,,the ,,popular ,,religion ,,and ,,folk-,,lore ,,of ,,northern ,,india ,,by ,w4 ,,crooke1 ,b4,a4 ,,bengal ,,civil ,,service ,,in ,,two ,,volumes ,,vol4 ,,ii4 ,a ,,new ,,edition1 ,,revised ,,and ,,illustrated ,,westminster ,,archibald ,,constable ,,co4 #b1 ,whitehall ,gardens1 ,s4,w4 #ahif ,,contents4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,page ,the ,evil ,eye and the ,scaring of ,ghosts #a ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,tree and ,serpent ,worship #hc ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,totemism and ,fetishism #adf ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,animal-,worship #bja ,,chapter ,v4 ,the ,black ,art #bei ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,some ,rural ,festivals and ,ceremonies #bhg ,bibliography #cbg ,,folk-,,lore ,,of ,,northern ,,india4 ,,chapter ,i4 ,,the ,,evil ,,eye ,,and ,,the ,,scaring ,,of ,,ghosts4 ,nescio quis teneros oculus mihi fascinat agnos4 ,virgil1 ,eclogues1 iii4 #ajc4 ,asma 'bint ',umais relates that she said1 ,o ,prophet6 the family of ,ja' afar are affected by the baneful influence of the ,evil ,eye4 ,may ,i use spells for them or not8 ,the ,prophet said1 ,yes2 for if there were anything in the world which would overcome fate1 it would be the ,evil ,eye4--,miskt1 xxi4-i4 ,part ,,ii4 ,the belief in the baneful influence of the ,evil ,eye prevails widely4 #a ,according to ,pliny1 #b it was one of the special superstitions of the people of ,india1 and at the present day it forms an important part of the popular belief4 ,but the investigation of its principles is far from easy4 ,it is very closely connected with a number of kindred ideas on the subject of diabolical influence1 and few natives care to speak about it except in a furtive way4 ,in fact1 it is far too serious a matter to be discussed lightly4 ,walking about villages1 you will constantly see special marks on houses1 and symbols and devices of various kinds1 which are certainly intended to counteract it2 but hardly any one cares directly to explain the real motive1 and if you ask the meaning of them1 you will almost invariably be told that they are purely decorative1 or that they have been made with some object which obviously conceals the real basis of the practice4 ,one1 and perhaps the most common theory of the ,evil ,eye is that when a child is born1 an invisible spirit is born with it2 and unless the mother keeps one breast tied up for forty days1 while she feeds the child with the other 7in which case the spirit dies of hunger71 the child grows up with the endowment of the ,evil ,eye1 and whenever any person so endowed looks at anything constantly1 something will happen to it4 #c ,so1 in ,ireland we are told that the gift comes by ,nature and is born with one1 though it may not be called into exercise unless circumstances arise to excite the power2 then it comes to act like a spirit of bitter and malicious envy that radiates a poisonous atmosphere1 which chills and blights everything within its reach4 #d ,in ,bombay the blast of the ,evil ,eye is supposed to be a form of spirit possession4 ,in ,western ,india all witches and wizards are said to be1 as a rule1 evil-eyed4 ,of the rest1 those persons only who are born under certain circumstances are believed to be evil-eyed4 ,the circumstances are as follows3--,among the ,hindus it is believed that when a woman is pregnant1 she begins to conceive peculiar longings from the day of conception1 or from the fifth month4 ,they consist in eating various fruits and sweetmeats1 in walking under deep shades1 or in gardens where brooks gurgle1 or in putting on rich clothes or ornaments1 and in many other like things4 ,if in the case of any woman these desires are not gratified1 the child whom she gives birth to becomes weak and voracious1 and is said to have an ,evil ,eye4 ,if such a person sees a man or woman eat anything which he feels a longing for1 the eater either vomits what he or she has eaten1 or falls sick4 ,by some it is believed that if a person come from without at the time of dinner1 and enters the house without washing his feet1 the man who is eating becomes sick or vomits the food he has eaten1 or does not feel longing for food for some time1 until the blast of the ,evil ,eye is warded off4 ,mr4 ,campbell explains this on the principle that as he comes from places where three or four roads meet1 and which are spirit haunts1 an evil spirit accompanies him without entering his body1 from the place of its residence by which he has passed4 ,if he washes his feet1 the spirit goes back2 but if he enters the house with spirit-laden feet1 the spirit enters the house with him1 and affects any one of the persons eating4 #e ,the real fact seems to be that in most cases the ,evil ,eye is the result of covetousness4 #f ,thus1 a man blind of an eye1 no matter how well-disposed he may be1 is almost certain to envy a person blessed with a peculiarly good pair of eyes4 ,but if the blind man's attention be distracted by something conspicuous in the appearance of the other1 such as lampblack on his eyelids1 a mole1 or a scar1 the feeling of dissatisfaction1 which is fatal to the complete effect of the envious glance1 is certain to arise4 ,this theory that the glance may be neutralized or avoided by some blot or imperfection is the basis of many of the popular remedies or prophylactics invented with the object of averting its influence4 ,hence comes the device of making an intentional blot in anything one values1 so that the glance of the ,evil ,eye may be deprived of its complete satisfaction4 ,thus1 most people put lampblack on the eyes of their children as a protection against fascination1 because black is a colour hateful to evil spirits2 it has the additional advantage of protecting the eye from the fierce heat of the ,indian summer4 ,women when delivery approaches often mark themselves with black to avert the demon who causes protracted labour4 ,it is also believed that a person whose eyelids are encircled with lampblack is incapable of casting the ,evil ,eye himself2 and it is considered nice in a woman to ornament herself in this way1 since because she herself1 except at some crisis of her life1 such as marriage or parturition1 is not liable to fascination1 it shows her indisposition to covet the beauty of others1 with the inference that she has no cause to do so4 ,on the same principle1 when a parent has lost a child by any disease which1 as is usually the case1 can be attributed to fascination or other demoniacal influence1 it is a common practice to call the next baby by some opprobrious name1 with the intention of so depreciating it that it may be regarded as worthless1 and so protected from the ,evil ,eye of the envious4 ,thus a male child is called ,kuriya or ,dunghill2 ,kadheran or ,ghasta1 ,he that has been dragged along the ground2 ,dukhi or ,dukhita1 ,the afflicted one2 ,phatingua1 ,grasshopper2 ,jhingura1 ,cricket2 ,bhkhra or ,bhkhu1 ,beggar2 ,gharb1 ,poor1 and so on4 ,so1 a girl is called ,andhr1 ,blind2 ,tnkauriy or ,chhahkauriy1 ,she that was sold for three or six cowry shells2 ,dhuriy1 ,dusty2 ,machhiy1 ,fly1 and so on4 #g ,all this is connected with what the ,scotch call fore-speaking1 when praise beyond measure1 praise accompanied with a sort of amazement or envy1 is considered likely to be followed by disease or accident4 #h ,thus ,professor ,rhys writes of the ,isle of ,man3 #i ,you will never get a ,manxman to say that he is very well4 ,he usually admits that he is 'middling2' and if by any chance he risks a stronger adjective1 he hastens to qualify it by saying 'now' or 'just now1' with an emphasis indicative of his anxiety not to say too much4 ,his habits of speech point back to the time when the ,manx mind was dominated by the fear of awaking malignant influences in the spirit world around him4 ,so1 in ,ireland1 to avoid being suspected of having the ,evil ,eye1 it is necessary when looking at a child to say1 ,god bless it6 and when passing a farmyard where the cows are collected for milking to say1 ,the blessing of ,god be on you and all your labour6 #aj ,the same customs prevail in ,india4 ,thus1 if a native gentleman brings his child to visit a ,european1 he dislikes to hear it praised1 unless the praise be accompanied with some pious ejaculation4 ,and it is safer to speak in a complimentary way of some conspicuous ornament or piece of dress1 which is always put on as a protective4 ,in connection with the question of naming1 a reference may be made to some taboos which are probably based on similar principles4 ,a name is part of a person in the belief of savages1 and a man can be injured through his name as well as through the parings of his nails or hair1 which are carefully looked after4 ,thus with all ,hindus two names are given to children1 one secret and used only for ceremonial purposes1 and the other for ordinary use4 ,the witch if she learns the real name can work her evil charms through it4 #aa ,hence arises the use of many contractions and perversions of the real name and many of the nicknames which are generally given to children1 as well as the ordinary terms of endearment which are constantly employed4 ,we have this name taboo coming out in a cycle of folk-tales1 such as ,rumpelstilzchen1 ,tom ,titty ,tot1 and ,whuppity ,stoorie4 ,here the imp or gnome has a secret name of his own1 which he thinks it impossible for any one to find out1 and he himself uses it only when he thinks he is sure to be alone4 ,this seems to be the most rational explanation of the curious taboo according to which a ,hindu woman will not name her husband1 or if she wants to refer to him1 does so in some indirect way as the father of her child and so on4 ,to this1 however1 there is one notable exception4 ,thus1 writing of ,bombay1 ,mr4 ,campbell says3 #ab ,at marriages1 coming of age1 first pregnancy and festive days1 such as the ,ngpancham and ,mangal ,gaur in ,august1 it is usual for the woman to recite some couplet or verse in which the husband's name occurs4 ,at marriages this naming is1 in practice1 little more than a game4 ,an old man or an old lady gets close to the door and refuses to allow the young women to go until they have told their husbands' name4 ,at the pregnancy ceremony the same custom is observed4 ,mr4 ,campbell takes this to be part of a ceremony whose object is to drive to a distance any spirits whose influence might blight the tender life of the unborn child4 ,this seems natural when it is remembered that the names of men are either the names of gods1 of precious stones1 or of spices1 all of which have a power to scare spirits2 and as repeating the thousand names of ,mahdeva is a service in which he greatly delights1 apparently because it keeps spirits at a distance1 so this repeating of the husband's and wife's name seems to have the same object4 ,the name1 in other words1 is kept secret on account of its sanctity1 and the custom would be based on the same rules of taboo which have been designed among most savages for the protection of kings and other persons of dignity from the influence of evil spirits4 ,another mode of protecting boys from demoniacal influence is based on the same idea of the blot of imperfection4 ,boys of rich parents are often dressed in mean or filthy clothes so that they may be considered unworthy of the malicious glance of some envious neighbour or enemy4 ,still another device1 that of dressing up the boy during infancy as a girl1 in other words a pretended change of sex1 may perhaps lead us on the track of a possible explanation of some very curious and obscure practices in ,europe4 ,we know that legends of actual change of sex are not unknown in ,indian folk-lore4 ,thus1 we have the very primitive legend of ,id or ,il1 who was the daughter of the ,manu ,vaivaswata1 who prayed to ,mitra and ,varuna for a boy and was given a girl4 ,but the prayers of her father to the deities resulted in her being changed into a man1 ,sudyumna4 ,siva changed him back again into a woman1 and she1 as ,il1 became the wife of ,budha4 ,in more modern times we have the very similar story of the daughter of the ,bhadauriya ,rja4 ,he had a daughter1 who was seized by force for the seraglio of the ,emperor at ,delhi1 but she fled to the temple of ,dev at ,batesar and by the aid of the goddess was changed into a boy4 ,by another version of the tale he arranged with another ,rja that their children should be contracted1 if one chanced to be a boy and the other a girl4 ,both had daughters1 but the ,rja concealed the circumstance and allowed the marriage to go on as if his child was a son4 ,when the fraud was detected the girl tried to commit suicide in the ,jumn1 but came out a boy1 and everyone was satisfied4 #ac ,one explanation of the custom of pretended change of sex as shown in the case of the ,amazons1 has been thus explained by ,mr4 ,abercromby3 #ad ,the great desire of women1 more especially during a period of warlike barbarism1 is to bear male children4 ,turning our attention to the result of flattening a girl's breasts and letting her wear male attire1 it is obvious that a sex distinction has been obliterated1 and she has become externally assimilated to a male youth4 ,moreover1 the object has evidently been intentional4 ,it would be no outrage to the reasoning powers of the ,sarmatians to suppose that they believed a woman's chances of bearing male children were vastly enhanced by her wearing a man's dress1 and by being in some degree conformed to the male type by forcible compression of the breasts during maidenhood4 ,they would argue thus3 a woman wants to bear male children1 therefore she ought to be made as much like a man as possible4 ,a conviction of this kind is gained by a process identical with the immature reasoning that underlies what is called sympathetic magic4 ,this may possibly be one explanation of the practice among ,chamrs and other low castes in ,northern ,india1 when at marriages boys dress up as women and perform a rude and occasionally obscene dance4 ,among the ,modh ,brhmans of ,gujart1 at marriages1 the bridegroom's maternal uncle1 whose special position is almost certainly a survival from times when descent through the mother was the only recognized form1 dresses as a ,jhanda or ,pathn ,faqr1 whose ghost is dangerous1 in woman's clothes from head to waist1 and in men's clothes below1 rubs his face with oil1 daubs it with red powder1 goes with the bride and bridegroom to a place where two roads meet 7which1 as we have seen1 is a haunt of spirits71 and stays there till the pair offer the goddess food4 #ae ,now1 there are numerous customs which have been grouped in ,europe under the name of the ,false ,bride4 ,thus1 among the ,esthonians the false bride is enacted by the bride's brother dressed in woman's clothes2 in ,polonia by a bearded man called the ,wilde ,brant2 in ,poland1 by an old woman veiled in white1 and lame2 again1 among the ,esthonians1 by an old woman with a birch-bark crown2 in ,brittany1 where the substitutes are first a little girl1 then the mistress of the house1 and lastly1 the grandmother4 #af ,the supposition may then be hazarded1 that in the light of the ,indian examples the object may be that some one assumes the part of the bride in order to divert on himself from her the envious glance of the ,evil ,eye4 ,with the same object it is very common in ,india to bore the noses of little boys and thus to make them resemble girls4 ,the usual names of ,nathu or ,bulqi1 the former where the ring was placed in the side of the nose and the latter in the septum1 are evidence of this4 ,the theory of the blot of imperfection again appears in the custom of not washing the face of a little boy till he is six years old4 #ag ,similarly1 young men1 if vigorous and stout1 consider themselves very liable to the fascination of lean people1 and tie a rag round the left arm1 or a blue thread round their necks1 often twisting the blue feathers of the roller bird into the thread as an additional precaution4 ,nor do they care to expose their bodies to the public gaze1 but wear a light shawl of a gaudy colour1 even in the warmest season of the year4 ,should such a youth1 if sufficiently conceited about his personal appearance1 detect a suspicious person looking at him1 he will immediately pretend to limp1 or contort his face and spasmodically grasp his ankle or his elbow as if he were in pain1 to distract and divert the attention he fears4 ,so1 all natives dread being stared at1 particularly by ,europeans2 and you will often see a witness cast his eyes on the ground when the magistrate looks him full in the face1 sometimes because he knows he is lying and fears the consequences1 but it is often done through fear of fascination4 ,a ,european1 in fact1 is to the rustic a strange inscrutable personage1 gifted with many occult powers both for good and evil1 and there are numerous extraordinary legends current about him4 ,we shall return to this in dealing with the wonderful ,momi story4 ,here it may be noted that he has control over the ,jinn4 ,there was a place near ,dera ,ghzi ,khn so possessed by them that passersby were attacked4 ,a ,european officer poured a bottle of brandy on the spot and no ,jinn has been seen there ever since4 ,a very dangerous ghost which some time ago used to infest a road in the ,rrki ,cantonment was routed in the same way by an artilleryman1 who spat on him when he came across him one dark night4 ,the nails of a ,european1 like those of the ,rkshasa1 distil a deadly poison1 and hence he is afraid to eat with his fingers1 as all reasonable people do1 and prefers to use a knife and fork4 ,a few other examples illustrating the same principle may be given here4 ,when a man is copying a manuscript1 he will sometimes make an intentional blot4 ,a favourite trick is to fold the paper back before the ink of the last line has time to dry1 so as to blot and at the same time make it appear the result of chance4 ,we have noticed the same idea in the case of carpet patterns4 ,a similar irregularity is introduced in printing chintzes and like handicrafts1 and this goes a long way to explain the occasional and almost unaccountable defects to be found in some native work4 ,the letter from a ,rja is spotted with gold leaf1 partly to divert fascination and partly to act as a scarer of demons4 ,in fact the two conceptions meet and overlap all through the theory of these protectives4 ,another plan is to paint up some hideous figure on the posts or arch of the door4 ,the figure of a ,churel or the caricature of a ,european with his gun is often delineated in this way4 ,others paint a figure of ,yamarja or some of the gods or saints for the same purpose1 and the regular guardian deities1 like ,hanumn1 ,bhairon1 or ,bhm ,sen1 often figure on these protective frescoes4 ,so in ,italy ,mania was a most frightful spirit4 ,her frightful image used to be hung over the doors to frighten away evil4 ,this is quite identical with the old ,assyrian observance recorded by ,lenormant of placing the images of evil or dreaded deities in places to scare away the demons themselves4 #ah ,confectioners1 when one of their vessels of milk is exposed to view1 put a little charcoal in it1 as careful ,scotch mothers do in the water in which they wash their babies4 #ai ,the idea is probably connected with the use of fire as a charm4 ,in ,scotland it used to be the practice to throw a live coal into the beer vat to avert the influence of the fairies1 and a cow's milk was secured against them by a burning coal being passed across her back and under her belly immediately after calving4 #bj ,in ,india1 if a cow gives a large quantity of milk1 the owner tries to hide it1 and if it chances to get sour1 he attributes the loss to fascination1 or the machinations of some enemy1 witch1 or demon4 ,a mother while dressing her baby makes a black mark on its cheek1 and before a man eats betel he pinches off the corner of the leaf as a safeguard4 ,when food is taken to the labourer in the field1 a piece of charcoal or copper coin is placed in the basket as a preservative2 and when horses while feeding throw a little grain on the ground1 it is not replaced1 because the horse is believed to do this to avoid fascination4 ,grooms1 with the same object1 throw a dirty duster over the withers of a horse while it is feeding1 and they are the more particular to do this when it is new moon or moonlight1 when spirits are abroad4 ,in the same way1 when a man purchases food in the open market1 he throws a little into the fire1 and when a man is having a specially good dinner1 he should select an auspicious moment and do the same4 ,the same idea accounts for various customs of grace-giving at meals4 ,thus1 when the ,brhmans at ,pna begin dinner they repeat the name of ,govinda2 the ,shenavis say1 ,har6 ,har6 ,mahdeva1 and when half finished sing verses2 the ,mhrs never eat without saying ,krishnarpana6 or ,it is dedicated to ,krishna2 #ba the ,muhammadan1 when he begins to eat1 says1 ,bismillah6--,in the name of ,god6 and when he finishes he says1 ,al-hamdulillah6--,praise be to ,god6 ,orthodox ,hindus pretend that this offering of food at a meal is a sacrifice to ,annadeva1 the god of food2 but here many varied beliefs1 such as fear of fascination1 earth and fire worship1 appear to combine to establish these and similar practices4 ,we now come to consider the various articles which are believed to have the power of scaring spirits1 and counteracting demoniacal influence of various kinds4 ,first among these is iron4 ,why iron has been regarded as a scarer of demons has been much debated4 ,natives of ,india will tell you that it is the material out of which weapons are made1 and that an armed man should fear nothing4 ,others say that its virtues depend on its black colour1 which1 as we shall see1 is obnoxious to evil spirits4 ,mr4 ,campbell #bb thinks the explanation may be that in all cases of swooning and seizures iron is of great value1 either applied in the form of the cautery or used as a lancet to let blood4 ,the real reason is probably a very interesting survival of folk-thought4 ,we know that in many places the stone axe and arrow head of the ,age of ,stone are invested with magic qualities1 and ,mr4 ,macritchie has gone so far as to assume that the various so-called fairy houses and fairy hills which abound in ,europe are really the abodes of a primitive pigmy race1 which survive to our days as the fairies4 ,the belief in the fairies would thus go back to a time anterior to the use of metals1 and these supernatural beings would naturally feel an abhorrence for iron1 a new discovery and one of the greatest ever made by man4 ,there is good evidence in custom that the ,age of ,stone existed in many places up to comparatively modern times4 ,the ,hebrews used a stone knife for circumcision1 their altars were forbidden to be hewn1 and even ,solomon ordered that neither hammer nor axe nor any tool of iron should be heard while his ,temple was building4 ,the same idea appears in many cases in ,india4 ,the ,magahiya ,doms1 who are certainly one of the most primitive races in the country1 place iron under a stringent taboo1 and any ,magahiya who breaks into a house with an iron implement is not only put out of caste1 but it is believed that some day or other he will lose his eyesight4 ,the ,agariyas1 the primitive iron smelters of the ,central ,indian ,hills1 have deified iron under the form of ,lohsura1 as the ,kaseras or brass-founders worship brass as ,kanssura4 ,this idea appears in many various forms4 ,we have already noticed the use of iron as a charm against hail4 ,in the same way a sword or knife is placed in the bed of the young mother4 ,she is1 at this crisis of her life1 particularly exposed to the influence of evil spirits1 as the ,scotch fairies are very fond of milk1 and try to gratify their desires on unsained or unchurched women4 #bc ,there is a case in the ,indian ,law ,reports1 where the knife thus placed near the woman was used to murder her4 #bd ,pliny advises that a piece of iron should be placed in the nest of a sitting hen to save her eggs from the influence of thunder4 ,this is now done in ,sicily1 with the object of absorbing every noise which might be injurious to the chickens4 #be ,so1 the ,indians of ,canada put out swords in a storm to frighten off the demon of thunder4 #bf ,the common belief is that the evil spirit is such a fool that he runs against the sharp edge of the weapon and allows himself to be wounded4 ,the magic sword constantly appears in folk-lore4 ,we have ,excalibur and ,balmung2 in the tales of ,somadeva it confers the power of making the wearer fly through the air and renders him invincible2 the snake demon obtains from the wars of the ,gods and the ,asuras the magic sword ,vaiduryakanti4 ,whatever man obtains that sword will become a chief of the ,siddhas and roam about unconquered2 and that sword can only be obtained by the aid of heroes4 #bg ,while a house is being built1 an iron pot1 or a pot painted black1 which is good enough to scare the demon1 is always kept on the works1 and when it is finished the young daughter of the owner ties to the lintel a charm1 which is also used on other occasions1 the principal virtue of which consists in a small iron ring4 ,here is combined the virtue of the iron and the ring1 which is a sacred circle4 ,in ,india iron rings are constantly worn as an amulet against disease1 as in ,ireland an iron ring on the fourth finger cures rheumatism4 ,the mourner1 during the period of ceremonial impurity1 carries a knife or a piece of iron to drive off the ghost of the dead man1 and the bridegroom in the marriage procession wears a sword as a protection2 if he cannot procure a licence from a magistrate to carry a real sword1 he gets one made of lath1 which is good enough to frighten the evil spirit4 ,in this case he fastens an iron spike to the point4 ,on the same principle the blacksmith's anvil is used as a hail charm1 and any one who dares to sit on it is likely to be punished for the contempt by an attack of boils4 ,the ,romans used to drive large nails into the side posts of the door with the same object4 ,we have already noticed the value of iron nails for the purpose of laying the ghost of the ,churel1 and such nails are in ,india very commonly driven into the door-post or into the legs of the bed1 with the object of resisting evil spirits4 ,the horse-shoe is one special form of the charm4 ,the wild ,irish1 we are told1 used to hang round the necks of children the beginning of ,st4 ,john's ,gospel1 a crooked nail out of a horse-shoe1 or a piece of wolf-skin4 #bh ,why the horse-shoe should be used in this way has been much debated4 ,mr4 ,farrer thinks it may be connected with the respect paid to the horse in folk-lore4 #bi ,the ,irish say that the reason is that the horse and ass were in the stall when ,christ was born1 and hence are blessed for evermore4 #cj ,the idea that its shape connects it with the ,yon and phallicism hardly deserves mention4 ,one thing is clear1 that the element of luck largely enters into the matter2 the shoe must have been found by chance on the road4 ,mr4 ,leland says1 ,to find and pick up anything1 at once converts it into a fetish1 or insures that all will go well with it1 if we say when taking it up1 ',i do not pick it up1'--naming the object--',i pick up good luck1 which may never abandon me6' #ca ,this1 combined with the general protective power of iron1 is probably a sufficient explanation of the practice4 ,the custom is common in ,india4 ,the great gate of the mosque at ,fatehpur ,skri is covered with them1 and the practice is general at many shrines4 ,there is also a cycle of legends which connect iron with the philosopher's stone and transmutation into gold4 ,the great ,chandra ,varma1 who was born of the embraces of ,chandrama1 the ,moon god1 possessed the power of converting iron into gold4 ,laliya1 a blacksmith of ,ahmadbd1 made an axe for a ,bhl1 who returned and complained that it would not cut4 ,laliya1 on looking at it1 found that the blade had been turned into gold4 ,on questioning the ,bhl1 he ascertained that he had tried to sharpen it on what turned out to be the philosopher's stone4 ,laliya1 by possession of the stone1 acquired great wealth1 and was finally attacked by the king's troops4 ,at last he was obliged to throw the stone into the ,bhadar river1 where it still lies1 but once some iron chains were let down into the water1 and when they touched it the links were converted into gold4 #cb ,gold and ,silver ,protectives4 ,gold1 and in a less degree silver1 have a similar protective influence4 ,the idea is apparently based on their scarcity and value1 and on their colour--yellow and white being obnoxious to evil spirits4 ,hence a little bit of gold is put into the mouth of the dying ,hindu1 and both gold and silver1 combined with tigers' claws and similar protectives1 are largely used as amulets4 ,these metals are particularly effective in the form of ornaments1 many of which are images of the gods1 or have some mystic significance1 or are made in imitation of some sacred leaf1 flower1 or animal4 ,this is one main cause of the recklessness with which rich natives load their children with masses of costly jewellery1 though they are well aware that the practice often leads to robbery and murder4 ,copper and ,brass ,protectives4 ,next come copper and brass4 ,the use of copper in the form of rings and amulet cases is very common4 ,many of the vessels used in the daily service of the gods1 such as the ,argha1 with which the daily oblations are made1 are made of this metal4 ,so with brass and various kinds of alloy used for bells1 drinking and cooking utensils4 ,the common brass ,lota is always carried about by a man during the period of mourning as a preservative against the evil spirits which surround him until the ghost of the dead man is finally laid4 ,copper rings are specially worn as an antidote to pimples and boils1 while those of iron are supposed to weaken the influence of the planet ,sani or ,saturn1 which is proverbially unlucky and malignant4 ,his ,evil ,eye1 in particular1 brings misfortune at intervals of twenty-four years2 all offerings to him are black1 and consequently ill-omened1 such as sesamum1 charcoal1 buffaloes1 and black salt2 and only the ,dakaut1 the lowest class of ,brhman priest1 will accept such offerings4 #cc ,coral and ,marine ,products ,protectives4 ,next in value to these metals come coral and other marine products1 which in the case of the ,hindus probably derive their virtue from being strange to an inland-dwelling people1 and as connected with the great ocean1 the final home of the sainted dead4 ,coral is particularly valued in the form of a necklace by those who cannot afford the costlier metals1 and its ashes are constantly used in various rustic remedies and stimulants4 ,in ,gujart a coral ring is used to keep off the evil influence of the sun1 #cd and in ,bengal mourners touch it as a form of purification4 ,according to the old belief in ,england1 coral guarded off lightning1 whirlwind1 tempests and storms from ships and houses1 and was hung round the necks of children to assist teething and keep off the falling sickness4 #ce ,so with shells1 particularly the ,sankha or conch shell1 which is used for oblations and is regarded as sacred to ,vishnu4 ,it is blown at his temples when the deity receives his daily meal1 in order to wake him and scare off vagrant spirits1 who would otherwise consume or defile the offering4 ,this shell1 in popular belief1 is the bone of the demon ,panchajana1 who1 according to the ,vishnu ,purna1 #cf lived in the form of a conch shell under the ocean4 ,krishna plunged into the water1 killed him1 took the shell1 which constituted his bones1 and afterwards used it for a horn4 ,when sounded it fills the demon hosts with dismay1 animates the gods1 and annihilates unrighteousness4 ,all these shells appear to derive part of their virtue from the fact that they are perforated4 ,the cowry shell1 which is worn round the neck by children as an antidote to the ,evil ,eye and diabolical influence1 is supposed to have such sympathy with the wearer that it cracks when the evil glance falls upon it1 as in ,england coral was thought to change colour and grow pale when its owner was sick4 ,the cowry shell is1 with the same object1 tied round the neck or pasterns of a valued horse1 or on a cow or buffalo4 ,the shell armlet worn by ,bengal women has the same protective influence4 #cg ,precious ,stones ,protectives4 ,precious stones possess similar value4 ,sir ,thomas ,brown would not deny that bezoar was antidotal1 but he could not bring himself to believe that sapphire is preservative against enchantments4 ,in one special combination of nine varieties1 known as the ,nauratana1 they are specially efficacious--the ruby sacred to the sun1 the pearl to the moon1 coral to ,mars1 emerald to ,mercury1 topaz to ,jupiter1 diamond to ,venus1 sapphire to ,saturn1 amethyst to ,rhu1 and the cat's-eye to ,ketu4 ,in the mythology the gods interrupted ,prvat when she was with ,mahdeva1 and nine jewels dropped from her anklet4 ,when he looked at them he saw his image reflected in each of them1 and they appeared in the form of the nine ,kanys or heavenly maidens4 ,the ,naulakha or nine lkh necklace constantly appears in ,indian folk-lore4 ,in the story of the ,princess ,aubergine we read that inside the fish there is a bumble-bee1 inside the bee a tiny box1 and inside the box is the wonderful nine lkh necklace4 ,put it on and ,i shall die4 ,and in one of ,somadeva's stories1 at the marriage1 ,jaya gives the bride a necklace of such a kind that1 as long as it is upon a person's neck1 hunger1 thirst1 and death cannot harm him4 #ch ,it is of jewels that the lamps which light fairy-land are made4 ,many of the precious stones have tales and qualities of their own4 ,once upon a time a holy man came and settled at ,panna who had a diamond as large as a cart-wheel4 ,the ,rja1 hearing of this1 tried to take it by force1 but the saint hid it in the ground out of his way4 ,he told the ,rja that the diamond wheel could not leave his dominions1 and that no one could ever find it4 ,the ,muhammadans say that all the diamonds found since1 in these famous mines1 were fragments of the wheel4 #ci ,the wearing of a ring of sapphire1 sacred to ,sani or ,saturn1 is supposed to turn out lucky or unlucky1 according to circumstances4 ,for this reason1 the wearer tries it for three days1 that is1 he wears it on ,saturday1 which is sacred to ,saturn1 and keeps it on till ,tuesday4 ,during this time1 if no mishap befalls him1 he continues to wear it during the period when the planet's influence is unfavourable2 but should any mishap befall him during the three days1 he gives the ring to a ,brhman4 #dj ,the amethyst obtains its name because any one who wears it cannot be affected by wine4 ,the turquoise or ,froza is a mystic stone in ,india4 ,if you bathe wearing a turquoise1 the water touched by it protects the wearer from boils1 and snakes will not approach him4 #da ,shylock got a turquoise from ,leah which he would not have given for a wilderness of monkeys1 because it changed colour with the health of the owner1 and the ,turkeys1 says an old writer1 doth move when there is any peril prepared to him that weareth it4 #db ,so the onyx1 known as the ,sulaimni1 or stone of ,solomon1 has mystic virtues1 as1 according to ,burton1 carbuncles and coral1 beryl1 pearls and rubies were believed to drive away devils1 to overcome sorrow1 and to stop dreams4 #dc ,beads ,protectives4 ,with poorer people beads take the place of gems1 and in particular the curious enamelled bead1 which probably came from ,china and is still found in old deserted sites1 mostly of ,buddhistic origin1 enjoys special repute4 ,we have already met with the parturition bead1 and in ,kolhapur there is a much-valued ,arabic stone which1 when any woman is in labour1 is washed and the water given to her to drink4 ,in ,scotland the amber bead cures inflamed eyes and sprains1 as in ,italy looking through amber beads strengthens the sight4 #dd ,here the perforation confers a mystical quality4 ,as an antidote to the ,evil ,eye blue beads are specially valued1 and are hung round the necks and pasterns of horses and other valuable animals4 ,the belief in the efficacy of beads is at the basis of the use of rosaries1 which1 as used in ,europe1 are almost certainly of ,eastern origin1 imported in the ,middle ,ages in imitation of those worn by ,buddhistic or ,hindu ascetics1 who ascribe to them manifold virtue4 ,such are those of the ,tulas or sacred basil1 worn by ,vaishnavas1 and those of the ,rudrksha1 worn by ,saivas4 ,blood a ,protective4 ,blood is naturally closely connected with life4 ,the flesh with the life thereof1 which is the blood thereof1 shall ye not eat4 ,hence blood comes to be a scarer of demons4 ,in ,scott's ,lay the wizard's book would not open till he smeared the cover with the ,borderer's curdled gore4 ,in ,cornwall1 the burning of blood from the body of a dead animal is a very common method of appeasing the spirits of disease1 #de and the blood sacrifices so prevalent all over the world are performed with the same object4 ,a curious ,evil ,eye charm is recorded from ,allahbd4 ,a woman of the ,chamr or carrier caste gave birth to a dead child4 ,thinking that this was due to fascination1 she put a piece of the cloth used at her confinement down a well1 having previously enclosed in it two leaves of betel1 some cloves1 and a piece of the castor-oil plant4 #df ,here we have1 first1 a case of well-worship2 secondly1 the use of betel1 cloves1 and the castor-oil plant1 all scarers of evil spirits2 and thirdly1 an instance of the use of blood for the same purpose4 ,we have elsewhere noticed the special character attached to menstrual or parturition blood4 ,but blood itself is most effectual against demoniacal influence4 ,there are many cases where blood is rubbed on the body as an antidote to disease4 ,in ,bombay some ,marhtas give warmed goat's blood in cases of piles1 and in typhus1 or red discoloration of the skin with blotches1 the patient is cured by killing a cock and rubbing the sick man with the blood4 ,others use the blood of the great lizard in cases of snake-bite4 #dg ,a bath of the blood of children was once ordered for the ,emperor ,constantine1 and because he1 moved by the tears of the parents1 refused to take it1 his extraordinary humanity was rewarded by a miraculous cure4 ,similarly1 among the ,drvidians1 the ,kos drink the blood of the sacrificial bull2 the ,malers cure demoniacs by giving the blood of a sacrificed buffalo2 the ,pahariyas1 in time of epidemics1 set up a pair of posts and a cross beam1 and hang on it a vessel of blood4 #dh ,so1 the ,jews sprinkled the door-posts and the horns of the altar with blood1 and the same customs prevail among many other peoples4 ,we shall meet with instances of the same rite when dealing with the blood covenant and human sacrifice4 ,on the same analogy many ,indian tribes mark the forehead of the bride with blood or vermilion1 and red paint is smeared on the image of the village godling in lieu of a regular sacrifice4 ,incense4 ,similarly1 incense is largely used in religious rites1 partly to please with the sweet savour the deity which is being worshipped1 and partly to drive away demons who would steal or defile the offerings4 ,bad smells repel evil spirits1 and this is probably why assafoetida is given to a woman after her delivery4 ,in ,ireland1 if a child be sick1 they take a piece of the cloth worn by the person supposed to have overlooked the infant and burn it near him4 ,if he sneezes1 he expels the spirit and the spell is broken1 or the cloth is burned to ashes and given to the patient1 while his forehead is rubbed with spittle4 ,in ,northern ,india1 if a child be sick1 a little bran1 pounded chillies1 mustard1 and sometimes the eyelashes of the child are passed round its head and burned4 ,if the burning mixture does not smell very badly1 which it is needless to say is hardly ever the case1 it is a sign that the child is still under the evil influence2 if the odour be abominable1 that the attack has been obviated4 #di ,similarly1 in ,bengal1 red mustard seeds and salt are mixed together1 waved round the head of the patient1 and then thrown into the fire4 #ej ,this reminds us of the flight of the ,evil ,one into the remote parts of ,egypt from the smell of the fish liver burnt by ,tobit1 and an old writer says3 ,wyse clerkes knoweth well that dragons hate nothyng more than the stenche of breenynge bones1 and therefore they gaderyd as many as they might fynde1 and brent them2 and so with the stenche thereof they drove away the dragons1 and so they were brought out of greete dysease4 #ea ,spittle4 ,we have just met with an instance of the use of spittle for the scaring of the disease demon or the ,evil ,eye4 ,this is a very common form of charm for this purpose4 ,in one of the ,italian charms the performer is directed to spit behind himself thrice and not to look back4 ,in another1 if your eyes pain you1 you must take the saliva of a woman who has given birth only to boys1 not girls4 ,and she must have abstained from sexual union and stimulating food for three days4 ,then1 if her saliva be bright and clear1 anoint your eyes with it and they will be cured4 #eb ,at ,innisboffin1 in ,ireland1 when the old women meet a baby out with its nurse they spit on the ground all round it to keep fairies from it4 ,in ,wicklow they spit on a child for good luck the first day it is brought out after birth4 #ec ,in several of the ,european folk-tales we find that spittle has the power of speech4 ,the habit of spitting on the handsell or first money taken in the morning is common4 ,it is done either to render it tenacious that it may remain with them and not vanish away like a fairy gift1 or else to render it propitious and lucky1 that it may draw more money to it4 #ed ,muhammad advised that when the demon ,khanzab interrupted any one at his prayers1 he was to spit over his left shoulder three times4 ,in ,india1 spittle is regarded as impure4 ,hence a native cleans his teeth daily with a fresh twig of the ,nm tree1 and regards the ,european's use of the same tooth-brush day after day as one of the numerous extraordinary impurities which we permit4 ,hence1 too1 the practice of spitting when any one who is feared or detested passes by4 ,when women see a falling star they spit three times to scare the demon4 ,in ,bombay1 spittle1 especially fasting spittle1 is used to rub on wounds as a remedy4 ,it cures inflammation of the eyes1 an idea which was familiar to the ,jews4 ,it guards children against the ,evil ,eye4 ,in the ,konkan1 when a person is affected by the ,evil ,eye1 salt and mustard are waved round his head1 thrown into the fire1 and he is told to spit4 ,in ,gujart1 when an orthodox ,shiah ,musalmn travels with a ,sunni1 he spits1 and among the ,roman ,catholics of ,kanara1 at baptism the priest wets his thumb with spittle and with it touches the child's ears and nostrils4 #ee ,salt4 ,we have seen above that salt is also used in the same way4 ,salt1 apparently from its power of checking decay1 is regarded as possessing mystical powers4 ,all over ,europe the spilling of salt in the direction of a person was considered ominous4 ,it was held to indicate that something had already happened to one of the family1 or was about to befall the person spilling it1 and also to denote the rupture of friendship4 #ef ,the custom of putting a plate of salt on a corpse with the object of driving off evil spirits is common in ,great ,britain4 ,we have already seen that salt is given to children after they have eaten sweets4 ,many classes of ,hindu ascetics bury their dead in salt4 ,it is waved round the head of the bride and bridegroom1 and buried near the house door as a charm4 ,in classical antiquity it was mixed with water and sprinkled on the worshippers4 ,salutation4 ,another way of dispelling evil spirits is by the various forms of salutation1 which generally consist in the invocation of some deity4 ,the ,hindu says1 ,rm6 ,rm6 when he meets a friend1 or ,jay ,gopl6 ,glory to ,krishna6 or whoever his personal god may be1 and the same idea accounts for many of the customs connected with the reception of guests1 who1 coming from abroad1 may bring evil spirits with them4 ,the ,separable ,soul3 ,waving4 ,another series of prophylactics depends on the idea of the separable soul or that spirits are always fluttering in the air round a person's head4 ,hence a long series of customs known as ,parachhan1 performed at ,hindu marriages in ,upper ,india1 when lights1 a brass tray1 grain1 and household implements like the rice pounder or grindstone are waved round the head of the married pair as a protective4 ,in ,somadeva's tale of ,bhunandana we find that he performs the ceremony of averting evil spirits from all quarters by waving the hand over the head4 #eg ,this is perhaps one explanation of the use of flags at temples and village shrines1 though in some cases they appear to be used as a perch1 on which the deity sits when he makes his periodical visits4 ,hence1 too1 feathers have a mystic significance1 though in some cases1 as in those of the peacock and jay1 the colour is the important part4 ,hence the waving of the fan and ,chaur over the head of the great man and the use of the umbrella as a symbol of royalty4 ,a woman carrying her child on her return from a strange village1 lest she should bring the influence of some foreign evil spirit back with her1 will1 before entering her own homestead1 pass seven little stones seven times round the head of the baby1 and throw them in different directions1 so as to pass away any evil that may have been contracted4 ,when a sorcerer is called in to attend a case attributed to demoniacal possession1 he whisks the patient with a branch of the ,nm1 ,madr1 or ,camel thorn1 all of which are more or less sacred trees and have acquired a reputation as preservatives4 ,when this is completed1 the aspersion of the afflicted one1 be he man or beast1 with some water from the blacksmith's shop1 in which iron has been repeatedly plunged and has bestowed additional efficacy upon it1 usually follows4 ,blacksmith1 ,respect for4 ,the respect paid to the trade of the blacksmith is a curious survival from the time of the early handicrafts and the substitution of weapons of iron for those of stone4 #eh ,in ,scotland the same belief in the virtues of the water of the forge prevails1 and in ,ireland no one will take anything by stealth from such a place4 #ei ,in ,st4 ,patrick's ,hymn we have a prayer against the spells of women1 of smiths1 and of druids4 ,culann1 the mystic smith1 appears in ,celtic folk-lore4 ,in all the mythologies the idea is widespread that the art of smithing was first discovered and practised by supernatural personages4 ,we see this through the whole range of folk-lore1 from the ,cyclopes to ,wayland ,smith1 who finally came to be connected with the ,devil of ,christianity4 #fj ,water4 ,we have already referred to water as a protective against the influence of evil spirits4 ,we see this principle in the rite of ceremonial bathing as a propitiation for sin4 ,it also appears in the use of water which has been blown upon by a holy man as a remedy for spirit possession4 ,among many menial tribes in the ,north-,western ,provinces with the same object the bride is washed in the water in which the bridegroom has already taken his wedding bath4 ,again1 on a lucky day fixed by the ,pandit the rite of ,nahwan or ceremonial bathing is performed for the protection of the young mother and her child two or three days after her confinement4 ,both of them are bathed in a decoction of the leaves of the ,nm tree4 ,then a handful of the seeds of mustard and dill are waved round the mother's head and thrown into a vessel containing fire4 ,when the seeds are consumed the cup is upset1 and the mother breaks it with her own foot4 ,next she sits with grain in her hand1 while the household brass tray is beaten to scare demons and the midwife throws the child into the air4 ,all this takes place in the open air in the courtyard of the house4 ,here we have a series of antidotes to demoniacal possession1 the purport of which will be easily understood on principles which have been already explained4 ,grain4 ,with this use of grain we meet with another valuable antidote4 ,we have it in ,great ,britain in the rule that the ,english1 when the bride comes from church1 are wont to cast wheat upon her head4 #fa ,it survives in our custom of throwing rice over the wedded pair when they start on the honeymoon4 ,on the analogy of other races one object of the rite would seem to be to keep in the soul which is likely to depart at such a crisis in life as marriage4 ,thus1 in ,celebes they think that a bridegroom's soul is apt to fly away at marriage1 so coloured rice is scattered over him to induce it to stay4 ,and1 in general1 at festivals in ,south ,celebes rice is strewed on the head of the person in whose honour the festival is held1 with the object of retaining his soul1 which at such times is in especial danger of being lured away by envious demons4 #fb ,this rite appears widely in ,indian marriage customs4 ,among the ,mhrs of ,khndesh1 on the bridegroom approaching the bride's house1 a piece of bread is waved round his head and thrown away4 #fc ,in a ,kunbi's wedding a ball of rice is waved round the boy's head and thrown away1 and at the lucky moment grains of rice are thrown over the couple4 ,among the ,telang ,nhvis of ,bijaypur the chief marriage rite is that the priest throws rice over the boy and girl4 ,the grain acquires special efficacy if it be either parched1 and thus purified by fire1 or if it be stained in some lucky or demon-scaring colour4 #fd ,thus1 in ,upper ,india grain parched with a special rite is thrown over the pair as they revolve round the marriage shed1 and this function is1 if possible1 performed by the brother of the bride4 ,rice stained yellow with turmeric is very often used for this purpose4 ,another device is to make a pile of rice1 with a knot of turmeric and a copper coin concealed in it4 ,this at a particular stage of the service the bride knocks down with her foot4 ,the ,lodhis of the ,dakkhin1 in the same way1 put a pile of rice at the door of the boy's house1 which he upsets with his foot4 ,all through ,northern ,india the exorciser shakes grain in a fan1 which is1 as we shall see1 a potent fetish1 and by the number of grains which remain in the interstices calculates which particular ghost is worrying the patient4 ,on the same principle the ,orons put rice in the mouth of the corpse1 and the ,koiris1 when they marry1 walk round a pile of water-pots and scatter rice on the ground4 #fe ,the custom of sprinkling grain at marriage appears in many of the folk-tales4 ,urad4 ,we are familiar in ,roman literature with the use of beans at funerals1 and at the ,lemuria thrice every other night to pacify the ghosts of the dead beans were flung on the fire of the altar to drive the spirits out of the house4 ,the same idea appears in the ,carlings or fried peas given away and eaten on the ,sunday before ,palm ,sunday4 #ff ,no special sanctity appears to apply to the pea or bean in ,india1 but they are replaced by the ,urad pulse1 which is much used in rites of all kind1 and especially in magic1 when it is thrown over the head of the person whom the magician wishes to bring under his control4 #fg ,barley4 ,barley1 another sacred grain1 is rubbed over the corpse of a ,hindu and sprinkled on the head before the cremation rite is performed4 ,so1 the ,orons throw rice on the urn as they take it to the tomb1 and sprinkle grain on the ground behind the bones to keep the spirit from coming back4 #fh ,sesamum4 ,til or black sesamum1 again1 has certain qualities of the same kind4 ,hence it is used in the funeral rites1 and in form of ,tilanjal or a handful mixed with water is one of the offerings to the sainted dead1 and made up in the form of a cow1 called ,tiladhenu1 it is presented to ,brhmans4 ,sheaves4 ,most grains in the ear have also mystic uses4 ,it is hung up over the house door to repel evil spirits1 and in ,hoshangbd they tie a sheaf of corn on a pole and fasten it to the cattle shed as a preservative4 #fi ,the combination of seven kinds of grain1 known as ,satnaja1 is an ingredient in numerous charms and is used in many forms of worship4 ,milk4 ,so with the products of the sacred cow1 which are1 as might have been expected1 most valuable for this purpose4 ,hence the use of ,ghilor or clarified butter in the public and domestic ritual4 ,milk for the same reason is used in offerings and sprinkled on the ground as an oblation4 ,cowdung1 in particular1 is regarded as efficacious4 ,after the death or birth impurity the house is carefully plastered with a mixture of cowdung and clay4 ,no cooking place is pure without it1 and the corpse is cremated with cakes of cowdung fuel4 ,even the urine of the cow is valued as a medicine and a purificant4 ,the cow guards the house from evil1 and every rich man keeps a cow so that his glance may fall on her when he wakes from sleep1 and he regards her as the guardian of the household4 ,colours4 ,colours1 again1 are scarers of evil spirits4 ,they particularly dread yellow1 black1 red1 and white4 ,the belief in the efficacy of yellow accounts for the use of turmeric in the domestic ritual4 #gj ,a few days before the marriage rites commence the bride and bridegroom are anointed with a mixture of oil and turmeric known as ,abtan4 ,the bride assumes a robe dyed in turmeric1 which she wears until the wedding4 ,the marriage letter of invitation is coloured with turmeric1 and splashes of it are made on the wall and worshipped by the married pair4 ,in the old times the woman who performed ,sat1 and nowadays married women who die1 are taken to the pyre wrapped in a shroud dyed with turmeric4 ,the corpse is very often smeared with turmeric before cremation1 a custom which is not peculiar to the so-called ,aryan ,hindus1 because it prevails among the ,thrus1 one of the most primitive tribes of the sub-,himlayan forests4 ,the same principle probably explains the use of yellow clothes by certain classes of ascetics1 and of ,chandan or sandal-wood in making caste marks and for various ceremonial purposes4 ,yellow and red are the usual colours of marriage garments1 and the parting of the bride's hair is stained with vermilion1 though here the practice is probably based on the symbolical belief in the ,blood ,covenant4 ,the same idea is probably the explanation of the flinging of red powder and water coloured with turmeric at the ,hol or spring festival4 ,black1 again1 is feared by evil spirits1 and the husbandman hangs a black pot in his field to scare spirits and evade the ,evil ,eye1 and young women and children have their eyelids marked with lampblack4 ,in the ,mirzapur ,baiga's sacrifice the black fowl or the black goat is the favourite victim1 and charcoal is valued1 some put into the milk as a preservative and some buried under the threshold to guard the household from harm4 ,grasses4 ,for the same reason various kinds of grass are considered sacred1 such as the ,kusa1 the ,drva1 the ,darbha4 ,among the ,prabhus of ,bombay juice of the ,drva grass is poured into the left nostril of a woman when the pregnancy and coming of age rites are performed1 and the ,kanaujiya ,brhman husband drops some of the juice down her nose when she reaches maturity4 #ga ,the ,sholapur ,mngs when they come back from the grave strew some ,hariyli grass and ,nm leaves on the place where the deceased died4 ,the ,mnj grass is also sacred1 and a thread made of it is worn at one stage of the ,brhman's life4 ,some of these sacred grasses form an important ingredient in the ,srddha offerings to the sacred dead1 some are used in the marriage and cremation ritual1 on some the dying man is laid at the moment of dissolution4 ,they are potent to avert the ,evil ,eye1 and hence the mother of ,rma and ,lakshmana1 when she looks at them1 breaks a blade of grass4 #gb ,tattooing4 ,next come special marks made on the body4 ,such are the marks branded on various parts of their bodies by many classes of ascetics1 and the caste marks made in clay or ashes by most high-class ,hindus4 ,it has been suggested that many of these marks are of totemistic origin4 ,that this is so among races beyond the ,indian border is almost certainly the case4 #gc ,but though tattooing1 a widespread practice of the ,indian people1 very possibly originated in totemism1 still1 as far as has hitherto been ascertained1 no distinct trace remains of a tribal tattoo1 and it is safer at present to class marks of this kind in the general category of devices to repel evil spirits4 ,among purely sectarial marks we have the forehead mark of the ,saivas1 composed of three curved lines like a half-moon1 to which is added a round mark on the nose2 it is made with the clay of the ,ganges1 or with sandal-wood1 or the ashes of cowdung1 the ashes being supposed to represent the disintegrating force of the deity4 ,the mark of the ,vaishnavas is in the form of the foot of ,vishnu1 and consists of two lines rather oval drawn the whole length of the nose and carried forward in straight lines across the forehead4 ,it is generally made with the clay of the ,ganges1 sometimes with the powder of sandal-wood4 ,the ,skta forehead mark is a small semi-circular line between the eyebrows1 with a dot in the middle4 ,the practice of tattooing is common both among the ,aryan and ,drvidian races1 but is more general among the lower than the higher castes4 ,thus1 the ,jung women tattoo themselves with three strokes on the forehead just over the nose1 and three on each of the temples4 ,they attach no meaning to the marks1 have no ceremony in adopting them1 and are ignorant of the origin of the practice4 ,the ,khariya women make three parallel marks on the forehead1 the outer lines terminating at the ends in a crook1 and two on each temple4 ,the ,ho women tattoo themselves in the form of an arrow1 which they regard as their national emblem4 ,the ,birhor women tattoo their chests1 arms1 and ankles1 but not their faces4 ,the ,oron women have three marks on the brow and two on each temple4 ,the young men burn marks on their fore-arms as part of the ordeal ceremony2 girls1 when adult1 or nearly so1 have themselves tattooed on the arms and back4 ,the ,kisn women have no such marks2 if a female of the tribe indulges herself in the vanity of having herself tattooed1 she is at once turned adrift as having degraded herself4 ,here we may have some faint indications of a tribal tattoo1 but among most of the tribes which practise the custom it has become purely protective or ornamental4 #gd ,among the ,drvidian tribes of the ,north-,western ,provinces tattooing generally prevails4 ,the ,korwas and many other of these tribes get their women tattooed by a woman of the ,bdi sub-division of ,nats4 ,they are tattooed only on the breast and arms1 not on the thighs4 ,there are no ceremonies connected with it1 nor any special pattern4 ,any girl gets herself tattooed in any figure she approves for a small sum4 ,well-to-do women always get it done2 but if a woman is not tatooed1 it is not considered unlucky4 ,the men of the tribe are not tattooed4 ,the ,ghasiya women tattoo themselves on the breasts1 arms1 thighs1 and feet4 ,they say that when a woman dies who is not tattooed1 the ,great ,lord ,parameswar is displeased and turns her out of heaven1 or has her branded with the thorn of the acacia4 ,in the same way among the ,chamrs1 when a woman who has not been tattooed dies1 ,parameswar asks her where are the marks and signs which she ought to possess to show that she had lived in the world4 ,if she cannot show them1 she will in her next birth be re-born as a ,bhtn1 ,pretn1 or ,rkshas4 ,at present among low-caste women the process of tattooing is regarded as a species of initiation1 and usually marks the attainment of puberty4 ,it thus corresponds with the rite of ear-piercing among males4 ,to the east of the ,north-,west ,provinces a girl is not allowed to cook until she is tattooed with a mark representing the ,st k ,raso or cook-house of ,st1 and in ,bengal high-caste people will not drink from the hands of a girl who does not wear the ,ullikh or star-shaped tattoo mark between her eyebrows4 ,a ,chamr woman who is not tattooed at marriage will not1 it is believed1 see her father and mother in the next world4 ,this reminds us of the idea prevalent in ,fiji1 that women who are not tattooed are liable to special punishment in the land of the dead4 #ge ,in ,bombay the custom has been provided with a ,brhmanical legend4 ,one day ,lakshm1 the wife of ,vishnu1 told her husband that whenever he went out on business or to visit his devotees she became frightened4 ,hearing this1 ,vishnu took his weapons and stamped them on her body1 saying that the marks of his weapons would save her from evil4 ,hence women in ,bombay tattoo themselves with the figures of the lotus1 conch shell1 and discus1 and from this the present custom is said to have originated4 #gf ,in ,upper ,india the forms of the tattoo marks fall into various classes4 ,some are rude or conventionalized representations of animals1 plants1 and flowers4 ,the operators carry round with them sketches of the different kinds of ornament1 and the girl selects these according to taste4 ,the peacock1 the horse1 the serpent1 the scorpion1 tortoise1 centipede1 appear constantly in various forms4 ,others1 again1 are representations of jewellery actually worn--necklaces1 bracelets1 armlets1 or rings4 ,others1 again1 are purely religious1 such as the trident or matted hair of ,siva1 the weapons of ,vishnu1 and the cooking house of ,st1 the type of wifely virtue4 ,some of these marks were probably of totemistic origin1 but they have now become merely ornamentative1 as was the case in ,central ,asia in the time of ,marco ,polo1 where they were regarded only as a piece of elegance or a sign of gentility1 and among the ,thracians1 as described by ,herodotus4 #gg ,it may be noticed that in the time of ,marco ,polo people used to go from ,upper ,india to ,zayton in ,china to be tattooed4 #gh ,these animal forms of tattooing are found also among the ,drvidian tribes of the ,central ,provinces1 where the forms used are a peacock1 an antelope1 or a dagger1 and the marks are made on the back of the thighs and legs4 ,in ,bengal tattooing is used as a cure for goitre4 #gi ,we may close this long catalogue of devices intended to scare spirits1 with a number of miscellaneous examples4 ,it seems to be a well-established principle that evil spirits fear leather4 ,on this is perhaps based the idea of the shoe being a mode of repelling the ,evil ,eye and the influence of demons4 ,we find this constantly appearing in the folk-lore of the ,west4 ,thus1 the ,highlanders paid particular attention to the leaving of the bridegroom's left shoe without buckle or latchet1 to prevent the secret influences of witches on the wedding night4 #hj ,and ,hudibras tells how-- ,augustus having by oversight ,put on his left shoe 'fore his right1 ,had like to have been slain that day ,by soldiers mutinying for pay4 ,maidens in ,europe ascertain whether they will be married and who will be their future husbands by throwing the slipper at the new year4 ,the throwing of old shoes at an ,english wedding seems on the same principle to be based on the idea of scaring the demon of barrenness4 ,according to ,mr4 ,hartland1 #ha the gipsies of ,transylvania throw old shoes and boots on a newly married pair when they enter their tent1 expressly to enhance the fertility of the union4 ,in the same way in ,india1 people who are too poor to afford another protective place on the top of their houses a shoe heel upwards4 ,this seems to give some additional efficacy to the charm1 because we find the same rule in force elsewhere4 ,thus1 in ,cornwall1 a slipper with the point turned up placed near the bed cures cramp4 #hb ,in ,pna1 if a man feels that he has been struck by an incantation1 he at once takes hold of an upturned shoe4 #hc ,the fear which spirits feel for leather is also illustrated by the procedure of the ,drvidian ,baiga1 who flagellates people suffering from demoniacal possession with a tawse or leathern strap4 ,in the ,dakkhin a person troubled with nightmare sleeps with a shoe under his pillow1 and an exorcist frightens evil spirits by threatening to make them drink water from a tanner's well4 ,we shall see that this is one way of punishing and repelling the power of witches4 ,the ,pna ,kunbis believe that a drink of water from a tanner's hand destroys the power of a witch4 ,in the ,panjb1 if a man sits on a currier's stone1 he gets boils4 #hd ,the same principle probably accounts for much of the fear or contempt generally felt in ,india regarding shoe-beating as a form of punishment4 ,at the same time it is said in ,persia and ,arabia that the dread of a flagellation with the slipper is based on the idea that while a flogging with the regular scourge involves little discredit1 a beating with anything not originally intended for the purpose1 such as a shoe or knotted cloth1 is disgraceful4 ,the same feeling for the power of leather possibly explains the use as a seat of various kinds of skins1 such as those of the tiger and antelope1 by many kinds of ascetics1 and in the old ritual the wife with her husband sat on the hide of a bull to promote the fertility of their union4 ,garlic4 ,garlic1 again1 from its pungency1 is valued in the same way4 ,garlic was one of the substances used by ,danish mothers to keep evil from children4 #he ,the ,swedish bridegroom sews in his clothes garlic1 cloves1 and rosemary4 ,garlic was an early ,english cure for a fiend-struck patient4 #hf ,juvenal said that the ,egyptians had gods growing in their gardens1 in allusion to their reverence for onions or garlic4 ,in ,sanskrit garlic is called ,mlechha-kanda1 the foreigner's root1 and its virtues for the removal of demons are so well known that it will be often seen hung from the lintel of the house door4 ,the same idea may account for the very common prejudice among some castes against eating onions4 ,glass4 ,glass in the form of beads1 which seem to derive some of their efficacy from being perforated1 is also very useful in this way4 ,mirrors from time immemorial have been held to possess the same quality4 ,fascinators1 like basilisks1 had their own terrible glance turned against them if they saw themselves reflected1 ,si on luy presente un miror1 par endardement reciproque1 ces rayons retournent sur l'autheur d'iceux4 ,philostratus declares that if a mirror be held before a sleeping man during a hail or thunder-storm1 the storm will cease4 #hg ,hence women in ,india wear mirrors in their thumb rings1 and the ,jtn covers her sheet with little pieces of shining glass4 ,pieces of horn1 especially that which is said to come from the jackal1 and that of the antelope1 are also efficacious4 ,the bzr ,banya treasures up the gaudy labels from his cloth bales for the same purpose4 ,garlands of flowers possess the same quality1 and so do various fruits1 such as dates1 cocoanuts1 betel-nuts1 and plantains1 which are placed in the lap of the bride or pregnant woman to scare the evil spirits which cause barrenness1 and sugar is distributed at marriages4 ,the bones of the camel are very useful for driving off insects from a sugar-cane field1 and buried under the threshold keep ghosts out of the house4 ,pliny says that a bracelet of camel's hair keeps off fever4 #hh ,lastly1 the demon may be trapped by physical means4 ,to be delivered from witches they hang in their entries whitethorn gathered on ,may ,day4 #hi ,so1 many of the menial castes in the ,north-,west ,provinces keep a net and some thorns in the delivery room to scare evil spirits4 ,there are certain persons who are naturally protected from the ,evil ,eye and demoniacal agency1 or who have control over evil spirits4 ,such is a man born by the foot presentation1 who can cure rheumatism and various other diseases by merely rubbing the part affected4 ,men with double thumbs are considered safe against the ,evil ,eye1 and so is a bald man1 apparently because no one thinks it worth his while to envy such people4 ,according to ,english belief1 children born after midnight have power all through their lives of seeing the spirits of the departed4 ,in ,india1 people who are born within the period of the ,salono festival in ,august are not only protected from1 but possess the power of casting1 the ,evil ,eye4 ,the same is the case of those who have accidentally eaten ordure in childhood4 ,we have already noticed the mystic power of cowdung4 ,dung generally is offensive to spirits4 ,it was believed in ,europe that horsedung placed before the house or behind the door brought good luck4 #ij ,women who eat dung possess1 as we shall see1 the power of witchcraft4 ,a man with only one eye is dreaded because he is naturally envious of those with good sight1 and he is proverbially a scoundrel4 ,the giant with one eye is familiar in folk-lore1 and he is generally vicious and malignant4 ,we have the black man of ,celtic folk-lore who has only one eye and one leg4 #ia ,in the ,irish tales ,crinnaur1 like the ,cyclopes1 has only one eye4 ,sindbad in his third voyage encounters a monster of the same kind4 ,laplanders have a one-eyed giant ,stalo1 and in one of the modern versions of the ,perseus myth there are two hags who have only a single eye between them4 ,the same idea appears in ,indian folk-lore4 ,the planet ,sukra is said to have only one eye4 ,such was also the case with the monster ,kabandha1 who was killed by ,rma1 and ,ary1 the female fiend of the ,veda4 ,the one-eyed devil appears in one of the ,kashmr tales4 #ib ,gonds3 ,procedure in ,cases of ,fascination4 ,the ,gonds have a special procedure in cases of deaths which they believe to have occurred through fascination4 ,the burning of the body is postponed till it is made to point out the delinquent4 ,the relations solemnly call upon the corpse to do this1 and the theory is that if there has been foul play of any kind1 the body on being taken up1 will force the bearers to convey it to the house of the person by whom the spell was cast4 ,if this be three times repeated1 the owner of the house is condemned1 his property is destroyed1 and he is expelled from the neighbourhood4 #ic ,amulets4 ,in ordinary cases most people find it advisable to carry an amulet of some kind as a preservative4 ,an amulet is primarily a portion of a dead man or animal1 by which hostile spirits are coerced or their good offices secured4 #id ,the amulet1 then1 in its original sense1 is supposed to concentrate in itself the virtues and powers of the man or animal of which it formed a part4 ,hence the claws of the tiger1 which represent in themselves the innate strength and bravery of the animal1 are greatly esteemed for this purpose1 and the sportsman1 when he shoots a tiger1 has to count over the claws carefully to the coolies in charge of the dead animal1 or they will certainly misappropriate them4 ,in the same way a portion of the umbilical cord is placed among the clothes of the mother and infant to avert the ,evil ,eye and scare the demons which are then particularly active4 ,mr4 ,ferguson may be correct in his opinion that in ,india1 prior to the distribution of the remains of the ,buddha at ,kusinagara1 we have no historical record of the worship of relics2 #ie still the idea must have prevailed widely among the ,hindu races1 out of whom the votaries of the new faith were recruited4 ,with some of these relics of the ,buddha1 such as his begging bowl1 which was long kept in a ,dagoba or ,vihra erected by ,king ,kanishka1 then removed for a time to ,benares1 and finally to ,kandahr1 where it is now held in the highest respect by ,musalmns1 and has accumulated round it a cycle of legends like those connected with the ,sangrail1 we reach the zone of pure fetishism4 ,another form of amulet is a piece of metal1 stone1 bone1 or similar substance worn on the person1 with an invocation inscribed on it to some special god4 ,these are very commonly used among ,muhammadans4 ,by ,hindus the ,yantras or mystic diagrams are thought to be quite as effective in their operation as the ,mantras or spells1 and1 of course1 a combination of the two is held to be absolutely irresistible4 ,an enemy may be killed or removed to some other place1 or a whole army destroyed1 or salvation and supreme felicity obtained by drawing a six-sided or eight-sided diagram and writing a particular ,mantra underneath4 ,if this be done with the blood of an animal killed sacrificially in a ,smasna or place where corpses are burned1 no power in earth or heaven can resist the terrific potency of the charm4 #if ,on the same principle ,hindus head their letters with the words ,sr ,rmj6 the great god1 ,rma1 or the figures #gd1 of which one not very probable explanation is that they represent the weight in maunds of the gold ornaments taken from the ,rjput dead at the famous siege of ,chithor4 ,the equilateral triangle is another favourite mystic sign4 ,according to the ,christian ideas1 the figure of three triangles intersected and containing five lines1 is called the pentangle of ,solomon1 and when it is delineated on the body of a man1 it marks the five places in which our ,saviour was wounded2 it was1 therefore1 regarded as a fuga demonum1 or a means of frightening demons4 #ig ,similarly in ,northern ,india1 the equilateral triangle is regarded as a mystic sign1 and the little broadcloth bags hung round the necks of children to avert the ,evil ,eye are made in this shape4 ,the diamond shape is also approved because it contains two equilateral triangles base to base4 ,another form of mystic sign is the mark of the spread hand with the fingers extended4 ,this is made by the women of the family on the outer wall and round the door-post1 and is considered to be particularly efficacious4 ,mr4 ,campbell suggests that the custom is based on the belief in the hand being a spirit entry4 #ih ,natives will tell you that it is because the number five1 that of the fingers1 is lucky4 ,however this may be1 the custom is very generally prevalent4 ,the ,bloody ,hand of ,ulster1 worn as a crest by the ,baronets of one creation1 is well known4 #ii ,the ,uchlas of ,pna strew sand on the spot where the dead man breathed his last4 ,they cover the spot with a basket1 which they raise next morning in the hope of finding the mark of a palm1 which shows that the dead is pleased and brings vigour on the family2 and the ,thkurs on the fifth day after the birth of a child dip a hand in red powder and water and make a mark on the wall of the lying-in room1 which they worship4 #ajj ,at the rock-cut temple of ,tilok ,sendur in ,hoshangbd1 an annual festival is held1 and those who come to demand any special benefit1 such as health or children1 mark their vow by staining their hand dipped in red paint against the rock wall1 fingers upward4 ,if the prayer be heard1 they revisit the place and make the same mark1 this time with the fingers downward2 but whether ,mahdeva is not gracious to his votaries1 or whether it is that the sense of favours to come is not keen enough after the prayer of the moment has been granted1 the hand-stamps pointing downwards are not a tenth in number of those pointing upwards4 #aja ,the stamping of the hand and five fingers immersed in a solution of sandal-wood has always been regarded as a peculiarly solemn mode of attesting an important document1 and it is said that ,muhammad himself adopted this practice4 #ajb ,there are numerous varieties of these protective amulets4 ,one purpose which they serve is the procuring of offspring4 ,children naturally require special protection4 ,thus1 the ,mirzapur ,korwas tie on the necks of their children roots of various jungle plants1 such as the ,siyr ,singh1 which owes its name and repute to its resemblance to the so-called horn of the jackal4 ,in cases of disease the ,kharwrs wear leaves of the ,bel1 a sacred tree1 cloves and flowers selected by a ,brhman4 ,in the ,konkan1 in order that a child may not suffer from the ,evil ,eye1 a necklace of marking nuts is put round its neck4 #ajc ,the ,gjars of ,hazra hang the berries of the ,batkar tree 7,celtis caucasia7 round the necks of men and animals to protect them from the ,evil ,eye4 #ajd ,the pious ,musalmn inscribes on his amulet the five verses known as ,aytu-l-,hifz or verses of protection1 or he makes a magic square with the letters making up the word ,hfiz1 the protector4 ,many village ,musalmns use little stone or glass tablets for the same purpose4 ,some have a hocus-pocus inscription purporting to be a verse of the ,qurn in ,arabic2 others have the name of ,ftima coupled with that of the famous martyrs ,hasan and ,husain4 ,another amulet of a very elaborate character is described as containing a piece of the umbilical cord encased in metal1 a tiger's claw1 two claws of the large horned owl turned in opposite directions1 and encased in metal1 a stone known as the ,athrh k mank1 because it has the property of turning eight colours according to the light in which it is placed 7probably a tourmaline or quartzose pebble71 and a special ,evil ,eye destroyer in the shape of a jasper or marble bead4 ,these five articles are necessaries1 but as an extra precaution the amulet contained some crude gold1 a whorled shell1 an ancient copper coin1 some ashes from the fire of a ,jogi ascetic1 and the five ingredients of the sacred incense4 ,the owner admitted that it would have been improved had it also contained a magic square4 #aje ,this reminds us of the necklace of amber beads hung round the neck of ,scotch children to keep off ill-luck1 and the ,irish scapular1 a piece of cloth on which the name of the ,virgin ,mary is written on one side1 and ,i4,h4,s4 on the other1 which are preservatives against evil spirits4 ,in old times in ,england such charms were called ,characts1 and one found with a criminal contained an invocation to the three holy kings1 ,gaspar1 ,melchior and ,balthasar4 #ajf ,one of the most valuable of these protectives is the magic circle1 which appears in various forms through the whole range of folk-lore4 ,the idea is that no evil spirit can cross the sacred line4 ,thus1 in ,mirzapur they make a circle of grain round the circular pile of corn on the threshing-floor to guard it from evil4 ,among some castes the circle round which the bride and bridegroom revolve at marriage is guarded by a circular line of string hung on the necks of a number of water-pots surrounding it4 ,we have seen how the ,baiga perambulates his village and drops a line of spirits round the boundary to repel foreign ghosts4 ,this accounts for the stone circles which are found both in ,europe and in ,india1 and in ,ireland are considered to be the resort of the fairies4 #ajg ,we have constant references to the same custom in the folk-tales4 ,lakshmana1 in the ,rmyana1 draws such a circle round ,st when he is obliged to leave her alone4 ,we have many references to the circle within which the ascetic or magician sits when he is performing his sorceries4 ,thus1 in the story of ,nischayadatta1 the ascetics quickly made a great circle with ashes1 and entering into it1 they lighted a fire with fuel1 and all remained there muttering a charm to protect themselves4 ,in the tales of the ,vetla1 we find the mendicant under a banyan tree engaged in making a circle1 and ,ksantisila makes a circle of the yellow powder of bones1 the ground within which was smeared with blood1 and which had pitchers of blood placed in the direction of the cardinal points4 #ajh ,the same idea appears in the magic circle used as an ordeal1 or to compel payment of a debt4 ,thus1 we read in ,marco ,polo3 #aji ,if a debtor have been several times asked by his creditor for payment and shall have put him off day by day with promises1 then if the creditor once meet the debtor and succeed in drawing a circle round him1 the latter must not pass out of this circle until he shall have satisfied the claim1 or given security for its discharge4 ,if he in any other case presume to pass the circle1 he is punished with death1 as a transgressor against right and justice4 ,in ,northern ,india this circle is known as a ,gururu or ,gaurua1 and a person who takes an oath stands within it1 or takes from inside an article which he claims4 ,in one form of this ceremony the circle is made on the ground with calf's dung by an unmarried girl1 and in the centre is placed a vessel of water4 ,if money is in dispute1 the amount claimed is placed in the water vessel by the defendant4 ,the narrator tells a story to prove the efficacy of the rite3-- ,my father owed a ,kalwr one rupee and the ,kalwr claimed five4 ,the matter was brought before the tribal council1 and the ,kalwr swore to the five rupees upon the ,gaurua4 ,within an hour his boy1 while playing behind the house1 was carried off by a wolf4 ,he was rescued1 but he was under the curse of the ,gaurua1 and shortly after he put his finger into a rat hole1 was bitten by a snake1 and died within the hour4 #aaj ,the ,ring1 ,bracelet1 and ,knotted ,cord4 ,from the same principle arises the belief in the magic virtue of the ring1 the bracelet1 and the knotted cord4 ,to begin with rings--we have in ,plato the story of ,gyges1 who by means of the ring of invisibility introduced himself to the wife of ,candaules1 ,king of ,lycia1 murdered the latter and got possession of his kingdom4 ,this is like the cloak or cap which appears so constantly in folk-lore4 ,in the ,indian tales invisibility is generally obtained by means of a magic ointment1 to which there are many parallels in ,western stories4 ,we find also the magic ring1 which1 like that of ,ala-ud-dn1 when touched procures the presence and aid of the demons4 ,a woman's nose-ring in ,india has special respect paid to it1 and for a stranger even to mention it is a breach of delicacy4 #aaa ,it is the symbol of married happiness1 and is removed when the wearer becomes a widow4 ,among ,muhammadans1 ,shiah women remove their nose-rings during the ,muharram as a sign of mourning4 ,there was an old habit in ,england of marrying by the rush ring1 but it was chiefly practised by designing men1 for the purpose of debauching their mistresses1 who sometimes were so infatuated as to believe that this mock ceremony was a real marriage4 #aab ,in the same way in ,india a ring of ,kusa grass is put on the finger during the most sacred rites and at marriage4 ,the custom appears in the folk-tales4 ,the ring represents an imperishable bond between the giver and the receiver1 and is a symbol of the original blood covenant1 which is an important element in the belief of all primitive people4 #aac ,the idea of the magic ring constantly appears in folk-lore4 ,thus1 we have the ring placed in a sacred square and sprinkled with butter-milk1 which immediately gives whatever the owner demands4 ,in one of the ,kashmr tales the merchant's son speaks to the magic ring1 and immediately a beautiful house and a lovely woman with golden hair appeared4 #aad ,so1 in the tales of ,somadeva1 ,sridatta places a ring on the finger of the unconscious princess and she immediately revives2 the disloyal wife here1 as in the ,arabian ,nights1 takes a ring from each of her lovers as a token4 #aae ,the same idea attaches to the bracelet1 which is in close connection with the soul of the wearer4 ,such is the ,chandanhr or sandal-wood necklace of ,chandan ,rja1 and ,sodewa ,b is born with a golden necklace round her neck1 concerning which her parents consulted the astrologers4 ,they announced1 ,this is no common child2 the necklace of gold about your daughter's neck contains your daughter's soul4 ,let it1 therefore1 be guarded with the utmost care2 for if it were taken off and worn by another person1 she would die4 #aaf ,the same idea appears in the ,kashmr tales1 where ,panj ,phl refuses to give up her necklace1 as it contains the secret of her life1 and was a charm to her against all dangers1 sickness and trials2 deprived of it she might become sick and miserable1 or be taken away from them and die4 #aag ,all this is based on the conception of the external soul1 to which reference has been already made4 ,the ,mls of ,brbhm exchange necklaces at marriages1 and the ,princess ,kalingasen wears a bracelet and necklace of lotus fibre to secure relief from the pains of love4 #aah ,the same idea shows itself in the use of strings and knots4 ,in ,northern ,india a piece of bat's bone is tied round the ankle as a remedy for rheumatism1 and answers to the eel-skin1 which is used for the same purpose in ,europe4 #aai ,in the ,shetland ,islands1 to cure a sprain1 a thread of black wool with nine knots is tied on the injured place with a metrical spell4 #abj ,an ,italian charm says3 ,take from a live hare the ankle bone1 remove the hair from his belly1 from the hair make a thread1 and with it tie the bone to the body of the sufferer1 and you will see a wonderful cure4 #aba ,in ,ireland a strand of black wool is tied round the ankle1 and a charm is recited to cure a sprain2 a red string is tied round a child's neck in chincough and epilepsy4 #abb ,in ,hoshangbd a thread is tied round the ankle as a remedy in fever4 ,if possible1 a bit of ,ashtara root should be fastened in the knot1 and before tying it an oblation of butter is burnt before it4 #abc ,similarly1 a peacock's feather tied on the ankle cures a wound4 ,in the ,panjb1 it is a charm against snake-bite to smoke one of the tail feathers of the peacock in a tobacco pipe4 #abd ,the ,rjput father binds round the arm of his new-born infant a root of that species of grass known as the ,amardb or imperishable ,db1 well known for its nutritive qualities and luxuriant vegetation1 in the same way as ,scotch women wear round their necks blue woollen threads or small cords till they wean their children4 #abe ,we have already noticed the efficacy of various grasses as spirit scarers4 ,lastly1 the cord itself has powers in folk-lore1 and we meet with the magic cord1 which1 tied round the neck of the hero by a witch1 makes him turn into a ram or an ape4 #abf ,the belief in the efficacy of the magic circle accounts for a variety of other customs4 ,thus1 in a family sacrifice among the ,chakmas of ,bengal1 round the whole sacrificial platform had been run1 from the house mother's distaff1 a long white thread which encircled the altar1 and then carried into the house1 was held at the two ends by the good man's wife4 ,among the ,hris1 at marriages1 the right hand little finger of the bridegroom's sister's husband is pierced1 and a few drops of blood allowed to fall on threads of jute1 which are rolled up in a tiny pellet4 ,this the bridegroom holds in his hand1 while the bride attempts to snatch it from him4 ,her success in the attempt is considered to be a good omen of the happiness of the marriage4 #abg ,here we have a survival of descent in the female line1 the blood covenant1 and the magic influence of the cord all combined4 ,connected with this is the belief in the forming a connection by knotting the magic string4 ,we have the ,european true love-knot1 an emblem of fidelity between the pair betrothed4 ,so in ,italy interlaced serpents and all kinds of interweaving1 braiding1 and interlacing cords are valuable as protectives because they attract the eyes of witches4 #abh ,thus1 among the ,krans of ,bengal1 the essential part of the marriage ceremony is believed to be the laying of the bride's right hand in that of the bridegroom1 and binding their two hands together with a piece of string spun in a special way4 #abi ,this belief in the mystic power of knots is common in all folk-lore4 #acj ,the clothes of the bride and bridegroom in ,upper ,india are knotted together as they revolve round the sacred fire4 ,a similar belief explains the wearing of the ,jane or sacred thread by high-caste ,hindus4 ,the knots on it1 known as ,brahma-granthi1 or the knots of the ,creator1 repel evil influences1 and ,muhammadans on their birthdays tie knots in a cord1 which is known as the ,slgirah or year knot4 ,face-covering4 ,another device to avoid fascination or other dangerous influence is to cover the face so as to prevent the evil glance reaching the victim for whom it is intended4 ,thus1 at widow marriages in ,northern ,india1 the bride and bridegroom are covered with a sheet during the rite1 probably in order to avert the envious or malignant influence of the spirit of the woman's first husband4 ,it is in secret that the bridegroom marks the parting of the bride's hair with vermilion4 ,so in ,bombay1 #aca the ,chitpwan bride in one part of the wedding service has her head covered with a piece of broadcloth4 ,the ,ramoshis tie the ends of the bride's and bridegroom's robes to a cloth which four men of the family hold over them4 ,the ,dhors of ,pna put a face-cloth on the dead1 which is a general practice all over the world4 ,the same belief is almost certainly at the root of much of the customs of ,pardah and the seclusion of women4 ,it is as much through fear of fascination as modesty that women draw their sheet across the face when they meet a stranger in the streets4 ,we come across the same feeling in the rule by which all doors were closed when the princess in the ,arabian ,nights went to the bath1 and when not long ago the ,mikado of ,japan and other ,eastern potentates took their walks abroad4 ,we thus reach by another route the cycle of ,godiva legends4 #acb ,omens4 ,closely connected with the class of ideas which we have been discussing is the belief in omens4 ,this constitutes a very important branch of folk-lore both in the ,west and in the ,east4 ,the success of a journey or enterprise is believed in a great measure to depend on the object which was first seen in the morning1 or observed on the road at an early period of the march4 ,thus1 according to ,theophrastus1 ,the superstitious man1 if a weasel run across his path1 will not pursue his walk until some one else has traversed the road1 or until he has thrown three stones across it4 ,and ,sir ,thomas ,brown writes3 ,if an hare cross the highway1 there are few above threescore years that are not perplexed thereat1 which1 notwithstanding1 is but an augurial terror according to that received expression1 ,inauspicatum dat iter oblatus lepus4 ,and the ground of the conceit was probably no greater than this1 that a fearful animal passing by us portended unto us something to be feared2 as upon the like consideration1 the meeting of a fox presaged some future imposture4 ,tulasi ,ds1 in his ,rmyana1 sums up the favourable omens3-- ,on the left-hand side a blue-necked jay was picking up food1 as if to announce the very highest good fortune2 on a fair field on the right were a crow and a mungoose in the sight of all2 a woman was seen with a pitcher and a child2 a fox showed himself winding about2 and in front a cow was suckling its calf2 a herd of deer came out on the right2 a ,brhman kite promised all success2 also a ,syma bird perched on a tree to the left2 a man was met bearing curds1 and two learned ,brhmans with books in their hands4 #acc ,the face of a ,teli or oilman1 perhaps from the dirt which accompanies his business1 is about the worst which can be seen in the early morning2 but1 with the curious inconsistency which crops up everywhere in phases of similar belief1 that of a sweeper is lucky4 ,his face should be always looked at first1 but on meeting a ,brhman1 the glance should start from his feet4 ,the ,thags1 like all criminal tribes of the present day1 were great believers in what ,dr4 ,tylor calls ,angang or meeting omens4 #acd ,with them1 if a wolf crossed the path from right to left it was considered a bad omen2 if from right to left the import was uncertain4 ,the call of the wolf was considered ominous2 if heard during the day1 the gang had immediately to leave the neighbourhood4 ,the same idea attached to a crow sitting silent on a tree1 which is curiously in contradistinction to the ,roman belief--,saepe sinistra cav praedixit ab ilice cornix4 ,it was also considered very unlucky if a member of the gang had his turban knocked off by accidentally touching a branch4 ,the jungle tribes have a strong belief in such omens4 ,the ,korwas of ,mirzapur abandon a journey if a jackal cross the road from the left1 or if a little bird1 known as the ,suiya or small parrot1 calls in the same direction4 ,the ,patris and ,majhwrs return if the ,nlg cross the road from the right4 ,all natives have more or less the same feeling1 and scientific treatises have been written on the subject4 ,mentioning a monkey in the morning brings starvation for the rest of the day2 though looking on its face is considered lucky4 ,hence monkeys are commonly tied in stables to protect horses1 and an old adage says that the evil of the stable is on the monkey's head4 ,so1 in ,morocco the wealthy ,moors keep a wild boar in their stables1 in order that the ,jinn and evil spirits may be diverted from the horses and enter into the boar4 #ace ,for the same reason an ,english groom is fond of keeping a cat near his horses4 ,if a dog flaps its ears and shakes its head while any business is going on1 disaster is sure to follow1 and people careful in such matters will stop the work if they can4 ,the baying of a dog indicates death and misfortune1 an idea common in ,british folk-lore4 #acf ,the time when screech-owls cry and lean dogs howl1 ,and spirits walk and ghosts break up their graves4 ,even the little house lizard is1 like his kinsfolk1 the murdering basilisks1 their softest touch as smart as lizard's stings1 considered by the ,benglis very unlucky1 and when they hear its twittering they postpone a journey4 #acg ,the hare is always a bad omen4 ,he is a god among the ,kalmucs1 who call him ,sakya ,muni1 or the ,buddha1 and say that on earth he allowed himself to be eaten by a starving man1 for which gracious act he was raised to domineer over the moon1 where they profess to see him4 ,there are traces of the same idea in ,upper ,india4 #ach ,the sites of many cities are said to have been founded where a hare crossed the path of the first settler4 ,the hare is detested by the agricultural and fishing population of the ,hebrides1 and it is one of the ordinary disguises of the witch in ,european folk-lore4 #aci ,black is1 of course1 unlucky1 and if a man1 when digging the foundations of a new house1 turns up a piece of charcoal1 it is advisable to change the site4 ,owls are naturally of evil omen4 ,even the stout-hearted ,zlim ,sinh1 the famous regent of ,kota1 abandoned his house because an owl hooted on the roof4 #adj ,the hooting of the owl is a sign that the bird means to leave the place1 and wise people would do well to follow his example4 ,one kind of owl1 the ,raghui ,chiraiya1 learns people's names1 and if any one by chance answer his call he is sure to die4 ,to see a ,dhobi1 or washerman1 who is associated with foul raiment1 is exceedingly dangerous4 ,i once had a bearer who was sadly afflicted because on tour he had to sleep in the same tent with a ,dhobi4 ,the old man was constantly bruising his shins over the ropes and pegs1 because he was in the habit of stumbling out before dawn with his hands pressed over his eyes to protect himself from the sight of his ill-omened companion4 ,a one-eyed man is1 as we have already said1 very unlucky4 ,when ,jaswant ,ro ,holkar lost one of his eyes1 he said1 ,i was before bad enough2 but now ,i shall be the ,guru1 or preceptor1 of rogues4 #ada ,i once had an office clerk afflicted in this way1 and his colleagues refused to sit in the same room with him1 because their accounts always went wrong when he looked in their direction4 ,when it was impossible to provide any other accommodation for him1 they insisted that he should cover the obnoxious organ with a handkerchief when he had to work in their neighbourhood4 ,one of the last of the ,anglo-,indians1 who had become thoroughly orientalized1 used to insist on his valet1 when he came to wake him1 holding in his hand a tray containing some milk and a gold coin1 so that his first glance on waking might fall on these lucky articles4 ,numbers4 ,there are mystic qualities attached to numbers4 ,thus1 when ,hindus have removed the ashes from a burning ground they write the figures #di on the spot where the corpse was cremated4 ,the ,pandits explain this by saying that when written in ,hindi the figures resemble the conch-shell and wheel of ,vishnu1 or that it is an invocation to the forty-nine winds of heaven to come and purify the ground4 ,it is more probably based on the idea that the number seven1 as is the case all over the world1 has some mystic application4 ,so in the folk-tales the number three has a special application to the tests of the hero who endures the assaults of demons or witches for three successive nights4 ,the idea of luck in odd numbers is universal1 and the seventh son of a seventh son is gifted with powers of healing4 ,bodily ,functions4 ,the functions of the body supply many omens4 ,thus1 in ,somadeva we read3 ,my right eye throbbed frequently1 as if with joy1 and told me that it was none other than she4 #adb ,when our cheek burns1 or ear tingles1 we usually say some one is talking of us1 writes ,sir ,thomas ,brown1 a conceit of great antiquity1 and ranked among superstitious opinions by ,pliny4 ,he supposes it to have proceeded from the notion of a signifying ,genius1 or ,universal ,mercury1 that conducted sounds to their distant subjects1 and taught to hear by touch4 ,the number of beliefs of this class is infinite and recorded in numerous popular handbooks4 ,lucky and ,unlucky ,days4 ,so1 there are days which are lucky and unlucky4 ,a ,persian couplet lays down that one should not go east on ,saturday and ,monday2 west on ,friday and ,sunday2 north on ,tuesday and ,wednesday2 south on ,thursday4 ,even ,lord ,burghley advised his son to be cautious as regards the first ,monday in ,april1 when ,cain was born and ,abel slain2 the second ,monday in ,august1 when ,sodom and ,gomorrah were destroyed2 the last ,monday in ,december1 which was the birthday of ,judas4 ,akbar laid down that the clothes which came into his wardrobe on the first day of the month ,farwardn were unlucky4 #adc ,the way some people get over omens of this kind is to send some article ahead of the traveller on the unlucky day1 which absorbs the ill omen1 which would otherwise have fallen upon him4 ,the catalogue of superstitions of this class might be almost indefinitely extended4 ,the principles on which most of them depend are clear enough4 ,they rest on a sort of sympathetic magic4 ,things which are good-looking1 people who are healthy or prosperous1 give favourable omens1 while those that are ugly1 or of low caste1 or associated with menial or unpleasant duties1 and so on1 are ominous4 ,europeans in ,india usually quite fail to realize the influence which such ideas exercise over the minds of the people4 ,most of us have been struck by the almost unaccountable failure of natives to attend a summons from the ,courts1 to keep an appointment to meet a ,european officer for the inspection of a school or market4 ,if inquiries are made it will often be found that some idea of this kind explains the matter4 ,thus1 ,colonel ,tod describes how he had a visit from ,mnik ,chand4 ,he looked very disconsolate and explained that he had seven times left his tent and as often turned back1 the bird of omen having each time passed him on the adverse side2 but that at length he had determined to disregard it1 as having forfeited confidence he was indifferent to the future4 #add ,the same idea of good or evil omen attaches to many places and persons4 ,nolai was built by ,rja ,nol4 ,its modern appellation of ,barnagar has its origin in a strange1 vulgar superstition of names of ill omen1 which must not be pronounced before the morning meal4 ,the city is called either ,nolai or ,barnagar1 according to the hour at which the mention becomes necessary4 #ade ,so with the town of ,jammu in ,kashmr1 which is unlucky from its association with ,yama1 the god of death2 with ,talwra in the ,hoshyrpur ,district1 which is connected with the sword 7talwr72 with ,rohtak1 which should be called ,rustajgarh1 and with numerous other places in ,northern ,india4 ,thus1 if people want to speak of ,bulandshahr in the morning they call it by the old ,hindi name of ,unchgnw2 ,bhongnw in ,mainpuri they call ,pachkosa2 ,nnauta in ,sahranpur1 ,phtashahr2 ,mandwa in ,fatehpur1 ,rotiwla1 and so on4 #adf ,so1 there is hardly a village in which it is not considered ominous to name before breakfast some one who1 from his misery1 rascality1 or some other reason1 is considered unlucky4 ,in ,mathura there is a tank built by ,rja ,patni ,mall4 ,should a stranger visit it in the morning and inquire of any ,hindu by whom it was constructed1 he will have considerable difficulty in eliciting a straightforward answer4 ,the ,rja1 it is said1 was of such a delicate constitution that he could never at any time take more than a few morsels of the simplest food2 hence arises the belief that any one who mentions him the first thing in the morning will1 like him1 have to pass the day fasting4 #adg ,when we wonder at people suffering bondage of this kind1 we must not forget that similar beliefs prevail in our own country4 ,in ,buckie there are certain family names which no fisherman will pronounce4 ,the ban lies particularly heavy on ,ross4 ,coull also bears it1 but not to such a degree4 ,the folks of that village talk of spitting out the bad name4 #adh ,a similar euphemistic form of expression is often used in regard to animals4 ,if you are civil and do not abuse the house rats1 they will not damage your goods4 #adi ,the ,mirzapur ,patris when they have to mention a monkey in the morning1 call him ,hanumn1 and the bear ,jatari1 or he with the long hair1 or ,dmkhauiya1 he that eats white ants4 ,the ,pankas call the camel ,lambghncha or long-necked4 ,i asked the ,rja1 says ,gen4 ,sleeman1 whether we were likely to fall in with any hares1 making use of the term ,khargosh1 or 'ass-eared4' ,certainly not1 said the ,rja1 if you begin by abusing them by such a name4 ,call them ,lambkanna or 'long-eared1' and you will get plenty4 ,it is1 of course1 easy to avoid the effect of evil omens by the use of a little tact and wit1 as was the case with ,william the ,conqueror1 and there are many natives who are noted for their cleverness in this way4 ,of an ,eastern ,sultn it is told that1 leaving his palace on a warlike expedition1 his standard touched a cluster of lamps1 called ,surayya1 because they resembled the ,pleiades4 ,he would have turned back1 but one of his officers said1 ,my ,lord6 our standard has reached the ,pleiades2 so he was relieved1 advanced1 and was victorious4 ,facilitating ,departure of and ,barring the ,ghost4 ,we now come to consider the various means adopted to facilitate the journey of the departing soul1 and to prevent it from returning as a malignant ghost to bring trouble1 disease1 or death on the survivors4 ,first comes the custom of placing the dying man on the ground at the moment of dissolution4 ,this is done partly1 as we have seen1 through some feeling of the sanctity of ,mother earth and that anyone resting on her bosom is safe from demoniacal agency1 and partly that the spirit may meet with no obstruction in its passage through the air4 ,this last idea prevails very generally4 ,thus1 in ,great ,britain1 death is believed to be retarded and the dying person kept in a state of suffering by having any lock closed or any bolt shut in the dwelling4 #aej ,the tortures which the soul undergoes in its journey to the land of the dead are vividly pictured in some of the sacred writings4 #aea ,he is scorched by heat and pierced by wind and cold1 attacked by beasts of prey1 stumbling through thorns and filth1 until he at last reaches the dread river ,vaitaran1 which rolls its flood of abominations between him and the other shore4 ,so1 when a ,hindu dies1 a lamp made of flour is placed in his hands to light his ghost to the realm of ,yama4 ,devout people believe that the spirit takes three hundred and sixty days to accomplish the journey1 so an offering of that number of lamps is made4 ,in order1 also1 to help him on his way1 they feed a ,brhman every day for a year2 if the deceased was a woman1 a ,brhman is fed4 ,the lamps are lighted facing the south1 and this is the only occasion on which this is done1 because the south is the realm of death1 and no one will sleep or have their house door opening towards that ill-omened quarter of the sky4 ,with the same intention of aiding the spirit on his way1 the relations howl during the funeral rites1 like the keeners at an ,irish wake1 in order to scare the evil spirits who would obstruct the passage of the soul to its final rest4 #aeb ,another plan is to carry out the corpse by a special way1 which is then barred up1 so that it may not be able to find its way back4 ,the same end is attained by carrying out the corpse feet foremost4 ,thus ,marco ,polo writes3 ,sometimes their sorcerers shall tell them that it is not good luck to carry the corpse out by the door1 so they have to break a hole in the wall1 and to draw it out that way when it is taken to the burning4 ,it is needless to say that the same custom prevails in ,great ,britain4 #aec ,the ,banjras of ,khndesh reverse the process4 ,they move their huts after a death1 and make a special entrance instead of the ordinary door1 which is supposed to be polluted by the passage of the spirit of the dead4 #aed ,a somewhat similar custom prevails among the ,maghs of ,bengal4 ,when the friends return from the cremation ground1 if it is the master of the house who has died1 the ladder leading up to the house is thrown down1 and they must effect an entrance by cutting a hole in the back wall and so creeping up4 #aee ,the theory appears to be that the evil spirits who were on the watch for the ghost may be lurking near the route by which the corpse was removed4 ,we have the same idea in the ,european custom of saluting a corpse which is being carried past4 ,grose distinctly states that the homage was really offered to the attendant evil spirits4 #aef ,so1 the ,birhors of ,bengal1 on the sixth day after birth1 take the child out of the house by an opening made in the wall1 so as to evade the evil spirit on the watch at the door4 #aeg ,the most elaborate precautions are1 however1 devoted to barring out the ghost and preventing its return to its former home4 ,the first of these consist of rules to prevent the breach of the curiosity taboo4 ,all through folk-lore we have instances of the danger of looking back1 as in the case of ,lot's wife4 ,one of the maxims of ,pythagoras was3 ,on setting out on a journey1 do not return back2 for if you do the fairies will catch you4 #aeh ,in one of the ,kashmr tales the youth is warned not to look back1 otherwise he would be changed into a pillar of stone4 #aei ,in one of the ,italian spells the officiant is told3 ,spit behind you thrice and look not behind you4 #afj ,in an ,indian tale the god promises to help the ,brhman and to follow him4 ,the ,brhman looks back and the deity becomes a stone4 #afa ,the danger of looking back is that the person's soul may be detained among the ghosts of the dead4 ,this is the reason why ,hindu mourners do not look back when they are returning from the cremation ground1 and so we find that in ,naxos it is a rule that none of the women who follow the bier must look back1 for if she do she will die on the spot1 or else one of her relations will die4 #afb ,another means is to bar the return of the ghost in a physical way4 ,thus1 when the ,aheriyas of the ,north-,western ,provinces burn the corpse1 they fling pebbles in the direction of the pyre to prevent the spirit accompanying them4 ,in the ,himlayas1 when a man has attended the funeral ceremonies of a relative1 he takes a piece of the shroud worn by the deceased and hangs it on some tree in the cremation ground1 as an offering to the spirits which frequent such places4 ,on his return1 he places a thorny bush on the road wherever it is crossed by another path1 and the nearest male relative of the deceased1 on seeing this1 puts a stone on it1 and pressing it down with his feet1 prays the spirit of the dead man not to trouble him4 #afc ,among the ,bengal ,limbus1 the ,phedangma attends the funeral1 and delivers a brief address to the departed spirit on the general doom of mankind and the succession of life and death1 concluding with the command to go where his fathers have gone1 and not to come back to trouble the living with dreams4 #afd ,practically the same custom still prevails in ,ireland4 ,when a corpse is carried to the grave1 it is the rule for the bearers to stop half-way while the nearest relatives build up a small monument of loose stones1 and no hand would dare to disturb this monument while the world lasts4 #afe ,in the case of the ,dhngars and ,basors1 both menial tribes in the ,north-,western ,provinces1 we come across an usage which appears to be of a very primitive type and to be intended to secure the same object of barring the return of the ghost4 ,after they have buried the corpse they return to the house of the dead man1 kill a hog1 and after separating the limbs1 which are cooked for the funeral feast1 they bury the trunk in the courtyard of the house1 making an invocation to it as the representative of the dead man1 and ordering him to rest there in peace and not worry his descendants4 ,in the grave in which they bury this they pile stones and thorns to keep the ghost down4 ,many other mourning customs appear to be based on the same principle4 ,thus1 the old ritual directs that all who return from a funeral must touch the ,lingam1 fire1 cowdung1 a grain of barley1 a grain of sesame and water--all1 as ,professor ,de ,gubernatis says1 symbols of that fecundity which the contact with a corpse might have destroyed4 #aff ,the real motive is doubtless to get rid of the ghost1 which may have accompanied the mourners from the cremation ground4 ,in ,borneo rice is sprinkled over them with the same object1 and the ,basutos who have carried a corpse to the grave have their hands scratched with a knife and magic stuff is rubbed into the wound to remove the ghost which may be adhering to them4 #afg ,in ,upper ,india1 among the lower ,hindu castes1 when the mourners return after the ceremony1 they bathe1 water being a scarer of ghosts1 and at the house door they touch a stone1 cowdung1 iron1 fire1 and water1 which have been placed outside the house in readiness when the corpse was removed4 ,they then touch each their left ears with the little finger of the left hand1 chew leaves of the bitter ,nm tree as a sign of mourning1 and1 after sitting some time in silence1 disperse4 ,others1 as the ,ghasiyas1 pass their feet through the smoke of burning oil1 and others merely rub their feet with oil to drive away the ghost4 ,the same idea of barring the return of the ghost by means of fire is found among the ,nats of ,kthiwr1 who burn hay on the face of the corpse before cremating it1 and among the ,thoris1 who brand the great toe of the right foot of the deceased4 #afh ,this sitting in silence after the funeral is commonly explained merely as a mark of sympathy for the bereaved relatives1 but an analogous custom in ,ireland leads to the inference that the real reason may be to give the ghost time to depart1 and not to interrupt in any way its progress to the spirit land4 ,on the west coast of ,ireland1 after the death no wail is allowed to be raised until three hours have elapsed1 because the sound of the crying would hinder the soul from speaking to ,god when it stands before ,him1 and would waken up the great dogs that are watching for the souls of the dead to devour them4 #afi ,we have in these rites and in the ordinary ritual some further illustrations of the protective influence of various articles which scare evil spirits4 ,thus1 after the cremation the officiating ,brhman touches fire and bathes in order to purify himself and bar the return of the ghost2 and the relative who lights the funeral pyre keeps a piece of iron with him1 and goes about with a brass drinking vessel in his hand as a preservative against evil spirits while the period of mourning lasts4 ,the system of protection is exactly the same as in the case of the young mother and her child during the period of impurity consequent on parturition4 ,as the ,hedley ,kow1 the ,north ,british goblin1 is peculiarly obnoxious at childbirth1 so the ,rkshas of ,indian folk-lore carries off the baby if the suitable precautions to repel her are neglected4 #agj ,another method of barring the ghost is to bury the dead face downwards4 ,this is common among sweepers of ,upper ,india1 whose ghosts1 as seen in the probable connection of the ,chhra and the ,churel1 are always malignant4 ,the same custom prevails among the ,chran ,banjras of ,khndesh4 ,with this may be contrasted the ,irish custom of loosening the nails of the coffin before interment1 in order to facilitate the passage of the soul to heaven4 #aga ,a more elaborate ritual is that performed by the ,mangars of ,bengal4 ,one of the maternal relatives of the deceased1 usually the maternal uncle1 is chosen to act as priest for the occasion1 and to conduct the ritual for the propitiation of the dead4 ,first of all he puts in the mouth of the corpse some silver coins and some coral1 which is much prized by the ,himlayan races4 ,then he lights a wick soaked in clarified butter1 touches the lips with fire1 scatters some parched rice about the mouth1 and1 lastly1 covers the face with a cloth4 ,two bits of wood about three feet long are set up on either side of the grave4 ,in the one are cut nine steps or notches1 forming a ladder for the spirit of the dead to ascend to heaven2 on the other every one present at the funeral cuts a notch to show that he has been there4 ,as the maternal uncle steps out of the grave1 he bids a solemn farewell to the dead and calls upon him to ascend to heaven by the ladder prepared for him4 ,when the earth has been filled in1 the stick notched by the funeral party is taken away to a distance and broken in two pieces1 lest by its means the dead man should do the survivors a mischief4 ,the pole used to carry the corpse is also broken up1 and the spades and ropes are left in the grave4 #agb ,among other devices to bar the return of the spirit may be noted the custom after a death in the family of preparing a resting-place for the ghost1 until on the completion of the prescribed funeral rites it is admitted to the company of the sainted dead4 ,thus1 among high-caste ,hindus a jar of water is hung on a ,ppal tree for the refreshment of the spirit4 ,the lower castes practise a more elaborate ritual4 ,when the obsequies are completed they plant by the bank of a tank a bunch of grass1 which the chief mourners daily water until the funeral rites are over4 ,in ,bombay ,mr4 ,campbell writes3 #agc ,with a few exceptions generally among almost all classes of ,hindus1 when the dead is carried to the burning ground1 on nearing the cemetery1 a small stone is picked up and applied to the eyes1 chest1 and feet of the deceased4 ,this stone is called ,jivkhda or the spirit stone1 is considered as the representative or type of the deceased1 and offerings of milk and water are given to it for ten days4 ,further he says3 ,on nearing the burning ground a small stone is picked up1 and with it the feet1 nose1 and chest of the deceased are touched thrice4 ,this stone is called ,ashma1 and is considered as a type of the deceased1 and to it funeral oblations are offered for ten days4 ,the bier is then put down1 and a ceremony called ,visrnti ,srddha is performed by the chief mourner1 who comes forward and offers two balls of rice1 called ,bht or 'spirit1' and ,khechar1 or 'roamer in the sky1' to the deceased4 ,a hole is dug and the balls are buried there1 and the litter is raised again on shoulders by four persons and carried to the cemetery4 ,the same idea of barring the return of the ghost accounts for the tombstone and cairn4 ,british evil spirits have been secured in this way4 ,mr4 ,henderson tells of a vicious spirit which was entombed under a large stone for the space of ninety years and a day4 ,should any luckless person sit on that stone1 he would be unable to leave it for ever4 #agd ,in ,india1 when a ,ho or ,munda dies1 a very substantial coffin is constructed and placed on faggots of brushwood4 ,the body1 carefully washed and anointed with oil1 is reverently laid in this coffin1 and all the clothes1 ornaments1 and agricultural implements that the deceased was in the habit of using are placed with it1 and also any money that he had with him when he died4 ,then the lid of the coffin is put on and the whole is burned4 ,the bones are collected1 taken in procession to the houses of friends1 and every place where the deceased was in the habit of visiting4 ,they are finally buried under a large slab1 and a megalithic monument is erected to the memory of the dead4 ,a quantity of rice is thrown into the grave with other food4 #age ,this custom of parading the corpse also prevails in ,ireland4 ,i believe it is the custom in most1 if not all1 small towns in the south for a body to be carried1 on its way to the graveyard1 round the town by the longest way to bid its last farewell to the place4 ,if the body be that of a murdered man1 it is1 if possible1 carried past the house of the murderer4 ,in county ,wicklow1 if an old church lies on the way to the grave1 the body is borne round it three times4 #agf ,the ,korkus of ,hoshangbd have a remarkable method of laying the ghost4 ,each clan has a place in which the funeral rite of every member of that clan must be performed2 and however far the ,korku may have wandered from the original centre of his tribe1 he must return there to set his father's spirit to rest1 and enable it to join its own family and ancestral ghosts4 ,in this spot a separate stake 7munda7 is set up for every one whose rites are separately performed1 and if a poor ,korku performs them for several ancestors at once1 he still puts up only one stake4 ,it stands two or two and a half feet above the ground1 planed smooth and squared at the top2 on one side is carved at the top the likeness of the sun and moon1 a spider1 and a wheat ear1 and below it a figure representing the principal person in whose honour it is put up1 on horseback1 with weapons in his hands4 ,if more than one person's death is being celebrated1 the rest are carved below as subordinate figures4 ,i could not learn that the spirits are supposed to specially haunt this grove of stakes1 or that ,korkus have any dread of going near it at night2 but they are far bolder than ,hindus in this respect4 ,when the funeral rite is to be performed1 the first thing is to cut a bamboo and take out the pith1 which is to represent the bones of the deceased1 unless he has been burnt1 in which case the bones themselves will have been preserved4 ,a chicken is then sacrificed at the grave1 and all that night the mourners watch and dance1 and sing and make merry4 ,next day they go out very early1 and cut down some perfectly unblemished tree1 either teak or ,sali1 not hollow or decayed or marked with an axe1 which they cut to make the ,munda stake4 ,it is brought home at once and fashioned by a skilful man4 ,in the afternoon it is carried to the place where cattle rest outside the village at noontide1 and is washed and covered with turmeric like a bridegroom1 and five chickens are sacrificed to it4 ,it is then brought home again1 and the pith representing the bones is taken outside the village and hung to some tree for safety during the night4 7,the idea1 as we have elsewhere seen1 is more probably to allow the ghost an opportunity of revisiting them47 ,all the friends and relations have by this time assembled1 and this evening the chief funeral dinner is given4 ,next day1 the whole party set out for the place where the stakes of their clan are set up1 and after digging a hole and putting two copper coins in it1 and the bones of the deceased or the pith which represents them1 they put the stake in and fix it upright4 ,then they offer a goat or chickens to it1 which are presently eaten close by1 and in the evening the whole party returns home4 #agg ,all this ritual1 carried out by one of the most primitive ,indian tribes1 admirably illustrates the principles which we have been discussing4 ,the obvious intention of the custom is to provide a resting-place for the spirit of the dead man1 so that it may no longer be a source of danger to the survivors4 ,similar customs prevail among other aboriginal races of the ,central ,provinces4 ,in some places they burn their dead and then erect platforms1 at the corners of which they place tall1 red stones4 ,in other places a sort of low square mound is raised over the remains of the deceased1 at the corners of which are erected wooden posts1 round which thread is wound to complete the sacred circle1 and a stone is set up in the centre4 ,here offerings are presented1 as in the jungle worship of their deities1 of rice and other grains1 fowls or sheep4 ,on one occasion after the establishment of the ,bhonsla or ,marhta ,government in ,gondwna a cow was offered to the manes of a ,gond2 but this having come to the notice of the authorities1 the relations were publicly whipped1 and all were interdicted from doing such an act again4 ,to persons of more than usual reputation for sanctity offerings continue to be presented for many years after their decease4 ,in the ,district of ,bhandra rude collections of coarse earthenware in the form of horses may be seen1 which have accumulated from year to year on the tombs of such men4 #agh ,the ,pauariyas of ,chota ,ngpur bury their dead1 except the bodies of their priests1 which are carried on a cot into the forests covered with leaves and branches and kept there1 the reason assigned being that if laid in the village cemetery their ghosts become very troublesome4 ,the bodies of people who die of contagious disease are similarly disposed of1 the fact of death in this way being supposed to be the direct act of one of the deities who govern plagues4 #agi ,in a country where immediate burial or cremation is necessary and habitual1 we need not expect to meet many examples of the customs1 of which ,mr4 ,h4 ,spencer gives examples1 #ahj of placing the body on a platform or the like in order to secure its personal comfort and conciliate the spirit4 ,with the object of keeping a place ready for the spirit1 some tribes are careful to preserve the body4 ,the ,singpoo of the north-eastern frontier keep the bodies of their dead chiefs for several years1 and the ,kkis dry the dead at a slow fire1 #aha practices which among more civilized races rise to embalming1 as among the ,chinese and ,egyptians4 ,the ,thrus of the sub-,himlayan ,tar have a custom of placing the corpse on the village fetish mound during the night after death1 and then the mourning goes on4 ,the practice is perhaps intended as much to prevent1 by the sanctity of the spot on which it is placed1 the spirit from harming the survivors1 as from any special desire to conciliate it4 ,among all ,hindus1 of course1 as far as exigencies of the rapid disposal of the remains allow1 it is habitual to treat the dead with respect2 corpses are carefully covered with red cloth1 and removed reverently for burial or cremation4 ,there is also among some tribes the custom of disinterring corpses after temporary burial4 ,thus1 the ,bhotiyas of the ,himlayas burn their dead only in the month of ,krttik2 those who die in the meantime are temporarily buried and disinterred when the season for cremation arrives4 ,the ,kathkris1 a jungle tribe in ,bombay1 dig up the corpse some time after burial and hold a wake over the ghastly relics4 ,they appear to do this only in the case of persons dying of cholera or small-pox1 with some idea of appeasing the deity of disease4 ,in parts of ,oudh the custom is said still to prevail among the lower castes during epidemics1 and it has recently attracted the attention of the sanitary officers4 #ahb ,the ,funeral ,feast4 ,the funeral feast is evidently a survival of the feast when the dead kinsman was consumed by his relatives1 who wished thus to partake of the properties of the dead4 ,by another theory the feasting of the mourners is intended to resist the attempt of the ghost of the dead man to enter their bodies1 food being offensive to spirits4 ,mutilation a ,sign of ,mourning4 ,perhaps the only distinct survival of the ceremonial mutilation so common among savages as a sign of mourning1 is the shaving which is compulsory on all the clansmen who shared in the death pollution4 ,in the ,odyssey1 at the death of ,antilochus1 ,peisistratus says1 ,this is now the only due we pay to miserable men1 to cut the hair and let the tear fall from the cheek1 and at the burial rites of ,patroklus they heaped all the corpse with their hair which they cut off and threw thereon4 ,the cutting of the hair is always a serious matter4 ,amongst the ,maoris many spells were uttered at hair-cutting2 one1 for example1 was spoken to consecrate the obsidian knife with which the hair was cut2 another was pronounced to avert the thunder and lightning which hair-cutting was believed to cause4 #ahc ,this ceremonial shaving is also perhaps the only survival in ,northern ,india of puberty initiation ceremonies4 ,in some cases the hair cut appears to be regarded as a sacrifice4 ,thus between the ages of two and five the ,bhls shave the heads of their children4 ,the child's aunt takes the hair in her lap1 and wrapping it in her clothes1 receives a cow1 buffalo1 or other present from the child's parent4 #ahd ,respect ,paid to ,hair4 ,all over the world the hair is invested with particular sanctity as embodying the strength of the owner1 as in the ,samson-,delilah story4 ,vishnu1 according to the old story1 took two hairs1 a white and a black one1 and these became ,balarma and ,krishna4 ,many charms are worked through hair1 and if a witch gets possession of it she can work evil to the owner4 ,an ,italian charm directs1 ,when you enter any city1 collect before the gate as many hairs as you will which may lie on the road1 saying to yourself that you do this to remove your headache1 and bind one of the hairs to your head4 #ahe ,the strength of ,nisus lay in his golden hair1 and when it was pulled out he was killed by ,minos4 ,it is this power of hair which possibly accounts for its preservation as a relic of the dead in lockets and bracelets1 or1 as ,mr4 ,hartland shows1 the idea at the root of these practices is that of sacramental communion with the dead4 #ahf ,we have already come across instances of growing hair as a curse4 ,mr4 ,frazer gives numerous examples of this custom among savage races1 and in the ,teutonic mythology the avenger of ,baldur will not cut his hair until he has killed his enemy4 ,in the folk-tales hair is a powerful deus ex machin1 human hair for choice1 but any kind will answer the purpose4 ,it is one of the most common incidents that the hero recognizes the heroine by a lock of her hair which floats down the stream4 #ahg ,a curious instance of mutilation regarded as a charm may be quoted from ,bengal4 ,should a woman give birth to several stillborn children1 in succession1 the popular belief is that the same child reappears on each occasion4 ,so1 to frustrate the designs of the evil spirit that has taken possession of the child1 the nose or a portion of the ear is cut off and the body is cast on a dunghill4 ,food for the ,dead4 ,another means for conciliating the spirit of the dead man is to lay up food for its use4 #ahh ,this is intended partly as provision for the ghost in its journey to the other world4 ,but in some cases it would seem that there is a different basis for the custom4 ,as we have seen1 it is dangerous to eat the food of fairy-land1 and unless food is supplied to the wandering ghost1 it may be obliged to eat the food of the lower world and hence be unable to return to the world of men4 ,according to the ancient ,indian ritual it was recommended to put into the hands of the dead man the reins of the animal killed in the funeral sacrifice1 or in default of an animal victim at least two cakes of rice or flour1 so that he may throw them to the dogs of ,yama1 which would otherwise bar his passage1 #ahi and the same idea constantly appears in the folk-tales where the hero takes some food with him which he flings to the fierce beasts which prevent him from gaining the water of life or whatever may have been the test imposed upon him4 ,the use of pulse in the funeral rites depends upon the same principle1 and in the ,greek belief the dead carried vegetables with them to hell1 either to win the right of passage or as provisions for the road4 ,articles left with the ,corpse4 ,hence too comes the practice of burning with the corpse the articles which the dead man was in the habit of using4 ,they rise with the fumes of the pyre and solace him in the world of spirits4 ,the ,kos told ,colonel ,dalton that the reason of this was that they were unwilling to derive any immediate benefit by the death of a member of the family4 ,hence they burn his wearing apparel and personal effects1 but they do not destroy clothes and other things which have not been worn4 ,for this reason1 old men of the tribe1 in a spirit of careful economy1 avoid wearing new clothes1 so that they may not be wasted at the funeral4 #aij ,the custom of laying out food for the ghost still prevails in ,ireland1 where it is a very prevalent practice during some nights after death to leave food outside the house1 a griddle cake or a dish of potatoes4 ,if it is gone in the morning1 the spirits must have taken it1 for no human being would touch the food left for the dead1 as it might compel him to join their company4 ,on ,november ,eve food is laid out in the same way4 #aia ,there are numerous examples of similar practices in ,india4 ,the ,mhrs of ,khndesh1 when they remove a corpse1 put in its mouth a ,pn leaf with a gold bead from his wife's necklace4 ,at the grave the brother or son of the dead man wets the end of his turban and drops a little water on the lips of the corpse4 #aib ,so the ,greeks used to put a coin in the dead man's mouth to enable him to pay his fare to ,charon4 ,in the ,panjb it is a common practice to put in the mouth of the corpse the ,pancharatana or five kinds of jewels1 gold1 silver1 copper1 coral1 and pewter4 ,the leaves of the ,tulasi or sweet basil and ,ganges water are put into the mouth of a dying man1 and the former into the ears and nostrils also4 ,they are said to be offerings to ,yama1 the god of death1 who on receiving them shows mercy to the soul of the deceased4 ,the same customs generally prevail among the ,hindus of ,northern ,india4 ,among the ,buddhists of the ,himlaya1 ,moorcroft was present at the consecration of the food of the dead4 #aic ,the ,lma consecrated barley and water and poured them from a silver saucer into a brass vessel1 occasionally striking two brass cymbals together1 reciting or chanting prayers1 to which from time to time an inferior ,lma uttered responses aloud1 accompanied by the rest in an undertone4 ,this was intended for the use of the souls in hell1 who would starve were it not provided4 ,the music and singing1 if we may apply the analogy of ,indian practices1 are intended to scare the vagrant ghosts1 who would otherwise consume or defile the food4 ,the same is the case among the ,drvidian races4 ,thus1 the ,bhuiyrs of ,mirzapur after the funeral feast throw a cupful of oil and some food into the water hole in which the ashes of the dead man are deposited4 ,they say that he will never be hungry or want oil to anoint himself after bathing4 ,the ,korwas1 when burning a corpse1 place with it the ornaments and clothes of the deceased1 and an axe1 which they do not break1 as is the habit of many other savages4 ,they say that the spirit of the dead man will want it to hack his way through the jungles of the lower world4 ,when the ,bhuiyrs cremate a corpse they throw near the spot an axe1 if the deceased was a man1 and a ,khurpi or weeding spud1 if a woman4 ,no one would dare to appropriate such things1 as he would be forced to join the ghastly company of their owners4 ,where the corpse is burned they leave a platter made of leaves containing a little boiled rice1 and they sprinkle on the ground all the ordinary kinds of grain and some turmeric and salt as food for the dead in the next world4 ,all these tribes and many low-caste ,hindus in ,northern ,india lay out platters of food under the eaves of the house during the period of mourning1 and they ascertain by peculiar marks which they examine next day whether the spirit has partaken of the food or not4 ,among the jungle tribes there is a rule that the food for the dead is prepared1 not by the house-mother1 but by the senior daughter-in-law1 and even if incapacitated by illness from performing this duty1 she is bound at least to commence the work by cooking one or two cakes1 the rest being prepared by one of the junior women of the family4 ,among the more ,hinduized ,majhwrs and ,patris we reach the stage where the clothes1 implements of the deceased1 and some food are given to the ,patri priest1 who1 by vicariously consuming them1 lays up a store for the use of the dead man in the other world4 ,this is the principle on which food and other articles are given to the ,mahbrhman or ordinary ,hindu funeral priest at the close of the period of mourning4 ,among the ,bengal tribes1 the ,ml ,pahariyas pour the blood of goats and fowls on their ancestral memorial pillars that the souls may not hunger in the world of the dead4 ,among the ,bhmij1 at the funeral ceremony1 an outsider1 who is often a ,laiya or priest1 comes forward to personate the deceased1 by whose name he is addressed1 and asked what he wants to eat4 ,acting thus as the dead man's proxy1 he mentions various articles of food1 which are placed before him4 ,after making a regular meal1 he goes away1 and the spirit of the deceased is believed to go with him4 ,so among the ,kolis of the ,konkan1 the dead man's soul is brought back into one of the mourners4 ,among the ,vrlis of ,thna1 on the twelfth day after death1 a dinner is given to the nearest relations1 and during the night the spirit of the dead enters into one of the relations1 who entertains the rest with the story of some event in the dead man's life4 ,among the ,santls1 one of the mourners drums by the ashes of the dead1 and the spirit enters the body1 when the mourner shaves1 bathes1 eats a cock1 and drinks some liquor4 #aid ,among the ,bengal ,chakmas1 a bamboo post or other portion of a dead man's house is burned with him1 probably in order to provide him with shelter in the next world4 ,among the ,kmis1 before they can partake of the funeral feast1 a small portion of every dish must be placed in a leaf plate and taken out into the jungle for the spirit of the dead man1 and carefully watched until a fly or other insect settles upon it4 ,the watcher then covers up the plate with a slab of stone1 eats his own food1 and returns to tell the relatives that the spirit has received the offering prepared for him4 ,the ,fly as a ,life ,index4 ,the fly here represents the spirit1 an idea very common in folk-lore1 where an insect often appears as the ,life ,index4 ,an ,english lady has been known in ,india to stop playing lawn-tennis because a butterfly settled in the court4 ,in ,cornwall wandering spirits take the form of moths1 ants1 and weasels4 #aie ,we have the same idea in ,titus ,andronicus1 when ,marcus1 having been rebuked for killing a fly1 gives as his reason1-- ,it was a black1 ill-favoured fly1 ,like to the empress ,moor2 therefore ,i kill'd him4 ,a fly is the guardian spirit of ,st4 ,michael's well in ,banff4 #aif ,recalling the ,ghost4 ,but while it is expedient by some or other of these devices to bar or lay the ghost1 or prevent its return by providing for its journey to1 and accommodation in the next world1 some tribes have a custom of making arrangements to bring back the soul of the deceased to the family abode1 where he is worshipped as a household spirit4 ,some of the ,central ,indian tribes catch the spirit re-embodied in a fowl or fish1 some bring it home in a pot of water or flour4 #aig ,among the ,tipperas of ,bengal1 when a man dies in a strange village separated from his home by the river1 they stretch a white string from bank to bank along which the spirit is believed to return4 #aih ,this illustrates an idea common to all folk-lore that the ghost cannot cross running water without material assistance4 ,among the ,hos on the evening of the cremation day certain preparations are made in anticipation of a visit from the ghost4 ,some boiled rice is laid apart for it1 and ashes are sprinkled on the floor1 in order that1 should it come1 its footsteps may be detected4 ,on returning they carefully scrutinize the ashes and the rice1 and if there is the faintest indication of these having been disturbed1 it is attributed to the action of the spirit1 and they sit down shivering with horror and crying bitterly1 as if they were by no means pleased with the visit1 though it be made at their earnest solicitation4 #aii ,ashes4 ,this use of ashes as a means of identifying the ghost1 constitutes in itself quite an important chapter in folk-lore4 ,it reminds us of the ,apocryphal legend of ,bel and the ,dragon4 ,the idea probably originally arose from the respect paid to the ashes of the house fire by primitive races1 among whom the hearth and the kitchen are the home of the household godlings4 ,there are numerous instances of this practice from ,europe4 ,in the ,western ,islands of ,scotland on ,candlemas ,day the mistress takes a sheaf of oats1 dresses it in woman's apparel1 and after putting it in a large basket beside which a wooden club is placed1 cries three times1 ,briid is come6 ,briid is welcome6 ,next morning they look for the impression of ,briid's club in the ashes1 which is an omen of a good harvest4 #bjj ,ash-riddling is a custom in the northern counties4 ,the ashes being riddled or sifted on the hearth1 if any one of the family be to die within the year1 the mark of a shoe will be impressed upon the ashes4 #bja ,in ,wales they make a bonfire1 and when it is extinguished each one throws a white stone into the ashes4 ,in the morning they search out the stones1 and if any one is found wanting1 he that threw it will die within the year4 #bjb ,in ,manxland the ashes are carefully swept to the open hearth and nicely flattened down by the women before they go to bed4 ,in the morning they look for footmarks on the hearth1 and if they find such footmarks directed to the door1 it means in the course of the year a death in the family1 and if the reverse1 they expect an addition to it by marriage4 #bjc ,according to one of the ,italian charms1 ,and they were accustomed to divine sometimes with the ashes from the sacrifices4 ,and to this day there is a trace of it1 when that which is to be divined is written on the ashes with the finger or with the stick4 ,then the ashes are stirred by the fresh breeze1 and one looks for the letters which they form by being moved4 #bjd ,amongst some ,hindus1 on the tenth night after the death of a person1 he who fired the funeral pyre is required to sift some ashes1 near which a lamp is placed1 and the whole covered with a basket4 ,next morning the ashes are examined1 and the ghost is supposed to have migrated into the animal whose mark appears on the ashes4 #bje ,so1 at the annual feast of the dead1 the jungle tribes of ,mirzapur spread ashes on the floor1 and a mark generally like that of a chicken's foot shows that the family ghosts have visited the house4 ,on ,new ,year's ,eve1 says ,aubrey1 sift or smooth the ashes and leave it so when you go to bed2 next morning look1 and if you find there the likeness of a coffin1 one will die2 if a ring1 one will be married4 #bjf ,in ,north ,scotland1 on the night after the funeral1 bread and water are placed in the apartment where the body lay4 ,the dead man was believed to return that night and partake of the food2 unless this were done the spirits could not rest in the unseen world4 ,this probably accounts for the so-called food vases and drinking cups found in the long barrows4 #bjg ,all ,hindus believe that the ghosts of the dead return on the night of the ,diwl or feast of lamps4 ,replacing ,household ,vessels4 ,after a death all the household earthen pots are broken and replaced4 ,it has been suggested that this is due either to the belief that the ghost of the dead man is in some of them1 or that the custom may have some connection with the idea of providing the ghost with utensils in the next world4 #bjh ,in popular belief1 however1 the custom is explained by the death pollution attaching to all the family cooking vessels1 which1 if of metal1 are purified with fire4 ,the vessel is the home of the spirit3 ,at most ,hindu funerals a water jar is carried round the pyre1 and then dashed to the ground1 apparently to show that the spirit has left its earthly home4 ,so1 the ,surat ,chondras set up as spirit homes large whitewashed earthen jars laid on their sides4 ,so1 to please any spirit likely to injure a crop1 an earthen jar is set on a pole as the spirit's house1 and so at a wedding or other ceremonies1 jars1 sometimes empty1 sometimes filled with water1 are piled as homes for planets and other marriage gods and goddesses1 that they may feel pleased and their influence be friendly4 #bji ,we have already met with the ,kalasa or sacred jar4 ,the same idea of the pollution of earthen vessels prevailed among the ,hebrews1 when an earthen vessel remaining in a tent in which a person died was considered impure for seven days4 #baj ,funeral ,rites in ,effigy4 ,when a person dies at a distance from home1 and it is impossible to perform the funeral rites over the body1 it is cremated in effigy4 ,the special term for this is ,kusa-putra1 or son of the ,kusa grass4 ,colonel ,tod gives a case of this when ,rja ,ummeda of ,bndi abdicated3 ,an image of the prince was made1 and a pyre was erected on which it was consumed4 ,the hair and whiskers of ,ajt1 his successor1 were taken off and offered to the ,manes2 lamentations and wailing were heard in the ,queen's apartments1 and the twelve days of mourning were held as if ,ummeda had really deceased2 on the expiration of which the installation of his successor took place4 #baa ,ghosts ,lengthening ,themselves4 ,ghosts1 as we have already seen in the case of the ,naugaza1 have the power of changing their length4 ,in the well-known tale in the ,arabian ,nights the demon is shut up in a jar under the seal of the ,lord ,solomon1 as in one of the ,german tales the ,devil is shut up in a crevice in a pine tree1 and the ghost of ,major ,weir of ,edinburgh resided in his walking-stick4 #bab ,some of the ,indian ghosts1 like the ,ifrt of the ,arabian ,nights1 can grow to the length of ten yojanas or eighty miles4 ,in one of the ,bengal tales a ghost is identified because she can stretch out her hands several yards for a vessel4 #bac ,some ghosts possess the very dangerous power of entering human corpses1 like the ,vetla1 and swelling to an enormous size4 ,the ,kharwrs of ,mirzapur have a wild legend1 which tells how long ago an unmarried girl of the tribe died1 and was being cremated4 ,while the relations were collecting wood for the pyre1 a ghost entered the corpse1 but the friends managed to expel him4 ,since then great care is taken not to leave the bodies of women unwatched4 ,so1 in the ,panjb1 when a great person is cremated the bones and ashes are carefully watched till the fourth day1 to prevent a magician interfering with them4 ,if he has a chance1 he can restore the deceased to life1 and ever after retain him under his influence4 ,this is the origin of the custom in ,great ,britain of waking the dead1 a practice which most probably originated from a silly superstition as to the danger of a corpse being carried off by some of the agents of the invisible world1 or exposed to the ominous liberties of brute animals4 #bad ,but in ,india it is considered the best course1 if the corpse cannot be immediately disposed of1 to measure it carefully1 and then no malignant ,bht can occupy it4 ,we have already met with instances of a similar idea of the mystic effect supposed to follow on measuring or weighing grain4 ,kindly ,ghosts4 ,most of the ghosts whom we have been as yet considering are malignant4 ,there are1 however1 others which are friendly4 ,such are the ,german ,elves1 the ,robin ,goodfellow1 ,puck1 ,brownie and the ,cauld ,lad of ,hilton of ,england1 the ,glashan of the ,isle of ,man1 the ,phouka or ,leprehaun of ,ireland4 ,such1 in one of his many forms1 is the ,brahmadaitya1 or ghost of a ,brhman who has died unmarried4 ,in ,bengal he is believed to be more neat and less mischievous than other ghosts2 the ,bhts carry him in a palanquin1 he wears wooden sandals1 lives in a ,banyan or ,bel tree1 and ,sankhachrn is his mistress4 ,he appears to be about the only respectable bachelor ghost4 ,in one of the folk-tales a ghostly reaper of this class assists his human friend1 and can cut as much of the crop in a minute as an ordinary person can in a day4 #bae ,so1 the ,manx ,brownie is called the ,fenodyree1 and he is described as a hairy1 clumsy fellow who would thresh a whole barnful of corn in a single night for the people to whom he felt well disposed4 #baf ,this ,brahmadaitya is the leader of the other ghosts in virtue of his respectable origin2 he lives in a tree1 and1 unlike other varieties of ,bhts1 does not eat all kinds of food1 but only such as are considered ceremonially pure4 ,he never1 like common ,bhts1 frightens men1 but is harmless and quiet1 never plaguing benighted travellers1 nor entering into the bodies of living men or women1 but if his dignity be insulted1 or any one trespass on his domains1 he wrings their necks4 ,tree ,ghosts4 ,hence in regard to trees great caution is required4 ,a ,hindu will never climb one of the varieties of fig1 the ,ficus ,cordifolia1 except through dire necessity1 and if a ,brhman is forced to ascend the ,bel tree or ,aegle ,marmelos for the purpose of obtaining the sacred trefoil so largely used in ,saiva worship1 he only does so after offering prayers to the gods in general1 and to the ,brahmadaitya in particular who may have taken up his abode in this special tree4 ,these tree ghosts are1 it is needless to say1 very numerous4 ,hence most local shrines are constructed under trees1 and in one particular tree1 the ,bra1 the jungle tribes of ,mirzapur locate ,bgheswar1 the tiger godling1 one of their most dreaded deities4 ,in the ,konkan1 according to ,mr4 ,campbell1 #bag the medium or ,bhagat who becomes possessed is called ,jhd1 or tree1 apparently because he is a favourite dwelling-place for spirits4 ,in the ,dakkhin it is believed that the spirit of the pregnant woman or ,churel lives in a tree1 and the ,abors and ,padams of ,east ,bengal believe that spirits in trees kidnap children4 #bah ,many of these tree spirits appear in the folk-tales4 ,thus1 ,devadatta worships a tree which one day suddenly clave in two and a nymph appeared who introduced him inside the tree1 where was a heavenly palace of jewels1 in which1 reclining on a couch1 appeared ,vidyatprabh1 the maiden daughter of the king of the ,yakshas2 in another story the mendicant hears inside a tree the ,yaksha joking with his wife4 #bai ,so ,daphne is turned into a tree to avoid the pursuit of her lover4 ,the ,brahmaparusha4 ,but there is another variety of ,brhman ghost who is much dreaded4 ,this is the ,brahmaparusha or ,brahma ,rkshasa4 ,in one of the folk-tales he appears black as soot1 with hair yellow as the lightning1 looking like a thunder-cloud4 ,he had made himself a wreath of entrails2 he wore a sacrificial cord of hair2 he was gnawing the flesh of a man's head and drinking blood out of a skull4 ,in another story these ,brahma ,rkshasas have formidable tusks1 flaming hair1 and insatiable hunger4 ,they wander about the forests catching animals and eating them4 #bbj ,mr4 ,campbell tells a ,marhta legend of a master who became a ,brahmaparusha in order to teach grammar to a pupil4 ,he haunted a house at ,benares1 and the pupil went to take lessons from him4 ,he promised to teach him the whole science in a year on condition that he never left the house4 ,one day the boy went out and learned that the house was haunted1 and that he was being taught by a ghost4 ,the boy returned and was ordered by the preceptor to take his bones to ,gaya1 and perform the necessary ceremonies for the emancipation of his soul4 ,this he did1 and the uneasy spirit of the learned man was laid4 #bba ,we have already encountered similar angry ,brhman ghosts1 such as ,harshu ,pnr and ,mahen4 ,the ,jk and ,jkn4 ,the really friendly agricultural sprites are the pair known in some places as the ,jk and ,jkn1 and in others as ,chordeva and ,chordev1 the thief godlings4 ,with the ,jk we come on another of these curious survivals from the early mythology in a sadly degraded form4 ,as ,varuna1 the god of the firmament1 has been reduced in these later days to ,barun1 a petty weather godling1 so the ,jk is the modern representative of the ,yaksha1 who in better times was the attendant of ,kuvera1 the god of wealth1 in which duty he was assisted by the ,guhyaka4 ,the character of the ,yaksha is not very certain4 ,he was called ,punya-janas1 the good people1 but he sometimes appears as an imp of evil4 ,in the folk-tales1 it must be admitted1 the ,yakshas have an equivocal reputation4 ,in one story the female1 or ,yakshin1 bewilders travellers at night1 makes horns grow on their foreheads1 and finally devours them2 in another the ,yakshas have1 like the ,churel1 feet turned the wrong way and squinting eyes2 in a third they separate the hero from the heroine because he failed to make due offerings to them on his wedding day4 ,on the other hand1 in a fourth tale the ,yakshin is described as possessed of heavenly beauty2 she appears again when a sacrifice is made in a cemetery to get her into the hero's power1 as a heavenly maiden beautifully adorned1 seated in a chariot of gold surrounded by lovely girls2 and lastly1 a ,brhman meets some ,buddhist ascetics1 performs the ,uposhana vow1 and would have become a god1 had it not been that a wicked man compelled him by force to take food in the evening1 and so he was re-born as a ,guhyaka4 #bbb ,in the modern folk-lore of ,kashmr1 the ,yaksha has turned into the ,yech or ,yach1 a humorous1 though powerful1 sprite in the shape of a civet cat of a dark colour1 with a white cap on his head4 ,this small high cap is one of the marks of the ,irish fairies1 and the ,incubones of ,italy wear caps1 the symbols of their hidden1 secret natures4 ,the feet of the ,yech are so small as to be almost invisible1 and it squeaks in a feline way4 ,it can assume any shape1 and if its white cap can be secured1 it becomes the servant of the possessor1 and the white cap makes him invisible4 #bbc ,in the ,vishnu ,purna we read that ,vishnu created the ,yakshas as beings emaciate with hunger1 of hideous aspect1 and with big beards1 and that from their habit of crying for food they were so named4 #bbd ,by the ,buddhists they were regarded as benignant spirits4 ,one of them acts as sort of chorus in the ,meghadta or ,cloud ,messenger of ,klidsa4 ,yet we read of the ,yaka ,alawaka1 who1 according to the ,buddhist legend1 used to live in a ,banyan tree1 and slay any one who approached it2 while in ,ceylon they are represented as demons whom ,buddha destroyed4 #bbe ,in later ,hinduism they are generally of fair repute1 and one of them was appointed by ,indra to be the attendant of the ,jaina ,saint ,mahvra4 ,it is curious that in ,gujart the term ,yaksha is applied to ,musalmns1 and in ,cutch to a much older race of northern conquerors4 #bbf ,at any rate the modern ,jk and ,jkn1 ,chordeva and ,chordev1 are eminently respectable and kindly sprites4 ,they are1 in fact1 an obvious survival of the pair of corn spirits which inhabit the standing crop4 #bbg ,the ,jk is compelled to live apart from the ,jkn in neighbouring villages1 but he is an uxorious husband1 and robs his own village to supply the wants of his consort4 ,so1 if you see a comparatively barren village1 which is next to one more productive1 you may be sure that the ,jk lives in the former and the ,jkn in the latter4 ,the same is the character of the ,chor or ,chordeva and the ,chorn or ,chordev of the jungle tribes of ,mirzapur4 ,ghosts which ,protect ,cattle4 ,in the ,hills there are various benevolent ghosts or godlings who protect cattle4 ,sin1 the spirit of an old ascetic1 helps the ,bhotiyas to recover lost cattle1 and ,siddhua and ,buddhua1 the ghosts of two harmless goatherds1 are invoked when a goat falls ill4 #bbh ,in the same class is ,nagardeo of ,garhwl1 who is represented in nearly every village by a three-pronged pike or ,trisla on a platform4 ,when cows and buffaloes are first milked1 the milk is offered to him4 ,it is perhaps possible that from some blameless godling of the cow-pen1 such as ,nagardeo1 the cultus of ,pasupatintha1 the lord of animals1 an epithet of ,siva or ,rudra1 who has a stately shrine at ,hardwr1 where his lingam is wreathed with cobras1 was derived4 ,another ,hill godling of the same class is ,chaumu or ,baudhn1 who has a shrine in every village1 which the people at the risk of offending him are supposed to keep clean and holy4 ,lamps are lighted1 sweetmeats and the fruits of the earth are offered to him4 ,when a calf dies the milk of the mother is considered unholy till the twelfth day1 when some is offered to the deity4 ,he also recovers lost animals1 if duly propitiated1 but if neglected1 he brings disease on the herd4 #bbi ,another cattle godling in the ,hills is ,kaluva or ,kalbisht1 who lived on earth some two hundred years ago4 ,his enemies persuaded his brother-in-law to kill him4 ,after his death he became a benevolent spirit1 and the only people he injured were the enemies who compassed his death4 ,his name is now a charm against wild beasts1 and people who are oppressed resort to his shrine for justice4 ,except in name he seems to have nothing to say to ,klu ,kahr1 who was born of a ,kahr girl1 who by magical charms compelled ,king ,solomon to marry her4 ,his fetish is a stick covered with peacock's feathers to which offerings of food are made4 ,he has more than a quarter of a million worshippers1 according to the last census1 in the ,meerut ,division4 ,bugaboos4 ,we close this long list of ghostly personages with those who are merely bugaboos to frighten children4 ,such are ,hawwa1 probably a corruption through the ,prkrit of the ,sanskrit ,bhta1 and ,humma or ,humu1 who is said to be the ghost of the ,emperor ,humayn1 who died by an untimely death4 ,akin perhaps to him are the ,humanas of ,kumaun1 who take the form of men1 but cannot act as ordinary persons4 #bcj ,these sprites are to the ,bengli matron what ,old ,scratch and ,red ,nose and ,bloody ,bones are to ,english mothers1 #bca and when a ,bengli baby is particularly naughty its mother threatens to send for ,warren ,hastings4 ,akin to these is ,ghoghar1 who represents ,ghuggu or the hooting of the owl4 #bcb ,nek ,bb1 the good lady2 ,mno or the cat2 ,bhkur2 ,bhokaswa2 and ,dokarkaswa1 the old man with the bag1 who carries off naughty children1 who is the ,mr4 ,miacca of the ,english nursery4 #bcc ,,chapter ,,ii4 ,,tree ,,and ,,serpent ,,worship4 ,sylvarum numina1 ,fauni ,et satyri fratres4 ,ovid1 ,metamorp4 iii4 #afc4 ,autar ep' aut ,kyaneos elelikto drakn1 kephalai de hoi san ,treis hamphistrephees1 henos auchenos ekpephyuiai4 ,iliad1 xi4 #ch-dj4 ,the worship of trees and serpents may be conveniently considered together2 not that there is much connection between these two classes of belief1 but because this course has been followed in ,mr4 ,ferguson's elaborate monograph on the subject4 ,the worship of trees appears to be based on many converging lines of thought1 which it is not easy to disentangle4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,spencer #bcd classes it as an aberrant species of ancestor worship3 ,a species somewhat more disguised externally1 but having the same internal nature2 and though it develops in three different directions1 still these have all one common origin4 ,first1 the toxic excitements produced by certain plants are attributed to the agency of spirits or demons2 secondly1 tribes that have come out of places characterized by particular trees or plants1 unawares change the legend of emergence from them into the legend of descent from them2 thirdly1 the naming of individuals after plants becomes a source of confusion4 ,according to ,dr4 ,tylor1 #bce again1 the worship depends upon man's animistic theory of nature3 ,whether such a tree is looked on as inhabited by its own proper life and soul1 or as possessed like a fetish by some other spirit which has entered it or used it for a body1 is often hard to determine4 ,the tree may be the spirits' perch or shelter 7as we have seen in the case of the ,churel or ,rkshasa71 or the sacred grove is assumed to be the spirits' resort4 ,mr4 ,frazer has given a very careful analysis of this branch of popular religion4 #bcf ,he shows that to the savage in general the world is animate and trees are no exception to the rule2 he thinks they have souls like his own and treats them accordingly2 they are supposed to feel injuries done to them2 the souls of the dead sometimes animate them2 the tree is regarded sometimes as the body1 sometimes as the home of the tree spirit2 trees and tree spirits give rain and sunshine2 they cause the crops to grow2 the tree spirit makes the herds to multiply and blesses women with offspring2 the tree spirit is often conceived and represented as detached from the tree and even as embodied in living men and women4 ,the basis of the cultus may then perhaps be stated as follows3 ,there is first the tree which is regarded as embodying or representing the spirit which influences the fertility of crops and human beings4 ,hence the respect paid to memorial trees1 where the people assemble1 as at the village ,ppal1 which is valued for its shade and beauty and its long connection with the social life of the community4 ,this would naturally be regarded as the abode of some god and forms the village shrine1 a convenient centre for the religious worship of the local deities1 where they reside and accept the worship and offerings of their votaries4 ,it may1 again1 be the last survival of the primitive forest1 where the dispossessed spirits of the jungle find their final and only resting-place4 ,such secluded groves form the only and perhaps the earliest shrine of many primitive races4 ,again1 an allegorical meaning would naturally be attached to various trees4 ,it is invested with a mystic power owing to the mysterious waving of its leaves and branches1 the result of supernatural agency2 and this would account for the weird sounds of the forest at night4 ,many trees are evergreen1 and thus enjoy eternal life4 ,every tree is a sort of emblem of life1 reproducing itself in some uncanny fashion with each recurring spring4 ,it has some mystic connection with the three worlds-- ,quantum vertice ad auras ,aetherias tantum radice in ,tartara tendit4 ,like ,yggdrassil1 it connects the world of man with the world of gods1 and men may1 like ,jack of the ,beanstalk1 climb by its aid to heaven4 ,in this connection it may be noted that many ,indian tribes bury their dead in trees4 ,the ,khasiyas of ,east ,bengal lay the body in the hollow trunk of a tree4 ,the ,ngas dispose of their dead in the same way1 or hang them in coffins to the branches4 ,the ,mriya ,gonds tie the corpse to a tree and burn it4 ,the ,malers lay the corpse of a priest1 whose ghost often gives trouble1 under a tree and cover it with leaves4 #bcg ,similar customs prevail among primitive races in many parts of the world4 ,the tree embodies in itself many utilities necessary to human life1 and many qualities which menace its existence4 ,its wood is the source of fire1 itself a fetish4 ,its fruits1 juices1 flowers or bark are sources of food or possess intoxicating or poisonous attributes1 which are naturally connected with demoniacal influences4 ,trees often develop into curious or uncanny forms1 which compel fear or adoration4 ,thus according to the old ritual #bch trees which have been struck by lightning1 or knocked down by inundation1 or which have fallen in the direction of the south1 or which grew on a burning ground or consecrated site1 or at the confluence of large rivers1 or by the roadside2 those which have withered tops1 or an entanglement of heavy creepers upon them1 or are the receptacles of many honey-combs or birds' nests1 are reckoned unfit for the fabrication of bedsteads1 as they are inauspicious and sure to bring disease and death4 ,the step from such beliefs to the worship of any curious and remarkable tree is easy4 ,hence the belief that the planting of a grove is a work of religious merit1 which is so strongly felt by ,hindus1 and the idea that the grove has special religious associations1 shown by the marriage of its trees to the well1 and other rites of the same kind4 ,in the ,konkan it is very generally believed that barrenness is caused by uneasy spirits which wander about1 and that if a home be made for the spirit by planting trees1 it will go and reside there and the curse of barrenness will be removed4 #bci ,though this branch of the subject has been pushed to quite an unreasonable length in some recent books1 #bdj there may be some association of tree worship with the phallic cultus1 such as is found in the ,asherah or groves of the ,hebrews1 the ,european ,maypole1 and so on4 ,this has been suggested as an explanation of the honour paid by the ,gypsy race in ,germany to the fir tree1 the birch and the hawthorn1 and of the veneration of the ,welsh ,gypsies to the fasciated vegetable growth known to them as the ,broado ,koro4 #bda ,in the same way an attempt has been made to connect the ,bel tree with the ,saiva worship of the ,lingam and the lotus with the ,yon4 ,but this part of the subject has been involved in so much crude speculation that any analogies of this kind1 however tempting1 must be accepted with the utmost caution4 ,further than this1 it may be reasonably suspected that this cultus rests to some extent on a basis of totemism4 ,some of the evidence in support of this view will be discussed elsewhere1 but it is1 on the analogy of the various modes in which the ,brhmanical pantheon has been recruited1 not improbable that trees and plants1 like the ,tulas and the ,ppal1 may have been originally tribal totems imported into ,brhmanism from some aboriginal or other foreign source4 ,on the whole it is tolerably certain that there is more in tree worship than can be accounted for either by ,mr4 ,ferguson's theory that the worship sprang from a perception of the utility or beauty of trees1 or by ,mr4 ,spencer's theory of nicknames4 ,it is sufficient to say that both fail to account for the worship of insignificant and comparatively useless shrubs1 weeds1 or grasses4 ,tree worship holds an important part in the popular ritual and folk-lore4 ,this is shown by the prejudice against cutting trees4 ,the jungle tribes are very averse to cutting certain trees1 particularly those which are regarded as sacred4 ,if a ,kharwr1 except at the time of the annual feast1 cuts his tribal tree1 the ,karama1 he loses wealth and life1 and none of these tribes will cut the large ,sl trees which are fixed by the ,baiga as the abode of the forest godling4 ,this feeling prevails very strongly among the ,maghs of ,bengal4 ,nothing but positive orders and the presence of ,europeans would induce them to trespass on many hill-tops1 which they regarded as occupied by the tree demons4 ,with the ,europeans1 however1 they would advance fearlessly1 and did not hesitate to fell trees1 the blame of such sacrilege being always laid on the strangers4 ,on felling any large tree1 one of the party was always prepared with a green sprig1 which he ran and placed in the centre of the stump when the tree fell1 as a propitiation to the spirit which had been displaced so roughly1 pleading at the same time the orders of the strangers for the work4 ,in clearing one spot an orderly had to take the dh or cleaver and fell the first tree himself before a ,magh would make a stroke1 and was considered to bear all the odium of the work with the disturbed spirits till the arrival of the ,europeans relieved him of the burden4 #bdb ,in folk-lore we have many magic trees4 ,we have the ,kalpataru or ,kalpadruma1 also known as ,kalpavriksha1 or ,manoratha dayaka1 the tree which grows in ,swarga or the paradise of ,indra and grants all desires4 ,there is1 again1 the ,prijta1 which was produced at the churning of the ocean1 and appropriated by ,indra1 from whom it was recovered by ,krishna4 ,the tree in the ,meghadta bears clothes1 trinkets1 and wine1 which is like the ,juniper tree of the ,german tale1 which grants a woman a son4 ,many such trees appear in the ,indian folk-tales4 ,the ,king ,jimutaketu had a tree in his house which came down from his ancestors1 and was known as the giver of desires2 the generous ,induprabha craved a boon from ,indra1 and became a wishing tree in his own city2 and the faithful minister of ,yasaketu sees a wave rise out of the sea and then a wishing tree appears1 adorned with boughs glittering with gold1 embellished with sprays of coral1 bearing lovely fruits and flowers of jewels4 ,and he beheld on its trunk a maiden1 alluring on account of her wonderful beauty1 reclining on a gem-bestudded couch4 #bdc ,so1 in the story of ,devadatta1 the tree is cloven and a heavenly nymph appears4 ,we have trees which1 like those in the ,odyssey1 bear fruit and flowers at the same time1 and in the garden of the ,asura maiden the trees were ever producing flowers and fruits1 for all seasons were present there at the same time4 #bdd ,we have many trees1 again1 which are produced in miraculous ways4 ,in one of the modern tales the tiger collects the bones of his friend1 the cow1 and from her ashes spring two bamboos1 which when cut give blood1 and are found to be two boys of exquisite grace and beauty4 #bde ,so in ,grimm's tale of ,one ,eye1 ,two ,eyes1 and ,three ,eyes1 the tree grows from the buried entrails of the goat4 ,in another of ,somadeva's stories the heroine drops a tear on the ,jambu flower and a fruit grew1 within which a maiden was produced4 #bdf ,the incident of the tree which grows on the mother's grave and protects her helpless children is the common property of folk-lore4 ,again1 we have the heavenly fruit which was given by the grateful monkey1 and freed him who ate it from old age and disease1 like the tree in ,aelian which makes an old man become younger and younger until he reaches the antenatal stage of non-existence4 #bdg ,we have many instances of trees which talk4 ,the mango tree shows the hero how the magic bird is to be cut out of it2 the heroine is blessed and aided by the plantain tree1 cotton tree1 and sweet basil2 she is rewarded by a plum and fig tree for services rendered to them4 #bdh ,in one of the ,kashmr tales the tree informs the hero of the safety of his wife4 ,so1 in ,grimm's tale of the ,lucky ,spinner1 the tree speaks when the man is about to cut it down4 #bdi ,in one of the stories1 as a link between tree and serpent worship1 the great palace of the snake king is situated under a solitary ,asoka tree in the ,vindhyan forest4 ,in the same collection we meet continually instances of tree worship4 ,the ,brhman ,somadatta worships a great ,asvattha1 or fig tree1 by walking round it so as to keep it on his right1 bowing and making an oblation2 ,mrigankadatta takes refuge in a tree sacred to ,ganesa2 and ,naravhanadatta comes to a sandal tree surrounded with a platform made of precious jewels1 up which he climbs by means of ladders and adores it4 #bej ,we have a long series of legends by which certain famous trees are supposed to have been produced from the tooth twig of some saint4 ,the famous hawthorn of ,glastonbury was supposed to be sprung from the staff of ,joseph of ,arimathea1 who having fixed it in the ground on ,christmas ,day1 it took root immediately1 put forth leaves1 and the next day was covered with milk-white blossoms4 #bea ,traditions of the ,dantadhvana or tooth-brush tree of ,buddha still exist at ,gonda2 another at ,ludhina is attributed to ,abdul ,qdir ,jilni2 there is a ,buddha tree at ,saketa1 and the great ,banyan tree at ,broach was similarly produced by ,kabr4 ,so1 the ,santls believe that good men turn into fruit-trees4 #beb ,next come the numerous sacred groves scattered all over the country4 ,these1 as we have seen1 are very often regarded as a survival from the primeval jungle1 where the forest spirits have taken refuge4 ,the idea is common both to the ,aryan as well as to the ,drvidian races1 from the latter of whom it was possibly derived4 ,thus1 among the jungle races we find that there are many groves1 known as ,sarna1 in which the ,cheros and ,kharwrs offer triennial sacrifices of a buffalo or other animal4 ,the ,kisns have sacred groves1 called ,s4 ,the ,mundri ,kols keep a fragment of the original forest1 the trees in which have been for ages carefully protected1 left when the clearance was first made1 lest the sylvan gods of the place1 disgusted at the wholesale felling of the trees which protected them1 should abandon the locality4 ,even now if a tree is destroyed in the sacred grove1 the gods evince their displeasure by withholding seasonable rain4 ,this idea of the influence of cutting trees on weather has been illustrated by ,mr4 ,frazer from the usages of other races4 #bec ,so1 among the ,khndhs1 that timber may never be wanting1 in case of accidents from fire or from enemies1 a considerable grove1 generally of ,sl1 is uniformly dedicated by every village to the forest god1 whose favour is ever and anon sought by the sacrifice of birds1 hogs1 and sheep1 with the usual accompaniments of rice and an addled egg4 ,the consecrated grove is religiously preserved1 the trees being occasionally pruned1 but not a twig cut for use without the formal consent of the village and the formal propitiation of the god4 #bed ,among the ,kols1 in these groves the tutelary deities of the village are supposed to sojourn when attending to the wants of their votaries4 #bee ,in the ,central ,provinces the ,badiyas worship the manes of their ancestors in a grove of ,sj trees4 #bef ,in ,berr the wood of the ,pathrot forests is believed to be dedicated to a neighbouring temple1 and no one will cut or buy it2 and in other places in the same province the sacred groves are so carefully preserved1 that during the annual festivals held in them it is the custom to collect and burn solemnly all dead and fallen branches and trees4 #beg ,among the higher races the same feelings attach to the holy groves of ,mathura1 each of which has appropriated one of the legends of the ,krishna myth4 ,thus1 there is a particularly sacred grove at ,bhadanwra1 and it is believed that any one violating the sanctity of the place by telling a lie within its precincts will be stricken with leprosy4 ,in another at ,hasanpur ,bara the trees are under the protection of the curse of a ,faqr1 and in many places people object to having toddy collected from the palm trees1 because it necessitates cutting their necks4 #beh ,in the ,northern ,hills the ,sl and bamboos at ,barmdeo are never cut1 as they are sacred to the local ,dev4 #bei ,in ,kulu1 near the village were a number of cypresses1 much decayed1 and many quite dead4 ,some of my people had begun to strip off their dry branches for fuel1 when one of the conductors of our caravan came to me in great agitation1 and implored me to command them to desist4 ,the trees1 he said1 were sacred to the deities of the elements1 who would be sure to revenge any injury done to them by visiting the neighbourhood with heavy and untimely snow4 #bfj ,in a village in ,lucknow1 noticeable among the trees is a single mango tree1 of fine growth and comely shape4 ,it is the survivor of some old grove1 which the owner1 through straitened circumstances1 has reluctantly cut down4 ,he called it ,jk1 or ,sakhiya1 the witness of the place where the old grove stood4 #bfa ,jk is1 as we have seen1 the ,corn spirit4 ,the preservation of these little patches of the primeval jungle1 with a view to conciliate the sylvan spirits of the place1 is exactly analogous to what is known in ,scotland as the ,gudeman's ,croft1 ,cloutie's ,croft1 or ,gudeman's ,field4 ,often in ,northern ,india little patches are left uncultivated in the corners of fields as a refuge for the spirits1 as in ,north ,scotland many farmers leave a corner of the field untilled1 and say it is for the ,aul ,man1 or the ,devil4 #bfb ,some trees are1 again1 considered to be mystically connected with the fortunes of people and places4 ,thus1 the ,chilbil tree at ,gonda1 which1 like others which have already been mentioned1 sprouted from the tooth-twig of a saint1 was supposed to be mysteriously connected with the fate of the last of the ,gonda ,rjas4 ,his kingdom was to last until the day a monkey sat on the tree1 and this1 it is said1 happened on the morning when the ,mutiny broke out which ended in the ruin of the dynasty4 #bfc ,in the same way the moving wood of ,dunsinane was fateful to the fortunes of ,macbeth4 ,we have already referred to some of the regular tree sprites1 like the ,churel1 ,rkshasa1 and ,bansapt ,m4 ,they are1 like ,kliddo1 the ,north ,british sprite1 small and delicate at first1 but rapidly shooting into the clouds1 while everything it overshadows is thrown into confusion4 #bfd ,how sprites come to inhabit trees is well shown in an instance given from ,bombay by ,mr4 ,campbell4 ,in the ,dakkhin1 when a man is worried by a spirit1 he gives it a tree to live in4 ,the patient1 or one of his relations1 goes to a seer and brings the seer to his house1 frankincense is burnt1 and the sick man's spirit comes into the seer's body4 ,the people ask the spirit in the seer why the man is sick4 ,he says1 ',the ghost of the man you killed has come back1 and is troubling you4' ,then they say1 ',what is to be done8' ,the spirit says1 ',put him in a place in his or in your land4' ,the people say1 ',how can we put him8' ,the spirit says1 ',take a cock1 five cocoanuts1 rice1 and red lead1 and fill a bamboo basket with them next ,sunday evening1 and by waving the basket round the head of the patient1 take the ghost out of the patient4' ,when ,sunday afternoon comes they call the exorcist4 ,if the ghost has not haunted the sick man for a week1 it is held that the man was worried by that ghost1 who is now content with the proposed arrangement4 ,if the patient is still sick1 it is held that it cannot be that ghost1 but it must be another ghost1 perhaps a god who troubles him4 ,the seer is again called1 and his familiar spirit comes into him4 ,they set the sick man opposite him1 and the seer throws rice on the sick man1 and the ghost comes into the patient's body and begins to speak4 ,the seer asks him1 ',are you going or not8' ,the ghost replies1 ',i will go if you give me a cock1 a fowl1 a cocoanut1 red lead1 and rice4' ,they then bring the articles and show them to the spirit4 ,the spirit sees the articles1 and says1 ',where is the cocoanut8' or1 ',where is the rice8' ,they add what he says1 and ask1 ',is it right8' ',yes1 it is right1' replies the spirit4 ',if we drive you out of ,bpu1 will you come out8' ask the people4 ',i will come out1' replies the ghost4 ,the people then say1 ',will you never come back8' ',i will never return1' replies the ghost4 ',if you ever return1' says the seer's spirit1 ',i will put you in a tanner's well1 sink you1 and ruin you4' ',i will1' says the spirit1 'never come back1 if you take these things to the ,ppal tree in my field4 ,you must never hurt the ,ppal4 ,if you hurt the ,ppal1 ,i will come and worry you4' ,then the friends of the patient make the cooked rice in a ball1 and work a little hollow in the top of the ball4 ,they sprinkle the ball with red powder1 and in the hollow put a piece of a plantain leaf1 and on the leaf put oil1 and a wick1 which they light4 ,then the ,gdi1 or flesh-eating priest1 brings the goat in front of the sick man1 sprinkles the goat's head with red powder and flowers1 and says to the spirit1 ',this is for you2 take it4' ,he then passes three fowls three times from the head to the foot of the sick man1 and then from the head lowers all the other articles4 ,the ,gdi1 or ,mhr1 and some friends of the patient start for the place named by the spirit4 ,when the party leave1 the sick man is taken into the house and set close to the threshold4 ,they put water on his eyes1 and filling a pot with water1 throw it outside where the articles were1 and inside and outside scatter cowdung ashes1 saying1 ',if you come in you will have the curse of ,rma and ,lakshmana4' ,when the ,gdi and the party reach their destination1 the ,gdi tells the party to bring a stone the size of a cocoanut4 ,when the stone is brought1 the ,gdi washes it and puts it to the root of the tree and sets about it small stones4 ,on the tree and on the middle stone he puts red lead1 red powder1 and frankincense4 ,the people then tell the spirit to stay there1 and promise to give him a cocoanut every year if he does them no harm4 ,they then kill the goat and the fowls1 and1 letting the blood fall in front of the stone1 offer the heart and liver to the spirit1 and then return home4 #bfe ,from ceremonies like these1 in which a malignant spirit is entombed in a tree and its surrounding stones1 the transition to the general belief in tree sprites is easy4 ,the use of the various articles to scare spirits will be understood from what has been already said on that subject4 ,the ,karam ,tree4 ,passing on to trees which are considered specially sacred1 we find a good example in the ,karam 7,neuclea parvifolia71 which is revered by the ,kharwrs1 ,mnjhis1 and some of the other allied ,drvidian races of the ,vindhyan and ,kaimr ranges4 ,in ,shhbd1 their great festival is the worship of the sacred tree4 ,commenced early in the bright portion of the month ,bhdon 7,august--,september71 it continues for fifteen days4 ,it marks the gladness with which people wind up their agricultural operations all over the world4 ,the festivities begin with a fast during the day4 ,in the evening the young men of the village only proceed in a gay circle to the forest4 ,a leafy branch of the ,karam is selected1 cut1 and daubed with red lead and butter4 ,brought in due state1 it is planted in the yard in front of the house1 and is decorated with wreaths of wild flowers1 such as autumn yields to the ,hill men with a bountiful hand4 ,the homely ritual of the ,kharwr then follows1 and is finished with the offering of corn and molasses4 ,the worship over1 the head of the village community serves the men with a suitable feast4 ,but the great rejoicing of the season is reserved for a later hour4 ,after dinner the men and women appear in their gala dress1 and range themselves in two opposite rows4 ,the ,mndar1 or national drum of the aborigines1 is then struck1 and the dance commences with a movement forward1 until the men and women draw close4 ,once face to face1 a gradual movement towards the right is commenced1 and the men and women advance in a slow but merry circle1 which takes about an hour to describe4 ,under the influence of the example of the ,hindus1 the practice of a national dance in which women take a prominent part is already on the decline4 ,when indulged in1 it is done with an amount of privacy1 closed to the public1 but open to the members of the race only4 ,it is difficult1 however1 to explain why the ,karam tree should be so greatly adored by the ,kharwrs4 ,it is an insignificant tree1 with small leaves1 which hardly affords shelter or shade1 and possesses no title to be considered superior to others in its native forest4 ,nor in the religious belief of the ,kharwrs have we been able to trace any classic tale connected with the growth of the ,karam grove1 similar to that of the peaceful olive of old1 or aromatic laurel4 ,one important1 though the last incident of the ,karam worship is the appearance of the demon to the ,kharwr village men4 ,generally at the conclusion of the dance the demon takes possession of a ,kharwr1 who commences to talk1 tremble1 and jump1 and ultimately climbs up the branch of the ,karam and begins to eat the leaves4 ,consultation about the fortunes of the year then takes place1 and when the demon has foretold them the festivities are concluded4 #bff ,this account omits two important points which enable us to explain the meaning of the rite4 ,the first is that when the festivities are over the branch of the ,karam tree is taken and thrown into a stream or tank4 ,this can hardly1 on the analogy of similar practices to which reference has been already made1 be anything but a charm to produce seasonable rain4 ,another is that sprigs of barley grown in a special way1 as at the ,upper ,india festival of the ,jay1 which will be discussed later on1 are offered to the tree4 ,this must be an invocation to the deity of the tree to prosper the growth of the autumn rice1 which is just at this time being planted out4 ,i have seen the ,karama danced by the ,mnjhis1 a ,drvidian tribe in ,mirzapur1 closely allied to the ,kharwrs4 ,the people there seem to affect no secrecy about it1 and are quite ready to come and dance before ,europeans for a small gratuity4 ,the men expect to receive a little native liquor between the acts1 but the ladies of the ballet will accept only a light supper of coarse sugar4 ,the troupe consists of about a dozen men and the same number of women4 ,the sexes stand in rows opposite to each other1 the women clinging together1 each with her arms clasped round her neighbour's waist4 ,one man carrying the sacred ,mndar drum1 beats it and leads the ballet1 hopping about in a curious way on one leg alternately4 ,the two lines advance and retreat1 the women bowing low all the time1 with their heads bending towards the ground1 and joining occasionally in the refrain4 ,most of the songs are apparently modern1 bearing on the adventures of ,rma1 ,lakshmana1 and ,st2 some are love songs1 many of which are1 as might have been expected1 rude and indecent4 ,the whole scene is a curious picture of genuine aboriginal life4 ,at the regular autumn festival the ceremony degenerates into regular saturnalia1 and is1 if common rumour be trusted1 accompanied by an absolute abandonment of decency and self-respect which culminates in the most unrestrained debauchery4 ,the modern explanation of the dance is embodied in a folk-tale which turns on the verbal confusion between ,karam1 the name of the tree1 and the ,sanskrit ,karma1 meaning good works4 ,it is1 of course1 comparatively modern1 and quite useless as a means for ascertaining the real basis of the custom1 which is probably a means of propitiating the tree god to grant favourable weather4 ,the ,fig ,tree4 ,among the sacred trees the various varieties of the fig hold a conspicuous place4 ,many ideas have probably united in securing reverence for them4 ,thus the ,banyan with its numerous stems may fitly be regarded as the home of gods or spirits4 ,others are valued as a source of food1 or because they possess juices valued as drink or medicine4 ,such is the ,umbar1 the ,udambara of the ,sanskrit writers1 which is known as ,kshra ,vriksha or milk tree1 and ,hemadugha or golden juiced1 the ,ficus glomerata of botanists1 from the succulent roots of which water can be found in times of drought4 ,the juice has1 in popular belief1 many valuable properties4 ,a decoction of it is useful for bile1 melancholy1 and fainting2 it prevents abortion and increases the mother's milk4 #bfg ,according to the old ritual1 of its wood is made the seat of the father god ,vivasvat1 which is specially worshipped at the close of the ,soma sacrifice2 the throne on which ,soma is placed is made of it1 and so is the staff given by the ,adhvaryu to the sacrificer at the initiation rite1 and the staff of the ,vaisya student4 ,so with the ,ppal 7,ficus religiosa71 which is connected with old temples1 as it forces its roots into the crumbling masonry1 grows to a great age1 and1 like the poplar1 moves its leaves at the slightest breath of wind4 ,the ,english tradition about the aspen is that since its wood was used to make the ,cross it ever trembles with shame4 ,the ,pippala or ,asvattha is said by some to be the abode of ,brahma1 and is sometimes invested with the sacred thread by the regular ,upanyana rite4 ,others say that in it abide ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,siva1 but specially ,vishnu in his incarnation as ,krishna4 ,others1 again1 connect it with ,bsdeo or ,vasudeva1 the father of ,krishna4 ,the ,vata or ,nyagrodha 7,ficus ,indica7 was1 according to the ancient ritual1 possessed of many virtues1 and the king was directed to drink its juice instead of that of the ,soma4 #bfh ,the famous ,allahbd fig tree is mentioned in the ,rmyana and in the ,uttara ,rma ,charitra4 ,rma1 ,st and ,lakshmana are said to have rested beneath its branches4 ,another legend tells how the ,rishi ,mrkandeya had the presumption to ask ,nryana to show him a specimen of his delusive power4 ,the god in answer to his prayer drowned the whole world in a sudden flood1 and only the ,akshaya ,vata or imperishable ,banyan tree raised its head above the waters1 with a little child seated on its topmost bough1 that put out its head and saved the terrified saint just as he was on the point of drowning4 ,the ,buddhist pilgrim1 ,hwen ,thsang1 says that in his time before the principal room of the temple there was a tree with wide-spreading branches1 which was said to be the dwelling of a man-eating demon4 ,the tree was surrounded with human bones1 the remains of pilgrims who had offered themselves at the temple1 a custom which had been observed from time immemorial4 ,general ,cunningham identifies this tree with the ,akshaya ,vata1 which is still an object of worship4 ,the well-known ,banyan tree of ,ceylon is said to be descended from it4 #bfi ,it was under the ,bodhi tree at ,gaya that the ,buddha obtained enlightenment4 ,the great sacred ,banyan tree of the ,himlaya is said to have reached from ,badarinth to ,nand ,prayg1 a distance of eighty miles4 #bgj ,in ,bombay women worship the ,banyan tree on the fifteenth of the month of ,jeth in honour of ,savitr1 the pious wife of ,satyavan1 who when her husband was cutting a ,banyan tree was struck by the axe and killed4 ,yama appeared and claimed her husband1 but at last he was overcome by the devotion of ,savitr and restored her husband to her4 #bga ,of the ,glar 7,ficus glomerata7 it is believed that on the night of the ,divl the gods assemble to pluck its flowers2 hence no one has ever seen the tree in blossom4 ,it is unlucky to grow a ,glar tree near the house1 as it causes the death of sons in the family4 ,high-caste ,hindu women worship the ,ppal tree in the form of ,vasudeva on the ,amvasya or fifteenth day of the month1 when it falls on ,monday4 ,they pour water at its roots1 smear the trunk with red lead and ground sandalwood1 and walk round it one hundred and eight times in the course of the sun1 putting at each circuit a copper coin1 a sweetmeat1 or a ,brhmanical cord at the root1 all of which are the perquisite of beggars4 ,an old woman then recites the tale of the ,rja ,nikunjali and his queen ,satyavrat1 who won her husband by her devotion to the sacred tree4 ,hence devotion to it is supposed to promote wedded happiness4 ,in ,rjputna the ,ppal and ,banyan are worshipped by women on the #bith day of ,baiskh 7,april-,may7 to preserve them from widowhood4 #bgb ,the ,ppal is invoked at the rite of investiture with the sacred thread at marriages and at the foundation-laying of houses4 ,vows are made under its shade for the boon of male offspring1 and pious women veil their faces when they pass it4 ,many1 as they revolve round it1 twist a string of soft cotton round the trunk4 ,the vessel of water for the comfort of the departing soul on its way to the land of the dead is hung from its branches1 and beneath it are placed the rough stones which form the shrine of the village godling4 ,its wood is used in parts of the ,aran1 or sacred fire-drill1 and for the spoons with which butter is poured on the holy fire4 ,when its branches are attacked by the lac insect1 a branch on which they have settled is taken to the ,ganges at ,allahbd and consigned to the ,ganges4 ,this1 it is believed1 saves the tree from further injury4 ,the tree should be touched only on ,sunday1 when ,lakshm1 the goddess of wealth1 abides in it2 on every other day of the week1 poverty and misfortune take up their quarters in it4 ,the son of a deceased parent should pour three hundred and sixty brass vessels of water round its root to ensure the repose of the dead man4 ,hindus on ,sunday after bathing pour a vessel of water at its root and walk round it four times4 ,milk and sugar are sometimes mixed with the water to intensify the charm4 ,when the new moon falls on ,monday1 pious ,hindus walk one hundred and eight times round it and wind cotton threads about the trunk4 ,in rich ,hindu families small silver models of the tree answer the same purpose4 ,when a statement is made on oath1 the witness takes one of the leaves in his hand and invokes the gods above him to crush him1 as he crushes the leaf1 if he is guilty of falsehood4 ,though ,sir ,monier-,williams gives currency to it1 it may be suspected that the story of the ,banyas who objected to ,ppal trees being planted in their bzr1 as they could not carry on their roguery under the shade of the holy tree1 has been invented for the delectation of the confiding ,european tourist4 ,as a matter of fact you will often see merchants plant the tree in the immediate neighbourhood of their shops4 ,it is needless to say that this regard for the ,ppal extends through ,africa1 ,new ,zealand1 ,australia1 ,sumatra1 and ,java4 #bgc ,the ,sl4 ,the ,sl or ,skhu is also a holy tree4 ,it is held in much respect by the jungle races1 who consider it the abode of spirits and erect their shrines under its shade4 ,the ,bgdis and ,bauris of ,bengal are married in an arbour made of the branches of the ,sl 7,shorea robusta7 after they have been first married to a ,mahua tree 7,bassia latifolia74 ,patches of this tree are often reserved as fragments of the primitive jungle1 of which it must have constituted an important part4 ,the ,shsham4 ,the ,shsham or ,sson1 the ,sinsapa of the ,sanskrit writers1 is in the tales of ,somadeva the haunt of the ,vetla4 #bgd ,the ,jand4 ,in the ,panjb the ,jand tree 7,prosopis spicigera7 is very generally reverenced1 more especially in those parts where it forms a chief feature in the larger flora of the great arid grazing tracts4 ,it is commonly selected to mark the abode or shelter the shrine of some deity4 ,it is to it that1 as a rule1 rags are dedicated as offerings1 and it is employed in the marriage ceremonies of many tribes4 ,most ,khatris and ,brhmans perform rites to it1 especially at festivals connected with domestic occurrences4 ,a custom prevails in some families of never putting home-made clothes upon the children1 but of begging them from friends4 ,this is1 as we have already seen1 done with the view of avoiding the ,evil ,eye4 ,the ceremony of putting on these clothes is usually performed when the child is three years of age4 ,it is taken to the ,jand tree1 from which a bough is cut with a sickle and planted at the root of the tree as a propitiation of the indwelling spirit4 ,the ,swstika symbol is made before it with the rice1 flour1 and sugar brought as an offering to the tree4 ,nine threads from the ,mauli1 or string used by women to tie up their back hair1 are then taken out and cut into lengths1 one of which is tied round the tree with the knot characteristic of ,siva or ,krishna1 and another round a piece of dried molasses1 which is placed on the ,swstika4 ,mantras or spells are repeated and the sugar and rice are distributed among the women and children2 for no male adult1 except the officiating ,brhman1 attends the ceremony4 ,the ,brhman then dresses the child in the new clothes1 on which he impresses the mark of his hand in saffron1 and girds the child's loins with a hair string1 on which is tied the bag or purse containing the ,brhman's fee4 ,the hair string has in front a triangular piece of red silk1 which1 as we have already noticed1 is one of the most familiar forms of amulet intended to repel the influence of evil spirits4 ,similarly at marriages1 they perform the ceremony of cutting off and burning a small branch of the tree1 and offerings are made to it by the relations of persons suffering from small-pox4 #bge ,the ,aonla4 ,the ,aonla 7,emblica officinalis7 is another sacred tree4 ,it is considered propitious and chaste1 and is worshipped in the month of ,krttik 7,december7 by ,brhmans being fed under it1 hair strings 7mauli7 being tied round it1 and seven circumambulations made in the course of the sun4 ,the eleventh of the month ,phlgun 7,february7 is sacred to it1 and on this occasion libations are poured at the foot of the tree1 a string of red or yellow colour is bound round the trunk1 prayers are offered to it for the fruitfulness of women1 animals1 and crops1 and the ceremony concludes with a reverential inclination to the sacred tree4 #bgf ,the ,mahua4 ,the ,mahua 7,bassia latifolia71 which so admirably combines beauty with utility1 and is one of the main sources whence the jungle tribes derive their food and intoxicants1 is held in the highest respect by the people of the ,central ,indian ,highlands4 ,it is the marriage tree of the ,kurmis1 ,lohrs1 ,mahilis1 ,mundas1 and ,santls of ,bengal4 ,many of the ,drvidian races1 such as the ,bhuiyas1 adore it1 and a branch is placed in the hands of the bride and bridegroom during the marriage ceremony4 ,they also revolve round a bough of the tree planted in the ground by the ,baiga or aboriginal priest4 ,some of the semi-,hinduized ,bengal ,gonds have the remarkable custom of tying the corpses of adult males by a cord to the ,mahua tree1 in an upright position1 previous to burial4 ,it is also the rule with them that all adult males go to the forest and clear a space round an san tree 7,terminalia alata tormentosa71 where they make an altar and present offerings to the tribal godling1 ,bara ,deo1 after which they have a general picnic4 #bgg ,the ,cotton ,tree4 ,the ,salmali or ,semal 7,bombax heptaphyllum7 is likewise sacred1 an idea perhaps derived from its weird appearance and the value of its fibre1 which was largely used by the primitive races of the jungle4 ,it gave its name to one of the seven ,dvpas or great divisions of the known continent1 and to a special hell1 in which the wicked are tortured with the ,kta ,salmali1 or thorny rod of this tree4 ,in the folk-tales a hollow cotton tree is the refuge of the heroine4 #bgh ,the posts of the marriage pavilion and stake round which the bride and bridegroom revolve are very commonly made of its wood among the ,kols and allied ,drvidian tribes1 as are also the parrot totem emblems used at marriages by the ,kharwrs and many menial castes4 ,the ,bnsphors1 a branch of the great ,dom race in the ,north-,western ,provinces1 fix up a branch of the ,glar and ,semal in the marriage shed4 ,among the wild tribes it is considered the favourite seat of gods still more terrible than those of the ,ppal1 because their superintendence is confined to the neighbourhood1 and having their attention less occupied1 they can venture to make a more minute scrutiny into the conduct of the people immediately around them4 ,the ,ppal is occupied by one or two of the ,hindus triad1 the gods of creation1 preservation1 and destruction1 who have the affairs of the universe to look after1 but the cotton and other trees are occupied by some minor deities1 who are vested with a local superintendence over the affairs of a district1 or perhaps of a single village4 #bgi ,the ,nm4 ,the ,nimba or ,nm 7,azidirachta ,indica7 is sacred in connection with the worship of the godlings of disease1 who are supposed to reside in it4 ,in particular it is occupied by ,stal and her six sisters4 ,hence during the season when epidemics prevail1 from the seventh day of the waning moon of ,chait to the same date in ,asrh1 that is during the hot weather1 women bathe1 dress themselves in fresh clothes1 and offer rice1 sandal-wood1 flowers1 and sometimes a burnt offering with incense at the root of the tree4 ,the ,nm tree is also connected with snake worship1 as its leaves repel snakes4 ,in this it resembles the ,yggdrassil of ,europe1 the roots of which were half destroyed by the serpents which nestled among them4 ,the leaves and wood of the ash tree1 the modern successor of the mystic tree of ,teutonic mythology1 are still regarded throughout all ,northern ,europe as a powerful protective from all manner of snakes and evil worms4 #bhj ,in ,cornwall no kind of snake is ever found near the ashen tree1 and a branch of it will prevent a snake from coming near a person4 #bha ,nm leaves are1 it may be noted1 useless as a snake scarer unless they are fresh4 #bhb ,the leaves are also used throughout ,northern ,india as a means of avoiding the death pollution1 or rather as a mode of driving off the spirit which accompanies the mourners from the cremation ground4 ,hence after the funeral they chew the leaves and some water is sprinkled over them with a branch of the tree4 ,so great is the power of the ,nm over spirits and spirit disease1 that in ,bombay1 when a woman is delivered of a child1 ,nm leaves and cow's urine are1 as a rule1 kept at the entrance of the lying-in room1 in order that the child and its mother may not be affected by an evil spirit1 and on their ,new ,year's ,day it is considered essential for every ,hindu to worship the ,nm tree and to eat its leaves mixed with pepper and sugar1 that he may not suffer from any sickness or disease during the year4 ,in practice very few worship the tree1 but its leaves are generally eaten by most of them4 ,among the ,chitpwan ,brhmans1 a pot filled with cow's urine is set at the door of the lying-in room with a ,nm branch in it1 and anyone coming in must dip the branch in the urine and with it sprinkle his feet4 ,among ,govardhan ,brhmans of ,pna1 when a child is born1 ,nm leaves are hung at the front and back doors of the house4 ,in ,ahmadnagar1 when a person is bitten by a snake1 he is taken to ,bhairoba's temple1 crushed ,nm leaves mixed with chillies are given him to eat1 and ,nm leaves waved round his head4 ,among the ,nmdeo ,shimpis of ,ahmadnagar each of the mourners carries from the pyre a twig of the ,nm tree1 and the ,kanphatas of ,cutch get the cartilage of their ears slit1 and in the slit a ,nm stick is stuck1 the wound being cured by a dressing of ,nm oil4 #bhc ,we have already found this tree connected with ,sun worship1 as in the case of the ,nimbrak ,vaishnavas1 as well as with that of ,stal1 the goddess of small-pox4 ,among the wilder tribes it is also revered4 ,the ,jogis1 a criminal tribe in ,madras1 reverence it and brand their dogs with a representation of the tree4 #bhd ,the ,banjras1 or wandering carriers1 use a branch of the tree as a test of continence4 ,the jealous husband throws it on the ground and says1 ,if thou be a true woman1 lift that ,nm branch4 ,the ,doms1 or vagrant sweepers of the ,eastern ,district of the ,north-,western ,provinces1 hold the ,nm tree sacred to ,kl or ,stal1 and the ,kurmis dedicate it to ,kl ,bhavn1 and worship this tree and the ,ppal under which the image of ,dev is placed4 #bhe ,the ,cocoanut4 ,the cocoanut is considered one of the most sacred fruits1 and is called ,srphala1 or the fruit of ,sr1 the goddess of prosperity4 ,it is the symbol of fertility1 and all through ,upper ,india is kept on shrines and presented by the priests to women who desire children4 ,one of the main causes of the respect paid to it seems to be its resemblance to a human head1 and hence it is often used as a type of an actual human sacrifice4 ,it is also revered for its uses as food and a source of intoxicating liquor4 ,but it is not a native of ,northern ,india1 and is naturally more revered in its home along the western coast4 ,in ,gujart and ,kanara it represents the house spirit1 and is worshipped as a family god4 ,the ,konkan ,kunbis put up and worship a cocoanut for each of their relations who dies1 and before beginning to cut the rice1 break a cocoanut and distribute it among the reapers4 ,the ,prabhus1 at every place where three roads meet1 wave a cocoanut round the face of the bridegroom1 and break it into pieces to repel evil influences4 ,the ,musalmns of the ,dakkhin cut a cocoanut and lime into pieces and throw them over the head of the bridegroom to scare evil spirits4 ,among some classes of ascetics the skull is broken at the time of cremation with a cocoanut in order to allow the ghost to escape4 ,in ,western ,india1 at the close of the rains1 cocoanuts are thrown in to pacify the sea4 ,its place as a substitute for a human sacrifice in ,northern ,india seems to have been taken by the pumpkin1 which is used in much the same way4 ,the ,mimosa4 ,the ,khair1 or ,mimosa 7,acacia catechu7 seems to owe most of the estimation in which it is held to its use in producing the sacred fire4 ,it forms1 on account of its hardness1 the base of the ,aran or sacred fire-drill1 and in it the wedge of the softer ,ppal wood works and fire is produced by friction4 ,the ,ypa or sacrificial post to which the victim was tied for the sacrifice was often made of this wood4 ,in the great horse sacrifice of the ,rmyana1 twenty-one of these posts were erected1 six made of ,vilva 7,agle marmelos71 six of ,khadira or ,acacia1 six of ,palsa 7,butea frondosa71 one of ,udumbara 7,ficus glomerata71 ,sleshmataka 7,cordia myxa71 and one of ,devadru1 the ,deodr pine tree4 ,of the ,khair tree ,bishop ,heber thus writes in his ,journal3 #bhf ,as ,i returned home ,i passed a fine tree of the ,mimosa1 with leaves at a little distance so much resembling those of the mountain ash1 that ,i was for a moment deceived1 and asked if it did not bear fruit4 ,he answered1 ',no2 but it was a very noble tree1 being called the ,imperial tree1 for its excellent qualities4' ,that it slept all night1 and was alive all day1 withdrawing its leaves if any one attempted to touch them4 ,above all1 however1 it was useful as a preservative against magic2 a sprig worn in the turban1 or suspended over the bed1 was a perfect security against all spells1 ,evil ,eye1 etc41 insomuch that the most formidable wizard would not1 if he could help it1 approach its shade4 ,one indeed1 they said1 who was very renowned for his power 7like ,lorrinite of ,kehama7 of killing plants and drying up their sap with a look1 had come to this very tree and gazed upon it intently2 'but1' said the old man1 who told me this with an air of triumph1 'look as he might1 he could do the tree no harm1' a fact of which ,i made no question4 ,i was amused and surprised to find the superstition1 which in ,england and ,scotland attaches to the rowan tree1 here applied to a tree of nearly similar form4 ,this superstition regarding the rowan tree and the elder is familiar in ,european folk-lore4 ,in ,ireland the roots of the elder and those of an apple tree which bears red apples1 boiled together and drunk fasting1 expel evil spirits4 ,in connection with this idea that the mimosa sleeps at night1 pious ,hindus prefer not to eat betel leaves after sunset1 as catechu forms part of the ingredients with which they are prepared4 ,the ,plantain4 ,the plantain is also sacred1 probably on account of the value of its fruit4 ,the leaves are hung on the marriage booth1 and a branch is placed near the pole or sacred fire round which the bride and bridegroom revolve4 ,in ,madras1 when premature delivery takes place1 the child is laid on a plantain leaf smeared with oil1 the leaf is changed daily1 and the baby is thus treated for the period which is less than the normal time of delivery4 ,in ,bengal1 in consecrating an image of ,durg1 a plantain tree is brought in and bathed4 ,it is clothed as a woman with ,bel apples representing the breasts2 nine sorts of leaves smeared with red paint are hung round the breast and it is worshipped4 #bhg ,the leaves are also used as a remedy for wounds and ulcers1 a practice which prevailed in the time of ,shakespeare4 ,in ,romeo and ,juliet ,benvolio says3-- ,take thou some new infection to thine eye1 ,and the rank poison of the old will die4 ,to which ,romeo answers3-- ,your plantain leaf is excellent for that4 ,for what1 ,i pray thee8 ,for your broken skin4 ,in the folk-tales the deserted wife sweeps the ground round a plantain tree and it gives her a blessing4 #bhh ,the ,pomegranate4 ,so with the pomegranate1 which among the ,prsis of ,bombay is held in high respect4 ,its twigs were used to make the sacred broom1 its seeds1 in order to scare evil spirits1 were thrown over the child when it was girt with the sacred thread1 and its juice was squeezed into the mouth of the dying4 #bhi ,in its fruit ,anr ,shhzd1 the ,princess ,pomegranate1 commonly lies hidden4 ,but it is in ,upper ,india considered unlucky to have such a tree in the house1 as it is envious and cannot bear that any one should be lovelier than itself4 #bij ,the ,tamarind4 ,the ,orons of ,bengal revere the tamarind and bury their dead under its shade4 #bia ,one special rite among the ,drvidian races is the ,iml ghontn or the grinding of the tamarind1 when the mother of the bridegroom grinds on the family curry stone some pods of the tamarind4 ,the tree was a special favourite with the early ,musalmn conquerors1 and the finest specimens of it will be found in their cemeteries and near their original settlements4 ,the ,siras4 ,in the ,panjb the leaves of the ,siras 7,acacia sirisa7 are a powerful charm4 ,in many villages in ,upper ,india they will be seen hung up on the rope crossing the village cattle path1 when epidemics prevail among men or animals4 #bib ,in this case the effect of the charm is enhanced by adding to them a tile covered with some hocus-pocus formula1 written by a ,faqr1 and rude models of a pair of wooden sandals1 a mud rake1 a plough-share and other agricultural implements which are considered effectual to scare the demon which brings the plague4 ,the ,mango4 ,the ,mango is used in much the same way4 ,it is1 as we shall see1 used in making the aspersion at rural ceremonies4 ,the leaves are hung up at marriages in garlands on the house door1 and on the shed in which the rite is performed1 and after the wedding is over these are carefully consigned to running water by the bride and bridegroom4 ,it is also used as a charm4 ,before you see a flower on a mango tree shut your eyes and make some one lead you to a tree in flower4 ,rub the flowers into your hands1 and you thus acquire the power of curing scorpion stings by moving your hand over the place4 ,but this power lasts only for one year1 and must be renewed when the season of flowers again returns4 ,the ,tulas4 ,the ,tulas or holy basil 7,ocymum sanctum7 is closely connected with the worship of ,vishnu4 ,at the last census over eleven hundred persons in the ,north-,western ,provinces recorded themselves as worshippers of the plant4 ,it is known in ,sanskrit as ,haripriya1 or the beloved of ,vishnu1 and ,bhtaghni1 or destroyer of demons4 ,it seems to owe the favour with which it is regarded to its aromatic and healing properties4 ,vishnu1 so runs the legend1 was fascinated with the beauty of ,vrind1 the wife of ,jlandhara1 to redeem him from whose enthralment1 the gods applied to ,lakshm1 ,gaur1 and ,swadh4 ,each gave them seed to sow where ,vishnu was enchanted4 ,the seeds given by the deities sprang up as the ,dhtr or ,emblica ,myrobalan1 the ,mlat or jasmine1 and the ,tulas1 or basil1 and appearing in female form they attracted the admiration of the deity and saved him from the wiles of ,vrind4 #bic ,another legend comes from ,bombay4 #bid ,tulas was daughter of the ,rja ,dharmadhwaja1 and by her devotions gained the favour of ,vishnu1 but she married the demon ,sankhachda1 who by the virtue of his wife overcame the gods4 ,they appealed to ,vishnu1 but he could not help them1 as the demon was his votary4 ,at last it was resolved that he should personate her husband and gain her love4 ,when ,tulas was aware of the deception she was about to curse him1 but he pacified her by promising to marry her and make her name immortal4 ,he added that those women who married an image of him to the ,tulas on the eleventh day of the month ,krttik would prosper4 ,the ,tulas is also connected with ,st and ,rukmin1 and the prayer to her is3 ,i adore that ,tulas1 in whose roots are all the places of pilgrimage1 in whose centre are all the deities1 and in whose upper branches are all the ,vedas4 ,the plant is specially worshipped by women after bathing1 and more particularly at the full moon of ,krttik1 if the bathing be in the ,ganges4 ,the chief ceremony is1 however1 the marriage of the infant ,krishna to the plant1 which is carried out by pious people1 often at a considerable cost1 in accordance with the standard ritual4 ,the ,palsa4 ,the ,palsa or ,dhk is sacred1 partly on account of its use in producing the sacred fire1 and partly because its orange blossoms are used to dye the coloured dust and water thrown about at the ,hol festival4 ,it is supposed to be in some way connected with the ,soma1 and by one account was produced from the feather of the falcon imbued with the ,soma4 ,its trifoliate leaves represent the trident1 or the three great gods1 ,brahma1 ,vishnu1 and ,siva1 or birth1 life1 and death4 ,the leaves are used to form the platters employed at various feasts and religious rites2 the wood in the ,ypa1 or sacrificial pole1 and in the funeral pyre4 ,in one respect it resembles the rowan1 which is also a sacred tree1 but why this is so has been much debated4 ,possibly the inaccessible rocks on which the tree is not unfrequently found to grow and the conspicuous colour of its berries may have counted for something1 but this falls decidedly short of a solution of the question4 ,one kind of answer that would meet the case1 provided it be countenanced by facts1 may be briefly indicated1 namely1 that the berries of the rowan were used in some early period in the brewing of an intoxicating drink1 or better still1 of the first intoxicating drink known to the ,teuto-,aryan ,celts4 #bie ,the connection between the ,palsa and the ,soma perhaps indicates that this may have been the case4 ,it was again a ,vedic custom to drive the cows from their calves by striking them with a rod of a ,palsa tree4 ,in ,yorkshire it used to be the custom for farmers to have whip-stocks of rowan tree wood1 and it was held that thus supplied1 they were safe against having their draught fixed1 or their horses made restive by a witch4 ,if ever a draught came to a standstill1 then the nearest witchwood tree was resorted to1 and a stick cut to flog the horses on with1 to the discomfiture of the malevolent witch who had caused the stoppage4 ,in some parts of ,scotland the milkmaid carries a switch of the magical rowan to expel the demon which sometimes enters the cow2 and in ,germany1 striking the cow with this magical wand is believed to render her fertile4 #bif ,the ,bel4 ,the ,bel 7,aegle marmelos7 is specially dedicated to ,siva1 because it has three leaflets in the leaf1 and because of its medicinal value4 ,siva is called ,bilvadanda1 he with a staff of the ,bel wood1 and its leaves are used in his service4 ,its leaves laid on the ,lingam cool and refresh the heated deity4 ,the wood is one of those used for the sacrificial post4 ,its fruit is called ,srphala1 because it is supposed to have been produced from the milk of the goddess ,sr4 ,the ,bamboo4 ,the bamboo is sacred on account of its manifold uses and because among the jungle races fire is produced by the friction of two strips of bamboo4 ,besides this it contains a sort of manna1 known as ,bnslochan or ,tabashr1 which is in high repute as a medicine4 ,the flowering of the bamboo is generally regarded as a sure sign of famine4 ,the bamboo often appears in the folk-tales4 ,thus in one of the tales of ,somadeva1 #big they asked ,sumeru about the origin of the bow1 and he said3 ',here is a great and glorious wood of bamboo canes2 whatever bamboos are cut from it and thrown into this lake1 become great and wonderful bows2 and those bows have been acquired by several of the gods1 and by ,asuras and ,gandharvas and distinguished ,vidyadhras4' ,in one of the ,santl tales1 #bih the bamboo grows from the grave of the murdered girl1 and remonstrates when the ,jogi goes to cut it1 but out of a piece he finally makes a flute of wondrous sweetness4 ,among the jungle races the bamboo often is used to make the poles of the marriage shed1 while the central post is made of the wood of the holy ,siddh tree1 the ,hardwickia binata4 ,in ,gujart1 #bii the ,turis1 to keep off evil spirits1 lay two slips of bamboo in the lying-in room4 ,the ,prabhus of ,pna at their marriages put bamboo baskets on the heads of the bride1 bridegroom1 and guests4 ,the ,mhrs and ,mngs make the married pair stand in bamboo baskets4 ,the ,musis of ,bengal make the wedded pair revolve round a bamboo post4 ,the ,birhors worship ,darha in the form of a split bamboo2 the ,kachris and ,gros worship a bamboo planted in the ground2 the ,rjmahl hill-man worships three bamboos with streamers1 as ,chaunda ,gusn4 #cjj ,the use of the bamboo decorated with a streamer as a perch for the deity is common at all low-caste shrines in ,northern ,india4 ,the ,sandal4 ,the ,sandal1 again1 in the form of powder or paste is very largely used in all ,hindu rites1 and in making the marks characteristic of sect or caste4 ,in ,bombay1 every evening1 the ,prsis burn sandal chips in their houses1 as the smell of sandal is supposed to drive away evil spirits1 and the ,pna ,ghadsis or musicians say that they are sprung from sandal wood1 because it is one of their tribal guardians4 #cja ,the ,birch4 ,the ,bhrja1 a species of birch1 is also sacred4 ,it1 too1 is supposed to drive away evil spirits4 ,its bark1 now called ,bhojpatra1 is used for writing charms1 and for other mystic purposes4 ,when a corpse is burnt by low-caste people1 when a person dies at the hands of an executioner1 when he dies on a bed1 or when he is drowned and his body cannot be found1 a rite known as ,palsvidhi is performed4 ,an effigy of the deceased is made1 in which twigs of the ,palsa tree represent the bones1 a cocoanut or ,bel fruit the head1 pearls or cowry shells the eyes1 and a piece of birch bark or the skin of a deer the cuticle4 ,it is then filled up with ,urad pulse instead of flesh and blood1 and a presiding priest recites a spell to bring life into the image1 which is symbolized by putting a lighted lamp close to the head4 ,when the light goes out1 life is believed to be extinct and the funeral rites are performed in the regular way1 the only exception being that the period of impurity lasts for three1 instead of ten days4 ,other ,sacred ,trees4 ,the number of these trees and plants which scare evil spirits or are invested with other mystic qualities is infinite4 ,we may close the catalogue with the ,babl or ,kkar 7,acacia ,arabica71 which when cut pours out a reddish juice4 ,one of these trees1 when the ,musalmns tried to cut it near a shrine at ,lahore1 is said to have poured out drops of blood as a warning4 ,but on the whole it is an unlucky tree1 and the resort of evil spirits4 ,if you throw water for thirteen days successively on a ,babl tree1 you will get the evil spirits which inhabit it into your power4 ,they tell of a man who did this near ,sahranpur1 who when taken to his cremation1 no sooner was the light set to his pyre than he got up and walked home1 and is alive to this day4 ,his neighbours naturally look on his proceedings with a certain degree of suspicion4 ,the ghost of a man burnt with this wood will not rest quietly1 and any one who rests on a bed made of it is afflicted with evil dreams4 ,an old servant of mine once solemnly remonstrated against the use of such a bed by his master4 ,such a bed1 he remarked1 should be only used for a clergyman guest1 who by virtue of his profession is naturally protected against such uncanny visitations4 ,tree ,marriages4 ,we now come to discuss the curious custom of marriages to trees4 ,this prevails widely throughout ,northern ,india4 ,thus1 in some parts of ,kngra1 if a betrothed but as yet unmarried girl can succeed in performing the marriage ceremony with the object of her choice round a fire made in the jungle with certain wild plants1 her betrothal is annulled1 and this informal marriage is recognized4 #cjb ,in the ,panjb a ,hindu cannot be legally married a third time4 ,so1 if he wishes to take a third wife1 he is married to a ,babl tree 7,acacia ,arabica71 or to the ,akh plant 7,asclepia gigantea71 first1 so that the wife he subsequently marries is counted as his fourth1 and the evil consequences of marrying a third time are thus avoided4 #cjc ,in ,bengal1 writes ,dr4 ,buchanan1 #cjd ,premature marriage is considered so necessary to ,hindu ideas of prosperity1 that even the unfortunate children who are brought up for prostitution are married with all due ceremony to a plantain tree1 before the age when they would be defiled by remaining single4 ,in the ,north-,western ,provinces1 among some of the higher classes of ,brhmans1 if a man happens to lose one or two wives and is anxious to marry a third1 the ceremony of his third marriage is first gone through with an ,akh plant4 ,the family priest takes the intending bridegroom to the fields where there are ,akh plants and repeats the marriage formula4 ,this is known as ,arka ,vivh1 or ,akh marriage1 and it is believed that the plant itself dies soon after being married4 ,in ,oudh1 it is very unlucky to marry a couple if the ruling stars of the youth form a more powerful combination than those of the female4 ,the way to get out of the difficulty is to marry the girl first to a ,ppal tree4 ,in the ,panjb1 rich people who have no children marry a ,brhman to a ,tulas plant4 ,the pseudo-father of the bride treats the ,brhman ever afterwards as his son-in-law1 which1 it is needless to say1 is a very good thing for the ,brhman4 #cje ,if the birth of a child does not follow this ceremony1 they have good reason for apprehending that a messenger from ,yama1 the god of death1 will harass them on their way to the spirit world4 ,in ,bombay1 among the ,kudva ,kunbis of ,gujart1 when there are certain difficulties in the marriage of a girl1 she is married to a mango or some other fruit tree4 ,mr4 ,campbell #cjf accounts for this on the principle that a spirit fears trees1 especially fruit trees4 ,among another branch of the same tribe1 when a girl is marriageable and a bridegroom cannot be found1 the practice is to substitute a bunch of flowers1 and the marriage ceremony proceeds4 ,next day1 by which time the flowers have begun to fade1 they are thrown into a well1 and the bride of yesterday is considered a widow4 ,as a widow can marry at any time without social discredit1 the parents find a husband for her at their leisure4 #cjg ,so in ,bengal1 the ,rautiyas before the wedding go through the form of marriage to a mango tree4 #cjh ,among the ,mundri ,kols1 the bride and bridegroom are well anointed with turmeric1 and wedded1 not to each other1 but the bride to a ,mahua tree1 and the groom to a mango1 or both to mango trees4 ,they are made to touch the tree with red lead1 and then to clasp it1 and they are tied to it4 #cji ,among the ,kurms1 the bridegroom on the wedding morning is first married to a mango tree4 ,he embraces the tree1 is for a time tied to it in a peculiar manner with a thread1 and he daubs it with red lead4 ,then the thread is removed from the tree1 and is used to attach some of the leaves to the bridegroom's wrist4 ,the bride is similarly wedded to a ,mahua tree4 #caj ,similarly in the ,himlayas1 if anyone desires to marry a third time1 whether his other wives are alive or not1 he is married to the ,akh plant4 ,he builds an altar near the plant1 or brings a branch home and plants it near the altar4 ,the regular marriage ceremony is then performed1 and a thread is wound ten times round the plant with the recitation of appropriate verses4 ,four days the plant remains where it was fixed1 and on the fifth day the celebrant is entitled to commence the marriage ceremony with his third wife4 ,similarly1 a person is married to an earthen jar1 when from some conjunction of the planets the omens are unfavourable1 or when1 from some bodily or mental defect1 no one will marry the boy or girl4 ,the usual ceremonies are gone through1 and the neck of the boy or girl is connected by a string with the neck of the vessel1 and water is sprinkled over them with a brush made of five leaves4 #caa ,in ,nepl every ,newr girl is1 while a child1 married to a ,bel fruit1 which1 after the ceremony1 is thrown into some sacred river4 ,when she arrives at puberty a husband is selected for her1 but should the marriage prove unpleasant1 she can divorce herself by the simple process of placing a betel-nut under her husband's pillow1 and walking off4 ,widows are allowed to re-marry2 in fact1 a ,newr woman is never a widow1 as the ,bel fruit to which she first married is supposed to be always in existence4 #cab ,before considering a possible explanation of this group of customs1 we may note other instances of pseudo-marriages4 ,we have1 in the first place1 instances of the marriage of girls to a god4 ,in the ,gurgon ,district1 in the ,rewri ,tahsl1 at the village of ,bs ,doda1 a fair is held on the #bfth of ,chait and the two following days4 ,i was told that formerly girls of the ,dhnwar class used to be married to the god at these festivals1 and that they always died soon afterwards1 but that of late years the practice has been discontinued4 #cac ,again1 we have some traces of the allied custom of compulsory religious prostitution4 ,it is said that ,santl girls are required to submit to compulsory prostitution once in their lives at ,telkpi ,ght4 ,it is said that the custom originally arose from the killing of a girl by her parents for incontinence2 since when1 girls have been permitted to do as they please1 and what was once permissive has become compulsory4 #cad ,there is no reference to this in ,colonel ,dalton's account of the ,santls1 and ,mr4 ,beglar's authority is not quite satisfactory4 ,but on the analogy of similar rites in ,babylon1 as described by ,herodotus1 it is very likely that such a custom once prevailed4 ,there is some evidence that similar customs once prevailed at the temple of ,jaggannth and other ,indian shrines4 ,we have1 again1 folk-tale references to the same custom in a tradition of the ,vallabhachrya sect of the daughter of a banker1 who1 by her devotion to him1 won the love of the god ,krishna in the form of an image4 ,finally the deity revealed himself1 and she went with him to ,brindaban and remained with her divine husband till he carried her off to the heaven of ,vishnu4 ,this1 however1 is hardly perhaps more than an example of the mystic union of the god with his worshippers1 which forms such a large part of the ,vaishnava hagiology1 and is familiar in the tales of ,krishna and the ,gops4 ,there is1 again1 among children in the neighbourhood of ,sahranpur1 a game which may be a survival of some more primitive rite4 ,at the ,tj festival1 which occurs in the rainy season1 girls dressed in their best go to a tank near the city4 ,after dropping offerings into the water in honour of ,khwja ,khizr1 they divide into two parties1 each of which selects a leader1 one of whom is known as the bride and the other a bridegroom4 ,the latter is decorated with a paper crown decked with tinsel4 ,the clothes of the pair are knotted together1 and they are made to walk round a ,tulas plant or a ,ppal tree on the banks of the tank1 in a mock form of the marriage ritual4 ,meanwhile each party chaffs the other1 saying1 ,your bride 7or bridegroom7 is one-eyed4 ,they return home with merriment of this kind1 and when they come to the house the knot tied in the garments of the pair is unloosed4 ,we have1 again1 instances of the marriages of1 or to animals4 ,in parts of the ,panjb1 if a man have lost two or three wives in succession1 he gets a woman to catch a bird and adopt it as her daughter4 ,he then marries the bird1 and immediately pays over the bride-gift to the woman that adopted his bird-bride1 which he divorces4 ,after this he can get himself married to another woman1 and she will probably live4 #cae ,so1 there have been many instances of ,rjas marrying animals with the customary rites4 ,some years ago1 one of the ,gekwrs of ,baroda spent a large sum in marrying some favourite pigeons1 and a ,rja of ,nadiya spent a lkh of rupees in marrying two monkeys4 ,lastly1 there are numerous survivals of what can hardly be anything else but tree marriage4 ,among the ,bwariyas1 a vagrant tribe in ,sirsa1 the bride and bridegroom go outside the village to a ,jand tree1 which1 as we have seen already1 is regarded as sacred1 move round it seven times1 and then cut off a branch with an axe4 #caf ,in a ,bhl marriage1 the pair walk round the ,salyra tree1 which is placed in the marriage booth1 twelve times4 #cag ,we have a similar custom among most of the menial tribes4 ,the ,kols make the marriage booth of nine bamboo poles1 with a bamboo or a branch of the ,siddh tree as the central post4 ,as the bridegroom smears the parting of the bride's hair with red lead1 he makes a daub of the same substance on the tree4 ,much the same custom prevails among all the inferior castes4 ,the worship of trees at marriage prevails in ,madras1 where some ,rjas worship at their marriages the fire and the ,vahni tree1 a twig of which is used as an arrow at the hunting feast at the ,navartri or ,dasahra4 #cah ,on the whole1 it seems probable that this custom of pseudo-marriages may be based on various principles4 ,the popular explanation of the custom is1 as we have seen1 that it is intended to avoid the curse of widowhood1 the tree-husband being always alive2 the woman1 even if her husband die1 can never be a widow1 nor can the parents be liable to the contempt which1 according to popular ,hindu belief1 awaits those who keep a girl who has reached maturity unmarried4 ,but when we find the same custom prevailing among races who habitually permit pre-nuptial infidelity1 and among whom every marriageable widow is either subjected to the levirate or made over to a stranger1 it seems obvious that this cannot be the original explanation of the practice4 ,again1 according to ,mr4 ,frazer1 who has collected numerous examples of the custom1 it is difficult to separate from totemism the custom observed by totem clans in ,bengal of marrying the bride and bridegroom to trees before they are married to each other4 #cai ,but the idea that1 as we have seen in one of the cases of tree marriages1 the tree itself is supposed to die soon after the ceremony1 seems to point to the fact that the marriage may be intended to divert to the tree some evil influence1 which would otherwise attach to the wedded pair4 ,we have an instance of a somewhat analogous practice from ,bombay4 ,among the ,konkan ,kunbis1 when a woman is in labour and cannot get a speedy delivery1 some gold ornament from her hair is taken to a ,r plant 7the ,dhk--,callotropis gigantea of ,northern ,india71 and after digging at its roots1 one of the roots is taken out1 and the ornament is buried in its stead4 ,the root is then brought home and put in the hair of the woman in labour4 ,it is supposed that by this means the woman gets speedy delivery4 ,as soon as she is delivered of a child1 the root is taken from her hair and brought back to the ,r plant1 and after digging at its root the ornament is taken out and the root placed in its former place4 #cbj ,the idea seems to be that the evil influence hindering parturition is thus transferred to the plant4 ,and this may be one explanation of the practice where1 as we have seen1 a man is married to a bird1 or so on1 when his former wives have died4 ,the bird acts as the scape-animal1 and carries the disease spirit away with it4 ,lastly1 we have seen instances in which the wedded pair are made to clasp the tree or are tied to it in some special way4 ,there are numerous cases in which women1 in order to procure offspring1 clasp an idol1 like that of ,hanumn and one of the other guardian deities4 ,the clasping of the tree at marriage may possibly be a sort of sympathetic magic to bring on the pair the fertility and power of reproduction1 of which vegetable life is the well-known symbol4 ,we have the same principle of the wedding of the grove to its well1 and every ,hindu who goes to the expense of making a tank1 does not drink of its waters until he has married the tank to a plantain or some other tree growing on its banks4 ,tree and ,serpent ,worship4 ,in the story of the king and his son1 told in the ,baitl ,pachsi1 the king supplicates the sacred tree to give him a son4 ,the request is granted1 and the king then implores the tree to make his people happy2 the result was that poor wretches1 hitherto living in the woods1 came forth and concerted measures to seize his kingdom4 ,rather than shed blood1 the old king1 his queen1 and his son retired to a lofty mountain4 ,there the son finds something white lying under a mimosa tree4 ,on inquiry he learnt that it is a heap of serpents' bones left there by ,garuda1 who comes daily to feed on serpents4 ,on hearing this1 the king goes towards a temple1 but is arrested by the cry of a woman1 who says3 ,my son to-day will be eaten by ,garuda4 ,she and her people were1 in fact1 serpents in human shape4 ,the king was moved to pity1 and as in the famous legend of ,buddha and the tigress1 he offered to expose himself to ,garuda in the room of her son4 ,this is discovered2 ,garuda releases the king1 and at his request re-animates the serpents to whom the bones belong4 #cba ,here we have an example of the combination of tree and serpent worship1 and it would be easy to adduce more instances1 as has been done by ,mr4 ,ferguson and other writers of his school4 ,but in dealing with this phase of belief much caution is required4 ,as ,dr4 ,tylor observes3 ,serpent-worship unfortunately fell years ago into the hands of speculative writers1 who mixed it up with occult philosophies1 ,druidical mysteries1 and that portentous nonsense called the ,arkite symbolism1 till now sober students hear the very name of ophiolatry with a shiver4 #cbb ,it is almost needless to say that snake-worship prevails largely in ,northern ,india4 ,the last census showed in the ,north-,western ,provinces over twenty-five thousand ,nga worshippers2 one hundred and twenty-three persons recorded themselves as votaries of ,gga1 the snake god4 ,there are also a certain number who worship ,snp ,deot1 or the snake godling1 and ,ahran1 another deity of the same class1 who is worshipped in ,sultnpur by daily offerings of red lead1 water1 and rice4 ,sokha1 said to be the ghost of a ,brhman killed by a snake1 has nearly fourteen thousand worshippers4 ,in the ,panjb1 again1 there are over thirty-five thousand special votaries of the snake godlings1 of which the great majority worship ,gga4 ,that the cultus of the snake has been derived from aboriginal beliefs appears tolerably certain4 ,the ,hindus of ,vedic times looked on the serpent with fear and dislike4 ,it was impersonated as ,ahi or ,vritra1 the snake demon which brings darkness and drives away the kindly rain4 ,the regular snake-worship1 as we now find it1 was obviously of a later date4 ,it does not appear difficult to disentangle the ideas on which snake-worship is based4 ,to begin with1 the snake is dreaded and revered on account of the mysterious fear which is associated with it1 its stealthy habits1 its sinuous motion1 the cold fixity of its gaze1 the protrusion of its forked tongue1 the suddenness and deadliness of its attacks4 ,it would be particularly dreaded by women1 whose habits of walking barefoot in fields in the early dawn1 and groping in dark corners of their huts1 render them specially exposed to its malice4 ,the chief basis of the cultus would then be fear1 as in the case of the tiger and other beasts of prey4 ,it would soon be discovered that there were various harmless snakes which would1 as house-hunters1 come to be identified with the ancestral ghosts as the protectors of houses and goods4 ,the power of controlling and taming the more venomous snakes would then be discovered1 and the snake-charmer would come to be regarded as the wisest of mankind1 as a wizard1 and finally as a priest4 ,we have thus three aspects under which the snake is worshipped by many savage races--as a dreaded enemy1 as the protector of home and treasure1 as the accompaniment and attribute of wisdom4 ,the village temple would be often in early times a storehouse of treasure1 and the snake1 respected as its guardian1 would finally1 as in ,kashmr1 be installed there as a god4 ,next1 we have the early connection between the serpent and the powers of nature1 the cloud and the rain1 as appears in the familiar ,vedic legend of ,indra and the ,dragon ,ahi1 and ,seshanga1 the great world serpent1 which appears in so many of the primitive mythologies4 ,the serpent would again receive respect as the emblem of life2 his shape would1 as in many forms of primitive ornament1 be associated with the ring1 as a symbol of eternity2 he is excessively long-lived1 and periodically renews his life4 ,he has1 further1 as in the ,saiva cultus1 become associated with phallicism1 and with the sexual powers1 as in the ,adam legend4 ,the serpent round the neck of ,siva denotes the endless cycle of recurring years1 and a second necklace of skulls about his person1 with numerous other serpents1 symbolizes the eternal revolution of ages and the successive dissolution and regeneration of the races of mankind4 #cbc ,lastly1 the cultus may have a totemistic basis4 ,as ,strabo describes the ,ophiogeneis or serpent races of ,phrygia actually retaining physical affinity with the snakes to whom they were to be believed to be allied1 the ,cheros of the eastern districts of the ,north-,western ,provinces and the ,bais ,rjputs of ,oudh profess to be descended from the ,great ,serpent4 ,gautama ,buddha himself is said to have been of serpent lineage4 ,but the great serpent race was that of the ,ngas1 to whom much ill-considered argument and crude speculation have been devoted4 ,according to one theory they were ,skythic emigrants from ,central ,asia1 but whether antecedent or subsequent to the so-called ,aryan inroad is disputed4 ,they seem to have been accustomed to use the serpent as a national symbol1 and hence became identified with the snake4 ,some of the myths seem to imply that they suffered persecution at the hands of the ,brhmans1 such as the tale of the burning of the ,khndava forest1 the opening scenes of the ,mahbhrata1 and the exploits of the youthful ,krishna4 ,they are1 again1 associated with ,buddhism on monuments like those of ,ajanta1 and another theory would make them out to be the ,dasyus1 or aboriginal races of ,upper ,india1 who were the first to adopt ,buddhism and were exterminated in the ,brhmanical revival4 ,little1 in fact1 is known of them1 save that they may have been early worshippers of the snake1 may have embraced ,buddhism1 and may have introduced the worship into ,india from some northern home4 #cbd ,but ,mr4 ,ferguson's theory that snake-worship was of purely ,turanian origin is1 to say the least1 very doubtful1 and his belief that ,saivism is antagonistic to snake-worship1 and that ,vaishnavism1 which he regards as a modification of ,buddhism1 encourages it1 is opposed by the numerous examples of the connection of the serpent with the ,lingam4 ,seshanga4 ,below the seven ,ptlas1 according to the ,vishnu ,purna1 is ,vishnu incarnated as ,seshanga1 and known by the name ,ananta1 or ,endless4 ,he has a thousand heads adorned with the mystical ,swstika1 and in each head a jewel to give light4 ,he is accompanied by ,varun1 the goddess of wine 7who has nowadays been replaced by ,madain1 who is venerated by ,chamrs in ,oudh71 supports the world on his head1 holds in one hand a pestle and in the other a plough1 which1 as we shall see later on1 connects him with agriculture4 ,snake ,shrines4 ,in various places snakes are provided with special shrines4 ,thus1 in ,garhwl1 ,seshanga is honoured at ,pandukeswar2 ,bhekal ,ng at ,ratgon2 ,sangal ,ng at ,talor2 ,bnpa ,ng at ,margon1 and many others of the same kind4 #cbe ,in fact1 all along the ,himlaya the worship extensively prevails4 ,kailang ,ng is the chief ,himlayan godling1 and as the ,vedic ,ahi controls the clouds1 so he gives fine weather4 ,a victim is killed1 and one of his disciples1 after drinking the blood1 gets into a state of afflatus4 ,finally1 he gasps out that the sacrifice is accepted1 and falls down in a state of exhaustion4 ,the old shrine to the serpent deity at ,kngra1 known as ,baghsu ,ng1 has been converted into a ,saiva temple under the name of ,baghsuntha1 another instance of the adoption of strange deities into orthodox ,hinduism4 ,the ,ng is specially the guardian of cattle and water-springs4 ,according to the legend1 the valleys of ,kashmr and ,nepl were in some remote period the abode of ,ngas4 ,the milk of a cow is usually presented to a ,ng1 and goats and sheep are usually sacrificed to him1 as to other godlings4 ,so far as ,i am aware1 the only place in the ,himlaya where the living snake is worshipped is at the foot of the ,rotung pass4 #cbf ,the ,nepl serpent king is ,karkotaka1 who dwelt in the lake ,ngavsa1 and ,siva in the form of ,karkotaka ,nga has a temple at ,barha ,kotra in the ,bnda ,district4 ,in one of the ,nepl temples is a representation of a ,ng ,kany1 a serpent maiden or mermaid1 sitting on a tortoise4 #cbg ,this serpent maiden constantly appears in ,indian folk-lore4 ,such is ,vijayvat1 daughter of ,gandamlin1 one of the snake kings1 who is of surpassing loveliness1 rescues and marries the hero4 ,she is represented by the ,melusina of ,european folk-lore1 and one of her kindred survived to our own day1 to appear as ,elsie ,venner in one of the finest novels of this generation4 #cbh ,curious as it may appear1 all the ,kashmr temples were originally surrounded by artificial tanks1 constructed in order to propitiate the ,ngas4 ,ancient stones covered with figures of snakes are occasionally to be seen worked up into the walls of modern buildings4 ,abul ,fazl says that in his time there were nearly seven hundred figures of snake gods existing in ,kashmr4 ,the snake1 it is needless to say1 is a common emblem in temples all over the country4 ,an ancient temple at ,bilspur in the ,central ,provinces has1 as its only image1 that of the cobra4 #cbi ,snake-worship appears constantly in history and legend4 ,there is a passage in ,plutarch from which it appears to have been the custom to sacrifice an old woman 7previously condemned to death for some crime7 to the serpent gods by burying her alive on the banks of the ,indus4 ,ktesias also mentions the worship of snakes1 and in the ,buddhist legends snakes are often referred to as the guardian deities of towns4 #ccj ,in the folk-tales1 ,naravhanadatta worships snakes in a grove sacred to them1 and ,bhmabhatta goes to the temple of the chief of the snakes1 which he finds full of long wreaths of flowers in form like serpents1 and a great lake sacred to ,vsuki1 studded with red lotuses1 which seemed like clouds of smoke from the fume of snake poison4 #cca ,a curious legend tells how ,kadr and ,vinat were the two wives of the patriarch ,kasyapa1 the former being the mother of the serpent race1 and the other of the birds4 ,a discussion arose between them regarding the colour of the tails of the horses of the sun1 ,vinat insisting that they were white and ,kadr that they were black4 ,it was agreed that whichever of the two was proved to be wrong should serve the other4 ,so ,kadr contrived to fasten one of her black snakes on to the back of one of the horses1 and ,vinat1 thinking this was the real tail1 accepted defeat2 so the snakes rule the birds for ever4 ,nahusha1 according to one version of his legend1 aspired to the love of the queen of ,india when her husband concealed himself because he had killed a ,brhman4 ,a thousand ,rishis bore the litter of the presumptuous sinner through the air1 and when in his pride he touched ,agastya ,muni with his foot1 the offended sage cursed him1 and he became a serpent4 ,finally he was pardoned by the intercession of ,yudhisthira1 threw off his serpent form1 and was raised to the heaven of the gods4 ,near ,jait1 in the ,mathura ,district1 is a tank with the broken statue of a hooded serpent in it4 ,once upon a time a ,rja married a princess from a distant land1 and wished to bring her home with him4 ,she refused to come until he announced his lineage4 ,her husband told her that she would regret her curiosity1 but she persisted4 ,at last he took her to the river and warned her again1 but in vain4 ,then he told her not to be alarmed at anything she saw1 adding that if she did so1 she would lose him4 ,saying this1 he began to descend slowly into the water1 all the time trying to dissuade her1 till the water rose to his neck4 ,then1 after a last attempt to induce her to abandon her curiosity1 he dived and reappeared in the form of a ,nga1 and raising his head over the water1 he said1 ,this is my lineage4 ,i am a ,ngavansi4 ,his wife could not suppress an exclamation of grief1 on which the ,nga was turned into stone1 where he lies to this day4 ,here we have another instance of the consequences of the violation of the curiosity taboo4 #ccb ,the town of ,nigohan in the ,lucknow ,district is said to have been founded by ,raja ,nhuk of the ,chandravansi line of kings4 ,near it is a large tank1 in which the legend says that the ,rja1 transformed into a snake for the sin of killing a ,brhman1 was compelled to live4 ,here at length the ,pndava brothers1 in their wanderings after their battle with the ,kauravas1 came1 and as they went to draw water1 the serpent put to each of them five questions touching the vanity of human wishes and the advantages of absorption from the world4 ,four out of the five brethren failed to answer and were dragged under the water1 but the riddle was solved by the fifth4 ,the spell was thus loosed1 and the ,rja's deliverer had come4 ,the ,pndu put his ring round the body of the serpent1 and he was restored to human form4 ,in his gratitude he performed a great sacrifice1 and to this day the cultivators digging small wells in the centre of the tank in the dry season1 come across the burnt barley1 rice1 and betel-nuts used in the sacrifices4 #ccc ,the old ,buddhist traveller thus describes the serpent deity in the temple at ,sankisa in the ,farrukhbd ,district--,a white-eared dragon is the patron of this body of the priests4 ,it is he who causes fertilizing and seasonable showers of rain to fall within their country1 and preserves it from plagues and calamity1 and so causes the priesthood to dwell in security4 ,the priests1 in gratitude for these favours1 have erected a dragon chapel1 and within it placed a seat for his accommodation2 and1 moreover1 they make special contributions in the shape of religious offerings to provide the dragon with food4 ,towards the end of each season of rest1 the dragon incontinently assumes the form of a little serpent1 both of whose ears are white4 ,the body of priests1 recognizing him1 place in the midst for his use a copper vessel full of cream4 ,the serpent then proceeds to come down from the highest part of the alcove1 all the while moving1 as though he would pay his respects to all those around him4 ,he then suddenly disappears4 ,he makes his appearance once every year4 #ccd ,according to ,gen4 ,cunningham1 the only spot which can be identified with any certainty at ,sankisa is the tank of the ,nga1 which still exists to the south-east of the ruins4 ,the name of the ,nga is ,krewar1 which appears to mean the black one1 and that of the tank ,kandaiya ,tl4 ,milk is still offered to him on every day of ,may1 the ,ngpancham festival in ,august1 and at any other time when rain is wanted4 #cce ,there are many instances of this control of the ,nga over the weather4 ,thus1 in ,nepl1 when ,rja ,gunkamdeva committed incest1 the gods in their wrath withheld the rain4 ,finally the ,rja managed to catch the great ,nga ,karkotaka1 and the other ,ngas came and worshipped him and gave him each a likeness of himself drawn with his own blood1 and declared that whenever there was a drought hereafter1 plentiful rain would fall as soon as these pictures were worshipped4 ,so1 ,gorakhntha confined the nine ,ngas1 and there was a drought until ,matsyendrantha appeared and released them1 on which the clouds gave rain4 #ccf ,the plan of propitiating the ,nga with an offering of milk is found also in the case of the ,durham legend of the ,lambton worm and the dragon of ,deerhurst in ,gloucestershire4 #ccg ,the sacred dragons of this kind are innumerable4 ,the ,buddhist cave at ,pabhosa in the ,allahbd ,district was the home of a monster of this class1 who was subdued by ,buddha4 #cch ,that in the dragon tank at ,rmagrma used to assume the form of a ,brhman4 #cci ,dr4 ,buchanan tells of another at ,bhgalpur4 ,they showed me a hole in a rock opening into a hollow space close by the path leading up to their village4 ,they said that this hole was the abode of a very large serpent1 which they considered a kind of god4 ,in cold weather they never saw it1 but in the hot season it was constantly observed lying in the hollow before its den4 ,the people pass by it without apprehension1 thinking it understands their language1 and would on no account injure one of them1 should even a child or a drunken person fall on it4 #cdj ,but all such snakes are not friendly4 ,in the ,hitopadesa1 the faithful mungoose takes the place in the legend of ,bethgelert of the hound and kills the deadly snake4 ,some reference to this famous folk-tale will be made in another connection4 ,aghsura1 the evil demon1 the king of the serpents1 tried to devour the divine infant ,krishna4 ,when he and his foster-father ,nanda were asleep together1 a huge boa-constrictor laid hold of ,nanda by the toe1 and would speedily have devoured him1 but ,krishna1 hearing his cries1 ran to his side and lightly set his foot on the monster's head4 ,at the very touch the serpent was transformed1 and assumed the figure of a lovely youth2 for years ago a ,ganymede of ,heaven's ,court1 by name ,sudarsana1 in pride of beauty and exalted birth1 had vexed the holy sage ,angiras when in deep contemplation1 by dancing backwards and forwards before him1 and by his curses had been metamorphosed into a snake1 in that vile shape to expiate his offence1 until the advent of ,krishna4 #cda ,we have already spoken of another famous ,mathura snake1 the ,nga of ,jait1 whose tail is supposed to reach underground to ,brindaban1 seven miles away4 #cdb ,the curious dragon cave at ,kausambhi at ,allahbd was one of the last notable discoveries of the ,archological ,survey4 #cdc ,the ,snake ,gods4 ,besides the sacred ,ngas there are the regular snake gods4 ,the serpent deity of ,benares is ,ngswar1 who is represented by a serpent twining round the chief idol1 and like his kindred rules the weather4 ,the ,ng ,kun1 or dragon well1 is one of the oldest shrines in the city4 #cdd ,tr is the snake goddess of the ,kols1 and the ,khndhs call her ,tr ,penu1 the heavenly star snake4 ,vsuki1 the abider1 now known as ,bsuk ,ng1 has many shrines1 and in all of them1 as at ,draganj1 near ,allahbd1 described by ,sir ,monier-,williams1 #cde the priest in charge is always a man of low caste1 a fact pointing to the non-,aryan character of the worship4 ,he forms one of the triad of the snake gods which rule the snakes of earth and hell1 his fellows being ,sesha and ,takshaka1 he who cuts off4 ,vsuki often appears in the folk-tales4 ,we find him resisting ,garuda1 the destroyer of his subjects4 ,his brother's son ,kirtisena is1 according to one legend1 a ,brhman1 and weds a mortal maiden by the ,gandharva form2 his eldest brother ,vasunemi presents a benevolent ,savara with a magic lute2 ,vsuki himself marries the princess ,yasodhar1 and their son is ,priyadarsana4 ,vsuki has a thousand ears4 ,once he served the gods by becoming the rope which the mount ,mandara was whirled round1 and the sea was churned and produced ,sr or ,lakshm1 goddess of wealth4 #cdf ,the foot of the celebrated iron pillar at ,delhi was driven so deep in order that it might rest on the head of ,vsuki4 ,a ,brhman told the king that this would secure the stability of his kingdom4 ,the ,rja doubted this1 and had the pillar dug up1 when its base was found wet with the blood of the serpent king4 ,owing to the incredulity of the ,rja it could never again be firmly fixed1 and his want of faith led to the ultimate downfall of his dynasty4 ,the same tale has reached the ,himlaya1 and is told of the foundation of ,almora4 #cdg ,the ,sinhas4 ,next come the ,sinhas1 or snake godlings of the ,panjb and the western parts of the ,north-,western ,provinces4 ,they are males1 and though they cause fever they are not very malevolent1 often taking away pain4 ,they have got great power over milch cattle1 and the milk of the eleventh day after calving is sacred to them1 and libations of milk 7as in the case of the ,sankisa dragon7 are always acceptable4 ,they are generally distinguished by some colour1 the most commonly worshipped being ,kl1 'the black one1' ,hari1 'green1' ,bhra1 'grey1' ,sinh4 ,but the diviner will often declare a fever to be caused by some ,sinh no one has ever heard of before1 but to whom a shrine must be built4 ,and so they multiply in a most perplexing manner4 ,dead men also have a way of becoming snakes--a fact which is revealed in a dream1 when again a shrine must be built4 ,if a peasant sees a snake he will salute it1 and if it bite him1 he or his heirs1 as the case may be1 will build a shrine on the spot to prevent the recurrence of such an occurrence4 ,they are the servants of ,vsuki ,nga1 ,king of ,ptla1 or ,tartarus1 and their worship is certainly connected with that of the ,pitris or ancestors1 though it is difficult to see exactly in what the connection lies4 #cdh ,connection of ,snakes with ,ancestor-worship4 ,the connection is thus explained by ,mr4 ,spencer3 ,the other self of the dead relative is supposed to come back occasionally to the old house2 how else is it possible of the survivors sleeping there to see him in their dreams8 ,here are creatures which commonly1 unlike wild animals1 come into houses2 come in1 too1 secretly at night4 ,the implication is clear4 ,that snakes which specially do this are the returned dead1 is inferred by people in ,asia1 ,africa1 and ,america2 the haunting of houses being the common trait of the kind of snakes reverenced and worshipped4 #cdi ,the benevolent household snake1 which in the folk-tales assists the hero and protects the family of which he is the guardian1 thus represents the soul of some deceased ancestor which has taken up its residence there4 ,that the dead do appear as snakes is familiar in ,european folk-lore4 ,thus1 for instance1 the pious neas saw his father ,anchises in the snake which crept from his tomb4 ,we have already come across the same idea in the case of the ,sat4 ,it was an old ,european idea that this household snake1 if not conciliated1 and when dead buried under the threshold1 a sacred place1 prevented conception4 #cej ,deified ,snake ,heroes4 ,we have already mentioned the regular snake godling ,gga4 ,with him are often worshipped his father ,jaur or ,jewar ,sinh1 and ,arjan and ,sarjan1 his twin half-brothers4 #cea ,ppa1 the ,brhman1 is another deity of the same class in ,rjputna4 ,he was in the habit of giving milk to a serpent whose retreat was on the banks of the ,sampu1 or ,snake ,lake4 ,the serpent used in return to present him daily with two pieces of gold4 ,being obliged to go away on business1 he gave instructions to his son to continue the offering2 but the youth1 deeming it a good opportunity of becoming master of the treasure1 took a stick with him1 and when the serpent came forth for his expected food1 he struck him violently4 ,but the snake managed to retreat into his hole4 ,on his return1 the young ,brhman related his adventures to his mother4 ,she was horrified at the account1 and forthwith made arrangements for sending her son away out of danger4 ,but in the morning when she went to call him she found to her horror that her son was dead1 and a huge snake lay coiled up beside his body4 ,ppa on his return was inconsolable1 but1 stifling his thoughts of revenge1 he propitiated the monster with copious libations of milk4 ,the serpent was appeased1 and revealed to ,ppa the treasures which he guarded1 commanding him to erect a monument which should transmit the knowledge of the event to future ages4 ,hence ,ppa has become a sort of snake godling1 and the town of ,ppar and the ,sampu ,lake still by their names commemorate the legend4 #ceb ,this famous tale1 which was originally founded on a story in the ,panchatantra1 has come into ,european folk-lore through the ,gesta ,romanorum1 and forms an excellent example of a genuine ,indian folk-tale which has been naturalized in ,western lands4 #cec ,the incident of the animals which produce gold is common both in ,european and ,indian folk-lore4 ,even ,marabhuti in the tale of ,somadeva is able to spit gold1 and every one knows ,grimm's pretty tale of the ,three little men in the wood1 in which a piece of gold drops from the mouth of the good girl every time she speaks4 ,snake ,treasure ,guardians4 ,snakes throughout folk-lore are the guardians of treasure4 #ced ,the griffins of ,scythia guarded the treasures coveted by the ,arimaspians2 the dragon watched the golden apples of the ,hesperides2 in the ,nibelungenlied the dragon ,fafnir keeps guard over a vast treasure of gold1 which ,sigurd seizes after he has killed the monster4 ,it is a common ,indian belief that when a very rich man dies without an heir1 he cannot take away his thoughts from his treasure1 and returns to guard it in the form of a monstrous serpent4 ,but after a time he becomes tired of this serpent life1 and either in a dream1 or assuming the human voice1 he asks the persons living near the treasure to take it and offer him one of their dearest relatives in return4 ,when some avaricious person complies with the serpent's wishes1 he gets possession of the wealth1 and the serpent then enters into some other state of existence4 ,instances of treasure speaking are not uncommon4 ,some time ago two old ladies1 whose houses were divided by a wall1 formally applied to me to have the wall excavated in the presence of respectable witnesses1 because a treasure-guarding snake was often heard speaking from inside the wall1 and begging some one to take over the wealth which was in his charge4 ,snake charmers are supposed to have the power of recognizing these serpent treasure guardians1 follow them stealthily to their holes1 and ask them to point out the deposit4 ,this they will do in consideration of the offering of a drop of blood from the little finger of a first-born son1 #cee an obvious survival of human sacrifice1 which is constantly found connected with the serpent cultus4 ,various suggestions have been made to account for the idea of snakes guarding treasure4 ,by one theory there is some connection between the snake and primitive metallurgy2 by another1 that the snake may have been the totem of the early jewellers2 by a third1 that the jewelled head of the snake is at the bottom of the matter4 #cef ,but it seems more probable that the idea is based on the conception of the snake as a haunter of houses and temples1 and the divine protector of the inmates and their wealth4 ,indian folk-lore is full of such stories4 ,in the ,dakkhin tale1 ,seventee ,b gets possession of the enormous diamond which the cobra used to take about in his mouth2 and in the ,bengal story ,faqr ,chand obtains the serpent's crest-jewel4 #ceg ,the same idea appears in the ,arabian ,nights4 ,mr4 ,forbes tells rather a ghastly tale on this subject4 ,he personally investigated a mysterious chamber supposed to contain treasure4 ,viewed from above it was a gloomy dungeon of great depth4 ,he desired his men to enter it1 but they positively refused1 alleging that wherever money was concealed1 there existed one of the ,genii in the mortal form of a snake to guard it4 ,he at last prevailed on them to descend by means of ropes4 ,they had not been at the bottom many seconds1 when they called out vehemently that they were encircled by a large snake4 ,finally he observed something like billets of wood1 or rather more resembling a ship's cable coiled up in a dark hole4 ,then he saw the monster raise his head over an immense length of body1 coiled in volumes on the ground4 ,a large snake was subsequently destroyed by fire1 but no treasure was found1 the owner having doubtless already removed it4 #ceh ,powers of ,snakes in ,folk-lore4 ,manifold are the powers of snakes in folk-lore4 ,he can strike people dead with his look from a distance1 like the death-darting eye of cockatrice in ,romeo and ,juliet4 ,he has the power of spitting fire from his mouth1 which destroys his enemies and consumes forests4 ,his saliva is venomous1 and there are many stories of snakes spitting venom into food4 ,in one of the versions of ,bethgelert1 the prince1 but for his guardian bird1 would have drunk as water the venom of the black snakes which drips from a tree4 ,in the legends of ,rja ,raslu1 ,gga1 and ,newal ,d1 the snake has power to kill and restore to life2 it has the faculty of metamorphosis and flying through the air4 ,in one of the ,kashmr tales1 the ,brhman1 wishing to get rid of his wife1 gives her a snake in a bag2 but when she opens it1 it turns into a beautiful little boy4 #cei ,we have1 again1 the world-wide story of the snake rescued by the traveller1 which rewards the service rendered to him by biting his benefactor4 ,when ,indra carried off the nectar1 the snakes licked the bed of ,kusa grass on which the vessel lay4 ,the sharp edges of the grass cut them as they licked1 so they have had double tongues ever since4 #cfj ,every ,indian rustic believes in the ,domunha or snake with a mouth at both ends1 which is1 as might have been expected1 most virulent4 ,there are snake women1 like ,lamia or ,vasudeva1 the mystic serpent1 who go about at night1 and by day resume their hateful form4 ,the humanity of the serpent race comes out clearly in the legend of ,safdon1 which attributes the leprosy still found in the ,panjb to the sacrilegious acts of ,vsuki1 the king of the serpents4 #cfa ,modern ,snake-worship4 ,some instances may be given of the form assumed by the worship of the snake in modern times4 ,the great snake festival is the ,ngpancham1 or ,dragon's fifth1 held on the fifth day of the month of ,bhdon4 ,in the ,hills it is called the ,rikh or ,birur ,pancham4 ,rikheswara has now become a title of ,siva as lord of the ,ngas1 a form in which he is represented as surrounded by serpents and crowned with the chaplet of hooded snakes4 ,on the day of the feast the people paint figures of serpents and birds on the walls of their houses1 and seven days before the festival they steep a mixture of wheat1 gram1 and pulse in water4 ,on the morning of the feast they take a wisp of grass1 tie it up in the form of a snake1 dip it in the water in which the gram has been steeped1 and offer it with money and sweetmeats to the serpents4 #cfb ,in ,udaypur on this day they strew particular plants about the thresholds of houses to prevent the entrance of venomous reptiles1 and in ,nepl the day is observed as the anniversary of a great struggle between a famous ,nga and ,garuda1 the foe of the serpent race4 #cfc ,in the eastern districts of the ,north-,west ,provinces on this day milk and dried rice are poured into a snake's hole2 while doing this they call out ,snake6 snake6 ,the feeding of snakes on this holiday is done in much the same way in ,bombay4 #cfd ,after the ,diwl in ,kngra1 a festival is held to bid good-bye to the snakes1 at which an image of the ,nga made of cowdung is worshipped4 ,if a snake be seen after this it is called ungrateful1 and immediately killed4 #cfe ,in the ,north-,western ,provinces the usual custom is for the head of the family to bathe on the morning of the feast1 to paint on the wall of his sleeping-room two rude representations of serpents1 and to make offerings to ,brhmans4 ,on this day people pray to what ,dr4 ,buchanan calls the chief eight dragons of the pit1 #cff girls throw some playthings into the water1 and labourers take a holiday and worship the tools of their craft4 ,in ,behr during the month of ,swan 7,august7 crowds of women calling themselves ,ngin1 or wives of the snake1 go about begging for two and a half days1 during which period they neither sleep under a roof nor eat salt4 ,half the proceeds of the begging are given to ,brhmans1 and the other half invested in salt and sweetmeats1 which are eaten by all the people of the village4 #cfg ,in ,garhwl1 the ground is freely smeared with cowdung and mud1 and figures of five1 seven1 or nine serpents are rudely drawn with sandal-wood powder or tumeric2 rice1 beans1 or peas are parched2 lamps are lighted and waved before them2 incense is burnt and food and fruit offered4 ,these observances take place both morning and evening1 and the night is spent in listening to stories in praises of the ,nga4 #cfh ,in parts of the ,north-,western ,provinces1 with the usual ,ngpancham1 is performed what is known as the ,guru festival4 ,on that day offerings are made by women to the ,dragon godling ,ng ,deot4 ,girls let dolls float in the water of some convenient river or tank1 and the village lads beat the dolls with long switches specially cut for the purpose4 ,the legend of this rite is thus told4 ,when ,rja ,janamejya held the ,sarpa ,sattra or snake rite in order to destroy ,takshaka1 the king of the serpents1 all the snakes were captured by spells and killed4 ,but ,takshaka escaped and was found to have taken refuge with ,indra1 on whose throne he seated himself in the shape of a mosquito4 ,indra was ordered to produce the fugitive1 and begged the life of ,takshaka1 which was granted on condition that he was banished from the land4 ,so the snake king took the shape of a ,brhman lad and retired to the ,caucasus4 ,there he settled and married1 but he foolishly told the story to his wife1 and she being unable to keep the secret1 it finally reached the ears of ,janamejya1 who sentenced him to death4 ,takshaka then retorted by ordering ,janamejya to cause everyone in his dominions to kill his wife as a revenge for his own wife's treachery4 ,janamejya was unwilling to issue such a cruel order1 so he consulted the ,brhmans4 ,finally1 it was proclaimed that on the ,ngpancham1 every woman1 to prove her devotion to her husband1 should make a doll and offer it up as a vicarious sacrifice for herself4 ,it would seem that the rite is the survival of some rite of human sacrifice in connection with snake-worship4 ,the ,agarwla ,banyas1 who say that they are descended from ,rja ,vsuki1 have a special rite in honour of ,astika ,muni1 who is said to have been the instructor of ,vsuki4 ,they bathe and make marks representing the snake on the walls of the house1 which they worship1 feed ,brhmans1 and do the rt or lamp rite4 ,each woman takes home with her some of the sesamum offered to the snake1 which they sprinkle with the recitation of a spell in their houses as a means of driving away venomous snakes4 ,cure of ,snake-bite4 ,in ,hoshangbd there were once two brothers1 ,rjawa and ,soral2 the ghost of the former cures snake-bite1 and that of the latter cattle murrain4 ,the moment a man is bitten1 he must tie a string or a strip of his dress and fasten it round his neck1 crying1 ,mercy6 ,o ,god ,rjawa6 ,to call on ,ghori ,bdshh1 the ,delhi ,emperor1 who conquered the country1 or ,rmj ,ds ,bba will do as well4 ,at the same time he makes a vow to give so much to the god if he recovers4 ,when he gets home they use various tests to ascertain if the poison is in him still4 ,they take him in and out over the threshold1 and light a lamp before him1 acts which are supposed to have the effect of developing latent poison4 ,they then give him salt and leaves of the bitter ,nm tree4 ,if he can take them he is safe4 ,these are all1 as we have already seen1 scarers of evil spirits1 in this case the snake demon4 ,if he cannot take them1 the whole village goes out and cries to ,rjawa ,deo until he recovers4 ,no one 7,sir ,c4 ,a4 ,elliott's informant told him7 had been ever known to die of a snake-bite after this treatment4 ,but the god has no power over the dreaded ,biscobra1 which takes its name from the ,hindi ,bishkhpra1 ,sanskrit ,vishakharpara1 or poison-headed1 which is said to be so deadly that its very breath is venomous1 one of the numerous popular delusions out of which it is hopeless to argue the rustic4 ,the bitten man must not untie the string round his neck till the day when he goes to offer what he vows1 which should be1 at latest1 on the next ,dasahra2 but if he attempts to cheat the god by offering ever so little less than he promised1 he will die on the spot in agonies4 #cfi ,all through ,upper ,india the stock remedy for snake-bite is the exorcism of the ,ojha or sorcerer1 a performance known as ,jhr ,phnk1 consisting of a series of passes1 massage1 and incantations1 which are supposed to disperse the venom4 ,many1 too1 have faith in the so-called ,snake stone1 which seems to be usually a piece of bone soaked in blood and repeatedly baked4 ,this is supposed to have absorbent properties and to draw the venom out of the wound4 ,it probably works by faith1 and is as effective as the ,achates or ,agate of which ,pliny writes3 ,people are persuaded that it availeth much against the venomous spiders and scorpions1 which property ,i could very well believe to be in the ,sicilian ,agate1 for that so soon as serpents come within the air and breath of the said province of ,sicily1 as venomous as they be otherwise1 they die thereupon4 #cgj ,the ,snake in ,folk-lore4 ,the references to the snake in folk-lore and popular belief are so numerous that only a few examples can be given4 ,the ,dhman 7,ptyas mucosus71 a quite harmless snake1 is said in ,bombay to give a fatal bite on ,sundays1 and to kill cattle by crawling under them1 or putting its tail up their nostrils4 ,its shadow is also considered malignant4 ,it is believed to suck the milk of cattle1 and that if a buffalo is looked on by it1 it immediately dies4 ,of the ,ghonas snake it is believed that it bites only at night1 and at whatever hour of the night the victim is bitten1 he dies just before daybreak4 #cga ,about these snake stones some curious tales are told4 ,by one account1 when a goat kills a snake1 it eats it and then ruminates1 after which it spits out a bead1 which1 when applied to a snake-bite1 absorbs the poison and swells4 ,if it be put into milk1 and squeezed1 the poison drips out of it like blood1 and the bitten person is cured4 ,if it be not put in milk it will burst in pieces4 ,by another account1 in the pouch-like appendages of the older ,adjutant birds 7,leptoptilos ,argala7 the fang of a snake is sometimes found4 ,this1 if rubbed over the place where a poisonous snake has bitten a man1 is supposed to prevent the venom spreading to the vital parts of the body4 ,others say that it is found within the head of the ,adjutant1 and that it is only necessary to rub it to the bitten place and put it into milk1 when it becomes black through the venom4 ,what was known as the ,ovum ,anguinum of the ,britons is said to have been a bead which assists children to cut their teeth and cures the chincough and the ague4 ,mr4 ,campbell #cgb says he once possessed one of these snake's eggs1 which was a blue and white glass bead and supposed to be a charm used by the women of the prehistoric races4 ,a very common incident in the folk-tales is that the heroine is beset by snakes which come out of her nose or mouth at night and kill her newly-wedded husband1 as the evil spirit kills the husband of ,sara in the marriage chamber1 until the hero lies awake and succeeds in destroying them4 ,another power snakes possess is that of identifying the rightful heirs of kingdoms1 and1 as in the case of ,drona1 who found the ,ahr ,adirja sleeping in the shade of the hood of a cobra1 announce that he is born to rule4 #cgc ,so in the mythology the ,nga king ,machalinda spreads his hood over the ,buddha to protect him from the rain and flies4 #cgd ,many of these ,ngas indeed are friendly1 as in the case of the ,banjra1 who1 in order to avoid octroi duty1 declared his valuable goods to be ,glauber salts1 and ,glauber salts they became until they were restored to their original condition by the intercession of the kindly ,nga of the ,gundwa tank4 #cge ,in one of ,somadeva's tales the friendly snake clings round the ,rja till he promises to release the ,bodhisattwa out of prison4 ,snakes and ,euphemism4 ,snakes should1 of course1 be addressed euphemistically as ,maternal uncle1 or ,rope1 and if a snake bites you1 you should never mention its name1 but say1 ,a rope has touched me4 ,the ,mirzapur ,kharwrs tell of a man who once came on a ,ngin laying her eggs4 ,when she saw him she fell at his feet and asked him to throw the eggs in a water-hole4 ,so he took up the eggs on a bamboo sieve and went with her to the brink4 ,the ,ngin plunged in and said1 ,do not be afraid6 ,come on6 ,he followed her1 the waters dried up1 and he came to the palace of the ,ng1 who entertained him royally1 and offered to give him anything he wished4 ,the boor asked only for a pan1 pot1 and spoon1 which the ,nga gave him1 and he came home to find his relations doing the death ceremonies in his honour1 believing he had been carried off by a tiger4 ,he said nothing of his adventures till the day of his death1 when he told the story4 ,so the ,nga in other tales of the same class blesses and rewards the lucky man who has delivered the young snake from his persecutors who caught him while in the upper air4 ,so in the ,arabian ,nights1 the relations of ,jullanar of the sea show their gratitude to the king who is kind to her on earth4 ,on the basis of the same idea which has been already referred to in the case of the ,churel1 it is believed that if the shadow of a pregnant woman fall on a snake it becomes blind4 #cgf ,the ,snake ,jewel4 ,the snake1 like the toad ugly and venomous1 wears on his head the ,mani or precious jewel1 which is a stock subject in ,indian folk-tales4 ,thus1 in one of ,somadeva's stories1 when ,nala heard this1 he looked round1 and beheld a snake coiled up near the fire1 having his head encircled with the rays of the jewels of his crest4 #cgg ,it is sometimes metamorphosed into a beautiful youth2 it equals the treasure of seven kings2 it can be hidden or secured only by cowdung or horsedung being thrown over it2 and if it is acquired the serpent dies4 ,it lights the hero on his way to the palace under the sea where is the silver jewelled tree2 or it is possessed by the sleeping beauty1 who cannot return to her home beneath the waters1 and loses the hero until it is recovered4 ,its presence acts as an amulet against evil1 and secures the attainment of every wish4 ,it protects the owner from drowning1 the waters parting on each side of him1 and allowing him to pass over rivers dry-shod4 #cgh ,the ,rainbow and the ,snake4 ,so the rainbow is connected with the snake1 being the fume of a gigantic serpent blown up from underground4 ,in ,persia it was called the celestial serpent4 ,we have already seen that the ,milky ,way is regarded as the path of the ,ngas in the sky4 ,it is possibly under the influence of the association of the snake1 a treasure guardian1 that the ,english children run to find where the rainbow meets the earth1 and expect to find a crock of gold buried at its base4 #cgi ,the ,household ,snake4 ,the belief in the influence of the guardian domestic or national snake is universal4 ,when the ,persians invaded ,athens the people would not leave the city till they learned that the guardian snake had refused its food and abandoned the citadel4 ,a snake at ,lanuvium and at ,epirus resided in a grove and was waited on by a virgin priestess1 who entered naked and fed it once a year1 when by its acceptance or refusal of the offering1 the prospects of the harvest were ascertained4 ,the ,teutons and ,celts had also their sacred guardian snake4 ,in the ,panjb ,hills1 every householder keeps an image of the ,nga or harmless snake1 as contrasted with the ,snp1 which is venomous4 ,this snake is put in charge of the householder's homestead1 and is held responsible that no cobra or dangerous serpent enters it4 ,it is supposed to have the power of driving all cobras out of the place4 ,should rain drive the house snake out of his hole1 he is worshipped4 ,no image of a cobra or other venomous snake is ever made for purposes of worship4 ,ant-hills are believed to be the homes of snakes1 and there the people offer sugar1 rice1 and millet for forty days4 #chj ,these correspond to the benevolent domestic snakes1 of whom ,aubrey says that the ,bramens have them in great veneration2 they keep their corne4 ,i think it is ,tavernier mentions it4 #cha ,they are1 in fact1 as we have already seen1 the representatives of the benevolent ancestral ghosts4 ,hence the deep-rooted prejudice against killing the snake1 which is both guardian and god4 ,if1 says ,mr4 ,lang1 #chb the serpent were the deity of an earlier race1 we could understand the prejudice against killing it1 as shown in the ,apollo legend4 ,the evidence accumulated in this chapter will perhaps go some way to settle this question1 as far as ,india is concerned4 ,,chapter ,,iii4 ,,totemism ,,and ,,fetishism4 ,olim truncus eram ficulnus1 inutile lignum1 ,cum faber incertus scamnum faceretne ,priapum1 ,maluit esse deum4 ,horace1 ,sat4 ,i4 viii4 #a-c4 ,a totem is a class of material objects1 which a savage regards with superstitious respect1 believing that there exists between them and every member of the class an intimate and altogether special relation4 #chc ,as distinguished from a fetish1 a totem is never an isolated individual1 but always a class of objects1 generally a class of animals or plants1 rarely a class of inanimate objects1 very rarely a class of artificial objects4 ,origin of ,totemism4 ,as regards the origin of totemism great diversity of opinion exists4 ,mr4 ,herbert ,spencer considers that it arose from a misinterpretation of nicknames2 savages first took their names from natural objects1 and then confusing these objects with their ancestors of the same name1 paid the same respect to the material totem as they were in the habit of doing to their own ancestors4 #chd ,the objection to this is1 as ,mr4 ,frazer shows1 that it attributes to verbal misunderstandings far more influence than1 in spite of the comparative mythologists1 they ever seem to have exercised4 ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock derives the idea from the practice of naming persons and families after animals1 but in dropping the intermediate links of ancestor-worship and verbal misunderstanding1 he has stripped the theory of all that lent it even an air of plausibility4 #che ,recent inquiries in the course of the ,ethnographical ,survey of ,bengal and the ,north-,western ,provinces enable us perhaps to approach to a solution of the problem4 ,to begin with1 at a certain stage of culture the idea of the connection between men and animals is exceedingly vivid1 and reacts powerfully on current beliefs4 ,the animal or plant is supposed to have a soul or spirit1 like that of a human being1 and this soul or spirit is capable of transfer to the man or animal and vice vers4 ,this feeling comes out strongly in popular folk-lore1 much of which is made up of instances of metamorphosis such as these4 ,the witch or sorcerer is always changing into a tiger1 a monkey1 or a fish2 the princess is always appearing out of the aubergine or pomegranate4 ,we have1 again1 the familiar theory to which reference has already been made1 that the demon or magician has an external soul1 which he keeps occasionally in the ,life ,index1 which is often a bird1 a tree1 and an animal4 ,if this life index can be seized and destroyed1 the life of the monster is lost with it4 ,these principles1 which are thoroughly congenial to the beliefs of all primitive races1 naturally suggest a much closer union between man and other forms of animal or vegetable life than people of a higher stage of development either accept or admit4 ,with people1 then1 at this stage of culture1 the theory that the ancestor of the clan may have been a bear or a tortoise would present no features of improbability4 ,this theory accounts1 as ,mr4 ,frazer shows1 for many of the obscure rites of initiation which prevail among most savage tribes and in a modified form among the ,brhmanized ,hindus4 ,the basis of such rites is probably to extract the soul of the youth and temporarily transfer it to the totem1 from which in turn fresh life is infused into him4 ,lastly1 the result of the ,indian evidence is that it is only in connection with the rules of exogamy that totemism at the present day displays any considerable degree of vitality4 ,the real basis of exogamy in ,northern ,india seems to be the totem sept1 which1 however1 flourishes at the present day only among the ,drvidian tribes and those allied to them4 ,but it would1 it is almost certain1 be incorrect to say that while totemism is at present most active among the ,drvidians1 in connection with marriage1 it was peculiar to them4 ,it is more reasonable to infer that it continues to flourish among these races1 because of their isolation from ,brhmanical influence4 ,as among the inferior races of the ,gangetic valley1 the primitive family customs connected with marriage1 birth1 and death have undergone a process of denudation from their connection with the more advanced ,hindu races which surround them1 so to a large degree in ,northern ,india1 the totemistic sept names have been gradually shed off1 and replaced by an eponymous1 local1 or territorial nomenclature4 ,in short1 under the pressure of higher culture1 the kindred of the swan1 turtle1 or parrot have preferred to call themselves ,kanaujiya or men of ,kanauj1 ,sarwariya or residents of the land beyond the ,sarju river1 and ,raghuvansa or ,bhriguvansa1 descendants of the sages ,raghu or ,bhrigu4 ,we find1 then1 among such races1 as might have been expected1 that at the present day the totemistic sept system exists only in obscure and not easily recognizable forms4 ,folk etymology has also exercised considerable influence1 and a sept ashamed of its totemistic title readily adopts some title of the eponymous type1 or a local cognomen sounding something like the name of the primitive totem4 ,it is perhaps too much to expect that a careful exploration of the sept titles or tribal customs of ,northern ,india will lead to extensive discoveries of the primitive totemistic organization4 ,the process of trituration which has affected the caste nomenclature for such a lengthened period1 and the obscuration of primitive belief by association with more cultured tribes1 have been so continuous as to leave only a few fragments and isolated survivals2 but it is by a course of such inquiry that the totemistic basis of the existing caste system can alone be reached4 ,i have considered this question in the light of the most recent evidence in another place1 #chf and it is needless to repeat the results which were there arrived at4 ,for the purpose of such an investigation it is convenient to have some sort of working classification of the tests of1 and the forms in which1 totemism usually appears4 ,these have been laid down by the late ,professor ,robertson-,smith as follows3-- 7a7 ,the existence of stocks named after plants1 animals1 or similar totems4 7b7 ,the prevalence of a conception that the members of the stock are of the blood of the eponym1 or are sprung from a plant1 etc41 of the species chosen as the totem4 7c7 ,the ascription of a sacred character to the totem4 ,stocks ,named from ,animals1 ,plants1 etc4 ,first as to the stocks named from animals1 plants1 etc4 ,there are two divisions of the ,pra ,brhmans of the ,dakkhin1 known as ,bakriyr and ,chheriyr1 founded on the names of the male and female goat4 ,in ,upper ,india1 the ,kchhis or market gardeners1 and the ,kachhwha sept of ,rjputs allege that they take their names from the ,kachchhapa or tortoise1 as the ,kurmis refer their name to the ,krma or turtle4 ,the ,ahban ,rjputs and the ,ahiwsis of ,mathura connect their names with ,ahi1 the dragon4 ,the ,kalhans ,rjputs derive their name from the ,klahans or black goose4 ,among ,brhmans and other high castes1 ,bhradvaja1 the lark1 the bringer of food1 has given its name to many sections4 ,mr4 ,risley thinks that the fact of there being a ,kasyapa division of ,kumhrs or potters1 who venerate the tortoise1 points to the name being a corruption of ,kachchhapa1 the tortoise1 in which case their name would have the same origin as that of the ,kchhis already mentioned4 ,many people1 again1 claim kindred with the sun and moon4 ,such are the ,natchez of ,north ,america and the ,incas of ,peru4 #chg ,there are many children of the sun and moon in ,arabia1 #chh and gypsies of the east of ,europe have a legend that they are descended from the sun and moon2 the sun having debauched his moon sister1 was condemned to wander for ever1 in consequence of which their descendants can never rest4 #chi ,so in ,india1 the ,srajbansi and ,chandrabansi ,rjputs are said to take their names from ,sraj1 the sun1 and ,chandra1 the moon1 respectively4 ,according to ,captain ,j4 ,montgomerie1 #cij round ,kashmr1 and among the aboriginal tribes of the ,himlayan slopes1 men are usually named after animals1 as the ,bakhtiyris1 one of the nomad tribes of ,persia1 name their children usually not after the ,prophet1 but after wild animals1 such as the wolf1 tiger1 and the like1 adding some descriptive epithet4 ,in the same way a tribe of ,lodi ,pathns in the ,panjb are known as ,nhar or wolf4 ,this is said to be due to their rapacity1 and may be as likely a nickname as a survival of totemism4 #cia ,totem ,names among the ,drvidians4 ,the evidence of this point is1 as has been already said1 much more distinct among the ,drvidians than among the more ,hinduized races4 ,details of such names among the ,agariyas1 ,nats1 ,baiswrs1 and ,ghasiyas have been given in detail elsewhere4 #cib ,thus1 to take the ,dhngars1 a caste in ,mirzapur1 allied to the ,orons of ,bengal1 we find that they have eight exogamous septs1 all or most of which are of totemistic origin4 ,thus1 ,ilha is said to mean a kind of fish1 which members of this sept do not eat2 ,kujur is a kind of jungle herb which this sept does not use2 ,tirik is probably the ,tirki or bull sept of the ,orons4 ,in ,chota ,ngpur1 members of this sept do not touch any cattle after their eyes are open4 ,it illustrates the uncertainty of these usages that in other places they say that the word ,tirki means young mice1 which they are prohibited from using4 #cic ,again1 the ,mirzapur sept of the ,dhngars1 known as ,lakara1 is apparently identical with that called ,lakrar among the ,bengal ,orons1 who must not eat tiger's flesh as they are named after the tiger2 in ,mirzapur they derive their name from the ,lakar ,bagha1 or hyna1 which they will not hunt or kill4 ,the ,bara sept is apparently the same as the ,barar of the ,orons1 who will not eat the leaves of the ,bar tree or ,ficus ,indica4 ,in ,mirzapur they will not cut this tree4 ,the ,ekka sept in ,mirzapur say that this name means leopard1 an animal which they will not kill1 but in ,chota ,ngpur the same word is said to mean tortoise and to be a totemistic sept of the ,orons4 ,so1 the ,mirzapur ,dhngars have a ,tiga sept1 which they say takes its name from a jungle root which is prohibited to them2 but the ,orons of ,bhgalpur have a ,tig sept1 which1 according to them1 means monkey4 ,the last of the ,mirzapur septs is the ,khha1 which1 like the ,khakkar sept of the ,orons1 means crow1 and neither will eat the bird4 ,similar instances might be almost indefinitely repeated from usages of the allied tribes in ,mirzapur and the adjoining ,bengal ,districts4 ,the ,panjb ,snake ,tribe4 ,in the ,panjb there is a special snake tribe4 ,they observe every ,monday and ,thursday in the snake's honour1 cooking rice and milk1 setting a portion aside for the snake1 and never eating or making butter on those days4 ,if they find a dead snake1 they put clothes upon it1 and give it a regular funeral4 ,they will not kill a snake1 and say that its bite is harmless to them4 ,the snake1 they say1 changes its form every hundred years1 and then becomes a man or a bull4 #cid ,so1 in ,senegambia1 a python is expected to visit every child of the ,python clan within eight days after birth2 and the ,psylli1 a snake clan of ancient ,africa1 used to expose their infants to snakes in the belief that the snakes would not harm true-born children of the clan4 #cie ,so1 in ,northern ,india the ,bais ,rjputs are children of the snake1 and supposed to be safe from its bite1 and ,nga ,rja is the tribal godling of the ,bjgis4 ,there is a well-known legend of a queen of ,india1 who is said to have sent to ,alexander1 among other costly presents1 a girl1 who1 having been fed with serpents from her infancy1 partook of their venomous nature4 ,the well-known tale of ,elsie ,venner has been already referred to in the same connection4 ,totemism in ,proper ,names4 ,the subject of ,indian proper names has not yet received the attention it deserves4 ,the only attempt to investigate the subject1 so far1 is that of ,major ,temple4 #cif ,in his copious lists there is ample evidence that names are freely adopted from those of animals1 plants1 etc4 ,thus we have ,bagha1 ,tiger2 ,bheriya1 ,wolf2 ,billa1 ,cat2 ,chha1 ,rat1 and so on from animals2 ,bagla1 ,heron2 ,tota1 ,parrot1 and so on from birds2 ,ajgar1 ,python2 ,mendak1 ,frog2 ,kachhua1 ,tortoise22 ,bhaunra1 ,bumble ,bee2 ,ghun1 ,weevil2 ,dmak1 ,white ,ant1 etc4 ,from plants come ,bta1 ,tree2 ,harabansa1 ,green ,bamboo 7or more probably ,hari-vansa1 the genealogy of ,hari or ,vishnu72 ,nma1 ,nm tree2 ,ppal1 ,ppal tree2 ,gulba1 ,rose2 ,imliya1 ,tamarind2 ,sewa1 ,apple2 ,ilcha1 ,cardamum2 ,mirchi1 ,pepper2 ,bhutta1 ,maize4 ,the evidence of nomenclature must1 of course1 be received with caution4 ,the essence of totemism is a confessed belief in animal descent1 a name declaring that descent and some sacredness attached to the animal or other fancied ancestor4 ,many of these names may be nicknames1 or titles of opprobrium selected1 as we have already shown1 to baffle the ,evil ,eye or the influence of demons4 ,besides1 as has been pointed out1 it does not necessarily follow because an ,englishman lives in ,acacia ,villa or ,laburnum ,cottage1 and calls his daughter ,rose or ,violet1 that he is in the totemistic stage4 ,at the same time1 it is quite possible that further inquiry will discover undoubted instances of totemism in the nomenclature of ,northern ,india1 as is the case with other races in a similar stage of culture4 ,descent from the ,totem4 ,we next come to ,professor ,robertson-,smith's second test1 the belief in descent from the totem4 ,this branch of the subject has been very fully illustrated by ,mr4 ,frazer4 #cig ,as in old times in ,georgiana1 according to ,marco ,polo1 all the king's sons were born with an eagle on the right shoulder marking their royal origin1 #cih so ,chandragupta1 king of ,ujjain1 was the son of a scorpion4 ,his mother accidentally imbibed the scorpion's emission1 by means of which she conceived4 #cii ,the ,jaitwas of ,rjputna trace their descent from the monkey god ,hanumn1 and confirm it by alleging that the spine of their princes is elongated like a tail4 ,in the ,rmyana1 one of the wives of ,king ,sgara gives birth to a son who continues the race2 the other wife produces an ,ikshvku1 a gourd or cane containing sixty thousand sons4 ,the famous ,chandragupta was miraculously preserved by the founder of his race1 the bull ,chando4 #djj ,the wolf is in the same way traditionally connected with the settlement of the ,janwr ,rjputs in ,oudh1 and they believe that the animal never preys on their children4 ,every native believes that children are reared in the dens of wolves1 and there is a certain amount of respectable evidence in support of the belief4 #dja ,similar examples are numerous among the ,drvidian tribes4 ,the ,cheros of the ,vindhyan plateau claim descent from the ,nga or dragon4 ,the ,rja and chief members of the ,chota ,ngpur family wear turbans so arranged as to make the head-dress resemble a serpent coiled round the skull1 with its head projecting over the wearer's brow4 ,the seal of the ,mahrja and the arms of his family show as a crest a cobra with a human face under its expanded hood1 surrounded with all the insignia of royalty4 ,the ,santl legend ascribes the origin of the tribe to the wild goose1 and similar stories are told by the family of the ,rja of ,sinhbhm1 the ,hos1 the ,malers1 and the ,krs4 #djb ,special ,respect ,paid to the ,totem4 ,next come instances of special respect paid to the totem4 ,some idea of the kind may be partly the origin of the worship of the cow and the serpent4 ,dr4 ,ball describes how some ,khndhs refused to carry the skin of a leopard because it was their totem4 #djc ,the ,kadanballis of ,kanara will not eat the ,smbhar stag1 the ,bargaballis the ,barga deer1 and the ,kuntiballis the woodcock4 ,the ,vaydas of ,cutch worship the monkey god whom they consider to be their ancestor1 and to please him in their marriage ceremony1 the bridegroom goes to the bride's house dressed up as a monkey and there leaps about in monkey fashion4 #djd ,it is possibly from regard to the totem that the ,parihr ,rjputs of ,rjputna will not eat the wild boar1 but they have now invented a legend that one of their princes went into a river while pursuing a boar and was cured of a loathsome disease4 #dje ,there is a ,celtic legend in which a child is turned into a pig1 and ,gessa is laid on ,diarmid not to kill a pig1 as it has the same span of life as himself4 #djf ,the ,bengal ,bwariyas take the heron as their emblem1 and must not eat it4 #djg ,the ,orissa ,kumhrs abstain from eating1 and even worship the ,sl fish1 because the rings on its scales resemble the wheel which is the symbol of their craft4 #djh ,the peacock is a totem of the ,jts and of the ,khndhs1 as the ,yizidis worship the ,tous1 a half mythical peacock1 which has been connected with the ,phoenix which ,herodotus saw in ,egypt4 #dji ,the ,parhaiyas have a tradition that their tribe used to hold sheep and deer sacred1 and used the dung of these animals instead of cowdung to plaster their floors4 ,so the ,kariyas do not eat the flesh of sheep1 and may not even use a woollen rug4 ,the same prohibition of meats appears to be a survival of totemism in ,arabia4 #daj ,the ,devak4 ,one of the best illustrations of this form of totemism is that of the ,devak or family guardian gods of ,berr and ,bombay4 ,before concluding an alliance1 the ,kunbi and other ,berr tribes look to the ,devak1 which literally means the deity worshipped at marriage ceremonies2 the fact being that certain families hold in honour particular trees and plants1 and at the marriage ceremony branches of these trees are set up in the house4 ,it is said that a betrothal1 in every other respect irreproachable1 will be broken off if the two houses are discovered to pay honour to the same tree1 in other words if they worship the same family totem and hence must belong to one and the same endogamous group4 #daa ,the same custom prevails in ,bombay4 ,the usual ,devaks are some animals1 like the elephant1 stag1 deer1 or cock1 or some tree1 as the ,jambul1 ,ber1 ,mango1 or ,banyan4 ,the ,devak is the ancestor or the head of the house1 and so families which have the same guardian do not intermarry4 ,if the ,devak be an animal1 its flesh is not eaten2 but if it be a fruit tree1 the use of the fruit generally is not forbidden1 though some families abstain from eating the fruit of the tree which forms their ,devak or badge4 #dab ,mr4 ,campbell gives numerous examples of these family totems1 such as wheat bread1 a shell1 an earthen pot1 an axe1 a ,banyan tree1 an elephant4 ,oil-makers have as their totem an iron bar1 or an oil-mill2 scent-makers use five piles1 each of five earthen pots1 with a lighted lamp in the middle4 ,the ,bangars' ,devak is a conch-shell1 that of the ,pardesi ,rjputs an earthen pot filled with wheat1 and so on4 ,many of these are probably tribal or occupational fetishes1 of which instances will be given in another place4 ,the ,vhanas and ,avatras4 ,some have professed to find indications of totemism in the ,vhanas and ,avatras1 the ,vehicles and the ,incarnations of the mythology2 but this is far from certain4 ,it has been suggested that these may represent tribal deities imported into ,hinduism4 ,brahma rides on the ,hansa or goose2 ,vishnu on ,garuda1 half eagle and half man1 which is the crest of the ,chandravansi ,rjputs2 ,siva on his bull ,nandi2 ,yama on a buffalo2 ,krttikeya on a peacock2 ,kmadeva on the marine monster ,makara1 or on a parrot2 ,agni on a ram2 ,varuna on a fish4 ,ganesa is accompanied by his rat1 whence his name ,akhuratha1 rat-borne4 ,this an ingenious comparative mythologist makes out to represent the pagan ,sun god crushing under his feet the mouse of night4 #dac ,vyu rides on an antelope1 ,sani or ,saturn on a vulture1 and ,durg on a tiger4 ,the same is the case with the ,avatras or incarnations of the deities4 ,vishnu appears in the form of ,vrha1 the boar2 ,kurma1 the tortoise2 ,matsya1 the fish2 ,nara ,sinha1 the man-lion2 ,kalki1 the white horse4 ,rudra and ,indra are also represented in the form of the boar4 ,the ,boar as a ,totem4 ,how the boar came to be associated with ,vishnu has been much disputed4 ,one and not a very plausible explanation which has been suggested is that it is because the boar is a destroyer of snakes4 #dad ,we know that in ,rjputna there was a regular spring festival at which the boar was killed because he was regarded as the special enemy of ,gaur1 the ,rjput tribal goddess4 #dae ,the comparative mythologists account for the spring boar festival by connecting it with the ceremonial eating of the boar's head at ,christmas in ,europe1 as a symbol of the gloomy monster of winter1 killed at the winter solstice1 after which the days get longer and brighter4 #daf ,mr4 ,frazer explains it by the killing of the ,corn ,spirit in the form of the boar4 #dag ,but it is1 perhaps1 simpler to believe with ,sir ,a4 ,lyall #dah that when the ,brhmans convert a tribe of pig-worshipping aborigines1 they tell their proselytes that the pig was an ,avatr of ,vishnu4 ,the ,mnas in one part of ,rjputna used to worship the pig4 ,when they took a turn towards ,islm they changed their pig into a saint called ,father ,adam1 and worshipped him as such4 ,mr4 ,frazer has pointed out that the customs of the ,egyptians touching the pig are to be explained as based upon an opinion of the extreme sanctity rather than of the extreme uncleanness of the animal2 or rather to put it more correctly1 they imply that the animal was looked on not simply as a filthy and a disgusting creature1 but as a being endowed with high supernatural powers1 and that as such it was regarded with that primitive sentiment of religious awe and fear in which the feelings of reverence are almost equally blended4 ,there are indications of the same belief in ,india4 ,thus1 in ,baghera the boar is a sacred animal1 and the natives there say that if any man were to kill a wild boar in the neighbourhood1 he would be sure to die immediately afterwards1 while no such fatal result would follow if the same man killed a boar anywhere else4 #dai ,in the same way the ,prabhus of ,bombay eat wild pork once a year as a religious duty4 ,the ,vaddars of the ,dakkhin say that they are not troubled with ghosts1 because the pork they eat and hang in their houses scares ghosts4 ,we know that among the ,drvidian races and many of the menial tribes of ,hindustn the pig is the favourite offering to the local godlings and to the deities of disease4 ,swine's teeth are often worn by ,hindu ascetics1 and among the ,kolarian races the women are forbidden to eat the flesh4 ,in ,northern ,india the chief place where the worship of ,vishnu in his ,vrha or boar incarnation is localized is at ,soron on the banks of the ,brh ,gang1 or old ,ganges1 in the ,etah ,district4 ,the name of the place has been derived from ,sukarakshetra1 the place of the good deed1 because here ,vishnu slew the demon ,hiranyakesu4 ,it is certainly ,sukarakshetra1 the plain of the hog4 #dbj ,garuda1 another of these vehicles1 is the wonder-working bird common to many mythologies--the ,rukh of the ,arabian ,nights1 the ,eorosh of the ,zend1 the ,simurgh of the ,persians1 the ,anka of the ,arabs1 the ,kargas of the ,turks1 the ,kirni of the ,japanese1 the ,dragon of ,china1 the ,norka of ,russia1 the ,phoenix of classical fable1 the ,griffin of chivalry and of ,temple ,bar4 ,from totemism we get a clue to many curious usages1 especially in the matter of food4 ,from this idea probably arose the unclean beasts of the ,hebrew ritual4 ,many ,hindu tribes will not eat the onion or the turnip4 ,brhmans and ,bachgoti ,rjputs object to potatoes4 ,the ,rjputs place a special value on the wood of the ,nm tree2 one clan alone1 the ,raikwrs1 are forbidden to use it as a tooth-stick4 ,some ,kolarian tribes1 as we have already seen1 refuse to use the flesh or wool of the sheep4 ,the ,murmu1 or ,santls of the blue bull sept1 will not eat the flesh of that animal4 ,the system of the ,orons is more elaborate still1 for no sub-tribe can eat the plant or animal after which it is named4 ,so1 the ,bansetti ,binjhiyas1 who take their name from the bamboo1 do not touch the tree at a wedding2 the ,harbans ,chamrs1 who are said to be in some way connected with a bone 7hadda71 cannot wear bones in any shape2 the ,rikhisan ,chiks do not eat beef or pork2 the ,sanuni ,dhenurs cannot wear gold2 the ,dhanur ,khariyas cannot eat rice gruel4 ,numerous instances of this kind are given by ,mr4 ,risley4 #dba ,the transition from such observances and restrictions to the elaborate food regulations of the modern castes is not difficult4 ,fetishism ,defined4 ,fetishism is the straightforward1 objective admiration of visible substances fancied to possess some mysterious influence or faculty4444 ,the original downright adoration of queer-looking objects is modified by passing into the higher order of imaginative superstition4 ,first1 the stone is the abode of some spirit1 its curious shape or position betraying possession4 ,next1 the strange form or aspect argues some design or handiwork of supernatural beings1 or is the vestige of their presence upon earth1 and one step further leads us to the regions of mythology and heroic legend4 #dbb ,the unusual appearance of the object is thus supposed to imply an indwelling ghost1 without which deviation from the ordinary type would be inexplicable4 ,hence fetishism depends on animism and the ghost theory1 to which in order of time it must have succeeded4 ,fetishism ,illustrated in ,afghnistn4 ,the process by which the worship of such a fetish grows is well illustrated by a case from ,afghnistn4 ,it is sufficient for an ,afghn devotee to see a small heap of stones1 a few rags1 or some ruined tomb1 something1 in short1 upon which a tale can be invented1 to imagine at once that some saint is buried there4 ,the idea conceived1 he throws some more stones upon the heap and sticks up a pole or flag2 those who come after follow the leader2 more stones and more rags are added2 at last its dimensions are so considerable that it becomes the vogue2 a ,mullah is always at hand with a legend which he makes or had revealed to him in a dream2 all the village believe it3 a few pilgrims come2 crowds follow2 miracles are wrought1 and the game goes on1 much to the satisfaction of the holy speculator1 who drives a good trade by it1 till some other ,mullah more cunning than himself starts a saint of more recent date and greater miraculous powers1 when the traffic changes hands4 #dbc ,the same process is daily going on before our eyes in ,northern ,india1 and it would be difficult to suggest anything curious or abnormal which the ,hindu villager will not adopt as fetish4 ,the ,lorik ,legend4 ,the legend of ,lorik is very popular among the ,ahr tribe1 and has been localized in the ,mirzapur ,district in a curious way which admirably illustrates the principles which we have been discussing4 ,the story is related at wearisome length1 but the main features of it1 according to the ,shhbd version1 are as follows3 ,siudhar1 an ,ahr1 marries ,chandan1 and is cursed by ,prvat with the loss of all passion4 ,chandan forms an attachment for her neighbour ,lorik and elopes with him4 ,the husband pursues1 fails to induce her to return1 fights ,lorik and is beaten4 ,the pair go and meet ,mahapatiya1 a ,dusdh1 the chief of the gamblers4 ,he and ,lorik play until the latter loses everything1 including the girl4 ,she urges that her jewels did not form part of the stake1 and induces them to gamble again4 ,she stands opposite ,mahapatiya and distracts his attention by giving him a glance of her pretty ankles4 ,finally ,lorik wins everything back4 ,the girl then tells ,lorik how she has been insulted1 and ,lorik with his mighty sword cuts off the gambler's head1 when it and the body are turned into stone4 ,lorik had been betrothed to a girl named ,satmanin1 who was not of age and had not joined her husband4 ,lorik had an adopted brother named ,semru4 ,lorik and ,chandan1 after killing the gambler1 went on to ,hardoi1 near ,mongir1 where ,lorik defeated a ,rja and conquered his country4 ,lorik was finally seized and put into a dungeon1 whence he was released by the aid of the goddess ,durg4 ,he again conquered the ,rja1 recovered ,chandan1 had a son born to him1 and gained considerable wealth4 ,so they determined to return to their native land4 ,meanwhile ,semru1 ,lorik's brother by adoption1 had been killed by the ,kols and all his cattle and property were plundered4 ,lorik's real wife1 ,satmanin1 had grown into a handsome woman1 but still remained in her father's house4 ,lorik was anxious to test her fidelity2 so when she came to sell milk in his camp1 not knowing her husband1 he stretched a loin cloth across the entrance4 ,all the other women stepped over it1 but the delicacy of ,satmanin was so excessive that she would not put her foot across it4 ,lorik was pleased1 and filling her basket with jewels1 covered them with rice4 ,when she returned1 her sister saw the jewellery and charged her with obtaining them as the price of her dishonour4 ,she indignantly denied the accusation1 and her nephew1 ,semru's son1 prepared to fight ,lorik to avenge the dishonour of his aunt4 ,next day the matter was cleared up to the satisfaction of all parties4 ,lorik then reigned with justice1 and incurred the displeasure of ,indra1 who sought to destroy him4 ,so the goddess ,durg took the form of his mistress ,chandan and tempted him4 ,he succumbed to her wiles1 and she struck him so that his face turned completely round4 ,overcome by grief and shame1 he went to ,benares1 and there he and his friends were turned into stone and sleep the sleep of magic at ,manikarnika ,ght4 ,the ,mirzapur ,version4 ,the ,mirzapur version is interesting from its association with fetishism4 ,as you descend the ,mrkundi ,pass into the valley of the ,son1 you observe a large isolated boulder split into two parts1 with a narrow fissure between them4 ,further on in the bed of the ,son is a curious water-worn rock1 which1 to the eye of faith1 suggests a rude resemblance to a headless elephant4 ,on this foundation has been localized the legend of ,lorik1 which takes us back to the time when the ,aryan and the aboriginal ,dasyu contended for mastery in the wild borderland4 ,there was once1 so the tale runs1 a barbarian king who reigned at the fort of ,agori1 the frontier fortress on the ,son4 ,among his dependents was a cowherd maiden1 named ,manjan1 who was loved by her clansman ,lorik4 ,he1 with his brother ,snwar1 came to claim her as his bride4 ,the ,rja insisted on enforcing the ,jus primae noctis4 ,the heroic brethren1 in order to escape this infamy1 carried off the maiden4 ,the ,rja pursued on his famous wild elephant1 which ,lorik decapitated with a single blow4 ,when they reached in their flight the ,mrkundi ,pass1 the wise ,manjan advised ,lorik to use her father's sword1 which1 with admirable forethought1 she had brought with her4 ,he preferred his own weapon1 but she warned him to test both4 ,his own sword broke to pieces against the huge boulder of the ,pass1 but ,manjan's weapon clave it in twain4 ,so ,lorik and his brother1 with the aid of the magic brand1 defeated the infidel hosts with enormous slaughter1 and carried off the maiden in triumph4 ,if you doubt the story1 there are the cloven boulder and the petrified elephant to witness to its truth1 and both are worshipped to this day in the name of ,lorik and his bride with offerings of milk and grain4 ,this tale embodies a number of incidents which constantly appear in the folk-tales4 ,we have the gambling match in the ,mahbhrata and in the tale of ,nala and ,damayant1 as well as in the ,celtic legend of the young king of ,easaidh ,ruadh4 #dbd ,the magic sword and the various fidelity tests appear both in the folk-tales of the ,east and ,west4 ,of living creatures turned into stone we have many instances in connection with the ,pndava legend1 as in ,cornwall1 the granite rocks known as the ,merry ,maidens and the ,pipers are a party who broke the ,sabbath1 were struck by lightning1 and turned into stone4 #dbe ,jiry ,bhavn4 ,of a similar type is ,jiry ,bhavn1 who is worshipped at ,jungail1 south of the ,son4 ,in her place of worship1 a cave on the hillside1 the only representative of the goddess is an ancient rust-eaten coat of mail4 ,this gives her name1 which is a corruption of the ,persian ,zirah1 meaning a coat of armour4 ,close by is a little stream1 known as the ,suaraiya1 the meaning of which is1 of course1 assumed to be ,hog river1 from the ,hindi ,sar1 a pig4 ,here we have all the elements of a myth4 ,in one of the early fights between ,hindu and ,musalmn1 a wounded hero of ,islm came staggering to the bank of the stream1 and was about to drink1 when he heard that its name was connected with what is an abomination to the true believer4 ,so he preferred to die of thirst1 and no one sees any incongruity in the fact that the armour of a martyr of the faith has become a form of the ,hindu goddess4 ,the shrine is now on its promotion1 and ,jiry ,bhavn will be provided with a ,sanskrit etymology and develop before long into a genuine manifestation of ,kl4 ,village ,fetish ,stones4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that1 as ,sir ,j4 ,lubbock has shown1 the worship of fetish stones prevails in all parts of the world4 #dbf ,there is hardly a village in ,northern ,india without a fetish of this kind1 which is very often not appropriated to any special deity1 but represents the ,grmadevat or ,gnw-dev1 or ,deohr1 the collective local divine cabinet which has the affairs of the community under its charge4 ,why spirits should live in stones has been debated4 ,mr4 ,campbell perhaps presses the matter too far when he suggests that stones were by early man found to contain fire1 and that heated stones being found useful in disease1 cooking1 and the like may have strengthened the idea4 ,the earliest theory was perhaps that as the life of the millet was in the millet seed and the life of the ,mango tree was in the ,mango stone1 a human spirit could live in a rock or a pebble4 ,the belief that the soul1 or part of the soul of a man1 lives in his bones1 seems closely connected with the belief in the stone as a spirit house4 ,probably it was an early belief that the bones should be kept1 so that if the spirit comes back and worries the survivors he may have a place to go to4 #dbg ,it is quite possible that the worship of stocks and stones may not in all places be based on exactly the same train of ideas4 ,to the ruder races1 the more curious or eccentric the form of the stone is1 the more likely it is to be the work and possibly the abode of a spirit1 and in a stoneless land1 like the ,gangetic plain1 any stone is a wonder1 and likely to be revered4 ,the conception of the worshipper will always vary in regard to it4 ,to the savage it will be the actual home or the occasional resting-place of the spirit2 to the idolater of more advanced ideas it will be little more than a symbol1 which reminds him of the deity without shape or form whom he is bound to worship4 ,other fetish stones1 again1 by their form prove that they are the work of another or a higher race4 ,thus1 on the village fetish mounds we often find the carved relics of some ,buddhistic shrine1 or the prehistoric stone implements1 which were the work of a forgotten people4 ,lastly1 many stones lend themselves directly to the needs of the phallic cultus4 ,one form of stone is regarded with special reverence1 those that have holes or perforations4 ,among these may be mentioned the ,slagrma1 a sort of ammonite found in the ,gandak river1 which has perforations1 said to be the work of the ,vajrakta insect and hence sacred to ,vishnu4 ,the story goes that the divine ,nryana once wandered through the world in the form of the ,vajrakta or golden bee4 ,the gods1 attracted by his beauty1 also took the form of bees1 and whirled about him in such numbers that ,vishnu1 afraid of the consequences1 assumed the form of a rock and stopped the moving of ,garuda and the gods4 ,on this ,garuda1 followed by all the gods1 made each a separate dwelling in the rock for the conversion of the infidels4 ,so the ,cornish ,milpreve1 or adder stone which is a preservative against vipers1 is a ball of coralline limestone1 the sections in the coral being thought to be entangled young snakes4 #dbh ,in ,italy1 pieces of stalagmite full of cavities are valued as amulets4 ,the respect for these perforated stones rests1 again1 on the well-known principle that looking through a stone which has a hole bored through it improves the sight4 ,all over the world it is a recognized theory that creeping through the orifice in a perforated stone or under an arching stone or tree is a valuable remedy in cases of disease4 ,mr4 ,lane describes how women in ,cairo walk under the stone on which the decapitated bodies of criminals are washed1 in the hope of curing ophthalmia or procuring offspring4 ,the woman must do this in silence1 and with the left foot foremost4 #dbi ,in ,cornwall1 ,mr4 ,hunt writes3 ,in various parts of the country there are1 amongst the granitic masses1 rocks which have fallen across each other1 leaving small openings1 or there are holes1 low and narrow1 extending under a pile of rocks4 ,in nearly every case of this kind1 we find it is popularly stated that any one suffering from rheumatism or lumbago would be cured if he crawled through the opening4 ,in some cases nine times are insisted on to make the charm complete4 #dcj ,so1 walking under a bramble which has formed a second root in the earth is a cure for rheumatism1 and strumous children were passed nine times through a cleft ash tree1 against the sun4 ,the tree was then bound up1 and if the bark grew the child was cured1 if the tree died the death of the child was sure to follow4 #dca ,in the same way at many shrines it is part of the worship to creep through a narrow orifice from one side to the other4 ,at ,kankhal1 worshippers at the temple of ,daksha creep through a sort of tunnel from one side to the other4 ,the same is the rule at the temple at ,kabraiya in the ,hamrpur ,district1 and at many other places of the same kind4 #dcb ,the same principle probably accounts for the respect paid to the grindstone4 ,part of the earliest form of the marriage ritual consisted in the bride standing on the family grindstone4 ,at the present day she puts her foot upon it and knocks down little piles of heaped grain4 ,it is waved over the heads of the pair to scare evil spirits4 ,in ,bombay it is said that sitting on a grindstone shortens life1 and the ,kunbis of ,kolba place a grindstone in the lying-in room1 and on it set a rice flour image of a woman1 which is worshipped as the goddess1 and the baby is laid before it4 ,such a stone readily passes into a fetish1 as at ,ahmadnagar1 where there is a stone with two holes1 which any two fingers of any person's hand can fill1 and the mosque where it stands is1 in consequence1 much respected4 #dcc ,much1 however1 of the worship of stones appears to be the result of the respect paid to the tombstone or cairn1 which1 as we have already said1 keeps down the ghost of the dead man1 and is often a place in which his spirit chooses to reside4 ,these rude stones are very often smeared with ruddle or red ochre4 ,we have here a survival of the blood sacrifice of a human being or animal which was once universal4 #dcd ,such sacrifices rest on the principle that it is necessary to supply attendants to the dead or to the tribal gods in the other world2 and the commutation of human sacrifices1 first into those of animals1 and then into a mere scarlet stain on the fetish stone1 is a constantly recurring fact in the history of custom4 #dce ,it may be worth while to discuss this transition from the ,indian evidence4 ,human ,sacrifice among the ,indo-,aryans4 ,that human sacrifice prevailed among the early ,aryans in ,india is generally admitted4 ,the whole question has been treated in detail by that eminent ,hindu scholar1 ,rajendra ,lla ,mitra4 ,he arrives at the conclusion that1 looking to the history of the ancient civilization and the ritual of the ,hindus1 there is nothing to justify the belief that the ,hindus were incapable of sacrificing human victims to their gods2 that the ,sunasepha hymns of the ,rig ,veda ,sanhita most probably refer to a human sacrifice2 that the ,aitareya ,brhmana refers to an actual and not to a typical human sacrifice2 that the ,parushamedha originally required the actual sacrifice of men2 that the ,taitareya ,brhmana enjoys the killing of a man at the horse sacrifice2 that the ,satapatha ,brhmana sanctions human sacrifice in some cases1 but makes the ,parushamedha emblematic2 that the ,purnas recognize human sacrifices to ,chandik1 but prohibit the ,parushamedha rite2 that the ,tantras enjoin human sacrifices to ,chandik1 and require that when human victims are not available1 an effigy of a human being should be sacrificed to her4 #dcf ,human ,sacrifice in the ,folk-tales4 ,there is ample evidence from the folk-tales of the existence of human sacrifice in early times4 ,we have in the tales of ,somadeva constant reference to human sacrifices made in honour of ,chandik or ,chmund4 ,we find one ,muravara1 a ,turushka or ,indo-,scythian1 who proposes to make a human sacrifice in memory of his dead father2 we have expiatory sacrifices to ,chandik to save the life of a king4 ,in one of the ,panjb tales a ship will not leave port till a human victim is offered4 ,in one of the modern tales we have an account of a man and his family who sacrifice themselves before the god ,jyoti ,bara1 the great diviner1 who is worshipped by the ,snsya gypsies4 #dcg ,the folk-tales also disclose ample evidence of cannibalism4 ,the ,magian cannibals of the ,book of ,sindibad used to eat human flesh raw1 and the same tale is told by ,herodotus of the ,massagetae1 the ,padaei of ,india1 whom ,col4 ,dalton identifies with the ,birhors of ,chota ,ngpur1 and of the ,essedones near ,lake ,moeotis4 #dch ,it is needless to say that ,indian folk-tales abound with references to the same practices4 ,we have cannibal ,rkshasas in abundance1 and in one of ,somadeva's stories ,devaswmin1 the ,brhman1 looks out and finds his wife's mouth stained with blood1 for she had devoured his servant and left nothing of him but the bones4 ,and in the tale of ,asokadatta we have a woman who climbs on a stake and cuts slices of the flesh of an impaled criminal1 which she eats4 #dci ,in the ,mahbhrata we find the legend of ,kalmashapada1 who1 while hunting1 meets ,saktri1 son of ,vasishtha1 and strikes him with his whip4 ,the incensed sage cursed him to become a cannibal4 ,this curse was heard by ,viswamitra1 the rival of ,vasishtha1 and he so contrived that the body of the king became possessed by a man-eating ,rkshasa4 ,kalmashapada devoured ,saktri and the hundred sons of ,vasishtha1 who finally restored him to his original state4 ,in a tale recently collected among the ,drvidian ,mnjhis1 a girl accidentally cuts her finger and some of the blood falls upon the greens1 whereupon her brothers1 finding that it flavoured the mess1 killed and devoured her4 #ddj ,human ,sacrifice in ,modern ,times4 ,up to quite modern times the same was the case1 and there is some evidence to show that the custom has not quite ceased4 ,until the beginning of the present century1 the custom of offering a first-born child to the ,ganges was common4 ,akin to this is the ,gang ,jtra1 or murder of sick relatives on the banks of the sacred river1 of which a case occurred quite recently at ,calcutta4 ,at ,katwa1 near ,calcutta1 a leper was burnt alive in #ahab2 he threw himself into a pit ten cubits deep which was filled with burning coals4 ,he tried to escape1 but his mother and sister thrust him in again and he was burnt4 ,they believed that by so doing he would gain a pure body in the next birth4 #dda ,of this religious suicide in ,central ,india1 ,sir ,j4 ,malcolm wrote3 ,self-sacrifice of men is less common than it used to be1 and the men who do it are generally of low tribes4 ,one of their chief motives is that they will be born ,rjas at their next incarnation4 ,women who have been long barren1 vow their first child1 if one be given to them1 to ,omkr ,mandhta4 ,the first knowledge imparted to the infant is this vow1 and the impression is so implanted in his mind1 that years before his death he seems like a man haunted by his destiny4 ,there is a tradition that anyone saved after the leap over the cliff near the shrine must be made ,rja of the place2 but to make this impossible1 poison is mixed with the last victuals given to the devoted man1 who is compelled to carry out his purpose4 #ddb ,the modern instances of human sacrifice among the ,khndhs of ,bengal and the ,mers of ,rjputna are sufficiently notorious4 ,it also prevailed among some of the ,drvidian tribes up to quite recent times4 ,the ,kharwrs1 since adopting ,hinduism1 performed human sacrifices to ,kl in the form of ,chand4 ,some of our people who fell into their hands during the ,mutiny were so dealt with4 ,the same was the case with the ,bhuiyas1 ,khndhs1 and ,mundas4 ,some of the ,gonds of ,sarguja used to offer human sacrifice to ,burha ,deo1 and still go through a form of doing so4 #ddc ,there is a recent instance quoted among the ,tiyars1 a class of boatmen in ,benares2 one ,tonurm sacrificed four men in the hope of recovering the treasures of seven ,rjas2 another man was killed to propitiate a ,rkshasa who guarded a treasure supposed to be concealed in a house where the deed was committed4 #ddd ,about #ahha a village headman sacrificed a human being to ,kl in the ,sambalpur ,district1 and a similar charge was made against the chief of ,bastar not many years ago4 ,of the ,karhda ,brhmans of ,bombay1 ,sir ,j4 ,malcolm writes3 #dde ,the tribe of ,brhmans called ,karhda had formerly a horrid custom of annually sacrificing to their deities a young ,brhman4 ,the ,sakt is supposed to delight in human blood1 and is represented with fiery eyes and covered with red flowers4 ,this goddess holds in one hand a sword and in the other a battle-axe4 ,the prayers of her votaries are directed to her during the first nine days of the ,dasahra feast1 and on the evening of the tenth a grand repast is prepared1 to which the whole family is invited4 ,an intoxicating drug is contrived to be mixed with the food of the intended victim1 who is often a stranger whom the master of the house has for several months treated with the greatest kindness and attention1 and sometimes1 to lull suspicion1 given him his daughter in marriage4 ,as soon as the poisonous and intoxicating drug operates1 the master of the house unattended takes the devoted person into the temple1 leads him three times round the idol1 and on his prostrating himself before it1 takes this opportunity of cutting his throat4 ,he collects with the greatest care the blood in a small bowl1 which he first applies to the lips of the ferocious goddess1 and then sprinkles it over her body2 and a hole having been dug at the feet of the idol for the corpse1 he deposits it with great care to prevent discovery4 ,after this the ,karhda ,brhman returns to his family1 and spends the night in mirth and revelry1 convinced that by the bloodthirsty act he has propitiated the goddess for twelve years4 ,on the morning of the following day the corpse is taken from the hole in which it had been thrown1 and the idol deposited till next ,dasahra1 when a similar sacrifice is made4 ,there seems reason to suspect that even in the present day such sacrifices are occasionally performed at remote shrines of ,kl or ,durg ,dev4 ,within the last few years a significant case of the kind occurred at ,benares4 ,there are numerous instances from ,nepl4 #ddf ,at ,jaypur1 near ,vizagapatam1 the ,rja is said1 at his installation in #ahfa1 to have sacrificed a girl to ,durg4 #ddg ,a recent case of such sacrifice with the object of recovering hidden treasure occurred in ,berr2 a second connected with witchcraft at ,muzaffarnagar4 #ddh ,at ,chanda and ,lanji in the ,province of ,ngpur there are shrines to ,kl at which human sacrifices to the goddess have been offered almost within the memory of this generation4 ,besides the religious form of human sacrifice in honour of one of these bloodthirsty deities1 there are forms of the rite which depend on the mystic power attributed to human flesh and blood in various charms and black magic4 ,in connection with human flesh a curious story is told of a man who went to bathe in the ,ganges1 and met one of the abominable ,faqrs known as ,augars or ,aghorpanthis1 who carry about with them fragments of a human corpse4 ,he saw the ,faqr cut off and eat a piece of the flesh of a corpse1 and he then offered him a piece1 saying that if he ate it he would become enormously rich4 ,he refused the ghastly food1 and the ,faqr then threw a piece at him which stuck to his head1 forming a permanent lump4 #ddi ,in one of the tales of ,somadeva the witches are seen flying about in the air1 and say1 ,these are the magic powers of witches' spells1 and are due to the eating of human flesh4 ,in another the hero exchanges an anklet with a woman for some human flesh4 #dej ,the same mysterious power is attributed to human blood4 ,the blood of the ,jinn has1 it is hardly necessary to say1 special powers of its own4 ,thus1 in one of the ,kashmr stories the angel says3 ,this is a most powerful ,jinn4 ,should a drop of his blood fall to the ground while life is in him1 another ,jinn will be quickly formed therefrom1 and spring up and slay you4 #dea ,bathing in human blood has been regarded as a powerful remedy for disease4 ,the ,emperor ,constantine was ordered a bath of children's blood1 but moved by the prayers of the parents1 he forbore to apply the remedy and was rewarded by a miraculous recovery4 ,in one of the ,european folk-tales a woman desirous of offspring is directed to take a horn and cup herself1 draw out a clot of blood1 place it in a pot1 lute it down and only uncover it in the ninth month1 when a child would be found in the pot4 ,in the ,german folk-tales1 bathing in the blood of innocent maidens is a cure for leprosy4 #deb ,the same beliefs largely prevail in ,india4 ,in #ahgj1 a ,musalmn butcher losing his child was told by a ,hindu conjuror that if he washed his wife in the blood of a boy1 his next infant would be healthy4 ,to ensure this result a child was murdered4 ,a similar case occurred in ,muzaffarnagar1 where a child was killed and the blood drunk by a barren woman4 #dec ,in one of the tales of ,somadeva the pregnant queen asks her husband to gratify her longing by filling a tank with blood for her to bathe in4 ,he was a righteous man1 and in order to gratify her craving he had a tank filled with the juice of lac and other extracts1 so that it seemed to be full of blood4 ,in another tale the ascetic tells the woman that if she killed her young son and offered him to the divinity1 another son would certainly be born to her4 ,quite recently at ,muzaffarnagar a childless ,jt woman was told that she would attain her desire if she bathed in water mixed with the blood of a ,brhman child4 ,a ,hindu coolie at ,mauritius bathed in and drank the blood of a girl1 thinking that thereby he would be gifted with supernatural powers4 ,it would be easy to add largely to the number of instances of similar beliefs4 #ded ,survivals of ,human ,sacrifice4 ,there are1 in addition1 numerous customs which appear to be survivals of human sacrifice1 or of the blood covenant1 which also prevailed in ,arabia4 #dee ,among the lower castes in ,northern ,india the parting of the bride's hair is marked with red1 a survival of the original blood covenant1 by which she was introduced into the sept of her husband4 ,we see that this is the case from the rites of the more savage tribes4 ,among the ,kewats of ,bengal1 a tiny scratch is made on the little finger of the bridegroom's right hand and of the bride's left1 and the drops of blood drawn from these are mixed with the food4 ,each then eats the food with which the other's blood has been mixed4 ,among the ,santls blood is drawn in the same way from the little finger of the bride and bridegroom1 and with it marks are made on both above the clavicle4 #def ,human ,sacrifice and ,buildings4 ,one standing difficulty at each decennial census has been the rumour which spreads in remote tracts that ,government is making the enumeration with a view of collecting victims to be sacrificed at some bridge or other building1 or that a toll of pretty girls is to be taken to reward the soldiery after some war4 ,thus1 about a fort in ,madras it had long been a tradition that when it was first built a girl had been built into the wall to render it impregnable4 #deg ,it is said that a ,rja was once building a bridge over the river ,jargo at ,chunr1 and when it fell down several times he was advised to sacrifice a ,brhman girl to the local deity4 ,she has now become the ,mar or ghost of the place1 and is regularly worshipped in time of trouble4 #deh ,in ,kumaun the same belief prevails1 and kidnappers1 known as ,dokhutiya1 or two-legged beasts of prey1 are said to go about capturing boys for this purpose4 ,in ,kthiwr1 if a castle was being built and the tower would not stand1 or if a pond had been dug and would not hold water1 a human victim was offered4 #dei ,the rumour that a victim was required spread quite recently in connection with the ,hughli ,bridge at ,calcutta and the ,benares water-works4 ,the ,narmad1 it was believed1 would never allow herself to be bridged until she carried away part of the superstructure1 and caused the loss of lives as a sacrifice4 ,at ,ahmadbd1 by the advice of a ,brhman1 a childless ,vnya was induced to dig a tank to appease the goddess ,stal4 ,the water refused to enter it without the sacrifice of a man4 ,as soon as the victim's blood fell on the ground1 the tank filled and the goddess came down from heaven and rescued the victim4 #dfj ,in building the fort of ,sikandarpur in ,baliya1 a ,brhman and a ,dusdh girl were both immolated4 #dfa ,the ,vadala lake in ,bombay refused to hold water till the local spirit was appeased by the sacrifice of the daughter of the village headman4 ,when the ,shorkot fort was being built one side repeatedly fell down4 ,a ,faqr advised the ,rja to put a first-born son under the rampart4 ,this was done and the wall stood4 ,the child's mother went to ,mecca1 and returned with an army of ,muhammadans2 but they could not take the fort4 ,then a ,faqr transformed himself into a cock and flew on the roof of the palace1 where he set up a loud crow4 ,the ,rja was frightened and abandoned the place4 ,as he was leaving it1 he shouted1 ,shame on thee1 ,o ,fort6 to remain standing6 and the walls at once fell down4 #dfb ,modifications of ,human ,sacrifice4 ,there are also many instances of the transition from human sacrifices to those of a milder form4 ,thus1 when ,ahmadbd was building1 ,mnik ,bwa1 a saint1 every day made a cushion1 and every night picked it to pieces4 ,as he did so the day's work fell down4 ,the ,sultn refrained from sacrificing him1 but got him into a small jar and kept him there till the work was over4 #dfc ,the ,villlis of ,pna on the fifteenth day after a death shape two bricks like human beings1 dress them1 and lay them on a wooden stool4 ,they weep by them all night1 and next day1 taking them to the burning ground1 cremate them4 ,among the ,telugu ,brhmans of ,pna1 if a man dies at an unlucky time1 wheaten figures of men are made and burnt with the corpse4 ,the ,konkani ,marthas of ,kanara on the feast of ,raulnth get a man to cut his hand with a knife and let three drops of blood fall on the ground4 #dfd ,formerly in ,hoshangbd1 men used to swing themselves from a pole1 as in the famous ,bengal ,charakh ,pj4 ,in our territories this is now uncommon1 as the village headmen being afraid of responsibility for an accident1 generally1 instead of a man1 fasten up a white pumpkin1 which they swing about4 #dfe ,at the installation of a ,bhuiya ,rja1 a man comes forward whom the ,rja touches on the neck1 as if about to cut off his head4 ,the victim disappears for three days2 then he presents himself before the ,rja1 as if miraculously restored to life4 ,similarly1 the ,gonds1 instead of a human sacrifice1 now make an image of straw1 which they find answers the purpose4 ,the ,bhuiyas of ,keunjhar used to offer the head of their prime minister to ,thakurn ,m4 ,she is now transformed into the ,hindu ,durg and accepts a sacrifice of goats and sheep4 #dff ,in ,nepl1 after the ,sithi ,jtra feast1 the people divide into two parties and have a match at stone-throwing2 formerly this used to be a serious matter1 and any one who was knocked down and fell into the hands of the other side was sacrificed to the goddess ,kankeswar4 ,the actual killing of the victim1 as in the case of sacrifices to the goddess ,bachhl ,dev1 has now been discontinued under the influence of ,british officers4 #dfg ,we shall meet later on in another connection other instances of mock fights of the same kind4 ,momi4 ,in connection with human sacrifice may be mentioned the curious superstition about ,momi or mummy4 ,the virtues of human fat as a magical ointment appear all through folk-lore4 ,othello1 referring to the handkerchief which he had given to ,desdemona1 says1-- ,it was dyed in the mummy which the skilful ,conserved of maidens' hearts4 ,writing of witches ,reginald ,scot says3 ,the devil teacheth them to make ointment of the bowels and members of children1 whereby they ride in the air and accomplish all their desires4 ,after burial they steal them out of their graves and seethe them in a cauldron till the flesh be made potable1 of which they make an ointment by which they ride in the air4 ,in ,macbeth the first witch speaks of-- ,grease that sweaten ,from the murderer's gibbet4 ,indian witches are believed to use the same mystic preparation to enable them to fly through the air1 as their ,european sisters are supposed to use the fat of a toad4 #dfh ,human fat is believed to be specially efficacious for this purpose4 ,in one of ,somadeva's stories the ,brhman searches for treasure with a candle made of human fat in his hand4 #dfi ,one of the ,mongol ,generals1 ,marco ,polo tells us1 was accused of boiling down human beings and using their fat to grease his mangonels2 and ,carpini says that when the ,tartars cast ,greek fire into a town they used to shoot human fat with it1 in order to cause the fire to burn more quickly4 #dgj ,so1 in ,europe a candle of human fat is said to have been used by robbers with the ,hand of ,glory to prevent the inmates waking1 and on the ,scotch border the torch used in the mystic ceremony of saining was made from the fat of a slaughtered enemy4 #dga ,in ,india1 the popular idea about ,momi is that a boy1 the fatter and blacker the better1 is caught1 a small hole is bored in the top of his head1 and he is hung up by the heels over a slow fire4 ,the juice or essence of his body is in this way distilled into seven drops of the potent medicine known as ,momi4 ,this substance possesses healing properties of a supernatural kind4 ,sword cuts1 spear thrusts1 wounds from arrows and other weapons of warfare are instantly cured by its use1 and he who possesses it is practically invulnerable4 ,in ,kumaun1 this substance is known as ,nryan ,tel or ,rm ,tel1 the oil of ,vishnu or ,rma4 ,it is further believed that a ,european gentleman1 known as the ,momi-wla ,shib1 has a contract from ,government of the right of enticing away suitable boys for this purpose4 ,he makes them smell a stick or wand1 which obliges them to follow him1 and he then packs them off to some hill station where he carries on this nefarious manufacture4 ,as an instance of this belief1 ,a very black servant of a friend of mine states that he had a very narrow escape from this ,shib at the ,nauchandi fair at ,meerut1 where ,government allows him to walk about for one day and make as many suitable victims as he can by means of his stick4 ,the ,shib had just put his hand in his pocket and taken out the stick1 which was dry and shrivelled and about a span long1 when the servant with great presence of mind held out his hands and said1 ',bas6 ,bas6' ',enough6 enough6' ,thus intimidated1 the ,shib went away into the crowd4 ,in connection with ,momi1 a lady here narrowly escaped a very uncanny reputation4 ,some of her servants gave out that she possessed a ,momi stick1 for which she had paid a hundred rupees4 ,on hearing this an inquiry was made which brought out that the lady had missed a pod of vanilla about seven inches long1 of a very special quality1 that she kept rolled up in a piece of paper among some of her trinkets4 ,the ayah who mislaid it was scolded for her carelessness1 and told that it was worth more than she thought4 ,she promptly put two and two together4 ,the shrivelled appearance which is supposed to be peculiar to mysterious sticks1 such as snake charmers produce1 the fuss made about it1 and the value attached to it convinced her that her mistress owned a ,momi stick4 #dgb ,these mystic sticks appear constantly in folk-lore4 ,we have the caduceus of ,hermes1 the rod of ,moses1 the staff of ,elisha1 the wand of ,circe1 or of ,gwydion or ,skirni4 ,in one of ,somadeva's tales the ,kaplika ascetic has a magic stick which dances4 ,in one of the ,kashmr tales the magic wand placed under the feet of the prince makes him insensible1 when laid under his head he revives4 ,many people in ,england still believe in the divining rod which points out concealed springs underground4 #dgc ,every native boy1 particularly those who are black and fat1 believes himself a possible victim to the wiles of the dreaded ,momi ,shib1 who frequents hill stations because he is thus enabled to carry on his villainous practices with comparative impunity and less danger of detection4 ,even to whisper the word ,momi is enough to make the crowd of urchins who dog the steps of a district officer when he is on his rounds through a town1 disperse in dismay4 ,surgeons are naturally exposed to the suspicion of being engaged in this awful business1 and some years ago most of the coolies deserted one of the hill stations1 because an enthusiastic anatomist set up a private dissecting-room of his own4 ,freemasons1 who are looked on by the general native public as a kind of sorcerers or magicians1 are also not free from this suspicion4 ,that such ideas should prevail among the rural population of ,india is not to be wondered at1 when in our own modern ,england it is very commonly believed that luminous paint is made out of human fat4 #dgd ,the ,dnapurwla ,shib4 ,another of these dreaded ,shibs is the ,dnapurwla ,shib1 or gentleman from ,dinapur4 ,why this personage should be connected with ,dinapur1 a respectable ,british cantonment1 no one can make out4 ,at any rate1 it is generally believed that he has a contract from ,government for procuring heads for some of the museums1 and he too has a magic stick with which he entices unfortunate travellers on dark nights and chops off their heads with a pair of shears4 ,the influence of these magic wands by smelling may perhaps be associated with the fact that the nose is a spirit entry1 as we have seen in the case of sneezing4 ,fetish ,stones4 ,to return after this digression to fetish stones4 ,of this phase of belief we have well-known instances in the coronation stone in ,westminster ,abbey1 which is associated with the dream of ,jacob1 and the ,hajuru'l ,aswad of ,mecca1 which ,sir ,r4 ,burton believed to be an arolite4 ,no one will bring a stone from the ,sacred ,hill at ,govardhan near ,mathura1 because it is supposed to be endowed with life4 ,the ,ydavas1 who are connected with the same part of the country1 had a stone fetish1 described in the ,vishnu ,purna1 which brought rain and plenty4 ,there are numerous legends connected with many of these fetish stones1 such as that in the temple of ,daksha at ,kankhal and ,gorakhntha in ,kheri1 #dge which are said to owe the fissures in them to the blow of the battle-axe or sword of one of the iconoclast ,muhammadan ,emperors4 ,of ,gorakhntha it is said that ,aurangzeb attempted to drag up the great ,lingam1 and failed to do so even with the aid of elephants4 ,when he came to investigate the cause of his failure1 tongues of flame burst from the bottom of the pillar4 ,the stalactites in the ,behr ,hills are regarded as the images of the gods4 #dgf ,the pestle and mortar in which a noted ,darvesh of ,oudh used to grind his drugs are now worshipped1 and a leading family in the ,lucknow ,district keep before their family residence a large square stone which they reverence4 ,they say that their ancestors brought it from ,delhi1 and that it is the symbol of their title to the estates1 which were granted to them by one of the ,emperors4 ,he enjoined them to take it as the foundation of their settlement1 and since that time each new ,rja on his accession presents flowers1 sweetmeats1 and money to it4 #dgg ,a great rock in the river above ,badarinth1 the famous shrine in the ,hills1 is worshipped as ,brahm ,kapl or the skull of ,brahma1 and ,nand ,dev1 the mountain goddess of the ,himlaya1 is worshipped in the form of two great stones glittering with mica1 and reflecting the rays of the sun4 #dgh ,at ,amosi in the ,lucknow ,district they worship at marriages and birth of boys the door-post of the house of an old ,rjput leader1 named ,binik1 who is honoured with the title of ,bba or father4 #dgi ,at ,deodhra in the ,hills the grey granite boulders near the crest of the ridge are said to have been thrown there in sport by the ,pndavas4 ,close to the temple of ,dev at the same place are two large boulders1 the uppermost of which is called ,ransila1 or the stone of battle1 and is cleft through the centre by a deep1 fresh-looking fissure1 at right angles to which is a similar rift in the lower rock4 ,a small boulder on the top is said to have been the weapon with which ,bhmsen produced these fissures1 and the print of his five fingers is still to be seen upon it4 ,ransila itself is marked with the lines for playing the gambling game of ,pachsi1 which1 though it led to their misfortunes1 the ,pndavas even in their exile could not abandon4 ,there are many places where the marks of the hoofs of the horse of ,bhmsen are shown4 #dhj ,one spot on the margin of ,lake ,regillus was regarded during many ages with superstitious awe4 ,a mark1 resembling in shape a horse's hoof1 was discernible in the volcanic rock2 and this mark was believed to have been made by one of the celestial chargers4 #dha ,fetishes among the ,santls4 ,the ,santls1 like all uncivilized races1 have a whole army of fetishes4 ,a round piece of wood1 nearly a foot in length1 the top of which is painted red1 is called ,banh1 or the protector of the jungle4 ,another stands for ,lagh1 the goddess of the earth1 who is sometimes represented by a mountain4 ,an oblong piece of wood1 painted red1 stands for ,mahm1 the great ,mother1 ,dev's daughter2 a small piece of white stone daubed with red is ,burhiy ,m1 or the old ,mother1 her granddaughter2 an arrow-head stands for ,ddh ,m1 the milk ,mother1 the daughter of ,burhiy2 a trident painted red represents the monkey god ,hanumn1 who executes all the orders of ,dev4 ,sets of these symbols are placed1 one on the east and one on the west of their huts to protect them from evil spirits1 snakes1 tigers1 and all sorts of misfortune4 #dhb ,very similar to this is the worship of ,brnth1 the fetish of the ,mirzapur ,ahrs4 ,his platform1 which is made of clay1 usually contains one1 three1 or five rude wooden images1 each about three feet high1 with a rough representation of a human face sculptured on the top4 ,he was1 it is said1 an ,ahr who was killed by a tiger1 and he is now worshipped by them in times of trouble4 ,his special function is to protect the cattle from beasts of prey4 ,the worshipper bathes1 plasters his platform with fresh clay1 and laying his offering on it1 says3 ,brnth6 ,keep our cattle safe and you will get more4 ,the same form of worship prevails all along the ,central ,indian ,hills4 ,in the south of the ,bhandra ,district the traveller frequently meets with squared pieces of wood1 each with a rude figure carved in front1 set up close to each other4 ,these represent ,bangarm1 ,bangar ,b1 or ,dev1 who is said to have one sister and five brothers1 the sister being styled ,kl1 and four out of the five brothers being known as ,gantarm1 ,champarm1 ,nikarm1 and ,potlinga4 ,they are all deemed to possess the power of sending disease and death upon men1 and under these or other names seem to be generally feared in the region east of ,ngpur4 ,bhmsen1 again1 is generally adored under the form of one or two pieces of wood standing three or four feet in length above the ground1 like those set up in connection with ,bangarm's worship4 #dhc ,fetish ,stones which ,cure ,disease4 ,many of these stones have the power of curing disease1 and the water with which they have been bathed is considered a useful medicine4 ,this is the case with a number of sacred ,mahdeva ,lingams all over the country4 ,a common proverb speaks of the old woman who is ready enough to eat the ,prasd or offering to the god1 but hesitates to drink the water in which his feet have been washed4 ,in ,western ,india no orthodox ,brhman will eat his food till he has thrice sipped the water in which his ,slagrma stone has been washed4 #dhd ,we have already noticed the fetish bowl1 the washings of which are administered by midwives to secure easy parturition4 ,so1 in ,western lands the stones fetched by ,merlin had the power of healing if washed in water and the patient bathed in it4 #dhe ,stone celts are1 in ,cornwall1 supposed to impart a healing effect to water in which they have been soaked4 #dhf ,in ,java a decoction of the lichen which grows on fetish stones is used as a remedy for disease4 #dhg ,in the ,isle of ,lewis cattle disease is attributed to the bites of serpents1 and the suffering animals are made to drink water into which charm stones are put2 in the ,highlands large crystals of a somewhat oval shape were kept by the priests to work charms with1 and water poured thereon was given to cattle as a preventative of disease4 #dhh ,fetish ,stones the ,abode of ,spirits4 ,the virtue of all these fetish stones rests in their embodying the spirits of gods or deified men4 ,as we have shown1 this is a common principle of popular belief4 ,in one of ,miss ,stokes's ,indian tales1 ,the man who went to seek his fate1 the fate is found in stones1 some standing up and some lying down4 ,the man beats the stone which embodies his fate because he is miserably poor4 ,mr4 ,h4 ,spencer thinks that the idea of persons being turned into stones may have arisen from instances of actual petrifaction of trees and the like2 but this is not very probable1 and it is much simpler to believe with ,dr4 ,tylor that it depends on the principles of animism4 #dhi ,family ,fetishes4 ,some fetishes1 like the ,bombay ,devaks1 are special to particular families4 ,such is the case with the ,thrus1 a non-,aryan tribe in the sub-,himlayan ,tar4 ,each member of the tribe constructs a hollow mound in front of his door1 and thereon erects a stake of ,palsa wood 7,butea frondosa71 which is regarded as the family fetish and periodically worshipped4 ,tool ,fetishes4 ,next comes the worship of the tool fetish1 which1 according to ,sir ,a4 ,lyall1 is the earliest phase or type of the tendency which later on leads those of one guild or walk in life to support and cultivate one god1 who is elected in lieu of the individual trade fetishes melted down to preside over their craft or trade interests4 #dij ,a good example of this is the pickaxe fetish of the ,thags4 ,when ,kl refused to help them in the burial of their victims she gave them one of her teeth for a pickaxe1 and the hem of her lower garment for a noose4 ,hence the pickaxe was venerated by the ,thags4 ,its fabrication was superintended with the utmost care1 and it was consecrated with many ceremonies4 ,a lucky day was selected1 and a smith was appointed to forge it with the most profound secrecy4 ,the door was closed against all intruders2 the leader never left the forge while the manufacture was going on2 and the smith was allowed to do no other work until this was completed4 ,next came the consecration4 ,this was done on ,monday1 ,tuesday1 ,wednesday1 or ,friday1 and care was taken that the shadow of no living thing fell upon the axe4 ,the consecrator sat with his face to the west1 and received the implement in a brass dish4 ,it was then washed in water which was allowed to fall into a pit made for the purpose4 ,then further ablutions followed1 the first in sugar and water1 the second in sour milk1 and the third in spirits4 ,the axe was then marked from the head to the point with seven spots of red lead1 and replaced on the brass dish with a cocoanut1 some cloves1 white sandalwood1 and other articles4 ,a fire was next made of cowdung and the wood of the ,mango and ,ber tree4 ,all the articles deposited on the brass plate1 with the exception of the cocoanut1 were thrown into the fire1 and when the flame rose the ,thag priest passed the pickaxe with both hands seven times through the fire4 ,the cocoanut was then stripped of its husk and placed on the ground4 ,the officiant1 holding the axe by the point1 asked3 ,shall ,i strike8 ,the bystanders assented1 and he then broke the cocoanut with the blunt end of the weapon1 exclaiming1 ,all hail1 ,dev6 ,great ,mother of us all6 ,the spectators responded1 ,all hail1 ,dev1 and prosper the ,thags4 ,if the cocoanut was not broken at one blow1 all the labour was lost2 the goddess was considered unpropitious1 and the entire ceremony had to be repeated4 ,the broken shell and kernel of the cocoanut were then thrown into the fire1 the pickaxe wrapt in white cloth was placed on the ground towards the west1 and all present prostrated themselves before it4 #dia ,here we have another example of magic in its sympathetic form1 the use of sundry spirit scarers1 which have been already discussed1 and the cocoanut representing an actual human victim4 ,weapons and ,implement ,fetishes4 ,in the same way soldiers and warlike tribes worship their weapons4 ,thus1 the sword was worshipped by the ,rjputs1 and when a man of lower caste married a ,rjput girl1 she was married1 as in the case of ,holkar1 to his sword with his kerchief bound round it4 #dib ,this sword-worship is specially performed1 as by the ,baiswrs of ,mirzapur and the ,gautam sept of ,rjputs4 ,the ,neplese worship their weapons and regimental colours at the ,dasahra festival4 ,at the ,diwl1 or feast of lamps1 on the first day they worship dogs2 on the second day cows and bulls2 on the third day capitalists worship their treasure under the name of ,lakshm1 the goddess of wealth2 on the fourth day every householder worships as deities the members of his family1 and on the fifth day sisters worship their brothers4 #dic ,the same customs prevail among the artisan castes in ,northern ,india4 ,the hair-scraper of the tanner is worshipped by curriers1 and the potter's wheel1 regarded as a type of productiveness1 is reverenced at marriages by many of the lower castes4 ,even the clay which has been mixed by the potter has mystic powers4 ,when a person has been bitten by a mad dog1 a lump of this clay is brought1 and the wound is touched with it while a spell is recited4 #did ,carpenters worship their yard measure2 ,chamrs swear by the shoemaker's last1 and the children of the ,darzi or tailor are made to worship the scissors4 ,in ,bengal1 the ,alakhiya sect of ,saiva ascetics profess profound respect for their alms-bag2 the carpenters worship their adze1 chisel1 and saw2 the barbers their razors1 scissors1 and mirror4 ,at the ,srpancham1 or fifth day of the month of ,mgh1 the writer class worship their books1 pens1 and inkstand4 ,the writing implements are cleaned1 and the books1 wrapped in white cloth1 are strewn over with flowers and the leaves of young barley4 #die ,the same customs prevail in ,bombay4 ,a mill is the ,devak or guardian of oil-makers2 dancing girls worship a musical instrument2 jewellers worship their pincers and blowpipe2 curriers worship an axe1 and market gardeners a pair of scales4 #dif ,in the ,panjb1 farmers worship their oxen in ,august1 their plough at the ,dasahra festival1 and they have a ceremony at the end of ,october to drive away ticks from their cattle2 shepherds worship their sheep at the full moon of ,july2 bankers and clerks worship their books at the ,diwl festival2 grain-sellers worship their weights at the ,dasahra1 ,diwl1 and ,hol1 and1 in a way1 every morning as well4 ,oilmen worship their presses at odd times2 artisans salute their tools daily when they bathe2 and generally the means of livelihood1 whatever they may be1 are worshipped with honour at the ,diwl1 ,dasahra1 and ,hol4 #dig ,so the ,pokharna ,brhmans1 who are said to have been the navvies who originally excavated the lake at ,pushkar1 worship in memory of this the ,kudla1 or mattock4 #dih ,all these customs are as old as the time of the ,chaldeans1 who sacrifice unto their net and burn incense unto their drag1 because by them their portion is fat and their meat plenteous4 #dii ,among these implement fetishes the corn-sieve and the plough1 the basket1 the broom1 and the rice-pounder are of special importance4 ,the ,corn-sieve4 ,the corn-sieve or winnowing basket1 the ,mystica vannus ,iacchi of ,virgil1 has always enjoyed a reputation as an emblem of increase and prosperity1 and as possessing magical powers4 ,the witch in ,macbeth says3-- ,her husband's to ,aleppo gone1 ,master of the ,tiger2 ,but in a sieve ,i'll thither sail4 ,it was used in ,scotland to foretell the future at ,allhallow ,eve4 ,divination was performed with a pair of shears and a sieve4 ,aubrey describes how the shears are stuck in a sieve1 and the maidens hold up the sieve with the top of their fingers by the handle of the shears1 then say1 ',by ,st4 ,peter and ,st4 ,paul1 he hath not stolen it4' ,after many adjurations the sieve will turn at the name of the thief4 #ejj ,in ,india the sieve is the first cradle of the baby1 and in ,bombay the winnowing fan in which a newly-born child is laid is used on the fifth day for the worship of ,satv4 ,this makes it impure1 and it is henceforward used only for the house sweepings4 ,in ,northern ,india1 when a mother has lost a child1 she puts the next in a sieve and drags it about1 calling it ,kadheran or ,ghastan1 the dragged one1 so as to baffle the ,evil ,eye by a pretence of contempt4 ,all through ,upper ,india1 at low-caste marriages1 the bride's brother accompanies the pair as they revolve in the marriage shed1 and sprinkles parched grain over them out of a sieve as a charm for good luck and a means of scaring the demon which causes barrenness4 ,so ,irish brides in old times used to be followed by two attendants bearing high over the heads of the couple a sieve filled with meal1 a sign of the plenty that would be in the house1 and an omen of good luck and the blessing of children4 #eja ,we have already seen that this rite survives in the custom of flinging rice over the newly-married pair as they leave for the honeymoon4 ,this habit of scaring the spirits of evil by means of the sieve appears in a special usage at the ,diwl festival4 ,very early in the morning the house-mother takes a sieve and a broom1 and beats them in every corner of the house1 exclaiming1 ,god abide1 and poverty depart6 ,the fan is then carried outside the village1 generally to the east or north1 and being thrown away1 is supposed1 like the scapegoat1 to bear away with it the poverty and distress of the household4 ,the same custom prevails in ,germany4 ,the ,posterli is imagined to be a spectre in the shape of an old woman4 ,in the evening the young fellows of the village assemble1 and with loud shouts and clashing of tins1 ringing of cow-bells and goat-bells1 and cracking of whips1 tramp over hill and dale to another village1 where the young men receive them with like uproar4 ,one of the party represents the ,posterli1 or they draw it in a sledge in the shape of a puppet1 and leave it standing in a corner of the other village4 ,in the same way the ,eskimo drive the demon ,tuna out of their houses4 #ejb ,among the ,kols1 when a vacancy occurs in the office of the village priest1 the winnowing fan with some rice is used1 and by its magical power it drags the person who holds it towards the individual on whom the sacred mantle has fallen4 ,the same custom prevails among the ,orons4 #ejc ,the ,greeks had a special name1 ,koskinomantis1 for the man who divined in this way with the sieve1 and the practice is mentioned by ,theocritus4 #ejd ,the sieve is very commonly used in ,india as a rude form of the planchette4 ,through the wicker-work of the raised side or back a strong ,t-shaped twig is fixed1 one end of which rests on the finger4 ,a question is asked1 and according as the sieve turns to the right or left1 the answer is ,yes or ,no4 ,this is exactly what is known as ,cauff-riddling in ,yorkshire and ,scotland4 #eje ,in the eastern districts of the ,north-,western ,provinces1 when the ,ojha or cunning man is called in to cure disease1 or possession by evil spirits1 he puts some sesamum into a sieve1 shakes it about1 and then proceeds to identify the ghost concerned by counting the number of grains which remain stuck between the reeds4 ,at a ,santl cremation1 a man takes his seat near the ashes1 and tosses rice on them with a winnowing fan till a frenzy appears to seize him1 and he becomes inspired and says wonderful things4 #ejf ,it is one of the curiosities of comparative folk-lore that this instrument should be credited with magical powers all over two continents4 #ejg ,the winnowing basket1 again1 perhaps from its association1 like the winnowing fan1 with the sacred grain1 has mystic powers4 ,in ,scotland it was used in the rite of creeling as a means of scaring barrenness4 ,the young wedded pair1 with their friends1 assemble in a convenient spot4 ,a small creel or basket is prepared for the occasion1 into which they put some stones2 the young men carry it alternately1 and allow themselves to be caught by the maidens1 who have a kiss when they succeed4 ,after a great deal of innocent mirth and pleasantry1 the creel falls at length to the young husband's share1 who is obliged generally to carry it for a long time1 none of the young women having compassion upon him4 ,at length his fair mate kindly relieves him from his burden2 and her complaisance1 in this particular1 is considered as a proof of her satisfaction at the choice she has made4 #ejh ,in ,bengal1 at the full moon immediately following the ,durg ,pj1 the festival of ,lakshm1 the goddess of wealth1 is held4 ,in every ,hindu house a basket1 which serves as the representative of prosperity1 is set up and worshipped4 ,this basket1 or corn measure1 is filled with paddy1 encircled with a garland of flowers1 and covered with a piece of cloth4 ,they sit up all night and watch for ,lakshm to arrive1 and any negligence in watching is believed to bring misfortune on the family4 #eji ,the ,broom4 ,the same idea applies to the broom used in sweeping the house or collecting the grain on the threshing-floor4 ,we have already seen the use of it to drive out poverty4 ,pythagoras warned his followers against stepping over a broom4 ,in some parts of ,bavaria1 housemaids in sweeping out the house are careful not to step over the broom for fear of the witches4 ,again1 it is a ,bavarian rule not to step over a broom while a confinement is taking place in a house2 otherwise the birth will be tedious1 and the child will always remain small with a large head4 ,but if anyone has stepped over a broom inadvertently1 he can undo the spell by stepping backwards over it again4 #eaj ,so1 in ,bombay1 they say you should never step over a broom1 or you will cause a woman to suffer severely in childbed4 ,in ,bombay1 some old ,hindu woman1 to cure a child affected by the ,evil ,eye1 waves salt and water round its face and strikes the ground with a broom three times2 and among the ,bani ,isrls of ,bombay1 when the midwife drives off the blast of the ,evil ,eye1 she holds in her left hand a shoe1 a winnowing fan1 and a broom4 #eaa ,in ,italy1 the broom is an old ,latin charm against sorcery4 ,the ,beriyas1 a gypsy tribe of the ,ganges-,jumna ,dub1 drive off the disease demon with a broom4 ,in ,oudh1 it is said1 when a broomstick has been done with1 it should always be laid down1 and not left standing4 ,mah-,brhmans1 who gain by officiating at funeral ceremonies1 are alleged to violate this rule in order to cause deaths4 #eab ,the ,rice-pounder4 ,the rice-pounder1 too1 has magical powers4 ,we have seen that it is one of the articles waved round the heads of the bride and bridegroom to scare evil spirits4 ,in ,bengal1 it is worshipped when the child is first fed with grain4 ,and there is a regular worship of it in the month of ,baiskh1 or ,may4 ,the top is smeared with red lead1 anointed with oil1 and offerings of rice and holy ,drva grass made to it4 ,the worship has even been provided with a ,brhmanical legend4 ,a ,guru once ordered his disciple to pronounce the word ,dhenk at least one hundred and eight times a day4 ,nrada ,muni was so pleased with his devotion1 as he is the patron deity of the rice-pounder1 that he paid him a visit riding on one1 and carried off his votary to heaven4 #eac ,the ,plough4 ,next comes the plough as a fetish4 ,the carrying about of the plough and the prohibition common in ,europe against moving it on ,shrove ,tuesday and other holidays have1 like many other images of the same class1 been connected with ,phallicism4 #ead ,but1 considering the respect which an agricultural people would naturally pay to the chief implement used in husbandry1 it is simpler to class it with the other tool fetishes of a similar kind4 ,in ,india1 as in ,europe on ,plough ,monday1 #eae there is a regular worship of the plough at the end of the sowing season1 when the beam is coloured with turmeric1 adorned with garlands1 and brought home from the field in triumph4 ,after that day it is considered unlucky to use it or lend it4 ,the beam is put up in the village cattle track when rinderpest is about1 as a charm to drive away the disease4 ,among some castes the polished share is fixed up in the marriage shed during the ceremony4 ,among the ,orons1 the bride and bridegroom are made to stand on a curry stone1 under which is placed a sheaf of corn resting on the plough yoke1 and among the same people their god ,darha is represented by a plough-share set upon an altar dedicated to him4 #eaf ,here we have the mystic influence of grain and iron combined with the agricultural implement fetish4 ,fire4 ,fire is undoubtedly a very ancient ,hindu protective fetish1 and its virtue as a scarer of demons is very generally recognized4 ,one of the earliest legends of the ,hindu race is that recorded in the ,rig ,veda1 where ,agni1 the god of fire1 concealed himself in heaven1 was brought down to earth by ,mtarisvan1 and made over to the princely tribe of ,bhrigu1 in which we have the ,oriental version of the myth of ,prometheus4 ,in the ,vedas1 ,agni ranks next to the ,rain god1 and takes precedence of every other god in connection with sacrificial rites4 ,even the ,sun godling is regarded as a form of the heavenly fire4 ,one of the titles of ,agni is ,pramantha1 because on each occasion when he was required he was summoned by the friction of the ,aran1 or sacred fire-drill4 ,this word ,pramantha is probably the equivalent of the ,prometheus of the ,greeks4 ,origin of ,fire-worship4 ,according to ,dr4 ,tylor1 the real and absolute worship of fire falls into two great divisions1 the first belonging to fetishism1 the second to polytheism proper1 and the two apparently representing an earlier and later stage of theological ideas4 ,the first is the rude1 barbarous adoration of the actual flame which he watches writhing1 devouring1 roaring like a wild animal2 the second belongs to an advanced generalization that any individual fire is a manifestation of one general elemental being1 the fire god4 #eag ,in a tropical country it would naturally be associated with the worship of the sun1 and with that of the sainted dead as the medium by which the spirit wings its way to the other world4 ,among many races fire is provided for the ghost after interment1 to enable it to warm itself and cook its food4 ,as ,mr4 ,spencer points out1 the grave fire would tend to develop into kindred religious rites4 #eah ,the ,sacred ,fire4 ,but it is almost certainly erroneous to class the sacred fire as an institution peculiar to the so-called ,aryan races4 ,the ,homa is1 of course1 one of the most important elements of the modern ,hindu ritual2 but at the same time it prevails extensively as a means of propitiating the local or village godlings among many of the ,drvidian races1 who are quite as likely to have discovered for themselves the mystical art of fire production by mechanical means1 as to have adopted it by a process of conscious or unconscious imitation from the usages of their ,hindu neighbours4 ,the production of fire by means of friction is a discovery which would naturally occur to jungle races1 who must have constantly seen it occur by the ignition of the bamboo stalks rubbed together by the blasts of summer4 ,from this would easily be developed the very primitive fire-drill or ,asgara1 used to this day by the ,cheros1 ,korwas1 ,bhuiyas and other ,drvidian dwellers in the jungle4 ,these people even to the present day habitually produce fire in this way4 ,a small round cavity is made in a dry piece of bamboo1 in which two men alternately with their open hands revolve a second pointed piece of the wood of the same tree4 ,smoke and finally fire are rapidly produced in this way1 and the sparks are received on a dry leaf or other suitable tinder4 ,the use of the flint and steel is also common1 and was possibly an early and independent invention of the same people4 ,even to the present day in some of their more secret worship of the village godlings of disease1 fire is produced for the fire sacrifice by this primitive method4 ,the ,fire-drill4 ,what has been called the ,aryan fire-drill1 the ,aran1 which in one sense means foreign or strange1 and in another moving or entering1 being inserted1 is not apparently nowadays used in the ordinary ritual for the production of fire for the ,homa or fire sacrifice4 ,the rites connected with the sacred fire have been given in detail in another place4 #eai ,in ,northern ,india1 at least1 the production of the sacred fire has become the speciality of one branch of the ,brhmans1 the ,gujarti1 who are employed to conduct certain special services occasionally conducted at large cost by wealthy devotees1 and known as ,jag or ,yaksha1 in the sense of some particular religious rite4 ,the ,aran in its modern form consists of five pieces4 ,the ,adhararan is the lower bed of the instrument1 and is usually made of the hard wood of the ,khadira or ,khair--,acacia catechu4 ,in this are bored two shallow holes1 one1 the ,garta1 a small shallow round cavity1 in which the plunger or revolving drill works and produces fire by friction4 ,close to this is a shallow oblong cavity1 known as the ,yon or matrix1 in which combustible tinder1 generally the husk of the cocoanut1 is placed1 and in which the sparks and heated ashes are received and ignited4 ,the upper or revolving portion of the drill is known as ,uttararan or ,pramantha4 ,this consists of two parts1 the upper portion a piece of hard1 round wood which one priest revolves with a rope or cord known as ,netra4 ,this part of the implement is known as ,mantha or the churner4 ,it has a socket at the base in which the ,sanku1 a spike or dart1 is fixed4 ,this ,sanku is made of a softer wood1 generally that of the ,ppal1 or sacred fig tree1 than the ,adhararan or base2 and each ,aran is provided with several spare pieces of fig wood for the purpose of replacing the ,sanku1 as it becomes gradually charred away by friction4 ,the last piece is the ,upamantha or upper churner1 which is a flat board with a socket4 ,this is pressed down by one priest1 so as to force the ,sanku deep and hard into the ,garta or lower cavity1 and to increase the resistance4 ,the working of the implement thus requires the labour of two priests1 one of whom presses down the plunger1 and the other who revolves the drill rapidly by means of the rope4 ,it is not easy to obtain specimens of the implement1 which is regarded as possessing mystical properties1 and the production of the sacred fire is always conducted in secret4 ,we have in one of the ,african folk-tales a reference to the production of the fire by friction1 in which the hyna gets his ear burnt4 #ebj ,in one of the tales of ,somadeva we read1 ,then the ,brhman blessed the king and said to him1 ',i am a ,brhman named ,nga ,sarman1 and bear the fruit1 ,i hope1 from my sacrifice4 ,when the god of fire is pleased with this ,vilva sacrifice1 then ,vilva fruits of gold will come out of the fire cavity4 ,then the god of fire will appear in bodily form1 and grant me a boon1 and so ,i have spent much time in offering ,vilva fruits4' ,then the seven-rayed god appeared from the sacrificial cavity1 bringing the king a golden ,vilva fruit of his tree of valour4 #eba ,the ,agnikunda1 the hole or enclosed space for the sacred fire1 out of which1 according to the popular legend1 various ,rjput tribes were produced1 is thus probably derived from the ,garta or pit out of which the sparks fly in the fire-drill4 ,the ,agnihotri ,brhman has to take particular care to preserve the germ of the sacred fire1 as did the ,roman vestal virgins4 ,it is in charge of the special guardians at some shrines1 such as those of ,sambhunth and ,kharg ,jogin at ,nepl4 #ebb ,the ,muhammadan ,sacred ,fire4 ,but it is not only in the ,hindu ritual that the sacred fire holds a prominent place4 ,thus1 in ancient ,ireland1 the sacred fire was obtained by the friction of wood and the striking of stones1 and it was supposed that the spirits of fire dwelt in these objects1 and when the priests invoked them to appear1 they brought good luck to the household for the coming year1 but if invoked by other hands on that special day1 their influence was malific4 #ebc ,so1 among the ,muhammadans in the time of ,akbar1 at noon of the day when the sun enters the #aith degree of ,aries1 the whole world being surrounded by the light1 they expose a round piece of a white shining stone1 called in ,hindi ,srajkrant4 #ebd ,a piece of cotton is then held near it1 which catches fire from the heat of the stone4 ,the celestial fire is committed to the care of proper persons4 #ebe ,perhaps the best example of the ,muhammadan sacred fire is that at the ,immbra at ,gorakhpur4 ,there it was first started by a renowned ,shiah ,faqr1 named ,roshan ',ali1 and has been maintained unquenched for more than a hundred years1 a special body of attendants and supplies of wood being provided for it4 ,there seems little reason to believe that the fire is a regular ,muhammadan institution2 it has probably arisen from an imitation of the customs of the ,hindu ,jogis4 ,it is respected both by ,hindus and ,musalmns1 and as in the case of the fires of the same kind1 maintained by many noted ,jogis1 its ashes have a reputation as a cure for fever4 ,we shall meet with the same belief of the curative effects of the ashes of the sacred fire in the case of the ,hol4 ,the ashes of the ,jogi's fire form a part of many popular charms4 ,in ,italy1 the holy log burnt on ,christmas ,eve1 which corresponds to the ,yule log of the ,north of ,europe1 is taken with due observances to the ,faunus1 or other spirits of the forest4 #ebf ,in ,ireland part of the ashes from the bonfire on the #bdth of ,june is thrown into sown fields to make their produce abundant4 #ebg ,the ceremony of strewing ashes on the penitent on ,ash ,wednesday dates from ,saxon times4 #ebh ,a modern ,muhammadan of the advanced school has endeavoured to rationalize the curative effect of the ashes of the ,gorakhpur fire by the suggestion that it is the potash in it which works the cure1 but probably the element of faith has much to do with it4 #ebi ,volcanic ,fire2 ,will-o'-the-,wisp4 ,fire of a volcanic nature is1 as might be expected1 regarded with veneration4 ,such is the fire which in some places in ,kashmr rises out of the ground4 #ecj ,the meteoric light or ,shahba is also much respected4 ,in ,hoshangbd there is a local godling1 known as ,khapra ,bba1 who lives on the edge of a tank1 and is said to appear in the darkness with a procession of lights4 #eca ,in ,rohilkhand and the western districts of ,oudh1 one often hears of the ,shahba4 ,in burial-grounds1 especially where the bodies of those slain in battle are interred1 it is said that phantom armies appear in the night4 ,tents are pitched1 the horses are tethered1 and lovely girls dance before the heroes and the ,jinn who are in their train4 ,sometimes some foolish mortal is attracted by the spectacle1 and he suffers for his foolhardiness by loss of life or reason4 ,sometimes these ignes fatui mislead the traveller at night1 as ,robin ,goodfellow misleads night wanderers1 laughing at their harm1 or the ,cornish piskies1 who show a light and entice people into bogs4 #ecb ,there appears to be in ,northern ,india no trace of the idea which so widely appears in ,europe1 that such lights are the souls of unbaptized children4 #ecc ,the ,tomb ,fetish4 ,next comes the respect paid to the cairn which covers the remains of the dead or is a mere cenotaph commemorating a death4 ,we have already seen instances of this in the pile of stones which marks the place where a tiger has killed a man1 and in the cairns in honour of the jungle deities1 or the spirits which infest dangerous passes4 ,the rationale of these sepulchral cairns is to keep down the ghost of the dead man and prevent it from injuring the living4 ,we see the same idea in the rule of the old ritual1 that on the departure of the last mourner1 after the conclusion of the funeral ceremony1 the ,adhvryu1 or officiating priest1 should place a circle of stones behind him1 to prevent death overtaking those who have gone in advance4 #ecd ,the primitive grave-heap grows into the cairn1 and the cairn into the tomb or ,stpa4 #ece ,in the way of a tomb ,hindus will worship almost anything4 ,the tomb of an ,english lady is worshipped at ,bhandra in the ,central ,provinces4 ,at ,murmari1 in the ,ngpur ,district1 a similar tomb is smeared with turmeric and lime1 and people offer cocoanuts to it in the hope of getting increased produce from their fields4 ,the tomb of an ,english officer near the ,fort of ,bijaygarh in the ,aligarh ,district was1 when ,i visited the place some years ago1 revered as the shrine of the local village godling4 ,there is a similar case at ,rwalpindi4 ,there is a current tale of some people offering brandy and cigars to the tomb of a ,european planter who was addicted to these luxuries in his lifetime1 but no one can tell where the tomb actually exists4 #ecf ,miscellaneous ,fetishes4 ,we have already referred to the ,slagrma fetish4 ,akin to this is the ,vishnupada1 the supposed footmark of ,vishnu1 which is very like the footmark of ,hercules1 of which ,herodotus speaks4 #ecg ,there is a celebrated ,vishnupada temple at ,gaya1 where the footprint of ,vishnu is in a large silver basin under a canopy1 inside an octagonal shrine4 ,pindas or holy balls and various kinds of offerings are placed by the pilgrims inside the basin and around the footprint4 #ech ,it was probably derived from the footmark of ,buddha1 which is a favourite subject in the early ,buddhistic sculptures4 ,dr4 ,tylor1 curiously enough1 thinks that it may have some connection with the footmarks of extinct birds or animals imprinted on the strata of alluvial rocks4 #eci ,even among ,muhammadans we have the same idea1 and the ,qadam-i-,rasl1 or mosque of the footprint of the ,prophet at ,lucknow1 used to contain a stone marked with his footmarks1 which was said to have been brought by some pilgrim from ,arabia4 ,it disappeared during the ,mutiny4 #edj ,there is another in a mosque at ,chunr and at many other places4 ,the same respect is paid to the footprint of ,rmanand in his monastery at ,benares1 and the pin of ,brahma's slipper is now fixed up in the steps of the bathing-place at ,bithr1 known as the residence of the infamous ,nna ,shib1 where it is worshipped at an annual feast4 ,,chapter ,,iv4 ,,animal-,,worship4 ,t de kai ,automedn hypage zygon keas hippous ,chanthon kai ,balion1 t hama pnoisi petesthn ,tous eteke ,zephyr anem ,harpuia ,podarg ,boskomen leimni para rhoon keanoio4 ,iliad1 xvi4 #adh-ea4 ,origin of ,animal-worship4 ,we now come to consider the special worship of certain animals4 ,the origin of this form of belief may possibly be traced to many different sources4 ,in the first place1 no savage fixes the boundary line between man and the lower forms of animal life so definitely as more civilized races are wont to do4 ,the animal1 in their belief1 has very much the same soul1 much the same feelings and passion as men have1 a theory exemplified in the way the ,indian ploughman speaks to his ox1 or the shepherd calls his flock4 ,to him1 again1 the belief is familiar that the spirits of his ancestors appear in the form of animals1 as among the ,drvidian races they come in the shape of a tiger which attacks the surviving relatives1 or as a chicken which leaves the mark of its footsteps in the ashes when it re-visits its former home4 ,so1 all these people believe that the witch soul wanders about at night1 and for want of a better shape enters into some animal1 takes the form of a tiger or a bear1 or flies through the air like a bird4 ,all through folk-lore we find the idea that man has kinship with animals generally accepted4 ,we constantly find the girl wooed by the frog1 marrying the pigeon1 elephant1 eagle1 or whale4 ,every child in the nursery reads of the frog ,prince1 and no savage sees any particular incongruity in his marriage and transformation4 ,in more than one of the ,indian tales the childless wife longs for a child and is delivered of a snake4 ,the incident of animal metamorphosis is also familiar4 ,thus1 in one of ,somadeva's tales his mistress turns a man into an ox2 in another his wife transforms him into a buffalo2 in a third the angry hermit turns the king into an elephant4 #eda ,everyone remembers the terrific scene of transformation into various animals which makes up the tale of the second ,qalandar in the ,arabian ,nights4 ,animals1 too1 constantly assume other shapes4 ,in one of the ,bengal stories the mouse becomes a cat4 ,in other ,indian tales the golden deer becomes the mannikin demon1 the white hind becomes the white witch1 the hero's mother becomes a black bitch1 the hero himself a parrot1 and so on4 #edb ,in fact a large part of the incidents of ,indian stories turns on various forms of metamorphosis1 and every ,english child knows how the lover of ,earl ,mar's daughter took the shape of a dove4 ,we have again the very common incident in the folk-tales of animals understanding the speech of human beings1 and men learning the tongue of birds1 and the like4 ,solomon1 according to the ,qurn1 knew the language of animals2 in the tales of ,somadeva1 the ,vaisya ,bhshjna knows the language of all beasts and birds1 a faculty which in ,germany is gained by eating a white snake4 #edc ,then there is the large cycle of tales in which the grateful animal warns the hero or heroine of approaching danger1 as in the story of ,bopuluchi1 or brings news1 or produces gold4 ,the idea of grateful animals assisting their benefactors runs through the whole range of folk-lore4 #edd ,another series of cognate ideas has been very carefully analyzed by ,mr4 ,campbell4 ,the spirits of the dead haunt two places1 the house and the tomb4 ,those who haunt the house are friendly2 those who haunt the tomb are unfriendly4 ,two classes of animals correspond to these two classes of spirits--an at-home1 fearless class1 as the snake1 the rat1 flies and ants and bees1 into which the home-haunting or friendly spirits would go2 and a wild1 unsociable class1 such as bats and owls1 dogs1 jackals1 or vultures1 into which the unfriendly or tomb-haunting spirits would go4 ,in the case of some of these tomb-haunting animals1 the dog1 jackal1 and vulture1 the feeling towards them as tomb-haunters seems to have given place to the belief that as the spirit lives in the tomb where the body is laid1 so1 if the body be eaten by an animal1 the spirit lives in the animal1 as in a living tomb4 #ede ,other animals1 again1 are invested with particular qualities1 fierceness and courage1 strength or agility1 and eating part of their flesh1 or wearing a portion as an amulet1 conveys to the possessor the qualities of the animal4 ,a familiar instance of this is the belief in the claws and flesh of the tiger as amulets or charms against disease and the influence of evil spirits4 ,many animals1 too1 are respected for their use to man or as scarers of demons1 as the cow2 as possessors of wisdom1 like the elephant or snake2 as semi-human in origin or character1 as the ape4 ,but it is1 perhaps1 dangerous to attempt1 as ,mr4 ,campbell has done1 to push the classification much farther1 because the respect paid to any particular animal is possibly based on varied and diverging lines of belief4 ,lastly1 as ,mr4 ,frazer has shown1 many animals are regarded as representing the ,corn spirit1 and are either revered or killed in their divine forms to promote the return of vegetation with each recurring spring4 ,horse-worship4 ,to illustrate some of these principles from the worship of certain special animals1 we may begin with the horse4 ,war horses were so highly prized by the early ,aryans in their battles with the aborigines1 that the horse1 under the name of ,dadhikra1 he that scatters the hoar frost like milk1 soon became an object of worship1 and in the ,veda we have a spirited account of the worship paid to this godlike being4 #edf ,another horse often spoken of in the early legends is ,syma ,karna1 he with the black ears1 which alone was considered a suitable victim in the horse sacrifice or ,asvamedha4 ,one hundred horse sacrifices entitled the sacrificer to displace ,indra from heaven1 so the deity was always trying to capture the horse which was allowed to roam about before immolation4 ,the saint ,glava1 who was a pupil of ,visvamitra1 when he had completed his studies1 asked his tutor what fee he should pay4 ,the saint told him that he charged no fee1 but he insisted in asking1 till at last the angry ,rishi said that he would be content with nothing less than a thousand black-eared horses4 ,after long search ,glava found three childless ,rjas1 who had each two hundred such horses1 and they consented to exchange them for sons4 ,glava then went to ,yayti1 whose daughter could bear a son for any one and still remain a virgin4 ,by her means the three ,rjas became fathers of sons1 ,visvamitra took them1 and to make up the number1 had himself two sons by the same mystic bride4 ,in the ,mahbhrata1 ,uchchaihsravas1 he with the long ears1 or he that neighs loudly1 is the king of the horses1 and belongs to ,indra4 ,he is swift as thought1 follows the path of the sun1 and is luminous and white1 with a black tail1 made so by the magic of the serpents1 who have covered it with black hair4 ,in the folk-tales he consorts with mares of mortal birth1 and begets steeds of unrivalled speed1 like the divine ,homeric coursers of neas4 #edg ,in the tales of ,somadeva we find the king addressing his faithful horse1 and praying for his aid in danger1 as ,achilles speaks to his steeds ,xanthos and ,balios1 and in the ,karling legend of ,bayard4 #edh ,we meet also with the horse of ,manidatta1 which was white as the moon2 the sound of its neighing was as musical as that of a clear conch or other sweet-sounding instrument2 it looked like the waves of the sea of milk surging on high2 it was marked with curls on the neck1 and adorned with the crest jewels1 the bracelet1 and other signs1 which it seemed it had acquired by being born in the race of ,gandharvas4 ,at a later mythological stage we meet ,kalki1 the white horse which is to be the last ,avatra of ,vishnu1 and reminds us of the white horse of the ,book of ,revelation4 ,we meet in the ,rig ,veda with ,yatudhanas1 the demon horse1 which feeds now upon human flesh 7like the ,bucephalus of the legend of ,alexander71 now upon horseflesh1 and now upon milk from cows4 ,he has a host of brethren1 such as ,arvan1 half horse1 half bird1 on which the ,daityas are supposed to ride4 ,dadhyanch or ,dadhcha has a curious legend4 ,he was a ,rishiand4 ,indra1 after teaching him the sciences1 threatened to cut his head off if he communicated the knowledge to any one else4 ,but the ,aswins tempted him to disobey the god1 and then1 to save him from the wrath of ,indra1 cut off his head and replaced it with that of a horse4 ,finally ,indra found his horse-head in the lake at ,kurukshetra1 and using it as ,sampson did the jaw-bone of the ass1 he slew the ,asuras4 ,we have1 again1 ,vishnu in the form of ,hayagrva1 or horse-necked1 which he assumed to save the ,veda1 carried off by two ,asuras1 and in another shape he is ,hayasiras or ,hayasrsha1 which vomits forth fire and drinks up the waters4 ,in the ,purnas we meet the ,daitya ,kesi1 who assumes the form of a horse and attacks ,krishna1 but the hero thrusts his hand into his mouth and rends him asunder4 ,a large chapter of ,scottish folk-lore depends on the doings of magic horses such as these4 #edi ,the flying horse of the ,arabian ,nights has been transferred into many of the current folk-tales1 and has found its way into ,european folk-lore4 #eej ,in the same connection we meet the magic bridle2 the flying car1 such as ,pushpaka1 the flying vehicle of ,kuvera1 the god of wealth2 the flying bed1 the ,urn ,khatola of the ,indian tales2 the flying boat1 and the flying shoes4 #eea ,there are numerous other horses famous in ,hindu legend4 ,the saint ,alam ,sayyid of ,baroda was known as ,ghor ,k ,pr1 or the horse saint4 ,his horse was buried near him1 and ,hindus hang images of the animal on trees round his tomb4 #eeb ,we have already spoken of ,gga and his mare ,javdiy4 ,the horse of the king of ,bhilsa or ,bhadrvat was of dazzling brightness1 and regarded as the palladium of the kingdom1 but in spite of all the care bestowed upon it1 it was carried off by the ,pndavas4 ,there is a stock horse miracle story told in connection with ,ll ,beg1 the patron saint of the sweepers4 ,the king of ,delhi lost a valuable horse1 and the sweepers were ordered to bury it1 but as the animal was very fat1 they proceeded to cut it up for themselves1 giving one leg to the king's priest4 ,they took the meat home and proceeded to cook it1 but being short of salt1 they sent an old woman to buy some4 ,she went to the salt merchant's shop and pressed him to serve her at once1 ,if you do not hurry1 said she1 a thousand rupees' worth of meat will be ruined4 ,he informed the king1 who1 suspecting the state of the case1 ordered the sweepers to produce the horse4 ,they were in dismay at the order1 but they laid what was left of the animal on a mound sacred to ,ll ,beg1 and prayed to him to save them1 whereupon the horse stood up1 but only on three legs4 ,so they went to the king and confessed how they had disposed of the fourth leg4 ,the unlucky priest was executed1 and the horse soon after died also4 #eec ,the horse is regarded as a lucky and exceedingly pure animal4 ,when a cooking vessel has become in any way defiled1 a common way of purifying it is to make a horse smell it4 ,in the ,dakkhin it is said that evil spirits will not approach a horse for fear of his foam4 #eed ,in ,northern ,india1 the entry of a man on horseback into a sugar-cane field during sowing time is regarded as auspicious4 ,this taking of omens from horses was well known in ,germany1 and ,tacitus says1 ,proprium gentis equorum praesagia ac monitus experiri1 hinnitus ac fremitus observant4 #eee ,there does not appear to be in ,india any trace of the idea prevalent in ,england that the horse has the power of seeing ghosts1 or that it can cure diseases such as whooping cough4 #eef ,but1 like the bull1 the stallion is believed to scare the demon of barrenness4 ,in the ,rmyana1 ,kausaly touches the stallion in the hope of obtaining sons1 and with the same object the king and queen smell the odour of the burnt marrow or fat of the horse4 ,the water in which a fish is washed has the same effect on women in ,western folk-lore4 ,with the same object1 at the ,asvamedha1 the queen lies at night beside the slain sacrificial horse4 #eeg ,it is popularly supposed that the horse originally had wings1 and that the chestnuts or scars on the legs are the places where the wings originally grew4 ,eating horseflesh is supposed to bring on cramp1 and when a ,sepoy at rifle practice misses the target1 his comrades taunt him with having eaten the unlucky meat4 #eeh ,modern ,horse-worship4 ,of modern horse-worship there are many examples4 ,the ,palliwl ,brhmans of ,jaysalmer worship the bridle of a horse1 which ,colonel ,tod supposes to prove the ,scythic origin of the early colonists1 who were equestrian as well as nomadic4 #eei ,horse-worship is still mixed up with the creed of the ,buddhists of ,yunn1 who doubtless derived it from ,india4 #efj ,in ,western ,india this form of worship is common4 ,it is the chief object of reverence at the ,dasahra festival4 ,some ,rjput ,bhls worship a deity called ,ghordeva or a stone horse2 the ,bhtiyas worship a clay horse at the ,dasahra1 and the ,ojha ,kumhrs erect a clay horse on the sixth day after birth1 and make the child worship it4 ,rag horses are offered at the tombs of saints at ,gujart4 ,the ,kunbis wash their horses on the day of the ,dasahra1 decorate them with flowers1 sacrifice a sheep to them1 and sprinkle the blood on them4 #efa ,the custom among the ,drvidian races of offering clay horses to the local gods has been already noticed4 ,the ,gonds have a horse godling in ,kodapen1 and at the opening of the rainy season they worship a stone in his honour outside the village4 ,a ,gond priest offers a pottery image of the animal and a heifer1 saying1 ,thou art our guardian6 ,protect our oxen and cows6 ,let us live in safety6 #efb ,the heifer is then sacrificed and the meat eaten by the worshippers4 ,the ,devak or marriage guardian of some of the ,dakkhin tribes is a horse4 ,the ,worship of the ,ass4 ,the contempt for the ass seems to have arisen in post-,vedic times4 ,indra had a swift-footed ass1 and one of the epithets of ,vikramaditya was ,gadharbha-rpa1 or he in the form of an ass4 ,the ,vishnu ,purna tells of the demon ,dhenuka1 who took the form of an ass and began to kick ,balarma and ,krishna1 as they were plucking fruit in the demon's grove4 ,balarma seized him1 with sundry of his companions and flung him on the top of a palm tree4 ,khara1 a cannibal ,rkshasa who was killed by ,rma ,chandra1 also used to take the form of an ass4 ,muhammad said1 ,the most ungrateful of all voices is surely the voice of asses4 ,muhammadans believe that the last animal which entered the ark was the ass to which ,ibls was clinging4 ,at the threshold the beast seemed troubled and could enter no farther1 when ,noah said unto him1 ,fie upon thee6 ,come in6 ,but as the ass was still in trouble and did not advance1 ,noah cried1 ,come in1 though the ,devil be with thee6 ,so the ass entered1 and with him ,ibls4 ,thereupon ,noah asked1 ,o enemy of ,allah6 ,who brought thee into the ark8 ,and ,ibls answered1 ,thou art the man1 for thou saidest to the ass1 ',come in1 though the ,devil be with thee6' #efc ,the worship of the ass is chiefly associated with that of ,stal1 whose vehicle he is4 ,the ,agarwla sub-caste of ,banyas have a curious rule of making the bridegroom just before marriage mount an ass4 ,this is done in secret1 and though said to be intended to propitiate the goddess of small-pox1 is possibly a survival of some primitive form of worship4 ,in folk-lore the ass constantly appears4 ,we have in ,somadeva the fable of the ass in the panther's skin1 which also appears in the fifth book of the ,panchatantra4 ,professor ,weber asserts that it was derived from the original in sop1 but this is improbable1 as it is also found in the ,buddhist ,jtakas4 ,in one of the ,kashmr tales we have the bird saying1 ,if any person will peel off the bark of my tree1 pound it1 mix the powder with some of the juice of its leaves and then work it into a ball1 it will be found to work like a charm2 for any one who smells it will be turned into an ass4 #efd ,we have instances of ass transformation in ,apuleius and ,lucian1 and in ,german and other ,western folk-tales4 ,the ,lion4 ,the lion1 from his comparative rarity in ,northern ,india1 appears little in popular belief4 ,it is one of the vehicles of ,prvat1 and rude images of the animal are sometimes placed near shrines dedicated to ,dev4 ,there is a current idea that only one pair of lions exists in the world at the same time4 ,they have two cubs1 a male and a female1 which1 when they arrive at maturity1 devour their parents4 ,in the folk-tales the childless king is instructed that he will find in the forest a boy riding on a lion1 and this will be his son4 ,the lovely maiden in the legend of ,jimutavhana is met riding on a lion4 ,we have the lion ,pingalika1 king of beasts1 with the jackal as his minister1 and in one of the cycle of tales in which the weak animal overcomes the more powerful1 the hare by his wisdom causes the lion to drown himself4 ,the basis of the famous tale of ,androcles is probably ,buddhistic1 but only a faint reference to it is found in ,somadeva4 ,in one of the modern stories the soldier takes a thorn out of the tiger's foot1 and is rewarded with a box which contains a manikin1 who procures for him all he desires4 #efe ,the ,tiger4 ,the tiger naturally takes the place of the lion4 ,according to the comparative mythologists1 the tiger1 panther1 and leopard possess several of the mystical characteristics of the lion as the hidden sun4 ,thus1 ,dionysos and ,siva1 the phallical god par excellence1 have these animals as their emblems4 #eff ,siva1 it is true1 is represented as sitting in his ascetic form on a tiger skin1 but it is his consort1 ,durg1 who uses the animal as her vehicle4 ,quite apart from the solar myth theory1 the belief that witches are changed into tigers1 and the terror inspired by him1 are quite sufficient to account for the honour bestowed upon him4 ,much also of the worship of the tiger is probably of totemistic origin4 ,thus the ,baghel ,rjputs claim descent1 and from him 7bgh1 vyghra1 the spotted one7 derive their name4 ,this tribe will not1 in ,central ,india1 destroy the animal4 ,so1 no consideration will induce a ,sumatran to catch or wound a tiger1 except in self-defence1 or immediately after the tiger has destroyed a friend or a relation4 ,when a ,european has set traps for tigers1 the people of the neighbourhood have been known to go by night to the spot and explain to the tiger that the traps were not set by them1 nor with their consent4 ,the ,bhls and the ,bajrwat ,rjputs of ,rjputna also claim tiger origin4 #efg ,another idea appearing in tiger-worship is that he eats human flesh1 and thus obtains possession of the souls of the victims whom he devours4 ,for this reason a man-eating tiger is supposed to walk along with his head bent1 because the ghosts of his victims sit on it and weigh it down4 #efh ,he is1 again1 often the disguise of a sorcerer of evil temper1 an idea similar to that which was the basis of the ,european dread of lycanthropy and the were-wolf4 ,accounts differ as to the way in which the were-wolf was chosen4 ,according to one account1 a human victim was sacrificed1 one of his bowels was mixed with the bowels of animal victims1 the whole was consumed by the worshippers1 and the man who unwittingly ate the human bowel was changed into a wolf4 ,according to another account1 lots were cast among the members of a particular family1 and he upon whom the lot fell was the were-wolf4 ,being led to the brink of a tarn1 he stripped himself1 hung his clothes on an oak tree1 plunged into the tarn1 and swimming across it1 went into desert places4 ,there he was changed into a wolf1 and herded with wolves for nine years4 ,if he tasted human blood before the nine years were out he had to remain a wolf for ever4 ,if during the nine years he abstained from preying on men1 then1 when the tenth year came round1 he recovered his human shape4 ,similarly1 there is a negro family at the mouth of the ,congo who are supposed to possess the power of turning themselves into leopards in the gloomy depths of the forest4 ,as leopards1 they knock people down1 but do no further harm1 for they think that if1 as leopards1 they once lapped blood1 they would be leopards for ever4 #efi ,hence in ,india the jungle people who are in the way of meeting him will not pronounce his name1 but speak of him as ,gdar1 the jackal1 ,jnwar1 the beast1 or use some other euphemistic term4 ,they do the same in many cases with the wolf and bear1 and though they sometimes hesitate to kill the animal themselves1 they will readily assist sportsmen to destroy him1 and make great rejoicings when he is killed4 ,a ,shikri will break off a branch on the road as he goes along1 and say1 ,as thy life has departed1 so may the tiger die6 ,when he is killed they will bring forward some spirits and pour it on the head of the animal1 addressing him1 ,mahrja6 ,during your life you confined yourself to cattle1 and never injured your human subjects4 ,now that you are dead1 spare us and bless us6 ,in ,akola the gardeners are unwilling to inform the sportsmen of the whereabouts of a tiger or panther which may have taken up its quarters in their plantation1 for they have a superstition that a garden plot loses its fertility from the moment one of these animals is killed there4 ,so1 with the ,ainos of ,japan1 who when a bear is trapped or wounded by an arrow1 go through an apologetic or propitiatory ceremony4 #egj ,in ,nepl they have a regular festival in honour of the tiger known as the ,bgh ,jtra1 in which the worshippers used to dance in the disguise of tigers4 ,tiger-worship among the ,jungle ,races4 ,but1 as is natural1 the worship of the tiger prevails more widely among the jungle races4 ,we have already met with ,bgheswar1 the tiger deity of the ,mirzapur forest tribes4 ,the ,santls also worship him1 and the ,kisns honour him as ,banrja1 or lord of the jungle4 ,they will not kill him1 and believe that in return for their devotion he will spare them4 ,another branch of the tribe does not worship him1 but all swear by him4 ,the ,bhuiyrs1 on the contrary1 have no veneration for him1 and think it their interest to slay him whenever they have an opportunity4 ,the ,jungs take their oaths on earth from an ant-hill1 and on a tiger's skin2 the ant-hill is a sacred object with the ,khariyas1 and the tiger skin is brought in when the ,hos and ,santls are sworn4 ,among the eastern ,santls1 the tiger is worshipped1 but in ,rmgarh only those who have suffered from the animal's ferocity condescend to adore him4 ,if a man is carried off by a tiger1 the ,bgh ,bht1 or ,tiger ghost1 is worshipped1 and an oath on a tiger's skin is considered most solemn4 #ega ,bgh ,deo1 the ,tiger ,godling4 ,further west the ,kurkus of ,hoshangbd worship the tiger godling1 ,bgh ,deo1 who is the ,wgh ,deo of ,berr4 ,at ,petri in ,berr is a sort of altar to ,wgh ,dev1 the tiger goddess1 founded on a spot where a ,gond woman was once seized by a tiger4 ,she is said to have vanished as if by some supernatural agency1 and the ,gonds who desire protection from wild beasts present to her altar gifts of every kind of animal from a cow downwards4 ,a ,gond presides over the shrine and receives the votive offerings4 ,in ,hoshangbd the ,bhomka is the priest of ,bgh ,deo4 ,on him devolves the dangerous duty of keeping tigers out of the boundaries4 ,when a tiger visits a village1 the ,bhomka repairs to ,bgh ,deo1 and makes his offerings to the god1 and promises to repeat them for so many years on condition that the tiger does not appear for that time4 ,the tiger1 on his part1 never fails to fulfil the compact thus solemnly made by his lord2 for he is pre-eminently an upright and honourable beast--'pious withal1' as ,mandeville says1 not faithless or treacherous like the leopard1 whom no compact can bind4 ,some ,bhomkas1 however1 masters of more powerful spell1 are not obliged to rely on the traditional honour of the tiger1 but compel his attendance before ,bgh ,deo2 and such a ,bhomka has been seen1 a very ,daniel among tigers1 muttering his incantations over two or three at a time as they crouched before him4 ,still more mysterious was the power of ,klibht ,bhomka 7now1 alas6 no more74 ,he died1 the victim of misplaced confidence in a ,louis ,napoleon of tigers1 the basest and most bloodthirsty of his race4 ,he had a fine large ,sj tree into which1 when he uttered his spells1 he would drive a nail4 ,on this the tiger came and ratified the contract with enormous paw manual4 ,such was that of ,timr the ,lame1 when he dipped his mighty hand in blood and stamped its impression on a parchment grant4 #egb ,in the same way in other parts of the ,central ,provinces the village sorcerers profess to be able to call tigers from the jungles1 to seize them by the ears1 and control their voracity by whispering to them a command not to come near their villages1 or they pretend to know a particular kind of root1 by burying which they can prevent the beasts of the forest from devouring men or cattle4 ,with the same object they lay on the pathway small models of bedsteads and other things which are supposed to act as charms and stop their advance4 ,magical ,powers of ,dead ,tigers4 ,all sorts of magical powers are ascribed to the tiger after death4 ,the fangs1 the claws1 the whiskers are potent charms1 valuable for love philters and prophylactics against demoniacal influence1 the ,evil ,eye1 disease and death4 ,the milk of a tigress is valuable medicine1 and it is one of the stock impossible tasks or tests imposed upon the hero to find and fetch it1 as he is sent to get the feathers of the eagle1 water from the well of death1 or the mystical cow guarded by ,dnos or ,rkshasas4 #egc ,the fat is considered a valuable remedy for rheumatism and similar maladies4 ,the heart and flesh are tonics1 stimulants and aphrodisiacs1 and give strength and courage to those who use them4 ,the ,miris of ,assam prize tiger's flesh as food for men2 it gives them strength and courage2 but it is not suited for women1 as it would make them too strong-minded4 #egd ,the whiskers are believed1 among other qualities which they possess1 to be a slow poison when taken with food1 and the curious rudimentary clavicles1 known as ,santokh or happiness1 are highly valued as amulets4 ,there is a general belief that a tiger gets a new lobe to his liver every year4 ,a favourite amulet to repel demoniacal influence consists of the whiskers of the tiger or leopard mixed with nail parings1 some sacred root or grass1 and red lead1 and hung on the throat or upper arm4 ,this treatment is particularly valuable in the case of young children immediately after birth4 ,tiger's flesh is also a potent medicine and charm1 and it is burnt in the cow-stall when cattle disease prevails4 ,the flesh of the tiger1 or if that be not procurable1 the flesh of the jackal is burnt in the fields to keep off blight from the crops4 ,tigers1 ,propitiation of4 ,some tigers are supposed to be amenable to courtesy4 ,in one of the ,kashmr tales1 the hero in search of tiger's milk shoots an arrow and pierces one of the teats of the tigress1 to whom he explains that he hoped she would thus be able to suckle her cubs with less trouble4 ,in other tales we find the tiger pacified if he is addressed as ,uncle4 #ege ,so1 ,colonel ,tod describes how a tiger attacked a boy near his camp1 and was supposed to have1 like the fierce ,rkshasa of the ,nepl legend1 released the child when he was addressed as ,uncle4 #egf ,this ,lord of the ,black ,rock1 for such is the designation of the tiger1 is one of the most ancient bourgeois of ,morwan2 his stronghold is ,kla ,pahr1 between this and ,magawr2 and his reign during a long series of years has been unmolested1 notwithstanding numerous acts of aggression on his bovine subjects4 ,indeed1 only two nights before he was disturbed gorging on a buffalo belonging to a poor oilman of ,morwan4 ,whether the tiger was an incarnation of one of the ,mori lords of ,morwan1 tradition does not say2 but neither gun1 bow1 nor spear has ever been raised against him4 ,in return for this forbearance1 it is said1 he never preyed on man2 or if he seized one1 would1 on being entreated with the endearing epithet of ',uncle1' let go his hold4 #egg ,tiger-worship among the ,gonds4 ,among the ,gonds tiger-worship assumes a particularly disgusting form4 ,at marriages among them1 a terrible apparition appears of two demoniacs possessed by ,bgheswar1 the tiger god4 ,they fall ravenously on a bleating kid1 and gnaw it with their teeth till it expires4 ,the manner1 says ,captain ,samuells1 who witnessed the performance1 in which the two men seized the kid with their teeth and killed it was a sight which could only be equalled on a feeding day in the ,zoological ,gardens or a menagerie4 #egh ,men ,metamorphosed into ,tigers4 ,the only visible difference between the ordinary animal and a man metamorphosed into a tiger was explained to ,colonel ,sleeman to consist in the fact that the latter had no tail4 ,in the jungles about ,deori there is said to be a root1 which if a man eats1 he is converted into a tiger on the spot2 and if1 when in this state1 he eats another species of root1 he is turned back into a man again4 ,a melancholy instance of this1 said ,colonel ,sleeman's informant1 occurred in my own father's family when ,i was an infant4 ,his washerman ,raghu was1 like all washermen1 a great drunkard4 ,being seized with a violent desire to ascertain what a man felt like in the state of a tiger1 he went one day to the jungle and brought back two of these roots1 and desired his wife to stand by with one of them1 and the instant she saw him assume the tiger's shape to thrust the root she held into his mouth4 ,she consented1 and the washerman ate his root and instantly became a tiger1 whereupon she was so terrified that she ran off with the antidote in her hand4 ,poor old ,raghu took to the woods1 and there ate a good many of his friends from the neighbouring villages2 but he was at last shot1 and recognized from his having no tail4 ,you may be quite sure when you hear of a tiger having no tail that it is some unfortunate man who has eaten of that root1 and of all the tigers he will be found the most mischievous4 #egi ,this is a curious reversal of the ordinary theory regarding the tail of the tiger1 to which a murderous strength is attributed4 ,a ,hindu proverb says that the hair of a tiger's tail may be the means of losing one's life4 ,this has been compared by ,professor ,de ,gubernatis with the tiger ,mantikora spoken of by ,ktesias1 which has on its tail hairs which are darts thrown by it for the purpose of defence4 #ehj ,a ,nepl legend describes how some children made a clay image of a tiger1 and thinking the figure incomplete without a tongue1 went to fetch a leaf to supply the defect4 ,on their return they found that ,bhairava had entered the image and had begun to devour their sheep4 ,the image of ,bgh ,bhairava and the deified children are still to be seen at this place4 ,we have the same legend in the ,panchatantra and the tales of ,somadeva1 where four ,brhmans resuscitate a tiger and are devoured by it4 #eha ,we have many instances in the folk-tales of the tiger befooled4 ,in one of the tales told by the ,mnjhis of ,mirzapur the goat has kids in the tiger's den1 and when he arrives she makes her kids squall and pretends that she wants some tiger's flesh for them4 #ehb ,in a ,panjbi tale the farmer's wife rides up to the tiger calling out1 ,i hope ,i may find a tiger in this field1 for ,i have not tasted tiger's flesh since the day before yesterday1 when ,i killed three1 whereupon the tiger runs away4 ,the tale which tells how the jackal succeeds in getting the tiger back into the cage and thus saves the ,brhman is common in ,indian folk-lore4 #ehc ,dog-worship4 ,in the ,nepl legend which we have been discussing we find ,bhairava associated with the tiger1 but his prototype1 the local godling ,bhairon1 has the dog as his sacred animal1 and his is the only temple in ,benares into which the dog is admitted4 #ehd ,two conflicting lines of thought seem to meet in dog-worship4 ,as ,mr4 ,campbell says1 ,there is a good house-guarding dog1 and an evil scavenging and tomb-haunting dog4 ,some of the products of the dog are so valued in driving off spirits that they seem to be a distinct element in the feeling of respect shown to the dog4 ,still it seems better to consider the dog as a man-eater1 and to hold that1 like the tiger1 this was the original reason why the dog was considered a guardian4 #ehe ,it is perhaps in this connection that the dog is associated with ,yama1 the god of death4 ,an ancient epithet of the dog is ,kritajna1 he that is mindful of favours1 which is also a title of ,siva4 ,the most touching episode of the ,mahbhrata is where ,yudhisthira refuses to enter the heaven of ,indra without his favourite dog1 which is really ,yama in disguise4 ,these dogs of ,yama probably correspond to the ,orthros and ,kerberos of the ,greeks1 and ,kerberos has been connected etymologically with ,sarvari1 which is an epithet of the night1 meaning originally dark or pale4 #ehf ,the same idea shows itself in the ,prsi respect for the dog1 which may be traced to the belief of the early ,persians4 ,the dog's muzzle is placed near the mouth of the dying ,prsi in order that it may receive his parting breath and bear it to the waiting angel1 and the destruction of a corpse by dogs is looked on with no feeling of abhorrence4 ,the same idea is found in ,buddhism1 where on the early coins the figure of a dog in connection with a ,buddhist ,stpa recalls to mind the use to which the animal was put in the bleak highlands of ,asia in the preferential form of sepulchre over exposure to birds and wild beasts in the case of deceased monks or persons of position in ,tibet4 ,strange and horrible as it may seem to us to be devoured by domestic dogs1 trained and bred for the purpose1 it was the most honourable form of burial among ,tibetans4 #ehg ,the ,kois of ,central ,india hold in great respect the ,pndava brethren ,arjuna and ,bhma4 ,the wild dogs or ,dhol are regarded as the ,dtas or messengers of the heroes1 and the long black beetles which appear in large numbers at the beginning of the hot weather are called the ,pndavas' goats4 ,none of them will on any account interfere with these divine dogs1 even when they attack their cattle4 #ehh ,dog-worship3 ,bhairon4 ,in modern times dog-worship appears specially in connection with the cultus of ,bhairon1 the ,brhmanical ,bhairava1 the ,bhairoba of ,western ,india4 ,no ,martha will lift his hand against a dog1 and in ,bombay many ,hindus worship the dog of ,kla ,bhairava1 though the animal is considered unclean by them4 ,khand ,ro or ,khandoba or ,khandoji is regarded as an incarnation of ,siva and much worshipped by ,marthas4 ,he is most frequently represented as riding on horseback and attended by a dog and accompanied by his wife ,malsur1 another form of ,prvat4 ,his name is usually derived from the ,khanda or sword which he carries1 but ,professor ,oppert without much probability would connect it with that of the aboriginal ,khndhs who are supposed to have been original settlers in ,khndesh1 after whom it was called4 #ehi ,in many temples of ,bhaironnth1 as at ,benares and ,hardwr1 he is depicted on the wall in a deep blue colour approaching to black1 and behind him is the figure of the dog on which he rides4 ,sweetmeat sellers make little images of a dog in sugar1 which are presented to the deity as an offering4 ,at ,lohru1 in the ,panjb1 a common-looking grave is much respected by the ,hindus4 ,it is said to contain the remains of a dog formerly possessed by the chief of the victorious ,thkurs1 which is credited with having done noble service in battle1 springing up and seizing the wounded warriors' throats1 many of whom it slew4 ,finally it was killed and buried on the spot with beat of drum1 and has since been an object of worship and homage4 ,were it not1 says ,general ,cunningham1 for the ,sagparast of ,naishapur1 mentioned in ,khusru's charming ,darvesh tales1 this example of dog-worship would probably be unique4 #eij ,this is1 it is hardly necessary to say1 a mistake4 ,thus1 close to ,bulandshahr1 there is a grove with four tombs1 which are said to be the resting-place of three holy men and their favourite dog1 which died when the last of the saints departed this life4 ,they were buried together1 and their tombs are held in much respect by ,muhammadans4 #eia ,in ,pna1 ,datttreya is guarded by four dogs which are said to stand for the four ,vedas1 and at ,jejuri and ,ngpur children are dedicated to the dogs of ,khand ,ro4 ,the ,ghisdis1 on the seventh day after a birth1 go and worship water1 and on coming back rub their feet on a dog4 ,at ,dharwr1 on the fair day of the ,dasahra at ,malahri's temple1 the ,vggayya ministrants dress in blue woollen coats and meet with bell and skins tied round their middles1 the pilgrims barking and howling like dogs4 ,each ,vggayya has a wooden bowl into which the pilgrims put milk and plantains4 ,then the ,vggayyas lay down the bowls1 fight with each other like dogs1 and putting their mouths into the bowls1 eat the contents4 #eib ,in ,nepl1 there is a festival1 known as the ,khich ,pj1 in which worship is done to dogs1 and garlands of flowers are placed round the neck of every dog in the country4 #eic ,among the ,gonds1 if a dog dies or is born1 the family has to undergo purification4 #eid ,dogs in ,folk-lore3 ,the ,bethgelert ,legend4 ,the famous tale of ,bethgelert1 the faithful hound which saves the child of his master from the wolf and is killed by mistake1 appears all through the folk-tales and was probably derived from ,india4 ,in the ,indian version the dog usually belongs to a ,banya or to a ,banjra1 who mortgages him to a merchant4 ,the merchant is robbed and the dog discovers the stolen goods4 ,in his gratitude the merchant ties round the neck of the dog a scrap of paper1 on which he records that the debt has been satisfied4 ,the dog returns to his original master1 who upbraids him for deserting his post1 and1 without looking at the paper1 kills him1 only to be overcome by remorse when he learns the honesty of the faithful beast4 ,this famous tale is told at ,haidarbd1 ,lucknow1 ,stapur1 ,mirzapur1 and ,kashmr4 ,in its more usual form1 as in the ,panchatantra and the collection of ,somadeva1 the mungoose takes the place of the dog and kills the cobra on the baby's cradle4 #eie ,throughout folk-lore the dog is associated with the spirits of the dead1 as we have seen to be the case with ,syma1 the black one1 and ,sabala or ,karvara1 the spotted ones1 the attendants of ,yama4 #eif ,hence the dog is regarded as the guardian of the household1 which they protect from evil spirits4 ,according to ,aubrey1 #eig all over ,england a spayed bitch is accounted wholesome in a house2 that is to say they have a strong belief that it keeps away evil spirits from haunting of a house4 ,as in the ,odyssey1 the two swift hounds of ,telemachus bear him company and recognize ,athene when she is invisible to others1 and the dogs of ,virgil howl when the goddess approaches1 so the ,muhammadans believe that dogs recognize ,azral1 the angel of death1 and in ,northern ,india it is supposed that dogs have the power of seeing spirits1 and when they see one they howl4 ,in ,shakespeare ,king ,henry says3-- ,the owl shriek'd at thy birth1 an evil sign2 ,the night-crow cried1 aboding luckless time2 ,dogs howled and hideous tempests shook down trees4 ,hence in all countries the howling of dogs in the vicinity of a house is an omen of approaching misfortune4 ,the respect for the dog is well shown in the case of the ,bauris of ,bengal1 who will on no account kill a dog or touch its body1 and the water of a tank in which a dog has been drowned cannot be used until an entire rainy season has washed the impurity away4 ,they allege that as they kill cows and most other animals1 they deem it right to fix on some beast which should be as sacred to them as the cow to the ,brhman1 and they selected the dog because it was a useful animal when alive and not very nice to eat when dead1 a neat reconciliation of the twinges of conscience and cravings of appetite4 #eih ,various omens are in the ,panjb drawn from dogs4 ,when out hunting1 if they lie on their backs and roll1 as they generally do when they find a tuft of grass or soft ground1 it shows that plenty of game will be found4 ,if a dog lies quietly on his back in the house1 it is a bad omen1 for the superstition runs that the dog is addressing heaven for support1 and that some calamity is bound to happen4 #eii ,we have seen already that some of the ,central ,indian tribes respect the wild dog4 ,the same is the case in the ,hills1 where they are known as ,god's hounds1 and no native sportsman will kill them4 #fjj ,in one of ,grimm's tales we read that the ,lord ,god had created all animals1 and had chosen out the wolf to be his dog1 and the dogs of ,odin were wolves4 #fja ,another sacred dog in ,indian folk-lore is that of the hunter ,shambuka4 ,his master threw him into the sacred pool of ,uradh in the ,himlaya4 ,coming out dripping1 he shook some of the water on his owner1 and such was the virtue of even this partial ablution that on their death both hunter and dog were summoned to the heaven of ,siva4 #fjb ,all over ,northern ,india the belief in the curative power of the tongue of the dog widely prevails4 ,in ,ireland they say that a dried tongue of a fox will draw out thorns1 however deep they be1 and an old late ,latin verse says3-- ,in cane bis bina sunt1 et lingua medicina ,naris odoratus1 amor intiger1 atque latratus4 #fjc ,among ,musalmns the dog is impure4 ,the vessel it drinks from must be washed seven times and scrubbed with earth4 ,the ,qurn directs that before a dog is slipped in chase of game1 the sportsman should call out1 ,in the name of ,god1 the great ,god6 ,then all game seized by him becomes lawful food4 ,the ,goat4 ,the goat is another animal to which mystic powers are attributed4 ,in the mythology of the ,west he is associated with ,dionysos1 ,pan1 and the ,satyr4 ,in ,england it is commonly believed that he is never seen for twenty-four hours together1 and that once in this space he pays a visit to the ,devil to have his beard combed4 #fjd ,the ,devil1 they say1 sometimes appears in this form1 which accounts for his horns and tail4 ,the wild goat was associated with the worship of ,artemis1 the ,arab unmarried goddess4 #fje ,in the ,rmyana1 ,agamukh1 or goat's face1 is the witch who wishes ,st to be torn to pieces4 ,mr4 ,conway asks whether this idea about the goat is due to the smell of the animal1 its butting and injury to plants1 or was it demonized merely because of its uncanny and shaggy appearance8 #fjf ,probably the chief reason is because it has a curious habit of occasionally shivering1 which is regarded as caused by some indwelling spirit4 ,the ,thags in their sacrifice used to select two goats1 black1 and perfect in all their parts4 ,they were bathed and made to face the west1 and if they shook themselves and threw the water off their hair1 they were regarded as a sacrifice acceptable to ,dev4 ,hence in ,india a goat is led along a disputed boundary1 and the place where it shivers is regarded as the proper line4 ,plutarch says that the ,greeks would not sacrifice a goat if it did not shiver when water was thrown over it4 ,in the ,panjb it is believed that when a goat kills a snake it eats it and then ruminates1 after which it spits out a ,manka or bead1 which1 when applied to a snake-bite1 absorbs the poison and swells4 ,if it be then put in milk and squeezed1 the poison drips out of it like blood1 and the patient is cured4 ,if it is not put in milk1 it will burst to pieces4 #fjg ,it hence resembles the ,ovum ,anguinum1 or ,druid's ,egg1 to which reference has been already made4 #fjh ,if a person suffers from spleen1 they take the spleen of a he-goat1 if the patient be a male2 or of a she-goat1 if the patient be a female4 ,it is rubbed on the region of the spleen seven times on a ,sunday or ,tuesday1 pierced with acacia thorns and hung on a tree4 ,as the goat's spleen dries1 the spleen of the patient reduces4 ,the horn is regarded as somehow most closely connected with the brain4 ,so1 in the ,merry ,wives of ,windsor1 ,mrs4 ,quickly says3 ,if he had found the young man1 he would have been horn mad1 and ,horace gives the advice1 ,fenum habet in cornu longe fuge4 ,martial describes how in his time the ,roman shrines were covered with horns1 ,dissimulatque deum cornibus ora frequens4 #fji ,it is for this reason that the local shrines in the ,himlaya are decorated with horns of the wild sheep1 ibex1 and goat4 ,in ,persia many houses are adorned with rams' heads fixed to the corners near the roof1 which are to protect the building from misfortune4 ,in ,bilochistn and ,afghanistn it is customary to place the horns of the wild goat and sheep on the walls of forts and mosques4 #faj ,akbar covered his ,kos ,minars or mile-stones with the horns of the deer he had killed4 ,the conical support of the ,banjra woman's head-dress was originally a horn1 and many classes of ,faqrs tie a piece of horn round their necks4 ,we have the well-known horn of plenty1 and it is very common in the folk-tales to find objects taken out of the ears or horns of the helpful animals4 #faa ,goat and ,totemism4 ,we perhaps get a glimpse of totemism in connection with the goat in some of the early ,hindu legends4 ,when ,parusha1 the primeval man1 was divided into his male and female parts1 he produced all the animals1 and the goat was first formed out of his mouth4 ,there is1 again1 a mystical connection between ,agni1 the fire god1 ,brhmans1 and goats1 as between ,indra1 the ,kshatriyas1 and sheep1 ,vaisyas and kine1 ,sdras and the horse4 ,these may possibly have been tribal totems of the races by whom these animals were venerated4 #fab ,the sheep1 as we have already seen1 is a totem of the ,keriyas4 ,the ,aheriyas1 a vagrant tribe of the ,north-,western ,provinces1 worship ,mekhasura or ,meshasura in the form of a ram4 ,cow and ,bull ,worship4 ,but the most famous of these animal totems or fetishes is the cow or bull4 ,according to the school of comparative mythology the bull which bore away ,europe from ,kadmos is the same from which the dawn flies in the ,vedic hymn4 ,he1 according to this theory1 is the bull ,indra1 which1 like the sun1 traverses the heaven1 bearing the dawn from east to west4 ,but the ,cretan bull1 like his fellow in the ,gnossian labyrinth1 who devours the tribute children from the city of the ,dawn goddess1 is a dark and malignant monster1 akin to the throttling snake who represents the powers of night and darkness4 #fac ,this may be so1 but the identification of primitive religion1 in all its varied phases1 with the sun or other physical phenomena is open to the obvious objection that it limits the ideas of the early ,aryans to the weather and their dairies1 and antedates the regard for the cow to a period when the animal was held in much less reverence than it is at present4 ,respect for the ,cow ,modern4 ,that the respect for the cow is of comparatively modern date is best established on the authority of a writer1 himself a ,hindu4 ,animal food was in use in the ,epic period1 and the cow and bull were often laid under requisition4 ,in the ,aitareya ,brhmana1 we learn that an ox1 or a cow which suffers miscarriage1 is killed when a king or honoured guest is received4 ,in the ,brhmana of the ,black ,yajur ,veda the kind and character of the cattle which should be slaughtered in minor sacrifices for the gratification of particular divinities are laid down in detail4 ,thus a dwarf one is to be sacrificed to ,vishnu1 a drooping-horned bull to ,indra1 a thick-legged cow to ,vyu1 a barren cow to ,vishnu and ,varuna1 a black cow to ,pshan1 a cow having two colours to ,mitra and ,varuna1 a red cow to ,indra1 and so on4 ,in a larger and more important ceremonial1 like the ,aswamedha1 no less than one hundred and eighty domestic animals1 including horses1 bulls1 goats1 sheep1 deer1 etc41 were sacrificed4 ,the same ,brhmana lays down instructions for carving1 and the ,gopatha ,brhmana tells us who received the portions4 ,the priests got the tongue1 the neck1 the shoulder1 the rump1 the legs1 etc41 while the master of the house wisely appropriated to himself the sirloin1 and his wife had to be satisfied with the pelvis4 ,plentiful libations of ,soma beer were to be allowed to wash down the meat4 ,in the ,satapatha ,brhmana we have a detailed account of the slaughter of a barren cow and its cooking4 ,in the same ,brhmana there is an amusing discussion as to the propriety of eating the meat of an ox or cow4 ,the conclusion is not very definite4 ',let him 7the priest7 not eat the flesh of the cow and the ox4' ,nevertheless ,yajnavalkya said 7taking apparently a very practical view of the matter71 ',i1 for one1 eat it1 provided it is tender4' #fad ,the evidence that cows were freely slaughtered in ancient times could be largely extended4 ,it is laid down in the early laws that the meat of milch cows and oxen may be eaten1 and a guest is called a ,goghna or cow-killer1 because a cow was killed for his entertainment4 #fae ,in the ,grihya ,stra we have a description of the sacrifice of an ox to ,kshetrapati1 the lord of the fields4 ,in another ancient ritual the sacrifice of a cow is stated to be very similar to that of the ,sat1 and1 according to an early legend1 kine were created from ,parusha1 the primal male1 and are to be eaten as they were formed from the receptacle of food4 #faf ,it need hardly be said that the worship of the cow is not peculiar to ,india1 but prevails widely in various parts of the world4 #fag ,origin of ,cow-worship4 ,the explanation of the origin of cow-worship has been a subject of much controversy4 ,the modern ,hindu1 if he has formed any distinct ideas at all on the subject1 bases his respect for the cow on her value for supplying milk1 and for general agricultural purposes4 ,the ,panchagvya1 or five products of the cow--milk1 curds1 butter1 urine1 and dung--are efficacious as scarers of demons1 are used as remedies in disease1 and play a very important part in domestic ritual ,gaurochana1 a bright yellow pigment prepared from the urine or bile of the cow1 or1 as is said by some1 vomited by her or found in her head1 is used for making the sectarial mark1 and as a sedative1 tonic1 and anthelmintic4 ,in ,bombay it is specially used as a remedy for measles1 which is considered to be a spirit disease4 #fah ,there is1 again1 something to be said for the theory which finds in these animals tribal totems and fetishes4 #fai ,we have a parallel case among the ,jews1 where the bull was probably the ancient symbol of the ,hyksos1 which the ,israelites having succeeded them could adopt1 especially as it may have been retained in use by their confederates the ,midianites2 and it appears in the earliest annals of ,israel as a token of the former supremacy of ,joseph and his tribe1 and was subsequently adopted as an image of ,iahveh himself4 ,so1 speaking of ,egypt1 ,mr4 ,frazer writes3 ,osiris was regularly identified with the bull ,apis of ,memphis and the bull ,mnevis of ,heliopolis4 ,but it is hard to say whether these bulls were embodiments of him as the corn spirit1 as the red oxen appear to have been1 or whether they were not entirely distinct deities which got fused with ,osiris by syncretism4 ,the fact that these two bulls were worshipped by all the ,egyptians1 seems to put them on a different footing from the ordinary sacred animals1 whose cults were purely local4 ,hence1 if the latter were evolved from totems1 as they probably were1 some other origin would have to be found for the worship of ,apis and ,mnevis4 ,if these bulls were not originally embodiments of the corn god ,osiris1 they may possibly be descendants of the sacred cattle worshipped by a pastoral people4 ,if this were so1 ancient ,egypt would exhibit a stratification of the three great types of religion corresponding to the three great stages of society4 ,totemism or 7roughly speaking7 the worship of wild animals--the religion of society in the hunting stage--would be represented by the worship of the local sacred animals2 the worship of cattle--the religion of society in the pastoral stage--would be represented by the cults of ,apis and ,mnevis2 and the worship of cultivated plants1 especially of corn--the religion of society in the agricultural stage--would be represented by the worship of ,osiris and ,isis4 ,the ,egyptian reverence for cows1 which were never killed1 might belong either to the second or third of these stages4 #fbj ,there is some evidence that the same process of religious development may have taken place in ,india4 ,it is at least significant that the earlier legends represent ,indra as created from a cow2 and we know that ,indra was the ,kuladevat or family godling of the race of the ,kusikas1 as ,krishna was probably the clan deity of some powerful confederation of ,rjput tribes4 ,cow-worship is thus closely connected with ,indra and with ,krishna in his forms as the herdman god1 ,govinda or ,gopla2 and it is at least plausible to conjecture that the worship of the cow may have been due to the absorption of the animal as a tribal totem of the two races1 who venerated these two divinities4 ,further1 the phallic significance of the worship1 in its modern form at least1 and its connection with fertility cannot be altogether ignored4 #fba ,this is particularly shown in the close connection between ,siva's bull ,nandi and the ,lingam worship2 and there seems reason to suspect that the bull is intended to intercept the evil influences which in the popular belief are continually emitted from the female principle through the ,yon4 ,as we have already seen1 the dread of this form of pollution is universal4 ,hence when the ,lingam is set up in a new village the people are careful in turning the spout of the ,yon towards the jungle1 and not in the direction of the roads and houses1 lest its evil influence should be communicated to them2 and in order still further to secure this object1 the bull ,nandi is placed sitting as a guardian between the ,yon and the inhabited site4 #fbb ,cow-worship assumes another form in connection with the theory of transmigration4 ,it has become part of the theory that the soul migrates into the cow immediately preceding its assumption of the human form1 and she escorts the soul across the dreaded river ,vaitaran1 which bounds the lower world4 ,cow-worship3 ,its ,later ,development4 ,though cow-worship was little known in the ,vedic period1 by the time of the compilation of the ,institutes of ,manu it had become part of the popular belief4 ,he classes the slaughter of a cow or bull among the deadly sins2 the preserver of a cow or a ,brhman atones for the crime of killing a priest2 #fbc and we find constant references in the medival folk-lore to the impiety of the ,savaras and other ,drvidian races who killed and ate the sacred animal4 ,saktideva one day1 as he was standing on the roof of his palace1 saw a ,chandla coming along with a load of cow's flesh1 and said to his beloved ,vindumat3 ',look1 slender one6 ,how can the evil-doer eat the flesh of cows1 that are the object of veneration to the three worlds8' ,then ,vindumat1 hearing that1 said to her husband3 ',the wickedness of this act is inconceivable2 what can we say in palliation of it8 ,i have been born in this race of fishermen for a very small offence owing to the might of cows4 ,but what can atone for this man's sin8' #fbd ,re-birth through the ,cow4 ,when the horoscope forebodes some crime or special calamity1 the child is clothed in scarlet1 a colour which repels evil influences1 and tied on the back of a new sieve1 which1 as we have seen1 is a powerful fetish4 ,this is passed through the hindlegs of a cow1 forward through the forelegs towards the mouth1 and again in the reverse direction1 signifying the new birth from the sacred animal4 ,the usual worship and aspersion take place1 and the father smells his child1 as the cow smells her calf4 ,this rite is known as the ,hiranyagarbha1 and not long since the ,mahrja of ,travancore was passed in this way through a cow of gold4 #fbe ,the same idea is illustrated in the legend of the ,pushkar ,lake1 which probably represents a case of that fusion of races which undoubtedly occurred in ancient times4 ,the story runs that ,brahma proposed to do worship there1 but was perplexed where he should perform the sacrifice1 as he had no temple on earth like the other gods4 ,so he collected all the other gods1 but the sacrifice could not proceed as ,savitr alone was absent2 and she refused to come without ,lakshm1 ,prvat1 and ,indrn4 ,on hearing of her refusal1 ,brahma was wroth1 and said to ,indra3 ,search me out a girl that ,i may marry her and commence the sacrifice1 for the jar of ambrosia weighs heavy on my head4 ,accordingly ,indra went and found none but a ,gjar's daughter1 whom he purified1 and passing her through the body of a cow1 brought her to ,brahma1 telling him what he had done4 ,vishnu said3 ,brhmans and cows are really identical2 you have taken her from the womb of a cow1 and this may be considered a second birth4 ,siva said3 ,as she has passed through a cow1 she shall be called ,gyatr4 ,the ,brhmans agreed that the sacrifice might now proceed2 and ,brahma having married ,gyatr1 and having enjoined silence upon her1 placed on her head the jar of ambrosia and the sacrifice was performed4 #fbf ,respect ,paid to the ,cow4 ,the respect paid to the cow appears everywhere in folk-lore4 ,we have the cow ,kmadhen1 known also as ,kmadugh or ,kmaduh1 the cow of plenty1 ,saval1 the spotted one1 and ,surabh1 the fragrant one1 which grants all desires4 ,among many of the lower castes the cow-shed becomes the family temple4 #fbg ,in the old ritual1 the bride1 on entering her husband's house1 was placed on a red bull's hide as a sign that she was received into the tribe1 and in the ,soma sacrifice the stones whence the liquor was produced were laid on the hide of a bull4 ,when a disputed boundary is under settlement1 a cow skin is placed over the head and shoulders of the arbitrator1 who is thus imbued with the divine influence1 and gives a just decision4 ,it is curious that until quite recently there was a custom in the ,hebrides of sewing up a man in the hide of a bull1 and leaving him for the night on a hill-top1 that he might become a spirit medium4 #fbh ,the pious ,hindu touches the cow's tail at the moment of dissolution1 and by her aid he is carried across the dread river of death4 ,i have more than once seen a criminal ascend the scaffold with the utmost composure when he was allowed to grasp a cow's tail before the hangman did his office4 ,the tail of the cow is also used in the marriage ritual1 and the tail of the wild cow1 though nowadays only used by grooms1 was once the symbol of power1 and waved over the ruler to protect him from evil spirits4 ,quite recently ,i found that one of the chief ,brhman priests at the sacred pool of ,hardwr keeps a wild cow's tail to wave over his clients1 and scare demons from them when they are bathing in the ,brahma ,kund or sacred pool4 ,the ,hill legend tells how ,siva once manifested himself in his fiery form1 and ,vishnu and ,brahma went in various directions to see how far the light extended4 ,on their return ,vishnu declared that he had been unable to find out how far the light prevailed2 but ,brahma said that he had gone beyond its limits4 ,vishnu then called on ,kmadhen1 the celestial cow1 to bear testimony1 and she corroborated ,brahma with her tongue1 but she shook her tail by way of denying the statement4 ,so ,vishnu cursed her that her mouth should be impure1 but that her tail should be held holy for ever4 #fbi ,modern ,cow-worship4 ,there are numerous instances of modern cow-worship4 ,the ,jts and ,gjars adore her under the title of ,g ,mt1 ,mother cow4 ,the cattle are decorated and supplied with special food on the ,gopashtam or ,gokulashtam festival1 which is held in connection with the ,krishna cultus4 ,in ,nepl there is a ,newri festival1 known as the ,g ,jtra1 or cow feast1 when all persons who have lost relations during the year ought to disguise themselves as cows and dance round the palace of the king4 #fcj ,in many of the ,central ,indian ,states1 about the time of the ,diwl1 the ,maun ,charn1 or silent tending of cattle1 is performed4 ,the celebrants rise at daybreak1 wash and bathe1 anoint their bodies with oil1 and hang garlands of flowers round their necks4 ,all this time they remain silent and communicate their wants by signs4 ,when all is ready they go to the pasture in procession in perfect silence4 ,each of them holds a peacock's feather over his shoulder to scare demons4 ,they remain in silence with the cattle for an hour or two1 and then return home4 ,this is followed by an entertainment of wrestling among the ,ahrs or cowherds4 ,when night has come1 a gun is fired1 and the ,mahrja breaks his fast and speaks4 ,the rite is said to be in commemoration of ,krishna feeding the cows in the pastures of the land of ,braj4 #fca ,during an eclipse1 the cow1 if in calf1 is rubbed on the horns and belly with red ochre to repel the evil influence1 and prevent the calf being born blemished4 ,cattle are not worked on the ,amvas or ,ides of the month4 ,there are many devices1 such as burning tiger's flesh1 and similar prophylactics1 in the cow-house to drive away the demon of disease4 ,so1 on ,new ,year's ,day the ,highlander used to fumigate his cattle shed with the smoke of juniper4 #fcb ,cow hair is regarded as an amulet against disease and danger1 in the same way as the hair of the yak was valued by the people of ,central ,asia in the time of ,marco ,polo4 #fcc ,an ox with a fleshy excrescence on his eye is regarded as sacred1 and is known as ,nadiya or ,nandi1 the happy one1 the title of the bull of ,siva4 ,he is not used for agriculture1 but given to a ,jogi1 who covers him with cowry shells1 and carries him about on begging excursions4 ,one of the most unpleasant sights at the great bathing fairs1 such as those of ,prayg or ,hardwr1 is the malformed cows and oxen which beggars of this class carry about and exhibit4 ,the ,gonds kill a cow at a funeral1 and hang the tail on the grave as a sign that the ceremonies have been duly performed4 #fcd ,the ,kurkus sprinkle the blood of a cow on the grave1 and believe that if this be not done the spirit of the departed refuses to rest1 and returns upon earth to haunt the survivors4 #fce ,the ,vrishotsarga practised by ,hindus on the eleventh day after death1 when a bull calf is branded and let loose in the name of deceased1 is apparently an attempt to shift on the animal the burden of the sins of the dead man1 if it be not a survival of an actual sacrifice4 ,feeling against ,cow-killing4 ,of the unhappy agitation against cow-killing1 which has been in recent years such a serious problem to the ,british ,government in ,northern ,india1 nothing further can be said here4 ,to the orthodox ,hindu1 killing a cow1 even accidentally1 is a serious matter1 and involves the feeding of ,brhmans and the performance of pilgrimages4 ,in the ,hills a special ritual is prescribed in the event of a plough ox being killed by accident4 #fcf ,the idea that misfortune follows the killing of a cow is common4 ,it used to be said that storms arose on the ,pr ,panjl ,pass in ,kashmr if a cow was killed4 #fcg ,general ,sleeman gives a case at ,sgar1 where an epidemic was attributed to the practice of cattle slaughter1 and a popular movement arose for its suppression4 #fch ,sindhia offered ,sir ,john ,malcolm in #ahjb an additional cession of territory if he would introduce an article into the ,treaty with the ,british ,government prohibiting the slaughter of cows within the territory he had been already compelled to abandon4 ,the ,emperor ,akbar ordered that cattle should not be killed during the ,pachsar1 or twelve sacred days observed by the ,jainas2 ,sir ,john ,malcolm gives a copy of the original ,firmn4 #fci ,cow-killing is to this day prohibited in orthodox ,hindu ,states1 like ,nepl4 ,bull-worship among ,banjras4 ,there is a good example of bull-worship among the wandering tribe of ,banjras4 ,when sickness occurs1 they lead the sick man to the foot of the bullock called ,hatdiya2 for though they say that they pay reverence to images1 and that their religion is that of the ,sikhs1 the object of their worship is this ,hatdiya1 a bullock devoted to the god ,blaj4 ,on this animal no burden is ever laid1 but he is decorated with streamers of red-dyed silk and tinkling bells1 with many brass chains and rings on neck and feet1 and strings of cowry shells and silken tassels hanging in all directions4 ,he moves steadily at the head of the convoy1 and the place he lies down on when tired1 that they make their halting-place for the day4 ,at his feet they make their vows when difficulties overtake them1 and in illness1 whether of themselves or cattle1 they trust to his worship for a cure4 ,the respect paid by ,banjras to cattle seems1 however1 to be diminishing4 ,once upon a time they would never sell cattle to a butcher1 but nowadays it is an every-day occurrence4 #fdj ,superstitions about ,cattle4 ,infinite are the superstitions about cattle1 their marks1 and every kind of peculiarity connected with them1 and this has been embodied in a great mass of rural rhymes and proverbs which are always on the lips of the people4 ,thus1 for instance1 it is unlucky for a cow to calve in the month of ,bhdon4 ,the remedy is to swim it in a stream1 sell it to a ,muhammadan1 or in the last resort give it away to a ,gujarti ,brhman4 ,here may be noticed the curious prejudice against the use of a cow's milk1 which prevails among some tribes such as the ,hos and some of the aboriginal tribes of ,bengal4 ,the latter use a species of wild cattle1 the ,mithun1 for milking purposes1 but will not touch the milk of the ordinary cow4 #fda ,the ,buffalo4 ,the respect paid to the cow does not fully extend to the buffalo4 ,the buffalo is the vehicle of ,yama1 the god of death4 ,the female buffalo is in ,western ,india regarded as the incarnation of ,savitr1 wife of ,brahma1 the ,creator4 ,durg or ,bhavn killed the buffalo-shaped ,asura ,mahisa1 ,mahissura1 after whom ,maisr is called4 ,according to the legend as told in the ,mrkandeya ,purna1 ,dit1 having lost all her sons1 the ,asuras1 in the fight with the gods1 turned herself into a buffalo in order to annihilate them4 ,she underwent such terrible austerities to propitiate ,brahma1 that the whole world was shaken and the saint ,suparsva disturbed at his devotions4 ,he cursed ,dit that her son should be in the shape of a buffalo1 but ,brahma so far mitigated the curse that only his head was to be that of a buffalo4 ,this was ,mahissura1 who ill-treated the gods1 until they appealed to ,vishnu and ,siva1 who jointly produced a lovely representation of a ,bhavn1 the ,mahissurmardan1 who slew the monster4 ,this ,mahissura is supposed to be the origin of the godling ,mahasoba1 worshipped in ,western ,india in the form of a rude stone covered with red lead4 ,another of these buffalo demons is ,dundubhi1 he that roars like the sound of the kettle-drum1 who in the ,rmyana bursts with his horns the cavern of ,bali1 son of ,indra and king of monkeys4 ,bali seized him by the horns and dashed him to pieces4 ,the comparative mythologists regard him as one of the forms of the cloud monster the sun4 #fdb ,sadasiva1 one of the forms of ,mahdeva1 took the form of a buffalo to escape the ,pndavas1 and sank into the ground at ,kedrnth4 ,the upper portion of his body is said to have come to the surface at ,mukhr ,bind in ,nepl1 where he is worshipped as ,pasupatintha4 ,when the ,pndavas were freed from their guilt1 they in their gratitude built five temples in honour of the hinder parts of the deity1 which are now known as the ,pnch ,kedr-,kedarnth1 ,madhya ,maheswar1 ,rudranth1 ,tungunth1 and ,kalpeswar4 ,the buffalo is constantly sacrificed at shrines in honour of ,durg ,dev4 ,the ,toda worship of the buffalo is familiar to all students of ,indian ethnology4 ,the ,antelope4 ,the black buck was in all probability the tribal totem of some of the races occupying the country anciently known as ryvarta4 ,mr4 ,campbell accounts for the respect paid to the animal by the use of hartshorn as a remedy for faintness1 swoons1 and nervous disorders4 #fdc ,but this hardly explains the respect paid to it1 and the use of its dung by the ,bengal ,parhaiyas instead of cowdung to smear their floors looks as if it were based on totemism4 #fdd ,this too is shown by the regard paid its skin4 ,as ,mr4 ,frazer has proved1 it is a custom among many savage tribes to retain the skin as an image of the deity which the animal represented4 #fde ,hence according to the old ritual1 the skin of the antelope was the prescribed dress of the student of theology1 and it is still the seat of the ascetic4 #fdf ,the antelope constantly appears in the folk-tales as a sort of ,deus ex machin1 which leads the hero astray in the chase and brings him to the home of the ogress or the ensorcelled maiden4 #fdg ,in the ,mahbhrata1 the ,king ,parkshit is led astray by a gazelle1 and ,king ,pndu dies when he meets his wife ,madr1 because he had once killed under similar circumstances a gazelle with his mate4 ,in the ,vishnu ,purna1 ,bharata loses the fruits of his austerities by becoming enamoured of a fawn4 ,these fairy hinds appear throughout the whole range of folk-lore4 ,a ,neplese legend tells how the three gods ,vishnu1 ,siva1 and ,brahma once appeared in the form of deer1 whence the place where they were seen is known as ,mrigasthali4 #fdh ,the ,elephant4 ,the elephant naturally claims worship as the type of strength and wisdom4 ,to the rustic he impersonates ,ganesa1 the god of wisdom1 the remover of obstacles1 who is propitiated at the commencement of any important enterprise1 such as marriage and the like4 ,many legends are told to account for his elephant head4 ,one tells how his mother ,prvat was so proud of her baby that she asked ,sani to look at him1 forgetting the baneful effects of the look of the ill-omened deity4 ,when he looked at the child its head was burned to ashes1 and ,brahma1 to console her1 told her to fix on the first head she could find1 which happened to be that of the elephant4 ,by another account she put ,ganesa to guard the door while she was bathing1 and when he refused to allow ,siva to enter1 the angry god cut off his head1 which was afterwards replaced by that of the elephant4 ,again1 one of his tusks was broken off by ,parasurma with the axe which ,siva1 father of ,ganesa1 had given him4 ,again1 there are the ,lokaplas1 the eight supporters of the world4 ,these eight pairs of elephants support the earth4 ,indra with ,airvata and ,abhramu support the east2 ,agni with ,pundarka and ,kapil the south-east2 ,yama with ,vmana and ,pingal the south2 ,srya with ,kumuda and ,anupam the south-west2 ,varuna with ,anjana and ,anjanavat the west2 ,vyu with ,pushpadanta and ,subhadant the north-west2 ,kuvera on the north with ,sarvabhauma1 and ,soma on the north-east with ,supratka4 ,as usual1 there are differences in the enumeration4 ,from these all the modern elephants are descended4 ,as ,abul ,fazl writes3 ,when occasion arises people read incantations in their names and address them in worship4 ,they also think that every elephant in the world is offspring of one of them4 ,thus1 elephants of a white skin and white hairs are related to the first1 and elephants with a large head and long ears1 of a fierce and bold temper1 and eyelids far apart1 belong to the second4 ,such as are good-looking1 black1 and high in the back1 are the offspring of the third4 ,if tall1 ungovernable1 quick in understanding1 short-haired1 and with red and black eyes1 they come from the fourth4 ,if bright black1 with one tusk longer than the other1 with a white breast and belly1 and long and thick forefeet1 from the fifth4 ,if fearful1 with prominent veins1 a short hump and ears1 and a long trunk1 from the sixth4 ,if thin-bellied1 red-eyed1 and with a long trunk1 from the seventh4 ,and if of a combination of the preceding seven qualities1 from the eighth4 #fdi ,through ,india the reverence for the white elephant of ,burma and ,siam has arisen4 ,the figure of the elephant appears on some of the pillars of ,asoka4 ,there is an elephant gate at ,fatehpur ,skri1 one of the ,king ,huvishka at ,mathura1 and another connected with the dynasty of ,kanauj at ,dabhon in the ,azamgarh ,district4 ,delhi contains the remarkable elephant statues1 believed by ,general ,cunningham to have been erected in honour of ,jaymal and ,patta1 the two ,rjput heroes who defended the ,fort of ,chithor against ,akbar4 #fej ,the elephant constantly occurs in folk-lore4 ,in the projection of its forehead it possesses a pearl1 known as the ,kunjara ,mani1 or ,gaja ,mukta1 which is invested with magical qualities4 ,in the folk-tales the wooden horse of ,troy is represented by an artificial elephant filled with soldiers2 other elephants have the power of flying through the air2 in other stories1 as in one of ,la ,fontaine's fables1 an elephant selects a king by raising him up with his trunk2 the elephant ,kuvalyapda is the guardian of a kingdom1 and touching an elephant is one of the tests of a woman's chastity4 ,we have also numerous instances of the metamorphosis of human beings into elephants4 #fea ,the hair of the elephant's tail is in high repute as an amulet1 and little village children1 when an elephant passes1 pat the dust where his feet have rested and sing a song1 of which one version is-- ,hthi hthi1 br d ,sone k tarwr d-- ,give us a hair1 elephant1 like a sword of gold4 ,in ,europe1 it may be noted1 the hair from the tail of a horse is commonly regarded as a cure for wens4 #feb ,in the ,fatehpur ,district there is an elephant turned into stone4 ,the famous ,jaychand of ,kanauj1 it is said1 as in the ,carthage legend1 offered to ,parsara ,rishi as many villages as an elephant could walk round4 ,it traversed an enormous extent of country1 and finally halted at ,irdatnagar1 where it was turned into stone1 and once a year an enormous fair is held in its honour4 #fec ,the ,cat4 ,the cat is everywhere invested with demoniac qualities1 and is the companion of the witch4 ,in ,macbeth the first witch says1 ,thrice the brinded cat has mewed4 ,among ,muhammadans the cat is a pure animal1 and to kill a cat is very unlucky1 and brings on trouble and sickness4 ,so1 among ,hindus1 the killing of a cat can be expiated only by the performance of the rite known as the ,prajapati ,yajna1 which secures the birth of male issue4 ,they say that ,mahdeva and ,prvat were one day playing dice1 and ,prvat called in ,ganesa in his form as a rat to upset the dice with his tail and cause her to make a good throw4 ,mahdeva was wroth1 and called in a demon like a cat1 but he was afraid to kill ,ganesa4 ,then ,mahdeva cursed any one in after days who should kill a cat4 ,we have the same tale in the ,raslu cycle1 where the rat of ,dhol ,rja changes the course of the game between him and ,rja ,sarkap4 ,the cat is respected because she is the vehicle of ,shashth1 the protectress of children1 and part of the orthodox ,hindu rite at dinner is giving food to the cat4 ,among the ,orons1 as we have seen1 the birth fiend ,chordeva comes in the form of a cat4 ,the ,rat and ,mouse4 ,the rat is sacred as the vehicle of ,ganesa4 ,in ,bombay1 to call a rat a rat is considered by lower classes of ,hindus as unlucky1 and so they call him ,undir ,mma1 or 'the rat uncle4' ,he is so called because he is probably supposed to be the spirit of an uncle4 ,it is considered a great sin to kill a rat1 and so1 when rats give trouble in a house1 the women of the house make a vow to them that1 if they cease troubling1 sweet balls will be given to them on a certain day1 and it is believed by the ,hindus that when such a vow has been made1 the rats cease troubling them for some time4 #fed ,in parts of ,england it is believed that a field mouse creeping over the back of a sheep gives it paralysis1 and that this can be cured only by shutting up a mouse in a hollow of the trunk of the witch elm or witch hazel tree and leaving it to die of famine4 #fee ,the curiously deformed idiot boys which are collected at the shrine of ,shh ,daula at ,gujart are known from their wizened appearance as the rats of ,shh ,daula4 #fef ,the ,squirrel4 ,the little ,indian squirrel is called in the ,panjb ,rma ,chandra ,k ,bhagat1 or the saint of ,rma ,chandra1 because when he was building the bridge across the strait to ,lanka1 the squirrel helped by shaking dust from his tail1 and the god stroked it on the back1 hence the dark marks which it bears to the present day4 ,many of the ,drvidian tribes claim descent from the squirrel4 ,the ,bear4 ,the bear is regarded as a scarer of disease1 and sickly children are taken for a ride on the back of a tame bear or one of his hairs is worn round the neck as an amulet4 ,it was ,jmbavat1 the king of the bears1 who carried off the celebrated amulet1 ,syamantaka4 ,he was pursued by ,krishna1 to whom he surrendered the gem and gave him his daughter ,jmbavat to wife4 ,he afterwards with his army of bears assisted ,rma in his invasion of ,lanka4 ,the ,jackal4 ,the jackal is an important character in the folk-tales1 where he assumes the part taken in ,europe by the fox4 ,many are the tales told of his acuteness4 ,the pack is supposed to howl only at each watch of the night1 and the leader says1 ,main ,dilli k ,bdshh hn--,i am ,king of ,delhi thrice1 and his companions say1 ,ho6 ho6 ho6--,yes6 of course you are4 ,the ,hare4 ,of the hare in the moon we have spoken already1 and also referred to the animal in connection with omens4 ,in ,cornwall1 when a girl has loved not wisely but too well1 she haunts her deceiver in the shape of a white hare4 #feg ,birds3 ,the ,crow4 ,passing on to birds1 the crow is a famous totem or sacred bird4 #feh ,it personifies in ,indian tradition the soul of the dead man2 hence1 to give food to the crows1 known in ,northern ,india as ,kgaur1 is equivalent to offering food to the ,manes4 ,rma in the ,rmyana orders ,st to make this offering1 and ,yama1 in reward for its services1 conceded to it the right of eating the funeral meats1 for which reason the souls of the dead1 when this food is given to the crows1 are enabled to pass into a better world4 ,hence the bird is known as ,balipushta or nourished by offerings1 and ,balibhuj or devourer of oblations4 #fei ,in the ,mahbhrata1 the son of ,drona1 one of the few survivors of the ,kauravas1 sees an owl killing the crows on a sacred fig tree1 and this suggests to him the idea of attacking the camp of the ,pndavas4 ,this contest of the owl and the crow forms the subject of one of the tales of ,somadeva4 #ffj ,the incident of the wicked crow1 which bit the foot of ,st1 is related in the ,rmyana4 ,the ,bhtus of ,central ,india1 a class of migratory athletes1 worship ,nryana and the bamboo1 with which all their feats are performed4 ,when they bury their dead they place rice and oil at the head of the grave1 and stand near to worship whatever animal comes to eat the offerings4 ,they draw the happiest omen of the state of the departed from crows visiting the spot4 #ffa ,in the ,garuda ,purna a tale is told of a wicked hunter who was killed by a tiger in the depths of the forest1 and his ghost became a troublesome ,bht1 until one day a crow carried off one of the bones and dropped it into the ,ganges1 when the sinner was at once carried in a heavenly chariot to the mansions of the blessed4 ,this legend is localized in the ,hills and tells how ,karma ,sarma was killed by a tiger in the forest4 ,a crow took up one of his bones and carried it to the shrine at ,tungkshetra1 and such is the virtue of the soil there that the hunter was at once carried off to the heaven of ,indra4 #ffb ,bhusundi is the legendary crow of the battlefield1 who drinks the blood of the slain4 ,he had more blood than he could drink in the wars of the two ,asuras1 ,sumbha and ,nisumbha1 who contended with the gods4 ,he just quenched his thirst in the wars of ,rma1 but broke his beak against the hard1 dry ground1 which had soaked in the small amount of blood shed by the comparatively degenerate heroes of the ,mahbhrata4 ,he now croaks over the armies as they go out to war1 and looks for some ,armageddon1 when his thirst will at last be satisfied4 ,manifold are the ideas about crows and omens taken from their appearance and cawing4 ,some people think a crow has only one eye1 which he shifts from one cavity to the other as he finds it convenient4 ,in the ,panjb1 if a crow picks up a woman's handkerchief and then drops it1 she will not use it1 but gives it to a beggar4 #ffc ,the brains of a crow are a specific against old age1 but the cawing of a crow is ominous at the beginning of a journey4 ,if a crow hops and caws on the roof a guest may be expected4 ,musalmns have both fear and respect for the crow1 because it was he showed ,cain how to bury ,abel4 ,the ,hand of ,glory4 ,it is a common belief in ,europe that the ,hand of ,glory1 or the dried-up hand of a criminal who has been executed1 is a powerful charm for thieves4 ,in ,ireland1 if a candle is placed in a dead hand1 neither wind nor water can extinguish it1 and if carried into a house1 the inmates will sleep the sleep of the dead as long as it remains under the roof1 and no power on earth can wake them as long as the dead hand holds the candle4 ,the hand of a dead man is also used to stir the milk when butter will not form4 #ffd ,so1 in ,northern ,india1 thieves have a superstition that the ashes of a corpse will1 if sprinkled by the door of a house1 prevent the inmates from awaking during the commission of a burglary4 ,the ,hand of ,glory1 according to ,sir ,g4 ,cox1 is the light flashing from the dim and dusky storm-cloud1 #ffe but this can hardly1 with the utmost ingenuity1 be invoked to explain the similar usage of ,indian burglars1 who carry about with them the stick out of a crow's nest1 the ,gad k ,lakr1 which opens locks and holds the household spell-bound4 ,the ,indian thief1 like his ,english brother1 by the way1 often carries about a piece of charcoal as a charm in his operations4 ,the ,fowl4 ,among some of the ,indian races the value set on the fowl may possibly1 as ,mr4 ,campbell suggests1 depend on the feeling that the spirits of the dead wandering near their ancient homes find an asylum in the domestic fowls4 #fff ,at any rate1 as a sacrifice1 the black fowl is very generally preferred4 ,this is so among the ,drvidian races of ,central ,india4 ,in ,ireland the first egg laid by a little black hen1 eaten the very first thing in the morning1 will keep you from fever for the year4 #ffg ,in ,germany it was held that to find treasure1 that is to say1 to scare the fiends which guard and hide it1 one should use a black he-goat and a black fowl4 #ffh ,one of the ,italian charms directs1 ,to bewitch one till he die1 take a black hen and pluck from it every feather2 and this done1 keep them all carefully1 so that not one be lost4 ,with these you may do any harm to grown-up people or children4 #ffi ,another possible reason for the respect paid to the fowl is that the corn spirit is often killed in the form of a cock to promote the periodical vegetation of the crops4 ,the ,dove and ,pigeon4 ,the dove is held in much respect by ,musalmns4 ,among the ,northern ,semites the dove is sacred to ,ashtoreth and has all the marks of a totem1 for the ,syrians would not eat it4 ,it was not merely a symbol1 but received divine honour4 ,in ,arabia we find a dove idol in the ,qaaba1 and sacred doves surround it4 #fgj ,so1 the ,kheshgi ,pathns of ,qasr in the ,panjb will not kill pigeons2 they are similarly protected by ,hindus at ,bharatpur1 and among ,muhammadans they rank as the ,sayyid among birds4 ,in ,northern ,india a house with pigeons is supposed to be safe from ghosts4 ,the dove is believed to utter a peculiar note four times in succession1 in which she bewails her neglected lover4 ,she says1-- ,pisn thi1 ktn thi3 ,ay th1 chal gay4 ,while ,i was grinding flour and spinning1 he came and departed4 #fga ,the ,goose or ,swan4 ,the goose or swan is possibly an illustration of what may be a tribal totem4 ,it is said in the ,bhgavata ,purna that at one time there existed one ,veda1 one god ,agni1 and one caste4 ,this we learn from the commentator was in the ,krita age1 and the one caste he tells us of was named ,hansa or ,swan4 ,the ,hansas are1 again1 in the ,vishnu ,purna1 said to be one of four castes or tribes existing in a district exterior to ,india1 and finally we learn from the ,linga ,purna that ,hansa was a name of ,brahma himself4 ,it is reasonable to suppose that we have a swan tribe in the ,indian ,hansas4 #fgb ,as an argument in favour of the theory that the ,hansa was a tribal totem1 we find that the ,kalhans ,rjputs of ,oudh are said to take their name from the ,kla ,hansa or ,black ,swan2 that ,rjputs nowadays will not eat it2 and that the same respect is shown to a bird of allied type1 the ,brhmani ,duck1 and its mate1 the ,chakwa1 ,chakwi of our rivers4 ,they were once two lovers1 separated by fate1 changed into ducks1 and all through the night they call sadly to each other across the broad stream of the ,ganges1 which keeps them apart4 ,to the ,hansa is ascribed the fabulous power of being able to separate milk from water after the two have been mixed together4 #fgc ,in ,england the goose is supposed to have some uncanny way of predicting weather4 #fgd ,in ,welsh belief the wild goose is a witch1 especially if first seen on the first ,thursday night of the lunar month4 #fge ,the ancient ,greeks ascribed to the swan the gift of prophecy and song2 the sacred geese of the capital were respected at ,rome1 and the ancient ,germans considered it a prophetic bird4 ,the goose was a favourite ,buddhist emblem1 and a flock of them is depicted on the ,lion ,pillar at ,betiya in ,tirht4 #fgf ,in the story of ,nala and ,damayant1 a flock of these birds arranges the interviews between the lovers1 and in the ,mahbhrata the ,rishis take the form of a swan to convey the divine message4 ,according to the comparative mythologists1 it is needless to say1 the ,hansa is the sun4 #fgg ,sundry ,sacred ,birds4 ,mention has already been made of ,garuda1 half man1 half bird1 the vehicle of ,vishnu4 ,he is the son of one of the daughters of ,daksha1 whom we have already met with in connection with the moon1 and the sage ,kasyapa4 ,according to the ,mahbhrata1 he was given leave to devour wicked men1 but not to touch a ,brhman4 ,once he did devour a ,brhman1 but the holy man so burnt his throat that he was glad to disgorge him4 ,in the ,rmyana we meet with ,jatyu1 who is said to be a son of ,garuda and king of the vultures4 ,he tried to stop the chariot in which ,rvana was abducting ,st1 and though wounded1 was able to carry the news to ,rma4 ,a bird known as the ,malahri or filth destroyer is a sort of totem of the ,kanjar gipsies4 ,if they see it singing on a green branch to the front or right1 it is an auspicious omen1 and they start at once on the prowl4 ,so with the ,khanjart1 in ,sanskrit ,khanjankriti1 the wagtail1 which is also known as ,rm ,chiraiya or the bird of ,rma4 ,it is associated with ,vishnu1 because the marks on its throat are said to resemble the ,slagrma4 ,it comes from the heaven of ,rma in the end of the rains1 and remains till the close of spring1 and then bears back to ,rma a report of the state of the world and the crops4 ,when it first appears every one bows to it4 ,a ,sanskrit text lays down that when a person first sees the bird1 if he be standing near a ,brhman1 or near water1 or sitting on an elephant1 or at daybreak1 or when the bird is flying near or sitting on a serpent1 it is considered propitious4 ,when a person first sees it in the east1 it brings him good luck all through the year2 when seen in the south-east1 it predicts loss by fire2 to the south-west1 fighting2 to the west1 acquisition of wealth2 if seen to the north-east1 the observer will gain good clothes and jewels4 ,he who sees it in the north-west will die4 ,the superstitions in ,europe connected with the magpie and cuckoo are of much the same class4 ,in ,ireland it is said1 ,beware of killing the water wagtail1 for it has three drops of the ,devil's blood in its little body1 and ill-luck ever goes with it and follows it4 #fgh ,the ,ojhiyls or wizards of the ,central ,provinces sell the skins of a species of ,buceros1 called ,dhanchirya1 which are used to hang up in the house to secure wealth 7dhan71 whence its name2 and thigh bones of the same bird are hung round the wrists of children as a charm against evil spirits4 #fgi ,the ,hoopoe4 ,the legend of the hoopoe is thus told by ,arrian3 ,to the king of the ,indians was born a son4 ,the child had elder brothers1 who1 when they came to man's estate1 turned out to be very unjust and the greatest of reprobates4 ,they despised their brother because he was the youngest2 and they scoffed at their father and their mother1 whom they despised because they were old and grey-headed4 ,the boy1 accordingly1 and his aged parents could no longer live with these wicked men1 and away they fled from home1 all three together4 ,in the course of the protracted journeys which they had then to undergo1 the old people succumbed to fatigue and died1 and the boy showed them no light regard1 but buried them in himself1 having cut off his head with a sword4 ,then1 as the ,brachmanes 7,brhman7 tell us1 the all-seeing sun1 in admiration of this surprising act of piety1 transformed the boy into a bird1 which is most beautiful to behold1 and which lives to a very advanced age4 ,so on his head there grew up a crest1 which was1 as it were1 a memorial of what he had done in the time of his flight4 #fhj ,somadeva gives another story of this bird4 ,rajatadanshtra one day saw his sister ,somaprabh playing on a ,pinjara1 and when she would not give it to him1 took the form of a bird and flew away with it to heaven4 ,she cursed him that he should become a bird with a golden crest1 but promised that when in his bird shape he should fall into a blind well1 and a merciful person draws you out1 and you do him a service in return1 you shall be released from this curse4 #fha ,the ,muhammadan tradition is that the ,hudhud1 or hoopoe1 had the power of finding water which the devils have buried under the earth1 and she assisted ,solomon to find water for ablution1 and helped him to find ,bilqs1 the queen of ,sheba4 ,in ,sweden the appearance of the hoopoe is looked on as an omen of war4 #fhb ,the ,woodpecker4 ,so of the woodpecker1 which is said to have been a ,rja in a former birth1 and still to retain his royal crest4 ,in ,italian tradition the woodpecker 7,picus ,martis7 is a digger in forests1 where he lives alone and digs and hews1 and knows all hidden secrets and treasures4 #fhc ,in ,india the ,titihr1 or sandpiper1 is said to sleep with his legs in the air and thus supports the firmament4 ,the ,peacock4 ,the peacock is1 of course1 a sacred bird4 ,he is specially venerated by the ,jts1 who strongly object to seeing the bird killed near their villages4 ,a bunch of the feathers is waved over the sick to scare the demon of disease4 ,as we have already seen1 it is a charm against snake-bite to smoke one of its feathers in a pipe4 ,in ,europe the loud calling of the bird presages a death4 ,the ,pheasant4 ,once upon a time the ,monl pheasant of the ,hills and the ,kalchuniya had a dispute as to when the sun arose4 ,the ,monl woke first and then walked between the legs of the other1 who was so injured that he has never been able to do anything but skip ever since4 ,the ,kite4 ,young kites do not open their eyes till they are shown a bit of gold4 ,the best cure for weak eyes is to apply to them antimony mixed with the yolk of a kite's egg1 a good instance of sympathetic magic1 because the kite is the most long-sighted of birds4 ,when sweepers suffer from rheumatic pains1 they kill a kite on ,tuesday1 cut up the bones1 and tie them to the affected part1 which brings about an immediate cure4 #fhd ,the ,partridge4 ,the partridge and the peacock once contended in dancing1 and when the turn of the partridge came he borrowed the pretty feet of the peacock1 which he has never returned since4 ,rja ,nala1 at one period of his life1 came under the malignant influence of ,sani or ,saturn and lost all he possessed in the world4 ,at last1 as he was starving1 he managed to catch a black partridge and set about roasting it4 ,but the ill-luck of the evil planet asserted itself and the dead bird came to life and flew away4 ,the result is the black marks of charring which still remain upon its body4 ,now it cries in the words1 ,subhn ter qudrat--,great is the power of the ,almighty1 because it was saved from the fire4 ,the ,parrot4 ,last among sacred birds comes the parrot4 ,of course1 according to ,professor ,de ,gubernatis and his school1 he represents the sun4 #fhe ,the bird appears constantly in the folk-tales as gifted with the power of speaking and possessed of wisdom4 ,the wife of the sage ,kasyapa was1 according to the ,vishnu ,purna1 the mother of all the parrots4 ,in the folk-tales we have the parrot who knows the four ,vedas who is like the falcon in the ,squire's tale of ,chaucer4 #fhf ,in others he warns the hero of fortune1 befriends the heroine1 and is the companion of ,rja ,raslu4 #fhg ,the talking parrot constantly warns the deceived husband4 ,the bird seems to have been a sort of marriage totem among the ,drvidian races1 for images of it made of the wood of the cotton tree or of clay are hung up in the marriage shed among the ,kols and lower castes in the ,north-,western ,provinces4 ,the ,alligator4 ,the alligator and crocodile are revered because of their habit of killing human beings4 ,writing of ,south ,africa1 ,mr4 ,macdonald says3 ,to the ,bathlapin the crocodile is sacred1 and by all it is revered1 but rather under the form of fear than of affection4 ,i have often thought that the 'river calling' of ,south ,africa1 where there are no crocodiles1 is the survival of an ancient recollection of the time when the ancestors of the present ,kaffirs dwelt on the margins of rivers infested by these murderous brutes1 and where they often saw their women drawn underneath when going to the river to fetch water4 #fhh ,the crocodile may thus be the type of many of the ,indian water demons to whom reference has been already made4 ,hence1 it is a general rule among savages to spare crocodiles1 or rather only to kill them in obedience to the law of blood feud1 that is1 as a retaliation for the slaughter of men by crocodiles4 ,in ,india it became a favourite form of religious suicide to be devoured by the crocodiles at ,gangasgar4 ,makara1 a sort of marine monster1 half crocodile and half shark1 is the vehicle of ,kmadeva1 the god of love1 and ,gang ,m is depicted as riding on an alligator4 ,they are sometimes put into tanks and worshipped1 and fishermen have a tradition that1 if duly appeased1 they never attack them4 #fhi ,fish4 ,fish are in many places regarded as sacred4 ,the salmon of knowledge appears in the ,celtic folk-lore4 #fij ,the sacred speckled trout are found in many ,irish wells1 and the same idea prevails in many parts of ,europe4 #fia ,we find the fish figuring in the ,hindu myth of the ,creation4 ,manu1 while he was bathing1 found a fish in the water1 which said1 ,i will save thee from the flood which shall destroy the world4 ,the fish grew and was about to go to the ocean1 when he directed ,manu to build a boat4 ,when the deluge came1 the fish dragged the boat by his horn to a place of safety4 ,the myth appears in other forms1 more or less akin to the ,hebrew story based on ,babylonian tradition4 ,there are many places in ,india where fish are protected1 such as those at ,kota and in the ,mahnad river1 the ,betwa at ,bhilsa1 ,hardwr1 ,mathura1 ,mirzapur1 ,benares1 ,nepl1 and in ,afghanistn4 #fib ,in the ,sraswata pool in the ,himlaya lived the sacred fish called ,mrikunda2 they are fed on the fourteenth of the light half of each month1 and oblations are offered for the repose of the ,manes of deceased relations4 #fic ,it is a common custom among pious ,hindus to feed fish at sacred places with a lkh or more of little balls of flour wrapped up in ,bhojpatra or birch bark or paper with the name of ,rma written upon it4 ,their eating the name of the deity ensures their salvation1 and thus confers religious merit on the giver4 ,the fish is the vehicle of ,khwja ,khizr1 the water god1 and hence has become a sort of totem of the ,shiah ,musalmns and the crest of the late royal family of ,oudh4 ,pictures of fish are constantly drawn on the walls of houses as a charm against demoniacal influence4 ,the ,fish in ,folk-lore4 ,the fish constantly appears in the folk-tales4 ,we have in ,somadeva the fish that laughed when it was dead2 the fish that swallows the hero or heroine or a boat4 #fid ,in one of the ,kashmr tales we have the fish swallowing the ring1 which is like the tale which ,herodotus tells of ,polycrates4 ,in another we have the ,oriental version of the story of ,jonah1 where the merchant is found by the potter in the belly of the fish4 #fie ,so1 ,pradyumna1 son of ,krishna and ,rukmin1 was thrown into the ocean by the demon ,sambara1 and recovered from the belly of a fish by his wife ,my ,dev4 ,in many of the modern tales the fish takes the form of the ,life ,index4 ,the king ,bhartari1 the brother of the celebrated ,rja ,vikramaditya1 who is now a godling and spends part of the day at ,benares and part at the ,chunr ,fort1 had a fish1 the digestion of which gave him knowledge of all that occurred in the three worlds4 ,by a divine curse the nymph ,adrik was transformed into a fish which lived in the ,jumn4 ,here she conceived by the king ,uparichara1 was caught by a fisherman1 taken to the king and opened1 when she regained her heavenly form1 and from her were produced ,matsya1 the male1 and ,matsy1 the female fish1 the progenitors of the finny race4 ,the fish often plays a part in the miraculous conception myths1 as in the ,mahbhrata we read of a fish which devours the seed1 and a girl having eaten it brings forth a child4 ,the fish incarnation of ,vishnu possibly represents the adoption of a fish totem into ,brhmanism4 ,it is needless to say that the legendary fish has been identified with the sun by the school of comparative mythologists4 #fif ,the ,eel4 ,the eel is a totem of the ,mundri ,kols of ,bengal and of the ,orons1 neither of whom will eat it4 ,in ,northern ,england an eel skin tied round the leg is a cure for cramp4 ,eel fat1 in the ,european tales1 is used as a magic ointment1 and gives the power of seeing the fairies4 #fig ,the ,tortoise4 ,the tortoise1 again1 is sacred4 ,vishnu appeared as a tortoise in the ,satya ,yuga or first age to recover some things of value which had been lost in the deluge4 ,in the form of a tortoise he placed himself at the bottom of the sea of milk1 and made his back the basis on which the gods and demons1 using the serpent ,vsuki as a rope1 churned the ocean by means of the mount ,mandara4 ,the ,ganrr1 a tribe of ,bengal fishermen1 make sacrifices of the river tortoise to the goddess ,kolokumr1 the daughter of the deep2 this is the only sacrifice she will accept1 and she brings sickness on those who fail to make this offering4 #fih ,the tortoise is a totem of the ,mundri ,kols1 and the ,kharwrs and ,mnjhis of ,mirzapur worship clay images of it1 which they keep in their house1 because on one occasion it conveyed their first ancestor across a river in flood4 ,the ,gonds have a similar tradition that the tortoise saved their ancestor ,lingo from the clutches of the alligator4 ,the tortoise is also a helper in one of the ,german tales4 #fii ,in one of ,somadeva's stories1 the tortoise is sacrificed by a ,brhman to the ,manes of his father4 #gjj ,the ,frog4 ,the frog1 again1 is invested with mystical powers4 ,the monstrous toad of ,berkeley ,castle is said to be really a seal4 #gja ,in ,english folk-lore it is associated with witches1 and wears a precious jewel in its head4 ,hindus believe that the female frog is the spirit of ,mandodar1 the wife of ,rvana4 ,it is a common belief that the fat of the frog forms a magic ointment which enables witches to fly through the air4 #gjb ,according to a ,scotch ,saga1 the middle piece of a white snake roasted by the fire gives a knowledge of supernatural things to anyone who shall put his finger in the fat which drops from it4 ,according to one of the ,indian legends1 ,agni1 the fire god1 took refuge in the water to escape the gods1 but the frogs1 suffering from the heat1 informed the gods1 and the angry deity cursed them that their speech should henceforth be inarticulate4 ,the frog by his voice announces the coming of rain2 hence when rain holds off it is a common charm to pour water over a frog1 another instance of sympathetic magic4 ,insects4 ,even insects are in some cases regarded with veneration4 ,in ,cornwall1 the ants are the small people in their state of decay from off the earth2 it is deemed most unlucky to destroy a colony of ants4 #gjc ,the ant-hill is1 as we have seen1 used as an altar by some of the ,drvidian tribes1 and on it they take their oaths4 ,hence ants are carefully fed on certain days by both ,hindus and ,jainas1 and are regarded as in some way connected with the souls of the sainted dead4 ,we have in many of the folk-tales the ant as a helper4 ,so1 in many parts of the ,panjb1 the many-coloured grasshopper1 which feeds on the leaves of the ,madr or great swallow wort1 is called ,rmj-k-g or ,rma's cow1 which reminds us of the respect paid by ,english children to the ladybird insect4 #gjd ,so1 the ,greeks and ,romans called the ,cicada ,mantis or the soothsayer1 and it is often delineated on their tombs as a charm against evil4 ,mystic powers of the same kind are attributed to the spider1 and to ,daddy ,longlegs in our nurseries4 ,the souls of the dead are believed to enter into flies and bees4 ,hence in parts of ,great ,britain news of a death in a family is whispered into the beehive4 #gje ,in one of ,somadeva's tales we find the monkeys trying to warm themselves over a firefly1 which is gifted with various miraculous powers4 #gjf ,a fly falling into an inkstand is a lucky omen4 ,in the ,rmyana ,hanumn metamorphoses himself into a fly to reach ,st1 and there are many instances of this in the tales4 ,lastly1 comes the ,tassar silkworm4 ,in ,mirzapur1 when the seed of the silkworm is brought to the house1 the ,kol or ,bhuiyr puts it in a place which has been carefully plastered with cowdung to bring good luck4 ,from that time the owner must be careful to avoid ceremonial impurity2 he must give up cohabitation with his wife1 he must not sleep on a bed1 he must not shave nor have his nails cut1 nor anoint himself with oil1 nor eat food cooked with butter1 nor tell lies1 nor do anything opposed to his simple code of morality4 ,he vows to ,singrmat ,dev that if the worms are duly born he will make her an offering4 ,when the cocoons open and the worms appear1 he collects the women of his house and they sing the usual song as at the birth of a baby into the family1 and some red lead is smeared on the parting of the hair of all the married women of the neighbourhood4 ,he feeds his clansmen1 and duly makes the promised offering to ,singrmat ,dev4 ,when the worms pair1 the rejoicings are made as at a marriage4 ,in ,bengal1 in addition to these precautions1 the women1 apparently through fear of sexual pollution1 are carefully excluded from the silkworm shed4 #gjg ,we have the same idea in the ,western ,isles of ,scotland1 where they send a man very early on the morning of the first of ,may to prevent any woman from crossing1 for that1 they say1 would prevent the salmon from coming into the river all the year round4 #gjh ,,chapter ,v4 ,,the ,,black ,,art4 ,simulacraque cerea figit ,et miserum tenues in jecur urget acus4 ,ovid1 ,heroides1 vi4 #ia1 #ib4 ,from the ,baiga or ,ojha1 who by means of his grain sieve fetish identifies the particular evil spirit by which his patient is afflicted1 we come to the regular witch or wizard4 ,he works in ,india by means and appliances which can be readily paralleled by the procedure of his brethren in ,western countries4 #gji ,the ,witch4 ,the position of the witch has been so clearly stated by ,sir ,a4 ,lyall1 that his remarks deserve quotation4 ,the peculiarity of the witch is that he does everything without the help of the gods4 ,it begins when a savage stumbles on a few natural effects out of the common run of things1 which he finds himself able to work by unvarying rule of thumb4 ,he becomes a fetish to himself4 ,fetishism is the adoration of a visible object supposed to possess active power4 ,a witch is one who professes to work marvels1 not through the aid or counsel of the supernatural beings in whom he believes as much as the rest1 but by certain occult faculties which he conceives himself to possess4 ,there is a real distinction even in fetishism between the witch and the brother practitioner on a fetish1 or between the witch and the ,shaman1 who rolls about the ground and screams out his oracles2 and this line1 between adoration and inspiration1 vows and oracles on the one side1 and thaumaturgy by occult1 incomprehensible arts on the other1 divides the two professions from bottom to top4 ,hence1 the witch1 and not the man who works through the fetish1 is proscribed4 ,hence any disappointment in the aid which the aboriginal tribes are entitled to expect from their gods to avoid averting disease or famine1 throws the people on the scent of witchcraft4 #gaj ,again1 ,the most primitive witchcraft looks very like medicine in the embryonic state2 but as no one will give the aboriginal physician any credit for cures or chemical effects produced by simple human knowledge1 he is soon forced back into occult and mystic devices1 which belong neither to religion nor to destiny1 but are a ridiculous mixture of both2 whence the ordinary kind of witchcraft is generated4 ,and he goes on to show how the great plagues1 cholera and the small-pox1 belong to the gods2 but a man cannot expect a great incarnation of ,vishnu to cure his cow1 or find his lost purse2 nor will public opinion tolerate his going to any respectable shrine with a petition that his neighbour's wife1 his ox1 or his ass may be smitten with some sore disease4 ,this1 however1 must be taken with the correction that1 as we have seen already1 the deities which rule disease are of a much lower grade than the divine cabinet which rules the world4 ,the main difference then between the hedge priest and the witch is1 as ,sir ,a4 ,lyall shows1 that the former serves his god or devil1 whereas the latter makes the familiar demon1 if one is kept1 serve him4 ,witchcraft3 ,how ,developed4 ,the belief in witchcraft is general among the lower and less advanced ,indian races4 ,colonel ,dalton's assertion that the ,jungs1 who were quite recently in the stage of wearing leaf aprons1 do not believe in witchcraft or sorcery1 must be accepted with great caution4 ,it is quite certain that all the allied ,drvidian races1 even those at a somewhat higher state of culture than the ,jungs1 such as ,kols1 ,kharwrs1 and ,cheros1 firmly believe in witchcraft4 ,but all these people observe the most extreme reticence on the subject4 ,if you ask a ,mirzapur ,hill-man if there are any witches in his neighbourhood1 he will look round furtively and suspiciously1 and even if he admits that he has heard of such people1 he will be very reluctant to give much information about them4 ,a belief in witchcraft is1 then1 primarily the heritage of the more isolated and least advanced races1 like the ,kols and ,bhls1 ,santls and ,thrus4 ,in fact1 whatever may be the ethnical origin of the theory1 it is at present in ,northern ,india almost specialized among the ,drvidian1 or aboriginal peoples4 ,it also widely prevails among those who lead a nomadic life and are thus brought more directly in contact with nature in her wilder and sterner moods1 such as the ,nat and the ,kanjar1 the ,hbra and the ,snsiya4 ,so1 in ,europe sorcery and fortune-telling1 the charming of disease1 the making of love philters1 and so on are the function of the ,romani2 and ,mr4 ,leland hazards the supposition that ,herodias was a gipsy4 #gaa ,the belief that a certain person is a witch is probably generated in various ways4 ,many a one becomes reputed as a witch from the realization of some unlucky prophecy1 or the fulfilment of some casual1 passionate curse or imprecation upon an enemy or rival4 ,the old ,scottish rhymes exactly express this feeling3-- ,there dwelt a weaver in ,moffat toun1 ,that said the minister would die sune2 ,the minister died1 and the fouk o' the toun ,they brant the weaver wi' the wadd o' the lume1 ,and ca'd it weel-waned on the warloch loon4 #gab ,with this is intimately connected the belief in the ,evil ,eye1 and that certain persons have the power of calling down on their enemies the influence of evil spirits2 and1 as in ,western lands1 such a power is often attributed to persons afflicted with ugliness1 deformity1 crankiness of temper1 liability to sudden fits of passion1 epilepsy1 and the like4 ,disease or death1 famine1 accident1 or any form of trouble1 never1 in popular belief1 come naturally4 ,there is always behind calamity some malignant power which selects the victim1 and the attribution of this faculty to any one naturally regarded as uncanny1 or who practises rites or worship strange to orthodox belief1 is in the opinion of the rustic only reasonable4 ,the ,jigar ,khor4 ,one particularly dreaded form of witch is the ,jigar ,khor or liver-eater1 of whom ,abul ,fazl gives a description3 ,one of this class can steal away the liver of another by looks and incantations4 ,other accounts say that by looking at a person he deprives him of his senses1 and then steals from him something resembling the seed of a pomegranate1 which he hides in the calf of his leg2 after being swelled by the fire1 he distributes it among his fellows to be eaten1 which ceremony concludes the life of the fascinated person4 ,a ,jigar ,khor is able to communicate his art to another by teaching him incantations1 and by making him eat a bit of the liver cake4 ,these ,jigar ,khors are mostly women4 ,it is said they can bring intelligence from a long distance in a short space of time1 and if they are thrown into a river with a stone tied to them1 they nevertheless will not sink4 ,in order to deprive any one of this wicked power1 they brand his temples and every joint of his body1 cram his eyes with salt1 suspend him for forty days in a subterraneous chamber1 and repeat over him certain incantations4 ,of the modern ,jigar ,khors of the ,panjb we are told that when a witch succeeds in taking out a man's liver1 she will not eat it for two and a half days4 ,if after eating it she is put under the influence of an exorciser1 she can be forced to take the liver of some animal and put it back to replace that taken from the original victim4 #gac ,in one of the tales of ,somadeva the wicked wife of the barber is a witch1 and when he is asleep she takes out his entrails and sucks them1 and then replaces them as before4 #gad ,the ,witch in ,folk-lore4 ,we have already learned to look to the folk-tales for the most trustworthy indications of popular belief1 and here the dark shadow of witchcraft overclouds much of their delicate fancy4 ,here we find the witch taking many forms--of an old woman in trouble1 of a white hind with golden horns1 of a queen4 ,others1 like the archwitch ,klartr or black night1 are of repulsive appearance2 she has dull eyes1 a depressed1 flat nose4 ,her eyebrows1 like those of the werewolves or vampires of ,slavonia1 #gae meet together2 she has large cheeks1 widely parted lips1 projecting teeth1 a long neck1 pendulous breasts1 a large belly1 and broad1 expanded feet4 ,she appears as if the ,creator had made a specimen of his skill in producing ugliness4 ,like the ,jigar ,khor she obtains her powers by eating human flesh1 or like modern witches1 who claim to possess the ,dyan k ,mantra or ,dkin's spell1 by which she can tear out the heart of her victim4 ,the powers of such witches are innumerable4 ,they can find anything on earth1 can open or patch up the sky1 possess second sight1 can restore the dead to life1 can set fire to water1 can turn stones into wax1 can separate lovers1 can metamorphose the hero into any shape they please4 ,they control the weather and cause storms and tempests4 ,if they follow one they hate and measure his footsteps in the dust1 he at once becomes lame4 #gaf ,they carry on their unholy revels in cemeteries and cremation grounds4 ,they meet under the leadership of the dreaded ,bhairava1 as ,german witches assemble on the ,blocksberg4 ,so ,diana ,herodias leads the ,italian witches who meet at the walnut tree of ,benevento1 as those of ,cornwall collect at ,trewa4 #gag ,many witches obtain power over the fever demon4 ,she fastens a string round the hero's neck1 and by a spell turns him into an ape4 ,she often kills a child1 and the heroine1 like ,genoveva1 is falsely accused1 and expelled from her home1 until the plot is discovered and she is restored to her husband's love4 ,lastly1 we have the conflict between the powers of good and evil1 the benevolent and malignant witch1 which forms one of the stock incidents of the ,european folk-tales4 #gah ,the malignant1 liver-eating witch is naturally associated with the tomb-haunting badger4 ,one of them appeared quite recently at ,ahmadbd1 and being supposed to carry off children in the disguise of a badger1 was called ,adam ,khor1 or the devourer of the sons of men4 #gai ,instruction in ,witchcraft4 ,writing of ,italy1 ,mr4 ,leland says3 #gbj--;,among the priestesses of the hidden spell1 an elder dame has usually in hand some younger girl1 whom she instructs1 firstly1 in the art of bewitching or injuring enemies1 and secondly1 in the more important processes of annulling or unbinding the spells of others1 or causing mutual love or conferring luck4 ,so1 among the ,agariyas of ,bengal1 there are old women1 professors of witchcraft1 who stealthily instruct the young girls4 ,the latter are all eager to be taught1 and are not considered proficient till a fine forest tree selected to be experimented on is destroyed by the potency of their charms2 so that the wife a man takes to his bosom has probably done her tree1 and is confident in the belief that she can1 if she pleases1 dispose of her husband in the same manner1 if he makes himself obnoxious4 #gba ,so1 in ,bombay1 when a ,guru1 or teacher1 wishes to initiate a candidate into the mysteries of the ,black ,art1 he directs the candidate to watch a favourable opportunity for the commencement of the study1 the opportunity being the death of a woman in childbirth4 ,as soon as this event takes place1 the candidate is instructed what to do4 ,he watches the procession as the dead is being taken to the burning or burial ground1 and takes care to see who the bearers are4 ,he then takes a small tin box in his hand1 and picking up a pinch of the earth out of the hind footsteps of the two rear bearers1 he keeps the earth in the tin box4 ,then he watches where the dead body is being burnt1 and goes home4 ,next day he goes to the spot1 and taking a little of the ashes of the corpse1 puts it in the tin box4 ,subsequently1 on a suitable day1 that is on a new moon or on an eclipse day1 he goes to the burning ground at midnight1 and taking off his clothes1 he sits on the ground1 and placing the tin box in front of him1 lights a little incense1 and repeats the incantations taught to him by his guru or teacher4 ,when he has practised the repetition of the incantations1 the spirit ,hadal becomes subject to his control1 and by her help he becomes able to annoy any one he pleases4 ,among the troubles which the witch or magician brings upon his enemies1 the following are said to be the most common in the ,dakkhin as well as in the ,konkan4 ,the witch causes star-shaped or cross-like marks of marking-nuts on the body of the person she has a grudge against4 ,the peculiarity of these marks is that they appear in numbers in different parts of the body1 and as suddenly disappear4 ,the other troubles are the drying-up of the milk of milch cattle1 or turning the milk into blood2 stopping or retarding the growth of the foetus in cattle1 and turning them into moles2 stealing grain or other field produce from the farm-yards of the victim2 letting loose wolves1 jackals1 or rats into the victim's field2 pricking needles or thorns into the victim's eyes or body2 applying turmeric to the eyes of a female victim1 or putting lampblack into her eyes2 or tearing the open end of her robe2 and causing death to an enemy by means of a method of the ,black ,art1 called ,mth1 literally 'a handful4' ,the ,mth generally consists of a handful of rice or ,urad pulse 7,phaseolus radiatus7 charmed and sent by the witch against her enemy through the agency of the familiar spirit4 ,it is likened to a shock of electricity sudden and sharp1 which strikes in the centre of the heart1 causes vomiting and spitting of blood1 and may1 if not warded against1 end in the death of the victim4 ,practised experts pretend to see the ,mth rolling through the air1 like a red-hot ball1 and say that they can avert its evil consequences in two ways--either by satiating it1 which is done so as to cause a little bleeding1 and allowing the blood to drop on a charmed lemon1 which is afterwards cut and thrown into a river2 or by reversing its action and sending it back to the person who issued it1 which is done by charging a lemon and throwing it in the direction whence the ,mth has been seen to come4 ,the operation of a ,mth is most dreaded in many parts of ,bombay1 and especially in the ,konkan4 ,cases of sudden illness1 blood vomiting1 or sudden death are frequently attributed to the agency of a ,mth or charmed handful of rice or pulse sent by an enemy4 #gbb ,we have here examples of the dread of the woman dying at her confinement1 which we have already noticed in the case of the ,churel1 and the nudity charm is also familiar4 ,witch ,seasons4 ,in ,central ,india1 witches are supposed1 by the aid of their familiars1 who are known as ,br1 or the hero1 to inflict pain1 disease1 and death upon human beings4 ,their power of witchcraft1 like that of all ,indian witches1 exists on the fourteenth1 fifteenth1 and twenty-ninth of each month1 and in particular at the ,diwl or feast of lamps1 and the ,naurtr or nine days devoted to the worship of ,durg4 ,in the same way the ,irish witches flit on ,november ,eve1 and on that night mortal people should keep at home1 or they will suffer for it2 for souls of the dead have power over all things on that night of the year1 and they hold a festival with the fairies1 and drink red wine from the fairy cups and dance to fairy music till the moon goes down4 #gbc ,of the ,allhallows demon ,professor ,rhys writes3 ,this night was the ,saturnalia of all that was hideous and uncanny in the world of spirits4 ,it had been fixed as the time of all others when the ,sun god1 whose power had been gradually falling off since the great feast associated with him on the first of ,august1 succumbed to his enemies1 the powers of darkness and of winter4 ,it was their first hour of triumph after an interval of subjection1 and the popular imagination pictured them stalking abroad with more than ordinary insolence and aggressiveness4 #gbd ,at other times the ,indian witches appear1 dress1 talk1 and eat like other women1 but when the fit is on them1 they are sometimes seen with their eyes glaring red1 their hair dishevelled and bristled1 while their heads are often turned round in a strange1 convulsive manner4 ,on the nights of those days1 they are believed to go abroad1 and after casting off their garments1 to ride about on tigers and other wild animals2 and if they desire to go on the water1 alligators come like the beasts of the forests at their call1 and they disport in rivers and lakes upon their backs till dawn of day1 about which period they always return home1 and resume their usual forms and occupations4 #gbe ,witches ,taking the ,form of ,tigers4 ,the idea that witches take the form of tigers is widespread4 ,colonel ,dalton describes how a ,kol1 tried for the murder of a wizard1 stated in his defence that his wife having been killed by a tiger in his presence1 he stealthily followed the animal as it glided away after gratifying its appetite1 and saw that it entered the house of one ,psa1 a ,kol1 whom he knew4 ,he called out ,psa's relations1 and when they heard the story1 they not only credited it1 but declared that they had long suspected ,psa of possessing such power2 on entering they found him1 and not a tiger2 they delivered him bound into the hands of his accuser1 who at once killed him4 ,in explanation of their proceedings1 they deposed that ,psa had one night devoured an entire goat1 and roared like a tiger while he was eating it2 and on another occasion he had informed his friends that he felt a longing for a particular bullock1 and that very night the bullock was carried off by a tiger4 #gbf ,mr4 ,campbell gives a very similar story from ,bombay1 in which a man-eating tiger was supposed to be a witch in disguise4 #gbg ,all these stories very closely resemble the ,european were-wolf and similar legends4 #gbh ,in ,mirzapur they tell a tale of one of the ,drvidian ,bhuiyrs1 whose wife went recently on the ,pura ,mamur ,hill1 when an evil spirit in the form of a tiger attacked and killed her4 ,this was after her death ascertained to be the case by the inquiries of the village ,baiga1 who now does an annual ceremony and sacrifice near the place4 ,for such witch tigers the favourite remedy is to knock out their teeth to prevent their doing any more mischief and becoming the ,indian equivalent of the ,loupgarou4 #gbi ,witches ,extracting ,substances from their ,victims4 ,another remedy is thus described by ,abul ,fazl3 ,the sorceress casts something out of her mouth like the grain of a pomegranate1 which is believed to be part of the heart which she has eaten4 ,the patient picks it up as part of his own intestine and greedily swallows it4 ,by this means1 as if his heart was replaced in his body1 he recovers his health by degrees4 ,the idea that witches extract substances out of a sick person's body is very common4 #gcj ,the witch in ,macbeth says1 ,i will drain him dry as hay4 ,in the same way the original object of kissing is said to be to extract an evil spirit out of a person4 ,many people get a holy man to kiss a sick child and blow over some water which is given it to drink1 and thus the evil spirit is removed4 ,general ,sleeman gives the case of a trooper who had taken some milk from an old woman without payment1 and was seized with severe internal pains1 which he attributed to her witchcraft4 ,she was sent for1 but denied having bewitched him4 ,she admitted1 however1 that the household gods may have punished him for his wickedness4 ,she was ordered to cure him1 and set about collecting materials for the purpose1 but meanwhile the pains left him4 ,another man took a cock from an old ,gond woman and was similarly affected4 ,the old cock was actually heard crowing in his belly4 ,in spite of all the usual remedies he died1 and the cock never ceased crowing at intervals till his death4 ,he tells of another witch who was known to be such by the juice of the sugar-cane she was eating turning into blood4 ,a man saw her staring at him and left the district at once4 ,it is well known that these spells and curses can only reach a distance of ten or twelve miles1 and if you offend one of these witches1 the sooner you put that distance between you and them1 the better4 ,another witch was bargaining with a man for some sugar-cane4 ,she seized one end of the stalk and the purchaser the other4 ,a scuffle ensued1 and a soldier came up and cut the cane in two with a sword4 ,immediately a quantity of blood flowed from the cane to the ground1 which the witch had been drawing through it from the man's body4 ,so we read of the two witches in the ,italian tale1 who seeing that he would not go1 cast him by their witchcraft into a deep sleep1 and with a small tube sucked all his blood from his veins1 and made it into a blood pudding which they carried with them4 ,and this gave them the power to be invisible till they should return4 #gca ,it is the general belief that there is not a village or a single family without its witch in this part of the country4 ,indeed1 no one will give his daughter in marriage to a family without one1 saying1 ',if my daughter has children1 what will become of them without a witch to protect them from witches of other families in the neighbourhood8' #gcb ,sir ,john ,malcolm notices the same fact4 ,in some places men will not marry into a family where there is not a ,dkin or witch to save them from the malice of others2 but this name1 which is odious1 is not given to those persons by their relations and friends4 ,they are termed ,rakhwl or guardians4 #gcc ,witches and ,cats4 ,one sign of the witch is that she is accompanied by her cat4 ,this is an idea which prevails all over the world4 ,thus1 in ,ireland1 cats are believed to be connected with demons4 ,on entering a house the usual salutation is1 ,god save all here except the cat6 ,even the cake on the griddle may be blessed1 but no one says1 ,god bless the cat6 #gcd ,the negroes in ,mussouri say some cats are real cats and some are devils2 you can never tell which is which1 so for safety it is well to whip them all soundly4 #gce ,one explanation of the connection of witches and cats is that when ,galinthis was changed into a cat by the ,fates1 ,hecate took pity on her and made her her priestess1 in which office she continues to this day4 #gcf ,we have already seen that it is probably her stealthy ways and habit of going about at night which gave the cat her uncanny character4 ,the cat1 say the jungle people1 is aunt of the tiger1 and taught him everything but how to climb a tree4 ,the ,orons of ,chota ,ngpur say that ,chordeva1 the birth fiend1 comes in the form of a cat and worries the mother4 #gcg ,the ,thags used to call the caterwauling of cats ,kl ki ,mauj1 or the roaring wave of ,kl1 and it was of evil omen4 ,the omen could be obviated only by gargling the mouth in the morning with sour milk and spitting it out4 ,we have already seen the danger of killing a cat4 ,zlim ,sinh1 the famous regent of ,kota1 thought that cats were associated with witches1 and on one occasion when he believed himself exposed to enchantment1 ordered that every cat should be expelled from his cantonment4 #gch ,witch ,ordeals4 ,all the ordeals for witches turn on the efficacy of certain things to which reference has been already made as scarers of evil spirits4 ,thus1 the ordeal of walking over hot coals and on heated ploughshares was a common method of testing a witch both in ,india and in ,europe4 #gci ,zlim ,sinh1 however1 generally used the water ordeal1 a test which is known all over the world4 #gdj ,even ,pliny knew that ,indian witches could not sink in water4 #gda ,manu prescribes water as a form of oath1 and to this day it is a common form of oath ordeal for a man to stand in water when he is challenged to swear4 ,zlim ,sinh used to say that handling balls of hot iron was too slight a punishment for such sinners as witches1 for it was well known that they possessed substances which enabled them to do this with impunity2 so he used to throw them into a pool of water2 if they sank1 they were innocent2 if they1 unhappily1 came to the surface1 their league with the powers of darkness was apparent4 ,a bag of cayenne pepper tied over the head1 if it failed to suffocate1 afforded another test4 ,the most humane method employed was rubbing the eyes with a well-dried capsicum2 and certainly if they could furnish the demonstration of their innocence by withholding tears1 they might justly be deemed witches4 #gdb ,akin to these tests is the folk-tale ordeal by which the calumniated heroine bathes in boiling oil to prove her chastity4 #gdc ,santl ,witch ,ordeals4 ,forbes gives the tests in vogue in his day among the ,santls1 whom he calls ,soontaar4 ,branches of the ,sl tree 7,shorea robusta7 marked with the names of all the females of the village1 whether married or unmarried1 who had attained the age of twelve years1 were planted in the morning in water for the space of four and a half hours2 and the withering of any of these branches was proof of witchcraft against the person whose name was attached to it4 ,small portions of rice enveloped in pieces of cloth marked as before1 were placed in a nest of white ants2 the consumption of the rice in any of the bags was proof of witchcraft against the woman whose name it bore4 ,lamps were lighted at night2 water was placed in cups made of leaves1 and mustard oil was poured drop by drop into the water1 while the name of each woman in the village was pronounced4 ,the appearance of the shadow of any woman in the water during the ceremony proved her to be a witch4 #gdd ,witch ,tests1 ,bilspur4 ,one of the most noted witch-finders in the ,bilspur ,district of the ,central ,provinces had two most effectual means of checkmating the witches4 ,his first effort was to get the villagers to describe the marked eccentricities of the old women of the community1 and when these had been detailed1 his experience soon enabled him to seize on some ugly or unlucky idiosyncrasy1 which indicated in unmistakable clearness the unhappy offender4 ,if no conclusion could be arrived at in this way1 he lighted an ordinary earthen lamp1 and repeating consecutively the name of each woman in the village1 he fixed on the witch or witches by the flicker of the wick when the name or names were mentioned4 ,the discovery of the witch soon led to her being grossly maltreated1 and1 under the ,native ,government1 almost invariably in her death4 ,since the introduction of the ,british rule these cases are becoming year to year rarer2 but the belief itself remains strong and universal1 and the same class of superstitions pervades every-day life4 #gde ,witch ,tests1 ,bastar4 ,in ,bastar1 a fisherman's net is wound round the head of the suspected witch to prevent her escaping or bewitching her guards4 ,two leaves of the ,ppal or sacred fig tree1 one representing her and the other her accusers1 are thrown upon her outstretched hands4 ,if the leaf in her name fall uppermost1 she is supposed to be a suspicious character2 if the leaf fall with the lower part upwards1 it is possible that she may be innocent1 and popular opinion is in her favour4 ,the final test is the usual water ordeal4 #gdf ,miscellaneous ,tests3 ,eggs4 ,several persons1 natives of the ,khasiya ,hills1 were convicted of beating to death a man whom they believed to be a wizard4 ,they confessed freely1 saying that he destroyed their wives and daughters by witchcraft4 ,one of the accused was the brother of the wife of the deceased4 ,it appears that they discovered he was a sorcerer by the appearance of an egg when broken4 #gdg ,a similar case is reported among the ,banjras of ,berr4 #gdh ,the use of eggs in this way opens up an interesting chapter in folk-lore4 ,thus1 we have the famous legend which tells how a golden egg was produced at the beginning of all things1 and from it ,prajapati ,brahma1 the great progenitor of the universe1 was produced4 ,this piece of primitive folk-lore appears in the folk-tales in the numerous stories of children produced from eggs4 #gdi ,in one of the ,kashmr tales the egg of the wondrous bird has the power of transmuting anything it touches into gold4 #gej ,again1 we have everywhere instances of the belief in the power of eggs as guardians against evil spirits4 ,an egg laid on ,ascension ,day hung to the roof of the house preserveth the same from all hurts4 #gea ,children in ,northumberland1 when first sent abroad in the arms of the nurse1 are presented with an egg1 salt1 and fine bread4 ,in ,india1 we constantly see the eggs of the ostrich hung up in mosques and tombs to repel evil influences4 ,we have the same idea in the use of eggs at ,easter in ,england4 ,in the ,konkan1 ,kunbis give a mixture of eggs and turmeric to a man who spits blood2 and to remove the effects of the ,evil ,eye1 they wave bread and an egg round a sick person4 ,the ,sultnkrs1 when their wives are possessed with evil spirits1 offer rice1 a fowl1 and an egg1 and the spirit passes away4 ,the ,beni ,israels1 to avert evil1 break a hen's egg under the forefoot of the bridegroom's horse4 #geb ,there is another form of witch test in ,chhatsgarh1 where a pole of a particular wood is erected on the banks of a stream1 and each suspected person1 after bathing1 is required to touch the pole2 it is supposed that if any witch does this her hand will swell4 ,the ,rowan ,tree4 ,according to ,british folk-lore1 one of the most potent antidotes for witches is a twig of the rowan tree bound with scarlet thread1 or a stalk of clover with four leaves laid in the byre1 or a bough of the whitty1 or wayfaring tree4 #gec ,many1 in fact1 are the herbs which are potent in this way1 of which the chief is perhaps that ,moly1 that ,hermes once to wise ,ulysses gave4 ,in ,india1 the substitute for these magic trees is a branch of the tamarind1 or a stalk of the castor-oil tree 7,palma ,christi74 ,if1 after receiving in silence an ordinary scourging by the usual methods1 the suspected person cries out at a blow with the magic branch1 he is certainly guilty4 #ged ,these plants are everywhere supposed to exercise power over witches1 and even in places like the ,north-,western ,provinces1 where witch-hunting is happily a thing of the past1 a ,chamr or currier1 a class which enjoy an uncanny reputation1 is exceedingly afraid of even a slight blow with a castor-oil switch4 ,witch-finding among ,kols4 ,the ,kolarian witch-finder's test is to put a large wooden grain measure under a flat stone as a pivot on which the latter can revolve4 ,a boy is then seated on the stone supporting himself with his hands1 and the names of all the people in the neighbourhood are slowly pronounced4 ,as each name is uttered a few grains of rice are thrown at the boy4 ,when they come to the name of the witch or wizard1 the stone turns and the boy rolls off4 #gee ,this1 no doubt1 is the effect of the boy's falling into a state of coma1 and losing the power of supporting himself with his hands4 ,marks of ,witches4 ,some witches are believed to learn the secrets of their craft by eating filth4 ,we have already seen that this is also believed to be the case with evil spirits4 ,such a woman1 in popular belief1 is always very lovely and scrupulously neat in her personal appearance1 and she always has a clear line of red lead applied to the parting of her hair4 ,witches have a special power of casting evil glances on children1 and after a child is buried1 they are believed to exhume the corpse1 anoint it with oil1 and bring it to life to serve some occult purpose of their own4 ,on the same principle the ,kfirs believe that dead bodies are restored to life1 and made hobgoblins to aid their owners in mischief4 #gef ,indian witches1 moreover1 are supposed to keep a light burning during the ceremony of child exhumation1 and if the father or the mother has the courage to run and snatch away the child just as it is revived1 and before the witch can blow out the light1 the child will be restored to them safe and sound4 #geg ,charms ,recited ,backward4 ,one well-known characteristic of witches is that she cannot die as long as she is a witch1 but must while alive pass on her craft to another1 is well recognized in ,india4 ,hence a witch is always on the look-out for some one to whom she may delegate her functions1 and many well-meaning people have been ruined in this way through misplaced confidence in the benevolence of a witch4 #geh ,indian witches also resemble their ,european sisters in their habit of reciting their charms backward1-- ,he who'd read her aright must say her ,backwards like a witch's prayer4 ,and in ,much ado about ,nothing1 ,hero says of ,beatrice1-- ,i never yet saw man ,how wise1 how noble1 young1 how rarely featured1 ,but she would spell him backward4 ,this backward recital of spells appears all through folk-lore4 #gei ,indian witches are supposed to repeat two letters and a half from a verse in the ,qurn1 known only to themselves1 and to say them backwards4 ,we have the same belief in one of the tales of ,somadeva1 where ,bhmabhatta prays in his extremity to ,mother ,ganges1 and she says1 ,now receive from me this charm called 'forwards and backwards4' ,if a man repeats it forwards1 he will become invisible to his neighbour2 but if he repeats it backwards1 he will assume whatever shape he desires4 #gfj ,the use of this charm enables the witch to take the liver out of a living child and eat it4 ,but1 in order to do this effectively1 she must first catch some particular kind of wild animal not larger than a dog1 feed it with cakes of sugar and butter1 ride on it1 and repeat the charm one hundred times4 ,when dying1 the breath will not leave the body of the witch until she has taught the two and a half letters to another woman1 or failing a woman1 until she has repeated it to a tree4 #gfa ,witchcraft by ,means of ,hair1 ,nail ,parings1 etc4 ,the idea is common in folk-lore that a witch can acquire power over her victim by getting possession of a lock of hair1 the parings of his nails1 or some other part of his body4 ,in the ,comedy of ,errors1 ,dromio of ,syracuse says1-- ,some devils ask but the parings of one's nail1 ,a rush1 a hair1 a drop of blood1 a pin1 ,a nut1 a cherry stone4 ,in ,ireland1 nail-parings are an ingredient in many charms1 and hair-cuttings should not be placed where birds can find them1 for they take them to build their nests1 and then you will have headaches all the year after4 #gfb ,the same is the case with the leavings of food1 which should be thrown to the crows lest some ill-disposed person get possession of them4 ,on the same principle ,english mothers hide away the first tooth of a child4 #gfc ,there are numerous instances of these and similar beliefs all through the whole range of folk-lore4 ,hence natives of ,india are very careful about the disposal of hair-cuttings and nail-parings2 and it is only at shrines and sacred places of pilgrimage where shaving is a religious duty that such things are left lying about on the ground4 ,in the ,grihyastras it is provided that the hair cut from a child's head at the end of the first1 third1 fifth1 or seventh year shall be buried in the earth at a place covered with grass or in the neighbourhood of water4 ,the carelessness shown at places of pilgrimage in this respect rests on the belief that the sanctity of the place is in itself a protective against sorcery4 ,but some people do not depend on this1 and fling the hair into running water4 ,at ,hardwr the barber at the sacred pool takes the hair which he keeps collected in a bag and flings it into the air on the top of the neighbouring hill1 at least he assures his patrons that he does so4 ,witchcraft by ,means of ,images4 ,another means which witches are supposed to adopt in order to injure those whom they dislike1 is to make an image of wax1 flour1 or similar substances1 and torture it1 with the idea that the pain will be communicated to the person whom they desire to annoy4 ,thus1 among ,muhammadans1 when the death of an enemy is desired1 a doll is made of earth taken from a grave1 or a place where bodies are cremated1 and various sentences of the ,qurn are read backwards over twenty-one small wooden pegs4 ,the officiant is to repeat the spell three times over each peg1 and is then to strike them so as to pierce various parts of the body of the image4 ,the image is then to be shrouded like a corpse1 conveyed to a cemetery1 and buried in the name of the enemy whom it is intended to injure4 ,he will1 it is believed1 certainly die after this rite is performed4 ,the practice has become a branch of the fine arts and numerous methods are detailed by ,dr4 ,herklots4 #gfd ,it is almost unnecessary to say that similar ideas prevail in ,europe4 ,the wounded ,melun in ,king ,john says3-- ,have ,i not hideous death within my view1 ,retaining but a quantity of life1 ,which bleeds away1 even as a form of wax ,resolveth from his figure 'gainst the fire8 ,an old woman in ,cornwall was advised to buy a bullock's heart1 and get a packet of pound pins4 ,she was to stick the heart as full of pins as she could1 and the body that wished her ill felt every pin run into the bullock's heart1 same as if they had been run into her4 #gfe ,examples of such images may be seen in the ,pitt-,rivers collection at ,oxford4 ,sir ,w4 ,scott describes how1 under the threshold of a house in ,dalkeith1 was found the withered heart of some animal1 full of many scores of pins2 and ,aubrey tells us of one ,hammond1 of ,westminster1 who was hanged or tried for his life in #afda for killing a person by means of an image of wax4 ,this was one of the charges made against the unfortunate ,jane ,shore4 #gff ,in ,bengal1 a person sometimes takes a bamboo which has been used to keep down a corpse during cremation1 and making a bow and arrow with it1 repeats incantations over them4 ,he then makes an image of his enemy in clay1 and lets fly an arrow into this image4 ,the person whose image is thus pierced is said to be immediately seized with a pain in his breast4 ,in the folk-tales restoration to life is usually effected by collecting the ashes or bones of the deceased and making an image of them1 into which life is breathed4 #gfg ,witchcraft through the ,footsteps4 ,it was a precept of ,pythagoras not to run a nail or a knife into a man's foot4 ,this1 from the primitive point of view1 was really a moral1 not merely a prudential precept4 ,for it is a world-wide superstition that by injuring the footsteps you injure the foot that made them4 ,thus1 in ,mecklenburgh it is thought that if you thrust a nail into a man's footsteps the man will go lame4 ,the ,australian blacks held exactly the same view4 ,seeing that a ,tutungolung was very lame1 says ,mr4 ,howitt1 ,i asked him what was the matter4 ,he said1 ',some fellow has put bottle in my foot4' ,i asked him to let me see it4 ,i found that he was probably suffering from acute rheumatism4 ,he explained that some enemy must have found his foot-track1 and have buried in it a piece of broken bottle4 #gfh ,the same feeling widely prevails in ,northern ,india1 and rustics are in the habit of attributing all sorts of pains and sores to the machinations of some witch or sorcerer who has meddled with their footprints4 ,punishment of ,witches4 ,the method by which witches are punished displays a diabolical ingenuity4 ,the ,indian newspapers a short time ago recorded six out of nine murders in the ,sambalpur ,district as due to the superstition1 which is so general1 that the spread of cholera is due to the sorcery of some individual1 whose evil influence can be nullified if he be beaten with rods of the castor-oil plant4 ,the people who are thus suspected are so cruelly beaten that in the majority of cases they die under the infliction4 ,a milder form of treatment is to make the witch drink the filthy water of a washerman's tank1 which is believed to destroy her skill4 #gfi ,the punishment in vogue in ,central ,india was to make witches drink the water used by curriers1 leather being1 as we have seen1 a scarer of evil spirits1 and drinking such water involves degradation from caste4 ,in more serious cases the witch's nose was cut off1 or she was put to death4 #ggj ,in ,bastar1 if a man is adjudged guilty of witchcraft1 he is beaten by the crowd1 his hair is shaved1 the hair being supposed to constitute his power of mischief1 his front teeth are knocked out1 in order1 it is said1 to prevent him from muttering incantations1 or more probably1 as we have already seen1 to prevent him from becoming a ,loupgarou4 ,all descriptions of filth are thrown at him2 if he be of good caste1 hog's flesh is thrust into his mouth1 and lastly he is driven out of the country1 followed by the abuse and execrations of his enlightened fellow-men4 ,women suspected of sorcery have to undergo the same ordeal2 if found guilty1 the same punishment is awarded1 and after being shaved1 their hair is attached to a tree in some public place4 ,in ,chhattsgarh1 a witch has her hair shaved with a blunt knife1 her two front teeth are knocked out1 she is branded in the hinder parts1 has a ploughshare1 which is a strong fetish1 tied to her legs1 and she is made to drink the water of a tannery4 #gga ,witchcraft ,punishments among the ,drvidians4 ,in former times among the ,drvidian races persons denounced as witches were put to death in the belief that witches breed witches and sorcerers4 ,a terrible raid was made on these unfortunate people when ,british authority was relaxed during the ,mutiny1 and most atrocious murders were committed4 ,accusations of witchcraft are still sometimes made1 and persons denounced are subjected to much ill-usage1 if they escape with their lives4 #ggb ,among the ,bhls suspected persons used to be suspended from a tree head downwards1 pounded chillies being first put into the witch's eyes to see if the smarting would bring tears from her4 ,sometimes after suspension she was swung violently from side to side4 ,she was finally compelled to drink the blood of a goat1 slaughtered for the purpose1 which is regarded as a substitute for the sick man's life1 and to satisfy the witch's craving for blood4 ,she was then brought to the patient's bedside1 and required to make passes over his head with a ,nm branch2 a lock of hair was also cut from the head of the witch and buried in the ground1 that the last link between her and her former powers of mischief might be broken4 #ggc ,other ,witchcraft ,punishments4 ,dr4 ,chevers has collected a number of instances in which the punishment of death or mutilation was inflicted on supposed witches4 ,he quotes a case in #ahjb1 in which several of the witnesses declared that they remembered numerous instances of persons being put to death for sorcery2 one of them1 in particular1 proved that her mother had been tried and executed as a witch4 ,in another case a ,kol1 thinking that some old women had bewitched him1 placed them in a line and cut off all their heads1 except that of the last1 who1 objecting to this drastic form of ordeal1 ran away and escaped4 ,in another1 the nose-ring of a suspected witch was torn out with such violence as to cause extensive laceration4 ,there are recorded instances of even more brutal forms of mutilation4 ,a case occurred at ,dhka in which some people went to the house of a supposed witch1 intending1 as they said1 to make her discontinue her enchantments1 and ill-treated her in such a shameful way as to leave her in a dying state4 ,she appears to have been in the habit of prescribing medicine for children1 and this seems to have been the only basis for the reports that she practised magic4 #ggd ,drawing ,blood from a ,witch4 ,one favourite way of counteracting the spells of a witch is to draw blood from her4 ,thus1 ,professor ,rhys1 writing of ,manxland1 says3 ,there is a belief that if you can draw blood1 however little1 from a witch or one who has the ,evil ,eye1 he loses his power of harming you2 and ,i have been told that formerly this belief was sometimes acted on4 ,thus1 on leaving church1 for instance1 the man who fancied himself in danger from another would go up to him1 or walk by his side1 and inflict on him a slight scratch or some other trivial wound1 which elicited blood4 #gge ,in the ,first ,part of ,henry ,,vi4 ,talbot says to the ,pucelle de ,orleans1-- ,i'll have a bout with thee2 ,devil or devil's dam1 ,i'll conjure thee2 ,blood will ,i draw on thee1 thou art a witch4 ,and ,hudibras says1-- ,till drawing blood o' the ,dames like witches1 ,they're forthwith cur'd of their capriches4 ,so at the present day in ,mirzapur1 when a woman is marked down as a witch1 the ,baiga or ,ojha pricks her tongue with a needle1 and the blood thus extracted is received on some rice1 which she is compelled to eat4 ,in another case she is pricked on the breast1 tongue1 and thighs1 and given the blood to drink4 ,the ceremony is most efficacious if performed on the banks of a running stream4 ,this is probably a survival of the actual blood sacrifice of a witch4 ,witch ,haunts4 ,in any country an isolated or outlying race1 the lingering survivors of an older nationality1 is liable to the imputation of sorcery4 #ggf ,this is exactly true of ,asia4 ,marco ,polo makes the same assertion about ,pachai in ,badakhshn4 ,he says the people of ,kashmr have extraordinary acquaintance with the devilries of enchantment1 insomuch that they can make their idols to speak4 ,they can also by their sorceries bring on changes of weather1 and produce darkness1 and do a number of things so extraordinary1 that without seeing them no one would believe them4 ,indeed this country is the very original source from which idolatry has spread abroad4 ,in ,tibet1 he says1 are the best enchanters and astrologers that exist in that part of the world2 they perform such extraordinary marvels and sorceries by diabolical art1 that it astounds one to see or even hear of them4 #ggg ,so in ,european folk-lore the north was considered the home of witches1 and in ,shakespeare ,la ,pucelle invokes the aid of the spirit under the lordly monarch of the north4 ,in ,india1 the same is the case with the ,konkan in ,bombay4 #ggh ,the semi-aboriginal ,thrus of the ,himlayan ,tar are supposed to possess special powers of this kind1 and ,thruhat1 or the land of the ,thrus1 is a common synonym for ,witchland4 ,at ,bhgalpur1 ,dr4 ,buchanan was told that twenty-five children died annually through the malevolence of witches4 ,these reputed witches used to drive a roaring trade1 as women would conceal their children on their approach and bribe them to go away4 ,in ,gorakhpur1 he says1 the ,tonahis or witches were very numerous1 but some ,judge sent an order that no one should presume to injure another by enchantment4 ,it is supposed that the order has been obeyed1 and no one has since imagined himself injured1 a sign of the people being remarkably easy to govern1 #ggi and it may be added of the patriarchal style of government in those early days4 ,nowadays the accusation of witchcraft is practically confined to the menial tribes4 ,the wandering1 half-gipsy ,banjras1 or grain-carriers1 are notoriously witch-ridden1 and the same is the case with the ,dom1 ,snsiya1 ,hbra1 and other vagrants of their kin4 ,non ,chamrin1 the ,witch4 ,at the present day the half-deified witch most dreaded in the ,eastern ,districts of the ,north-,western ,provinces is ,lon1 or ,non1 a ,chamrin1 or woman of the currier caste4 ,her legend is in this wise4 ,the great physician ,dhanwantara1 who corresponds to ,luqmn ,hakm of the ,muhammadans1 was once on his way to cure ,king ,parikshit1 and was deceived and bitten by the snake king ,takshaka4 ,he therefore desired his son to roast him and eat his flesh1 and thus succeed to his magical powers4 ,the snake king dissuaded them from eating the unholy meal1 and they let the cauldron containing it float down the ,ganges4 ,a currier woman1 named ,lon1 found it and ate the contents1 and thus succeeded to the mystic powers of ,dhanwantara4 ,she became skilful in cures1 particularly of snake-bite4 ,finally she was discovered to be a witch by the extraordinary rapidity with which she could plant out rice seedlings4 ,one day the people watched her1 and saw that when she believed herself unobserved1 she stripped herself naked1 and taking the bundle of the plants in her hands threw them into the air1 reciting certain spells4 ,when the seedlings forthwith arranged themselves in their proper places1 the spectators called out in astonishment1 and finding herself discovered1 ,non rushed along over the country1 and the channel which she made in her course is the ,lon river to this day4 ,so a saint in ,broach formed a new course for a river by dragging his clothes behind him4 ,in ,non's case we have the nudity charm1 of which instances have been already given4 ,ptan1 the ,witch ,fiend4 ,another terrible witch1 whose legend is told at ,mathura1 is ,ptan1 the daughter of ,bali1 king of the lower world4 ,she found the infant ,krishna asleep1 and began to suckle him with her devil's milk4 ,the first drop would have poisoned a mortal child1 but ,krishna drew her breast with such strength that he drained her life-blood1 and the fiend1 terrifying the whole land of ,braj with her cries of agony1 fell lifeless on the ground4 ,european witches suck the blood of children2 here the divine ,krishna turns the tables on the witch4 #ghj ,the ,witch of the ,palwrs4 ,the ,palwr ,rjputs of ,oudh have a witch ancestress4 ,soon after the birth of her son she was engaged in baking cakes4 ,her infant began to cry1 and she was obliged to perform a double duty4 ,at this juncture her husband arrived just in time to see his demon wife assume gigantic and supernatural proportions1 so as to allow both the baking and nursing to go on at the same time4 ,but finding her secret discovered1 the witch disappeared1 leaving her son as a legacy to her astonished husband4 #gha ,here1 though the story is incomplete1 we have almost certainly1 as in the case of ,non ,chamrin1 one of the ,melusina type of legend1 where the supernatural wife leaves her husband and children1 because he violated some taboo1 by which he is forbidden to see her in a state of nudity1 or the like4 #ghb ,the history of witchcraft in ,india1 as in ,europe1 is one of the saddest pages in the annals of the people4 ,nowadays1 the power of ,british law has almost entirely suppressed the horrible outrages which1 under the native administration1 were habitually practised4 ,but particularly in the more remote and uncivilized parts of the country1 this superstition still exists in the minds of the people1 and occasional indications of it1 which appear in our criminal records1 are quite sufficient to show that any relaxation of the activity of our magistrates and police would undoubtedly lead to its revival in some of its more shocking forms4 ,,chapter ,,vi4 ,,some ,,rural ,,festivals ,,and ,,ceremonies4 ,en d' etithei neion malakn pieiran arouran1 ,eureian1 tripolon polloi d' apotres en aut ,zeugea dineuontes elastreon entha kai entha4 ,iliad1 xviii4 #eda-dc4 ,the subject of rural festivals is much too extensive for treatment in a limited space4 ,here reference will be made only to a few of those ceremonies which illustrate the principles recently elucidated from the folk-lore of ,europe by ,messrs4 ,frazer1 ,gomme1 and ,mannhardt4 #ghc ,the ,akhtj4 ,the respect paid to ploughing is illustrated by the early ,vedic legend of ,st1 who1 like the ,etruscan ,tago1 sprung from a furrow4 #ghd ,it is only in a later development of the story that she becomes the daughter of ,janaka1 and wife of ,rma ,chandra4 ,the agricultural year in ,northern ,india begins with the ceremony of the ,akhtj1 the undecaying third1 which is celebrated on the third day of the light fortnight in the month of ,baiskh1 or ,may4 ,in the ,north-,western ,provinces the cultivator first fees his ,pandit to select an auspicious hour on that day for the commencement of ploughing4 ,in most places he does not begin till #c p4m42 in ,mirzapur the time fixed is usually during the night1 as secrecy is in most of these rural ceremonies an important part of the ritual4 ,in ,rohilkhand the cultivator goes at daybreak to one of his fields1 which must be of a square or oblong shape4 ,he takes with him a brass drinking vessel of water1 a branch of the ,mango tree1 both of which are1 as we have seen1 efficacious in scaring spirits1 and a spade4 ,the object of the rite is to propitiate ,prithiv1 the broad world1 as contrasted with ,dhart ,m1 or ,mother ,earth1 and ,sesha ,nga1 the great snake which supports the world4 ,whenever ,sesha yawns he causes an earthquake4 ,the ,pandit first makes certain observations by which he is able to determine in which direction the snake happens at the time to be lying1 because1 in order to ease himself of his burden1 he moves about beneath the world1 and lies1 sometimes north and south1 north-west and south-east1 and so on4 ,this imaginary line having been marked off1 the peasant digs up five clods of earth with his spade4 ,this is a lucky number1 as it is a quarter more than four4 ,hence ,sawi1 or one and a quarter1 has been taken as one of the titles of the ,mahrja of ,jaypur4 ,he then sprinkles water five times into the trench with the branch of the sacred mango4 ,the object of this is by a form of sympathetic magic to ensure the productiveness of the crop1 and scare the demons of evil which would injure it4 ,in ,bombay1 at the beginning of the sowing season1 a cocoanut is broken and thrown at each side of the plough1 so that the soil spirits may leave and make room for ,lakshm1 the goddess of prosperity1 who is represented by the plough4 #ghe ,during all these proceedings the peasant watches the omens most carefully1 and if anything inauspicious happens1 the ceremony must be discontinued and recommenced at a luckier hour later on in the day4 ,when he gets home1 some woman of the family1 who must not be a widow1 who is naturally considered unlucky1 presents him with curds and silver for good luck4 ,he then stays all day in the house1 rests1 and does no work1 and does not even go to sleep4 ,he avoids quarrels and disputes of all kinds1 and on that day will give neither grain nor money1 nor fire to any one4 #ghf ,next day he eats sweet food and balls of wheaten flour1 toasted with curds and sugar1 but carefully abstains from salt4 ,these usages have parallels in the customs of other lands4 ,thus1 the rule against giving fire on the sowing day prevailed in ,rome1 and is still observed in the rural parts of ,england4 ,in ,iceland and the ,isle of ,man it is believed that fire and salt are the most sacred things given to man1 and if you give them away on ,may ,day you give away your luck for the year2 no one will give fire from a house while an unbaptized baby is in it4 #ghg ,in ,rjputna the custom is less elaborate4 ,the first day of ploughing after the rains begin is known as the ,halsotiya festival4 ,omens being favourable1 the villagers proceed to the fields1 each household carrying a new earthen pot1 coloured with turmeric1 the virtues of which have been already explained1 and full of ,bjra millet4 ,looking to the north1 the home of the gods1 they make an obeisance to the earth1 and then a selected man ploughs five furrows4 ,the ploughman's hands and the bullock's hoofs are rubbed with henna1 and the former receives a dinner of delicacies4 #ghh ,in ,mirzapur1 only the northern part of the field1 that facing the ,himlaya is dug up in five places with a piece of mango wood4 ,the peasant1 when he goes home1 eats rich food1 and abstains from quarrels4 ,all over the country the people seem to be becoming less careful about these observances4 ,some1 without consulting a ,pandit at all1 go early to the field on the morning after the ,hol fire is lighted1 scratch the ground with a ploughshare1 and on their return eat cakes and sweetmeats4 ,others1 on the first day after the ,hol1 when they hear the voice of the ,koil1 or ,indian cuckoo at twilight1 go in silence to the field and make a few scratches4 #ghi ,among the ,drvidian ,hill tribes of ,mirzapur1 the ceremony seems to be merely a formal propitiation of the village godlings4 ,among the ,korwas1 before ploughing commences1 the ,baiga makes an offering of butter and molasses in his own field4 ,this he burns in the name of the village godlings1 and does a special sacrifice at their shrine4 ,after this ploughing commences4 ,the ,kharwrs1 before sowing1 take five handfuls of grain from the sowing basket1 and pray to ,dhart ,mt1 the earth goddess1 to be propitious4 ,they keep the grain1 grind it1 and offer it at her annual festival in the month of ,swan or ,august4 ,the ,pankas only do a burnt offering through the ,baiga1 and offer up cakes and other food1 known as ,nuj4 ,before the spring sowing1 a general offering of five cocks is made to the village godlings by the ,baiga1 who consumes the sacrifice himself4 ,all these people do not commence agricultural work till the ,baiga starts work in his own field1 and they prefer to do this on ,monday4 ,in ,hoshangbd the ceremony is somewhat different4 ,the ploughing is usually begun by the landlord1 and all the cultivators collect and assist at the ceremony in his field before they go on to their own4 ,it is the custom for him to take a rupee and fasten it up in the leaf of the ,palsa tree with a thorn4 ,he also folds up several empty leaves in the same way and covers them all with a heap of leaves4 ,when he has done worship to the plough and bullocks1 he yokes them and drives them through the heap1 and all the cultivators then scramble for the leaf which contains the rupee4 ,they then each plough their fields a little1 and returning in a body1 they are met by the daughter or sister of the landlord1 who comes out to meet them with a brass vessel full of water1 a light in one hand and the wheaten cakes in the other4 ,the landlord and each of the cultivators of his caste put a rupee into her water vessel and take a bit of the cake1 which they put on their heads4 ,on the same day an earthen jar full of water is taken by each cultivator to his threshing-floor1 and placed to stand on four lumps of earth1 each of which bears the name of one of the four months of the rainy season4 ,next morning as many lumps as are wetted by the leaking of the water jar 7which is very porous and always leaks71 so many months of rain will there be1 and the cultivator makes his arrangements for the sowing accordingly4 #gij ,in the ,himlaya1 again1 there is a different ritual3 ,on the day fixed for the commencement of ploughing the ceremony known as ,kudkhyo and ,halkhyo takes place4 ,the ,kudkhyo takes place in the morning or evening1 and begins by lighting a lamp before the household deity and offering rice1 flowers1 and balls made of turmeric1 borax1 and lemon juice4 ,the conch is then sounded1 and the owner of the field or relative whose lucky day it is1 takes three or four pounds of seed-grain from a basin and carries it to the edge of the field prepared for its reception4 ,he then scrapes a portion of the earth with a mattock1 and sows a part of the seed4 ,one to five lamps are placed on the ground1 and the surplus seed is given away4 ,at the ,halkhyo ceremony1 the balls as above described are placed on the ploughman1 plough1 and plough cattle2 four or five furrows are ploughed and sown1 and the farm servants are fed4 #gia ,this custom of giving away what remains of the seed-grain to labourers and beggars prevails generally throughout ,northern ,india4 ,a curious rite is performed in ,kulu at the rice planting4 ,each family in turn keeps open house4 ,the neighbours1 men and women1 collect at the rice-fields4 ,as soon as a field is ready1 the women enter it in line1 each with a bundle of young rice in her hands1 and advance dabbing the young plants into the slush as they go4 ,the mistress of the house and her daughters1 dressed in their gayest1 take their stand in front of the line1 and supply more bundles of plants as they are wanted4 ,the women sing in chorus as they work2 impromptu verses are often put in1 which occasion a great deal of laughter4 ,two or three musicians are generally entertained by the master of the house1 who also supplies food and drink of his best for the whole party4 ,the day's work often ends with a tremendous romp1 in which every one throws mud at his neighbours1 or tries to give him or her a roll in it4 ,no such ceremony is observed in sowing other crops1 rice having been formerly1 in all probability1 the most important crop4 ,it is also the custom to make a rude image of a man in dough and to throw it away as a sacrifice to the ,ishta ,deot or household deity4 #gib ,this can hardly be anything but a survival of an actual sacrifice to appease the field godlings at sowing time4 ,the rude horseplay which goes on is like that at the ,saturnalia and on the ,english ,plough ,monday4 ,going on to the ,drvidian races1 the ,mundas have a feast in ,may at the time of sowing for the first rice crop4 ,it is held in honour of the ancestral shades and other spirits1 who1 if unpropitiated1 would prevent the seed from germinating4 ,a he-goat and a cock are sacrificed4 ,again in ,june they have a festival to propitiate the local gods1 that they may bless the crops4 ,in the ,mundri villages everyone plants a branch of the ,bel tree in his land1 and contributes to the general offering1 which is made by the priest in the sacred grove1 a fowl1 a pitcher of beer1 and a handful of rice4 ,in ,july1 again1 each cultivator sacrifices a fowl1 and after some mysterious rites1 a wing is stripped off and inserted in a cleft of a bamboo1 and stuck up in the rice-field or dung-heap4 ,if this is omitted1 the rice crop1 it is supposed1 will not come to maturity4 ,it appears more like a charm than a sacrifice4 ,among the ,kols of ,chota ,ngpur1 there is a special dance1 the women follow the men and change their attitudes and positions in obedience to signals from them4 ,in one special figure the women all kneel and pat the ground with their hands1 in tune of music1 as if coaxing the earth to be fertile4 #gic ,prohibition of ,ploughing4 ,a clergyman in ,devonshire informed ,brand that the old farmers in his parish called the three first days of ,march ,blind ,days1 which were anciently considered unlucky1 and on them no farmer would sow his seed4 #gid ,in ,northern ,india there are certain days on which ploughing is forbidden1 such as the ,ngpancham or snake feast held on the fifth of the light half of ,swan1 and the fifteenth of the month ,krttik4 ,turning up the soil on such days disturbs ,seshanga1 the great world serpent and ,mother ,earth4 ,but ,mother ,earth is also supposed to sleep on six days in every month--the #eth1 #gth1 #ith1 #aath1 #bast1 and #bdth2 or1 as others say1 the #ast1 #bnd1 #eth1 #gth1 #ajth1 #bast1 and #bdth4 ,on such days it is inadvisable to plough if it can be possibly avoided4 ,the fifteen days in the month of ,kur which are devoted to the worship of the ,pitri or sainted dead1 are also an inauspicious time for agricultural work4 ,all these ceremonies at the commencement of the agricultural season remind us in many ways of the observance of the festivals of ,plough ,monday and similar customs in rural ,england4 #gie ,the ,rakshabandhan and ,jy ,festivals4 ,we have already noticed the use of the knotted cord or string as an amulet4 ,on the full moon of ,swan is held the ,salono or ,rakshabandhan festival1 when women tie these amulets round the wrists of their friends4 ,connected with this is what is known as the barley feast1 the ,jy or ,jawra of ,upper ,india1 and the ,bhujariya of the ,central ,provinces4 ,it is supposed to be connected in some way with the famous story of ,alha and ,udal1 which forms the subject of a very popular local epic4 ,they were ,rjputs of the ,banphar clan1 and led the ,chandels in their famous campaign against the ,rhtaurs of ,kanauj1 which immediately preceded1 and in fact led up to1 the ,muhammadan conquest of ,northern ,india4 #gif ,in connection with this simple rural feast1 a most elaborate ritual has been prescribed under ,brhmanical influence1 but all that is usually done is that on the seventh day of the light half of ,swan1 grains of barley are sown in a pot of manure1 and spring up so rapidly that by the end of the month the vessel is full of long1 yellowish-green stalks4 ,on the first day of the next month1 ,bhdon1 the women and girls take these out1 throw the earth and manure into water1 and distribute the plants to their male friends1 who bind them in their turbans and about their dress4 #gig ,we have already come across an instance of a similar practice among the ,kharwrs at the ,karama festival1 and numerous examples of the same have been collected by ,mr4 ,frazer4 #gih ,thus1 in various parts of ,italy and all over ,sicily it is still customary to put plants in water or in earth on the ,eve of ,st4 ,john1 and from the manner in which they are found to be blooming or faded on ,st4 ,john's ,day omens are drawn1 especially as to fortune in love4 ,in ,prussia two hundred years ago the farmers used to send out their servants1 especially their maids1 to gather ,st4 ,john's wort on ,midsummer ,eve or ,midsummer ,day4 ,when they had fetched it1 the farmer took as many plants as there were persons and stuck them on the wall or between the beams2 and it was thought that the person whose plant did not bloom would soon fall sick or die4 ,the rest of the plants were tied in a bundle1 fastened to the end of a pole1 and set up at the gate or wherever the corn would be brought in at the next harvest4 ,this bundle was called ,kupole1 the ceremony was known as ,kupole's festival1 and at it the farmer prayed for a good crop of hay1 etc4 ,we have the same idea in the ,english rural custom of wearing the rose4 ,there can be no reasonable doubt that all these rites were intended to propitiate the spirit of vegetation and promote the germination and growth of the next crop4 #gii ,the ,diwl1 or ,feast of ,lamps4 ,the regular ,diwl1 or ,feast of ,lamps1 which is performed on the last day of the dark fortnight in the month of ,krttik1 is more of a city than a rural festival4 ,but even in the villages everyone burns a lamp outside the house on that night4 ,the feast has1 of course1 been provided with an appropriate legend4 ,once upon a time an astrologer foretold to a ,rja that on the new moon of ,krttik his ,kl1 or fate1 would appear at midnight in the form of a snake2 that the way to avoid this was that he should order all his subjects on that night to keep their houses1 streets1 and lanes clean2 that there should be a general illumination2 that the king1 too1 should place a lamp at his door1 and at the four corners of his couch1 and sprinkle rice and sweetmeats everywhere4 ,if the door-lamp went out it was foretold that he would become insensible1 and that he was to tell his ,rn to sing the praises of the snake when it arrived4 ,these instructions were carefully carried out1 and the snake was so pleased with his reception1 that he told the ,rn to ask any boon she pleased4 ,she asked for long life for her husband4 ,the snake replied that it was out of his power to grant this1 but that he would make arrangements with ,yamarja1 the lord of the dead1 for the escape of her husband1 and that she was to continue to watch his body4 ,then the snake carried off the spirit of the king to ,yamarja4 ,when the papers of the king's life were produced before ,yamarja his age was denoted by a cipher1 but the kindly snake put a seven before it1 and thus raised his age to seventy years4 ,then ,yamarja said3 ,i find that this person has still seventy years to live4 ,take him back at once4 ,so the snake brought back the soul of the king1 and he revived and lived for seventy years more1 and established this feast in honour of the event4 ,much the same idea appears in one of ,grimm's ,german tales4 #hjj ,the original basis of the feast seems to have been the idea that on this night the spirits of the dead revisit their homes1 which are cleaned and lighted for their reception4 ,now it is chiefly observed in honour of ,lakshm1 the goddess of wealth and good luck1 who is propitiated by gambling4 ,on this night the women make what is called the new moon lampblack 7,amwas ,k ,kjal71 which is used throughout the following year as a charm against the ,evil ,eye1 and1 as we have already seen1 the symbolical expulsion of poverty goes on4 ,immediately following this festival is the ,bhaiyya ,dj1 or ,brothers' second1 when sisters make a mark on the foreheads of their brothers and cause them to eat five grains of gram4 ,these must be swallowed whole1 not chewed1 and bring length of days4 ,the sister then makes her brother sit facing the east1 and feeds him with sweetmeats1 in return for which he gives her a present4 ,the ,govardhan4 ,following the ,diwl comes what is known as the ,govardhan1 or ,godhan1 which is a purely rural feast4 ,in parts of the ,north-,western ,provinces1 the women1 on a platform outside the house1 make a little hut of mud and images of ,gaur and ,ganesa2 there they place the parched grain which the girls offered on the night of the ,diwl2 near it they lay some thorny grass1 wave a rice pounder round the hut1 and invoke blessings on their relations and friends4 ,this is also a cattle feast1 and cowherds come round half drunk and collect presents from their employers4 ,they sing1 ,may this house grow as the sugar-cane grows1 as ,ganga increases at the sacred confluence of ,prayg6 ,in the ,panjb the women make a ,govardhan of cowdung1 which consists of ,krishna lying on his back surrounded with little cottage loaves of dung to represent mountains1 in which are stuck stems of grass with tufts of cotton or rag on the top for trees1 and by little dung balls for cattle1 watched by dung men dressed in little bits of rag4 ,another opinion is that the cottage loaves are cattle1 and the dung balls calves4 ,on this they put the churn-staff1 five white sugar-canes1 some parched rice1 and a lamp in the middle4 ,the cowherds are then called in1 and they salute the whole1 and are fed with rice and sweets4 ,the ,brhman then takes the sugar-cane and eats a bit1 and till then no one must eat1 cut1 or press cane4 ,rice-milk is then given to the ,brhmans1 and the bullocks have their horns dyed and are extra well fed4 #hja ,the ,emperor ,akbar1 we are told1 used to join in this festival4 #hjb ,the custom in ,cawnpur1 known as the ,dng1 or ,club1 ,diwl is very similar4 ,the cowherds worship ,govardhan in the form of a little heap of cowdung decorated with cotton1 and go round to the houses of the persons whose cattle they graze1 dance to the music of two sticks beaten together and a drum played by a ,hindu weaver1 and get presents of grain1 cloth1 or money4 #hjc ,cattle ,festivals4 ,there are a number of similar usages in various parts of the country solemnized with the object of protecting the herds4 ,thus in ,hoshangbd they have the rite of frightening the cattle4 ,everyone keeps awake all night1 and the herdsmen go out begging in a body1 singing1 and keeping the cattle from sleeping4 ,in the morning they are all stamped with the hand dipped in yellow paint for the white ones1 and white paint for the red ones1 and strings of cowries or peacocks' feathers are tied to their horns4 ,then they are driven out with wild whoops or yells1 and the herdsman standing at the doorway smashes an earthen water jar on the last4 ,the neck of this is placed on the gateway leading to the cattle sheds1 and preserves them from the ,evil ,eye4 ,in the afternoon the cattle are all collected together1 and the ,parihr priest sprinkles them with water1 after which they are secure from all possible evil4 #hjd ,this reminds us of the custom of ,manx cattle dealers1 who drive their herd through fire on ,may ,day1 so as to singe them a little1 and preserve them from harm4 #hje ,the same was probably the origin of the bull-running in the town of ,stamford of which ,brand gives an account4 ,so the ,chinese make an effigy of an ox in clay1 which after being beaten by the governor1 is stoned by the people till they break it in pieces1 from which they expect an abundant year4 ,we have already met with instances where the scape animal merges in a sacrifice4 ,in ,garhwl1 at the sacrifice in honour of ,dev1 the ,brhmans make a circle of flour filled with various sorts of colours4 ,inside this they sit and repeat sacred verses4 ,then a male buffalo is made to move round the circle seven times1 and everyone throws some holy rice and oats over it4 ,after this the headman of the village strikes it lightly on the back with a sword and makes it run1 on which the people follow and hack it to pieces with their swords4 #hjf ,so in ,bengal1 on the last day of the month ,krttik 7,october-,november7 a pig is turned loose among a herd of buffaloes1 who are encouraged to gore it to death4 ,the carcase is given to the ,dusdh village menials to eat4 ,the ,ahrs1 who practise this strange rite1 aver that it has no religious significance1 and is merely a sort of popular amusement4 ,they do not themselves partake of any part of the pig4 #hjg ,it is plainly a survival of a regular sacrifice1 probably intended to promote the fertility of the herds and crops4 ,similar customs for the protection of cattle prevail in other parts of the country4 ,thus1 in ,mirzapur1 at the ,diwl1 a little earthen bell is procured from the village potter1 and hung round the necks of the cattle as a protective4 ,in ,berr1 at the ,pola festival1 the bullocks of the whole village pass in procession under a sacred rope made of twisted grass and covered with mango leaves4 ,the sacred pole of the headman is then borne aloft to the front4 ,he gives the order to advance1 and all the bullocks1 his own leading the way1 file under the rope according to the respective rank of their owners4 ,the villagers vie with each other in having the best decorated and painted bullocks1 and large sums are often expended in this way4 ,this rope is supposed to possess the magic power of protecting the cattle from disease and accident4 #hjh ,in ,northern ,india it is a common charm to drive the cattle under a rope fixed over the village cattle path1 and among the ,drvidians of ,mirzapur1 two poles and a cross bar are fixed at the entrance of the village with the same object4 ,the charm is rendered more powerful if a plough beam is sunk in the ground close by4 ,the custom of the silent tending of cattle has been already mentioned4 ,at the cattle festival in ,rjputna1 in the evening the cow is worshipped1 the herd having been previously tended4 ,from this ceremony no rank is excepted2 on the preceding day1 dedicated to ,krishna1 prince and peasant all become pastoral attendants of the cow in the form of ,prithiv or the ,earth4 #hji ,in some places the flowers and other ornaments of the cattle1 which they lose in their wild flight1 are eagerly picked up and treated as relics bringing good fortune4 ,we have a similar idea in the blessing of cattle in ,italy1 #haj and this is probably the origin of the observance described by ,aubrey1 when in ,somersetshire1 where the wassaile 7which is1 ,i think1 ,twelfe ,eve71 the ploughmen have their ,twelfe cake1 and they go into the ox-house to the cattle1 and drink to the ox with the crumpled horn that treads out the corne4 #haa ,the ,sleep of ,vishnu4 ,according to the rural belief1 ,vishnu sleeps for four months in the year1 from the eleventh of the bright half of the month ,asrh1 the ,deosoni ,ekdash1 the reposing of the god1 till the eleventh of the bright half of the month ,krttik1 the ,deothn1 or god's awakening4 ,so the demon ,kumbha ,karana in the ,rmyana when he is gorged sleeps for six months4 ,according to ,mr4 ,campbell1 #hab during these four months while the god sleeps demons are abroad1 and hence there are an unusual number of protective festivals in that period4 ,on the day he retires to rest women mark the house with lines of cowdung as a safeguard1 fast during the day1 and eat sweetmeats at night4 ,during the four months of the god's rest it is considered unlucky to marry1 repair the thatch of a hut1 or make the house cots4 ,his rising at the ,deothn marks the commencement of the sugar-cane harvest1 when the cane mill is marked with red paint1 and lamps are lighted upon it4 ,the owner of the crop then does worship in his field1 and breaks off some stalks of sugar-cane1 which he puts on the boundary4 ,he distributes five canes each to the village ,brhman1 blacksmith1 carpenter1 washerman1 and water carrier1 and takes five home4 ,then on a wooden board about one and a half feet long two figures of ,vishnu and his wife ,lakshm are drawn with lines of butter and cowdung4 ,on the board are placed some cotton1 lentils1 water-nuts1 and sweets2 a fire sacrifice is offered1 and the five canes are placed near the board and tied together at the top4 ,the ,slagrma1 or stone emblematical of ,vishnu1 is lifted up1 and all sing a rude melody1 calling on the god to wake and join the assembly4 ,then all move reverently round the emblems1 the tops of the cane are broken off and hung on the roof till the ,hol1 when they are burnt4 ,when the worship has been duly performed1 and the officiating ,brhman has declared that the fortunate moment has arrived1 the cutting may commence4 ,the whole village is a scene of festivity1 and dancing and singing go on frantically4 ,till this day no ,hindu will eat or touch the crop4 ,they believe that even jackals will not eat the cane till then4 ,the real fact is that till then the juice has not properly come up1 and the cane is not worth eating4 ,on the first day the cane is cut the owner eats none of it1 it would bring him bad luck4 #hac ,ceremonies to ,avert ,blight1 etc4 ,there are various ceremonies intended to save certain crops from the ravages of blight and insects4 ,blight is very generally attributed to the constant measurement of the soil which goes on during settlement operations1 to the irreligious custom of eating beef1 or to adultery1 or to a demon of the east wind1 who can be appeased with prayers and ceremonies4 #had ,no pious ,hindu1 if the seed fails1 will re-sow his winter crop4 ,when sugar-cane germinates1 the owner of the crop does worship on the next ,saturday before noon4 ,on one of the days of the ,naurtr in the month of ,kur the cultivator himself1 or through his family priest1 burns a fire sacrifice in the field and offers prayers4 ,in the month of ,krttik he has a special ceremony to avert a particularly dangerous grub1 known as the ,sndi4 ,for this purpose he takes from his house butter1 cakes1 sweets1 and five or six lumps of dough pressed into the shape of a pear1 with some clean water4 ,he goes to the field1 offers a fire sacrifice1 and presents some of the cakes to the field spirit4 ,he then buries one of the lumps of dough at each corner of his field1 and1 having eaten the rest of the cakes1 goes home happy4 #hae ,when field-mice do injury to the crop the owner goes to a ,syna1 or cunning man1 who writes a charm1 the letters of which he dissolves in water and scatters it over the plants4 ,the ancient ,greek farmer was recommended to proceed as follows3 ,take a sheet of paper and write on it these words1 ',ye mice here present1 ,i adjure ye that ye injure me not1 neither suffer another mouse to injure me4 ,i give you yonder field 7specifying the field71 but if ever ,i catch you here again1 by the help of the ,mother of the gods1 ,i will rend you in seven pieces4' ,write this and stick the paper on an unhewn stone in the field where the mice are1 taking care to keep the written side uppermost4 #haf ,general ,sleeman gives a case of a cowherd who saw in a vision that the water of the ,biys river should be taken up in pitchers and conveyed to the fields attacked with blight1 but that none of it should be allowed to fall on the ground in the way4 ,on reaching the field a small hole should be made in the bottom of the pitcher so as to keep up a small but steady stream1 as the bearer carried it round the border of the field1 so that the water might fall in a complete ring except at a small opening which was to be kept dry1 so that the demon of the blight could make his escape through it4 ,crowds of people came to fetch the water1 which was not supposed to have any particular virtue except that arising from this revelation4 #hag ,scaring of ,locusts4 ,locusts1 one of the great pests of the ,indian peasant's life1 are scared by shouting1 lighting of fires1 beating of brass pots1 and in particular1 by ringing the temple bell4 ,in ,sirsa1 the ,karwa1 a flying insect which injures the flower of the ,bjra millet1 is expelled by a man taking his sister's son on his shoulder and feeding him with rice-milk while he repeats the following charm3 ,the nephew has mounted his uncle's shoulder4 ,go1 ,karwa1 to some other field6 #hah ,in the ,panjb a popular legend thus explains the enmity between the starling and the locust4 ,once upon a time the locusts used to come and destroy the crops as they were ripening4 ,the people prayed to ,nryana1 and he imprisoned them in a deep valley in the ,himlaya1 putting the starlings to keep them in confinement4 ,now and again the locusts try to escape and the starlings promptly put them to death4 ,the legend is probably based on the fact that both the starlings and the locusts come from the ,hills1 and about the same time4 #hai ,another device to scare them is based on the well-known principle of treating with high distinction one or two chosen individuals of the obnoxious species1 while the rest are pursued with relentless vigour4 ,in the ,east ,indian island of ,bali1 the mice which ravage the rice-fields are caught in great numbers and burnt in the same way that corpses are burnt4 ,but two of the captured mice are allowed to live and receive a little packet of white linen4 ,then the people bow down before them1 as before gods1 and let them go4 #hbj ,so in ,mirzapur the ,drvidian tribes1 when a flight of locusts comes1 catch one1 decorate its head with a spot of red lead1 salaam to it1 and let it go1 when the whole flight immediately departs4 ,betel ,planting4 ,when cultivators in the ,north-,western ,provinces sow betel1 they cook rice-milk near the plants and offer it to the local godling4 ,they divide the offering1 and a little coarse sugar is dedicated to ,mahbr1 the monkey god1 which is taken home and distributed among the children4 ,this is known as ,jeonr ,pj or the banquet rite4 ,the ,barais1 who make a speciality of cultivating the plant1 have two godlings of their own1 ,sokha ,bba1 the ghost of some famous magician1 and ,ngbeli1 the creeper ,nga1 or snake1 who is connected with the sinuous growth of the tendrils4 ,in ,bengal1 the ,baruis1 a similar caste1 worship their patron goddess on the fourth day of the month ,baiskh with offerings of flowers1 rice1 sweetmeats1 and sandal-wood paste4 ,some do the ,navam ,pj in honour of ,ushas1 or the ,aurora1 on the sixth day of the waning moon in ,asin4 ,plantains1 rice1 sugar1 and sweetmeats are placed in the centre of the garden1 from which the worshippers retire1 but after a little time return1 and carrying out the offerings1 distribute them among the village children4 ,in ,bikrampur1 ,sunj1 a form of ,bhgawat1 is worshipped4 ,they do not employ ,brhmans in the worship1 because1 they say1 a ,brhman was the first cultivator of betel4 ,through his neglect the plant grew so high that he used his sacred thread to fasten up the tendrils1 but as it still shot up faster than he could supply thread1 its charge was given to a ,kyasth or writer4 ,hence it is that a ,brhman cannot enter a betel garden without defilement4 #hba ,in another form of the story1 the thread of the ,brhman grew up to the sky and became a betel tendril4 ,so1 in a ,tartar story1 the hop plant originates from the bow-string of a man that had been turned into a bear4 #hbb ,all over ,india1 the betel plant1 perhaps on account of the delicacy of its growth1 is considered as being very susceptible to demoniacal influence1 and a woman or a person in a state of ceremonial pollution is excluded from the nursery4 ,we meet with an instance of the same idea among the ,ainos4 ,they prepare for the fishing by observing rules of ceremonial purity1 and when they have gone out to fish the women at home must keep strict silence1 or the fish would hear them and disappear4 ,when the first fish is caught he is brought home and passed through a small opening at the end of the hut1 but not through the door2 for if he were passed through the door1 the other fish would certainly see him and disappear4 #hbc ,all these protective measures intended to guard the crop from defilement and demoniacal influence are rather like the old ,english rule of the young men and girls walking round the corn to bless it on ,palm ,sunday1 an observance which ,audley drily remarks in his time gave many a conception4 #hbd ,sugar-cane ,sowing4 ,when sugar-cane is being planted1 the sower is decorated with silver ornaments1 a necklace1 flowers1 and a red mark is made on his forehead4 ,it is considered a favourable omen if a man on horseback come into the field while the sowing is going on4 ,after the sowing is completed1 all the men employed come home to the farmer's house and have a good dinner4 #hbe ,all surplus seed is carefully destroyed with fire1 as it is believed that the plants grown from it would be worthless and produce only flowers and seed4 ,in the ,panjb1 on the first day of sowing1 sweetened rice is brought to the field1 the women smear the outside of the vessel with it1 and it is then distributed to the workmen4 ,next morning a woman puts on a necklace and walks round the field1 winding thread on a spindle4 ,this forms a sacred circle which repels evil influence from the crop4 ,on the night of the ,deothn1 when ,vishnu wakes from his four months' sleep1 lamps are lighted on the cane mill1 and it is smeared with daubs of red paint4 #hbf ,cotton ,planting4 ,when the cotton has sprung up1 the owner of the field goes there on ,sunday forenoon with some butter1 sweetmeats1 and cakes4 ,he burns a fire sacrifice1 offers up some of the food1 and eats the remainder in silence4 ,here we have another instance of the taboo against speaking1 which so commonly appears in these rural ceremonies4 #hbg ,when the cotton comes into flower1 some parched rice is taken to the field on a ,wednesday or ,friday2 some is thrown broadcast over the plants1 and the rest given to children1 the object assigned being that the bolls may swell1 as the rice does when parched4 ,many instances of symbolical or sympathetic magic of the same kind might be collected from the usages of other races4 ,thus1 for instance1 in ,sumatra1 the rice is sown by women1 who1 in sowing1 let their hair hang loose down their back1 in order that the rice may grow luxuriantly and have long stalks4 #hbh ,when the cotton is ripe and ready for picking1 the women pickers go to the north or east quarters of the field with parched rice and sweetmeats4 ,these directions are1 of course1 selected with reference to the ,himlaya1 the home of the gods1 and the rising sun4 ,they pick two or three large pods1 and then sit down and pull out the cotton in as long a string as possible without breaking it4 ,they hang these threads on the largest cotton plant they can find in the field1 round which they sit1 and fill their mouths as full as possible with the parched rice1 which they blow out as far as they can in each direction2 the idea being1 of course1 the same as in the ceremony when the plant flowers4 ,a fire offering is made and the picking commences4 #hbi ,the custom in ,karnl is very similar4 ,when the pods open and the cotton is ready for picking1 the women go round the field eating rice-milk1 the first mouthful of which they spit on the field towards the west4 ,the first cotton picked is exchanged for its weight in salt1 which is prayed over and kept in the house till the picking is over1 when it is distributed among the members of the household and friends4 #hcj ,the ,last ,sheaf4 ,in ,hoshangbd1 when the reaping is nearly over1 a small patch of corn is left standing in the last field1 and the reapers rest a little4 ,then they rush at this piece1 tear it up1 and cast it in the air1 shouting victory to their deities1 ,omkr ,mahrja1 ,jhamaj1 ,rmj ,ds1 or other local godlings according to their persuasions4 ,a sheaf is made of this corn1 which is tied to a bamboo1 stuck up on the last harvest cart1 carried home in triumph1 and fastened up at the threshing-floor or to a tree1 or on the cattle shed1 where its services are essential in averting the ,evil ,eye4 #hca ,the same custom prevails in the eastern districts of the ,north-,western ,provinces4 ,sometimes a little patch in the corner of the field is left untilled as a refuge for the field spirit2 sometimes it is sown and the corn reaped with a rush and shout and given to the ,baiga as an offering to the local godlings1 or distributed among beggars4 ,this is a most interesting analogue of a branch of ,european folk-lore which has been copiously illustrated by ,mr4 ,frazer4 #hcb ,it is the ,devon custom of ,crying the ,neck4 ,the last sheaf is the impersonation of the ,corn ,mother1 and is worshipped accordingly4 ,we have met already with the same idea in the reservation of small patches of the original forest for the accommodation of the spirits of the jungle4 ,first-fruits4 ,there are many customs connected with the disposal of the first-fruits of the crop4 ,the eating of the new grain is attended with various observances1 in which the feeding of ,brhmans and beggars takes a prominent place4 ,in ,kngra1 the first-fruits of corn1 oil1 and wine1 and the first fleece of the sheep are not indeed actually given1 but a symbolical offering is made in their stead4 ,these offerings are made to the ,jk or field spirit to whom reference has already been made4 ,the custom has now reached a later stage1 for the local ,rja puts the right of receiving the offerings on behalf of the ,jk to public auction4 #hcc ,in the same way at ,ladkh1 the main rafters of the houses are supported by cylindrical or square pillars of wood1 the top of which1 under the truss1 is1 in the houses of the peasantry1 encircled by a band of straw and ears of wheat1 forming a primitive sort of capital4 ,it is the custom1 ,i was told1 to consecrate the two or three first handsful of each year's crop to the spirit who presides over agriculture1 and these bands are thus deposited4 ,sometimes rams' horns are added to this decoration4 #hcd ,in ,northern ,india the first pressing of the sugar-cane is attended with special observances4 ,when the work of pressing commences1 the first piece of sugar made is presented to friends or beggars1 as is the first bowl of the extracted juice1 and in the western districts of the ,north-,western ,provinces some is offered in the name of the saint ,shaikh ,fard1 who from this probably gains his title of ,shakkarganj1 or ,treasury of sugar4 ,the ,santls have a harvest-home feast in ,december1 at which the ,jag ,mnjhi1 or headman of the village1 entertains the people4 ,the cattle are anointed with oil and daubed over with vermilion1 and a share of rice-beer is given to each animal4 #hce ,everywhere in treading out the grain the rule that the cattle move round the stake in the course of the sun is rigidly observed4 ,ceremonies at ,winnowing4 ,winnowing is a very serious and solemn operation1 not lightly to be commenced without due consultation of the stars4 ,in ,hoshangbd1 when the village priest has fixed a favourable time1 the cultivator1 his whole family1 and his labourers go to the threshing-floor1 taking with them the prescribed articles of worship1 such as milk1 butter1 turmeric1 boiled wheat1 and various kinds of grain4 ,the threshing-floor stake is washed in water1 and these things are offered to it and to the pile of threshed grain4 ,the boiled wheat is scattered about in the hope that the ,bhts or spirits may content themselves with it and not take any of the harvested corn4 ,then the master stands on a three-legged stool1 and taking five basketsful from the threshed heap1 winnows them4 ,after winnowing1 the grain and chaff are collected again and measured2 if the five baskets are turned out full1 or anything remains over1 it is a good omen4 ,if they cannot fill the baskets1 the place where they began winnowing is considered unlucky and it is removed a few yards to another part of the threshing-floor4 ,the five basketsful are presented to a ,brhman1 or distributed in the village1 not mixed with the rest of the harvest4 ,winnowing can then go on as convenient1 but one precaution must be taken4 ,as long as winnowing goes on the basket must never be set down on its bottom1 but always upside down4 ,if this were not done1 the spirits would use the basket to carry off the grain4 ,the day's results are measured generally in the evening4 ,this is done in perfect silence1 the measurer sitting with his back to the unlucky quarter of the sky1 and tying knots to keep count of the number of the baskets4 ,the spirits rob the grain until it is measured1 but when once it has been measured they are afraid of detection4 #hcf ,in the ,eastern ,panjb1 the clean grain is collected into a heap4 ,preparatory to measuring1 the greatest care has to be observed in the preparation of this heap1 or evil spirits will diminish the yield4 ,one man sits facing the north1 and places two round balls of cowdung on the ground4 ,between them he sticks in a plough-coulter1 a symbol known as ,shod ,mt or the mother of fertility4 ,a piece of the kh or swallow-wort and some ,db grass are added1 and they salute it1 saying3 ,o ,mother ,shod6 ,give the increase6 ,make our bankers and rulers contented6 ,the man then carefully hides the image of ,shod from all observers while he covers it up with grain1 which the others throw over his head from behind4 ,when it is well covered1 they pile the grain upon it1 but three times during the process the ceremony of ,chng is performed4 ,the man stands to the south of the heap and goes round it towards the west the first and third time1 and the reverse way the second time4 ,as he goes round1 he has the hand furthest from the heap full of grain1 and in the other a winnowing fan1 with which he taps the heap4 ,when the heap is finished they sprinkle it with ,ganges water1 and put a cloth over it till it is time to measure the grain4 ,a line is then drawn on the ground all round the heap1 inside which none but the measurer must go4 ,all these operations must be performed in profound silence4 #hcg ,in ,bareilly1 when the whole of the grain and chaff has been winnowed1 all the dressed grain is collected into a heap4 ,the winnower1 with his basket in his right hand1 goes from the south towards the west1 and then towards the north1 till he reaches the pole to which the treading-out cattle have been tethered4 ,he then returns the same way1 goes to the east till he reaches the pole1 and back again to the south2 then he places the basket on the ground and utters some pious ejaculation4 ,then an iron sickle1 a stick of the sacred ,kusa grass1 and a bit of swallow-wort1 with a cake of cowdung in a cleft stick1 are placed on the heap1 and four cakes of cowdung at the four corners2 and a line is traced round it with cowdung4 ,a fire offering is then made1 and some butter and coarse sugar are offered as sacrifice4 ,water is next thrown round the piled grain and the remainder of the sugar distributed to those present4 #hch ,in the ,etah ,district1 the owner of the field places to the north of the pile of grain a threshing-floor rake1 a bullock's muzzle1 and a rope at a distance of three spans from the piled grain2 and between these things and the pile he lays a little offering consisting of a few ears of grain1 some leaves of the swallow-wort1 and a few flowers4 ,these things are laid on a piece of cowdung4 ,he then covers the pile of grain with a cloth to protect it from thieving ,bhts1 and puts in a basket three handfuls of grain as the perquisite of the village priest who lights the ,hol fire4 ,something is also laid by for the village beggars4 ,then he sprinkles a little grain on the cloth1 and fills a basket full of grain which he pours back on the pile as an emblem of increase4 ,he then bows to the gods who live in the northern hills1 and mutters a prayer2 it is only at this time that he breaks the silence with which the whole ceremony is performed4 ,the cloth is then removed1 and the rite is considered complete4 ,measurement of ,grain4 ,all these precautions are based on principles which have been already discussed1 and we meet in them with the familiar fetishes and demon-scarers1 of which we have already quoted instances--the iron implements1 the sacred grasses and plants1 water and milk1 cowdung1 the winnowing fan1 and so on4 ,all over ,northern ,india a piece of cowdung1 known as ,barhwan1 that which gives the increase1 is laid on the piled grain1 and a sacred circle is made with fire and water round it4 ,silence1 as we have already seen1 is a special element in the worship4 ,all this rests on the idea that until the grain is measured1 vagrant ,bhts will steal or destroy it4 ,this is something like the principle of travellers1 who keep a cowry or two in their purses1 so that thieves may not be able to divine the contents4 ,so1 in a ,talmudic legend we read1 ,it is very difficult for devils to obtain money1 because men are careful to keep it locked or tied up2 and we have no power to take anything that is measured or counted2 we are permitted to take only what is free and common4 #hci ,in the ,eastern ,panjb grain must not be measured on the day of the new or full moon1 and ,saturday is a bad day for it4 ,it must be begun at dawn1 or sunset1 or midnight1 when the ,bhts are otherwise engaged4 ,four men go inside the enclosure line with a wooden measuring vessel1 and no one must come near them till they have finished4 ,they sit facing the north and spread a cloth on the ground4 ,one fills the measure from the heap with the winnowing fan1 another empties it on the cloth1 substituting an empty one for it4 ,the man who has the measure puts down for every measure filled a small heap of grains of corn1 by which the account is kept4 ,perfect silence must be observed till the whole operation is finished1 and especially all counting aloud of the number of measures must be avoided4 ,but when once the grain is measured1 it is safe from the ,evil ,eye2 the people are at liberty to quarrel over the division of it4 #hdj ,the same rule of silence often appears in the custom of ,europe4 ,favete linguis was the principle on such occasions in ,rome4 ,so in the ,tempest ,prospero says1-- ,hush and be mute1 ,or else our spell is marred4 ,in the ,highlands1 on ,new ,year's ,day1 a discreet person is sent to draw a pitcher of water from the ford1 which is drunk next day as a charm against the spell of witchcraft1 the malignity of ,evil ,eyes1 and the activity of all infernal agency4 ,so the baker who makes the bannocks on ,shrove ,tuesday must be mute as a stone2 the cake on ,st4 ,mark's ,eve must be made in silence1 and the same is the rule on ,st4 ,faith's ,day4 #hda ,the same rule of secrecy and silence is observed in the worship of ,dulha ,deo4 ,among the ,gaiti ,gonds1 their great festival is held after the ingathering of the rice harvest1 when they proceed to a dense part of the jungle1 which no woman is permitted to enter1 and where1 to represent the great god1 a copper coin has been hung up1 enclosed in a joint of bamboo4 ,arriving at the spot1 they take down the copper god in his case1 and selecting a small area about a foot square1 they lay on it the copper coin1 before which they arrange as many small heaps of uncooked rice as there are deities worshipped by them4 ,the chickens brought for sacrifice are loosed and permitted to feed on the rice1 after which they are killed and their blood sprinkled between the copper coin and the rice4 ,goats are also offered1 and their blood presented in the same manner4 ,until prohibited by the ,hindus1 sacrifices of cows were also common4 ,on the blood some country spirits is poured as a libation to their deities4 ,the copper coin is now lifted1 replaced in its bamboo case1 which is shut up with leaves1 wrapped up in grass1 and returned to its place in the tree1 to remain there till it is required on the following year4 #hdb ,the ,hol3 ,its ,origin4 ,the most famous and interesting of the village festivals is the ,hol1 which is held in the early spring1 at the full moon of ,phlgun4 ,one account of its origin describes it as founded in honour of a female demon or ,rkshas called ,dundhas1 she who would destroy many4 ,another account connects the observance with the well-known legend of ,hiranya-kasipu1 golden-dressed1 and his son ,prahlda4 ,hiranya-kasipu was1 it is said1 a ,daitya1 who obtained from ,siva the sovereignty of the three worlds for a million years1 and persecuted his pious son ,prahlda because he was such a devoted worshipper of ,vishnu4 ,finally the angry god1 in his ,nara-sinha or man-lion incarnation1 slew the sinner4 ,harnkas1 as the father is called in the modern version of the story1 was an ascetic1 who claimed that the devotion of the world was to be paid to him alone4 ,his son ,prahlda became a devotee of ,vishnu1 and performed various miracles1 such as saving a cat and her kittens out of the blazing kiln of a potter4 ,his father was enraged at what he considered the apostasy of his son1 and with the assistance of his sister ,hol or ,holik1 commenced to torture ,prahlda4 ,many attempts on his life failed1 and finally ,vishnu himself entered a pillar of heated iron1 which had been prepared for the destruction of ,prahlda1 and tore ,harnkas to pieces4 ,then ,hol tried to burn herself and ,prahlda together1 but the fire left him unscathed and she was consumed4 ,the fire is now supposed to be burnt in commemoration of this tragedy4 ,this legend has been localized at a place called ,deokali near ,irichh in the ,jhnsi ,district1 where ,hiranya-kasipu is said to have had his palace4 ,just below it is a deep pool1 into which ,prahlda was flung by the orders of his father1 and the mark of the foot of the martyr is still shown on a neighbouring rock4 #hdc ,another legend identifies ,hol with the witch ,ptan1 who attempted to destroy the infant ,krishna by giving him her poisoned nipple to suck4 #hdd ,lastly1 a tale told at ,hardwr brings us probably nearer the real origin of the rite4 ,holik or ,hol was1 they say1 sister of ,sambat or ,sanvat1 the ,hindu year4 ,once1 at the beginning of all things1 ,sambat died1 and ,hol in her excessive love for her brother insisted on being burnt on his pyre1 and by her devotion he was restored to life4 ,the ,hol fire is now burnt every year to commemorate this tragedy4 ,propitiation of ,sunshine4 ,there seems to be little doubt that the custom of burning the ,hol fire rests on the same basis as that of similar observances in ,europe4 ,the whole subject has recently been copiously illustrated by ,mr4 ,j4 ,g4 ,frazer4 #hde ,his conclusion is that they are sun charms or magical ceremonies intended to ensure a proper supply of sunshine for men1 animals1 and plants4 ,we have seen that savages resort to charms for making sunshine1 and we need not wonder that primitive man in ,europe has done the same4 ,indeed1 considering the cold and cloudy climate of ,europe during a considerable portion of the year1 it is natural that sun charms should have played a much more prominent part among the superstitious practices of ,european peoples than among those of savages who live near the equator4 ,this view of the festival in question is supported by various considerations drawn partly from the rites themselves1 partly from the influences they are believed to exert on the weather and on vegetation4 ,for example1 the custom of rolling a burning wheel down a hill-side1 which is often observed on these occasions1 seems a very natural imitation of the sun's course in the sky1 and the imitation is particularly appropriate on ,midsummer ,day1 when the sun's annual declension begins4 ,not less graphic is the imitation of his apparent revolution by swinging a burning tar barrel round a pole4 ,the custom of throwing blazing discs1 shaped like suns1 into the air1 is probably also a piece of imitative magic4 #hdf ,in these1 as in so many cases1 the magic force is supposed to take effect through mimicry or sympathy4 ,it is true1 of course1 that the climatic conditions of ,northern ,india do not1 as a rule1 necessitate the use of incantations to produce sunshine4 ,but it must be remembered that the native of the country does not look on the fierceness of the summer sun with the same dread as is felt by ,europeans4 ,to him it is about the most pleasant and healthy season of the year1 and people who are sometimes underfed and nearly always insufficiently dressed have more reason to fear the chills of ,december and ,january than the warmth of ,may and ,june4 ,it is also usually recognized in popular belief that seasonable and sufficient rainfall depends on the due supply of sunshine4 ,the ,hol ,observances4 ,the ,hol1 while generally observed in ,northern ,india1 is performed with special care by the cowherd classes of the land of ,braj1 or the region round the city of ,mathura1 where the myth of ,krishna has been localized1 and it is here that we meet with some curious incidents which are undoubtedly survivals of the most primitive usages4 ,the ceremonies in vogue at ,mathura have been very carefully recorded by ,mr4 ,growse4 #hdg ,he notes the cheeriness of the holiday-makers as they throng the narrow1 winding streets on their way to and from the central square of the town of ,barsna1 where they break into groups of bright and ever varying combinations of colour1 with the buffooneries of the village clowns1 and the grotesque dances of the lusty swains1 who1 with castanets in hand1 caricature in their movements the conventional graces of the ,indian ballet girl4 ,then follows a mock fight between the men of the adjoining village of ,nandgnw and the women of ,barsna4 ,the women have their mantles drawn down over their faces and are armed with long1 heavy bamboos1 with which they deal their opponents many shrewd blows on the head and shoulders4 ,the latter defend themselves as best they can with round leather shields and stag horns1 as they dodge in and out among the crowd1 and now and again have their flight cut off1 and are driven back upon the crowd of excited viragoes4 ,many laughable incidents occur4 ,not unfrequently blood is drawn2 but an accident of this kind is regarded rather as an omen of good fortune1 and has never been known to give rise to any ill-feeling4 ,whenever the fury of their female assailants appears to be subsiding1 it is again excited by the men shouting at them snatches of ribald rhymes4 ,the ,lighting of the ,hol ,fire4 ,next day the ,hol fire is lit4 ,by immemorial custom1 the boys are allowed to appropriate fuel of any kind for the fire1 the wood-work of deserted houses1 fences1 and the like1 and the owner never dares to complain4 ,we have the same custom in ,england4 ,the chorus of the ,oxfordshire song sung at the feast of ,gunpowder ,plot runs1-- ,a stick and a stake ,for ,king ,james's sake2 ,if you won't give me one1 ,i'll take two1 ,the better for me1 ,the worse for you4 ,this is chanted by the boys when collecting sticks for the bonfire1 and it is considered quite lawful to appropriate any old wood they can lay hands on after the recitation of these lines4 #hdh ,mr4 ,growse goes on to describe how a large bonfire had been stacked between the pond and the temple of ,prahlda 7who1 as we have already seen1 is connected with the legend71 inside which the local village priest1 the ,kherapat or ,panda1 who was to take the chief part in the performance of the day1 was sitting1 telling his beads4 ,at #f p4m4 the pile was lit1 and being composed of the most inflammable materials1 at once burst into a tremendous blaze4 ,the lads of the village kept running close round it1 jumping and dancing and brandishing their bludgeons1 while the ,panda went round and dipped in the pond1 and then with his dripping turban and loin-cloth ran back and made a feint of passing through the fire4 ,in reality he only jumped over the outermost verge of the smouldering ashes1 and then dashed into his cell again1 much to the dissatisfaction of the spectators1 who say that the former incumbent used to do it much more thoroughly4 ,if on the next recurrence of the festival the ,panda shows himself equally timid1 the village proprietors threaten to eject him as an impostor from the land which he holds rent-free1 simply on the score of his being fire-proof4 ,it is hardly necessary to say that this custom of jumping through the fire prevails in many other places4 ,we have already had an instance of it in the case of the fire worship of ,rhu4 ,in ,greece people jump through the bonfires lighted on ,st4 ,john's ,eve4 ,the ,irish make their cattle pass through the fire1 and children are passed through it in the arms of their fathers4 ,the passing of victims through the fire in honour of ,moloch is well known4 #hdi ,the ,throwing of the ,powder4 ,in the ,indian observance of the ,hol next followed a series of performances characterized by rude horseplay and ribald singing4 ,next day came the throwing of the powder4 ,handfuls of red powder1 mixed with glistening talc1 were thrown about4 ,up to the balconies1 above and down on the heads of the people below2 and seen through this atmosphere of coloured cloud1 the frantic gestures of the throng1 their white clothes and faces all stained with red and yellow patches1 and the great timbrels with branches of peacocks' feathers1 artificial flowers and tinsel stars stuck in their rims1 borne above the players' heads1 and now and then tossed up in the air1 combined to form a curious and picturesque spectacle4 ,then followed another mock fight between men and women1 conducted with perfect good-humour on both sides1 and when it was all over1 many of the spectators ran into the arena1 and rolled over and over in the dust1 or streaked themselves with it on the forehead1 taking it as the dust hallowed by the feet of ,krishna and the ,gops4 ,the ,hol in ,mrwr4 ,colonel ,tod gives an interesting account of the festival as performed at ,mrwr4 ,he describes the people as lighting large fires into which various substances1 as well as the common powder1 were thrown2 and around which groups of children danced and screamed in the streets1 like so many infernals2 until three hours after sunrise of the new moon of the month of ,chait1 these orgies are continued with increased vigour2 when the natives bathe1 change their garments1 worship1 and return to the ranks of sober citizens1 and princes and chiefs receive gifts from their domestics4 #hej ,the ,ashes of the ,hol ,fire4 ,the belief in the efficacy of the ,hol fire in preventing the blight of crops1 and in the ashes as a remedy for disease1 has been already noticed4 ,so in ,england1 the ,yule log was put aside1 and was supposed to guard the house from evil spirits4 #hea ,the ,basis of the ,hol ,rite4 ,we have seen that the primary basis of this and similar rites is probably the propitiation of sunshine4 ,but the present observances in ,india are probably a survival of a very much more primitive cultus4 ,we have already seen that in one form of the popular legend1 ,hol is the sister of ,sambat1 the year1 and revived him from death by burning herself with his corpse4 ,we find the same idea in ,nepl1 where a wooden post adorned with flags is erected in front of the palace1 and this is burned at night1 representing the burning of the body of the old year1 and its re-birth with each succeeding spring4 #heb ,the ,drvidian ,hill tribes of ,mirzapur do not perform the ,hol ceremony like their ,hindu neighbours1 but on the same date the ,baiga burns a stake1 a ceremony which is known as ,sambat ,jaln1 or the burning of the old year4 ,in ,kumaun each clan puts up the ,chr or rag-tree4 ,a middle-sized tree or a large branch is cut down and stripped of its leaves4 ,young men go round and beg scraps of cloth1 which are tied to the tree1 and it is then set up in the middle of the village4 ,near it the ,hol fire is burnt4 ,on the last day the tree itself is burnt1 and the people jump over the ashes as a cure for itch and similar diseases4 ,while the tree is burning1 men of other clans try to snatch away some of the rags4 ,it is regarded as being very propitious to be able to do this1 and the clan which loses is not allowed to set up the tree again4 ,faction fighting in order to gain the right of setting up the tree has practically ceased under ,british law4 #hec ,the ceremony in another form appears at ,gwlior4 ,there1 instead of a tree1 they burn large heaps of cowdung fuel4 ,the ,marwris erect a nude figure known as ,nathurm1 made of bricks1 of a most disgusting shape4 ,this1 when the pile of cowdung cakes is consumed1 is broken to pieces with blows of shoes and bludgeons4 ,another beautifully carved image of the same kind is paraded through the bazars and kept safely from year to year4 ,this ,nathurm is said to have been a scamp from some part of ,northern ,india1 who went to ,mrwr and seduced a number of women1 until he was detected and put to death4 ,he then became a malignant ghost and began to torment women and children1 and now his spirit can be appeased only by a series of indecent songs and gestures performed by the women4 ,no ,mrwri household is without an image of ,nathurm1 and a representation of him is laid with the married pair after the wedding1 while barren women and those whose children die pray to him for offspring4 ,he is in short a phallic fetish4 ,the ,hol1 then1 in its most primitive form1 is possibly an aboriginal usage which has been imported into ,brhmanism4 ,this is specially shown by the functions of the ,kherapat or village priest1 who lights the fire4 ,he is sometimes a ,brhman1 but often a man drawn from the lower races4 ,as we have seen1 his duties among the ,drvidian races are performed by the ,baiga1 who is always drawn from the non-,aryan races4 ,it seems probable that the legends connecting the rite with ,prahlda and ,krishna are a subsequent invention1 and that the fire is really intended to represent the burning of the old year and the re-birth of the new1 which they pray may be more propitious to the families1 cattle1 and crops of the worshippers4 ,the observance seems also to include certain ceremonies intended to scare the evil spirits which bring disease and famine4 ,the compulsory entry of the local priests into the fire can hardly be anything but a survival of human sacrifice1 intended to secure the same results2 and the dancing1 singing1 waving of flags1 screaming1 the mock fight1 and the throwing of red powder1 a colour supposed1 as we have seen1 to be obnoxious to evil spirits1 are probably based on the same train of ideas4 ,finally comes the indecency of word and gesture1 which is a distinct element in the rite4 ,there seems reason to believe that in the worship of certain deities in spring1 promiscuous intercourse was regarded as a necessary part of the ceremony4 #hed ,this appears at what is called the ,khi ka ,mela in ,kulu1 in which indecency is supposed to scare evil spirits4 #hee ,we have already noticed the practice of indecency as a rain charm1 and it seems at least a plausible hypothesis that the unchecked profligacy which prevails among the ,hindus at the spring feast and at the ,kajal in autumn may be intended to repel evil spirits which check the fecundity of men1 animals1 and crops4 ,the same idea probably also underlies the licentious observance of the ,karama among the ,drvidian races4 ,the same theory explains similar usages in ,europe1 such as the ,lupercalia1 ,festum ,stultorum1 ,matronalia ,festa1 ,liberalia1 and our own ,all ,fools' ,day1 where the indecent part of the performance has disappeared under the influence of a purer faith and a higher morality1 and a little kindly merriment is its only survival4 ,of the mock fight as a charm for rain we have spoken already1 and at the ,hol it may be merely a fertility charm4 ,of these mock fights we have numerous instances in the customs of ,northern ,india4 ,thus1 in ,kumaun1 in former days at the ,bagwh festival the males of several villages used to divide into two bodies and sling stones at each other across a stream4 ,the results were so serious that it was suppressed after the ,british occupation of the country4 #hef ,the people in some places attribute the increase of cholera and other plagues to its discontinuance4 ,in the plains1 the custom survives in what is known as the ,barra1 when the men of two villages have a sort of ,tug of ,war with a rope across the boundary of the village4 ,plenty is supposed to follow the side which is victorious4 ,another of these spring rites is that known as the ,rli ka ,mela in ,kngra1 the ,rli being a sort of rude image of ,siva or ,prvat4 ,the girls of the village in ,march take baskets of ,db grass and flowers1 of which they make a heap in a selected place4 ,round this they walk and sing for ten days1 and then they erect two images of ,siva and ,prvat1 who are married according to the regular rites4 ,at the conjunction or ,sankrnt in the month of ,baiskh the images are flung into a pool and mock funeral obsequies are performed4 ,the object of the ceremonial is said to be to secure a good husband4 #heg ,in ,gorakhpur this spring rite takes the form of hunting and crucifying a monkey on the village boundary4 ,this is said to be intended to scare these animals1 which injure the crops4 ,but the rite seems to be intended to secure fertility1 and is possibly the survival of an actual sacrifice4 ,of the same class is what is known in the ,hills as the ,badwr rite1 where a ,dom1 one of the menial castes1 is made to slide down a rope from a high precipice4 ,the intention is to promote the fertility of the crops and expel the demons of disease4 ,marriage of the ,powers of ,vegetation4 ,mr4 ,frazer has collected instances of the marriage of the powers of vegetation1 of which we have a survival in the ,english ,king and ,queen of the ,may4 ,this seems to be the explanation of the remarkable rite among the ,kharwrs1 of which ,mr4 ,forbes has given an account4 #heh ,one of the most remarkable of the ,kharwr deities is called ,durggiya ,deot2 this spirit rejoices in the name of ,mchak ,rn4 ,she is a ,chamrin by caste1 and her home is on a hill called ,buhorj2 her priests are ,baigas4 ,all the ,kharwrs regard her with great veneration1 and offer up pigs and fowls to her several times during the year4 ,once a year1 in the month of ,aghan1 what is called the ,kruj ,pj takes place in her honour4 ,the ceremony is performed in the village threshing-floor1 when a kind of bread and kids are offered up4 ,once in three years the ceremony of marrying the ,rn is performed with great pomp4 ,early in the morning of the bridal day both men and women assemble with drums and horns1 form themselves into procession and ascend the hill1 singing a wild song in honour of the bride and bridegroom4 ,one of the party is constituted the priest1 who is to perform the wedding ceremony4 ,this man ascends the hill in front of the procession1 shouting and dancing till he works himself into a frenzy4 ,the procession halts at the mouth of a cave1 which does1 or is supposed to1 exist on the top of the hill4 ,the priest then enters the cave and returns bearing with him the ,rn1 who is represented as a small oblong-shaped and smooth stone1 daubed over with red lead4 ,after going through certain antics1 a piece of ,tasar silk cloth is placed on the ,rn's head1 and a new sheet is placed below her1 the four corners being tied up in such a manner as to allow the ,rn1 who is now supposed to be seated in her bridal couch1 to be slung on a bamboo1 and carried like a dooly or palanquin4 ,the procession then descends the hill and halts under a ,banyan tree till noon1 when the marriage procession starts for the home of the bridegroom1 who resides on the ,kandi hill4 ,on their arrival there1 offerings1 consisting of sweetened milk1 two copper pice1 and two bell-metal wristlets1 are presented to the bride1 who is taken out of her dooly and put into the cave in which the bridegroom1 who1 by the way1 is of the ,agariya caste1 resides4 ,this cave is supposed to be of immense depth1 for the stone goes rolling down1 striking the rocks as it falls1 and the people all listen eagerly till the sound dies out1 which they say it does not do for nearly half an hour4 ,when all is silent1 the people return rejoicing down the hill1 and finish off the evening with a dance4 ,the strangest part of the story is that the people believe that the caves on the two hills are connected1 and that every third year the ,rn returns to her father's house4 ,they implicitly believe that the stone yearly produced is the same4 ,the village ,baigas could probably explain the mystery4 ,in former times the marriage used to take place every year1 but on one occasion1 on the morning succeeding the marriage ceremony1 the ,rn made her appearance in the ,baiga's house4 ,the ,baiga himself was not present1 but his wife1 who was at home1 was very indignant at this flightiness on the part of the ,rn1 and the idea of her going about the country the morning after her marriage so shocked the ,baigin's sense of propriety1 that she gave the ,rn a good setting down1 and called upon her to explain herself1 and as she could give no satisfactory account of her conduct1 she was punished by being married every three years1 instead of yearly as before4 ,the mock marriage of ,ghzi ,miyn1 to which some reference has been already made1 a very favourite rite among the ,musalmns and low ,hindu castes of the ,north-,western ,provinces1 is very possibly the survival of some non-,aryan rite of this kind1 performed to secure the annual revival of the year and the powers of vegetation4 ,the ,drvidian ,saturnalia4 ,some of the ,drvidian tribes enjoy the ,saturnalia in other forms4 ,thus1 the ,gond women have the curious festival known as ,gurttn or breaking of the sugar4 ,a stout pole about twelve or fifteen feet high is set up1 and a lump of coarse sugar with a rupee in it placed on the top2 round it the ,gond women take their stand1 each with a little green tamarind rod in her hands4 ,the men collect outside1 and each has a kind of shield made of two parallel sticks joined with a cross-piece held in the hand to protect themselves from the blows4 ,they make a rush together1 and one of them swarms up the pole1 the women all the time plying their rods vigorously2 and it is no child's play1 as the men's backs attest next day4 ,when the man gets to the top1 he takes the piece of sugar1 slips down1 and gets off as rapidly as he can4 ,this is done five or six times over with the greatest good-humour1 and generally ends with an attack of the women en masse upon the men4 ,it is the regular ,saturnalia for the women1 who lose all respect1 even for a settlement officer2 and on one occasion when he was looking on1 he only escaped by the most abject submission and presentation of rupees4 #hei ,the ,bhls of ,gujart plant a small tree or branch firmly in the ground4 ,the women stand near it1 and the men outside4 ,one man rushing in tries to uproot the tree1 and the men and women fall upon him and beat him so soundly that he has to retire4 ,he is succeeded by another1 who is belaboured in the same way1 and this goes on till one man succeeds in bearing off the tree1 but seldom without a load of blows which cripples him for days4 #hfj ,all these mock combats have their parallels in ,english customs1 such as the throwing of the hood at ,haxey1 the football match at ,derby1 the fighting on ,lammas ,day at ,lothian1 and hunting of the ram at ,eton4 #hfa ,the ,desauli of the ,hos4 ,the ,hos of ,chutia ,ngpur have a similar festival1 the ,desauli held in ,january1 when the granaries are full of grain1 and the people are1 to use their own expression1 'full of devilry6' ,they have a strange notion that at this period men and women are so overcharged with vicious propensities that it is absolutely necessary for the safety of the person to let off steam by allowing for the time full vent to the passions4 ,the festival1 therefore1 becomes a sort of ,saturnalia1 during which servants forget their duty to their masters1 children their reverence for their parents1 men their respect for women1 and women all notions of gentleness1 modesty1 and delicacy2 they become raging ,bacchantes4 ,it opens with a sacrifice to ,desauli of three fowls1 a cock and two hens1 one of which must be black1 and offered with some flowers of the ,palsa tree 7,butea frondosa71 bread made from rice flour and sesamum seeds4 ,the sacrifice and offering are made by the village priest1 if there be one1 or if not by any elder of the village who possesses the necessary legendary lore2 and he prays that during the year they are going to enter on they and their children may be preserved from all misfortune and sickness1 and that they may have seasonable rain and good crops4 ,prayer is also made in some places for the souls of the departed4 ,at this period an evil spirit is supposed to infest the locality1 and to get rid of it1 men1 women1 and children go in procession round and through every part of the village with sticks in their hands1 as if beating for game1 singing a wild chant and vociferating loudly1 till they feel assured that the bad spirit must have fled1 and they make noise enough to frighten a legion4 ,these religious ceremonies over1 the people give themselves up to feasting1 drinking immoderately of rice-beer till they are in a state of wild ebriety most suitable for the purpose of letting off steam4 #hfb ,with these survivals of perhaps the most primitive observances of the races of ,northern ,india we may close this survey of their religion and folk-lore4 ,to use ,dr4 ,tylor's words in speaking of savage religions generally1 ,far from its beliefs and practices being a rubbish heap of miscellaneous folly1 they are consistent and logical in so high a degree as to begin1 as soon as even roughly classified1 to display the principles of their formation and development2 and these principles prove to be essentially rational1 though working in a mental condition of intense and inveterate ignorance4 #hfc ,,bibliography4 ,academy1 the1 ,london1 v4d4 ,an-i-,akbari1 translation by ,professor ,blochmann and ,colonel ,jarrett1 ,calcutta1 v4d4 ,asiatic ,quarterly ,review1 ,london1 v4d4 ,asiatic ,researches1 ,calcutta1 v4d4 ,athenum1 ,london1 v4d4 ,atkinson1 ,e4 ,t41 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 #c vols41 ,allahabad1 #ahhb-hd4 ,aubrey1 ,j41 ,remaines of ,gentilisme and ,judaisme1 edited by ,j4 ,britten1 ,folk-lore ,society1 ,london1 #ahha4 ,ball1 ,v41 ,jungle ,life in ,india1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,barth1 ,a41 ,religions of ,india1 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,beal1 ,s41 ,travels of ,fah ,hian and ,sangyun1 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,beale1 ,t4 ,w41 ,oriental ,biographical ,dictionary1 ,calcutta1 #ahhg4 ,benjamin1 ,s4 ,g4 ,w41 ,persia and the ,persians1 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,bernier1 ,f41 ,travels in the ,moghul ,empire1 edited by ,a4 ,constable1 ,london1 #ahia4 ,bholanth ,chandra1 ,travels of a ,hindu1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,black1 ,g4 ,b41 ,folk ,medicine1 ,folk-lore ,society1 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,brand1 ,j41 ,observations on ,popular ,antiquities1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,briggs1 ,lieut4-,col4 ,j41 ,history of the rise and fall of the ,muhammadan ,power in ,india till the year #afab1 by ,muhamad ,qsim ,farishta1 #d vols41 ,london1 #ahbi4 ,buchanan1 ,f4 ,h41 ,eastern ,india1 #c vols41 ,london1 #ahcc4 ,burton1 ,r41 ,anatomy of ,melancholy1 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,burton1 ,sir ,r41 ,arabian ,nights1 #ab vols41 ,london1 #ahid4 ,calcutta ,review1 ,calcutta1 v4d4 ,campbell1 ,a41 ,santl ,folk-tales1 ,pokhuria1 #ahia4 ,campbell1 ,j4 ,f41 ,popular ,tales of the ,west ,highlands1 ,glasgow1 #d vols41 #ahij4 ,campbell1 ,major-,general ,j41 ,a ,personal ,narrative of ,thirteen ,years' ,service among the ,wild ,tribes of ,khondistan1 ,london1 #ahfd4 ,campbell1 ,j4 ,s41 ,notes on the ,spirit ,basis of ,belief and ,custom1 ,bombay1 #ahhe4 ,carnegy1 ,p41 ,notes on the ,races1 ,tribes and ,castes inhabiting the ,province of ,oudh1 ,lucknow1 #ahfh4 ,chambers1 ,r41 ,book of ,days1 #b vols41 ,london1 n4 d4 ,chevers1 ,n41 ,a ,manual of ,medical ,jurisprudence for ,india1 ,calcutta1 #ahgj4 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales and ,fictions1 #b vols41 ,edinburgh1 #ahhg4 ,colebrooke1 ,h4 ,p41 ,miscellaneous ,essays1 ,london1 #ahcg4 ,contemporary ,review1 the1 ,london1 v4d4 ,conway1 ,m4 ,d41 ,demonology and ,demon ,lore1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,cooper1 ,w4 ,m41 ,flagellation and the ,flagellants1 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,cox1 ,sir ,g4 ,w41 ,introduction to the ,science of ,comparative ,mythology and ,folk-lore1 ,london1 #ahha4 ,cox1 ,sir ,g4 ,w41 ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,cox1 ,miss ,m4 ,r41 ,cinderella1 ,folk-lore ,society1 ,london1 #ahic4 ,cunningham1 ,major-,general ,a41 ,archological ,survey ,reports1 ,calcutta1 v4d4 ,cunningham1 ,major-,general ,a41 ,the ,bhilsa ,topes1 a ,buddhist ,monument in ,central ,india1 ,london1 #ahed4 ,dabistn1 the1 ,translation of1 by ,d4 ,shea and ,a4 ,troyer1 ,paris1 #ahdc4 ,dalton1 ,col4 ,e4 ,t41 ,descriptive ,ethnology of ,india1 ,calcutta1 #ahgb4 ,dey1 ,ll ,bihri1 ,folk-tales of ,bengal1 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,dey1 ,ll ,bihri1 ,govinda ,smanta1 ,london1 #ahgd4 ,de ,gubernatis1 ,a41 ,zoological ,mythology1 or the ,legends of ,animals1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahgb4 ,dowson1 ,professor ,j41 ,a ,classical ,dictionary of ,hindu ,mythology and ,religion1 ,biography1 ,history and ,literature1 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,duncker1 ,max1 ,the ,history of ,antiquity1 translation by ,e4 ,abbot1 #e vols41 ,london1 #ahgg-hc4 ,dutt1 ,r4 ,c1 ,history of ,civilization in ,ancient ,india1 #c vols41 ,calcutta1 #ahhi4 ,dyer1 ,t4 ,f4 ,t41 ,popular ,customs1 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,dyer1 ,t4 ,f4 ,t41 ,folk-lore of ,shakespeare1 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,elliot1 ,sir ,h4 ,m41 ,supplement to the ,glossary of ,indian ,terms1 ,roorkee1 #ahfj4 ,elliot1 ,sir ,h4 ,m41 ,history of ,india as told by its own ,historians1 edited by ,professor ,dowson1 #h vols41 ,london1 #ahfg-gg4 ,elliott1 ,sir ,c4 ,a41 ,settlement ,report of ,hoshangbd1 ,allahabad1 #ahfg4 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #ith edition1 ,edinburgh1 #ahge4 ,ewald1 ,h41 ,antiquities of ,israel1 translation by ,h4 ,s4 ,solly1 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,ewald1 ,g4 ,h4 ,a41 ,the ,history of ,israel1 translation by ,r4 ,martineau1 #dth edition1 ,london1 #ahfg-he4 ,farrer1 ,j4 ,a41 ,primitive ,manners and ,customs1 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,fausbll1 ,v41 ,the ,buddhist ,jtakas1 ,copenhagen1 #ahfa4 ,ferguson1 ,j41 ,history of ,indian ,architecture1 ,london1 #ahgh4 ,ferguson1 ,j41 ,tree and ,serpent ,worship1 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,ferrier1 ,j4 ,p41 ,caravan ,journeys and ,wanderings in ,persia1 ,afghnistn1 ,turkestn and ,belchistn1 ,london1 #ahef4 ,folk-lore1 ,london1 v4d4 ,folk-lore ,record1 ,london1 v4d4 ,forbes1 ,h4 ,o41 ,a ,naturalist's ,wanderings in the ,eastern ,archipelago1 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,forbes1 ,j41 ,oriental ,memoirs1 ,london1 #ahac4 ,forlong1 ,j4 ,g4 ,r41 ,rivers of ,life1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahhc4 ,forsyth1 ,captain ,j41 ,highlands of ,central ,india1 #bnd edition1 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,fortnightly ,review1 ,london1 v4d4 ,frazer1 ,j4 ,g41 ,the ,golden ,bough1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahij4 ,frazer1 ,j4 ,g41 ,totemism1 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,frere1 ,miss ,m41 ,old ,deccan ,days1 ,london1 #ahgj4 ,fhrer1 ,a41 ,monumental ,antiquities and ,inscriptions of the ,north-,west ,provinces and ,oudh1 ,allahabad1 #ahia4 ,ganga ,datt ,upreti1 ,proverbs and ,folk-lore of ,kumaun and ,garhwl1 ,ludhiana1 #ahid4 ,gazetteer of ,berr1 ,bombay1 #ahgj4 ,gazetteer of ,bombay1 ,bombay1 v4d4 ,gazetteer of ,central ,provinces1 ,nagpur1 #ahgj4 ,gazetteer of ,himlayan ,districts of the ,north-,western ,provinces1 by ,e4 ,t4 ,atkinson1 #c vols41 ,allahabad1 #ahhb-hd4 ,gazetteer of ,oudh1 #c vols41 ,allahabad1 #ahgj4 ,gazetteer of ,rjputna1 #c vols41 ,calcutta1 v4d4 ,gesta ,romanorum1 translation by ,c4 ,swan and ,w4 ,hooper1 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,goldziher1 ,i41 ,mythology among the ,hebrews1 translation by ,j4 ,martineau1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,gordon-,cumming1 ,miss ,c4 ,f41 ,from the ,hebrides to the ,himalayas1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahgf4 ,gregor1 ,rev4 ,w41 ,notes on the ,folk-lore of the ,north-,east of ,scotland1 ,folk-lore ,society1 ,london1 #ahha4 ,grierson1 ,g41 ,bihr ,peasant ,life1 ,calcutta1 #ahhe4 ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 translation by ,j4 ,s4 ,stallybrass1 #d vols41 ,london1 #ahhj-hh4 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 translated by ,margaret ,hunt1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,grote1 ,g41 ,history of ,greece1 #ab vols41 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,growse1 ,f4 ,s41 ,mathura1 a ,district ,memoir1 ,allahabad1 #ahhe4 ,growse1 ,f4 ,s41 ,rmyan of ,tulasi ,ds1 ,allahabad1 #ahgg-hj4 ,gunthorpe1 ,major ,e4 ,j41 ,notes on the ,criminal ,tribes of ,bombay1 ,berar and the ,central ,provinces1 ,bombay1 #ahhb4 ,hardy1 ,e4 ,s41 ,manual of ,buddhism1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,hartland1 ,e4 ,s41 ,science of ,fairy ,tales1 ,london1 #ahia4 ,hartland1 ,e4 ,s41 ,legend of ,perseus1 ,london1 #ahid-ie4 ,haug1 ,m41 ,aitareya ,brhmanam of the ,rig ,veda1 #b vols41 ,bombay1 #ahfc4 ,hearn1 ,w4 ,e41 ,the ,aryan ,household1 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,heber1 ,bishop ,r41 ,narrative of a journey through the ,upper ,provinces of ,india1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahfa4 ,henderson1 ,w41 ,notes on the ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties of ,england and the ,border1 ,folk-lore ,society1 ,london1 #ahgi4 ,herklots1 ,g4 ,a41 ,qnn-i-,islm1 ,madras1 #ahfc4 ,herodotus1 translated by ,g4 ,rawlinson1 #d vols41 #crd edition1 ,london1 #ahge4 ,hewitt1 ,j4 ,f41 ,the ,ruling ,races of ,prehistoric ,times1 ,london1 #ahid4 ,hislop1 ,rev4 ,s41 ,papers relating to the ,aboriginal ,tribes of the ,central ,provinces1 ,nagpur1 #ahff4 ,hughes1 ,t4 ,p41 ,dictionary of ,islm1 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,hunt1 ,r41 ,popular ,romances of the ,west1 #crd edition1 ,london1 #ahha4 ,ibbetson1 ,d4 ,c4 ,j41 ,panjb ,ethnography1 ,calcutta1 #ahhc4 ,indian ,antiquary1 the1 ,bombay1 v4d4 ,jacobs1 ,j41 ,celtic ,fairy ,tales1 ,london1 #ahib4 ,jacobs1 ,j41 ,english ,fairy ,tales1 ,london1 #ahij4 ,jacobs1 ,j41 ,indian ,fairy ,tales1 ,london1 #ahia4 ,jones1 ,w41 ,finger-ring ,lore1 ,london1 #ahgg4 ,knowles1 ,j4 ,h41 ,folk-tales of ,kashmr1 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,lane1 ,e4 ,w41 ,account of the ,manners and ,customs of the ,modern ,egyptians1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahga4 ,lang1 ,a41 ,custom and ,myth1 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,lang1 ,a41 ,myth1 ,ritual and ,religion1 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,leland1 ,c4 ,g41 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains in ,popular ,tradition1 ,london1 #ahib4 ,letourneau1 ,c41 ,sociology based on ,ethnography1 ,london1 #ahha4 ,lubbock1 ,sir ,j41 ,origin of ,civilization and ,primitive ,condition of ,man1 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,lyall1 ,sir ,a4 ,c41 ,asiatic ,studies1 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,maclagan1 ,e4 ,d41 ,panjb ,census ,report1 ,calcutta1 #ahib4 ,malcolm1 ,sir ,j41 ,memoir of ,central ,india1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahbc4 ,manning1 ,mrs41 ,ancient and ,medival ,india1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,manu1 ,institutes of1 translated by ,sir ,w4 ,jones and ,g4 ,c4 ,haughton1 ,london1 #ahfi4 ,memoirs of the ,anthropological ,society of ,london1 #c vols41 ,london1 #ahfe-gj4 ,mr ,hasan ,ali1 ,mrs41 ,observations on the ,musalmns of ,india1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahcb4 ,moens1 ,s4 ,m41 ,bareilly ,settlement ,report1 ,allahabad1 #ahgd4 ,muir1 ,j41 ,original ,sanskrit ,texts1 #e vols41 ,london1 #ahfh-gj4 ,mller1 ,f4 ,max1 ,chips from a ,german ,workshop1 #d vols41 ,london1 #ahfg4 ,mller1 ,f4 ,max1 ,history of ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 ,london1 #ahei4 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ,allahabad1 v4d4 ,o',brien1 ,e41 ,glossary of the ,multni ,language1 ,lahore1 #ahha4 ,oldfield1 ,h4 ,a41 ,sketches from ,nepl1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,oldham1 ,w41 ,memoirs of the ,ghzipur ,district1 #b vols41 ,allahabad1 #ahgj-gf4 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 #d vols41 ,allahabad1 #ahhc-hg4 ,proceedings ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 ,calcutta1 v4d4 ,proceedings ,royal ,asiatic ,society1 ,london1 v4d4 ,rajendra ,lla ,mitra1 ,indo-,aryans1 #b vols41 ,london and ,calcutta1 #ahha4 ,reid1 ,j4 ,r41 ,azamgarh ,settlement ,report1 ,allahabad1 #ahha4 ,rhys1 ,j41 ,lectures on the ,origin and ,growth of ,religion1 as illustrated by ,celtic ,heathendom1 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,risley1 ,h4 ,h41 ,tribes and ,castes of ,bengal1 #b vols41 ,calcutta1 #ahia4 ,robertson-,smith1 ,w41 ,kinship and ,marriage in ,early ,arabia1 ,cambridge1 #ahhe4 ,rousselet1 ,l41 ,india and its ,native ,princes1 ,london1 #ahij4 ,rowney1 ,h4 ,b4 7,shoshee ,chunder ,dutt71 ,wild ,tribes of ,india1 ,london1 #ahhb4 ,schliemann1 ,h41 ,ilios1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,schrader1 ,o41 ,prehistoric ,antiquities1 ,london1 #ahij4 ,scott1 ,sir ,w41 ,letters on ,demonology and ,witchcraft1 ,london1 #ahhd4 ,sherring1 ,m4 ,a41 ,the ,sacred ,city of the ,hindus1 ,london1 #ahfh4 ,sherring1 ,m4 ,a41 ,hindu ,tribes and ,castes1 #c vols41 ,calcutta1 #ahgb-ha4 ,sleeman1 ,w4 ,h41 ,journey ,through the ,kingdom of ,oudh1 #b vols41 ,london1 #aheh4 ,sleeman1 ,w4 ,h41 ,rambles and ,recollections of an ,indian ,official1 #b vols41 edited by ,v4 ,a4 ,smith1 ,london1 #ahic4 ,spencer1 ,h41 ,principles of ,sociology1 #crd edition1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,starcke1 ,c4 ,n41 ,the ,primitive ,family1 ,london1 #ahhi4 ,stokes1 ,miss ,m41 ,indian ,fairy ,tales1 ,london1 #ahhj4 ,tawney1 ,c4 ,h41 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 #b vols41 ,calcutta1 #ahhj4 ,temple1 ,r4 ,c41 ,legends of the ,panjb1 ,bombay1 v4d4 ,temple1 ,r4 ,c41 ,proper ,names of ,panjbis1 ,bombay1 #ahhc4 ,temple1 ,r4 ,c41 ,wideawake ,stories1 ,bombay1 #ahhd4 ,tennent1 ,sir ,j4 ,e41 ,ceylon1 #bnd edition1 #b vols41 #ahei4 ,thomas1 ,e41 ,chronicles of the ,pathn ,kings of ,delhi1 ,london1 #ahga4 ,thugs1 ,illustrations of the ,history and ,practices of the1 ,london1 #ahcg4 ,tod1 ,j41 ,annals and ,antiquities of ,rjasthn1 #b vols41 ,calcutta1 #ahhd4 ,trumbull1 ,h4 ,c41 ,the ,blood ,covenant1 ,london1 #ahhg4 ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 ,researches into the ,early ,history of ,mankind1 ,london1 #ahfe4 ,tylor1 ,e4 ,b41 ,primitive ,culture1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahgc4 ,wake1 ,c4 ,s41 ,serpent-worship1 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,ward1 ,w41 ,view of the ,history1 ,literature1 and ,religion of the ,hindus1 ,madras1 #ahfc4 ,westropp1 ,h4 ,m41 ,primitive ,symbolism1 ,london1 #ahhe4 ,wheeler1 ,j4 ,t41 ,history of ,india1 #c vols41 ,london1 #ahfg-gd4 ,whitney1 ,w4 ,d41 ,oriental and ,linguistic ,studies1 ,new ,york1 #ahgc4 ,wilde1 ,lady1 ,ancient ,legends1 ,mystic ,charms and ,superstitions of ,ireland1 ,london1 #ahhh4 ,williams1 ,sir ,monier1 ,sanskrit-,english ,dictionary1 ,oxford1 #ahgb4 ,williams1 ,sir ,monier1 ,brhmanism and ,hinduism1 #dth edition1 ,london1 #ahia4 ,wilson1 ,j41 ,indian ,caste1 #b vols41 ,bombay1 #ahgg4 ,wilson1 ,h4 ,h41 ,works1 #ab vols41 ,london1 #ahfb-ga4 ,wilson1 ,h4 ,h41 ,vishnu ,purna1 ,london1 #ahdj4 ,wilson1 ,j41 ,karnl ,settlement ,report1 ,lahore1 #ahhf4 ,wright1 ,d41 ,history of ,nepl1 ,cambridge1 #ahgg4 ,wright1 ,f4 ,n41 ,memorandum on the ,agriculture of ,cawnpur1 ,allahabad1 #ahgg4 ,yule1 ,h41 ,the ,book of ,ser ,marco ,polo1 #b vols41 ,london1 #ahga4 ,,notes #a ,for some of the literature of the ,evil ,eye see ,tylor1 ,early ,history1 #acd2 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #ahg sq42 ,westropp1 ,primitive ,symbolism1 #eh sqq42 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #h4 #b ,natural ,history1 vii4 #b4 #c ,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnography1 #aag4 #d ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #bd4 #e ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bjg4 #f ,on this see valuable notes by ,w4 ,cockburn in ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ad4 #g ,for many lists of such names see ,temple1 ,proper ,names of ,panjbis1 #bb sqq42 ,indian ,antiquary1 viii4 #cba sq42 x4 #cba sq42 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4#bf1 #ea2 iii4 #i4 #h ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #ce4 #i ,folk-lore1 iii4 #he4 #aj ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #bj4 #aa ,folk-lore1 i4 #bgc2 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #bdb2 ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 #bdc2 ,farrer1 ,primitive ,manners1 #aai sq4 #ab ,notes1 #djj4 #ac ,cunningham1 ,archological ,reports1 vii4 #f4 #ad ,folk-lore1 ii4 #agi4 #ae ,bombay ,gazetteer1 v4 #de sq4 #af ,folk-lore1 iv4 #adg4 #ag ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #db4 #ah ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #ec4 #ai ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #g4 #bj ,brand1 ,observations1 #gec4 #ba ,campbell1 ,notes1 #ahd4 #bb ,notes1 #cd4 #bc ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #e1 #fj1 #fb4 #bd ,reg4 vs4 ,lalla1 ,nizmat ,adlat ,reports1 #bbnd ,september1 #ahec4 #be ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ii4 #bha4 #bf ,folk-lore1 i4 #aed4 #bg ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #chf1 #ege2 ii4 #fd4 #bh ,brand1 ,observations1 #cci4 #bi ,primitive ,manners1 #bic4 #cj ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #aha4 #ca ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bfd4 #cb ,bombay ,gazetteer1 v4 #abc2 and for another instance1 see ,jarrett1 ,an-i-,akbari1 ii4 #aig4 #cc ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales1 #ajh sqq42 ,wilson1 ,indian ,caste1 ii4 #agd4 #cd ,campbell1 ,notes1 #fi4 #ce ,brand1 ,observations1 #cdd1 #gcc4 #cf v4 #ba4 #cg ,for further examples see ,campbell1 ,notes1 #abf sqq4 #ch ,temple1 ,wideawake ,stories1 #hc2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4#dgh4 #ci ,cunningham1 ,archological ,reports1 vii4 #ej4 #dj ,campbell1 ,notes1 #aai4 #da ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ec4 #db ,brand1 ,observations1 #gcc4 #dc ,anatomy of ,melancholy1 #dcd4 #dd ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #adf2 ,leland4 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bfg4 #de ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #bac4 #df ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #fg4 #dg ,campbell1 ,notes1 #di sq4 #dh ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aae1 #bgj1 #bgb4 #di ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ea4 #ej ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 #bji4 #ea ,brand1 ,observations1 #aff4 #eb ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bfj1 #bgi2 ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 #beh sqq4 #ec ,folk-lore1 iv4 #ceh1 #cfa4 #ed ,brand1 loc4 cit41 #gbd4 #ee ,campbell1 ,notes1 #aca2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #dci4 #ef ,brand1 loc4 cit41 #ffh4 #eg ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #aih4 #eh ,schrader1 ,prehistoric ,antiquities1 #afc sqq4 #ei ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #de2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #bje4 #fj ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bib2 ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #ddf1 #eec2 ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales1 ,introduction1 lxx42 ii4 #ih2 ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #cg4 #fa ,brand1 ,observations1 #cee4 #fb ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #abe4 #fc ,bombay ,gazetteer1 xii4 #aag4 #fd ,campbell1 ,notes1 #ie4 #fe ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bfa1 #cba4 #ff ,brand1 ,observations1 #eh4 #fg ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 #bhi4 #fh ,dalton1 loc4 cit41 #bfa4 #fi ,settlement ,report1 #bgd4 #gj ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #bi4 #ga ,campbell1 ,notes1 #ib4 #gb ,growse1 ,rmyana1 #ii4 #gc ,frazer1 ,totemism1 #bf sq4 #gd ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aeg1 #afa1 #aia1 #bai1 #bea4 #ge ,bholanth ,chandra1 ,travels of a ,hindu1 i4 #cbf2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #bg1 #ii2 ,farrer1 ,primitive ,manners1 #abe4 #gf ,campbell1 ,notes1 p4 #acd4 #gg ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 ii4 #fi1ii2 ,herodotus1 v4 #f2 and for the ,dacians1 ,pliny1 ,natural ,history1 vii4 #aj2 xxii4 #b4 #gh ,loc4 cit41 ii4 #bah4 #gi ,hislop1 ,papers1 ii41 note2 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #bib4 #hj ,brand1 ,observations1 #cii4 ,for the ,indian versions of ,cinderella and her shoe1 see ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ajb1 #aba4 #ha ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #aga4 #hb ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #dji4 #hc ,campbell1 ,notes1 #aje4 #hd ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #hf4 #he ,brand1 ,observations1 #cce4 #hf ,campbell1 ,notes1 #ia1 quoting ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 #gbj4 #hg ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #ic4 #hh ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iv4 #acb2 ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bhd4 #hi ,brand1 ,observations1 #aba4 #ij ,brand1 ,observations1 #eih4 #ia ,rhys1 ,lectures4 #cdh2 ,miss ,cox1 ,cinderella1 #dhi2 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #dbi2 ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #ab4 #ib ,knowles1 ,folk-lore of ,kashmr1 #ccc4 #ic ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bhc4 #id ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #bed1 note1 #cja4 #ie ,history of ,indian ,architecture1 #eg sqq42 ,cunningham1 ,archological ,reports1 ii4 #hg2 xvi4 #h sqq4 #if ,monier-,williams1 ,brhmanism and ,hinduism1 #bjc4 #ig ,aubrey1 ,remaines1 #eg4 #ih ,notes1 #agg4 #ii ,westropp1 ,primitive ,symbolism1 #eh sqq41 #fa sqq4 #ajj ,bombay ,gazetteer1 xviii4 #dgc1 #dbf4 #aja ,settlement ,report1 #ei sqq4 #ajb ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #chc1 note1 #daa1 note4 #ajc ,campbell1 ,notes4 #bea4 #ajd ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #dd4 #aje ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ahf4 #ajf ,folk-lore1 ii4 #ge2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #aaj2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #ged4 #ajg ,lady ,wilde1 loc4 cit41 #gi4 #ajh ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #ccg2 ii4 #bcc1 #ceh4 #aji ii4 #bgi4 #aaj ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #fa4 #aaa ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #deg2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #afi4 #aab ,brand1 ,observations1 #cei4 #aac ,trumbull1 ,blood ,covenant1 #fe2 ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 #be2 ,tylor1 ,early ,history1 #abh sq42 ,jones1 ,finger-ring ,lore1 #ia sqq4 #aad ,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #bc4 #aae ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #fa2 ii4 #hj2 ,lane1 ,arabian ,nights1 i4 #i4 #aaf ,miss ,frere1 ,old ,deccan ,days1 #bcj1 #bcf4 #aag ,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #dfg4 #aah ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 #di2 ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #cjj4 #aai ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of ,northern ,counties1 #aee2 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #ade4 #abj ,notes and ,queries1 i4 ser4 iv4 #ejj4 #aba ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bei4 #abb ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #aie1 #aig1 #aii4 #abc ,settlement ,report1 #bgh1 #bhf4 #abd ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ae4 #abe ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #dae2 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #bj4 #abf ,knowles1 ,folk-tales of ,kashmr1 #ga2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #cdj4 #abg ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes4 i4 #agc1 #cae4 #abh ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #afh4 #abi ,risley1 loc4 cit41 i4 #dbe4 #acj ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #egf1 quoting ,lenormant1 ,chaldean ,magic and ,sorcery1 #ada2 ,ralston1 ,songs of the ,russian ,people1 #bhh4 #aca ,campbell1 ,notes1 #fj4 #acb ,harland1 ,science of ,fairy ,tales1 #gi sqq4 #acc ,growse1 #adf4 #acd ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #abj4 #ace ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #aea4 #acf ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #dh2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #adf sqq4 #acg ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,govinda ,smanta1 i4 #ab4 #ach ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #ff4 ,it has been suggested that the idea arose from the ,sanskrit word sasin1 meaning hare-marked or the moon2 but this seems rather putting the cart before the horse4 ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #abe2 ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ii4 #h2 ,aubrey1 ,remaines1 #bj1 #aji4 #aci ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vi4 #abf2 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #abh2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #agi4 #adj ,tod1 ,annals1 ii4 #egg sq4 #ada ,malcolm1 ,central ,india1 i4 #bec1 note4 #adb ,tawney1 loc cit41 ii4 #abh4 #adc ,blochmann1 ,an-i-,akbari1 i4 #ia4 #add ,annals1 i4 #fid4 #ade ,malcolm1 ,central ,india1 i4 #ab1 note4 #adf ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #acg1 #bjg2 ii4 #bh2 iii4 #ah2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ae1 #hg1 #acg4 #adg ,growse1 ,mathura1 #abh4 #adh ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #bjj sq4 #adi ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ae4 #aej ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #cgi2 ,contemporary ,review1 xlviii4 #ajh2 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #bjf4 #aea ,monier-,williams1 ,brhmanism and ,hinduism1 #bic4 #aeb ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #aec4 #aec ,gregor1 loc4 cit41 #bjf2 ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #ec2 ,farrer1 ,primitive ,manners1 #bc4 #aed ,bombay ,gazetteer1 xii4 #ajg2 ,campbell1 ,notes1 #cid4 #aee ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 #cd4 #aef ,brand1 ,observations1 #dej4 #aeg ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bai4 #aeh ,folk-lore1 i4 #aee4 #aei ,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #dja4 #afj ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bfj4 #afa ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #aj2 iii4 #ij4 #afb ,folk-lore1 iv4 #beg4 #afc ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #hcb2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #abf2 ,wilson1 ,essays1 ii4 #bib2 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #adg4 #afd ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 #ai4 #afe ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #hc4 #aff ,zoological ,mythology1 i4 #di4 #afg ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #aed4 #afh ,bombay ,gazetteer1 viii4 #aei4 #afi ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #hc4 #agj ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #ad1 #bga2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #cje1 #edf2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #aid sq2 ,contemporary ,review1 xlviii4 #aac2 ,grierson1 ,behr ,peasant ,life1 #chh2 ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bf1 #bid4 #aga ,bombay ,gazetteer1 xii4 #aji2 ,illustrations of the ,history and ,practices of the ,thags1 #i4 #agb ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 #ge4 #agc ,notes1 #bad1 #dgc4 #agd ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #bfd4 #age ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bjb sq4 #agf ,folk-lore1 iv4 #cfj4 #agg ,settlement ,report1 #bfc sq4 #agh ,hislop1 ,papers1 #ai4 #agi ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bgd4 #ahj ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #afa4 #aha ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #ab2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #cc sq4 #ahb ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #g2 iii4 #ag2 ,campbell1 ,notes1 #die4 #ahc ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #aif4 #ahd ,bombay ,gazetteer1 iii4 #bbj4 #ahe ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bha4 #ahf ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 #cbj4 #ahg ,temple1 ,wide-awake ,tales1 #dad2 ,legends of the ,panjb1 i4 ,introduction xix42 ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bcf2 ,miss ,cox1 ,cinderella1 #ejd2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #cda2 ,campbell1 ,santl ,folk-tales1 #af2 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #chb4 #ahh ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #aeg1 #bjf2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #dhb2 ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 #cg2 ,farrer1 ,primitive ,manners1 #ba sq4 #ahi ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 i4 #di4 #aij ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bje4 #aia ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #aah1 #adj4 #aib ,bombay ,gazetteer1 xii4 #aah2 ,folk-lore1 iv4 #bde4 #aic ,travels in the ,himlaya1 i4 #cdb4 #aid ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #abf1 #agd1 #cie2 ii4 #ga2 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 xiii4 #ahg2 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bah4 #aie ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #hb4 #aif ,brand1 ,observations1 #eai4 #aig ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #aeb4 #aih ,risley1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #cbf4 #aii ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bjd sq4 #bjj ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #eg4 #bja ,ibid41 #aii4 #bjb ,ibid41 #cih4 #bjc ,folk-lore1 ii4 #caj4 #bjd ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #cde4 #bje ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ce4 #bjf ,remaines1 #ie2 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #eg4 #bjg ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #bac4 #bjh ,frazer1 ,contemporary ,review1 xlviii4 #aag2 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #aie4 #bji ,campbell1 ,notes1 #ccd4 #baj ,numbers xix4 #ae4 #baa ,annals1 ii4 #edb4 #bab ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #djb2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #chj4 #bac ,lane1 ,arabian ,nights1 i4 #ga2 ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales1 #aih1 #bgd4 #bad ,brand1 ,observations1 #dce4 #bae ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales of ,bengal1 #aih1 #bjf2 ,govinda ,smanta1 i4 #ace2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #aii4 #baf ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bhf4 #bag ,notes1 #afe4 #bah ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #be4 #bai ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #bbi2 ii4 #aaf2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #dgf2 ii4 #adh1 #bae4 #bbj ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #cch1 #eaa4 #bba ,notes1 #adf sq4 #bbb ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #ccg1 #bjd2 ii4 #dbg1 #hc4 #bbc ,temple1 ,wide-awake ,stories1 #cag2 ,indian ,antiquary1 xi4 #bfj sq42 ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #afc4 #bbd ,as if from ,jaksh1 to eat2 a more probable derivation is ,yaksh1 to move1 to worship4 #bbe ,spencer ,hardy1 ,manual of ,buddhism1 #bfi2 ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #aea sq4 #bbf ,bombay ,gazetteer1 v4 #acc1 #bcf4 #bbg ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #ag4 #bbh ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 iii4 #aag4 #bbi ,ibid41 ii4 #hcc2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ef4 #bcj ,ganga ,datt1 ,folk-lore1 #ga4 #bca ,aubrey1 ,remaines1 #ei2 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #bfc4 #bcb ,ghoghar in ,bombay takes the form of a native seaman or ,lascar1 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 iv4 #cdc4 #bcc ,jacobs1 ,english ,fairy ,tales4 #bcd ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #cei4 #bce ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #bba1 #hi4 #bcf ,golden ,bough1 i4 #ci4 #bcg ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #ef1 #dj1 #dc1 #bhc2 ,hislop1 ,papers1 #aj4 #bch ,brihatsanhita1 ,rajendra ,lla ,mitra1 ,indo-,aryans1 i4 #bde4 #bci ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bbe4 #bdj ,forlong1 ,rivers of ,life2 ,westropp1 ,primitive ,symbolism4 #bda ,groome1 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 s4v4 ,gypsies4 #bdb ,calcutta ,review1 xxvi4 #eab4 #bdc ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #agd2 ii4 #aha1 #eib1 #bhf4 #bdd ,ibid41 ii4 #bgj4 #bde ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #abc2 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #dbi4 #bdf ,ibid41 ii4 #adb4 #bdg ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #eif4 #bdh ,temple1 ,wide-awake ,stories1 #dac4 #bdi ,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #ahd2 ,grimm1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #dbh4 #bej ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #aec2 ii4 #chg1 #dfj4 #bea ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #dfg4 #beb ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #cjd2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #d1 #cg2 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ii4 #cee4 #bec ,golden ,bough1 i4 #fa4 #bed ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #aab4 #bee ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #abi1 #acb1 #ada1 #ahf1 #ahh4 #bef ,hislop1 ,papers1 #bj4 #beg ,berr ,gazetteer1 #bi1 #ca4 #beh ,growse1 ,mathura1 #gj1 #gf sqq41 #hc1 #dbj1 #dgj1 #deh4 #bei ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 iii4 #dg4 #bfj ,moorcroft1 ,travels1 i4 #baa4 #bfa ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #af4 #bfb ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #cae sq42 ,farrer1 ,primitive ,manners1 #cji2 ,sir ,w4 ,scott1 ,letters on ,demonology1 #gi2 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #aaf1 #agi2 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #bgh4 #bfc ,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #eff2 ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #cjd4 ,see instances collected by ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 #ce sqq4 #bfd ,henderson1 loc4 cit41 #bgc4 #bfe ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bba sq4 #bff ,calcutta ,review1 lxix4 #cfd sq4 #bfg ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bcg4 #bfh ,haug1 ,aitareya ,brhmanam1 ii4 #dhf sq4 #bfi ,cunningham1 ,bhilsa ,topes1 #bd2 ,archological ,reports1 i4 #e sq42 ,ferguson1 ,eastern ,architecture1 #fi2 ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #abg4 #bgj ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #ghc4 #bga ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bch4 #bgb ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #faa4 #bgc ,see instances collected by ,wake1 ,serpent ,worship1 #ah4 #bgd ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #bic4 #bge ,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnography1 #aah2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #ee2 ,o',brien1 ,multni ,glossary1 #hb4 #bgf ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #gd2 ,elliot1 ,supplementary ,glossary1 #bf4 #bgg ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #adh1 #bha1 #bhc2 ,rousselet1 ,india and its ,native ,princes1 #cfi sq4 #bgh ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #afb4 #bgi ,sleeman1 ,rambles and ,recollections1 ii4 #ah2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #bbe4 #bhj ,quarterly ,review1 cxiv4 #bbf2 ,folk-lore1 iii4 #hh4 #bha ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #dbj4 #bhb ,temple1 ,legends of the ,panjb1 i4 #dgc4 #bhc ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bcd4 #bhd ,mullaly1 ,notes on ,madras ,criminal ,tribes1 #bj4 #bhe ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ch4 #bhf i4 #bhg4 #bhg ,ward1 ,hindus1 ii4 #ac1 quoted by ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bbi4 #bhh ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales1 #bhj4 #bhi ,campbell1 loc4 cit41 #bbi4 #bij ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #bjg4 #bia ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #ahi4 #bib ,sirsa ,settlement ,report1 #aed4 #bic ,wilson1 ,works1 iii4 #fh4 #bid ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bdh4 #bie ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #cei4 #bif ,kelly1 ,curiosities1 #aei2 ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #abf2 ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 i4 #bbe2 ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #bgd2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #faf4 #big ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #dci4 #bih ,campbell1 ,santl ,folk-tales1 #ed4 #bii ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bci4 #cjj ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aji1 #bbj1 #bcd4 #cja ,campbell1 loc4 cit41 #bcb4 #cjb ,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnography1 #aai4 #cjc ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #db2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #bg4 #cjd ,eastern ,india1 iii4 #eee4 #cje ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #aea sq4 #cjf ,notes1 #dfa4 #cjg ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vii4 #fa4 #cjh ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 #bja4 #cji ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aid4 #caj ,ibid41 #cai4 #caa ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #iab4 #cab ,wright1 ,history of ,nepl1 #cc4 #cac ,settlement ,report1 #ch4 #cad ,archological ,reports1 x4 #agg4 #cae ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ae4 #caf ,settlement ,report1 #afg4 #cag ,bombay ,gazetteer1 iii4 #bba4 #cah ,oppert1 ,original ,inhabitants1 #gc4 #cai ,totemism1 #cc sqq4 #cbj ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bej4 #cba ,manning1 ,ancient ,india1 ii4 #ccj sq42 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #ahe4 #cbb ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #bci4 #cbc ,monier-,williams1 ,brhmanism and ,hinduism1 #cai sqq4 #cbd ,wheeler1 ,history of ,india1 i4 #adh2 ,gazetteer ,central ,provinces1 lxiii42 lxxii42 ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bfi2 ,ferguson1 ,tree and ,serpent ,worship1 ,appendix ,d2 ,elliot1 ,supplementary ,glossary1 s4v4 ,gaur ,taga2 ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #ch2 ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #bhj sqq41 #big2 ,temple1 ,legends of the ,panjb1 i4 #dad sq4 #cbe ,bhekal ,ng is perhaps the ,sanskrit bheka1 frog4 ,it has been suggested that the gypsy ,beng or ,devil is connected with ,bheka1 and thus allied to serpent-worship 7,groome1 ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 ,art4 ,gypsies74 ,sir ,g4 ,cox 7,introduction1 #hg1 note7 makes out ,bheki1 or the squatting frog1 to be an old name for the sun4 ,for the ,himlayan snake shrines see ,atkinson1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #cgd sq4 #cbf ,oldham1 ,contemporary ,review1 ,april1 #ahhe4 #cbg ,oldfield1 ,sketches1 ii4 #bjd2 ,wright1 ,history1 #he4 #cbh ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #agc1 #edd4 #cbi ,calcutta ,review1 li4 #cjd sq42 liv4 #be sq42 ,ferguson1 ,eastern ,architecture1 #bhi2 ,central ,provinces ,gazetteer1 #hf4 #ccj ,tawney1 loc4 cit4 i4 #egg4 #cca ,ibid41 i4 #cab2 ii4 #bbe4 #ccb ,archological ,reports1 vii4 #d4 #ccc ,settlement ,report1 #aba4 #ccd ,beal1 ,travels of ,fah ,hian1 #fg sq4 #cce ,archological ,reports1 i4 #bgd4 #ccf ,wright1 ,history of ,nepl1 #he1 #ada4 #ccg ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #bhi2 ,gloucestershire ,folk-lore1 #bc4 #cch ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #add4 #cci ,beal1 loc4 cit41 #ij4 #cdj ,eastern ,india1 ii4 #adi4 #cda ,growse1 ,mathura1 #ee1 #eh4 #cdb ,ibid41 #ga4 #cdc ,reports1 xxi4 #b1 ,academy1 #bcrd ,april1 #ahhg4 #cdd ,sherring1 ,sacred ,city1 #ge1 #hg sqq42 ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #baa4 ,for weather snakes see ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #dch4 #cde ,brhmanism and ,hinduism1 #cbc4 #cdf ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #cb1 #ee1 #ech2 ii4 #efh4 #cdg ,gangadatta1 ,folk-lore of ,kumaun1 ,introduction1 vii4 #cdh ,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnography1 #aad2 ,legends of the ,panjb1 i4 #dbf4 #cdi ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #cde2 ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ii4 #djg sq42 ,wake1 ,serpent-worship1 #aje2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #bdj4 #cej ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #acb4 #cea ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #b4 #ceb ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #ggg sqq4 #cec ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #abg2 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #dje2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #ded2 ,jacobs1 ,english ,fairy ,tales1 #bjg1 #bea4 #ced ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ii4 #djg2 ,clouston1 loc4 cit41 i4 #abf4 #cee ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #ia4 #cef ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #cec sq4 #ceg ,miss ,frere1 ,old ,deccan ,tales1 #cc2 ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales1 #ai4 #ceh ,oriental ,memoirs1 ii4 #ai1 #che4 #cei ,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #dib4 #cfj ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #ahb4 #cfa ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #ii2 ,temple1 ,legends of the ,panjb1 i4 ,introduction1 xv42 ,wideawake ,stories1 #aic1 #cca4 #cfb ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #hea4 #cfc ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #fad2 ,wright1 ,history1 #cg4 #cfd ,rousselet1 ,india and its ,native ,princes1 #bh4 #cfe ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ge4 #cff ,eastern ,india1 ii4 #dha4 #cfg ,grierson1 ,bihr ,peasant ,life1 #dje2 ,maithili ,chrestomathy1 #bc sqq41 where examples of the songs are given2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ch4 #cfh ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #hcf4 #cfi ,settlement ,report1 #abj sq4 #cgj ,natural ,history1 xxxvii4 #aj4 #cga ,gazetteer1 xi4 #cf4 #cgb ,popular ,tales1 ii4 #che4 #cgc ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #bh4 #cgd ,hardy1 ,manual of ,buddhism1 #adf4 #cge ,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #eig4 #cgf ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ae4 #cgg ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #efd2 ii4 #cae4 #cgh ,temple1 ,wideawake ,stories1 #cjd1 #dbd2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ae1 #gf4 #cgi ,sleeman1 ,rambles1 i4 #db2 ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #ced4 #chj ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ib1 #ei4 #cha ,remaines1 #ci4 ,he perhaps refers to ,tavernier1 ,travels1 ,ball's ,edition71 i4 #db2 ii4 #bdi4 #chb ,custom and ,myth1 ii4 #aig4 #chc ,frazer1 ,totemism1 #a2 and his article on ,totemism1 in ,encyclopdia ,britannica1 #ith ,edition4 #chd ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #cfg4 #che ,origin of ,civilization1 #bfj1 and ,mr4 ,frazer's criticism1 loc4 cit4 #chf ,tribes and ,castes1 ,introduction4 #chg ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #ac1 note4 #chh ,robertson-,smith1 ,kinship1 #ag4 #chi ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #ij4 #cij ,quoted by ,mc,lennan1 ,fortnightly ,review1 #ahfi1 p4 #dai4 #cia ,o',brien1 ,multni ,glossary1 #bfj sq4 #cib ,tribes and ,castes of the ,north-,western ,provinces and ,oudh1 s4v4v4 #cic ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bed2 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 #cbg4 #cid ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #ia4 #cie ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #ie4 #cif ,dissertation on the ,proper ,names of ,panjbis1 #aee sq4 #cig ,totemism1 #c sqq4 #cih ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 i4 #eb4 #cii ,hardy1 ,manual of ,buddhism1 #bea4 #djj ,max ,mller1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 #bij4 #dja ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #aj2 ii4 #bae2 iii4 #add2 ,ball1 ,jungle ,life1 #dee sqq4 #djb ,dalton ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #abf1 #afb1 #afe sq41 #agi1 #ahe1 #bji1 #bca1 #bfe4 #djc ,jungle ,life1 #fjj4 #djd ,campbell1 ,notes1 #g4 #dje ,rjputna ,gazetteer1 i4 #bbc4 #djf ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #ejh4 #djg ,dalton1 loc4 cit41 #cbg4 #djh ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 ,introduction1 xlvii4 #dji ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #bg2 ,herodotus1 ii4 #gc4 #daj ,dalton1 loc4 cit41 #aca1 note2 ,ball1 loc4 cit41 #hi2 ,robertson-,smith1 ,kinship1 #cjf sq4 #daa ,berr ,gazetteer1 #ahg4 #dab ,campbell1 ,notes1 #h sqq4 #dac ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ii4 #fh2 and see ,lang1 ,custom and ,myth1 #aac4 #dad ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #add4 #dae ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #eii4 #daf ,gubernatis1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #ac4 #dag ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #bf sqq41 #eh4 #dah ,asiatic ,studies1 #bfd4 #dai ,archological ,reports1 vi4 #acg4 #dbj ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #hh4 #dba ,tribes and ,castes1 ii4 ,appendix2 ,dalton1 loc4 cit41 #afb1 note1 #bac1 #bed4 #dbb ,lyall1 ,asiatic ,studies1 #i sq4 #dbc ,ferrier1 ,caravan ,journey1 #ahf4 #dbd ,muir1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,texts1 v4 #dbe sq42 ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales of ,bengal1 #aic sq41 #bgg2 ,temple1 ,legends of the ,panjb1 #dh sqq42 ,wideawake ,stories1 #bgg sqq42 ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #b2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #cbc2 and for fidelity tests1 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 i4 #dec2 ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #fja2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,romances1 i4 #dc1 #agc4 #dbe ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #ceb1 note2 ,wideawake ,stories1 #dai sqq42 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iv4 #bja2 ,knowles1 ,folk-tales of ,kashmr1 #aib2 ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #abc2 ,grimm1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #djj2 ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #agh4 #dbf ,also see ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #bjf2 ,lang1 ,custom and ,myth1 #eb4 #dbg ,notes1 #afc4 #dbh ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #dah4 #dbi ,modern ,egyptians1 i4 #cbe4 #dcj ,popular ,romances1 #agg4 #dca ,popular ,romances1 #dab1 #dae4 #dcb ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #agc4 #dcc ,bombay ,gazetteer1 xi4 #ef2 xvii4 #fih4 #dcd ,robertson-,smith1 ,kinship1 #di2 ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 #cjf2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #afd2 ,conway1 ,demonology1 ii4 #bhd4 #dce ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #bfh2 ,lang1 ,custom and ,myth1 i4 #bgj4 #dcf ,indo-,aryans1 ii4 #gj sqq42 ,journal ,asiatic ,society1 ,bengal1 #ahgf2 ,max ,mller1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,literature1 #djh sq42 ,muir1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,texts1 i41 ii41 passim2 ,wilson1 ,rig ,veda1 i4 #ei1 #fc2 ,essays1 ii4 #bdg sqq42 ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #hjj1 #hfg4 #dcg ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #ccf2 ii4 #bec1 #cch2 ,temple1 ,wideawake ,stories1 #adg2 ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales1 #aid2 ,miss ,frere1 ,old ,deccan ,days1 #f2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #aaa1 #abi2 iii4 #aje4 #dch ,burton1 ,arabian ,nights1 iv4 #cgf4 #dci ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #bab2 ii4 #faf4 #ddj ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #fe4 #dda ,ibid41 ii4 #bb4 #ddb ,central ,india1 ii4 #baj4 #ddc ,campbell1 ,khondistn1 passim2 ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 i4 #chd sqq42 ,rjputna ,gazetteer1 ii4 #dg2 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #acj1 #adg1 #agf1 #bhe sq41 #bha4 #ddd ,chevers1 ,medical ,jurisprudence1 #djf1 #daa4 #dde ,campbell1 ,notes1 #cci3 ,wilson1 ,indian ,caste1 ii4 #bb sq42 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 x4 #aad4 #ddf ,wright1 ,history1 #aa1 note4 #ddg ,ball1 ,jungle ,life1 #ehj4 #ddh ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #aab1 #adh4 ,and for other instances1 see ,balfour1 ,cyclopdia1 iii4 #dgg sqq4 #ddi ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ge4 #dej ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #aeg1 #bad4 #dea ,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #b4 #deb ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bid2 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 i4 #cif2 ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #ih4 #dec ,report ,inspector-,general ,police1 ,n4-,w4,p41 #ahgj1 page #ic2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #bje2 iii4 #gd1 #afb2 ,chevers1 ,medical ,jurisprudence1 #hdb1 #cif2 ,campbell1 ,notes1 #cch4 #ded ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #adh2 iii4 #ga4 #dee ,robertson-,smith1 ,kinship1 #dh sq4 #def ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #def2 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bbj4 #deg ,folk-lore1 iv4 #bfj4 #deh ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries4 iii4 #dj4 #dei ,ibid41 #ajf4 #dfj ,bombay ,gazetteer1 ii4 #cdi2 xiv4 #di4 #dfa ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #aid4 #dfb ,for similar instances see ,archological ,reports1 v4 #ih2 ,bombay ,gazetteer1 xx4 #add2 ,folk-lore ,records1 iii4 ,part ,,ii4 #ahb2 ,oudh ,gazetteer1 iii4 #bec2 ,indian ,antiquary1 xi4 #aag2 ,calcutta ,review1 lxxvii4 #ajf2 ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales1 #acj2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #aaj2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #bg1 #fc1 #ic2 ,campbell1 ,santl ,folk-tales1 #ajf4 #dfc ,bombay ,gazetteer1 iv4 #bgf4 #dfd ,campbell1 ,notes1 #cdh4 #dfe ,settlement ,report1 #abf4 #dff ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #adf1 #bha2 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #aae4 #dfg ,wright1 ,history1 #ce sq41 #aef1 note1 #abf1 #bje1 #bfe4 #dfh ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #eid4 #dfi ,ibid41 i4 #cjf4 #dgj ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 ii4 #afe4 #dga ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #ed1 #bjj sqq4 #dgb ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #aij4 #dgc ,miss ,cox1 ,cinderella1 #dhe2 ,knowles1 ,kashmr ,tales1 #aii2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #hh2 ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #bda2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #fab4 #dgd ,folk-lore ,record1 iii4 ,part ,,ii4 #bhc4 ,for the commonplace ,momi which is used as an application by women before parturition1 see ,watt's ,dictionary of ,economic ,products1 ii4 #aae4 #dge ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #bhd4 #dgf ,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 i4 #ebf4 #dgg ,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #cjc2 ii4 #dae4 #dgh ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #caa1 note1 #gib sq4 #dgi ,oudh ,gazetteer1 i4 #fa4 #dhj ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #bhb4 #dha ,macaulay1 ,battle of ,lake ,regillus1 ,introduction4 #dhb ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bbj4 #dhc ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #b4 #dhd ,campbell1 ,notes1 #cj4 #dhe ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #aic4 #dhf ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #dbg4 #dhg ,forbes1 ,wanderings of a ,naturalist1 #ajc4 #dhh ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #afe2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #fba4 #dhi ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #aji sq41 #caj2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #cec4 #dij ,asiatic ,studies1 #af4 #dia ,illustrations of the ,history and ,practice of the ,thags4 #df sqq4 #dib ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #fae2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #bba4 #dic ,oldfield1 ,sketches1 #cdd1 #ceb4 #did ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ed4 #die ,wilson1 ,essays1 ii4 #ahh2 ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #af1 #fg1 #ic1 #dea4 #dif ,campbell1 ,notes1 #i4 #dig ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #bj sq41 #ic4 #dih ,tod1 ,annals1 ii4 #cbj4 #dii ,habakkuk i4 #af2 ,isaiah xxi4 #e4 #ejj ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #djj2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #bji1 #ggc2 ,aubrey1 ,remaines1 #be4 #eja ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #aaf4 #ejb ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 #icd2 ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #afd4 #ejc ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #ahg1 note1 #bdg4 #ejd ,idylls1 iii4 #ca4 #eje ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #eb2 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #dc1 #ib4 #ejf ,dalton1 loc4 cit41 #bah4 #ejg ,academy1 #bcrd ,july1 #ahhg2 ,gentleman's ,magazine1 ,july1 #ahhg2 ,henderson1 loc4 cit41 #bcc2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #bcc2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #bjg4 #ejh ,brand1 ,observations1 #ced4 #eji ,calcutta ,review1 xviii4 #fj4 #eaj ,folk-lore1 i4 #aeg2 ii4 #bic4 #eaa ,campbell1 ,notes1 #ec4 #eab ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #bjb2 ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #gi4 #eac ,calcutta ,review1 xviii4 #ea4 #ead ,cox1 ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 ii4 #aai1 note4 #eae ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #id sq4 #eaf ,dalton1 loc4 cit41 #beb1 #beh4 #eag ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #bgg4 #eah ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #aeh1 #bgc4 #eai ,tribes and ,castes of the ,n4-,w4 ,p4 and ,oudh1 s4 v4 ,agnihotri4 #ebj ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #edg4 #eba ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #cbb4 #ebb ,oldfield1 ,sketches1 ii4 #bdb2 ,wright1 ,history1 #ce2 and compare ,prescott1 ,peru1 i4 chap4 #c2 ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 #cab4 #ebc ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #abf4 #ebd ,abul ,fazl appears to have confused ,sraj ,sankrnti or the entrance of the sun into a constellation with ,srya-,knta or sun-beloved1 the sun-crystal or lens1 which gives out heat when exposed to the rays of the sun4 #ebe ,blochmann1 ,an-i-,akbari1 i4 #dh4 #ebf ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #ajc4 #ebg ,folk-lore1 iv4 #cei4 #ebh ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #ib4 #ebi ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #aii4 #ecj ,hugel1 ,travels1 quoted by ,jarrett1 ,an-i-,akbari1 ii4 #cad4 #eca ,settlement ,report1 #aba4 #ecb ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #aag2 ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #ha2 ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales1 ii4 #hb4 #ecc ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #bbe4 #ecd ,rajendra ,lla ,mitra1 ,indo-,aryans1 i4 #adf4 #ece ,ferguson1 ,tree and ,serpent ,worship1 #hh2 ,history of ,indian ,architecture1 #fj2 ,cunningham1 ,bhilsa ,topes1 #i2 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #bed sq4 #ecf ,central ,provinces ,gazetteer1 #fc2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #h2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #ic4 #ecg iv4 #hb4 #ech ,monier-,williams1 ,hinduism and ,brhmanism1 #cji4 #eci ,tennent1 ,ceylon1 ii4 #acb2 ,ferguson1 ,indian ,architecture1 #ahd1 with engraving2 ,tylor1 ,early ,history1 #aaf4 #edj ,oudh ,gazetteer1 ii4 #cgj4 #eda ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #cdb2 ii4 #ace1 #bcj1 #cjb1 #cfc2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ac2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #ddh4 #edb ,ll ,bihri ,d1 ,folk-tales1 #aci4 #edc ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #dii2 ii4 #bgf2 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ,no4 #cc2 i4 #ceg2 ,knowles1 ,folk-tales of ,kashmr1 #dcb2 ,campbell1 ,santl ,folk-tales1 #bb2 ,miss ,cox1 ,cinderella1 #dif2 ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #bhc4 #edd ,temple1 ,wideawake ,stories1 #gd1 #dab2 ,ll ,bihri ,d1 loc4 cit41 #dj1 #ajf1 #acd1 #ach1 #aee1 #baj1 #bbc2 ,cinderella1 #ebf2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ac2 ,clouston1 loc4 cit41 i4 #bbc4 #ede ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bei4 #edf ,rig ,veda1 iv4 #cc2 ,datt1 ,history of ,civilization1 i4 #gb sq41 #gi2 ,monier-,williams1 ,brhmanism and ,hinduism1 #cbi4 #edg ,wright1 ,history1 #afe2 ,iliad1 v4 #bfe sqq42 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #eic4 #edh ,tawney1 ibid41 i4 #acj1 #egd1 quoting ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 i4 #cib4 #edi ,campbell1 ,popular ,tales1 ,introduction1 lxxviii4 #eej ,miss ,cox1 ,cinderella1 #dgf2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #cgc4 #eea ,clouston1 loc4 cit41 i4 #dag2 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #dgi2 ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #bfa2 ,clouston1 ibid41 #aaj1 #bah2 ,tawney1 ibid41 i4 #ac4 #eeb ,rousselet1 ,india and its ,native ,princes1 #aaf4 #eec ,indian ,antiquary1 xi4 #cbe sq42 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #b4 #eed ,campbell1 ,notes1 #cib4 #eee ,germania1 #aj4 #eef ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #adb4 #eeg ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 i4 #ccb4 #eeh ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #aac4 #eei ,annals1 ii4 #cai4 #efj ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 #bge4 #efa ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bib4 #efb ,hislop1 ,papers1 ,appendix1 i4 iii4 #efc ,burton1 ,arabian ,nights1 ii4 #cdj4 #efd ,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #ij2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #afh2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #ig2 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #dai4 #efe ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #cg1 #gh2 ii4 #bh1 #cb2 ,grimm1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #djd2 ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #ajg4 #eff ,gubernatis1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #afj4 #efg ,forsyth1 ,highlands of ,central ,indian1 #bgh2 ,tod1 ,annals1 ii4 #ffj2 ,rowney1 ,wild ,tribes1 #aci2 ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bad2 ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #aaj4 #efh ,trumbull1 ,blood ,covenant1 #cab2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #cji2 ,sleeman1 ,rambles1 i4 #aec sqq4 #efi ,folk-lore1 i4 #afi2 ,lyall1 ,asiatic ,studies1 #ac2 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #cbc2 ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #cac sq42 ,scott1 ,letters on ,demonology1 #agd4 #egj ,berr ,gazetteer1 #fb2 ,wright1 ,history of ,nepl1 #ch2 ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #aja4 #ega ,dalton1 loc4 cit41 #acb1 #acc1 #aeh1 #bad4 #egb ,berr ,gazetteer1 #aia sq42 ,hoshangbd ,settlement ,report1 #bee sq4 #egc ,see for example ,knowles1 ,kashmr ,folk-tales1 #c1 #de1 #df4 #egd ,dalton1 loc4 cit41 #cc4 #ege ,knowles1 loc4 cit41 #dg2 ,campbell1 ,santl ,tales1 #ah4 #egf ,wright1 ,history1 #afi4 #egg ,annals1 ii4 #ffi4 #egh ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bhj4 #egi ,rambles and ,recollections1 i4 #aed sqq4 #ehj ,zoological ,mythology1 i4 #afj sq4 #eha ,wright1 ,history1 #afa2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #cdh sq4 #ehb ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #fe4 #ehc ,temple1 ,wideawake ,stories1 #aaf2 ,campbell1 ,santl ,folk-tales1 #dj2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #adf4 #ehd ,sherring1 ,sacred ,city1 #fc1 #fe4 #ehe ,notes1 #bgf4 #ehf ,cox1 ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 ii4 #ccf4 #ehg ,journal ,asiatic ,society1 ,bengal1 lix4 #bab4 ,the horror with which the ,homeric ,greeks regarded the eating of a corpse by dogs comes out very strongly in the ,iliad4 #ehh ,indian ,antiquary1 v4 #ceh sq4 #ehi ,original ,inhabitants1 #aeg sq4 #eij ,archological ,reports1 xxiii4 #bf4 #eia ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #aah4 #eib ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bgf sq4 #eic ,wright1 ,history1 #ci sq4 #eid ,hislop1 ,papers1 #f4 #eie ,folk-lore1 iii4 #abg2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #id1 #adh2 iv4 #df1 #aej1 #agc2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ah1 #fg2 ,knowles1 ,folk-tales of ,kashmr1 #cf1 #dbi2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 ii4 #aff2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #ij2 ,gesta ,romanorum1 ,introd4 xlii4 #eif ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #acd2 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #abf sq4 #eig ,remaines1 #ec4 #eih ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #gi sq4 #eii ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #hh4 #fjj ,journal ,asiatic ,society1 ,bengal1 #ahdg1 p4 #bcd4 #fja ,household ,tales1 ii4 #ddd4 #fjb ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #cbi4 #fjc ,folk-lore1 iv4 #cea2 ,gesta ,romanorum1 #be4 #fjd ,brand1 ,observations1 #ehc4 #fje ,robertson-,smith1 ,kinship1 #aid4 #fjf ,demonology1 i4 #abb4 #fjg ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ae4 #fjh ,brand1 ,observations1 #ghe4 #fji ,epigrams1 i4 #f4 #faj ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iv4 #aca2 ,moorcroft1 ,travels1 i4 #bb2 ,journal ,asiatic ,society ,bengal1 #ahdj1 p4 #egb2 ,an-i-,akbari1 i4 #bhi4 #faa ,miss ,cox1 ,cinderella1 #dgc4 #fab ,muir1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,texts1 i4 #bd sq42 iii4 #aff1 #caj sq42 ,mc,lennan1 ,fortnightly ,review1 #ahgj1 #aih sq4 #fac ,cox1 ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 i4 #ajg1 #dcg sq42 ii4 #di sq4 #fad ,romesh ,chandra ,datt1 ,history of ,indian ,civilization1 i4 #bec sq4 #fae ,bhler1 ,sacred ,laws1 ,part i4 #fd1 #aai1 note4 #faf ,rajendra ,lla ,mitra1 ,indo-,aryans1 ii4 #acd2 ,muir1 ,ancient ,sanskrit ,texts1 i4 #bd sqq4 #fag ,schliemann1 ,ilios1 #aab2 ,rawlinson1 ,herodotus1 ii4 #bg sq41 #da2 ,ewald1 ,history of ,israel1 ii4 #d2 ,robertson-,smith1 ,kinship1 #aif2 ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #dj4 #fah ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bhe4 #fai ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 i4 #c sqq42 ,cox1 ,introduction1 #aea sqq42 ,kuenen1 ,religion of ,israel1 i4 #bcf sq42 ,goldziher1 ,mythology among the ,hebrews1 #bbf1 #cdc2 ,wake1 ,serpent-worship1 #ce2 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #cdj2 ,mc,lennan1 ,fortnightly ,review1 #ahgj1 p4 #aii4 #fbj ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #fj4 #fba ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #aeh4 #fbb ,sellon1 ,memoirs ,anthropological ,society of ,london1 i4 #cbh4 #fbc ,institutes1 xi4 #fj1 #hj4 #fbd ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #bbg4 #fbe ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #bae4 #fbf ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #iad2 ,rjputna ,gazetteer1 ii4 #fg4 #fbg ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ci4 #fbh ,miss ,gordon-,cumming1 ,from the ,hebrides to the ,himlaya1 i4 #ada4 #fbi ,atkinson1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #gga2 ,wright1 ,history of ,nepl1 #hb4 #fcj ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #aji4 #fca ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #aed4 #fcb ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #ah4 #fcc ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 ii4 #cda4 #fcd ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bhc4 #fce ,indian ,antiquary1 i4 #cdh sq4 #fcf ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #iac4 #fcg ,jarrett1 ,an-i-,akbari1 ii4 #cdh1 quoting ,erskine2 ,babar1 ,introduction1 #dg4 #fch ,rambles1 i4 #aii sqq4 #fci ,central ,india1 i4 #cbi1 note2 ii4 #afd4 #fdj ,balfour1 ,journal ,asiatic ,society ,bengal1 xiii4 ,n4,s42 ,gunthorpe1 ,notes on ,criminal ,tribes of ,berr1 #cf4 #fda ,ball1 ,jungle ,life1 #afe2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #fj2 ,calcutta ,review1 lxxx4 #ec1 #eh4 #fdb ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 i4 #ge4 #fdc ,notes1 #bhg4 #fdd ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aca4 #fde ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #ic4 #fdf ,manu1 ,institutes1 ii4 #da4 #fdg ,burton1 ,arabian ,nights1 ii4 #ejh2 ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #aff2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i42 ,gesta ,romanorum1 ,tale xviii4 #fdh ,wright1 ,history1 #ha4 #fdi ,blochmann1 ,an-i-,akbari1 i4 #aba4 #fej ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #h1 #gc1 #aje1 #ahh2 ,cunningham1 ,archological ,reports1 i4 #bbe4 #fea ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #gc1 #agg1 #cbh sq42 ii4 #ajb1 #bae1 #ejj1 #edj2 ,knowles1 ,kashmr ,folk-tales1 #ag4 #feb ,black1 ,folk ,medicine1 #aeb4 #fec ,fhrer1 loc4 cit41 #afa4 #fed ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bfg4 #fee ,brand1 ,observations1 #gci4 #fef ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iv4 #b4 #feg ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #cgg4 #feh ,for the crow in ,english folk-lore1 see ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #abf2 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,n4,e4 ,scotland1 #ace sq4 #fei ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ii4 #bec sq42 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #bg4 #ffj ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #fd1 #gc4 #ffa ,balfour1 ,journal ,asiatic ,society of ,bengal1 ,n4,s4 xiii4 #ffb ,monier-,williams1 ,brhmanism and ,hinduism1 #cja2 ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #cbi4 #ffc ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ae4 #ffd ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #ha sq41 #agb2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #bd2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #gcb2 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #bci sq42 ,aubrey1 ,remaines1 #aig2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #bae4 #ffe ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 ii4 #bai sq4 #fff ,notes1 #bfd4 #ffg ,folk-lore1 iv4 #cej4 #ffh ,grimm1 ,teutonic ,mythology1 iii4 #igg4 #ffi ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #ced4 #fgj ,robertson-,smith1 ,kinship1 #aif sq4 #fga ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ab1 #db1 #fj2 ii4 #bi2 iii4 #afa2 ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 i4 #cfg2 ii4 #dbh1 #egc4 #fgb ,mc,lennan1 ,fortnightly ,review1 vi4 #ehb4 #fgc ,knowles1 ,kashmr ,folk-tales1 #ddi4 #fgd ,brand1 ,observations1 #fii4 #fge ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #age4 #fgf ,ferguson1 ,history of ,indian ,architecture1 #ed2 ,tennent1 ,ceylon1 i4 #dhd4 #fgg ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ii4 #cjg sqq4 #fgh ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #agg4 #fgi ,hislop1 ,papers1 #f4 #fhj ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #agh4 #fha ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #aje4 #fhb ,brand1 ,observations1 #gja4 #fhc ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bgb4 #fhd ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ha2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #afb4 #fhe ,zoological ,mythology1 i4 #cge4 #fhf ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #ah4 #fhg ,temple1 ,wideawake ,stories1 #aci1 #bje1 #bee sqq4 #fhh ,folk-lore1 iii4 #cdb4 #fhi ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #d1 #ch4 #fij ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #eec4 #fia ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #bch sq4 #fib ,rousselet1 ,india and its ,native ,princes1 #djb2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #gf2 ii4 #eg1 #ic2 iii4 #acj4 #fic ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #chj1 #gge4 #fid ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #bd1 #bjg2 ii4 #eii4 #fie ,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #bg1 #aeh4 #fif ,cox1 ,mythology of the ,aryan ,nations1 i4 #bib1 note2 ii4 #be sq4 #fig ,hartland1 ,science of ,fairy ,tales1 #fe4 #fih ,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 iii4 #ecb4 #fii ,grimm1 ,household ,tales1 ii4 #djg4 #gjj ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #bga4 #gja ,gloucestershire ,folk-lore1 #i4 #gjb ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #eid2 ,grimm1 loc4 cit41 i4 #ceg4 #gjc ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #acj4 #gjd ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #h4 #gje ,brand1 ,observations1 #fhe4 #gjf ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #ci4 #gjg ,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 ii4 #aeg4 #gjh ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #bgj4 #gji ,for the ,european witch1 consult among other authorities ,scott1 ,letters on ,demonology and ,witchcraft1 passim2 ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #cef sq42 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #fi sq42 ,conway1 ,demonology1 ii4 #cag1 #cbg2 ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 #bde sq4 #gaj ,asiatic ,studies1 #gi sqq41 #hi sqq4 #gaa ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #aee4 #gab ,chambers1 ,popular ,rhymes of ,scotland1 #bc4 #gac ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #ad4 #gad ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 i4 #bhi4 #gae ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #agf2 ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #cge4 #gaf ,temple1 ,wideawake ,stories1 #cie2 ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #aeg1 #aei1 #bhi1 #cdj2 ii4 #afd1 #bdj2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #ehi2 ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #aii3 ,hunt4 ,popular ,romances1 #cbg4 #gag ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #aej2 ,hunt1 loc4 cit41 #cbh4 #gah ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #cie2 ,tawney1 loc4 cit41 i4 #cac4 #gai ,bombay ,gazetteer1 iv4 #bg2 ,temple1 ,legends of the ,panjb1 iii4 #ac4 #gbj ,loc4 cit41 #c4 #gba ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #cbc4 #gbb ,campbell1 ,notes1 #bjc sq4 #gbc ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #gh4 #gbd ,lectures1 #eaf sq4 #gbe ,malcolm1 ,central ,india1 ii4 #bab4 #gbf ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bij4 #gbg ,notes1 #beg sq4 #gbh ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #cab sqq42 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #bja sq4 #gbi ,balfour1 ,cyclopdia1 i4 #ifa2 ,lyall1 ,asiatic ,studies1 #he2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #g4 #gcj ,tylor1 ,early ,history1 #bgf4 #gca ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #bah4 #gcb ,rambles and ,recollections1 i4 #hd sqq4 #gcc ,central ,india1 ii4 #baf4 #gcd ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #aea4 #gce ,leland1 loc4 cit41 #bba4 #gcf ,brand1 ,observations1 #fji4 #gcg ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #beb4 #gch ,malcolm1 ,central ,india1 ii4 #bad1 note4 #gci ,leland1 loc4 cit41 #eg2 ,brand1 loc4 cit41 #gdj2 ,clouston1 ,popular ,tales1 i4 #agg4 #gdj ,tod1 ,annals1 ii4 #ajf4 #gda ,natural ,history1 vii4 #b4 #gdb ,tod1 ,annals1 ii4 #fch2 ,malcolm1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #bab4 #gdc ,temple1 ,legends of the ,panjb1 i4 ,introduction1 xxi2 ,wideawake ,stories1 #dbi4 #gdd ,oriental ,memoirs1 ii4 #cgd sq4 #gde ,central ,provinces ,gazetteer1 #aaj sq4 #gdf ,ibid41 #ci4 #gdg ,reports ,nizmat ,adlat1 #adth ,december1 #ahed4 #gdh ,berr ,gazetteer1 #aig4 #gdi ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 i4 #ih4 #gej ,knowles1 ,folk-tales1 #gg4 #gea ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #afd2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #ajh1 #cda4 #geb ,campbell1 ,notes1 #hc4 #gec ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bij2 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #ahh2 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #bja1 #bah sq41 #bdd2 ,aubrey1 ,remaines1 #bdg2 ,farrer1 ,primitive ,manners1 #bij sq4 #ged ,central ,provinces ,gazetteer1 #aeg4 #gee ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aii4 #gef ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #bdj4 #geg ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #f4 #geh ,see ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #aii4 #gei ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #cb2 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #ahc4 #gfj ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #bba4 #gfa ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #g4 #gfb ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #aig1 #bjf4 ,see instances collected by ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 #fd sq4 #gfc ,aubrey1 ,remaines1 #aa2 and for examples of similar practices see ,sir ,w4 ,scott1 ,letters on ,demonology1 #bgc2 ,spencer1 ,principles of ,sociology1 i4 #bdc2 ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #aaf2 ii4 #adi2 ,lubbock1 ,origin of ,civilization1 #bda1 #bdd2 ,henderson1 loc4 cit41 #adh2 ,farrer1 ,primitive ,manners1 #bhg2 ,oldenberg1 ,grihya ,stras1 i4 #eg42 ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 #gj sq4 #gfd ,qnn-i-,islm1 #bbb sq4 #gfe ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #cbj4 #gff ,letters on ,demonology1 #bgc2 ,remaines1 #fa1 #bbh2 ,folk-lore1 iii4 #che2 iv4 #bef2 ,miss ,cox1 ,cinderella1 #dia4 #gfg ,ward1 ,hindus1 i4 #ajj2 ,temple1 ,legends of the ,panjb1 i4 ,introduction1 xvii2 and compare ,tawney1 ,katha ,sarit ,sgara1 ii4 #gfh ,folk-lore1 i4 #aeg2 ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 #gh4 #gfi ,hoshangbd ,settlement ,report1 #bhg4 #ggj ,malcolm1 ,central ,india1 ii4 #bab sq4 #gga ,central ,provinces ,gazetteer1 #ci1 #aeg4 #ggb ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aii4 #ggc ,chevers1 ,indian ,medical ,jurisprudence1 #edf sq4 #ggd ,ibid41 #ab1 note1 #ad1 note1 #cic1 #dhh1 #dib1 note1 #dic1 #ead2 ,ball1 ,jungle ,life1 #aae sq42 ,calcutta ,review1 v4 #eb4 #gge ,folk-lore1 ii4 #bic2 ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #cae4 #ggf ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #aac4 #ggg ,yule1 ,marco ,polo1 i4 #agb1 #age1 with note2 ii4 #da2 ,sir ,w4 ,scott1 ,letters on ,demonology1 #fh sq4 #ggh ,campbell1 ,notes1 #ada4 #ggi ,eastern ,india1 ii4 #ajh1 #dde4 #ghj ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 ii4 #bjb2 ,growse1 ,mathura1 #ec4 #gha ,oudh ,gazetteer1 iii4 #dhj4 #ghb ,hartland1 ,science of ,fairy ,tales1 #bgj sqq4 #ghc ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough2 ,gomme1 ,ethnology in ,folk-lore2 ,mannhardt1 ,wald- und ,feldkulte4 #ghd ,leland1 ,etruscan ,roman ,remains1 #if4 #ghe ,campbell1 ,notes1 #hi4 #ghf ,on the rule against giving fire from his house1 see ,hartland1 ,legend of ,perseus1 ii4 #id4 #ghg ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #gd2 ,folk-lore1 iii4 #ab1 #hd1 #ij2 ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #ad2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #ajc1 #ajf1 #bjc4 #ghh ,gazetteer1 iii4 #bcg4 #ghi ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ie4 #gij ,settlement ,report1 #abc sq4 #gia ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #hef4 #gib ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #aif4 #gic ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aih4 #gid ,observations1 #caf4 #gie ,chambers1 ,book of ,days1 i4 #id sqq42 ,aubrey ,remaines1 #dj sq4 #gif ,cunningham1 ,archological ,reports1 ii4 #dee4 #gig ,atkinson1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #hhf4 #gih ,golden ,bough1 i4 #bdi4 #gii ,hoshangbd ,settlement ,report1 #abd2 ,atkinson1 loc4 cit41 ii4 #hgj2 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iv4 #aig4 #hjj ,household ,tales1 ii4 #bgf4 #hja ,ibbetson1 ,panjb ,ethnography1 #abj4 #hjb ,blochmann1 ,an-i-,akbari1 i4 #bag4 #hjc ,wright1 ,cawnpur ,memorandum1 #aje2 ,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 i4 #aid4 #hjd ,settlement ,report1 #ag4 #hje ,folk-lore1 ii4 #cjc2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #g2 ,rhys1 ,lectures1 #ebj4 #hjf ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #ib4 #hjg ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #bij4 #hjh ,berr ,gazetteer1 #bjg4 #hji ,tod1 ,annals1 i4 #fca4 #haj ,gubernatis1 ,zoological ,mythology1 i4 #ea4 #haa ,remaines1 #dj2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #ag4 #hab ,campbell1 ,notes1 #cgf4 #hac ,bareilly ,settlement ,report1 #ic sq4 #had ,sleeman1 ,rambles and ,recollections1 i4 #bce1 #bdj4 #hae ,bareilly ,settlement ,report1 #ic4 #haf ,folk-lore1 i4 #afc4 #hag ,rambles and ,recollections1 i4 #bdh4 #hah ,settlement ,report1 #bef4 #hai ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 ii4 #fd4 #hbj ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #aca4 #hba ,risley1 ,tribes and ,castes1 i4 #gb4 #hbb ,folk-lore1 iii4 #cba4 #hbc ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #abb4 #hbd ,remaines1 #i2 ,brand1 ,observations1 #aah4 #hbe ,bareilly ,settlement ,report1 #ic4 #hbf ,karnl ,settlement ,report1 #aea4 #hbg ,bareilly ,settlement ,report1 #ic2 ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #id2 and compare ,tylor1 ,primitive ,culture1 ii4 #dj2 ,lady ,wilde1 ,legends1 #aii4 #hbh ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 iii4 #id4 #hbi ,bareilly ,settlement ,report1 #hg sq4 #hcj ,karnl ,settlement ,report1 #ahc4 #hca ,settlement ,report1 #gh4 #hcb ,golden ,bough1 i4 #ccc sqq42 ,brand1 ,observations1 #caa2 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #hg2 ,folk-lore1 iv4 #abc2 ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #che4 #hcc ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ef4 #hcd ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 i4 #eg4 #hce ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #bac4 #hcf ,settlement ,report1 #gh sq4 #hcg ,karnl ,settlement ,report1 #agc4 #hch ,settlement ,report1 #gh4 #hci ,conway1 ,demonology1 ii4 #aag4 #hdj ,karnl ,settlement ,report1 #agd4 #hda ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #ag1 #ij1 #aii1 #chd4 #hdb ,hislop1 ,papers1 #bb4 #hdc ,fhrer1 ,monumental ,antiquities1 #aah4 #hdd ,buchanan1 ,eastern ,india1 ii4 #dhj2 ,wilson1 ,essays1 ii #bcc2 ,atkinson1 ,himlayan ,gazetteer1 ii4 #hfg sq42 ,panjb ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #abg2 ,growse1 ,mathura1 #ef4 #hde ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #bdf2 and see ,conway1 ,demonology1 i4 #fe sqq42 ,henderson1 ,folk-lore of the ,northern ,counties1 #gb sqq42 ,gregor1 ,folk-lore of ,north-,east ,scotland1 #afg sq42 ,brand1 ,observations1 #afe sqq4 #hdf ,frazer1 ,golden ,bough1 ii4 #bfh4 #hdg ,mathura1 #hd sq4 #hdh ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #dad4 #hdi ,hunt1 ,popular ,romances1 #bjh2 ,folk-lore1 i4 #ebj2 ii4 #abh2 ,dyer1 loc4 cit41 #bcd4 #hej ,annals1 i4 #eii sq4 #hea ,dyer1 loc4 cit41 #eb4 #heb ,wright1 ,history1 #da4 #hec ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ib4 #hed ,folk-lore1 ii4 #agh2 ,herodotus1 ii4 #eh4 #hee ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #ahd4 #hef ,ibid41 iii4 #ag1 #ii4 #heg ,indian ,antiquary1 xi4 #big4 #heh ,north ,indian ,notes and ,queries1 iii4 #bd4 #hei ,hoshangbd ,settlement ,report1 #abf sq4 #hfj ,bombay ,gazetteer1 vi4 #bi4 #hfa ,dyer1 ,popular ,customs1 #cb1 #ge1 #he1 #cec sq4 #hfb ,dalton1 ,descriptive ,ethnology1 #aif sq4 #hfc ,primitive ,culture1 i4 #bb sq4