness in the ,church4--,on the other hand1 however1 the apostolic ,church did not encourage begging or pauperism4 ,what the special reason was for the poverty of the ,jerusalem church we do not know4 ,perhaps many of the ,jerusalem ,christians had been obliged to leave their homes in ,galilee and in the ,dispersion4 ,at any rate1 we may assume that the poverty of the church was not due to idleness4 ,in the ,thessalonian epistles ,paul takes occasion to warn his converts against an idle life2 they are to do their own business and work with their hands2 if any will not work1 neither let him eat4 ,i ,thess4 #d3aj-ab2 ,,ii ,thess4 #c3f-ae4 ,certainly ,paul was the best example of such diligence2 despite his wonderful gifts and lofty duties he had made himself independent by manual labor4 ,in the ,first ,epistle to ,timothy1 moreover1 particular precautions are taken against allowing the bounty of the ,church to be abused4 ,i ,tim4 #e3c-af4 ,the treatment of the poor in the apostolic ,church exhibits everywhere an admirable combination of common sense with lofty idealism4 7c7 ,conditions in the ,apostolic ,church and ,conditions ,to-day4--,if the gifts of the apostolic ,church were devoted chiefly to ,christian brethren rather than to outsiders1 that is no justification for such limitation to-day4 ,in the apostolic age there were special reasons why the ,church could not often deal extensively with the material needs of the world at large4 ,the ,church was exceedingly poor2 many of the converts probably suffered serious losses by the very fact of their being ,christians2 under such conditions the first duty was obviously at home4 ,conditions to-day are widely different4 ,the ,church has become wealthy2 she is well able to extend her ministrations far and wide4 ,only by unlimited breadth of service will she really be true to the example of ,jesus and of his first disciples2 only by universal helpfulness will she be true to her great commission4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,uhlhorn1 ,christian ,charity in the ,ancient ,church4 ,brace1 ,gesta ,christi1 pp4 #ic-aje4 ,charteris1 ,the ,church of ,christ1 pp4 #ia-abi4 ,,lesson ,,xlvi ,,organizing ,,for ,,service ,whatever the organization of a body of ,christians may be1 the body itself is a true branch of the ,church if it consists of those who believe in ,christ4 ,nevertheless1 if the ,church is to be more than an aggregation of individuals1 if it is not only to be something1 but also to do something1 it requires some sort of organization4 ,this fundamental need was clearly recognized in the apostolic age2 and it was met by certain provisions which we believe ought still to be followed4 ,these provisions1 however1 do not amount to anything like an elaborate constitution2 they do not hinder adaptation to changing conditions4 #a4 ,,elders ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,pastoral ,,epistles ,in the ,pastoral ,epistles1 which afford more detailed information about organization than is to be found anywhere else in the ,new ,testament1 the government of the local church is seen to be intrusted to a body of elders1 with whom deacons are associated4 ,no one of the elders1 so far as can be detected1 possessed authority at all different in kind from the authority of the others2 all had the function of ruling2 all were overseers or bishops of the church4 ,the functions of the elders are not described in detail2 but evidently they had a general oversight over the affairs of the congregation4 ,that is the meaning of the word bishop as it is applied to them4 ,some of them at least also labored in the word and in teaching1 but all seem to have been alike in their function of bearing rule4 #b4 ,,elders ,,according ,,to ,,the ,,presbyterian ,,form ,,of ,,government ,the similarity of such an arrangement to our own ,presbyterian form of government is plain4 ,our churches also are governed not by an individual1 but by a body of elders who are equal to one another in authority4 ,changing conditions have of course introduced elaboration of the simple apostolic model4 ,thus the teaching function1 for example1 which in apostolic times was perhaps exercised more or less informally by those of the elders who possessed the gifts for it1 is now naturally assigned for the most part to men who have received a special training4 ,these teaching elders in our church are the ministers4 ,conditions have become so complex that men of special training1 who devote their whole time to the work of the ,church1 are imperatively required4 ,the pastors and teachers1 ,eph4 #d3aa1 even in the apostolic ,church1 seem to have formed a fairly definite group4 ,this class of gifts is exercised to-day especially by the ministers1 though similar functions should also be exercised by other members of the ,church4 #c4 ,,how ,,were ,,elders ,,to ,,be ,,chosen8 ,with regard to the government of the apostolic ,church a number of interesting questions can never be definitely answered4 ,for example1 how were the elders to be chosen8 7#a7 ,sometimes ,appointed by the ,apostles4--,such passages as ,acts #ad3bc2 ,titus #a3e1 do not settle the question4 ,according to the former passage1 elders were appointed in the churches of southern ,galatia by ,paul and ,barnabas4 ,but it must be remembered that the authority of the apostles was peculiar and temporary4 ,because the apostles had power to appoint elders it does not follow that any individuals at a later time would possess a similar power4 ,the situation1 at the time of the first ,christian mission1 was peculiar2 small bodies of ,christians had just been rescued from heathenism2 at first they would need a kind of guidance which could afterwards safely be withdrawn4 ,according to ,titus #a3e1 ,titus was to appoint elders in the churches of ,crete4 ,but clearly ,titus1 like ,timothy1 was merely a special and temporary representative of the apostle ,paul2 for ,titus to appoint elders1 under the definite direction of ,paul1 was no more significant than for ,paul to appoint them himself4 7#b7 ,the ,right of ,congregational ,election4--,on the whole1 it may be confidently maintained that the ,presbyterian method of choosing elders--namely the method of election by the whole congregation--is more in accordance with the spirit of apostolic precedent than any other method that has been proposed4 ,throughout the apostolic ,church1 the congregation was evidently given a very large place in all departments of the ,christian life4 ,the ,jerusalem congregation1 for example1 had a decisive voice in choosing the very first ,church officers who are known to have been added to the apostles4 ,acts #f3b-f4 ,in ,thessalonica and in ,corinth the whole congregation was active in the matter of church discipline4 ,,ii ,thess4 #c3ad1ae2 ,i ,cor4 #e3c-e2 ,,ii ,cor4 #b3f4 ,the whole congregation was also invited to choose delegates for carrying the gifts of the ,corinthian church to ,jerusalem4 ,i ,cor4 #af3c4 ,these are merely examples4 ,it must be remembered1 moreover1 that the authority of the congregation in the apostolic age was limited by the authority of the apostles1 which was special and temporary2 when the apostles should be removed1 the congregational functions would be increased4 ,yet even the apostles were exceedingly careful not to destroy the liberties of the rank and file4 ,nowhere in the apostolic ,church were the ordinary church members treated as though they were without rights and without responsibilities4 ,indeed1 even when the apostles appointed elders1 they may have previously ascertained the preferences of the people4 #d4 ,,the ,,apostolic ,,precedent ,,and ,,departures ,,from ,,it ,the presbyterial form of church government--that is1 government by a body of elders--which is found in the apostolic age1 differs strikingly from certain later developments4 ,in several particulars1 at least1 principles have become prevalent which are at variance with the apostolic model4 7#a7 ,the ,monarchical ,episcopate4--,the first particular concerns the relation of the church officers to one another4 ,in the apostolic ,church1 as we have observed1 there was a parity among the elders2 the local congregation was governed1 not by an individual1 but by a body4 ,as early1 however1 as the first part of the second century1 a change had taken place1 at least in many of the churches4 ,the supreme authority had come to be held by an individual1 called bishop2 all other officers were clearly subordinate to him2 the government of the local congregation was no longer presbyterial1 but monarchical2 the so-called monarchical episcopate had been formed4 ,this state of affairs appears clearly in the epistles of ,ignatius1 which were written a short time before ,a4 ,d4 #aag4 ,but all attempts to find traces of the monarchical episcopate in the apostolic age have resulted in failure4 ,the ,greek word episcopos1 which is translated in the ,english ,bible--rather misleadingly1 perhaps--by bishop1 is applied1 not to a special officer standing above the elders1 but simply to the elders themselves4 ,elder designates the office2 episcopos designates one function of the office4 ,the latter word could hardly have been used in this general way if it had already acquired its technical significance4 ,the efforts which have been made to discover references to the office of bishop in the apostolic age are unconvincing4 ,it is exceedingly doubtful whether the angels of the seven churches to which messages are sent in the ,apocalypse are to be regarded as church officers2 and even if they were church officers it is by no means clear that they exercised the functions of bishops4 ,undoubtedly ,timothy and ,titus appear in the ,pastoral ,epistles with functions similar in many respects to those of bishops1 but it is also clear that they exercised those functions1 not as officers of the ,church who might have successors1 but merely as temporary representatives of the apostle ,paul4 7#b7 ,the ,priesthood of the ,clergy4--,an even more important divergence from apostolic conditions concerns the functions of the church officers4 ,according to a theory which has become widely prevalent1 certain officers of the ,church are to be regarded as priests--that is1 they are mediators between ,god and man4 ,curiously enough the ,english word priest1 is nothing but another form of the word presbyter1 which means elder2 presbyter is only priest writ large4 ,in actual usage1 however1 priest means vastly more than presbyter2 it designates a man who represents men to ,god and mediates ,god's actions to men4 ,so understood1 the term is never applied in the ,new ,testament to church officers as such4 ,according to the ,new ,testament1 the only priest 7in the strict sense7 under the new dispensation is ,christ2 ,christ is the only mediator between ,god and man1 ,i ,tim4 #b3e2 the high-priesthood of ,christ is elaborated in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews4 ,in another sense1 indeed1 all believers are priests1 ,i ,peter #b3e1i2 ,rev4 #a3f2 #e3aj2 #bj3f2 all have the right of direct access to ,god2 all are devoted to a holy service4 ,the idea of a special priesthood in the ,christian ,church is strikingly at variance with the apostolic teaching4 7#c7 ,apostolic ,succession4--,another point of variance concerns the manner in which the officers of the ,church should receive their authority4 ,by a theory prevalent in the ,church of ,england and in the ,protestant ,episcopal ,church in ,america as well as in the ,greek and ,roman ,catholic ,churches1 the authority of the clergy has been received through an unbroken line of transmission from the apostles2 the immediate successors of the apostles received the right of handing down the commission to others1 and so on through the centuries2 without an ordination derived in this way no one can be a ruler in the true ,church2 and without submission to such regularly ordained rulers no body of persons can constitute a branch of the true ,church4 ,this theory places a tremendous power in the hands of a definite body of persons whose moral qualifications for wielding that power are often more than doubtful4 ,surely so stupendous a claim can be made good only by the clear pronouncement of a recognized authority4 ,such a pronouncement is not to be found in the ,new ,testament4 ,there is not the slightest evidence to show that the apostles provided for a transmission of their authority through a succession of persons4 ,on the contrary1 their authority seems to have been special and temporary1 like the miraculous powers with which they were endowed4 ,the regular church officers who were appointed in the apostolic age evidently possessed no apostolic authority2 however chosen1 they were essentially representatives of the congregation4 ,a true branch of the ,church could exist1 at least in theory1 without any officers at all1 wherever true believers were together2 the ,church did not depend upon the officers1 but the officers upon the ,church4 #e4 ,,relations ,,of ,,the ,,congregations ,,to ,,one ,,another ,so far1 the organization of the apostolic ,church has been considered only in so far as it concerned the individual congregation2 a word must now be said about the relation of the congregations to one another4 ,that relation1 in the apostolic age1 was undoubtedly very close4 ,the ,pauline ,epistles1 in particular1 give an impression of active intercourse among the churches4 ,the ,thessalonian ,christians became an ensample to all that believe in ,macedonia and in ,achaia2 the story of their conversion became known in every place4 ,i ,thess4 #a3g-aj4 ,in the matter of the collection1 ,macedonia stirred up ,achaia1 and ,achaia ,macedonia4 ,,ii ,cor4 #h3a-f2 #i3a-d4 ,the faith of the ,roman ,christians was proclaimed throughout the whole world4 ,rom4 #a3h4 ,judea heard of the missionary labors of ,paul1 ,gal4 #a3ba-bd2 fellowship between ,jews and ,gentiles was maintained by the collection for the ,jerusalem saints4 ,evidently the apostolic ,church was animated by a strong sense of unity4 ,this feeling of unity was maintained especially by the instrumentality of the apostles1 who1 with their helpers1 traveled from one congregation to another1 and exerted a unifying authority over all4 ,certainly there was nothing like a universal ,church council2 ,christian fellowship was maintained in a thoroughly informal way4 ,in order that such fellowship should be permanent1 however1 there would obviously be an increasing need for some sort of official union among the congregations4 ,when the apostles passed away1 their place would have to be taken by representative assemblies2 increasing complexity of life brought increasing need of organization4 ,the representative assemblies of our own ,church1 therefore1 meet an obvious need2 and both in their free1 representative character and in their unifying purpose it may fairly be claimed that they are true to the spirit of the apostolic age4 #f4 ,,principles ,the apostolic precedent with regard to organization should always be followed in spirit as well as in form4 ,three principles1 especially1 are to be observed in the ,church organization of the apostolic age4 ,in the first place1 there was considerable freedom in details4 ,no ,christian who had gifts of any kind was ordinarily prevented from exercising them4 ,in the second place1 there was respect for the constituted authority1 whatever it might be4 ,such respect1 moreover1 was not blind devotion to a ruling class1 but the respect which is ennobled by love4 ,finally1 in ,church organization1 as in all the affairs of life1 what was regarded as really essential was the presence of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,when ,timothy laid his hands upon a new elder1 the act signified the bestowal of1 or the prayer for1 divine favor4 ,this last lesson1 especially1 needs to be learned to-day4 ,without the grace of ,god1 the best of ,church organizations is mere machinery without power4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,davis1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 articles on ,elder1 ,deacon1 ,deaconess1 ,laying on of ,hands4 ,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,gayford1 article on ,church2 ,gwatkin1 article on ,church ,government in the ,apostolic ,age4 ,lightfoot1 ,the ,christian ,ministry1 in ,saint ,paul's ,epistle to the ,philippians1 pp4 #aha-bfi1 and in ,dissertations on the ,apostolic ,age1 pp4 #ace-bch4 ,charteris1 ,the ,church of ,christ1 pp4 #a-dc1 #acj-agj1 #bje-bci4 ,falconer1 ,from ,apostle to ,priest4 ,mac,pherson1 ,presbyterianism 7in ,handbooks for ,bible ,classes74 ,,lesson ,,xlvii ,a ,,mission ,,for ,,the ,,world #a4 ,,judaism ,,and ,,christianity ,in teaching the lesson in class1 it might be well simply to review the principal steps in the geographical extension of the apostolic ,church4 ,this geographical advance1 however1 was made possible only by an advance in principles which should not be ignored4 ,the really great step in the early ,christian mission was not the progress from ,jerusalem to ,antioch1 or from ,antioch to ,asia ,minor and to ,greece1 but the progress from a national to a universal religion4 ,judaism1 despite its missionary activity1 always identified the ,church more or less closely with the nation2 it was a distinctly national religion4 ,full union with it meant the abandonment of one's own racial and national relationships4 7#a7 ,limitations of ,judaism4--,the national character of ,judaism was an insurmountable hindrance to the ,jewish mission4 ,despite the hindrance1 it is true1 ,judaism achieved important conquests2 it won many adherents throughout the ,greco-,roman world4 ,these missionary achievements undoubtedly form an eloquent testimony to the power of ,israel's faith2 despite those features of ,jewish custom which were repulsive to the ,gentile mind1 the belief in the one true ,god and the lofty ethical ideal of the ,old ,testament ,scriptures possessed an irresistible attraction for many earnest souls4 ,nevertheless1 so long as ,jewish monotheism and ,jewish ethics were centered altogether in the life of a very peculiar people1 they could never really succeed in winning the nations of the world4 7#b7 ,apparent ,identity of ,judaism and ,christianity4--,at first it looked as though ,christianity were to share in the limitation2 it looked as though the disciples of ,jesus formed merely a ,jewish sect4 ,undoubtedly they would bring the ,jewish people to a loftier faith and to a purer life2 they would themselves become better and nobler ,jews2 but ,jews they would apparently always remain4 7#c7 ,the ,great ,transition4--,before many years had passed1 however1 the limitation was gloriously transcended4 ,christianity was no longer bound to ,judaism4 ,it became a religion for the world1 within whose capacious borders there was room for every nation and every race4 ,how was the transition accomplished8 ,it was not accomplished by any contemptuous repudiation of the age-long exclusiveness of ,israel4 ,such repudiation would have involved the discrediting of the ,old ,testament1 and to the ,old ,testament the ,church was intensely loyal4 ,jewish particularism had been ordered of ,god2 the ,scriptures were full of warnings against any mingling of the chosen people with its neighbors4 ,jehovah had made of ,israel a people alone2 he had planted it in an inaccessible hill country1 remote from the great currents of the world's thought and life2 he had preserved its separateness even amid the changing fortunes of captivity and war4 ,salvation was to be found only in ,israel2 ,israel was the chosen people4 ,the ,church never abandoned this view of ,israelitish history4 ,yet for herself she transcended the particularism that it involved4 ,she did so in a very simple way--merely by recognizing that a new era had begun4 ,in the old era1 particularism had a rightful place2 it was no mere prejudice1 but a divine ordinance4 ,but now1 in the age of the ,messiah1 particularism had given place to universalism2 the religion of ,israel had become a religion of the world4 ,what had formerly been right had now become wrong2 ,god himself had ushered in a new and more glorious dispensation4 ,particularism1 in the divine economy1 had served a temporary1 though beneficent1 purpose2 ,god had separated ,israel from the world in order that the precious deposit of ,israel's faith1 pure of all heathen alloy1 might finally be given freely to all4 ,the recognition of this wonderful new dispensation of ,god was accomplished in two ways4 #b4 ,,the ,,divine ,,guidance ,in the first place1 it was accomplished by the direct command of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the first preaching to ,gentiles was undertaken not because the missionaries understood why it should be done1 but simply because ,god commanded4 7#a7 ,philip4--,for example1 when ,philip preached to the ,ethiopian--who was not in the strictest sense a member of the ,jewish people--he was acting not in accordance with any reflection of his own--a desert road was a very unlikely place for missionary service--but under the plain and palpable guidance of the ,spirit4 ,what is emphasized in the whole narrative is the strange1 unaccountable character of ,philip's movements2 evidently his actions at such a time were not open to criticism2 what ,philip did ,god did2 if ,philip preached to an outsider1 such preaching was ,god's will4 ,acts #h3bf-dj4 7#b7 ,cornelius4--,in the case of the conversion of ,cornelius and his friends1 ,acts #aj3a to #aa3ah1 the divine warrant was just as plain4 ,both ,cornelius and ,peter acted altogether in accordance with ,god's guidance4 ,on the housetop1 ,peter's scruples were unmistakably overcome4 ,what ,god hath cleansed1 he was told1 make not thou common4 ,peter did not fully comprehend the strange command that he should eat what the law forbade1 and it was not explained to him2 but at least the command was a command of ,god1 and must certainly be obeyed4 ,the meaning of the vision became clear when ,cornelius' house was entered2 a ,gentile had evidently been granted the offer of the gospel4 ,god was no respecter of persons4 ,finally the ,holy ,spirit fell on all the ,gentiles who heard the message2 they spake with tongues as the disciples had done at the first4 ,that was the crowning manifestation of ,god's will4 ,there was no reason to wait for circumcision or union with the people of ,israel4 ,can any man forbid the water1 said ,peter1 that these should not be baptized1 who have received the ,holy ,spirit as well as we8 ,acts #aj3dg4 ,all opposition was broken down2 only one conclusion was possible2 the ,jerusalem ,christians glorified ,god1 saying1 ,then to the ,gentiles also hath ,god granted repentance unto life4 ,acts #aa3ah4 7#c7 ,the ,grace of ,god in the ,gentile ,mission4--,scarcely less palpable was the divine guidance in the subsequent developments of the ,gentile mission4 ,after the momentous step of certain unnamed ,jews of ,cyprus and ,cyrene1 who founded the church at ,antioch1 ,barnabas had no difficulty in recognizing the grace of ,god4 ,acts #aa3bc4 ,not suspicion1 but only gladness1 was in place4 ,when ,paul and ,barnabas returned from the first ,gentile mission1 they could report to the ,antioch church that ,god had plainly opened a door of faith unto the ,gentiles4 ,ch4 #ad3bg4 ,if ,god had opened1 who could close8 ,at the apostolic council1 in the very face of bitter opposition1 the same great argument was used4 ,the missionaries simply rehearsed all things that ,god had done with them1 ch4 #ae3d1 especially what signs and wonders ,god had wrought among the ,gentiles through them4 ,v4 #ab4 ,there was only one thing to be done2 the ,gentile mission must be accepted with gladness as a gift of ,god2 he that wrought for ,peter unto the apostleship of the circumcision wrought for ,paul also unto the ,gentiles1 ,gal4 #b3h2 ,james and ,peter and ,john could recognize1 both in the ,gentile mission and in the inner life of the chief missionary1 the plainest possible manifestation of the grace of ,god4 ,v4 #i4 #c4 ,,reasons ,,for ,,gentile ,,freedom ,the ,church transcended the bounds of ,judaism1 then1 primarily because of a direct command of ,god4 ,such commands must be obeyed whether they are understood or not4 ,as a matter of fact1 however1 ,god did not leave the matter in such an unsatisfactory state2 he revealed not only his will1 but also the reason for it2 he showed not only that the ,gentiles must be received into the ,church1 but also why they must be received4 ,the essence of the gospel had demanded ,gentile freedom from the beginning2 the justification of that freedom at the bar of reason1 therefore1 brought a clearer understanding of the gospel itself4 ,two contrasts1 at least1 enabled the ,church to explain the reason why the ,gentiles could be saved without becoming ,jews4 ,the first was the contrast between faith and works1 between grace and the law2 the second was the contrast between the type and the thing typified4 ,the former was revealed especially to ,paul2 the latter to the author of ,hebrews4 7#a7 ,the ,law and ,grace4--,salvation through ,christ1 according to ,paul1 is an absolutely free gift4 ,it cannot be earned2 it must simply be received4 ,in other words1 it comes not by works1 but by faith4 ,the law of ,god1 on the other hand1 of which the ,mosaic law was the clearest embodiment1 offers a different means of obtaining ,god's favor4 ,it simply presents a series of commandments1 and offers salvation on condition that they be obeyed4 ,but the trouble is1 the commandments1 since the fall1 cannot be obeyed2 everyone has incurred deadly guilt through his disobedience2 the power of the flesh is too strong4 ,at that point1 however1 ,god intervened4 ,he offered ,christ as a sacrifice for sin that all believers might have a fresh start2 and he bestowed the ,spirit of the living ,christ that all might have strength to lead a new life4 ,but ,christ will do everything or nothing4 ,a man must take his choice4 ,there are only two ways of obtaining salvation--the perfect keeping of the law1 or the simple1 unconditional acceptance of what ,christ has done4 ,the first is excluded because of sin2 the second has become a glorious reality in the ,church4 ,if1 however1 salvation is through the free gift of ,christ1 then the law religion has been superseded4 ,all those features of the law which were intended to make the law palpable1 as a set of external rules1 are abrogated4 ,the ,christian1 indeed1 performs the will of ,god--in the deepest sense ,christianity only confirms the law--but he performs it1 not by slavish obedience to a complex of external commandments1 but by willing submission to the ,spirit of ,god4 ,of course1 the religion of the ,old ,testament was not1 according to ,paul1 purely a law religion2 on the contrary ,paul quotes the ,old ,testament in support of faith4 ,but there was a law element in the ,old ,testament2 and the law served merely a temporary1 though beneficent1 purpose4 ,it was intended to deepen the sense of sin and hopelessness1 in order that finally salvation might be sought not in man's way but in ,god's4 ,the new order at length has come2 in ,christ we are free men1 and should never return to the former bondage4 ,the middle wall of partition has been done away2 the ordinances of the law no longer separate ,jew and ,gentile2 all alike have access through one ,saviour unto ,god1 all alike receive power through the ,holy ,spirit to live a life of holiness and love4 7#b7 ,the ,type and the ,fulfillment4--,the contrast which was worked out in the ,epistle to the ,hebrews was especially a contrast between the sign and the thing signified4 ,the ceremonial law1 which had separated ,jew from ,gentile1 was intended to point forward to ,christ2 and now that the fulfillment has come1 what further need is there of the old types and symbols8 ,christ is the great ,high ,priest2 by him all alike can enter into the holy place4 7#c7 ,the ,meaning of the ,gospel4--,the transition from ,jewish ,christianity1 with all the difficulties of that transition1 led finally to a deeper understanding of the gospel4 ,it showed once for all that the salvation of the ,christians is a free gift4 ,just as ,i am1 without one plea but that thy blood was shed for me--these words are a good summary of the result of the ,judaistic controversy4 ,the transition showed1 furthermore1 what had really been felt from the beginning1 that ,christ was the one and all-sufficient ,lord4 ,when he was present1 no other priest1 and no other sacrifice was required4 ,that is the truly missionary gospel--the gospel that will finally conquer the world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,orr1 ,neglected ,factors in the ,study of the ,early ,progress of ,christianity and ,the ,early ,church4 ,george ,smith1 ,short ,history of ,christian ,missions 7in ,handbooks for ,bible ,classes74 ,,lesson ,,xlviii ,,the ,,christian ,,ideal ,,of ,,personal ,,morality ,in treating the lesson for to-day1 the teacher will be embarrassed by the wealth of his material4 ,it is important1 therefore1 that the chief purpose of the lesson should not be lost amid a mass of details4 ,that chief purpose is the presentation of ,christianity as something that has a very definite and immediate bearing upon daily life4 ,christianity is first of all a piece of good news1 a record of something that has happened2 but the effect of it1 if it be sincerely received1 is always manifest in holy living4 #a4 ,,the ,,example ,,of ,,jesus ,in the ,student's ,text ,book1 little attempt was made at detailed analysis of the apostolic ideal4 ,the defect should be supplied by careful attention to the ,topics for ,study1 and also1 if possible1 by the treatment of the lesson in class4 ,first of all1 however1 it should be observed how naturally the apostolic presentation of the ideal grows out of the teaching of ,jesus4 ,the advance which revelation made after the close of ,jesus' earthly ministry concerned the fuller explanation of the means by which the moral ideal is to be attained rather than additional exposition of the ideal itself4 ,that does not mean that the apostles did no more1 in the field of ethics1 than quote the words of ,jesus2 indeed there seem to be surprisingly few direct quotations of the words of ,jesus in the apostolic writings2 the ethical teaching of the apostolic ,church was no mere mechanical repetition of words1 but a profound application of principles4 ,nevertheless the teaching of ,jesus was absolutely fundamental2 without an examination of it1 the moral life of the apostolic ,church cannot be fully understood4 7#a7 ,the ,inexorableness of the ,law4--,jesus had insisted1 for example1 upon the inexorableness of the law of ,god4 ,to the keeping of ,god's commandments everything else must be sacrificed4 ,if thy right eye causeth thee to stumble1 pluck it out1 and cast it from thee3 for it is profitable for thee that one of thy members should perish1 and not thy whole body be cast into hell4 ,matt4 #e3bi4 ,in this respect the apostles were true disciples of their ,master4 ,the ,christian1 they insisted1 must be absolutely ruthless2 he must be willing to sacrifice everything he has for moral purity4 ,this ruthlessness1 however1 this thoroughgoing devotion to moral purity1 did not mean in the teaching of ,jesus1 any more than in that of the apostles1 that under ordinary conditions the ,christian ought to withdraw from the simple pleasures that the world offers4 ,jesus himself took his place freely at feasts2 so far was he from leading a stern1 ascetic life that his enemies could even accuse him of being a winebibber and a friend of publicans and sinners4 ,the fidelity with which the apostles followed this part of their ,master's example has been pointed out in the ,student's ,text ,book4 ,the enjoyable things of the earth are not evil in themselves2 they are to be received with thanksgiving as gifts of the heavenly ,father1 and then dedicated to his service4 7#b7 ,the ,morality of the ,heart4--,furthermore1 ,jesus1 as well as his apostles1 emphasized the inwardness of the moral law4 ,here again the apostolic ,church was faithful to ,jesus' teaching4 ,the seat of sin was placed by the apostles in the very center of a man's life2 the flesh and the ,spirit wage their warfare in the battle field of the heart4 ,see1 for example1 ,gal4 #e3af-bd4 #b4 ,,contrasts ,the sharp difference between the ,christian life and the life of the world was set forth in the apostolic teaching by means of various contrasts4 7#a7 ,death and ,life4--,in the first place1 there was the contrast between death and life4 ,the man of the world1 according to the apostles1 is not merely ill2 he is morally and spiritually dead4 ,col4 #b3ac2 ,eph4 #b3a1e4 ,there is no hope for him in his old existence2 that existence is merely a death in life4 ,but ,god is ,one who can raise the dead2 and as he raised ,jesus from the tomb on the third day1 so he raises those who belong to ,jesus from the deadness of their sins2 he implants in them a new life in which they can bring forth fruits unto ,god4 ,a moral miracle1 according to the ,new ,testament1 stands at the beginning of ,christian experience4 ,that miracle was called by ,jesus himself1 as well as by the apostles1 a new birth or regeneration4 ,it is no work of man2 only ,god can raise the dead4 ,see ,john #a3ac2 #c3a-ba2 ,i ,john #b3bi2 ,i ,peter #a3c1bc4 7#b7 ,darkness and ,light4--,the contrast between darkness and light1 also1 was common to the teaching of ,jesus and that of his apostles4 ,it appears particularly in the ,gospel of ,john1 but there are also clear traces of it in the ,synoptists1 ,matt4 #e3ad-af2 the righteous are the sons of the light4 ,luke #af3h4 ,in the writings of the apostles the contrast appears in many forms4 ,ye are all sons of light1 said ,paul1 and sons of the day3 we are not of the night1 nor of darkness2 so then let us not sleep1 as do the rest1 but let us watch and be sober4 ,i ,thess4 #e3e1f4 ,ye were once darkness1 but are now light in the ,lord3 walk as children of light4 ,eph4 #e3h4 ,god has called us out of darkness into his marvellous light4 ,i ,peter #b3i4 ,the contrast serves admirably to represent the honesty and openness and cleanness of the true ,christian life4 7#c7 ,flesh and ,spirit4--,an even more important contrast is the contrast of flesh and ,spirit1 which is expounded especially by ,paul4 ,flesh in this connection means something more than the bodily side of human nature2 it means human nature as a whole1 so far as it is not subjected to ,god4 ,spirit also means something more than might be supposed on a superficial examination4 ,it does not mean the spiritual1 as distinguished from the material1 side of human nature2 but the ,holy ,spirit1 the ,spirit of ,god4 ,the warfare1 therefore1 between the flesh and the ,spirit1 which is mentioned so often in the ,pauline ,epistles1 is a warfare between sin and ,god4 ,the flesh1 according to ,paul1 is a mighty power1 which is too strong for the human will4 ,it is impossible for the natural man to keep the law of ,god4 ,i know1 says ,paul1 that in me1 that is1 in my flesh1 dwelleth no good thing3 for to will is present with me1 but to do that which is good is not4444 ,i find then the law1 that1 to me who would do good1 evil is present4 ,for ,i delight in the law of ,god after the inward man3 but ,i see a different law in my members1 warring against the law of my mind1 and bringing me into captivity under the law of sin which is in my members4 ,rom4 #g3ah1ba-bc4 ,in this recognition of the power of sin in human life1 ,paul has laid his finger upon one of the deepest facts in human experience4 ,the way of escape1 however1 has been provided2 sin has been conquered in two aspects4 ,it has been conquered1 in the first place1 in its guilt4 ,without that conquest1 everything else would be useless4 ,the dreadful subjection to the power of sin1 which becomes so abundantly plain in evil habit1 was itself a punishment for sin2 before the effect can be destroyed1 the guilt which caused it must be removed4 ,it has been removed by the sacrifice of ,christ4 ,christ has died for us1 the ,just for the unjust2 through his death we have a fresh start1 in the favor of ,god1 with the guilty past wiped out4 ,sin has been conquered1 in the second place1 in its power4 ,together with the very implanting of faith in our hearts1 the ,holy ,spirit has given us a new life1 a new power1 by which we can perform the works of ,god4 ,a mighty warfare1 indeed1 is yet before us2 but it is fought with the ,spirit's help1 and by the ,spirit it will finally be won4 7#d7 ,the ,old ,man and the ,new4--,as the contrast between the flesh and the ,spirit was concerned with the causes of the ,christian's escape from sin1 so the contrast now to be considered is concerned with the effects of that escape4 ,the ,christian1 according to ,paul1 has become a new man in ,christ2 the old man has been destroyed4 ,the ,gentiles1 he says1 are darkened in their understanding1 and alienated from ,god4 ,eph4 #d3ag-ai4 ,but ye did not so learn ,christ2 if so be that ye heard him1 and were taught in him1 even as truth is in ,jesus3 that ye put away1 as concerning your former manner of life1 the old man1 that waxeth corrupt after the lusts of deceit2 and that ye be renewed in the spirit of your mind1 and put on the new man1 that after ,god hath been created in righteousness and holiness of truth4 ,vs4 #bj-bd4 ,compare ,col4 #c3e-aa4 ,this putting on of the new man is included in what ,paul elsewhere calls putting on ,christ4 ,gal4 #c3bg2 ,rom4 #ac3ad4 ,the true ,christian has clothed himself with ,christ2 the lineaments of the old sinful nature have been transformed into the blessed features of the ,master2 look upon the ,christian1 and what you see is ,christ6 ,this change has been wrought by ,christ himself2 it is no longer ,i that live1 says ,paul1 but ,christ liveth in me2 ,christ finds expression in the life of the ,christian4 ,it is noteworthy1 however1 that the putting on of ,christ1 which in ,gal4 #c3bg is represented as an accomplished fact1 is in ,rom4 #ac3ad inculcated as a duty4 ,it has been accomplished already in principle--in his sacrificial death1 ,christ has already taken our place in the sight of ,god--but the practical realization of it in conduct is the lifelong task which every earnest disciple1 aided by the ,holy ,spirit1 must prosecute with might and main4 #c4 ,,the ,,new ,,man ,details in the character of the new man1 as they are revealed in the apostolic writings1 can here be treated only very briefly4 7#a7 ,honesty4--,certainly the ,christian1 according to the apostles1 must be honest4 ,honesty is the foundation of the virtues2 without it everything else is based upon the sand4 ,nothing could exceed the fine scorn which the ,new ,testament heaps upon anything like hypocrisy or deceit4 ,the ,epistle of ,james1 in particular1 is a plea for profound reality in all departments of life4 ,away with all deceit6 ,the ,christian life is to be lived in the full blaze of ,god's sunlight4 ,many hours could be occupied in the class with the applications of honesty under modern conditions4 ,student life1 for example1 is full of temptations to dishonesty4 ,to say nothing of out-and-out cheating1 there are a hundred ways in which the fine edge of honor can be blunted4 ,in business life1 also1 temptations are many2 and indeed no one can really escape the test4 ,the apostolic example deserves to be borne in mind2 ,christian honesty ought to be more than the honesty of the world4 7#b7 ,purity4--,in the second place1 the apostolic ,church presents an ideal of purity1 purity in thought as well as in word and deed4 ,the ideal must have seemed strange to the degraded populations of ,corinth and ,ephesus2 but it is also sadly needed to-day4 ,let us not deceive ourselves4 ,he who would hold fellowship with ,christ must put away impurity2 ,christ is the holy ,one4 ,purity1 however1 is to be attained not by unaided human effort1 but by the help of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,the ,holy ,spirit1 if he be admitted to the heart1 will purge it of unclean thoughts4 7#c7 ,patience and ,bravery4--,in the third place1 patience and humility are prominent in the ,christian ideal4 ,these virtues are coupled1 however1 with the most vigorous bravery4 ,there is nothing weak or sickly or sentimental about the ,christian character4 ,watch ye1 stand fast in the faith1 quit you like men1 be strong4 ,i ,cor4 #af3ac4 7#d7 ,love4--,the summation of the ,christian ideal is love4 ,love1 however1 is more than a benevolent desire4 ,it includes purity and heroism as well as helpfulness4 ,in order to love in the ,christian sense1 one must attain unto a fullgrown man1 unto the measure of the stature of the fulness of ,christ4 ,eph4 #d3ac4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,hastings1 ,dictionary of the ,bible3 ,strong1 article on ,ethics 7,,ii74 ,kilpatrick1 ,christian ,character4 ,bruce1 ,the ,formation of ,christian ,character4 ,luthardt1 ,apologetic ,lectures on the ,moral ,truths of ,christianity4 ,,lesson ,,xlix ,,christianity ,,and ,,human ,,relationships #a4 ,,the ,,problem ,two apparently contradictory features appear in the life of the apostolic ,church4 ,in the first place1 there was an intense other-worldliness2 the ,christians were regarded as citizens of a heavenly kingdom4 ,in the second place1 there was careful attention to the various relationships of the present life2 no man was excused from homely duty4 ,the two sides of the picture appear in the sharpest colors in the life of the apostle ,paul4 ,no one emphasized more strongly than he the independence of the ,christian life with reference to the world2 all ,christians1 whether their worldly station be high or low1 are alike in the sight of ,god2 the ,church operates with entirely new standards of value4 ,yet on the other hand1 in his actual dealing with the affairs of this world ,paul observed the most delicate tact2 and in all history it is difficult to find a man with profounder natural affections4 ,where is there1 for example1 a more passionate expression of patriotic feeling than that which is to be found in ,rom4 #i3c8 ,i could wish that ,i myself were anathema from ,christ for my brethren's sake1 my kinsmen according to the flesh4 ,on the one hand1 then1 the apostolic ,church regarded all earthly distinctions as temporary and secondary1 and yet on the other hand those same distinctions were very carefully observed4 ,the apparent contradiction brings before us the great question of the attitude of ,christianity toward human relationships4 ,this question may be answered in one of three ways4 #b4 ,,the ,,worldly ,,solution ,in the first place1 there is the worldly answer4 ,the ,christian finds himself in a world where his time and his thoughts seem to be fully occupied by what lies near at hand4 ,the existence of ,god may not be denied1 but practically1 in the stress of more obvious duties1 ,god is left out of account4 7#a7 ,practical ,christianity4--,in its crude form1 of course1 where it involves mere engrossment in selfish pleasure1 this answer to our question hardly needs refutation4 ,obviously the ,christian cannot devote himself to worldly enjoyment2 a cardinal virtue of the ,christian is self-denial4 ,worldliness in the ,church1 however1 may be taken in a wider sense2 it has often assumed very alluring forms4 ,at the present day1 for example1 it often represents itself as the only true1 the only practical kind of ,christianity4 ,it is often said that true religion is identical with social service1 that the service of one's fellow men is always worship of ,god4 ,this assertion involves a depreciation of dogma in the interests of practical ,christianity2 it makes no difference1 it is said1 what a man believes1 provided only he engages in the improvement of living conditions and the promotion of fairer laws4 7#b7 ,this ,world ,is ,not ,all4--,this tendency in the ,church really makes religion a thing of this world only4 ,undoubtedly1 much good is being accomplished by social workers who have given up belief in historic ,christianity2 but it is good that does not go to the root of the matter4 ,suppose we have improved conditions on this earth1 suppose more men have healthy employment and an abundance of worldly goods4 ,even so the thought of death cannot be banished4 ,is the totality of man's happiness limited to a brief span of life2 are we after all but creatures of a day8 ,or is there an eternal life beyond the grave1 with infinite possibilities of good or evil8 ,jesus and his apostles and the whole of the apostolic ,church adopted the latter alternative4 7#c7 ,the ,secularization of ,religion4--,we lay our finger here upon one of the points where the modern ,church is in danger of departing most fundamentally from the apostolic model4 ,religion is in serious danger of being secularized2 that is1 of being regarded as concerned merely with this life4 ,the only corrective is the recovery of the old conception of ,god4 ,god is not merely another name for the highest aspirations of men1 he is not merely the summation of the social forces which are working for human betterment4 ,on the contrary1 he is a living ,person1 working in the world1 but also eternally independent of it4 ,you can work for the worldly benefit of your fellow men without coming into any saving contact with ,god2 it does make a vast difference what you believe2 it makes all the difference between death and life4 7#d7 ,the ,teaching of ,jesus and of the ,apostles4--,only one-sided reading of the ,new ,testament can find support for the opposite view4 ,jesus said1 ,inasmuch as ye did it unto one of these my brethren1 even these least1 ye did it unto me1 ,matt4 #be3dj2 but the same ,jesus also said1 ,if any man cometh unto me1 and hateth not his own father1 and mother1 and wife1 and children1 and brethren1 and sisters1 yea1 and his own life also1 he cannot be my disciple4 ,luke #ad3bf4 ,the giving of a cup of cold water1 which receives the blessing of ,jesus1 is done for one of these little ones 444 in the name of a disciple4 ,matt4 #aj3db4 ,evidently the good works of the ,christian are not independent of the attitude of the doer toward ,jesus and toward ,god2 ,jesus regards the personal relation between himself and his disciples as one which takes precedence of even the holiest of earthly ties4 ,far more convincing1 however1 than any citation of definite passages is the whole spirit of the ,new ,testament teaching2 evidently both ,jesus and his early disciples had their lives determined by the thought of the living1 personal ,god1 holy and mysterious and independent of the world4 ,social service exists for the sake of ,god1 not ,god for the sake of social service4 ,the reversal of this relationship is one of the most distressing tendencies of the present day2 a study of the apostolic ,church may bring a return to sanity and humility4 #c4 ,,the ,,ascetic ,,solution ,the second answer to our question is the answer of ascetics of many different kinds4 ,according to this answer1 the relationship of the ,christian to ,god on the one hand1 and his relationship to his fellow men on the other1 are in competition4 ,consequently1 in order to strengthen the former1 the latter must be broken off4 ,in its extreme form1 this way of thinking leads to the hermit ideal1 to the belief that the less a man has to do with his fellow men the more he has to do with ,god4 ,such conceptions are not always so uninfluential as we are inclined to think1 even in our ,protestant churches4 ,monasticism is not indeed consistently carried out1 but it is often present in spirit and in principle4 ,some excellent ,christians seem to feel that whole-hearted1 natural interest in earthly friends is disloyalty to ,christ1 that all men must be treated alike1 that admission of one man into the depths of the heart more fully than another is contrary to the universality of the gospel4 ,by such men1 individuals are not treated as persons1 with a value of their own1 but merely as opportunities for ,christian service4 7#a7 ,this ,solution ,defeats ,its ,own ,end4--,it is evident1 in the first place1 that such an attitude defeats its own aim4 ,evidently the power of a ,christian worker depends partly at least upon his interest in individuals4 ,it will not do1 for example1 for the teachers in this course to let their students say1 ,the teacher loves ,christ supremely1 but he has no interest in me4 ,evidently the power of influencing our fellow men is largely increased by an intimate personal relationship2 if we are to serve ,christ by bringing men to his feet1 then we ought not to dissolve but rather to strengthen the bonds of simple affection which unite us to our human friends4 7#b7 ,this ,solution ,is ,opposed to ,apostolic ,example4--,the example of the apostolic ,church points in the same direction2 we have already noticed the intensity of natural affection which was displayed even by a man so thoroughly and heroically devoted to ,christian service as was the apostle ,paul4 ,this example might well be supplemented1 and supplemented most emphatically of all by the example which lies at the basis of all of the apostolic ,church--the example of ,jesus himself4 ,if any man might have been aloof from his fellow men1 it was ,jesus1 yet as a matter of fact1 he plainly had his earthly friends4 #d4 ,,the ,,true ,,solution ,the true solution of the problem is found in consecration4 ,human relationships are not to be made the sole aim of life2 neither are they to be destroyed2 but they are to be consecrated to the service of ,god4 ,love for ,god under normal conditions comes into no competition with love for man1 because ,god takes a place in the life which can never be filled by any human friend2 by lopping off human friendships we are not devoting ourselves more fully to ,god1 but merely becoming less efficient servants of him4 #e4 ,,christianity ,,and ,,social ,,service ,consecration of human relationships to ,god does not involve any depreciation of what is known to-day as social service4 ,on the contrary it gives to social service its necessary basis and motive power4 ,only when ,god is remembered is there an eternal outlook in the betterment of human lives2 the improvement of social conditions1 which gives the souls of men a fair chance instead of keeping them stunted and balked by poverty and disease1 is seen by him who believes in a future life and a final judgment and heaven and hell to have value not only for time1 but also for eternity1 not only for man1 but also for the infinite ,god4 7#a7 ,society or the ,individual8--,it is sometimes regarded as a reproach that old-fashioned1 evangelical ,christianity makes its first appeal to the individual4 ,the success of certain evangelists has occasioned considerable surprise in some quarters4 ,everyone knows1 it is said1 that the social gospel is the really effective modern agency2 yet some evangelists with only the very crudest possible social program are accomplishing important and beneficent results6 ,the lesson may well be learned1 and it should never be forgotten4 ,despite the importance of social reforms1 the first purpose of true ,christian evangelism is to bring the individual man clearly and consciously into the presence of his ,god4 ,without that1 all else is of but temporary value2 the human race is composed of individual souls2 the best of social edifices will crumble if all the materials are faulty4 7#b7 ,every ,man ,should ,first ,correct ,his ,own ,faults4--,the true attitude of the ,christian toward social institutions can be learned clearly from the example of the apostolic ,church4 ,the first lesson that the early ,christians learned when they faced the ordinary duties of life was to make the best of the institutions that were already existing4 ,there was nothing directly revolutionary about the apostolic teaching4 ,sharp rebuke1 indeed1 was directed against the covetousness of the rich4 ,but the significant fact is that such denunciations of wealthy men were addressed to the wealthy men themselves and not to the poor4 ,in the apostolic ,church1 every man was made to know his own faults1 not the faults of other people4 ,the rich were rebuked for their covetousness and selfishness2 but the poor were commanded1 with just as much vehemence1 to labor for their own support4 ,if any will not work1 said ,paul1 neither let him eat4 ,,ii ,thess4 #c3aj4 ,in short1 apostolic ,christianity sought to remove the evils of an unequal distribution of wealth1 not by a violent uprising of the poor against the rich1 but by changing the hearts of the rich men themselves4 ,modern reform movements are often very different2 but it cannot be said that the apostolic method is altogether antiquated4 7#c7 ,the ,ennobling of ,existing ,institutions4--,certainly the apostolic method has been extraordinarily successful2 it has accomplished far more than could have been accomplished by a violent reform movement4 ,a good example is afforded by the institution of slavery4 ,here1 if anywhere1 we might seem to have an institution which was contrary to the gospel4 ,yet ,paul sent back a runaway slave to his master1 and evidently without the slightest hesitation or compunction4 ,that action was a consistent carrying out of the principle that a ,christian man1 instead of seeking an immediate change in his social position1 was first of all to learn to make the best of whatever position was his already4 ,let each man abide in that calling wherein he was called4 ,wast thou called being a bondservant8 care not for it3 nay1 even if thou canst become free1 use it rather4 ,for he that was called in the ,lord being a bondservant1 is the ,lord's freedman3 likewise he that was called being free1 is ,christ's bondservant4 ,ye were bought with a price2 become not bondservants of men4 ,brethren1 let each man1 wherein he was called1 therein abide with ,god4 ,i ,cor4 #g3bj-bd4 ,the freedom of the ,christian1 in other words1 is entirely independent of freedom in this world2 a slave can be just as free in the higher1 spiritual sense as his earthly master4 ,in this way the position of the slave was ennobled2 evidently the relation of ,onesimus to ,philemon was expected to afford both slave and master genuine opportunity for the development of ,christian character and for the performance of ,christian service4 7#d7 ,the ,substitution of ,good ,institutions for ,bad4--,in the long run1 however1 such conceptions were bound to exert a pervasive influence even upon earthly institutions4 ,if ,philemon really adopted the ,christian attitude toward one who was now more than a servant1 a brother beloved in ,christ1 then in the course of time he would naturally desire to make even the outward relationship conform more perfectly to the inward spiritual fact4 ,the final result would naturally be emancipation2 and such was the actual process in the history of the ,church4 ,slavery1 moreover1 is only an example2 a host of other imperfect social institutions have similarly been modified or removed4 ,what a world of progress1 for example1 is contained in ,gal4 #c3bh3 ,there can be neither ,jew nor ,greek1 there can be neither bond nor free1 there can be no male and female2 for ye are all one man in ,christ ,jesus4 ,not battles and revolutions1 the taking of cities and the pulling down of empires1 are the really great events of history1 but rather the enunciation of great principles such as this4 ,ye are all one man in ,christ ,jesus--these words with others like them have moved armies like puppets1 and will finally transform the face of the world4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,r4 ,e4 ,thompson1 ,de ,civitate ,dei4 ,the ,divine ,order of ,human ,society4 ,clow1 ,christ in the ,social ,order4 ,cunningham1 ,christianity and ,social ,questions4 ,schmidt1 ,the ,social ,results of ,early ,christianity4 ,,lesson ,l ,,the ,,christian ,,use ,,of ,,the ,,intellect #a4 ,,the ,,problem ,,of ,,christianity ,,and ,,culture ,the last two lessons have emphasized the duty of consecration4 ,the enjoyment of simple1 physical blessings1 the opportunities afforded by earthly relationships1 are all to be devoted to the service of ,god4 ,exactly the same principle must be applied in the lesson for to-day4 ,if physical health and strength and the companionship of human friends may be made useful in the ,christian life1 surely the same thing is true of intellectual gifts4 ,the most powerful thing that a man possesses is the power of his mind4 ,brute force is comparatively useless2 the really great achievements of modern times have been accomplished by the intellect4 ,if the principle of consecration is true at all--if it be true that ,god desires1 not the destruction of human powers1 but the proper use of them--then surely the principle must be applied in the intellectual sphere4 ,the field should not be limited too narrowly2 with the purely logical and acquisitive faculties of the mind should be included the imagination and the sense of beauty4 ,in a word1 we have to do to-day with the relation between culture and ,christianity4 ,for the modern ,church there is no greater problem4 ,a mighty civilization has been built up in recent years1 which to a considerable extent is out of relation to the gospel4 ,great intellectual forces which are rampant in the world are grievously perplexing the ,church4 ,the situation calls for earnest intellectual effort on the part of ,christians4 ,modern culture must either be refuted as evil1 or else be made helpful to the gospel4 ,so great a power cannot safely be ignored4 7#a7 ,the ,obscurantist ,solution4--,some men in the ,church are inclined to choose a simple way out of the difficulty2 they are inclined to reject the whole of modern culture as either evil or worthless2 this wisdom of the world1 they maintain1 must be deserted for the divine foolishness of the gospel4 ,undoubtedly such a view contains an element of truth1 but in its entirety it is impracticable4 ,the achievements of modern culture are being made useful for the spread of the gospel by the very advocates of the view now in question2 these achievements1 therefore1 cannot be altogether the work of ,satan4 ,it is inconsistent to use the printing press1 the railroad1 the telegraph in the propagation of our gospel and at the same time denounce as evil those activities of the human mind by which these inventions were produced4 ,indeed1 much of modern culture1 far from being hostile to ,christianity1 has really been produced by ,christianity4 ,such ,christian elements should not be destroyed2 the wheat should not be rooted up with the tares4 7#b7 ,the ,worldly ,solution4--,if1 however1 the ,christian man is in danger of adopting a negative attitude toward modern culture1 of withdrawing from the world into a sort of unhealthy1 modernized1 intellectual monastery1 the opposite danger is even more serious4 ,the most serious danger is the danger of being so much engrossed in the wonderful achievements of modern science that the gospel is altogether forgotten4 7#c7 ,the ,true ,solution4--,the true solution is consecration4 ,modern culture is a stumblingblock when it is regarded as an end in itself1 but when it is used as a means to the service of ,god it becomes a blessing4 ,undoubtedly much of modern thinking is hostile to the gospel4 ,such hostile elements should be refuted and destroyed2 the rest should be made subservient2 but nothing should be neglected4 ,modern culture is a mighty force2 it is either helpful to the gospel or else it is a deadly enemy of the gospel4 ,for making it helpful neither wholesale denunciation nor wholesale acceptance is in place2 careful discrimination is required1 and such discrimination requires intellectual effort4 ,there lies a supreme duty of the modern ,church4 ,patient study should not be abandoned to the men of the world2 men who have really received the blessed experience of the love of ,god in ,christ must seek to bring that experience to bear upon the culture of the modern world1 in order that ,christ may rule1 not only in all nations1 but also in every department of human life4 ,the ,church must seek to conquer not only every man1 but also the whole of man4 ,such intellectual effort is really necessary even to the external advancement of the kingdom4 ,men cannot be convinced of the truth of ,christianity so long as the whole of their thinking is dominated by ideas which make acceptance of the gospel logically impossible2 false ideas are the greatest obstacles to the reception of the gospel4 ,and false ideas cannot be destroyed without intellectual effort4 ,such effort is indeed of itself insufficient4 ,no man was ever argued into ,christianity2 the renewing of the ,holy ,spirit is the really decisive thing4 ,but the ,spirit works when and how he will1 and he chooses to employ the intellectual activities of ,christian people in order to prepare for his gracious coming4 #b4 ,,the ,,apostolic ,,example ,abundant support for what has just been said may be discovered in the history of the apostolic ,church4 ,paul's speech at ,athens1 for example1 shows how the ,christian preacher exhibited the connection between the gospel and the religious aspirations of the time4 ,this line of thought1 it is true1 was merely preliminary2 the main thing with which the apostles were concerned was the presentation and explanation of the gospel itself4 ,such presentation and explanation1 however1 certainly required intellectual effort2 and the effort was not avoided4 ,the epistles of ,paul are full of profound thinking2 only superficiality can ignore the apostolic use of the intellect4 7#a7 ,christianity ,based ,upon ,facts4--,the fundamental reason why this intellectual activity was so prominent in the apostolic age is that the apostles thought of ,christianity as based upon facts4 ,modern ,christians sometimes cherish a different notion4 ,a false antithesis is now sometimes set up between belief and practice2 ,christianity1 it is said1 is not a doctrine1 but a life4 ,in reality1 ,christianity is not only a doctrine1 but neither is it only a life2 it is both4 ,it is1 as has been well said1 a life because it is a doctrine4 ,what is characteristic of ,christianity is not so much that it holds up a lofty ethical ideal as that it provides the power by which the ideal is to be realized4 ,that power proceeds from the great facts upon which ,christian belief is founded1 especially the blessed facts of ,christ's atoning death and triumphant resurrection4 ,where belief in these facts has been lost1 the ,christian life may seem to proceed for a time as before1 but it proceeds only as a locomotive runs after the steam has been shut off2 the momentum is soon lost4 ,if1 however1 ,christianity is based upon facts1 it cannot do without the use of the mind2 whatever may be said of mere emotions1 facts cannot be received without employment of the reason4 ,christian faith is indeed more than intellectual2 it involves rejoicing in the heart and acceptance by the will1 but the intellectual element in it can never be removed4 ,we cannot trust in ,christ1 in the ,christian sense1 unless we are convinced that he lived a holy life when he was on earth1 that he claimed justly to be divine1 that he died on the cross1 and that he rose again from the dead4 7#b7 ,christianity ,involves ,theology4--,furthermore1 ,christian faith involves not only a bare acceptance of these facts1 it involves also some explanation of them4 ,that explanation can never be complete2 the gospel contains mysteries in the presence of which only wondering reverence is in place2 but some explanation there must be4 ,it is quite useless1 for example1 to know merely that a holy man1 ,jesus1 died on the cross2 it is even useless to know that the ,son of ,god came to earth and died in that way4 ,the death of ,christ has meaning for us only because it was a death for our sins2 the story of the cross becomes a gospel only when the blessed meaning of it is explained4 ,the explanation of that meaning forms the subject of a large part of the ,new ,testament4 ,the apostolic ,church had none of our modern aversion to theology4 ,it is time for us to return to the apostolic example4 ,mere bustling philanthropy will never conquer the world4 ,the real springs of the ,church's power lie in an inward1 spiritual realm2 they can be reached only by genuine meditation4 ,the eighth chapter of ,romans has been neglected long enough2 neglect of it is bringing deadly weakness4 ,instead of adapting her message to the changing fashions of the time1 the ,church should seek to understand the message itself4 ,the effort will not be easy2 in a practical age1 honest thinking is hard4 ,but the results will be plain4 ,power lies in the deep things of ,god4 7#c7 ,the ,duty of ,every ,man4--,the great intellectual duty of the modern ,church is not confined to a few men of scholarly tastes4 ,on the contrary1 the simplest ,christian may have his part2 what is needed first of all is common sense4 ,by an unhealthy sentimentalism1 old-fashioned study has been discredited4 ,if ,god is speaking in the ,bible1 surely the logical thing for us to do is to hear4 ,yet modern ,christians are strangely neglectful of this simple duty4 ,bible study is regarded as of less importance than social service2 improvement of earthly conditions is preferred to acquaintance with ,god's ,word4 ,the evil may easily be corrected1 and it may be corrected first of all by the old-fashioned reading of the ,bible4 ,that requires intellectual effort--there is no use in turning the pages if the mind is elsewhere--but the effort can be made by the plain man as well as by the scholar4 ,simple acquaintance with the ,bible facts by the rank and file of the ,church will accomplish as much as anything else toward meeting the arguments of opponents4 ,by learning what ,christianity is1 we shall be able1 almost unconsciously1 to refute what can be said against it4 #c4 ,,the ,,practice ,,of ,,the ,,truth ,this intellectual effort1 however1 should never be separated from practice4 ,the best way to fix truth in the mind is to practice it in life4 ,if our study teaches us that ,god is holy1 let us hate sin as ,god hates it4 ,if we learn that ,god is loving1 let us love our fellow men as ,god loves them4 ,if the ,bible tells us of the salvation offered by ,christ1 let us accept it with a holy joy1 and live in the power of it day by day4 ,that is the true practical ,christianity1 a ,christianity that is based solidly upon facts4 ,conduct goes hand in hand with doctrine2 love is the sister of truth4 #d4 ,,god ,,the ,,source ,,of ,,truth ,the ultimate ,source of all truth1 as of all love1 is ,god4 ,the knowledge for which we are pleading can never result in pride1 for it is a knowledge that ,god gives1 and a knowledge consecrated at every point to ,god's service4 ,presumptuous reliance upon human wisdom comes from knowledge that ignores part of the facts2 true science leads to humility4 ,if we accept all other facts1 but ignore the supreme fact of ,god's love in ,jesus ,christ1 then of course our knowledge will be one-sided4 ,it may succeed in producing creature comforts2 it may improve the external conditions of life upon this earth2 it may afford purely intellectual pleasure2 but it will never reveal the really important things4 ,this one-sided knowledge is what ,paul was speaking of in ,i ,cor4 #a3ba when he said that the world through its wisdom knew not ,god4 ,the true wisdom takes account of the foolishness of ,god's message1 and finds that that foolishness is wiser than men4 ,the true wisdom of the gospel is revealed only through the ,holy ,spirit2 only the ,spirit of ,god can reveal the things of ,god4 ,without the ,spirit1 the human mind becomes hopeless in dismal error2 it is the ,spirit of truth who sheds the true light over our path4 ,o grant us light1 that we may know ,the wisdom ,thou alone canst give2 ,that truth may guide where'er we go1 ,and virtue bless where'er we live4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,patton1 ,a ,summary of ,christian ,doctrine4 ,greene1 ,christian ,doctrine4 ,a4 ,a4 ,hodge1 ,outlines of ,theology and ,popular ,lectures on ,theological ,themes4 ,,lesson ,,li ,,the ,,christian ,,hope ,,and ,,the ,,present ,,possession ,a type of religious effort has become prevalent to-day which is directed chiefly to the present life2 the improvement of worldly conditions is often regarded as the chief end of man4 ,all such tendencies are strikingly at variance with apostolic ,christianity4 ,the apostolic ,church was intensely other-worldly4 ,the chief gift that the apostles offered was not a better and more comfortable life in this world1 but an entrance into heaven4 #a4 ,,the ,,end ,,of ,,the ,,world ,only the great outlines of the events connected with the end of the world are revealed in the ,new ,testament4 ,minute details cannot be discovered except by an excessively literal method of interpretation1 which is not really in accord with the meaning of the apostolic writers4 ,some have supposed1 for example1 that there are to be two resurrections1 first a resurrection of the ,christian dead and long afterwards a resurrection of other men2 expectation of a thousand-year reign of ,christ upon earth has been widely prevalent4 ,such beliefs are not to be lightly rejected1 since they are based upon an interpretation of certain ,new ,testament passages which is not altogether devoid of plausibility2 but on the whole they are at least doubtful in view of other passages1 and especially in view of the true nature of prophecy4 ,god has revealed1 not details to satisfy our curiosity1 but certain basal facts which should determine our lives4 ,those basal facts1 connected with the end of the world1 are a second coming of ,christ1 a resurrection of the dead1 a final judgment1 an eternity of punishment for the wicked and of blessing for those who have trusted in ,christ4 ,it is not maintained that these facts stand absolutely alone2 certainly they are fully explained1 at least in their spiritual significance2 but the devout ,bible-reader should be cautious about his interpretation of details4 #b4 ,,fear ,,and ,,joy ,the practical effect of the apostolic teaching about the end of the world should be a combination of earnestness with joy4 ,a man who lives under the expectation of meeting ,christ as ,judge will desert the worldly standard of values for a higher standard4 ,he will rate happiness and worldly splendor lower1 in order to place the supreme emphasis upon goodness4 ,the difference between evil and good1 between sin and holiness1 is not a trifle1 not a thing of merely relative importance1 as many men regard it2 it enters deep into the constitution of the universe1 it is the question of really eternal moment4 ,again and again1 in the ,new ,testament1 the thought of ,christ's coming and of the judgment which he will hold is made the supreme motive to a pure and holy life4 ,the apostolic example may well be borne in mind4 ,when we are tempted to commit a mean or dishonest or unclean act1 when unholy thoughts crowd in upon us like a noisome flood1 we cannot do better than think of the day when we shall stand in the presence of the pure and holy ,judge4 ,on the other hand1 the thought of ,christ's coming is to the believer the source of inexpressible joy4 ,christ has saved us from a terrible abyss4 ,our joy in salvation is in proportion to our dread of the destruction from which we have been saved4 ,to the truly penitent man1 the thought of the righteous ,god is full of terror4 ,god is holy2 we would sometimes endeavor vainly to shrink from his presence4 ,yet such a ,god has stretched out his hand to save--there is the wonder of the gospel--and if we trust in the ,saviour the last great day need cause no fear4 ,we are lost in sin1 but ,god looks not upon us but upon him who died to save us4 ,salvation to the apostolic ,church meant rescue1 rescue from the just and awful judgment of ,god4 #c4 ,,the ,,intermediate ,,state ,the time of that judgment has not been revealed1 but so far as any offer of repentance is concerned the time comes to every man at death4 ,one question of detail cannot altogether be ignored4 ,what did the apostles teach about the condition of the believer between death and the final resurrection8 ,upon this subject1 the ,new ,testament says very little1 but it becomes clear at least that the believer1 even when absent from the body1 is to be present with the ,lord1 ,,ii ,cor4 #e3h1 and that to die is to be with ,christ4 ,phil4 #a3bc4 ,on the whole1 no better statement of the apostolic teaching about the intermediate state can be formulated than that which is contained in the ,shorter ,catechism3 ,the souls of believers are at their death made perfect in holiness1 and do immediately pass into glory2 and their bodies1 being still united to ,christ1 do rest in their graves1 till the resurrection4 ,the hope of an immediate entrance into bliss at the time of death should not be allowed1 however1 to obscure the importance of the resurrection4 ,the resurrection of the body will be necessary to the full enjoying of ,god to all eternity4 #d4 ,,the ,,final ,,blessedness ,that enjoying of ,god is no mere selfish pleasure2 it means first of all a triumph of holiness4 ,every last vestige of evil will be removed4 ,no taint of sin will separate the redeemed creature from his ,god4 ,service will be free and joyous4 ,the consummation1 moreover1 will concern not merely individuals1 but the race2 no mere expectation of the personal immortality of individuals begins to do justice to the apostolic teaching4 ,the ultimate end1 indeed1 is not our own enjoyment1 but the glory of ,god4 ,some carnal1 materialistic conceptions of the future age would really remove ,god from his own heaven1 but such is not the teaching of the ,new ,testament4 ,god will be all and in all2 only in his glory is to be found the true glory of a redeemed race4 ,the power of loving ,god is the highest joy that heaven contains4 #e4 ,,the ,,dispensation ,,of ,,the ,,spirit ,the present age1 according to the ,new ,testament1 is a time of waiting and striving2 it is related to the future glory as a battle is related to the subsequent victory4 ,satisfaction with the present life1 even as it is led by the best of ,christians1 would to the apostles have been abhorrent2 the ,christian is still far from perfect4 ,a prime condition of progress is a divine discontent4 ,jesus pronounced a blessing upon them that hunger and thirst after righteousness4 ,eternal things to us are unseen2 they can be discovered only by the eye of faith2 we long for a time when hope will be supplanted by sight4 ,nevertheless1 there is no room for despondency2 the blessed time is surely coming4 ,its coming is rendered certain by the presence1 here and now1 of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,the ,spirit may be relied upon to prepare us1 both in soul and in body1 for the glory of heaven4 7#a7 ,the ,spirit in the ,old ,testament and in the ,life of ,jesus4--,the ,spirit of ,god was mentioned even in the ,old ,testament4 ,at the beginning he moved upon the face of the waters1 ,gen4 #a3b2 he was the source of the mighty deeds of heroes and of the prophets' inspired words4 ,in the life and teaching of ,jesus1 however1 the ,spirit was far more fully revealed than he had ever been revealed before4 ,he was the source of ,jesus' human nature1 ,matt4 #a3ah1 #bj2 ,luke #a3ce2 he descended upon the newly proclaimed ,messiah1 ,matt4 #c3af1 and was operative in all the earthly ministry of the ,lord4 7#b7 ,the ,spirit in the ,church4--,for the disciples1 however1 the full glory of the ,spirit's presence was manifested only after ,jesus himself had been taken up into heaven2 the present age1 from ,pentecost to the second coming of the ,lord1 is peculiarly the dispensation of the ,holy ,spirit4 ,discontent with the ,church's imperfections and dismay at her many adversaries should never cause us to lose confidence in the work that is being done by the ,spirit of ,god4 ,it was expedient that ,jesus should go away2 through the other ,comforter whom he has sent1 he manifests himself even more gloriously than he did to the disciples in ,galilee4 7#c7 ,the ,nature of the ,spirit4--,the apostles never discuss the nature of the ,holy ,spirit in any thoroughly systematic way4 ,but two great facts are really presupposed in the whole ,new ,testament4 ,in the first place1 the ,holy ,spirit is ,god1 and in the second place he is a person distinct from the ,father and from the ,son4 ,the divinity of the ,spirit appears1 for example1 in ,i ,cor4 #b3aa4 ,the point of that verse is that the ,spirit is as closely related to ,god as the human spirit is to a man4 ,for who among men knoweth the things of a man1 save the spirit of the man1 which is in him8 even so the things of ,god none knoweth1 save the ,spirit of ,god4 ,the distinct personality of the ,spirit appears with special clearness in ,rom4 #h3bf1 #bg4 ,there the ,spirit is represented as making intercession with him that searcheth the hearts2 the one who intercedes is personally distinct from him before whom he makes intercession4 ,even more convincing1 perhaps1 is the great promise of ,christ in ,john #ad3af1 #ag1 #bf2 #ae3bf2 #af3g-ae1 where the other ,comforter is spoken of in clearly personal terms and is distinguished both from the ,father and from the ,son4 ,personal distinctness1 however1 is not inconsistent with a perfect unity of nature4 ,what the ,spirit does the ,son and the ,father do2 when the other ,comforter comes to the ,church1 ,christ himself comes4 ,the doctrine of the ,trinity is a profound mystery1 but its mysteriousness is no obstacle to the acceptance of its truth4 ,mystery in the depths of ,god's nature is surely to be expected4 ,this mystery1 taught by the pen of inspired writers1 has brought salvation and peace into the lives of men4 ,distinctly ,trinitarian passages1 such as ,matt4 #bh3ai2 ,,ii ,cor4 #ac3ad1 are merely the summation of the ,new ,testament teaching about ,god1 and that teaching has worked itself out in unspeakable blessing in the life of the ,church4 7#d7 ,the ,work of the ,spirit4--,a complete summary of the belief of the apostolic ,church about the work of the ,holy ,spirit would be impossible in one brief lesson4 ,the ,christian life is begun by the ,spirit1 and continued by his beneficent power4 ,conversion1 according to ,jesus and his apostles1 is only the manward aspect of a profound change in the depths of the soul4 ,that change is regeneration1 a new birth4 ,christian experience is no mere improvement of existing conditions1 but the entrance of something entirely new4 ,man is not merely sick in trespasses and sins1 but dead2 only a new birth will bring life4 ,that new birth is a mysterious1 creative act of the ,spirit of ,god4 ,john #c3c-h4 ,but the ,spirit does not leave those whom he has regenerated to walk alone2 he dwells in them and enables them to overcome sin4 ,the motive of his work is love4 ,he is no blind force1 but a loving ,person2 the ,christian can enjoy a real communion with him as with the ,father and the ,son4 ,in the presence of the ,spirit we have communion with ,god2 the ,persons of the ,godhead are united in a manner far beyond all human analogies4 ,there is no imperfect medium separating us from the divine presence2 by the gracious work of the ,holy ,spirit we come into vital contact with the living ,god4 ,the ,spirit is the ground and cause of ,christian freedom4 ,where the ,spirit of the ,lord is1 there is liberty4 ,,ii ,cor4 #c3ag4 ,for as many as are led by the ,spirit of ,god1 these are sons of ,god4 ,for ye received not the spirit of bondage again unto fear2 but ye received the spirit of adoption1 whereby we cry1 ,abba1 ,father4 ,rom4 #h3ad1 #ae4 ,this liberty that the ,spirit brings is1 however1 not a liberty to sin2 it is liberation from sin4 ,the body of the ,christian is a temple of the ,holy ,spirit2 in that temple only purity is in place4 ,the inward power of the ,holy ,spirit in the heart is more powerful than the law2 if a man yields to that power he will overcome the flesh2 the law of ,god is fulfilled by those who walk not after the flesh1 but after the ,spirit4 99 99 99 99 99 ,,in ,,the ,,library4--,vos1 ,the ,teaching of ,jesus ,concerning the ,kingdom of ,god and the ,church4 ,crane1 ,the ,teaching of ,jesus ,concerning the ,holy ,spirit4 ,swete1 ,the ,holy ,spirit in the ,new ,testament4 ,thomas1 ,the ,holy ,spirit of ,god4 ,,lesson ,,lii ,,retrospect3 ,,the ,,first ,,christian ,,century ,the apostolic example can be applied intelligently to the problems of our time only if there be some understanding of the intervening centuries4 ,we are connected with the apostolic ,church by an unbroken succession4 ,a study of ,church history would help us to apply the ,new ,testament teaching to our own age4 ,the ,christian writings which have been preserved from the early part of the second century show a marked decline from the spiritual level of the apostles4 ,evidently the special inspiration which had made the ,new ,testament a guide for all ages had been withdrawn4 ,yet the ,spirit of ,god continued to lead the ,church4 ,even in the darkest periods of ,church history ,god did not forget his people4 ,only scanty ,christian writings have been preserved from the first three-quarters of the second century2 the extant works of the so-called ,apostolic ,fathers and of the ,apologists are of limited extent4 ,about the close of the century1 however1 the record becomes more complete4 ,clement of ,alexandria1 ,irenus of ,asia ,minor and ,gaul1 and ,tertullian of ,north ,africa1 give a varied picture of the ,christian life of the time4 ,the ,church had gained rapidly in influence since the conclusion of the apostolic age2 persecutions had not succeeded in checking her advance4 ,finally1 under ,constantine1 in the first part of the fourth century1 ,christianity became the favored religion of the ,roman ,empire4 ,about the same time1 in ,a4,d4 #cbe1 the first ecumenical council1 at ,nica1 undertook the work of formulating the belief of the ,church4 ,the creeds which were adopted at the great ancient councils are accepted to-day in all parts of ,christendom4 ,during the same general period1 the power of the bishop of ,rome was gradually increased until it culminated in the papacy4 ,after the conquest of the western part of the ,roman ,empire in the fifth century1 ,christianity was accepted by the barbarian conquerors1 and during the dark ages that followed the ,church preserved the light of learning and piety until a better day should dawn4 ,during the middle ages1 though there was for the most part little originality in ,christian thinking1 great scholars and theologians formed striking exceptions to the general condition4 ,the political power of the papacy became enormous1 but was hindered by the personal weakness and immorality of many of the popes4 ,the degraded moral and spiritual condition of the ,church was counteracted here and there by the establishment of monastic orders1 whose purpose at the beginning was good1 by the writings of certain mystics1 and by the work of the three pre-reformers1 ,wyclif in ,england1 ,huss in ,bohemia and ,savonarola in ,italy4 ,a genuine advance1 however1 did not come until the ,reformation of the fifteenth century1 when ,luther in ,germany and ,zwingli in ,switzerland1 almost at the same time and at first independently1 became the leaders in a mighty protest4 ,a little later ,calvin carried out the principles of the ,reformation in a comprehensive theological system1 and by the power of his intellect and the fervency of his piety exerted an enormous influence throughout the world4 ,the ,reformation was distinctly a religious movement1 though it had been prepared for by that revival of learning which is called the ,renaissance4 ,the work of ,luther was a rediscovery of ,paul4 ,not the performance of a set of external acts prescribed by the ,church1 but1 as ,paul taught1 the grace of ,god received by faith alone1 is1 according to ,luther1 the means of salvation4 ,the ,reformation brought about a counter-reformation in the ,roman ,catholic ,church1 and the western ,european world was finally divided between the two great branches of ,christendom4 ,after a period of controversy and wars between ,protestants and ,catholics1 the ,church was called upon to fight a great battle against unbelief4 ,that battle1 begun in its modern form about the middle of the eighteenth century1 continues unabated until the present day4 ,we are living in a time of intellectual changes4 ,to maintain the truth of the gospel at such a time and to present it faithfully and intelligently to the modern world is the supreme task of the ,church4 ,the task to some extent has been accomplished2 and the missionary movement of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries attests the vitality of the ancient faith4 ,god has not deserted his ,church4 ,there are enemies without and within1 compromise will surely bring disaster2 but the gospel of ,christ has not lost its power4 ,this is not the first time of discouragement in the history of the ,church4 ,the darkest hour has always been followed by the dawn4 ,who can tell what ,god has now in store8 99 99 99 99 99 99 ,transcriber's note3 ,minor typographical errors have been corrected without note4 ,irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed4